,transcriber's ,note ,due to limitations of this format1 some typographical features are not possible4 ,italic and bold text is represented in this text as italic and bold4 ,finally1 the few superscripted characters are given in-line1 e4g4 ',ltd' or ',a#a'4 ,the colored plates and other illustrations cannot be given here4 ,the approximate positions of each1 including any caption text1 is shown as ,illustration3 caption4 ,those which are shown in the middle of paragraphs are positioned at the nearest paragraph break4 ,please consult the detailed note at the end of this text for any corrections made1 and for any other observations about the text4 ,,the ,,sea ,,shore ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,the ,,out-,,door ,,world ,,series4 ,,the ,,out-,,door ,,world2 or1 the ,young ,collector's ,handbook4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,with #ah ,plates 7#af of which are ,coloured71 and #edi ,illustrations in the ,text4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,field ,,and ,,woodland ,,plants4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,with #h ,plates in ,colour1 and numerous other ,illustrations by ,,patten ,,wilson1 and from ,photographs4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,british ,,butterflies ,,and ,,moths4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,with #ab ,coloured ,plates and #bda ,illustrations in the ,text4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,life ,,in ,,ponds ,,and ,,streams4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,with #h ,coloured ,plates and #cca ,illustrations in the ,text4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,sea ,,shore4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,with #h ,coloured ,plates and over #cjj ,illustrations in the ,text4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,british ,,birds4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,hudson4 ,with a ,chapter on ,structure and ,classification by ,,frank ,e4 ,,beddard1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #af ,plates 7#h of which are ,coloured71 and #ajc ,illustrations in the ,text4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,longmans1 ,,green ,,co41 #ci ,paternoster ,row1 ,london1 ,e4,c4#d ,new ,york1 ,toronto1 ,bombay1 ,calcutta and ,madras4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,illustration3 ,plate ,i1 ,a ,,rock-,,pool ,,the ,,sea ,,shore ,,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux ,,author ,,of #8,,the ,,outdoor ,,world' #8,,british ,,butterflies ,,and ,,moths' #8,,life ,,in ,,ponds ,,and ,,streams' ,,etc4 ,illustration ,,with ,,eight ,,plates ,,in ,,colour ,,and ,,over ,,three ,,hundred ,,illustrations ,,in ,,the ,,text ,,new ,,impression ,,longmans1 ,,green ,,and ,,co4 #ci ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4#d ,,new ,,york1 ,,toronto ,,bombay1 ,,calcutta ,,and ,,madras #aibb ,all rights reserved ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,bibliographical ,,note4 ,first published in ,september1 #aijc4 ,re-issue at ,cheaper ,price1 ,july1 #aiaa4 ,new ,impression1 ,november1 #aibb4 ,made in ,great ,britain ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,preface ,to sea-side naturalists it must be a matter of great surprise that of the inhabitants of our coast towns and villages1 and of the pleasure-seekers that swarm on various parts of the coast during the holiday season1 so few take a real interest in the natural history of the shore4 ,the tide flows and ebbs and the restless waves incessantly roll on the beach without arousing a thought as to the nature and cause of their movements4 ,the beach itself teems with peculiar forms of life that are scarcely noticed except when they disturb the peace of the resting visitor4 ,the charming vegetation of the tranquil rock-pool receives but a passing glance1 and the little world of busy creatures that people it are scarcely observed2 while the wonderful forms of life that inhabit the sheltered nooks of the rugged rocks between the tide-marks are almost entirely unknown except to the comparatively few students of ,nature4 ,so general is this apparent lack of interest in the things of the shore that he who delights in the study of littoral life and scenes but seldom meets with a kindred spirit while following his pursuits1 even though the crowded beach of a popular resort be situated in the immediate neighbourhood of his hunting ground4 ,the sea-side cottager is too accustomed to the shore to suppose that he has anything to learn concerning it1 and this familiarity leads1 if not to contempt1 most certainly to a disinclination to observe closely2 and the visitor from town often considers himself to be too much in need of his hard-earned rest to undertake anything that may seem to require energy of either mind or body4 ,let both1 however1 cast aside any predisposition to look upon the naturalist's employment as arduous and toilsome1 and make up their minds to look enquiringly into the living world around them1 and they will soon find that they are led onward from the study of one object to another1 the employment becoming more and more fascinating as they proceed4 ,our aim in writing the following pages is to encourage the observation of the nature and life of the sea shore2 to give such assistance to the beginner as will show him where the most interesting objects are to be found1 and how he should set to work to obtain them4 ,practical hints are also furnished to enable the reader to successfully establish and maintain a salt-water aquarium for the observation of marine life at home1 and to preserve various marine objects for the purpose of forming a study-collection of the common objects of the shore4 ,to have given a detailed description of all such objects would have been impossible in a work of this size1 but a large number have been described and figured1 and the broad principles of the classification of marine animals and plants have been given such prominence that1 it is hoped1 even the younger readers will find but little difficulty in determining the approximate positions1 in the scale of life1 of the various living things that come within their reach4 ,of the many illustrations1 which must necessarily greatly assist the reader in understanding the structure of the selected types and in the identification of the different species1 a large number have been prepared especially for this work4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,general ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,shore #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,sea-,,side ,,naturalist #ba ,,iii4 ,,sea ,,angling #cd ,,iv4 ,,the ,,marine ,,aquarium #ea ,v4 ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,marine ,,objects #ga ,,vi4 ,,examination ,,of ,,marine ,,objects--,,dissection #ia ,,vii4 ,,the ,,protozoa ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,shore #ajb ,,viii4 ,,british ,,sponges #aae ,,ix4 ,,the ,,coelenterates--,,jelly-,,fishes1 ,,anemones1 ,,and ,,their ,,allies #abg ,x4 ,,starfishes1 ,,sea ,,urchins1 ,,etc4 #aeg ,,xi4 ,,marine ,,worms #agb ,,xii4 ,,marine ,,molluscs #aij ,,xiii4 ,,marine ,,arthropods #bef ,,xiv4 ,,marine ,,vertebrates #cjf ,,xv4 ,,sea ,,weeds #cdc ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,flowering ,,plants ,,of ,,the ,,sea-,,side #cia ,,index #dbe ,,list ,,of ,,coloured ,,plates ,drawn by ,,mr4 ,,robert ,,lillie and reproduced by ,,messrs4 ,,andr ,,sleigh1 ,,ltd41 ,bushey4 ,,plate ,i--,a ,,rock-,,pool ,frontispiece ,,plate ,,ii--,,sea ,,anemones ,to face p4 #adb #a1 #b1 #c4 ,actinia mesembryanthemum4 #d4 ,caryophyllia ,smithii4 #e4 ,tealia crassicornis4 #f4 ,sagartia bellis4 #g4 ,balanophyllia regia4 #h4 ,actinoloba dianthus4 ,,plate ,,iii--,,sea ,,anemones ,to face p4 #aej #a4 ,sagartia troglodytes4 #b4 0 venusta4 #c4 ,actinia glauca4 #d4 0 chiococca4 #e4 ,bunodes ,ballii4 #f4 0 gemmacea4 #g4 ,anthea cereus4 #h4 ,sagartia rosea4 ,,plate ,,iv--,,echinoderms ,to face p4 #afh #a4 ,asterias rubens4 #b4 ,goniaster equestris4 #c4 ,ophiothrix fragilis4 #d4 ,echinocardium cordatum4 #e4 ,echinus miliaris4 #f4 0 esculentus4 ,,plate ,v--,,molluscs ,to face p4 #bbb #a4 ,solen ensis4 #b4 ,trivia europa4 #c4 ,trochus umbilicatus4 #d4 0 magnus4 #e4 ,littorina littorea4 #f4 0 rudis4 #g4 ,haminea 7,bulla7 hydatis4 #h4 ,tellina4 #i4 ,capulus 7,pileopsis7 hungaricus4 #aj4 ,chrysodomus 7,fusus7 antiquus4 #aa4 ,buccinum undatum4 #ab1 #ac4 ,scalaria communis4 #ad4 ,pecten opercularis4 #ae4 varius4 #af4 maximus4 ,,plate ,,vi--,,crustacea4 ,to face p4 #bij #a4 ,gonoplax angulata4 #b4 ,xantho florida4 #c4 ,portunus puber4 #d4 ,polybius ,henslowii4 #e4 ,porcellana platycheles4 ,,plate ,,vii--,,seaweeds ,to face p4 #ced #a4 ,fucus nodosus4 #b4 ,nitophyllum laceratum4 #c4 ,codium tomentosum4 #d4 ,padina pavonia4 #e4 ,porphyra laciniata 7vulgaris74 ,,plate ,,viii--,,seaweeds ,to face p4 #chd #a4 ,chorda filum4 #b4 ,fucus vesiculosus4 #c4 0 canaliculatus4 #d4 ,delesseria 7,maugeria7 sanguinea4 #e4 ,rhodymenia palmata4 #f4 ,chondrus crispus4 #g4 ,ulva lactuca4 ,,other ,,illustrations ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,,chalk ,,cliff #c #b4 ,,whitecliff 7,,chalk71 ,,dorset #d #c4 ,,penlee ,,point1 ,,cornwall #e #d4 ,,balanus ,,shells #f #e4 ,a ,,cluster ,,of ,,mussels #g #f4 ,,breakers #h #g4 ,,illustrating ,,the ,,tide-,,producing ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,moon #aj #h4 ,,illustrating ,,the ,,tides #aa #i4 ,,spring ,,tides ,,at ,,full ,,moon #ab #aj4 ,,spring ,,tides ,,at ,,new ,,moon #ab #aa4 ,,neap ,,tides #ac #ab4 ,,chart ,,showing ,,the ,,relative ,,times ,,of ,,high ,,tide ,,on ,,different ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,coast #af #ac4 ,,the ,,vasculum #bb #ad4 ,,wire ,,ring ,,for ,,net #bd #ae4 ,,net ,,frame ,,with ,,curved ,,point #bd #af4 ,,rhomboidal ,,frame ,,for ,,net #bd #ag4 ,,rhomboidal ,,net #be #ah4 ,,semicircular ,,net #be #ai4 ,,the ,,dredge #be #bj4 ,,the ,,crab-,,pot #bf #ba4 ,,an ,,old ,,bird-,,cage ,,used ,,as ,a ,,crab-,,pot #bg #bb4 ,a ,,young ,,naturalist ,,at ,,work #cb #bc4 ,a ,,good ,,hunting-,,ground ,,on ,,the ,,cornish ,,coast #cc #bd4 ,,round ,,bend ,,hook ,,with ,,flattened ,,end #cg #be4 ,,limerick ,,hook1 ,,eyed #cg #bf4 ,,method ,,of ,,attaching ,,snood ,,to ,,flattened ,,hook #ch #bg4 ,,method ,,of ,,attaching ,,snood ,,to ,,eyed ,,hook #ch #bh4 ,,the ,,lugworm #ci #bi4 ,,the ,,ragworm #dj #cj4 ,,digging ,,for ,,bait #da #ca4 ,,method ,,of ,,opening ,a ,,mussel #db #cb4 ,,fishing ,,from ,,the ,,rocks #df #cc4 ,,the ,,paternoster #dh #cd4 ,,section ,,of ,,an ,,aquarium ,,constructed ,,with ,a ,,mixture ,,of ,,cement ,,and ,,sand #ed #ce4 ,,cement ,,aquarium ,,with ,a ,,glass ,,plate ,,in ,,front #ee #cf4 ,,aquarium ,,of ,,wood ,,with ,,glass ,,front #ef #cg4 ,,hexagonal ,,aquarium ,,constructed ,,of ,,angle ,,zinc1 ,,with ,,glass ,,sides #eg #ch4 ,,method ,,of ,,aerating ,,the ,,water ,,of ,,an ,,aquarium #fe #ci4 ,,aquarium ,,fitted ,,with ,,apparatus ,,for ,,periodic ,,outflow #fg #dj4 ,,jars ,,for ,,preserving ,,anatomical ,,and ,,biological ,,specimens #gf #da4 ,,showing ,,the ,,different ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,making ,,of ,a ,,small ,,specimen ,,tube #gg #db4 ,,small ,,specimen ,,tube ,,mounted ,,on ,a ,,card #gh #dc4 ,,small ,,crab ,,mounted ,,on ,a ,,card #hb #dd4 ,,spring ,,for ,,holding ,,together ,,small ,,bivalve ,,shells #hd #de4 ,,the ,,triplet ,,magnifier #ib #df4 ,a ,,small ,,dissecting ,,trough #ic #dg4 ,,cell ,,for ,,small ,,living ,,objects #ie #dh4 ,,sheet ,,of ,,cork ,,on ,,thin ,,sheet ,,lead #ii #di4 ,,weighted ,,cork ,,for ,,dissecting ,,trough #ii #ej4 ,,the ,,amoeba1 ,,highly ,,magnified #ajb #ea4 ,,showing ,,changes ,,of ,,form #ajc #eb4 ,,feeding #ajc #ec4 ,,dividing #ajd #ed4 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,foraminifers1 ,,magnified #aje #ee4 ,a ,,spiral ,,foraminifer ,,shell #ajf #ef4 ,a ,,foraminifer ,,out ,,of ,,its ,,shell #ajf #eg4 ,,the ,,same ,,foraminifer 7,,fig4 #ef7 ,,as ,,seen ,,when ,,alive #ajg #eh4 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,shell ,,of ,a ,,compound ,,foraminifer #ajg #ei4 ,,section ,,of ,a ,,nummulite ,,shell #ajh #fj4 ,globigerina bulloides1 ,,as ,,seen ,,when ,,alive1 ,,magnified #ajh #fa4 ,,section ,,of ,a ,,piece ,,of ,,nummulitic ,,limestone #aji #fb4 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,radiolarian ,,shells1 ,,magnified #aaa #fc4 ,,three ,,infusorians1 ,,magnified #aac #fd4 ,a ,,phosphorescent ,,marine ,,infusorian 7,noctiluca71 ,,magnified #aad #fe4 ,,section ,,of ,a ,,simple ,,sponge #aaf #ff4 ,,diagrammatic ,,section ,,of ,a ,,portion ,,of ,a ,,complex ,,sponge #aag #fg4 ,,horny ,,network ,,of ,a ,,sponge1 ,,magnified #aah #fh4 ,grantia compressa #abj #fi4 ,,spicules ,,of ,grantia1 ,,magnified #abj #gj4 ,sycon ciliatum #aba #ga4 ,leucosolenia botryoides1 ,,with ,,portion ,,magnified #aba #gb4 ,chalina oculata #abb #gc4 ,halichondria panicea #abc #gd4 ,,spicules ,,of ,halichondria1 ,,magnified #abd #ge4 ,,an ,,oyster ,,shell1 ,,bored ,,by ,cliona #abd #gf4 ,,spicules ,,of ,cliona #abe #gg4 ,,thread ,,cells ,,of ,a ,,coelenterate1 ,,magnified #abg #gh4 ,,the ,,squirrel',s-,,tail ,,sea ,,fir 7,sertularia argentea71 ,,with ,a ,,portion ,,enlarged #abh #gi4 ,sertularia filicula #abi #hj4 cupressina #acj #ha4 ,,the ,,herring-,,bone ,,polype 7,halecium halecinum7 #aca #hb4 ,tubularia indivisa #acb #hc4 ,,the ,,bottle ,,brush 7,thuiaria thuja7 #acb #hd4 ,antennularia antennia #acc #he4 ,aurelia aurita #ace #hf4 ,,the ,,early ,,stages ,,of ,aurelia #acf #hg4 ,rhizostoma #acf #hh4 ,chrysaora #acf #hi4 ,cydippe pileus #acg #ij4 ,,section ,,of ,,an ,,anemone #aci #ia4 ,,stinging ,,cells ,,of ,,anemone1 ,,highly ,,magnified #adj #ib4 ,,diagrammatic ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,an ,,anemone #adj #ic4 ,,larva ,,of ,,anemone #adj #id4 ,,the ,,trumpet ,,anemone 7,aiptasia ,couchii71 ,,cornwall2 ,,deep ,,water #add #ie4 ,peachia hastata1 ,s4 ,,devon #ade #if4 ,sagartia pallida1 ,,devon ,,and ,,cornwall #adf #ig4 ,sagartia nivea1 ,,devon ,,and ,,cornwall #adg #ih4 ,corynactus viridis1 ,,devon ,,and ,,cornwall #adh #ii4 ,bunodes thallia1 ,,west ,,coast #aej #ajj4 ,bunodes gemmacea1 ,,with ,,tentacles ,,retracted #aea #aja4 ,caryophyllia cyathus #aeb #ajb4 ,sagartia parasitica #aec #ajc4 ,,the ,,cloak ,,anemone 7,adamsia palliata7 ,,on ,a ,,whelk ,,shell1 ,,with ,,hermit ,,crab #aed #ajd4 ,,larva ,,of ,,the ,,brittle ,,starfish #aeh #aje4 ,,larva ,,of ,,the ,,feather ,,star #afj #ajf4 ,,the ,,rosy ,,feather ,,star #afj #ajg4 ,,the ,,common ,,brittle ,,star #afb #ajh4 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,spine ,,of ,a ,,sea ,,urchin #afe #aji4 ,,sea ,,urchin ,,with ,,spines ,,removed ,,on ,,one ,,side #aff #aaj4 ,,apex ,,of ,,shell ,,of ,,sea ,,urchin #aff #aaa4 ,,shell ,,of ,,sea ,,urchin ,,with ,,teeth ,,protruding #afg #aab4 ,,interior ,,of ,,shell ,,of ,,sea ,,urchin #afg #aac4 ,,masticatory ,,apparatus ,,of ,,sea ,,urchin #afg #aad4 ,,sea ,,urchin ,,dissected1 ,,showing ,,the ,,digestive ,,tube #afh #aae4 ,,the ,,sea ,,cucumber #agj #aaf4 ,a ,,turbellarian1 ,,magnified #age #aag4 ,arenicola piscatorum #agh #aah4 ,,the ,,sea ,,mouse #agi #aai4 ,,tube-,,building ,,worms3 ,terebella1 ,serpula1 ,sabella #ahb #abj4 ,terebella ,,removed ,,from ,,its ,,tube #ahc #aba4 ,a ,,tube ,,of ,serpula ,,attached ,,to ,a ,,shell #ahe #abb4 ,serpula ,,removed ,,from ,,its ,,tube #ahf #abc4 ,,the ,,sea ,,mat 7,flustra7 #ahg #abd4 ,flustra ,,in ,,its ,,cell1 ,,magnified #ahh #abe4 ,,sea ,,squirt #ahi #abf4 ,,larv ,,of ,,molluscs #aia #abg4 ,,shell ,,of ,,the ,,prickly ,,cockle 7,cardium aculeatum7 ,,showing ,,umbo ,,and ,,hinge2 ,,also ,,the ,,interior ,,showing ,,the ,,teeth #aib #abh4 ,,interior ,,of ,,bivalve ,,shell1 ,,showing ,,muscular ,,scars ,,and ,,pallial ,,line #aic #abi4 ,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,a ,,lamellibranch #aid #acj4 ,mytilus edulis1 ,,with ,,byssus #aie #aca4 ,a ,,bivalve ,,shell 7,tapes virgineana7 #aif #acb4 ,pholas dactylus #aii #acc4 ,,interior ,,of ,,valve2 ,,and ,pholadidea ,,with ,,animal #bja #acd4 ,,the ,,ship ,,worm #bjb #ace4 #a4 ,teredo navalis4 #b4 ,teredo norvegica #bjb #acf4 ,gastrochna modiolina #bjc #acg4 #a4 ,thracia phaseolina4 #b4 ,thracia pubescens1 ,,showing ,,pallialline #bjd #ach4 #a4 ,mya truncata4 #b4 ,,interior ,,of ,,shell4 #c4 ,mya arenaria4#d4 ,corbula nucleus #bje #aci4 ,solen siliqua #bjf #adj4 #a4 ,solen ensis4 #b4 ,cerati-solen legumen4 #c4 ,solecurtus candidus #bjg #ada4 ,tellinid #bjh #adb4 #a4 ,lutraria elliptica4 #b4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,hinge ,,of ,lutraria1 ,,showing ,,the ,,cartilage ,,pit4 #c4 ,macra stultorum4 #d4 ,,interior ,,of ,,same ,,showing ,,pallial ,,line #baj #adc4 ,venerid #baa #add4 ,cyprinid #bac #ade4 ,galeomma ,turtoni #bad #adf4 #a4 ,cardium pygmum4 #b4 ,cardium fasciatum4 #c4 ,cardium rusticum #bae #adg4 ,cardium aculeatum #bae #adh4 ,pectunculus glycimeris1 ,,with ,,portion ,,of ,,valve ,,showing ,,teeth1 ,,and ,arca tetragona #baf #adi4 ,mytilus edulis #bag #aej4 #a4 ,modiola modiolus4 #b4 ,modiola tulipa4 #c4 ,crenella discors #bah #aea4 ,dreissena polymorpha #bai #aeb4 ,avicula1 ,,and ,pinna pectinata #bbj #aec4 #a4 ,anomia ephippium4 #b4 ,pecten tigris4 #c4 ,pecten1 ,,animal ,,in ,,shell #bbb #aed4 ,terebratulina4 ,,the ,,upper ,,figure ,,represents ,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,dorsal ,,valve #bbd #aee4 ,,under ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,shell ,,of ,natica catena1 ,,showing ,,the ,,umbilicus2 ,,and ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,shell1 ,,showing ,,the ,,right-,,handed ,,spiral #bbe #aef4 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,shell ,,of ,,the ,,whelk1 ,,showing ,,the ,,columella #bbf #aeg4 ,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,whelk1 ,,the ,,shell ,,being ,,removed #bbh #aeh4 ,a ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,lingual ,,ribbon ,,of ,,the ,,whelk1 ,,magnified2 ,,and ,a ,,single ,,row ,,of ,,teeth ,,on ,a ,,much ,,larger ,,scale #bbi #aei4 ,,egg ,,cases ,,of ,,the ,,whelk #bcj #afj4 ,,pteropods #bca #afa4 ,,nudibranchs #bcd #afb4 #bce #afc4 ,,shells ,,of ,,tectibranchs #bcf #afd4 ,,chiton ,,shells #bch #afe4 ,,shells ,,of ,dentalium #bch #aff4 ,patellid #bci #afg4 ,calyptra sinensis #bda #afh4 ,fissurellid #bda #afi4 ,haliotis #bdb #agj4 ,ianthina fragilis #bdb #aga4 ,trochus zizyphinus4 #b4 ,,under ,,side ,,of ,,shell4 #c4 ,trochus magnus4 #d4 ,adeorbis subcarinatus #bdd #agb4 ,rissoa labiosa ,,and ,lacuna pallidula #bdd #agc4 ,,section ,,of ,,shell ,,of ,turritella #bde #agd4 ,turritella communis ,,and ,ccum trachea #bde #age4 ,cerithium reticulatum ,,and ,aporrhais pes-pelicani #bde #agf4 ,aporrhais pes-pelicani1 ,,showing ,,both ,,shell ,,and ,,animal #bdf #agg4 #a4 ,odostomia plicata4 #b4 ,eulima polita4 #c4 ,aclis supranitida #bdf #agh4 ,cypra 7,trivia7 europa #bdg #agi4 #a4 ,ovulum patulum4 #b4 ,erato lvis #bdh #ahj4 ,mangelia septangularis ,,and ,mangelia turricula #bdh #aha4 #a4 ,purpura lapillus4 #b4 ,,egg ,,cases ,,of ,purpura4 #c4 ,nassa reticulata #bdi #ahb4 ,murex erinaceus #bdi #ahc4 ,,octopus #bea #ahd4 ,loligo vulgaris ,,and ,,its ,,pen #beb #ahe4 ,sepiola atlantica #beb #ahf4 ,sepia officinalis ,,and ,,its ',,bone' #bec #ahg4 ,,eggs ,,of ,sepia #bed #ahh4 ,,the ,,nerve-,,chain ,,of ,,an ,,arthropod 7,,lobster7 #beg #ahi4 ,,section ,,through ,,the ,,compound ,,eye ,,of ,,an ,,arthropod #bfj #aij4 ,,four ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,shore ,,crab #bfa #aia4 ,,the ,,barnacle #bfa #aib4 ,,four ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,acorn ,,barnacle #bfb #aic4 ,a ,,cluster ,,of ,,acorn ,,shells #bfc #aid4 ,,shell ,,of ,,acorn ,,barnacle 7,balanus7 #bfc #aie4 ,,the ,,acorn ,,barnacle 7,balanus porcatus7 ,,with ,,appendages ,,protruded #bfd #aif4 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,marine ,,copepods1 ,,magnified #bfe #aig4 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,ostracode ,,shells #bfe #aih4 ,evadne #bff #aii4 ,,marine ,,isopods #bfg #bjj4 ,,marine ,,amphipods #bfh #bja4 ,,the ,,mantis ,,shrimp 7,squilla ,mantis7 #bgj #bjb4 ,,the ,,opossum ,,shrimp 7,mysis chamleon7 #bga #bjc4 ,,parts ,,of ,,lobster',s ,,shell1 ,,separated1 ,,and ,,viewed ,,from ,,above #bgb #bjd4 ,a ,,segment ,,of ,,the ,,abdomen ,,of ,a ,,lobster #bgb #bje4 ,,appendages ,,of ,a ,,lobster #bgc #bjf4 ,,longitudinal ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,lobster #bgd #bjg4 ,,the ,,spiny ,,lobster 7,palinurus vulgaris7 #bge #bjh4 ,,the ,,norway ,,lobster 7,nephrops norvegicus7 #bgf #bji4 #a4 ,,the ,,mud-,,borer 7,gebia stellata74 #b4 ,,the ,,mud-,,borrower 7,callianassa subterranea7 #bgg #baj4 ,,the ,,common ,,shrimp 7,crangon vulgaris7 #bgh #baa4 ,,the ,,prawn 7,palmon serratus7 #bgi #bab4 ,dromia vulgaris #bhb #bac4 ,,the ,,hermit ,,crab ,,in ,a ,,whelk ,,shell #bhb #bad4 ,,the ,,long-,,armed ,,crab 7,corystes ,cassivelaunus7 #bhg #bae4 ,,spider ,,crabs ,,at ,,home #bhh #baf4 ,,the ,,thornback ,,crab 7,maia ,squinado7 #bij #bag4 ,,the ,,pea ,,crab 7,pinnotheres pisum7 #bij #bah4 ,,the ,,common ,,shore ,,crab 7,carcinus mnas7 #bia #bai4 ,,the ,,shore ,,spider #bid #bbj4 ,,the ,,leg ,,of ,,an ,,insect #bie #bba4 ,,trachea ,,of ,,an ,,insect1 ,,magnified #bif #bbb4 ,,sea-,,shore ,,insects #bih #bbc4 ,,marine ,,beetles ,,of ,,the ,,genus ,bembidium #cjb #bbd4 ,,marine ,,beetles #cjc #bbe4 ,,transverse ,,section ,,through ,,the ,,bony ,,framework ,,of ,a ,,typical ,,vertebrate ,,animal #cjf #bbf4 ,,the ,,sea ,,lamprey #cji #bbg4 ,,the ,,pilchard #caj #bbh4 ,,the ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,fish 7,,perch7 #cae #bbi4 ,,the ,,internal ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,herring #caf #bcj4 ,,the ,,egg-,,case ,,of ,,the ,,dogfish #cai #bca4 ,,the ,,smooth ,,hound #cbj #bcb4 ,,the ,,common ,,eel #cbc #bcc4 ,,the ,,lesser ,,sand ,,eel #cbf #bcd4 ,,the ,,three-,,bearded ,,rockling #cbg #bce4 ,,the ,,snake ,,pipe-,,fish #cbh #bcf4 ,,the ,,rainbow ,,wrass 7,labrus julis7 #ccj #bcg4 ,,the ,,cornish ,,sucker #ccj #bch4 ,,the ,,fifteen-,,spined ,,stickleback ,,and ,,nest #cca #bci4 ,,the ,,smooth ,,blenny #ccc #bdj4 ,,the ,,butterfish #ccd #bda4 ,,the ,,black ,,goby #cce #bdb4 ,,the ,,father ,,lasher #cce #bdc4 ,,the ,,lesser ,,weaver #ccg #bdd4 ,,the ,,common ,,porpoise #cda #bde4 ,callithamnion roseum #cei #bdf4 ,callithamnion tetricum #cei #bdg4 ,griffithsia corallina #cfa #bdh4 ,halurus equisetifolius #cfa #bdi4 ,pilota plumosa #cfa #bej4 ,ceramium diaphanum #cfc #bea4 ,plocamium #cff #beb4 ,delesseria alata #cfh #bec4 ,delesseria hypoglossum #cfh #bed4 ,laurencia pinnatifida #cga #bee4 ,laurencia obtusa #cga #bef4 ,polysiphonia fastigiata #cgc #beg4 ,polysiphonia parasitica #cgd #beh4 ,polysiphonia ,brodii #cgd #bei4 ,polysiphonia nigrescens #cgd #bfj4 ,ectocarpus granulosus #cgh #bfa4 ,ectocarpus siliculosus #cgh #bfb4 ,ectocarpus ,mertensii #cgh #bfc4 ,sphacelaria cirrhosa #cgi #bfd4 ,sphacelaria plumosa #cgi #bfe4 ,sphacelaria radicans #chj #bff4 ,cladostephus spongiosus #chj #bfg4 ,chordaria flagelliformis #chj #bfh4 ,laminaria bulbosa #chd #bfi4 ,laminaria saccharina #chd #bgj4 ,alaria esculenta #che #bga4 ,sporochnus pedunculatus #che #bgb4 ,desmarestia ligulata #chf #bgc4 ,himanthalia lorea #chg #bgd4 ,cystoseira ericoides #chh #bge4 ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,stem ,,of ,a ,,monocotyledon #cia #bgf4 ,,leaf ,,of ,a ,,monocotyledon #cib #bgg4 ,,expanded ,,spikelet ,,of ,,the ,,oat #cic #bgh4 ,,the ,,sea ,,lyme ,,grass #cie #bgi4 ,knappia agrostidea #cig #bhj4 ,,the ,,dog',s-,,tooth ,,grass #cig #bha4 ,,the ,,reed ,,canary ,,grass #cig #bhb4 ,,male ,,and ,,female ,,flowers ,,of ,,carex1 ,,magnified #cii #bhc4 ,,the ,,sea ,,sedge #djj #bhd4 ,,the ,,curved ,,sedge #djj #bhe4 ,,the ,,great ,,sea ,,rush #djj #bhf4 ,,the ,,broad-,,leaved ,,grass ,,wrack #dja #bhg4 ,,the ,,sea-,,side ,,arrow ,,grass #dja #bhh4 ,,the ,,common ,,asparagus #dja #bhi4 ,,the ,,sea ,,spurge #djc #bij4 ,,the ,,purple ,,spurge #djd #bia4 ,,the ,,sea ,,buckthorn #djd #bib4 ,chenopodium botryoides #dje #bic4 ,,the ,,frosted ,,sea ,,orache #djf #bid4 ,,the ,,prickly ,,salt ,,wort #djf #bie4 ,,the ,,creeping ,,glass ,,wort #djg #bif4 ,,the ,,sea-,,side ,,plantain #djh #big4 ,,the ,,sea ,,lavender #djh #bih4 ,,the ,,dwarf ,,centaury #daj #bii4 ,,the ,,sea ,,samphire #dab #cjj4 ,,the ,,sea-,,side ,,everlasting ,,pea #dac #cja4 ,,the ,,sea ,,stork',s-,,bill #dad #cjb4 ,,the ,,sea ,,campion #daf #cjc4 ,,the ,,sea ,,pearl ,,wort #dag #cjd4 ,,the ,,shrubby ,,mignonette #dag #cje4 ,,the ,,wild ,,cabbage #dah #cjf4 ,,the ,,isle ,,of ,,man ,,cabbage #dah #cjg4 ,,the ,,great ,,sea ,,stock #dai #cjh4 ,,the ,,hoary ,,shrubby ,,stock #dai #cji4 ,,the ,,scurvy ,,grass #dai #caj4 ,,the ,,sea ,,radish #dai #caa4 ,,the ,,sea ,,rocket #dbj #cab4 ,,the ,,sea ,,kale #dba #cac4 ,,the ,,horned ,,poppy #dbb ,,the ,,sea ,,shore ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,general ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,shore ,what are the attractions which so often entice us to the sea shore1 which give such charm to a ramble along the cliffs or the beach1 and which will so frequently constrain the most active wanderer to rest and admire the scene before him8 ,the chief of these attractions is undoubtedly the incessant motion of the water and the constant change of scene presented to his view4 ,as we ramble along a beaten track at the edge of the cliff1 new and varied features of the coast are constantly opening up before us4 ,each little headland passed reveals a sheltered picturesque cove or a gentle bay with its line of yellow sands backed by the cliffs and washed by the foaming waves2 while now and again our path slopes down to a peaceful valley with its cluster of pretty cottages1 and the rippling stream winding its way towards the sea4 ,on the one hand is the blue sea1 full of life and motion as far as the eye can reach1 and on the other the cultivated fields or the wild and rugged downs4 ,the variety of these scenes is further increased by the frequent changes in the character of the cliffs themselves4 ,where they are composed of soft material we find the coast-line washed into gentle curves1 and the beach formed of a continuous stretch of fine sand2 but where harder rocks exist the scenery is wild and varied1 and the beach usually strewn with irregular masses of all sizes4 ,then1 when we approach the water's edge1 we find a delight in watching the approaching waves as they roll over the sandy or pebbly beach1 or embrace an outlying rock1 gently raising its olive covering of dangling weeds4 ,such attractions will allure the ordinary lover of ,nature--the mere seeker after the picturesque--but to the true naturalist there are many others4 ,the latter loves to read in the cliffs their past history1 to observe to what extent the general scenery of the coast is due to the nature of the rocks1 and to learn the action of the waves from the character of the cliffs and beach1 and from the changes which are known to have taken place in the contour of the land in past years4 ,he also delights to study those plants and flowers which are peculiar to the coast1 and to observe how the influences of the sea have produced interesting modifications in certain of our flowering plants1 as may be seen by comparing them with the same species from inland districts4 ,the sea birds1 too1 differing so much as they do from our other feathered friends in structure and habit1 provide a new field for study2 while the remarkably varied character of the forms of life met with on the beach and in the shallow waters fringing the land is in itself sufficient to supply the most active naturalist with material for prolonged and constant work4 ,let us first observe some of the general features of the coast itself1 and see how far we can account for the great diversity of character presented to us1 and for the continual changes and incessant motions that add such a charm to the sea-side ramble4 ,here we stand on the top of a cliff composed of a soft calcareous rock--on the exposed edge of a bed of chalk that extends far inland4 ,all the country round is gently undulating1 and devoid of any of the features that make up a wild and romantic scene4 ,the coast-line1 too1 is wrought into a series of gentle bays1 separated by inconspicuous promontories where the rock1 being slightly harder1 has better withstood the eroding action of the sea2 or where a current1 washing the neighbouring shore1 has been by some force deflected seaward4 ,the cliff1 though not high1 rises almost perpendicularly from the beach1 and presents to the sea a face which is but little broken1 and which in itself shows no strong evidence of the action of raging1 tempestuous seas2 its chief diversity being its gradual rise and fall with each successive undulation of the land4 ,the same soft and gentle nature characterises the beach below4 ,beyond a few small blocks of freshly-loosened chalk1 with here and there a liberated nodule of flint1 we find nothing but a continuous1 fine1 siliceous sand1 the surface of which is but seldom broken by the protrusion of masses from below4 ,such cliffs and beaches do not in themselves suggest any violent action on the part of the sea1 and yet it is here that the ocean is enabled to make its destructive efforts with the greatest effect4 ,the soft rock is gradually but surely reduced1 partly by the mechanical action of the waves and partly by the chemical action of the sea-water4 ,the rock being almost uniformly soft1 it is uniformly worn away1 thus presenting a comparatively unbroken face4 ,its material is gradually dissolved in the sea2 and the calcareous matter being thus removed1 we have a beach composed of the remains of the flints which have been pulverised by the action of the waves4 ,thus slowly but surely the sea gains upon the land4 ,thus it is that many a famous landmark1 once hundreds of yards from the coast1 now stands so near the edge of the cliff as to be threatened by every storm2 or some ancient castle1 once miles from the shore1 lies entirely buried by the encroaching sea4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,chalk ,,cliff ,the coast we have described is most certainly not the one with the fullest attractions for the naturalist1 for the cliffs lack those nooks that provide so much shelter for bird and beast1 and the rugged coves and rock pools in which we find such a wonderful variety of marine life are nowhere to be seen4 ,but1 although it represents a typical shore for a chalky district1 yet we may find others of a very different nature even where the same rock exists4 ,thus1 at ,flamborough in ,yorkshire1 and ,st4 ,alban's ,head in ,dorset1 we find the hardened1 exposed edge of the chalk formation terminating in bold and majestic promontories1 while the inner edge surrounding the ,weald gives rise to the famous cliffs of ,dover and the dizzy heights of ,beachy ,head4 ,the hard chalk of the ,isle of ,wight1 too1 which has so well withstood the repeated attacks of the ,atlantic waves1 presents a bold barrier to the sea on the south and east coasts1 and terminates in the west with the majestic stacks of the ,needles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,whitecliff 7,,chalk71 ,,dorset ,where this harder chalk exists the coast is rugged and irregular4 ,sea birds find a home in the sheltered ledges and in the protected nooks of its serrated edge2 and the countless wave-resisting blocks of weathered chalk that have been hurled from the heights above1 together with the many remnants of former cliffs that have at last succumbed to the attacks of the boisterous sea1 all form abundant shelter for a variety of marine plants and animals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,penlee ,,point1 ,,cornwall ,but it is in the west and south-west of our island that we find both the most furious waves and the rocks that are best able to resist their attacks4 ,here we are exposed to the full force of the frontal attacks of the ,atlantic1 and it is here that the dashing breakers seek out the weaker portions of the upturned and contorted strata1 eating out deep inlets1 and often loosening enormous blocks of the hardest material1 hurling them on the rugged beach1 where they are eventually to be reduced to small fragments by the continual clashing and grinding action of the smaller masses as they are thrown up by the angry sea4 ,here it is that we find the most rugged and precipitous cliffs1 bordering a more or less wild and desolate country1 now broken by a deep and narrow chasm where the resonant roar of the sea ascends to the dizzy heights above1 and anon stretching seaward into a rocky headland1 whose former greatness is marked by a continuation of fantastic outliers and smaller wave-worn masses of the harder strata4 ,here1 too1 we find that the unyielding rocks give a permanent attachment to the red and olive weeds which clothe them1 and which provide a home for so many inhabitants of our shallow waters4 ,it is here1 also1 that we see those picturesque rock pools of all sizes1 formed by the removal of the softer material of the rocks1 and converted into so many miniature seas by the receding of the tide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,balanus ,,shells ,a more lovely sight than the typical rock pool of the ,west coast one can hardly imagine4 ,around lies the rugged but sea-worn rock1 partly hidden by dense patches of the conical shells of the ,balanus1 with here and there a snug cluster of young mussels held together by their intertwining silken byssi4 ,the surface is further relieved by the clinging limpet1 the beautifully banded shells of the variable dog-periwinkle1 the pretty top shells1 and a variety of other common but interesting molluscs4 ,clusters of the common bladdery weeds are also suspended from the dry rock1 and hang gracefully into the still water below1 where the mantled cowry may be seen slowly gliding over the olive fronds4 ,submerged in the peaceful pool are beautiful tufts of white and pink corallines1 among which a number of small and slender starfishes may climb unnoticed by the casual observer2 while the scene is brightened by the numerous patches of slender green and red alg1 the thread-like fronds of which are occasionally disturbed as the lively little blenny darts among them to evade the intruder's glance4 ,dotted here and there are the beautiful anemones--the variously-hued animal flowers of the sea1 with expanded tentacles gently and gracefully swaying1 ready to grasp and paralyse any small living being that may wander within their reach4 ,here1 under a projecting ledge of the rock1 partly hidden by pale green threads1 are the glaring eyes of the voracious bullhead1 eager to pounce on almost any moving object2 while above it the five-fingered starfish slowly climbs among the dangling weeds by means of its innumerable suckers4 ,in yonder shady corner1 where the overhanging rock cuts off all direct rays of the sun from the deeper water of the pool1 are the pink and yellow incrustations of little sponges1 some of the latter colour resembling a group of miniature inverted volcanic cones1 while on the sandy floor of the pool itself may be seen the transparent phantom-like prawn1 with its rapidly moving spinnerets and gently-waving antenn1 suddenly darting backward when disturbed by the incautious approach of the observer2 and the spotted sand-crab1 entirely buried with the exception of its upper surface1 and so closely imitating its surroundings as to be quite invisible except on the closest inspection4 ,finally1 the scene is greatly enlivened by the active movements of the hermit-crab1 that appropriates to its own use the shell which once covered the body of a mollusc1 and by the erratic excursions of its cousin crabs as they climb over the weedy banks of the pool in search of food4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,a ,,cluster ,,of ,,mussels ,thus we may find much to admire and study on the sea shore at all times1 but there are attractions of quite another nature that call for notice on a stormy day1 especially on the wilder and more desolate western coasts4 ,at such times we delight to watch the distant waves as they approach the shore1 to see how they become gradually converted into the foaming breakers that dash against the standing rocks and wash the rattling pebbles high on the beach4 ,the powerful effects of the sea in wearing away the cliffs are now apparent1 and we can well understand that even the most obdurate of rocks must sooner or later break away beneath its mighty waves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,breakers ,the extreme mobility of the sea is displayed not only by the storm waves1 and by the soft ripples of the calm day1 but is seen in the gentle currents that almost imperceptibly wash our shores1 and more manifestly in the perpetual motions of the tides4 ,this last-named phenomenon is one of extreme interest to the sea-side rambler1 and also one of such great importance to the naturalist that we cannot do better than spend a few moments in trying to understand how the swaying of the waters of the ocean is brought about1 and to see what determines the period and intensity of its pulsations1 as well as some of the variations in the daily motions which are to be observed on our own shores4 ,in doing this we shall1 of course1 not enter fully into the technical theories of the tides1 for which the reader should refer to authoritative works on the subject1 but merely endeavour to briefly explain the observed oscillations of the sea and the general laws which govern them4 ,the most casual observer must have noticed the close connection between the movements of the ocean and the position of the moon1 while those who have given closer attention to the subject will have seen that the relative heights of the tides vary regularly with the relative positions of the sun1 moon1 and earth4 ,in the first place1 then1 we notice that the time of high tide in any given place is always the same at the same period of the cycle of the moon2 that is1 it is always the same at the time of new moon1 full moon1 c4 ,hence it becomes evident that the moon is the prime mover in the formation of tides4 ,now1 it is a fact that the sun1 though about ninety-three millions of miles from the earth1 has a much greater attractive influence on the earth and its oceans than the moon has1 although the distance of the latter is only about a quarter of a million miles3 but this is due to the vastly superior mass of the sun1 which is about twenty-six million times the mass of the moon4 ,how is it1 then1 that we find the tides apparently regulated by the moon rather than by the sun8 ,the reason is that the tide-producing influence is due not to the actual attractive force exerted on the earth as a whole1 but to the difference between the attraction for one side of the globe and that for the opposite side4 ,now1 it will be seen that the diameter of the earth--about eight thousand miles--is an appreciable fraction of the moon's distance1 and thus the attractive influence of the moon for the side of the earth nearest to it will be appreciably greater than that for the opposite side2 while in the case of the sun1 the earth's diameter is such a small fraction of the distance from the sun that the difference in the attractive force for the two opposite sides of the earth is comparatively small4 ,omitting1 then1 for the present the minor tide-producing influence of the sun1 let us see how the incessant rising and falling of the water of the ocean are brought about2 and1 to simplify our explanation1 we will imagine the earth to be a globe entirely covered with water of uniform depth4 ,the moon attracts the water on the side nearest to it with a greater force than that exerted on the earth itself2 hence the water is caused to bulge out slightly on that side4 ,again1 since the attractive force of the moon for the earth as a whole is greater than that for the water on the opposite side1 the earth is pulled away1 as it were1 from the water on that side1 causing it to bulge out there also4 ,hence high tides are produced on two opposite sides of the earth at the same time1 while the level of the water is correspondingly reduced at two other parts at right angles with these sides4 ,this being the case1 how are we to account for the observed changes in the level of the sea that occur every day on our shores8 ,let us first see the exact nature of these changes3--,at a certain time we find the water high on the beach2 and1 soon after reaching its highest limit1 a gradual descent takes place1 generally extending over a period of a little more than six hours4 ,this is then followed by another rise1 occupying about the same time1 and the oscillations are repeated indefinitely with remarkable regularity as to time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,illustrating ,,the ,,tide-,,producing ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,moon ,now1 from what has been previously said with regard to the tidal influence of the moon1 we see that the tide must necessarily be high under the moon1 as well as on the side of the earth directly opposite this body1 and that the high tides must follow the moon in its regular motion4 ,but we must not forget that the earth itself is continually turning on its axis1 making a complete rotation in about twenty-four hours2 while the moon1 which revolves round the earth in about twenty-eight days1 describes only a small portion of its orbit in the same time2 thus1 while the tidal wave slowly follows the moon as it travels in its orbit1 the earth slips round1 as it were1 under the tidal wave1 causing four changes of tide in approximately the period of one rotation4 ,suppose1 for example1 the earth to be performing its daily rotation in the direction indicated by the arrow 7fig4 #h71 and the tide high at the place marked ,a1 just under the moon1 then1 in about six hours1 this place will have been carried round to ,a1 where the tide is low2 and1 after similar intervals1 to ,a and ,a successively1 where the tide is high and low respectively4 ,hence the daily changes are to a great extent determined by the rotation of the earth4 ,but we have already observed that each change of tide occupies a little more than six hours1 the average time being nearly six hours and a quarter1 and so we find that the high and low tides occur nearly an hour later every day4 ,this is due to the fact that1 owing to the revolution of the moon round the earth in the same direction as that of the rotation of the earth itself1 the day as measured by the moon is nearly an hour longer than the average solar day as given by the clock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,illustrating ,,the ,,tides ,there is yet another point worth noting with regard to the relation between the moon and the tidal movements of the water1 which is that the high tides are never exactly under the moon1 but always occur some time after the moon has passed the meridian4 ,this is due to the inertia of the ocean1 and to the resistance offered by the land to its movements4 ,now1 in addition to these diurnal changes of the tide1 there are others1 extending over longer periods1 and which must be more or less familiar to everyone who has spent some time on the coast4 ,on a certain day1 for instance1 we observe that the high tide flows very far up the beach1 and that this is followed1 a few hours later1 by an unusually low ebb1 exposing rocks or sand-banks that are not frequently visible4 ,careful observations of the motions of the water for some days after will show that this great difference between the levels of high and low-water gradually decreases until1 about a week later1 it is considerably reduced1 the high tide not flowing so far inland and the low-water mark not extending so far seaward4 ,then1 from this time1 the difference increases again1 till1 after about two weeks from the commencement of our observations1 we find it at the maximum again4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,spring ,,tides ,,at ,,full ,,moon ,here again we find that the changes exactly coincide with changes in the position of the moon with regard to the sun and the earth4 ,thus1 the spring tides--those which rise very high and fall very low--always occur when the moon is full or new2 while the less vigorous neap tides occur when the moon is in her quarters and presents only one-half of her illuminated disc to the earth4 ,and1 as the moon passes through a complete cycle of changes from new to first-quarter1 full1 last-quarter1 and then to new again in about twenty-nine days1 so the tides run through four changes from spring to neap1 spring1 neap1 and then to spring again in the same period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,spring ,,tides ,,at ,,new ,,moon ,the reason for this is not far to seek1 for we have already seen that both sun and moon exert a tide-producing influence on the earth1 though that of the moon is considerably greater than that of the sun2 hence1 if the sun1 earth1 and moon are in a straight line1 as they are when the moon is full1 at which time she and the sun are on opposite sides of the earth1 and also when new1 at which time she is between the earth and sun1 the sun's tide is added to the moon's tide1 thus producing the well-marked spring tides2 while1 when the moon is in her quarters1 occupying a position at right angles from the sun as viewed from the earth1 the two bodies tend to produce high tides on different parts of the earth at the same time1 and thus we have the moon's greater tides reduced by the amount of the lesser tides of the sun1 with the result that the difference between high and low tides is much lessened4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,neap ,,tides ,again1 the difference between high and low water marks is not always exactly the same for the same kind of tide--the spring tide for a certain period1 for example1 not having the same limits as the same tide of another time4 ,this is due to the fact that the moon revolves round the sun in an elliptical orbit1 while the earth1 at the same time1 revolves round the sun in a similar path1 so that the distances of both moon and sun from the earth vary at different times4 ,and1 since the tide-producing influences of both these bodies must increase as their distance from the earth diminishes1 it follows that there must be occasional appreciable variations in the vigour of the tidal movements of the ocean4 ,as the earth rotates on its axis1 while at the same time the tidal wave must necessarily keep its position under the moon1 this wave appears to sweep round the earth with considerable velocity4 ,the differences in the level of the ocean thus produced would hardly be appreciable if the earth were entirely covered with water2 but1 owing to the very irregular distribution of the land1 the movements of the tidal wave become exceedingly complex2 and1 when it breaks an entrance into a gradually narrowing channel1 the water is compressed laterally1 and correspondingly increased in height4 ,it is thus that we find a much greater difference between the levels of high and low tides in continental seas than are to be observed on the shores of oceanic islands4 ,we have occupied so much of our time and space in explanation of the movements of the tides not only because we think it desirable that all who delight in sea-side rambles should understand something of the varied motions which help to give such a charm to the sea1 but also because1 as we shall observe later1 these motions are a matter of great importance to those who are interested in the observation and study of marine life4 ,and1 seeing that we are writing more particularly for the young naturalists of our own island1 we must devote a little space to the study of the movements of the tidal wave round ,great ,britain1 in order that we may understand the great diversity in the time of high tide on any one day on different parts of the coast1 and see how the time of high tide for one part may be calculated from that of any other locality4 ,were it not for the inertia of the ocean and the resistance offered by the irregular continents1 high tide would always exist exactly under the moon1 and we should have high water at any place just at the time when the moon is in the south and crossing the meridian of that place4 ,but while the inertia of the water tends to make all tides late1 the irregular distribution of the land breaks up the tidal wave into so many wave-crests and greatly retards their progress4 ,thus1 the tidal wave entering the ,atlantic round the ,cape of ,good ,hope mingles with another wave that flows round ,cape ,horn1 and the combined wave travels northward at the rate of several hundred miles an hour4 ,on reaching the ,british ,isles it is broken up1 one wave-crest travelling up the ,english ,channel1 while another flows round ,scotland and then southwards into the ,north ,sea4 ,the former branch1 taking the shorter course1 determines the time of high tide along the ,channel coast4 ,passing the ,land's ,end1 it reaches ,plymouth in about an hour1 ,torquay in about an hour and a half1 the ,isle of ,portland in two hours and a half1 ,brighton in about seven hours1 and ,london in about nine hours and a half4 ,the other branch1 taking a much longer course1 makes its arrival in the southern part of the ,north ,sea about twelve hours later1 thus mingling at that point with the ,channel wave of the next tide4 ,it takes about twenty hours to travel from the south-west coast of ,ireland1 round ,scotland1 and then to the mouth of the ,thames4 ,where the two waves meet1 the height of the tides is considerably increased2 and it will be understood that1 at certain points1 where the rising of one tide coincides with the falling of another1 the two may partially or entirely neutralise each other4 ,further1 the flow and the ebb of the tide are subject to numerous variations and complications in places where two distinct tidal wave-crests arrive at different times4 ,thus1 the ebbing of the tide may be retarded by the approach of a second crest a few hours after the first1 so that the ebb and the flow do not occupy equal times4 ,at ,eastbourne1 for example1 the water flows for about five hours1 and ebbs for about seven and a half4 ,or1 the approach of the second wave may even arrest the ebbing waters1 and produce a second high tide during the course of six hours1 as is the case at some places along the ,hampshire and ,dorset coasts4 ,those who visit various places on our own coasts will probably be interested in tracing the course of the tidal crests by the aid of the accompanying map of the ,british ,isles1 on which the time of high tide at several ports for the same time of day is marked4 ,it will be seen from this that the main tidal wave from the ,atlantic approaches our islands from the south-west1 and divides into lesser waves1 one of which passes up the ,channel1 and another round ,scotland and into the ,north ,sea1 as previously mentioned1 while minor wave-crests flow northward into the ,irish ,sea and the ,bristol ,channel4 ,the chart thus supplies the data by means of which we can calculate the approximate time of high tide for any one port from that of another4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,chart ,,showing ,,the ,,relative ,,times ,,of ,,high ,,tide ,,on ,,different ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,coast ,george ,philip ,son4 ,ltd4 ,the ,london ,geographical ,institute4 ,although the time of high water varies so greatly on the same day over such a small area of country1 yet that time for any one place is always approximately the same during the same relative positions of the sun1 earth1 and moon2 that is1 for the same #8age' of the moon2 so that it is possible to determine the time of high water at any port from the moon's age4 ,the time of high tide is generally given for the current year in the local calendars of our principal seaports1 and many guide-books supply a table from which the time may be calculated from the age of the moon4 ,at every port the observed high water follows the meridional passage of the moon by a fixed interval of time1 which1 as we have seen1 varies considerably in places within a small area of the globe4 ,this interval is known as the establishment of the port1 and provides a means by which the time of high water may be calculated4 ,before closing this short chapter on the general characteristics of the sea shore we ought to make a few observations on the nature of the water of the sea4 ,almost everyone is acquainted with the saltness while many bathers have noticed the superior buoyancy of salt water as compared with the fresh water of our rivers and lakes4 ,the dissolved salts contained in sea water give it a greater density than that of pure water2 and1 since all floating bodies displace their own weight of the liquid in which they float1 it is clear that they will not sink so far in the denser water of the sea as they would in fresh water4 ,if we evaporate a known weight of sea water to dryness and weigh the solid residue of sea salt that remains1 we find that this residue forms about three and a half per cent4 of the original weight4 ,then1 supposing that the evaporation has been conducted very slowly1 the residue is crystalline in structure1 and a careful examination with the aid of a lens will reveal crystals of various shapes1 but by far the larger number of them cubical in form4 ,these cubical crystals consist of common salt 7sodium chloride71 which constitutes about three-fourths of the entire residue1 while the remainder of the three and a half per cent4 consists principally of various salts of magnesium1 calcium1 and sodium4 ,sea salt may be obtained ready prepared in any quantity1 as it is manufactured for the convenience of those who desire a sea bath at home2 and it will be seen from what has been said that the artificial sea-water may be prepared1 to correspond almost exactly with that of the sea1 by the addition of three and a half pounds of sea salt to about ninety-six and a half pounds of water4 ,this is often a matter of no little importance to the sea-side naturalist1 who may require to keep marine animals alive for some time at considerable distance from the sea shore1 while their growth and habits are observed4 ,hence we shall refer to this subject again when dealing with the management of the salt-water aquarium4 ,the attractions of the sea coast are undoubtedly greater by day than at night1 especially in the summer season1 when the excessive heat of the land is tempered by the cool sea breezes1 and when life1 both on the cliffs and among the rocks1 is at its maximum4 ,but the sea is grand at night1 when its gentle ripples flicker in the silvery light of the full moon4 ,no phenomenon of the sea1 however1 is more interesting than the beautiful phosphorescence to be observed on a dark summer's night4 ,at times the breaking ripples flash with a soft bluish light1 and the water in the wake of a boat is illuminated by what appears to be liquid fire4 ,the advancing ripples1 as they embrace a standing rock1 surround it with a ring of flame2 while streaks and flashes alternately appear and disappear in the open water where there is apparently no disturbance of any kind4 ,these effects are all produced by the agency of certain marine animals1 some of which display a phosphorescent light over the whole surface of their bodies1 while in others the light-giving power is restricted to certain organs or to certain well-defined areas of the body2 and in some cases it even appears as if the creatures concerned have the power of ejecting from their bodies a phosphorescent fluid4 ,it was once supposed that the phosphorescence of the sea was produced by only a few of the lower forms of life1 but it is well known now that quite a large number of animals1 belonging to widely different classes1 play a part in this phenomenon4 ,many of these are minute creatures1 hardly to be seen without the aid of some magnifying power1 while others are of considerable size4 ,among the peculiar features of the phosphorescence of the sea are the suddenness with which it sometimes appears and disappears1 and its very irregular variations both at different seasons and at different hours of the same night4 ,on certain nights the sea is apparently full of living fire when1 almost suddenly the light vanishes and hardly a trace of phosphorescence remains2 while1 on other occasions1 the phenomenon is observed only on certain patches of water1 the areas of which are so well defined that one passes suddenly from or into a luminous sea4 ,the actual nature of the light and the manner in which it is produced are but ill understood1 but the variations and fitfulness of its appearances can be to a certain extent conjectured from our knowledge of some of the animals that produce it4 ,in our own seas the luminosity is undoubtedly caused principally by the presence of myriads of minute floating or free-swimming organisms that inhabit the surface waters4 ,of these each one has its own season1 in which it appears in vast numbers4 ,some appear to live entirely at or near the surface1 but others apparently remain near the surface only during the night1 or only while certain conditions favourable to their mode of life prevail4 ,and further1 it is possible that these minute creatures1 produced as they generally are in vast numbers at about the same time1 and being more or less local1 are greatly influenced by changes of temperature1 changes in the nature of the wind1 and the periodic changes in the tides2 and it is probable that we are to look to these circumstances for the explanations of the sudden changes so frequently observed4 ,in warmer seas the phenomenon of phosphorescence is much more striking than in our own1 the brilliancy of the light being much stronger1 and also produced by a greater variety of living beings1 some of which are of great size1 and embrace species belonging to the vertebrates and the higher invertebrate animals4 ,those interested in the investigation of this subject should make it a rule to collect the forms of life that inhabit the water at a time when the sea is unusually luminous4 ,a sample of the water may be taken away for the purpose of examination1 and this should be viewed in a good light1 both with and without a magnifying lens4 ,it is probable1 too1 that a very productive haul may be obtained by drawing a fine muslin net very slowly through the water4 ,after some time the net should be emptied and gently washed in a small quantity of sea water to remove the smaller forms of life contained1 and the water then examined at leisure4 ,of course it must not be assumed that all the species so obtained are concerned in any way with the phosphorescence of the sea1 but any one form turning up in abundance when collected under the conditions named will probably have some connection with the phenomenon4 ,one may well ask #8,what is the use of this light-emitting power to the animals who possess it8' but this question is not easily answered4 ,the light produced by the glow-worm and other luminous insects is evidently a signal by means of which they call their mates1 and this may be the case with many of the marine luminous animals1 but it is evidently not so with those which live in such immense numbers that they are simply crowded together2 nor can it be so with the many luminous creatures that are hermaphrodite4 ,it is a fact1 however1 that numbers of deep-sea species possess the power of emitting light to a striking extent2 and the use of this power is in such cases obvious1 for since the rays of the sun do not penetrate to great depths in the ocean1 these luminous species are enabled to illuminate their own surroundings while in search of food1 and1 in many cases at least1 to quench their lights suddenly at such times as they themselves are in danger4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,sea-,,side ,,naturalist ,,outdoor ,,work ,assuming that the reader is one who desires to become intimately acquainted with the wonderful and varied forms of life to be met with on the sea shore1 or1 hoping that he may be lured into the interesting and profitable pastimes of the sea-side naturalist1 we shall now devote a chapter to the consideration of the appliances required for the collection and examination of marine life1 and to general instructions as to the methods by which we may best search out the principal and most interesting objects of the shore4 ,first1 then1 we shall describe the equipment of an enthusiastic and all-round admirer of ,nature--he who is interested in plant forms from the flowering species down to the #8meanest weed that grows1' and is always ready to learn something of any member of the animal world that may happen to come within his reach4 ,and this1 not because we hope1 or even desire1 that every reader may develop into an all-round naturalist1 but so that each may be able to select from the various appliances named just those which would be useful for the collection and observation of the objects which are to form his pet study4 ,the most generally useful of all these appliances is undoubtedly some kind of case of the #8hold-all' type1 a case into which specimens in general may be placed for transmission from the hunting-ground in order that they may be studied at leisure1 and we know of nothing more satisfactory than the botanist's #8vasculum4' ,this is an oblong box of japanned tin1 fitted with a hinged front1 and having both handle and strap1 so that it can be either carried in the hand or slung over the shoulder4 ,of course almost any kind of non-collapsible box or basket will answer the purpose1 but we know of no utensils so convenient as the one we have named4 ,it is perfectly satisfactory for the temporary storage of the wild flowers gathered on the cliffs1 as it will keep them moist and fresh for some considerable time2 and for the reception of sea weeds of all kinds it is all that could be desired1 for it will preserve them in splendid condition1 and is so constructed that there is no possibility of the inconvenience arising from the dripping of salt water on the lower garments4 ,then1 as regards marine animal-life in general--starfishes1 urchins1 anemones1 molluscs1 crustaceans1 fishes1 c4--these may be conveyed away in it with a liberal packing of moist weeds not only without injury1 but in such a satisfactory condition that nearly all may be turned out alive at the end of a day's work2 and this must be looked upon as a very important matter to him who aims at becoming a naturalist rather than a mere collector1 for while the latter is content with a museum of empty shells and dried specimens1 the former will endeavour to keep many of the creatures alive for a time in some kind of artificial rock pool in order that he may have the opportunity of studying their development and their habits at times when he has not the chance of visiting the sea shore for the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,the ,,vasculum ,but although the vasculum is so generally useful for the temporary storage and the transmission of the objects collected1 yet it is not in itself sufficient for all purposes4 ,there are many marine animals so small--but none the less interesting because they are small--that they would probably be lost in a case containing a mass of sea weeds with various larger creatures4 ,these should be placed in small well-corked bottles1 and temporarily preserved in a little sea-water1 or1 preferably1 a tuft of one of the delicate weeds so common in our rock pools4 ,others1 again1 though they may be larger1 are of so fragile a nature that they should be isolated from the general stock on that account alone4 ,instead of bottles or tubes1 small tin boxes may be used1 and these have the advantage of being unbreakable1 though1 of course1 they will not hold water4 ,this1 however1 is of no consequence1 as most marine animals may be kept alive for some time in moist sea-weed quite as well as in water4 ,when small animals are required for structural examination only1 they may be put into methylated spirit as they are taken1 and when stored in this way a much larger number may be put into the same receptacle2 hence the collector will often find it convenient to have a small supply of this liquid while at his work4 ,a strong pocket-knife is essential for sea-side work4 ,it serves to remove those molluscs that adhere firmly to the rocks by suction1 and also others that fix themselves by means of a byssus of silken fibres1 as is the case with mussels4 ,it will also be employed in the removal of acorn barnacles1 anemones1 and small tufts of alg1 and may be useful in cutting through the stouter weeds4 ,small sponges and other low forms of life often form incrustations on the solid rock1 and may be peeled off with the aid of a knife4 ,in the case of the last-named1 however1 as well as with the anemones and other fixed animals1 it is often far more satisfactory to remove a small portion of the rock itself with the animal attached1 and for this purpose a small hammer will be of great service4 ,a strong net of some kind is necessary in searching the rock pools1 and as suitable nets are1 we believe1 not to be obtained of the dealers in naturalists' appliances1 it devolves on one to manufacture a net according to his requirements4 ,the simplest form of net may be made by bending a piece of stout galvanised iron wire into the form here shown 7fig4 #ad71 and firmly wedging the two straight ends in a short piece of strong metal tube which will also serve as a ferrule for the attachment of a tough handle4 ,such a circular frame although satisfactory for a net to be used in fresh-water ponds and streams1 is not nearly so suitable for the irregular rocky pools to be met with on the sea coast1 for it will not enable one to search the numerous corners and crevices into which many marine creatures will retire on being disturbed1 but it may be greatly improved by bending the side opposite the ferrule into a moderately sharp angle and then turning the angle slightly upward1 as shown in fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,wire ,,ring ,,for ,,net ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,net ,,frame ,,with ,,curved ,,point ,another very convenient net frame may be made by bending the wire into a rhomboidal form 7fig4 #af71 the ferrule being attached by means of two short1 straight ends at one of the angles4 ,the opposite angle will serve the purpose of searching into the crannies of the rocks1 while the straight sides will prove very useful in removing the objects that lie on the sandy bottoms so commonly seen in rock pools4 ,the semicircular net shown in fig4 #ah will also prove useful for working on sands or for scraping the flatter surfaces of weed-covered rocks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,rhomboidal ,,frame ,,for ,,net ,the material of the net should be some kind of strong gauze1 or a loosely-woven canvas4 ,leno answers very well1 but is somewhat easily torn1 and will have to be frequently renewed4 ,this1 however1 may be avoided to a great extent if1 instead of sewing the gauze directly round the wire1 a strip of strong calico be first attached to the frame1 and the gauze then sewn to the calico2 for it will be understood that any fragile material placed round the wire will soon be worn through by friction against the rugged surfaces of the rocks and stones4 ,the net itself should not be very deep1 and should have no corners2 and as to the length of the handle1 that will be determined by the fancy of the collector1 or by the character of the ponds to be searched1 but a tough walking-stick with a crook handle will generally answer all purposes1 the crook being itself frequently useful for removing the larger weeds and other obstructions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,rhomboidal ,,net ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,semicircular ,,net ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,,the ,,dredge ,although the net1 as above described1 will answer the requirements of nearly all young collectors1 yet there may be some1 who1 not satisfied with the exploration of the rocks and pools exposed when the tide is out1 desire to know something of the creatures that live entirely beyond low-water mark1 where the water is generally too deep for work with a hand net4 ,to such we recommend a small dredge that may be lowered from a boat and then drawn along the bottom4 ,a good form of dredge is shown in fig4 #ai1 and a little skill and ingenuity will enable anyone to construct one with the help of our illustration2 but1 seeing that the best work is to be done on rough bottoms1 it is absolutely necessary that both frame and net should be made of the stoutest materials that can be conveniently employed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,the ,,crab-,,pot ,those who have ever accompanied a fisherman while taking a pull round to examine the contents of his crab or lobster pots will probably have noticed what strange creatures1 in addition to the edible crabs and lobsters1 sometimes find their way into the trap4 ,these creatures are often of great interest to a young naturalist1 and it will repay him to take an occasional trip with a fisherman in order to obtain them2 or1 still better1 to have a crab-pot of his own4 ,the writer has obtained many good specimens by means of an inexpensive trap1 on the same principle as the ordinary crab-pot1 made from an old metal bird-cage of rather small size4 ,the bottom was removed1 and a very shallow bag of thick canvas fixed in its place2 and some of the wires were cut1 and bent inwards so as to allow the easy entrance of moderately large crustaceans and other creatures1 while at the same time they served as a barrier to their escape4 ,such a trap1 baited with pieces of fish1 and let down to a rocky bottom1 will enable the young naturalist to secure specimens that are seldom seen between the tide-marks2 and the animals thus obtained will include not only those larger ones for which the opening was made1 but also a variety of smaller creatures that may enter between the wires of the cage4 ,some of the latter may1 of course1 escape by the same way as the trap is being hauled up for examination1 but this is not so likely to occur if the canvas bottom is of a material so loosely woven that water can pass through it very freely4 ,it will1 of course1 occur to the reader that the insertion of a stone or other weight will assist in sinking the trap2 also that the ordinary door of the cage forms a ready means by which the captives may be removed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,an ,,old ,,bird-,,cage ,,used ,,as ,a ,,crab-,,pot ,one thing more3 make it a rule never to go out collecting natural objects of any kind without a note-book and pencil4 ,this1 to the beginner who is anxious to get to his work1 with the idea only too prevalent with the amateur that the success of his labours is to be measured only by the number of specimens obtained1 may seem quite an unnecessary part of the equipment4 ,but it must be remembered that there is much to observe as well as much to collect on a well-selected coast2 and that without the aid of the book and pencil a great many of the observations made will be forgotten1 and thus much interest that would otherwise be attached to the objects permanently preserved will be lacking4 ,the above appliances include the only necessary equipment of the sea-side naturalist1 with the exception of a few required for occasional use in connection with the species of a somewhat restricted habitat1 and the outfit of the sea angler4 ,the former will be dealt with in the chapters where the species concerned are described1 while the subject of sea angling is of such general interest that we propose to devote a short chapter exclusively to it4 ,it may seem hardly necessary to discourse on the nature of the attire most suitable for sea-side work1 since the majority will readily form their own opinions on this matter1 but perhaps a few words of advice to the inexperienced may not be altogether out of place4 ,first1 then1 make it a rule to wear no clothing of any value4 ,the work will lead the enthusiast over slippery weeds1 on treacherous boulders1 over rocks covered with sharp acorn shells1 and among slimy and muddy stones1 and many a slip may occur in the course of a day's work4 ,large pockets specially but simply made by sewing square pieces of lining on the inside of an old jacket are a great convenience2 a cap rather than a brimmed hat should be worn unless the latter be considered essential for protection from a burning summer's sun2 and a pair of old shoes1 preferably with rubber soles1 are just the thing for both rough and slippery rocks1 as well as for wading through shallow waters4 ,other details we can safely leave to the fancy of the reader himself4 ,now comes the most important question #8,where shall we go8' ,fortunately we are favoured with a great extent of coast-line considering the area of our country1 but the character of the coast is so diversified1 both with regard to its scenery and its life1 that the naturalist will do well to carefully select his locality according to the objects he desires to study4 ,the east coast of ,england is not generally noted either for variety or abundance of marine life1 and the same is true both of the south-east and a large portion of the south coast4 ,in some places the beach is formed of an unbroken stretch of sand on which one may walk for miles without seeing any sign of life1 with the exception of an occasional empty shell and a few fragments of dried sea-weed washed in by the breakers during a recent storm2 while at the same time the cliffs1 if such exist at all1 are not very generous in their production of the fauna and flora that are characteristic of the shore4 ,but even on the coasts referred to there are1 here and there1 isolated spots where the uplands jut into the sea1 giving rise to bold promontories1 at the foot of which are the fallen masses of rock that afford protection to a moderate variety of truly marine life1 while the rough bottoms beyond yield numerous interesting forms that may be secured by means of the dredge or suitable traps4 ,such spots are to be found where the chalk hills abut on the sea1 as at ,flamborough and ,beachy ,head1 but it is in the neighbourhood of ,weymouth that the ,english coast really begins to be of great interest to the naturalist4 ,from here to the ,land's ,end almost every part of the shore will yield a great variety of life in abundance1 and the same is true of the rocky coasts of the west1 and also of the more rugged shores of the ,isle of ,wight4 ,as an ideal hunting-ground one cannot do better than to select one of the small fishing towns or villages on the rocky coasts of ,devon and ,cornwall4 ,with such a spot as his headquarters the most enthusiastic sea-side naturalist will find ample employment4 ,the exposed rocks and rock pools yield abundance of life2 and if these be searched when the tide is out1 there will remain plenty of sea angling and other employments to occupy him at other times4 ,we will now describe the actual work of the sea-side naturalist1 giving the necessary instructions for the observation and collection of the various living things he will meet with4 ,first1 then1 with regard to work on the cliffs1 a very few words will suffice2 for1 seeing that the objects of interest to be met with here will consist principally of the various flowers that are peculiar to or characteristic of the sea shore1 and certain insects and other creatures more or less partial to a life on the cliffs1 we may regard these as coming within the range of the general work of the botanist1 entomologist1 c42 and since instructions for the collection and preservation of such objects have already been given in former works of this series1 we may pass them over at once in order to deal with those objects which are essentially marine4 ,it has already been hinted that the right time for collecting on the shore is when the tide is at its lowest2 and in order that the best work may be done the collector should consult the local tide-tables1 or calculate1 if necessary1 the time of high tide from the establishment of the port2 and1 of course1 the period of spring tides should be selected if possible4 ,the time during which work should continue must be regulated according to the enthusiasm of the collector or the time at his disposal1 but1 as a rule1 it is advisable to be on the scene of action about three hours before the time of low tide1 with a determination to work continuously until the lowest ebb of the water4 ,on reaching the beach it is always advisable to start by examining the line of miscellaneous material at high-water mark1 along which may be found quite a variety of objects1 more or less interesting1 which have been washed in by the breakers1 especially just after a storm1 together with numerous scavengers of the shore that perform a most useful work in devouring the decomposing organic matter that would otherwise tend to pollute the air4 ,here we may find many useful and interesting objects of both the animal and vegetable worlds4 ,among the former are the empty shells of both univalve and bivalve molluscs1 some of which are more or less worn by the action of the waves1 while others are in splendid condition for examination and study4 ,here1 too1 are various species of sea firs and the skeletons of sponges2 the shell of the cuttle-fish1 and occasionally a cluster of the eggs of this creature--the sea-grapes of the fishermen2 also the egg-cases of the skate and the dog-fish--usually empty1 but sometimes enclosing the young animal still alive2 and1 lastly1 we frequently meet with portions of the skeletons of fishes in a perfect state of preservation1 the animal matter having been cleared away by the combined action of the scavengers previously referred to4 ,then1 as regards the vegetable world1 we often find beautiful specimens of sea-weeds along the high-water mark1 some of which are rarely met with in the rock pools1 since they are species that have been detached from beyond the line of low water1 and washed up by the breakers4 ,on turning over the debris thus thrown on the beach we intrude on the privacy of numerous living creatures which immediately scamper away to find a new hiding-place4 ,these consist principally of sand-hoppers1 but occasionally we find members of the insect world engaged in the same useful work in addition to the numerous flies that perform their office of scavengers in the bright sunshine on the top of the matter that supplies them with food4 ,it will be interesting to capture a few of these scavengers1 and to compare them with others of the same order obtained from different localities4 ,thus1 the flies may be compared with the more familiar house fly1 and the sand-hoppers of high-water mark with similar crustaceans to be afterwards obtained lower on the beach4 ,attention should now be given to the rocks left exposed by the retreating tide1 and it is here that the real work begins4 ,examine each rock pool as soon as possible after it is no longer disturbed by the waves4 ,remove any tufts of corallines or other weeds required for study or preservation1 and simply place them1 pro tem41 in the vasculum or other receptacle provided for the purpose4 ,these will form a useful protective packing for other objects that are to be carried away1 so that it will be advisable to secure a moderate amount rather early1 even though they may not be required for any other purpose4 ,live molluscs1 crabs1 small fishes1 c41 may all be put in the receptacle with this weed1 and all will probably be still alive after the collecting and the homeward journey have been completed4 ,probe the corners of the pool with the point of the net1 and also sweep the net upward among the weeds to remove any creatures that seek shelter among the fronds4 ,tufts of corallines and other weeds should be searched for the small and delicate starfishes that live among them1 and any stones that may cover the bottom of the pool should be lifted4 ,anemones may be removed from the rocks by means of a rather blunt knife2 but1 if possible1 it will be better to chip off a small piece of the rock with the anemone attached to it1 and wrap it lightly round with a tuft of soft weed previous to placing it in the collecting case4 ,a number of rock pools should be searched in this manner1 but those chosen should vary as much as possible in general character4 ,all very small and delicate objects should be isolated from the general stock1 and placed1 with the usual packing material1 either in tin boxes or small wide-mouthed bottles2 and if any animals taken are not required alive1 but only for preservation1 they should be preferably killed at once and then stored in a separate case4 ,some creatures are easily killed by simply dropping them into a bottle of fresh water1 but others should be covered with methylated spirit4 ,it should be mentioned1 however1 that the natural appearance of some of the crustaceans is quite destroyed by strong spirit1 which soon makes them look as if they had been boiled4 ,some species are changed in this way much more readily than others2 and1 until sufficient experience has been gained to enable the young collector to distinguish between them1 it will be advisable to kill and temporarily preserve crustaceans in spirit that has been considerably diluted with water--about two parts of water to one of spirit1 for example4 ,further1 there are certain fragile starfishes that have a way of breaking themselves into pieces when dropped into spirit1 or even when suddenly disturbed in almost any other manner4 ,these must always be handled gently1 and if it is required to kill them for preservation1 the best way will be to put them in a little salt water1 and then gradually add fresh water until the desired result is obtained4 ,perhaps the most productive of all sea-shore work is the turning over of the stones of various sizes near the low-tide mark1 and the examination of the chinks and sheltered hollows of the rocks that are left uncovered for but a short period4 ,this work should be carried on as near the water's edge as possible1 closely following the receding tide2 and the collector must now be prepared with a number of small bottles or tins for the isolation of small and delicate specimens4 ,he must also be on the alert for numerous examples of protective resemblance1 in which the animals concerned so closely resemble their surroundings in colour and general character of surface that they are detected only by careful observation1 while the difficulty of identification is still further increased in instances where the creatures remain perfectly still even when disturbed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,a ,,young ,,naturalist ,,at ,,work ,under the stones all manner of animals--fishes1 crustaceans1 worms1 molluscs1 starfishes1 anemones1 c4--will be hiding until covered by the next tide4 ,some of these will be found on the ground beneath the stones1 and others attached to the under surfaces of the stones themselves2 therefore both should be carefully examined1 attention being given at first to the more active species that hurry away with all speed towards a new shelter as soon as they find themselves exposed to the light2 the less active creatures may then be secured at leisure4 ,the tide will not allow the collector a great deal of time in which to turn over the most productive stones--those close to the low-water mark1 so there is but little opportunity of observing the movements and other interesting habits of many of the animals found2 hence it is advisable to secure a good variety of living specimens1 especially of the less familiar species1 in order that they may be placed in some kind of aquarium1 temporary or otherwise1 for observation at home4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,a ,,good ,,hunting-,,ground ,,on ,,the ,,cornish ,,coast ,one thing more remains to be done while the tide is well out1 and that is to examine the weed-covered rocks near the water's edge4 ,lift the dangling weeds and carefully search the rocks for those low forms of animal life that form incrustations on the surface1 as well as for new species of anemones1 sea firs1 c4 ,lastly1 look well into the dark and narrow chinks of the rocks1 for here several species of lowly animals that are hardly met with elsewhere may be found1 and also certain crustaceans that delight to squeeze their bodies into the remotest corner of a sheltered niche4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,sea ,,angling ,we do not propose dealing with this subject from the point of view of the angler1 but rather that of the naturalist4 ,the former is actuated principally1 if not entirely1 by the mere love of sport2 or1 it may be1 to a great extent by the desire to obtain a supply of fish for food2 and he generally estimates the success of his expeditions not by the number of species captured1 but by the total weight of his catch1 no regard being paid1 as a rule1 to the inedible specimens4 ,the naturalist1 however1 does not desire weight1 or sweetness of flesh4 ,he works the greatest possible variety of habitats1 with the object of determining the number of species inhabiting the locality and of learning as much as possible of their general form1 habits1 and adaptations of structure to habits4 ,his success is measured by the number and variety of species caught1 and he pays but little attention to superiority of size or weight1 or to the estimated market value of his haul4 ,the element of sport may enter more or less largely into the pleasure of his occupation1 but the main end in view is to learn as much as possible of all the species obtainable4 ,further1 our remarks will not include the subject of the different kinds of fishing usually resorted to by sea anglers1 but will be confined almost exclusively to the simple means of catching the common species that frequent the immediate neighbourhood of the shore4 ,if the reader will follow the general instructions given in ,chapter ,,ii4 on the outdoor work of the marine naturalist1 he will undoubtedly make the acquaintance of a considerable variety of interesting species which may be captured in the rock pools1 found under stones at low tide1 or obtained by means of a small dredge2 but his knowledge of our littoral fishes may be appreciably extended by the occasional employment of rod and line from rocks and piers1 or from a small boat in close proximity to the shore4 ,the appliances required are of a very simple nature1 and not at all costly4 ,the long1 heavy rod and strong tackle of the sea angler and professional fisherman are not at all essential to our purpose1 for our work will be confined almost exclusively to shallow water1 and the fish to be caught will be chiefly of small size4 ,true it is that one may occasionally find his light tackle snapped and carried away by the unexpected run of a large fish1 for cod and other large species often approach close to the shore1 and bite at baits intended for the smaller fish that make their home among the partly submerged rocks of the coast2 but such surprises will not frequently occur1 and the young naturalist may learn all he wants to know of the fishes of our shallow waters with the aid of a light rod of about nine or ten feet and one or two light lines of no great length4 ,it must not be understood1 however1 that we assume the reader's disinclination to know anything of the inhabitants of deep water1 but rather that we consider the whole subject of deep-sea fishing quite beyond the scope of this work4 ,it is a fact that quite a large number of species1 the forms and habits of which are extremely interesting1 live exclusively on deep bottoms4 ,these should undoubtedly be studied by all who are interested in the various phases of marine life2 but unless the reader is prepared to practise sea fishing in all its branches--to put his trust in the restless sea1 supplied with all the necessary heavy gear1 and to risk those internal qualms that arise from the incessant swaying of the boat on open waters1 he should make arrangements with the professional deep-sea fisher--preferably a trawler--for the supply of those disreputable species that invariably form part of the haul1 while the better-known food fishes can always be obtained from dealers for purposes of study4 ,on one occasion we had a rather unique and very successful interview with a friendly trawler4 ,she was sailing slowly towards her station in a south-western fishing port1 while two of her crew were clearing her nets1 and throwing all refuse into the sea4 ,we rowed behind her in order to see the nature of the rejected portion of the haul1 and finding that it included specimens of interesting fishes of ill repute1 dead but perfectly fresh1 we followed her track1 and collected a few for future examination4 ,presently our movements were watched from aboard1 and we were invited to pull up to larboard1 where a short explanation as to our wants led to the acquisition of quite a variety of deep-sea life1 including several species of fishes not often seen on land1 crabs1 shelled and shell-less molluscs1 worms1 star-fishes1 and various lowly organised beings1 many alive and in good condition1 together with several good food fishes thrown in by way of sympathy4 ,there is no doubt that a naturalist can obtain much more deep-sea life with the aid of a friendly trawler than by any amount of #8fishing' with ordinary tackle from a boat2 and this without the necessity of going to sea at all1 if he will only take the opportunity of examining the nets as the boats are stranded on their return4 ,but now to return to our angling3--,we have to provide a light rod1 about ten feet long1 with a winch1 and a line of twisted silk or other thin but strong material2 also a light hand line1 and a supply of gut1 leads1 shot1 and hooks1 together with one or two small floats1 and a few bait boxes4 ,we do not1 as a rule1 recommend the amateur angler to use both rod and hand line at the same time1 for the attempt to do this leads to the neglect of both4 ,in the end it is not likely to lead to any gain1 so many fish being lost through the inability to strike at the moment a bite is given1 and so much time having to be devoted to the baiting of hooks rather than to the direct management of the lines4 ,in most cases the rod is much more convenient than the hand line4 ,the young collector will meet with the greatest variety of species in rocky and weedy places1 where abundant shelter exists for those fishes that prefer to keep well under cover1 and any attempt with a hand line in such spots will certainly lead to frequent loss of hooks1 and often of lead1 line1 and temper4 ,such a line must be reserved for fishing on sandy bottoms1 while the ten-foot rod recommended will enable the angler to do good work in the rockiest parts without much danger of fouling2 and1 in fact1 to fish anywhere along the coast4 ,the arrangement of hooks and lead must necessarily depend on the character of the place to be worked1 but in all cases we strongly recommend no such multiplicity of hooks as is made use of by fishermen and others who fish for food4 ,in their case the use of so many hooks often pays them well2 but1 as we have previously hinted1 the naturalist does not desire quantity of fish so much as variety of species4 ,further1 there is no necessity to make his work heavy and arduous4 ,his desire is not to spend an undue proportion of his time in baiting hooks1 but to have his line so under control that he is ready to strike at any moment1 and to be able to alter the conditions of his work as often as his ideas or the conditions change4 ,in rugged and weedy places the hooks must be kept free from rocks and weeds4 ,this may be done by letting down the rod line with a lead at the bottom1 and one or two hooks fastened to gut at such a level as to keep quite clear of weeds4 ,a much better arrangement1 and one which we ourselves almost invariably employ1 consists of a light lead1 as a rule not exceeding an ounce in weight1 fastened at the end of the line1 and below it a few feet of gut terminating in a single hook4 ,with such tackle it is of course necessary to determine previously the depth of the water1 in order to adjust the line to such a length that the hook keeps clear of rocks and weeds1 and a float may be used if desired4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,round ,,bend ,,hook ,,with ,,flattened ,,end ,we do not recommend a float for the general work of the marine collector1 for it is a decided advantage to be prepared to bring the bait to any level from bottom to surface1 especially when the water is so clear that the fish may be seen swimming1 in which case one is often impressed with the desire to capture a specimen in order to establish its identity1 and for such work as this a float is superfluous4 ,if1 however1 a float is used1 it should be a sliding one1 so that it may be adapted to the rising and falling of the tide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,limerick ,,hook1 ,,eyed ,of hooks there is a great variety to choose from1 differing in the form both of the curve and of the end of the shank4 ,as to the curve1 those with a decided twist are best adapted to our purpose1 chiefly on account of the fact that sea fishes generally have larger mouths than fresh-water species of the same size1 and are consequently better held with a twisted hook4 ,the shanks of sea hooks are either flattened or eyed1 and each is as good as the other providing the snood is firmly attached2 but some amateurs find a greater difficulty in attaching the snood to the former than to the latter4 ,gut snoods are recommended for our purpose1 and fig4 #bf shows one method by which they may be fastened to a flattened shank1 while fig4 #bg illustrates the figure-of-eight knot by means of which the eyed shank may be firmly secured4 ,the gut should be soaked for some hours in cold water previous to tying1 and it may be kept soft for some considerable time by giving it a few hours' immersion in a solution of glycerine--about one part of glycerine to four or five parts of water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,method ,,of ,,attaching ,,snood ,,to ,,flattened ,,hook ,small hooks will be most suitable for our purpose2 and if the reader finds any difficulty in attaching the snood firmly1 he may purchase suitable hooks ready mounted on gut1 though1 of course1 these are more expensive than the flattened or eyed hooks generally used for sea-fishing4 ,such small and fragile hooks may be occasionally snapped off by the run of a vigorous fish of moderate size1 therefore it is advisable to have a supply of larger hooks1 ready fixed on strong snoods1 to be used when it is found that the shore is frequented by larger fishes than those generally caught close to land4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,method ,,of ,,attaching ,,snood ,,to ,,eyed ,,hook ,when fishing with a rod and line from rocks1 or from piers1 the foundations of which are covered with large weeds1 the bait will frequently be carried by currents among the weeds and snapped off when endeavours are made to release the hook4 ,this will especially be the case when the hook is a few feet below the lead1 as we have already suggested it should be4 ,to reduce the frequency of such mishaps1 it will be a good plan to weight the gut below the lead by means of a few split shot4 ,in fact1 in sheltered places1 where the water is not disturbed1 these shot may take the place of the lead1 but little weight being necessary for rod fishing in such localities4 ,the amateur sea angler is often in great doubt as to the best bait to use2 and1 believing that a certain kind of bait is absolutely necessary for his work in some particular spot1 is often at a loss to obtain it4 ,this bait difficulty is evidently a prevailing one among amateur sea fishers1 if one may judge from the frequent questions asked as to the best or proper bait to use1 and from the very common #8,can you oblige me with a little bait8' ,this latter question1 we believe1 is frequently the outcome of carelessness or laziness on the part of the asker4 ,he has not the forethought1 born of enthusiasm1 that would lead him to procure a suitable bait1 at a convenient time1 previous to starting off on his angling expedition1 but rather depends on the possibility of being able to beg or otherwise secure sufficient for his purpose at the time2 yet there are so many good baits that are easily secured at the proper time and place that the enthusiastic angler need never be at a loss4 ,some of these may be collected by himself at low tide1 others may be obtained from local fishermen1 or from the tradesmen of the town or village4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,the ,,lugworm ,some anglers seldom collect their own bait1 either purchasing it or employing some one to collect it for them2 but we are of opinion that the pleasure of a day's fishing begins here1 and especially so when the angler is of the naturalist type1 for he will frequently learn more of the nature and habits of living creatures during one hour's bait-collecting than during three or four hours' angling4 ,it is true that the work in question is often a bit laborious1 particularly on a warm day1 and that it may be frequently described as dirty and odorous2 but what is that to one who is interested in his employment1 and who derives pleasure in doing his own work8 ,fishermen often use lugworms for bait1 and although these constitute one of the best baits for their own fishing1 they are not so suitable for the purposes of the amateur angler1 fishing with small hooks close to shore4 ,they may be dug out of the sand when the tide is out1 and are most abundant where the sand is mixed with mud4 ,a spade should be used1 and this should be thrust deep into the sand1 selecting those spots where the holes or burrows of the worms most abound4 ,lugworms should be used whole2 and being of large size1 are suitable for baiting large hooks only4 ,they may be kept alive in wet sand or sea-weed1 preferably the latter for convenience1 and stored till required in a wooden box4 ,ragworms also afford good bait1 and are particularly adapted for shore angling with small hooks4 ,almost all the fishes that frequent our shores take them readily1 but they are not to be found in all localities4 ,they are to be taken1 though not usually in large numbers1 on rocky shores where numerous stones lie among the somewhat muddy deposits of the more sheltered nooks1 where they may be seen on turning over the stones4 ,the best situation for ragworms1 however1 is the more or less odoriferous mud so frequently deposited in the estuaries of rivers and in landlocked harbours4 ,here they maybe dug out in enormous numbers with a spade1 attention being directed to those spots where their burrows are most numerous4 ,they are best stored with a little of the mud in a shallow wooden box provided with a sliding1 perforated lid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,the ,,ragworm ,failing a supply of the marine worms just mentioned1 the common earthworm may be used as a substitute1 but it is decidedly less attractive to the fishes2 and the same may be said of gentles--the larv or grubs of flies4 ,the latter may be bred in large numbers by simply placing a piece of liver in the soil with only a small portion exposed4 ,if this is done in the summer time1 hundreds of eggs will soon be deposited on it1 and in about a week or so it will be found to be a living mass of fat white grubs1 perhaps more useful to the fresh-water angler than to his marine counterpart4 ,among the so-called shell fish of the class mollusca1 mussels1 limpets1 cockles1 and whelks are all largely used for bait4 ,the last of these are too large for our purpose1 but form a splendid bait for deep-sea fishing1 while the other three1 and especially the mussels1 are well suited for shore work4 ,mussels1 in fact1 provide one of the best possible baits for almost all kinds of shore fishing1 the only drawback being the excessive softness of their bodies1 which enables them to be easily torn from the hook4 ,when small hooks are used1 mussels of a small size may be used whole1 or the larger ones may be divided into portions of suitable size2 and in any case it will be found a good plan to tie the bait to the hook with a short piece of cotton thread4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,,digging ,,for ,,bait ,mussels are not easily opened without injury1 and consequently some anglers give them a short immersion in hot water1 to kill the animal and thus cause the shell to gape4 ,as far as our own experience goes1 the value of the bait is not deteriorated by this treatment1 though some are of opinion that it is not so attractive after scalding4 ,mussels are opened1 when alive1 much in the same way as oysters1 but the valves of the shell fit together so closely that it seems at first almost impossible to insert a knife between them4 ,this1 however1 can be done with ease if one valve is first made to slide a little way over the other by pressing it with the thumb4 ,this being accomplished1 the two valves should not be separated by the mere force of the knife1 for this would tear the animal within1 and render it more or less unfit for its purpose2 but first direct the edge of the knife towards the adductor muscle1 by means of which the animal pulls its valves so firmly together1 and then cut through this close to the inner surface of the upper valve4 ,this valve can then be lifted without injury to the soft parts1 and the whole animal removed from the other valve by cutting through the same muscle close to it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,method ,,of ,,opening ,a ,,mussel ,between the two lobes of the mantle--the soft covering on both sides of the animal that previously lined the shell--will be seen a brown1 fleshy1 tongue-like body4 ,this is the #8foot' of the mussel4 ,the point of the hook should first be run through this1 and then from side to side through the mantle1 and finally through the adductor muscle previously described4 ,if this is carefully done1 there will be little fear of the bait becoming detached unless it is subjected to rough usage1 and still less if it is tied round the shank of the hook by means of a short piece of cotton thread4 ,it is probably superfluous to mention to the reader the fact that mussels are to be found on almost every rocky coast1 where they may be seen attached to the rocks by means of a bunch of silky fibres called the byssus2 and that1 failing this1 they are to be obtained from almost every fisherman and fish-dealer2 if1 however1 these molluscs are not to be obtained1 cockles may be used as a substitute1 though it will probably be found that they are appreciably inferior1 except when fishing for dabs and plaice on sandy shores1 in which case they are highly satisfactory4 ,cockles abound on most sandy coasts1 where they live a little below the surface2 and are usually obtained by means of an ordinary garden rake4 ,sometimes we meet with them in large numbers in the estuaries of rivers1 where they lie buried in the banks of mixed sand and mud that are left exposed at low tide4 ,limpets are extensively used for bait in some places1 especially by amateur anglers2 and often with good results4 ,they should always be removed from the rocks without injury1 and this is no easy matter to those who do not know how to deal with them4 ,if taken completely by surprise1 one sharp1 but light tap on the side of the conical shell will successfully detach them from their hold2 or they may be raised by means of the blade of a strong pocket-knife that has been thrust beneath the cone4 ,for our work small limpets will prove far more satisfactory than large ones1 and these may be used whole2 but if the limpets are too large for the hooks employed1 the soft1 upper part of the body only need be used4 ,it is not an easy matter to remove fresh limpets from their shells without destroying this soft portion of the animal1 but if placed for a minute or so in hot water they come out quite easily1 and are apparently none the less attractive as bait4 ,some fishermen on the ,cornish coast always collect the largest limpets for bait1 remove them from their shells by means of hot water1 and arrange them on the rocks to become partly dry4 ,when required for bait1 the soft parts only are used1 but these1 having been more or less hardened by the drying process1 hold much better on the hook than when fresh4 ,and now1 after mentioning the fact that land snails are occasionally used1 though1 we believe1 with no very considerable success1 for sea fishing1 we will note a few baits derived from the higher head-footed molluscs--the squid1 cuttle-fish1 c4 ,there are several species of these peculiar molluscs1 but the common squid and the common cuttle of our seas1 and especially the former1 is highly prized as bait4 ,it may be obtained from fishermen1 who frequently haul it in their nets2 but if supplied alive and fresh from the sea it must be handled very cautiously1 otherwise it may discharge the contents of its ink-bag over one with the most unpleasant results4 ,it is certainly best used while fresh1 though some suspend it until dry1 and then store it for future use1 in which case it will require soaking in water when required4 ,the thin tentacles or arms are very convenient for baiting small hooks1 though other parts of the body1 cut into narrow strips1 will serve the purpose of the angler equally well4 ,of the crustaceans1 shrimps and prawns1 and various species of crabs are used as bait4 ,shrimps and prawns are used whole for catching flat-fish1 but small pieces are better when fishing for smelt and other small species of fish that swim close to shore4 ,little pieces of the flesh of the crab are also well adapted for baiting hooks of small size1 and will prove very attractive to almost all kinds of fish4 ,small crabs1 however1 may be used whole1 but are of little use except when soft--that is1 just after the shedding of their shells1 and before the new skin has had time to harden4 ,such crabs may be found under stones and in other hiding-places at low tide1 for at such times they keep well secluded from their numerous enemies by whom they are greedily devoured while in this helpless and unprotected condition4 ,the hermit-crab1 which selects the empty shell of a whelk or winkle for its home1 is probably well known to our readers4 ,the protection afforded by such a home is absolutely necessary to its existence1 since its abdomen has no other covering than a soft1 membranous skin4 ,this soft abdomen is frequently used as a bait with great success1 as well as the flesh of the larger claws4 ,if the shell from which the hermit-crab is taken be broken1 a worm1 something of the nature of the common ragworm1 will almost always be found1 and this also is very serviceable as bait4 ,in addition to all the baits previously named there are several other good ones1 many of which are to be obtained almost everywhere4 ,among these may be mentioned strips cut from the mackerel1 herring1 or pilchard1 preferably with a portion of the silvery skin attached2 also thin strips of tripe4 ,sand-eels1 which may be dug out of the sand near the water's edge1 are very useful1 and may be cut into pieces for baiting small hooks4 ,further1 a large number of artificial baits are employed in various kinds of sea fishing1 but as these are not essential for the work we have in hand we do not propose describing them in detail4 ,now let us suppose that we are about to try our luck at sea angling1 on some rocky coast1 such as that of ,devon and ,cornwall1 our object being to determine1 as far as possible1 what species of fishes frequent the immediate neighbourhood of the shore4 ,and this is not all2 for1 when fishing with rod and line on such a coast1 it frequently happens that we land some species of crab that has been attracted to our bait4 ,the ordinary angler would regard such crab as an intruder1 and1 we are sorry to say1 would often consider it his duty to crush the unfortunate crustacean beneath his foot4 ,but it is far different with the naturalist4 ,he favourably regards all creatures from which something may be learnt1 and is as anxious1 as a rule1 to gather information concerning the habitats of one class as of another4 ,in fact1 we may go still further1 and combine crab fishing with ordinary angling1 both in one and the same expedition1 by letting a small crab-pot down into deep water among the rocks1 and allowing it to remain while the angling is proceeding4 ,we select a spot where there are several feet of water close to a perpendicular rock1 varied and broken by numerous holes and crevices1 in which various species of fishes and crustaceans habitually hide4 ,such a situation is an ideal one for a young naturalist1 for not only does he obtain the greatest variety of species here1 but the takings will surely include some of those remarkably interesting rock-dwelling fishes that differ from our ordinary food fishes in so many points of structure1 all of which1 however1 display some interesting adaptation to the habits and habitats of the species concerned4 ,our apparatus consists of nothing more than rod and line1 one or two small leads1 a supply of hooks on gut snoods1 a box of bait1 and a waterproof bag in which to pack the specimens we desire to preserve4 ,we first determine the depth of the water by means of a lead on the end of the line1 and then tie the hook on the end with a small lead a few feet above it1 and fish in such a manner that the hook is just on the bottom1 or1 if the bottom is covered with weeds1 the hook should be kept just clear of fouling them4 ,the peculiar rock fishes so common on such a coast as this on which we are engaged need special treatment at the hands of the angler4 ,they hide in their holes1 watching for the unwary creatures on which they feed1 and1 pouncing upon them suddenly1 rush back to their snug little nooks in which they can secure themselves firmly by means of the sharp1 hard spines with which their bodies are furnished4 ,when these fishes seize the bait offered them--and they are not at all fastidious in the choice of their viands--they should be hooked and pulled up with one vigorous sweep of the rod1 or they will dart into their homes1 from which it is almost impossible to dislodge them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,,fishing ,,from ,,the ,,rocks ,in addition to these1 there will be various other species that require gentler treatment1 and may be hooked and landed much in the same manner as fresh-water fishes1 since they are free swimmers1 usually keeping well clear of the rocks and weeds4 ,if the day is calm1 and the water clear1 the sea angler will often be able to watch various fishes as they swim1 and to bring the bait gently within their reach2 and here we find the advantage of the rod as compared with the hand line4 ,sometimes quite a shoal of small fishes may be seen sporting near the surface1 and1 as a rule1 there will be no difficulty in obtaining one for identification and study4 ,these are generally best secured by means of small hooks1 with but very little bait1 and will often bite freely at the tiniest fragment of worm on an almost naked hook4 ,after the water has been searched at all depths1 it will be well to allow the bait to rest quite on the bottom1 even at the risk of losing a hook or two in the weeds and rocks4 ,this may enable one to take some fresh species of fish or to secure a crustacean or other creature that is not often found between the tide-marks4 ,care should be always taken1 however1 to keep the hook well clear of the weeds that grow on the sides of the rock1 and sway to and fro with every movement of the restless waters4 ,angling from piers may be pursued much in the same manner as described above in those places where the bottom is rocky1 but since the chances of hooking large fish are greater here than close to shore1 it is necessary to be provided with stronger tackle and larger hooks4 ,if1 however1 the bottom is sandy1 the rod tackle may be modified by placing the lead at the bottom1 and arranging two or three hooks above it1 about one or two feet apart1 the lowest one being near the lead4 ,with such an arrangement the line may be cast some distance out1 but for angling close to the pier itself there is1 perhaps1 nothing better than the single-hook arrangement suggested above1 for with this one may fish on the bottom and at all depths without any alteration in the tackle being necessary4 ,if1 however1 the rod line is to be cast as suggested above1 or if a hand line is to be similarly used1 the following hints may be useful as regards the arrangement of hooks and lead4 ,the line itself may be of twisted silk or hemp1 terminated with about a yard of strong gut4 ,the lead1 preferably of a conical or pear-shaped form1 should be placed at the extreme end1 and its weight regulated according to the necessities of the occasion4 ,a few ounces of lead are quite sufficient where there are no strong currents1 but it is well to be supplied with larger sizes1 to be substituted if circumstances require it4 ,two hooks will be ample4 ,one of these should be only a few inches from the lead1 and the other about eighteen or twenty inches higher4 ,the whole arrangement1 known as a ,paternoster1 is represented in fig4 #cc1 in which the method of fixing the lead and the hook links is also illustrated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,the ,,paternoster ,it will be seen that a swivel has been introduced in connection with the bottom hook1 the object being to show the manner in which this useful piece of tackle is fitted4 ,it must not be supposed1 however1 that swivels are always necessary4 ,it is often useful to insert a swivel on the line itself1 above the ,paternoster1 when it is of twisted material1 in order to prevent it from kinking2 but its use is more frequently serviceable on the hook links1 especially when fishing where the currents are strong4 ,when the bait used is one that presents two flat surfaces to the water1 as would be the case with a strip of mackerel1 a strong current will set it spinning round and round1 thus causing the hook link to kink if it has not been fitted with a swivel1 and the same effect is often produced by the spinning of a fish on the hook4 ,the employment of a suitable ground bait will often make a wonderful difference in the angler's haul4 ,it frequently attracts large numbers1 keeping them near at hand for some considerable time1 and apparently sharpens their appetite4 ,it may be often observed1 too1 that a fish will bite freely at the angler's bait when in the neighbourhood of the ground bait1 while the former is viewed with suspicion in the absence of the latter4 ,when fishing on the bottom only1 the ground bait should be weighted if it is of such a nature that it does not sink readily or if it is liable to be carried away by currents2 but it will often be found more convenient to secure it on the end of a string1 tied up in a muslin bag if necessary1 so that it may be adjusted to any desired depth4 ,among the attractive viands suitable for this purpose we may mention mussels1 crushed crabs1 pounded liver1 the guts of any oily fish1 and the offal of almost any animal4 ,along the east coast1 and in some of the sandy bays of ,devon and ,cornwall1 fishing from the beach is practised1 but we can hardly recommend this as of much value to the amateur whose object is to obtain as great a variety as possible of fishes for study4 ,some good food fishes are often caught by this means1 but the methods employed are often very primitive1 and would lack all interest to those who love good sport4 ,on the east coast a long line1 fitted with many hooks1 is slung out as far as possible by means of a pole1 and the home end either held in the hand of the fisher or fastened to the top of a flexible stick driven into the sand4 ,the latter plan becomes necessary when more than one line is owned by the same individual1 and he is made aware of the bite of a large fish--and a large fish only1 since the hooks are placed beyond a heavy lead--by the bending of the stick4 ,the naturalist1 however1 is as much interested in the small fish as the large ones1 and1 even for beach fishing1 a rod and line1 fitted with one or two hooks only1 and a lead no heavier than is absolutely essential1 will be preferable4 ,a little practice will of course be necessary in order that one may become expert in the casting of the rod line1 but with large rings on the rod1 and a reel without a check1 or a check that can be thrown off when desired1 the necessary proficiency in casting ought to be acquired without much difficulty4 ,in some of the sandy bays of the south-west1 long lines with a heavy lead at both ends and baited hooks at short intervals throughout the whole length1 are placed on the sand at low tide close to the water's edge1 and left unwatched until the next tide is out4 ,as far as our observations go this primitive mode of fishing is usually anything but successful1 the receding of the tide generally revealing a long row of clean hooks1 with1 perhaps1 one or two dead or half-dead fish2 and it is probable that most of the bait is devoured by crabs and other crustaceans before the water becomes sufficiently deep to allow the desired fishes to reach it4 ,there is one other method of fishing on which we may make a few remarks1 although it hardly comes under the heading of shore fishing4 ,we refer to a method of catching surface fishes from a moving boat1 which method is known as whiffing4 ,the line is weighted with a lead which must be regulated according to the speed of the boat4 ,if the boat is an ordinary rowing-boat1 kept going at only a moderate speed1 a few ounces of lead will be sufficient1 but a whiffing line trailing behind a sailing boat travelling in a good breeze will require a pound or two of lead to keep the bait only a little below the surface4 ,beyond the lead we have three or four yards of gimp or strong gut1 at the end of which is a single hook fitted with a spinner1 or baited with some attractive natural or artificial bait4 ,whatever be the bait used1 there will certainly be more or less spinning caused by the resistance offered by the water1 hence it will be necessary to have a swivel beyond the lead4 ,when whiffing near the shore1 care must be taken to avoid outlying rocks that approach the surface of the water1 or a sudden snapping of the line will give you an unwelcome warning of their existence4 ,further1 we should note that the fishes which are to be caught when whiffing do not always swim at the same depth1 thus it will be advisable to fish at different distances from the surface by varying either the weight of the lead or the speed of the boat4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,marine ,,aquarium ,we have already advised our readers to take home their specimens alive for the purpose of studying their growth and habits4 ,now1 although there may be some difficulties in the way of keeping marine animals and plants alive for any considerable time1 yet we are inclined to emphasise the importance of this matter1 knowing that the pleasure and instruction that may be obtained from even a moderately successful attempt to carry this out will far more than compensate for the amount of trouble entailed4 ,there are very many marine objects that are exceedingly pretty and also very instructive1 even when studied apart from the life with which they were associated in the sea4 ,thus1 a well-preserved sea-weed may retain much of its original beauty of form and colour1 the shells of numerous molluscs and crustaceans exhibit a most interesting variety of features well worthy of study1 and a number of the soft-bodied animals may be preserved in such a manner as to closely resemble their living forms4 ,this being the case1 we can hardly say anything to discourage those who gather sea-side objects merely for the purpose of making a collection of pretty and interesting things to be observed and admired4 ,such objects must necessarily afford much pleasure and instruction1 and the time spent in the collection and preparation will certainly cause the collector to stray to the haunts of the living things1 where he is certain to acquire1 though it may be to a great extent unconsciously1 a certain amount of knowledge concerning their habits and mode of life4 ,moreover1 sea-side collecting is one of the most healthy and invigorating of all out-door occupations1 and for this reason alone should be encouraged4 ,yet it must be observed that he whose sea-side occupation is merely that of a collector1 and whose work at home is simply the mounting and arranging of the objects obtained1 can hardly be considered a naturalist4 ,natural history is a living study1 and its devotee is one who delights in observing the growth and development of living things1 watching their habits1 and noting their wonderful adaptation to their environments2 and it is to encourage such observation that we so strongly recommend the young collector to keep his creatures alive as far as it is possible to do so4 ,the first thing to settle1 then1 is the nature of the vessel or vessels that are to serve the purpose of aquaria for the work of the young naturalist4 ,as long as the outdoor work is in progress temporary aquaria will be very useful as a means by which the objects collected may be sorted and stored until a final selection is made for the permanent tank4 ,these temporary aquaria may consist of jars or earthenware pans of any kind1 each containing a few small tufts of weed1 preferably attached to pieces of rock1 and a layer of sand or gravel from the beach4 ,as such temporary aquaria will1 as a rule1 be within a convenient distance from the sea-side where the collecting is being done1 there will be1 we presume1 no great difficulty in the way of obtaining the frequent changes of water necessary to keep the animals and plants in a healthy condition1 so that we need do no more now than urge the importance of avoiding overcrowding1 and of renewing the water frequently for the purpose of supplying the air required for the respiration of the inmates4 ,when it is desired to isolate small species in such a manner that their movements may be conveniently observed1 glass jars answer well2 but whatever be the form or size of the vessels used1 care must be taken to avoid excess of both light and heat4 ,they should be kept in a cool place1 quite out of the way of direct sunshine1 and the glass vessels used should be provided with a movable casing of brown paper to exclude all light except that which penetrates from above4 ,even temporary aquaria1 used merely for the purpose suggested above1 should be carefully watched1 for a single day's neglect will sometimes result in the loss of several valuable captives4 ,a dead animal should be removed as soon as it is discovered to avoid the unpleasant results arising from the putrefaction of its body4 ,the appearance of a scum or film on the surface of the water should always be regarded with suspicion4 ,such a scum should be removed with the aid of absorbent paper1 since it tends to prevent the absorption of oxygen from the air2 and1 should the water be tainted in the slightest degree1 it should be changed at once1 or1 if this is not practicable1 air should be driven into it for some time by means of a syringe with a very fine nozzle4 ,such precautions1 however1 are not so urgently needed when the aquarium contains crustaceans only1 for the majority of these creatures suffer less than others in the tainted sea water1 some even being apparently quite as comfortable in this as in a supply fresh from the sea4 ,sea-weeds exhibiting the slightest tendency to decay must be removed at once2 and1 as regards the feeding of the animals1 one must be careful to introduce only as much food as is required for immediate use1 so that there be no excess of dead organic matter left to putrefy4 ,some of the marine animals obtained from our shores feed entirely on the minute and invisible organisms that are always present in the sea water1 and others subsist principally on certain of the weeds4 ,many1 however1 of a more predaceous disposition1 capture and devour living prey1 while some1 and more especially the crustaceans1 are partial to carrion4 ,if1 therefore1 the observer desires to study the ways in which the various creatures secure and devour their food1 he should introduce into his aquaria live marine worms and other small animals1 and also small pieces of fish or flesh4 ,we will now pass on to the more serious undertaking of the construction and management of a permanent salt-water aquarium4 ,the first point to decide is1 perhaps1 the size of the proposed vessel1 and this will in many cases be determined partly by a consideration of the space at one's disposal1 and of the apartment it is intended to occupy4 ,if it is to be placed in a drawing-room or other ordinary apartment of a dwelling-house1 preference should be given to a window facing the north in order to avoid the direct rays of the sun1 but perhaps no situation is more suitable than a cool conservatory in the shady part of a garden2 and in either case a strong table or other support should be provided1 of a form and size adapted to those of the aquarium to be constructed4 ,various materials may be used in the construction of such an indoor aquarium1 and we shall deal with two or three different types1 so that the reader may make his selection according to his fancy1 or to his mechanical ability1 if he intends that it shall be of his own construction4 ,we will begin with an aquarium constructed entirely of a mixture of cement and fine sand1 this being the most inexpensive and certainly the easiest to make2 and although it may not be regarded as the most ornamental--but opinions will differ on this point--yet it has the decided advantage of being the nearest approach to the natural rock pool4 ,though somewhat heavy and cumbersome1 even when empty1 the amount of material used in its construction may be varied according to the taste and convenience of the maker4 ,further1 this form of aquarium is one that will readily admit of structural alterations at any future period4 ,it may be deepened at any time2 lateral additions or extensions may be made1 or a portion may at any time be shut off for the purpose of isolating certain of the animals procured4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,section ,,of ,,an ,,aquarium ,,constructed ,,with ,a ,,mixture ,,of ,,cement ,,and ,,sand ,the first thing to do is to prepare a flat1 strong slab of hard wood or stone1 the exact shape and size of the desired artificial pool1 and then cover this1 if of wood1 with a mixture of fine sand and cement1 mixed to a convenient consistency with water1 to the depth of about one inch4 ,the banks or walls of the pool must then be built up on all sides1 and this is best done by the gradual addition of soft pellets of cement1 applied in such a manner as to produce an irregular surface4 ,unless the walls of the aquarium be very thick and massive the cement will soon show a tendency to fall from its place as the height increases1 but this may be avoided by doing the work in instalments1 allowing each portion to set before further additions are made to the structure4 ,since some marine animals like to occupy snug and shady niches in deep water while others prefer full exposure to the light in shallows1 arrangements should be made for all by varying the depth of the bed1 and providing several little tunnels and caverns4 ,this may be accomplished either by working the cement itself into suitable form1 or by means of piled stones obtained from the sea beach2 and if the latter plan is adopted1 the stones should not be obtained until the aquarium is quite ready for its living contents2 for then a selection of stones and rock fragments with weeds1 anemones1 sponges1 and other fixed forms of life attached to them1 may be made4 ,the natural appearance of a rock pool is thus more nearly approached1 and in a shorter time than if the sedentary life were required to develop on an artificial ground4 ,objection may be raised to the form of aquarium just described on the ground that no life within it is visible except when viewed from above4 ,but is not this also the case with a rock pool on the sea shore8 ,and has any admirer of nature ever been heard to complain of the beauties of such a pool because he was unable to look at them through the sides8 ,further1 it may be urged that the inmates of our aquarium will be living under more natural conditions than those of the more popular glass-sided aquaria1 because they receive light from above only4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,,cement ,,aquarium ,,with ,a ,,glass ,,plate ,,in ,,front ,however1 should the reader require a glass front to his cement tank1 the matter is easily accomplished4 ,three sides are built up as before described4 ,a sheet of thick glass--plate glass by preference--is then cut to the size and shape of the remaining space1 and this is fixed by means of cement pressed well against its edges1 both inside and outside4 ,water should not be put into the tank until it is quite dry2 and1 if one side is made of glass1 not until the cement surrounding the edge of the glass has been liberally painted with marine glue1 hot pitch1 or some other suitable waterproof material4 ,if any pipes are required in connection with the water supply of the aquarium1 according to either of the suggestions in a later portion of this chapter1 such pipes may be fixed in their proper places as the cement sides are being built up4 ,the next type of aquarium we have to describe is of low cost as far as the materials are concerned1 and one that may be made by any one who has had a little experience in woodwork2 and although the tank itself is of a simple rectangular form1 yet it may be made to look very pretty with a suitable adjustment of rocks and weeds4 ,it consists of a rectangular box1 the bottom1 ends1 and back of which are of hard wood1 firmly dovetailed together1 and the front of plate glass let into grooves in the bottom and ends4 ,all the joints and grooves are caulked with marine glue1 but no paint should be used in the interior4 ,this form of tank may be vastly improved by the substitution of slabs of slate for the wood1 though1 of course1 this change entails a much greater expenditure of both time and cash2 but supposing the work to be well done1 the result is everything that could be desired as far as strength and durability are concerned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,,aquarium ,,of ,,wood ,,with ,,glass ,,front ,in either of the rectangular tanks just described glass may be used for two sides instead of one only2 and since this is not a matter of very great importance1 the choice may well be left to the fancy of the one who constructs it4 ,some prefer an aquarium with glass on all sides1 and where this is the case the framework may be made of angle zinc with all the joints strongly soldered4 ,such an aquarium may be made in the form of any regular polygon1 for it is no more difficult to construct one of six or eight sides than of four4 ,it is more difficult1 however1 to make such an aquarium perfectly watertight1 for the glass1 instead of being in grooves1 has to be securely fastened to the metal frame by means of a cement on one side only1 and this cement has to serve the double purpose of holding the glass and keeping in the water4 ,various mixtures have been suggested for this purpose1 and among them the following are perfectly satisfactory3-- #a4 ,litharge #b parts ,fine sand #b ,plaster of ,paris #b ,powdered resin #a part ,mix into a very thick paste with boiled linseed oil and a little driers4 #b4 ,red lead #c parts ,fine sand #c 0 ,powdered resin #a part ,mix with boiled linseed oil as above4 ,both these cements should be applied very liberally1 and the aquarium then allowed to remain quite undisturbed for at least two weeks before any water is introduced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,,hexagonal ,,aquarium ,,constructed ,,of ,,angle ,,zinc1 ,,with ,,glass ,,sides ,when ready for the water1 the bottom of the aquarium should be covered with a moderately thick layer of fine sand from the sea shore1 and stones then piled in such a manner as to form little tunnels and caves to serve as hiding-places for those creatures that prefer to be under cover4 ,as to the selection of stones1 we have already suggested that some may have weeds rooted to them1 and that pieces of rock with anemones1 sponges1 and other forms of life attached may be chipped off4 ,further1 on many of our rocky coasts we may find1 near low-water mark1 a number of stones covered with a layer of vegetable growth1 amongst which many small animals live1 often more or less concealed by their protective colouring4 ,some of these stones placed on the bed of the salt-water aquarium would add greatly to the natural appearance1 as well as give greater variety to the living objects4 ,shells bearing the calcareous1 snakelike tubes of the common serpula 7p4 #aba71 preferably with the living animals enclosed1 will also enhance the general appearance and interest of the aquarium4 ,in making preparations previous to the introduction of animal life1 due regard should be paid to the peculiar requirements of the creatures it is intended to obtain4 ,we have already referred to the advisability of arranging the bed of the tank in such a manner that the water may vary considerably in depth1 so that both deep and shallow water may be found by the animals as required1 and to the provision of dark holes for crustaceans and other creatures that shun the light4 ,very fine sand should be provided for shrimps1 prawns1 and other animals that like to lie on it2 and this sand must be deep in places if it is intended to introduce any of the burrowing molluscs and marine worms4 ,the water used may be taken from the sea or be artificially prepared4 ,the former is certainly to be preferred whenever it can be conveniently obtained1 and at the present time few will find much difficulty in securing a supply1 for not only are we favoured with the means of obtaining any desired quantity by rail at a cheap rate from almost any seaport1 but there are companies in various ports who undertake the supply of sea water to any part of the kingdom4 ,if the water is to be conveyed from the coast without the aid of the regular dealers in this commodity1 great care must be taken to see that the barrel or other receptacle used for the purpose is perfectly clean4 ,nothing is more convenient than an ordinary beer or wine barrel1 but it should be previously cleansed by filling it several times with water--not necessarily sea water--and allowing each refill to remain in it some time before emptying4 ,this must be repeated as long as the water shows the slightest colouration after standing for some time in the barrel4 ,should any difficulty arise in the way of getting the salt water direct from the sea1 it may be made artificially by dissolving #8sea salt' in the proper proportion of fresh water1 or even by purchasing the different salts contained in the sea separately1 and then adding them to fresh water in proportionate quantities4 ,the composition of sea water is as follows3-- ,water #ifdg per cent4 ,sodium chloride #bgj 0 ,magnesium chloride #cf 0 ,magnesium sulphate 7,epsom salts7 #bc 0 ,calcium sulphate #ad 0 ,potassium chloride #jg 0 ,traces of other substances #jc 0 #ajjjj and it will be seen from this table that artificial sea water may be made by adding about three and a half pounds of sea salt1 obtained from the sea by the simple process of evaporation1 to every ninety-six and a half pounds of fresh water used4 ,in making it there may be some difficulty in determining the weight of the large volume of water required to fill an aquarium of moderate dimensions1 but this will probably disappear if it be remembered that one gallon of water weighs just ten pounds1 and1 therefore1 one pint weighs twenty ounces4 ,if the sea salt cannot be readily obtained1 the following mixture may be made1 the different salts being purchased separately3-- ,water #if-a_/b lbs4 ,sodium chloride 7common salt7 #dc-a_/d ozs4 ,magnesium chloride #e-c_/d 0 ,epsom salts #c-c_/d 0 ,powdered gypsum 7calcium sulphate7 #b-a_/d 0 ,although in this mixture the substances contained in the sea in very small quantities have been entirely omitted1 yet it will answer its purpose apparently as well as the artificial sea water prepared from the true sea salt1 and may therefore be used whenever neither sea salt nor the natural sea water is procurable4 ,assuming1 now1 that the aquarium has been filled with sea water1 it remains to introduce the animal and vegetable life for which it is intended2 and here it will be necessary to say something with regard to the amount of life that may be safely installed1 and the main conditions that determine the proportion in which the animal and vegetable life should be present in order to insure the greatest success4 ,concerning the first of these we must caution the reader against the common error of overcrowding the aquarium with animals4 ,it must be remembered that almost all marine animals obtain the oxygen gas required for purposes of respiration from the air dissolved in the water4 ,now1 atmospheric air is only very slightly soluble in water1 and hence we can never have an abundant supply in the water of an aquarium at any one time4 ,if a number of animals be placed in any ordinary indoor aquarium1 they very soon use up the dissolved oxygen2 and1 if no means have been taken to replace the loss1 the animals die1 and their dead bodies soon begin to putrefy and saturate the water with the poisonous products of decomposition4 ,it is probably well known to the reader that a large proportion of the oxygen absorbed by the respiratory organs of animals is converted by combination of carbon into carbonic acid gas within their bodies1 and that this gas is given back into the water where it dissolves1 thus taking the place of the oxygen used in its formation4 ,if1 then1 an aquarium of any kind is to be a success1 some means must be taken to keep the water constantly supplied with fresh oxygen quite as rapidly as it is consumed1 and this can be done satisfactorily by the introduction of a proportionate quantity of suitable living weeds1 providing there is not too much animal life present4 ,the majority of living plants require carbonic acid gas as a food1 and1 under the influence of light1 decompose this gas1 liberating the oxygen it contained4 ,this is true of many of our common sea-weeds1 and thus it is possible to establish in a salt-water aquarium such a balance of animal and vegetable life that the water is maintained in its normal condition1 the carbonic acid gas being absorbed by the plants as fast as it is excreted by animals1 and oxygen supplied by the plants as rapidly as it is consumed by the animals4 ,this condition1 however1 is more difficult to obtain in a salt-water aquarium than in one containing fresh-water life1 partly because1 generally speaking1 the sea-weeds do not supply oxygen to the water as rapidly as do the plants of our ponds and streams1 and partly because of the difficulties attending the successful growth of sea-weeds in artificial aquaria4 ,thus it is usually necessary to adopt some means of mechanically arating the water2 but1 for the present1 we shall consider the sea-weeds only1 leaving the mechanical methods of arating the water for a later portion of this chapter4 ,in the first place1 let us advise the amateur to confine his attention to the smaller species of weeds that are commonly found in small and shallow rock pools1 for the successful growth of the larger purple and olive weeds will probably be beyond his power1 even though his tank be one of considerable capacity4 ,the best plan is that we have already suggested--namely1 to chip off small pieces of rock with tufts of weed attached1 and to fix them amongst the rockery of the aquarium1 being careful to place those that grew in shallow water with full exposure to the light1 and those which occupied sheltered and shady places in the rock pool1 respectively1 in similar situations in the artificial pool4 ,for the purposes of aration we have to rely principally on the bright green weeds1 and preference should be given to any of these that exhibit1 in their natural habitat1 a multitude of minute air-bubbles on the surface of their fronds1 for the bubbles consist principally of oxygen that is being liberated by the plant1 and denote that the species in question are those that are most valuable for maintaining the desired condition of the water in an aquarium4 ,any small sea-weed may be tried at first1 but experience will soon show that some are much more easily kept alive than others4 ,in this experimental stage1 however1 a constant watch should be maintained for the purpose of detecting signs of decay in the marine garden4 ,a plant should always be removed as soon as it presents any change from the natural colour1 or exhibits the smallest amount of slimy growths on the surface1 for decomposing plants1 as well as decaying animals1 will soon convert an aquarium into a vessel of putrid and poisonous water4 ,it seems almost unnecessary to name a selection of sea-weeds for small aquaria1 seeing that our rock pools produce so many extremely beautiful species1 most of which may be successfully kept alive in a well-managed tank2 but the common ,sea ,grass 7,enteromorpha compressa71 and the ,sea ,lettuce 7,ulva latissima71 also known locally as the ,green ,laver or ,sloke1 are particularly useful for the aration of the water2 while the ,common ,coralline 7,corallina officinalis71 the ,dulse 7,schizymenia edulis71 the ,peacock's tail 7,padina pavonia71 the ,irish or ,carrageen ,moss 7,chondrus crispus71 ,callithamnion1 ,griffithsia setacea1 ,plocamium plumosium1 ,rhodymenia palmata1 ,rhodophyllis bifida1 and ,ceramium rubrum are all beautiful plants that ought to give no trouble to the aquarium-keeper4 ,it is not advisable to introduce animal life into the aquarium immediately it is filled1 on account of the possibility of the water being contaminated by contact with the cement that has been used to make it water-tight4 ,it is safer to allow the first water to stand for a few weeks1 the weeds and all other objects being in situ1 and the necessary means employed for perfect aration during this interval1 and then1 immediately before the animals are placed in their new home1 to syphon off the whole of the water1 and refill with a fresh supply4 ,in the selection of animals due regard should be paid to two important points--first1 the danger of overcrowding1 and1 secondly1 the destructive habits of some of the more predaceous species4 ,no more than two or three animals should1 as a rule1 be reckoned for each gallon of water2 and the proportion of animals should be even less than this when any of them are of considerable size4 ,as regards the destructive species1 these are intended to include both those that are voracious vegetable feeders and also those whose habit it is to kill and prey on other creatures4 ,it must be understood that the weeds are to serve two distinct purposes3--,they are to supply at least some of the oxygen required for the respiration of the animal inmates1 and also to serve as food for them4 ,some marine fishes and molluscs feed on the fronds of the weeds1 and among these the common periwinkle may be mentioned as one of the most voracious4 ,if many such animals are housed in the aquarium1 it will be necessary to replace at intervals those species of weeds that suffer most from their ravages4 ,the zoospores thrown off by the weeds1 particularly in the autumn1 are also valuable as food for some of the animals4 ,notwithstanding the destructive character of the periwinkle just referred to1 it has one redeeming feature1 for it is certainly useful in the aquarium as a scavenger1 as it greedily devours the low forms of vegetable life that cover the glass and rocks1 thus helping to keep them clean2 and the same is true of the common limpet and other creeping molluscs4 ,some of these are even more to be valued on account of their partiality for decaying vegetable matter1 by devouring which they reduce the amount of the products of decomposition passing into the water4 ,other details concerning the selection of animal and vegetable life for the indoor aquarium must be left to the discretion and experience of the keeper1 for it is impossible by written instructions and advice to cover all the various sources of loss and trouble that may from time to time arise4 ,if1 however1 the general hints for the management of the marine aquarium here given be faithfully followed1 there ought to be no further losses than must accrue from the injudicious selection of animal species1 and these will decrease as experience has been acquired respecting the habits of the creatures introduced4 ,we must now pass on to matters pertaining to the maintenance of the healthy condition of an aquarium which1 we will suppose1 has been established with due regard to scientific principles4 ,under this head we shall consider1 7#a7 the aration of the water1 7#b7 the repair of loss due to evaporation1 and 7#c7 the regulation of light and temperature4 ,it has already been shown that the marine aquarium can hardly be maintained in a satisfactory condition as regards its air supply by leaving the aration of the water entirely to the action of plant life2 and herein this form of aquarium differs from that employed for the animal and vegetable life derived from ponds and streams4 ,fresh-water weeds develop and multiply with such rapidity1 and are such ready generators of oxygen gas that it is a very easy matter to establish a fresh-water aquarium that will remain in good condition for years with but little attention2 it is therefore important that we should point out the difference in treatment necessary to those of our readers who are already acquainted with the comparative ease with which the fresh-water aquarium may be kept in good order1 lest they expect the same self-arating condition in the marine tank4 ,it is never a good plan to leave the renovation of the water of the aquarium until there are visible signs within that something is going wrong4 ,it is true that an unsatisfactory condition of the water1 revealed by a slight taint in the odour1 or a general turbidity1 or the formation of a slight scum on the surface1 may sometimes be rectified by the prompt application of some method of artificial aration1 but the aim of the aquarium-keeper should be not the rectification of unsatisfactory conditions1 but the establishment of such a method of aration that the unsatisfactory condition becomes an impossibility4 ,we do not wish to discourage anyone who has the slightest desire to start a marine aquarium4 ,our aim is to point out any difficulties that lie in the way in order that the aquarium may be a success2 and thus1 having stated that the difficulties attending it are somewhat greater than those connected with the management of a fresh-water aquarium1 we should like to add that these practically disappear when one is prepared to devote a short time at regular intervals in order to see that the process of aration is properly carried out4 ,some recommend the occasional injection of air by a syringe as one means of arating the water2 but1 although this may be all very well as a temporary purifier of the slightly tainted aquarium1 it is hardly suitable as a means of maintaining a good1 healthy condition4 ,it must be remembered that oxygen gas--the gas of the atmosphere so essential to animal life--is only very slightly soluble in water4 ,by this we mean not only that water dissolves oxygen very slowly1 but also that it can never hold a large supply of the gas at any one time4 ,this being the case1 it is clear that the use of a syringe for a short time1 though it discharges an enormous total volume of air into the water1 will result in the actual solution of only a small quantity4 ,no method of aration is perfect that allows the admission of air for a short time only at comparatively long intervals2 the most perfect system is that in which air is slowly but continuously passed into solution4 ,since air is slightly soluble in water1 it is clear that it must be continuously passing into any body of water that has its surface freely exposed to it2 hence a wide and shallow aquarium is much more likely to keep in good order than one that is narrower and deeper4 ,but1 with marine aquaria1 the simple absorption from the air at the surface is not in itself sufficient1 as a rule1 to maintain a healthy condition4 ,yet it will be advisable to remember this matter when constructing a tank for marine life4 ,one of the prettiest1 and certainly one of the most effectual1 methods of supplying air to an aquarium is by means of a small fountain with a very fine spray4 ,the water need seldom be changed1 but the fountain may be fed by water from the aquarium1 and as the fine spray passes through the air it will absorb oxygen and carry it in solution to the tank4 ,the accompanying diagram illustrates the manner in which this can be accomplished4 ,the aquarium 7,a7 is supplied with an outlet 7,o7 about an inch from the top by means of which the water is prevented from overflowing1 and the outlet pipe leads to a vessel 7,v7 of considerable capacity which1 for the sake of convenience and appearance1 may be concealed beneath the table on which the aquarium stands4 ,some feet above the level of the aquarium is another vessel 7,c71 supported on a shelf1 having about the same capacity as ,v1 and supplied with a small compo pipe that passes down into the aquarium1 and then1 hidden as much as possible by the rockery1 terminates in a very fine jet just above the level of the water in the centre4 ,the upper vessel should also be provided at the top with a loose covering of muslin to serve as a strainer1 and this should be replaced at intervals as it becomes clogged with sedimentary matter4 ,in order that this arrangement may give perfect satisfaction the two vessels 7,c and ,v7 must each be of at least half the capacity of the aquarium itself1 and the total quantity of salt water sufficient to fill the aquarium together with one of them4 ,it should also be remembered that since the pressure of water depends not on its quantity1 but on its height measured perpendicularly1 it follows that the height to which the fountain will play is determined by the height of the vessel ,c above the level of the jet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,,method ,,of ,a,,rating ,,the ,,water ,,of ,,an ,,aquarium ,a1 aquarium with fountain2 ,c1 cistern to supply the fountain2 ,o1 pipe for overflow2 ,v1 vessel for overflow ,let us now suppose that the aquarium and the upper vessel have both been filled with sea water4 ,the fine jet from the pipe plays into the air and returns with a supply of oxygen to the aquarium1 while the excess above the level of ,o passes into the concealed vessel below the table4 ,if the two vessels are as large as we recommend1 and the jet a very fine one1 the fountain may continue to play for hours before ,c is empty1 the animals of the tank being favoured all this time with a continuous supply of air4 ,and when the supply from above is exhausted1 the contents of the bottom vessel are transferred to the top one1 and at the same time so effectually strained by the layer of muslin that no sedimentary matter passes down to choke the fine jet of the fountain4 ,one great advantage this method possesses is that the living creatures derive the benefit of a much larger quantity of water than the aquarium alone could contain2 and thus1 apart from the arating effects of the fountain1 the result is the same as if a much larger tank were employed4 ,in our next illustration 7fig4 #ci7 we give a modified arrangement based on the same principle which may commend itself by preference to some of our readers4 ,here the supply pipe to the fountain passes through a hole in the bottom of the aquarium instead of into the top1 and the outlet pipe is bent downward within so as to form a syphon4 ,those who are acquainted with the principle of the syphon will understand at once the working of such an arrangement as this4 ,let us suppose the vessel c to be full of water1 and the fountain started1 while the water in the aquarium stands no higher than the level l4 ,the water slowly rises until the level h of the bend of the outlet tube has been reached1 and during the whole of this time no water escapes through the exit4 ,as soon1 however1 as the latter level has been attained1 the water flows away into the lower vessel1 into which it continues to run until the lower level is reached1 and then the outflow ceases1 not to commence again until the fountain causes the water to rise to the upper level4 ,from what has been said the reader will see that the total quantity of water required in this instance need not exceed the capacity of the aquarium2 also that each of the vessels connected with water supply and waste should have a capacity equivalent to the volume of water contained in the aquarium between the two levels h and l4 ,the alternate rising and falling of the water produced in the manner just described represents in miniature the flow and ebb of the tides1 but perhaps this is in itself of no great advantage in the aquarium except from the fact that it allows those creatures that prefer to be occasionally out of the water for a time a better opportunity of indulging in such a habit4 ,and further1 with regard to both the arrangements for aration above described1 it should be noted that earthenware vessels are much to be preferred to those made of metal for the holding of sea water1 since the dissolved salts corrode metallic substances rather rapidly1 and often produce1 by their chemical action1 soluble products that render the water more or less poisonous4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,,aquarium ,,fitted ,,with ,,apparatus ,,for ,,periodic ,,outflow ,other methods of arating the water of aquaria are practised1 but these1 as a rule1 are only practicable in the case of the large tanks of public aquaria and biological laboratories1 as the mechanical appliances necessary to carry them out successfully are beyond the means of an ordinary amateur4 ,in such large tanks as those referred to it is common to force a fine jet of air into the water by machinery4 ,sometimes this air is driven downward from a jet just below the surface1 and with such force that a multitude of minute bubbles penetrate to a considerable depth before they commence to rise1 but in others the air is made to enter at the bottom and must therefore pass right through the water4 ,of course the amateur aquarium-keeper may carry out this method of aration with every hope of success providing he has some self-acting apparatus for the purpose1 or can depend on being able himself to attend to a non-automatic arrangement at fairly regular intervals1 always remembering that a single day's neglect1 especially in the case of a small tank with a proportionately large amount of animal life1 may lead to a loss of valuable specimens4 ,we have already mentioned the use of a syringe as a means by which an aquarium may be temporarily restored to a satisfactory condition providing it has not been neglected too long1 and some recommend forcing air1 or1 still better1 pure oxygen gas1 from an india-rubber bag into the water4 ,we have used1 for the same purpose1 a stream of oxygen from a steel cylinder of the compressed gas with very satisfactory results2 and since oxygen may be now obtained1 ready compressed1 at a very low price--about twopence a cubic foot--there is much to be said in favour of this method as an auxiliary in the hands of the owner of a small tank1 though we hardly recommend it as a prime means of aration to take the place of the fountain4 ,in any case1 where a stream of air or oxygen is employed1 an exceedingly fine jet should be used1 in order that the expelled gas may take the form of a stream of minute bubbles2 for1 as previously stated1 the water can absorb the gas only very slowly1 so that there must necessarily be a considerable waste when the gas issues rapidly4 ,further1 the smaller the bubbles passing through the water1 the greater is the total surface of gas in contact with the liquid1 the volume of the supply being the same1 and hence the more effectually will the solution of the gas proceed4 ,again1 another advantage of the fine stream of minute bubbles lies in the fact that the smaller these bubbles are the more slowly they rise to the surface of the water1 and thus the longer is the time in which the gas may be absorbed during its ascent4 ,a fine jet1 well suited to the purpose here defined1 may be made very easily by holding the middle of a piece of glass tubing in a gas flame until it is very soft1 and then1 immediately on removing it1 pulling it out rather quickly4 ,a slight cut made with a small triangular file will then enable the operator to sever the tube at any desired point4 ,yet another method of maintaining the air supply of aquaria is adopted in the case of some of the large tanks of public aquaria and biological laboratories situated close to the sea1 and this consists in renewing the water at every high tide by means of pumps4 ,it must not be supposed that an indoor aquarium1 even when well established1 and supplied with the best possible system of aration1 requires no further care and attention4 ,in the first place there is a continual loss of water by evaporation1 especially in warm and dry weather1 and this must be rectified occasionally4 ,now1 when water containing salts in solution evaporates1 the water passing away into the air is perfectly free from the saline matter1 and thus the percentage of salt in the residue becomes higher than before4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the loss by evaporation in a marine aquarium must be replaced by the addition of fresh water1 which should either be distilled1 or from the domestic supply1 providing it is soft and moderately free from dissolved material4 ,but the question may be asked1 #8,do not the marine animals and plants utilise a certain amount of the saline matter contained in the salt water8' ,the answer to this is certainly in the affirmative1 for all sea-weeds require and abstract small proportions of certain salts1 the nature of which varies considerably in the case of different species2 and1 further1 all the shelled crustaceans and molluscs require the salts of lime for the development of their external coverings1 and fishes for the growth of their bony skeletons4 ,hence the above suggestion as to the replenishment of loss by evaporation with pure water is not perfectly satisfactory4 ,it will answer quite satisfactorily1 however1 providing the sea water is occasionally changed for an entirely new supply4 ,again1 since carbonate of lime is removed from sea water more than any other salt1 being such an essential constituent of both the external and internal skeletons of so many marine animals1 as well as of the calcareous framework of the coralline weeds1 we suggest that the aquarium may always contain a clean piece of some variety of carbonate of lime1 such as chalk1 limestone1 or marble1 which will slowly dissolve and replace that which has been absorbed4 ,water is rendered denser1 and consequently more buoyant1 by the presence of dissolved salts2 and1 since the density increases with the proportion of dissolved material1 we are enabled to determine the degree of salinity by finding the density of the solution4 ,we can apply this principle to the aquarium1 as a means of determining whether the water contains the correct amount of sea salt1 also for testing any artificial salt water that has been prepared for the aquarium4 ,probably some of our readers are acquainted with some form of hydrometer--an instrument used for finding the density of any liquid2 but we will describe a simple substitute that may be of use to the owner of a marine aquarium1 especially if the salt water for the same is artificially prepared4 ,melt a little bees-wax1 and mix it with fine1 clean sand4 ,then1 remembering that the wax is lighter than water1 and consequently floats1 while sand is considerably heavier1 and sinks1 adjust the above mixture until a solid ball of it is just heavy enough to sink very slowly in sea water4 ,now make two such balls1 and then cover one of them with a light coating of pure wax4 ,we have now two balls1 one of which will float in sea water1 and the other sink1 and these may be used at any time to test the density of the water in1 or prepared for1 the aquarium4 ,if the water is only a little too salt1 both balls will float2 while1 if not sufficiently rich in saline matter1 both will sink4 ,we must conclude this chapter by making a few remarks on the important matter of the regulation of light and temperature4 ,direct sunlight should always be avoided1 except for short and occasional intervals1 not only because it is liable to raise the temperature to a higher degree than is suitable for the inmates of the aquarium1 but also because an excess of light and heat tends to produce a rapid decomposition of organic matter1 and a consequent putrid condition of the water1 and this dangerous state is most likely to occur when both light and temperature are high at the same time4 ,the water should always be cold2 and as it is not always easy to estimate the temperature1 even approximately1 by the sensation produced on immersing the fingers1 it is a good plan to have a small thermometer always at hand1 or placed permanently in the aquarium4 ,in the summer time the water should be kept down to fifty-five degrees or lower1 and in winter should never be allowed to cool much below forty4 ,there may be some difficulty in maintaining a temperature sufficiently low in summer1 but a small piece of ice thrown in occasionally to replace the loss due to evaporation1 especially on very hot days1 will help to keep it down4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,marine ,,objects ,the sea-side naturalist1 in the course of his ramblings and searchings on the coast1 will certainly come across many objects1 dead or alive1 that he will desire to set aside for future study or identification in his leisure moments at home4 ,some of these will be required for temporary purposes only1 while1 most probably1 a large proportion will be retained permanently for the establishment of a private museum1 that shall serve not only as a pleasant reminder of the many enjoyable hours spent on the shore1 but also as a means of reference for the study of the classification of natural objects and of their distribution and habitats4 ,we will first deal with those specimens that are required for temporary purposes only--those of which the collector desires to study the general characters1 as well as1 perhaps1 something of the internal structure2 but before doing so we cannot refrain from impressing on the reader the advisability of learning as much as possible of the external features and mode of growth of the different living creatures while still alive1 for it must be remembered that it is impossible to preserve many of them without more or less destruction of their natural colouring and distortion of their characteristic forms4 ,in those cases where it is possible to keep the creatures alive for a short time only1 it is a good plan to make notes of their movements and all observed changes in form1 and their methods of feeding1 and also to illustrate these notes by sketches drawn from life4 ,this may seem quite an unnecessary procedure to many beginners in the study of natural objects1 and may even1 as far as the sketches are concerned1 present difficulties that at first appear to be insurmountable2 but the power to sketch from nature will surely be acquired to a greater or less degree by constant practice1 and illustrated notes prepared for the purpose we suggest will undoubtedly be of great value to the student4 ,further1 though it may often be necessary to set specimens aside in a preservative fluid until one has the leisure to examine their structure1 it should always be remembered that they never improve by keeping1 also that they are rarely in such good condition for dissection after saturation with the preservative as when perfectly fresh4 ,one of the most convenient preservatives for general use is undoubtedly methylated spirit4 ,this is alcohol that has been adulterated in order to render it undrinkable1 so that it may be sold free from duty for use in the various arts and manufactures without any danger of its being employed for the concoction of beverages4 ,it may be used just as purchased--that is1 in its strongest condition--for many purposes1 but in this state it has a powerful affinity for water1 and will rapidly abstract water from animal and vegetable objects1 causing the softer ones to become hard1 shrunken1 and shrivelled1 often to such an extent that they are almost beyond recognition4 ,by diluting the spirit1 however1 we satisfy to a great extent its affinity for water1 and thus prevent1 or1 at least1 reduce the action just mentioned4 ,a mixture of equal quantities of spirit and water is quite strong enough4 ,unfortunately the common methylated spirit of the shops produces a fine white precipitate1 that gives the whole mass a milky appearance1 when it is diluted4 ,this is due to the presence of mineral naphtha1 which is added in a certain fixed proportion in accordance with the ,government regulations4 ,but it is possible1 by special application1 to obtain the #8non-mineralised' or #8ordinary' methylated spirit of former years1 though not in small quantities1 and this liquid dissolves in water without the formation of a precipitate4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that the use of the spirit as a preservative is in no way interfered with by the presence of the mineral naphtha1 the only disadvantage of this impurity lying in the fact that the milkiness consequent on dilution prevents the objects in a specimen jar from being observed without removal4 ,we have just referred to the hardening action of strong spirit as a disadvantage1 and so it is when it is required to preserve soft structures with as little as possible of change in general form and appearance2 but there are times when it becomes necessary to harden these soft structures in order that sections may be made for the purpose of examining internal structure with or without the aid of the microscope1 and for such purposes strong spirit is one of the best hardening agents that can be employed4 ,formaldehyde is another very good preservative4 ,it is a colourless liquid1 and should be considerably diluted for use1 a two per cent4 solution being quite strong enough for all ordinary purposes4 ,it possesses some distinct advantages as compared with spirit4 ,in the first place1 it does not destroy the natural colours of objects to the extent that spirit does2 and1 although a hardening agent as well as a preservative1 it does not harden soft structures by the extraction of the water they contain1 and therefore does not cause them to become shrivelled or otherwise distorted4 ,it will also occur to the reader that1 since a small bulk of formaline represents a large volume of the diluted preservative1 it is very conveniently stored1 and a very small bottle of it taken for outdoor work may1 on dilution with water1 be made to yield all that is required for the preservation of the takings of a successful day1 or even of a longer period4 ,formaldehyde is usually sold in solution of about forty per cent4 strength1 and for the preparation of a two per cent4 solution it will be found convenient to provide a glass measure graduated either into cubic centimetres or fluid ounces and drams4 ,one hundred volumes of the original solution contain forty of pure formaldehyde1 and if water be added to make this up to two thousand volumes1 a two per cent4 solution is obtained4 ,thus1 one hundred cubic centimetres of the original solution is sufficient to prepare two litres 7three and a half pints7 of suitable preservative4 ,a very good preservative liquid may be made by dissolving two ounces of common salt1 one ounce of alum1 and two or three grains of corrosive sublimate 7a deadly poison7 in one quart of water1 and then1 after allowing all sedimentary matter to settle to the bottom1 decanting off the clear solution4 ,this mixture is known as i,goadby's fluid_/i1 and is well adapted for the preservation of both animal and vegetable structures4 ,it does not cause any undue contraction of soft tissues1 and1 as a rule1 does not destroy the natural colours of the objects kept in it4 ,glycerine is valuable as a preservative for both animal and vegetable objects1 and especially for the soft-bodied marine animals that form such a large percentage of the fauna of our shores4 ,it maintains the tissues in a soft condition1 and preserves the natural tints as well as any liquid4 ,an inexpensive preservative may also be made by dissolving chloride of zinc--about one ounce to the pint of water4 ,this is considered by some to be one of the best fluids for keeping animal structures in good condition4 ,now1 although the different fluids here mentioned are described in connection with the temporary preservation of natural objects1 it must be remembered that they are equally adapted for the permanent preservation of the animals and plants that are to figure in the museum of the sea-side naturalist2 and1 although some marine objects may be preserved in a dry state in a manner to be hereafter described1 yet there are many species of animals1 and also some plants1 that can be satisfactorily preserved only by immersion in a suitable fluid4 ,this method may be applied to all soft-bodied animals1 such as anemones1 jelly-fishes1 marine worms1 shell-less molluscs 7sea slugs1 cephalopods1 c471 the soft parts of shelled molluscs1 fishes1 c42 and most sponges retain their natural appearance much better in a preservative fluid than in a dry condition4 ,many sea-weeds also1 which are practically destroyed by the most careful drying process1 are most perfectly preserved in fluid4 ,but the puzzled amateur will probably be inclined to ask3 #8,which is the best preservative liquid for this or that specimen8' ,no satisfactory general rule can be given in answer to such a question1 and a great deal will have to be determined by his own experiments and observations4 ,whenever he has two or three specimens of the same object1 as many different fluids should be employed1 and the results compared and noted4 ,in this way a very great deal of useful information will be obtained and by the best possible means4 ,however1 it may be mentioned that all the fluids alluded to above may be safely used for almost every animal or vegetable specimen with the following reservations3 strong spirit should not be employed for any very soft animal1 nor should it be used for delicate green plants1 since it will dissolve out the green colouring matter 7chlorophyll71 leaving them white or almost colourless4 ,further1 the greatest care should be exercised in dealing with sea anemones and jelly-fishes4 ,if spirit is used for preserving these creatures1 it should be very dilute1 at least at first1 but may with advantage be increased in strength afterwards1 though this should be done gradually4 ,whatever be the preservative used1 it is sure to be more or less charged with sedimentary and coloured matter extracted from the object immersed in it2 hence1 if the specimen concerned is to form part of a museum collection1 it will be necessary to transfer it to a fresh solution after a time1 and a second1 and even further changes may be necessary before the object ceases to discolour the fluid or render it turbid4 ,considerable difficulty will sometimes be found in the attempts to preserve a soft-bodied animal in its natural attitude4 ,thus1 when a sea anemone is removed from its native element1 it generally withdraws its tentacles1 and1 contracting the upper part of its cylindrical body1 entirely conceals these appendages1 together with the mouth they surround2 and a mollusc similarly treated will generally pull itself together within its shell1 leaving little or no trace of the living body inhabiting the lifeless case4 ,then1 if these animals are transferred to any fluid other than sea water1 or placed anywhere under unnatural conditions1 they usually remain in their closed or unexpanded form4 ,thus1 almost every attempt to kill them for preservation deprives them of just the characteristics they should retain as museum specimens4 ,some such animals may be dealt with satisfactorily as follows3 ,transfer them to a vessel of fresh sea water1 and leave them perfectly undisturbed until they assume the desired form or attitude4 ,then add a solution of corrosive sublimate very gradually--a drop or two at intervals of some minutes4 ,in this way the bodies of anemones may be obtained ready for preservation with expanded tentacles1 tube-secreting worms with their heads and slender processes protruding from their limy or sandy cases1 molluscs with their #8feet' or their mantles and gills protruding from their shells1 and barnacles with their plume-like appendages projecting beyond the opening of their conical shells4 ,the specimens thus prepared may be placed at first in very dilute spirit1 and then1 after a time1 finally stored in a stronger solution of spirit in water2 or they may be transferred to one of the other preservative solutions previously mentioned4 ,all specimens permanently preserved in fluid for a museum should be placed in jars1 bottles1 or tubes of suitable size1 each vessel containing1 as a rule1 only one4 ,where expense is no object1 stoppered jars made expressly for biological and anatomical specimens may be used for all but the smallest objects2 or1 failing this1 ordinary wide-mouthed bottles of white glass1 fitted with good corks or glass stoppers4 ,for very small specimens nothing is more suitable than glass tubes1 but it must be remembered that wherever corks are used1 even if they are of the best quality procurable1 it will be necessary to look over the specimens occasionally to see if the preserving fluid has disappeared to any extent either by leakage or evaporation2 for such loss is always liable to occur1 although it may be very slow1 and especially when methylated spirit is the liquid employed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,,jars ,,for ,,preserving ,,anatomical ,,and ,,biological ,,specimens ,the writer has preserved many hundreds of small marine and other objects in glass tubes of dilute spirit that have been hermetically sealed1 thus rendering the slightest loss absolutely impossible1 while the perfect exclusion of air prevents the development of fungoid growths that sometimes make their appearance in imperfectly preserved specimens4 ,the making and closing of such tubes1 though a more or less difficult operation at first to those who have had no previous experience in glass-working1 become exceedingly simple after a little practice2 and believing it probable that many of our readers would like to try their hand at this most perfect method of preserving and protecting small objects1 we will give a description of the manner in which it is done4 ,the apparatus and materials required for this work are3--,lengths of #8soft' glass tubing1 varying from about one quarter to a little over half an inch in internal diameter2 a supply of diluted spirit--about half spirit and half water2 a ,herapath blowpipe1 preferably with foot-bellows2 and a small triangular file4 ,the glass tubing may be cut into convenient lengths by giving a single sharp stroke with the file1 and then pulling it apart with1 at the same time1 a slight bending from the cut made4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,,showing ,,the ,,different ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,making ,,of ,a ,,small ,,specimen ,,tube ,cut a piece of tubing about eight or nine inches long1 heat it in the blowpipe flame1 turning it round and round all the time1 until it is quite soft1 then remove it from the flame and immediately pull it out slowly until the diameter in the middle is reduced to about a sixteenth of an inch 7fig4 #da1 #b74 ,make a slight scratch with the file at the narrowest part1 and divide the tube at this point 7fig4 #da1 #c74 ,now heat one of these pieces of tubing as before just at the point where the diameter of the drawn part begins to decrease2 and1 when very soft1 pull it out rather quickly while it is still in the flame4 ,the part pulled now becomes completely separated1 and the tube is closed1 but pointed4 ,continue to heat the closed end1 directing the flame to the point rather than to the sides1 until the melted glass forms a rather thick and flattened end2 and then1 immediately on removing it from the flame1 blow gently into the open end until the melted glass is nicely rounded like the bottom of a test-tube 7fig4 #da1 #d74 ,when the tube is cold1 the specimen that it is to contain1 and which has already been stored for a time in dilute spirit1 is dropped into it4 ,the tube is now heated about an inch above the top of the specimen1 drawn out as shown in fig4 #da1 #e1 and again allowed to cool4 ,when cold1 the fresh spirit is poured into the open end of the tube1 but the middle part is so narrow that the spirit will not run down freely4 ,if1 however1 suction be applied to the open end1 air from the bottom will bubble through the spirit1 and then1 on the cessation of the suction1 the spirit will pass down to take the place of the air that was withdrawn4 ,this may be repeated if necessary to entirely cover the specimen with the fluid4 ,any excess of spirit is then thrown from the upper part of the tube1 and the latter cut off4 ,nothing is now left but to close the tube hermetically4 ,this is done by heating the lower part of the narrow neck1 and then drawing it out in the flame1 taking great care that the tube is withdrawn from the flame the moment it is closed4 ,the tube must also be kept in an upright position until it has cooled4 ,the appearance of the finished tube is shown in fig4 #da1 #f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,small ,,specimen ,,tube ,,mounted ,,on ,a ,,card ,all preserved specimens should have a label attached on which is written the name of the specimen1 the class and order to which it belongs1 the locality in which it was found1 together with any brief remarks that the owner desires to remember concerning its habits c4 ,the bottles or tubes that are too small to have a label attached to them in the ordinary way may be mounted on a card1 as represented in fig4 #db1 and the desired particulars then written on the card4 ,when soft or delicate specimens are preserved in a bottle of fluid they frequently require some kind of support to keep them in proper form and to display them better for observation4 ,perhaps the best way to support them is to fasten them to a very thin plate of mica of suitable size by means of a needle and very fine thread4 ,the mica is so transparent that it is invisible in the fluid1 and the few stitches are also hardly perceptible1 thus making it appear as if the specimen floats freely in the fluid4 ,we will now pass on to consider those objects of the shore that are usually preserved in a dry condition1 commencing with ,,starfishes ,,and ,,sea ,,urchins ,starfishes are commonly preserved by simply allowing them to dry in an airy place1 with or without direct exposure to the sun's rays1 and this method is fairly satisfactory when the drying proceeds rapidly2 but care should be taken to maintain the natural roughness of the exterior as well as to have the numerous suckers of the under surface as prominent as possible4 ,if the starfish is simply laid out on some surface to dry1 the side on which it rests is often more or less flattened by the weight of the specimen itself1 which therefore becomes adapted for the future examination of one surface only2 but a better result1 as regards both the rapidity of drying and the after appearance of the specimen1 may be obtained by suspending it on a piece of fine net or by threads4 ,a still better plan is to put the dead starfish into strong spirit1 which will rapidly extract the greater part of the moisture that its body contained4 ,after allowing it to remain in this for a day or two to harden it1 put it out to dry as before mentioned4 ,the spirit1 being very volatile1 will soon evaporate1 so that the specimen will shortly be ready for storing away4 ,it is most important to observe that dried specimens--not starfishes only1 but all animal and vegetable objects--should never be placed in the cabinet or other store-case until perfectly dry1 for a very small amount of moisture left in them will often encourage the development of moulds1 not only on themselves1 but on other specimens stored with them4 ,very small and delicate starfishes1 when preserved in a dry condition1 may be protected from injury by fastening them on a card by means of a little gum1 or by keeping them permanently stored on cotton wool in glass-topped boxes4 ,sea urchins1 or sea eggs1 as they are commonly called1 may be preserved exactly in the same way as starfishes1 though it is more essential in the case of these to soak them in strong spirit previous to drying1 otherwise the soft animal matter within the shell will decompose before the drying is complete4 ,here1 however1 it is possible to remove the whole interior with the aid of a piece of bent wire1 and to thoroughly clean the inner surface of the shell before drying it4 ,some of the shells should be preserved with the spines all intact1 and others with these removed in order to show the arrangement of the plates which compose the shell1 as well as the perforations1 and the rounded processes to which the spines are articulated4 ,the majority of sea urchins are provided with a most complicated and beautiful arrangement of teeth which are well worthy of study4 ,these should be removed from a moderately large specimen1 the soft surrounding structures carefully dissected away1 and then cleaned by means of an old tooth-brush without disarranging them4 ,it will be found that dried sea urchins will require care when preserved with spines attached1 for these appendages are usually very brittle and are easily dislocated at their bases where they are united to the shell by ball-and-socket joints4 ,it may be mentioned here that corrosive sublimate is very valuable for preventing the development of mould on the surfaces of starfishes1 sea urchins1 and museum specimens generally4 ,it is best supplied in the form of an alcoholic solution made by dissolving a few grains in about half a pint of methylated spirit2 the advantage of this over an aqueous solution being the rapidity with which it dries4 ,in most cases it is simply necessary to apply the solution to the object by means of a soft brush1 but1 as regards starfishes and urchins it is far better to dissolve a few grains of the corrosive sublimate in the spirit in which the objects are placed previous to drying4 ,,crustaceans ,the preservation of crustaceans by the dry method often requires some care and demands a certain amount of time2 but the process is never really difficult1 and the satisfaction of having produced a good specimen for a permanent collection well repays one for the trouble taken and time spent4 ,some of our crustaceans are only partially protected by a firm outer covering1 and almost every attempt to preserve these as dry objects results in such a shrivelling of the soft tissues that the natural appearance is quite destroyed4 ,this is the case with some of the barnacles1 and the abdominal portion of the bodies of hermit crabs1 which are1 therefore1 far better preserved in fluid4 ,dilute spirit is quite satisfactory for most of these as far as the preservation of the soft structures is concerned1 but it has the disadvantage that it turns the shells of some crustaceans red1 making them appear as if they had been boiled4 ,other crustaceans are so small1 or are hardened externally to such a slight extent1 that they also are not adapted for the dry method of preservation4 ,speaking generally1 such crustaceans as shrimps and sand-hoppers are best preserved in fluid1 while the different species of crabs and lobsters are more conveniently preserved dry unless it is desired to study any of their soft structures4 ,it is quite impossible to remove the soft parts from small crabs and lobsters previous to drying them1 hence the drying should be conducted as rapidly as possible1 so that no decomposition may set in4 ,where the process goes on very slowly1 as is the case when the air is damp1 or when the specimens are not set out in an airy spot1 a decay of the soft structures soon proceeds1 and the products of this decay will generally saturate the whole specimen1 giving rise to most objectionable odours1 and destroying the natural colour of the shell4 ,if it has been found that the species in question are not reddened by the action of methylated spirit1 they should be allowed to remain in this fluid1 with a few grains of dissolved corrosive sublimate1 for at least a few hours1 and then they will dry rapidly without any signs of putrefaction2 and even those species that are reddened by spirit may be treated to a shorter immersion in this fluid with advantage4 ,the specimens should always be set out in some natural attitude to dry1 unless it is desired to spread out the various appendages in some manner that is more convenient for the study of their structure4 ,a sheet of blotting-paper may be placed on cork or soft wood1 the specimens placed on this1 and the appendages kept in the desired positions when necessary by means of pins placed beside1 but not thrust through them4 ,when more than one specimen of the same species has been collected1 one should be set in such a manner as to exhibit the under side2 and1 further1 in instances where the male and female of the same crustacean differ in structure1 as is commonly the case1 two of each should be preserved1 one displaying the upper1 and the other the under surface4 ,when perfectly dry1 all small crustaceans should be mounted on cards with the aid of a little gum1 and the name and other particulars to be remembered then written on the card4 ,the question may well be asked3 #8,which is the best gum to use8' ,in answer to this we may say that gum tragacanth is certainly as good as any4 ,it holds well1 and leaves no visible stain on a white card4 ,a small quantity of the solid gum should be put into a bottle with water in which a grain or so of corrosive sublimate has been dissolved4 ,it absorbs much water1 becoming a very soft1 jelly-like mass4 ,any excess of water may be poured off1 and the gum is then ready for use4 ,the larger crabs and lobsters contain such an amount of soft tissue within that it becomes absolutely necessary to clear them in order to avoid the unpleasant and destructive effects of decomposition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,small ,,crab ,,mounted ,,on ,a ,,card ,in the case of lobsters the abdomen should be removed from the large cephalo-thorax by cutting through the connecting membrane with a sharp knife4 ,the soft portions of both halves of the body are then raked out by means of a piece of wire flattened and bent at one end1 and the interior cleaned with the aid of a rather stiff bottle-brush4 ,the large claws are then removed by cutting through the membrane that unites them with the legs1 and these are cleared in a similar manner4 ,the different parts are next laid out to dry on blotting-paper1 with the various appendages attached to the body arranged just as in life2 and1 finally1 when all parts are quite dry1 both within and without1 the separated parts are reattached by means of some kind of cement4 ,for this purpose a solution of gelatine in acetic acid is much better than gum tragacanth1 as it has a far greater holding power1 and this is necessary when we require to unite rather large structures with but small surfaces in contact4 ,large crabs are to be dealt with much in the same manner1 but1 instead of removing the abdomen only1 which1 in the crab1 is usually very small and doubled under the thorax1 the whole carapace--the large shell that covers the entire upper surface of the body--should be lifted off1 and replaced again after the specimen has been cleaned and dried4 ,,marine ,,shells ,c4 ,we have previously dealt with the preservation of the shell-less molluscs1 and the soft bodies of the shelled species when such are required1 so we will now see what should be done with the shells4 ,numerous shells are often to be found on the sea beach--shells that have been washed in by the breakers1 and from which the animal contents have disappeared1 either by the natural process of decay1 aided by the action of the waves1 or by the ravages of the voracious or carrion-eating denizens of the sea2 and although these shells are rarely perfect1 having been tossed about among the other material of the beach1 yet we occasionally find here the most perfect specimens of both univalve and bivalve shells in such a condition that they are ready for the cabinet1 and these often include species that are seldom found between the tide-marks1 or that are otherwise difficult to obtain4 ,however1 the shell-collector must not rely on such specimens as these for the purpose of making up his stock1 but must search out the living molluscs in their habitats and prepare the shells as required4 ,the molluscs collected for this purpose are immersed in boiling water for a short time1 and the animal then removed from the shell4 ,in the case of bivalves it will generally be found that the hot water has caused the muscles of the animal to separate from the valves to which they were attached1 or1 if not1 they have been so far softened that they are easily detached1 while it does not destroy the ligament by means of which the valves are held together at the hinge2 but the univalve molluscs must be removed from their shells by means of a bent pin or wire4 ,in the latter instance care must be taken to extract the whole of the body of the animal1 otherwise the remaining portion will decompose within the shell1 giving rise to the noxious products of natural decay4 ,the univalves have now simply to be placed mouth downwards on blotting-paper to drain and dry1 when they are ready for the cabinet4 ,if1 however1 they include those species1 like the periwinkles and whelks1 that close their shells by means of a horny lid 7operculum7 when they draw in their bodies1 these lids should be removed from the animal and attached to their proper places in the mouth of the shell4 ,the best way to accomplish this is to pack the dry shells with cotton wool1 and then fasten the opercula to the wool by means of a little gum tragacanth or acetic glue4 ,bivalve shells should1 as a rule1 be closed while the ligament is still supple1 and kept closed until it is quite dry1 when the valves will remain together just in the position they assume when pulled together by the living animal4 ,the shells of the larger species may be conveniently kept closed during the drying of the ligament by means of thread tied round them1 but the very small ones are best held together by means of a delicate spring made by bending fine brass wire into the form shown in fig4 #dd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,spring ,,for ,,holding ,,together ,,small ,,bivalve ,,shells ,there are many features connected with the internal structure and surface of the shells of molluscs that are quite as interesting and instructive as those exhibited externally2 hence a collection of the shells intended for future study should display internal as well as external characteristics4 ,thus1 some of the spiral univalve shells may be ground down on an ordinary grindstone in order to display the central pillar 7the columella7 and the winding cavity that surrounds it1 while others1 such as the cowries1 may be ground transversely to show the widely different character of the interior4 ,bivalve shells1 too1 may be arranged with the valves wide open for the study of the pearly layer1 the lines of growth1 the scars which mark the positions of the muscles that were attached to the shell1 and the teeth which are so wonderfully formed in some species4 ,some collectors make it a rule to thoroughly clean all the shells in their collection1 but this1 we think1 is a great mistake2 for when this is done many of the specimens display an aspect that is but seldom observed in nature4 ,many shells1 and especially those usually obtained in deep water1 are almost always covered with various forms of both animal and vegetable growth1 and it is advisable to display these in a collection1 not only because they determine the general natural appearance1 but also because these growths are in themselves very interesting objects4 ,further1 it is a most interesting study to inquire into the possible advantages of these external growths to the inhabitants of the shells1 and vice vers--a study to which we shall refer again in certain chapters devoted to the description of the animals concerned4 ,but there is no reason whatever why some of the duplicate specimens should not be cleaned by means of a suitable brush1 with or without the use of dilute hydrochloric acid 7spirits of salt71 or even polished1 in some few cases1 to show the beautiful colours so often exhibited when the surface layer has been removed4 ,this1 however1 should be done somewhat sparingly1 thus giving the greater prominence to the exhibition of those appearances most commonly displayed by the shells as we find them on the beach or dredge them from the sea4 ,very small and delicate shells may be mounted on cards1 as suggested for other objects2 but1 as a rule1 the specimens are best displayed by simply placing them on a layer of cotton wool in shallow boxes of convenient size4 ,the number of insects that may be described as truly marine is so small that their preservation is not likely to form an important part of the work of the sea-side naturalist2 and even though a considerable number of species exhibit a decided partiality for the coast1 living either on the beach or the cliffs1 the study of these is more generally the work of the entomologist4 ,for this reason1 and partly because we have already given full instructions for the setting and mounting of insects in a former work of this series1 we consider a repetition inadmissible here4 ,the subject of the preservation of fishes1 also1 will require but few words4 ,there is no satisfactory method of preserving these in a dry state1 though we often meet with certain thin-bodied species1 such as the pipe-fish1 that have been preserved by simply drying them in the sun4 ,fishes should be placed in dilute spirit1 or in one of the other liquids recommended1 but a change of fluid will always be necessary after a time1 and also frequently the gentle application of a brush to remove coagulated slime from the surface of the scales4 ,the great drawbacks in the way of preserving a collection of fishes are the expense of the specimen jars1 and the large amount of space required for storing the specimens4 ,of course the former difficulty can be overcome by substituting ordinary wide-mouthed bottles in the place of the anatomical jars1 while the latter can be avoided to a considerable extent by limiting the collection to small species1 and to small specimens of the larger species4 ,if this is done1 it is surprising what a large number of fishes can be satisfactorily stored in bottles of only a few ounces' capacity4 ,,flowers ,,and ,,sea ,,weeds ,the apparatus required for the preservation of the wild flowers of our cliffs1 and the sea weeds1 consists of a quantity of blotting paper or other thick absorbent paper cut to a convenient size1 a few thin boards and a few pieces of calico of the same size1 some heavy weights1 and several sheets of drawing paper4 ,the wild flowers are arranged on the sheets of absorbent paper while still fresh1 care being taken to display the principal parts to the best advantage4 ,they are then placed in a single pile1 with a few extra sheets of absorbent paper between each two specimens to facilitate the drying1 boards at the bottom and top as well as at equal distances in the midst of the pile1 and the weights on the top of the whole4 ,the natural colours of leaves and flowers are not very often preserved satisfactorily1 but the best results are obtained when the drying process proceeds most rapidly4 ,hence1 if the press contains any specimens of a succulent or sappy nature1 they should be taken out after the first day or two1 and then replaced with a fresh supply of dry paper4 ,the flowers must be left in the press until quite dry1 and they may then be mounted on sheets of drawing paper1 by fixing them with a little gum tragacanth1 or by narrow strips of gummed paper passing over their stems4 ,some collectors prefer simply placing their botanical specimens inside double sheets of drawing paper1 not fastening them at all1 and there is much to be said in favour of this1 especially as it allows the specimens to be examined on both sides2 and even when they are fastened to the paper double sheets are much to be preferred1 for the specimens are not then so liable to be damaged by friction when being turned over1 especially when the names are written on the outside of each sheet4 ,the larger sea-weeds may be dried in the same manner1 though it is a good plan to absorb the greater part of the moisture they contain by pressing them between pieces of calico previous to placing them in the ordinary press4 ,it should be observed1 however1 that many sea-weeds exude a certain amount of glutinous substance that makes them adhere to the paper between which they are dried1 while they do not so freely adhere to calico4 ,these should be partially dried in the calico press1 and then laid on the paper on which they are to be finally mounted1 and re-pressed with a piece of dry calico on the top of each specimen4 ,many of the smaller weeds may be treated in the manner just described1 but the more delicate species require to be dealt with as follows3--,place each in a large1 shallow vessel of water1 and move it about1 if necessary1 to cause its delicate fronds to assume that graceful form so characteristic of the alg of our rock pools4 ,then immerse the sheet of paper on which the weed is to be finally mounted1 and slowly raise the specimen out of the water1 on the paper1 without disturbing the arrangement of the fronds4 ,if it is found necessary to rearrange any of the fronds1 it may be done by means of a wet camel-hair brush4 ,now lay the specimen on calico or absorbent paper1 placed on a sloping board1 to drain2 and1 after the greater part of the moisture has disappeared by draining and evaporation1 transfer the specimen to the press with a piece of dry calico immediately over it4 ,all are dealt with in turn in the manner described1 and allowed to remain in the press until perfectly dry1 when it will be found that the majority of them have become firmly attached to the mount1 and require nothing but the label to fit them for the herbarium4 ,sea-weed collectors often make the great mistake of pressing tufts that are far too dense to admit of the structural characters being satisfactorily examined4 ,to avoid this fault1 it will often be necessary to divide the clusters collected so that the forms of their fronds may be more readily observed4 ,the calcareous corallines may be pressed in the same way as the other alg1 but very pretty tufts of these1 having much the appearance of the living plant1 may be obtained by simply suspending them until thoroughly dry2 though1 of course1 specimens so prepared must not be submitted to pressure after they are dry1 being then so brittle that they are easily broken to pieces4 ,the hard framework of these interesting corallines is composed principally of carbonate of lime1 a mineral substance that dissolves freely in hydrochloric acid 7spirits of salt74 ,thus1 if we place a tuft of coralline in this acid1 which should be considerably diluted with water1 the calcareous skeleton immediately begins to dissolve1 with the evolution of minute bubbles of carbonic acid gas2 and after a short time1 the end of which is denoted by the absence of any further bubbling1 nothing remains but the vegetable matter1 now rendered soft and pliant4 ,a decalcified specimen of coralline may be pressed and dried1 and then mounted beside the plant in its natural condition for comparison2 and the true appearance of the vegetable structure may also be retained1 and in a far more satisfactory manner1 by preserving a portion of the specimen in dilute spirit4 ,finally1 it may be observed that many sea-weeds1 like wild flowers1 do not retain their natural forms and colours when preserved dry4 ,they are spoilt by the pressure applied1 or become so shrivelled and discoloured in the drying as to be but sorry representatives of the beautifully tinted and graceful clothing of the rocks of the coast4 ,but many of those that suffer most in appearance when dried may be made to retain all their natural beauty by preserving them in a fluid2 and it is most important that this should be remembered by all who desire to study the weeds at home1 and particularly by those who possess a microscope1 and wish to search into the minute structure of marine alg4 ,our own plan is to keep not only the dried specimens for the purpose of studying the general characters and classification of the alg1 but also to keep a few large bottles--stock bottles--filled with weeds of all kinds in a preservative fluid4 ,these latter are exceedingly useful at times1 and are frequently brought into requisition for close inspection1 with or without the microscope4 ,small pieces may be detached for microscopic examination when required1 and sections may be cut either for temporary or permanent mounting just as well as from living specimens1 such sections showing all the details of structure exhibited by the living plant4 ,,the ,,museum ,one of the greatest difficulties besetting the young collector lies in the choice and construction of the cabinet or other store-house for the accommodation of the specimens that accumulate as time advances4 ,of course1 when expense is a matter of no great consideration1 a visit to the nearest public or private museum to see the manner in which the specimens are housed1 followed by an order to a cabinet-maker1 will set the matter right in a short time2 but it is probable that the majority of our readers are unable to fit up their museum in this luxurious style1 and will either have to construct their own cabinets and store-boxes or to purchase cheap substitutes for them4 ,where one has the mechanical ability1 and the time to spare1 the construction of a cabinet with the required number of drawers may be undertaken1 and there is no better form of store than this4 ,the whole should be made of well-seasoned wood1 and the drawers should vary in depth according to the size of the specimens they are to contain4 ,some of these drawers may be lined with sheet cork1 and the cork covered with white paper or a thin layer of cotton wool4 ,this will enable some of the specimens to be fixed in their places by means of pins4 ,as a rule1 however1 no pins will be required1 and the specimens will be most conveniently arranged in shallow cardboard boxes1 placed in rows in the drawer1 a little cotton wool covering the bottom of each4 ,failing the usual cabinet1 the specimens may be stored in shallow trays or boxes1 or even in the little cardboard cabinets so often sold for storing stationery c4 ,the best and cheapest things of this kind we have ever met with are the little cabinets1 each containing either six or twelve drawers1 made by ,macdonald ,co41 of ,temple ,row1 ,birmingham4 ,by the use of such as these the specimens may be neatly stored away1 and additions to match may always be made as the collection increases in magnitude4 ,the specimens should all be classified according to their positions in the animal or vegetable world1 and accompanied by labels giving the name of species and genus1 together with localities1 habitats1 c4 ,the outlines of classification may be studied from the later chapters of this work1 in which the common objects of the sea shore are described in their scientific order1 beginning with the lowest sub-kingdoms and classes2 and further1 it will be observed that the sub-kingdoms are divided into classes1 the classes into orders1 orders into families1 families into genera1 and that the genera contain a smaller or larger number of closely allied species4 ,the collection must be kept in a perfectly dry place1 otherwise many of the specimens will be liable to develop moulds1 and this will1 of course1 quite spoil their appearance4 ,it is almost sure to be attacked by mites and other animal pests unless some means be taken to prevent their intrusion4 ,as regards the latter1 it is well to know that it is far easier to prevent the intrusion of small animal pests than it is to exterminate them after they have once found an entrance2 and so1 from the very commencement of the formation of the collection1 all drawers and boxes should be charged with some substance that is objectionable1 if not fatal1 to them4 ,small lumps of naphthaline 7albo-carbon7 put into the various compartments1 and renewed occasionally as they disappear by evaporation1 will generally suffice to prevent the entrance of all pests1 but this substance is not effectual as an insecticide for the purpose of killing them after they are in4 ,perhaps the best of all insecticides is the corrosive sublimate already mentioned1 and this may be applied to any animal or vegetable object that is capable of providing food for museum pests1 and it is difficult to find such an object on which they will not feed4 ,many of the specimens that find a place in a museum have been temporarily preserved in spirit previous to being dried1 and if a little corrosive sublimate was dissolved in this spirit1 the specimens will have been rendered perfectly free from all attacks of marauders1 since the spirit will have saturated the whole object1 carrying with it the dissolved poison4 ,most of the specimens that have not been treated by the above method would not suffer from a short immersion in spirit containing the corrosive sublimate2 but in cases where it is considered inexpedient to do this1 the same liquid may be applied to them by means of a soft brush4 ,in this way even the dried botanical specimens may be rendered perfectly secure from attacks4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,examination ,,of ,,marine ,,objects--,,dissection ,an enthusiastic observer of nature will learn much concerning the structure of natural objects with the unaided eye1 but there are times when he will desire some kind of magnifier to reveal more perfectly the structure of minute parts1 or to enable him to observe the small creatures that are invisible to the naked eye4 ,further1 one may learn many interesting and instructive facts relating to animal and plant life by cutting sections for close examination1 or by making such simple dissections as will enable one to observe the more salient features of internal structure2 we therefore propose in the present chapter to make a few remarks and suggestions regarding work of this kind4 ,a pocket magnifier is of great value to the young naturalist1 both for the inspection of natural objects while engaged in out-door work1 and for the subsequent examination of the specimens collected for study4 ,it is often necessary to enable one to identify and classify small animals and plants1 and will be in constant demand for the purpose of studying the less conspicuous external features4 ,such an instrument should be regarded as an essential companion of the naturalist1 and should accompany him on every ramble4 ,there are several different forms of pocket lenses1 but for general work there is1 perhaps1 nothing more convenient and serviceable than the #8triplet' magnifier4 ,it is a combination of three lenses1 enclosed in a pocket case1 and so arranged that they may be used separately or in combination1 thus supplying a variety of powers4 ,the three lenses of the triplet are themselves of different magnifying powers1 and these powers may be increased by combining two or all of them4 ,for work at home a #8dissecting microscope' is very useful4 ,this consists of a magnifying lens1 mounted on a support over a surface on which small objects may be examined and dissected1 the height of the lens being1 of course1 adjusted according to its focal distance4 ,lenses ready mounted on adjustable stands may be purchased for this purpose1 but no one ought to experience much difficulty in designing and constructing some simple stand that will give every satisfaction4 ,the arrangement just described is1 of course1 suitable for the dissection of only small objects1 and these are placed on a material adapted to the nature of the work to be done4 ,thus it is sometimes convenient to place the object to be examined on a small sheet of cork1 in order that it may be secured by means of pins while the dissection proceeds1 while at other times it is essential that it be laid on a hard and unyielding surface1 such as that of a slip of glass4 ,but whatever be the nature of the substance on which the dissection is made1 its colour may be regulated according to that of the object4 ,if1 for example1 we are dissecting a small white flower on a piece of cork1 we should naturally blacken the cork1 or cover it with a piece of dead black paper2 or1 if we are to dissect a small1 light-coloured object on a glass surface1 we lay the glass on black paper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de--,,the ,,triplet ,,magnifier ,the advantage of dissecting objects under water does not seem to be generally appreciated by beginners1 who often allow their specimens to become dry and shrivelled1 almost beyond recognition1 during the progress of their examination4 ,this mode of dissection is certainly not necessary with all objects1 but may be generally recommended for soft and succulent vegetable structures1 as well as for almost all animal dissections4 ,this being the case1 arrangements should certainly be made to provide a miniature dissecting trough as an accessory to the dissecting microscope1 and the following instructions will enable the reader to construct a highly satisfactory and inexpensive one3-- ,procure the flat lid of a cylindrical tin box1 or the lid of a glass or porcelain pomade pot1 such lid to be about two inches in diameter and about half an inch in depth4 ,cement the flat side of this lid to a small slab of hard wood1 or to a square piece of sheet lead1 by means of acetic glue--ordinary glue or gelatine dissolved in glacial acetic acid--to give it the necessary steadiness during the dissection4 ,when the cement is quite hard1 pour into the lid some melted paraffin 7paraffin wax7 which has been blackened by the admixture of a small quantity of lamp-black in the form of a fine powder4 ,the paraffin should be melted by putting it into a beaker or wide-mouthed bottle1 and standing it in hot water1 and the lamp-black should be added1 with stirring1 as soon as it is entirely liquefied4 ,the quantity of the mixture used must be sufficient to half fill the lid1 thus leaving a space to contain water to the depth of about a quarter of an inch4 ,the blackened wax provides a good background on which to work1 and provides a hold for pins when these are necessary in order to fix the object under examination4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,a ,,small ,,dissecting ,,trough ,the complete trough is represented in fig4 #df2 and will be found to answer its purpose admirably1 except that it occasionally displays one fault1 but one that is easily remedied4 ,the wax contracts on cooling1 and may1 therefore1 detach itself from the trough2 and1 being lighter than water1 will float instead of remaining submerged4 ,this may be prevented by securing the disc of wax in its place by means of a ring of brass wire1 or by weighting the wax with two or three small pieces of lead pushed down into it while it is yet soft4 ,with such a dissecting microscope and trough as we have described one may do a great deal of exceedingly useful work1 both hands being quite free to manipulate the object under examination4 ,the dissection may be conducted with the aid of a small scalpel or other very sharp knife1 the parts being arranged or adjusted by means of a needle1 mounted in a handle1 and held in the left hand4 ,sometimes1 however1 the object to be dissected is so minute that even a small scalpel is too large for the purpose1 and in such cases nothing is better than little dissecting instruments made by mounting large sewing needles in suitable handles1 and then grinding down the points of the needles on two opposite sides1 on a hone1 so as to produce little pointed1 two-edged blades4 ,bent needles are often useful1 too1 and these may be prepared by heating the points to redness in a gas-flame1 bending them as desired while hot1 and then hardening them by suddenly thrusting them1 at a red heat1 into cold water4 ,the compound microscope will often prove useful for the examination of very minute objects1 as well as for the study of the structure of the principal tissues of the larger species2 but since detailed instructions for the management of the microscope1 and for the preparation of objects for microscopic examination would occupy much more space than we can spare1 we shall content ourselves with nothing more than a few general hints on this portion of the young naturalist's work1 dealing more particularly with those points which commonly present difficulties to the amateur4 ,if it is desired to examine some minute living object1 such as a protozoon1 place the object in a drop of the water in which it lived just in the middle of a clean glass slip1 and cover it with a cover-glass4 ,the quantity of water should be just sufficient to fill the space between the two glasses4 ,if less than this has been used1 a little more applied to the edge of the cover by means of a glass rod will immediately run in between the glasses2 while if an excessive amount was employed1 the surplus may be removed by the application of a strip of blotting paper4 ,place the glass slip on the stage of the microscope1 and reflect light through it from the mirror below4 ,examine it first with a low power2 and1 after having observed as much as possible of the creature's movements and structure with this aid1 repeat with a higher power4 ,this rule applies not only to such small objects as we have now under consideration1 but to all objects1 and parts of them1 in which minute details are to be observed4 ,beginners with the microscope often find prolonged examination very tiring to the eyes1 but this1 we believe1 would seldom be the case if right methods were followed4 ,both eyes should always be open1 and the microscopist should train himself to use both eyes equally for the actual observation4 ,the higher the magnifying power used1 the nearer must the objective 7the lower combination of lenses7 be brought to the object itself1 and it is no uncommon thing for the amateur1 in his attempts to focus his object1 to lower the body of the microscope beyond its proper position1 causing the objective to crush the object1 break the thin cover-glass1 and become wetted with the liquid1 if any1 in which the object was being examined4 ,all this may be avoided by lowering the body of the microscope until it nearly touches the cover-glass before attempting to view the object through it1 and then1 with the eye above the object-glass1 to gradually raise the body until the object is in focus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,,cell ,,for ,,small ,,living ,,objects ,the top of the cover-glass should always be perfectly dry2 and if by any chance the objective becomes wet it should be wiped perfectly dry with a piece of old silk or with chamois leather4 ,also1 if permanent mounting is attempted1 and the preservative liquid is allowed to come in contact with the objective1 such liquid must1 of course1 be washed off with some suitable solvent before any attempt is made to wipe the lens dry4 ,if the object under examination is of such dimensions that the cover-glass has a tendency to rock on it1 or if it is a living object of such a size that it is unable to move freely in the exceedingly thin film of water between the cover and the slip1 it should be placed in a cell4 ,the cell may be made by cementing a ring of glass or vulcanite to the middle of a slip1 or it may be a little circular cavity prepared in the slip itself4 ,in either case the cell must be quite full of water before the cover-glass is applied1 so that no air-bubbles are included4 ,hitherto we have spoken only of mounting small objects in water1 and this is advisable when the object is moist1 whether it be animal or vegetable1 alive or dead4 ,but dry objects may be examined in the dry state1 in which case they need not be covered4 ,if they are composed of transparent material they are to be dealt with in the manner recommended before1 as far as the management of the light is considered2 that is1 a moderately strong light is sent through them by the reflector below the stage2 but opaque objects are best examined on a dead black ground1 the light being directed on to them by means of a condensing lens placed between them and the source of light4 ,a collector who has done only a few days' work on the sea shore will probably find himself the possessor of a host of interesting objects that will afford much pleasure and instruction when placed under the microscope--objects1 many of which have been somewhat hastily deposited in a bottle of spirit or other preservative for study in his future leisure moments4 ,these objects1 if small1 may be examined as above described1 simply placing them under a cover-glass1 or in a cell1 with a clear drop of the same liquid in which they have been kept4 ,the general characters of the larger objects may also be observed by means of some kind of hand lens1 but even these are generally best examined under water or other suitable liquid4 ,a great deal may be learnt of natural objects by preparing very thin sections for microscopic examination2 and although special works should be consulted if one desires to become proficient in the different methods of cutting and preparing such sections1 yet a great amount of good work may be done with the aid of a sharp razor1 manipulated with nothing more than ordinary skill4 ,some objects1 especially certain of those of the vegetable world1 are of such a nature that suitable sections may be cut1 either from the fresh or preserved specimen1 without any preliminary preparation4 ,all that is required is to hold the object firmly between the finger and thumb of the left hand1 previously securing it in some kind of holder if necessary1 and pare off the thinnest possible slices with a horizontal movement of the razor1 both razor and object being kept very wet during the process4 ,as the sections are cut they may be allowed to drop into a shallow vessel of water2 and1 the thinnest then selected for examination in water as previously described4 ,other objects are so soft that the cutting of sections becomes impossible without previously hardening them4 ,methylated spirit is a good hardening reagent1 and many of the soft structures that have been preserved in this fluid1 especially if it has been used undiluted1 will be found sufficiently hard for cutting thin sections4 ,among the other hardening reagents used by microscopists may be mentioned a solution of chromic acid--one part by weight of the solid acid dissolved in from one hundred to two hundred parts of water1 and a solution of bichromate of potash--one part of the bichromate to about forty parts of water4 ,in either case the hardening of the object takes place slowly1 and it should be examined from day to day until the necessary consistence has been obtained4 ,the structures of many soft animals can never be satisfactorily hardened for section-cutting by either of the above reagents1 and thus it becomes necessary either to freeze or to imbed them4 ,in the former case the object is first soaked in gum water--a thin solution of gum arabic--and then frozen by an ether spray or by a mixture of ice and salt4 ,the sections should be cut with a razor just as the object is beginning to thaw1 and they may then be examined under a cover-glass1 in a drop of the gum water4 ,the other method is conducted as follows3--,the soft object is first soaked in absolute alcohol to extract all the water it contains1 and is then transferred to paraffin that has been heated just to its melting-point by standing it in warm water4 ,after the object is thoroughly permeated with the paraffin1 the whole is cooled quickly by immersion in cold water4 ,sections are now cut1 the paraffin being sliced away with the substance it contains4 ,these sections are placed in warm turpentine1 where they are allowed to remain until the whole of the wax has dissolved1 and they may then be mounted in a drop of turpentine1 and covered with a cover-glass4 ,we have given brief instructions for temporary mounting only1 but most amateur microscopists would undoubtedly prefer mounting their objects permanently1 so that they may be set aside for study at any future period4 ,hence we append a few directions to this end1 advising the reader1 however1 to consult a work dealing especially with this subject if he desires to become proficient in the preparation of microscopic slides4 ,moist objects1 including those which have been preserved in dilute spirit1 may be soaked in water1 then transferred direct to the glass slip1 and covered with a drop of glycerine4 ,any excess of the glycerine should then be absorbed from around the cover-glass by means of a strip of blotting-paper1 and the edge of the cover cemented by gold size applied with a small camel-hair brush4 ,glycerine jelly is also a valuable mountant for permanent work4 ,when this is used the object should first be soaked in glycerine1 and then in the melted jelly4 ,it is then transferred to a drop of melted jelly which has been placed on a warm slide1 and covered as before4 ,the jelly soon solidifies1 so that a ring of cement is not absolutely necessary1 though it is advisable1 as a rule1 to cement the cover-glass all round with gold size or black varnish4 ,sections cut while frozen are best mounted in glycerine1 to which they may be transferred direct4 ,canada balsam is one of the best media for permanent mounting2 and1 as it becomes very hard after a time1 it serves the purposes of both preservative and cement4 ,when this is used the object must be entirely freed from water by soaking it in absolute alcohol4 ,it is then put into turpentine for a minute or two1 transferred to a warm slide1 and covered with a drop of the prepared balsam4 ,sections that have been imbedded in paraffin may be mounted in this way1 the turpentine acting as a solvent for the paraffin in which it was cut4 ,although the compound microscope is absolutely necessary for the study of the minutest forms of life and of the minute structure of the various tissues of larger beings1 yet the young naturalist will find that a vast amount of good work may be done without its aid4 ,thus the general structure of the larger species may be made out by means of simple dissections requiring no extraordinary skill on the part of the worker1 and with appliances that may be obtained at a low cost4 ,certain of the marine animals1 however1 require special treatment that can hardly be described in a short chapter devoted to general instructions only1 but hints with regards to these will be given in future chapters in which the animals referred to are described4 ,the appliances referred to above include nothing more than a simple form of dissecting trough1 a few dissecting instruments1 and one or two minor accessories that may always be found at hand as required4 ,the dissection of animals is always best performed under water1 for by this method the object examined may not only be kept clean as the work proceeds1 but the parts1 having a tendency to float1 readily separate from one another and therefore become more distinctly visible when submerged4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,sheet ,,of ,,cork ,,on ,,thin ,,sheet ,,lead ,a very convenient form of trough may be made by taking any kind of rectangular1 flat-bottomed dish1 one made of zinc being1 perhaps1 the best of all1 and covering the bottom with a slab of good cork carpet which has been weighted with sufficient lead to prevent it from floating4 ,or1 instead of cork carpet1 a sheet of cork may be used4 ,in either case1 a piece of thin sheet lead1 a little larger than the slab1 should be cut1 the corners of which are then snipped off as shown in fig4 #dh1 and the edges finally turned over as represented in the next illustration4 ,the size of the trough must be regulated according to the nature of the work to be done1 but one measuring ten inches long1 seven wide1 and two inches deep will answer most purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,weighted ,,cork ,,for ,,dissecting ,,trough ,the object to be dissected is placed in the trough1 secured in position by means of a few ordinary pins1 and then completely covered with water4 ,we need hardly impress upon the reader the great importance of thoroughly examining all external characters--all those structures that are visible without actual dissection--before attempting to remove anything2 and we have already insisted on the importance of carefully examining all creatures while alive before anything else is done4 ,the value of this latter stipulation can hardly be overestimated1 for in many instances it is almost impossible to detect the use of an organ unless it has been observed in action2 and the enthusiastic student will go even further than this1 for he will make it an invariable rule to sketch everything he sees1 and to make full notes on all his observations4 ,when pins are used to fix the object under examination--and it is generally essential that the object be fixed--their heads should be turned outwards2 for then the object will not slip from its position1 nor will the pins tend to get in the way of the work4 ,some objects are of such a nature that they are not easily secured by means of pins1 and yet require to be fixed in some way or other4 ,thus1 one may desire to examine the structure and appendages of a prawn or small crab1 or to investigate the nature of a chiton4 ,in such instances as these it is a good plan to make a cake of paraffin wax of suitable size by pouring the melted substance into a mould1 then secure the object in proper position in the wax while still fluid1 and pin the latter to the cork of the dissecting trough4 ,it is often necessary to trace the courses of internal passages that open on the surface of the body1 or of tubes that are revealed during the progress of dissection1 and this may be done by means of a little instrument called a seeker4 ,it is simply a blunted needle1 bent into a large angle1 and mounted in a handle2 or1 it may consist of nothing but a moderately long and stiff bristle1 rendered blunt at one end by tipping it with melted sealing wax4 ,this is not always sufficient1 however1 for it frequently happens that certain tubes and passages in animal forms are disposed in such a complicated manner that it is impossible to send even the most flexible seeker through them4 ,for instance1 suppose one desires to trace the course of the digestive tube of some large bivalve mollusc with its many reflections1 the seeker is useless except that it will penetrate to the first sharp bend4 ,the arrangement of such a tube must be traced by dissecting along its course1 but this may be aided considerably by first filling it with some coloured substance to enable its direction to be more easily followed4 ,in fact1 the injection of some brightly coloured fluid1 forced through the tube by means of a fine-nozzled glass syringe will often enable the course of such a tube to be seen without any dissection at all1 the colour of the fluid used being detected through the semi-transparent tissues surrounding it4 ,a mixture of ,berlin blue and water1 or a mixture of plaster of ,paris and water coloured with carmine is well adapted to this purpose2 and if the latter is employed it may be allowed to set1 and thus produce a permanent cast from the tube that is being dissected4 ,perhaps it should be mentioned that if either of the injection mixtures be used for this purpose it must be previously strained through muslin1 and that1 in the case of the plaster1 the mixing and straining should occupy as little time as possible1 or it may begin to set before the injection has been completed4 ,a very considerable insight into the structure of animals may be frequently obtained by cutting sections through the body with all its organs in situ1 but1 generally speaking1 they are too soft to allow of this without danger of the displacement of those very parts1 the relations of which we desire to determine4 ,to avoid this the body should be previously hardened by a somewhat prolonged soaking in methylated spirit1 or in a solution of chromic acid prepared as before directed4 ,then1 with the aid of a good razor1 very interesting sections may be prepared with the greatest of ease1 and the true relations of the various organs throughout the body may be exactly determined by cutting a succession of slices1 not necessarily very thin1 from end to end1 or1 transversely1 from side to side4 ,even those crustaceans that are protected by a hard1 calcareous exo-skeleton1 and the molluscs that cannot be removed from their stony shells without injury to their soft structures1 may be studied in the manner just described1 and this may be done by first soaking them in dilute hydrochloric acid1 renewed as often as may be necessary1 until all the mineral matter has been dissolved completely1 and then hardening the softer tissues in one of the reagents mentioned above4 ,hydrochloric acid may also be used to dissolve the calcareous shells of foraminifers1 the vegetable corallines1 and other small forms of life1 previous to microscopic examination of the soft parts4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,protozoa ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,shore ,we shall now study the principal forms of animal life to be found on the sea shore2 and1 in order that the reader may thoroughly understand the broader principles of classification1 so as to be able to locate each creature observed in its approximate position in the scale of life1 we shall consider each group in its zoological order1 commencing with the lowest forms1 and noting1 as we proceed1 the distinguishing characteristics of each division4 ,the present chapter will be devoted to the ,protozoa--the sub-kingdom that includes the simplest of all animal beings4 ,each animal in this division consists of a minute mass of a jelly-like substance called protoplasm1 exhibiting little or no differentiation in structure4 ,there is no true body-cavity1 no special organs for the performance of distinct functions1 and no nervous system4 ,perhaps we can best understand the nature of a protozoon by selecting and examining a typical example3 ,remove a small quantity of the green thread-like algous weed so commonly seen attached to the banks of both fresh and salt water pools1 or surrounding floating objects1 and place it in a glass with a little of the water in which it grew4 ,this weed probably shelters numerous protozoons1 among which we are almost sure to find some amb if we examine a drop of the water under the high power of a microscope4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,the ,,am,,ba1 ,,highly ,,magnified ,the amba is observed to be a minute mass of protoplasm with an average diameter of about one-hundredth of an inch1 endowed with a power of motion and locomotion4 ,its body is not uniformly clear1 for the interior portion is seen to contain a number of minute granules1 representing the undigested portions of the animal's food4 ,there is a small mass of denser protoplasm near the centre1 termed the nucleus1 and also a clear space filled with fluid4 ,this latter is called the vacuole1 and is probably connected with the processes of respiration and excretion1 for it may be seen to contract at irregular intervals1 and occasionally to collapse and expel its contents4 ,as we watch the amba we see that it is continually changing its shape1 sending out temporary prolongations 7pseudopodia7 of its gelatinous substance from any part1 and sometimes using these extended portions for the purpose of dragging itself along4 ,its method of feeding is as remarkable as it is simple4 ,on coming in contact with any desired morsel1 it sends out two pseudopods1 one on each side of the food4 ,these two pseudopods gradually extend round the food1 till1 at last1 they meet and coalesce on the opposite side of it1 thus completely enclosing it within the body4 ,any part of the body of the amba may thus be converted into a temporary mouth2 and1 there being no special cavity to serve the purpose of a stomach1 the process of digestion will proceed equally well in any part of the body except in the superficial layer1 where the protoplasm is of a slightly firmer consistence than that of the interior4 ,further1 the process of digestion being over1 any portion of the superficial layer may be converted into a temporary opening to admit of the discharge of indigestible matter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,the ,,am,,ba1 ,,showing ,,changes ,,of ,,form ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,the ,,am,,ba1 ,,feeding ,the amba is an omnivorous feeder1 but subsists mainly on vegetable organisms1 especially on diatoms and other minute alg2 and the siliceous skeletons of the former may often be seen within the body of the animal1 under the high power of a microscope4 ,the multiplication of the amba is brought about by a process of fission or division4 ,at first the nucleus divides into two1 and then the softer protoplasm contracts in the middle1 and finally divides into two portions1 each of which contains one of the nuclei4 ,the two distinct animals thus produced both grow until they reach the dimensions of their common progenitor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,the ,,am,,ba1 ,,dividing ,all the protozoons resemble the amba in general structure and function2 but while some are even simpler in organisation1 others are more highly specialised4 ,some1 like the amba1 are unicellular animals2 that is1 they consist of a single1 simple speck of protoplasm2 but others live in colonies1 each newly formed cell remaining attached to its parent cell1 until at last a comparatively large compound protozoon is formed4 ,the sub-kingdom is divided into several classes1 the principal of which1 together with their leading characteristics1 are shown in the following table3-- #a4 ,rhizopods3--,body uniform in consistence4 ,pseudopods protruded from any point4 #b4 ,protoplasta3--,outer protoplasm slightly firmer in consistence4 ,pseudopods protruded from any point4 7,often grouped with the ,rhizopods47 #c4 ,radiolaria3--,possessing a central membranous capsule4 ,usually supported by a flinty skeleton4 #d4 ,infusoria3--,outer protoplasm firmer and denser2 therefore of more definite shape4 ,possess permanent threadlike extensions of protoplasm instead of pseudopods4 ,we shall now observe the principal marine members of the protozoa1 commencing with the lowest forms1 and dealing with each in its proper zoological order as expressed in the above table4 ,,marine ,,rhizopods ,when we stand on a beach of fine sand on a very calm day watching the progress of the ripples over the sand as the tide recedes we frequently observe whitish lines marking the limits reached by the successive ripples as they advance toward the shore4 ,if1 now1 we scrape up a little of the surface sand1 following the exact course of one of these whitish streaks1 and examine the material obtained by the aid of a good lens1 we shall in all probability discover a number of minute shells among the grains of sand4 ,these shells are of various shapes--little spheres1 discs1 rods1 spirals1 c42 but all resemble each other in that they are perforated with a number of minute holes or foramina4 ,they are the skeletons of protozoons1 belonging to the class ,rhizopoda1 and they exist in enormous quantities on the beds of certain seas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,a ,,group ,,of ,,foraminifers1 ,,magnified ,we will first examine the shells1 and then study the nature of the little animals that inhabit them4 ,the shells vary very much in general appearance as well as in shape4 ,some are of an opaque1 dead white1 the surface somewhat resembling that of a piece of unglazed porcelain2 others more nearly resemble glazed porcelain1 while some present quite a vitreous appearance1 much after the nature of opal4 ,in all cases1 however1 the material is the same1 all the shells consisting of carbonate of lime1 having thus the same chemical composition as chalk1 limestones1 and marble4 ,if hydrochloric acid be added to some of these shells1 they are immediately attacked by the acid and are dissolved in a very short time1 the solution being accompanied by an effervescence due to the escape of carbonic acid gas4 ,the shells vary in size from about one-twelfth to one three-hundredth of an inch1 and consist either of a single chamber1 or of many chambers separated from each other by perforated partitions of the same material4 ,sometimes these chambers are arranged in a straight line1 but more frequently in the form of a single or double spiral4 ,in some cases1 however1 the arrangement of chambers is very complex4 ,we have already referred to the fact that the shells present a number of perforations on the exterior1 in addition to those which pierce the partitions within1 and it is this characteristic which has led to the application of the name ,foraminifera 7hole-bearing7 to the little beings we are considering4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,a ,,spiral ,,foraminifer ,,shell ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,a ,,foraminifer ,,out ,,of ,,its ,,shell ,the animal inhabiting the shell is exceedingly simple in structure1 even more so than the amba4 ,it is merely a speck of protoplasm1 exhibiting hardly any differentiation--nothing1 in fact1 save a contractile cavity 7the vacuole71 and numerous granules that probably represent the indigestible fragments of its food4 ,the protoplasm fills the shell1 and also forms a complete gelatinous covering on the outside1 when the animal is alive2 and the vacuole and granules circulate somewhat freely within the semi-solid mass4 ,further1 the protoplasm itself is highly contractile1 as may be proved by witnessing the rapidity with which the animal can change its form4 ,when the foraminifer is alive1 it floats freely in the sea1 with a comparatively long and slender thread of its substance protruded through each hole in the shell4 ,these threads correspond exactly in function with the blunt pseudopodia of the amba4 ,should they come in contact with a particle of suitable food-material1 they immediately surround it1 and rapidly retracting1 draw the particle to the surface of the body4 ,the threads then completely envelop the food1 coalescing as soon as they touch1 thus bringing it within the animal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,the ,,same ,,foraminifer 7,,fig4 #ef7 ,,as ,,seen ,,when ,,alive ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,section ,,of ,,the ,,shell ,,of ,a ,,compound ,,foraminifer ,the foraminifer multiplies by fission1 or by a process of budding4 ,in some species the division of the protoplasm is complete1 as in the case of amb1 so that each animal has its own shell which encloses a single chamber1 but in most cases the #8bud' remains attached to a parent cell1 and develops a shell that is also fixed to the shell of its progenitor4 ,the younger animal thus produced from the bud gives rise to another1 which develops in the same manner2 and this process continues1 the new bud being always produced on the newest end1 till1 at last1 a kind of colony of protozoons is formed1 their shells remaining attached to one another1 thus producing a compound shell1 composed of several chambers1 arranged in the form of a line or spiral1 and communicating by means of their perforated partitions4 ,it will now be seen that each #8cell' of the compound protozoon feeds not only for itself1 but for all the members of its colony1 since the nourishment imbibed by any one is capable of diffusion into the surrounding chambers1 the protoplasm of the whole forming one continuous mass by means of the perforated partitions of the complex skeleton4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,,section ,,of ,a ,,nummulite ,,shell ,some of the simplest foraminifers possess only one hole in the shell1 and1 consequently1 are enabled to throw off pseudopods from one side of the body only4 ,in others1 of a much more complex nature1 the new chambers form a spiral in such a manner that they overlap and entirely conceal those previously built2 and the development may proceed until a comparatively large discoid shell is the result4 ,this is the case with ,nummulites1 so called on account of the fancied resemblance to coins4 ,further1 some species of foraminifera produce a skeleton that is horny in character1 instead of being calcareous1 while others are protected merely by grains of sand or particles of other solid matter that adhere to the surface of their glutinous bodies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,globigerina bulloides1 ,,as ,,seen ,,when ,,alive1 ,,magnified ,we have spoken of foraminifera as floating freely about in the sea water1 but while it is certain that many of them live at or near the surface1 some are known to thrive at considerable depths2 and those who desire to study the various forms of these interesting creatures should search among dredgings whenever an opportunity occurs4 ,living specimens1 whenever obtained1 should be examined in sea water1 in order that the motions of their pseudopods may be seen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,section ,,of ,a ,,piece ,,of ,,nummulitic ,,limestone ,if we brush off fragments from the surface of a freshly broken piece of chalk1 and allow them to fall into a vessel of water1 and then examine the sediment under the microscope1 we shall observe that this sediment consists of minute shells1 and fragments of shells1 of foraminifers4 ,in fact1 our chalk beds1 as well as the beds of certain limestones1 consist mainly of vast deposits of the shells of extinct foraminifera that at one time covered the floor of the sea4 ,such deposits are still being formed1 notably that which now covers a vast area of the bed of the ,atlantic ,ocean at a depth varying from about #cjj to #c1jjj fathoms4 ,this deposit consists mainly of the shells of a foraminifer called ,globigerina bulloides1 a figure of which is given on the opposite page4 ,the structure of chalk may be beautifully revealed by soaking a small piece of the rock for some time in a solution of ,canada balsam1 allowing it to become thoroughly dry1 and then grinding it down till a very thin section is obtained4 ,such a section1 when viewed under the low power of a compound microscope1 will be seen to consist very largely of minute shells2 though1 of course1 the shells themselves will be seen in section only4 ,the extensive beds of nummulitic limestones found in various parts of ,south ,europe and ,north ,africa are also composed largely of foraminifer shells1 the most conspicuous of which are those already referred to as nummulites--disc-shaped shells of a spiral form1 in which the older chambers overlap and hide those that enclose the earlier portion of the colony4 ,before concluding our brief account of these interesting marine protozoons1 it may be well to point out that1 although the foraminifera belong to the lowest class of the lowest sub-kingdom of animals1 yet there are some rhizopods--the ,monera1 which are even simpler in structure4 ,these are mere specks of undifferentiated protoplasm1 not protected by any shell1 and not even possessing a nucleus1 and are the simplest of all animal beings4 ,the second division of the ,protozoa--the class ,protoplasta--has already received a small share of attention1 inasmuch as the amba1 which was briefly described as a type of the whole sub-kingdom1 belongs to it4 ,the study of the amba is usually pursued by means of specimens obtained from fresh-water pools1 and reference has been made to it in a former work dealing particularly with the life of ponds and streams2 but it should be observed that the amba inhabits salt water also1 and will be frequently met with by those who search for the microscopic life of the sea1 especially when the water examined has been taken from those sheltered nooks of a rocky coast that are protected from the direct action of the waves1 or from the little pools that are so far from the reach of the tides as to be only occasionally disturbed4 ,here the amba may be seen creeping slowly over the slender green threads of the conferv that surround the margin of the pool4 ,the third class--,radiolaria--is of great interest to the student of marine life1 on account of the great beauty of the shells2 but1 as with the other members of this sub-kingdom1 a compound microscope is necessary for the study of them4 ,the animals of this group resemble the foraminifers in that they throw out fine thread-like pseudopods1 but they are distinguished from them by the possession of a membranous capsule in the centre of the body1 surrounding the nucleus1 and perforated in order to preserve the continuity of the deeper with the surrounding protoplasm4 ,they have often a central contractile cavity1 and further show their claim to a higher position in the animal scale than the preceding classes by the possession of little masses of cells and a certain amount of fatty and colouring matter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,a ,,group ,,of ,,radiolarian ,,shells1 ,,magnified ,some of the radiolarians live at or near the surface of the ocean1 while others thrive only at the bottom4 ,the former1 in some cases1 appear to avoid the light1 rising to the surface after sunset2 and it is supposed that the phosphorescence of the sea is due in part to the presence of these animals4 ,the latter may be obtained from all depths1 down to several thousand fathoms4 ,the beauty of the radiolarians as a class lies in the wonderful shells that protect the great majority of them4 ,these shells are composed not of carbonate of lime1 as is the case with foraminifers1 but of silex or silica1 a substance that is not acted on by the strongest mineral acids4 ,they are of the most exquisite shapes1 and exhibit a great variety of forms4 ,some resemble beautifully sculptured spheres1 boxes1 bells1 cups1 c42 while others may be likened to baskets of various ornamental design4 ,in every case the siliceous framework consists of a number of clusters of radiating rods1 all united by slender intertwining threads4 ,it is not all the radiolarians1 however1 that produce these beautiful siliceous shells4 ,a few have no skeleton of any kind1 while others are supported by a framework composed of a horny material1 but yet transparent and glassy in appearance4 ,the sizes of the shells vary from about one five-hundredth to one half of an inch2 but1 of course1 the larger shells are those of colonies of radiolarians1 and not of single individuals1 just as we observed was the case with the foraminifers4 ,those in search of radiolaria for examination and study should1 whenever possible1 obtain small quantities of the dredgings from deep water4 ,material brought up by the trawl will often afford specimens2 but1 failing these sources of supply1 the muddy deposit from deep niches between the rocks at low-water mark will often provide a very interesting variety4 ,place the mud in a glass vessel1 and pour on it some nitric acid 7aqua-fortis74 ,this will soon dissolve all calcareous matter present1 and also destroy any organic material4 ,a process of very careful washing is now necessary4 ,fill up the vessel with water1 and allow some time for sedimentary matter to settle4 ,now decant off the greater part of the water1 and repeat the process several times4 ,by this means we get rid of the greater part of the organic material1 as well as of the mineral matter that has been attacked by the acid2 and if we examine the final sediment under the microscope1 preferably in a drop of water1 and covered with a cover-glass1 any radiolarians present will soon reveal themselves4 ,it is often possible to obtain radiolarian shells1 as well as other siliceous skeletons1 through the agency of certain marine animals4 ,the bivalve molluscs1 for example1 feed almost entirely on microscopic organisms2 and1 by removing such animals from their shells1 and then destroying their bodies with aqua-fortis1 we may frequently obtain a sediment composed partly of the skeletons referred to4 ,there remains one other class of protozoons to be considered1 viz4 the ,infusorians--the highest class of the sub-kingdom4 ,in this group we observe a distinct advance in organisation2 for1 in the first place1 the infusorians are enclosed in a firm cuticle or skin1 which forms an almost complete protective layer4 ,within this is a layer of moderately firm protoplasm1 containing one or more cavities that contract at intervals like a heart4 ,then1 in the interior1 there is a mass of softer material with cavities filled with fluid1 two solid bodies1 and numerous granules4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,three ,,infusorians ,,magnified ,in these creatures we find1 too1 a distinct and permanent mouth1 usually funnel-shaped1 leading to the soft1 interior substance1 in which the food material becomes embedded while the process of digestion proceeds4 ,here1 then1 for the first time1 we meet with a special portion of the body set apart for the performance of the work of a stomach2 and1 further1 the process of digestion being over1 the indigestible matter is ejected through a second permanent opening in the exterior cuticle4 ,again1 the infusorian does not move by means of temporary pseudopods1 as is the case with the lower protozoons1 but by means of minute hair-like processes which permanently cover either the whole of the body1 or are restricted to certain portions only4 ,these little processes1 which are called cilia1 move to and fro with such rapidity that they are hardly visible2 and1 by means of them the little infusorian is enabled to move about in its watery home with considerable speed4 ,in some species a few of the cilia are much larger than the others1 and formed of a firmer material4 ,these often serve the purpose of feet1 and are also used as a means by which the little animal can anchor itself to solid substances4 ,as with the lower protozoons1 the infusoria multiply by division2 but1 in addition to this1 the nucleus may sometimes be seen to divide up into a number of minute egg-like bodies1 each of which1 when set free1 is capable of developing into a new animal4 ,should the water in which infusorians have been living evaporate to dryness1 the little bodies just mentioned become so many dust particles that may be carried away by air currents2 but1 although dry1 they retain their vitality1 and develop almost immediately on being carried into a suitable environment4 ,infusorians are so called because they develop rapidly in infusions of various vegetable substances2 and those who desire to study their structure and movements with the aid of a microscope cannot do much better than make an infusion by pouring boiling water on fragments of dried grass1 and leaving it exposed for a few days to the warm summer atmosphere4 ,the numerous germs floating in the air will soon give rise to abundance of life1 including several different species of infusoria1 varying from #a_/cj to #a_/bjjj of an inch in length4 ,fresh-water pools and marshes provide such an abundance of infusoria that the animals are generally obtained for study from these sources1 and a few of the common and most interesting species inhabiting fresh water have already been described in a former work4 ,nevertheless1 the sea is abundantly supplied with representatives of the class1 and it is certain that the beautiful phosphorescence sometimes observed in the sea at night is in part due to the presence of luminous infusoria1 some of which appear to have an aversion to sunlight1 retiring to a depth during the day1 but rising to the surface again after sunset4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,a ,,phosphorescent ,,marine ,,infusorian 7,noctiluca71 ,,magnified ,,chapter ,,viii ,,british ,,sponges ,it seems to be the popular opinion that sponges are essentially natives of the warmer seas1 and it will probably be a surprise to many young amateur naturalists to learn that there are about three hundred species of this sub-kingdom of the animal world to be found on our own shores4 ,it must not be thought1 however1 that they are all comparable with the well-known toilet sponges in regard to either size or general form and structure1 for some of them are very small objects1 no larger than about one-twentieth of an inch in diameter1 and some form mere incrustations of various dimensions on the surfaces of rocks and weeds1 often of such general appearance that they would hardly be regarded as animal structures by those who have not studied the peculiarities of the group4 ,sponges are known collectively as the ,porifera or ,polystomata1 and constitute a separate sub-kingdom of animals of such distinct features that they are not readily confused with the creatures of any other group4 ,their principal characteristic is expressed by both the group names just given1 the former of which signifies #8hole-bearing1' and the latter #8many openings'2 for in all the members of the sub-kingdom there are a number of holes or pores providing a means of communication between the body cavity or cavities and the surrounding water4 ,most of these holes are very small1 but there is always at least one opening of a larger size at the anterior end4 ,it will be seen from what we have just stated that sponges exhibit a distinctly higher organisation than the protozoa described in the last chapter1 inasmuch as they possess a permanent body-cavity that communicates with the exterior2 but in addition to this there are many points of differentiation of structure that denote a superior position in the scale of life4 ,in order to ascertain the general features of a sponge we cannot do better than select one of the simplest forms from our own shores4 ,if we place the live animal in a glass vessel of sea water1 and examine it with a suitable magnifying power1 we observe a number of minute pores scattered over its whole surface2 and a much larger opening at the free end4 ,the animal is motionless1 and exhibits no signs of life except that it may contract slightly when touched4 ,the water surrounding the sponge also appears to be perfectly still1 but if we introduce some fine insoluble powder1 such as precipitated chalk1 or a drop of a soluble dye1 the motion of the suspended or soluble material will show that the water is passing into the sponge through all the small pores1 and that it is ejected through the larger opening4 ,on touching the sponge we observe that it is of a soft1 gelatinous consistence throughout1 or if1 as is often the case1 the body is supported by a skeleton of greater or less firmness1 a gentle application of the finger will still show that this framework is surrounded by material of a jelly-like nature4 ,this gelatinous substance is the animal itself1 and a microscopic examination will show that its body-wall is made up of two distinct layers1 the inner consisting of cells1 many of which possess a cilium or whip-like filament that protrudes from a kind of collar1 its free extremity extending into the body-cavity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,section ,,of ,a ,,simple ,,sponge ,these minute cilia are the means by which the water currents just described are set up4 ,by a constant lashing movement they urge the fluid contained in the body-cavity towards the larger hole1 thus causing the water to flow in through the numerous small pores4 ,this circulation of sea water through the body-cavity of the sponge is the means by which the animal is supplied with air and food4 ,air is1 of course1 absorbed from the water by the soft material of the external layer of the body1 but the constant flow of fresh water through the body-cavity enables this process of respiration to go on with equal freedom in the interior4 ,the mode of feeding of the sponge is very similar to that of the protozoa4 ,organic particles that are carried into the body-cavity1 on coming in contact with the cells of the internal layer1 are absorbed into their protoplasm by which they are digested4 ,thus the sponge may be compared to a mass of protozoon cells1 all united into a common colony by a more or less perfect coalescing of the cell-substance1 some of the units being modified in structure for the performance of definite functions4 ,the air and food absorbed by any one cell may pass readily into the surrounding cells1 and thus each one may be said to work for the common weal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,,diagrammatic ,,section ,,of ,a ,,portion ,,of ,a ,,complex ,,sponge ,the description just given applies only to the simplest of the sponges1 and we have now to learn that in the higher members of the group the structure is much more complicated4 ,in these the surface-pores are the extremities of very narrow tubes which perforate both layers of the body-wall and then communicate with wider tubes or spaces within1 some of which are lined with the ciliated cells above described4 ,these spaces1 which are sometimes nearly globular in form1 and often arranged in groups with a common cavity1 communicate with wider tubes which join together until1 finally1 they terminate in a large opening seen on the exterior of the sponge4 ,hence it will be seen that the water entering the minute pores of the surface has to circulate through a complicated system of channels and spaces1 some of which are lined with the ciliated cells that urge the current onwards before it is expelled through the large hole4 ,further1 imagine a number of such structures as we have described growing side by side1 their masses coalescing into one whole1 their inner tubes and spaces united into one complex system by numerous inter-communications1 and having several large holes for the exit of the circulating water1 and you then have some idea of the general nature of many of the more complex sponges to be found on our shores 7see fig4 #ff74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,,horny ,,network ,,of ,a ,,sponge1 ,,magnified ,but even this is not all1 for as yet we have been regarding the sponges as consisting of animal matter only1 whereas nearly all of them possess some kind of internal skeleton for the support of the soft1 gelatinous animal substance4 ,the skeleton consists of matter secreted by certain cells from material in the water and food1 and is either horny1 calcareous1 or siliceous4 ,the horny skeleton is formed of a network of fibres of a somewhat silky character1 and often1 as in the case of the toilet sponges1 highly elastic2 but it is sometimes so brittle that the sponge mass is easily broken when bent4 ,the fibres of this framework support not only the outer wall of the sponge1 but also the walls of all the internal tubes and spaces1 which are often of so soft a nature that they would collapse without its aid4 ,the other forms of skeletons consist of minute bodies of carbonate of lime or of silica1 respectively1 which assume certain definite shapes1 resembling stars1 anchors1 hooks1 pins1 spindles1 c41 and are known as spicules4 ,such spicules are usually present in those sponges that have horny skeletons1 but in others they form the entire skeleton4 ,sponges sometimes increase by division1 a part being separated from the parent mass and then developing into a complete colony2 and they may be reproduced artificially to almost any extent by this method1 each piece cut off1 however small1 producing a new sponge4 ,they also increase by a process of #8budding1' the buds produced sometimes remaining attached to the original colony1 thus increasing its size1 but on other occasions becoming detached for the formation of new colonies on a different site4 ,in addition to these methods of reproduction there are special cells in a sponge that possess the function of producing eggs which are ejected through the larger holes4 ,the eggs are usually developed in the autumn1 and1 after being ejected1 swim about freely for a time1 after which they become fixed to rocks or weeds1 and produce sponges in the following year4 ,the eggs may often be seen towards the end of the summer by cutting through a sponge1 or by carefully pulling it asunder4 ,they are little rounded or oval bodies1 of a yellowish or brownish colour1 distinctly visible to the naked eye1 occupying cavities in the interior4 ,sponges are classified according to the composition of the skeleton and the forms of the spicules1 the chief divisions being3-- #a4 ,the ,,calcareous ,sponges 7,calcarea74 ,skeleton consisting of spicules of carbonate of lime in the form of needles and three-or four-rayed stars4 #b4 ,the ,,six-,,rayed ,,sponges 7,hexactinellida74 ,skeleton of six-rayed glassy spicules4 #c4 ,,common ,,sponges 7,demospongia74 ,skeleton horny1 flinty1 or entirely absent4 ,the first of these divisions contains about a dozen known ,british species1 which are to be found on the rockiest shores1 attached to stones1 weeds1 or shells1 generally hidden in very secluded holes or crevices1 or sheltered from the light by the pendulous weeds4 ,they should be searched for at the lowest spring tide1 particular attention being given to the under surfaces of large stones1 narrow1 dark crevices1 and the roofs of small1 sheltered caves4 ,they may be readily recognised as sponges by the numerous pores on the surface1 though these are often hardly visible without a lens1 and the calcareous nature of the skeleton may be proved by dropping a specimen into dilute hydrochloric acid1 when the carbonate of lime will speedily dissolve1 the action being accompanied by the evolution of bubbles of carbonic acid gas4 ,if calcareous sponges are to be preserved for future reference1 they may be placed in diluted spirit1 in which case the animal matter1 as well as the mineral substance1 will be preserved with but little alteration in the natural appearance and structure4 ,a specimen which has been decalcified by means of acid1 as above described1 may also be preserved in the same manner2 and small portions of this will serve for the microscopic study of the animal portion of the sponge4 ,if the skeleton only is required1 the sponge is simply allowed to dry1 when the soft animal substance1 on losing its contained water1 will leave hardly any residue2 or1 better1 allow the calcareous sponge to macerate in water for some days for the animal substance to decompose1 and then1 after a few minutes in running water1 set it aside to dry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,grantia compressa ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,spicules ,,of ,grantia1 ,,magnified ,small portions of the skeleton1 examined under the microscope1 will show the nature of the calcareous spicules of which it is composed4 ,these consist of minute needles and stars1 the latter having generally either three or four rays4 ,we give figures of three of the calcareous sponges of our shores1 the first of which 7,grantia compressa7 resembles little oval1 flattened bags1 which hang pendulous from rocks and weeds1 sometimes solitary1 but often in clusters4 ,the smaller openings are thickly scattered over the flat sides of the bag1 and the larger ones1 through which the water is expelled1 around the margin4 ,when the sponge is out of the water and inactive1 the two opposite sides of the bag are practically in contact1 but1 when active1 the cavity is filled with water by means of the whip-cells that line it1 and the sides of the sponge are then more or less convex4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,sycon ciliatum ,the ciliated sycon 7,sycon ciliatum71 fig4 #gj1 though of a very different appearance externally1 is similar in structure to ,grantia4 ,it is also found in similar situations1 and is not uncommon on many parts of the ,south ,coast1 from ,weymouth westwards4 ,the other example1 ,leucosolenia botryoides1 shown in fig4 #ga1 is a branching calcareous sponge1 consisting of a number of tubes1 all united to form one common cavity which is lined throughout with whip-cells4 ,it is usually found attached to weeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,leucosolenia botryoides1 ,,with ,,portion ,,magnified ,nearly all our ,british sponges belong to the group ,demospongia--common sponges2 but the members of this group present a great variety of form and structure4 ,most of them have a skeleton consisting of siliceous spicules1 but some have a horny skeleton1 somewhat after the nature of that of the toilet sponges2 and others1 again1 have fleshy bodies entirely1 or almost entirely1 unsupported by harder structures4 ,they are sometimes known collectively as the ,silicia1 for the greater number of them have skeletons consisting exclusively of siliceous matter1 while the so-called horny sponges usually have spicules of silica intermingled with the horny substance1 and even those which are described as having no skeleton at all sometimes contain scattered spicules of silex4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,chalina oculata ,as the spicules of sponges are in themselves beautiful objects1 and are important to the naturalist1 inasmuch as they form a basis for the classification of sponges1 it is well to know by what means they may be separated from the animal for microscopic examination4 ,the separation is based on the fact that nitric acid 7aqua-fortis7 will destroy organic matter while it has not the slightest action on silica4 ,in some of our common horny sponges the fibres are so transparent that1 when teased out and placed under the microscope1 the siliceous spicules may be seen embedded within them1 but the spicules1 both in these and the fleshy sponges1 may be separated completely from the animal matter by putting a fragment of the sponge in a test-tube1 covering it with nitric acid1 and boiling it for a short time4 ,the tube should then be filled up with water and allowed to stand undisturbed for a time1 after which the liquid is poured off gently from the sediment4 ,if the sediment is then put under the microscope on a slip of glass1 it will be seen to consist of grains of sand1 of which there is always a considerable amount in the pores and cavities of a sponge1 and the siliceous spicules4 ,among the common objects of the sea shore is the horny skeleton of the sponge ,chalina oculata1 which is frequently washed on the beach by the waves1 especially after storms4 ,this sponge is not likely to be seen between the tide-marks except at the lowest spring tide1 when it may be found suspended in a sheltered crevice or cave4 ,the skeleton consists of a fine network of horny fibres1 in the centre of which lie the spicules1 imbedded in the horny material4 ,the spicules are short and straight1 tapering at both ends4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,halichondria panicea ,the ,bread-crumb sponge 7,halichondria panicea7 is even more common1 for it is to be found on every rocky coast1 encrusting weeds and rocks1 often considerably above low-water mark4 ,it is of a yellowish or pale greenish colour1 and forms an incrustation varying in thickness from one-twentieth of an inch to half an inch or more2 and1 like most sponges1 should be looked for in narrow crevices1 under heavy growths of weeds1 or in other situations where it is protected from the light4 ,sometimes its free surface is unbroken1 except1 of course1 by the minute pores1 and1 here and there1 the larger openings that serve for the outgoing currents2 but when it is found encrusting a rock in patches of considerable size1 the larger holes all occupy the summit of a little cone resembling a miniature volcano with its crater4 ,this sponge is easily removed from the rock with the aid of a blunt broad-bladed knife1 and retains its natural appearance to perfection if preserved in methylated spirit4 ,its horny skeleton is of a very compact nature1 and the spicules are minute siliceous needles pointed at both ends4 ,rambling on the sea beach we frequently meet with old oyster and other shells perforated by a number of circular holes about the size of a pin's head or less1 and chalk and limestone rocks also are seen similarly bored4 ,on breaking into or grinding down the substance we find that the openings are the ends of channels that form a network of canals and chambers1 some of which are so near the surface that they are covered by an exceedingly thin layer of the calcareous substance4 ,these canals and chambers form the home of the ,boring ,sponge 7,cliona71 which1 although a very soft-bodied animal1 has itself excavated them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,,spicules ,,of ,halichondria1 ,,magnified ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,an ,,oyster ,,shell ,,bored ,,by ,cliona ,the manner in which the ,cliona excavates such a complicated system of passages in so hard a material has naturally raised a considerable amount of curiosity1 and those who have studied the matter are divided in opinion as to whether the work is done by chemical or by mechanical action4 ,some of those who advocate the chemical theory suppose that an acid fluid is secreted by the sponge1 and that the carbonate of lime forming the shell or stone is thereby dissolved2 but such advocates have1 as yet1 failed to detect the presence of any acid substance in the body of the animal4 ,others ascribe the action to the solvent power of carbonic acid gas4 ,this gas certainly has the power of dissolving carbonate of lime1 as may be proved by a very simple experiment3 ,pour a little lime water into a glass1 and blow into it through a glass tube4 ,the lime water speedily becomes milky in appearance1 the lime having been converted into particles of chalk or carbonate of lime by union with the carbonic acid gas from the lungs4 ,continue to blow into the liquid for some time1 and the carbonate of lime will slowly disappear1 being gradually dissolved by the excess of the gas--the gas over and above that required for the formation of the carbonate4 ,thus1 it has been said1 the carbonic acid gas evolved as a product of the respiration of the sponge is the agent by which the channels are excavated4 ,whatever be the acid to which this power is ascribed1 whether it be the carbonic acid or a special acid fluid secreted for the purpose1 there is still this difficulty in the way of accepting the theory1 namely1 that an acid1 though it has the power of dissolving the mineral matter of a shell--the carbonate of lime--has no action on the lamin of animal substance that form part of the structure4 ,if we put the shell of a mollusc in hydrochloric or dilute nitric acid1 we obtain1 after the complete solution of the carbonate of lime1 a substantial residue of animal matter which the acid does not touch1 but in the case of ,cliona both animal and mineral substances yield to its power4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,spicules ,,of ,cliona ,those who favour the mechanical theory assert that the material is worn away by siliceous particles developed by the sponge1 and kept in constant motion as long as the animal lives2 and the theory is supported by the statement that1 in addition to the spicules of silica1 which are pin-shaped1 and occupy the interior of the animal1 there are little siliceous granules scattered on the surface of the sponge which are kept in constant motion resembling that of cilia2 and the minute particles of carbonate of lime that form a dusty deposit within the galleries are supposed to be the product of the rasping or drilling action of these granules4 ,the pin-shaped spicules of ,cliona may be obtained for microscopic examination by breaking any old oyster shell that has formed its home1 and brushing out the dust from the galleries2 or1 a part of the shell may be dissolved in acid1 and the sediment examined for spicules on a slip of glass4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,c,,lenterates--,,jelly-,,fishes1 ,,anemones1 ,,and ,,their ,,allies ,one of the most interesting groups of marine life is that including jelly-fishes and anemones4 ,in it are the pretty little sea firs1 so often mistaken for sea-weeds by the youthful admirers of these plants1 who almost always include them in their collection of marine alg2 the transparent1 bell-shaped jelly-fishes1 which may often be seen in thousands during the summer1 carried by the tides1 and swimming gently by graceful contractions of their bells2 and1 most beautiful of all1 the lovely anemones--the #8sea flowers' of the older naturalists1 by whom they were regarded as forms of vegetable life4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,,thread ,,cells ,,of ,a ,c,,lenterate1 ,,magnified #a4 ,thread retracted #b4 ,thread protruded ,the simplest animals of this group are minute jelly-like creatures1 of a more or less cylindrical form1 usually fixed at one end1 and having a mouth at the other4 ,the body is a simple hollow cylinder1 the wall of which is made up of two distinct layers1 while the cavity within serves the purpose of a stomach4 ,the mouth is surrounded by a circle of arms or tentacles by means of which the creature is enabled to capture its prey4 ,these arms are capable of free movement in every direction1 and can be readily retracted when the animal is disturbed4 ,they are also armed with minute oval1 hollow cells1 each of which has a slender filament coiled up into a spiral within its cavity4 ,each filament is capable of being suddenly protruded1 thus becoming a free whip-like appendage1 and these are so numerous as to be very effectual in seizing and holding the living beings on which the animal feeds4 ,this would undoubtedly be the case even if they were capable of mechanical action only1 but1 in many instances at least1 they seem to be aided by the presence of some violent irritant1 judging from the rapidity with which the struggling prey is paralysed when seized1 especially in the case of some of the larger members of the group4 ,the simple forms referred to increase by a process of budding1 the buds appearing first as simple swellings on the side of the parent creature1 and afterwards developing a mouth and tentacles1 thus becoming exactly like the adult form4 ,clusters of eggs also are developed in the outer layer of the body-wall1 and these are set free at intervals1 and produce new individuals4 ,these animals possess no blood system of any kind1 and have no special organs for respiration1 but the nutrient matter absorbed from the body-cavity permeates the soft structures of the flower-like body1 and the oxygen required for respiratory purposes is readily absorbed from the surrounding water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,the ,,squirrel',s-,,tail ,,sea ,,fir 7,sertularia argentea71 ,,with ,a ,,portion ,,enlarged ,the higher clenterates differ in certain particulars from the lower forms just referred to4 ,thus1 they frequently have a large number of tentacles around the mouth1 often arranged in several distinct whorls4 ,they have also a stomach separate from the general body-cavity1 but communicating with the latter below2 and the body-cavity is divided into compartments by a number of radiating partitions4 ,some1 also1 develop a hard1 stony skeleton by secreting carbonate of lime obtained from the water in which they live4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,sertularia filicula ,we often see1 when collecting on the beaches of rocky coasts1 and especially after storms1 a number of vegetable-like growths1 of a greyish or brownish colour1 each consisting of one or more main stalks bearing a number of delicate branches4 ,some of them1 by their peculiar mode of growth1 have suggested the name of sea firs1 and a few of these1 together with other animals of the same group1 may readily be recognised by the accompanying illustrations4 ,they are the objects already referred to as being commonly included in collections of sea-weeds by young naturalists1 but they are in reality the horny skeletons of colonies of clenterates of the simplest type1 belonging to the division ,hydrozoa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,sertularia cupressina ,if we examine them with a lens we find that there are little cup-like bodies projecting from each portion or branch of the stem-like structure1 and that the stem itself is hollow1 with a communicating pore at the base of each cup4 ,this constitutes the skeleton only of the colony--the dead matter1 so to speak1 which persists after the living creatures have perished2 but if the specimens collected have been obtained fresh from the sea1 placed in a glass of sea water1 and then examined with the aid of a lens1 little jelly-like hydroids or polypites will be seen to protrude from the cups1 and extend their short arms in search of food4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,the ,,herring-,,bone ,,polype 7,halecium halecinum7 ,each of the little creatures has a tubular stalk which passes through the hole at the base of the cup1 and is continuous with a tube of gelatinous material in the interior of the horny stem1 and thus each member of the colony is directly connected with all the others1 so that any nutrient matter collected and digested by one member may be absorbed into the central tube for the nourishment of the entire company of little socialists1 the activity of the one being thus made to compensate for the laziness or incompetency of others4 ,and this provision seems to be absolutely necessary for the well-being of the colony as a whole1 for a close examination will often show that a kind of division of labour has been established1 since it includes two or three distinct kinds of polypites1 each adapted for the performance of a certain function4 ,thus1 in addition to the feeding or nutritive members of the community1 there are some mouthless individuals whose sole function seems to be the production of eggs for the propagation of the species1 while others1 also mouthless1 develop an enormous number of stinging cells1 probably for the protection of the whole community against its enemies1 and these must therefore be provided1 as we have seen they are1 with a means by which they may derive nourishment through the agency of the feeding polypites4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,tubularia indivisa ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,,the ,,bottle ,,brush 7,thuiaria thuja7 ,when the eggs are liberated from what we may call the reproductive members1 they are carried away by the currents or tides1 and soon develop into little larv which are very unlike the parent1 since they are covered with minute vibratile cilia by means of which they can swim freely4 ,this they do for a period1 and then settle down1 lose their cilia1 become stalked1 and thus constitute the foundation of a new colony4 ,a tubular stalk grows upward from its root1 new members are added as outgrowths or buds from their progenitor1 and so the growth proceeds until an extensive colony of hundreds of individuals has been formed4 ,we have spoken of the hydroid communities as being washed up on the beaches of our rocky coasts1 but the collector of these interesting objects should not depend on such specimens for purposes of study4 ,it is undoubtedly true that splendid examples of the sea firs and their allies are frequently washed up by the waves1 including some species that inhabit deep water1 and which are1 consequently1 not to be found by the ordinary collector in their proper habitat1 and that these may often be secured with the polypites still alive2 but several species are to be obtained between the tide-marks1 especially at extreme low water1 growing on rocks1 weeds1 and shells2 and we have often met with good specimens1 still alive1 attached to the shells of whelks1 scallops1 c41 in fishmongers' stores1 even in inland towns4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,antennularia antennia ,sometimes individual polypites become detached from a colony1 and develop into little umbrella-shaped jelly-fishes1 about a fifth of an inch in diameter2 and these float about freely1 keeping themselves near the surface by rhythmic contractions of their #8bells1' the margins of which are fringed by numerous fine tentacles4 ,the mouth is situated centrally on the under side1 and is surrounded by a circular canal from which proceed radiating tubes2 and pigmented spots1 supposed to be rudimentary eyes1 are formed round the edge4 ,these little bodies are called ,medusoids1 and may frequently be seen floating round our coasts towards the end of the summer4 ,in the water they are almost invisible on account of the extreme transparency of their bodies2 but if a muslin net be drawn through the water from the stern of a boat1 and the net then gently turned inside out in a vessel of sea water1 a number of medusoids may be obtained for examination4 ,these creatures produce eggs which yield small ciliated larv that swim about freely for a time1 and then settle down and establish stalked colonies as previously described4 ,the larger jelly-fishes or ,medus so frequently seen floating in enormous numbers near the surface of the sea during the summer months are allied to the medusoids4 ,their bodies are so soft that it is a difficult matter to remove them from the water without injury1 and when removed their graceful forms are completely destroyed by the pressure of their own weight4 ,when left stranded on the beach1 as is often the case1 they seem to dissolve almost completely away1 so readily does the soft animal tissue disintegrate in the large proportion of water1 which forms about #ie per cent4 of the weight of the whole body4 ,those who desire to examine the nature and movements of the medus will find it necessary to observe them in water4 ,the creatures may be lifted out of the sea in a vessel placed below them1 and then transferred to a glass tank or a still rock pool by submerging the vessel and allowing them to float out4 ,it will then be observed that the mouth is situated at the summit of a tube that projects from the middle of the under side of the #8bell1' and is surrounded by lobed or frilled lips4 ,marginal tentacles also generally fringe the edge of the bell1 projecting downwards into the water4 ,round the circumference of the body may be seen a circular canal1 from which several tubes converge towards1 and communicate with1 the cavity of the stomach4 ,when a medusa is inactive1 its body gradually sinks to the bottom1 being usually slightly heavier than the water in which it lives2 but it is enabled to keep afloat by those rhythmic contractions of the bell with which we are so familiar4 ,it seems that the medus are very sensitive to various external conditions1 for they frequently disappear simultaneously from the surface water1 and as suddenly reappear in shoals when the conditions are more favourable2 but it is difficult to understand the causes which give rise to these remarkable movements4 ,the medus are often termed the ,acaleph--a word which signifies #8nettles1' and they are popularly known as sea nettles4 ,they all possess stinging cells1 which are distributed most thickly in the tentacles1 and some of the larger species are undoubtedly able to produce an impression on the bodies of unwary bathers1 while almost all have the power of paralysing the living prey on which they feed4 ,by far the commonest of the jelly-fishes of our seas is the beautiful blue medusa--,aurelia aurita4 ,this species appears in enormous shoals during the summer1 and large numbers are washed upon flat1 sandy beaches4 ,they vary in size from two or three inches to nearly a foot in diameter1 and may be recognised from our illustration4 ,the #8bell' is umbrella-shaped1 and is so transparent that the stomach with its radiating canals may be seen through its substance4 ,around the margin there are little pigment spots which are supposed to be rudimentary eyes1 and little cavities1 containing a clear fluid1 that are thought to serve the purpose of ears4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,aurelia aurita ,on the under surface may be seen the square mouth1 furnished with four long and graceful frilled lips1 which are richly supplied with stinging cells2 also the four ovaries or egg-producing organs1 rendered conspicuous by their violet colouring4 ,the life history of ,aurelia is most interesting4 ,the eggs are produced in pouches that communicate directly with the stomach-cavity1 and these give rise to little ciliated larv that are ejected through the mouth1 and then swim about freely in the water for a time4 ,after this they settle at the bottom1 lose their cilia1 and become little cylindrical jelly-fishes1 fixed by a short stalk-like foot to rocks or weeds4 ,numerous tentacles develop as the creatures increase in size1 and a number of transverse furrows appear at the surface4 ,the furrows gradually increase in depth until1 at last1 the body is broken up into several star-like discs1 each of which floats away and develops into a new medusa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,the ,,early ,,stages ,,of ,aurelia ,other jelly-fishes1 some of which are considerably larger than ,aurelia1 frequent our seas1 and are often to be seen stranded on the beach4 ,two of these--,rhizostoma and ,chrysaora--are figured4 ,although they differ considerably in form from the blue aurelia1 they closely resemble it in general structure and habits4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,rhizostoma ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,chrysaora ,when strolling on flat1 sandy beaches1 especially in the spring and early summer1 we commonly see what appear to be little balls of exceedingly transparent and glassy jelly1 no larger than an ordinary marble4 ,if picked up and examined1 we observe that they are not quite spherical1 but oval in form1 with a little tubercle at one end1 and eight equidistant bands running from this to the opposite end1 like the meridians on a globe4 ,this extremely beautiful little creature is one of the clenterates1 belonging to the division ,ctenophora1 or comb-bearing jelly-fishes1 so called because they possess comb-like ciliated plates1 and is called the ,globular ,beroe 7,cydippe pileus74 ,the ctenophores are very active creatures1 swimming freely in the open seas by means of their numerous cilia2 and1 although of such delicate structure1 are very predaceous1 devouring small crustaceans and other marine animals4 ,they are usually globular in form1 but some are like long ribbons1 and almost all are remarkable for their wonderful transparency1 which renders them nearly invisible when floating in water4 ,they have not the power of stinging or paralysing their prey1 as the medus have1 but their fringed arms are provided with adhesive cells by which they hold their prey tenaciously4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,cydippe pileus ,in order to observe the form and habits of the ,beroe we transfer it to a vessel of sea water1 when it immediately displays its regular spheroid form1 and its eight rows of comb-like plates which form the meridians before alluded to4 ,its mouth is situated on the little tubercle at what we may call the lower pole1 for it is the habit of the ,beroe to swim in an inverted position1 and the digestive cavity may be seen through its glassy body4 ,at first no appendages of any kind are visible1 but soon the animal protrudes two long and exceedingly slender arms1 fringed with slender gelatinous threads1 from two cavities1 at opposite sides of the body1 into which they can be withdrawn4 ,a close examination will also reveal the rapid movements of the cilia of its combs1 and it is remarkable that these do not always work together1 the animal being able to move any of its plates independently1 and to reverse their motion when occasion requires4 ,it has no tentacles corresponding with those of jelly-fishes and anemones1 but is assisted in the capture of its prey by its two long arms1 the chief use of which1 however1 seems to be that of a rudder for steering4 ,if the ,beroe is left out of water for some time1 the water which forms such a large proportion of its body evaporates1 leaving an almost imperceptible residue of solid matter2 and if left in water after it is dead1 its substance rapidly dissolves away1 leaving not the slightest trace of its presence4 ,there seems to be no satisfactory way of preserving this beautiful form of animal life4 ,if placed in strong spirit the water is rapidly extracted from its body1 and its animal substance shrivelled to a minute1 shapeless mass2 while in weak spirit and in other fluid preservatives it becomes more or less distorted1 and deprived of its beautiful transparency1 or else it disappears altogether4 ,we now come to the great favourites among the clenterates--the beautiful anemones-the animated flowers of the ocean1 remarkable not only for their lovely flower-like forms1 but also for the great variety of colour and of habits which they display4 ,these1 together with the corals1 form the division of the clenterates known as the ,zoantharia1 characterised by the possession of simple tentacles1 the number of which is a multiple of either five or six4 ,the latter differ from the former mainly in the power of secreting a calcareous skeleton which remains attached by its base after the animal substance has decayed4 ,the expanded anemone exhibits a more or less cylindrical body1 attached by a suctorial base to a rock or some other object1 and a broad circular disc above4 ,in the centre of this disc is the mouth1 surrounded by the tentacles1 often very numerous1 and arranged in one or more whorls4 ,when the animal is inactive the tentacles are usually completely withdrawn1 and the body contracted into a semiglobular or pear-shaped mass which is very firm to the touch4 ,the general internal structure of an anemone may be made out by simple dissections1 and the examination conducted with the specimen submerged in water4 ,a longitudinal section will show that the body is a double tube1 the outer being formed by the body-wall1 and the inner by the wall of the stomach4 ,thus there is a body-cavity distinct from that of the stomach1 but the two will be seen to communicate below1 since the stomach-wall does not extend as far down as the base4 ,it will be seen1 too1 that the body-wall is made up of two distinct layers--an outer one1 that is continued inward at the mouth to form the inner wall of the stomach1 and an inner one that lines the whole of the body-cavity4 ,the latter contains the muscular elements that enable the anemone to contract its body4 ,when the animal is expanded1 the whole interior is filled with sea water1 as are also the tentacles1 which are hollow tubes1 really extensions of the body-cavity1 and formed by prolongations of the same two layers that constitute the body-wall4 ,as it contracts this water is expelled1 partly through the mouth1 and partly through small openings that exist at the tips of the tentacles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,,section ,,of ,,an ,,anemone t1 tentacles2 m1 mouth2 s1 stomach2 b c1 body-cavity p1 mesentery2 o1 egg-producing organ ,the outer layer of the body-wall is provided with stinging cells which serve not only to protect the anemone from its enemies1 but also to aid it in the capture of its prey1 for which latter purpose they are distributed in much greater abundance in the tentacles4 ,the body-cavity is divided into a number of communicating compartments by means of vertical partitions running from the body-wall and converging towards the centre of the cavity4 ,these are called mesenteries1 and are extensions of the inner layer of the body-wall4 ,five or six of these are larger than the others1 extending from disc to base1 and are called primary mesenteries4 ,between these are an equal number of smaller secondary mesenteries2 and1 sometimes1 a third set of still smaller tertiary mesenteries4 ,these internal partitions are best displayed in a transverse section of the body1 which shows the double tube formed by the walls of the body and the stomach1 together with the wheel-like arrangement of the mesenteries4 ,at one time all animals that had a radial symmetry--the regular arrangement of parts round a common centre--were grouped together under the title of ,radiata2 but it has since been recognised that the creatures of this group exhibited such a great diversity of structure that they have been re-classified into two main divisions1 one of which constitutes the clenterates which we are at present considering1 and the other containing such creatures as star fishes and sea urchins4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,,stinging ,,cells ,,of ,,anemone1 ,,highly ,,magnified a and c1 with thread protruded2 b1 with cell retracted ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,,diagrammatic ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,an ,,anemone ,s1 stomach2 bc1 body-cavity2 m1 m1 m1 primary1 secondary1 and tertiary mesenteries ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,,larva ,,of ,,anemone ,on the surface of the mesenteries of the anemone may be seen the ovaries or egg-producing organs4 ,these discharge the ova into the general body-cavity1 after which they are ejected through the mouth4 ,the embryos are minute jelly-like creatures that have an active existence1 swimming about freely in the ocean by means of vibrating cilia1 but after this period of activity they settle down and fix themselves1 gradually assuming the adult form common to the species4 ,the habits of sea anemones are particularly interesting1 and it will well repay anyone to make a study of these animals in their natural haunts as well as in the aquarium4 ,the gentle swinging of the tentacles when searching for food1 the capture and disposal of the prey1 the peculiar modes of locomotion1 and the development of the young1 are among the chief points of interest4 ,as regards locomotion1 the usual method of moving from place to place is by an exceedingly slow gliding of the base or #8foot'2 and while some anemones are almost constantly on the move1 others hardly ever stir from the secluded niche in which they have taken up their abode4 ,sometimes an anemone will detach itself from the rock1 and drag itself along1 but very slowly1 by means of its tentacles1 sometimes inverting its body and walking on its head1 as it were1 and though one may never have the opportunity of witnessing this manuvre on the shore1 we have found it far from an uncommon occurrence in the aquarium4 ,the natural food of anemones consists of small crustaceans1 such as shrimps1 and crabs1 molluscs1 small fishes1 and in fact almost every kind of animal diet1 and there need never be any difficulty in finding suitable viands for species kept in captivity4 ,it is really astonishing to see what large morsels they can dispose of with the assistance of their extensile mouths and stomachs4 ,it is not even necessary1 indeed1 that the morsel be so small as to be entirely enclosed by the walls of its digestive cavity1 for the anemone will digest one portion while the other remains projecting beyond its mouth4 ,further1 it will even attack bodies which it cannot swallow at all1 by protruding its stomach so as to partially envelope them1 and then digesting the portion enclosed4 ,indigestible portions of its food1 such as the shells of small molluscs1 are ejected through the mouth after the process of digestion has been completed4 ,we have already referred to the reproduction of sea anemones by means of eggs1 but it is interesting to note that they may also increase by a division of the body into two or more parts1 and that this division may be either natural or artificial4 ,if an anemone be cut into halves longitudinally1 each half will develop into a complete animal4 ,if cut transversely1 the upper portion will almost always develop a new suctorial disc1 and produce a new individual complete in every respect2 and it has been stated that the basal portion of the divided animal will also1 occasionally1 produce a new disc and tentacles4 ,the natural division of the anemone has frequently been spoken of as by no means an uncommon occurrence1 but1 as far as our experience of captive anemones go1 this mode of multiplication does not seem to take place except as the result of some mechanical force applied1 or as a means by which the animal may relieve itself of a solid body that it is unable to eject4 ,thus1 on one occasion1 when a stone had slipped so that its narrow edge rested across the middle of the disc of a large ,mesembryanthemum1 the animal1 apparently unable to free itself from the burden1 simply withdrew its tentacles and awaited results4 ,in a few days two individuals were to be seen1 one on either side of the stone1 both undoubtedly produced as the result of the pressure applied4 ,this instance seems to be exactly akin to artificial division1 for it is far more likely that the animal was severed by the simple pressure of the stone than that it divided itself to be relieved of its burden4 ,on another occasion an anemone that had almost entirely surrounded a mussel on which it had been feeding1 gradually released itself of the shell by a longitudinal division of its body2 but here1 again1 it is probable that the fission was the result of pressure applied rather than of any power on the part of the animal4 ,a few of the ,british sea anemones are shown on ,plates ,,ii4 and ,,iii41 and although the coloured illustrations will probably suffice for purposes of identification1 yet a short description of each one represented may be acceptable4 ,the most common and most widely distributed species is undoubtedly the familiar ,beadlet 7,actinia mesembryanthemum--,plate ,,ii41 figs4 #a1 #b1 #c71 which is to be found on every bit of rocky coast around the ,british ,isles1 and even on some stony beaches where there are no standing rocks between the tide-marks4 ,the colour of this species is exceedingly variable1 but the most abundant variety is of a liver-brown colour1 with crimson disc and tentacles1 brilliant blue spots round the margin of the disc1 and a line of bright blue around the base4 ,in others the prevailing colour is deep crimson1 orange1 yellowish brown1 or green4 ,fig4 #a represents a variety commonly known as the ,strawberry ,beadlet 7,fragacea71 which is distinguished by its superior size1 and in which the dark-red ground is often conspicuously spotted with green4 ,two members of the same genus are also shown on ,plate ,,iii4 ,one of these--,a4 glauca 7fig4 #c7--;is of a bluish-green colour2 while the other--,a4 chiococca 7fig4 #d7--;is bright scarlet1 with deep crimson disc and white spots round the disc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,sea ,,anemones #a1 #b1 #c1 ,actinia mesembryanthemum4 #d4 ,caryophyllia ,smithii4 #e4 ,tealia crassicornis4 #f4 ,sagartia bellis4 #g4 ,balanophyllia regia4 #h4 ,actinoloba dianthus4 ,the general form of this genus is that of an expanded flower on a short column2 the name ,beadlet is applied on account of the little bead-like projections on the margin of the disc4 ,the tentacles number nearly two hundred in a fully grown individual1 and are arranged in several rows2 but when the animal is disturbed and the tentacles retracted1 its form is almost hemispherical4 ,it is interesting to note that ,a4 mesembryanthemum not only exists in varieties distinguished by distinct colours1 but that the same individual will sometimes change its tint1 as may be observed when it is kept in the aquarium2 and it may be mentioned1 by the way1 that it is very easily reared in captivity1 either in the natural or the artificial salt water1 for not only may the same individuals be kept alive for years with only a moderate amount of attention1 but their offspring may be reared without difficulty4 ,on ,plate ,,ii4 7fig4 #h7 are two illustrations of the beautiful ,actinoloba dianthus1 which grows to a length of five or six inches1 and is easily distinguished by its expanded and frilled disc1 its very numerous short and slender tentacles1 and its tall1 pillar-like body4 ,its colour is somewhat variable1 being either salmon1 flesh-colour1 cream1 white1 red1 orange1 or brownish2 but whatever be the tint of the body and tentacles1 the margin of the mouth is always red or orange4 ,when young it may easily be mistaken for another species1 as its disc is not then frilled1 and the tentacles are much fewer in number4 ,this pretty anemone usually inhabits deep water1 and is frequently brought in1 attached to shells and stones1 by trawlers1 but it may be commonly observed in the dark crevices of rocks1 a little above low-water mark1 where it is usually seen contracted into a ball1 or even so much flattened that it looks like a mere pulpy incrustation of the rock4 ,it is very common on the rocky coasts of ,dorset1 ,devon1 and ,cornwall1 as well as in many parts of ,scotland and ,ireland4 ,like the ,beadlet1 it is easily kept alive in the aquarium1 where it commonly multiplies by natural division2 but as it does not generally expand in full daylight1 its beauty is often better observed at night by artificial light4 ,on ,plate ,,ii4 7fig4 #e7 we have an illustration of the beautiful ,dahlia ,wartlet 7,tealia crassicornis71 which may be readily recognised by its thick1 banded1 horn-like tentacles1 and the numerous little adhesive warts that almost cover the surface of its body4 ,this species is as abundant as it is beautiful1 for it is to be found in plenty on almost every rocky coast1 where it may be seen in the rock pools and in the crevices of rocks near low-water mark4 ,the diameter of its cylindrical body often reaches two or three inches1 while the expanded tentacles embrace a circle of four or five inches4 ,specimens even much larger than this are sometimes obtained by dredging in deep water4 div classfigcenter stylewidth3 #ejjpx2 a namefig#id idfig#id_/;a img srcimages_/i#afg4;jpg width#ejj height#efg alt _/ ,,fig4 #id4--,,the ,,trumpet ,,anemone 7,aiptasia ,couchii71 ,,cornwall2 ,,deep ,,water _/div ,the #8,dahlia' is not so frequently seen by sea-side collectors as its abundance would lead one to expect1 and this is principally due to the fact that it not only conceals itself in narrow and out-of-the-way crevices and angles of rocks1 but also that1 on the retreat of the tide1 it generally covers itself with small stones1 fragments of shells1 c41 held fast to its body by means of its numerous suckers4 ,in this manner it conceals its beauty so well that the sense of touch1 as well as that of sight1 is necessary in determining its whereabouts4 ,as a rule1 however1 it does not resort to this method of concealment when it inhabits deep water1 or even a permanent rock pool between the tide-marks1 and thus it is in the latter home where one may expect to see this sea flower in all its glory1 for when permanently covered with water it will seldom hide its crown1 except when alarmed1 or when in the act of swallowing its food4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,peachia hastata1 ,s4 ,,devon ,it should be noted1 too1 that the rock pool is the right place in which to study the habits of this anemone1 for it is not nearly so easy to rear in the artificial aquarium as the species previously described1 and1 moreover1 it requires a great deal of food4 ,we have found it live longest in running water1 kept cool1 and frequently renewed by supplies fresh from the sea4 ,it may be fed on almost any1 if not every1 form of animal life inhabiting a rock pool4 ,a small fish or a prawn is perfectly helpless when once it is seized by the creature's tentacles4 ,mussels1 winkles1 limpets1 c41 are eagerly swallowed1 and the indigestible shells disgorged after the animal substance has been dissolved by the digestive fluid4 ,even the active shore crab1 armed as it is with a coat of mail and powerful pincers1 is no match for its powerfully adhesive tentacles2 nor do the sharp spines of the prickly urchin preserve it from so voracious a creature4 ,the rocky coasts of ,devon and ,cornwall are the chief haunts of the pretty #8,daisy ,anemone' 7,sagartia bellis71 and here it is very abundant in places4 ,this species lives in holes and crevices of the rocks1 its body usually entirely hidden from view1 but its dark brown disc1 intersected by bright red radiating lines1 and fringed with numerous small tentacles1 fully exposed to view as long as it is submerged4 ,the length of its body is always adapted to the depth of the hole or crevice in which the animal lives1 and may vary from half an inch to two or three inches1 the diameter of the columns being greatest where the length is least4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,sagartia pallida1 ,,devon ,,and ,,cornwall ,sometimes the #8,daisy' may be seen living a solitary life1 having settled down in a hole just large enough to accommodate it1 but more commonly it is seen in company with several others of its species1 occupying a crevice in a rock pool1 and often so closely packed together that the tentacles of each individual are intermingled with those of its neighbours1 thus exhibiting a more or less continuous cluster or line of #8flowers1' each disc being from one to two or three inches in diameter when fully expanded4 ,on account of the peculiar positions selected by this species1 it is not easily removed without injury1 and hammer and chisel are almost always necessary for its removal2 but if it is obtained without injury1 and transferred to the indoor aquarium1 but little difficulty will be found in keeping it alive and in health4 ,it is also very prolific1 and a single specimen placed in the indoor tank will frequently produce a large number of young4 ,the colour of ,s4 bellis1 like that of many of our anemones1 is very variable1 but the species may easily be recognised by the radiating lines of the disc1 and the numerous small tentacles4 ,one variety1 however1 deviates considerably in form1 colour1 and habit from the normal4 ,it 7,plate ,,ii41 fig4 #f7 is of a dull yellow colour1 and has a much less graceful form2 and1 instead of living in the holes and crevices of rocky coasts1 where it would be washed by fresh sea water at every tide1 it inhabits the muddy and ftid waters of narrow inlets of the sea in the neighbourhood of ,weymouth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,sagartia nivea1 ,,devon ,,and ,,cornwall ,three other species of the same genus are represented on ,plate ,,iii4 ,the first of these--,sagartia troglodytes1 sometimes called the ,cave-dweller 7fig4 #a7--though very variable in colour1 may be known by its barred tentacles1 each with a black ,b-like mark near its base4 ,it lives in sheltered1 sandy1 or muddy hollows between the rocks on most rugged coasts1 often with its body entirely buried beneath the sediment2 or1 if only partially buried1 the projecting portion of the column concealed by particles that adhere to its suckers4 ,the column is usually of an olive colour1 striped longitudinally with a paler tint1 and sometimes reaches a length of two inches1 while the diameter of the expanded #8flower' may even exceed this length4 ,this anemone is not a very conspicuous object of the shore1 since the exposed portion of its column is usually more or less covered by sedimentary matter1 and the tentacles are generally of a tint closely resembling that of the surrounding surface4 ,thus the anemone is protected from its enemies by its peculiar habit and colouring1 while at the same time the spreading tentacles constitute an unseen but deadly snare for the unwary victims that come within their range4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,corynactus viridis1 ,,devon ,,and ,,cornwall ,this species is often difficult to secure without injury on account of its preference for narrow chinks in awkward situations1 but we have found that it is sometimes easily removed by first clearing away the surrounding dbris1 and then gently pushing it from its hold by means of the finger-nail4 ,it seems1 in fact1 that its base is occasionally quite free from the underlying rock1 being simply imbedded in sand or mud4 ,in other cases hammer and chisel are necessary to remove it from its snug hole4 ,if placed in the aquarium it should be allowed to get a foot-hold in a suitable hole or crevice1 which should be afterwards partially filled with sand4 ,it is not difficult to keep1 and although not a showy species1 and having a decided preference for shady places1 yet its habits will be found interesting4 ,the ,orange-disked ,anemone 7,sagartia venusta7 is represented in fig4 #b of the same plate4 ,it may be easily distinguished by its brilliant orange-coloured disc1 surrounded by white tentacles1 which1 when fully expanded1 commands a circle of from one to one and a half inches4 ,south-west ,wales is said to be the headquarters of this pretty sea flower1 but we have found it abundant on parts of the north ,devon coast1 especially in places between ,ilfracombe and ,lynton4 ,like the last species1 it may be termed a cave-dweller1 for it delights to hide in corners and crevices that are so overhung with rocks and weeds that the light is never strong4 ,yet another species of this genus 7,s4 rosea7 is depicted in ,plate ,,iii41 fig4 #h4 ,it has been termed the ,rosy ,anemone1 from the brilliant rosy tint of its numerous tentacles4 ,the column is generally of a dull brown colour1 with suckers scattered over the upper portion1 and the flower reaches a diameter of an inch or more4 ,this anemone may be seen at rest on overhanging rocks near low-water mark when the tide is out1 its disc only partially hidden1 and the tips of its bright tentacles just exposed4 ,it may be seen on many parts of the ,devon coast1 and is1 or1 at least1 was1 abundant in localities near ,brixham and ,shaldon4 ,on the same plate is an illustration 7fig4 #g7 of one of the most abundant and most interesting of our anemones4 ,it is commonly known as the ,opelet1 and its scientific name is ,anthea cereus4 ,almost everyone who has done a little collecting on the rocky shores of the south-west of ,england1 or on the shores of ,scotland or ,ireland1 must have seen this species1 easily distinguished by its long1 slender1 smooth tentacles1 all of about equal length1 and presenting a waxy appearance4 ,these appendages are usually green and tipped with pink1 but sometimes pale yellow or red1 and are of such a length that they cover a circle of five or six inches4 ,this species is decidedly of social disposition1 for a number may generally be seen in a cluster1 crowded closely together2 and when we see them1 as we often do1 occupying a little tide pool that contains scarcely sufficient water to enable them to give free play to their tentacles1 and exposed for hours to the full blaze of the summer sun1 we naturally form the opinion that they ought to require no special care in the indoor aquarium4 ,and this is actually the case1 for they thrive well with but little trouble4 ,perhaps the chief interest attached to this anemone is the deadly nature of its grip4 ,the numerous long tentacles have considerable clinging power throughout their length1 and their paralysing power is very considerable compared with that of many other species of the same size4 ,even the human skin is more or less affected by the irritating influence of this species1 a sensation approaching to a sting being sometimes produced1 and the skin showing visible signs of the injury done4 ,the grip1 too1 is so tenacious that tentacles are sometimes torn off when the hand is quickly withdrawn from their hold4 ,our next example is the ,red-specked ,pimplet 7,bunodes ,ballii71 shown in fig4 #e of ,plate ,,iii41 which has received its popular name on account of the numerous longitudinal rows of red-specked warts that run down its short yellow column1 and other red spots on the column itself1 between the rows4 ,its tentacles are usually pale yellow or white1 but sometimes grey or greenish1 and often tinged with pink4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,bunodes thallia1 ,,west ,,coast ,this anemone is common on some parts of the coasts of ,hampshire1 ,dorset1 ,devon1 and ,cornwall1 as well as on the south coast of the ,isle of ,wight1 and may be found in secluded crevices of the rocks1 or under the large stones that are scattered on the beach4 ,the ,gem ,pimplet 7,bunodes gemmacea7 is shown on the same plate 7fig4 #f74 ,it is easily distinguished by the six conspicuous longitudinal rows of large white warts1 between which are several other rows of smaller ones4 ,the column is pink or brownish1 and the thick tentacles are conspicuously marked by light-coloured roundish spots4 ,it is not uncommon on the south-west coast of ,england1 where it may be seen in the rock pools and on the surfaces of rocks between the tide-marks4 ,both of the species of ,bunodes above mentioned may be kept in the aquarium without much trouble4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,sea ,,anemones #a4 ,sagartia troglodytes #b4 ,sagartia venusta #c4 ,actinia glauca #d4 ,actinia chiococca #e4 ,bunodes ,ballii #f4 ,bunodes gemmacea #g4 ,anthea cereus #h4 ,sagartia rosea ,all the anemones so far briefly described are quite devoid of any kind of skeleton1 the whole body being of a pulpy or leathery consistence1 but some of our ,british species develop an internal calcareous skeleton1 consisting of a hollow cylinder of carbonate of lime secreted by the body-wall1 and attached to the rock by means of a similar deposit formed in the base1 and also1 within the cylinder1 of a number of thin plates attached to the skeleton of the body-wall and projecting inwards towards the axis1 thus resembling1 in fact1 the skeletons of a number of the tropical corals with which we are familiar4 ,the animals in question are often collectively spoken of as ,british corals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,bunodes gemmacea1 ,,with ,,tentacles ,,retracted ,one of the finest of these corals is the ,devon ,cup-,coral 7,caryophyllia ,smithii71 figured on ,plate ,,ii4 ,it may be found in many parts of ,devon and ,cornwall1 attached to the rocks between the tide-marks1 often in very exposed places1 but is much more abundant in deep water4 ,its skeleton is white or pale pink1 and very hard1 and is in itself a beautiful object4 ,the animal surrounding this stony structure is of a pale fawn colour1 with a white disc relieved by a deep brown circle round the mouth4 ,the tentacles are conical1 almost colourless and transparent1 with the exception of the deep-brown warts scattered irregularly over them1 and are tipped by rounded white heads4 ,of course a hammer and chisel are necessary for the removal of these corals1 but they are hardy creatures1 and may be kept for a considerable time in captivity4 ,their habits1 too1 are particularly interesting1 and two or more may sometimes be found with skeletons attached1 suggesting that branched arrangement so common in many of the corals from warmer seas4 ,another of these stony corals 7,balanophyllia regia7 is shown on the same plate4 ,it is much smaller than the last species1 but exceedingly pretty4 ,it is also much less abundant1 being confined almost exclusively to the coast of ,north ,devon1 and is seldom seen far above the lowest ebb of the tide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--;,caryophyllia cyathus ,our few brief descriptions of ,british anemones and corals have been confined to those species which appear in our coloured plates1 but we have interspersed here and there between the text a few illustrations which will assist in the identification of other species and also help to show what a rich variety of form is exhibited by these beautiful creatures4 ,some of these inhabit deep water only and are consequently beyond the reach of most sea-side observers during the ordinary course of their work2 yet they may often be seen in fishing villages1 especially in the south-west1 where they are frequently brought in among the haul of the trawlers1 attached either to shells or stones2 and live specimens of these deep-sea anemones may even be seen on the shells of whelks and bivalve molluscs in the fishdealers' shops of ,london and other large towns4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,sagartia parasitica ,one of the species in question--the ,parasitic ,anemone 7,sagartia parasitica7 is generally found on the shell of the whelk or some other univalve2 and1 if removed from its chosen spot1 it will again transfer itself to a similar shell when an opportunity occurs4 ,this interesting anemone is usually seen among the dredgings of the trawler1 but may be occasionally met with on the rocky coasts of the south-west1 at extreme low-water mark4 ,though sometimes seen attached to stones1 shells may undoubtedly be regarded as constituting the natural home of the species1 and many regard the former position as accidental or merely temporary1 and denoting that the animal had been disturbed and removed from its favourite spot1 or that circumstances had recently rendered a change of lodgings necessary or desirable4 ,further1 the shell selected by this anemone is almost always one that is inhabited by a hermit crab2 and this is so generally the case that the occasional exceptions to the rule probably point to instances in which the occupant of the shell had been roughly ejected during the dredging operations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,,the ,,cloak ,,anemone 7,adamsia palliata7 ,,on ,a ,,whelk ,,shell1 ,,with ,,hermit ,,crab ,the peculiar habit of the anemone just referred to makes it an interesting pet for the aquarium1 for if removed from its natural home1 and placed in the aquarium with a hermit crab1 it will1 sooner or later1 as the opportunity occurs1 glide from its hole on the stone or rock1 and transfer itself to its favourite moving home4 ,it may be difficult at first to see what advantage can accrue to the anemone by the selection of such a situation2 and1 moreover1 it becomes an interesting question as to whether the advantage is a mutual one4 ,close observations may1 and already have1 thrown some light on this matter1 though it is probable that there still remains something to be learnt concerning the relations which exist between the inside and outside occupants of the portable house4 ,it may be noticed that the anemone almost invariably takes up a position on the same portion of the shell1 and that1 when fully expanded1 its mouth is usually turned towards that of the crab4 ,this seems to be a very favourable position for the anemone1 since it is one that will enable it to catch the waste morsels from the crab's jaws by its expanded tentacles4 ,but it is1 perhaps1 not so easy to suggest a means by which the anemone can make an adequate return for free board thus obtained4 ,it is well to remember1 however1 that crabs are regarded as such delicate morsels by fishes that we have already spoken of the value of these crustaceans as bait2 while the fact that sea anemones remain perfectly unmolested in rock pools inhabited by most voracious fishes1 coupled with the fisherman's experience as to the absolute worthlessness of anemones as bait1 is sufficient in itself to justify the conclusion that these creatures are very distasteful to fishes4 ,this being the case1 it is possible that the hermit crab is amply repaid by the anemone for its liberal board not only by partially hiding the crab from the view of its enemies1 and thereby rendering it less conspicuous1 but also by associating its own distasteful substance with that which would otherwise be eagerly devoured4 ,when the hermit grows too large to live comfortably in its shell1 a change of home becomes necessary1 and it is interesting to observe that the anemone living on the outside of the shell transfers itself at the same time2 and this is a matter of vital importance to the crab1 since it usually changes its lodging at the moulting period1 at which time its body is covered by a soft skin1 and is then even more acceptable as prey to the fishes4 ,thus the anemone accompanies its host1 affording it continued protection during the period of its greatest danger4 ,before leaving the clenterates we must refer to one other form which1 though not often having its habitat between the tide-marks1 is nevertheless a very common object in the neighbourhood of fishing villages1 where the refuse from the nets used in deep water has been thrown on the beach4 ,we refer to the peculiar animal known to fishermen as #8,dead ,men's ,fingers1' and to the naturalist as the ,alcyonium4 ,when seen out of water it is not by any means an inviting object1 but is apparently a mass of gristly matter1 of a dirty yellowish or brownish colour1 sometimes flattened and shapeless1 and sometimes lobed in such a manner as to suggest the popular name so commonly applied4 ,it is always attached to some hard object1 such as a stone or a shell1 and is so frequently associated with oyster shells that it is by no means an uncommon object in the fishmonger's shop1 from which we have often obtained live specimens for the aquarium4 ,when placed in sea water it gradually imbibes the fluid surrounding it1 becoming much swollen4 ,then little star-like openings appear1 the circumference of each of which protrudes so as to form a little projecting tube4 ,finally1 a crown of eight little tentacles is protruded1 and the mass1 so uninteresting at first sight1 reveals itself as a colony of pretty polyps4 ,in general structure the ,alcyonium resembles the sea anemone1 but the firm body-wall of the colony is supported and protected to some extent by the presence of minute spicules of carbonate of lime2 and it is interesting to note that while the tentacles of anemones and corals make up a number that is a multiple of either five or six1 those of the ,alcyonaria and the allied #8,sea pens' are always in multiples of four4 ,,chapter ,x ,,starfishes1 ,,sea ,,urchins1 ,,etc4 ,still passing up the scale of animal life1 we now come to the ,echinodermata--the other sub-kingdom which we have already referred to as forming1 with the ,clenterates1 the old division of ,radiata4 ,the term ,echinoderm signifies #8hedgehog skin1' and is applied to the group on account of the fact that the majority of its species possess a skin that is either distinctly spiny1 or exhibits numerous more or less defined prominences4 ,this skin is also supported and hardened by the deposit of little plates or spicules of carbonate of lime1 all joined together so as to form a kind of scaffolding or #8test' for the protection of the animal2 and this secretion of carbonate of lime is not always confined to the outer skin1 for1 in some cases1 it occurs in the walls of the internal organs as well4 ,most of the animals of this sub-kingdom display a regular radiate symmetry2 that is1 the parts of their bodies are arranged regularly round a common axis1 and the arrangement is usually a five-fold one1 as may be observed in the case of the common ,five-fingered ,starfish of our coasts 7see ,plate ,,iv471 and it is worthy of note that this radiate disposition of parts is not merely external1 but that1 as in the case of anemones and jelly-fishes1 it also obtains within1 and determines the arrangement of the internal organs4 ,further1 although this radiate symmetry characterises the adult animals of the group we are considering1 yet some show a tendency towards bilateral symmetry 7parts arranged equally on two opposite sides of a common axis71 while this is the rule1 rather than the exception1 with the early stages or larv of these creatures4 ,observe1 for instance1 the larva of the common ,brittle ,starfish1 the adult of which species exhibits an almost perfect radiate symmetry1 and we see something more than a mere trace of a two-sided disposition4 ,we have not to look far into the structure of any typical echinoderm to see that it is a distinct advance on the anemones in the matter of organisation4 ,to begin with its digestive system--this consists of a tube having no communication with the general body-cavity1 but remaining quite distinct throughout its length1 with both ends communicating directly with the exterior4 ,its nervous system also is more highly developed1 for it has a well-formed ring of nerve matter round the mouth1 from which pass two or three systems of nerve fibres1 each system having its own special function to perform4 ,the sense organs1 however1 do not appear to be well developed1 though there exist certain #8pigment spots1' in which nerve fibres terminate1 and which are supposed to serve the purpose of eyes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,,larva ,,of ,,the ,,brittle ,,starfish ,one of the most interesting features in connection with the echinoderms is undoubtedly the structure and function of the apparatus for locomotion4 ,examine a live sea urchin1 or the common five-rayed starfish1 in a rock pool or aquarium1 and it will be seen to possess a large number of soft1 flexible1 and protrusible processes1 each of which terminates in a little sucking-disc that enables the animal to obtain a good #8foot-hold2' and1 having fixed itself on one side by means of a number of these little #8feet1' it is enabled1 by the contraction of certain muscles1 to pull itself along4 ,the little feet we are examining are really tubes filled with water1 and capable of being inflated by the injection of water into them from within the body of the animal4 ,each one communicates with a water tube1 several of which 7usually five7 radiate from a circular canal of water that surrounds the mouth4 ,this circular canal does not communicate with the mouth1 but with a tube1 known as the #8stone canal' because of the carbonate of lime deposited within its walls1 that opens at the surface of the body on the opposite side1 and is guarded at the orifice by one or more perforated plates through which water gains admission4 ,thus the animal can fill its #8water system' direct from the sea1 and1 by the contraction of muscles that surround the main canals1 force this water into the little #8tube-feet1' causing them to protrude and present their sucking-discs to any solid object over which it desires to creep4 ,we may observe1 however1 that some of the little protrusible tubes have no sucking-discs1 and probably serve the purpose of feelers only2 also1 that while these tube-feet are the principal means of locomotion in certain species1 in others the movements of the body are performed almost exclusively by the five or more rays that extend from the centre of the animal1 and which are readily curved into any desired position by the action of well-developed muscles4 ,all the echinoderms come within the domain of the marine naturalist1 for no members of the sub-kingdom are inhabitants of fresh water2 and it is interesting to observe that1 unlike the animals previously described1 none of them live in colonies4 ,a general examination of the various starfishes to be found in our seas will show that they may be divided into three distinct groups4 ,one of these contains the pretty ,feather ,stars1 which are distinguished by their long and slender #8arms1' usually ten or more in number1 each of which bears a number of pinnules that give it quite a feathered appearance4 ,the second includes the ,brittle ,stars1 possessing five slender arms that are jointed to the small1 flattened1 central disc1 and which are so named on account of the readiness with which the animal falls to pieces when alarmed or disturbed2 and the third is formed by the remaining five-rayed stars1 the arms of which1 instead of being jointed to1 are continuous with1 the centre of the body4 ,all these starfishes have a leathery skin1 supported and hardened by a framework of calcareous plates1 and presenting a number of hard ridges or spines4 ,in addition to the system of water tubes already mentioned as characteristic of the echinoderms1 they also possess a second circular vessel round the mouth1 from which a number of vessels are distributed to the walls of the digestive tube4 ,these1 however1 are bloodvessels1 and are directly concerned with the nutrition of the body4 ,some1 also1 have imperfectly developed eyes at the ends of the arms or rays4 ,contrary to what one would expect after watching the somewhat sluggish movements of starfishes1 they are really very voracious creatures1 attacking and devouring molluscs and small crustaceans1 sometimes even protruding their stomachs to surround their prey when too large to be passed completely through the mouth2 and they are also valuable as scavengers1 since they greedily devour dead fishes and other decomposible animal matter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,,larva ,,of ,,the ,,feather ,,star ,feather ,stars differ from other starfishes in that they are stalked or rooted during one portion of their early life4 ,at first they are little free-swimming creatures1 feeding on foraminifers and other minute organisms that float about in the sea4 ,then they settle down and become rooted to the bottom1 usually in deep water1 at which stage they are like little stalked flowers1 and closely resemble the fossil encrinites or stone lilies so common in some of our rock beds1 and to which they are1 indeed1 very closely allied4 ,after a period of this sedentary existence1 during which they have to subsist on whatever food happens to come within their reach1 they become free again1 lose their stalks1 and creep about by means of their arms to hunt for their prey4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,,the ,,rosy ,,feather ,,star ,the commonest ,british species of these starfishes is the ,rosy ,feather ,star 7,antedon rosaceus72 and as this creature may be kept alive in an aquarium for some considerable time without much difficulty1 it will repay one to secure a specimen for the observation of its habits4 ,it is not often1 however1 that the ,feather ,star is to be found above low-water mark1 its home being the rugged bottom under a considerable depth of water1 where a number usually live in company2 but there is no difficulty in obtaining this and many other species of interesting starfishes in fishing towns and villages where trawlers are stationed1 for they are being continually found among the contents of the net4 ,although the ,feather ,star can hardly be described as an active creature1 yet it will cover a considerable amount of ground in the course of a day1 creeping over rocks and weeds by means of its arms1 which are raised1 extended1 and again depressed in succession1 each one thus in turn serving the purpose of a foot4 ,these arms are capable of being moved freely in any direction1 as are also the little more or less rigid pinnules appended to them4 ,the latter are bent backwards on an extended arm that is being used to pull the animal along1 so that they form so many grappling hooks that hold on the bottom2 and then the arm in question is bent into a curve by the contraction of its muscles1 thus dragging the body forward4 ,the arms on the opposite side of the body are also used to assist the movement by pushing it in the same direction1 and this is accomplished by first bending the arms1 and then1 after curving the pinnules in a direction from the body1 again extending them4 ,other movements of the feather star are equally interesting4 ,thus1 the manner in which it will suddenly extend its arms and apply its pinnules to the surface on which it rests in order to obtain a good hold when alarmed1 and the way in which it apparently resents interference when one of the arms is touched1 are worthy of observation4 ,the arms themselves are readily broken1 and will continue to move for some time after being severed from the body1 but the loss to the animal is only temporary1 for a new arm grows in the place of each one that has been broken off4 ,this tendency to break into pieces is much greater in the ,brittle ,stars1 as might be expected from their popular name2 and is1 in fact1 such a marked characteristic of the group that it is not by any means an easy matter to obtain a collection of perfect specimens4 ,they will often snap off all their arms1 as if by their own power of will1 when disturbed or alarmed1 and even when removed from their hold without injury1 they will frequently break themselves into pieces if dropped into spirit or in any way subjected to a sudden change of conditions4 ,the tube-feet of ,brittle ,stars are very small and are not provided with suckers1 but are very sensitive1 serving the purpose of feelers2 also1 having thin1 permeable walls1 they probably play a large part in the process of respiration4 ,both arms and disc are hardened by a dense scaffolding of calcareous plates2 and not only are the former attached to the latter by a well-formed joint1 but the arms themselves are constructed of a number of segments that are held together by a kind of #8tongue and groove' joint4 ,round the mouth are a number of tentacles that are kept in constant motion with the object of carrying the food towards it1 and of holding the larger morsels while the act of swallowing is progressing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,,the ,,common ,,brittle ,,star ,the various species of ,brittle ,stars live among the rocks and weeds1 chiefly in deep water1 where they move about by means of the muscular contraction of their arms1 the disc being raised on the curved arms as the animal proceeds4 ,some species are to be found between the tide-marks1 and especially abundant on the south-west coast are two small species that live among the tufts of coralline weeds1 sometimes so crowded together that dozens may be taken from a little patch of coralline only two or three inches square4 ,these have such small discs1 and such slender arms1 and are1 moreover1 so well concealed by their colouring1 which closely resembles that of the weed-tuft they inhabit1 that they are only to be detected by close inspection4 ,the remaining division of the starfishes1 sometimes distinguished by the name of ,common ,stars1 possess five arms or rays1 which may be either long or short1 and which are not jointed with the central disc1 but continuous with it2 that is1 there is no sharp line of demarcation between arm and disc4 ,one or two species are well known to all frequenters of the sea-side1 but the majority of them inhabit deep water1 where they creep about over the rocks and weeds1 obtaining their food from the bed below them4 ,if we examine the common five-finger star that is so often stranded on the beach1 and so frequently found in rock pools between the tide-marks1 we see that each arm has a large and conspicuous groove running along its centre on the under side1 and on each side of these are the rows of tube-feet1 arranged in such a manner that they have suggested the appearance of an avenue of trees on each side of a garden walk1 and have consequently earned the name of ambulacrum4 ,these tube-feet may be protruded for some distance2 and1 being provided with suckers that possess considerable clinging power1 they form the principal means of locomotion4 ,put the starfish in the aquarium1 or in a tidepool by the sea1 and you will find it very interesting to observe how the animal progresses1 while some idea of the clinging power of the tube-feet may be ascertained by allowing the animal to creep over the submerged hand4 ,the movements of the tube-feet may also be seen to advantage when the starfish is laid upside down in a pool1 and1 what is still more interesting1 the manner in which the animal turns itself over4 ,to do this it will first bend the tips of one or two of its arms so as to bring the suckers against the ground2 and then1 aided by the pulling action of these1 it will gradually bring other suckers into a similar position till1 at last1 the whole body has been turned over4 ,some of our common starfishes have rays so short that they may be termed angles rather than arms1 and these are unable to turn their inverted bodies by the gradual method just described4 ,they generally raise their bodies on the tips of three or four of the rays1 assuming somewhat the form of a three-or four-legged stool1 and then1 bending the remaining one or two arms over the body1 they alter the position of the centre of gravity till eventually the body topples over to the desired position4 ,some of the common five-rayed stars have no suckers on their tube-feet1 and consequently have to creep by means of the muscular contractions of their arms2 and several of them are like the brittle stars in breaking up their bodies when irritated or seized4 ,this latter peculiarity will account for the frequency with which we come across animals with one or more rays smaller than the others1 the smaller rays being new ones that have been produced in the place of those lost4 ,again1 we sometimes meet with such monstrosities as a five-rayed star with six or more rays1 some smaller than others1 the smaller ones representing two or more that have grown in the place of one that has been lost2 or a starfish with branched or forked arm1 illustrating the tendency to produce a new arm even when the original one has been only partially severed4 ,a close observation of a starfish in water may enable us to detect a number of little transparent processes standing out between the prominences of the rough skin of the upper surface4 ,these are little bags filled with fluid1 formed of such thin walls that gases can readily pass through them1 and are undoubtedly connected with the process of respiration4 ,also1 on the upturned extremity of each arm a red spot may be seen2 and this from the nature of its structure1 and from its association with the nervous system1 has been regarded as a rudimentary eye4 ,on the upper side of the disc one may also observe a more or less conspicuous spot of variable colour1 on one side of the centre4 ,it is a plate1 finely perforated1 covering the outer extremity of a short canal which communicates with the system of water tubes that were described in the earlier part of this chapter4 ,it is1 in fact1 the entrance through which water is admitted into the central ring round the mouth1 and from this into the radial water tubes that run through each arm of the starfish to supply the tube-feet4 ,the short tube referred to is always filled with sand1 and thus the water that enters into the water-vascular system is filtered before it reaches the circular vessel4 ,it is interesting to note1 in this connection1 that here is one respect in which the radiate symmetry of the starfish is broken1 there being only one entrance1 and that not a central one1 by which water is distributed into the five rays4 ,of course1 when the ray of a starfish has been broken off the water vessel or vessels that it contained are destroyed1 as is also the prolongation of the stomach1 in the form of a long1 blind tube1 that extended into it4 ,but no inconvenience attaches itself to this loss1 for the starfish has the power of reproducing even its lost viscera1 as well as any of the five rays of the body that may be broken off4 ,we must briefly refer to one other feature of the common star1 viz4 the possession of small prehensile organs around the mouth4 ,these are little spines1 the extremities of which are movable1 and take the form of little pincers by means of which the animal can hold its prey4 ,when it is desired to preserve starfishes for future study1 immersion in diluted spirit or a solution of formaldehyde will answer all purposes1 the soft parts being thus preserved as well as the harder structures2 but it is usual to preserve them in a dry state when they are required merely for purposes of identification1 as is usually the case with the specimens in an ordinary museum collection4 ,in the latter case it is advisable to put the starfishes in strong spirit for a few days1 changing the spirit if several specimens are put together1 and then drying them as quickly as possible in the open air4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,section ,,of ,,the ,,spine ,,of ,a ,,sea ,,urchin ,we have now to consider the ,sea ,urchins or ,sea ,eggs1 which are readily known by the hedgehog-like covering of hard spines4 ,externally they appear as globular or heart-shaped bodies1 the surface entirely hidden by spines except1 perhaps1 the mouth on the under side1 which is provided with an apparatus for mastication4 ,if alive1 and in the water1 one may notice that the animal creeps along the bottom1 mouth downwards1 moving itself either by means of its moveable spines1 or by soft tube-feet resembling those of starfishes1 that are protruded between the spines1 or by both combined2 and the movements of its masticating organ may be seen by observing the animal through the side or bottom of a glass vessel of sea water4 ,the last-named organ is surrounded by an area of soft skin1 and is not present in all species4 ,a closer examination of the common globular urchin will show that it is wonderfully constructed4 ,even the spines1 which are in themselves uninteresting objects to the naked eye1 are most beautifully formed1 a transverse section revealing a radiate or reticulated structure when viewed through the microscope4 ,each spine has a concave base which fits on a little tubercle of the calcareous shell or test that covers the body of the animal1 forming a perfect ball-and-socket joint1 and is capable of being moved in any direction by means of small muscular bands4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--,,sea ,,urchin ,,with ,,spines ,,removed ,,on ,,one ,,side ,on removing the spines the shell is seen to completely enclose the animal with the exception of the mouth1 with its masticatory apparatus1 and the small area around it which is covered by the uncalcified skin just referred to4 ,at the very top of the shell1 exactly opposite the mouth1 there is a small plate perforated by the extremity of the digestive tube4 ,round this are five angular plates1 each perforated by the ducts of the ovaries or egg-producing glands1 but one of these is enlarged and further perforated1 that it may serve the second purpose of allowing water to enter the system of water tubes that supply the tube-feet1 and thus corresponds exactly with the plate already noticed on the upper surface of the starfish4 ,between these are five smaller plates1 each with a rudimentary eye that receives a fine nerve-thread4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--;,,apex ,,of ,,shell ,,of ,,sea ,,urchin ,the remaining and greater portion of the shell of the urchin is composed of ten radiating segments1 each of which is made up of two rows of flat angular plates united at their edges4 ,five of these segments1 arranged alternately with the others1 are perforated by numerous holes1 through which the tube-feet of the urchin are protruded1 while the remainder are imperforate2 and all ten plates bear the little hemispherical processes to which the spines are jointed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,,shell ,,of ,,sea ,,urchin ,,with ,,teeth ,,protruding ,one of the most interesting features of this urchin is undoubtedly its complex and wonderful masticating system4 ,there are five teeth1 symmetrically arranged1 and all pointing towards the centre of the mouth4 ,each is attached to a wedge-shape jaw1 made up of several pieces1 and the whole apparatus is attached by ligaments to loops in the interior of the shell1 and is moved by no less than thirty distinct muscles4 ,the complete system may be readily dissected out1 and is well worthy of study and preservation4 7,the harder portions of the system may often be found in the interior of the empty shell of an urchin after the softer structures of the body have decayed away47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,,interior ,,of ,,shell ,,or ,,sea ,,urchin ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--,,masticatory ,,apparatus ,,of ,,sea ,,urchin ,an interesting dissection of the globular urchin may also be made by cutting completely round the shell with a pair of sharp-pointed scissors midway between the mouth and the apex1 and then separating the upper and lower halves1 as shown in fig4 #aad4 ,in this way the whole of the digestive tube1 with its numerous curves1 may be traced from the mouth to the anus at the opposite pole4 ,the water-vessels that supply the tube-feet in the regions of the five perforated plates may also be seen1 as well as the ovaries or egg-producing organs and the bases of the five jaws with their complicated system of muscles4 ,a little acquaintance with the commonest of the ,british sea urchins will show that they may be divided into two well-defined groups1 one containing the globular or subglobular forms1 of which the common sea urchin or sea egg 7,echinus sphra7 above described1 is a type1 as well as the pretty little ,green ,pea ,urchin 7,echinocyamus pusillus71 and the little ,purple-tipped ,urchin 7,echinus miliaris71 which is found principally on the west coast of ,scotland2 while the second group is formed by the less symmetrical ,heart ,urchins1 which differ from the others in several interesting particulars of structure and habit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,,sea ,,urchin ,,dissected1 ,,showing ,,the ,,digestive ,,tube ,these heart urchins 7,plate ,,iv41 fig4 #d7 are covered with short1 delicate spines which are not much used for purposes of locomotion1 the animals moving from place to place almost entirely by means of their tube-feet1 while the globular urchins travel principally by their spines1 which are stouter and more freely moved on well-formed ball-and-socket joints4 ,also1 while in the globular species the perforated plates that admit of the protrusion of the feet are arranged with a perfect radiate symmetry1 those of the heart urchins are confined to one side of the shell2 and the digestive tube1 which in the former terminates in the pole opposite the mouth1 in the latter ends close to the mouth itself4 ,further1 the heart urchins do not possess any kind of dental apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv ,,echinoderms #a4 ,asterias rubens #b4 ,goniaster equestris #c4 ,ophiothrix fragilis #d4 ,echinocardium cordatum #e4 ,echinus miliaris #f4 ,echinus esculentus ,the habits of sea urchins are interesting1 and may be watched in the aquarium1 where the movements of the spines and of the tube-feet may be seen perfectly4 ,some species are very inactive1 living in holes and crevices1 or under stones1 and seldom move from their hiding-places1 while others travel considerable distances4 ,the former have generally no eyes1 and1 instead of seeking their food1 simply depend for their subsistence on the material carried to them by the movements of the water2 while the latter possess visual organs similar to those observed in certain starfishes4 ,some species also protect themselves from their enemies when in the open by covering their bodies with sand1 small stones1 shells1 or weeds1 and thus so perfectly imitate their surroundings that they are not easily detected4 ,the feet that are used for purposes of locomotion terminate in suckers resembling those of the common five-fingered starfish1 and have considerable clinging power1 but some have either very imperfectly developed suckers or none at all1 and are probably used as feelers only4 ,sea urchins1 like their allies the starfishes1 generally inhabit deep water beyond low-water mark1 where they often exist in enormous numbers1 feeding on both animal and vegetable substances2 but some species are often to be met with between the tide-marks1 where they may be seen under stones1 and frequently half hidden in mud4 ,the globular species occur principally on rocky coasts1 but the heart urchins are more commonly dredged from banks of sand or mud that are always submerged4 ,the life-history of urchins closely resembles that of starfishes1 for the young are free-swimming creatures of an easel-like form1 and during this early larval existence their bodies are supported by a calcareous skeleton4 ,we will conclude our short account of the ,british echinoderms with a description of the peculiar ,sea ,cucumbers1 which belong to the division ,holothuroidea4 ,these creatures are so unlike starfishes and urchins in general appearance that the uninitiated would hardly regard them as close relatives4 ,the body is1 as the popular name implies1 cucumber-shaped1 with the mouth at one end1 and the general aspect is wormlike4 ,there is1 however1 a radiate symmetry--a five-fold arrangement of parts1 though not so regular as in most echinoderms4 ,running lengthwise along the body are five rows of tube-feet1 but only two of these are well developed and terminate in functional suckers2 and1 as might be expected1 the animal crawls with these two rows beneath it4 ,the feet are outgrowths of a system of water tubes similar to that of the urchin1 there being a circular tube round the mouth1 from which branch five radial tubes1 one for each row4 ,the mouth of the sea cucumber is surrounded by plumed tentacles which can be retracted at will1 and which are used in capturing the smaller living things that form its food4 ,like the earthworm1 it will often swallow large quantities of sand1 from which it digests the organic matter contained4 ,the body-wall of the ,holothuroidea is strong and muscular1 and is strengthened by the presence of numerous spicules of carbonate of lime1 often in the form of little anchors1 wheels1 and crosses1 while the outer surface is rough and slimy1 and often of a colour so closely resembling the surroundings of these animals that they are not easily observed4 ,this feature is one of great value to the creatures1 since they have no means of defence from their enemies1 and seem to owe their safety entirely to their protective colouring4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,,the ,,sea ,,cucumber ,there are several species of sea cucumbers on our coasts1 but all inhabit deep water and are seldom to be seen above low-water level4 ,they are1 as a rule1 easily obtained from fishermen1 who will bring them in when requested to do so4 ,live specimens may be kept for a considerable time in the indoor aquarium1 and seem to prefer a rocky bottom on which they can hide under stones at times1 and a bed of sand on which they will occasionally crawl4 ,they will readily devour small molluscs and crustaceans1 and will partake of dead organic matter in a partially decomposed state4 ,the following tabular summary of the classification of ,echinoderms may possibly be of use for reference3-- ,,sub-,,kingdom ,,echinodermata ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,body star-shaped4 ,body glob- ,body ---------------------------------------- -- ular1 sub- elongated1 ,body ,body not stalked4 globular1 and covered stalked1 ,tube-feet used for locomotion4 or heart- with a at least ,class3 ,stellerid4 shaped1 soft skin during ----------------------------- and cov- containing early ,arms jointed ,arms contin- ered with calcareous stage4 to disc1 and uous a con- spicules4 ,feet not not contain- with disc1 tinuous used for ing prolong- and contain- shell4 ,class3 loco- -tions of the ing processes ,holothu- motion4 internal of the ,class3 roidea organs viscera4 ,echinoidea 7,sea ,class3 7,sea ,ur- ,cucumbers74 ,crinoidea,order3 ,order3 chins74 7,feather ,ophiuroidea ,asteroidea ,star74 7,brittle 7,common ,stars74 ,stars74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,chapter ,,xi ,,marine ,,worms ,some groups of animals are so well defined that the individual species contained in them can be assigned their proper place without any difficulty1 the main characteristics by which the group is distinguished running with more or less precision throughout the series2 but1 unfortunately this is not the case with the #8worms1' which constitute the sub-kingdom ,vermes4 ,here we have a most heterogeneous assemblage of animals1 collectively exhibiting exceedingly wide variations in both form and structure4 ,we have already referred to the sea cucumber as wormlike in form1 and this creature is only one of a large number of wormlike animals that are not worms2 and it is also a fact that a considerable number of the worms are not wormlike4 ,it appears as if the sub-kingdom ,vermes were a kind of receptacle into which we may throw almost any invertebrate animal that does not readily fall in line with the general characteristics of the other important groups2 for in it we have such a varied assemblage of creatures that1 speaking of them collectively as worms1 it becomes most difficult1 if not absolutely impossible1 to say exactly what a worm is2 and it is a question whether the sub-kingdom ought not to be divided into at least two or three groups of the same standing4 ,this being the case we can hardly give a satisfactory summary of the characteristics of the group1 and therefore it must be understood that in our attempt to do so we unavoidably exclude some forms that belong to it according to our present system of classification4 ,this being remembered1 we will define worms as soft-bodied and elongated animals1 exhibiting a bilateral symmetry 7that is1 having appendages and organs arranged symmetrically on each side of a plane extending from the dorsal to the ventral surface through the centre of the body71 and with the body usually divided into a succession of segments1 each of which resembles the one preceding and following it4 ,though many of the worms are generally looked upon as uninteresting creatures1 of such an unattractive appearance and with such depraved habits that they are beneath respect1 yet a study of the sub-kingdom will prove that not only does it include a number of wonderful forms with the most marvellous life histories1 but that some of them are very beautiful objects2 and this last remark refers more particularly to many of the marine worms1 which come directly within the scope of our work4 ,before passing on to the special study and classification of the marine species1 however1 we must say a few words concerning the worms in general1 reminding the reader that all our statements regarding the anatomy of the creatures may be readily verified by simple dissections of one or two typical species1 such as the common earthworm1 the fisherman's lugworm1 the sea mouse1 or the common horse-leech of our fresh-water ponds4 ,with this object in view1 the animal may be killed by immersion in spirit1 then pinned out in the dissecting tray under water1 and the body-wall opened by means of a pair of sharp-pointed scissors4 ,the digestive tube of a worm runs completely through the length of the body1 and though there is no distinct head1 there is always a mouth1 and this is often provided with horny jaws1 and sometimes also with horny teeth1 with which the animal is enabled to inflict wounds on its prey4 ,like the preceding sub-kingdom--the ,echinodermata--worms possess a system of water tubes2 this system1 however1 is not in any way connected with the function of locomotion1 but is1 in many cases at least1 if not in all1 intimately associated with the process of respiration4 ,it consists of a series of tubes1 arranged in pairs in the successive segments1 communicating with the body-cavity internally1 and opening at the exterior by means of pores in the cuticle4 ,in some there is a highly organised system of bloodvessels1 containing blood that is usually either colourless1 red1 or green1 but the colour of the blood is never due to the presence of corpuscles1 as is the case with higher animals1 the tint being due to the plasma or fluid portion of the blood2 and though worms cannot be said to possess a true heart1 yet they often have one or more contractile bloodvessels which serve the purpose of propelling the blood4 ,most worms possess a nervous system1 and1 where this is present1 it consists of a chain of ganglia1 placed along the ventral side of the body1 beneath the digestive tube1 all united by means of a nerve cord1 and distributing nerves in pairs to various parts of the body2 and it may be well to note here one very important point of distinction between the general arrangement of the central portion of the nervous system in the worms and higher invertebrates1 as compared with that of the corresponding structure in the vertebrates3--,in the former the main axis of the system1 consisting1 as we have seen1 of a chain of ganglia connected by a nerve cord1 is invariably placed along the ventral portion of the body-cavity--the surface on which the animal crawls2 while in the vertebrates the axis of the nervous system lies along the upper or dorsal part of the body2 and1 instead of lying in the general body-cavity1 in company with the organs of digestion and circulation1 is enclosed in the bony canal formed by the vertebral column4 ,it will be seen from this that when it is desired to examine the nervous system of the invertebrate animal1 the body-wall should be opened along the middle of the ventral surface1 while1 in the vertebrate1 the central axis should be exposed from above4 ,many of the vermes are parasitic1 either attaching themselves to the exterior of other animals1 and deriving nourishment by sucking their blood1 or they are internal parasites1 living in the digestive canal of their hosts and partaking of the digested food with which they are almost perpetually surrounded1 or burrowing into the tissues and imbibing the nutritive fluids which they contain2 and it is interesting to study even these degraded members of the group1 if only to observe how their physical organisation degenerates in accordance with their depraved mode of living4 ,in them we find no digestive system with the exception of the simplest sac from which the fluids they swallow may be absorbed1 for their food is taken in a condition ready for direct assimilation2 and the food so obtained being readily absorbed into all parts of their soft bodies1 and being sufficiently charged with oxygen gas by the respiration of their hosts1 they require no special organs for circulation or respiration1 nor1 indeed1 do we find any4 ,further1 we find that the nervous system is often undeveloped2 for since the parasites1 and especially the internal ones1 are so plentifully surrounded with all the necessaries of existence1 their bodies are so simple in construction that no complex nervous system is required to promote or control either locomotion or internal functions4 ,even the general body-cavity often disappears in these degraded creatures1 the internal organisation being of such a low type that there is no necessity for it2 and all the abundant nourishment absorbed over and above that required for the sustenance of their simple bodies is utilised in the reproduction of the species2 consequently we find1 as a rule1 the reproductive organs well represented1 and the species concerned very prolific4 ,it is an interesting fact1 too1 that these parasites1 in their earliest stage1 possess organs which are present in the higher worms1 but which degenerate as they approach the adult form1 thus indicating that they have descended from more respectable members of the animal world1 and that the low physical development which they ultimately attain is the natural result of their base mode of living4 ,the young marine naturalist1 working on our coasts1 will not be brought into intimate contact with parasitic worms to any large extent1 yet we have said this little on parasitism to show that these degenerate creatures are not really devoid of interest1 and that they will repay study whenever they are found4 ,they will be more frequently met with during the examination of the animals--usually higher types--that become their hosts1 and thus they hardly come within the scope of this work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,a ,,turbellarian1 ,,magnified a1 mouth2 b1 cavity of mouth2 c1 gullet2 d1 stomach2 e1 branches of stomach2 f1 nerve ganglion2 g to m1 reproductive organs4 ,the simplest of the worms are those forming the class ,turbellaria1 so designated on account of the commotion they produce in the water surrounding them by means of the vibratile cilia that fringe their bodies--a characteristic that is also expressed by their popular name of ,whirl ,worms4 ,they are usually small creatures1 with soft1 flattened1 unsegmented bodies1 though some of the larger species are really wormlike in form1 and are more or less distinctly divided into a chain of segments4 ,many of them are marine1 and may be seen gliding over stones left uncovered by the receding tide with a smooth slug-like motion1 and when disturbed in a rock pool1 occasionally swimming with a similar smooth motion by the aid of their cilia4 ,they avoid bright light1 and are consequently generally found on the under surfaces of stones1 especially in rather muddy situations1 and where the stones are covered with a slimy deposit of low forms of life4 ,in these turbellarians the mouth is situated on the under surface1 thus enabling the animal to obtain its nourishment from the slimy surface over which it moves1 and it is also provided with an extensile proboscis that aids it in the collection of its food4 ,the digestive tube is generally very complex in form1 extending its branches into every part of the soft body2 and1 there being no special organs of respiration1 the animal derives all the oxygen required by direct absorption from the water through the soft integument4 ,when searching for turbellarians on the sea shore one must be prepared to meet with interesting examples of protective colouring that will render a close examination of rocks and stones absolutely necessary4 ,some of these worms are of a dull greyish or brownish colour1 so closely resembling that of the surface over which they glide that they are not easily distinguished2 and the thin bodies of others are so transparent that the colour of the stone beneath is visible through them1 thus preventing them from being clearly observed4 ,overturned stones should be examined for their flattened bodies gliding along rapidly in close contact with the surface4 ,they may be removed without injury by placing a wet frond of a sea weed close to the stone1 in front of one end of the body1 and then urging them to glide on to it by gently touching the opposite end4 ,sometimes1 however1 the turbellarians remain perfectly still when exposed to the light1 in which case they are even more difficult to detect1 but a little practice will soon enable one to distinguish them with readiness4 ,allied to the turbellarians are the ,spoon ,worms or ,squirt ,worms1 some species of which inhabit deep water round our shores1 where they burrow into the sand or mud of the bed of the sea4 ,these form the class ,gephyrea1 and consist of creatures with sac-like or cylindrical and elongated bodies1 and a protrusible proboscis1 which is often of great length4 ,their bodies are not distinctly segmented1 nor do they bear any appendages4 ,the skin is tough and horny1 and the body-wall1 which is very thick and muscular1 is often contracted when the animal is disturbed1 thus causing a jet of water to be forcibly ejected4 ,all the most interesting of the marine worms belong to the ,annelida or ,chtopoda1 popularly known as the ,bristle-footed worms1 because their locomotion is aided more or less by the presence of stiff bristles that project beyond the surface of the skin4 ,these are all highly organised worms1 mostly with very elongated bodies that are distinctly segmented exteriorly by a number of transverse grooves1 while the interior is correspondingly divided into a number of compartments by means of a series of septa4 ,in addition to the bristles already mentioned1 there are often numerous appendages1 but these must be distinguished from the more perfect appendages of the arthropods1 to be hereafter described2 for while the latter are distinctly jointed to the body1 and are themselves made up of parts that are jointed together1 the former are mere outgrowths of the body-wall4 ,the digestive and circulatory systems are well developed1 as is also the system of water tubes that connect the body-cavity with the exterior1 while the body-cavity itself is full of fluid4 ,this group of worms is subdivided into two divisions1 the many bristled 7,polychta7 and the sparsely bristled 7,oligochta7 worms4 ,the latter contain the common earthworms and some less known species1 while the former include a number of interesting and even beautiful worms1 all of which are marine1 and many of them among the commonest objects of the sea shore4 ,these ,polychtes exhibit a great variety of habit as well as of appearance4 ,some live in crevices of the rocks or under stones and weeds1 or make burrows in the sand or mud of the bed of the sea1 and roam about freely at times in search of food4 ,they are continually coming within the ken of the sea-side collector1 being revealed by almost every overturned stone near the low-water mark1 and are often seen crawling over the wet rocks just left uncovered by the receding tide2 while their burrows are often so numerous that hundreds may be counted in every few square feet4 ,but many are sedentary species1 and these are not so generally known to young sea-side naturalists1 who frequently observe1 and even preserve1 the interesting homes they construct1 while less attention is given to the architects that build them4 ,it is very interesting to observe some of the general differences between the roving and the sedentary species--differences which illustrate the principle of adaptation of structure to habit4 ,the roving species are provided with a lobe that overhangs the mouth1 bearing feelers and eyes1 and are thus enabled to seek out any desired path and to search for their food4 ,they are provided with bristles and other appendages by means of which they can travel freely over the surfaces of solid objects1 and are able to swim well either by undulations of the body1 or by fringed appendages1 or both4 ,the carnivorous species1 too1 are provided with strong1 horny jaws1 and sharp1 curved teeth1 by means of which they can capture and hold their prey4 ,the sedentary species1 on the other hand1 unable to move about in search of food1 are supplied with a number of appendages by means of which they can set up water currents towards their mouths1 and which also serve the purpose of special breathing organs1 and1 having no means of pursuing and devouring animals of any size1 they do not possess the horny jaws and curved teeth so common in the rovers4 ,their eyes1 too1 are less perfectly developed1 and the tactile proboscis of their free-moving relatives is absent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,arenicola piscatorum ,of the roving worms1 perhaps1 the ,lugworm or ,sandworm 7,arenicola piscatorum7 is the best known4 ,its burrows may be seen on almost every low sandy or muddy shore1 and1 being so highly valued as a bait1 its general appearance is well known to all professional and amateur sea fishers4 ,it reaches a length of eight inches or more1 and varies in colour according to the sand or mud in which it lives4 ,the segments of this worm are very different in structure in different parts of the body4 ,those in the front of the body have a few tufts of bristles arranged in pairs1 while the middle portion of the body has large brush-like tufts of filamentous gills placed rather close together2 and the hindmost part has no bristles or appendages of any kind1 and is so well filled with the sand or mud that it is quite hard and firm to the touch4 ,as is the case with our common earthworms1 the sand or mud is swallowed in enormous quantities1 and this is not only the means by which the lugworm derives its food1 but also assists it considerably in making its burrows2 the extent to which this creature carries on its work of excavation may be estimated by the thousands of little contorted1 worm-like heaps of sand that lie on the surface at every period of low water4 ,these little heaps are known as #8castings1' and consist of the sand that passed through the worm's body as the burrowing proceeded4 ,the ,ragworm is another species that is highly valued as bait4 ,it burrows into the odorous mud that is so commonly deposited in harbours and the mouths of sluggish rivers4 ,in this species the segments are similar throughout the length of the body1 and the numerous flattened appendages give it the ragged appearance that has suggested its popular name4 ,quite a number of marine worms closely allied to the common ragworm1 and resembling it in general form1 are to be found on our shores4 ,many of these may be seen by turning over stones that are left exposed at low tide1 while others hide themselves in snug little crevices of the rock1 or in the empty shells of the acorn barnacle and various molluscs2 and some species1 including one of a bright-green colour1 creep freely over the wet rocks in search of food or home1 often exposing themselves to the rays of a fierce summer sun4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,,the ,,sea ,,mouse ,the ,sea ,mouse 7,aphrodita aculeata7 is certainly one of the most interesting of the roving marine worms1 and1 though seldom seen above low-water line1 may often be obtained by the sea-side collector with the aid of friendly fishermen1 who sometimes find it plentifully among the contents of their trawl nets4 ,failing such aid1 it may be looked for among the encrusted stones that are exposed only at the lowest spring tides1 especially in places where a certain amount of mud has been deposited under the shelter of outlying rocks2 and the chances of success are much greater if the search is made immediately after a storm1 for at such times much of the life that exists in deep water will have been driven shoreward by the force of the waves4 ,at first sight the sea mouse would hardly be associated with the worms2 for1 instead of having the elongated and cylindrical form that is usually regarded as characteristic of these creatures1 it is broad and slug-like in shape1 the under surface1 on which it crawls1 being flat1 while the upper side is convex4 ,the segmentation of the body1 too1 is not readily seen in the upper surface on account of the thick felt-like covering of hairs1 but is at once apparent when the creature has been turned over to expose the ventral side4 ,when seen for the first time in its natural haunt one naturally wonders what the moving mass may be4 ,crawling sluggishly over incrusted stones1 or remaining perfectly still in a muddy puddle that has been exposed by overturning a stone1 it looks like a little mound of mud itself1 about four or five inches long1 and its general colour and surface so closely resembles that of its surroundings that an inexperienced collector may never even suspect that the mass is a living animal form4 ,but take the creature and wash it in the nearest rock pool1 and it will be recognised as a broad segmental worm1 thickly covered with fine hairs above1 and its sides adorned by bristles that display a most beautiful iridescence4 ,it is not easy to see the value of this gorgeous colouring to the animal1 and it is doubtful whether1 on account of the muddy nature of the creature's home1 such colouring is often displayed to the view of other inhabitants of the sea2 but it is well known1 on the other hand1 that sea mice are readily devoured by fishes1 even though they possess an armature of stiff and sharp spines1 and that they must therefore be often preserved from destruction by the close resemblance of the general colour to that of their surroundings4 ,the gills of the sea mouse are not prominent appendages1 as with most marine worms1 but are soft fleshy structures situated beneath the overlapping scales that lie hidden below the thick hair of the upper surface4 ,as it is most probable that the reader may desire to preserve a sea mouse at some time or other1 a few words concerning the best methods of doing this may be of value4 ,if it is to be preserved in fluid1 it should be thoroughly washed to remove all the mud that normally covers its body1 and then placed in spirit or formaldehyde1 both of which fluids have no destructive effects on the iridescent colouring of the bristles4 ,if1 however1 it is desired to keep the specimen in a dry state1 it should first be put into strong spirit containing a few grains of corrosive sublimate1 for a few days4 ,it should then be put under considerable pressure between several thicknesses of absorbent paper to expel the fluid it contains1 as well as all the softer internal structures4 ,by this means it will have been squeezed quite flat1 so that it presents anything but a natural appearance2 but the skin may be blown out to the normal shape by means of a glass tube inserted into the mouth1 and then set aside to dry4 ,as the water it originally contained has been extracted by the strong spirit1 the drying takes place very quickly2 and the small amount of corrosive sublimate that has penetrated into its substance will be sufficient to protect it from the invasion of those pests that commonly attack our museum specimens4 ,passing now to the sedentary or fixed worms1 we meet with some that are very interesting and beautiful creatures1 even when considered apart from the wonderful homes they construct4 ,the several species of the genus ,terebella form a soft and flexible tube by binding together particles of sand1 shells1 or mud with a sticky substance that exudes from their own bodies4 ,these tubes are to be found in abundance between the tide-marks on almost every low1 sandy shore1 the nature of the tubes varying1 of course1 with the character of the materials at the disposal of the builder4 ,in some cases the tubes are exposed throughout the greater part of their length1 but very frequently they are more or less buried in the sand or other material of the beach1 so that one has to dig to a moderate depth in order to extricate them4 ,in either case1 however1 the tube of ,terebella may be known by the free tufts of sandy threads that form a deep fringe around its mouth4 ,these worms almost invariably select a sheltered situation for their abode1 and should be searched for at the foot of rocks1 or under stones1 and it is no easy matter to move the buried tube with its occupant intact4 ,when turning over the stones of a sandy or muddy beach one frequently discovers the slender1 thread-like tentacles of the ,terebella1 together with the sandy filaments that surround the mouth of the tube1 the remainder of the tube and its occupant being beneath the surface1 and the ground is often so hard and stony that a strong tool is necessary to dig it out2 but the work entailed will be amply repaid if a perfect specimen be obtained and placed for observation in the aquarium4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--,,tube-,,building ,,worms3 ,terebella 7,,left71 ,serpula 7,,middle71 ,sabella 7,,right7 ,the reader may possibly be acquainted with the tubes or cases that are constructed by the larv of caddis flies in fresh-water ponds and streams1 and perhaps has noticed the ease with which these creatures may be made to construct new homes after having been turned out of doors4 ,similar experiments may be performed with ,terebella2 for when the worm has been extricated from its tube without injury--a work that requires great care on account of the soft and slender nature of the creature's body--and placed in the aquarium with a bed of suitable material1 it will build itself a new dwelling4 ,as with the caddis larv1 the different species may be known by the materials they select to construct their tubes1 but in captivity they may be compelled to employ other than their favourite substance for this purpose4 ,it is unfortunate1 however1 that ,terebella is a nocturnal builder1 and thus its movements are not so easily observed4 ,when removed from its tube its first movements suggest a resentment at the untimely ejection4 ,this being over1 it seeks a sheltered situation beneath the edge of a stone1 and1 at nightfall1 commences the slow process of the construction of a fresh home4 ,the particles of material at hand are seized by the tentacles1 placed in position round the body1 where they are held together by the sticky secretion already mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,terebella ,,removed ,,from ,,its ,,tube ,the tentacles are employed in two distinct ways3--,they may be flattened into slender ribbon-like structures1 which1 by being folded longitudinally at any point1 may be made to grasp a particle of sand2 and1 in addition to this1 the tip of the tentacle may be converted into a minute cup-shaped sucker by the withdrawal of the fluid it contains into the body4 ,some species of ,terebella build their tubes of ordinary sand1 while others select fragments of shells4 ,some employ mud only1 and occasionally we meet with tubes constructed of the silky secretion of the body with hardly any foreign matter4 ,we sometimes see edges of rocks1 on low1 sandy shores1 covered with what appears to be large masses of consolidated sand1 full of holes a little more than an eighth of an inch in diameter2 and these masses are often so extensive and so firm that they seem to form the greater part of the rock itself4 ,such masses are particularly abundant on the south coasts of ,devon and ,cornwall1 but are more or less plentiful on most sandy shores of ,great ,britain4 ,they consist of the tubes of a species of the marine worm ,sabella1 which have been built up much in the same manner as those of ,terebella1 but usually exist in such numbers in the same spot that1 together with the sand that has been washed between them1 they form the dense masses just described4 ,a cluster of some dozens of these tubes may be detached with the aid of a hammer and chisel2 or1 in some instances1 where the mass of tubes is not held so firmly together1 by the mere pressure of the hand2 and it will then be observed that each tube consists of a flexible membrane1 of a somewhat leathery nature1 formed by a sticky secretion from the body of the worm1 with its outer surface covered with grains of sand4 ,the tubes may be easily opened1 and the occupants extracted for examination1 when it will be observed that the front or upper portion of the worm is short and thick1 while the hindmost portion is much thinner1 and is doubled forwards in the tube4 ,the body is also provided with numerous bristles1 by means of which the worm is enabled to grasp the membranous lining of the tube1 and thus secure a firm hold within its home4 ,a cluster of these tubes should be placed in a rock pool1 or in the marine aquarium1 when the worms may be seen to protrude gradually1 and expose a large number of feathered tentacles1 which1 by their incessant motion1 keep up the constant circulation of the water for the purpose of respiration as well as to bring food particles towards the mouths of the worms4 ,it is possible to keep these worms alive for some time in the aquarium1 but special care is required for the reason that it is a very difficult matter to secure a cluster of tubes without injury to a certain number which are sure to be broken or otherwise damaged2 and these1 dying and decomposing within their homes1 speedily pollute the water4 ,hence it is necessary to keep a sharp watch for dead specimens1 which should1 of course1 be removed at once4 ,the presence of a putrefying worm may often be detected by the appearance of a whitish fungoid growth round the mouth of what appears to be an empty tube2 and if1 through neglect1 the water of the aquarium has been allowed to become contaminated by the products of decomposition1 it will often happen that some of the living worms will come entirely out from their tubes1 as if to seek a more sanitary situation4 ,thus1 the exit of worms from their homes may always be looked upon as pointing to a suspicious condition of the water which1 if not corrected immediately1 may lead to the death of all4 ,the species we have briefly described is by far the commonest of the genus ,sabella1 but there are several others to be found on our shores4 ,some are of a solitary nature1 and construct a sandy tube so much like that of a certain species of ,terebella that they may be mistaken for that genus4 ,another solitary species builds a hard stony tube of carbonate of lime that has been extracted from the sea water2 and although it is hardly possible to take the live worm from this calcareous tube without injury1 the animal may be obtained intact for examination or preservation by dissolving away the tube in dilute hydrochloric acid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,a ,,tube ,,of ,serpula ,,attached ,,to ,a ,,shell ,while engaged in collecting specimens on the sea shore we are continually meeting with stones and shells that are more or less covered with white1 limy tubes twisted into all manner of serpentine forms4 ,these are the tubes of other marine worms known as the ,serpul1 which1 like the species previously mentioned1 are interesting objects for the aquarium4 ,the tubes themselves are worthy of study and preservation1 more especially as they vary in form1 and may1 to some extent1 provide a means by which the different species may be identified4 ,they are composed of fine layers of calcareous matter secreted by the body of the worm within1 and lined by a thin leathery membrane which may be easily exposed by dissolving away the mineral matter as just described4 ,some are triangular in section1 and often distinctly keeled1 while others are cylindrical1 and flattened more or less on the lower side4 ,the triangular tubes are attached to stones or shells throughout their length1 but the cylindrical ones are often elevated above the surface in the wider and newer part4 ,if a cluster of these tubes1 freshly gathered from between the tide-marks1 be placed in the aquarium1 the worms will soon protrude the foremost portion of their bodies1 exposing beautiful fan-like gills1 often brilliantly coloured in shades of scarlet1 blue1 or purple1 which are kept in motion in such a manner as to convey water1 and consequently also food1 towards the mouth4 ,the gills are of course1 richly supplied with blood1 for their main function is to arate that liquid by exposing it to the water in order to absorb oxygen gas4 ,the body of the worm is provided also with little cilia1 which1 by their constant vibratory motion1 keep up a circulation of water through the tube2 and this not only keeps the tubular home free from excrement and other sedimentary matter1 but also probably assists in the function of respiration by bringing fresh supplies of water in contact with the animal's soft and absorbent skin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,serpula ,,removed ,,from ,,its ,,tube ,when the worms are disturbed they immediately withdraw themselves within the tubes1 this being done by the aid of the numerous minute hooklets on the surface of the body that enable the worms to cling firmly to the membranous linings of their homes2 and it will then be observed that the mouth of each tube is closed by a lid 7operculum71 which hangs as by a hinge when not in use4 ,these operculi vary much in character1 and supply another aid in the identification of the various species4 ,they differ much in shape1 and may be either membranous1 horny1 or calcareous4 ,little calcareous tubes1 somewhat similar to those of the ,serpul1 but always in the form of a spiral1 may often be seen on stones and shells1 and the fronds of sea weeds1 sometimes so closely packed together as to almost entirely cover the surface4 ,the average diameter of these spirals is only about a sixteenth of an inch1 and many are so small that a lens is necessary to discern their shape4 ,in general form they closely resemble some of the small species of ,planorbis shells that are so common in our ponds and streams1 but these latter are the shells of freely moving molluscs1 and are generally of a brownish colour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,the ,,sea ,,mat 7,flustra7 ,the minute worms that live within the tubes in question belong to the genus ,spirorbis1 and are very similar to those of the ,serpul1 and their pretty plumed gills may be seen with a lens when a cluster of the tubes is placed in a shallow vessel of sea water4 ,a sharp tap on the table on which the vessel rests will cause the little creatures to suddenly retire into their homes1 the entrances to which may then be seen to be closed by an operculum4 ,there is an interesting group of animals known collectively as the ,bryozoa or ,polyzoa1 or1 popularly1 as the ,moss ,polyps1 that are often classed with the worms1 though they are not1 according to the general idea1 wormlike in appearance4 ,they live in pretty colonies1 many of which are certainly familiar objects to all who ramble along the sea shore4 ,some form pretty lacelike patches on the fronds of sea weeds1 while others are built up into flat1 frond-like1 branching objects that are often mistaken for sea weeds by young collectors4 ,among the latter is the ,sea ,mat 7,flustra71 that is so commonly washed up on the shore in great abundance4 ,an examination with a lens will show that1 in both instances1 the mass consists of very many minute cells1 with horny or calcareous walls1 the mouth of each cell being close by an operculum4 ,on placing the colony in sea water1 however1 we find that each little cell is the home of a small animal1 that protrudes from the cell1 exposing a mouth that is surrounded by a crown of tentacles4 ,a moderately high magnifying power will also show that the tentacles are covered with minute vibratile cilia1 by means of which currents of water are set in motion towards the mouth to supply the animal with food4 ,some1 too1 have a lip by means of which the mouth may be closed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--;,flustra ,,in ,,its ,,cell1 ,,magnified ,in addition to the colonies just briefly described1 there are other moss polyps that build up little1 branching1 tree-like clusters which closely resemble some of the sea firs1 and many of these are to be found in the sheltered crevices of rocks1 or attached to the under sides of stones between the tide-marks4 ,while searching the surfaces of rocks and weeds at low tide1 one's fingers will be constantly coming in contact with fixed1 soft-bodied animals that suddenly eject a fine stream of water as they are touched4 ,these are the ,sea ,squirts1 sometimes spoken of as the ,tunicate ,worms4 ,they are semi-transparent creatures of oval or elongated form1 and usually of a pale yellow1 brown1 or pink colour2 and derive their popular name from the fact that they are covered externally by a continuous tunic or wall of tough structure4 ,although the tunicates resemble worms in many points of structure1 it is interesting to note that in their young or larval state the body consists of two cavities1 one of which contains the internal organs1 while in the other the central portion of the nervous system is developed1 in which respects they resemble the vertebrate or back-boned animals--fishes1 amphibians1 reptiles1 birds1 and mammals4 ,at this stage1 too1 the creatures possess a tail that is supported by a rod of gristle similar to that which gives place to the backbone in the developing vertebrate4 ,these features1 though only transitory1 are regarded as a mark of relationship to the higher forms of animal life1 and thus the tunicates have been separated from the sub-kingdom ,vermes by some zoologists1 and given an exalted place at the top of the invertebrate scale1 where they form a sub-kingdom of their own1 and are looked upon as a link connecting the invertebrates with the vertebrates4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,,sea ,,squirt ,before passing on to the next sub-kingdom1 we should observe that the interesting ,rotifers or ,wheel ,animals also belong to the ,vermes2 but although many of these minute creatures are to be found in sea water1 their principal home is the stagnant water of fresh-water ponds and ditches1 and thus we may be excused for neglecting them here4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,marine ,,molluscs ,the sub-kingdom ,mollusca includes a great variety of soft-bodied animals which differ from the members of the last division in the fact that they are never segmented1 and in the possession of a thick outer covering1 of a leathery nature1 which completely envelops the body1 and which usually secretes a calcareous shell of one or more parts4 ,a general idea of the extent of the group may be formed when we state that it contains the ,octopus and the ,cuttlefish2 all ,snails and ,slugs1 and animals of a similar nature2 and all those numerous #8bivalves' which are represented by the well-known ,oysters1 ,mussels1 ,scallops1 c4 ,by far the greater number of the molluscs are aquatic in habit2 and of these such a large proportion are marine that the group provides plenty of occupation for the sea-side naturalist4 ,this being the case1 we shall devote the present chapter to a description of the general characteristics of these animals1 and to the principles of their classification1 illustrating our remarks by a few selections from all the chief divisions4 ,although1 as we have already hinted1 the body of a mollusc generally bears but little resemblance to that of the typical elongated and segmented worm1 yet the study of the earliest stages of the former shows that a certain relationship exists between the two sub-kingdoms1 the newly hatched mollusc being often a minute free-swimming creature with expanded lobes fringed with cilia1 and bearing a resemblance to certain of the ,rotifers1 ,moss ,polyps1 and other animals that are included among the ,vermes4 ,but in the adult molluscs this resemblance is lost1 these creatures being generally easily distinguished from all others by certain well-marked external features1 as well as by internal characters that are peculiar to them and fairly constant throughout the group4 ,the external shell1 where it exists1 is usually composed of one or of two parts1 and therefore we speak of univalve and bivalve molluscs2 and no internal skeleton of any kind is to be found except in the division containing the ,cuttlefishes1 the #8bone' of which is one of the common objects washed up on our shores by the breakers4 ,in all the molluscs there is a well-formed digestive tube1 and often a complex arrangement of small teeth which sever the food by a rasp-like action4 ,there is also a well-formed heart1 consisting of two or more cavities1 by means of which the blood is forced through the body2 but1 as a rule1 blood vessels are either few or absent1 the blood being driven through spaces between the tissues that serve the same purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,,larv ,,of ,,molluscs v1 ciliated #8velum'2 f1 rudimental foot ,the nervous system consists of a few masses of nerve substance 7ganglia71 connected by nerve cords1 and sending off fibres to various parts of the body1 the principal ganglion being one situated close to the mouth1 and often surrounding the first portion of the digestive tube4 ,the animals of this sub-kingdom are grouped into three principal and well-marked divisions--the ,lamellibranchs1 or ,plate-gilled molluscs1 the gills of which are composed of plate-like layers1 and the headless bodies enclosed in a bivalve shell2 the ,cephalophora1 or head-bearing molluscs1 protected by a univalve shell2 and the ,cephalopoda1 or ,head-footed molluscs1 so called because the mouth is surrounded by tentacles or arms by which the animal can cling to objects or seize its prey4 ,we shall deal with these three divisions in the above order1 taking first the bivalves1 the shells of which are found in great variety along our shores4 ,the general nature of a lamellibranch is easily made out by the examination of one of the common species that may be obtained alive on any part of the coast1 such as the ,edible ,mussel1 the ,cockle1 or the ,oyster1 and the reader will do well to secure a few specimens and examine them with the aid of the following description of the principal distinguishing features4 ,the shell is formed of two valves1 united by a hinge which is sometimes of the simplest possible description1 but which often exhibits a beautiful arrangement of interlocking teeth4 ,a ligament of flexible and elastic substance often holds the two valves together4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,,shell ,,of ,,the ,,prickly ,,cockle 7,cardium aculeatum7 ,,showing ,,umbo ,,and ,,hinge2 ,,also ,,the ,,interior ,,showing ,,the ,,teeth ,the reader has probably observed that the valves of a dead lamellibranch usually gape4 ,this is due either to the pull exerted by a ligament that is attached to the valves outside the hinge1 or to the pressure of an internal cartilage which unites the valves within1 and which is compressed when the shell is closed4 ,when the animal is alive1 it has the power of closing its shell by the contraction of the adductor muscles1 to be presently described1 and when the valves are brought together by this means the external ligament is more or less stretched1 or the cartilage within1 which is also an elastic material1 is compressed4 ,examining the shell from the exterior we observe that each valve has a nucleus 7the umbo7 close to the hinge1 round which are usually a number of more or less distinct concentric lines1 extending to the lower or ventral margin4 ,this nucleus represents the whole shell of the young mollusc1 and the lines are the lines of growth1 each one marking the extreme limit of the valve at a particular period of the animal's existence4 ,further it will be observed that the lines of growth are often wider apart in some directions than in others1 thus denoting the unequal rate of growth that determined the form of the adult shell4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,,interior ,,of ,,bivalve ,,shell1 ,,showing ,,muscular ,,scars ,,and ,,pallial ,,line ,the shell of a bivalve is often made up of two very distinct layers1 the outer one called the prismatic layer because1 when examined microscopically1 it is seen to consist of minute vertical prisms of calcareous matter2 and the inner one presenting a beautiful pearly iridescence1 due to the fact that it is made up of a number of extremely thin and finely waved layers of calcareous substance that have the power of decomposing light4 ,this latter layer is secreted by the whole surface of the mantle that lies in contact with it1 while the outer1 prismatic portion of the shell is formed only by the free edge of the mantle2 and we often find a distinct line 7the pallial line71 some little distance from the ventral margin that marks the junction of the muscle of the mantle with the shell4 ,the shape of this line is a very important feature of the shell1 since it is of great value in the determination of relationships4 ,further1 the inner surface of each valve is marked by the impressions or scars of other muscles1 the number and position of which vary considerably in different species4 ,they include the adductor muscle or muscles 7one or two in number7 that pull the valve together2 the muscle or muscles that withdraw the foot1 called the retractor pedis1 and the protractor pedis that pulls the foot out4 ,not only are these scars often very distinct in themselves1 but we may frequently observe lines running tangentially from their circumferences towards the umbo1 to which they all converge4 ,these lines enclose the areas previously occupied by the muscular impressions2 in other words1 they show the directions in which the muscles named above shifted their positions as the animal grew4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,a ,,lamellibranch f1 mouth1 with labial palps2 g1 stomach2 i1 intestine1 surrounded by the liver2 a1 anus2 r1 posterior adductor muscle2 e1 anterior adductor muscle2 c1 heart2 d1 nerve ganglion2 m1 mantle 7the right lobe has been removed72 s1 siphons2 h1 gills2 ft1 foot ,now let us obtain a few species of live lamellibranchs1 put them in a vessel of sea water1 and observe them after they have been left undisturbed for a time4 ,the shell will be seen to gape slightly1 exposing the edges of the two lobes of the mantle which lie closely on the inner surface of the valves1 thus completely enveloping the body of the animal2 and at one end1 usually the narrower end in the case of irregular shells1 we shall observe two openings--the siphons1 sometimes enclosed within a tube formed by a prolongation of the united mantle lobes1 and protruding from between the valves1 and sometimes formed by the mere contact of the mantle lobes at two adjacent points4 ,if now we introduce a little carmine or other colouring matter by means of a glass tube1 setting it free near the lower siphon--the one more remote from the umbo of the shell1 we observe that it enters the body of the mollusc through this opening1 and reappears shortly afterwards through the upper or dorsal siphon4 ,thus we see that water currents are incessantly circulating in the body of the animal1 entering by the inhalent or ventral siphon1 and leaving by the exhalent or dorsal siphon4 ,these currents are maintained by the vibratile action of thousands of minute cilia belonging to cells that line the cavities of the body1 and serve to supply the animal with both air and food2 for lamellibranchs1 being gill-breathers1 derive the oxygen necessary for respiration from the air held in solution by the water1 and their food consists entirely of the minute living creatures that always abound in natural waters4 ,again1 we shall find that some of our live bivalves have protruded a thick1 conical1 fleshy mass--the foot1 from the opposite end of the body4 ,this organ is the means of locomotion in the case of the burrowing and other free-moving bivalves1 but is developed to a less extent in those species that lead a sedentary life4 ,thus1 the common ,edible ,mussel secretes a tuft of strong silky fibres 7byssus7 by means of which it fixes itself to a rock or other body1 and therefore does not need the assistance of a muscular foot2 and an examination of its body will show that the foot is very small in proportion to the size of the animal1 as compared with that of the wandering and burrowing species4 ,the same is true of the oyster1 which lies fixed on its side1 the lower valve being attached to the surface on which it rests4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--,mytilus edulis1 ,,with ,,byssus ,we have made use of the terms dorsal and ventral in speaking of the shell of a bivalve1 and it is important that these and a few other similar terms be well understood by those who are about to read the descriptions of the animals1 or who may desire to describe them themselves4 ,to do this1 take a bivalve in your hand1 and hold it before you in such a position that the hinge is uppermost1 and the siphons turned towards you4 ,the foot of the animal is now pointing in the direction you are looking1 and the mouth1 situated at the base of the foot1 is also directed the same way4 ,you have now placed the shell1 and1 of course1 also the animal1 in such a position that its dorsal side is uppermost1 the ventral side below1 the anterior end turned from you1 the posterior 7often narrower7 end towards you1 the right valve on your right1 and the left valve on your left4 ,knowing the exact uses of these few terms you are in a better position to understand the descriptions of bivalves1 and to locate the exact situations of the various internal organs named in such descriptions4 ,a great deal of the internal anatomy of a bivalve mollusc may be made out by easy dissections1 and although the structure of the different species varies in several details1 the general characteristics of the group are practically the same in all and may be gathered by the examination of a few specimens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--;,a ,,bivalve ,,shell 7,tapes virgineana7 a1 anterior2 p1 posterior2 l1 left valve2 r1 right valve2 u1 umbo1 on dorsal side ,for this purpose the shell should be prised open by means of some flattened but blunt implement1 such as the handle of a scalpel1 and then1 after inserting a piece of cork to keep the valves apart1 gently remove the mantle lobe from the valve which is held uppermost with the same implement1 being careful to separate it from the shell without doing any damage to the soft structures4 ,separating the mantle from the shell in this way we meet with one or more hard masses of muscle that are joined very firmly to the latter4 ,these are the adductor muscles that pass directly from valve to valve1 and on cutting them through close to the uppermost valve1 the latter can be raised so as to expose the body of the animal1 mostly hidden by the overlying mantle lobe4 ,before raising the upper mantle lobe we observe the heart1 on the dorsal margin of the body1 near the hinge of the shell1 situated in a transparent cavity 7the pericardium7 containing a colourless fluid4 ,it consists of at least two cavities--a thick-walled ventricle and a thin-walled auricle1 and its slow pulsations may be watched with or without the use of a hand lens4 ,on opening the pericardium the heart is still better seen1 and if we carefully cut into the thick-walled ventricle we find a tube running completely through its cavity4 ,this is the rectum--the last part of the digestive tube1 that commences at the mouth1 and terminates in a cavity at the posterior end communicating with the exhalent siphon4 ,after noting the nature and position of the one or two adductor muscles previously cut through1 we turn the upper mantle lobe upwards1 laying it back over the hinge of the shell1 cutting it through at the bases of the siphons if we find it is united with the opposite lobe at those points2 or1 if not united1 we observe two points at which the lobes touch each other in order to form the siphonal openings4 ,several organs are now exposed to view4 ,the lower mantle lobe is seen in close contact with the valve below it1 and if we touch its edge we shall probably observe that it is retracted slightly by the contraction of its own muscular fibres4 ,the tip of the foot is also seen projecting towards the anterior end1 its base being hidden between the two sets of plate-like gills that extend along the length of the body4 ,on touching the tip of the foot we find it retract by the contraction of the muscular fibres of which it is composed1 aided1 perhaps1 by the action of one or more retractor pedis muscles with which it is supplied4 ,on raising the upper gill-plates we may observe the dark colour of the digestive gland 7liver7 at the base of the foot1 and also see two or more tentacles or labial palpi on the anterior side of the same4 ,between the labial palpi is the mouth1 which leads into the stomach by a short1 wide tube1 and then into a convoluted tube which finally passes through the heart1 and terminates near the exhalent siphon as above described4 ,the whole length of this tube may be followed by careful dissection1 its direction being determined at short intervals by probing it with a bristle that has been tipped with a little melted sealing wax4 ,it will be seen to wind through the base of the foot1 surrounded through the greater part of its course by the digestive gland1 from which a digestive fluid enters it through small ducts4 ,the diagram on p4 #aid shows the general internal anatomy of a lamellibranch1 parts of which have been removed to reveal the underlying structures4 ,the animal lies in its left valve1 the right valve1 the right mantle lobe1 and the right set of gill-plates having been completely dissected away4 ,the whole course of the digestive tube has also been exposed1 and the positions of the three nerve ganglia1 with their connecting nerve cords1 constituting the central portion of the nervous system1 are also indicated4 ,it will be interesting1 finally1 to learn the direction taken by the water currents which supply the animal with air and food in their course through the system4 ,passing in through the inhalent siphon1 the water immediately enters a large cavity between the mantle lobes4 ,this cavity 7the branchial cavity7 contains gills1 as we have already seen1 and also extends to the mouth4 ,the water1 urged on by the motion of myriads of minute ciliated cells in the walls of the cavity1 passes in part through the digestive tube1 and in part around1 between1 and through the gill plates1 which are perforated by numerous holes4 ,after thus completely bathing the gills1 and supplying the oxygen necessary for respiration1 this latter current passes into a second cavity above the gills1 and thence into the exhalent siphon1 where it mingles with the fluid from the digestive tube as well as with other excretory matter4 ,lamellibranchs are1 as a rule1 exceedingly prolific1 a single individual of some species discharging more than a million ova in one season4 ,the larv swim freely in the water1 and are provided with eyes that enable them to search for their food1 but the eyes always disappear when the young settle down to a more sedentary life4 ,it is true that adult bivalves sometimes possess visual organs1 often in the form of conspicuous coloured spots on the edge of the mantle1 these1 however1 are not the same that existed during the larval stage1 but are of a more recent development4 ,lamellibranchs are classified in various ways by different authorities1 the arrangement being based principally on the number and position of the adductor muscles1 or on the nature of the gills4 ,for our present purpose we shall look upon them as consisting of two main divisions--the ,asiphonida and the ,siphonida1 the former including those species which do not possess true tubular siphons1 the inhalent and exhalent openings being formed merely by the touching of the mantle lobes2 and the latter those in which the mantle lobes are more or less united and tubular siphons formed4 ,each of these divisions contains a number of families1 most of which have representatives that inhabit the sea2 and we shall now note the principal characteristics by which the more important families are distinguished1 and take a few examples of each1 starting with the ,siphonida4 ,examining the rocks that are left exposed at low tide we frequently find them drilled with holes that run vertically from the surface1 seldom communicating with each other within1 and varying in diameter from less than a quarter of an inch to half an inch or more4 ,some of these holes are the empty burrows of a boring mollusc1 while others still contain the living animal in situ4 ,the molluscs in question belong to the family ,pholadid1 which contains a number of species that exhibit very remarkable features both as regards structure and habit4 ,the shell is very thin and fragile1 but yet composed of hard material1 and its surface is relieved by a series of prominent concentric ridges that bear a number of little rasp-like teeth4 ,it gapes at both ends1 has neither true hinge nor ligament1 and is often strengthened externally by two or more extra or accessory valves4 ,the hinge-plate is a very peculiar structure1 for it is reflected over the exterior of the umbones1 above which they are supported by about ten thin shelly plates1 the whole thus forming a series of chambers4 ,the accessory valves are supported by these bridged structures1 and a long1 straight1 calcareous plate also fills the space along the dorsal side of the shell in some species4 ,the muscular scars and the pallial line are distinctly seen on the inner surface1 and a peculiar curved shelly plate projects from under the umbo of each valve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,pholas dactylus #a1 ventral aspect1 with animal2 #b1 dorsal side of shell showing accessory valves ,the animal inhabiting the shell is somewhat wormlike in general form1 and the mantle lobes are united in front--that is at the lower end of the shell as it lies in the burrow--except that an opening is left for the protrusion of the short foot4 ,the siphons are united and much elongated1 so that they protrude beyond the mouth of the burrow when the animal is active2 the gills are narrow1 and extend into the exhalent siphon2 and the anterior adductor muscle1 being very near the umbones1 serves the double purpose of adductor and ligament4 ,such are the general distinguishing features of this family1 all the species of which burrow into stone or other material4 ,those more commonly met with on our coasts belong principally to the genus ,pholas1 and are popularly known as ,piddocks4 ,it was long a puzzle as to how the fragile piddocks could excavate the tubular burrows in which they live1 and1 since their shells are so thin that it seemed almost impossible for hard stones to be ground away by them1 it was suggested that the rocks were excavated by the action of an acid secretion4 ,this1 however1 would not account for the formation of holes in sandstone and other materials which are insoluble in acids2 and1 as a matter of fact1 no such acid secretion has ever been discovered4 ,the boring is undoubtedly done by the mechanical action of the rasp-like shell1 which is rotated backwards and forwards1 somewhat after the manner of a brad-awl1 though very slowly1 by the muscular action of the foot of the animal4 ,piddocks are found principally in chalk and limestones1 though1 as before hinted1 they are to be seen in sandstones and other rocks1 the material in any case being1 of course1 softer than the shell that bores it4 ,the largest holes and the largest specimens are to be found in chalk and other soft rocks2 while the piddocks that burrow into harder material are unable to excavate to the same extent and are1 as a consequence1 more stunted in their growth4 ,the burrowing is continued as long as the animal grows1 the hole being always kept at such a depth that the shell is completely enclosed2 and not only this1 for when the rock is soft1 and the surface is worn down by the sea1 the piddock has to keep pace with this action1 as well as to allow for its increase in size4 ,as a result of the rasping action of the pholas shell on the surrounding rock the space hollowed out becomes more or less clogged with dbris4 ,this is ejected at intervals by the sudden contraction of the foot of the animal1 which brings the shell quite to the bottom of the burrow1 thus causing the water with its sediment to shoot upwards1 ,it is not usually an easy matter to obtain perfect specimens of the pholas by simply pulling them from their burrows1 the shells being so thin and fragile1 and the mouth of the burrow being often narrower than the widest part of the shell4 ,the best plan is to chip away the rock with the aid of a mallet and chisel1 or to break it into pieces with a hammer1 thus laying open the burrows so that the molluscs fall from their places4 ,the ,common ,piddock 7,pholas dactylus7 may be identified by the illustrations1 and the other members of the family may be recognised at once by the similarity in structure and habit4 ,the principal species are the ,little ,piddock 7,p4 parva71 the shell of which is wider in proportion to the length1 with only one accessory valve2 and the ,white ,piddock 7,p4 candida71 also with a single accessory4 ,in all the above the foot is remarkable for its ice-like transparency4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--,pholas dactylus1 ,,interior ,,of ,,valve2 ,,and ,pholadidea ,,with ,,animal ,there is another genus--the ,pholadidea--the species of which are very similar to pholas both in structure and habit4 ,the shells are1 however1 more globular in form1 and are marked by a transverse furrow4 ,the gape at the anterior 7lower7 end is also very wide1 and covered over with a hardened plate in the adult4 ,also1 at the posterior 7upper7 end of the shell is a horny cup through which the siphons protrude1 and the latter1 which are combined throughout their length1 terminate in a disc that is surrounded by a fringe of little radiating appendages4 ,in the same family are the molluscs popularly known as ship worms1 which are so destructive to the woodwork of piers and jetties1 or which burrow into masses of floating timber4 ,some of these1 belonging to the genus ,xylophaga--a word that signifies #8wood eaters'--have globular shells with a wide gape in front1 and burrow into floating wood1 nearly always in a direction across the grain4 ,the burrows are about an inch deep1 and are lined with a calcareous deposit4 ,the siphons1 combined except at the ends1 are slender and retractile2 and the foot1 which is thick1 is capable of considerable extension4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,,the ,,ship ,,worm ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--a4 ,teredo navalis4 #b4 ,teredo norvegica ,other ship worms belong to the genus ,teredo1 and are very similar in general characters4 ,the shell is small and globular1 with a wide gape at both ends1 and consists of two three-lobed valves with concentric furrows4 ,it is so small in proportion to the size of the animal that it encloses but a small portion of the body1 and lies at the bottom of the burrow1 which is of considerable length--often from one to two feet4 ,the animal is very wormlike in form2 and although the shell is so small1 yet all the internal organs are enclosed by it4 ,the mantle lobes are united in front1 except where the sucker-like foot passes through them2 the gills are long and narrow1 and extend into the siphonal tube2 and the two very long siphons are united almost throughout their length4 ,it is also interesting to note that in these animals the rectum does not pass through the heart1 as it does in nearly all molluscs1 and that a pair of horny or calcareous 'styles' or 'pallets' project from the place where the two siphonal tubes begin to diverge4 ,several species of ,teredo are to be met with on our coasts1 but they are so similar in general structure that the above brief description applies almost equally well to all4 ,other boring molluscs frequent the ,british shores1 but they belong to quite a distinct family called the ,gastrochnid because their shells gape widely on the ventral side4 ,their valves are equal in size and very thin1 the hinge has no teeth and the pallial line is sinuated4 ,the margins of the mantle lobes are thickened and united except where a small aperture is left for the protrusion of the finger-like foot4 ,the siphons are very long and retractile1 and the gills extend into the inhalent tube4 ,these animals burrow into mud1 shells1 or stone1 often dwelling together in such numbers that their galleries cross one another and form a most intricate network1 and the different species are to be found from low-water mark to a depth of a hundred fathoms or more4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--;,gastrochna modiolina #a1 ,animal in shell2 #b1 shell2 #c1 cell ,the ,british species belong to two genera--the typical genus ,gastrochna1 and the ,saxicava or stone-borers4 ,the former contains the ,common ,flask shell 7,g4 modiolina7 which burrows into limestone and shells1 in the latter case passing generally through the shells into the ground below1 and completing its home by cementing together any fragments of hard material that come in its way into a flask-shaped cell4 ,the opening of the burrow is shaped like an hour-glass1 the two expansions serving for the protrusion of the siphonal tubes1 and the neck of the flask-shaped abode is usually lined with a calcareous layer that projects slightly to afford further protection to the extended siphons4 ,although this species is very common on some parts of our coast1 it is seldom obtained without the aid of a dredge1 for it usually lives at a depth of from five to ten fathoms2 and when found it is generally no easy matter to extricate them from their holes1 to the sides of which they often cement their shells4 ,the genus ,saxicava contains a few species that drill holes1 often several inches deep1 in shells and stone1 and frequently do great damage to breakwaters and other artificial structures4 ,the foot is usually provided with a byssus by which the animal fixes itself to a little projection on the side of its burrow4 ,the species are to be found from low-water mark to a depth of one hundred fathoms or more4 ,the next family1 named ,anatinid1 contains a number of molluscs that burrow in mud or sand or live in seclusion in the crevices of rocks4 ,their shells are thin1 with a granulated outer surface1 and the valves are united by a thin external ligament4 ,the inner surface is pearly1 the pallial line usually sinuated1 and both valves are pitted for the reception of the somewhat stout internal cartilage4 ,the mantle lobes are united1 as are also the siphons to a greater or lesser extent2 and there is only one gill on each side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--a4 ,thracia phaseolina4 #b4 ,thracia pubescens1 ,,showing ,,pallial ,,line ,some of the common species of this family are popularly known as ,lantern shells1 and perhaps the most familiar of these is ,thracia phaseolina1 the specific name of which is given on account of a fancied resemblance of the shell to a bean4 ,the shell is very fragile1 and although large numbers may often be seen stranded on sandy beaches1 but few of them are perfect specimens4 ,the family ,myacid may be recognised by the thick1 strong1 opaque shells1 usually gaping at the posterior end2 the wrinkled epidermis which covers the whole or part of the shell2 and the united siphons1 which are more or less retractile4 ,the mantle cavity is also closed with the exception of a small hole left for the protrusion of the small foot4 ,the pallial line of the shell is sinuated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--a4 ,mya truncata4 #b4 ,,interior ,,of ,,shell4 #c4 ,mya arenaria4 #d4 ,corbula nucleus ,in the above illustration we represent the ,common ,gaper 7,mya arenaria71 which burrows to a considerable depth in the sand or mud1 especially in the estuaries of rivers1 from between the tide-marks to a depth of twenty fathoms or more4 ,it may be readily distinguished1 in common with the other species of the same genus1 by the characteristic wrinkled1 membranous tube that encloses its fringed siphons1 the membrane being a continuation of the epidermis that extends over the shell4 ,another characteristic feature of the genus is the large1 flat process inside the left valve for the attachment of the internal cartilage4 ,an allied species1 ,mya truncata1 is often found abundantly in company with the above1 and may be known by the abruptly squared posterior end4 ,other species of the ,myacid inhabit our shores1 including the little ,basket shell 7,corbula nucleus71 the left valve of which is much smaller than the right1 which overlaps it4 ,the latter1 also1 is covered with epidermis1 while the former1 which is flat1 is quite naked4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--,solen siliqua ,the valves have been separated and the mantle divided to expose the large foot ,we now come to the interesting family of ,razor shells 7,solenid71 specimens of which are washed up on almost every sandy beach1 while the living molluscs may be dug out of their burrows at low-water mark4 ,the shells are elongated1 gaping at both ends with an external ligament2 and the hinge has usually two teeth in one valve and three in the other4 ,the foot of the animal is cylindrical1 large and powerful2 and the siphons are short and united in the long species1 but longer and only partially united in the shorter ones4 ,the gills are long and narrow1 and are prolonged into the inhalent siphon4 ,these molluscs lie vertically in their deep burrows at low-water mark1 the opening of the burrow having a form resembling that of a keyhole4 ,while covered with water they occupy the upper portion of their abode1 but sink to a depth of a foot or more when the tide goes out4 ,as we walk along the water's edge at extreme low tide we may observe jets of water that are shot into the air before us4 ,these are produced by the sudden retreat of the #8,razor-fish' to the bottom of its burrow when alarmed by the approaching footsteps4 ,owing to this wariness on the part of the mollusc1 and to the considerable depth of its burrow1 specimens cannot be obtained by digging without much labour2 but if a little salt or some other irritant be dropped into the hole1 the animal will soon rise to eject it1 and may then be shut out from the lower part of the burrow by sharply driving a spade below it4 ,this is undoubtedly the best method of securing perfect specimens for study or preservation1 but fishermen often obtain large numbers1 either for food or for bait1 by suddenly thrusting a long hook down into the gaping shells1 and then pulling them out4 ,this method always does injury to the soft body of the animal1 and often damages the shell1 but answers the fisherman's purpose exactly4 ,we give illustrations of two shells belonging to the typical genus 7,solen71 including one on ,plate ,v42 also a ,british representative of each of two other genera of the family--,cerati-solen and ,solecurtus1 the latter of which1 as the name implies1 contains shorter species4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--a4 ,solen ensis4 #b4 ,cerati-solen legumen4 #c4 ,solecurtus candidus ,the next family--the ,tellinid--contains a number of well-known molluscs that burrow into sand or mud1 and are enclosed in shells that are often very prettily marked2 and although the family includes several genera1 all may be recognised by the following general features4 ,the shell is compressed1 composed of two equal valves1 with little or no gape1 and the ligament situated on the shortest side4 ,the central or cardinal teeth never exceed two in number in each valve1 and the adductor impressions are round and polished4 ,the mantle is quite open at the anterior end1 and its margins are fringed2 the foot is flattened and tongue-shaped2 and the siphons1 which are quite separate1 are generally long and slender4 ,in the typical genus 7,tellina71 of which we represent two very common ,british species1 the ligament is very prominent1 and the slender siphons are often much longer than the shell4 ,the members of this group move very freely1 travelling about by means of a broad1 flattened foot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--,tellinid #a4 ,psammobia ferroensis4 #b4 ,donax anatinus4 #c4 ,tellina crassa4 #d4 ,tellina tenuis4 #e4 ,donax politus ,the shells of the genus ,psammobia are popularly known as ,sunset shells1 being prettily marked with radiating bands of pink or other tint1 reminding one of the beams of the sun when setting in a cloudy sky4 ,in these1 too1 the ligament is very prominent1 and the shell gapes slightly at both ends4 ,the same family contains the pretty little ,wedge shells1 which are so called on account of their triangular form1 and constitute the genus ,donax4 ,these shells1 which are seldom much over an inch long1 are very common on some of our sandy beaches1 being washed up in considerable numbers after the animals have died1 but the specimens are seldom perfect4 ,the molluscs themselves are burrowers1 and live in the sand1 at and just below low-water mark2 and1 as they usually burrow to a depth of only a few inches1 are easily obtained alive4 ,the shells are rather thin1 closed at both ends1 blunt and rounded at the anterior end1 but straight and more pointed at the shorter posterior end2 and the margins of the valves are very finely grooved in such a manner as to resemble the milling of a coin4 ,each valve has two central hinge teeth1 with one long lateral tooth on each side2 and the ligament is external and prominent4 ,the lobes of the mantle are fringed2 the siphons are separate and diverging1 but shorter and thicker than in most of the other ,tellinid1 and the foot is comparatively large1 flattened1 and pointed4 ,the genus contains many species1 the commonest being1 perhaps1 ,d4 anatinus1 the colour of which is yellowish1 banded with brown1 and marked by a number of radiating white lines4 ,this colour1 however1 is due entirely to the thin1 shining epidermis that completely covers the valves2 and if this is rubbed off the shell itself will exhibit a pale pinkish tint4 ,another common species 7,d4 politus7 may be recognised by the broad patch of white running from the hinge to the margin1 on the posterior side of the middle of each valve4 ,the family ,mactrid contains some ,british shells popularly known as ,trough shells1 and the family name itself is derived from the word mactra1 which signifies a kneading trough4 ,in this group the shells are all more or less triangular in form1 with the valves equal1 and are either closed or very slightly gaping4 ,the ligament1 perhaps more correctly designated the cartilage1 is generally internal1 and contained in a deep triangular hollow2 and the shell is covered with epidermis4 ,the mantle of the animal is open in front1 and the siphonal tubes are united and fringed4 ,the foot is usually large and flattened4 ,the typical genus1 ,mactra1 contains some common molluscs that bury themselves just beneath the surface of sandy beaches2 and these are so abundant in some parts of ,great ,britain that they are used largely for feeding pigs4 ,some of the mactras are remarkable for the great power and extensibility of the foot1 which1 in some cases1 is used so vigorously that the animal turns itself quickly over1 or even leaps on the ground4 ,our example of this genus is ,m4 stultorum1 which is a very common object of the shore4 ,its colour is very variable1 usually some shade of grey or brown1 and marked by radiating white lines4 ,the ,otter shells 7,lutraria71 of which we figure one species1 are much like the ,mactr in structure1 and are usually included in the same family1 but in some respects they resemble the ,myacid or ,gapers4 ,the shell is oblong rather than triangular1 and gapes at both ends2 and the animal buries itself deep in sand or mud1 principally in the estuaries of rivers1 from low-water mark to a depth of about ten fathoms4 ,the shells are not very common objects of the shore1 for they are found only in muddy places1 and those of the commonest species 7,l4 elliptica7 are too large and heavy to be washed ashore in the sheltered estuaries where they abound4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--a4 ,lutraria elliptica4 #b4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,hinge ,,of ,lutraria1 ,,showing ,,the ,,cartilage ,,pit4 #c4 ,macra stultorum4 #d4 ,,interior ,,of ,,same ,,showing ,,pallial ,,line ,we now leave the burrowers1 to consider a family of molluscs that move about somewhat freely by means of a flattened tongue-shaped foot1 and which only rarely fix themselves in any way4 ,the shells of the group are popularly known as ,venus shells1 probably on account of the beauty of some of the species1 and the family in question as the ,venerid4 ,the shells of the various species are usually of a graceful oval or oblong form1 frequently marked by chevron-shaped lines in pretty colours1 and distinctly grooved along the lines of growth4 ,the ligament is external1 the hinge has usually three diverging teeth in each valve1 and the pallial line is sinuated4 ,the principal genus is ,venus1 in which the shells are ovate in form1 thick1 and smooth1 and the margins of the valves are minutely crenulated4 ,the genus is a very large one1 and contains several ,british species1 two of which we represent in the accompanying illustrations4 ,allied to these is the larger but pretty shell ,cytherea chione1 which inhabits deep water off the southern coasts1 to about one hundred and fifty fathoms4 ,it is much like the ,venus shells in form1 but the margins are not crenulated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,venerid #a4 ,venus fasciata4 #b4 ,venus striatula4 #c4 ,tapes virgineana4 #d4 ,tapes aurea ,the same family 7,venerid7 contains the large genus ,tapes1 so called because many of its shells are marked in such a manner as to recall the patterns of tapestry4 ,the general form of these shells is oblong1 and the margins are quite smooth4 ,they are frequently washed up on the beach1 especially during storms1 but the animals may be found alive at low water1 buried in sand1 or hiding in the crevices of rocks or among the roots of the larger sea weeds4 ,the mantle is open at the anterior end1 and the siphons are either quite distinct or only partly united4 ,some of the shells are very prettily coloured4 ,one 7,t4 aurea7 receives its name from the yellow ground1 which is variously marked by deeper tints2 another 7,t4 decussata7 is so called on account of the cross grooves with which the shell is sculptured2 and a third 7,t4 virgineana71 which inhabits the muddy bottoms of deep water1 is prettily marked by radiating bands that run from the umbones to the ventral margins4 ,we now come to the family ,cyprinid1 in which the shell is regular in form1 oval or elongated2 and the valves1 which are equal in size1 are thick and solid1 and fit closely4 ,the teeth are beautifully formed1 the central ones numbering from one to three in each valve1 and the pallial line is not sinuated4 ,the mantle lobes are united on the posterior side by means of a kind of curtain that is pierced by two siphonal openings4 ,there are two gills on each side1 united posteriorly1 and the foot is tongue-shaped and thick4 ,the typical genus--,cyprina--contains a large mollusc 7,c4 islandica71 which is moderately common round our shores1 especially in the north1 but is not often seen above low-water mark1 except when washed up by storms4 ,the shell is oval and thick1 with the umbones prominent and turned towards the posterior side1 and the ligament is strong and prominent4 ,it is entirely covered with a thick epidermis1 of a rich brown colour1 often exhibiting a fine silky gloss1 especially near the margins4 ,the interior of the shell is white1 and the adductor impressions oval and polished4 ,the same family includes some smaller shells that inhabit deep water1 and are therefore not commonly seen on the beach4 ,among these are two species of the genus ,astarte1 one of which is deeply furrowed in a direction parallel with the margins2 also ,circe minima1 which seldom exceeds half an inch in length4 ,although so small compared with ,cyprina1 these shells may be identified by their clothing of epidermis1 together with the family characteristics given above4 ,the ,cyprinid also contains the interesting ,heart ,cockle 7,isocardia cor71 the form of which is so characteristic that identification is easy4 ,the heart-shaped shell is thick and strong1 and is swollen out in such a manner that the umbones are wide apart4 ,these latter are also curved into a spiral form1 and the ligament between them is prominent4 ,the colour of the shell is variable1 the epidermis being of any shade from a yellow to a dark brown4 ,the foot is small and pointed1 and the siphons fringed4 ,the ,heart ,cockle burrows in sand by means of its foot1 going down just far enough to bury the whole of its shell1 and always leaving its siphons exposed at the surface4 ,it inhabits deep water1 and is not likely to be obtained without the use of the dredge or trawl4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4--;,cyprinid #a4 ,cyprina islandica4 #b4 ,teeth of ,cyprina4 #c4 ,astarte compressa4 #d4 ,circe minima4 #e4 ,isocardia cor ,the molluscs of the family ,lucinid are found principally in tropical and sub-tropical seas1 ranging from the shore to a very great depth1 but a few are moderately common in our own waters4 ,they are closely allied to the ,cyprinid1 but the shell is round rather than oval1 and is obliquely grooved inside4 ,the mantle lobes of the animal are not united on the ventral side1 but at the posterior end they are continuous1 except where they form one or two siphonal openings4 ,the foot is long and of almost the same thickness throughout when extended2 and the gills1 numbering either one or two on each side1 are large and thick4 ,in all the members of this family1 as in the last1 the pallial line of the shell is simple4 ,none of the shells are really common objects of our shores1 since the animals inhabit deep water1 some of them moving about freely on the bottom1 while others moor themselves by means of a byssus4 ,we shall take only one example of the family--,galeomma ,turtoni--the generic name of which means #8weasel eye4' ,this pretty little mollusc may be found on our southern coasts1 where it often moors itself to the rocks or weeds by means of its silken byssus2 or1 having broken itself away from its temporary place of rest1 creeps freely on the bottom by a long1 flattened foot1 applied closely to the surface over which it travels1 and used much in the same way as the broad foot of a snail or whelk1 its valves being all the time spread out nearly in the same plane4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--;,galeomma ,turtoni ,the shell itself is oval1 with central umbones1 and is covered with a thick epidermis4 ,the mantle lobes are united behind1 where they form a single siphonal opening2 and the margins are double1 with a row of eye-like spots on the inner edge of each4 ,the true ,cockles1 some few species of which are known to almost every one1 constitute the family ,cardiad1 so called on account of the cordate or heart-shaped form of the shell as viewed from the anterior or posterior side4 ,the shell is regular1 or nearly so1 and the valves1 which are equal1 are ornamented with prominent rays that run from the umbones to the margin4 ,the ligament is short1 strong and prominent1 and the valves fit closely by the interlocking of their crenulated margins1 or gape slightly on the posterior side4 ,there are two central teeth in each valve1 and a long lateral tooth both on the anterior and posterior sides4 ,the mantle lobes are open in front1 with the margins plaited1 and the siphons1 which are usually short1 are provided with a number of little tentacles4 ,the foot is large and powerful1 and is usually curved into the form of a sickle4 ,although the general nature of the common edible cockle 7,cardium edule7 is so well known even to the inhabitants of inland towns that a description may seem out of place here1 yet it is possible that but few of our readers have ever taken the trouble to place the animal in a vessel of sea water1 either obtained direct from the sea or artificially prepared1 for the purpose of studying its movements or other habits2 and it will be well to remember that this and several other species of edible molluscs which reach our towns alive may be very conveniently studied at home1 and often at times and seasons when work at the sea-side is undesirable or impossible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--a4 ,cardium pygmum4 #b4 ,cardium fasciatum4 #c4 ,cardium rusticum ,the edible species referred to lives in banks of sand or mud1 buried just below the surface1 and frequently in spots that are exposed for several hours between the tides4 ,they are usually obtained by means of a rake similar to that used in our gardens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--;,cardium aculeatum ,on the coasts of ,devon and ,cornwall we find a much larger species1 also valued as an article of diet1 and known locally as the ,prickly ,cockle 7,c4 aculeatum74 ,its shell is beautifully formed1 the rays being very prominent1 each bearing a number of calcareous spines arranged in a single row4 ,we give an illustration of this species1 together with two sketches to show the nature of the teeth of the shell4 ,in addition to the two species named1 we have the red-footed1 ,c4 rusticum1 which can suddenly turn itself over by the action of its powerful pedal organ2 the ,banded ,cockle 7,c4 fasciatum71 a very small species distinguished by the brown bands of the shell2 and a still smaller one 7,c4 pygmum71 with a triangular shell1 occurring on the ,dorset and ,devon coasts 7fig4 #adf74 ,passing now to the ,asiphonida1 we deal first with the family ,arcad4 ,these include a number of shells which1 though very variable in general form and appearance1 may all be recognised by the long row of similar comb-like teeth that form the hinge4 ,the shells of this group are regular in form1 with equal valves1 and are covered with epidermis4 ,the mantle of the animal is open1 the gills are united by a membrane behind1 and the foot is large1 curved1 and grooved4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--,pectunculus glycimeris1 ,,with ,,portion ,,of ,,valve ,,showing ,,teeth1 ,,and ,arca tetragona ,one of the prettiest shells in the family is ,pectunculus glycimeris1 which reaches a length of about two inches4 ,the shell is grooved in the direction of the lines of growth1 and there are also very delicate striations running radially from umbones to margin2 and the ground colour of white or pale yellowish is beautifully mottled with reddish brown4 ,we give a figure of this species1 together with a drawing of the peculiar and characteristic teeth1 but a more typical shell of this family may be seen in the ,noah's ,ark 7,arca tetragona74 ,this shell is almost quadrate in form1 swollen1 and strongly ribbed4 ,the hinge is straight1 with many comb-like teeth--increasing in number with the age of the shell2 and the umbones are separated by a diamond-shaped ligament4 ,the foot of the animal is heeled--that is1 it has a creeping surface that extends backwards as well as forwards2 the mantle is furnished with minute eyes 7ocelli71 and the animal has two distinct hearts4 ,we give a figure of this peculiar shell1 and the other ,british members of the same genus1 though varying more or less in form1 may be recognised at once by the same general characteristics4 ,in the same family we have the small nutshells 7genus ,nucula71 which are often dredged up from deep water in large numbers2 and the elongated shells of the genus ,leda1 also inhabitants of deep water2 and1 as before stated1 the affinities of all may be readily established by the characteristic nature of the teeth4 ,we now pass on to the family of ,mussels 7,mytilid71 of which the common ,edible ,mussel 7,mytilus edulis7 is a typical species4 ,in this interesting group the shell is oval or elongated1 with equal valves1 and is covered with a dark-coloured epidermis which is often distinctly fibrous in structure4 ,the umbones are at the anterior end of the shell1 which end is usually very narrow and pointed1 while the posterior is broad and rounded4 ,the hinge has small teeth or none1 and the ligament1 which is long1 is internal4 ,the shells of mussels consist of two distinct layers2 on the inner1 which is often of a most beautiful pearly lustre1 may be traced the simple pallial line and the impressions of the small anterior and the large posterior muscles4 ,the mantle lobes of the animal are united only at a point between the two siphonal openings4 ,there are two elongated gills on either side1 and the foot is thick and more or less grooved4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--,mytilus edulis ,mussels inhabit salt1 brackish1 and fresh waters1 generally attaching themselves by means of a silken byssus1 but sometimes concealing themselves in ready-made holes1 or in burrows of their own2 and some even hide themselves in a nest which they prepare by binding together fragments of shells or sand4 ,the edible mussel1 which forms such an important article of diet1 especially among the poorer classes in our large towns1 may be easily distinguished from similar species of another genus by the very pointed umbones1 and the coarse and strong fibrous byssus by which it clings to any solid object4 ,it is found most abundantly on muddy coasts1 and on mud banks in the estuaries of rivers1 generally in such situations as are uncovered at low tide4 ,the fry abound just below low-water level1 and grow so rapidly that they reach their full size in a single year4 ,it is well known that a diet of mussels occasionally produces very unpleasant and even dangerous symptoms in the consumer1 and this result has been attributed to the action of a particular organ of the animal which has not been carefully removed before eating4 ,this1 however1 is not the case1 as proved by the fact that the eating of these edibles is usually perfectly safe when no such precautions have been taken4 ,it is highly probable that the deleterious character referred to is due to a disease which sometimes attacks the mussels themselves1 but the exact nature of this has not been thoroughly made out4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4--a4 ,modiola modiolus4 #b4 ,modiola tulipa4 #c4 ,crenella discors ,there is another genus 7,modiola7 containing several species commonly known as ,horse ,mussels1 and these may be distinguished from ,mytilus by their habit of burrowing1 or of constructing a nest by spinning together various fragments4 ,the shell1 also1 is more oblong in form1 and much swollen near the anterior end2 and the umbones are not so pointed4 ,the epidermis covering the shell is of fibrous structure1 and often extends beyond the edges of the valves in the form of a fringe4 ,several species of ,horse ,mussels inhabit our shores1 from low-water mark to a depth of fifty fathoms1 but none of them is used for food4 ,the commonest species is ,modiola modiolus1 which has a particularly strong byssus1 and its fibres generally bind together such a number of stones c4 that the shell is completely hidden in the entangled mass4 ,other ,british species include ,m4 barbata1 so called on account of the peculiar fringed threads of the epidermis2 ,m4 phaseolina1 in which the epidermis threads are not fringed2 and ,m4 tulipa1 named from the streaks of crimson or purple that radiate from the umbones of the shell and remind us of the colouring of the tulip flower4 ,an allied sub-genus 7,crenella7 includes a few small ,british molluscs the shells of which are crenulated on the dorsal margin behind the ligament4 ,the shells are short and swollen1 and lined by a brilliant pearly layer4 ,one species 7,c4 discors7 is pale green1 with radiating lines from umbo to margin4 ,it is common on many of our shores1 but is not easily found1 as it hides at or below low water mark1 in a nest formed by binding together small stones4 ,other species1 one of which is black1 are less abundant1 and are not readily obtained except by the use of the dredge4 ,before leaving this family we must refer to the remarkable ,dreissena polymorpha1 sometimes called the ,chambered ,mussel1 on account of the chamber which is formed in the beak of the shell by means of a pearly plate that stretches across it4 ,this animal is not indigenous to ,britain1 but was introduced from the ,east by trading vessels1 either attached by its silken byssus to timber that had been left floating in water previous to being shipped1 or to the bottoms of the ships4 ,it seems to thrive almost equally well in salt1 brackish1 and fresh waters1 and has spread very rapidly since its introduction4 ,it is more commonly found1 however1 in docks1 canals1 and rivers1 and is on that account usually described with the fresh-water species4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--;,dreissena polymorpha ,the form of the shell is very similar to that of ,mytilus1 but has no internal pearly layer1 and the valves are bluntly keeled4 ,the mantle is closed1 the siphons short1 and the foot small4 ,our next family--the ,aviculid--contains those shells that are distinguished by peculiar flat processes on each side of the umbones1 one of which1 the posterior1 is generally wing-like in form4 ,they are popularly known as ,wing ,shells1 and the family includes the so-called ,pearl ,oysters4 ,most of the species are natives of tropical seas1 but several are common on our own shores4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--;,avicula1 ,,and ,pinna pectinata ,one species of the typical genus is sometimes found off the coasts of ,cornwall and ,devon4 ,the shell is very oblique1 and the valves are unequal1 the right one1 on which the animal rests1 being somewhat smaller than the left2 and the epidermis is very scanty4 ,the hinge is long and straight1 without teeth1 and the cartilage is contained in grooves4 ,the interior of the shell is pearly4 ,the posterior adductor impression is large1 and not far from the middle of the shell1 while the anterior1 which is small1 is close to the umbones4 ,the mantle of the animal is open1 and the margins of the lobes fringed2 and the small foot spins a powerful byssus4 ,most of the ,british species of the family belong to the genus ,pinna1 so called on account of the fins or wings on the dorsal side of the shell4 ,in this group the shell is more or less wedge-shaped1 with equal valves1 and the umbones are quite at the anterior end1 while it is blunted and gaping at the other end4 ,the hinge has no teeth4 ,the margins of the mantle are doubly fringed1 and the byssus is extremely powerful4 ,the ,common ,pinna 7,p4 pectinata7 is a very large mollusc1 sometimes measuring a foot in length1 and is very abundant off the south-west coast1 where it moors itself vertically at the bottom of the water with the pointed end buried1 and the broad end gaping widely so as to expose its body4 ,it has been stated that fishes are frequently tempted to intrude into the open shell for the purpose of devouring the animal within1 and that they are immediately crushed by the sudden closing of the valves1 which are pulled together by two large and powerful adductors4 ,we have already referred to the little ,pea ,crab that inherits the shell of the ,pinna1 living permanently in the mantle cavity of the animal4 ,the last family of the ,lamellibranchs is the ,ostreid or ,oysters1 of which the edible oyster may be taken as a type4 ,in this group the shells are frequently unequal1 and they lie on one side either free or adherent to the surface below them2 the hinge is usually without teeth4 ,the mantle is quite open1 the gills number two on each side1 and the foot is either small or absent4 ,the ,edible ,oyster is a type of the typical genus ,ostrea1 its scientific name being ,ostrea edulis2 and as this mollusc may be readily obtained at any time1 it is a convenient species for the study of the general characteristics of its family4 ,its shell is irregular in form1 and the animal always rests on its left valve1 which is convex1 while the upper or right valve is either flat or concave4 ,the lower valve is also thicker and laminated in structure1 and is attached to the surface on which it rests4 ,on examining the interior we find that the shell is somewhat pearly in appearance1 and that the edges of the mantle lobes are finely fringed4 ,the gills1 too1 are united with each other and with the mantle on the posterior side1 thus forming a distinct branchial chamber4 ,oysters are found on banks at the depth of several fathoms1 where they spawn in early summer1 and the fry or spats are collected in large numbers and transferred to artificial beds or tanks1 where they are kept in very shallow water so as to be easily obtainable when required for food4 ,it is interesting to note1 however1 that their growth is slow on these artificial grounds1 the full size being attained in about seven years1 while1 in the natural beds1 they are full grown in a little more than half that time4 ,native oysters--those that are reared on artificial beds--are of course removed as soon as they are ready for the market1 but those that live on natural banks are often left undisturbed till their shells are thick with age4 ,the latter1 too1 are often destroyed in large numbers by the boring sponge 7p4 #abd71 which so completely undermines the substance of the shell that it finally breaks to pieces4 ,in the genus ,anomia the lower valve is concave1 and perforated with a large oval hole very near the hinge1 while the upper one is very convex1 but the shell is very variable in shape1 since the animal sometimes clings permanently to an object1 and the shell1 during its growth1 accommodates itself to the surface of that object4 ,the use of the hole is to allow of the protrusion of a set of muscles which proceed from the upper valve1 and give attachment to a plug or button1 more or less calcified1 by which the animal clings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4--a4 ,anomia ephippium4 #b4 ,pecten tigris4 #c4 ,pecten1 ,,animal ,,in ,,shell ,one species 7,a4 ephippium71 known as the ,saddle ,oyster1 is common on some parts of our coast4 ,it is seldom found on the beach at low water1 but the empty shells are often washed up by the waves4 ,the same family includes the ,scallops1 which constitute the genus ,pecten4 ,in these the shell is nearly round1 with ears on each side of the umbones1 those on the anterior side being generally much more prominent than the others1 and both valves are ornamented by prominent radiating ribs4 ,the shell is often very prettily coloured1 and the animal rests on the right valve1 which may be distinguished from the left by its greater convexity1 and by the presence of a notch under the anterior ear4 ,the hinge is straight1 with a very narrow ligament1 and the internal cartilage is situated in a central pit4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,,molluscs #a4 ,solen ensis #b4 ,trivia ,europa #c4 ,trochus umbilicatus #d4 ,trochus magnus #e4 ,littorina littorea #f4 ,littorina rudis #g4 ,haminea 7,bulla7 hydatis #h4 ,tellina #i4 ,capulus hungaricus #aj4 ,chrysodomus antiquus #aa4 ,buccinum undatum #ab #ac ,scalaria communis #ad4 ,pecten opercularis #ae4 ,pecten varius #af4 ,pecten maximus ,the mantle of the animal is free1 with double margins1 the inner of which forms a finely fringed curtain all round1 and on this curtain are a number of black eyes surrounded by very fine tentacles4 ,the gills are in the form of very thin crescents1 and the foot is shaped like a finger4 ,although the majority of scallops are inhabitants of tropical seas1 several species are to be found off our coasts1 where they range from depths of about four to forty fathoms1 and the empty shells1 often in the most perfect condition1 are frequently found on the beach4 ,the ,common ,scallop 7,p4 maximus7 is largely used as food1 and is therefore a common object in the fishmonger's shop4 ,its colour is very variable1 and the shell has equal ears and about twenty radiating ribs4 ,the ,quin 7,p4 opercularis7 is also an important article of diet in some parts4 ,perhaps the prettiest of the ,british species is the ,variable ,scallop 7,p4 varius71 so called on account of the very variable colour of the shell1 the ground tint of which may be almost anything between a very pale yellow and a dark reddish brown1 and this is irregularly patched with some lighter colour4 ,the chief distinguishing features of the species are the spiny projections of the numerous ribs1 most prominent near the margin of the valves1 and the presence of a permanent byssus1 which1 in other species1 occurs only in the young4 ,three of the species named above are shown on ,plate ,v4 ,we may also mention the ,tiger ,scallop 7,p4 tigrinus71 the radiating ribs of which are sometimes slightly formed1 and which has only one ear in each valve2 and ,p4 pusio1 in which the adult shell is often greatly altered in form4 ,it may be noted1 in conclusion1 that all the species of this genus have the power of swimming rapidly by flapping their valves--a mode of locomotion very common among the bivalves especially during an early stage of their existence4 ,before passing on to the univalve molluscs1 we must refer briefly to a group of animals that are enclosed in bivalve shells1 and which were once included with the ,mollusca1 but are now made to form quite a distinct group by themselves4 ,we refer to the ,brachiopods1 at one time very abundant1 as proved by the immense number of fossil shells embedded in various stratified rocks1 but now represented by only a few living species4 ,the shells of these animals are commonly known as ,lamp ,shells1 on account of their resemblance to an antique lamp2 and although at first sight they bear a general likeness to certain bivalve shells of lamellibranchs1 a close examination will show that not only the shell1 but also the animal residing within it1 are both of a nature very different from that of the molluscs with which they were at one time supposed to be closely related4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--,terebratulina4 ,,the ,,upper ,,figure ,,represents ,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,dorsal ,,valve ,the valves of the shell are unequal1 and are not placed respectively on the right and left sides of the body of the animal1 but rather on the dorsal and ventral or upper and lower sides4 ,the ventral shell is the larger1 and is produced into a beak which sometimes has a round hole corresponding in position with the hole for the wick of an antique lamp1 and the dorsal or smaller valve is always imperforate4 ,the hinge is a perfect one1 the junction of the two valves being so well secured by it that it is impossible to separate them without injury4 ,it is formed by two curved teeth on the margin of the ventral valve that fit into corresponding sockets on the dorsal4 ,a few brachiopods1 however1 have no hinge1 the valves being secured by means of numerous muscles4 ,the hole in the shell serves for the protrusion of a pedicel or foot by means of which the animal is enabled to attach itself4 ,two long arms1 covered with vibratile cilia1 and capable of being folded or coiled1 are attached at the sides of the mouth4 ,they are practically processes of the lips1 mounted on muscular stalks1 and attached to a delicate calcareous loop on the dorsal valve2 and serve not only to produce water currents for the conveyance of food to the mouth1 but also answer the purpose of gills4 ,the digestive system of a brachiopod includes an sophagus that leads into a simply formed stomach round which is a large digestive gland4 ,the heart has only one cavity1 but the animal is provided with two smaller and separate organs that assist in the propulsion of the blood1 which circulates through numerous blood spaces in the bristly mantle4 ,about two thousand fossil species of brachiopods are known1 extending over a vast range of time2 and the living species1 numbering less than a hundred1 are found from shallow water to the greatest habitable depths4 ,since the reader is hardly likely to form any extensive acquaintance with the ,brachiopods1 we shall illustrate our remarks by the introduction of only one species--the ,serpent's ,head ,terebratula 7,terebratulina caput-serpentis71 which is found in deep water in the ,north ,sea4 ,the interior of the dorsal valve1 showing the calcareous loop above referred to1 is represented in fig4 #aed1 as is also the exterior of the shell1 which is finely striated4 ,the latter represents the dorsal aspect of the shell in order to show the hole in the upturned beak of the ventral valve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--,,under ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,shell ,,of ,natica catena1 ,,showing ,,the ,,umbilicus2 ,,and ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,shell1 ,,showing ,,the ,,right ,,handed ,,spiral ,we have now to consider the large group of head-bearing molluscs 7,cephalophora71 the study of which forms a very important part of the work of the sea-side naturalist2 and while we deal with the general characteristics of this group1 the reader will do well to have before him a few living typical species in order that he may be able to verify as many as possible of the descriptions here given by actual observation4 ,these types may include such creatures as the whelk1 periwinkle1 and limpet2 or if marine species are not at hand at the time1 the garden snail1 fresh-water snail1 and slug will serve the purpose fairly well4 ,by far the large majority of ,cephalopods are enclosed in a single shell1 though a few have a rudimentary shell or none at all4 ,as is the case with the lamellibranchs1 the shell is composed of both animal and mineral substance1 the latter being a calcareous deposit secreted by the mantle of the animal4 ,the shell is usually spiral in form1 as in the whelk1 but sometimes conical 7limpet7 or tubular4 ,spiral shells are nearly always dextral or right-handed2 that is1 if we trace the direction of the spiral from the apex to the mouth1 we find that its turns or whorls run in the same direction as the hands of a watch4 ,a few1 however1 are sinistral1 or left-handed1 and occasionally we meet with left-handed varieties of those species that are normally of the right-handed type4 ,the cavity of the shell is a single spiral chamber which winds round a central pillar1 and each whorl of the shell generally overlaps the preceding one1 the two being separated externally by a spiral depression called the suture4 ,sometimes the coils of a shell are not close together internally1 so that the central column of the spiral is hollow1 and opens to the exterior at the base of the shell4 ,in this case the shell is said to be umbilicated1 and the opening referred to is the umbilicus4 ,in others the spiral winds round a solid central pillar which is spoken of as the columella4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4--,,section ,,of ,,the ,,shell ,,of ,,the ,,whelk1 ,,showing ,,the ,,columella ,the apex of the shell1 sometimes called the nucleus1 is the oldest part1 and represents what was once the whole4 ,it is generally directed backwards as the animal crawls1 and in adult shells is often more or less worn away by constant friction4 ,we speak of the whorls as first1 second1 third1 c41 taking them in the order of their growth1 and it will generally be found that the last whorl is much larger than the others1 so much so that it contains the greater part of the body of the animal2 hence this one is commonly spoken of as the body-whorl1 and the others make up the spire of the shell4 ,the mouth of the shell is of different forms in different species1 but in the herbivorous kinds it is usually simple1 while in the carnivorous species it is notched or produced4 ,the edge of the mouth 7peristome7 is formed by an outer lip which is usually sharp in young shells and either thickened1 reflected 7turned outward71 or inflected 7turned inward7 in adults2 also it may be considerably expanded1 or ornamented by a fringed margin4 ,the inner lip is that side of the peristome adjacent to the central pillar of the shell4 ,if we examine the external surface of several different shells1 we find that they are usually more or less distinctly furrowed or sculptured1 and that they are often marked by lines or bands of a colour different from that of the ground tint4 ,these furrows1 lines1 or bands sometimes pass directly from the apex1 across the various whorls1 to the base of the shell1 in which case they are said to be longitudinal4 ,if they follow the course of the whorls1 they are described as spiral2 and if parallel with the peristome1 so that they mark the former positions of the mouth of the shell1 thus denoting the lines of growth1 they are said to be transverse4 ,most univalve shells are covered with epidermis1 but in some instances the animal1 when extended1 surrounds the exterior of the shell with its mantle1 as do the cowries1 and then the outside of the shell is always glazed4 ,other species keep their shells covered with the mantle1 and in these the shell is always colourless4 ,the body of the head-bearing mollusc is attached to the shell internally by one or more muscles1 and if we examine the interior surface we are generally able to distinguish the impressions or scars denoting the points of attachment4 ,the reader will have observed that the periwinkle1 whelk1 and other univalves close their shells by a kind of lid when they retract their bodies4 ,this lid is called the operculum1 and is constructed of a horny material1 often more or less calcified on the exterior1 and is attached to the hinder part of the foot4 ,it sometimes fits accurately into the mouth of the shell1 but in some species it only partially closes the aperture4 ,the operculum1 like the shell itself1 often exhibits distinct lines of growth which display the manner in which it was built up4 ,if these lines are concentric we know that the operculum grew by additions on all sides2 but if its nucleus is at one edge1 and the lines of growth widest apart at the opposite side1 the growth must have taken place on one side only4 ,some1 even1 are of a spiral form1 denoting that the additions were made continuously at one edge1 and such opercula may be right-handed or left-handed spirals4 ,it will be noticed that in the above general description of univalve shells we have introduced a number of technical terms which are printed in italics1 and this we have done advisedly1 for the employment of these terms is a very great convenience when giving descriptions of individual shells1 and we shall use them somewhat liberally in noting the distinguishing characteristics of the families and genera2 but before entering into this portion of our work we must briefly note the general features of the bodies of the ,cephalophora4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,whelk1 ,,the ,,shell ,,being ,,removed c1 stomach2 e1 end of intestine2 g1 gills2 h1 ventricle of the heart2 a1 auricle2 f1 nerve ganglia2 b1 digestive gland2 ft1 foot2 o1 operculum2 d1 liver ,sometimes these bodies are bilaterally symmetrical1 as we have observed is the case with the worms1 but more commonly the organs on one side are aborted1 while the growth proceeds apace on the opposite side4 ,thus the animal assumes a spiral form1 being coiled towards the aborted side1 with the gills and other organs developed on that side only4 ,as a rule this curvature is such that the body takes the form of a right-handed or dextral spiral1 as we have already observed in the shells which cover them1 the mouth being thus thrown to the right1 but sometimes it takes the opposite direction4 ,when one of these animals is extended and creeping1 we observe that it has a distinct head1 furnished with a mouth below1 and tentacles and eyes above2 also1 if an aquatic species1 the gills are more or less prominent4 ,further1 the exposed portion of the body is covered with a leathery mantle1 and the animal creeps on a broad1 flattened surface which is called the foot4 ,the tentacles or feelers are usually retractile1 and1 when retracted1 are turned outside-in4 ,each one is provided with a muscle that runs from the body internally to the tip2 and1 by the contraction of this muscle the tentacle is involuted just in the same way as the finger of a glove could be by pulling a string attached to the tip inside4 ,in addition to these tentacles1 and the eyes and mouth previously mentioned1 the head is furnished with ear-sacs1 which are little cavities1 filled with fluid containing solid particles1 with nerve filaments distributed in the walls4 ,on the floor of the mouth there is a ribbon1 supported on a base of gristle1 and covered with numerous minute teeth arranged regularly in rows4 ,the gristle is moved backwards and forwards by means of muscles in such a manner that this 'lingual ribbon' acts like a rasp1 and is employed in scraping or tearing away portions of the substance on which the animal is feeding4 ,by this action the teeth are gradually worn away in front1 but this is of no consequence1 for the lingual ribbon is always growing forwards1 the worn material being replaced by new growth behind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--;,a ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,lingual ,,ribbon ,,of ,,the ,,whelk1 ,,magnified2 ,,and ,a ,,single ,,row ,,of ,,teeth ,,on ,a ,,much ,,larger ,,scale b1 medial teeth2 a and c1 lateral teeth ,the arrangement and form of the teeth are characteristic and important2 and since they afford one of the means by which we may trace the natural affinities of similar species1 they will be frequently referred to when dealing with the principles of classification4 ,for this reason the student should be prepared to examine the lingual ribbons of molluscs with the aid of a compound microscope as occasion requires4 ,as a rule the ribbon is easily stripped away from the floor of the mouth2 and1 if placed in a drop of water and covered with a cover-glass1 the teeth are readily observed4 ,until a little experience has been gained the observations may be confined to some of the larger species1 in which the ribbon is both large and easily obtained4 ,in the common whelk1 for example1 it often measures more than an inch in length4 ,it is difficult to understand how the univalve mollusc manages to glide along so rapidly and gracefully on its expanded foot when we observe it from above1 but the difficulty is cleared away when we see it creeping on the side of a glass aquarium1 or when we place it on a sheet of glass and observe its movements from the other side4 ,we then see that the foot is in complete contact with the glass1 and that a steady but rapid undulatory movement is produced by the successive expansions and contractions of the disc1 brought about1 of course1 by the action of muscular fibres4 ,a few of the univalves are viviparous--that is1 they produce their young alive2 but the majority lay eggs4 ,the eggs are often enclosed in horny cases1 some of which may be commonly seen washed up on the beach1 or attached to rocks and weeds between the tide-marks4 ,the larv are always enclosed in a shell1 though they are sometimes wholly or partially concealed by the mantle4 ,the shell is usually closed by an operculum2 but as the animal advances in age the shell sometimes disappears altogether1 or is reduced to a mere shelly plate1 as is the case with the land and marine slugs and sea lemons4 ,the young of the water-breathers always swim about freely by means of a pair of ciliated lobes or fins1 but these remain only for a brief period1 after which the animal settles to the bottom for a more or less sedentary existence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--;,,egg ,,cases ,,of ,,the ,,whelk ,the ,cephalophora fall naturally into two fairly well-defined groups1 which we may describe as the air-breathers and the water-breathers4 ,the former breathe air direct from the atmosphere through an aperture on the right side of the body1 the air passing into a pulmonary organ or lung1 in the walls of which the bloodvessels ramify1 and they include all the land snails and slugs4 ,the latter breathe by gills which are more or less prominent on the sides of the body1 and include all the fresh-water snails1 as well as the marine species which fall within our special province4 ,we shall first consider the class ,pteropoda or ,wing-footed ,molluscs1 so called from the wing-like appendages that are attached to the side of the mouth1 or to the upper side of the foot1 which is either very small or altogether wanting4 ,these ,pteropods are in many respects lowly organised as compared with the higher molluscs2 and as they spend the whole of their existence in the open sea1 they can hardly be considered as falling within the scope of the sea-side naturalist's work4 ,yet since their shells are occasionally drifted on to the shore1 and because a knowledge of them is essential to the student of the mollusca1 we shall briefly note their principal characteristics4 ,the pteropods are extremely abundant in some seas1 occurring in such vast numbers that they discolour the water for miles4 ,they swim about by flapping the pair of wings already referred to4 ,they are known to form an important article of the diet of the whale1 and are also devoured in enormous numbers by various sea birds2 and they are themselves carnivorous1 feeding on various smaller creatures that inhabit the open waters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--,,pteropods ,in appearance they much resemble the young of higher species of molluscs4 ,the nervous system consists of a single ganglion situated below the gullet1 and the eyes and tentacles are either rudimentary or absent4 ,the digestive system includes a muscular gizzard provided with teeth for the mastication of food1 and a digestive gland or liver for the preparation of a digestive fluid4 ,the heart has two cavities1 and respiration is effected by a surface covered with minute cilia4 ,this surface is either quite external or is enclosed in a chamber through which water freely circulates4 ,the shell is very different from that of a typical head-bearing mollusc1 for it generally consists of two glassy1 semitransparent plates1 situated dorsally and ventrally respectively on the body of the animal1 with an opening for the protrusion of the body1 and others at the sides for processes of the mantle2 and it terminates behind in one or three pointed processes4 ,sometimes1 however1 its form is conical or spiral1 with or without an operculum4 ,we append illustrations of a few pteropods1 selecting for our purpose species that have been found in the ,atlantic4 ,it will have been noticed from the above short description that the pteropod is very unlike the typical ,cephalophore as outlined in our general remarks on the group1 especially in the symmetrical form of both body and shell and in the total or almost total absence of the foot2 and this distinction is so marked that the pteropods are often separated from all the other ,cephalophora into a class by themselves1 while all the remainder are placed in a separate extensive class called the ,gasteropoda1 because they creep on the ventral surface of the body1 the term signifying stomach-footed4 ,these gasteropods are divided into four orders3 the ,nucleobranchiata1 in which the respiratory and digestive organs form a nucleus on the posterior part of the back2 the ,opisthobranchiata1 with gills more or less exposed towards the rear of the body2 the ,pulmonifera1 or lung-breathing order2 and the ,prosobranchiata1 in which the gills are situated in advance of the heart4 ,the third order includes all the land snails and slugs1 and does not therefore fall within the scope of our work2 but the remaining three consist either exclusively or principally of marine species1 and will be dealt with in the order in which they are named4 ,the ,nucleobranchs are not really gasteropods in the strictest sense of the term1 for they do not creep along by means of their foot1 but all swim freely in the open ocean1 always at the surface1 and sometimes adhere to floating weed by means of a sucker4 ,in fact1 the foot of these creatures is greatly modified in accordance with their habits1 one part being often expanded into a ventral swimming fin1 and provided with a sucking-disc for adhesion1 and another produced into a posterior fin for locomotion4 ,like the pteropods1 the nucleobranchs are purely pelagic1 so that we can hardly expect to meet with a specimen on or near the shore2 and thus we shall content ourselves with a brief notice of their general characters4 ,the shell is very variable in size and form1 and sometimes even entirely absent4 ,large-bodied species often possess but a very small shell1 while some are able to entirely retract themselves and close the mouth of the shell by an operculum4 ,these animals are generally provided with a large cylindrical proboscis1 and the tongue has recurved teeth4 ,the body is usually very transparent1 often so much so that the blood may be seen circulating within it1 and the nervous system is much more perfectly developed than in the pteropods4 ,the eyes1 too1 are perfectly formed4 ,the presence of special breathing organs may seem to be superfluous in such delicate and soft-bodied creatures as these1 for it may be supposed that all the oxygen required could be absorbed directly from the water through their soft structures1 as is really the case with many aquatic creatures2 and as a matter of fact some of the nucleobranchs possess no gills1 but others have these organs fully formed4 ,passing now to the true gasteropods1 we shall first consider the ,opisthobranchs1 which are commonly known as ,sea ,slugs and ,sea ,lemons4 ,some of these have no shell at all1 and even where one exists it is very rudimentary1 usually very small and thin1 and concealed within the mantle4 ,the gills are either branched and tree-like1 or are composed of tufts or bundles of filaments2 and1 as the name of the order implies1 are situated towards the posterior part of the body4 ,they are also retractile1 and when the animal is alarmed it will conceal its gills1 thus reducing its body to a shapeless1 slimy mass1 inviting neither to sight nor to touch4 ,the sea slugs are principally animal feeders1 subsisting on small crustaceans1 other molluscs1 c42 the food being first reduced by the rasping action of the teeth1 and then masticated in a gizzard which is provided internally with horny spines or hard1 shelly plates4 ,it will not be necessary to enumerate all the different families of this order1 especially as the species are mostly to be found beyond the tide-marks1 and are therefore obtained only with the aid of the dredge2 but we shall describe a few of the ,british species with a view of showing the general characteristics of the animals4 ,they are usually divided into two sections1 those with exposed or naked gills 7,nudibranchiata7 forming the first1 and those in which the gills are covered either by the shell or the mantle 7,tectibranchiata7 comprising the second4 ,in the ,nudibranchs the shell exists only during the embryonic stage1 and the external gills are arranged on the back or along the sides4 ,the tentacles are not employed as organs of touch1 but are probably connected only with the sensation of smell1 being provided with filaments of the olfactory nerve2 the eyes are small dark-coloured spots embedded in the skin behind the tentacles4 ,various species are to be found on all rocky coasts1 where they range from low-water mark to a depth of fifty or sixty fathoms1 but a few are pelagic1 living on the surface of floating sea weeds4 ,it is almost impossible to identify the species of nudibranchs from dead specimens1 for the classification of the section is based largely on the arrangement of the gills1 which are almost always retracted in the dead animals4 ,this is also the case even with living specimens when disturbed or removed from the water2 hence they should always be examined alive in sea water1 while the animals are extended and moving4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,,nudibranchs #a4 ,doto coronata4 #b4 ,elysia viridis4 #c4 ,proctonotus mucroniferus4 #d4 ,embletonia pulchra ,it will be understood from the above statements that special methods will be necessary when it is required to preserve specimens for future study1 the gills being always retracted when the animal is killed for this purpose by any rapid process4 ,we have found two methods1 however1 that are fairly satisfactory in the majority of instances4--,place the living animals in a suitable vessel of sea water1 and leave them quite undisturbed till they are fully extended1 and then either gradually raise the temperature till they are dead1 or introduce into the water1 cautiously1 a solution of corrosive sublimate4 ,in the latter case a much larger proportion of the sublimate will be required than when used for a similar purpose with freshwater molluscs4 ,when the animals are dead it will be found that their gills are more or less extended1 sometimes fully so1 and they may then be transferred to diluted spirit or a two per cent4 solution of formaldehyde4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--,,nudibranchs #a4 ,dendronotus arborescens4 #b4 ,tritonia plebeia4 #c4 ,triopa claviger4 #d4 girus punctilucens ,in fig4 #afb we represent four species4 ,two of these--,triopa claviger and girus punctilucens--belong to the family ,dorid1 the members of which are popularly known as ,sea ,lemons1 and are distinguished by the presence of plume-like gills situated on the middle of the back4 ,another family 7,tritoniad71 characterised by the arrangement of the gills along the sides of the back1 and by tentacles that can be retracted into sheaths1 is represented by ,tritonia plebeia and ,dendronotus arborescens in the same figure1 and by ,doto coronata in fig4 #afa4 ,the family olid also have their gills arranged along the sides of the back1 but they differ from the last in that their tentacles are not retractile4 ,they include the two species numbered #c and #d on fig4 #afa4 ,the remaining one on fig4 #afa--;,elysia viridis--is a member of the family ,phillirhoid1 characterised by a pair of tentacles on the dorsal side of the head and by the foot being either very narrow or absent1 the latter feature denoting that the animals are not adapted for creeping on the bottom4 ,in fact1 several of the species of this family swim freely by means of flattened tails4 ,the ,tectibranchs are similar in general structure1 but are very different in appearance1 inasmuch as the gills1 so prominent in the last division1 are here covered by the mantle1 or by the shell1 which is often well developed4 ,the latter is very variable in form1 being of a globular1 twisted1 spiral1 or other shape1 but is sometimes absent in the adult4 ,in fig4 #afc we give a few examples of the shells of ,british species2 and one 7,bulla hydatis7 is shown on ,plate ,v4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--,,shells ,,of ,,tectibranchs ,we now pass on to the largest and last order of gasteropods--the ,prosobranchiata--so called because the gills are situated in front of the heart4 ,this group is an important one to the sea-side naturalist1 since it contains nearly all the univalve molluscs that are common between the tide-marks of our shores1 as well as some abundant species that are protected by a shell of several distinct parts4 ,in nearly all of them the abdomen is well developed1 and the shell is sufficiently large to cover the whole animal when the latter is retracted2 and the gills1 which are either pectinated 7comb-shaped7 or plumed1 are lodged in the chamber formed over the head of the animal by the mantle4 ,the order is often divided into two sections--the ,holostomata or ,sea ,snails1 in which the margin of the aperture of the shell is entire1 and the ,siphonostomata1 in which the margin of the mantle is prolonged into a siphon by which water passes into the gill chamber4 ,this division does not seem to be very satisfactory1 as the sections are not separated by very prominent natural characteristics1 but it becomes convenient on account of the great extent of the order4 ,in the ,holostomata the shell is either spiral1 conical1 tubular1 or composed of several valves1 and the spiral forms are usually closed by a horny or shelly operculum of the spiral kind4 ,the head is provided with a proboscis that is generally non-retractile1 and the gills usually extend obliquely across the back1 or are attached to the right side behind the head4 ,we shall first consider the lower forms1 starting with the family ,chitonid1 the animals of which1 as the name implies1 are covered with a shell that resembles a coat of mail4 ,some of these creatures are very common on our rocky coasts1 and yet their nature is such that they are liable to be overlooked by those who are not acquainted with their appearance and habits4 ,the shell is oval or oblong1 often so coloured as to closely resemble the rocks and stones over which they crawl2 and the animal is so inactive when left exposed by the receding tide1 and its flat under surface so closely applied to that on which it rests1 that it looks merely like a little convexity of the rock4 ,but after a few have been discovered the eye becomes accustomed to their appearance1 and large numbers may be obtained in a short space of time4 ,the shell will be seen to consist of eight transverse1 curved plates1 overlapping each other at their edges1 and all enclosed in a leathery mantle1 which also forms a projecting margin all round4 ,the middle six plates are different from the first and last in that they are grooved in such a manner that each one displays a dorsal and two lateral areas4 ,the animal holds on tightly to the rocks by its large creeping disc-like foot1 but may be removed without injury by forcing a knife-blade under the margin of its shell4 ,when examined it will be found that it has not a well-formed head like the majority of the gasteropods1 and both eyes and tentacles are wanting4 ,the gills form a series of lamell round the posterior end of the body1 between the edge of the foot and the mantle2 and it is interesting to note that the ,chitons further justify the low position assigned to them among the gasteropods by their possession of a simple1 central1 tubular heart1 similar to that of worms4 ,perhaps the commonest of the ,british species is ,chiton cinereus4 ,its colour is a dull grey1 but the ground is variously mottled1 often in such a manner as to give it a protective resemblance to its surroundings4 ,c4 ruber is the largest of our species3 its shell is variously mottled with shades of yellow and brown2 ,c4 fascicularis is bristled4 ,another rather common species 7,c4 lvis7 is distinguished by the glossy appearance of the dorsal portion of the shell4 ,it will have been observed that the chitons differ from the majority of gasteropods in that their shells and bodies are both bilaterally symmetrical1 and the same is true of the next family--,dentaliad1 which derive their name from the tooth-like form of their conical shells4 ,they are popularly known as the ,tooth ,shells1 and although they generally live beyond low-water level1 they may sometimes be seen alive on the beach1 and the empty shells are often washed up by the waves4 ,the shells 7fig4 #afe7 are curved1 and open at both ends1 the narrower extremity being the posterior4 ,the mouth is circular1 and the outer surface is quite smooth or grooved4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4--;,,chiton ,,shells ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--,,shells ,,of ,dentalium ,in these animals1 too1 the head is imperfectly formed1 without eyes or tentacles4 ,the foot is conical and pointed1 with two symmetrical side lobes2 and the gills1 also two in number1 are symmetrically disposed4 ,the margin of the mouth is fringed1 and the animal is attached to the shell near the posterior end4 ,the ,dentaliad are carnivorous1 subsisting on minute molluscs1 foraminifera1 c41 and generally live on sandy or muddy bottoms1 in which they sometimes bury themselves4 ,our next family includes the familiar ,limpets1 and is designated ,patellid on account of the resemblance of the conical shell to a little dish4 ,in these the apex of the cone is not central1 but situated more or less towards the anterior2 and the muscular impression within is shaped like a horseshoe1 with its open end turned to the front4 ,unlike the members of the preceding families1 the limpets have a well-formed head furnished with both eyes and tentacles1 the former situated at the bases of the latter4 ,they have a horny upper jaw1 and the tongue1 which is very long1 is supplied with numerous hooked teeth4 ,the foot is a very large disc1 as large as the shell1 and the gills consist either of one or two branched plumes1 or of a series of lamell almost or entirely surrounding the animal between the shell and the margin of the mantle4 ,the reader has probably experienced the difficulty of detaching a limpet from its hold on the rocks4 ,the tenacity of the grip is not due to the mere adhesive power of the foot itself1 but to atmospheric pressure1 the effect of which is complete on account of the total exclusion of air from under the disc of the foot2 and when we remember that this pressure amounts to fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface1 we can readily understand the force required to raise a large limpet from its position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--,patellid #a4 ,patella vulgata4 #b4 ,p4 pellucida4 #c4 ,p4 athletica4 #d4 ,acma testudinalis ,the ,common ,limpet 7,patella vulgata7 is found on all our rocky coasts between the tide-marks1 often at such a level that it is left exposed to the air for eight or nine hours at a time4 ,the apex of the shell of this species is nearly central1 and the exterior is sometimes nearly smooth1 but more commonly relieved by radiating ribs4 ,although the shell itself is not a particularly pretty object1 it is often rendered very beautiful and interesting by the various animal and vegetable organisms that settle on it4 ,those shells that are left dry for hours together are commonly adorned with clusters of small acorn barnacles1 while the limpets that have found a home in a rock pool and are perpetually covered with water1 often resemble little moving gardens in which grow beautiful tufts of corallines or other weeds1 as well as polyzoa and other animal forms4 ,it appears that limpets are not great travellers1 the appearance of the rock from which they have been removed being such as to point to a very long period of rest4 ,those on hard rocks are generally situated on a smooth surface just the size of the shell and generally worn slightly below the surrounding level by the constant friction of the shell2 while others that have settled on very rugged spots have their cones adapted to the irregular surface4 ,it has been suggested that the animals make occasional short excursions from their chosen spot1 but return again to it2 and whether or not this is the case1 it is evident that they frequently keep to one small spot for a considerable length of time4 ,limpets on chalk and other soft rocks are sometimes in circular pits so deep that even the apex of the shell is below the general level around2 and though it is possible that the abrasion is produced entirely by the friction of the shell as the animal turns1 yet1 in the case of chalk1 the action may be partly due to the carbonic acid gas given off by the animal as a product of respiration1 for it is a well-known chemical fact that this gas1 in solution1 has the power of dissolving calcareous material4 ,the other ,british ,limpets include ,p4 pellucida1 which lives on the fronds and stalks of the tangle1 the form of the shell varying according to that of the surface on which it rests2 also the ,horse ,limpet 7,p4 athletica71 the bold radiating ribs of which are irregularly notched2 and ,acma testudinalis--the ,tortoiseshell ,limpet1 with reddish-brown mottlings on the exterior1 and a dark-brown patch at the apex within4 ,the last-named species lives principally on sea weeds1 and has a single pectinated gill in the cavity between foot and mantle1 which is protruded on the right side when the animal is extended4 ,this latter feature is interesting since it shows a tendency to that one-sided development already referred to as characteristic of the typical gasteropod1 resulting in the spiral form of the adult4 ,in the limpets the lingual ribbon is proportionately long1 and is easily removed for examination4 ,in ,p4 vulgata it may exceed an inch in length1 and the teeth are arranged in rows each of which contains four central1 with laterals on either side1 while in ,acma there are only three laterals on each side of the central line4 ,other so-called limpets belong to separate families4 ,thus we have the ,cup-and-,saucer ,limpet and the ,bonnet ,limpet in the ,calyptrid4 ,both these differ from ,patella in that the apices of their shells show a tendency to assume a spiral form1 thus denoting a somewhat closer relationship to the more advanced univalves4 ,they have distinct heads1 with prolonged muzzles1 and well-formed antenn and eyes4 ,the teeth of the lingual ribbon are single1 with dentated laterals on either side4 ,the ,cup-and-saucer ,limpet 7,calyptra sinensis7 is so called on account of a curved plate that projects from the interior of the shell1 at the apex2 and though this plate takes the form of a half-cup rather than of a cup1 the whole shell has suggested the popular name1 while the generic name is derived from calyptra1 which signifies a cap4 ,this mollusc is occasionally found among stones at low tide1 but usually lives beyond this line1 thus necessitating the use of a dredge4 ,the ,bonnet ,limpet 7,pileopsis hungaricus7 is of similar structure and habit1 but the nucleus of the shell is a more decided spiral 7see ,plate ,v474 ,both these animals adhere to stones and rocks1 and1 like the common limpet1 seldom or never move from their selected sites2 hence their shells are variable in form1 being adapted to the rock below1 and the movements of the shell often cause a little hollow to be scooped out of the softer materials4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4--;,calyptra sinensis ,yet other limpets belong to the next family ,fissurellid1 which is characterised by a perforation or a notch in the shell4 ,in these1 too1 the shell is conical1 with a tendency to assume the spiral form1 but the curve of the nucleus1 which is always apparent in the young shell1 frequently disappears as the growth proceeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4--;,fissurellid #a4 ,puncturella noachina4 #b4 ,emarginula reticulata4 #c4 ,fissurella reticulata ,in the ,keyhole ,limpet 7,fissurella reticulata7 which is found chiefly on our southern shores1 the perforation is at the summit of the shell2 but as the animal grows the hole increases in size1 encroaching on the curved nucleus until the latter quite disappears4 ,in the genus ,puncturella the perforation is just in front of the recurved apex1 and is surrounded by a rim internally2 while in the ,notched ,limpets 7genus ,emarginula7 it is represented by a fissure on the anterior margin of the cone4 ,in all1 however1 the hole or notch serves the same purpose1 for it is the means by which water enters the siphon4 ,it is doubtful whether we ought to claim the beautiful ,ear shell 7,haliotis tuberculata7 as one of our own1 but it is generally included among the ,british molluscs on the ground that it is abundant on the coast of the ,channel ,islands1 where it is called the ,omar2 and it is certainly too beautiful an object to be excluded from the ,british species without ample cause4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--;,haliotis ,it belongs to the family ,haliotid1 and our illustration will show that the shell is less elevated than that of limpets1 and that the spire1 though not prominent1 is a fairly well-formed spiral4 ,all along the outer lip of the very large aperture is a series of perforations1 occupying the summit of a prominent1 spiral ridge1 and becoming gradually smaller and smaller towards the spire4 ,the whole shell is pearly in structure1 and displays a great variety of rich colouring4 ,it is used largely for inlaying and other ornamental purposes1 and for making the so-called pearl buttons4 ,the animal is used largely as an article of food in the ,channel ,islands1 but it is of so tough a nature that it requires a vigorous beating previously to being cooked4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj4--;,ianthina fragilis ,the same family contains the beautiful violet ,ianthina1 which also is not a ,british species1 but a free-swimming oceanic snail4 ,it is1 however1 occasionally drifted to our shores1 though generally in an imperfect condition4 ,in the ,atlantic and the ,mediterranean it sometimes abounds in such multitudes as to distinctly colour the surface of the sea4 ,it will be seen that the shell is round1 with a well-formed spiral4 ,the spire is white1 but the base is of a deep violet colour4 ,the animal is very remarkable in some respects4 ,in the first place1 though it has pedicels similar to those on which the eyes of the higher univalves are placed1 yet it has no eyes4 ,then the foot1 which is in itself small1 secretes a float or raft so large that it cannot be retracted into the shell1 with numerous air vesicles to render it light1 and the egg-capsules of the animal are attached to the underside of this4 ,the animal has no power of sinking1 but lives exclusively at the surface2 and1 when disturbed1 it exudes a violet fluid that colours the surrounding water4 ,it is apparently the only gasteropod that lives in the open sea and has a large and well-formed spiral shell4 ,passing now to the family ,turbinid we meet with turbinated or pyramidal shells that are of a brilliant pearly lustre within1 and frequently without also when the epidermis is removed4 ,the animals inhabiting them have well-formed heads with a short muzzle1 long and slender tentacles1 and eyes mounted on peduncles4 ,the sides are ornamented with fringed lobes and several tentacle-like filaments1 and the aperture of the shell is closed1 when the animal is retracted1 by a spiral operculum4 ,they are all vegetable feeders2 and1 as is usual with the plant-eating molluscs1 the teeth on the lateral portions of the lingual ribbon are very numerous4 ,we have a few common species belonging to this group1 mostly members of the typical genus ,trochus and commonly known as ,top ,shells4 ,in these the shell is a pyramid formed of numerous flat whorls1 with an oblique and rhomboidal aperture4 ,of the three species figured 7including two on ,plate ,v47 ,t4 umbilicatus and the ,large ,top 7,t4 magnus7 are umbilicated1 the umbilicus being very large in the latter2 and the former is characterised by the zigzag greyish or reddish markings that run radially across the whorls4 ,the other 7,t4 zizyphinus7 is usually of a yellowish or pink colour and has no umbilicus4 ,the same family contains the pretty little ,pheasant ,shell 7,phasianella pullas71 which is richly coloured with red1 brown1 and yellow on a light ground2 and ,adeorbis subcarinatus1 shown in the same group4 ,the well-known ,periwinkle 7,littorina littorea7 and the species to the right of it on ,plate ,v41 belong to the family ,littorinid1 the members of which are similar in structure and habit to ,trochus1 but the shell is usually more depressed1 and is never pearly4 ,the shell of the ,periwinkle is thick1 having but few whorls1 and is not umbilicated2 and the lingual ribbon1 which is coiled up on the gullet1 contains no less than about five hundred rows of teeth2 but only a little more than twenty of these rows are in action at any one time1 the remainder being a reserve stock to come into active service as the ribbon grows forward4 ,in the genus ,lacuna there is a narrow umbilicus1 and the aperture of the shell is semilunar in form2 and the species of ,rissoa are very small1 with white or horny shells1 much more pointed and having more whorls than those of the ,littorina4 div classfigleft stylewidth3 #agepx2 a namefig#agb idfig#agb_/;a img srcimages_/i#bgc;b4jpg width#age height#bjb alt _/ ,,fig4 #agb4--,rissoa labiosa ,,and ,lacuna pallidula _/div ,our next illustration shows three shells of the family ,turritellid1 so named from the resemblance of the shells to a tower or spire4 ,the form indeed is so characteristic that they can hardly be mistaken4 ,it will be seen that ,turritella communis is striated spirally1 while the surface of ,scalaria communis 7,plate ,v47 is relieved by strongly marked transverse ribs4 ,both these species are very common1 and the latter is peculiar for its power of ejecting a dark purple fluid when molested4 ,the other representative of the family--,ccum trachea--has a shell something like that of ,dentalium 7p4 #bch71 being cylindrical and tubular1 but it differs in being closed at one end4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4--,,section ,,of ,,shell ,,of ,turritella ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agd4--,turritella communis ,,and ,ccum trachea ,in the succeeding shells1 of the family ,cerithiad1 the spire is also considerably produced1 so much so that some of the species closely resemble the ,turret shells1 but they are distinguished by usually having an expanded lip1 at least in the adult form2 and the mouth is channelled in front1 and sometimes also behind4 ,the animals of the group have short muzzles that are not retractile1 the tentacles are wide apart1 and the eyes are mounted on short pedicels4 ,the median teeth are arranged in a single row1 with three laterals on either side of each4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4--;,cerithium reticulatum ,,and ,aporrhais pes-pelicani ,cerithium reticulatum receives its generic name from its appearance to a small horn1 and the specific name refers to the netted appearance of its surface due to the presence of numerous little tubercles arranged in rows--a feature that serves to distinguish it from the small ,turret shells4 ,it is a common shell1 as is also the other representative of the family illustrated1 but the latter is rendered conspicuous by the enormously expanded lip that has earned for it the popular name of ,spout ,shell4 ,its scientific name is ,aporrhais pes-pelicani1 and the application of the specific term will be understood when the shell is viewed from above1 for the expanded lip is drawn out into long finger-like lobes that suggest the foot of a bird4 ,this is a very solid shell1 sometimes reaching a length of two inches2 and the animal inhabiting it is carnivorous4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agf4--;,aporrhais pes-pelicani1 ,,showing ,,both ,,shell ,,and ,,animal ,we have yet some turreted shells to deal with1 belonging to the family ,pyramidellid1 but they need not be confused with the preceding groups if carefully examined4 ,in the first place1 the aperture of the shell is very small2 and the operculum1 instead of being spiral1 as in the turreted shells before mentioned1 is imbricated or made up of parallel layers denoting that the growth took place on one side only4 ,another distinguishing feature is seen in the nucleus--that small portion of the spire that was developed within the egg--which is sinistral or left-handed4 ,in addition to this1 the animal has broad1 ear-like tentacles1 a retractile proboscis1 and a lingual ribbon without teeth4 ,the ,british species of this family belong principally to the genera ,odostomia1 characterised by a tooth-like fold of the columella2 ,eulima1 containing small1 white1 polished shells with numerous level whorls2 and ,aclis1 with little polished shells not unlike ,turritella4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agg4--a4 ,odostomia plicata4#b4 ,eulima polita4 #c4 ,aclis supranitida ,the last family of the ,holostomata is the ,naticid1 the shells of which are almost globular1 with only a few whorls1 and a small1 blunt spire4 ,the mouth is semilunar in form1 and the lip sharp4 ,the proboscis of the animal is long and retractile1 and the foot large2 but perhaps the most characteristic feature is the presence of large mantle lobes which hide some of the shell when the animal is crawling4 ,in ,natica 7fig4 #aee71 the typical genus1 the shells are somewhat thick and smooth1 with a large umbilicus4 ,as the animal crawls a large fold of the mantle is reflected back over the head1 completely covering it1 and apparently obstructing its view2 but this is not the case1 for the creature has no eyes4 ,natica is very abundant on some sandy beaches1 where it devours small bivalves and other animals2 and it is frequently washed up alive by the waves4 ,its shell is also a favourite one with hermit crabs4 ,its eggs1 all connected together in a spiral band1 may often be seen stranded on sandy coasts4 ,several species of ,natica are found on our shores4 ,an allied mollusc--,velutina lvigata1 so called on account of the velvety epidermis that clothes the shell1 completely surrounds the shell by its mantle folds when creeping4 ,the ,siphonostomata form a much smaller section than the last1 and its members are distinguished mainly by the presence of a true siphon1 formed by the prolongation of the mantle margin1 and serving to convey water into the gill chamber4 ,in all these the shell is spiral1 usually without an umbilical opening1 and the margin of the mouth is prolonged into a canal or distinctly notched4 ,the operculum is horny1 and lamellar or imbricated4 ,the animal has a retractile proboscis1 and the eyes or eye-pedicels are joined to the tentacles4 ,all the species of this division are marine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agh4--;,cypra 7,trivia7 europa ,we will first take the family ,cyprid1 which contains the familiar ,cowries1 these forming the lowest group of the division4 ,an examination of the shells may at first seem rather puzzling1 for the spire is concealed1 and the whole is convoluted in such a manner as to make the mouth long and narrow1 with a channel at either end4 ,the outer lip is also thickened and bent inward1 and there is no operculum4 ,the animal itself is particularly interesting1 for1 as it creeps along on its broad foot1 abruptly shortened in the front1 the mantle lobes bend over the top1 meeting along the middle line1 where they are usually fringed with little tentacle-like processes2 and1 as a result1 the whole shell is beautifully enamelled on the outer surface4 ,in all the ,cowries the central teeth are single1 and the laterals are arranged either in twos or threes4 ,perhaps the commonest representative of this family is the pretty little ,cypra 7,trivia7 europa 7,plate ,v471 the shells of which are sometimes washed up in large numbers on sandy beaches4 ,the animal lives mainly below low-water level1 but it may often be found in the larger rock pools1 creeping rapidly over the tangles1 and may be easily secured with the aid of a net4 ,in the same family we have the little ,erato 7,marginella7 lvis1 the white shell of which is minutely furrowed along the lips2 and also ,ovulum patulum 7,calpurna patula71 so called on account of its fancied resemblance to a poached egg4 ,we have also several species of ,cone shells 7family ,conid7 on our coasts1 readily recognised by their form1 which is a cone1 with a long1 narrow aperture1 partially closed by a minute operculum4 ,as in the last family1 the foot is abruptly shortened in front4 ,the head is very prominent1 with eyes situated on the tentacles4 ,there are two gills1 and the teeth are arranged in pairs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi4--a4 ,ovulum patulum4 #b4 ,erato lvis ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4--,mangelia septangularis ,,and ,mangelia turricula ,the ,conid are principally inhabitants of tropical seas1 where some very large species exist4 ,two of the ,british representatives1 both common shells1 are shown in fig4 #ahj4 ,our next family 7,buccinid7 is so well distributed on our coasts1 that it would be difficult1 we imagine1 to find a spot quite free from its familiar forms4 ,it contains all those creatures commonly known as ,whelks1 ,dog ,whelks1 and ,dog ,winkles1 ranging from deep water almost to high-water mark4 ,in all these the shell is notched in front1 or the canal is turned abruptly upward4 ,the foot of the animal is broad1 the eyes are situated either on the tentacles or at their bases1 and there are two gill plumes4 ,all the species are carnivorous1 and some are said to be very destructive to mussels and young oysters4 ,the ,common ,whelk 7,buccinum undatum1 ,plate ,v47 lives in deep water1 whence it is dredged up largely for the market4 ,its clusters of egg cases are washed up in large numbers on the beach1 where they form one of the commonest materials among the refuse at high-water mark4 ,it is not uncommon1 also1 especially after storms1 to find the unhatched eggs stranded by the waves1 and these are so transparent that the embryos1 several in each capsule1 may be seen within4 ,the hole through which the young escape may also be seen on the inner side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aha4--a4 ,purpura lapillus4 #b4 ,,egg ,,cases ,,of ,purpura4 #c4 ,nassa reticulata ,the ,dog ,periwinkle 7,purpura lapillus7 abounds on all our coasts and is remarkable for the production of a dull crimson or purple fluid that may be obtained from it by pressing on the operculum4 ,this fluid turns to a brighter colour on exposure to air1 and is said to have been used largely in former times as a dye4 ,it will be seen from our figure that the spire of this shell is shorter in proportion than that of ,buccinum2 but both are alike in that the operculum is made up of layers with a nucleus on the external edge4 ,the other species figured is ,nassa reticulata1 popularly known as the ,dog ,whelk1 and characterised by a tooth-like projection of the inner lip close to the anterior canal4 ,it is very common near low-water mark1 where it may be seen crawling over the rocks on its broad foot1 from which project two hornlike appendages in front and two narrow tails behind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4--,murex erinaceus ,from the last family of the gasteropods 7the ,muricid7 we select two common species--,murex erinaceus and ,fusus antiquus 7,plate ,v474 ,in both these the anterior canal of the shell is straight and the posterior wanting4 ,the eyes are on the tentacles1 and there are two plumed gills4 ,both are carnivorous species1 feeding on other molluscs2 and the former is said to bore through the shells of its prey with the prominent beak of its shell4 ,murex may be readily distinguished by the prominent longitudinal ridges of the thick shell1 its rounded aperture1 and by the partly closed canal running through the beak4 ,it is known to fishermen as the ,sting ,winkle2 the other species is called the ,red ,whelk in some parts1 and in ,scotland is known as the ,buckie4 ,like the common whelk1 it is dredged largely for the market1 and is said to be far more esteemed than the former1 from which it may be distinguished by the fusiform shape of the shell and the long straight canal4 ,we now pass to the last and highest class of the mollusca1 called the ,cephalopoda because they have a number of arms attached to the head1 round the mouth4 ,unlike the majority of molluscs they are bilaterally symmetrical3 and are much more highly organised1 in some respects even making an approach to the vertebrates4 ,thus they generally have an internal hard structure1 either horny or calcareous in structure1 representing the vertebral column1 and the circulatory system consists of arteries and veins1 connected by minute capillaries4 ,the corpuscles of the blood are also similar in form to those of the vertebrates4 ,externally they are all naked1 with the exception of the nautilus and argonaut of the warmer seas4 ,the arms1 so characteristic of the class1 are eight or ten in number1 long and muscular1 and provided with numerous suckers by which the animal can cling with remarkable tenacity4 ,these suckers are situated on the inner surface of the arms1 and the disc of each one displays a series of muscular fibres1 all converging from the circumference towards the centre1 which is occupied by a softer structure that works inwards and outwards like the piston of a pump4 ,thus the suckers form a system of exhausting air-pumps by which a vacuum can be produced1 and the tenacity of the grip1 maintained by atmospheric pressure1 is so great that the arms1 strong as they are1 may be torn asunder by attempting to pull them from their hold2 and yet the animal can release its grip with the greatest of ease by simply releasing the pistons of its pumps4 ,the cephalopods are further distinguished by their very large1 glaring eyes1 situated on the sides of the well-formed head1 and by powerful jaws that work in a vertical plane1 like those of the vertebrates1 but somewhat resembling the beaks of certain birds4 ,the tongue is also very large and fleshy1 and in part armed with numerous hooked spines or teeth4 ,the class is usually divided into two orders1 one characterised by the possession of two gills1 and the other of four2 but the ,british species belong to the former1 known technically as the ,dibranchiata4 ,this order is subdivided into two sections according to the number of arms2 and the divisions are called the ,octopoda and ,decapoda respectively4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4--,,octopus ,the former section includes the ,octopods1 of which some species inhabit our seas4 ,they all have eight arms1 of unequal size1 with the suckers arranged in two rows1 and their round or oval bodies seldom have any fins1 locomotion being effected by means of the arms1 and by the sudden expulsion of water from the siphon4 ,the shell is rudimentary1 being represented merely by two short #8styles' within the mantle4 ,the species vary considerably in size1 some being only about an inch long when fully grown1 while others measure two feet or more1 and are looked upon as formidable creatures by man4 ,sometimes they are washed up on our beaches1 but the best way to make their acquaintance is to examine the contents of the fishermen's drag nets as they are hauled on the beach4 ,in the same manner we may secure various species of the ,decapods or ,ten-footed ,cephalopods1 which comprise the ,calamaries1 ,squids1 and ,cuttlefishes4 ,these1 too1 properly speaking1 have but eight arms1 the other two appendages being really tentacles1 which are usually longer than the arms1 and more or less retractile2 they are also expanded at the ends4 ,the decapods are also to be distinguished from the octopods by their elongated bodies1 and a flattened1 fin-like appendage on either side4 ,their eyes1 also1 are capable of being rotated within the orbits1 while those of the octopods are fixed2 and the shell consists of one or more horny #8pens1' or of a calcareous #8bone1' contained in a cavity so loosely that it drops out of its place when the cavity is opened4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4--,loligo vulgaris ,,and ,,its ,,pen ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4--,sepiola atlantica ,the ,common ,calamary 7,loligo vulgaris7 may be recognised by the accompanying illustration1 from which it will be observed that the body tapers behind1 bearing two rhomboidal fins in the rear4 ,the suckers are arranged in two rows on the arms1 but in fours on the expanded tips of the tentacles4 ,the animal is a good swimmer1 and sometimes crawls1 head downwards1 on the disc surrounding the mouth1 pulling itself along by means of its arms4 ,its shell is a horny pen1 lanceolate in form1 but it divides as the age of the animal advances1 so that two or more may be found in the same specimen4 ,belonging to the same family we have the ,common ,squid 7,sepiola atlantica71 also a very abundant species4 ,here the body is shorter and purse-like1 and the fins are dorsal and rounded4 ,it seldom exceeds four or five inches in length1 and1 like the ,calamary1 is used largely as a bait by fishermen4 ,another family--the ,sepiad--contains the ,cuttlefish 7,sepia officinalis71 the #8bone' of which is such a common object on the beach4 ,this latter is a broad1 curved plate of carbonate of lime1 made up of a number of regular layers1 and having a cavity hollowed out at the posterior end4 ,it is exceedingly light and porous in structure1 and at one time was used largely as an antacid as well as a dentifrice4 ,it is also proportionately large1 being both as long and as broad as the body of the animal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4--,sepia officinalis ,,and ,,its #8,,bone' ,cuttlefishes live principally in the shallow water close to shore1 where they swim backwards by the sudden propulsion of water from their siphons2 and their eggs1 which look like clusters of black grapes1 are frequently thrown up on the beach1 generally attached to the stems and fronds of sea weeds4 ,as a rule the cephalopods swim slowly by the aid of their fins or by a rhythmic contraction by which water is expelled from their siphons1 but when in danger the muscular contraction is so violent that they dart through the water with great speed1 and even leap into the air to avoid their enemies4 ,but they have another and much more remarkable way of escaping from their foes3--,they possess a gland1 the duct of which opens into the base of the funnel or siphon1 that prepares an inky fluid2 and when the animal is disturbed it suddenly ejects this fluid1 rendering the surrounding water so cloudy that it is often enabled to retreat unobserved4 ,the 'ink' of the ,sepia was used for writing in former times1 and is still employed in the preparation of the artist's pigment that bears the same name4 ,fishermen are well acquainted with this peculiar characteristic of the animal1 for they are frequently bespattered with the contents of the ink bag of the ,sepia when the creature is included in the contents of their draw-nets1 and have learnt to handle it cautiously until the objectionable fluid has been all discharged4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4--;,,eggs ,,of ,sepia ,we will conclude this chapter by giving a tabular summary of the classification of the molluscs which will probably be useful to the collector of marine objects4 ,,classification ,,of ,,the ,,mollusca ,class ,,lamellibranchiata--,plate-gilled4 ,headless1 usually enclosed in bivalve shell4 ,section ,,siphonida--,mantle lobes more or less united to form tubular siphons4 ,families--,pholadid1 ,gastrochnid1 ,anatinid1 ,myacid1 ,solenid1 ,tellinid1 ,mactrid1 ,venerid1 ,cyprinid1 ,lucinid1 ,cardiad1 c4 ,section ,,asiphonida--,mantle lobes free or nearly so4 ,no true siphons4 ,families--,arcad1 ,mytilid1 ,aviculid1 ,ostreid1 c4 ,class ,,cephalophora--,head-bearing4 ,usually enclosed in a univalve shell4 ,section ,,pteropoda--,wing-footed molluscs4 ,section ,,gasteropoda--,stomach-footed molluscs4 ,order ,nucleobranchiata--,viscera form a nucleus on the back4 ,order ,opisthobranchiata--,shell generally absent4 ,gills more or less exposed4 ,section ,,nudibranchiata--,naked gills4 ,section ,,tectibranchiata--,gills covered by shell or mantle4 ,order ,pulmonifera--,lung-breathers4 ,terrestrial4 ,order ,prosobranchiata4 ,section ,,holostomata--,aperture of shell entire 7sea snails74 ,families--,chitonid1 ,dentaliad1 ,patellid1 ,calyptrid1 ,fissurellid1 ,haliotid1 ,turbinid1 ,littorinid1 ,turritellid1 ,cerithiad1 ,pyramidellid1 ,naticid1 c4 ,section ,,siphonostomata--,possess a true siphon4 ,carnivorous4 ,families--,cyprid1 ,conid1 ,buccinid1 ,muricid1 c4 ,class ,,cephalopoda--,sucker-bearing arms round the mouth4 ,order ,dibranchiata--,two gills4 ,section ,,octopoda--,eight arms4 ,families--,argonautid1 ,octopodid4 ,section ,,decapoda4 ,families--,teuthid 7,calamaries1 ,squids71 ,sepiad1 c4 ,order ,tetrabranchiata--,four gills 7containing ,nautilid74 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,marine ,,arthropods ,the sub-kingdom ,arthropoda contains a vast assemblage of animals1 all of which1 as the name implies1 possess jointed appendages4 ,their bodies are covered with a skin that is hardened by a horny substance 7chitin71 and frequently1 also1 by the deposit of carbonate of lime4 ,the body of ,arthropods is made up of a chain of segments1 all of which are built up on one common pattern1 and each one is surrounded by a ring of the hardened skin or exo-skeleton that gives attachment to a pair of appendages4 ,commonly1 however1 two or more of the segments become fused together1 being covered by a continuous plate or shield1 in which the boundaries of the rings are almost or completely obliterated2 but in such cases the appendages they bear always remain distinct1 so that the true number of segments is always apparent4 ,the skin between those segments that are not so fused together remains soft and flexible1 thus allowing the body to be freely bent4 ,the appendages exhibit a great variety of structure1 and are as varied in their functions4 ,some are used as feelers1 and others as jaws for seizing or masticating food4 ,some are developed into powerful seizing organs for purposes of defence or attack1 some into paddles for swimming1 while others are legs adapted for walking4 ,all these appendages are made up of segments1 each of which1 like those of the body itself1 is surrounded by a ring of hardened skin1 and connected with its neighbours by a flexible integument that allows perfect freedom of movement2 while within are the muscles1 often very powerful1 by which the appendage is moved4 ,in the arthropods we have a sub-kingdom of highly organised animals1 with distinct1 and often very complicated1 systems of organs for digestion1 circulation1 and respiration2 and the nervous system consists of a well-developed chain of ganglia1 connected by nerve cords1 and from which nerve fibres are distributed to the various parts of the body4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that some members of the group have degenerated into parasites1 and in these1 as with all such degraded creatures1 many of the organs have retrogressed to such an extent that they are quite functionless1 or have even disappeared entirely4 ,these parasitic forms1 when very young1 are really highly organised creatures1 not unlike the young of their industrious and more noble relatives2 but1 as the natural result of their degraded mode of living1 in which they find no use for their organs of locomotion1 digestion1 circulation and respiration1 these eventually disappear1 with the result that the organs of reproduction predominate to such an extent that they often fill the greater part of the cavity of the body4 ,it should be noted1 too1 that the sense organs of arthropods are well developed1 most of them being supplied with complex eyes1 hearing organs1 and highly sensitive feelers4 ,this sub-kingdom consists of four classes--the ,crustacea1 including lobsters1 crabs1 shrimps1 prawns1 c42 ,arachnoidea1 containing spiders1 mites1 and scorpions2 ,myriopoda--centipedes and millepedes2 and ,insecta4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4--,,the ,,nerve-,,chain ,,of ,,an ,,arthropod 7,,lobster7 o1 optic nerve2 c1 cerebral ganglion2 i1 large ganglion behind the sophagus2 th1 ganglia of the thorax2 ab1 ganglia of the abdomen ,the first of these classes consists mainly of marine animals1 and will therefore occupy much of our attention1 but the members of the other three are mostly terrestrial and arial creatures that do not fall within the scope of this work1 except in the case of a few species that are more or less decidedly marine in their tendencies4 ,the aquatic members are generally provided with well-formed gills by means of which they are enabled to extract the dissolved oxygen from the water in which they live1 while those of terrestrial and arial habits breathe by means of a system of trache or air-tubes that are open to the air and supply branches to all parts of the body4 ,the ,crustaceans are mostly gill-breathers1 though some of the aquatic species have no special organs for respiration1 but obtain the oxygen necessary for respiration by absorption through their thin1 soft skin1 while the terrestrial species breathe by means of trache1 as we have just observed4 ,most of them are covered with a calcified skin1 as in the case of crabs and lobsters2 but many are protected with a chitinous or horny covering such as we observe in shrimps and prawns4 ,in either instance the hardened integument constitutes what is known as the exo-skeleton4 ,none of the crustaceans have an internal skeleton of any kind1 though some of the inner parts are supported by extensions of the hard skin that penetrate into the body4 ,it will be readily understood from the nature of the exo-skeleton of the crustacean1 and especially of the more or less rigid calcareous covering of the crab and the lobster1 that a uniform growth of the body is absolutely impossible1 and1 in fact1 that an increase in size cannot take place without an occasional casting of the hard coat of mail4 ,hence we find most crustaceans throwing off their coverings at intervals1 and growing by fits and starts during the periods between the #8moultings' and the hardening of the newly exposed skin4 ,when a crab or a lobster is about to undergo the process of moulting1 it retires to a secluded niche in the rock1 where it is not so easily found by its numerous enemies--a necessary precaution1 since the creature in its soft or unarmoured condition is eagerly devoured by fishes and other marine animals--and there awaits the first stage of the ordeal4 ,presently the skin splits2 and1 after a time1 the crustacean succeeds in extricating itself from its shell1 which is cast off in a perfect condition1 every joint being entire1 even to the coverings of the antenn1 the stalked eyes1 and other delicate appendages4 ,and not only this1 for the portions of the shell that penetrate inward into the body are also discarded1 as well as the linings of the stomach and the gills2 and these cast-off coats of crabs and lobsters--especially the former--may often be found in the most perfect condition on the sea shore1 being washed up without injury on the sandy beach1 or found in the very niche in which the creature changed its attire4 ,if one examines the powerful pincers of a crab or lobster1 a thin plate of considerable size will be seen to extend within from the movable #8jaw' to give attachment to the muscles by which it is moved1 and it seems impossible that this can be removed with the cast skin without considerable injury to the new claw that is already formed1 though as yet in a soft condition1 within the old and hard one4 ,but it has been observed that this plate actually cuts through the new claw1 and that the claw thus divided almost immediately closes up and unites again4 ,the moulting process being over1 the crustacean's body extends itself within the new1 yielding skin2 and1 the latter becoming gradually hard by the deposition of carbonate of lime1 the creature is able1 after a period of rest1 to roam at large again1 without much fear of injury1 until the time for the next moulting has arrived4 ,those who have made but a slight acquaintance with the common crustaceans of our shores must have noted the frequency with which imperfect specimens occur--specimens with missing appendages1 or with a well-formed limb on one side of the body opposed to a puny and almost useless fellow on the opposite side4 ,as to the loss of appendages1 this matter will be readily understood by those who have watched crustaceans1 and especially crabs and lobsters1 in their native element1 so often do these pugnacious creatures become engaged in furious broils with their neighbours4 ,and1 when we are at work at the collection of various species on the sea shore1 how often do we find that a creature escapes from our grip by leaving us in possession of a severed limb1 while the owner retreats rapidly among the stones and weeds apparently none the worse for its trifling loss6 ,this is1 in fact1 a very common method of securing its escape from an enemy2 and it appears that many crustaceans have the power of thus rendering a seized limb so brittle that it may be snapped off with the greatest of ease4 ,we have spoken of the loss thus sustained as a trifling one2 and so it is1 for crustaceans have the faculty of reproducing lost appendages2 and though the loss may be one of considerable inconvenience at first1 a new limb eventually appears in the place of each one so willingly discarded4 ,when such mutilations occur1 it will be observed that the severed limb invariably breaks away at the end of the first or basal joint--a point where the bloodvessels are so narrow and contractile that but little loss of blood takes place when the rupture is made--and it has been said that the animal would soon bleed to death if the fracture were to take place at any other point4 ,as it is1 the wound soon heals1 but no trace of a new limb is to be seen1 at least without dissection1 until the time of the next moult4 ,the part is developing1 however1 beneath the cover of the basal joint2 and when the moulting period arrives1 the new limb1 still very small1 is exposed to view4 ,it then rapidly enlarges1 though not to anything like its proper size1 and its surrounding skin becomes hardened by the deposit of the calcareous secretion simultaneously with that of the rest of the body4 ,further enlargements of the new appendage take place at subsequent moults1 with the final result that it is but slightly inferior to its fellow either in size or in power4 ,the eye of a crustacean is a very complicated structure1 commonly described as a compound eye4 ,it consists of a large number of conical1 radiating1 crystalline rods1 collected together into a mass that presents a convex outer surface4 ,this surface is covered with a transparent layer of chitin which naturally presents a more or less distinct netted appearance1 the bases of the rods being in contact with its inner surface1 and visible through it4 ,each rod is surrounded by a layer of pigment that prevents light from passing from one to another1 and the optic nerve passing into the base of the compound structure sends a sensitive filament into each one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4--,,section ,,through ,,the ,,compound ,,eye ,,of ,,an ,,arthropod ,in many crustaceans this compound eye is situated on the end of a movable stalk that generally allows it to be protruded or drawn under cover as occasion requires1 but in others the organ does not project beyond the general surface of the body4 ,thus we hear of the animals of this class being divided into the stalk-eyed and the sessile-eyed groups2 the former being represented by crabs1 lobsters1 shrimps1 c42 and the latter by sandhoppers and sandborers4 ,crustaceans undergo metamorphoses while very young1 the body being altered considerably in form at several successive moults4 ,some1 in their earliest stage1 consist of a little oval body that shows no signs of a division into segments4 ,it swims about by means of three pairs of appendages1 and has only one eye4 ,others start life with four pairs of limbs1 attached to the front portion of the body1 a segmented abdomen1 as yet perfectly limbless1 and a pair of compound eyes4 ,then as the successive moultings take place1 new segments and new appendages are developed1 until1 at last1 the form of the adult is assumed4 ,the accompanying illustration shows four stages in the development of the ,common ,shore ,crab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aij4--;,,four ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,shore ,,crab ,the lowest division of the crustaceans contains the ,cirripedia or ,curl-footed crustaceans1 which includes the ,barnacles that are so frequently seen attached to the bottom of ships and of floating timber1 and the ,acorn ,barnacles1 the conical shells of which often completely cover large masses of rock on our shores4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aia4 ,,the ,,barnacle ,for some time naturalists could not agree as to the proper place of these animals in the scale of life1 but the matter was finally settled when some minute creatures only about a twelfth of an inch in length1 and closely resembling the early stages of certain crustaceans1 were seen to undergo metamorphoses1 and finally develop into acorn barnacles4 ,their position in the animal kingdom was thus determined by their early stages2 but these1 instead of changing into a segmented and highly organised creature like the typical crustacean1 lose some of their appendages1 cease to be free-moving animals1 and attach themselves to floating bodies by which they are carried about4 ,thus they are enabled to find the food they can no longer seek without such aid4 ,in their young state they possess not only the means of freely moving in search of their food1 but have organs of vision to aid them in the capture of their prey4 ,as they grow1 however1 the foremost appendages are transformed into a sucking-disc1 and the eyes1 no longer necessary1 disappear4 ,it will thus be seen that the degenerated adult--the product of a retrograde development--is attached by what was originally the front of its body1 while the abdomen is undeveloped1 and the thorax1 with its appendages1 forms the summit of the free extremity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aib4--;,,four ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,acorn ,,barnacle ,a1 newly hatched larva2 ,b1 larva after second moult2 ,c1 side view of same2 ,d1 stage immediately preceding loss of activity2 a1 stomach2 b1 base of future attachment4 ,all magnified ,some of the ,cirripedes attach themselves to the bodies of whales and other marine animals4 ,the majority of these are pseudo-parasites--creatures that live on the bodies of other animals1 but do not derive their food at the expense of their hosts2 others1 however1 are true parasites1 subsisting on the nourishing juices they extract from the animals to which they are attached4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aic4--;,a ,,cluster ,,of ,,acorn ,,shells ,the ,acorn ,barnacles1 so numerous on our shores1 are good types of the ,cirripedia1 and they are so easily kept alive in the indoor aquarium that their interesting movements may be well observed4 ,a cluster of these animals may be obtained by chipping off a piece of the rock on which they grow2 or1 instead of this1 a few minutes' searching on a rocky coast at low tide will certainly provide us with a stone of suitable size1 or the shell of a mollusc1 on which the creatures have found a home4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aid4--,,shell ,,of ,,acorn ,,barnacle 7,balanus7 ,place them in the indoor aquarium1 or in any shallow vessel containing just sufficient sea-water to cover them1 and carry out your observations with the aid of a hand lens4 ,they will soon open the inner cone of their many-valved shell1 and slowly protrude six pairs of gracefully curved and delicately-feathered appendages which1 as previously stated1 are attached to the thoracic portion of the body4 ,then1 with a much more rapid movement1 the appendages will be withdrawn1 and the shell closed4 ,these alternate movements are continued incessantly1 and are the means by which the animals provide themselves with both food and air4 ,the reader should also obtain some specimens of the larger species for the examination of the shell1 the structure of which is interesting and1 of course1 peculiar to this order4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aie4--,,the ,,acorn ,,barnacle 7,balanus porcatus7 ,,with ,,appendages ,,protruded ,in general structure and habits ,barnacles are very similar to the acorn barnacles1 except that the body is supported on a tough stalk1 which1 as we have already stated1 is the modified anterior portion of the animal4 ,these animals also may be easily kept alive and examined in the indoor aquarium4 ,they are not creatures of the sea shore1 but may often be obtained on masses of timber that have been washed ashore1 or from the bottoms of ships that have been placed in the dry dock for repairs4 ,another order of the crustaceans--the ,copepoda1 or oar-footed group--is so called on account of the bristled feet that are employed after the manner of oars when the creatures are swimming4 ,these ,copepods are small animals1 so small indeed that the compound microscope is generally necessary merely for the examination of their external characters4 ,many species inhabit fresh water1 and the study of the group is more commonly pursued by the investigator of fresh-water pond life than by the sea-side naturalist4 ,however1 marine species are abundant1 and may be captured in the open water or in rock pools by means of a muslin net4 ,as with the last order1 some degenerate from the comparatively complicated free-swimming and eyed larval state to blind and limbless parasites that feed on the bodies of fishes and are known as fish lice4 ,the body of the typical copepod is distinctly segmented1 and the head and thorax are both enclosed in a hardened buckler4 ,it has two pairs of antenn1 two pairs of foot jaws by which it captures its prey1 and four or five pairs of bristled feet for swimming4 ,the jointed abdomen has also a tuft of bristles at its extremity4 ,the annexed illustration represents some marine species1 and will serve to show the general features of the order4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aif4--;,a ,,group ,,of ,,marine ,,copepods1 ,,magnified ,the sea-side naturalist1 intent on the collection of small life1 may possibly meet with representatives of two other orders of crustaceans--the ,ostracoda or shelled crustaceans1 the bodies of which are enclosed in a bivalve1 hinged shell2 and the ,branchiopoda1 so called because the branchi or gills are attached to the feet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aig4--;,a ,,group ,,of ,,ostracode ,,shells ,the ,ostracodes have two or three pairs of feet which subserve locomotion1 but are not adapted for swimming2 and two pairs of antenn1 one of which assists in locomotion4 ,the mouth is provided with organs of mastication1 the branchi are attached to the hind jaws1 and the animals have but one eye4 ,some of these crustaceans inhabit deep water only1 while others live in sand between the tide-marks2 but several species1 belonging chiefly to the genus ,cythere1 abound in rock pools1 where they may be readily obtained by scraping the conferv and corallines with a small muslin net4 ,the branchiopods are free swimmers1 and are protected by a buckler-like envelope4 ,most of them are inhabitants of fresh water1 and are popularly known as water fleas4 ,we have figured one marine species1 belonging to the genus ,evadne1 which has a colourless body1 and a single conspicuous black eye1 and is interesting as being the food of the herring4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aih4--;,evadne ,the four orders of crustaceans that have been briefly described belong to the division ,entomostraca1 which signifies #8shelled insects4' ,this term is not a happy one when judged from the standpoint of our present knowledge of animal life1 but it must be remembered that1 at the time it was applied 7#aghe71 spiders and crustaceans were all included in the same class as the insects2 and this is hardly surprising when we observe the close relationship of these animals1 as shown in their segmented bodies and jointed appendages2 for1 as we have already shown1 the lowly organised parasitic crustaceans which1 in the adult state1 lose most of their appendages and cease to be distinctly segmented1 are more or less insect-like in their larval and free-swimming stage4 ,all the other crustaceans are included under the term ,malacostraca1 or soft shelled1 since1 although many of them are protected by an exo-skeleton that is hardened by the deposit of carbonate of lime1 yet1 generally speaking1 their coverings are softer than those of the molluscs2 and therefore the term ,malacostraca was originally applied by ,aristotle in order to distinguish them from the animals that are covered by harder and thicker shells4 ,this division of the crustaceans contains wood lice1 sandhoppers1 lobsters1 shrimps1 crabs1 c41 and consists of two main groups--the ,sessile-eyed 7,edriophthalmata7 and the ,stalk-eyed 7,podophthalmata7 crustaceans4 ,we shall now consider the ,sessile-eyed group1 dealing first with the order ,isopoda or equal legged1 and then the ,amphipoda1 which have appendages adapted both for walking and swimming4 ,the general nature of an ,isopod may be readily understood by the examination of the common woodlouse that abounds in gardens and damp places almost everywhere1 and the reader will probably remember having seen similar creatures crawling over the rocks on the sea shore4 ,the body is generally depressed or flattened1 but convex above1 and is composed of seven segments1 each segment bearing a pair of legs which terminate in a pointed claw1 while the posterior appendages are modified into flat1 leaf-like organs of respiration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aii4--,,marine ,,isopod #a4 ,sphroma serratum4 #b4 ,limnoria lignorum4 #c4 ,ligia oceanica4 #d4 ,nesa bidentata4 #e4 ,oniscoda maculosa ,when engaged in #8shrimping' one frequently meets with shrimps or prawns that are disfigured by a tumourous swelling on the side of the body1 and if the swelling be opened a little parasite will be dislodged4 ,this parasite is an ,isopod 7,bopyrus71 the appendages of which are imperfectly developed4 ,the female is very much larger than the male1 and1 as is usual with parasitic creatures1 the greater part of the body-cavity is occupied by the well-developed organs of reproduction4 ,there are several other parasitic isopods1 some of which live on the bodies of fishes1 and are popularly known as fish-lice1 but these are not so likely to come in the way of the sea-side naturalist as the more typical forms that crawl about on the rocks and among the weeds of the coast4 ,a few of the latter are shown in the accompanying illustration1 including the ,sea ,pill-ball 7,nesa bidentata71 common on the rocky coasts of the south-west1 and distinguished by the two sharp projections on the last segment2 the ,serrated ,pill-ball 7,sphroma serratum71 very common on most rocky shores1 and characterised by the fine sawlike teeth on the outer edge of the outer plates of the #8tail'2 the ,great ,sea-slater 7,ligia oceanica71 also an abundant species2 the ,spotted ,hog ,louse 7,oniscoda maculosa7 that lives among the tufted sea weeds2 and the ,boring ,pill-ball 7,limnoria lignorum7 that bores into the woodwork of piers and jetties1 often doing considerable damage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4--,,marine ,,amphipods #a4 ,the spined sea screw 7,dexamine spinosa74 #b4 ,westwoodia ccula4 #c4 ,tetromatus typicus4 #d4 ,the sandhopper 7,orchestia littorea74 #e4 ,montagua monoculoides4 #f4 ,iphimedia obesa4 ,all enlarged ,the above and other isopods feed on various animal and vegetable substances1 some species being quite omnivorous in habit4 ,most of them are eagerly devoured by birds and fishes4 ,the ,amphipods1 six species of which are shown in the above illustration1 include the ,sandhoppers or ,beach ,fleas1 so numerous on our coasts that it is almost impossible to go any distance without making their acquaintance4 ,they are invaluable as scavengers1 as they rapidly devour decaying sea weeds1 and will speedily reduce the body of any animal washed on the beach to a clean skeleton4 ,although they are all small creatures1 they make up in numbers for any deficiency in size2 and though devoured in enormous quantities by the various shore birds1 they multiply so prodigiously that they are never lacking wherever there is decomposing organic matter to be consumed4 ,the bodies of these animals are usually flattened from side to side1 very distinctly segmented1 and have a well-developed abdomen4 ,the head is furnished with two pairs of antenn and a pair of sessile eyes1 though some species possess only one pair of antenn1 while others have four eyes4 ,the limbs of the thorax are used either for walking or for swimming1 and give attachment to the gills4 ,the abdomen has generally six pairs of appendages1 the foremost three pairs of which are usually small1 and employed in swimming1 while the others are stronger and directed backwards1 and are often adapted for jumping4 ,it is very interesting to observe the habits of the ,sandhoppers and other ,amphipods both on the sandy beach and in the water1 and the student will find that certain species burrow into the sand with considerable agility1 and live principally at the extreme high-water mark1 where they feed on the organic matter washed in by the breakers at each high tide1 while others dwell almost exclusively in the water1 among weeds and stones1 and should be searched for at low water4 ,the latter may be kept alive for some time in the aquarium providing they are the only occupants1 but a little experience will show that these and all other ,amphipods are readily devoured by many marine creatures1 and consequently they are of real value to the aquarium keeper as food for other animals4 ,we now come to the ,stalk-eyed ,crustaceans 7,podophthalmata71 which contain those members of the class most generally known1 such as crabs1 lobsters1 shrimps1 and prawns4 ,in these the eyes are mounted on movable pedicels1 the head and thorax are generally covered by a large shield called the carapace1 and the appendages are adapted partly for seizing and masticating1 and partly for locomotion4 ,the group includes two orders--the ,stomapoda or ,mouth-footed crustaceans1 so called because some of the limbs are crowded round the region of the mouth2 and the ,decapoda1 or ,ten-footed crustaceans4 ,the ,stomapods1 though very abundant in tropical seas1 are not often met with on our own shores4 ,however1 since a few interesting species are inhabitants of our seas we will briefly describe the distinguishing characteristics of the group4 ,we have just mentioned the fact that the head and thorax of a decapod is usually covered by a large shield--the carapace4 ,now1 the general character of this carapace may be seen at once in either the shrimp or the lobster4 ,in these animals the segments that form the head and the thorax are all fused together1 and are completely covered by the protective buckler of hardened skin2 but in the ,stomapoda the carapace is much smaller in proportion1 and a few of the segments of the thorax1 instead of being fused into the general mass of the cephalo-thorax1 are quite distinct from it4 ,the abdomen1 also1 is large and strongly formed in these animals4 ,five pairs of the thoracic limbs are directed forwards1 and are adapted both for catching food and for climbing1 while others are used in walking4 ,the limbs of the abdomen generally number six pairs1 of which the first five bear feathery gills4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bja4--,,the ,,mantis ,,shrimp 7,squilla ,mantis7 ,two species of ,mantis ,shrimps1 one of which is represented in fig4 #bja1 have been found off the south and south-west coasts1 but these are not likely to be seen on the shore1 since they inhabit deep water4 ,allied to these1 and sometimes included with the ,stomapods1 are the ,opossum shrimps1 so called because the females of some species carry their eggs in a kind of pouch1 thus reminding us of the marsupial quadrupeds of the same name4 ,they are of very slender build compared with the mantis shrimps1 and differ from them in that the carapace completely covers the thorax2 but though this is the case1 the fusion of the thoracic segments is not complete1 since the posterior ones have still a certain amount of freedom of movement4 ,some species of opossum shrimps are abundant in the rock pools of our coasts1 particularly in the south-west1 but their bodies being often so transparent as to be almost invisible1 they are consequently easily overlooked4 ,their general appearance may be gathered from our illustration of ,mysis chamleon1 which is probably the most common species inhabiting our coast4 ,the highest crustaceans--the ,decapods--are divided into two sub-orders--the ,macrura1 or ,great-tailed1 including lobsters1 shrimps1 c42 and the ,brachyura 7,short-tailed71 containing the crabs2 but the number of ,british species is so large that it is impossible to give1 in our limited space1 a detailed description of all the commonest even4 ,all we can do is to note a few of the more interesting features of certain species1 to introduce such illustrations as will enable the young naturalist to identify a number of the commoner ones1 and to give the general characteristics of the main divisions so that the student may be able to classify his specimens intelligently4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4--,,the ,,opossum ,,shrimp 7,mysis chamleon7 ,in the ,macrura1 as with other divisions of the crustaceans1 we meet with very interesting modifications of the appendages1 adapted to quite a variety of uses2 and if the reader is unacquainted with these adaptations of structure to habit he cannot do better than secure a lobster or crayfish for study4 ,it will be observed that the body may be divided into two main portions--the cephalothorax1 consisting of head and thorax combined1 and the abdomen4 ,the former is composed of fourteen segments1 so thoroughly fused together that they are denoted only by the fourteen pairs of appendages to which they give attachment1 while the calcified skin forms one continuous shield surrounding the whole4 ,the abdomen1 on the other hand1 consists of six distinct segments1 each of which is surrounded by its own ring of the hardened integument1 and is connected with its neighbours by means of a portion of uncalcified skin that renders the whole very flexible4 ,a groove in the front portion of the great shield 7carapace7 marks the division between the head and the thorax1 the former composed of six1 and the latter of eight united segments4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4--,,parts ,,of ,,lobster',s ,,shell1 ,,separated1 ,,and ,,viewed ,,from ,,above ,the calcareous covering of each segment consists of an upper portion1 called the tergum1 and a lower1 named the sternum1 united at the sides2 the sternal portion of the cephalothorax1 which gives attachment to the walking limbs1 is a most complicated and beautifully formed structure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4--;,a ,,segment ,,of ,,the ,,abdomen ,,of ,a ,,lobster t1 tergum2 s1 sternum1 bearing a pair of swimmerets2 h1 bloodvessel2 d1 digestive tube2 n1 nerve chain ,the six pairs of appendages belonging to the head are easily made out with a little care4 ,the first are the jointed eye-stalks that bear the compound eyes previously described2 and these are followed by two pairs of antenn1 or feelers1 the first being shorter and double1 while the second are very long4 ,the former contain the organs of hearing4 ,then1 in front of the mouth1 and completely hiding it1 are a pair of strong mandibles or jaws that move horizontally1 and the two pairs of maxill that are also employed in reducing the food4 ,following these1 but belonging to the thorax1 are three pairs of appendages that are known as foot-jaws2 for1 although they assist the preceding organs in breaking up the food1 they bear a resemblance in some respects to the longer limbs behind them4 ,of the latter there are five pairs 7hence the term decapoda71 the first being a very powerful pair of seizers or pincers1 and the remaining four1 which are well adapted for walking1 terminating in either double or single claws4 ,all the appendages above mentioned are not only attached to the body by movable joints1 but are themselves made up of jointed parts1 sometimes a considerable number1 each of which1 like the segments of the body itself1 is surrounded by a ring of hardened skin1 and connected with those above and below it by a portion of soft and flexible skin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bje4--;,,appendages ,,of ,a ,,lobster #a4 ,second maxilla4 #b4 ,third foot-jaw4 #c4 ,third walking leg4 #d4 ,fifth walking leg ,lastly1 beneath the abdomen1 are paired limbs called swimmerets1 which are used as paddles1 and probably assist the animal more or less in its progress through the water2 but the principal organ of locomotion in the macrura is undoubtedly the powerful muscular abdomen1 aided by the broad and fanlike tail formed by the appendages of the last segment4 ,to demonstrate this fact1 put a live lobster1 or even a shrimp1 in a still rock pool1 and threaten it from before1 when it will rapidly retreat backwards by a series of powerful jerks1 produced by suddenly doubling its abdomen forwards beneath its body4 ,in addition to the external characters above mentioned1 there are many interesting features connected with the internal structure of the lobster that may be studied on making easy dissections4 ,thus1 the gills1 which are attached to the bases of the thoracic limbs1 may be exposed by cutting away the side of the carapace1 and at the same time we may discover the bailing organ by means of which a current of water is kept flowing forwards through the gill-cavity to keep up the necessary supply of oxygen for respiration4 ,the removal of the upper portion of the carapace will expose the heart and some of the principal bloodvessels1 and also the stomach with its powerful and complicated #8gastric mill1' formed by the hardening of portions of the wall of the latter organ for the purpose of crushing and masticating the food4 ,then1 if these organs be carefully removed from above1 together with the others we have not space to describe1 and the powerful muscles that fill up the segments of the abdomen1 the chain of ganglia and their connecting nerve cords that form the central part of the nervous system may be seen extending along the central portion of the body4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4--,,longitudinal ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,lobster a1 antenna2 r1 rostrum or beak2 o1 eye2 m1 mouth2 s1 stomach2 in1 intestine2 l1 liver2 gl1 gills2 h1 heart2 g1 genital organ2 ar1 artery2 n1 nerve ganglia ,several species of lobsters inhabit our seas1 but they are generally to be found beyond the tide-marks1 and are1 therefore1 not often caught by sea-side collectors without the aid of some kind of trap or the assistance of fishermen4 ,the common lobster 7,homarus vulgaris71 however1 is often left behind by the receding tide on our rocky coasts1 and may be seen and caught if one knows where to look and how to capture4 ,on cautiously approaching a deep rock pool one may often see a lobster rapidly retreat in its usual backward fashion1 and snugly house itself in a narrow chink from which it is impossible to remove it4 ,and1 when once surprised1 it is not likely to show itself again as long as the intruder is in view4 ,if one remains perfectly still for a time1 a pair of waving antenn may be seen gradually protruding from the safe retreat2 but1 as soon as the stalked eyes have advanced sufficiently to detect the figure of a stranger1 the lobster silently withdraws itself till quite out of sight4 ,lobsters1 usually of rather small size1 may often be seen quite out of the water at low tide1 in the narrow chinks of the rock1 or under large stones1 but it is no easy matter1 as a rule1 to get them out4 ,it is of little use poking a stick into the entrance of their hiding-places1 though occasionally they will grasp the stick so tenaciously with their forceps that they may be pulled within reach4 ,you may be able to haul them out by their long antenn1 but if you can find a second way into their home such that you can disturb them from behind you are pretty sure of your victim4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4--,,the ,,spiny ,,lobster 7,palinurus vulgaris7 ,it will be unnecessary to describe other species of lobsters individually1 but we have introduced figures of a few for identification4 ,the ,norway ,lobster 7,nephrops norvegicus7 is often landed in large numbers by the fishermen of the east and south-east coasts and sold at a shilling or so a dozen under the name of ,norway ,prawns4 ,they are pretty and interesting creatures1 and may be easily kept alive in the indoor aquarium1 where they may be fed on any kind of fish4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4--,,the ,,norway ,,lobster 7,nephrops norvegicus7 ,fig4 #bji represents the two allied creatures that may sometimes be dug out of the sandy beach1 or from the mud in the estuary of a river4 ,the one on the left is the mud-borer 7,gebia stellata71 which is of a dull yellowish colour1 marked more or less distinctly by pinkish starlike spots--a feature that has suggested the specific name4 ,the beak in front of the carapace is very prominent and spiny1 and the long abdomen is narrower in front than in the middle4 ,this creature hides in the holes that have been excavated by boring molluscs1 and seems also to extend the cavities it inhabits by its own labours4 ,the other is very similar in general form1 but has no spiny beak and the abdomen is much broader in the middle than at the base4 ,it is also to be distinguished by the very unequal size of its front legs1 one of which is much more developed than the other4 ,it is known as the mud-burrower 7,callianassa subterranea71 and is said to burrow very deeply into mud-banks1 scooping out its retreat principally by means of the second and third pairs of legs4 ,although found at times between the tide-marks1 its principal habitat is probably in the mud that is covered by deep water1 for it is not uncommonly to be found in the stomachs of fishes that habitually feed in such localities4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bji4--,,the ,,mud-,,borer 7,gebia stellata7 7#a7 ,,and ,,the ,,mud-,,burrower 7,callianassa subterranea7 7#b7 ,lobsters of all kinds1 and1 indeed1 the marine crustaceans generally1 are essentially the scavengers of the sea1 for they are carrion-feeders1 greedily devouring flesh in all stages of decomposition4 ,hence the value of their work on the sea shore is very considerable4 ,an examination of shrimps and prawns will at once show their close relationship with lobsters4 ,the general build of their bodies is practically the same1 and their appendages1 though often different in form from the corresponding limbs of the lobster1 will be seen to resemble them closely in arrangement and structure4 ,the exo-skeletons of these creatures are1 however1 generally hardened by a horny substance 7chitin7 instead of a stony deposit of carbonate of lime4 ,the shrimps and prawns sold for food in our markets are very similar in appearance when alive1 the leading distinguishing feature being1 perhaps1 the presence of a sharp1 serrated beak projecting forward from the front portion of the carapace of the latter4 ,the reader is probably acquainted with the fact that the shrimps and prawns used as food have quite a different appearance when alive and in their native element to that displayed by the corresponding wares in the fishmonger's shop--a fact that applies equally well to the edible crabs and lobsters4 ,most crustaceans change to a bright red colour when boiled1 and1 as stated in a previous chapter1 the same result is produced by the action of strong spirit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baj4--,,the ,,common ,,shrimp 7,crangon vulgaris7 ,the ,common ,shrimp 7,crangon vulgaris7 is an exception1 however1 for it may be distinguished when boiled by its dull greyish brown colour4 ,when alive this species is of a very pale greenish or greyish tint1 lightly spotted with brown2 and its habits are so interesting that it will well repay one to watch it either in the aquarium or in a rock pool4 ,it frequents sandy coasts1 and can hide itself very quickly by burying its body in the sand1 using for this purpose both its legs and its antenn4 ,the ,prawn frequents rocky coasts1 where it may often be obtained in large numbers by sweeping with a suitable net under the cover of weeds and stones4 ,its body is of an exceedingly pale greenish colour1 and so transparent that it is quite inconspicuous when in the water4 ,prawns are turned to a rose-red colour by boiling1 and they are captured in large numbers when young and sold as #8red shrimps4' div classfigcenter stylewidth3 #ejjpx2 a namefig#baa idfig#baa_/;a img srcimages_/i#cjh4;jpg width#ejj height#bhb alt _/ ,,fig4 #baa4--,,the ,,prawn 7,palmon serratus7 _/div ,in addition to the common species mentioned there are quite a number of shrimps and prawns to be found in our seas1 but some of them inhabit deep water and are rarely to be found between the tide-marks4 ,all1 however1 are eagerly devoured by fishes1 and1 on that account1 are often to be obtained in good condition by examining the contents of the stomachs of freshly caught fishes4 ,in fact1 this mode of search for the smaller species of deep-sea life is not to be despised1 for it is a means by which we can obtain specimens that are not often secured by the methods coming within the ordinary range of the amateur's work4 ,it will be remembered that we spoke of the ,decapods as consisting of two main groups--the ,great-tailed 7,macrura7 and the ,short-tailed 7,brachyura74 ,frequently1 however1 we find the order divided into three sub-orders as follows3-- #a4 ,macrura 7,great-tailed71 #b4 ,anomura 7,peculiar-tailed71 #c4 ,brachyura 7,short-tailed72 the first containing lobsters1 shrimps1 c42 the third the typical crabs1 such as the shore crab and the edible crab2 while in the second are placed those species of crabs which have been regarded as intermediate in character4 ,thus1 in the ,anomura we find decapods in which the abdomen1 though not so well developed as in the ,macrura1 is either permanently extended or is capable of being extended and used for swimming as occasion requires4 ,the hindmost legs1 also1 are not well developed and adapted for walking1 but are employed only as organs of prehension2 and1 as is the case with the first sub-order1 there are often two pairs of well-developed antenn4 ,in this sub-order of #8queer tails' we find the ,soldier or ,hermit ,crabs1 and those flat-bodied crabs that live almost exclusively on the surface of stones1 and are hence known as ,stone ,crabs2 but as opinion now seems inclined against the formation of a special suborder for these creatures1 we shall briefly deal with them as a first section of the ,brachyura4 ,the ,stone ,crabs are extremely interesting creatures1 and the observation of their habits1 both in and out of the water1 is particularly entertaining and instructive4 ,one species--the ,broad-,clawed ,porcelain ,crab 7,porcellana platycheles71 shown on ,plate ,,vi4--is very abundant on all our rocky coasts1 and may be found in immense numbers near low-water mark4 ,turn over some of the large encrusted stones that strew the beach among the rocks1 and you are almost sure to find numbers of these little crabs clinging to the freshly exposed surface4 ,a few of them may remain perfectly still1 and exhibit no sign of surprise on their untimely exposure to the light2 and these1 on account of their small size1 the closeness with which they apply their flattened bodies to the encrusted stone1 and more than all to the protective colouring of their dingy bodies1 which so closely resembles that of the surface to which they cling1 may well be overlooked by the inexperienced collector4 ,but the majority of them will immediately scamper away in their own peculiar fashion towards the edge of the stone1 and rapidly make their way to what is now the under side4 ,as they progress with a hasty1 sliding movement they never for one moment loosen their firm hold on the rough surface of the stone1 but keep both body and limbs in close contact with it1 clinging hard by means of their pointed claws as well as by the numerous hairs and bristles with which their appendages are liberally fringed4 ,attempt to pull one from its hold1 or even take other than the gentlest means to arrest its progress1 and you will probably find that it suddenly parts company with one of its broad claws in its endeavour to escape2 and1 unless some special precautions be taken to remove these crabs1 it is possible that quite half the specimens taken will have been damaged in this way during their struggles to escape4 ,if1 however1 you gently thrust the point of a penknife beneath the body1 and then apply the thumb above1 you may lift them from a stone without injury4 ,another plan is to press a frond of smooth sea weed as closely as possible to the surface of the stone in the front of the crabs1 and then allow them to crawl on to it1 or cause them to do so if necessary4 ,the piece of weed1 with crab or crabs attached1 may then be bagged for future examination4 ,on turning over the ,broad-clawed ,crab its under surface will be seen to be perfectly smooth1 with an appearance closely resembling that of white porcelain4 ,its foot-jaws1 also1 are proportionately large1 and closely fringed with hairs2 and the last pair of legs1 which are very slender in build1 are folded closely beneath the body4 ,further1 the abdomen is wide1 composed of six distinct movable segments1 and terminating in a tail-fin composed of five fringed plates4 ,drop the crab into water1 and it will immediately extend its abdomen1 which it will flap sharply under its body somewhat after the manner of lobsters and shrimps1 and thus swim backward by a series of jerks as it sinks to the bottom4 ,on reaching the bottom it instantly grasps the solid material1 applies itself closely to the surface1 and glides away into the nearest chink it can find4 ,as one observes the nature and movements of these interesting little crabs one cannot fail to see how beautifully their form and structure are adapted to their habits4 ,they are peculiarly constructed for abode in narrow chinks and crannies1 and for feeding on the small forms of life that inhabit such sheltered places4 ,their legs move in the plane of their flattened bodies1 and as they glide among the conferv and other low forms of life that encrust the stones of the beach they feel their way by1 and are possibly also guided by the sense of smell located in1 their long outer antenn1 while the close fringes of their claws and foot-jaws form admirable sweep-nets by means of which the little animals that form their food are swept towards the mouth4 ,we have other species of stone crabs1 one or two of which resemble the last species1 and belong to the same genus1 but the others are very different in general appearance4 ,the ,northern ,stone ,crab 7,lithodes71 found principally on and off the coasts of ,scotland and ,ireland1 has a spiny covering with a long beak4 ,another species--,dromia vulgaris--is somewhat similar in habit1 though it can hardly be termed a stone crab1 since it inhabits deep water1 and apparently lives among the sponges1 sea firs1 and weeds that cover the bottom4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bab4--;,dromia vulgaris ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bac4--,,the ,,hermit ,,crab ,,in ,a ,,whelk ,,shell ,the remainder of the ,peculiar-tailed ,decapods belong to the ,soldier or ,hermit ,crabs1 and constitute the genus ,pagurus4 ,every one who has searched a few rock pools will have seen the familiar ,hermits1 and will probably have been interested in their varied antics4 ,first you observe the shell of a mollusc--a ,trochus1 ,periwinkle1 or a ,whelk--travelling at an abnormal rate for a member of its class4 ,you approach closely to make an inquiry into the matter1 when the motion suddenly ceases1 and the shell instantly drops into position with its mouth close to the surface below4 ,if left undisturbed for only a short time1 the rapid and somewhat jerky motion is resumed1 only to cease as suddenly as before as soon as the inhabitant is again threatened4 ,on examining the shell we find that it is the home of a species of crab1 and that the animal within it is completely hidden with the exception of its head1 stalked eyes and long1 slender antenn1 one very large claw1 and a few walking legs4 ,to remove the creature from its home is no easy matter as a rule4 ,to pull it out by means of its legs or its antenn would probably be to sever some portion of its body2 but if you thrust the creature1 shell and all1 among the spreading tentacles of a large anemone1 it will at once grasp the peril of the situation2 and1 if the shell has already been secured by the clinging petals of this dangerous marine flower1 the hermit will speedily quit its home and endeavour to rush from the many snares in order to secure its freedom4 ,or1 it not infrequently happens that the occupied shell is one that has withstood many a storm1 but not without the loss of the apex of its cone4 ,in this case the insertion of a very flexible fibre into the opening thus made will cause the hermit to leave its home in the possession of the enemy4 ,having1 by some means or other1 managed to drive the crab from its shell1 we place it in a shallow rock pool1 or in a vessel of sea water1 and observe the chief features of its structure4 ,the first thing that strikes one is the absence of a calcified skin on the extended abdomen1 which is so soft that1 remembering with what eagerness fishes will attack and devour crabs of all kinds1 we can at once understand the necessity of such a home as the creature selects4 ,again1 we observe the presence of appendages at the tip of the abdomen by means of which the crab is enabled to hold itself securely in the shell4 ,also1 when we note the general form of the armoured portion of the body1 and the position of the soft-skinned abdomen1 we can see how well adapted the whole is to fit snugly into the spiral shell of a whelk or winkle4 ,we also observe that one of the pincers is much larger than the other1 and the value of such an arrangement may be estimated when we see the animal at home4 ,the smaller claw1 together with the other appendages used for walking or prehension1 can be retracted within the shell1 but the large claw1 which constitutes a formidable weapon of attack and defence1 is not only in such a position as to be ready for immediate use2 but1 lying as it does in front of the body1 with other portions hidden more or less behind it1 it serves the purpose of a shield when the animal retires4 ,if we place a homeless hermit crab in a rock pool1 the behaviour of the creature immediately suggests a feeling of uneasiness--a sense of danger--for it moves about in a very erratic fashion that is quite different from the straightforward and deliberate action of the same animal when properly protected2 and very amusing results may be obtained by making it the subject of a few harmless experiments4 ,for instance1 drop down before it an empty whelk-shell that is much too large to properly accommodate its body4 ,it will immediately approach the untenanted house1 search and probe it well with its antenn and other appendages1 and then1 finding it uninhabited1 and having no apartment of more suitable size at hand1 will abruptly gives its body a turn and hastily thrust itself backwards into it4 ,if at the time of this experiment the advancing tide disturbs the water of the pool1 the result is somewhat ludicrous1 for the shell1 too cumbersome to be controlled by the creature within1 is1 regardless of its attempts to maintain a normal position1 turned over and over as each wave advances and retreats4 ,again1 supposing the shell supplied to be too small for the intended occupant1 it will1 after the usual examination of the interior1 thrust its soft abdomen as far in as possible1 and make the best of the unsatisfactory circumstances until a more suitable home can be found4 ,and if1 at this distressing period1 we drop before it a shell of just the right size--the one from which the creature was originally expelled for instance1 it is astonishing how quickly the change of houses will be accomplished4 ,after a brief examination of the shell with the object of determining whether all is right within1 during which the crab continues to avail itself of the imperfect accommodation afforded by the previous shell1 it rapidly extracts its body from the one and thrusts itself backwards into the other4 ,its normal habits are at once resumed1 all its movements being now suggestive of confidence and contentment4 ,we have already referred 7p4 #aec7 to the fact that a large anemone 7,sagartia parasitica7 is commonly found attached to a whelk shell1 which at the same time forms the home of the hermit crab1 and 7p4 #dd7 that a marine worm 7,nereis7 is also a common associate of the hermit1 taking up its abode in the interior of the same shell2 and we also briefly discussed the mutual advantage of such an arrangement to the parties concerned4 ,these triple combinations are not so frequently met with on the shore between the tide-marks1 but are dredged in considerable numbers by the trawler2 and the reader will find it repay him to secure one in order that he may be able to watch the interesting habits of the associates4 ,the movements of the hermit crab are always pleasing1 particularly the manner in which it seizes and manipulates its food2 and still more so is the occasional appearance of the head of the worm1 always in exactly the same place1 for the purpose of deliberately stealing the food from the very jaws of the crab4 ,hermit crabs are easily kept in captivity1 and may be fed on any kind of animal food1 but care should be taken not to allow an excess of food to remain in the water and render it putrid by decomposition4 ,as long as the crabs are active and remain within their shells you may assume that the conditions are favourable2 but when they become sluggish in their movements1 and leave their homes1 the sanitary condition of the aquarium should be regarded with suspicion2 for hermit crabs1 like many of the marine tube worms1 generally quit their homes when the conditions are unfavourable1 as if they preferred to die outside4 ,the ,common ,hermit ,crab 7,pagurus ,bernhardus71 also known as the ,soldier ,crab1 on account of its very pugnacious habits1 is common almost everywhere on our coasts1 and may be distinguished by the numerous little tubercles on the claws and on the upper edge of the front legs2 and there are several other species1 belonging to the same genus1 distributed more or less locally on the various shores4 ,all are similar in general structure and habits1 the various species being identified principally by means of their colour1 the variations in the form of the appendages1 and the general character--smooth1 tubercular1 spiny1 c4--of the exo-skeleton4 ,one species1 found in the sandy bays of ,cornwall1 burrows rapidly in the sand4 ,coming now to the true crabs--the ,brachyura1 or ,short-tailed crustaceans1 as sometimes distinguished from the ,anomura--we find quite a variety of interesting creatures1 many species of which are always within the reach of the collector at work between the tide-marks4 ,in all these the abdomen is only slightly developed1 and is never used in swimming1 being permanently folded beneath the thorax4 ,this portion of the body1 however1 is usually very distinctly segmented1 and if it be lifted from its position it will be found that some of the segments bear appendages corresponding with the swimmerets of the lobster4 ,it is also wider in the female than in the male1 and crabs of the former sex may often be found during the summer with the abdomen more or less depressed1 and the space beneath it quite filled with eggs4 ,the upper surface of the carapace of crabs is often very distinctly grooved1 and it is interesting to note that these features of the exo-skeleton are not merely of external significance1 for they usually correspond in position with various internal structures1 some of them denoting the areas of the insertions of important muscles1 and others enclosing the regions of certain of the internal organs4 ,it will be noticed1 too1 that the carapace1 which in lobsters is often less than half the length of the body1 covers the entire body of the crab1 except1 perhaps1 a very small linear portion between the bases of the last pair of legs1 where the first part of the segmented abdomen is visible from above4 ,the true crabs of our seas may be divided into four groups1 as follow3 #a4 ,oxystomata1 or ,pointed-mouthed ,crabs2 #b4 ,oxyrhyncha1 or ,pointed-beaked ,crabs2 #c4 ,catometopa1 with forehead turned downwards2 and #d4 ,cyclometopa1 or ,round-headed ,crabs2 and we shall briefly observe some of the more conspicuous and interesting species in the order of the tribes as just given4 ,the first division is not well represented in our seas1 the principal species being the ,nut ,crabs and the ,long-armed ,crab1 all of which may be distinguished by the peculiar arrangement of the foot-jaws1 which1 when closed1 form a triangle with an acute angle turned towards the front4 ,the ,nut ,crabs are mostly small2 and1 since they generally inhabit deep water1 are not commonly seen on the shore2 but perfect specimens may sometimes be found among the contents of fishes' stomachs4 ,they derive their name from the nature of the carapace1 which is of a rounded form and very hard and strong4 ,pennant's ,long-armed ,crab 7,corystes ,cassivelaunus7 may commonly be seen entangled among fishermen's nets1 but is not often seen on the shore at low tide4 ,its carapace is very convex above1 with three sharp spines on each side1 and the grooves are so arranged as to suggest the appearance of a face4 ,our illustration represents the female1 but the #8arms' of the male are very much longer than those of this sex4 ,the ,sharp-beaked ,crabs 7,oxyrhyncha7 include all those long-legged creatures that are known collectively as the ,spider ,crabs2 and here1 again1 we have to do with species that almost exclusively inhabit deep water4 ,although this is the case1 but little difficulty is experienced1 as a rule1 in obtaining specimens4 ,if you are unable to take a trip in a trawler for the purpose of examining the #8rubbish' that is dredged from deep water1 simply obtain permission to search the nets and the boats as they arrive in port4 ,in the latter case you are almost certain to find the crabs you require1 though it is probable that some of the species will have been damaged by the hauling and shaking of the nets4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bad4--,,the ,,long-,,armed ,,crab 7,corystes ,cassivelaunus7 ,these interesting crabs have been spoken of as the monkeys of the sea1 and the comparison will certainly be tolerated by anyone who has watched the creatures as they climb among the corallines and sea firs in an aquarium4 ,among such growths they are quite at home2 and although their movements do not often suggest the extreme agility of the monkey tribe1 yet the ease with which they seize the branches of the submarine forest with their long #8arms' and pull their bodies from one tree-like structure to another is decidedly monkey-like4 ,their comparison with the long-legged spiders is also a happy one as far as their general form and movements are concerned1 but it must be remembered that they have not the same reputation for cruel1 predaceous habits1 for they are more truly the scavengers of the deep1 subsisting mainly on the decomposing bodies of their dead associates4 ,the movements of most spider crabs are so slow and deliberate that one can hardly imagine them capable of anything of the nature of violent action2 yet1 when occasion requires it1 they will sometimes strike at the object of their wrath with a most vigorous snap of their claws4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bae4--,,spider ,,crabs ,,at ,,home ,in these crabs1 too1 we find most interesting instances of protective resemblance to their surroundings4 ,some of the small1 slender-legged species are not to be recognised without a careful search when they are at rest among clusters of sea firs1 their thin appendages and small bodies being hardly discernible in the midst of the slender1 encrusted branches1 and their peculiar forms are still more concealed by their colouring1 which generally closely resembles that of the growths among which they live4 ,further1 the carapace of spider crabs is in itself a garden on which thrive low forms of both animal and vegetable life4 ,minute ,alg1 and occasionally some of moderate size1 are rooted to the shell1 often securely held by the aid of the rough hairs and tubercles that are so characteristic of the exo-skeletons of these creatures2 and patches and tufts of animal colonies that have found a convenient settlement on the moving bed still further serve to obscure the nature of the living mass below--a mass that is always in danger of becoming the prey of the fishes which inhabit deep water4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that this association is one that is beneficial to both sides as far as the animal life is concerned1 the lower species serving to disguise the true nature of the crab1 thus protecting it from its numerous enemies1 while they in return are conveyed1 carriage paid1 to the feeding-grounds1 where they can freely partake of the fragments that become diffused in the surrounding water4 ,our illustration on p4 #bhh shows three species of spider crabs1 all of which are common on parts of our shores4 ,the ,scorpion ,spider ,crab 7,inachus dorsetensis7 derives its specific name from the fact that it was first found off the coast of ,dorset2 but it is abundant off many of our shores1 both in the south and north1 and may frequently be seen entangled among the fishermen's nets4 ,it may be distinguished from other and similar species by the four spines arranged in a line across the front portion of the carapace1 and the five large1 pointed tubercles behind them4 ,this species is undoubtedly a favourite food of the cod1 for several specimens may often be taken from the stomach of a single fish4 ,the next species--,the ,slender-beaked ,spider ,crab 7,stenorhynchus tenuirostris7--is seldom missing from the dredgings hauled in off the south-west coast1 and is fairly common in other parts4 ,its legs are extremely slender1 and bear spines on the inner side1 and its body1 where free from the incrustations so often covering the carapace of spider crabs1 is of a fresh pink colour4 ,the other one shown in the same illustration is ,arctopsis lanata1 sometimes known as ,gibb's ,crab1 the carapace of which is pointed behind1 bears a large pointed tubercle on each side1 and is completely covered with a thick clothing of stiff hairs4 ,it is also common on many parts of our coasts1 more especially the coasts of ,devon and ,cornwall4 ,closely allied to the last-named1 and belonging to the same family1 is the well-known ,thornback ,crab 7,maia ,squinado71 also a very common crab1 of which we give a separate illustration4 ,the tribe ,catametopa does not contain many ,british species1 the principal being the ,pea ,crabs2 the ,floating ,crab1 which is occasionally washed on the south-west coast2 and the beautiful ,angular ,crab4 ,in these the front of the carapace is turned downwards--a feature that has suggested the name of the tribe4 ,the pea crabs are all small1 and they are parasites1 living within the shells of bivalve molluscs4 ,one species--the ,common ,pea ,crab 7,pinnotheres pisum7 is frequently found in the ,edible ,mussel2 the female1 which is much larger than the male1 being much more commonly found4 ,another species--the ,pinna ,pea ,crab 7,p4 veterum71 infests the ,pinna and ,modiolus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baf4--,,the ,,thornback ,,crab 7,maia ,squinado7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bag4--,,the ,,pea ,,crab 7,pinnotheres pisum7 ,on ,plate ,,vi4 is a drawing of the ,angular ,crab 7,gonoplax angulata7 mentioned above1 the striking form and delicate colouring of which can never be mistaken4 ,we would1 however1 call particular attention to the broad and square front of the cephalothorax1 with its two sharp spines1 and to the length of the eye-stalks4 ,unfortunately for the amateur1 this pretty crab is only to be found in deep water1 off the coasts of ,devon and ,cornwall1 so that here1 again1 the aid of the fisherman is valuable2 but1 as observed in the case of other deep-sea dwellers1 may also be looked for in the stomachs of cod and other bottom fishes4 ,the sex figured is the male1 in which1 when fully grown1 the front legs are much longer than in the female4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,crustacea #a4 ,gonoplax angulata #b4 ,xantho florida #c4 ,portunus puber #d4 ,polybius ,henslowii #e4 ,porcellana platycheles ,the remaining division of the crabs--the ,cyclometopa or ,round-fronted ,crabs1 contains the larger number of species that may truly be described as common objects of the shore1 for while some of them are well adapted for swimming1 and live in the open water1 the majority inhabit the shore1 either between or just beyond the tide-marks1 roaming about more or less freely when in the water1 but usually hiding under stones or weeds1 or burrowing into the sand1 when left behind by the receding tide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bah4--,,the ,,common ,,shore ,,crab 7,carcinus mnas7 ,the members of this tribe may be known at sight by the form of the carapace1 which is wide and rounded in front1 and narrowed behind4 ,the accompanying illustration represents the commonest of the group--the ,common ,shore ,crab 7,carcinus mnas71 which is found plentifully on all our coasts1 and even in brackish water far up the estuaries of rivers4 ,it is a very voracious and pugnacious creature1 probably the most active of all our crabs1 and its movements1 whether connected with its feeding1 its sports1 or its warfare1 are always very interesting when observed through clear water4 ,this crab varies considerably in colour1 but is usually of the greenish tinge shown in the frontispiece4 ,another abundant and well-known species is the ,edible ,crab 7,cancer pagurus71 which is as familiar an object in town as on the sea coast4 ,unlike the common lobster1 its natural colour is not considerably changed by boiling1 being only turned from a dull to a brighter red4 ,the finest specimens of this crab are to be caught beyond low-water mark1 the usual snare being the basket or pot1 baited with fish refuse1 but large numbers live among the stones and rocks left exposed at low tide1 and sometimes include specimens of considerable size4 ,they should be looked for under large stones that are loosely piled together1 or in the narrow chinks of rocks4 ,it is very interesting to compare the habits of the two common crabs just mentioned4 ,the former1 when molested1 will run off in great haste1 but always retreat with its front to the enemy1 and its sharp and powerful pincers far apart and wide open1 ready for immediate use in its own defence if necessary4 ,the latter species1 on the other hand1 though strongly built and provided with formidable claws1 seldom runs far1 and hardly ever attacks one in the act of pulling it out of its hiding-place2 but1 on the contrary1 doubles all its ten legs under its body as if endeavouring to approach1 as nearly as possible1 the form of a ball1 and will allow itself to be rolled about without showing any signs of life4 ,the genus ,xantho contains two or three species that are common on the ,cornish and ,devon coasts1 and which may be known by their depressed and deeply-grooved carapace and the presence of three or four prominent tubercles on the latero-anterior margins4 ,the abdomen of the female has seven joints1 while that of the male has only five4 ,one of these 7,xantho florida71 shown on ,plate ,,vi41 is a powerfully built crab1 as may be seen when1 after being disturbed1 it pushes its way among the loose stones of the beach1 often lifting masses many times its own weight4 ,on the same plate is also a figure of the pretty ,velvet ,crab 7,portunus puber71 also known as the ,lady ,crab and the ,violet ,fiddler4 ,the first of these popular names has its origin in the dense covering of close hairs that clothe the carapace1 and the last refers to the beautiful violet colouring of parts of the front legs1 and1 to a lesser extent1 of the remaining legs4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the most ferocious of all our shore crabs1 and its attacks1 when disturbed1 are of such a determined nature that the catching of the larger specimens is quite a lively sport4 ,though it can hardly be described as an abundant species1 yet it sometimes occurs locally in such numbers that it may be found under nearly every stone of any size4 ,in fact1 we have searched two or three localities on the south-west coast where this crab is not only extremely numerous1 but is at the same time almost the only species to be found2 and it seems not unlikely that the pugnacious ,lady has been the means of driving the less formidable species from its favourite haunts4 ,when you disturb a ,velvet ,crab it will immediately raise itself in a menacing attitude1 stretching its brightly coloured pincers as wide apart as possible1 and then it will either retreat backwards1 or even make a firm stand1 ready to strike as soon as it is threatened with an attempted touch4 ,try to grasp it1 and its two powerful weapons of defence are brought together with lightning-like rapidity giving one a decidedly smart blow1 possibly followed by a grip of great tenacity for a creature of its size2 but1 should it miss its aim1 its pincers strike together with a sharp click1 only1 however1 to extend at once in preparation for the next attempt4 ,it will be observed that the walking legs of this crab are all flattened1 and that while the first three pairs terminate in sharp1 lance-like claws1 the last pair are broad and fringed with hairs1 thus showing their close relationship to the swimming crabs4 ,in fact1 the same genus contains ,british species which are popularly known as ,swimming ,crabs4 ,one of the swimmers is represented in fig4 #d of ,plate ,,vi4 ,it is generally known as ,henslow's ,swimming ,crab or the ,nipper1 the scientific name being ,polybius ,henslowii4 ,the carapace of this species is quite smooth1 thus enabling the crab to move through the water with less resistance1 and the walking legs1 particularly the last pair1 are flattened and fringed for use as paddles4 ,it is said that this crab can raise itself from the bottom to the surface of moderately deep water by means of the swimming feet1 and that it preys on fishes which it pursues with some vigour4 ,other crabs than those briefly described will reveal themselves to the sea-side collector1 but we have not the space to introduce them here4 ,sufficient information has been given1 however1 to enable the reader to broadly classify his specimens--a matter of more importance to the young naturalist than the mere naming of species4 ,leaving the crustaceans now1 and passing for a moment to the ,arachnoidea--the second great division of the arthropods--we shall briefly describe the ,shore ,spider 7,pycnogonum littorale71 which is the only representative of the class likely to be met with by the sea-shore collector4 ,it will be seen by our illustration that this creature by no means resembles a typical spider4 ,the powerful jaws1 really modified antenn1 that are such formidable weapons in the latter1 together with other appendages of the head1 are undeveloped in the shore spider1 and the head is prolonged forward to form a rigid beak with the mouth at the summit1 and the head and thorax together form a cephalothorax of four distinct segments1 each of which bears a pair of legs4 ,further1 the cephalothorax forms almost the whole of the body1 for the abdomen1 usually so large in spiders1 is here represented by a mere tubercle4 ,the shore spider is unable to swim1 but crawls about among the weeds and stones of the bottom1 clinging firmly by means of the curved claws of its eight thick legs1 and is protected by its dull grey colour which closely resembles that of the encrusted stones among which it spends the greater portion of its existence4 ,it may sometimes be found hiding under stones near low-water mark1 but is far more commonly seen among the #8rubbish' hauled in by the trawl4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bai4--,,the ,,shore ,,spider ,we shall conclude our brief survey of the marine arthropods by a short account of the insect life of the sea shore1 referring to a few of the more prominent forms and observing some of their habits2 but since it is probable that some of our readers are not well acquainted with the general characters of this interesting class of animal life1 it will be advisable to precede our remarks by a short summary of their principal distinguishing features1 more particularly those in which they differ from the other arthropods4 ,insects1 then1 may be defined as those arthropods in which the body is divided into three distinct parts--the head1 composed of from four to six fused segments1 and bearing as many pairs of appendages2 the thorax1 formed of three segments1 each of which gives attachment to a pair of legs2 and the abdomen1 composed of eight segments that bear no appendages4 ,the head of an insect is furnished with a pair of compound eyes1 very similar in structure to those of a crustacean1 and often1 in addition1 a cluster of simple eyes2 also a pair of antenn1 usually composed of many joints4 ,these antenn are important organs of touch1 and are employed1 at least by many forms1 as a means of communication between one insect and another4 ,in them are also located the organs of hearing1 and1 possibly1 those of other senses4 ,the mouth varies very considerably in different insects1 but is often supplied with a pair of mandibles or biting jaws1 and1 below them1 a pair of maxill or chewing jaws1 both pairs being jointed to the head in such a manner as to be capable only of horizontal movements4 ,above and below these jaws are1 respectively1 the upper lip or labrum1 and the lower lip or labium1 the latter having appended to it a pair of jointed feelers called the labial palpi1 and an additional pair of palpi are also frequently attached to the maxill1 and therefore called the maxillary palpi4 ,these organs of the mouth of an insect are modified in various ways according to the functions they are called upon to perform4 ,thus1 in bees1 the upper lip1 as well as the mandibles1 are adapted for chewing1 while the maxill and the labium are grooved in such a manner that when brought together they form a tube through which fluids may be sucked into the mouth4 ,also1 in the butterfly and the moth1 the maxill are not constructed for chewing1 but consist of two channelled rods which1 when approximated1 form a long tube or proboscis employed for suction2 and in these insects the labial palps are large for the protection of the proboscis1 which is retracted and closely coiled between them when not in use4 ,further1 in the bugs1 the labium is long and tubular1 while the mandibles and maxill are often modified into sharp1 stiff bristles that work within the tube1 the whole thus forming a combined piercing and sucking arrangement4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4--,,the ,,leg ,,of ,,an ,,insect ,the leg of an insect is built up much in the same manner as that of the typical crustacean4 ,it consists of a basal hip joint or coxa1 a ring segment or trochanter1 a thigh 7femur71 a shin 7tibia71 and the tarsus or foot of several joints which terminates in a claw or claws1 and is often provided with sucking-pads4 ,the wings1 when present1 are attached to the second and third segments of the thorax1 if two pairs1 but if1 as in the case of the house fly1 the insect has only one pair of wings1 these are always appended to the second segment4 ,insects are developed from eggs1 but in their young state they are segmented larv1 with strong jaws1 antenn1 simple eyes1 and usually three pairs of legs attached to the first three segments next to the head4 ,as regards internal structure1 we need only mention here that the body is traversed by numerous branching tubes 7trache7 that open at the exterior and constitute the respiratory apparatus2 that the insect is provided with a contractile1 tubular heart by means of which the blood is propelled through a system of blood-vessels2 that the nervous system consists of a chain of ganglia1 connected by a nerve cord1 sending nerve filaments to all parts of the body2 and that the digestive tube is often a complicated structure1 especially in the case of those insects that feed on herbivorous matter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bba4--,,trachea ,,of ,,an ,,insect1 ,,magnified ,the above outline will be sufficient to show that insects are not very unlike the crustaceans in their general characteristics2 and1 indeed1 when we examine certain forms1 noting the distinct segmentation of the body1 the hardened exo-skeleton of chitinous material1 and the unhardened skin between the segments to admit of freedom of movement1 we see a striking resemblance in external appearance to some of the typical crustaceans4 ,insects are divided into several orders1 and some of these are fairly well represented on the sea coasts1 though it must be understood that but few species are strictly aquatic and marine in their habits4 ,fresh-water pools and streams teem with insect life1 and quite a large number of the insects that live in these situations are peculiarly adapted for a life of submersion1 their general form being often such as to allow of rapid progress through the water1 their appendages modified into admirable swimming organs1 and1 in many cases1 their breathing apparatus adapted for the direct absorption of oxygen dissolved in the water4 ,however1 one would hardly expect to find similar forms of life abundant in the water that washes our shores1 the disturbing action of the waves1 even in calm weather1 being more than such fragile creatures could withstand4 ,and this is really the case1 for there are but few insects that may be described as marine in the strictest sense of the word2 and of these the species that have been observed are mostly inhabitants of warmer seas4 ,it is noteworthy that all the insects which exhibit marine tendencies are small1 and they seldom1 if ever1 live permanently below the surface4 ,but few of them can swim4 ,a few run on the surface of the water1 supporting themselves on the surface film after the manner of water-gnats1 whirligig beetles1 c41 without ever being wetted2 and these are said to feed on different kinds of floating matter1 and occasionally to dive below the surface4 ,a rambler on the sea shore in the summer time will always meet with plenty of insect life1 but the number of species observed may not be large3 and omitting all those which show no decided preference for the coast1 but are found in inland districts as well1 we find that by far the larger proportion live at or near the high-water mark1 where they feed on the refuse washed up by the waves4 ,some species1 however1 live among the stones1 or burrow into the sand1 between the tide-marks2 and these1 as a rule1 are not driven inland by each advancing tide1 but allow the sea to wash over them1 having at first protected themselves from disturbance by burrowing or seeking other suitable shelter4 ,these latter1 like many of the insects that inhabit fresh water1 are well adapted to withstand prolonged immersion4 ,their bodies are not capable of being wetted1 a covering of short hairs effectually preventing the water from coming into actual contact with the body4 ,the openings of the breathing tubes 7spiracles7 are also guarded by closely set hairs which prevent the water from entering2 and1 in some cases1 the creatures are provided with special air-sacs in which a supply of air is stored for use while the insect is shut off from the external atmosphere4 ,the lowest order of insects includes the so-called ,bugs 7,rhynchota71 which are parasitic on plants or animals4 ,quite a number of these are to be found inhabiting fresh water1 but only one is truly marine in its tendencies4 ,this one is a small insect1 only about an eighth of an inch in length1 and named pophilus 7fig4 #bbb74 ,it has never been seen except between the tide-marks1 and occurs so near low-water level that it is submerged during the greater part of its existence4 ,but little is known of this peculiar creature4 ,even its food has not been ascertained4 ,as with the other ,rhynchota1 but little change of form takes place during growth1 the young being very much like the adult in appearance4 ,it has been observed that the larv live crowded together under the protection of stones4 ,the reader is probably acquainted with those fresh-water bugs that are popularly known as #8boatmen' on account of the oar-like action of their long1 fringed hind legs2 and although none of these may be described as marine1 yet certain species may often be seen in salt and brackish water1 living in company with creatures that are decidedly inhabitants of the sea4 div classfigcenter stylewidth3 #ejjpx2 a namefig#bbb idfig#bbb_/;a img srcimages_/i#cbi4;jpg width#ejj height#cbj alt _/ ,,fig4 #bbb4--,,sea ,,shore ,,insects #a4 pophilus4 #b4 ,machilis maritima4 #c4 ,isotoma maritima4 #d4 ,clopa _/div ,we frequently meet with a pretty1 slender-bodied insect1 measuring about half an inch in length without appendages1 creeping over the rocks in the sunshine1 generally very near the crevices in which they hide1 and leaping from place to place when disturbed4 ,these are the ,bristle-tails 7,machilis71 belonging to the order ,thysanura1 the members of which1 like the bugs1 scarcely undergo any metamorphoses4 ,this insect 7fig4 #bbb7 has long antenn1 and also a long1 stiff1 and elastic bristle extending backwards from the tip of the abdomen2 and this bristle is the means by which the creature leaps4 ,occasionally the machilis may be found resting on the surface of the still water of a rock pool1 in which case its body is not wetted1 its weight not being sufficient to break the surface film of the water2 and1 in fact1 the film is even sufficiently firm to enable the insect to leap on the surface just as it would on a solid body4 ,allied to the bristle-tails1 and usually grouped with them in the same order1 are the little ,spring-tails1 some species of which may often be seen huddled together on the surface of the water of a rock pool4 ,they are so small that1 unless closely examined1 they may be mistaken for particles of floating inorganic matter which have been blown into a sheltered corner of the pool1 and this idea may be strengthened by the fact that these minute creatures are driven by the wind into such sheltered spots4 ,but when we disturb them their true nature immediately becomes apparent1 for they may then be seen to move about on the surface of the water1 sometimes creeping on the surface film1 and clambering on the adjacent rock or weed1 or leaping more or less vigorously1 in which latter case their bodies do not become wetted1 the surface film remaining unbroken by their exertions4 ,and even when the rising tide drives the spring-tails into crevices where they remain submerged1 perhaps for hours together1 their bodies still remain dry1 the water being kept off by numerous short bristles and prominences with which they are furnished4 ,when we examine a spring-tail by means of a lens we observe that it has no traces of wings1 but that each of the three segments representing the thorax bears a pair of short legs1 and that the abdomen consists of only five or six segments4 ,the head is furnished with a pair of jaws1 and the antenn1 which are short and thick1 are composed of but few joints--never more than six in number4 ,some spring-tails live among the refuse washed up on the beach1 where they may be seen jumping about in company with the sandhoppers when the material is disturbed4 ,such is the case with ,isotoma maritima1 the illustration of which shows the forked tail that enables the little animal to jump about so vigorously4 ,but some of the marine spring-tails are not so true to their name1 since they are not provided with this characteristic jumping organ1 and have to content themselves by creeping about slowly with the aid of their short legs4 ,one of these springless spring-tails 7,anurida maritima7 is one of the commonest of the group1 and is distributed over almost every part of our coast4 ,passing over several orders of insects which do not seem to have any marine representatives1 we come to the ,diptera or two-winged insects1 of which the familiar house-fly is a type1 and here we have to deal with those troublesome creatures that literally swarm in the neighbourhood of the matter washed up to the highest level of the tide during the whole of the summer months4 ,but although these insects are so very numerous1 we do not find among them a particularly large number of species1 their abundance being due more to the extreme prolificacy of those that occur4 ,in this order1 which includes all gnat-like creatures1 as well as those insects that are generally known as flies1 the first pair of wings are well developed1 while the second pair are rudimentary1 and represented merely by a pair of scales1 or by two little pin-like bodies called the balancers or halteres4 ,some are provided with piercing organs by means of which they can inflict a small wound and then extract the juices of their victim1 as does the female gnat1 but the majority have a proboscis adapted for suction only4 ,the larv of the ,diptera are generally limbless maggots1 gifted with a pair of jaws1 and they are usually very voracious feeders1 devouring decomposing animal or vegetable matter in enormous quantities4 ,if we turn over a fermenting mass of the miscellaneous matter thrown up on the beach quite beyond the reach of the tides1 we may observe a multitude of little maggots which feed on the moist1 odorous portion that was protected from the direct rays of the sun1 together with a number of dark-coloured pup that lie at the very bottom of the heap or buried in the sand below4 ,these are two stages of the black fly 7,clopa frigida7 that is so attentive to us when we rest on the dry sand above high-water mark4 ,this fly is very like the common house-fly in general appearance1 though its body is rather smaller4 ,other species of the same genus often accompany them1 all being very similar in general appearance and habits1 and none of the larv seem adapted to a life in the water4 ,they are always found beyond the reach of the tide1 and are drowned if submerged for any length of time4 ,another species belonging to the genus ,actora will often be seen in the same company1 and this is readily distinguished by their lighter greyish colour and its superior size4 ,also1 along the water-line1 we often meet with species of the family ,dolichopodid1 so called on account of the length of their legs1 and noted for the beautiful metallic colours which adorn their bodies4 ,these flies are carnivorous in habit1 deriving their food from living as well as from freshly killed animals1 and their short1 fleshy proboscis contains a piercing bristle by which they can puncture the skins of the animals that provide them with food4 ,most of the flies of this group live on trees1 walls1 fences1 c41 where they pursue and attack their prey1 but certain species follow the line of breakers on the sea shore1 as before indicated1 and obtain their food from the various marine animals that are stranded on the beach4 ,a peculiar feature of the family is the nature of the abdomen of the males1 which is bent under the body and furnished with a number of appendages4 ,another marine dipterous insect is a gnat-like fly closely allied to ,chironomus1 which we have described in a former work,a of this series dealing with fresh-water life2 and it will be sufficient to mention here that ,chironomus is commonly known as the window-gnat on account of the frequency with which it may be seen flying on the windows of our dwellings2 also that the larva1 known popularly as the bloodworm1 is truly aquatic in habit1 being able to swim by rapidly looping its body in opposite directions1 and being provided with a breathing apparatus adapted for the absorption of the oxygen gas contained in solution in water4 ,the larva of the marine species referred to above may sometimes be seen in rock pools1 where it shelters itself among the sediment at the bottom4 ,it is much like the bloodworm in appearance and structure1 but its body is greenish instead of red4 ,the last order of insects calling for notice here is the ,coleoptera or sheath-winged insects1 popularly known as beetles1 and characterised by the hard and horny nature of the front pair of wings 7elytra71 which are modified into sheaths and serve to protect the second pair2 the latter are thin and membranous1 usually adapted for flight1 and lie folded beneath the former when not in use4 ,one large section of beetles is known as the ,geodephaga or ,ground ,beetles--a group of very predaceous insects that burrow into the soil and attack almost every living thing that comes in their way1 and well represented by numerous species that may be found in our gardens1 and1 in fact1 almost everywhere4 ,a considerable number of these insects show a decided preference for salt marshes and the sea shore1 where they hide under stones1 or burrow into the sand or mud in search of their prey4 ,they are not marine in the strictest sense of the word1 for they are not adapted for a life of submersion in water1 either in the larval or in the perfect condition2 yet they are often found below high-water level1 and some species burrow into the sand of the beach as the tide advances1 allowing the water to cover them for hours together4 ,one interesting family of the ground beetles 7the ,bembidiid7 includes several small species1 all of which frequent salt and wet places1 such as salt marshes1 the mouths of rivers1 and the sea shore4 ,we give enlarged illustrations of a few of these1 the actual size being denoted at the side of each4 ,footnote ,a3 ,life in ,ponds and ,streams4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4--,,marine ,,beetles ,,of ,,the ,,genus ,bembidium #a4 ,b4 biguttatum4 #b4 ,b4 pallidipenne4 #c4 ,b4 fumigatum4 #d4 ,b4 quadriguttatum ,bembidium biguttatum may be identified by its brilliant bronze-green colour1 and the two distinct impressions on the elytra which have suggested the specific name4 ,b4 pallidipenne is1 as its name implies1 a pale-winged species1 the elytra being of a light yellowish colour4 ,b4 fumigatum is so called on account of the smoky tint of the elytra2 and the last species of the same genus figured 7,b4 quadriguttatum7 may be known by the four conspicuous spots on the deep violet-coloured outer wings4 ,the same family contains an interesting little beetle--,cillenium laterale--only about one-sixth of an inch in length1 that lives among the refuse washed on the beach1 where it feeds on the sandhoppers2 and although the latter are so much superior in size1 the beetle has no difficulty in holding and killing its prey1 always seizing it on the ventral side of the body1 which is less protected by the hardened skin4 ,this species1 which is of a copper colour1 does not confine its ravages to that portion of the beach which is above high-water mark1 but often allows itself to be covered by the advancing tide1 remaining submerged for a considerable time4 ,another species--,apus 7pys7 marinus--is even more aquatic in its habits1 for it searches out its prey among stones1 chiefly at the mouths of rivers1 below high-water level1 and is often submerged for hours together4 ,it is even provided with air-sacs to enable it to withstand such prolonged submersions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4--,,marine ,,beetles #a4 pys marinus4 #b4 ,micralymma brevipenne ,there is another section of beetles which has elytra so short that they cover only a small portion of the abdomen2 but although so short1 these elytra completely cover the long membranous wings1 which are folded up beneath them in a wonderfully compact manner4 ,the section referred to is termed ,brachelytra1 from the feature just mentioned1 and includes a few species that are more or less marine in their habits4 ,one of them--,micralymma brevipenne--lives under stones below high-water level1 and apparently passes through all its stages within reach of the waves4 ,another of the ,brachelytra 7,bledius7 burrows into the sand or mud near high-water mark1 throwing up the dbris as it proceeds4 ,both these beetles are carnivorous1 and the latter is in turn preyed upon by a ground beetle of the genus ,dyschirius1 which hunts and devours it within its own home4 ,the reader will have observed that the sub-kingdom ,arthropoda is not only a very extensive one in the sense that it contains a vast number of animal forms1 but also that its members exhibit a very great variety of form and structure2 and the beginner will probably find no little difficulty in locating his specimens in their correct position in the scale of life4 ,the following table1 however1 will serve to show the general classification of the group at a glance1 and thus form a basis for a more detailed study at any future time3-- ,,sub-,,kingdom ,,arthropoda ,,classification ,class ,,crustacea4 ,sub-class ,,entomostraca4 ,order ,astracoda--,free4 ,body enclosed in a bivalve shell4 ,order ,copepoda--,free4 ,five pairs of feet adapted for swimming4 ,order ,cirripedia--,sessile4 ,enclosed in a shell of many valves4 ,order ,branchiopoda--,free4 ,gills attached to feet4 ,sub-class ,,malacostraca4 ,division ,,edriophthalmata1 or ,sessile-eyed ,crustaceans4 ,order ,isopoda--,body flattened4 ,seven pairs of legs--equal4 ,order ,amphipoda--,body flattened laterally4 ,legs adapted for both walking and swimming4 ,division ,,podophthalmata1 or ,stalk-eyed ,crustaceans4 ,order ,stomapoda--,anterior appendages directed towards the mouth4 ,order ,schizopoda--,cleft-footed ,crustaceans4 ,order ,decapoda--,ten-footed ,crustaceans4 ,sub-order ,macrura--,great-tailed4 ,lobsters1 c4 ,sub-order ,brachyura--,short-tailed4 ,crabs4 ,class ,,arachnoidea4 ,order ,scorpionid--,scorpions4 ,order ,araneid--,spiders4 ,order ,acarina--,mites4 ,class ,,myriopoda4 ,order ,chilopoda--,centipedes4 ,order ,chilognatha--,millepedes4 ,class ,,insecta4 ,order ,rhynchota--,imperfect metamorphoses1 suctorial mouth4 ,bugs4 ,order ,thysanura--,imperfect metamorphoses4 ,no wings4 ,divided tail4 ,spring-tails4 ,order ,euplexoptera--,abdomen with terminal forceps4 ,earwigs4 ,order ,thysanoptera--,four equal membranous wings4 ,thrips4 ,order ,orthoptera--,anterior wings usually shorter and firmer4 ,grasshoppers1 c4 ,order ,neuroptera--,two pairs of glassy wings--equal4 ,order ,trichoptera--,wings unequal1 clad with hairs or scales4 ,caddis flies4 ,order ,aphaniptera--,no wings1 no compound eyes4 ,fleas4 ,order ,diptera--,two membranous wings4 ,flies4 ,order ,lepidoptera--,wings clad with scales4 ,butterflies and ,moths4 ,order ,coleoptera--,fore wings hard and horny4 ,beetles4 ,order ,hymenoptera--,four membranous wings4 ,larv1 footless grubs4 ,ants1 ,bees1 c4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,marine ,,vertebrates ,the vertebrates form the highest sub-kingdom of animal life--the sub-kingdom to which we ourselves belong1 the chief distinguishing characteristic of the group being the presence of an internal skeleton1 the principal part of which consists of a rod or column of cartilaginous or bony material running along the dorsal side of the body1 known as the vertebral column4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4--,,transverse ,,section ,,through ,,the ,,bony ,,framework ,,of ,a ,,typical ,,vertebrate ,,animal #a4 ,spinous process of the vertebra4 #b4 ,neural arch4 #c4 ,transverse process4 #e4 ,body of the vertebra4 #f4 ,breast-bone4 #g4 ,rib4 ,the space between #b and #e is the neural cavity2 and that between #e and #f is the visceral cavity ,this column is usually composed of a number of elements called vertebr1 each of which gives off two processes that unite and form an arch on its dorsal side1 while all the arches form a tube through which passes the central portion of the nervous system4 ,below1 or on the ventral side of the column1 is the body-cavity containing the organs of digestion and circulation2 so that if we make a transverse section of a vertebrate animal we find that there are two distinct tubes or cavities--a neural or cerebro-spinal cavity on the dorsal side of the vertebral column1 formed by extensions from the substance of the latter1 and enclosing the chief portion of the nervous system2 and a body-cavity on the ventral side containing the viscera or internal organs4 ,the above features are highly important1 and will always prove quite sufficient to enable us to decide whether any particular animal is a vertebrate or an invertebrate1 for it will be remembered that the body of the latter has only one cavity1 containing the nervous system as well as the viscera1 and that the nervous system is commonly placed along the ventral side1 but never along the dorsal4 ,in addition to this the vertebrates never have more than two pairs of limbs1 and these are always directed from the nervous system2 and the jaws1 which are appendages that move in the horizontal plane in invertebrates1 are1 in the higher animals1 portions of the framework of the head and move vertically4 ,in vertebrates1 too1 there is always a complete blood system1 consisting of a heart with two1 three1 or four cavities1 a system of arteries to convey the blood to the different parts of the body1 veins to return the blood to the heart1 and networks of fine capillaries connecting the former with the latter4 ,all vertebrates1 at an early stage of their existence1 have a cartilaginous rod running through the dorsal portion of the body1 called the notocord4 ,in some of the lowest animals of the division this rod persists without any important alterations in structure1 while in the higher forms it gives place to the series of cartilaginous or bony elements above referred to as the vertebr2 and the arrangement of the vertebrates into their relative positions in the scale of life is based largely on the degree of development of the vertebral column from the notocord4 ,another interesting feature in the development of a vertebrate is the formation of five or more transverse1 archlike thickenings on each side of the digestive tube1 just behind the head2 and1 in the spaces between them1 of a series of slits forming a communication between the pharynx and the exterior4 ,these arches and clefts have but a brief existence in many vertebrates1 while in others they persist throughout life2 and1 like other points referred to1 they assist us in recognising the relations of the vertebrates to one another4 ,the vertebrates are divided into the following classes3-- #a4 ,cyclostomata--,lampreys4 #b4 ,pisces--,fishes4 #c4 ,amphibia--,frogs1 ,toads1 ,newts1 c4 #d4 ,reptilia--,snakes1 ,lizards1 ,tortoises1 c4 #e4 ,aves--,birds4 #f4 ,mammalia--,mammals4 ,the first of these includes only a few species1 one of which is found in our seas1 and will receive a short notice here4 ,the fishes will1 of course1 demand a fair share of our attention4 ,amphibians and reptiles have no ,british marine representatives1 and are therefore quite excluded from this work4 ,as to the birds1 although there are so many that live entirely on the sea and in its immediate neighbourhood1 these have been so ably dealt with by ,mr4 ,hudson in one of the books of this series that it would be superfluous to mention them4 ,the mammals include a considerable number of marine species1 but as only one of these--the ,porpoise--is really commonly observed round our coasts1 it alone will be selected for description4 ,lampreys and their few allies were formerly classified with fishes1 but are now made to form a small class by themselves2 and there is abundant reason for the separation4 ,it will be remembered that vertebrates1 in the early stages of their development1 are characterised by a cartilaginous rod running through the dorsal region of the body1 below the central cord of the nervous system1 and that they possess a series of slits opening into the sides of the pharynx4 ,now1 while these characteristics are usually only transitory in the vertebrates1 the ,lampreys and their relatives are the only animals in which they persist throughout life1 and it is for this reason that they are exalted to the dignity of a class under the title ,cyclostomata4 ,this name signifies #8round-mouthed1' while the ,lampreys themselves form the still smaller division ,marsipobranchii1 which means #8pouch-gilled1' these two being among the most evident characters of the creatures concerned4 ,they have no true jaws1 the circular mouth being supported by a ring of cartilage1 and provided with a rasp-like tongue that enables them to divide their food4 ,they have no true bone in their bodies1 the simple skeleton1 without limbs and ribs1 being entirely cartilaginous1 and the rudimentary skull is not movable on the dorsal cartilage4 ,their bodies are elongated and eel-like1 with a single medial fin1 supported by fine cartilaginous rays1 and with seven little slits on each side of the neck1 communicating with as many gills in the form of little pouches4 ,the mouth is suctorial1 presenting1 when open1 a circular adhesive disc1 by which the animals can attach themselves to any solid object1 but assumes the form of a mere slit when closed4 ,the young differ from the adult in a few points of structure4 ,thus they have no eyes1 and the long fin1 divided in the adult1 is continuous4 ,with the above characteristics in mind1 there will be no danger of confusing the lampreys with the eels and other similar fishes4 ,there are three or four ,british lampreys1 two or three of which inhabit fresh water4 ,their habits do not seem to be well understood1 but it appears certain that the ,sea ,lamprey 7,petromyzum marinus71 which reaches a length of from one to two feet1 ascends rivers to spawn1 while the smaller ,river ,lamprey 7,p4 fluviatilis7 has been caught in the sea2 and it is probable that the migrations of both1 together with the sojourn of the young of the former for a longer or shorter period in fresh waters1 have been the cause of the widespread confusion between species4 ,lampreys are carnivorous creatures1 and attach themselves to fishes by their suctorial mouths1 and rasp away the flesh4 ,they have also been known to attack bathers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4--,,the ,,sea ,,lamprey ,passing now to the true fishes1 we must first study the general features of the group by which they are to be distinguished from other animals4 ,since there are so many creatures outside this class that are more or less fishlike in some respects1 it becomes no easy matter to give a concise definition of a fish1 and the shortest satisfactory description must necessarily include several points of structure4 ,thus1 we may define a fish as a cold-blooded vertebrate that does not undergo metamorphoses1 with limbs modified into fins1 possessing also median fins on the dorsal and ventral surfaces1 having distinct jaws1 a heart with two chambers1 and breathing by gills4 ,to this we may add that the young are generally produced from eggs1 and that the skin is covered with scales or bony plates1 or is naked4 ,but let us now look more closely into the structure of fishes1 so that we may be enabled to see how marvellously they are adapted to their aquatic life1 and in order that we may become acquainted with the few technical terms which will1 as a matter of convenience1 be used in the descriptions of species4 ,taking first the external features1 we note that the body is generally covered with scales1 sometimes very large and distinct1 but often so small and closely set that they are not visible without careful examination2 indeed they are often so small1 and so thoroughly embedded in the slimy skin as not to be discovered without the aid of a microscope4 ,when the scales have unbroken edges and overlap one another they are said to be cycloid1 but when the projecting edges are toothed or serrated1 giving a roughness to the touch1 they are described as ctenoid4 ,sometimes the scales are modified into bony plates or little isolated bony granules1 and in either case they are practically identical in structure with teeth1 consisting as they do of dentine1 capped with a little harder substance resembling enamel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4--,,the ,,pilchard #a4 ,dorsal fin4 #b4 ,pectoral fin4 #c4 ,pelvic fin4 #d4 ,ventral or anal fin4 #e4 ,caudal fin4 ,we often observe a row of scales1 of a different nature from those covering the body generally1 running along each side of a fish from near the eye to the end of the tail2 and these constitute what is called the lateral line4 ,if we examine these scales closely1 we observe that each one is pierced by a hole that communicates with a little sac beneath containing a gelatinous material1 and in which a nerve tendril terminates4 ,the presence of the nerve filament evidently denotes that the scales in question1 with the little sacs beneath them1 are organs connected with sensation1 and it is also believed that they have something to do with the secretion of the slimy mucus that covers the scales of the body4 ,the mouth of a fish is generally situated on the extreme front of the head1 but occasionally1 as in the sharks and rays1 quite on the under side4 ,if it contains a tongue at all1 this organ is of small size and simple structure2 thus it is highly probable that the sense of taste is very feeble in these animals1 and this is just what one might expect when one remembers that fishes never retain their food in the mouth for any length of time1 but simply bolt it without any attempt at mastication4 ,the arrangement and nature of the teeth are very variable4 ,often they are developed on the membrane of the mouth only1 in which case they are generally renewed as fast as they are worn down1 but sometimes they are persistent structures more or less embedded in the bone of the jaws4 ,in some cases teeth are altogether wanting1 but in others they are situated not only on the jaws1 but also on the tongue1 the roof of the mouth1 and even on the bony arches that support the gills4 ,a glance at the fins of a typical fish will suffice to show that they may be divided into two groups--the paired fins1 representing the two pairs of limbs in most of the higher animals1 and the median fins occupying the middle line of the body4 ,the former comprise the two pectoral fins that correspond with our arms1 and are attached to the bones of the pectoral or shoulder girdle2 and the pelvic fins1 corresponding with the lower extremities4 ,the pectorals1 too1 are present in nearly all fishes1 while the pelvic pair are rather more frequently absent than the pectorals4 ,the medial fins comprise the dorsal1 the ventral1 and the caudal or tail-fin1 and are not to be regarded as limbs1 but rather mere outgrowths of the skin4 ,they are not directly connected with any part of the main bony framework of the body1 though they are generally jointed with a series of bones 7interspinal bones7 that run between processes of the vertebral column4 ,the dorsal and ventral fins are often divided into two or more parts1 and the tail fin is commonly distinctly forked4 ,although the seven fins above mentioned differ considerably in general form1 some being fanlike1 while others form fringe-like expansions1 yet they generally agree in that they consist of bony or cartilaginous rays1 between which is a soft membrane4 ,the rays1 however1 vary much in character1 being sometimes developed into very hard and sharp spines1 and sometimes quite soft and flexible4 ,the fins also differ in function1 as will be seen when we observe the movements of a fish as it swims4 ,it will then be noticed that the caudal fin1 which is spread in the vertical plane and moved sharply from side to side by the powerful muscles of the tail1 is the chief propelling organ1 while the others are concerned principally in maintaining the balance of the body4 ,this latter point becomes much more evident when we observe the movements of a fish in which one or more of the fins have been injured or lost1 as we shall see presently4 ,it is true that the pectoral fins are sometimes used to propel1 but forward movement is brought about almost entirely by the caudal fin1 which acts much in the same way as the blade of the propelling #8screw' of a steam-vessel1 the pectorals being used at the same time for steering4 ,occasionally1 too1 the latter are both spread out at right angles to the body when the fish desires to stop suddenly1 and are even employed at times in swimming backwards4 ,when a fish wants to turn to one side1 it will be seen to give the tail a sharp motion to the opposite side4 ,the pectoral of the latter side is also brought into play1 while the other is kept close against the body4 ,if the pectoral or pelvic fin of one side is injured1 the body of the fish will incline to the opposite side2 and if all the paired fins are functionless the fish swims with its head inclined downwards4 ,observations of fishes in which the dorsal or ventral fins are injured will also show that these organs are necessary to maintain a steady motion in the water4 ,in addition to the above facts1 it may be mentioned here that the paired fins are often modified into long finger-like processes that serve as organs of touch1 and even as means by which the fish can creep along the bottom4 ,this is notably the case with gurnards and a few of the other fishes that spend their time almost exclusively on the bed of the sea4 ,fishes are essentially gill-breathers1 the gills being generally fringe-like organs1 supported on bony arches 7the gill arches71 numbering four on each side1 the cavity containing them being covered by a gill-cover 7operculum7 that opens behind4 ,water is taken in at the mouth1 whence it passes into the gill-chamber2 and after passing between and around the gills1 it escapes under the opercula4 ,the gills themselves are richly supplied with bloodvessels that are distributed close to the surface1 and an exchange of gases takes place through their exceedingly thin walls1 carbonic acid gas passing from the blood to the surrounding water1 and oxygen1 held in solution in the water1 passing from the water to the blood4 ,when fishes are in foul water1 containing but little oxygen in solution1 they rise to the surface in order to make up the deficiency by taking oxygen direct from the air4 ,this1 however1 is an unnatural proceeding with the majority of fishes2 but there are some that are provided with accessory breathing organs specially adapted to the extraction of oxygen direct from the air1 and these are so dependent on the supply from this source that they are suffocated if prevented from reaching the surface4 ,in other fishes1 such as the sharks and rays1 the gills are of an entirely different character from those described above1 for they are pouch-like and five in number on each side1 each pouch communicating with the pharynx as well as with the exterior by a slit-like opening4 ,before leaving the external characters of fishes we must say a word or two about their forms and colours4 ,as regards the former1 it is well known that fishes are well adapted for rapid progression through water1 but there are many exceptions to this rule4 ,these exceptions1 however1 apply principally to those species that have no need to swim rapidly1 and a study of their habits will show that their form is just as perfectly adapted to their mode of life4 ,they are often species that live on the bottom1 or hide in the crevices and holes of rocks1 and examples will be given in our future descriptions4 ,variations in colour are even more interesting1 especially as they are so commonly connected with the nature of the surroundings and the protection of the animals4 ,in nearly all cases the colour is darker on the upper surface than on the lower1 thus making it appear that the influence of light has something to do with the formation of the pigments of the skin1 and experiment proves that this is1 at least to a certain extent1 the case2 for when fishes have been kept for some time in an aquarium into which light is admitted through the bottom only1 pigment spots have formed in the skin on the lower surface4 ,fishes that swim at the surface are generally tinted on the dorsal side with some shade that closely resembles the colour of the water as viewed from above1 and are white and silvery below4 ,such colouring is of course highly protective1 for they are not readily distinguished by the sea birds and other enemies that would pounce on them from above1 and are almost invisible against the sky to eyes below4 ,this form of protective resemblance is beautifully illustrated in the mackerel1 which is barred on the back with black and green1 closely imitating the ripples on the surface of the deep green sea1 while the under side is of a silvery whiteness that is hardly visible from below with the bright sky as a background4 ,the flat fish afford other interesting examples1 for these live on the bottom1 and are coloured above so as to resemble the bed on which they live2 the tints being those of mud1 sand1 or gravel4 ,but what are we to say of the gaudy colours of the gurnards1 rock fishes1 c48 ,these are certainly not protective in all cases1 for we sometimes find brightly coloured species conspicuous among duller surroundings4 ,such instances1 however1 are comparatively rare1 the gaudy species living principally among the variously coloured rocks1 weeds1 and corals2 and when they do occur it is probable that they serve principally as a means by which the brightly coloured sex--usually the male--attracts its mate4 ,we say #8usually the male1' but why so8 ,because the female requires the protection of a more sombre colour in order that she may with safety deposit her spawn for the perpetuation of her species4 ,again1 the male referred to needs the assistance of his gaudy coat only during the breeding season1 hence we find that he assumes the bright colours as a wedding garment1 to be cast off when the breeding season is over4 ,this leads us to the subject of changeability of colours in the same individual4 ,that such changes do occur is well known1 and it is still more remarkable that they are produced in rapid succession1 apparently at the will of the fish concerned2 for its tints will vary as it moves from place to place so as to always harmonise with the surroundings1 and also in response to other conditions4 ,the mechanism by which such variations are produced has also been studied and explained3--,the colouring matter is held in little vesicles beneath the skin1 and these vesicles are capable of being compressed by muscles quite under the control of the fish4 ,when they are globular in form the contained pigment appears dark1 but when they are flattened by muscular compression1 the pigment is spread over a much larger area1 and thus greatly reduced in depth of tint4 ,as with all vertebrates1 the central axis of the internal skeleton of a fish consists of the backbone and the skull4 ,the structure of the latter is so complicated1 and its description so full of technicalities1 that we deem it advisable to pass it over in a work like this where the scope is so large in proportion to the space available2 and this we do with reluctance1 because the detailed study of the skull is of real importance to those who would thoroughly understand the principles of classification4 ,the backbone consists of a variable number of cylindrical vertebr1 united end to end to form a continuous column1 both the anterior and posterior faces of each being concave4 ,on the dorsal surface of each vertebra there is a ,v-shaped arch1 surmounted by a spine1 the former serving to protect the spinal cord1 and the latter giving attachment to the muscles of the back4 ,some of the vertebr are also provided with processes for the attachment of the ribs1 and those of the tail possess an arch and a spine on the ventral as well as on the dorsal side4 ,it has already been shown that the pectoral fins are jointed to a girdle4 ,this girdle corresponds with the shoulder-blade of higher animals1 and gives direct attachment to the rays of the fin1 which may be regarded as the equivalent of the fingers1 and thus there is no part of the limb corresponding with the arm4 ,the pelvic fins also are frequently jointed to a pelvic girdle or hip1 but this is a very rudimental structure1 or is even entirely absent in some species4 ,the rays of the caudal fin articulate with the extremity of the backbone1 but this portion of the fish's anatomy undergoes such remarkable changes that we must devote a few words to it4 ,it is probably well known to our readers that the tails of fishes exhibit three distinct forms4 ,the first of these is a simple fringe formed by the union of unaltered dorsal and ventral fins2 the second is the unsymmetrical or unequally lobed tail so characteristic of sharks1 dogfishes1 and rays2 and the third is the broad symmetrical tail fin1 often distinctly forked or bi-lobed1 such as we meet with in the majority of our bony fishes4 ,these three kinds are known respectively as the diphycercal1 heterocercal1 and the homocercal tails4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4--,,the ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,fish 7,,perch7 d1 dorsal fin2 p1 pectoral fin2 v1 pelvic fin2 t1 tail fin2 a1 anal fin ,now1 it is an interesting fact that the most ancient fishes of our globe possessed tails of the first type2 and that these gradually gave place to the heterocercal form2 while the higher fishes of the present day nearly all possess the homocercal tail4 ,thus as time advanced the heterocercal tail was gradually evolved from the diphycercal1 and the homocercal from the heterocercal4 ,further1 if we watch the development of one of the highest fishes of the present day from its embryo1 we find that similar changes take place in the individual4 ,at first its tail is a simple fringe round the extremity of the backbone1 the latter being straight1 or nearly so1 to the end1 so that the embryo fish1 as yet still in the egg1 reflects a characteristic of its very early ancestors4 ,then the end of the vertebral column turns upward1 and strong fin-rays are developed on its ventral side1 so that the tail becomes a heterocercal one like that of the less remote ancestors of a later geological period4 ,next1 the upward-bending portion of the vertebral column is slowly absorbed1 till nothing of it remains except a small upturned bony spine1 while1 at the same time1 the ventral lobe expands on the upper side until the tail fin is once more of a symmetrical form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4--,,the ,,internal ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,herring a1 sophagus2 bc1 stomach2 e1 intestine2 l1 duct of swimming bladder2 k1 air-bladder2 h1 ovary ,following these interesting changes1 it becomes evident that the symmetry of the tail fin of the bony fishes is really a false one1 the whole of it having been formed from the ventral lobe of a heterocercal tail2 and although the backbone seems to terminate abruptly exactly opposite the middle of the fin1 it still contains the remnant of the raised extremity of the backbone that ran to the tip of the dorsal lobe when the tail was of the heterocercal type4 ,the flesh or muscle of fishes is usually white1 but it often assumes a pink colour in the case of those fishes that feed largely on crustaceans4 ,this is due to the presence of a substance in the horny or calcareous skins of the crustaceans that is turned red by the action of the digestive fluids--the same substance that is turned red when the crustaceans are boiled4 ,this is notably the case with the salmon2 but the red pigment thus derived originally from the crustaceans frequently shows itself more in the skin of the fish than in the flesh1 as observed in the common red gurnard4 ,most fishes possess a membranous bag containing air1 situated just below the backbone1 and known as the air-bladder2 but this organ does not exist in sharks and rays and in some of the heavier bony fishes that live on the bottom4 ,the air-bladder is capable of being compressed by the action of certain muscles1 and its principal use seems to be the adjustment of the specific gravity of the fish to that of the surrounding water2 but it is interesting to note that the development of this air-bladder is precisely the same as that of the lungs of air-breathing animals1 and that in some fishes which live in foul muddy waters it is really a functional lung by means of which the fishes can breathe direct from the atmosphere4 ,we can find space to refer only to one other internal structure of the fish1 namely1 the roe of the female4 ,this usually consists of a very large number of eggs of small size1 sometimes numbering many thousands1 and even millions1 in a single individual4 ,so numerous1 indeed1 are the eggs1 that were it not for the multitudes of carnivorous animals that devour both eggs and fry1 the sea and fresh-water lakes and rivers would soon become so thickly populated that the fish would die in millions for lack of food and air4 ,in some cases1 however1 the eggs are much larger and fewer in number1 but these are generally protected from the ravages of predaceous species by a hard covering1 as we shall observe in the sharks and rays4 ,finally1 a word or two must be said about the distribution of fishes4 ,we have already referred briefly to species that live principally at the surface1 and others that make the bottom their home3 but some of the former go to the bottom for food or to deposit their spawn1 while some of the latter occasionally rise to the surface and swim in shoals4 ,we have noticed1 too1 that the paired fins of bottom fishes are sometimes modified into feelers1 or into fingerlike processes adapted for creeping4 ,similar organs1 employed undoubtedly as organs of touch1 and called barbels or barbules1 are often developed on the chins or jaws of these fishes4 ,although we have to deal principally with the species that belong more or less to the shore--the littoral fishes--we should like to refer briefly to one or two interesting features of those that live at great depths4 ,it will be readily understood that much light is lost as the rays penetrate into deep water1 so that the bottoms of deep seas must be more or less darkened4 ,to allow for this loss1 we find that the species living at moderate depths are provided with larger eyes to enable them to see their prey and their mates2 but at still greater depths1 where the sun's light cannot penetrate1 the fishes are either blind1 or are possessed of luminous organs which enable them to see their way4 ,again1 as the sea is so thinly populated at such great depths1 the carnivorous species do not find abundant food always at hand1 hence they are often provided with such mouths and stomachs as will allow them to make the best of favourable opportunities1 some being capable of swallowing a fish quite as large as themselves4 ,we often find fishes roughly classified into fresh-water and salt-water species1 and although such a division is at times convenient1 it must be remembered that some of the former migrate into brackish and even into salt water1 while some of the latter ascend estuaries and rivers either for the purpose of obtaining suitable food1 or for the deposition of their eggs4 ,the fishes that frequent our coasts may be classified into two main groups1 those with cartilaginous skeletons 7,elasmobranchii71 and the bony fishes 7,teleostomi74 ,both these are divided into family groups1 and we shall deal more or less briefly with all the important families that include common ,british marine fishes1 but giving more attention to those species that are truly littoral in habit--species that may be found in the rock pools or under stones at low tide1 and which may be obtained by the amateur angler working from rocks1 piers1 c4 ,the cartilaginous fishes include the ,sharks1 ,dogfishes1 and ,rays4 ,they have pouchlike gills1 five or more on each side1 each one opening to the exterior by a separate slit4 ,the skin generally contains bony elements that are toothlike in structure and often in form2 the mouth is usually on the under side of the head1 and the tail is nearly always of the heterocercal kind4 ,they are all carnivorous creatures1 and often exceedingly voracious2 and are represented in our seas by the ,rays and ,dogfishes4 ,rays or ,skates 7family ,raiid71 of which there are six or seven ,british species1 are readily known by their broad flattened rhomboidal bodies1 with the mouth on the under side of the head1 a longitudinal fold on each side of the tail1 and pectoral fins extending quite or nearly to the front point of the head4 ,two of these fishes are very common in our markets1 one being the ,thornback ,skate 7,raia clavata71 distinguished by the clawlike spines down the middle of the back as well as on other parts of the body2 and the ,common ,skate 7,r4 vulgaris71 a very voracious species1 from two to four feet long1 with a very sharp muzzle4 ,all the members of this family are bottom fish1 without air-bladders2 and their eggs1 which are large and detached1 are enclosed in horn capsules which are so commonly washed up on the beach that they are well known to frequenters of the sea-side1 who call them ,skates' ,barrows or ,shepherds' ,purses4 ,these cases are oblong in form1 with a process at each corner1 and the material of which they are composed looks very much like that of some of the coarser sea weeds after they have been dried in the sun4 ,as a rule only the empty cases are cast ashore by the waves1 open at the end where the little skate made its escape2 but occasionally we meet with the complete egg1 and the case1 while still wet1 is sometimes sufficiently transparent to show the form of the embryo within4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4--,,the ,,egg-,,case ,,of ,,dogfish ,dogfishes are also fairly well known to sea-side ramblers1 for not only are some species used as food in many places1 but they are also frequently to be seen cast aside with the refuse from the fishermen's nets4 ,the common ,spiny ,dogfish 7,acanthias vulgaris71 belonging to the family ,spinacid1 frequents all parts of our coasts4 ,it reaches a length of three or four feet1 and is of a slate-blue colour above and very pale yellow below4 ,the pectoral fins are very large1 the ventral fin absent1 and there is a very sharp spine in front of each dorsal4 ,the creature is ovo-viviparous2 that is1 the eggs are hatched while still within the body of the parent4 ,another family 7,scylliid7 contains two ,british species without spines1 and is also characterised by having the first dorsal fin far behind4 ,they are the ,larger ,spotted ,dogfish 7,scyllium canicula7 also known as the ,nurse ,dog and the ,bull ,huss2 and the ,lesser ,spotted ,dogfish 7,s4 catulus71 called also the ,huss and the ,rough ,hound4 ,the egg capsules of both these are occasionally washed on the beach1 and those of the latter species may be known by the yellowish colour and the long tendrils by which they are anchored to sea weeds4 ,in addition to these we may briefly refer to two of the ,blue ,sharks 7family ,carchariid7 that frequent our shores1 distinguished by their long and prominent muzzle1 and the crescent-shaped mouth4 ,they may be regarded as higher in the scale of fish life1 as compared with the sharks and rays previously named1 because the vertebr are more or less hardened by the deposit of calcareous matter1 and1 therefore1 make a nearer approach to the character of true bone4 ,the species referred to are the ,common ,blue ,shark 7,carcharius glaucus71 and the ,smooth ,hound 7,mustelus lvis74 ,the former often exceeds twelve feet in length1 and is commonly seen off our south and west coasts during the summer months4 ,it is a nocturnal marauder1 and is said to sleep at the surface by day with its tail exposed above the water4 ,the ,smooth ,hound is a bottom feeder1 subsisting on molluscs and crustaceans1 the shells of which are easily crushed by its flat and blunt teeth4 ,it is a small shark1 measuring only three or four feet in length1 and brings forth its young alive4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bca4--,,the ,,smooth ,,hound ,the next division 7,teleostomi7 contains all the bony fishes1 which may be distinguished generally from the cartilaginous group by the following features3--,the skeleton is more or less hardened by the deposit of calcareous matter1 and the tail is generally not of the heterocercal type4 ,the paired fins are fan-like1 and the pectoral girdle is attached to the hinder part of the skull4 ,these fishes generally have an air-bladder1 and the gills lie close together in a cavity covered by an operculum4 ,the eggs1 too1 are generally very small and numerous1 and massed together4 ,of these we will take first the family ,salmonid1 of which the ,salmon 7,salmo salar71 and the ,smelt 7,osmerus eperlanus7 are well-known examples4 ,several species of the family are remarkable for their periodical migrations from fresh to salt water or vice versa1 and we cannot do better than briefly relate the interesting life-history of the salmon as a striking instance of these peculiar wanderings4 ,this fish quits the sea at the close of the summer1 and ascends the rivers for the purpose of depositing its spawn1 the colder water of the rivers being necessary for the development of the young4 ,its upward journey is beset with many difficulties1 for it has to shoot the various rapids and leap the cascades1 the latter often demanding the most prodigious efforts on the part of the fish1 which frequently leaps several feet out of the water1 and even then has sometimes to renew its attempts over and over again before it finally succeeds4 ,indeed1 the difficulties to be overcome are so numerous that the fish often reaches the goal in such an exhausted condition that it would hardly be recognised as the salmon by those who have only seen it in the prime condition in which it is captured during its return to the sea in the following spring or summer4 ,the male1 at this period called the kipper1 is of a dull red colour1 irregularly blotched with yellow and light brown1 and its skin is covered with a slimy secretion4 ,its body is lean1 and the head1 now large and out of all proportion1 is rendered still more unsightly by the protrusion of the lower jaw1 which at this season1 when the males are particularly pugnacious1 becomes a formidable weapon of offence4 ,the condition of the female1 now called the baggit1 is equally poor1 and the skin has changed its bright silvery colour for dark and dingy shades4 ,the female digs a nest in the form of a deep trench by wriggling her body in the gravel of the bed of the stream1 and there deposits her eggs1 many thousands in number1 small quantities at a time4 ,as each batch is deposited the eggs are fecundated by the kipper1 and then covered over lightly with gravel by the baggit2 and this work having been accomplished1 both male and female rest and feed1 with the result that their condition is rapidly improved4 ,after about eighteen weeks the eggs begin to hatch1 and the fry wriggle out of the nest and seek shelter under stones in the immediate neighbourhood4 ,they are now peculiar little creatures1 as much like tadpoles as fishes1 with big heads and narrow bodies1 and a bag of albuminous yolk-matter attached to the ventral side4 ,the young subsist on this store of food for from twelve to twenty days1 during the whole of which time they remain under shelter1 having1 of course1 no need to expose themselves to the numerous enemies with which they are surrounded1 and they then leave their hiding-place in search of food1 being now about an inch in length4 ,they feed on aquatic and other insects1 which are now becoming plentiful on the approach of the warm weather2 and1 growing rapidly1 reach a length of four inches in a month or two4 ,they are now called parr1 and are distinguished by the dark bars that cross their bodies transversely--a feature that persists for a year or more from this time4 ,towards the end of ,may the parr migrate seawards1 accompanied by the adult salmon1 but as their enemies include the voracious fishes1 wading birds1 and even the adults of their own species1 it is probable that only a small proportion of the original number ever enter salt water4 ,in the sea they feed on crustaceans1 molluscs1 and small fishes1 the young still growing rapidly1 and attaining a weight of about five pounds in the following autumn1 when both young 7now called grilse7 and old again ascend the rivers to spend the colder half of the year2 the former will have reached a weight of ten pounds or more on their return to the sea in the following year4 ,the ,smelt may be seen in thousands in our estuaries during the spring1 for at that time they come up to spawn in the brackish water4 ,in the summer they swim about in shoals along the coast1 and are caught largely in nets for the market4 ,in some parts they are taken in large shallow circular nets suspended on a line4 ,this is lowered into the water1 and hauled up when the fish are seen swimming above it4 ,many amateurs secure numbers of smelt by means of rod and line1 fishing from piers1 jetties1 c4 ,they bite freely at almost any kind of bait1 and will snap at an almost bare hook1 with the tiniest fragment of the bait at its point4 ,the ,herring family 7,clupeid7 contains some well-known food-fishes to which we need only casually refer4 ,they are mostly littoral species1 none inhabiting deep water1 and none straying into the open ocean4 ,their bodies are covered with silvery scales1 and are laterally compressed1 so much so on the ventral side that there is a moderately sharp ridge along the middle line4 ,the principal fishes of the family are the ,herring 7,clupea harengus71 the ,sprat 7,c4 sprattus71 and the ,pilchard 7,c4 pilchardus74 ,these fishes are particularly interesting on account of their gregarious habits and the enormous size of the shoals they form1 a single shoal often containing millions of individuals2 and they are often captured in such quantities that large numbers are sold to farmers as manure to enrich the soil4 ,the shoals are followed closely by many larger carnivorous species that devour them in great numbers1 as well as by flocks of sea birds that prey on them1 and yet their numbers are not appreciably reduced by such ravages4 ,they spawn in shallow waters near the coast1 and feed principally on the crustaceans and worms of the littoral zone4 ,sprats were once considered to be the young of the ,herring1 but it is now universally acknowledged that they are a distinct species1 and quite a number of characteristics have been given as a means of distinguishing between the two4 ,the young of the herring are1 however1 used largely as food1 for that miscellaneous mixture of fry and small species known as ,whitebait consists largely of these and the young of the sprat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4--,,the ,,common ,,eel ,herrings are captured principally off the north and east coasts1 but the pilchards1 which are often confused with them1 and even at times sold under the same name1 are caught chiefly off the coast of ,cornwall4 ,although the ,eels 7,anguillid7 are so readily distinguished by their general form and appearance1 yet it may be advisable to call attention to one or two of the leading characters that would possibly be overlooked by an ordinary observer1 and in doing this we ask the reader to note that our remarks apply to the true eels only1 and not to the sand eels and other fish that may be confused with them4 ,the elongated bodies of the ,anguillid are covered with a slimy skin that is apparently scaleless1 but an examination with the microscope will show that there are small scales embedded in it4 ,the dorsal and ventral fins extend to the tail1 and the pelvics are absent2 the gill-slits1 which are very narrow1 are at the base of the pectorals4 ,it might well be expected that eels would be possessed of some form of accessory breathing apparatus1 seeing that they can live so long out of water1 but this is not the case4 ,they have1 however1 a pouch-like gill-cavity which can be inflated and filled with water by the fish1 thus keeping the gills moist and functional4 ,in most other fishes the gill-chamber is not capable of holding water1 and thus the gills soon become dry and sticky1 so that they adhere together and fail to absorb the necessary oxygen when the fish is out of water4 ,thus the ,eel 7,anguilla vulgaris71 in the remarkable migrations for which it is noted1 is capable of travelling over dry land for considerable distances in search of suitable homes4 ,if an eel be taken out of the water1 these gill-pouches will be seen to swell out almost immediately1 and remain filled with water as long as the fish is kept on land2 but when it is returned to its natural element1 it will at once discharge the water that kept its gills moist1 and which has become foul with the products of respiration1 and1 with a few vigorous gulps1 renew the supply4 ,eels spend their breeding season1 which extends from ,july to ,september1 in salt or brackish waters2 and early in the following summer1 the young1 which are now called elvers1 and measure from three to five inches in length1 ascend the rivers1 travelling enormous distances and overcoming obstacles that we might well expect to be insurmountable4 ,thus they perform two migrations annually1 though it is thought by some observers that the adult never returns to the sea1 but dies soon after it has deposited its spawn4 ,the family of ,flat-fishes 7,pleuronectid7 present many interesting points of structure and habit in which they stand alone1 the variations in structure as compared with other fishes being due1 of course1 to the habits which they have acquired4 ,one of the first features that strike the observer on looking at a flat-fish is the unsymmetrical form of the body4 ,it is very much compressed1 and the fish having acquired the habit of lying on the bed of the sea1 sometimes on the left and sometimes on the right side1 the lower surface has become flattened more1 and is of an almost pure white colour1 while the upper convex side is more or less coloured with pigment produced by exposure to light4 ,the dorsal and ventral fins are both very long2 and1 as is usual with bottom fishes1 the swimming or air bladder is absent4 ,young flat-fish are at first perfectly symmetrical in form1 with one eye on each side of the head1 and they swim freely in the water with their bodies in a vertical plane2 but they very soon acquire the habit of swimming on one side1 and the eye of that side slowly passes round to the other side of the skull1 rotating in its orbit as it moves1 till at last both are on the uppermost surface4 ,this1 of course1 is accompanied by a considerable distortion of the bones of the skull1 which is very evident in the skeleton of the adult4 ,the young fish then takes to the bottom1 with the result that its under-surface is flattened1 while the upper becomes strongly pigmented4 ,these fish spend almost the whole of their time on the bottom1 only occasionally rising for short intervals1 when they swim by undulatory movements of their bodies and fins2 their food consists of crustaceans1 worms1 and other small marine animals4 ,they furnish very interesting illustrations of protective colouring1 the upper surface always closely resembling the ground on which they rest and feed2 and thus they are not only protected from their own enemies1 but are enabled to lie unseen by the animals that form their prey4 ,those which live on sandy shores are finely spotted with colours that closely imitate the sand1 while those that lie on mud are of dark and dingy hues4 ,others1 again1 are irregularly marked with spots of various sizes and colours that resemble a gravelly bottom2 and most species are still further protected by their habit of throwing sand or mud on the top of their bodies by means of their dorsal and ventral fins4 ,small flat-fishes1 especially young ,plaice and ,flounders1 live so close to the shore that they are often left behind in rock pools and sandy hollows by the receding tide1 and it is very interesting to observe the habits of these in their natural conditions4 ,it will generally be noticed that it is most difficult to detect them while they are at rest2 and when disturbed1 they usually swim but a short distance1 settling down very abruptly1 and immediately throwing a little sand over their bodies by a few vibrations of their fins4 ,another peculiarity of some of the flat-fishes is their indifference to the nature of the water in which they live4 ,flounders may not only be caught in the estuaries of our rivers1 but they even ascend to1 and apparently live perpetually in1 perfectly fresh water4 ,in many instances they may be seen miles from the sea1 and even flourishing in little fresh-water streams only a few feet in width4 ,thus they may be found in numbers in the upper waters of the small rivers of the ,isle of ,wight and of many streams of the mainland4 ,the principal ,british flat-fishes are the ,plaice 7,pleuronectes platessa7 and ,flounder 7,p4 flexus7 above mentioned1 and also the ,sole 7,solea vulgaris71 the ,lemon ,sole 7,s4 aurantiaca71 the ,turbot 7,rhombus maximus71 and the ,halibut 7,hippoglossus vulgaris72 and as all these are well-known food-fishes it is hardly necessary to describe them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4--,,the ,,lesser ,,sand ,,eel ,sand ,eels 7family ,ophidiid7 resemble the true eels in the general form of their elongated bodies1 but may be readily distinguished by their bright silvery colour1 the large gill-openings1 and the more strongly developed dorsal and ventral fins1 the former of which extends almost along the whole length of the back4 ,the lower jaw is also longer than the upper4 ,two species are to be found on our shores--the ,lesser ,sand ,eel 7,ammodytes tobianus71 and the ,greater ,sand ,eel 7,a4 lanceolatus71 the former attaining a length of six or seven inches1 and the latter nearly three times this size4 ,they may be seen off the south coast1 swimming in shoals over sandy bottoms1 and when disturbed they descend and burrow into the sand with remarkable agility4 ,they approach the shore so closely that they are often washed up by the waves1 but immediately disappear into the sand2 and large numbers commonly remain behind as the tide recedes1 burying themselves to the depth of a few inches1 and are dug out by fishermen for bait4 ,the smaller species is by far the more common1 and is taken in large numbers by means of the draw net to be sold as food4 ,it is particularly abundant at ,teignmouth1 where it is known as the ,sand ,sprat1 and forms an important article of diet4 ,quite a number of our important food-fishes belong to the ,cod family 7,gadiad71 and although some of these are caught almost entirely in deep water some distance from shore1 others give employment to the angler fishing from rocks1 piers1 and jetties4 ,in all1 the gill-openings are very wide1 and the body is covered with small overlapping scales4 ,the caudal fin is quite free1 the dorsal is generally divided into three distinct parts which extend over the greater part of the back1 and the ventral fin is also frequently divided4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4--,,the ,,three-,,bearded ,,rockling ,the typical species--the ,cod 7,gadus morrhua7--is too well known to need a description1 and although it is a large fish1 often measuring four feet and more1 it approaches so close to the shore that it may be caught with a hand line thrown out from rocks or piers4 ,the barbel projecting from the chin denotes that it is a bottom feeder4 ,on the rocky coast of the south the ,pollack or ,pollock 7,g4 pollachius7 is very abundant1 and may be taken with rod and line from the shore4 ,it also enters estuaries in large numbers1 and may be caught close to quays and jetties4 ,this species is a very free biter1 and will take almost any of the baits used for sea fishing4 ,it has no barbel4 ,the same genus includes the ,whiting 7,g4 merlangus71 distinguished by a black spot at the base of the pectoral fin and the absence of barbels2 the ,whiting ,pout 7,g4 luscus71 with a similar black spot at the base of the pectorals1 also dark1 transverse bands1 and a barbel2 and the ,haddock 7,g4 glefinus71 with a black patch on either side above the pectorals1 and a dark lateral line4 ,the family also includes the ,ling 7,molva vulgaris7 and the ,hake 7,merluccius vulgaris71 both of which are caught in deep water2 and the ,rocklings 7genus ,motella71 three species of which frequent our rocky shores4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bce4--,,the ,,snake ,,pipe-,,fish ,the last mentioned are interesting little fishes that may be found on stony beaches at low tide1 for they often remain under cover between the tide-marks1 and may be seen on turning over stones and weeds4 ,perhaps the commonest of them is the ,five-bearded ,rockling 7,m4 mustela71 which has four barbels on the upper lip and one on the lower4 ,it is of a dark-brown colour above1 and light below1 and makes nests of corallines in rock cavities4 ,the ,three-bearded ,rockling 7,m4 tricirrhata71 known also as the ,sea ,loach and the ,whistle-fish1 is a larger species1 sometimes reaching a length of a foot or more4 ,its colour is light brown1 marked with darker spots1 and1 like the other species1 it lives in the shallow water of rocky and weedy places4 ,another species--the ,four-bearded ,rockling 7,m4 cimbria71 known by the three barbels on the upper lip and one on the lower1 is about eight inches long when full grown1 and is found principally on the northern shores4 ,our next family 7,syngnathid7 contains some peculiar creatures called ,pipe-fishes because their jaws are united into a tube4 ,they have long and slender bodies that are covered with bony plates which form a kind of coat of mail and give them an angular form4 ,they have very small gill-openings1 a single dorsal fin1 and no pelvics4 ,pipe-fishes are very sluggish in habit1 swimming but little1 and living in the shelter of weeds and stones on rocky coasts4 ,in fact1 they are not adapted for swimming1 and their attempts at this mode of locomotion are awkward in the extreme1 for their bodies are rigid and the tail very small4 ,when removed from their hiding-places they move but little1 and look as much like pieces of brown or greenish wood as fishes2 and their rigid bodies are so completely encased in the bony plates that they alter but little in appearance when dried1 and consequently the dried specimens are often seen in museum collections4 ,all the ,british species1 four in number1 are small fishes1 inhabiting the shallow water of rocky shores1 and are often found hiding under stones near low-water mark4 ,the largest is the great ,pipe-fish or ,needle-fish 7,syngnathus acus71 which grows to a length of about fifteen inches2 and the smallest is the ,worm ,pipe-fish 7,s4 lumbriciformis71 which is of an olive-green colour1 and has a short1 upturned snout4 ,the ,lesser ,pipe-fish 7,s4 typhle71 also known as the ,deep-nosed ,pipe-fish1 is very abundant on nearly all rocky coasts1 and may be distinguished from the others by having the ridge on the tail continuous with the lateral line and not with the dorsal angle4 ,the other species is the ,slender-nosed ,pipe-fish or ,snake ,pipe-fish 7,nerophis ophidium71 the body of which is extremely slender1 and the tail long and narrow4 ,the male is provided with a series of small1 cup-like cells1 in each of which he carries an egg4 ,in all the bony fishes previously mentioned the fin rays are soft and flexible1 and in this respect they differ from those that are to follow1 for the remaining families are all characterised by the presence of one or more sharp rigid spines on the dorsal fin1 and often by similar spines on other fins4 ,they constitute the group of ,spiny-finned fishes4 ,of these we shall first take the prettily coloured ,wrasses 7family ,labrid71 which live in the holes of rocks and under the cover of weeds on rugged coasts4 ,these fishes are very voracious in habit1 and the sea angler will find that they are ready to seize almost any bait that may be offered them1 and even to attack almost everything that moves within sight2 but they are likely to give much trouble since they will rush into the crevices of rocks or among large weeds when hooked1 and thus frequently lead to the breaking of the line4 ,wrasses feed principally on molluscs and crustaceans1 and are provided with extensile telescopic lips that enable them to pull the former from the rocks on which they creep1 and the latter from their hiding-places among the rocks4 ,they have also strong teeth in the gullet1 by which they can crush the shells of their prey4 ,there are several ,british species of ,wrasses1 one of which is shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,the commoner ones are known to fishermen and juvenile anglers by quite a variety of local names4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4--,,the ,,rainbow ,,wrass 7,labrus julis7 ,the family ,gobioesocid contains some small and very prettily coloured fishes of very peculiar habits1 known popularly as ,sucker-fishes4 ,they have one or two adhesive suckers between the pelvic fins by which they attach themselves to rocks1 stones1 and shells4 ,some are littoral species1 and may be searched for at low tide2 but others inhabit deeper water1 and are seldom obtained without a dredge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4--,,the ,,cornish ,,sucker ,one of the former is the ,cornish ,sucker 7,lepadogaster cornubiensis71 which may sometimes be taken in a hand net by scraping the rocks and weeds at low tide on the south-west coast4 ,it has two suckers1 each circular in form1 surrounded by a firm margin1 within which is a soft retractile centre4 ,this central portion is attached to muscles by which it can be withdrawn2 and a vacuum is thus produced1 so that the sucker adheres by atmospheric pressure4 ,the structure of the sucking organs can be seen to perfection when the fish attaches itself to the side of a glass aquarium1 and if it be taken in the hand it will cling quite firmly to the skin4 ,this peculiar little fish is only about three inches long1 and its broad head is marked with two conspicuous purple spots1 with a blue dot in the centre1 and surrounded by a yellowish ring4 ,the allied species include the very small ,two-spotted ,sucker 7,l4 bimaculatus71 which is of a bright red colour1 and adheres to stones and shells in deep water2 the ,sea ,snail 7,cyclopterus liparis71 about four or five inches long1 with a soft and slimy semi-transparent body2 and ,montagu's sucker 7,c4 ,montagui71 which is usually under three inches in length1 and may be distinguished by its peculiar habit of curling the body laterally when at rest4 ,equally interesting are the little ,sticklebacks 7family ,gastrosteid71 the fresh-water representatives of which are known to almost everyone4 ,their pugnacious habits1 the bright colours assumed during the breeding season1 and the wonderful nests which they build for the protection of their eggs and young1 have all served to make them popular with those who take interest in the forms and ways of animals4 ,they are1 moreover1 such hardy creatures that they may be kept alive for a considerable time in any well-managed aquarium4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bch4--,,the ,,fifteen-,,spined ,,stickleback ,,and ,,nest ,in this family the hindmost portion of the dorsal fin is soft-rayed1 but the front portion is represented by a row of strong1 sharp1 erectile spines1 which constitute a formidable weapon of offence and defence4 ,most of the species live in fresh water1 but all the members of the family seem to be able to live almost equally well in both salt and fresh water4 ,we have one marine species--the ,sea ,stickleback or ,fifteen-spined ,stickleback 7,gastrosteus spinachia71 which may be caught on rocky and weedy coasts4 ,it derives one of its popular names from the presence of fifteen spines along the middle of the back4 ,its tail is long and narrow1 and its snout elongated1 with the under jaw projecting beyond the upper4 ,the nest of this species is a pear-shaped mass of soft sea weeds and corallines1 all bound together by a silky secretion1 and suspended to the rock in a sheltered spot4 ,within this the female deposits her eggs in little clusters1 all of which are bound together and to the nest itself by the silk4 ,if the nest is damaged while occupied1 it is immediately repaired1 the male1 it is said1 taking upon himself the responsibility of this task4 ,sand ,smelts 7family ,atherinid7 resemble the true smelts previously described1 but may be readily distinguished by the anterior dorsal fin1 which is small and spinous4 ,we have two species of this family1 of which ,atherina presbyter is by far the more common4 ,it is a very pretty fish1 about five inches long1 with a broad silvery stripe along each side4 ,it is very common on the sandy coasts of the south1 where it also enters the brackish waters of estuaries4 ,young anglers catch them in considerable numbers by means of rod and line2 but the professional fisherman1 taking advantage of the fact that sand smelts swim in shoals1 captures them in large1 round1 shallow nets4 ,the net is baited with bread1 crushed mussels1 or offal of almost any kind1 and is then lowered several feet below the surface by means of a long pole1 to the end of which it is suspended4 ,it is raised to the surface at short intervals1 and will often enclose dozens of fish in a single haul4 ,the shallow waters of our southern coasts1 including the estuaries and harbours1 are also frequented by the ,grey ,mullet 7,mugil capito71 of the family ,mugilid4 ,this fish may be distinguished from other similar species by the four stiff spines of the front dorsal fin1 and by the absence of a lateral line4 ,the mouth is small1 and without teeth1 and the mode of feeding is somewhat peculiar4 ,the food consists of worms1 molluscs1 and various organic matter contained in the sand or mud of the bottom4 ,it is sucked into the mouth1 together with more or less of the mud and sand1 and the former is strained through a special straining apparatus situated in the pharynx4 ,the ,grey ,mullet may be taken with rod and line1 and bites freely when the rag-worm is employed as bait4 ,it is often taken in the fisherman's drag net2 but1 being a splendid jumper1 it frequently makes its escape as the net is drawn on the beach4 ,few of our littoral fishes are so well known as the ,little ,blennies 7family ,blenniid71 which are to be found hiding amongst the weeds in almost every rock pool1 and under stones as they await the return of the tide4 ,their bodies are generally cylindrical1 and are either naked or covered with very minute scales4 ,the dorsal fin runs along the whole length of the back1 and each pelvic has one spine and two soft rays4 ,when taken out of the water the gill-cavities widen considerably1 and the eyeballs will be seen to move independently of each other1 like those of the chamleon4 ,most of the blennies are very active and voracious fishes1 often giving considerable trouble to the angler when fishing with a rod among the rocks4 ,they will bite at almost anything that moves1 and1 completely swallowing the angler's hook1 will immediately rush into a crevice from which it is often difficult to remove them4 ,most of them have tentacles on the head by which they assist their movements among the rocks and stones2 and some actually creep up the rugged surfaces of rocks by means of their ventral fins4 ,they can all live for a long time out of the water1 being able to retain a supply of water in their expanded gill-chambers to keep the gills moist4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bci4--,,the ,,smooth ,,blenny ,the ,smooth ,blenny or ,shanny 7,blennius pholis7 is one of the commonest species4 ,it reaches a length of four or five inches1 and has no tentacles on the head4 ,the ,eyed ,blenny or ,butterfly ,blenny 7,b4 ocellatus7 may be distinguished by the conspicuous spot on the spinous portion of the dorsal fin4 ,the ,large ,blenny 7,b4 gattorugine7 inhabits deeper water1 chiefly off the south-west coast1 and reaches a length of a foot or more4 ,the ,crested ,blenny 7,b4 cristatus7 is named from the small crest on the head which can be raised and depressed2 and the ,viviparous ,blenny 7,zoarces viviparus71 as its name implies1 brings forth its young alive4 ,the last species often exceeds a foot in length1 and is found principally on the north and east coasts4 ,the newly-born young are so transparent that the circulation of the blood within the body may be seen under the microscope quite as easily as in the web of the frog's foot and in the tail of the tadpole4 ,one very common species of the ,blenniid differs considerably in general form from the others1 its body being elongated and eel-like1 but much compressed laterally4 ,we refer to the ,butterfish or ,butter ,gunnel 7,blennius gunellus71 which is often mistaken for a small eel by young sea-side naturalists4 ,it is exceedingly common under stones at low tide1 and may be recognised at once by the light rectangular spots along the flattened sides of the body4 ,it is quite as slippery and as difficult to hold as the eel itself4 ,it will be interesting to note that the ugly ,sea ,cat or ,wolf-fish 7,anarrhichas lupus71 which is sometimes sold for food in our large towns1 is also a member of the blenny family4 ,it is a powerful1 rapacious fish--a veritable wolf of the sea1 always ready to attack anything4 ,it feeds on molluscs and crustaceans1 the shells of which are easily reduced between the powerful crushing teeth that line the jaws behind the formidable canines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4--,,the ,,butterfish ,the ,gobies 7,gobiid7 form another interesting family of small littoral fishes1 easily distinguished by the fact that the ventral fins are united in such a manner that they enclose a conical cavity4 ,the first portion of the dorsal fin has also six flexible spines4 ,the ,spotted ,goby 7,gobius minutus7 is commonly to be found on sand-banks1 where it is well protected by the colouring of its upper surface1 which closely resembles that of the sand on which it rests4 ,it is said to make a nest by cementing fragments together round some little natural hollow1 or to utilise an empty shell for a similar purpose1 fixing the shell to the surrounding bed1 and constructing a tunnel by which it can enter or leave4 ,the eggs are deposited in this nest1 and the male keeps guard over the home4 ,the ,black or ,rock ,goby 7,g4 niger7 inhabits rocky coasts1 clinging to the rocks by means of a sucker formed of the modified pelvic fins4 ,a brightly coloured fish known as the ,dragonet 7,callionymus lyra7 is sometimes classed with the ,gobies1 though its pelvic fins are not united4 ,it is not a well-known species1 and is seldom obtained except with the dredge1 as it inhabits deep water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bda4--,,the ,,black ,,goby ,a peculiar little fish called the ,pogge or ,hook-nose 7,agonus cataphractus71 also known as the ,armed ,bull-head1 is commonly taken in shrimpers' nets on the south and east coasts4 ,its head and body are very angular1 and are covered with an armour of keeled scales4 ,it seldom exceeds six inches in length1 and is classed with the ,flying ,gurnards in the family ,dactylopterid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdb4--,,the ,,father ,,lasher ,the true ,gurnards and the ,sea ,bullheads form the family ,cottid4 ,several species of the former are included among our food-fishes1 and are therefore more or less familiar to our readers4 ,they are characterised by their large1 square1 bony heads1 and by the finger-like rays of the pectoral fins which are used as organs of touch and for creeping along the bottom of the sea4 ,the ,bullheads are represented by the peculiar ,father ,lasher or ,sting ,fish 7,cottus bubalis71 which is very common on our rocky coasts and is frequently captured in shrimp nets4 ,its head and cheeks are armed with sharp spines which constitute formidable weapons of offence4 ,when taken out of the water it distends its gills enormously2 and1 unless very cautiously handled1 its sharp spines may be thrust deeply into the flesh4 ,young specimens1 with imperfectly developed spines1 may be seen in almost every rock pool1 and the full-grown fish is easily taken with rod and line by fishing in the deep gulleys between the rocks4 ,the remarkable ,angler ,fish 7,lophius piscatorius71 known also as the ,fishing ,frog and the ,sea ,devil 7family ,lophiid7 is sometimes taken off the coasts of ,devon and ,cornwall2 and although it cannot be truly described as a littoral species1 its structure and habits are so peculiar that it deserves a passing notice4 ,it is an ugly fish1 with an enormous head1 a short naked body1 and a comparatively slender tail4 ,the mouth is very capacious1 sometimes measuring over a foot from angle to angle1 and is directed upwards4 ,the scaleless body is furnished with numerous slender filaments that resemble certain filamentous sea weeds1 and these together with the dull colouring of the body generally enable the fish to rest unobserved on the bottom4 ,the front portion of the dorsal fin is on the head and fore part of the body1 and consists of a series of six tentacles1 three long ones on the top of the head and three shorter just behind them2 and the foremost of these1 which is the longest1 terminates in a little expansion which is kept in constant movement by the fish4 ,the mouth is armed with rasplike teeth which can be raised or depressed at will1 and when raised they are always directed backward2 the eyes are directed upward1 and the gill-openings are very small4 ,this strange creature habitually rests on the bottom of the sea1 disguised by its filamentous appendages and adaptive colouring1 dangling the expanded extremity of its first dorsal filament just over its upturned cavernous mouth4 ,it does not swim much1 indeed it is at the best but a bad swimmer2 and when it moves it simply shuffles its heavy body along the bottom1 gliding between the stones and rocks1 where it may remain unobserved1 its movements being produced by the action of the tail1 and of the paired fins1 which are better adapted for walking than for swimming4 ,unwary fishes1 attracted by the dangling of the angler's bait1 approach the watchful monster1 and while speculating on the nature of the bait1 are suddenly engulfed in the capacious mouth1 from which there is no escape on account of the backward direction of the teeth4 ,the family ,trachinid contains the fishes known popularly as the ,stargazers and the ,weavers4 ,these are small1 carnivorous species1 with rather elongated bodies1 terminating in tail fins that are not forked4 ,the first dorsal fin is distinct and spinous1 and the spines1 as well as others that are developed on the gill-covers1 are grooved for the passage of a poisonous fluid that is secreted at their bases4 ,our littoral species include two well-known fishes 7the ,greater and ,lesser ,weavers7 that are dreaded by fishermen on account of the very painful wounds they are capable of inflicting1 and the smaller of the two is also a considerable annoyance to bathers on certain sandy coasts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdc4--,,the ,,lesser ,,weaver ,the ,greater ,weaver 7,trachinus draco7 lives at the bottom of deep water1 and is often dredged up in the trawl4 ,some fishermen call it the ,sting ,bull1 and always take the precaution of cutting off the poisonous spines before disposing of the fish4 ,it lives on the bottom with its mouth and eyes directed upward1 always in readiness to seize its unwary prey1 and the sharp spines of the dorsal fins are kept erect for the purpose of promptly attacking approaching foes4 ,its mouth and palate are armed with sharp teeth which render the escape of its prey almost impossible4 ,the smaller species 7,t4 vipera7 seldom exceeds six inches in length4 ,it lives in shallow water on sandy coasts1 with dorsal spines erect2 and the wounds it produces on the unprotected feet of bathers are often exceedingly painful on account of the injected poison1 which also causes the part to swell and turn to a dark purple colour4 ,the remaining important families1 although they contain well-known ,british food-fishes1 do not include littoral species1 and for this reason we shall pass them over with but brief notice4 ,the ,mackerel 7,scomber vernalis7 belongs to the family ,scomberid1 and is so well known that no description need be given for the purposes of identification4 ,we have already referred to it as a beautiful illustration of protective colouring1 its upper surface resembling the ripples of a deep green sea and the lower the brightness of the sky4 ,mackerel swim in shoals in the open sea1 pursuing and devouring the fry of herrings and other fish2 and in order that they may be enabled to cover enormous distances their muscles are richly supplied with blood4 ,this not only gives a pinkish colour to the flesh1 but results in a greater amount of oxidation and the maintenance thereby of a body temperature several degrees higher than that of the surrounding water4 ,we would also call attention to the five or six small fins behind the dorsal and anal fins as characteristic of the ,scomberid4 ,our next family 7the ,cyttid7 contains the ,john ,dory 7,zeus-faber71 concerning which some superstitions are still prevalent in parts4 ,it is brightly coloured1 but not graceful in form1 and is often caught in large numbers off the coasts of ,devon and ,cornwall4 ,some fishermen call it the ,cock1 on account of the crest on the back2 while others know it as ,st4 ,peter's ,fish1 and will point out the impression of the ,apostle's finger on each side--a black spot surrounded by a light ring4 ,the ,horse ,mackerel 7,caranx trachurus7 is found principally in the same parts1 where it devours the fry of other fishes4 ,it is not a very close relative of the common mackerel1 but belongs to a distinct family 7,carangid71 of which it is the only ,british representative4 ,it is a carnivorous fish1 easily distinguished from ,scomber by its conical teeth1 as well as by the bony plates of the lateral line1 the posterior of which are keeled or spined4 ,while the last-mentioned families contain only fishes of truly pelagic habits1 the next 7,sparid71 formed by the ,sea ,breams1 generally keep near the coast1 and often enter fresh waters4 ,in these the body is much compressed laterally1 and is covered with large scales2 the first half of the dorsal fin is also spinous4 ,the ,common ,sea ,bream 7,sparus auratus71 characterised by its red colour with brilliant golden reflections1 and by a dark spot on the shoulder1 may often be angled from rocks and piers4 ,the young1 in which the dark spots have not yet appeared1 are known as ,chads1 and are often regarded as a distinct species4 ,the ,black ,bream 7,cantharus lineatus7 is an omnivorous feeder1 and will take both animal and vegetable baits4 ,the ,red ,mullets 7family ,mullid7 may be distinguished from the grey mullets previously described by the two long erectile barbules on the lower jaw4 ,the scales are large and thin1 with serrated edges1 and the front portion of the dorsal fin has weak spines4 ,the common ,british species 7,mullus barbatus7 frequents our south and east coasts1 being specially abundant round ,devon and ,cornwall1 where they often occur in vast shoals1 and the young are often to be caught in estuaries and harbours4 ,our last example is the ,common ,bass or ,sea ,perch 7,morone abrax71 of the family ,serranid4 ,it is also known locally as the ,white ,salmon and the ,salmon ,dace4 ,this fish may be taken with rod and line on rocky coasts and at the mouths of rivers4 ,the sand-eel1 or an artificial imitation of it1 is commonly used as bait1 but the ,cornish fishermen more frequently employ a piece of herring or pilchard for the purpose4 ,the first dorsal fin of this fish has very strong spines which may inflict severe wounds when the live creature is carelessly handled4 99 99 99 99 99 ,omitting all mention of sea birds1 for the reason previously given1 we now pass to the highest division of vertebrates--the ,mammals--of which we shall describe but one species--the ,common ,porpoise1 this being the only marine mammal that can be regarded as a frequent visitor to the ,british coasts in general4 ,it may be well at the outset to understand exactly why the porpoise is classed with the mammals and not with the fishes--to see how its structure and functions correspond with those of our own bodies rather than with those of the animals dealt with in the preceding portion of the present chapter4 ,first1 then1 while the young of fishes are almost invariably produced from eggs and are not nourished by the parents1 the young of the porpoise are produced alive1 and are nourished with milk secreted by the mammary glands of the mother4 ,this is an all-important feature1 and is the one implied in the term mammal4 ,the porpoise also differs from nearly all fishes in that it breathes by lungs instead of gills1 obtaining its air direct from the atmosphere1 and not from the water4 ,hence we find it coming to the surface at frequent intervals to discharge its vitiated air and to inhale a fresh supply4 ,the body-cavity of a mammal is divided into two parts by a muscular diaphragm1 the foremost division1 called the thorax1 containing the heart and lungs1 and the other 7the abdomen7 the remainder of the internal organs1 while the diaphragm itself plays an important part in the respiratory movement by which air is drawn into the lungs4 ,the body of the porpoise is so divided1 but no such division ever occurs in any of the fishes4 ,lastly1 the heart of the porpoise1 in common with the rest of the mammals1 is divided into four cavities1 and the blood is warm1 while the heart of a fish has generally only two divisions1 and the blood propelled by it is of about the same temperature as that of the surrounding medium4 ,several other important differences between the porpoise and the fish might be given1 but the above will be quite sufficient to show why they are placed in different classes4 ,mammals are divided into several classes1 and one of these 7,cetacea7 includes the fish-like ,whales1 ,porpoises1 and ,dolphins1 all of which are peculiarly adapted to a purely aquatic life4 ,like most of the fishes1 their upper surfaces are of a dark colour1 and the lower very light4 ,their fore limbs are constructed on the same plan as those of the higher mammals1 the bones of the arm being attached to a large shoulder-blade1 and the hand formed of four or five well-developed fingers which are enclosed in skin1 so that they constitute a paddle or flipper well adapted for propulsion through water4 ,there is no collar-bone1 however1 and the fingers have no nails or claws4 ,there are no hind limbs visible externally1 but a rudimentary pelvic girdle forms a part of the internal skeleton4 ,a dorsal fin exists1 but this is merely an extension of the skin of the back1 and is not supported by either bones or rays4 ,the skin itself has no scales1 like that of most fishes1 but is smooth and naked2 and below it lies a large amount of fat1 which1 being a very bad conductor of heat1 serves to prevent the escape of heat from the body4 ,the tails of cetaceans are also mere folds of the skin1 supported in the centre by the extremity of the vertebral column2 but unlike the tail fins of fishes1 they are expanded horizontally instead of in the vertical plane4 ,this latter is an important adaptive feature of the cetaceans1 since the vertical movement of a tail so disposed is exactly what is required to assist the animals as they alternately rise to the surface for air and again descend into the sea in search of their food4 ,among the other external characters of the cetacean we may note the nostrils1 which are always situated on the highest point of the head1 and are thus the first part exposed when the creature rises to renew its supply of air2 also the ears1 which are two small apertures behind the eye1 without any form of external appendages4 ,the skeleton of the cetacean is formed of light spongy bones1 saturated with oily matter2 and although the animal has no true neck1 visible as such externally1 it is interesting to note that1 in common with all other mammals1 even with the long-necked giraffe1 it possesses its seven cervical or neck vertebr4 ,porpoises and ,dolphins together form the family ,delphinid1 characterised by having the blow-hole in the form of a crescent with its convexity turned towards the front1 and of these the ,porpoises constitute the genus ,phocna4 ,the ,common ,porpoise 7,p4 communis7 is the species that is so often seen close to our shores and in the harbours and estuaries1 swimming in shoals with a graceful undulatory movement4 ,porpoises move forward entirely by the vertical action of their powerful horizontal tails1 and extend their flippers only to change their course or to arrest their progress4 ,at short intervals they rise to the surface1 exposing their slate-coloured backs and dorsal fins for a moment1 and then immediately dive downwards in such a manner as to appear to turn a series of somersaults4 ,occasionally they will leap quite out of the water1 exhibiting their white under surfaces1 which shine with a sudden flash when illuminated by the rays of a bright sun4 ,the blow-hole is the first part exposed1 and if one is sufficiently near the shoal a fountain of spray may be seen to shoot into the air1 and the outrush of the expired air may be heard as each one makes its appearance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdd4--,,the ,,common ,,porpoise ,the true nature of the spouting of a cetacean seems to be very generally misunderstood1 the fountain of spray produced at each exhalation giving the idea that the animal is expelling a quantity of water from its nostrils4 ,this1 of course1 is not the case2 for the cetacean1 being an air-breather1 has no need to take in a supply of water1 as the gill-breathing fishes have4 ,air only is expelled through the nostrils2 but as the expiration sometimes commences before these apertures are brought quite to the surface1 a certain amount of water is shot upwards with the expired air2 and even if the expiration commences after the nostrils are exposed1 the small quantity of water they contain is blown into a jet of spray2 and in a cool atmosphere1 the density of this is increased by the condensation of vapour contained in the warm and saturated air from the lungs of the animal4 ,it will be noticed1 too1 that the creature does not check its course in the least for the purpose of respiration1 the foul air being expelled and a fresh supply taken in exchange during the short time that the blow-hole remains above the surface of the water4 ,the ,common ,porpoise measures five or six feet in length1 and subsists on pilchards1 herrings1 mackerel1 and other fish1 the shoals or #8schools' of which it pursues so closely that it is often taken in the fishermen's nets4 ,its flesh was formerly eaten in our own country1 but it is now seldom hunted except for its oil and its hide4 ,about three or four gallons of the former may be obtained from each animal2 and the latter is highly valued on account of its durability1 though it should be known that much of the so-called porpoise-hide manufactured is really the product of the ,white ,whale4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,sea ,,weeds ,we now pass from the animal to the vegetable kingdom1 our object being to give a general outline of the nature and distribution of the principal marine alg or sea weeds that grow on our shores2 and to supply a brief account of those flowering plants that either exhibit a partiality for the neighbourhood of the sea1 or that grow exclusively on the rocks and cliffs of the coast4 ,the present chapter will be devoted to the sea weeds themselves1 but we consider it advisable to precede our account of these beautiful and interesting plants by a brief outline of the general classification of plant-life1 in order that the reader may be able to understand the true position of both these and the flowering plants in the scale of vegetable life4 ,plants are divided into two great groups1 the ,cryptogams or ,flowerless ,plants and the ,phanerogams or ,flowering ,plants4 ,in the former the reproductive organs are not true seeds containing an embryo of the future plant1 but mere cells or spores1 which give rise directly to a thread or mass of threads1 to a cellular membrane1 or to a cellular body of more or less complexity of form from which the flowerless plant is afterwards developed2 while in the latter the reproductive organs are flowers that give rise to true seeds1 each of which contains the embryo plant4 ,the ,cryptogams are subdivided into four groups--the ,thallophytes1 the ,charales1 the ,muscine1 and the ,vascular ,cryptogams4 ,the first of these includes all the very low forms of vegetable life1 the simplest of which 7,protophyta7 are minute plants1 each consisting of a single microscopic cell that multiplies by a process of budding1 no sexual organs of any kind being produced4 ,some of these minute unicellular organisms contain chlorophyll--the green colouring matter of plants1 by the action of which1 under the influence of light1 the plant is enabled to decompose the carbonic acid gas of the atmosphere1 using the carbon for the purpose of building up its own substance1 and setting free the oxygen into the air again4 ,others contain no chlorophyll2 and these1 having no power of feeding on carbonic acid gas1 are more or less dependent on organic matter for their supplies of carbon4 ,only very slightly removed from these minute plants are the ,alg of fresh and salt water1 varying in size from microscopic dimensions to enormous plants1 the lengths of which may reach many yards and the weight several stone4 ,they contain chlorophyll1 and can therefore avail themselves of inorganic food material2 and although some multiply only by repeated subdivision of their cells1 others develop sexual organs by the union of which fertilised spores are formed4 ,the nature of these ,alg will be more fully described presently2 and we will go no further now than to justify the location of such large and conspicuous plants 7as many are7 so low in the scale of vegetable life by stating that they are entirely cellular in structure1 never producing true vessels such as we see in higher plants2 and that though some of them develop parts which more or less resemble the leaves and roots of higher forms1 the former are far more simple in structure and function than true leaves and the latter are never engaged in the absorption of food from the soil to which they are fixed4 ,another important group of the ,thallophytes is formed by the ,fungi1 which include the familiar mushrooms1 toadstools1 and the sap-balls so commonly seen on decaying trees2 also the smaller forms known as moulds1 mildew1 and smut4 ,these1 also1 are entirely cellular in structure2 and1 since they develop no chlorophyll1 are compelled to live as parasites on living beings or to derive their food from decaying organic matter4 ,thus they are the creatures of corruption1 their presence always denoting the breaking down of living matter or of matter that has previously lived4 ,now leaving the ,thallophytes1 and passing over the small group of aquatic plants known as the ,charales1 we come to the ,muscine1 which contains the ,liverworts 7,hepatic7 and the ,mosses 7,musci74 ,the plants of both these groups require much moisture1 and are found principally in damp1 shady situations4 ,like the preceding groups they are cellular in structure1 never producing true vascular bundles such as the higher plants possess2 and their life histories are rendered interesting by the #8alternation of generations' which they exhibit4 ,the first generation is a sexual one produced from the spores1 and consists either of a mass of delicate threads from which a plant with a leafy axis is developed by a process of budding1 or of a little green frond 7the thallus74 ,these bear the male and female elements1 called respectively the antheridia and the archegonia2 and when the central cells of the latter are fertilised by the former1 they give rise to a case1 with or without a stalk1 containing a number of spores4 ,when the case is ripe1 it opens horizontally by means of a lid1 thus liberating the spores4 ,following these in the ascending scale are the ,vascular ,cryptogams1 in which some of the cells become modified into true vessels4 ,here1 too1 the plants exhibit a distinct alternation of generations1 the spore first giving rise to a small1 leafless body1 the prothallium1 which bears the sexual organs2 and then the female elements1 after fertilisation1 produce the spore-bearing plant4 ,this group contains quite a variety of beautiful and interesting plants1 including the ,ferns 7,filicales71 ,horsetails 7,equisetales71 ,club-mosses 7,lycopodiales71 ,water ,ferns 7,rhizocarpe71 and ,selaginellales4 ,ferns usually produce their little green prothallia above ground1 and the perfect plant generally has a creeping rhizome or underground stem4 ,some1 however1 have strong1 erect1 woody stems1 such as we see in the tree ferns of tropical and sub-tropical countries4 ,the horsetails and the club-mosses are also produced from prothallia that are formed above ground4 ,the perfect plants of the former have branching underground stems which give off numerous roots1 and send up annually green1 jointed1 arial stems that bear whorls of fine leaves1 each whorl forming a toothed1 ring-like sheath4 ,the fertile shoots terminate in cones1 on the modified leaves of which the sporangia are produced4 ,the stems of the club-mosses are clothed with small overlapping leaves1 in the axes of which the sporangia are produced2 and the spores1 which are formed in abundance1 constitute the lycopodium powder with which druggists often coat their pills4 ,water ferns either float on the surface of water or creep along the bottom1 and produce their fruit either at the bases of the leaves or between the fibres of submerged leaves4 ,the ,selaginellas are characterised by a procumbent stem that branches in one plane only1 producing small1 sessile leaves1 with a single central vein4 ,a number of roots grow downward from the under side of the stem1 and the fruit is developed in the axils of the leaves that form the terminal cones of the fertile branches4 ,the above are all the principal divisions of the flowerless plants1 and we have now to note the general characteristics of the ,phanerogams4 ,the chief of these is1 of course1 the possession of flowers as reproductive organs2 and although it is not convenient to give a full description of the flower at the present time1 it will be necessary to say a little concerning it in order that we may be able to grasp the broad principles of classification4 ,a flower1 in its most complex form1 consists of parts arranged in four whorls arranged concentrically4 ,the first and second whorls1 commencing from the outside1 usually consist of leaf-like bodies1 united or distinct1 and are called respectively the calyx and the corolla4 ,the third whorl consists of stamens1 which are the male reproductive organs of the plant1 and each stamen consists essentially of a case--the anther--in which are formed a number of little pollen cells4 ,when the anther is ripe it opens1 thus liberating the pollen1 so that it may be dispersed by insects1 by the wind1 or by other mechanical means4 ,the remaining whorl constitutes the pistil1 which is generally made up of parts 7carpels7 arranged round a common centre1 and each surmounted by a stigma adapted for the reception of the pollen cells4 ,this portion of the flower contains the ovules1 enclosed in a case called the ovary1 and is1 therefore1 the female organ of the plant4 ,when the ovules have been fertilised by the pollen1 they develop into seeds1 each one of which contains an embryo plant2 and the ovary itself1 ripening at the same time1 develops into the fruit4 ,such is the general description of a flower in its most complex form1 but it must be remembered that one or more of the whorls named above may often be absent4 ,thus1 calyx or corolla1 or both1 may not exist2 and the male and female organs may be developed on separate flowers of the same plant1 or even1 as is frequently the case1 on different plants of the same species4 ,in the latter instance the flowers are spoken of as unisexual1 those bearing the stamens being the staminate or male flowers1 and those bearing the pistil the pistillate or female flowers4 ,the ,phanerogams are divided into two main groups1 the ,gymnosperms and the ,angiosperms4 ,in the former the ovules are naked1 no ovary or seed-case being developed4 ,the pollen1 carried by the wind1 falls directly on the ovule1 and then develops a tube which penetrates to the nucleus of the ovule1 thus fertilising it4 ,in the ,angiosperms the ovules are always enclosed in an ovary1 and the pollen grains1 alighting on the stigma1 are held by a gummy secretion4 ,the tubes they produce then penetrate through the underlying tissues1 and thus come into contact with the ovules4 ,the ,gymnosperms include a group of small palm-like trees and shrubs 7the ,cycade71 of which the so-called ,sago ,palm is a representative2 and the ,conifer or cone-bearing shrubs and trees1 which may be spoken of collectively as the ,pines4 ,in the latter the leaves are either stiff1 linear1 and needle-like1 or short and scale-like1 or are divided into narrow lobes2 and the plants are noted for their resinous secretions4 ,the flowers are always unisexual1 and are generally arranged in cylindrical or short catkins1 where they are protected by closely packed scales2 but the female flowers may be solitary4 ,there is no calyx or corolla1 but the naked ovules and seeds are sometimes more or less enclosed in the scales 7bracts7 or in a fleshy disc4 ,the ,angiosperms form the highest division of the flowering plants2 and are subdivided into two extensive groups--the ,monocotyledons and the ,dicotyledons4 ,the chief distinguishing feature of these is that implied in the above names1 the embryo of the former containing but one rudimentary leaf 7cotyledon71 while that of the latter contains two4 ,the ,monocotyledons are also characterised by having the bundles of vessels 7vascular bundles7 of the stems dispersed2 the veins of the leaves are also usually parallel1 and the parts of the flower are arranged in whorls of three or six4 ,in the ,dicotyledons the vascular bundles of the stem are united into a ring which surrounds a central pith2 the veins of the leaves form a network1 and the parts of the flower are arranged in whorls of four or five4 ,we are now enabled to understand the relative positions of the principal groups of plants in the scale of vegetable life1 and to locate approximately the forms with which we have to deal2 and to aid the reader in this portion of his work we present a brief summary of the classification of plants in the form of a table for reference3-- ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,plants ,i4 ,,cryptogamia--,flowerless plants4 7a7 ,,thallophytes--,leafless1 cellular plants4 #a4 ,protophyta--,unicellular plants4 #b4 ,alg--,sea weeds1 c4 #c4 ,fungi--,mushrooms1 c4 7b7 ,,charales4 7c7 ,,muscine4 #a4 ,hepatic--,liverworts4 #b4 ,musci--,mosses4 7d7 ,,vascular ,,cryptogams4 #a4 ,filicales--,ferns4 #b4 ,equisetales--,horsetails4 #c4 ,lycopodiales--,club-mosses4 #d4 ,rhizocarpe--,water ferns4 #e4 ,selaginellales4 ,,ii4 ,,phanerogamia4 7a7 ,,gymnospermia4 #a4 ,cycade--,cycads4 #b4 ,conifer--,cone-bearing trees4 7b7 ,,angiosperms4 #a4 ,monocotyledons4 #b4 ,dicotyledons4 ,we have now to deal more particularly with those marine ,alg that are commonly known as ,sea ,weeds1 and which add so much to the beauty of our rocky coasts4 ,these exhibit such a variety of graceful forms1 and such charming colours1 that they are admired and treasured by thousands of sea-side ramblers1 who are attracted by them merely on account of their pleasing general appearance2 but the naturalist has all this and a great deal more to interest and instruct him1 for the sea weeds possess quite a number of peculiar and characteristic features that render them well worthy of a detailed study1 especially when they are compared and contrasted with the better-known flowering plants of our fields1 woods1 and hedgerows4 ,it has already been observed that sea weeds differ from the majority of flowering plants in that they have no true roots or leaves1 though they are often attached to rocks and other substances by a root-like disc1 and sometimes have leaf-like expansions that are supported by stem-like rods4 ,the root-like structures1 however1 serve simply for the attachment of the plant1 and are never concerned in the absorption of nourishment like the true roots of higher plants2 and the leaf-like expansions1 though they are sometimes symmetrical in form1 never exhibit the spiral arrangement that obtains in the leaves of higher plants1 from which they also differ in function4 ,the plant-body of a sea weed is called a thallus1 and differs considerably in the various species4 ,sometimes it has no expanded portion whatever1 but is more or less cylindrical in all parts1 and may be either branched or simple2 and in some species it forms a simple crust or a soft jelly-like covering on a rock4 ,all portions of a sea weed are made up of cells1 and these are never modified into vessels such as we see in the stems1 leaves1 and roots of higher forms of vegetable life2 and one who is commencing the study of the alg will find much interesting work in the examination of their microscopic structure4 ,thin sections of various parts of the larger weeds1 cut with a sharp knife or a razor1 and examined in a drop of water under a cover-glass1 will show the cellular structure perfectly2 while minute fragments of the small and slender species are sufficiently thin and transparent to display the form and arrangement of their cells without any previous preparation4 ,one of the principal charms of the marine alg lies in the great variety of colour that they display4 ,they all contain chlorophyll--that remarkable green colouring matter which enables a plant1 under the influence of light1 to feed on the carbonic acid gas existing in the atmosphere1 or held in solution in water2 and with its aid the sea weeds can utilise this product of decay and animal respiration that would otherwise accumulate in the water of the sea4 ,but1 in addition to this bright green chlorophyll1 many of the sea weeds contain a second colouring substance1 and in these the great variety of tint is dependent on the nature of the latter and on the proportion in which it is present as compared with the chlorophyll itself4 ,the different means by which the alg reproduce their kind forms a most engrossing subject1 and to the botanist a most important one1 for it has much to do with the classification of the species4 ,the affinities of plants may be better determined by the nature of their reproductive processes than by any other features1 but unfortunately this is not so well understood with regard to the alg generally as compared with many other divisions of the vegetable kingdom2 and1 as a consequence1 there is still a considerable difference of opinion1 not only as to the extent of the whole group1 but also as to its divisions and subdivisions4 ,the reason for this is clear2 for while it is quite an easy matter to trace a flowering plant through its complete cycle from seed to seed1 it requires a much more careful examination1 combined with much microscopic work1 to trace a lowly organised plant from spore to spore4 ,some of the alg may be reproduced without the agency of any sexual elements2 that is1 without the aid of parts that correspond with the ovules and the fertilising pollen of a flowering plant4 ,some of these are reproduced by a repeated subdivision1 or by the separation of a portion of the plant that is capable of independent growth2 while others produce spores that do not result from the fusion of two different cells4 ,in most1 however1 sexual differences are to be observed1 some cells being modified into female organs1 containing one or two more minute bodies that are capable of developing into new plants after they have been fertilised1 and other cells produce the male elements by means of which the fertilisation is accomplished4 ,the fertilised cells are spores1 but are named differently according to the nature of their development4 ,they all differ from true seeds in that they never contain an embryo plant1 but germinate by the elongation of some particular part1 which subsequently grows by a continuous process of cell-division2 or the cell-division may originate directly in the spore without any previous elongation or expansion4 ,the sea weeds are usually classified according to the colour of their spores2 but1 since this colour generally corresponds with that of the plant itself1 we may almost say that they are grouped according to their general tints4 ,there are three main divisions3-- ,the ,chlorosperme1 or ,green-spored2 ,the ,rhodosperme1 or ,red-spored2 and ,the ,melanosperme1 or ,brown-spored4 ,the ,chlorosperme contain no colouring matter other than the chlorophyll4 ,they are mostly small weeds1 of a delicate green colour2 and1 although they are not particularly conspicuous on our shores1 they contribute very considerably to the beauty of the rock pools1 where their delicate green fronds contrast richly with the olive ,melanosperms and the pink and white corallines4 ,the thallus or plant-body is very varied in form1 sometimes consisting of a broad membrane1 but more commonly of tufts of slender green filaments or of narrow1 flattened fronds4 ,these weeds are most beautiful objects for the microscope1 and they are generally so thin and transparent that no section-cutting is necessary1 nothing being required except to mount very small portions in a drop of water4 ,in this simple manner we may study the beautiful arrangement and the various forms of the cells of which they are composed4 ,the more delicate species will be found to consist of a single layer of cells only1 while in the larger forms--the ,ulvace1 for example--the thallus may be formed of two or three distinct layers1 and some of the cells may be elongated into tubes4 ,a remarkable feature of the green-spored weeds is the large size of the chlorophyll granules as compared with those of the other groups1 and also the great variety of forms which these granules assume4 ,they may be easily seen under a low power1 and the examination of the weeds will show that the thalli are not uniformly green1 but that the colour of the plants is due entirely to the chlorophyll granules1 the remainder of the plant substance being quite colourless4 ,if a green sea weed be placed in alcohol for a short time1 it will be found that the liquid assumes a green colour1 while the plant itself becomes colourless4 ,the explanation is1 of course1 that chlorophyll is soluble in alcohol4 ,the presence of starch also in the weed may be proved in a very simple manner1 as follows3--,mount a small piece in water1 and then put a drop of iodine solution by the edge of the cover-glass4 ,the solution will gradually diffuse itself around the object1 turning the starch-grains to a deep blue colour1 and so rendering them very conspicuous under a moderately high power4 ,the manner in which the green weeds are reproduced is very interesting also4 ,in some cases the fragments of a thallus that have been detached by storms or other mechanical means possess the power of independent growth1 and develop into plants2 and this mode of reproduction may often be watched in the indoor aquarium4 ,another method is by the agency of little spores 7zoospores7 that are produced at the edges or extremities of the thallus4 ,certain of the cells become modified into what are called zoosporangia1 and the minute zoospores are formed within them4 ,the walls of the cells either gradually degenerate1 or are fractured1 and the zoospores are thus set free4 ,the latter are provided with little vibratile cilia1 by which they move about freely in the water4 ,some eventually settle down and germinate without any further aid1 but others are unable to develop until they have been fertilised by fusion with another cell4 ,the former is therefore an asexual development1 while the latter is sexual4 ,some of the delicate1 filamentous green alg are reproduced by another process termed conjugation4 ,in this case two adjacent threads that lie close together become lightly united by a covering of gelatinous substance1 and a cell of each throws out a process4 ,the processes are directed towards each other1 and unite to form a tube in which the contents of the two cells become fused together1 with the result that zoospores are produced4 ,among the lowest of the green sea weeds are the plants known collectively as the ,confervace1 which consist of delicate green filaments1 usually attached to rocks in dense masses1 but often found floating freely in the rock pools4 ,the filaments are composed of cells joined together at their ends1 and are always unbranched4 ,conferv are found principally in the tide pools1 especially near high-water mark1 and often abound in hollows in the rock even above high-water mark1 where the spray of the waves is mingled with rain-water or the drainage from the land4 ,they exist in both fresh and salt water1 and some species seem capable of thriving in brackish water of any degree of salinity4 ,allied to the conferv is a group of marine alg called ,cladophora1 very similar to the former in general appearance1 and found in similar situations1 but readily distinguished by the branching of their jointed filaments4 ,the various species of this group are very beautiful weeds1 their delicate filaments looking very pretty as they float and sway in the water of the pools4 ,they are also exquisite objects for the microscope2 but1 unfortunately1 often lose their natural colour when preserved dry4 ,they vary in colour1 some few being of a dull green tint1 while others are bright green1 sometimes with a beautiful silky gloss4 ,one species 7,c4 pellucida7 is more rigid than most of the others2 its fronds stand out erect and firm1 and are repeatedly forked near the tips4 ,it is a moderately common weed1 found in the lower rock pools1 and may be readily recognised by the long one-celled joints1 from the tops of which the branches proceed4 ,another species 7,c4 diffusa7 is also very firm in structure1 so much so that its bristly tufts retain their form when removed from the water1 instead of becoming matted together in a shapeless mass4 ,its branches are rather long1 and bear a few simple branchlets towards their extremities4 ,it is found in rock pools between the tide-marks4 ,c4 lanosa is a very pretty little weed1 growing in dense globular woolly tufts1 an inch or more in diameter1 on the olive tangles between the tide-marks4 ,it is of a pale yellowish-green colour1 which becomes much paler1 or is even altogether lost1 when the plant is preserved in a dry state1 and1 at the same time its fine glossy appearance is lost4 ,its fronds have straight branches1 all making very acute angles1 and they have also small root-like filaments4 ,it much resembles another species 7,c4 arcta71 which grows in dense tufts on rocks1 but the latter is larger1 not so slender1 and more freely branched4 ,the cells1 too1 of ,c4 arcta are longer1 being about ten times the length of the diameter1 and the fronds are silvery at the tips4 ,nearly thirty species of ,cladophora have been described1 but it is impossible to give here a detailed description of all4 ,we add1 however1 a brief summary of the distinguishing features of a few other species that are common on our coasts4 ,c4 rupestris is common everywhere1 and easily recognised by its rigid1 branching1 tufted fronds1 of a dark greyish-green colour2 its branches1 which are opposite1 bear awl-shaped branchlets4 ,it is found in rock pools from half-tide downwards1 and in deep water beyond the tide-marks1 the plants growing in the latter situations being generally of a fine dark-green colour4 ,c4 ltevirens is also very common on rocks between the tide-marks4 ,its fronds are tufted and freely branched1 of a pale-green colour and soft flexible texture1 and about six inches long4 ,the branchlets are usually slightly curved4 ,c4 gracilis is a beautiful plant that grows on large weeds1 especially the ,sea ,grass 7,zostera7 in deep water2 and although not very common1 it is sometimes found on the beach after storms4 ,it is characterised by its slender silky fronds1 from a few inches to a foot in length1 of a yellowish-green colour4 ,it may always be known by the comb-like branchlets growing only on one side of each branch4 ,c4 refracta grows in dense tufts1 two or three inches long1 in rock pools near low-water mark4 ,its fronds consist of rigid stems in rope-like bundles that are very freely branched1 the whole tuft being of a yellow-green colour and silky texture4 ,c4 albida closely resembles it in structure and habit1 but may be distinguished by its paler colour1 which disappears when the weed is dried1 and by its longer and more delicate branches4 ,in another order of the green-spored alg 7the ,siphone or ,siphonace7 the frond is formed of single branching cells1 and many of these are often interwoven into a spongy mass1 and sometimes coated with a deposit of calcareous matter4 ,in the genus ,codium the fronds are of a sponge-like texture1 composed of interwoven branching fibres1 and are of a globular1 cylindrical1 or flattened form4 ,the commonest species is ,c4 tomentosum 7,plate ,,vii471 which consists of sponge-like1 dark-green cylindrical fronds1 which are forked and covered with short hairs that give it a woolly appearance when in the water4 ,each frond is composed of slender interwoven fibres with club-shaped filaments passing vertically to the surface4 ,it grows on rocks in the pools between the tide-marks1 and is abundant on nearly all our coasts4 ,the ,purse ,codium 7,c4 bursa7 has spongy hollow fronds of a globular form1 varying from a quarter of an inch to five or six inches in diameter4 ,it is a rare species1 being found only at a few places on the south coast4 ,another species 7,c4 adhrens7 adheres to rocks1 over which the fronds spread in irregular soft patches1 the club-shaped vertical filaments of its interwoven fibres giving it the appearance of rich green velvet4 ,an allied weed 7,bryopsis71 named from its moss-like appearance1 grows in erect tufts1 each frond consisting of a branched one-celled filament4 ,there are two species of the genus1 one 7,b4 plumosa7 characterised by the light feathery nature of its fronds1 the stems of which are branched only near the top4 ,it is found in rock pools on most of our coasts4 ,the other 7,b4 hypnoides7 is more freely branched1 and the branches are long1 and issue from all sides of the stem4 ,like the last species1 it has branches on the outer part of the stem only1 but it is of a softer texture4 ,the best known of the green-spored weeds are certainly those belonging to the ,ulvace1 characterised by their flat or tubular fronds1 sometimes of a purplish colour1 the cells of which multiply both horizontally and vertically as the plants grow4 ,in the typical genus1 ,ulva1 the frond is sometimes in two distinct layers1 and becomes more or less inflated by the accumulation of either water or oxygen between them4 ,the commonest species are ,u4 lactuca and ,u4 latissima1 both of which are eaten by the dwellers on some of our coasts4 ,the former1 commonly known as the ,lettuce ,ulva1 has a frond of a single layer of cells1 and grows on rocks and weeds between the tide-marks4 ,it is common on many oyster beds1 and is employed by the fishermen to cover the oysters when sent to market2 they call it #8oyster green4' ,this species is shown on ,plate ,,viii4 ,u4 latissima or the ,broad ,ulva sometimes reaches a length of two feet1 and a breadth of nearly a foot4 ,the fronds are composed of two layers of cells1 are of an irregular shape1 with a very wavy1 broken margin1 and of a bluish-green colour1 ,it is known as the ,green ,laver1 and is used as food in districts where the true laver 7,porphyra7 is not to be obtained4 ,a third species--the ,narrow ,ulva 7,u4 ,linza7--has smaller and narrower fronds1 of a more regular shape and of a bright-green colour4 ,the fronds are composed of two layers of cells4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vii4 ,,sea-,,weeds #a4 ,fucus nodosus #b4 ,nitophyllum laceratum #c4 ,codium tomentosum #d4 ,padina pavonia #e4 ,porphyra laciniata ,the ,ulv retain their colour perfectly when dried1 and1 with the exception of ,u4 latissima1 are of a mucilaginous nature1 and adhere well to paper1 but1 unfortunately1 the graceful wavy outline of the fronds is lost in pressed specimens4 ,the #8true laver' mentioned above1 which is also popularly known as ,sloke1 is closely allied to ,ulva1 but may be distinguished from it by the colour of its membranous fronds1 which vary from a light rose to a deep purple or violet1 occasionally inclining to olive1 but never green4 ,its scientific name is ,porphyra laciniata 7,plate ,,vii471 and it differs from the majority of the chlorosperme in having dark-purple spores1 which are arranged in groups of four in all parts of the frond4 ,the fronds are very variable in form and size1 being sometimes ribbon-like1 and sometimes spreading into an irregular sheet of deeply-divided segments2 and the remarkable variety of form and colour has led to a division into several species4 ,these1 however1 merge into one another so gradually that the separation seems to be hardly necessary4 ,the same remark concerning the multiplicity of species applies to another allied genus called ,enteromorpha1 in which the fronds are green and tubular1 and often more or less branched4 ,in these the colour varies from a pale to a dark green1 and the cells are arranged in such a manner as to give a reticulated appearance4 ,the commonest and best-defined species are ,e4 intestinalis1 the tubular fronds of which are constricted at intervals in such a manner as to resemble the intestines of an animal1 and ,e4 compressa1 with branched fronds of variable form and size4 ,the former is common on all our coasts1 and may even be found in rivers and ditches some distance from the sea4 ,it thrives equally well in fresh and salt water1 and appears to grow most luxuriantly in the brackish waters of tidal rivers4 ,the latter species also thrives best in similar situations4 ,coming now to the red-spored sea weeds 7,rhodosperme71 we have to deal with some of the most charming of the marine alg that invariably attract the sea-side rambler1 and provide many of the most delightful objects in the album of the young collector4 ,their brilliant colours1 varying from a light red to dark purple and violet1 are sufficient in themselves to render them popular with the collector1 but in addition to this striking feature they are characterised by extreme elegance of form and delicacy of texture4 ,they are to be found in most rock pools1 from near high-water mark downwards1 the smaller and more delicate forms adding much to the beauty of these miniature seas2 but the largest and many of the prettiest species exist only at or beyond the lowest ebb of the tide1 and hence the algologist1 in quest of these beautiful plants1 will find it necessary to work at the very lowest spring tides1 with the occasional aid of a small boat drifted into the narrow channels among outlying rocks1 and a long hook with which to haul up submerged specimens2 and it will also be advisable to search the line of dbris at high-water mark after stormy weather for rare weeds that may have been detached and washed ashore by the angry waves4 ,while engaged in the former of these employments--the searching of outlying rocks with the boat--and also when examining the outer rock pools which are disturbed by the waves that wash over their banks1 the simple instrument known as the water-telescope will prove invaluable4 ,everyone must have noticed how difficult it is to observe objects in water1 the surface of which is disturbed by the wind or some other cause2 but the simple appliance named1 consisting only of a long tube of metal1 a few inches in diameter1 and painted a dead black inside1 will enable the observer to see all submerged objects with the greatest of ease when the water is itself clear4 ,the principle of the water-telescope is as simple as its construction2 for the tube1 protecting the surface of the water within it from the disturbances outside1 prevents the light from being refracted successively in different directions1 while the dead-black surface of the interior prevents those internal reflections that would otherwise cause the vision to be indistinct4 ,a few hours spent with the rhodosperms at the sea-side will be sufficient to show not only the great variety of their form and colouring1 but also that the same species may vary according to the position in which it grows4 ,most of the smaller forms are delicate and filamentous1 but others have expanded fronds which are very leaf-like4 ,the brightest colours are usually to be found at or beyond low-water mark1 where the weeds are covered with a considerable height of water for hours together1 and also in shady situations at higher levels1 while some of the species that grow in the upper rock pools are often of such a deep colour1 with so much admixture of brown1 that they may be easily mistaken for the olive melanospores to be presently described4 ,most of the rhodosperms are attached directly to the rocks1 and the larger species have often a root-like disc by which they are very firmly held2 but some of the smaller species grow attached to larger weeds1 into the substance of which they frequently penetrate2 and it is possible that these derive some amount of nourishment from the sap of their supporters4 ,some are of a recumbent nature1 being attached to the rock throughout their whole length1 while others are so incrusted with carbonate of lime which has been extracted from the water that they resemble corals rather than forms of vegetable life4 ,nearly all of them contain a bright-red colouring matter in addition to the chlorophyll by which they are enabled to feed on carbonic acid gas4 ,none of the rhodosperms are of really microscopic dimensions1 and they all grow by the repeated division of the cells of the apex1 while the branches are derived by the similar division of new cells at the sides4 ,all plants are particularly interesting during the period of fruiting1 and this is remarkably the case with many of our red-spored sea weeds1 which are brighter and prettier while laden with their spore-producing cells2 and the collector of marine alg should always endeavour to obtain as many species as possible in fruit1 not only on account of the brighter appearance that may characterise them at this time1 but mainly because the opportunity of studying the mode of reproduction should not be missed4 ,in the rhodosperms the reproduction may be either asexual or sexual4 ,in the former case fertile spores are produced without the necessity for any outside fertilising element1 and four are usually produced in each one of the sporangia1 hence they are generally known as tetraspores4 ,where the reproduction is of the sexual type1 the male cells are produced singly in the terminal cells of the fronds1 and since they are usually crowded together in considerable numbers1 and contain none of the red colouring matter that exists in the other parts of the plant1 their presence is easily observed4 ,the female cells 7carpogonia7 are also produced on the tips of the branches1 and when the male elements escape from their cells1 they are conveyed passively by the movements of the water1 for they have no vibratile cilia by which they are propelled1 and on coming into contact with the female cell they adhere closely4 ,an opening is then formed in the latter1 and the male element enters the carpogonium1 which germinates1 deriving its nourishment from the parent plant1 and the spores are thus formed4 ,lastly1 it is interesting to note that the asexual spores1 the male cells1 and the female cells are generally produced on different plants of the same species4 ,we will now proceed to examine some of the best known and most interesting of the rhodosperms1 beginning with the order ,ceramiace1 which contains a number of red or reddish-brown weeds with jointed1 thread-like fronds that enclose a single tube1 and which are generally surrounded by a cuticle of polygonal cells4 ,the spores are contained in transparent berry-like sacs which are naked2 and the four-parted spores 7tetraspores7 are formed in the cells of the cuticle or at the tips of the fronds4 ,over twenty ,british species belong to the genus ,callithamnion1 and nearly all of them are pretty red or rose-coloured1 feathery plants that are conspicuous for their beauty4 ,nearly all are of small size1 the largest measuring only seven or eight inches1 while some are so small that they would scarcely be noticed except by those who search diligently for them4 ,the principal features of the genus are1 in addition to those mentioned above as common to the order1 that the spores are angular1 and clustered within a transparent sac1 and the tetraspores are naked and distributed on the branches4 ,in some species the fronds have no stem1 and these are very small1 generally only about a quarter of an inch in height or less1 and they grow on rocks or weeds1 sometimes clothing the surfaces with a velvet-like covering4 ,c4 floridulum forms a kind of reddish down on the rocks1 sometimes in little rounded patches1 but sometimes completely covering the surface4 ,it occurs on several parts of the ,english coast1 but is so abundant on the west coast of ,ireland that the beach is strewn with it after stormy weather4 ,other allied species grow in minute tufts on rocks1 or are parasitic on other weeds1 and are so inconspicuous that they are but little known4 ,another section of the genus is characterised by pinnate fronds with opposite segments1 and the species are very pretty plants with fronds generally a few inches in length4 ,one of the commonest of these is the ,feathered ,callithamnion 7,c4 plumula71 a great favourite with collectors of sea weeds1 and a most interesting object for the microscope4 ,its soft and flexible fronds grow in tufts from two to five inches long4 ,the branches are regularly arranged1 and the comb-like branchlets bear the tetraspores on the tips of the plumules4 ,this beautiful weed grows near low-water mark1 and in deep water1 and is often very abundant on the beach after storms4 ,c4 ,turneri is another common species1 easily known by its creeping fibres1 attached by little discs to some larger weed1 and from which the tufts of branched fronds stand out erect4 ,on the west and south-west coasts of ,britain we may often meet with the allied ,crossed ,callithamnion 7,c4 cruciatum71 which grows on rocks1 close to low-water mark1 that are covered with a muddy deposit4 ,it grows in tufts1 somewhat resembling those of ,c4 plumula1 but its plumules are arranged two1 three1 or four at a level1 and are very crowded at the tips of the branches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bde4--;,callithamnion roseum ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdf4--;,callithamnion tetricum ,still another section of this large genus contains weeds of a more shrubby growth1 with veined stem and branches jointed obscurely4 ,of these the ,rosy ,callithamnion 7,c4 roseum7 is not uncommonly found on muddy shores1 and especially in and near the estuaries of rivers4 ,it grows in dense dark-coloured tufts1 two or three inches long1 with alternate branches much divided4 ,the tetraspores occur singly1 one at the top of each of the lower joints of the pinnules of the plumes4 ,c4 byssoideum grows on larger weeds in the rock pools1 and especially on ,codium tomentosum 7p4 #cec71 in dense tufts of exceedingly fine filaments1 jointed1 and branched irregularly4 ,the upper branches are plumed1 and their tips bear very fine colourless filaments4 ,the spore-clusters are arranged in pairs1 and the tetraspores are thinly scattered on the pinnules of the plumes4 ,this species is so very delicate in structure that a lens is absolutely necessary to make out its structure4 ,it is1 in fact1 impossible to distinguish between the various species of ,callithamnion without such aid2 and many of them1 particularly the species last described1 require the low power of a compound microscope4 ,among the other common species1 belonging to the same section1 we may mention ,c4 corymbosum1 distinguished by its very slender1 rosy1 jointed fronds1 with the ultimate divisions of the branches disposed in a level-topped 7corymbose7 manner1 growing on rocks and weeds near low-water mark2 ,c4 polyspermum1 growing in globular tufts on ,fucus serratus and ,f4 vesiculosus1 with short awl-shaped pinnules1 and closely-packed clusters of spores2 ,c4 ,hookeri1 with opaque stem and branches1 and spreading branchlets that are themselves branched1 and bear spreading plumules at their tips2 and ,c4 arbuscula1 found on the west coasts1 with a stout stem1 naked below1 and having a very bushy habit4 ,it is often by no means an easy matter to distinguish between the different species in such a large genus as ,callithamnion1 and we strongly recommend the beginner to first study the characteristics on which the classification of the ,alg is based1 and to arrange his specimens according to the orders and genera to which they belong2 and then1 after mastering the principles of classification1 he should refer to one of those larger works in which all known ,british species are described1 and make himself acquainted with the features of each individual species in his collection4 ,before leaving the present genus we ought also to mention the fact that many of the species lose their natural colour rapidly when placed in fresh water2 hence when they are being cleansed for mounting salt water should be employed4 ,further1 even after they have been satisfactorily mounted1 they are liable to be spoiled if left exposed to moist air4 ,the salt water used need not be the natural sea water2 a solution of common table salt1 made up to approximately the same strength as sea water1 will answer the purpose just as well4 ,the genus ,griffithsia includes some very beautiful weeds of delicate threadlike structure and of a fine rose colour4 ,the frond contains a single tube1 and is jointed and forked1 the joints being usually transparent4 ,the spore clusters are enclosed in a gelatinous sac surrounded by a whorl of little branchlets1 the spores themselves being minute and angular4 ,the tetraspores are attached to the inner side of whorled branchlets4 ,the commonest species is ,g4 setacea1 which is of a bright-red colour and slightly branched4 ,it is also of a somewhat firm structure1 but soon loses both firmness and colour when removed from salt water2 and1 like ,callithamnion1 rapidly fades if put into fresh water1 which is readily absorbed through its membranes1 causing them to burst and discharge their colouring matter4 ,it receives its specific name from its bristle-like forked fronds4 ,g4 secundiflora is somewhat like ,setacea1 but is larger1 and the tips of its branches are obtuse4 ,its fronds grow in fan-shaped tufts five or six inches long4 ,it is not a common weed1 but may often be met with on the coast of ,devon and ,cornwall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdg4--;,griffithsia corallina ,g4 barbata1 or the ,bearded ,griffithsia1 receives its name from its very delicate fibres1 which bear spherical1 pink tetraspores4 ,it seems to occur only on the south and south-west coasts1 where it grows on stones or attached to other weeds4 ,our last example of the genus is ,g4 corallina1 which is of a deep-crimson colour1 and is so jointed as to have the appearance of a coralline4 ,its fronds are from three to eight inches long1 regularly forked1 and of a gelatinous nature4 ,the joints are somewhat pear-shaped1 and the spore clusters are attached to their upper ends4 ,it soon fades1 and even if its colour is satisfactorily preserved1 the pressure of the drying press destroys the beautiful rounded form of its bead-like joints4 ,it forms a lovely permanent specimen1 however1 when preserved in a bottle of salt water1 with the addition of a single grain of corrosive sublimate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdh4--;,halurus equisetifolius ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdi4--,pilota plumosa ,our next genus 7,halurus7 contains a common weed of the south coast which was once included in ,griffithsia4 ,it is the ,equisetum-leaved ,halurus 7,h4 equisetifolius71 so called because its branches are regularly whorled round the nodes of the jointed branches1 thus resembling the semi-aquatic ,mare's ,tail4 ,its frond is tubular1 and the spore-clusters are situated on the tips of the branches1 surrounded by a whorl of small branchlets4 ,the genus ,pilota has a slightly flattened cartilaginous frond1 divided pinnately1 and the axis surrounded by a cuticle of two layers of cells4 ,the spore-clusters1 at the tips of the branches1 are surrounded by a whorl of branchlets4 ,it contains only two ,british species1 one of which 7,p4 plumosa7 is a very feathery species1 with comb-like branchlets1 growing on the stems and fronds of other weeds found on our northern shores4 ,the other 7,p4 elegans71 with narrower fronds1 in long flaccid tufts1 is found all round our coasts4 ,our last genus of the ,ceramiace is the large and typical one ,ceramium1 which contains about a dozen ,british species in which the frond is threadlike1 jointed1 branched or forked repeatedly1 with the tips of the branchlets usually curled4 ,the spore-clusters are enclosed in transparent sessile sacs1 surrounded by a whorl of very short branchlets2 and the tetraspores are embedded in the cortex1 but distinctly visible4 ,as a rule the fronds are very symmetrical1 and the branches radiate in a regular fan-like manner4 ,in one species of the genus the frond is completely covered with cortex cells1 and at each node of the frond there is a single spine which1 although so small as to be invisible without a lens1 so effectually locks the threads together that they form an entangled mass that is not easily arranged to the satisfaction of the collector4 ,the species referred to is ,c4 flabelligerum--the ,fan-bearing ,ceramium--and is very rare except in the ,channel ,islands4 ,other species are armed with one or more spines at the nodes1 but the nodes only are covered with cortex cells1 which render them opaque1 while the internodes or joints are transparent4 ,in this group we have ,c4 ciliatum--the ,hairy ,ceramium1 with reddish-purple segments1 and a regular whorl of hairs1 directed upwards1 round each node2 each hair or spine consists of three segments4 ,this plant is common during the summer and autumn1 and may be found in the tide pools at all levels1 either attached to the rocks or parasitic on other weeds4 ,the same section contains ,c4 echinotum1 with rigid1 forked fronds1 and irregularly-scattered one-jointed spines2 it is common on the south coast1 where it may be found on the rocks and weeds of the upper tide pools2 and ,c4 acanthonotum1 also common in the rock pools1 with a single strong three-jointed spine on the outer side of each filament4 ,the last-named weed is found principally on the northern shores1 especially on rocks covered with the fry of the common mussel4 ,other species are characterised by transparent internodes as above described1 but have no spines at the joints1 and may thus be easily floated on to a sheet of paper without the troublesome matting of their fronds4 ,these include the ,straight ,ceramium 7,c4 strictum71 with erect and straight branches growing in dense tufts1 and conspicuous tetraspores arranged round the nodes of the upper branchlets1 ,c4 gracillimum1 of the lower rock pools1 with very slender gelatinous fronds1 swollen nodes and small fan-shaped branchlets2 ,c4 tenuissimum1 closely resembling ,c4 strictum in general appearance1 but distinguished by having its tetraspores only on the outer side of the nodes2 and the ,transparent ,ceramium 7,c4 diaphanum71 which may be found throughout the year on rocks and weeds in the rock pools4 ,the last species is the largest and most beautiful of the genus1 and may be readily recognised by its light-coloured1 transparent stem with swollen purple nodes1 and its conspicuous spore-clusters near the tips of the filaments4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bej4--;,ceramium diaphanum ,our last example of the genus is the ,common ,red ,ceramium 7,c4 rubrum71 which may be found in the rock pools at all levels4 ,it is very variable in form1 but may be known by its contracted nodes1 in which the red tetraspores are lodged1 and its spore-clusters surrounded by three or four short branchlets4 ,it differs from most of the other species in having both nodes and internodes covered with cortex-cells1 and hence the latter are not transparent4 ,the order ,spyridiace has a single ,british representative which may be found in various localities on the south coast4 ,it is ,spyridia filamentosa1 a dull-red weed with thread-like1 tubular1 jointed fronds1 from four inches to a foot in length4 ,the main stem is forked1 and densely clothed with short and slender branchlets4 ,the frond is covered with a cortex of small cells4 ,the spore-clusters are grouped together1 several being enclosed in a membranous cell in conceptacles1 or external sacs1 at the ends of the branchlets2 and the tetraspores are arranged singly along the jointed branchlets4 ,the next family 7,cryptonemiace7 is an extensive one1 containing nearly twenty ,british genera of red or purple weeds1 with unjointed1 cartilaginous1 gelatinous1 and sometimes membranous fronds4 ,the spores are irregularly distributed1 and are contained either in sunken cells or in conceptacles4 ,the tetraspores are either in cells at the edges of the frond or collected together in compact groups4 ,of the genus ,dumontia we have only one species 7,d4 filiformis71 the frond of which is a simple or branched tube1 from an inch to more than a foot in length1 containing a loose network of filaments when young1 and only a gelatinous fluid when the plant is mature4 ,the spores exist in rounded clusters among the cells of the tube1 and the tetraspores are similarly situated4 ,a variety with wide wavy fronds is sometimes found in the brackish water near the mouths of rivers4 ,gloiosiphonia capillaris is a very delicate and beautiful weed found in the lowest tide pools of the south coast4 ,its frond is a very slender branched tube1 filled with a gelatinous fluid1 and composed of delicate filaments embedded in transparent gelatine4 ,it is a beautiful object for the microscope4 ,schizymenia 7,irida7 edulis has flat1 oval1 dark-red fronds that grow in clusters2 and1 being eaten by various marine animals1 is often found imperfect and full of holes4 ,the fronds are sometimes a foot or more in length1 and five or six inches wide4 ,they are thick and leathery1 and each is supported on a short1 cylindrical stem4 ,in the lower tide pools we commonly meet with ,furcellaria fastigiata1 with brownish-red1 cylindrical fronds1 solid1 forked1 and densely tufted4 ,the branches are all of the same height1 with sharp tips2 and the spore-clusters are contained in terminal lanceolate pods4 ,this weed is very much like ,polyides1 of another order1 but may be distinguished by its fibrous1 creeping root1 while that of ,polyides is a disc4 ,the genus ,chylocladia is characterised by a tubular rounded frond composed of two layers1 the inner consisting of branching filaments1 and the outer cellular4 ,the spores are contained in external cones with a pore at the apex1 and the tetraspores are among the superficial cells of the branches4 ,there are two common ,british species of the genus1 one of them--,c4 articulata--with long1 tubular fronds1 constricted at intervals1 the lower branches forked and the upper whorled and tufted2 and ,c4 clavellosa1 with freely branched fronds bearing short spindle-shaped branchlets4 ,one of the best-known alg of the present family is the ,irish ,moss or ,carrageen 7,chondrus crispus71 which will be at once recognised by its representation on ,plate ,,viii4 ,its fronds are cartilaginous1 forked and fan-shaped2 and1 when growing in deep1 sheltered pools1 its branches are often broad and much curled4 ,this weed is an important article of commerce1 being still used as a food for invalids4 ,when boiled it yields a colourless gelatine4 ,in the genus ,gigartina the frond is cartilaginous1 flat1 or threadlike1 irregularly branched1 and of a purplish-red colour4 ,the spores are contained in external tubercles1 and the tetraspores are arranged in masses beneath the surface4 ,the only common species is ,g4 mamillosa1 which has a linear1 furrowed stem1 with fan-shaped1 deeply-cleft fronds4 ,the spores are contained in mamilliform tubercles scattered over the surface of the frond4 ,callophyllis 7,rhodymenia7 laciniata is found on most rocky coasts4 ,it has bright-red1 fleshy fronds that are deeply cleft into wedge-shaped segments1 the fertile specimens with waved edges and small marginal leaflets4 ,it is found on rocks and ,laminaria stems beyond the tide-marks1 but is commonly washed up on the beach during storms4 ,it is a beautiful weed1 and retains its colour well when dried4 ,cystoclonium 7,hypna7 purpurascens is a very common weed1 growing on other alg between the tide-marks1 and sometimes reaching a length of two feet4 ,its cartilaginous1 purple fronds are much branched1 and become almost black when dried4 ,the spores are embedded in the smallest branches1 and the tetraspores are arranged among the superficial cells4 ,the genus ,phyllophora contains a few ,british weeds with a stiff1 membranous frond1 bearing leaf-like appendages1 and supported on a stalk4 ,the tetraspores are contained in external wart-like swellings4 ,the commonest species is ,p4 membranifolia1 the fronds of which are divided into wedge-shaped segments1 and grow in tufts from an expanding root4 ,the spores are contained in stalked sporangia1 and the tetraspores are near the centres of the segments4 ,another species--,p4 rubens--has a shorter stem1 and grows in deep and shady rock pools4 ,its fronds are densely tufted2 and1 as the plant grows1 new series of segments are formed at the tips of the older ones4 ,a third species 7,p4 palmettoides7 has a very bright-red frond and an expanded root4 ,the order ,rhodymeniace includes a number of red or purple sea weeds with flat or thread-like unjointed1 cellular fronds1 the surface cells forming a continuous coating4 ,the spores are lodged in external conceptacles1 and are at first arranged in beaded threads4 ,the tetraspores are either distributed among the surface cells1 collected in clusters1 or situated in special leaflets4 ,the typical genus 7,rhodymenia7 contains two red1 membranous weeds1 the commoner of which is ,r4 palmata 7,plate ,,viii471 so common on the ,scottish and ,irish coasts1 where it forms an important article of diet1 and is known as the ,dulse or ,dillisk4 ,it is also widely distributed over the ,english coasts4 ,its broad1 fleshy fronds are divided into finger-like lobes1 and are either sessile or supported on a stalk that proceeds from a small discoid root4 ,the frond is very variable in form1 being sometimes divided into very narrow segments1 and sometimes quite undivided4 ,one variety has a number of small stalked leaflets on its margin 7see ,plate ,,viii472 and another is very narrow1 with wedge-shaped irregular lobes4 ,r4 palmetta is a smaller and less common species that grows on rocks and large weeds in deep water4 ,the tetraspores form crimson patches on the tips of the lobes4 ,maugeria 7,delesseria7 sanguinea 7,plate ,,viii47 is a large and beautiful weed1 of a blood-red colour1 that grows in the lower rock pools or beyond low-water mark1 under the shade of high rocks or hidden by the olive tangles4 ,its frond is thin and membranous1 with a well-defined midrib4 ,the spores are contained in globular stalked conceptacles1 usually on one side of the midrib2 and the tetraspores may be seen in pod-like leaflets attached to the bare midrib during the winter4 ,passing over some of the rarer membranaceous ,rhodymeniace1 we come to the beautiful ,plocamium1 distinguished by its linear compressed crimson fronds1 which are pinnate1 with comb-like teeth1 the branchlets being alternately arranged on either side in threes and fours4 ,the spores are on radiating threads1 in globular conceptacles2 and the tetraspores are in the outer divisions of the frond4 ,we have only one species of this beautiful genus1 and that is ,p4 coccineum1 which is of such a brilliant colour that it is always a favourite with collectors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #bea44--,plocamium ,our last example of the order is ,cordylecladia 7,gracilaria7 erecta1 with threadlike1 cartilaginous frond1 irregularly branched and cellular in structure4 ,the fronds arise from a disc-like root2 and bear spores in thickly-clustered spherical conceptacles1 and tetraspores in lanceolate pods at the tips of the branches1 both in the winter4 ,it is a small weed1 and grows principally on sand-covered rocks near low-water mark4 ,the order ,sphrococcoide contains red or purple sea weeds with unjointed cartilaginous or membranaceous fronds1 composed of many-sided1 elongated cells1 with spores in necklace-like strings1 lodged in external conceptacles4 ,the typical genus 7,sphrococcus7 contains the ,buck's-horn sea weed which grows at and beyond low-water mark on the south and west coasts1 where it is sometimes washed up on the beach during storms4 ,its fronds are flattened and two-edged1 freely branched1 and the upper branches are repeatedly forked1 and terminate in fan-shaped1 cleft branchlets4 ,both branches and branchlets are fringed with slender cilia1 in which the spores are embedded4 ,it is a handsome weed1 of a bright-red colour and a somewhat coral-like form4 ,allied to this is ,gelidium corneum1 with flattened1 horny fronds1 repeatedly pinnate1 with the smallest branchlets obtuse and narrower at the base4 ,the spores are contained in conceptacles near the extremities of the branchlets1 and the tetraspores are imbedded in club-shaped branchlets4 ,there are a large number of varieties of this species1 differing in form1 size1 and the mode of branching of the fronds4 ,the size varies from one to five or six inches1 and the colour is red or reddish green4 ,in the genus ,gracilaria the frond is thick and horny1 and the surface cells are very small1 while the central ones are large4 ,the spores1 formed on necklace-like threads1 are enclosed in sessile conceptacles along the branches1 and the tetraspores are imbedded among the surface cells of the fronds4 ,the only common species is ,g4 confervoides1 with cylindrical cartilaginous fronds bearing long thread-like branches1 sometimes reaching a length of two feet4 ,the spore conceptacles are situated on the slender branches1 giving them a knotted or beaded appearance4 ,the colour is a dark purple1 which rapidly fades when the weed is placed in fresh water or left exposed to the air4 ,two other species--,g4 multipartita and ,g4 compressa--are rare4 ,calliblepharis ciliata1 perhaps more commonly known as ,rhodymenia ciliata1 has a branching root1 short round stem1 and a broad1 crisp frond that is generally ciliated4 ,sometimes the frond is simple and lanceolate1 with small leaf-like appendages on its edge2 and sometimes it is deeply cleft4 ,the spores are arranged in beaded threads in sessile conceptacles on the marginal leaflets4 ,another species of the same genus 7,c4 jubata7 is very similar in structure1 but is of a duller-red colour1 gradually changing to olive green at the tips2 and it has its tetraspores in the cilia only1 while in ,c4 ciliata they are collected in patches in all parts of the frond4 ,both species grow in deep water1 and are frequently washed up during storms4 ,the large genus ,nitophyllum contains some beautiful rose-red sea weeds1 with irregularly cleft membranaceous fronds1 either veinless1 or with a few indistinctly visible veins only at the base4 ,the spores are in rounded sessile conceptacles scattered on the surface of the frond2 and the tetraspores occur in clusters similarly scattered4 ,one of the species--,n4 laceratum--so called from the torn and jagged appearance of the frond1 is represented on ,plate ,,vii4 ,the fronds are attached to a disc-like root1 and are very variable in form1 being sometimes so narrow as to appear almost threadlike4 ,the plant grows on rocks and large weeds in the lower rock pools and in deep water4 ,in the same genus we have ,n4 punctatum1 with broad pink fronds1 dotted all over with spore-conceptacles and dark-red clusters of tetraspores2 also a few other less common species that are seldom seen except after storms1 as they grow almost exclusively in deep water4 ,the genus ,delesseria contains some beautiful rose-coloured and reddish-brown weeds with delicate1 leaf-like1 symmetrical fronds1 each of which has a darker midrib from which issue transverse veins4 ,the spores are arranged like minute necklaces1 and are contained in sessile conceptacles either on the midrib of the frond or on leaflets that grow from the midrib4 ,the tetraspores are in clusters which are scattered over the frond or on its leaflets4 ,the alg of this genus are seldom found growing between the tide-marks1 as they generally thrive in deep water1 but splendid specimens are often washed up on the beach during storms1 especially on the south and south-west coasts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beb4--;,delesseria alata ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bec4--;,delesseria hypoglossum ,among these we may specially mention ,d4 alata1 known popularly as the ,winged ,delesseria1 with a dark-red1 forked frond1 consisting of a strong midrib1 bordered by a wing-like lamina of very variable width1 supported by opposite veins4 ,in this species the clusters of tetraspores are arranged on each side of the midrib or special leaflets near the tips of the frond4 ,d4 sinuosa is a less common weed1 with a disc-like root and an oblong1 cleft and toothed frond1 and tetraspores in leaflets growing from its margin4 ,another species--,d4 hypoglossum--is characterised by the leaflets of the midrib bearing still smaller leaflets in the same manner4 ,we have already referred 7p4 #cff7 to a sea weed commonly known as the ,dock-leaved ,delesseria1 the scientific name of which is ,maugeria 7,delesseria7 sanguinea4 ,this plant was once included in the present order1 but has been removed on account of the different structure of its fruit4 ,our next order is the interesting one containing the coral-like weeds1 some of which are so common and so conspicuous in the rock pools4 ,the order is known as the ,corallinace1 and all its species secrete carbonate of lime1 which hides their vegetable structure and gives them more the appearance of stony corals4 ,the typical genus 7,corallina7 includes two weeds with jointed pinnate fronds1 and spore-conceptacles at the tips of the branches with a terminal pore4 ,these and the allied sea weeds are very unlike plants in their general nature1 their stony covering of carbonate of lime hiding all traces of the delicate cellular structure so characteristic of the various forms of vegetable life1 and especially those of aquatic or marine habit4 ,if1 however1 the weed is put into dilute hydrochloric 7muriatic7 acid the calcareous matter will be completely dissolved in a minute or two1 with evolution of bubbles of carbonic acid gas2 and if a portion of the frond be then examined in a drop of water under the microscope1 the cellular structure referred to will be seen as well as in any other weed4 ,another characteristic of the plant1 or rather of the carbonate of lime which it secretes1 is its property of becoming intensely luminous when held in a very hot flame4 ,thus if a tuft of coralline be held in the flame of a ,bunsen burner1 it will glow so brilliantly as to remind us of the lime light4 ,further1 if we examine the plant in its natural state1 we find that the carbonate of lime is not secreted uniformly in all parts1 but that the nodes of the jointed frond are free from the stony deposit1 and are therefore flexible4 ,our commonest species--,c4 officinalis--may be found in almost every rock pool between the tide-marks1 growing on rocks1 shells1 and other weeds4 ,the joints of the stem and branches are cylindrical or somewhat wedge-shaped1 while those of the branchlets are linear2 and the colour varies from a dark purple to white1 the former prevailing in the deep and shady pools and the depth of tint decreasing according to the amount of exposure to the bleaching action of the sun4 ,a second species 7,c4 squamata7 is very similar in growth and habit1 but is much less common1 and is confined to the neighbourhood of low-water mark4 ,it may be distinguished from the last by the form of the segments1 which are short and globose in the lower portions of the stem1 and become broader and more flattened towards the tips of the branches4 ,another genus--,jania--contains a few coralline weeds that are somewhat like ,corallina1 but are of a more slender habit and smaller1 and have a moss-like appearance4 ,they may be distinguished by the forked branching of the slender frond1 and by the position of the conceptacles in the axils of the branches1 and not at the tips4 ,j4 rubens is a very common red species that grows in tufts on other weeds4 ,it has cylindrical segments1 longer towards the tips of the branches2 while another and less common one 7,j4 corniculata71 found principally on the south coasts1 has flattened segments except in the branchlets4 ,a third genus of the order--,melobesia--contains a very peculiar group of alg that would certainly never be regarded as plants by those who did not know them4 ,they are apparently mere solid incrustations of calcareous matter1 without any jointed structure1 and often of very irregular form1 covering the surfaces of rocks1 shells1 or weeds4 ,they are of varying colours1 some prevailing tints being dark purple1 lilac1 rose1 and yellow2 and they are equally variable in form1 some being decidedly lichen-like1 some resembling fungoid masses1 and others consisting of superimposed leaf-like layers4 ,they are not weeds to be pressed for the collector's album1 but require storing in boxes or trays like sea shells4 ,as in the case of the branched corallines1 the hidden vegetable structure may be revealed by dissolving away the carbonate of lime2 and the spore-conceptacles1 with terminal pores1 may be seen scattered irregularly over the surface4 ,the order ,laurenciace contains some beautiful pink1 red1 and purple weeds with round or flattened branching fronds4 ,they may be known by the disposition of the tetraspores1 which are irregularly scattered over the branches2 and by the pear-shaped spores in rounded capsules4 ,the typical genus 7,laurencia7 includes an abundant weed 7,l4 pinnatifida7 which was formerly eaten in parts of ,scotland1 where it is known as the ,pepper ,dulse on account of its peppery taste4 ,it is found in the tide pools on many parts of the coast1 and varies much in size1 form1 and colour according to the situation in which it grows4 ,the plants which are exposed to the air at low tide are usually small1 and of a pale brown colour1 while those found in the permanent rock pools at or near low-water mark are larger and dark brown or purple4 ,the fronds are flat and cartilaginous1 with stout branches bearing alternate divided branchlets1 which are blunt at the tips4 ,the stem itself is unbranched4 ,the spores are pear-shaped1 in oval cells2 and the tetraspores are irregularly distributed near the tips of the branches4 ,another common species1 known as the ,tufted ,laurencia 7,l4 cspitosa71 is very similar to the last mentioned1 and is not easily distinguished from it4 ,it is1 however1 of a bushy habit1 while ,l4 pinnatifida is flat1 and its fronds are less firm4 ,this species grows on rocks and stones between the tide-marks1 and is variegated in colour from a pale green to a purple4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bed4--,laurencia pinnatifida ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bee4--,laurencia obtusa ,a third species--the ,obtuse ,laurencia 7,l4 obtusa7--is widely distributed on our coasts1 and may be known by its thread-like bipinnate fronds with short blunt branchlets1 cup-shaped at the tips4 ,it is parasitic on various other weeds4 ,the genus ,lomentaria includes a few weeds with tubular fronds that are constricted at intervals1 and divided internally by transverse membranous septa4 ,the spores are pear-shaped and lodged in spherical cells2 and the tetraspores are scattered on the surface of the branches4 ,one species called the salt-wort 7,l4 kaliformis7 is widely distributed4 ,its colour is pink1 sometimes yellowish1 and it grows on rocks or stones1 and sometimes on other weeds4 ,it may always be known by its spherical fruit1 without any visible opening1 containing crimson pear-shaped spores4 ,another species 7,l4 ovalis71 found on the coasts of ,devon and ,cornwall1 may be recognised by its solid branched frond and little oval leaf-like branchlets1 which are hollow1 jointed1 and divided by partitions internally4 ,the one remaining order of the red-spored sea weeds is the ,rhodomelace1 which has either a jointed or a many-tubed axis1 and the surface divided up into little definite areas4 ,the fronds are either leafy or thread-like1 and the prevailing colours are red1 reddish brown1 and purple4 ,the spores are pear-shaped1 and occupy the terminal cells of tufted threads in external1 globular1 or rounded conceptacles2 and the tetraspores are lodged in special receptacles1 or in special modified branchlets4 ,the order contains some of our most beautiful weeds1 while some of its members are of a very dark colour and unattractive form4 ,the typical genus--,rhodomela--contains two ,british species with dark-red1 cartilaginous fronds1 cylindrical1 unjointed1 and irregularly branched2 and the tetraspores imbedded in the tips of the slender branchlets4 ,the name of the genus signifies #8red-black1' and is applied on account of the tendency of the dark-red fronds to turn black when dried4 ,r4 subfusca is very common on all our coasts4 ,it has rigid fronds1 irregularly branched2 and is in its best condition during the summer4 ,the other species--,r4 lycopodioides--has long undivided branches with thickly-set and freely-divided branchlets4 ,when turning over the fronds of different species of the larger olive weeds we commonly find them more or less clothed with tufts of filamentous plants1 sometimes small and delicate1 and sometimes larger and of more robust growth1 varying in colour from a purplish brown to a dark violet1 and the articulated filaments more or less distinctly striated with parallel lines4 ,these weeds belong to the genus ,polysiphonia1 and derive their generic name from the fact that the threadlike fronds are composed of several parallel tubes4 ,the surface cells are also arranged in regular transverse rows1 and it is this which gives rise to the striated appearance above referred to4 ,over twenty species of ,polysiphonia are to be found on our shores1 where they exist at all levels between the tide-marks4 ,they are distinguished from one another partly by their general form and mode of growth1 and also by the number of tubes in their threadlike fronds4 ,although they would not always be considered as lovely weeds and are often anything but beautiful when dried and mounted1 yet in their fresh condition they are generally pretty objects1 and their microscopic structure is particularly interesting on account of the beautiful and symmetrical arrangement of their siphons and tubes4 ,if the reader is the fortunate possessor of a compound microscope1 it will amply repay him to make transverse sections of the fronds for examination4 ,a short length of the frond should be inserted into a slit cut in a piece of carrot or elder pith2 and1 while thus supported1 very thin transverse sections may be easily cut with a sharp razor1 care being taken to keep both razor and object very wet during the process4 ,allow the sections to fall into a vessel of water as they are cut1 and then select the thinnest for examination1 mounting them in a drop of water in the usual way4 ,specimens in fruit should always be obtained when possible1 so that the nature of the fructification may be observed4 ,two kinds of spores may be seen in each species1 but1 as is usually the case with the red sea weeds1 on different plants4 ,some are small pear-shaped bodies1 enclosed in oval cells at the tips of the fronds2 and the others are arranged in clusters of four in swollen parts of the threads4 ,the commonest species is ,p4 fastigiata1 which may be found in abundance as bushy brownish tufts on the fronds of ,fucus nodosus 7p4 #chf74 ,a transverse section of this weed is a very beautiful microscopic object4 ,it resembles a wheel1 with a dark centre to the nave1 and several spokes enclosing about sixteen regularly arranged tubes4 ,the swollen tips of fronds should also be examined for the urn-shaped cells containing the spores2 and if a gentle pressure be applied to the cover-glass with a needle1 the little pear-shaped spores may be expelled4 ,the other kind of spores may be found near the bases of the branches on different plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bef4--,polysiphonia fastigiata ,among other species we may briefly mention--,p4 parasitica1 sometimes found near low-water mark1 growing in little feathery tufts of a bright-red colour1 on the lichen-like ,melobesia or on corallines4 ,it has seven or eight parallel siphons in its fronds1 all regularly arranged round a small central space4 ,p4 ,brodii is moderately common on our coasts4 ,this is a large brown species1 with seven siphons surrounded by a thick cellular layer which conceals the articulations and is too opaque to allow the siphons to be seen without dissection4 ,its branches1 which are alternate1 bear short tufts of delicate branchlets4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beg4--,polysiphonia parasitica ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beh4--,polysiphonia ,brodii ,p4 byssoides1 so called on account of the pink filaments that fringe the fronds1 has also seven siphons4 ,it is a large and beautiful weed1 moderately common on our coasts1 of a bright-red colour1 with conspicuous fructification4 ,the branches are alternate1 and the branchlets are clothed with the byssoid filaments above referred to4 ,p4 violacea is of a reddish-brown colour1 with long silky alternate branches1 and four siphons4 ,it receives its specific name from the fact that it turns to a violet colour when dried4 ,p4 nigrescens has1 as the specific name implies1 blackish fronds1 and these are freely branched4 ,the tubes1 about twenty in number1 are flat1 and are arranged round a large central space4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bei4--,polysiphonia nigrescens ,our last example--,p4 atro-rubescens--is of a dark reddish-brown colour1 with rigid and densely-tufted fronds4 ,it has twelve tubes1 arranged spirally round a central cavity4 ,it is common in the lower rock pools of some coasts4 ,in the same order we have the genus ,chondria1 so called on account of the cartilaginous nature of its thread-like fronds4 ,these are pinnately branched1 and the club-shaped branchlets taper below4 ,the main stem is jointed and contains many siphons4 ,the genus includes a common species 7,c4 dasyphylla71 with thick fronds1 that is found in shallow sandy pools1 where it grows on pebbles1 shells1 or on other weeds1 the colour varying from pink to a dark purple4 ,c4 tenuissima is a very similar weed1 but may be distinguished by its more slender growth1 and by its long1 rod-like simple branches1 clothed with slender1 bristle-like branchlets that taper from the middle towards both ends4 ,on the northern coasts of ,britain we may meet with ,odonthalia dentata1 the blood-red fronds of which are tufted1 and arise from a hard1 disc-like root4 ,each frond projects from the axil of a tooth-like projection of the main stem1 and is deeply pinnatifid1 with a distinct midrib in the lower part1 and thin and membranaceous towards the tip4 ,the pinna are dentate1 and the spores are in stalked1 oval conceptacles in the axils of the pinn4 ,the tetraspores are similarly situated in stalked1 lanceolate leaflets4 ,the weeds of the genus ,rytiphla are very similar to some of the ,polysiphonia1 the axis of the frond being jointed and transversely striped1 but the nodes are less distinct and are not constricted4 ,they are shrub-like weeds1 with tufted spores in oval1 sessile conceptacles2 and tetraspores in spindle-shaped branchlets or in little pod-like leaflets4 ,the principal ,british species are3-- ,r4 pinastroides1 a much-branched and shrub-like weed1 of a dull-red colour1 which turns black when the plant is dried4 ,the branches have rigid1 hooked branchlets arranged in such a manner as to give a combed appearance4 ,this species occurs on the south coast1 and is in its prime in very early spring4 ,it is often rendered peculiarly interesting by the colonies of zoophytes and the patches of ,melobesia with which it is more or less covered4 ,r4 fruticulosa is another shrubby species1 with irregularly branched1 interlacing stems4 ,it is to be found in the rock pools of the south and west coasts1 and is of a deep-purple colour in the deeper shady pools1 but varying to a yellowish tint where exposed to the full light of the sun4 ,the whole of the frond is covered with hooked branchlets1 and the weed is peculiar for the fact that1 when removed from the rock pool1 little glistening beads of water remain attached to the tips of the terminal branches4 ,the tetraspores are situated in distorted branchlets4 ,r4 thuyoides has creeping1 fibrous roots1 from which arise the erect stems of purple-brown1 branched fronds with short spine-like branchlets4 ,it occurs in the shallower rock pools1 where it grows attached to rocks or to other weeds4 ,it is in its best condition during the summer1 when we may see its oval spore-conceptacles and the tetraspores in distorted branchlets4 ,the last genus of the ,rhodomelace is ,dasya1 which contains some very graceful and brightly-coloured weeds that are found principally on our south and west coasts4 ,in these the fronds are thread-like or flattened1 branched1 and without visible joints4 ,the main stem contains many tubes1 but the tubular structure is hidden by the outer layer of cells2 and the branchlets1 which are slender1 one-tubed1 and jointed1 bear little lanceolate pods that contain the tetraspores4 ,d4 ocellata has small tufted fronds1 about two or three inches long1 attached to a small discoid root4 ,the main stems are densely covered with slender1 forked branchlets1 those at the tips being clustered in such a manner as to recall the eye-like marks of the peacock's tail4 ,it grows principally on the mud-covered rocks beyond low-water mark1 and is not by any means a common weed4 ,another species--,d4 arbuscula--is somewhat plentiful on parts of the ,scottish and ,irish coasts1 but comparatively rare in ,south ,britain4 ,it has a small disc-like root1 and stems thickly clothed with short branchlets4 ,the spore-conceptacles are tapering1 on short stalks1 and the tetraspores are contained in pointed pods on the branchlets4 ,the scarlet ,dasya 7,d4 coccinea7 may be commonly seen at and beyond low-water mark during late summer1 at which time splendid specimens may also be found on the beach after storms4 ,its stem is thick1 proceeding from a discoid root1 and is clothed with hair-like filaments2 and the branches bear short1 slender branchlets that give them a feathery appearance4 ,the tetraspores are contained in elongated1 pointed1 and stalked pods4 ,there are three other species on the ,british list1 but they are not common weeds4 ,the last of the three great groups into which the sea weeds are divided is the ,melanosperme1 or olive-spored alg1 the different species of which are generally very readily distinguished by their olive-green or olive-brown colour1 for the whole plant1 as well as the spores1 contains a dark olive colouring matter1 in addition to the chlorophyll which is always present4 ,these weeds are often very large1 frequently attaining a length of twenty feet or more in our seas1 and from eighty to a hundred feet in warmer parts2 and1 being also extremely abundant almost everywhere1 they form a most conspicuous feature of the shore4 ,they usually grow on rocks and stones1 from high-water mark to moderately deep water1 but some of the smaller species are pseudo-parasitic on other alg4 ,their form is most varied4 ,some are minute filamentous plants1 consisting only of slender jointed threads1 and others are mere shapeless masses2 but many of the larger species exhibit a great differentiation of form1 having root-like and stem-like structures1 and expansions that resemble leaves4 ,the latter1 too1 often have large vesicles that contain air1 sometimes arranged singly along the median line of the frond1 or in lateral pairs1 or a single vesicle at the base of each segment of the thallus4 ,the air vesicles1 of course1 serve to buoy up the plant when it is submerged1 thus enabling the light to penetrate between its fronds to lower portions2 and when the plants have been wrenched from their moorings by the force of the waves1 they immediately rise to the surface and are drifted on to the shore or accumulate in the eddies of the surface currents4 ,in this way immense masses of floating weeds are formed1 the most remarkable being that of the ,sargasso ,sea in the ,north ,atlantic4 ,like other alg1 the melanospores grow by a continued process of cell-division1 and when portions of the thallus are worn away during stormy weather1 they are renewed by the same process4 ,the cell-walls of many species are very mucilaginous1 the gelatinous covering being either the result of the degeneration of the cell-walls themselves1 or the secretion of special glands4 ,as with the last division1 the reproduction of the melanospores may be asexual or sexual4 ,the asexual spores1 which are not motile1 are formed in some of the surface cells of the thallus4 ,the male and female sexual organs1 called respectively the antheridia and the oogonia1 are produced in cavities on special portions of the thallus1 both kinds being often formed in the same cavity or depression4 ,the latter contains from one to eight little bodies called oospheres4 ,these escape and float passively away when the wall of the oogonia ruptures4 ,the antheridia are also discharged whole1 but the minute fertilising elements 7antherozoids71 which are eventually set free from them1 swarm round the oospheres1 being attracted by the latter4 ,soon one of the antherozoids enters the oosphere1 and from that moment all attraction ceases1 the remainder of the antherozoids floating passively away2 and the oosphere1 previously naked and barren1 now develops a cell-wall1 and becomes the fertile progenitor of a new plant4 ,starting with the lowest of the melanospores1 we first deal with the order ,ectocarpace1 which is characterised by olive1 thread-like1 jointed fronds1 with spores on the branchlets or embedded in their substance2 two kinds of spores often existing in the same plant4 ,the typical genus 7,ectocarpus7 contains many ,british species1 though several of them are rare4 ,they are soft and flexible weeds1 generally of a dull olive colour1 with slimy1 tubular fronds1 and grow in tufts on other weeds or on mud-covered rocks4 ,spores of various shapes are scattered over the fronds1 and are also contained in pod-like bodies formed of the branchlets4 ,this latter feature is1 perhaps1 the best distinguishing characteristic of the genus1 but it is not an easy matter to identify the several species it contains4 ,e4 tomentosus is very commonly found on ,fucus and other weeds1 where it forms matted tufts of slender threads of a yellowish-brown colour4 ,the threads are clothed with transparent cilia1 and together form a dense1 spongy mass4 ,the spores are contained in narrow pods supported on short stalks4 ,e4 littoralis is another common species1 of a very unattractive appearance4 ,it grows in matted tufts on other weeds1 on rocks1 mud1 or any submerged object1 and its spores are contained in linear swellings of the branches4 ,this species thrives well in brackish water1 and may be seen far up certain tidal rivers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfj4--;,ectocarpus granulosus ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfa4--;,ectocarpus siliculosus ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfb4--;,ectocarpus ,mertensii ,among the other species we may briefly mention ,e4 granulosus1 an abundant and beautiful weed that grows in feathery tufts on rocks and weeds1 with elliptical1 stalkless pods1 quite visible to the naked eye1 freely distributed over the opposite branchlets2 ,e4 siliculosus1 a pale olive1 parasitic species with lanceolate stalked pods1 pointed and striped2 ,e4 sphrophorus1 a small1 soft1 brownish-yellow species1 with dense matted branches and spherical pods arranged either opposite to one another or to a branchlet2 and ,e4 ,mertensii1 a pretty species that grows on muddy rocks1 freely branched but not matted1 and having pods enclosed by the branchlets4 ,the last species is rare1 but may be found in ,cawsand ,bay and a few other localities about ,plymouth ,sound4 ,the genus includes several other species1 but all these are more or less rare4 ,in the genus ,myriotrichia we have two parasitic species with fragile1 hair-like1 jointed fronds bearing simple straight branches that are covered with transparent fibres4 ,in these the spore-cases are rounded and transparent1 and arranged along the main threads2 and the dark olive spores are readily visible within4 ,in ,m4 filiformis the branchlets are short1 and clustered at intervals1 thus giving a somewhat knotted appearance to the threads1 and both branches and branchlets are covered with long fibres4 ,the other species--,m4 clavformis--is very similar1 but may be distinguished by the arrangement of the branchlets1 which are not clustered at intervals1 but are distributed regularly1 and are longer towards the tip of the frond1 giving the appearance of minute fox-brushes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfc4--,sphacelaria cirrhosa ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfd4--,sphacelaria plumosa ,the genus ,sphacelaria contains several ,british weeds with rigid branched and jointed fronds1 most easily distinguished by the tips of the branches1 which are flattened1 contain a granular mass1 and have a withered appearance4 ,s4 cirrhosa forms hair-like tufts of slender fibres with closely-set branches on small weeds1 the tufts varying from a quarter of an inch to over an inch in length4 ,the fronds are naked at the base1 and the spore-cases1 which are globular1 are arranged on the branches4 ,s4 filicina is1 as its name implies1 of a fern-like appearance1 but is very variable in form4 ,its fronds vary from one to three inches in length1 and the spores are arranged singly in the axils of the branchlets4 ,excluding some rarer species we mention one other example--the broom-like ,s4 scoparia1 the frond of which is coarse and very rigid1 of a dark-brown colour1 two or three inches long1 with the lower portion clothed by woolly fibres4 ,its spores are arranged in clusters in the axils of the branchlets4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfe4--,sphacelaria radicans ,the last genus of the ,ectocarpace is ,cladostephus1 which grows in dark-green tufts1 usually five or six inches long1 in the deeper tide pools4 ,the fronds are cylindrical1 branched1 inarticulate1 and rigid2 and the branchlets1 which are short and jointed1 are arranged in whorls4 ,the spores are situated in short accessory branchlets1 or in masses at the tips of the ordinary branchlets4 ,c4 verticillatus is a very common species1 the whorled branchlets of which are deciduous in winter1 when the accessory branchlets that bear spores begin to develop4 ,c4 spongiosus is densely clothed with branchlets1 and is of a bushy habit1 with a very spongy feeling4 ,it is by some regarded as a variety of ,c4 verticillatus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bff4--;,cladostephus spongiosus ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfg4--;,chordaria flagelliformis ,the order ,chordariace is characterised by a compound gelatinous or cartilaginous frond1 consisting of interlacing horizontal and vertical threads4 ,the spores are not external as in the ,ectocarpace1 but contained in cells in the substance of the frond4 ,in the typical genus the frond has a cylindrical1 branched1 cartilaginous axis1 surrounded by whorls of club-shaped threads and slender gelatinous fibres4 ,we have only one common species--,chordaria flagelliformis1 the fronds of which are from four to twenty inches long1 of uniform thickness throughout1 with long1 glistening1 soft and slimy branches among which the spores are disposed4 ,it may be found in rock pools at almost all levels4 ,in the genus ,elachista there are some very small and peculiar weeds that are almost sure to be overlooked by inexperienced collectors4 ,they are parasitic1 and are composed of two kinds of jointed threads1 the inner of which are forked and combined into a tubercle1 while the outer are simple and radiate from the tubercle4 ,the spores are attached to the inner threads4 ,the largest species 7,e4 fucicola7 is parasitic on ,fucus1 growing in brush-like tufts about an inch long4 ,some of the smaller ones are mere star-like tufts of no attractive appearance1 and would be disregarded as troublesome parasites by most young collectors1 but all of them are very interesting objects for the microscope4 ,the members of the genus ,myrionema are similarly liable to be neglected1 for they are minute parasites appearing only as decaying spots on larger weeds1 but nevertheless form interesting studies for the microscope4 ,like the last group1 they have two sets of jointed fibres1 the inner being branched1 and spread over the surface of the plant on which it grows1 while the outer are simple and stand out at right angles1 but all are united into a rounded mass by a gelatinous substance4 ,perhaps the best known is ,m4 strangulans1 which infests ,ulva and ,enteromorpha1 producing the appearance of small decaying spots4 ,in the genus ,leathesia we have other unattractive weeds1 the jointed and forked threads of which are all united together into tuber-like fronds that are common on rocks and weeds between the tide-marks4 ,there are three or four species1 all similar in general appearance1 with the spores distributed among the outer threads4 ,these weeds cannot be satisfactorily pressed and dried in the usual way1 and should be preserved in formaldehyde or dilute spirit1 when they will always be available for microscopic examination4 ,the last genus of the ,chordariace is ,mesogloia1 so called because the central axis of loosely-packed1 interlacing threads is covered with gelatinous substance4 ,around this axis there are radiating1 forked threads which are tipped with clubbed and beaded fibres among which the spores are distributed4 ,one species 7,m4 vermicularis71 common in most rock pools1 is of a wormlike form1 of a dirty olive or yellow colour1 with soft1 elastic fronds growing in tufts from one to two feet long4 ,m4 virescens1 also a common species1 is of a pale greenish or olive colour1 and very soft and slimy4 ,its stem is round and slender1 freely branched1 with short1 simple branchlets4 ,the order ,dictyotace contains the olive weeds with inarticulate fronds1 and superficial spores disposed in definite lines or spots4 ,in the typical genus 7,dictyota7 the frond is flat and forked1 somewhat ulva-like and ribless1 and the spores are produced in little superficial discs just beneath the cuticle4 ,there is only one ,british species--,d4 dichotoma--but that is a very common one1 and it assumes a great variety of forms as regards the shape and division of its fronds according to the situation in which it grows1 the fronds being broadest and strongest in the deepest water4 ,the root is covered with woolly fibres1 and the frond is regularly forked4 ,one of the most interesting alg of this order is the ,turkey-feather ,laver 7,padina pavonia71 which is the only ,british representative of its genus 7see ,plate ,,vii474 ,its very pretty fan-shaped fronds are of a leathery nature1 curved1 fringed along the upper margin1 and marked with concentric lines4 ,they often bear small leaflets1 and are partially covered with a powdery substance which renders them beautifully iridescent when in the water4 ,the root has woolly fibres1 and the spores are arranged in lines along the upper margin4 ,this weed seems to be confined to the south coast1 where it may often be seen in the deeper tide pools2 though in some of the sandy bays of the ,isle of ,wight it may be seen in shallow pools1 and even in places left exposed to the air at low tide4 ,the genus ,zonaria contains a ,british species 7,z4 parvula7 that covers the rocks in round patches2 and though moderately common is not very frequently seen by collectors on account of the fact that it grows in the deep crevices of rocks at or near low-water mark4 ,its frond is flat and membranaceous1 more or less divided into lobes1 without veins1 and rather obscurely divided into concentric zones4 ,it is attached to the rock by fibres that proceed from the under surface of the frond1 and the spores are arranged in clusters beneath the superficial cells4 ,cutleria multifida1 though not very abundant1 is to be found on most of our coasts2 but since it grows almost exclusively beyond low-water mark1 it should be looked for on the beach after storms1 or in the fishermen's nets4 ,the frond is olive-green1 fan-shaped1 rather thick1 and irregularly divided into forked branches2 and it has a beautifully netted surface4 ,the spore-cases may be seen scattered over the surface of the frond as so many black dots1 and the antheridia are elongated1 cylindrical bodies attached to tufted filaments on all parts of the frond4 ,in the genus ,stilophora the root is discoid2 the frond cylindrical1 hollow1 and branched2 and the spores arranged in clusters over the surface4 ,one species 7,s4 rhizodes7 is occasionally to be seen on the south coast4 ,it is of a yellowish colour1 from six to twenty inches long1 and may be known by its long thread-like branches1 with scattered1 forked branchlets1 and by the wart-like projections of the stem which contain the spores4 ,this weed is often the source of some disappointment to the collector1 for it soon turns to a jelly-like mass when removed from the water1 and should therefore be mounted as soon as possible after it has been collected4 ,the fennel-like ,dictyosiphon fniculaceus is abundant in tide pools1 where it may be seen in its best condition during spring and early summer4 ,its root is a small disc1 the frond is tubular1 thread-like and branched1 and the branches bear hooked branchlets4 ,the spores are naked1 and distributed either singly or in clusters over the surface of the frond4 ,our next genus--,punctaria--contains a few ,british species with a shield-shaped root1 and a flat1 membranous1 undivided frond1 without a midrib1 and having the spores disposed as minute dots over the surface4 ,a plantain-like species 7,p4 plantaginea7 has broad1 leathery1 lanceolate fronds1 of a dark olive-brown colour1 usually from six inches to a foot in length4 ,two other weeds--the broad-leaved ,p4 latifolia of the tide pools1 and the slender1 tufted ,p4 tenuissima1 which is parasitic on ,zostera and soe alg1 are sometimes regarded as mere varieties of ,p4 plantaginea4 ,in the genus ,asperococcus the root is shield-shaped1 and the frond is a membranous tubular sac of two distinct layers4 ,the colour is pale green1 and the general appearance very similar to that of ,ulva4 ,the spores are arranged in small oblong clusters which appear as dark dots on the surface of the frond4 ,a4 compressus has slightly swollen flat fronds of a linear lanceolate form1 tapering below4 ,it grows in deep water1 but is often washed up during storms4 ,a second species--,a4 ,turneri--has large1 puffy1 green fronds1 contracted at intervals1 and grows in tufts on rocks between the tide-marks1 being specially partial to muddy shores4 ,the genus also includes the prickly ,a4 echinatus1 the long1 thin fronds of which grow in dense tufts in deep water4 ,the last genus of the order is ,litosiphon1 a parasitic group characterised by a cylindrical1 cartilaginous1 unbranched frond1 with scattered1 naked spores4 ,a very small species 7,l4 pusillus7 with tufted green fronds grows parasitic on the fronds of ,chorda and the stems of ,laminaria4 ,it is only two or three inches long1 has a reticulated surface1 and is covered with minute jointed fibres4 ,a still smaller species 7,l4 laminari71 seldom exceeding half an inch in length1 forms brown tufts on ,alaria1 and the rounded apex of its frond is covered with minute fibres4 ,the order ,laminariace contains olive1 inarticulate alg1 mostly of large size1 and generally growing in deep water beyond the tide-marks4 ,their spores are superficial1 either covering the whole surface of the frond or collected into indefinite cloudy patches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfh4--,laminaria bulbosa ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfi4--,laminaria saccharina ,the typical genus 7,laminaria7 is characterised by flat leathery1 ribless fronds1 either simple or cleft1 and supported on a stem which is often very thick and strong4 ,the old lamin fall off every year1 and are replaced by new fronds4 ,the well-known ,tangle or ,sea ,girdle 7,l4 digitata71 is a very common species on the rocks just beyond low-water mark4 ,it has a very thick1 solid1 cylindrical stem1 and an oblong leathery frond which is entire when young but deeply cleft later4 ,small specimens may be found just above low-water mark1 but fine large ones are commonly washed up on the beach4 ,although this weed may not be regarded as an acquisition from the collector's point of view1 it will generally repay a careful examination1 as it frequently bears rare parasitic species4 ,the other common species are the ,furbelows 7,l4 bulbosa71 known by its flat stem with waved margin1 oblong frond cleft into narrow strips1 and the hollow bulb or tuber just above the root2 and the ,sugared ,laminaria 7,l4 saccharina7 characterised by a round solid stem1 and a lanceolate1 entire1 membranous frond4 ,the last species is the one most commonly used by the sea-side cottager as a weather indicator4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,,sea-,,weeds #a4 ,chorda filum #b4 ,fucus vesiculosus #c4 ,fucus canaliculatus #d4 ,delesseria 7,maugeria7 sanguinea #e4 ,rhodymenia palmata #f4 ,chondrus crispus #g4 ,ulva lactuca ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgj4--;,alaria esculenta ,alaria esculenta is an edible species known as the ,badderlocks in ,scotland1 and also locally as the ,henware1 ,honeyware1 and the ,murlins4 ,it has a fibrous root1 and a stalked1 lanceolate1 entire frond with a distinct midrib throughout4 ,the stem is winged with finger-like leaflets1 in which the spores are arranged in oblong clusters4 ,in the genus ,chorda the frond is a simple1 cylindrical tube1 divided internally by numerous transverse membranes1 and the spores are distributed over the surface4 ,the commonest species is ,c4 filum 7see ,plate ,,viii471 the frond of which is very slimy1 and often from ten to twenty feet in length4 ,in its young state it is covered with gelatinous hairs1 but these are worn off as the plant develops4 ,a smaller species 7,c4 lomentaria7 is sometimes found on our shores4 ,its fronds are constricted at intervals1 taper at the tip1 and grow in tufts4 ,it is seldom more than a foot long1 and is not of a slimy nature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bga4--,sporochnus pedunculatus ,the ,sporochnace have inarticulate1 thread-like fronds1 and the spores are contained in oblong1 stalked receptacles1 each of which is crowned with a tuft of slender jointed filaments4 ,the typical genus contains only one ,british species--,sporochnus pedunculatus--and even that is by no means common4 ,it is1 however1 a very pretty weed of a delicate texture and pale olive-green colour4 ,its stem is long and slender1 pinnately branched1 and the branches bear numerous small thread-like tufts4 ,the same order contains the genus ,desmarestia1 in which the frond is long and narrow1 thread-like or flattened1 with a tubular jointed thread running through it4 ,young specimens have marginal tufts of branching filaments4 ,the species decay very rapidly after removal from the water1 and should therefore be dried and mounted as quickly as possible4 ,d4 ligulata1 so named from the flat1 strap-like frond1 is common on all our coasts4 ,it is pinnately branched1 and all the branches and branchlets taper towards both ends4 ,d4 viridis has a cylindrical1 thread-like and freely-divided frond1 with opposite branches and branchlets4 ,it occurs more commonly on the northern shores4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgb4--;,desmarestia ligulata ,the last order of olive-spored weeds is the ,fucace1 some species of which are so abundant between the tide-marks1 from high-water to low-water levels1 that they form a very important characteristic of our shores4 ,they are mostly large1 tough1 and leathery weeds1 without joints1 and the spores are contained in spherical receptacles embedded in the substance of the frond4 ,in the typical genus--,fucus--the root is a conical disc1 and the frond flat or compressed and forked4 ,most of the species are furnished with one-celled air-vessels in the substance of the frond1 and these serve to buoy up the plants and keep them more or less erect when submerged4 ,the spore-receptacles are usually embedded near the tips of the branches1 but are sometimes borne on special branches or shoots4 ,they are filled with a slimy mucus and contain a network of jointed filaments4 ,the weeds are very hardy1 capable of withstanding long exposures to air and sun1 and are sometimes to be found above high-water mark1 where they are watered only by the spray of the waves for a brief period at intervals of about twelve hours4 ,although they are not usually looked upon as ornaments in the collector's herbarium1 they will repay examination for the tufts of smaller and more beautiful weeds to which they often give attachment and shelter4 ,four species are common on our coasts1 and these may be readily distinguished by the most cursory examination4 ,the ,serrated ,wrack 7,f4 serratus7 has a flat1 forked frond with toothed edges and a strong midrib1 ranging from one to four feet long1 and no air-vessels4 ,the ,knotted ,wrack 7,f4 nodosus--,plate ,,vii47 may be known by its flattened1 thick and narrow frond1 without a distinct rib1 from one to five feet long4 ,the branches are narrow at the base1 pointed at the tip1 and are jointed to short projections on the main stem2 and both these and the main stem have very large oval air-vessels4 ,the spore-receptacles are mounted on slender stalks which arise from projections on the branches1 and are of a bright yellow colour when mature4 ,this species does not grow so near to high-water mark as do the others4 ,another species1 the ,twin-,bladder ,wrack 7,f4 vesiculosus--,plate ,,viii47--is abundant everywhere along the coast1 and is largely used by agriculturists both as manure and as fodder for cattle4 ,the frond is flat1 with a distinct midrib1 and a non-serrated edge4 ,air-vessels are not always present1 but when they are they usually occur in pairs1 one on each side of the midrib1 and are globular in form4 ,the spore-receptacles are situated at the tips of the branches1 are full of mucus1 and are frequently forked4 ,the last of the common species is the ,channelled ,wrack 7,f4 canaliculatus--,plate ,,viii471 distinguished by a narrow frond1 rounded on one side and channelled on the other4 ,it has no midrib or air-vessels1 and the fruit is contained in forked receptacles at the tips of the branches4 ,this is the smallest of the genus1 and may be found at all levels between the tide-marks4 ,stunted specimens may also be seen in situations where they are never submerged1 but watered only by the spray of the highest tides4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgc4--;,himanthalia lorea ,the genus ,himanthalia provides us with a single species 7,h4 lorea7 which is very peculiar on account of the small size of the frond as compared with the enormous dimensions of the spore-receptacles4 ,the young frond is a pear-shaped sac which soon becomes flattened into a hollow disc4 ,this disc then becomes solid1 and concave above1 and from its centre there arises a bi-forked1 strap-like receptacle that often reaches a length of three or four feet1 and may be mistaken for the frond of the weed by those who do not take the trouble to examine it4 ,this weed is commonly known as the ,sea ,thong4 ,belonging to the genus ,cystoseira we have a few well-known weeds with conical disc-roots1 and shrubby fronds with woody stem and alternate branches4 ,the air-cells are in the substance of the frond1 and the spore-receptacles at the tips of the branches4 ,one of the species 7,c4 ericoides7 is of a heath-like habit1 with a short1 woody stem1 and slender branches bearing hooked1 leaf-like branchlets4 ,its air-cells are small1 and are arranged singly near the tips of the branches2 and the spore-receptacles are cylindrical1 with hooked points4 ,this weed is common on the south and west coasts1 and may be readily distinguished by the beautiful iridescence it displays when in the water4 ,c4 fibrosa is very similar in general form1 but is larger1 and the air-vesicles are more conspicuous4 ,it is not iridescent when in the water4 ,a third species is named ,c4 granulata from the rough and knobby appearance of the stem1 due to numerous oval projections1 from some of which spring the slender1 much-divided branches4 ,the air-vesicles are arranged in groups of two or three1 and the spore-receptacles are at the ends of the branchlets4 ,our last example is ,c4 fniculacea1 found on the south coast only1 and readily distinguished by the numerous blunt spines that cover its long branches4 ,the air-vesicles are narrow and pointed1 and situated just below the forkings of the branchlets4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgd4--;,cystoseira ericoides ,we conclude our rsum of the ,british sea weeds with a short description of the ,podded ,sea ,oak 7,halidrys siliquosa71 which grows in the tide pools from high-water to low-water mark1 the specimens inhabiting the shallow pools being only a few inches long1 while those that grow in deep water often reach a length of three or four feet4 ,it is an olive1 shrub-like weed1 with a conical1 disc-like root that adheres very firmly to the rock1 and a pinnately-branched frond with leaf-like branchlets4 ,the air-vesicles are cylindrical and pod-like1 divided internally into about ten cells1 and the spores are contained in globular receptacles at the tips of the branchlets4 ,the young algologist will probably meet with many difficulties in his attempts to classify his sea weeds and name the various species in his collection4 ,in dealing with an unknown weed we strongly recommend him to first determine the order to which it belongs4 ,the genus should next be settled2 and then1 if possible1 the species4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that he who has made himself acquainted with the principles of classification has done good work1 and that it is far better to be able to arrange the weeds into properly-classified groups than to merely learn the names of the different species without regard to the relations which they bear to one another4 ,the following table will probably assist the reader in the determination of the orders1 but it must be remembered that a microscope will often be necessary for the examination of the spores and the minute structure of fronds4 ,,classification ,,of ,,sea ,,weeds ,a4 ,chlorosperme--,green-spored weeds4 ,fronds usually grass-green1 and filamentous or membranous4 #a4 ,confervace--,frond thread-like1 composed of cylindrical cells placed end to end4 ,spores very minute1 formed within the cells4 #b4 ,ulvace--,frond grass-green or purple1 flat or tubular4 ,spores minute1 ciliated1 formed in the cells of the frond4 #c4 ,siphonace--,frond a single1 thread-like1 branching cell1 or a spongy mass of many such cells4 ,b4 ,rhodosperme--,red-spored weeds4 ,spores in globular conceptacles4 ,tetraspores 7four-clustered spores7 in globular or cylindrical cells4 ,frond red1 reddish brown1 or purple4 #d4 ,ceramiace--,frond thread-like1 jointed1 one-siphoned1 and more or less covered with a layer of cortical cells4 ,spores grouped in transparent1 membranous sacs1 sometimes surrounded by a whorl of short branchlets4 #e4 ,spyridiace--,frond thread-like1 jointed1 one-siphoned1 more or less covered with small cells4 ,spores formed in the upper cells of branched1 jointed1 radiating threads1 enclosed in a cellular membrane in external conceptacles4 #f4 ,cryptonemiace--,frond more or less cartilaginous1 composed of numerous jointed threads compacted by gelatine4 ,spores grouped without order in internal cells or in external conceptacles4 #g4 ,rhodymeniace--,frond inarticulate1 membranaceous1 composed of polygonal cells1 the surface cells forming a continuous layer4 ,spores in beaded threads in external conceptacles4 #h4 ,wrangeliace--,frond inarticulate1 thread-like1 traversed by a jointed tubular axis4 ,spores formed in the terminal cells of clustered1 branching1 naked threads4 #i4 ,helminthocladi--,frond cylindrical1 gelatinous1 composed of filaments imbedded in gelatine4 ,spores formed on branching1 radiating threads that are enclosed in the frond without conceptacles4 #aj4 ,squamari--,frond lichen-like1 rooted by under surface1 composed of vertical filaments imbedded in firm gelatine4 ,spores in beaded threads in wart-like projections4 #aa4 ,spongiocarpe--,frond cylindrical1 branching1 cartilaginous1 composed of netted filaments imbedded in firm gelatine4 ,spores large1 in radiating clusters in wart-like excrescences4 #ab4 ,gelidiace--,frond cartilaginous1 inarticulate1 composed of hair-like filaments4 ,spores attached to slender threads in internal conceptacles4 #ac4 ,sphrococcoide--,frond leaf-like or thread-like1 inarticulate1 cellular4 ,spores formed in beaded threads in external conceptacles4 #ad4 ,hapalidiace--,frond minute1 calcareous1 composed of a single layer of cells4 #ae4 ,corallinace--,frond calcareous4 ,spores in tufted threads at the bases of the conceptacles4 #af4 ,laurenciace--,frond rounded or flattened1 branching1 inarticulate1 cellular4 ,spores in external oval or globular conceptacles4 ,tetraspores irregularly scattered over the branches4 #ag4 ,rhodomelace--,frond leafy1 thread-like1 or jointed1 composed of polygonal cells4 ,spores in external conceptacles4 ,tetraspores in distorted branchlets or in receptacles4 ,c4 ,melanosperme--,olive-spored weeds4 ,frond tough1 leathery4 ,spores in globular cavities in substance of frond4 #ah4 ,ectocarpace--,frond jointed1 thread-like4 ,spores attached to or imbedded in branchlets4 #ai4 ,chordariace--,frond gelatinous or cartilaginous1 composed of interlacing vertical and horizontal filaments4 ,spores internal1 attached to the filaments4 #bj4 ,dictyotace--,frond inarticulate4 ,spores superficial1 arranged in definite spots or lines4 #ba4 ,laminariace--,frond inarticulate4 ,spores covering the whole frond or in cloud-like patches4 #bb4 ,sporochnace--,frond inarticulate4 ,spores attached to jointed filaments which are either free or compacted4 #bc4 ,fucace--,frond inarticulate1 large and tough4 ,spores in globular cavities4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,flowering ,,plants ,,of ,,the ,,sea-,,side ,a considerable number of our flowering plants exhibit a decided partiality for the neighbourhood of the sea1 and many are to be found only on the sea cliffs or in salt marshes not far from the shore4 ,the principal of these will be now briefly described1 dealing first with the monocotyledons1 and then with the more highly organised dicotyledons4 ,the chief distinguishing features of these two groups have already been referred to1 but it will be advisable here to give them in somewhat fuller detail4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bge4--,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,stem ,,of ,a ,,monocotyledon ,the monocotyledonous plants1 then1 are those in which the stem is more or less woody and cylindrical1 without either true bark or pith2 and the woody tissue is not arranged in concentric rings1 but in isolated bundles1 which first bend inwards1 as they rise1 towards the centre of the stem1 and then curve outwards towards the surface1 which is hardened by the formation of a layer of hard woody matter4 ,as a rule the stem is unbranched1 and its growth takes place by a single bud at the summit4 ,in nearly all of them the leaves are long and narrow1 with veins running parallel throughout their length2 and the parts of the flower are arranged in whorls of three or six4 ,the outer whorl of the flower is often a conspicuous white or coloured perianth 7that portion of the flower which lies outside the anthers71 but in some the perianth is absent1 the flower being protected by scaly bracts4 ,the seeds are produced in a case called the ovary1 and are fertilised by pollen grains which are developed in the anthers4 ,when the pollen grains are set free they alight on the adhesive stigma1 and grow1 sending their tubes down into the ovary4 ,the term monocotyledon is applied to these plants because the embryo has only one cotyledon or seed-leaf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgf4--,,leaf ,,of ,a ,,monocotyledon ,the principal divisions of this group are the ,glumaceous ,monocotyledons1 in which the flower has no perianth1 but is enclosed in scaly bracts or husks called glumes2 and the ,petaloid ,monocotyledons1 distinguished generally by the presence of a more or less conspicuous white or coloured perianth4 ,the first of these includes the rushes1 sedges1 and grasses2 and the other contains the lilies and orchids1 with their allies1 together with certain aquatic and semi-aquatic plants4 ,among the ,grasses there are several species that show a preference for the immediate neighbourhood of the sea1 some growing luxuriantly at the bases of the cliffs where the beach is sandy1 and others thriving best in salt marshes2 but before dealing with these individually we shall note the general characteristics of the order 7,gramine7 to which they belong4 ,grasses are distinguished by their jointed stems1 which are usually hollow1 with a split sheath1 and bearing alternately arranged narrow leaves4 ,the flowers1 which are disposed either in spikes 7sessile flowers arranged along a common axis7 or in panicles 7flowers stalked and arranged as in fig4 #bha71 consist of scale-like bracts enclosing the stamens and the pistil4 ,the bracts are in two series1 the outer usually consisting of two glumes1 and the inner of two pales2 the upper pale1 however1 has two ribs running through it1 and is therefore usually looked upon as a combination of two4 ,in some species both glumes and pales are absent2 but the former1 when present1 enclose one or more flowers1 among which may be some that are abortive4 ,the stamens are generally three in number1 attached to the base of the flower2 and the ovary is superior or free1 that is1 it grows above the other parts of the flower1 and contains but one seed4 ,it will be convenient at this stage to refer briefly to the two principal methods by which the pollen of flowers is transferred to the stigmas for the purposes of fertilisation1 and to see how various species are structurally adapted to the means by which the transfer is brought about4 ,speaking generally1 we may classify flowers into those which are fertilised by the wind 7anemophilous flowers7 and those in which the pollen is transferred by insects 7entomophilous flowers74 ,the former offer no attractions to allure the various forms of insect life4 ,they are1 generally speaking1 very inconspicuous1 being of small size and having no bright corollas4 ,none of them are scented1 nor do they produce the sweet nectar that forms the principal food of so many insects4 ,their anthers are borne on long filaments1 so that they are exposed freely to the wind2 and they produce abundance of pollen to compensate for the very wasteful method of wind-dispersion4 ,the pollen1 too1 is not very adherent1 so that it may be readily carried away by the breeze2 and the plants concerned often produce their flowers early in the spring1 before the leaves have appeared1 thus giving the wind very free play4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgg4--;,,expanded ,,spikelet ,,of ,,the ,,oat ,g4 glumes2 ,p4e1 outer pale2 ,p4i1 inner pale2 ,a1 awn2 ,f4,s1 a sterile flower4 ,the stamens and the feathery stigmas of the fertile flower are also shown ,insect-fertilised flowers1 on the other hand1 are usually of attractive appearance2 and1 though often small and inconspicuous individually1 they are in such cases grouped together in more or less showy clusters4 ,they are also usually scented1 and supply nectar and pollen to the insects which they allure4 ,some are fertilised by insects that fly by day1 and these often close their petals on the approach of night1 thus protecting their pollen during the period in which their fertilisers sleep4 ,others1 fertilised by nocturnal insects1 always spread their petals during the night1 and generally protect their pollen from waste by sleeping throughout the day4 ,as a rule1 too1 these night-bloomers have large and pale-coloured petals that are more easily seen by night2 they also evolve a powerful scent to aid the insects in searching them out4 ,it will be seen that the economic relationship existing between flowers and insects is a mutual one1 the latter visiting the former in order to obtain food1 while the former derive in return the advantage of a direct transfer of pollen from flower to flower4 ,it is a well-known fact that the self-fertilisation of a flower often results in the development of very weak seedlings as compared with those that are produced by crossing2 and it often happens that the pollen of a flower is incapable of producing the least effect when deposited on the stigma of the same bloom4 ,in some cases the contact of the pollen of a flower with its own stigma will even act as a poison1 causing the whole to shrivel and die2 and truly wonderful are the varied means by which flowers contrive to secure a cross-fertilisation4 ,it is here that the work of the wind and insects proves so valuable to flowers2 but1 in addition to this1 a very large number of flowers are absolutely incapable of self-fertilisation1 for the anthers and the stigma are not mature at the same time1 or they exist in separate flowers1 either on the same plant or on distinct plants of the same species4 ,it is most interesting and instructive to study the many contrivances by which flowers compel certain insects to convey the pollen exactly in the way that best serves their purpose1 sometimes even entrapping them after they have been allured1 and not allowing them to escape until they are thoroughly dusted with the pollen which they are required to convey2 but it is hardly our province to enter more fully into this matter in these pages4 ,an examination of the grasses will show at once that they are adapted for fertilisation by the wind4 ,the flowers produce no nectar2 and1 consistently1 develop no bright petals and evolve no odours to attract insects4 ,on the other hand1 their anthers produce abundance of lightly-adhering pollen1 and are mounted on long filaments which hold them well exposed to the wind2 and the stigmas are well adapted for catching the scattered grains1 being long and protruding1 and often covered with sticky hairy or feathery appendages4 ,although the flowers of grasses are generally wanting in attractive colours1 the clusters of blossoms are often very graceful and pretty1 especially when the large anthers1 covered with bright-yellow pollen1 dangle in the breeze4 ,we will now briefly describe the principal ,british grasses that grow chiefly or exclusively in the immediate neighbourhood of the sea4 ,the ,sea ,hard ,grass 7,lepturus filiformis7 is a perennial species1 usually about six inches in height1 very common on some sandy coasts1 and found in flower during the hottest months of the summer4 ,the flowers are arranged in simple spikes1 on slender erect stems2 and the glumes1 which are united at their bases1 enclose a single bloom4 ,in similar situations we may find the ,sea ,lyme ,grass 7,elymus arenarius71 a tall species1 often reaching a height of four feet1 with glaucous rigid leaves4 ,the flowers are arranged in a simple spike1 but the spikelets are clustered two or three together4 ,this species flowers in ,august4 ,of the well-known ,barley ,grasses there is one species 7,hordeum maritimum7 that has its habitat along the coast4 ,like the others of its genus1 the spikelets are arranged in threes1 each bearing a single flower1 and the pales have long slender processes 7awns7 which constitute the so-called beard4 ,it also resembles the common ,meadow ,barley ,grass in having the middle flower of each three perfect1 while the two laterals are abortive1 but may be distinguished by its rough and bristly glumes1 and the semi-oval form of the pales of the lateral flowers4 ,it is a somewhat stunted species1 sometimes only five or six inches in height1 and may be found in flower about ,midsummer4 ,the ,brome ,grasses have also a representative of a sea-loving nature1 which is to be found in fields near the cliffs4 ,it is the ,field ,brome ,grass 7,bromus arvensis71 an annual grass that grows to a height of two or three feet4 ,brome grasses generally are known by their loose panicles of flowers1 lanceolate and compressed spikelets1 and awned florets enclosed in unequal glumes2 and ,b4 arvensis may be distinguished by its hairy leaves and stem-sheath1 and the drooping panicle with the lower peduncle branched4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgh4--,,the ,,sea ,,lyme ,,grass ,among the ,meadow ,grasses we have three or four coast species4 ,in these the florets are in panicles and are not awned4 ,the outer glumes are keeled and traversed by several veins2 and the lower pales are also keeled1 with five or more nerves4 ,the ,sea ,meadow ,grass 7,poa maritima7 grows in salt marshes near the sea1 its erect rigid panicles reaching a height of about eight or ten inches4 ,it has a creeping root1 and its leaves are curved inward at the margins4 ,the ,procumbent ,meadow ,grass 7,p4 procumbens7 and a variety of the ,reflexed ,meadow ,grass 7,p4 distans7 are also plentiful in salt marshes4 ,the former may be known by the short rigid branches of its panicle and the five ribs of the lower pales2 and the latter is much like ,p4 maritima1 but grows taller1 and its spikelets are crowded4 ,the ,wheat ,meadow ,grass 7,p4 loliacea7 grows on sandy shores4 ,its spikelets are arranged singly and alternately along the central axis1 and the upper glume reaches to the base of the fourth floret4 ,this species flowers in ,june1 but the other three of the same genus bloom from ,july to ,september4 ,the reader is probably acquainted with the ,fescue ,grass1 with its awned flowers arranged in one-sided panicles4 ,there are no less than seven species1 one of which--the ,single-husked ,fescue 7,festuca uniglumis7--grows on sandy shores1 flowering in ,june and ,july1 and reaching a height of from nine to twelve inches4 ,the panicles are upright and unbranched1 and the species may be readily known by the flowers1 which are compressed1 with long awns1 and with the lower glumes wanting4 ,knappia agrostidea is a dwarf species1 rarely exceeding four inches in height1 that is found on certain sandy shores1 but is very local4 ,its flowers are arranged in a simple spike1 the spikelets being solitary and unilateral1 with only a single flower1 and the pales are shaggy4 ,the plant has several stems which bear short1 rough leaves4 ,the ,mat ,grass or ,sea ,reed 7,ammophila arundinacea7 is common on many sandy coasts1 where it grows to a height of three or four feet1 and flowers in ,july4 ,the white flowers are clustered in dense cylindrical1 pointed spikes2 and the leaves are of a glaucous green colour1 rigid1 and curved inward at the edges4 ,dog's-tooth ,grass 7,cynodon dactylon74 ,this species has a creeping root1 and the leaves are downy on the under side4 ,the flowers are arranged in a compound spreading spike1 of three to five parts1 and the spikelets are of a purplish colour1 ovate in form1 and arranged in pairs4 ,the glumes are equal in size4 ,it is found on sandy shores1 grows to a height of about six inches1 and flowers in ,july4 ,a species of ,canary ,grass 7,phalaris arundinacea7 is also to be seen on sandy coasts4 ,unlike the other species of the same genus1 its flowers form an erect spreading panicle1 and the glumes are not keeled4 ,it is also taller than the common canary grass of waste places1 often reaching a height of three feet1 and is commonly known as the ,reed ,canary ,grass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgi4--,knappia agrostidea ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhj4--,,the ,,dog',s-,,tooth ,,grass ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bha4--,,the ,,reed ,,canary ,,grass ,the ,sea ,cat's-tail ,grass 7,phleum arenarium7 is common on many coasts4 ,it is much smaller than the common species of ,cat's-tail1 being generally less than a foot high4 ,the spike is of an elongated oval form1 blunt at the tip and narrow at the base2 and the glumes are narrow1 pointed at both ends1 and fringed4 ,each spikelet has but one flower4 ,in salt marshes we occasionally meet with the ,perennial ,beard ,grass 7,polypogon littoralis71 but it is somewhat rare4 ,it has a creeping root1 and the flowers form a somewhat dense spike-like panicle4 ,the glumes have a slender awn4 ,it grows to a height of one to two feet1 and flowers in ,july4 ,the ,tuberous ,fox-tail ,grass 7,alopecurus bulbosus7 is another rare grass of the salt marshes1 where it grows to the height of twelve to sixteen inches1 flowering in ,may and ,june4 ,the genus to which it belongs is very closely allied to ,phleum1 but may be distinguished by having only one pale to each flower1 and this species has a long awn attached to the back portion4 ,the panicle1 too1 is cylindrical and slender1 the glumes quite free and abruptly pointed1 and the awns longer than the pales4 ,the last of the sea-side grasses are two rare species of ,cord ,grass 7,spartina71 both of which are found in salt marshes4 ,in these the inflorescence is a compound spike1 with one-sided spikelets inserted in a double row4 ,the glumes are keeled and pointed2 the pales cleft1 pointed and without awns2 and the styles two in number1 very long4 ,the only ,british species of the genus are the two 7,s4 stricta and ,s4 alternifolia7 referred to above4 ,they both grow to a height of about eighteen inches1 and flower in late summer4 ,in the former the spikes number two or three1 and are longer than the leaves2 and the outer glume is hairy1 with a single nerve4 ,the latter1 which is the rarer of the two1 bears several spikes1 shorter than the leaves2 and the outer glume has five nerves4 ,certain of the sedges 7order ,cyperace7 are also more or less familiar to the sea-side naturalist1 and must therefore receive a small share of our attention4 ,in general terms these are grasslike1 monocotyledonous plants1 the stems of which are solid1 jointed1 and frequently angular4 ,the leaves are very similar to those of grasses1 except that the sheaths1 which surround the stem1 are not split4 ,the flowers are generally arranged in a spike1 overlapping each other1 and each one supported on a scale-like bract4 ,in some sedges the flowers are perfect1 each one possessing both stamens and pistil2 but in some species the flowers are unisexual1 some bearing stamens and no pistil1 and others pistil only4 ,the stamens are generally three in number1 the ovary is superior1 and the stigmas either two or three4 ,sedges abound in moist places1 some being peculiar to salt marshes1 while others grows on sandy shores2 and a few of the ,british species of the latter habitat are often so abundant that their creeping roots bind the sand together1 effectually holding it in place while the surrounding portions of the beach are mercilessly driven by the wind4 ,a few of the sea-side sedges belong to the genus ,carex1 in which the flowers are imperfect1 and the fruit is enclosed in the outer parts of the flower4 ,c4 extensa thrives in salt marshes1 growing to a height of a foot or more1 and flowering about midsummer4 ,its fertile flowers form oblong erect spikelets1 while the barren spikelets are solitary4 ,the bracts are long and leafy1 with short sheaths surrounding the stem4 ,the leaves are curved in at the edges1 and the fruit is oval and ribbed1 with a short straight beak4 ,on sandy shores the ,sea ,sedge 7,c4 arenaria7 is often common1 and its underground stems are used for sarsaparilla4 ,it is a perennial species1 growing to a height of about nine inches1 and flowering in ,june and ,july4 ,the flowers grow in an oblong interrupted spike1 the upper spikelets being barren1 and the intermediate ones barren at the tip4 ,the fruit is oval1 veined1 and winged4 ,another species of this genus--the ,curved ,sedge 7,c4 incurva7--is sometimes to be seen on sandy shores1 but it is rare1 and is also a very small sedge1 growing only to a height of about three inches4 ,it derives its specific name from its curved stem1 and may be further distinguished by its channelled leaves and the globular mass of spikelets which are barren on the top4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhb4--,,male ,,and ,,female ,,flowers ,,of ,carex1 ,,magnified ,some of the so-called rushes belong to the same order as the sedges1 and a few of these are more or less restricted to the neighbourhood of the sea4 ,the ,salt-marsh ,club ,rush 7,scirpus maritimus71 as its name implies1 is to be found in marshes near the sea4 ,it is very variable in height1 ranging from one to three feet1 and displays its dense terminal cluster of spikelets in ,july and ,august4 ,in this genus all the flowers are perfect1 the glumes imbricated and bristled2 and the present species may be distinguished by the glumes being divided into two sharply pointed lobes4 ,a variety of ,s4 lacustris may also be found on the sea shore1 but it is somewhat rare4 ,it has a leafless glaucous stem1 and flowers arranged in compound spikes4 ,the glumes are rough1 and contain a compressed fruit4 ,a very small species of the ,spike ,rush 7,eleocharis parvula71 growing only one or two inches high1 is sometimes found on the muddy shores of ,ireland4 ,it has perfect flowers1 in a single terminal spikelet4 ,the leaves are very narrow1 growing from the base of the plant2 and the round stem is enclosed in a single leafless sheath4 ,the true rushes belong to the order ,juncace4 ,these have fibrous roots and narrow leaves1 and bear clusters of brown flowers4 ,the perianth consists of six parts1 and the stamens are usually six in number4 ,the ovary is generally three-celled1 developing into a three-valved capsule4 ,the ,lesser ,sea ,rush 7,juncus maritimus7 is common in salt marshes1 growing to a height of two or three feet1 and flowering in ,july4 ,it has a rigid leafless stem1 bearing lateral clusters of flowers4 ,the segments of the perianth are very narrow and sharp1 and the seeds are enclosed in a loose testa4 ,closely allied to this species is the ,great ,sea ,rush 7,j4 acutus71 which grows three or four feet high on sandy shores4 ,in general characteristics it resembles ,j4 maritimus1 but the segments of the perianth are oval and have thin transparent margins2 and it is a much rarer species4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhc4--,,the ,,sea ,,sedge ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhd4--,,the ,,curved ,,sedge ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhe4--,,the ,,great ,,sea ,,rush ,we now pass to the peculiar ,sea ,grasses or ,grass ,wracks 7,zostera7 which grow in salt water4 ,they belong to the order ,naiadace1 and are characterised by cellular leaves with parallel veins1 and inconspicuous unisexual or bisexual flowers4 ,the perianth1 when present at all1 consists of two or four scale-like parts1 and the stamens correspond in number with these4 ,the ovary is free1 and the carpels1 one or more in number1 contain each a single ovule4 ,in ,zostera the flowers are imperfect1 and seem to grow in the slit of the leaf4 ,there are two species1 both of which grow in shallow water close to the shore1 often in such dense masses that they impede the progress of boats4 ,they have long creeping stems that lie buried in the sand1 giving off numerous root-fibres1 and send up to the surface slender branches that bear grass-like leaves4 ,the flowers are unisexual1 and are arranged in two rows on the same side of a flattened stalk that is enclosed in a sheath formed by short leaves4 ,they have no perianth1 the male flowers being composed of a single anther1 and the female of a one-celled ovary containing a single ovule1 and surmounted by a style with two long stigmas4 ,there are two species--the ,broad-leaved ,grass ,wrack 7,z4 marina7 with leaves one to three feet long and traversed by three or more parallel veins1 and the ,dwarf ,grass ,wrack 7,z4 nana71 the leaves of which are less than a foot long1 with veins numbering one to three4 ,there is a variety of the former1 however1 named ,angustifolia1 in which the leaves are much narrower than usual1 and the veins fewer in number4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhf4--,,the ,,broad-,,leaved ,,grass ,,whack ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhg4--,,the ,,sea-,,side ,,arrow ,,grass ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhh4--,,the ,,common ,,asparagus ,the order ,alismace1 which contains the water plantains1 arrow-heads1 and other semi-aquatic plants1 has a representative of marine tendencies in the ,sea-side ,arrow ,grass 7,triglochin maritimum74 ,the flowers of this order are bisexual1 with six stamens and a six-parted perianth4 ,the fruit consists of many carpels2 and1 although the plants are monocotyledons1 their leaves have netted veins2 and altogether they somewhat resemble the ranunculaceous exogens4 ,the ,sea-side ,arrow ,grass is abundant in some salt marshes1 growing to a height of about a foot1 and produces loose simple spikes of green flowers all through the summer4 ,the leaves are radical1 narrow and fleshy2 and the ovary consists of six carpels4 ,of the interesting order ,liliace we have only one plant of the coast1 and even that--the ,asparagus--is not by any means generally common4 ,it is the same plant that is so largely cultivated as an article of diet1 and which is so highly valued on account of its diuretic properties4 ,it is moderately common on parts of the south coast1 particularly in the ,isle of ,portland and in ,west ,cornwall1 and its general appearance is so graceful that it is largely employed as an ornamental garden plant4 ,the stem is erect and freely branched1 bearing feathery bunches of bristled leaves and pale-yellow axillary flowers4 ,as is the case with the ,liliace generally1 the flowers are bisexual1 with a six-parted perianth1 six stamens1 and a three-celled superior ovary2 and the last named1 in the ,asparagus1 forms a bright-red berry in the autumn4 ,we have now to leave the monocotyledonous plants and pass on to the dicotyledons1 which form the most highly developed of the primary divisions of the vegetable kingdom4 ,a few of the general characteristics of this group have already been given1 but we must now look rather more closely into the nature of the plants included4 ,the class receives its name from the presence of two cotyledons or seed-leaves in the embryo plant1 and is also known as the ,exogen because the stems increase in thickness by the addition of zones of woody tissue at the exterior4 ,when the young dicotyledonous plant first appears above the ground1 the two cotyledons1 which formerly served to shelter the immature bud1 usually appear as tiny fleshy leaves2 but these soon wither away1 while the bud produces the more permanent leaves that are of a very different structure4 ,a section of the stem will reveal distinct pith1 wood1 and bark1 the wood being more or less distinctly divided into wedge-shaped masses by rays from the pith2 and1 in the case of perennial stems1 the wood is arranged in concentric rings1 the number of which correspond approximately with the years of growth4 ,the leaves of exogens have their veins in the form of a network1 and the parts of the flower are generally arranged in whorls of two or five or of some multiple of these numbers4 ,the flowers always have stamens and pistil1 but in some these organs exist in separate flowers1 either on the same plant1 or on different plants of the same species1 and the ovules are nearly always contained in a case called the ovary4 ,dicotyledons are divided into three main groups1 the division being based on the structure of the flowers4 ,they are the ,apetal in which the petals are absent1 but the perianth is frequently petaloid1 though it is occasionally also absent2 the ,gamopetal1 in which the petals are united2 and the ,polypetal1 in which the petals are always distinct4 ,dealing with these divisions in the above order we come first to the ,spurges1 three species of which occur on sandy shores4 ,they belong to the order ,euphorbiace1 which includes1 in addition to the spurges1 a number of herbs1 trees1 and shrubs with entire leaves often a milky juice1 and small flowers1 sometimes enclosed in calyx-like bracts4 ,the flowers may have one or several stamens1 and the perianth1 if present1 consists of three or four parts2 but perhaps the best distinguishing feature of the order is the nature of the fruit1 which separates elastically into three carpels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhi4--,,the ,,sea ,,spurge ,the ,sea ,spurge 7,euphorbia ,paralias7 is commonly seen on sandy shores1 where its yellow flowers bloom in late summer and in autumn4 ,it may be distinguished among the numerous species of the genus by its narrow oblong imbricated leaves1 of a tough leathery nature1 the broad heart-shaped bracts1 and the wrinkled capsules containing smooth seeds4 ,the ,portland ,spurge 7,e4 portlandica7 is a similar plant1 found in similar situations1 and flowering from ,may to ,september4 ,its leaves are oval and narrow1 obtuse1 and of a glaucous colour1 and the bracts are more triangular than those of the last species4 ,the capsules are slightly rough1 as are also the seeds4 ,there is yet another sea-side spurge--the ,purple ,spurge 7,e4 peplis7--a somewhat rare plant1 found on some of the sandy shores of the south of ,england4 ,it grows to about eight or nine inches in length1 and blooms in late summer1 the flowers1 like those of most of the spurges1 being yellow4 ,the stem is of a glaucous colour1 and trails along the ground2 the leaves are opposite and somewhat heart-shaped1 and the flowers solitary4 ,this species may be distinguished from other spurges by its stipuled leaves4 ,on sandy cliffs we sometimes meet with the ,sea ,buckthorn 7,hippopha rhamnoides7--a spiny shrub1 ranging from about two to seven feet in height1 the bark of which is covered with a silvery scaly scurf that forms a beautiful object for the microscope4 ,it is the ,british representative of the ,oleasters 7order ,eleagnace74 ,the leaves are alternate1 lanceolate1 with a silvery surface2 and the flowers are small1 green and unisexual4 ,the male flowers grow in catkins1 each arising from a scaly bract1 and have a green perianth4 ,the female flowers have a tubular perianth1 and a free one-celled ovary4 ,the latter forms a hard nut-like fruit1 which is surrounded by a succulent mass formed by the former4 ,this shrub flowers in the spring1 while the leaves are still very small4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bij4--,,the ,,purple ,,spurge ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bia4--,,the ,,sea ,,buckthorn ,of the order ,polygonace1 which includes the docks1 knot grasses1 buckwheats1 and sorrels1 we have two sea-side representatives1 both belonging to the typical genus ,polygonum4 ,these are the sea-side ,knot ,grass 7,p4 maritimum7 and ,ray's ,knot ,grass 7,p4 ,raii74 ,the plants of this order are herbs1 characterised by their alternate leaves with sheathing stipules2 and small flowers1 usually bisexual1 often with a coloured perianth4 ,most of the species are remarkable for their astringent and acid properties4 ,in the genus ,polygonum the flowers are usually in spikes or racemes2 the perianth funnel-shaped1 regular1 and five-cleft4 ,the stamens vary from five to eight in number1 and the styles number two or three4 ,the fruit is a small angular nut1 usually enclosed in the perianth4 ,the sea-side ,knot ,grass is very common on some parts of the shore1 where it grows from one to three feet long1 and flowers in ,august4 ,the stem is recumbent1 tough and woody1 bearing fleshy glaucous leaves with curled edges4 ,it may be further distinguished from the other knot grasses by its long stipules1 with freely-branching veins1 and by the length of the fruit exceeding that of the perianth4 ,as in the other knot grasses1 the flowers arise from the axils of the leaves4 ,ray's ,knot ,grass is very much like the common knot grass so abundant in all waste places1 the leaves being flat2 and the stipules1 shorter than in the last species1 having but few veins2 but while in the latter the fruit is shorter than the calyx1 in ,p4 ,raii it is longer4 ,this species is found on many sandy shores1 and flowers in ,july and ,august4 ,the order ,chenopodiace is particularly rich in sea-side plants1 more than a dozen of the ,british species growing almost exclusively near the shore4 ,they are mostly inconspicuous plants1 with small flowers which are sometimes unisexual4 ,the perianth is deeply divided1 and the stamens are inserted in its base1 opposite the divisions4 ,the ovary is free1 containing a single ovule4 ,the typical genus 7,chenopodium7 contains the weeds designated by the name of ,goosefoot1 all characterised by their straggling stems and small flat leaves4 ,one species 7,c4 botryoides7 is common on some sandy shores4 ,it is a small weed1 its prostrate stem measuring only a few inches in length4 ,the leaves are triangular and fleshy1 and the flowers are arranged in dense leafy clusters4 ,a variety of the ,red ,goosefoot 7,c4 rubrum7 is also found on the coast4 ,it is of a reddish colour1 with rhomboid leaves and short crowded spikes of flowers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bib4--;,chenopodium botryoides ,on muddy shores we meet with the ,common ,beet 7,beta maritima71 the leaves of which are often cooked and eaten where the plant is abundant2 and it is this species from which the different varieties of garden beet and mangold wurzel have been produced by cultivation4 ,there are two distinct varieties of the wild plant4 ,in one the root and leaves are of a purple colour1 while in the other they are of a yellowish green4 ,the former has been cultivated for its root1 while the latter is sometimes grown for the leaves4 ,in the wild state it has many stems1 the lower parts being more or less procumbent1 and the leaves are fleshy1 gradually narrowing down into the stalk4 ,the flowers1 which are arranged in long1 simple1 leafy spikes1 are bisexual1 with a five-parted perianth1 five stamens inserted opposite each segment1 in a fleshy ring and a flattened one-celled ovary which develops into a one-seeded utricle4 ,in similar situations we meet with two species of ,sea ,purslane 7,obione71 in which the flowers are unisexual1 both male and female flowers being on the same plant4 ,they are also distinguished from most other ,chenopods by the perianth adhering to the wall of the ovary4 ,the ,shrubby ,sea ,purslane 7,o4 portulacoides7 is1 as its name implies1 a shrubby plant4 ,it grows to a height of eighteen inches or two feet1 bearing silvery oval lanceolate leaves and sessile fruit4 ,the other species referred to--the ,stalked ,sea ,purslane 7,o4 pedunculata7--is herbaceous1 with oval1 mealy leaves1 and stalked fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bic4--,,the ,,frosted ,,sea ,,orache ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bid4--,,the ,,prickly ,,salt ,,wort ,the ,oraches 7genus ,atriplex7 resemble the ,purslanes in the granular mealiness of the foliage1 and the two are so closely allied that they are often placed in the same genus4 ,oraches are most readily distinguished among the ,chenopods by the two bracts which enclose the fruit and enlarge after flowering2 and1 like the ,purslanes1 they have unisexual flowers1 both male and female being on the same plant4 ,three of our five ,british species are sea-side plants4 ,the ,frosted ,sea ,orache 7,a4 arenaria7 grows on sandy shores1 about six or eight inches in height1 and flowers during late summer and autumn4 ,it may be known by its buff-coloured stem1 with triangular or rhomboidal1 jagged1 silvery leaves1 and clusters of sessile flowers in the axils of the leaves4 ,another species 7,a4 ,babingtonii7 may be seen on both rocky and sandy shores1 usually from one to two feet in height1 and flowering from ,july to ,september4 ,its stem is procumbent1 green with reddish stripes2 leaves oval-triangular1 lanceolate towards the top1 three-lobed at the base of the stem1 light green1 with a mealy surface2 flowers in terminal clusters as well as in the axils of the leaves4 ,a third species--the ,grass-leaved ,orache 7,a4 littoralis7 grows in salt marshes4 ,all its leaves are grass-like and entire1 and the stem is generally marked with reddish stripes as in ,a4 ,babingtonii4 ,the flowers1 too1 are in sessile axillary clusters only4 ,this plant reaches a height of from one to two feet1 and flowers in the late summer4 ,the ,prickly ,salt ,wort 7,salsola kali7 is a very common sea-side plant on some of our coasts1 and may be recognised at a glance by its general form and habit4 ,the stem is very much branched and prostrate1 forming a very bushy plant about a foot in height4 ,it is also very brittle and succulent1 furrowed and bristly1 and of a bluish-green colour4 ,the leaves are fleshy1 awl-shaped1 nearly cylindrical1 with a spiny point1 and little prickles at the base4 ,the flowers are axillary and solitary4 ,this plant and its exotic allies are very rich in alkaline salts1 particularly carbonate of soda1 and were formerly the principal source from which this compound was obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bie4--,,the ,,creeping ,,glass ,,wort ,our last example of the sea-side chenopods is the ,glass ,wort 7,salicornia71 which thrives in salt marshes4 ,in this genus the stem is jointed and the flowers bisexual4 ,the ,jointed ,glass ,wort 7,s4 herbacea7 is common in most salt marshes1 where its erect1 herbaceous1 leafless stem may be seen growing to a height of a foot or more4 ,the joints are thickened upwards1 and shrink to such an extent when dry that the upper part of each segment of the stem forms a membranous socket into which fits the base of the next segment above4 ,the flowers are arranged in dense tapering spikes1 also jointed1 with a cluster of three flowers on the two opposite sides of the base of each segment4 ,each flower is composed of a perianth1 closed with the exception of a small aperture through which the stigma and1 later1 the stamens protrude4 ,the ,creeping ,glass ,wort 7,s4 radicans7 has a woody procumbent stem1 with the joints only slightly thickened1 and the spikes do not taper so much as in ,s4 herbacea4 ,both these plants yield considerable quantities of soda1 and they are named #8,glass ,wort' because they formerly constituted one of the sources from which soda was obtained for the manufacture of glass4 ,we now come to those flowers in which both calyx and corolla exist1 and shall deal first with the division ,gamopetal or ,monopetal1 in which the petals are united4 ,our first example of this division is the ,seaside ,plantain 7,plantago maritima71 of the order ,plantaginace4 ,this is a stem-less herbaceous plant1 with ribbed leaves and small green flowers1 common on many parts of the coast1 and also found on the mountains of ,scotland1 flowering throughout the summer4 ,it may be distinguished from the other plantains by its narrow fleshy leaves4 ,as in the other species1 the flowers form a cylindrical spike4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bif4--,,the ,,sea-,,side ,,plantain ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #big4--,,the ,,sea ,,lavender ,the order ,plumbaginace contains several sea-side plants1 including the ,sea ,pink or ,thrift 7,armeria maritima7 and the various species of ,sea ,lavender 7genus ,statice74 ,they are characterised by a tubular membranous calyx1 persistent and often coloured1 a regular corolla of five petals united at their bases1 five stamens opposite the petals and attached at the base of the ovary1 and a free one-celled and one-seeded ovary4 ,the well-known ,sea ,pink1 with its compact head of rose-coloured flowers1 in bloom throughout the spring and summer1 and linear one-veined leaves1 may be seen on most of our coasts1 as well as on high ground in inland districts4 ,the ,sea ,lavender1 of which there are four ,british species1 have their flowers arranged in spikes4 ,the commonest species 7,statice limonium7 may be found principally on muddy shores4 ,its leaves are narrow and one-ribbed1 and the bluish-purple flowers arranged in short dense spikes1 the flower stalk being branched only above the middle4 ,one variety of it has its flowers in a loose pyramidal cluster1 while another bears its spikes in a compact level-topped corymb with short firm branches4 ,another species 7,s4 bahusiensis7 is characterised by long spikes of distant flowers1 the stalk being branched from near the base4 ,the ,upright ,sea ,lavender 7,s4 binervosa7 of rocky shores has the stalk branched from the middle1 with1 usually1 nearly all the branches flowering1 though there are varieties in which the flowers are differently arranged4 ,the ,matted ,sea ,lavender 7,s4 caspia7 grows in salt marshes on the east coast of ,england4 ,its flower stalk is branched from the base1 but the lower branches are barren and tangled1 while the upper bear small crowded lilac flowers4 ,the leaves of the last two species are spatulate in form4 ,the ,bittersweet or ,woody ,nightshade 7,solanum ,dulcamara7 of the order ,solanace is common in hedgerows and waste places almost everywhere1 but a variety of it 7marinum7 has its habitat along the coast4 ,it may be distinguished from the normal form by its prostrate branched and non-climbing stem1 and by its fleshy leaves4 ,the latter are all cordate1 while in the normal the upper leaves are auricular4 ,the order to which ,solanum belongs is characterised by a regular five-cleft calyx and corolla1 four or five stamens attached to the corolla1 and a superior two-celled ovary4 ,the flowers are in axillary cymes1 and the fruit is a berry4 ,convolvulace is represented on sandy shores by the ,sea-side ,bindweed 7,convolvulus ,soldanella71 a small species1 with pinkish purple flowers1 the prostrate stem of which rarely measures more than a foot in length4 ,the plants of this order are generally climbing plants with alternate leaves and regular showy flowers4 ,the calyx is composed of five sepals1 the corolla of four or five lobes1 and the stamens are attached to the corolla4 ,the ovary is superior1 two- or four-celled1 and the fruit a capsule4 ,the above species may be recognised by its reniform leaves 7sagittate in the others71 which are also fleshy4 ,to the order ,gentianace belong the ,centaury 7,erythra71 three out of the four ,british species of which grow on sandy shores4 ,in the flowers of this order the calyx has from four to ten lobes2 the stamens also number four to ten1 and are alternate with the lobes of the corolla4 ,the ovary is one- or two-celled1 and the fruit is a berry with many seeds4 ,the leaves are usually opposite and entire1 and the flowers are generally showy1 regular1 and solitary4 ,erythra has a funnel-shaped corolla1 five stamens1 and two stigmas1 on a deciduous style2 and in all our species the flower is rose-coloured4 ,the ,dwarf ,centaury 7,e4 pulchella71 which is common on some sandy shores1 is much smaller than the species that thrives in pastures1 being only two or three inches in height4 ,its stem is also more freely branched1 and its flowers are axillary and terminal4 ,the ,tufted ,centaury 7,e4 littoralis7 and the ,broad-leaved ,centaury 7,e4 latifolia7 occur in similar situations1 but are comparatively rare4 ,they are both small species1 the former with an unbranched stem1 narrow leaves1 and corymbose inflorescence2 and the latter with branched stem1 broad elliptical leaves1 and flowers in dense forked tufts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bih4--,,the ,,dwarf ,,centaury ,the extensive order ,composit contains comparatively few sea-side plants1 and1 in dealing with these1 we pass to another division of the monopetalous flowers1 in which the ovary is inferior and the stamens are on the corolla4 ,the order includes those herbaceous plants in which sessile flowers are collected together into compound heads 7capitula7 surrounded by a whorl of bracts4 ,the corolla is either tubular or strap-shaped 7ligulate71 the stamens four or five in number1 and the fruit one-seeded1 usually crowned with the limb of the calyx in the form of a scaly feathery or hairy pappus4 ,the ,little ,lettuce 7,lactuca saligna7 is found in chalky pastures near the east and south-east coasts1 growing to a height of about a foot1 and bearing heads of yellow flowers in ,july and ,august4 ,all the flowers are ligulate and perfect1 the pappus is composed of silvery hairs1 and the fruit is compressed and beaked1 the beak being twice as long as the fruit4 ,the leaves are smooth1 linear1 and sagittate1 terminating in a sharp point4 ,the ,sea-side ,cotton ,weed 7,diotis maritima7 is occasionally met with on sandy shores1 and may be recognised by its dense coating of downy hair1 its sessile obtuse leaves1 and heads of yellow flowers forming a corymb4 ,the heads are discoid1 and the fruit has no pappus4 ,the ,sea ,wormwood 7,artemisia maritima7 is a common sea-shore composite1 bearing drooping heads of reddish-white flowers in ,august4 ,this is another of the downy species1 its pinnatifid leaves having quite a woolly appearance4 ,the capitulum contains but few flowers1 all of which are perfect2 and the fruit has no pappus4 ,a variety of this plant is sometimes seen1 with dense erect capitula4 ,the ,sea ,aster or ,michaelmas ,daisy 7,aster tripolium7 of salt marshes may be known by the yellow discs and purple rays of its flower heads1 which are arranged in a corymb4 ,the florets of the ray form a single row1 and the fruit has a hairy pappus4 ,the leaves of this plant are spatulate and fleshy4 ,a variety occurs in which the purple florets of the ray are absent4 ,the ,golden ,samphire 7,inula crithmoides7 is a very local sea-side plant1 being found principally on the south-west coast4 ,its leafy stems grow to a height of a foot or more1 and bear yellow heads of flowers that radiate in all directions4 ,the leaves are linear1 acute1 and fleshy1 and the bracts are linear and imbricated4 ,our last example of the sea-side composites is the ,sea-side ,corn ,feverfew or ,scentless ,mayweed1 which is a variety of ,matricaria inodora of waste places4 ,the leaves are sessile and pinnatifid1 with very narrow segments1 and the white flowers grow in solitary heads4 ,the maritime variety differs from the normal form in having fleshy leaves4 ,we next deal with another very extensive order 7the ,umbellifer71 which1 however1 has only three or four representatives on the shore1 and these introduce us to the last great division of the flowering plants1 namely1 the ,polypetalous ,dicotyledons1 in which the petals are not united4 ,of these we shall first deal with that subdivision in which the stamens are attached at the side of or upon the ovary4 ,the most obvious characteristic of the ,umbellifer is that implied in the name--the arrangement of the flowers in that form of inflorescence1 called the umbel1 in which the pedicels all branch from one point in the main stalk1 and are such that the flowers are all approximately on a level4 ,the flowers are mostly small and white1 with five sepals 7when present71 five petals1 and five stamens4 ,the inferior ovary is two-celled1 bearing two styles2 and the fruit separates into two dry one-seeded carpels that are ribbed longitudinally4 ,our first example of this group is the ,sea ,carrot1 a variety of the ,wild ,carrot 7,daucus carota74 ,in the ordinary form1 which is so common in fields1 the leaflets are pinnatifid1 with acute segments2 and the central flowers of each umbel are purple1 while the outer ones are white4 ,the umbel1 when in fruit1 is concave above4 ,the maritime variety differs from this in having fleshy leaves1 and the umbel convex above when in fruit4 ,the ,sea ,samphire 7,crithmum maritimum7 grows on the rocks close to the sea1 and thrives well where there is hardly a vestige of soil4 ,it usually grows to a height of seven or eight inches1 bearing greenish-white flowers surrounded by a whorl of very narrow leaves4 ,the other leaves are glaucous and bi-ternate1 the leaflets being narrow1 fleshy1 and tapering towards both ends4 ,on cliffs near the sea1 especially in chalky districts1 we meet with the ,fennel1 with its finely-divided leaves1 split up into numerous capillary leaflets1 and its small yellow flowers without bracts4 ,it may be distinguished from other closely-allied plants by the form of the fruit1 which is flattened at the sides4 ,it is grown in some parts for use as a potherb1 and an aromatic oil is also obtained from the seeds4 ,the plant grows to a height of four or five feet1 but there is a smaller variety known as the ,sweet ,fennel1 and distinguished by the stem being compressed at the base4 ,our next example of the ,umbellifer is the ,sea ,holly 7,eryngium maritimum71 easily distinguished from the other umbellifers by its spiny glaucous leaves1 and the thistle-like heads of blue flowers surrounded by a whorl of spiny bracts4 ,its fleshy creeping roots were formerly gathered largely for the purpose of converting them into the once-prized #8candied eryngo root1' which is still prepared in a few of the fishing villages of our coast4 ,the lower leaves of this plant are spinous and very glaucous1 and the upper ones palmate4 ,the venation is particularly strong and durable1 so that the leaves and flowers are used largely by the sea-side cottagers in the construction of skeleton bouquets and wreaths4 ,another plant of the same genus--,the ,field ,eryngo 7,e4 campestre7--is occasionally seen on sandy shores4 ,it differs from the last in having ternate radical leaves with pinnatifid lobes1 and the upper leaves1 bi-pinnatifid4 ,our last example of the sea-side umbellifers is the ,wild ,celery 7,apium graveolens7 of salt marshes and ditches4 ,this is the plant from which our highly-valued garden celery has been produced1 and it is remarkable that this sweet crisp and wholesome vegetable has been derived from a wild plant of coarse taste and odour1 the acrid sap of which is highly irritating if not dangerous4 ,the plant may be known by its furrowed stem1 and ternate leaves1 the leaflets of the lower leaves being round and lobed1 while those of the upper ones are notched4 ,the umbels are sessile or nearly so1 the flowers have no calyx1 and the fruit has five prominent ridges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bii4--,,the ,,sea ,,samphire ,on the sandy shores of the south-western counties we may meet with the very local ,four-leaved ,allseed 7,polycarpon tetraphyllum7 of the order ,illecebrace4 ,it is a small plant1 only four or five inches in height1 with the lower leaves in whorls of four and the upper ones in opposite pairs4 ,the flowers are minute1 and are disposed in small dense clusters4 ,another rare species is the shrub known as the ,english ,tamarisk 7,tamarix anglica71 which is our only representative of the order ,tamariscace4 ,there is some doubt1 however1 whether even this is indigenous to ,britain1 though it occurs in a wild state on the coast4 ,it is a very twiggy shrub growing from six to ten feet in height1 with minute scale-like1 acute leaves1 and slender spikes of small pinkish-white flowers4 ,we now pass to the large order of ,leguminous plants1 characterised by their stipuled leaves1 and irregular papilionaceous flowers4 ,the latter usually have five united sepals1 five petals forming an irregular1 butterfly-like corolla1 ten stamens1 and a superior ovary that develops into a pod4 ,of these the ,starry-headed ,trefoil 7,trifolium stellatum7 is very partial to the sea shore1 though it is sometimes found some distance inland4 ,the genus to which it belongs is so called on account of its trifoliate leaves which are characteristic of the clovers1 trefoils1 and vetches1 and which have stipules adhering to the petioles4 ,the species under notice receives its name from the star-like arrangement of the long teeth of the hairy calyx4 ,the stem of the plant is procumbent1 usually about six or eight inches long1 with cylindrical and terminal heads of yellowish-grey flowers4 ,the ,rough-podded ,yellow ,vetch 7,vicia lutea7 is somewhat rare1 and occurs principally on very rocky coasts4 ,in common with the other vetches it has pinnate1 tendrilled leaves1 without a terminal leaflet1 one stamen free and the rest united into a bundle1 and a long1 slender1 hairy style4 ,its stem is tufted and prostrate1 averaging about a foot in length1 the leaflets long and narrow1 and the yellow flowers sessile and solitary4 ,the teeth of the calyx are unequal1 and the pods hairy and curved4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjj4--,,the ,,sea-,,side ,,everlasting ,,pea ,the ,sea-,side ,everlasting ,pea 7,lathyrus maritimus7 is a much commoner plant of the coast1 and may be readily recognised by its general resemblance to the garden sweet-pea4 ,the genus to which it belongs is closely allied to the vetches1 but may be distinguished by the style1 which is flattened below the stigma1 hairy on the inner or upper side1 but quite smooth on the outer side4 ,the sea-side species has an angled 7but not winged7 stem1 from one to three feet long1 compound tendrilled leaves with many oval leaflets1 and large oval or cordate stipules4 ,its purple flowers are in bloom during ,july and ,august4 ,a variety of this plant 7acutifolius71 with a slender straggling stem and narrow acute leaflets1 occurs on some parts of the ,scottish coast4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cja4--,,the ,,sea ,,stork',s-,,bill ,the ,geraniace is represented at the sea-side by the ,sea ,stork's-bill 7,erodium maritimum71 which1 however1 is by no means a very common flower4 ,its relationship to the other stork's-bills and the crane's-bills may be readily proved by the five persistent sepals1 five distinct clawed petals1 the five to ten stamens attached under the ovary 7for we have now reached that division of the polypetalous exogens distinguished by this mode of insertion of the stamens71 and the five carpels surrounding a long beak resembling that of the stork and the crane4 ,the plant may sometimes be seen on sandy shores1 averaging a foot in height1 though very variable in this respect1 and displaying its pretty pink flowers during the whole of the summer4 ,the principal features by which it is to be distinguished from the two other ,british plants of the same species are its ovate or cordate leaves with very short petioles1 and the presence of only one or two flowers on each peduncle4 ,passing now to the ,sea ,mallow 7,lavatera arborea71 we are dealing with another rather rare plant1 of the order ,malvace1 sometimes met with on rocky coasts1 chiefly1 it appears1 on the north coast of ,cornwall and ,devon4 ,this is a very shrubby plant1 as its specific name implies1 and it is sometimes popularly known as the ,tree ,mallow on that account4 ,it has a very woody stem1 growing to a height of four or five feet1 and bearing seven-pointed1 downy leaves1 and solitary1 axillary1 purple flowers4 ,as in the other mallows1 the flowers have five petals1 which are curiously twisted when in the bud1 five sepals1 a large number of stamens united into a tube1 and an ovary of many cells1 but it may be distinguished from the other species of the order by its three-lobed bracts4 ,the plant is found principally in wild1 uncultivated spots1 but is commonly grown as a garden plant by the cottagers of villages in the south-west1 and under cultivation it frequently grows to a height of nine or ten feet1 with a tree-like stem three or four inches in thickness2 and it produces such a quantity of fibre that its cultivation for manufacturing purposes has been suggested4 ,we now come to another of the very extensive orders1 at least as far as ,british plants are concerned1 although it contains only a few sea-side species4 ,we refer to the ,caryophyllace1 containing the pinks1 campions1 catchflies1 chickweeds1 c4 ,the chief features of the order are jointed1 herbaceous stems1 opposite leaves1 and regular white or red flowers with four or five sepals and petals1 eight or ten stamens1 and a capsular fruit opening at the top with teeth4 ,one of the commonest species we have to consider is the ,sea ,campion 7,silene maritima71 common on nearly all coasts1 and often growing in small crevices of the bare rocks quite within the reach of the spray of storm-waves4 ,in common with the other members of its genus it is characterised by a tubular calyx of united sepals1 ten stamens1 and a three-celled capsule opening at the top with six teeth2 but it may be known at once by its small size1 being only a few inches in height1 and its solitary flowers with calyx much inflated and the corolla only shortly cleft4 ,the ,sea ,sand ,wort 7,spergularia marina7 is another common plant of the coast1 recognised by its slender1 creeping stems2 linear1 stipuled1 fleshy leaves1 convex below and blunt at the apex2 and its pinkish-white flowers4 ,the ,sea ,purslane 7,honckenya peploides71 belonging to the same order1 is also a creeping plant1 with ovate1 acute fleshy leaves1 flowering from ,may to ,august4 ,it is the only ,british plant of its genus1 and may be distinguished from others by the absence of stipules1 distinct sepals1 petals entire1 ten stamens1 and from three to five styles4 ,the flowers are white1 solitary1 and sessile4 ,the one remaining species of the sea-side ,caryophyllace is the ,sea ,pearl ,wort 7,sagina maritima74 ,this plant is closely allied to the last1 being a creeper with exstipulate leaves and distinct sepals1 but its flowers are reddish white1 on erect peduncles1 with very small petals4 ,the leaves1 too1 are linear1 fleshy1 and obtuse4 ,there are three distinct varieties of this plant1 two of which have erect stems with short internodes1 while the third is procumbent with long internodes2 and in all three the capsules are shorter than the sepals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjb4--,,the ,,sea ,,campion ,a variety of the ,common ,milk ,wort 7,polygala vulgaris7--order ,polygalace--is moderately common on sandy shores4 ,the ordinary form of the species1 which is so common on heaths1 is a small plant with a woody stem1 small ovate leaves crowded below1 and opposite lanceolate leaves above4 ,the flowers are irregular with five persistent sepals1 two larger than the others2 three to five petals1 the lowest keeled1 and all united to the tube formed by the eight stamens1 which are divided above into two bundles2 and the fruit is a flat capsule with two one-seeded cells4 ,the flowers are very variable in colour1 being white1 pink1 lilac1 or blue2 and the seeds are downy4 ,the sea-side variety 7oxyptera7 has smaller flowers than the normal form1 and the wings of the calyx are narrower4 ,one species of ,pansy 7,viola ,curtisii7 is occasionally to be met with on sandy shores1 and may be at once recognised as one of the ,violace by its irregular spurred corolla1 its five persistent sepals1 and the three-parted1 one-celled ovary4 ,the flowers are variable in colour and size1 the prevailing tints being blue and yellow1 and the diameter of the corolla occasionally reaching to one inch4 ,it has a creeping woody rootstock1 and a rough angular stem2 and the petals are generally but little longer than the sepals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjc4--,,the ,,sea ,,pearl ,,wort ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjd4--,,the ,,shrubby ,,mignonette ,the ,shrubby ,mignonette 7,reseda suffruticulosa71 of the order ,resedace1 is a common sea-side plant that grows to a height of one or two feet on sandy shores1 bearing spikes of white flowers in ,july and ,august4 ,the order is characterised by alternate exstipulate leaves1 persistent calyx with four or five sepals1 corolla of from four to seven petals1 many stamens1 and a three-lobed1 one-celled ovary4 ,the sea-side species is very much like the wild mignonette so common in chalky districts1 but differs in having all its leaves pinnate1 waved1 and glaucous1 with linear segments2 and in having five equal sepals and petals4 ,in a variety of the species1 however1 the sepals and petals are six in number4 ,the ,crucifers are fairly well represented by coast plants1 there being several maritime species of the order4 ,the ,crucifer are named from the nature of the corolla1 the limbs of the four petals of which are arranged so as to resemble the ,maltese cross4 ,the flowers have also four sepals1 six stamens1 two of which are shorter than the other four1 and the fruit takes the form of a two-celled pod or pouch which opens by the separation of its two valves from the central partition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cje4--,,the ,,wild ,,cabbage ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjf4--,,the ,,isle ,,of ,,man ,,cabbage ,our first example is the ,wild ,cabbage 7,brassica oleracea71 which1 although so unlike the cabbage of our gardens1 is really the parent of all the cultivated varieties1 including the cauliflower1 broccoli1 ,brussels sprouts1 c4 ,it is a biennial plant1 with fleshy lobed wavy leaves that are covered with bluish bloom1 and a fleshy cylindrical root4 ,it grows erect to a height of one or two feet1 bearing yellow flowers during the summer months4 ,an allied species 7,b4 monensis71 with a prostrate stem and deeply-divided leaves1 occurs locally on the sandy shores of the ,isle of ,man4 ,two species of ,stock 7,matthiola7 are to be found on the coast1 both being characterised by purple flowers4 ,the ,great ,sea ,stock 7,m4 sinuata7 is a rare plant growing on the shores of ,wales and ,cornwall1 and may be known by its herbaceous stem and narrow downy leaves2 and the other species--the ,hoary ,shrubby ,stock 7,m4 incana7--is also a rare plant1 found principally on the cliffs of the ,isle of ,wight1 and is the parent of the ,brompton ,stocks of our gardens4 ,the latter has a branched woody stem and narrow leaves4 ,both species grow to a height of about eighteen inches1 and the latter flowers in ,may and ,june1 while the former is in bloom during the hottest summer months4 ,the ,hare's-ear ,treacle ,mustard 7,erysimum orientale7 is a rare crucifer1 frequenting the cliffs of the southern and eastern counties4 ,it grows to a height of one to two feet1 and bears its white flowers about midsummer4 ,it has glaucous leaves1 and the fruit-pods are quadrangular in form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjg4--,,the ,,great ,,sea ,,stock ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjh4--,,the ,,hoary ,,shrubby ,,stock ,the ,common ,scurvy ,grass 7,cochlearia officinalis7 is abundant on many shores1 and its fleshy leaves1 once highly valued as an antiscorbutic1 are still used for salad by the cottagers near the sea4 ,it generally grows to a height of six or seven inches1 and displays its white flowers during late spring and early summer4 ,the root-leaves are cordate in form1 and the upper ones are sessile and angled1 half embracing the stem4 ,the fruit is a rounded pouch4 ,a variety 7danica7 with stalked1 deltoid leaves and an oval veiny pod1 is plentiful in some places4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cji4--,,the ,,scurvy ,,grass ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #caj4--,,the ,,sea ,,radish ,on some coasts we find the ,sweet ,alyssum 7,koniga maritima7--a naturalised plant with procumbent stem1 narrow lanceolate1 acute leaves1 and white flowers4 ,it may be recognised by its compressed1 pointed pouch with one-seeded cells4 ,this species flowers towards the end of the summer4 ,the ,sea ,radish 7,raphanus maritimus7 is a much larger plant1 growing three or four feet in height4 ,in common with the ,wild ,radish of our corn-fields1 it has a tapering pod divided into one-seeded joints1 but it may be distinguished from the latter by its superior height and the deeply-divided radical leaves4 ,its flowers are always yellow1 while in the field species they may be either yellow or white2 and the style is also shorter1 being about the same length as the last joint of the pod4 ,on sandy shores the ,sea ,rocket 7,cakile maritima7 is commonly seen1 and is readily distinguished by its zigzag branches1 deeply-lobed1 smooth1 fleshy leaves of a glaucous colour1 and its succulent pod1 which is divided into two one-seeded cells by a horizontal partition4 ,it grows from one to two feet high1 and bears pretty lilac flowers about midsummer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #caa4--,,the ,,sea ,,rocket ,our last example of the crucifers is the ,sea ,kale 7,crambe maritima71 a hardy perennial1 commonly seen growing among the sand and shingle of the shore1 which is the parent of the sea kale now so commonly cultivated in our market gardens4 ,it may be readily recognised by the fine glaucous bloom of its stem1 and its broad wavy toothed leaves of a glaucous grey colour4 ,it grows to a height of about eighteen inches1 and bears white flowers in ,june4 ,the fruit is a two-jointed pouch1 the upper being rounded and one-seeded1 while the lower is stalk-like and barren4 ,this plant is particularly common in the south-west of ,england1 where the leaves are sometimes blanched for food by burying them in the sand4 ,one of the most striking plants of the coast is the ,yellow ,horned ,poppy 7,glaucium luteum7 of the order ,papaverace1 which contains the well-known poppies of corn-fields4 ,the general characteristics of the order are two deciduous sepals1 four petals1 many stamens inserted below the ovary1 and the ovary one-celled with membranous divisions4 ,the plants of this species usually contain a milky juice1 have alternate leaves without stipules1 and the flowers1 which are regular1 generally nod when in bud4 ,the ,horned ,poppy is a very conspicuous plant1 usually growing quite alone on some inaccessible portion of the cliff1 or among the pebbles or shingle not far from high-water mark4 ,its stem is glaucous and branched1 and the large waved and deeply-cut leaves1 which clasp the stem1 are also of a glaucous hue4 ,the flowers are rendered conspicuous by their large yellow petals1 which1 however1 last only for a day1 and are succeeded by the hornlike seed-pods that sometimes reach a foot in length4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cab4--,,the ,,sea ,,kale ,we will conclude our list of sea-side flowers by a brief mention of the ,lesser ,meadow ,rue 7,thalictrum minus71 a variety of which 7maritimum7 grows on sandy shores4 ,the ,meadow ,rue belongs to the ,ranunculace1 as may be seen from the fruit of several distinct carpels1 each containing a single seed1 the corolla of distinct petals1 and the numerous stamens inserted below the carpels4 ,the normal form of the ,lesser ,meadow ,rue1 which grows freely in some chalky pastures and thickets1 has leaves three or four times pinnate1 and lax panicles of drooping flowers without any petals4 ,the sea-side variety differs from this in having the stem leafless at the base1 and the panicles leafless and broad4 ,the flowers are greenish white1 and bloom in ,july and ,august4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cac4--,,the ,,horned ,,poppy ,to assist the reader in the identification of sea-side flowers we append a list of the orders to which they belong1 together with the principal distinguishing characteristics of each4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,the ,,natural ,,orders ,,which ,,contain ,,our ,,principal ,,sea-,,side ,,flowering ,,plants ,i4 ,,monocotyledons ,a4 ,,glumifer ,,flowers ,,without ,a ,,perianth1 ,,enclosed ,,in ,,glumes #a4 ,gramine--,grassy plants with hollow stems enclosed in split sheaths4 ,flowers generally bisexual with 7usually7 three stamens4 #b4 ,cyperace--,grassy plants with solid stems and entire sheaths4 ,flowers arranged in spikelets1 unisexual or bisexual1 with from one to three stamens4 ,b4 ,,petaloid ,,perianth ,,petaloid #c4 ,juncace--,rushes1 with narrow leaves and small brown flowers4 ,perianth #f-partite1 with scarious segments4 ,stamens usually #f2 ovary superior2 fruit a #c-valved capsule4 #d4 ,naiadace--,aquatic herbs with inconspicuous1 unisexual or bisexual flowers4 ,perianth absent or scale-like4 ,stamens as many as the segments of the perianth4 ,fruit of from one to four carpels--superior4 #e4 ,alismace--,aquatic plants with radical net-veined leaves1 and 7generally7 conspicuous1 white1 bisexual flowers4 ,perianth #f-partite4 ,stamens #f4 ,fruit of many carpels--superior4 #f4 ,liliace--,herbs with narrow leaves and showy1 bisexual flowers4 ,perianth #f-partite4 ,stamens #f4 ,ovary superior1 #c-;celled4 ,fruit a berry or capsule4 ,,ii4 ,,dicotyledons ,a4 ,,calyx1 ,,or ,,corolla1 ,,or ,,both ,,absent #g4 ,euphorbiace--,herbs with entire leaves and 7generally7 a milky juice4 ,flowers small1 unisexual1 dicious 7male and female flowers on separate plants71 sometimes enclosed in calyx-like bracts4 ,perianth #c- or #d-partite or absent4 ,stamens one or more4 ,ovary inferior4 ,fruit separating into carpels elastically4 #h4 ,eleagnace--,shrub with silvery scales1 alternate1 entire leaves1 and small1 unisexual flowers--the staminate flowers in catkins4 ,sepals of male flowers #c or #d4 ,stamens #d to #h4 ,ovary superior4 ,fruit indehiscent 7not splitting74 #i4 ,polygonace--,herbs with sheathing stipules1 alternate leaves1 and small 7generally7 bisexual flowers4 ,stamens #e to #h4 ,ovary superior4 ,fruit indehiscent4 #aj4 ,chenopodiace--,herbs with jointed stems and small unisexual or bisexual flowers4 ,stamens usually #e1 sometimes #a or #b1 opposite the sepals4 ,ovary superior4 ,fruit indehiscent4 ,b4 ,,plants ,,with ,,both ,,calyx ,,and ,,corolla a4 ,,corolla ,,monopetalous #a4 ,ovary ,superior and ,stamens generally on the ,corolla #aa4 ,plantaginace--,herbs with radical entire leaves1 and spikes of small1 green flowers4 ,calyx #d-;cleft4 ,corolla #d-lobed1 scarious4 ,stamens #d4 ,ovary #b- to #d-;celled4 ,fruit many-seeded4 #ab4 ,plumbaginace--,herbs with radical or alternate leaves1 and 7generally7 regular1 blue flowers4 ,calyx tubular1 scarious4 ,corolla of #e petals1 united below4 ,stamens #e1 opposite the petals1 attached below the ovary4 ,ovary #a-;celled and #a-seeded4 #ac4 ,primulace--,herbs with 7generally7 radical leaves and conspicuous1 regular flowers4 ,calyx #d- to #g-;cleft4 ,corolla #d- to #g-;cleft4 ,stamens #d to #g1 generally opposite the petals4 ,ovary #a-;celled4 ,fruit a capsule with many seeds4 #ad4 ,solanace--,herbs with alternate leaves and axillary clusters of regular flowers4 ,calyx #e-;cleft4 ,corolla #e-;cleft4 ,stamens #d or #e4 ,ovary #b-;celled4 ,fruit a berry4 #ae4 ,convolvulace--,climbing herbs with alternate leaves and showy1 regular flowers4 ,sepals #e4 ,corolla #d- or #e-lobed4 ,stamens #d or #e4 ,ovary #b- to #d-;celled4 ,fruit a capsule4 #af4 ,gentianace--,herbs with opposite entire leaves and solitary regular flowers4 ,calyx #d- to #aj-lobed4 ,corolla #d- to #aj-lobed4 ,stamens #d to #aj1 alternate with the lobes of the corolla4 ,ovary #a- or #b-;celled4 ,fruit a capsule4 #b4 ,ovary ,inferior and ,stamens on the ,corolla #ag4 ,composit--,herbs with flowers 7generally yellow or white7 collected into compact heads4 ,calyx absent or represented by a pappus4 ,corolla tubular or ligulate4 ,stamens #d or #e4 b4 ,,corolla ,,polypetalous #a4 ,stamens ,perigynous 7around the ,ovary71 or ,epigynous 7upon the ,ovary7 #ah4 ,umbellifer--,herbs with 7generally7 compound leaves1 and small1 white1 umbelled flowers4 ,sepals 7if present7 #e4 ,petals #e4 ,stamens #e4 ,ovary inferior4 ,fruit of two adhering carpels4 #ai4 ,illecebrace--,small herbs with sessile1 entire leaves1 and small flowers4 ,sepals #d or #e4 ,petals #d or #e or absent4 ,stamens #a to #e4 ,ovary superior4 #bj4 ,tamariscace--,shrub with small1 scale-like leaves1 and lateral spikes of small regular flowers4 ,sepals #d or #e4 ,petals #d or #e4 ,stamens #d or more4 #ba4 ,leguminos--,herbs or shrubs with alternate1 stipuled1 pinnate or ternate leaves1 sometimes tendrilled1 and irregular flowers4 ,sepals #d or #e4 ,corolla of #e petals1 papilionaceous 7butterfly-like74 ,stamens usually #aj4 ,ovary superior4 ,fruit a pod4 #b4 ,stamens ,hypogynous 7attached below the ,ovary7 #bb4 ,geraniace--,herbs with stipuled1 lobed leaves1 and showy regular flowers4 ,sepals #e4 ,petals #e4 ,stamens #e or #aj4 ,fruit of #e carpels surrounding a long beak4 #bc4 ,malvace--,herbs with alternate1 stipuled leaves1 and axillary1 red1 or purple flowers4 ,sepals #e4 ,petals #e1 twisted in the bud4 ,stamens numerous1 united into a tube4 ,ovary of many cells4 #bd4 ,caryophyllace--,herbs with 7generally7 jointed stems1 opposite leaves1 and regular white or red flowers4 ,sepals #d or #e4 ,petals #d or #e4 ,stamens #h or #aj4 ,fruit a #a-;celled capsule opening at the top with teeth4 #be4 ,polygalace--,herbs with alternate1 simple leaves 7without stipules71 and irregular flowers4 ,sepals #e1 the inner petal-like4 ,petals #c to #e1 unequal4 ,stamens #h1 in two clusters4 ,fruit a #b-;celled capsule4 #bf4 ,violace--,herbs with alternate1 stipuled leaves and irregular flowers4 ,sepals #e4 ,petals #e1 unequal1 the lower one spurred4 ,stamens #e4 ,ovary #c-partite1 but #a-;celled4 #bg4 ,resedace--,herbs or shrubs with alternate1 exstipulate leaves1 and spikes of irregular1 green flowers4 ,sepals #d or #e4 ,petals #d to #g1 unequal4 ,stamens more than #aj4 ,ovary #c-lobed1 and #a-;celled4 #bh4 ,crucifer--,herbs with alternate1 exstipulate leaves1 and regular flowers4 ,sepals #d4 ,petals #d1 cruciate4 ,stamens #f--d longer and #b shorter4 ,ovary #a- or #b-;celled4 ,fruit a siliqua or a silicula4 #bi4 ,papaverace--,herbs with alternate1 exstipulate leaves1 a milky juice1 and regular1 showy flowers4 ,sepals #b1 deciduous4 ,petals #d4 ,stamens numerous4 ,ovary #a-;celled with membranous partitions4 #cj4 ,ranunculace--,herbs with 7generally7 alternate leaves and regular flowers4 ,sepals generally #e1 distinct4 ,petals #e or more4 ,stamens numerous4 ,fruit of many1 distinct carpels4 ,,index ,acaleph1 #acd ,acanthias1 #cai ,acarina1 #cjd ,aclis1 #bdf ,acma1 #bdj ,acorn ,barnacles1 #bfc ,actinia1 #adb ,actinoloba1 #adc ,actora1 #cjj ,adamsia1 #aed ,adeorbis1 #bdc girus1 #bce olid1 #bce pophilus1 #big ,apus1 #cjc ,agonus1 #cce ,aiptasia1 #add ,alaria1 #che ,alcyonium1 #aee ,alg1 #cdd1 #cdg -- reproduction1 #cea ,alismace1 #dja1 #dbc ,allseed1 #dac ,alopecurus1 #cig ,ambulacrum1 #afc ,ammodytes1 #cbf ,ammophila1 #cif ,amba1 #ajb ,amphibia1 #cjg ,amphipoda1 #bfg1 #cjd ,anarrhichas1 #ccd ,anatinid1 #bjd1 #bee ,anemones1 #abg1 #ach ,angiosperms1 #cdf1 #cdh ,angler ,fish1 #ccf ,angling1 #cd ,anguilla1 #cbd ,anguillid1 #cbc ,angular ,crab1 #bhi ,annelida1 #agg ,anomia1 #bbb ,anomura1 #bgi ,antedon1 #afj ,anthea1 #adi ,anurida1 #bii ,apetal1 #djb ,aphaniptera1 #cje ,aphrodita1 #agi ,apium1 #dab ,aporrhais1 #bde ,aquarium1 #ea -- aeration of1 #fa1 #fc -- cement for1 #ed1 #eg -- construction of1 #ec -- fountain1 #fd -- temporary1 #eb -- weeds for1 #fa ,arachnoidea1 #beg1 #bic1 #cjd ,araneid1 #cjd ,arca1 #baf ,arcad1 #baf1 #bee ,arctopsis1 #bhi ,arenicola1 #agh ,armeria1 #djh ,artemisia1 #daj ,arthropoda1 #bee -- classification1 #cjd ,asiphonida1 #aih1 #baf1 #bee ,asparagus1 #djb ,asperococcus1 #chc ,astarte1 #bab ,aster1 #daj ,asteroidea1 #aga ,atherina1 #ccb ,atherinid1 #ccb ,atriplex1 #djf ,aurelia1 #ace ,aviculid1 #bai1 #bee ,badderlocks1 #che ,baits1 #ci ,balanophyllia1 #aeb ,balanus1 #f1 #bfc ,banded ,cockle1 #baf ,barley ,grasses1 #cie ,barnacles1 #bfa ,bass1 #cch ,beach ,fleas1 #bfc ,beadlet1 #adb ,beard ,grass1 #cig ,beet1 #dje ,bembidiid1 #cja ,bembidium1 #cjb ,beroe1 #acg ,bittersweet1 #dji ,bledius1 #cjd ,blennies1 #ccb ,blenniid1 #ccb ,blennius1 #ccd ,blue ,shark1 #cbj ,bonnet ,limpet1 #bdj ,bopyrus1 #bfg ,boring ,pill-ball1 #bfh ,boring ,sponge1 #abd ,bottle-brush1 #acb ,brachelytra1 #cjc ,brachiopods1 #bbd ,brachyura1 #bga1 #bgi1 #bhe1 #cjd ,branchiopoda1 #bfe1 #cjd ,brassica1 #dah ,bread-crumb ,sponge1 #abc ,bristle-tails1 #bih ,brittle ,starfish1 #aeg1 #aei1 #afa ,broad-clawed ,crab1 #bhj ,brome ,grasses1 #cie ,bromus1 #cie ,bryopsis1 #ced ,bryozoa1 #ahh ,buccinid1 #bdh1 #bee ,buccinum1 #bdh ,bugs1 #big ,bulla1 #bcf ,bull-heads1 #cce ,bull ,huss1 #cbj ,bunodes1 #aej ,butter ,gunnel1 #ccd ,byssus1 #dc1 #aie ,cabinets1 #hi ,ccum1 #bde ,cakile1 #dbj ,calamary1 #beb ,calcarea1 #aai ,calcareous ,sponges1 #aai ,callianassa1 #bgg ,calliblepharis1 #cfg ,callionymus1 #cce ,callithamnion1 #fa1 #ceh ,callophyllis1 #cfe ,calpurna1 #bdh ,calyptra1 #bda ,calyptrid1 #bdj1 #bee ,canary ,grass1 #cif ,cancer1 #bib ,carangid1 #cch ,caranx1 #cch ,carapace1 #bgb ,carchariid1 #cbj ,carcharius1 #cbj ,carcinus1 #bia ,cardiad1 #bad1 #bee ,cardium1 #bad ,carex1 #cih ,carrageen ,moss1 #fa1 #cfd ,caryophyllace1 #dae1 #dbe ,caryophyllia1 #aea ,catometopa1 #bhf1 #bhi ,cave-dweller1 #adg ,cell for live objects1 #ie ,cement for aquarium1 #eg ,centaury1 #dji ,centipedes1 #cje ,cephalophora1 #aia1 #bbe1 #bee ,cephalopoda1 #aia1 #bej1 #bee ,ceramiace1 #ceh1 #chi ,ceramium1 #fa1 #cfb ,cerati-solen1 #bjg ,cerithiad1 #bde1 #bee ,cerithium1 #bde ,cetacea1 #cdj ,chtopoda1 #agg ,chalina1 #abb ,chalk1 #aji ,chambered ,mussel1 #bai ,channelled ,wrack1 #chg ,charales1 #cdc1 #cdh ,chenopodiace1 #dje1 #dbd ,chenopodium1 #dje ,chilognatha1 #cje ,chilopoda1 #cje ,chironomus1 #cja ,chiton1 #bcg ,chitonid1 #bcg1 #bee ,chlorophyll1 #gd ,chlorosperme1 #cej1 #chi ,chondria1 #cgd ,chondrus1 #fa1 #cfd ,chorda1 #che ,chordaria1 #cha ,chordariace1 #chj1 #cij ,chrysaora1 #acf ,chylocladia1 #cfd ,cillenium1 #cjc ,circe1 #bab ,cirripedia1 #bfa1 #cjd ,cladophora1 #ceb ,cladostephus1 #chj ,cliffs1 #b ,cliona1 #abd ,cloak ,anemone1 #aed ,club-mosses1 #cde ,club ,rush1 #cii ,clupea1 #cbb ,clupeid1 #cbb ,coast--general characters of1 #a ,cochlearia1 #dai ,cockles1 #bad ,cod1 #cbg ,codium1 #cec ,clenterates1 #abg ,clopa1 #cjj ,coleoptera1 #cja1 #cje ,columella1 #bbf ,common sponges1 #aai ,composit1 #daj1 #dbe ,cone ,shells1 #bdh ,conid1 #bdh1 #bee ,conifer1 #cdg1 #cdh ,confervace1 #ceb1 #chi ,convolvulace1 #dji1 #dbe ,convolvulus1 #dji ,copepoda1 #bfd1 #cjd ,corallina1 #fa1 #cfi ,corallinace1 #cfi1 #cij ,corallines--preserving #hg ,corals1 #aea ,corbula1 #bjf ,cord ,grass1 #cih ,cordylecladia1 #cff ,cornish ,sucker1 #ccj ,corrosive sublimate1 #ge ,corystes1 #bhf ,cottid1 #cce ,cottus1 #cce ,cowries1 #bdg ,crab-pots1 #bf ,crabs--as bait1 #dd -- preserving1 #ha ,crambe1 #dbj ,crangon1 #bgh ,crenella1 #bai ,crinoidea1 #aga ,crithmum1 #daa ,crucifer1 #dag1 #dbf ,crustacea1 #beg1 #cjd ,crustaceans--preserving1 #hj ,cryptogams1 #cdc1 #cdg ,cryptonemiace1 #cfc1 #chi ,ctenophora1 #acg ,cup ,coral1 #aea ,cup-and-saucer ,limpet1 #bdj ,cutleria1 #chb ,cuttlefishes1 #aia1 #bea1 #bec ,cycade1 #cdg1 #cdh ,cyclometopa1 #bhf1 #bia ,cyclostomata1 #cjg1 #cjh ,cydippe1 #acg ,cynodon1 #cif ,cyperace1 #cih1 #dbc ,cypra1 #bdh ,cyprid1 #bdg1 #bee ,cyprina1 #bab ,cyprinid1 #bab1 #bee ,cystoclonium1 #cfe ,cystoseira1 #chg ,cythere1 #bff ,cytheria1 #baa ,cyttid #cch ,dactylopterid1 #cce ,dahlia ,wartlet1 #adc ,daisy ,anemone1 #adf ,danica1 #dai ,dasya1 #cgf ,daucus1 #daa ,dead ,men's ,fingers1 #aee ,decapoda 7,decapods71 #bea1 #bee1 #bfi1 #bga1 #bgi1 #cjd ,delesseria1 #cff1 #cfh ,delphinid1 #cdj ,demospongia1 #aai ,dendronotus1 #bce ,dentaliad1 #bch1 #bee ,desmarestia1 #che ,devon ,cup-coral1 #aea ,dibranchiata1 #bea1 #bee ,dicotyledons1 #cdg1 #djc1 #dbd ,dictyosiphon1 #chc ,dictyotace1 #chb1 #cij ,dillisk1 #cfe ,diotis1 #daj ,diptera1 #bii1 #cje ,dissecting microscope1 #ia ,dissecting trough1 #ih ,dissection1 #ia ,dog-fishes1 #cah ,dog ,whelks1 #bdh ,dog ,winkles1 #bdh ,dog's-tooth ,grass1 #cif ,dolichopodid1 #cjj ,dolphin1 #cdj ,donax1 #bjh ,dorid1 #bce ,doto1 #bce ,dragonet1 #cce ,dredge1 #bf ,dreissina1 #bai ,dromia1 #bhb ,dulse1 #fa1 #cfe ,dumontia1 #cfc ,dyschirius1 #cjd ,ear-shell1 #bdb ,echinocyamus1 #afh ,echinoderms1 #aeg ,echinoidea1 #aga ,echinus1 #afh ,ectocarpace1 #cgh1 #cij ,ectocarpus1 #cgh ,edible ,cockle1 #bad ,edible ,crab1 #bib ,edible ,mussel1 #bag ,edriophthalmata1 #bff1 #cjd ,eel1 #cbc ,elachista1 #cha ,elasmobranchii1 #cah ,eleagnace1 #djc1 #dbd ,eleocharis1 #cii ,elymus1 #cie ,elysia1 #bce ,emarginula1 #bdb ,enteromorpha1 #fa1 #cee ,entomostraca1 #bff1 #cjd ,equisetales1 #cde1 #cdh ,erato1 #bdh ,erodium1 #dad ,eryngium1 #dab ,eryngo1 #dab ,erysimum1 #dah ,erythra1 #dji ,establishment of port1 #ag ,eulima1 #bdf ,euphorbia1 #djc ,euphorbiace1 #djc1 #dbd ,euplexoptera1 #cje ,exogen1 #djb ,father ,lasher1 #cce ,feather ,starfish1 #aei1 #afj ,ferns1 #cde ,fescue ,grass1 #cif ,festuca1 #cif ,filicales1 #cde1 #cdh ,fishes1 #cjg -- classification1 #cah -- colour of1 #cac -- distribution1 #cag -- fins of1 #caa -- gills1 #cab -- preserving1 #he -- scales of1 #cji -- skeleton1 #cad -- tails1 #cae ,fishing1 #cd ,fishing ,frog1 #ccf ,fissurella1 #bda ,fissurellid1 #bda1 #bee ,five-fingered ,starfish1 #aeg ,flat-fishes1 #cbd ,floating ,crab1 #bhi ,flounders1 #cbe ,flowering ,plants--classification1 #dbc ,flowers--fertilisation1 #cic -- preserving1 #hf -- structure1 #cdf ,flustra1 #ahh ,flying ,gurnards1 #cce ,foraminifera1 #ajf ,formaldehyde1 #gc ,fox-tail ,grass1 #cih ,fragacea1 #adb ,fucace1 #chf1 #cij ,fucus1 #chf ,fungi1 #cdd1 #cdg ,furbelows1 #chd ,furcellaria1 #cfd ,fusus1 #bdi ,gadiad1 #cbg ,gadus1 #cbg ,galeomma1 #bad ,gamopetal1 #djc ,gaper shell1 #bje ,gasteropoda1 #bcb1 #bee ,gastrochna1 #bjc ,gastrochnid1 #bjc1 #bee ,gastrosteid1 #cca ,gastrosteus1 #cca ,gebia1 #bgf ,gelidiace1 #cij ,gelidium1 #cfg ,gem ,pimplet1 #aej ,gentianace1 #dji1 #dbe ,geodephaga1 #cja ,gephyrea1 #agf ,geraniace1 #dad1 #dbe ,gibb's ,crab1 #bhi ,gigartina1 #cfd ,glass-wort1 #djg ,glaucium1 #dbj ,globigerina1 #aji ,globular ,beroe1 #acg ,gloisiphonia1 #cfd ,glumifer1 #dbc ,glycerine1 #gc ,goadby's fluid1 #gc ,gobies1 #ccd ,gobiid1 #ccd ,gobioesocid1 #ccj ,gobius1 #ccd ,golden ,samphire1 #daa ,gonoplax1 #bij ,goosefoot1 #dje ,gracilaria1 #cff ,gramine1 #cib1 #dbc ,grantia1 #abj ,grass-wracks1 #djj ,green ,laver1 #fa ,green ,pea-urchin1 #afh ,grey ,mullet1 #ccb ,griffithsia1 #fa1 #cfj ,ground bait1 #di ,gurnards1 #cce ,gymnosperms1 #cdf1 #cdh ,haddock1 #cbg ,hake1 #cbh ,halecium1 #aca ,halibut1 #cbf ,halichondria1 #abc ,halidrys1 #chh ,haliotid1 #bdb1 #bee ,haliotis1 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,squirts1 #ahh -- ,stock1 #dah -- ,stork's-bill1 #dad -- ,urchins1 #aeg1 #afe -- -- preserving1 #gi -- -- shell of1 #aff -- teeth1 #afg -- water1 artificial1 #ei -- composition1 #ei -- weeds1 #cdc -- -- classification1 #chi -- -- preserving1 #hf -- ,wormwood1 #daj ,seaside ,arrow ,grass1 #dja -- ,bindweed1 #dji -- ,cottonweed1 #daj -- ,feverfew1 #daa -- ,grasses1 #cib -- ,knot ,grass1 #djd -- ,plantain1 #djh -- plants1 #cia -- classification1 #dbc ,section cutting1 #if ,sedges1 #cih ,selaginellales1 #cde1 #cdh ,sepia1 #bec ,sepiad1 #bec1 #bee ,sepiola1 #beb ,serpula1 #ahe ,serranid1 #cch ,serrated ,pill-ball1 #bfh ,serrated ,wrack1 #chf ,sertularia1 #abh ,sessile-eyed crustaceans1 #bff ,shanny1 #ccc ,sharks1 #cah ,shells1 preserving1 #hc ,shore ,crab1 #bfa1 #bia -- ,spider1 #bic ,shrimps1 #bgh -- preserving1 #ha ,shrubby ,mignonette1 #dag ,silene1 #dae ,silicia1 #abb ,siphonace1 #ceh1 #chi ,siphonida1 #aih1 #bee ,siphonostomata1 #bcf1 #bdg1 #bee ,six-rayed ,sponges1 #aai ,skates1 #cah 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shells1 #bde ,turritella1 #bdd ,turritellid1 #bdd1 #bee ,twin-bladder ,wrack1 #chg ,two-spotted ,sucker1 #cca ,ulva1 #fa1 #ced ,ulvace1 #chi1 #ced ,umbellifer1 #daa1 #dbe ,umbilicus1 #bbf ,umbo1 #aic ,vascular cryptogams1 #cde ,velutina1 #bdg ,velvet ,crab1 #bib ,venerid1 #baj1 #bee ,venus1 #baj ,vermes1 #agb ,vertebrates1 #cjf ,vetch1 #dac ,vicia1 #dac ,viola1 #dag ,violace1 #dag1 #dbf ,violet ,fiddler1 #bib ,water ,ferns1 #cde ,weavers1 #ccf ,wedge shells1 #bjh ,whales1 #cdj ,wheel animals1 #ahi ,whelks1 #bdh ,whirl ,worms1 #age ,whistle ,fish1 #cbh ,whitebait1 #cbc ,white ,salmon1 #cci ,whiting1 #cbg ,wild ,cabbage1 #dah ,wild ,celery1 #dab ,wing shells1 #bai ,wolf ,fish1 #ccd ,woody ,nightshade1 #dji ,worms1 #agb -- parasitic1 #agd ,worm ,pipe-fish1 #cbi ,wrangeliace1 #chi ,wrasses1 #cbi ,xantho1 #bib ,xylophaga1 #bja ,yellow ,poppy1 #dbj ,zeus1 #cch ,zoantharia1 #ach ,zoarces1 #ccc ,zonaria1 #chb ,zostera1 #cec1 #djj ,printed in ,england at ,,the ,,ballantyne ,,press ,,spottiswoode1 ,,ballantyne ,,co4 ,,ltd4 ,colchester1 ,london ,eton ,transcriber's ,note ,minor inconsistencies in the punctuation of tables or captions are silently corrected4 ,hyphenation is variable4 ,those compound words which are hyphenated only on line breaks are rendered using modern usage4 ,the word 'movable' appears only once as 'moveable' 7#afe71 which is retained4 ,the index entry for 'pophilus' is considered to be an error4 ,all instances of the word appear in the text as 'pophilus'4 ,this has been corrected and moved to the appropriate alphabetic position4 ,the following corrections were made to obvious printer's errors1 devele_/oped 7#ccf72 con_/mposed 7#cfd72 ,the following list contains punctuation corrections made3 p4 #fe one of them4 ,added4 p4 #bee ,class ,,lamellibranchiata ,added to match other entries4 p4 #beg their tendencies1_/4 ,corrected4 p4 #bib low-water-mark ,unhyphenated elsewhere4 p4 #cdj 7,cetacea7 ,added4 p4 #cij in firm gelatine1_/4 ,corrected4 p4 #djc by its stipuled leaves4 ,added4 p4 #dcd ,rhodosperme1 #cej1 #cee1 #chi ,added4