,a ,,manual ,,of ,,wood-,,carving4 ,illustration3 ,,panel4 ,p4 #abd4 ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,wood ,,carving ,,by ,,charles ,g4 ,,leland1 ,f4,r4,l4,s41 ,m4,a4 ,late ,director of the ,public ,industrial ,art ,school of ,philadelphia2 ,member 7,committee7 of the ,home ,arts and ,ind4 ,assn42 also ,comm4 ,member of the ,french-,american and ,hungarian ,folk ,lore ,societies2 ,pres4 ,british ,gypsy ,lore ,soc41 c42 ,author of ,the ,minor ,arts1 ,twelve ,manuals of ,arts1 ,practical ,education1 ,album and ,handbook of ,retouss ,work1 c4 c4 ,,revised ,,by ,,john ,j4 ,,holtzapffel ,associate ,member of the ,institute of ,civil ,engineers1 ,london2 ,corresponding ,member of the ,franklin ,institute1 ,philadelphia2 ,member of the ,british ,horological ,institute2 ,examiner1 ,city and ,guilds of ,london2 ,institute for the ,advancement of ,technical ,education1 c4 c4 ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #aiji ,,copyright1 #ahia1 ,,by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,,publishers' ,,note4 ,this manual1 like that on ,drawing and ,designing1 previously published1 is intended to form one of a series in furtherance of the principles set forth in ,mr4 ,leland's work on ,practical ,education4 ,it has rarely happened that a volume such as this latter1 proposing 7as one critic declared7 nothing less than a complete revolution in ,education1 has been so favourably received by the public1 and so highly approved by competent authorities1 as was the case with it4 ,should it be unknown to any friends of educational reform into whose hands this handbook may fall1 it is to be hoped that they will think it worth while to make themselves acquainted with the principles upon which ,mr4 ,leland's practical manuals are based4 ,as regards this in particular1 it may be observed that it is almost the only one which treats ,wood-carving in a general and extended sense1 and regards it as an art widely applicable to ornamentation1 and not one confined to small chefs-d'oeuvre and prize toys1 facsimiles of fruit and leaves1 or the like4 ,it is the first book in which the sweep-cut1 which is the very soul of all good and bold carving1 has ever been described4 ,it may be added that the work has derived great advantage from the friendly interest taken in it by ,mr4 ,john ,j4 ,holtzapffel1 for which the thanks of both author and publishers are due4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,introduction4 ,woods1 ,tools1 and ,sharpening #a ,,first ,,lesson4 ,indenting and ,stamping #ae ,,second ,,lesson4 ,cutting ,grooves with a ,gouge #bb ,,third ,,lesson4 ,flat ,patterns made with cuts and lines--,cavo ,relievo or ,intaglio ,rilevato 7,cavo-cutting7 #bh ,,fourth ,,lesson4 ,cutting out a ,flat ,panel with a ,ground #cd ,,fifth ,,lesson4 ,cutting ,simple ,leaves--,carving with the ,left ,hand--,modelling or ,rounding--,shaded ,patterns and ,modelling--,progress towards ,relief #ci ,,sixth ,,lesson4 ,cutting with the ,grain--,turning the ,tool--the ,drill--,bold ,carving--and large work #dd ,,seventh ,,lesson4 ,the ,sweep-cut or ,free-hand ,carving--,cutting ,notches in ,leaves--the ,round-cut #di ,,eighth ,,lesson4 ,further application of the ,sweep-cut to ,higher ,relief #ec ,,ninth ,,lesson4 ,carving ,simple ,figures or ,animal ,forms--,figurini for ,cabinets--,simple ,rounded ,edges and approach to ,modelling #ei ,,tenth ,,lesson4 ,finishing off--,imitation of old and worn work--,where ,polishing is required #fd ,,eleventh ,,lesson4 ,diaper-work--,stamped ,diaper-patterns--,cutting ,diapers #fi ,,twelfth ,,lesson4 ,building-up1 or ,appliqu work #ge ,,thirteenth ,,lesson4 ,carving in the ,round #gi ,,appendix ,,to ,,thirteenth ,,lesson4 ,on the ,use of the ,saw #hc ,,fourteenth ,,lesson4 ,incised1 ,intaglio1 or ,sunk ,carving #hf ,,fifteenth ,,lesson4 ,carving ,curved ,surfaces3 ,cocoa-nuts1 ,bowls1 ,horns1 ,casks1 ,tankards1 etc4 #ic ,,sixteenth ,,lesson4 ,bosses1 ,knobs1 ,bars1 and ,polished ,ornaments #aja ,,seventeenth ,,lesson4 ,to ,repair ,wood-,carving--,glue--,nitric ,acid ,glue--,preparing ,decayed ,wood--,artificial ,wood--,fillers--,spraying--,to make ,glue take #aje ,,eighteenth ,,lesson4 ,colouring ,wood-work--,oiling--,soda--,stains and ,dyes--,ivorying ,surfaces--,black ,dyes and ,ink #aaj ,,nineteenth ,,lesson4 ,making ,moulds or ,squeezes for ,wood-,carvers #aae ,,twentieth ,,lesson4 ,spot ,cutting #aah ,,appendix4 ,objects for ,wood-,carving #aba ,,list ,,of ,,plates4 ,,decorative ,,panel ,frontispiece ,,panel ,,in ,,low-,,relief to face page #dj ,,highly-,,finished ,,studies ,,of ,,foliage #dh ,,circular ,,panel ,,in ,,higher ,,relief #ef ,,head ,,by ,,civitale #hb ,,miniature ,,frame #abh ,wood-,carving4 ,,introduction4 ,,woods1 ,,tools1 ,,and ,,sharpening4 ,skill in wood-carving1 as in every other art1 is to be attained only by thoroughness4 ,let the pupil therefore bear in mind that he or she must be careful to master the first lessons1 and to go no further until these can be executed with ease and accuracy4 ,this will be greatly aided if the book is read with care1 and not used for mere reference4 ,,teachers will please observe that the work is in a regular series of progressive lessons1 the first being extremely easy2 and that these lessons lead so gradually one to another that the last are no harder than the first to one who has gone on carefully from the beginning4 ,this will be found to aid teaching and self-instruction greatly4 ,every item of information will be found under its proper head1 and not scattered here and there through different chapters3 for every lesson is complete in itself1 and from the first the pupil is taught how to produce some satisfactory work of its kind4 ,thus1 indenting or stamping1 which can be learned at once1 and grooving with a gouge1 which is not more difficult1 are capable of producing very beautiful decoration even if the worker goes no further4 ,no writer has1 indeed1 ever seriously considered what valuable and varied results may be produced by these simple processes4 ,finally1 the author has endeavoured in these pages to treat wood-carving not merely as a fine art1 whose chief aim is to produce specimens of fancy work for exhibitions1 and facsimiles of flowers1 never to be touched1 but also to qualify the learner for a calling1 and what nine-tenths of all practical wood-carving really consists of1 that is1 house and other large decoration1 and of work which is to be perhaps painted1 and exposed to the air4 ,there is no reason why the artist should not be prepared to undertake figure-heads for ships1 garden gates1 cornices for roofs and rooms1 dados1 door panels1 and similar work1 as well as mere drawing-room toys1 which should have no finish save the delicate touch of the cutting tool4 ,the author would observe as regards this work that he has been under very great obligation to ,mr4 ,john ,j4 ,,holtzapffel1 ,assoc4 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 whose name is so well known to all workers in wood and metal1 for revisions1 suggestions1 and addition of the chapter on the use of the saw in carving4 ,he is also indebted to ,mr4 ,,caddy1 teacher of wood-carving in ,brighton for valuable suggestions4 ,,tools ,,and ,,implements4 ,the first and most important is a strong1 and1 if possible1 a heavy table or bench4 ,if the pupil cannot afford this1 an ordinary small kitchen table must be found4 ,it should be used for carving alone1 as it will be necessary to bore holes and drive screws into it4 ,but if a table cannot be spared for this1 the pupil must make shift by putting a board at least an inch in thickness on a common table and fastening it with clamps4 ,at a more advanced stage he will carve standing up at a higher bench1 or with his work on a stand4 ,pupils in wood-carving shops often carve standing from the beginning4 ,illustration3 a b ,carving ,tools are generally divided into two classes3 chisels1 which are flat at the end and in the blade2 and gouges1 which are hollow4 ,among professional wood-carvers the former is generally known as a firmer1 in order to distinguish it from the chisel used by carpenters4 ,a carver's chisel is always ground on both sides1 so as to form a wedge like a very high1 steep roof 7a71 while that of the carpenter is a stouter implement1 its edge being like a wedge which is flat on one side 7b71 as it is only ground on the other4 ,the object of grinding carvers' chisels on both sides is that there are many cuts which cannot be executed by a carpenter's chisel at all1 or at least not with ease1 for one would be obliged1 while using it1 to continually turn it around4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a a4 ,,gouge4 ,,firmer4 ,carvers ,chisels or ,firmers1 ,fig4 #a b1 are of many and all sizes1 from an inch in breadth down to the pick1 which1 across the end or edge1 is no wider than a small hyphen 7-74 ,to these may be added the skew-chisels1 also called skews or corner-firmers1 which are firmers ground off diagonally1 so that the point is on one side4 ,these are also sharpened on both sides4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a b4 ,,firmers4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #b-e4 ,,gouges4 ,gouges1 ,figs4 #b-e1 are chisels more or less rounded4 ,these1 of all widths1 vary from the extra flat1 which is so slightly curved that it might at a casual glance be taken for an ordinary chisel1 to the ordinary flat4 ,a little more bend or convexity gives the scroll gouge4 ,a semi-circle or any narrower portion of the same curve is a hollow gouge1 the smaller sizes of which are called veiners1 the very smallest of the latter being known as eye-tools4 ,there are some differences of names for these among writers1 as well as workmen1 but for all practical purposes the terms here used may be accepted1 and are understood by all who sell the tools4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,,bent ,,tools4 ,bent ,tools4 ,both chisels and gouges are made straight1 or bent or curved in the shank4 ,it often happens that in deep cutting1 or in hollowed spaces1 it is impossible to cut with an implement having a straight shaft1 while with one differently shaped the wood can be easily removed1 ,fig4 #f4 ,holdfasts4--,carver's ,screws1 and ,clamps1 ,hand ,screws1 ,bench ,screws1 c4 ,as the carver holds his tool with one hand and directs it with the other1 it is evident that some means must be taken to secure in place the piece of work which he cuts4 ,i4 ,the simplest method of doing this is to drive three or four nails or screws into the table at a convenient distance4 ,the work may be held between these to prevent its slipping4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,,holdfast ,,and ,,saw ,,table4 ,,ii4 ,,holdfasts4--,clamps or ,cramps1 ,fig4 #g4 ,these cramps are small iron frames1 like three sides of a square1 with a screw in the under limb4 ,they are used on the edge of the table to hold the work firmly down to its surface2 two or more are always employed4 ,their fault is that they indent and damage the work2 a piece of waste wood may be interposed between the work and the upper limb to prevent this1 but such a guard is generally in the way and otherwise objectionable4 ,hand ,screws1 ,figs4 #h and #i1 are a far better tool1 entirely free from the above-named objection4 ,they consist of two strips of hard wood rounded at the one end1 or jaws1 and two screws1 also of wood1 one of which passes through both jaws1 and the other through only one2 the end of this second screw entering a recess made in the other jaw to retain it in position4 ,to use them the handles are grasped firmly in the two hands1 and the hands are revolved around one another away from you1 which causes the jaws to open exactly parallel with one another4 ,when the opening between the jaws equals the thickness of the work and the table1 the hand screws are slipped over them1 and the second screw then alone receives an extra half turn1 this throws the jaws slightly out of parallelism1 and effects a powerful grip upon the work at their points4 ,they are exceedingly powerful also in holding work for gluing together and other purposes1 and are made of all sizes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,fig4 #i4 ,,hand ,,screws4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,,carvers' ,,screws4 ,,iii4 ,carvers' ,screws1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,these are iron screws about #ab or #ad in4 long1 with a finer pointed screw1 like that of a gimlet1 at the one end1 and a square at the other2 on the screw is a winged or fly nut4 ,to use them the point is screwed firmly into the under side of the work1 with the fly nut removed and used as a lever by one of the holes in its wings placed on the square on the end of the shaft4 ,the shaft is then passed through a hole made through the top of the bench or table1 and the fly nut replaced on the screw below the table to fix the work down to it4 ,the screws are long1 which is sometimes convenient1 but if the work be thin it is usual to put a block of waste wood on the shaft before the fly nut1 to avoid the tedium of having to screw the latter up a long way4 ,slackening the nut enables the work to be turned round to any required position1 and there is nothing above the table except the work4 ,,iv4 ,snibs or ,dogs1 ,figs4 #aa1 #ab4 ,these are pieces of wood screwed down to the table1 which hold the panel or other piece of work by a projection4 ,they are easily made by simply sawing out a piece of wood fairly corresponding in thickness to the panel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,,snibs ,,or ,,dogs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,v4 ,take an ordinary button1 ,fig4 #ac1 such as is common on cupboards in country cottages to fasten the door4 ,saw out a piece of the panel1 one or more inches square4 ,put the screw through the button and turn it over the panel and the little waste piece of wood4 ,two or more of these will hold the work perfectly fast4 ,,vi4 ,the simplest method of all is to leave about an inch at either end of the panel and pass screws through these extra portions into the table4 ,when the work is carved these ends may be sawn off4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,,scratch4 ,the ,scratch1 ,fig4 #ad4 ,this is a very convenient and ingenious tool4 ,it is used1 says ,j4 ,s4 ,gibson 7,the ,wood-,carver1 ,edinburgh1 #ahhi71 for running small mouldings and hollows4 ,where the lines are long and straight it makes finer work than is possible by means of gouges4 ,the cutters are made from pieces of steel barely #a-afth of an inch thick4 ,broken pieces of saws are generally used for cutters4 ,they must be tightly fixed in the stock4 ,it is worked backwards and forwards gently4 ,when the cutters are filed to the required shape1 they have to be finished with a slip stone to take out the file marks4 ,they are sharpened straight across the edges4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,,router4 ,the ,router1 ,fig4 #ae4 ,this is a small copy of the joiner's plane of the same name4 ,it consists of a block of wood with a perfectly flat sole2 a hole through it at an angle carries the cutter and the wedge by which it is fixed4 ,it is employed for flattening the groundwork after that has been partially excavated with the chisels4 ,the sole of the router rests upon any margins left of the original surface1 and being worked about over the ground1 the fixed projection of the cutter rapidly reduces the latter to one true level4 ,these routers are made from about nine inches long in the sole to about three inches1 the smallest1 which little tools have cutters about #a-hth of an inch wide4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,,fret ,,bow ,,saw4 ,saws4 ,these are of various kinds2 perhaps the most useful is the ,fret ,bow ,saw1 ,fig4 #af4 ,this consists of a light thin steel frame with screw jaws1 at the open end in which the thin saw-blades are clamped4 ,the handle is also formed as a screw1 by which its jaw can be advanced about an inch towards its fellow4 ,to place the saw in position for work1 the end of the handle is screwed round until its jaw has advanced about an inch1 the saw is then fixed in the opposite jaw by its thumb-screw1 then in the handle jaw in the same way1 after which the handle is turned until its jaw has travelled back again the distance it had previously advanced1 thus straining the saw by the tension of the steel spring saw-frame4 ,this saw is very useful for removing superfluous pieces from the outline1 both in flat works and when carving in the round1 as will be explained2 its primary purpose is for cutting out pierced and buhl and fretwork1 but for such work1 as the apertures cut do not always cut out to the edges1 a drill is required to pierce holes to thread the saw through the work before it is placed in the second jaw to strain it4 ,fig4 #af is required for pierced work laid down on a ground and then carved1 a style of carving which will be described4 ,the ordinary joiners dovetail or tenon saws1 their blades with stiff backs1 are required1 and are almost indispensable for cutting off portions of the work and trimming it to shape2 these saws are too well known to require description4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,,knuckle-,,bend4 ,in addition to the tools already described1 the pupil will need for more and varied work the following3--,i4 ,the ,spade ,chisel1 and ,spade ,gouge4 ,these are very light1 and are used for finishing by hand1 as1 for instance1 in cutting around grapes or plums or in fine work4 ,,ii4 ,knuckle-bends1 ,fig4 #ag4 ,these are gouges scooped or bent in a curve like a knuckle4 ,,iii4 ,the ,macaroni ,tool1 ,fig4 #ah4 ,this is like the three sides of a square4 ,it is for removing wood on each side of a vein or leaf1 or similar delicate work4 ,it is not very commonly used4 ,,iv4 ,the ,parting ,tool or ,v1 straight or curved4 ,this is a useful tool for outlining a pattern or veining leaves4 ,beginners find it1 like the ,macaroni1 rather difficult to sharpen1 or to keep an edge on it4 ,it must not be used recklessly for carving1 as it is apt to break unless handled with care4 ,it should be kept with a cork on the end4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,,macaroni ,,tools4 ,it is a question among experts as to whether the tools for beginners should have long or short handles1 which is as sensible as if they should debate whether the pupils should have large or small hands4 ,general ,seaton1 who is in other matters a good authority1 declares that small1 short1 neatly-turned boxwood handles must be avoided2 they are nearly useless4 ,get good-sized beech or ash handles quite five inches long1 and if the steel is four or four and a half inches long you will have a really serviceable tool4 ,common sense teaches that between a child or a young lady who has a palm the size of a cardinal's seal 7to borrow a simile from ,benvenuto ,cellini71 and a workman who would burst a number ten glove1 there must be very great differences in the size of handles1 and it is certain that for young beginners short ones are to be advised4 ,if they are not to be obtained ready made1 then take an ordinary long handle1 saw it off to the requisite length1 say from three to three and a half inches1 round the sharp edge of the wood1 firstly with a knife or chisel1 then with a rasp1 and finish it off with glass-paper4 ,see that the tools when set into the handles are well ringed and firm4 ,in most shops it is usual to sharpen them if it be required4 ,after becoming accustomed to such handles the pupil may1 as he progresses1 familiarize himself with those which are in general use4 ,there is really only one trouble in wood-carving4 ,this is the sharpening the tools1 and keeping them in good condition4 ,for this the grindstone and oilstone are indispensable1 and the beginner must take pains to learn to sharpen his tools well and readily4 ,,sharpening4 ,tools which are as yet unground1 or which have had the edge broken1 may1 with patience and care1 be sharpened on a harsh flat stone1 but round grindstones which revolve with a handle are not dear2 you can1 however1 always get your tools ground by any carpenter4 ,every carver should therefore1 if possible1 own one of these grindstones4 ,it will serve as well for a large class as for an individual4 ,the next indispensable is the oilstone4 ,this is to be found of different kinds2 the ordinary ,turkey stone1 set in a block of wood1 will answer for firmers1 skews1 and flat gouges1 for finer tools the best ,arkansas stones may be employed4 ,before using one1 let fall on it a few drops of oil1 which is to be kept in a small can with a narrow spout1 made expressly for such dropping4 ,have a coarse rag1 and when you have done with the stone1 always wipe it clean of the oil4 ,take great care not to wear a hollow in the middle of the stone4 ,it is by far the best plan to get some wood-carver or carpenter to show you how to sharpen the tools4 ,there are very few places where there is not somebody who can teach this art4 ,it is usual to have a box-cover to the oilstone1 which should always be over it when not in use1 to prevent dust from settling on the surface4 ,a very little dust indeed combined with the oil is a great hindrance to sharpening4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,,slip ,,holder4 ,slips4 ,these are pieces of ,arkansas1 ,turkey1 and other stones1 made of a variety of shapes1 to fit the inside of such tools as cannot be sharpened on a flat surface1 like that of oil-stone4 ,they require great care in handling lest the fingers be cut4 ,to avoid this1 take a piece of wood1 and cut a deep groove in it1 exactly adapted to hold the stone firmly1 leaving as much of it projecting as may be required for use1 ,fig4 #ai4 ,if you cannot obtain a slip exactly suited to any particular tool1 then grind or cut it to shape on the grindstone or with a file2 some carvers use a very coarse whetstone adapted to this purpose4 ,the safe method of using a slip when not mounted in wood is to lay the back of the gouge at an inch and a half from the edge on the edge of the table2 the edge of the tool must be slightly raised1 and the slip can then be applied with perfect safety and with great effect4 7,seaton47 ,the ,v1 or parting tool1 is difficult to sharpen because1 until one has had practice with it1 it is hard to cut down each side in exact uniformity with the other4 ,for this it is necessary to have a slip ground to a ,v edge1 so as to exactly fit the inside of the tool4 ,the ,strap4 ,this is a piece of hard1 smooth leather1 glued on a flat bit of board4 ,this may be prepared with sweet oil and emery powder1 or ,tripoli1 to be renewed as occasion requires1 or with a preparation of lard and crocus powder4 ,emery paste sold at the tool-shop will answer for all ordinary work4 ,when no strap is at hand a final sharp1 or a razor edge1 may be given even on a smooth pine board1 especially if a very little fine air-dust be on it4 ,sharpening the tools is like threading the needle in sewing1 or putting a point on lead pencils when drawing1 something which is a great trouble1 and a constant interruption to earnest work1 yet which must be constantly seen to4 ,never go on carving for a second if you find that a tool is growing in the least dull or scratchy4 ,there can be no good work whatever without really good tools in perfect order4 ,it may be observed that tools are never ground quite so much inside as they are externally4 ,also that this double grinding gives a sharper cutting-edge2 but gouges require very little edging inside4 ,should the carver be unable to obtain a ,turkey or ,arkansas stone1 he may use smooth slate1 or almost any stone which is tolerably hard4 ,,wood4 ,all wood for carving should be of the best quality1 well seasoned1 and free as possible from cracks1 knots1 or other irregularities4 ,fine white pine or deal1 being very easy to cut1 is suitable for a beginner4 ,lime and pear-tree wood1 like pine1 are even in the grain4 ,american walnut is also easy to cut4 ,it is of a beautiful dark colour1 which is much improved by oiling and age4 ,with this1 but tougher than the preceding1 are beech1 elm1 and oak4 ,poplar1 yellow deal1 and the so-called ,american wood 7known as poplar in ,america1 ,middle ,states7 are useful for many kinds of work4 ,the carver should accustom himself1 as soon as possible1 to oak1 as a hard wood is by no means hard to carve as soon as a little skill is acquired4 ,bone1 ivory1 and pearl-shell1 which at the first effort seems to be almost impenetrable1 after a few days are worked with great ease4 ,illustration ,,first ,,lesson4 ,,indenting ,,and ,,stamping4 ,the first stage in wood-carving is to decorate a flat surface in very low relief by a process which1 strictly speaking1 is not carving at all4 ,let the beginner take a panel or thin flat board1 let us say one of six inches in breadth1 twelve in length1 and half an inch or less in thickness4 ,for this kind of work a finely grained1 even1 and light-coloured wood1 such as holly or beech1 is preferable4 ,draw the pattern on paper1 of the size intended with a very black and soft lead or crayon pencil1 place it with the face to the wood1 and turning the edges over1 gum them down to the edge of the panel4 ,then with some very smooth hard object1 such as an agate or steel burnisher1 an ivory paper-knife1 or the end of a rounded and glossy penknife handle1 carefully rub the back of the pattern4 ,when this is done remove the paper1 and the pattern will be found transferred to the wood4 ,if imperfect1 touch it up4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,the pupil may now1 with a pattern-wheel or tracer1 indent or mark a line or narrow groove in the outline of the pattern4 ,the tracer is the same implement of the same name which is used in repouss or brass-sheet or metal-work4 ,its end is exactly like that of a screw-driver4 ,to manage it properly hold it upright1 and run it along1 tapping it as it goes with a hammer of iron or wood1 ,fig4 #bj4 ,in some countries a stick of wood about six inches in length1 and an inch broad at the butt1 is used4 ,where the wheel cannot be employed1 as in small corners1 use the tracer4 ,the pointed tracer1 ,fig4 #ba1 used in leather-work1 and in carpentry1 is often indispensable for the smaller pattern-work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,,pointed ,,and ,,edged ,,tracer4 ,when the outline is all marked out in a groove1 take one of the stamps1 or grounding punches1 shown on ,fig4 #bc1 and with the hammer indent the whole background1 ,fig4 #bd4 ,if there be corners too small to admit the stamp or stamps for the same pattern1 then finish them up with a pointed nail or any point1 such as a bodkin4 ,the result will be like the simple design in ,fig4 #bc4 ,when this is done1 coat the whole with oil1 rub it in1 and wipe it off with care4 ,then with a piece of very soft wood polish only the pattern1 and finally rub it off by hand or with a stiff brush4 ,this kind of ornamentation is adapted to the covers of books or albums1 as it can be applied to the thinnest sheets of wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,,stamps4 ,another way to improve this work is to take the tracer1 and smooth down and depress the ground1 especially near the pattern edge4 ,this gives an improved relief4 ,then the ground may be stamped or matted1 ,fig4 #bd4 ,it may be borne in mind that the pupil who masters this process of indenting with wheel1 tracers1 and stamps1 will be quite able to work patterns in damp sheet-leather1 since the latter is effected in the same way with the same tools4 ,nor does the first step in repouss or sheet-brass work differ greatly from it4 ,all the minor arts have a great deal in common2 many of the tools used in one being applicable to others4 ,the pupil who begins with some knowledge of drawing will soon find it easy to work in any material4 ,the pupil having done this1 has an idea of how a pattern is placed or spaced and contrasted with the ground4 ,he may now take another panel1 and having drawn the pattern1 cut out the outline in a light groove with a very small gouge or a ,v tool1 or a firmer4 ,let him be very careful to hold the handle in his right hand1 and guide the blade with the fingers of the left1 and never to let the latter get before the point4 ,do not cut deeply or too rapidly4 ,before beginning on the pattern1 practise cutting grooves on waste wood4 ,unless this is done the panel will almost certainly be spoiled4 ,it is usual among carvers to begin with cutting the groove with a ,v tool1 but it is well to prepare for this by using the tracer or wheel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,fig4 #bg represents the effect of a ground which is indented1 and to a degree ornamented1 by using round stamps of different patterns and sizes4 ,very good effects may be produced in this way1 which resembles diaper-work4 ,to clearly recapitulate the process1 let me observe3 ,that to begin1 the pupil must have a smooth panel without knots or imperfections4 ,the pattern is drawn on this or transferred to it4 ,this pattern should be entirely in outline1 without any inside lines or drawing between the outside edges1 ,fig4 #bd4 ,take a wheel or tracer and indent the whole pattern very carefully and rather deeply1 not all at one pressure1 but by going twice or thrice over the line4 ,then with a stamp and hammer indent all the background and the spaces between the edges of the pattern4 ,having done this once1 take another panel and pattern1 and instead of pressing in the outline with a wheel or tracer1 cut it with a parting tool or gouge--not too deeply4 ,then indent as before1 ,fig4 #be4 ,this stamping the grounds is often miscalled diaper carving1 but the diaper is1 correctly speaking1 a small pattern multiplied to make a ground1 and not roughly corrugating or dotting with a bodkin1 or pricking4 ,this latter is1 of course1 indenting4 ,diapers may be either stamped or carved like any other patterns4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,this process of flattening1 wheeling1 tracing1 and stamping wood1 though little practised now1 was so common in the ,middle ,ages1 that there are very few galleries containing pictures with gold backgrounds in which there are not specimens of it4 ,very great masters in painting frequently practised it4 ,after gilding the ground1 they outlined the pattern with a prick-wheel1 which is quite like the rowel of a spur1 and often traced dotted patterns with the wheel itself on the flat gold4 ,black or dark brown paint was then rubbed into the dots4 ,sometimes the stamp was also used1 and its marks or holes filled in the same manner4 ,it is not necessary to gild the background to produce a fine effect4 ,first apply a coat of varnish1 polish it when dry with finest glass-paper1 then apply a coat or two of white oil paint1 toned with ,naples yellow1 and when it is dry work it with wheel-tracers and stamps4 ,when dry polish it again1 and rub dark brown paint into all the lines and dots4 ,cover it with two coats of fine retouching varnish1 and the effect will be that of old stamped ivory4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,,gouge ,,lines4 ,this first lesson may be omitted by those who wish to proceed at once to carving4 ,it is given here because it sets forth the easiest and least expensive manner of ornamenting wood1 and one which forms a curious and beautiful art by itself4 ,with it one can acquire a familiarity with the method of transferring patterns to wood1 and with the management of the tracer and stamp4 ,the pattern-wheel should be held in the right hand1 and guided by the forefinger of the left1 which is a good preparatory practice for the chisel and gouge4 ,while the tools requisite for this work are few and inexpensive1 it may be observed that tolerable substitutes may be obtained for them anywhere4 ,almost any knife-blade1 eraser1 or screw-driver can be ground into a dull edge which may serve to trace and press the wood1 while a spike or very large nail can1 with a file1 be so crossed at the end as to make a stamp4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,,indented ,,ground4 ,,second ,,lesson4 ,,cutting ,,grooves ,,with ,a ,,gouge4 ,we will now suppose that the pupil has a piece of smooth pine wood1 at least six inches by six in size1 and half an inch in thickness1 fastened to the table before him4 ,let him draw on it two lines with a lead pencil1 across the grain1 one-fourth of an inch distant from each other4 ,then taking a fluter or gouge of semi-circular curve1 also one-fourth of an inch in diameter1 let him carefully cut away the wood between the lines so as to form a semi-circular groove1 ,fig4 #bh a4 ,this is not to be effected by cutting all the wood away at once4 ,a very little should be removed at first1 so as to make a shallow groove1 then this may be cut over again till the incision is perfect4 ,hold the handle of the tool firmly in the right hand1 with the wrist and part of the forearm resting on the bench2 place the two first fingers of the left hand on the face of the blade about an inch from the cutting edge1 to direct and act as a stop to prevent the tool advancing too fast4 ,some place the thumb below the blade1 so that it is held between the thumb and the two first fingers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh a4 ,,straight ,,grooves4 ,keep your mind on your work--a careless movement may cause a slip of the tool and ruin it4 ,let every stroke of chisel or gouge be made and regulated by purpose and design1 not haphazard1 or at random4 ,think exactly what you wish to cut or mean to do1 and leave nothing to involuntary action4 ,the habit of doing this may be acquired in the first few lessons1 if you try1 and when it is acquired all the real difficulty of carving is mastered4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh b4 ,,cross ,,grooves4 ,never attempt to carve anything unless it is fastened to the table4 ,pupils who do this fall into the habit of holding the panel down with the left hand1 and the result is that the tool slips sooner or later1 and inflicts a wound which may be serious4 ,always keep both hands on the tool4 ,when the pupil shall have cut perhaps twenty straight grooves with great care with the gouge1 he may then cut cross-barred grooves1 ,fig4 #bh b1 and then curved ones as in ,fig4 #bi a1 b1 c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,,curved ,,and ,,crossing ,,grooves4 ,two sections of a circle thus intersecting form1 as may be seen1 a leaf4 ,one1 two1 or even three lessons may be devoted to this1 but let the pupil go no further until he can cut these grooves perfectly4 ,he will then find it excellent practice at odd intervals to carve grooves in circles1 spirals1 or other forms4 ,groove-carving may be regarded as line-drawing1 for any pattern which can be drawn in simple lines can be of course imitated with a gouge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,very pretty decorative work may be effected by this gouge-grooving alone1 and in fact it was very common in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 as is shown by specimens in the museums of ,south ,kensington1 ,munich1 ,vienna1 and ,salzburg4 ,the wood chosen was generally a highly-grained or strongly-marked pine1 the natural yellow colour of which was somewhat heightened by staining1 oiling1 or age4 ,the pattern1 generally a leafy one1 was then outlined with a narrow1 say one-third inch gouge1 and the grooves painted in with black or brown4 ,this was applied in many ways1 but especially to large cabinets or wardrobes4 ,it is a very rapid and effective kind of work4 ,celtic or ,irish 7or ,runic7 patterns1 which resemble ropes or ribbons crossing one another1 can be very well imitated by running these lines with a gouge1 ,fig4 #cj4 ,no writer on wood-carving ever seems to have noticed what beautiful1 complicated1 and valuable work can be executed in this manner alone4 ,these lines can be painted in black1 dark colours1 or red1 so as to make fine effects in decorative furniture or friezes4 ,it may also be observed1 that when cut they may be used for moulds for plaster of ,paris1 papier-mach1 and leather4 ,the pupil would do well to pass a few days in developing simple groove-work1 which is worth perfectly understanding4 ,there are few who cannot with care learn to cut grooves very well with a gouge after a few days' practice4 ,i urge that the pupil shall do this with ease before going further4 ,secondly1 that he shall actually realize what a great amount of beautiful work can be made with one gouge of from one-fourth to one-third of an inch diameter2 as1 for instance1 in inscriptions1 interlacing bands or any kind of design formed of lines or cords1 ,celtic decoration1 interlacing ropes or ribbons1 etc4 ,the artist who proposes to master carving for general decoration should pay particular attention to this simple work4 ,beginners in carving are1 without exception1 so anxious to get ornaments or leaves in relief1 and to produce some kind of high-class art work1 that they pass over grooving and curve-carving or flat-cutting as of very little consequence1 when in fact it would be in every way much more to their advantage to develop it to the utmost4 ,the great reason why there is at present so little decoration of broad spaces in panels1 scrolls1 or furniture1 by means of carving1 is because all carvers are devoted almost exclusively to more ambitious work1 and ignore what may be done with a few tools by the simplest methods4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,third ,,lesson4 ,,flat ,,patterns ,,made ,,with ,,cuts ,,and ,,lines--,,cavo ,,relievo ,,or ,,intaglio ,,rilevato 7,,cavo-,,cutting74 ,there is an easy kind of flat or hollow carving1 if it can be so called1 which is executed with a gouge or ,v tool1 or a firmer alone1 but which produces flat patterns4 ,make the design1 and as it is to be executed almost entirely with lines or grooves1 or small hollows1 it must be so designed that the patterns are close fitting1 or separated only by lines4 ,now and then1 or here and there1 a small corner or larger space or cavity may be removed by a touch of the tool1 but as a rule there is little work in it beyond mere lines4 ,however1 as in the gouge-work of the previous lesson1 although anybody can learn in a day or two to run the lines1 yet if good patterns be available1 remarkably beautiful and valuable work may be produced by it4 ,it is as applicable to cabinets1 chests1 panels for chairs1 or other kinds of decoration4 ,of course the lines1 or hollows1 or excavations may1 as in all cases1 be filled in with colour1 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,this work can often be very well executed with the firmer 7or flat carver's chisel7 alone1 and it will afford good practice to acquire familiarity with that greatly neglected tool4 ,flat or cavo-cutting of this kind as work is only a little advance on grooving with a gouge1 but its results may be very much more artistic4 ,it occupies a position between gouge grooving and cutting out the ground4 ,each of these are as separated as so many distinct arts1 but they lead one to the other1 ,figs4 #ca-ce4 ,the easiest way to prepare this work is to execute the pattern on the wood in ,indian ink1 and then simply cut away all the black4 ,the lines in leaves1 etc41 must be very carefully run with the ,v tool2 all the larger hollows should be cut with a gouge4 ,if very large hollows1 or spaces1 or grounds are left1 they must be executed as described in the next lesson4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,,flat ,,patterns4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,,flat ,,patterns4 ,observe in ,figs4 #ca to #ce that all the carving is confined to simply cutting away the parts indicated by the black ground4 ,the fine lines can be best executed with a parting or ,v tool1 and in many instances with the smallest gouge or veiner4 ,though not usual1 it is excellent practice1 when possible1 to learn to do this with a small firmer1 or carver's chisel4 ,these cavo relievo or cut-out flat patterns are as easy of execution as gouge-work to any one who has learned the latter4 ,they are not now much studied1 but they are capable of a wide application in large decorative art4 ,the lines and cavities look best when painted or dyed4 ,it is the next step beyond gouge-work1 which represents simple drawing of lines in design1 and corresponds to sketching4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,contour or rounding and modelling of course correspond to light and shade1 but plain gouge and cavo-cutting is simple sketching4 ,any animal1 or a human figure1 a vase1 flowers1 or vines may be thus carved1 the only further condition being that the outlines shall always be broad and bold4 ,great care should be exercised not to make too many lines1 especially fine ones1 and in all cases to avoid detail1 and make the design as simple as you can4 ,when in thus outlining an animal you have clearly indicated1 with as few lines as possible1 what it is meant to be1 you have done enough1 as in all sketching the golden rule is to give as much representation with as little work as possible1 ,fig4 #cf4 ,it may be observed that familiar and extensive practice of the very easy gouge-groove work1 and of simple flat or cavo-cutting in hollows1 if carried out on a large scale1 as for instance in wall and door patterns1 gives the pupil far more energy and confidence1 and is more conducive to free-hand carving and the sweep-cut1 than the usual method of devoting much time in the beginning to chipping elaborate leaves and other small work4 ,therefore it will be well for the pupil to perfect himself in such simple groove and hollow work4 ,this was the first step in medival carving1 and it was the proper one for general decoration4 ,it was in this manner that the old carvers of ,england and their masters1 the ,flemings1 taught their pupils4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,fourth ,,lesson4 ,,cutting ,,out ,a ,,flat ,,panel ,,with ,a ,,ground4 ,let the pupil take a panel and draw on it a pattern1 ,fig4 #cg a4 ,he is to cut this out in what is called flat carving1 and sometimes ribbon work4 ,he begins by outlining1 which may be effected in different ways4 ,i4 ,by taking a small fluter or veiner1 or a tooling-gouge one-tenth of an inch in diameter1 and cutting a groove all around the pattern just outside of it1 but accurately close to it4 ,if perfect in ,lesson ,,ii4 this will be very easy for him4 ,,ii4 ,he may do this also with a ,v or parting tool1 but the gouge is better for a first attempt4 ,,iii4 ,the outline cutting may be effected by taking a firmer or carver's chisel1 one-third of an inch broad1 and placing it up and down close to the pattern1 but sloping outwardly1 give it a tap with the mallet so as to sink it a very little way into the wood4 ,do not cut straight up and down1 but so as to make a sloping bank4 ,,iv4 ,there is yet another way1 which is more difficult and seldom practised1 yet which if mastered gives great skill in carving4 ,take the firmer or flat chisel1 and holding it with great care run it along the edge1 sloping outwards1 so as to cut the line accurately4 ,by means of this method the whole work may be very well outlined4 ,it is not urged as absolutely necessary at a first lesson1 but it is advisable to practise it sooner or later4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg a4 ,when the outlining is done1 let the pupil take a flat gouge 7if he has cut the line with a small gouge71 and very carefully shave away the wood from the ground4 ,let him cut at first very little at a time1 for his object is now not to make something to show1 but to learn how to manage his tools4 ,do not finish all the cutting in one part at once1 leaving the rest untouched1 but go all over it gradually several times1 until it is nearly perfect4 ,let every touch tell4 ,remove the wood at every cut1 and leave no edges or splinters4 ,to do this well you must also always watch and consider the grain of the wood at the particular spot you are operating upon2 it is easy enough to see whether you are cutting with1 that is in the same direction1 as the grain1 or across the grain2 but it is something beyond this that has to be looked to4 ,it is invariable that all wood1 whether cut with the grain or partly across the grain1 will be found to work better1 smoother1 and with less tendency to splinter either in the one or the other direction1 that is to say1 when cut from right to left1 or the reverse1 from left to right4 ,the required direction in which it will cut the smoothest is at once shown by the behaviour of the wood itself and the quality of the results2 hence1 should the work or surface show a tendency to splinter1 if possible cut it from the opposite direction1 and turn the work round on the bench should that be necessary to enable you to do it1 that is1 if you cannot use the tool in either hand4 ,beware above all things of letting the hands work mechanically4 ,think of what you are about4 ,by learning to cut clean and flat you are taking the first step towards the sweep-cut1 which will come afterwards1 and which requires both deliberation and dexterity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg b4 ,when all is cut out nicely and carefully1 take an extra flat gouge and clean the floor1 removing every trace of unevenness4 ,then take a ,french round nail or bodkin1 and with the mallet fill the ground with little holes so as to make a rough surface2 or you may use one of the stamps for this4 ,this requires care1 so that the shape of the stamp may not be apparent4 ,it is advisable to trim with a very sharp small chisel1 and with great care1 the edge of the pattern4 ,for this lesson it will be best not to cut away more than one-fourth of an inch to form the ground4 ,if the outlining is done with a chisel and mallet1 before cutting away the ground1 go over the outline and cut at a little distance from the line already cut towards it1 so as to remove the wood and form a ,v-shaped groove1 as one digs with a spade4 ,teachers or pupils are begged to remember that the sole object of this lesson is to learn how to handle and manage the tools2 that is1 to become familiar with them1 and how to learn to cut a ground with skill and confidence4 ,to do this there should be much occasional practice on bits of waste wood4 ,therefore it is earnestly urged that no beginner shall go further than the work described in this lesson until he or she can execute it with accuracy and ease4 ,when this is gained all that remains to be done is easy4 ,the reason why the parting or ,v tool is not specially recommended to beginners for outlining is1 that it is the most difficult of all tools in ordinary use to sharpen4 ,the small gouge answers every purpose for the work in hand4 ,to recapitulate1 first1 we have the cutting away from between the outlines of the pattern3 ,if the panel be half an inch in thickness1 it should not be more than a quarter of an inch in depth4 ,cut over the whole very lightly at first1 and then go over it again and again4 ,do not dig or cut out the whole quarter of an inch in one place at once1 leaving the rest as yet untouched4 ,should you do this you will be led to cutting too deeply in some places4 ,when the hard work is effectively executed1 and nearly all the wood is roughly cut away1 the work is said to be bosted or sketched1 a word supposed to be derived from the ,french bauch or the ,italian abozzo1 meaning the same thing4 ,after cutting ,fig4 #cg a1 the pupil may proceed to #cg b1 which is simply an amplification of the same4 ,illustration ,,fifth ,,lesson4 ,,cutting ,,simple ,,leaves--,,carving ,,with ,,the ,,left ,,hand--,,modelling ,,or ,,rounding--,,shaded ,,patterns ,,and ,,modelling--,,progress ,,towards ,,relief4 ,it will be very much to the advantage of the pupil1 so soon as he can cut confidently and correctly with the gouge or chisel1 to practise with the left hand as well as the right4 ,the younger he is the easier will it be to form this habit4 ,a carving tool is sharpened from both sides because the edge1 so made1 enables the artist to cut from many positions without turning the wood1 and when he can use both hands he has the same advantage to a greater degree4 ,try1 therefore1 to acquire a perfect command of the tools1 so as to cut with both hands1 and in many directions and ways1 the greatest care being always taken1 however1 that you do not turn the point towards yourself1 lest an unwary slip should produce a wound4 ,when you can cut with confidence1 and do not rely under any circumstance on splitting1 digging1 prizing up1 wriggling1 or rocking with the gouge to remove wood1 then you can tell beforehand what you are about to do4 ,to attain this skill you must frequently practise cutting on waste wood1 and not spend all your time on perfectly finished work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,the pupil has been instructed in ,lesson ,,iv4 how to cut out the ground from a flat panel1 leaving the pattern in relief4 ,very beautiful patterns may be executed with very little finish2 and a vast proportion of beautiful old ,gothic wood-carving depended far more on outline than on modelling for its effect4 ,modelling is the rounding or shaping a pattern to give it form4 ,now leaves1 in one shape or another1 more or less natural1 form a great proportion of all decorative design4 ,when they are simplified from the original type1 and made merely ornamental1 yet still preserving so much of the original shape that we can plainly see what that type was1 they are said to be conventionalized4 ,it is1 therefore1 very important that the wood-carver should know how to carve leaves well4 ,he has already learned how to make the simple outline or groove of one or many with a gouge1 and how to remove the wood surrounding them4 ,he may now go a step further and cut with great care the elementary pattern1 ,fig4 #ch4 ,use a flat gouge for gradually rounding and carving the surface1 beginning with the outer or lower edge1 and working up to the stem4 ,the pupil will do this as well again1 and with far greater confidence and ease1 should he begin firstly by making a shaded copy of a leaf in pencil1 then modelling it in clay1 and then copying this in wood4 ,the time thus spent will be gained in the end many times over by the skill and dexterity and eye-training acquired4 ,illustration3 ,panel in ,low-relief ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,the first step in rounding a leaf is effected simply by wasting or chipping away little by little by straightforward cutting4 ,this is the same for convexities and hollows4 ,such rounding and undulation is performed by skilled artists with very few tools1 including gouges1 skew-chisels1 rasps1 files1 and the double-bent gouge4 ,the student may1 in the beginning1 round and scoop his leaves with any tools which seem fit1 if he will only cut with the utmost caution1 and keep the implements well sharpened4 ,a very important and rather difficult part of this work is the cutting the ribs or stems which run through the leaf4 ,one implement for this purpose is the so-called macaroni tool1 but at present it is really very little used1 owing to the great difficulty of keeping it sharp1 and its liability to break4 ,nearly all veining can be executed with the fluter or large veiner1 the hollow gouge1 the ,v tool1 or the flat gouge1 according to circumstances4 ,the wood1 as ,eleanor ,rowe remarks1 should be taken off in short1 sharp touches1 and not by deep and long cuts1 and no attempt should be made to obtain a smooth surface until the form and general modelling of the leaf is done4 ,the edge of the leaf may be a little under-cut to give relief2 this effect should be given by a ,v tool or small veiner4 ,when the leaf is correct in form1 proceed with flat gouges to remove the tool marks1 holding the tool very firmly1 and inclining it to an angle of about #de4 ,it is advisable for the beginner to cut several simple leaves with great care1 ,fig4 #ci1 and1 if possible1 let him draw1 shade carefully1 and model them all in clay before carving them4 ,he will be astonished to find how much easier the latter process is1 and with what confidence it can be carried out1 after the two former have been executed4 ,having for several years had under my supervision large classes in wood-carving1 both with and without modelling in clay1 ,i speak from experience on this subject4 ,it is to be observed that1 as leaves and sprays involve every possible curve1 he who can design1 model1 and carve them well1 will find no difficulty in executing birds1 animals1 or the human face or figure4 ,in their simplest forms1 or in flat work1 these are all extremely easy4 ,then they may be a little rounded1 or modelled1 and so going on1 step by step1 the carver may come to full relief4 ,oak leaves are1 perhaps1 the most graceful of all objects1 and lend themselves to as many forms as the acanthus1 but they are also very difficult in their more advanced developments4 ,therefore they form an admirable subject for study4 ,illustration ,,sixth ,,lesson4 ,,cutting ,,with ,,the ,,grain--,,turning ,,the ,,tool--,,the ,,drill--,,bold ,,carving--,,and ,,large ,,work4 ,in both large and small carving there is one common difficulty1 the frequent resistance of the grain of the wood and defects incidental to it4 ,this question has already been touched upon in the ,fourth ,lesson1 where the pupil has been told that he will usually find the wood cut more readily from the one side towards the other4 ,to this may be added1 that as he progresses and carves in higher relief he will not only find the same thing in working leaves and other ornament1 but he will also find that some portions about these will always cut better1 more smoothly1 and without splintering1 when the tool cuts downwards1 that is1 from the surface towards the background1 but with other and quite adjacent portions when the tool is made to cut the reverse way or upwards4 ,as a first rule1 therefore1 so soon as there is the smallest sign of splintering1 try the cut from an opposite direction to remove it1 and it should cease4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,further1 if the edge of the gouge or firmer cut in certain directions against the grain of the wood1 it will catch1 or tear1 or splinter4 ,as another precaution against this1 the carver may shift the position of the wood by unscrewing it1 if it is held by a clamp or holdfast4 ,this is more easily effected if he have1 in the ,french fashion1 only three or four nails driven into the table1 in which case he has only to pick his work up and put it into a different position2 or he may shift his own position4 ,but it is best of all to be able to carve with both hands1 a feat which1 after all1 is not difficult to acquire1 and which comes very soon with a little practice2 and to master the art of turning the tool about and cutting in any position1 which also comes with practice to an incredible extent4 ,he who can do this1 can manage to cut with the grain in most cases without shifting the block4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,wood should never be torn or ripped2 everything should be done by clean1 smooth cutting4 ,to make sure of this you must first of all keep every tool as sharp as a razor all the time1 and always cut with the grain4 ,cutting diagonally1 or partly across1 is still cutting with the grain1 and is easier and surer than going parallel with it4 ,mark out the pattern1 ,figs4 #dj or #da1 and outline it4 ,the ,greek and ,roman workmen1 and very often those of later but early times1 with a gimlet1 or drill1 or centre-bit1 bored out holes here and there1 both in wood-carving and in stone1 and worked up to1 or around these4 ,they formed beginnings1 as it were1 to guide the gouge or chisel4 ,these were often of great practical utility wherever a small round cavity occurred1 but their chief use in wood was to aid and direct the tool in certain places where there were difficulties of grain to contend with1 or sharp points or corners of ornaments likely to be broken off4 ,i was once puzzled to know why the drill was so much more used in ancient than in modern carving1 but reflection convinced me that where decorative work must be done expeditiously or cheaply1 and a little coarseness of execution did not signify1 it was a very great aid4 ,in the pattern1 ,fig4 #ch1 the leaf is easy to cut2 that is to say1 one single leaf4 ,cutting it once more1 or repeating it1 is only doing the same work over again2 yet if this same leaf1 or another not a bit more difficult1 be repeated twenty-five or thirty times in a wreath1 it will seem to be a very difficult piece of work4 ,now1 it is a matter of importance to understand that if you can do a very small1 simple piece of wood-carving really well1 you can also by mere patience and repetition execute a piece of work which would seem to be very remarkable1 or quite beyond your power4 ,the illustration to this lesson1 ,fig4 #dj1 shows what ,i mean4 ,almost any one with care could cut out a leaf1 and he who has done one can repeat it in any other arrangement4 ,now a vast proportion of all decorative patterns in flat or ribbon-work1 and even in higher relief1 are formed on this principle of repetition1 or of so-called lobes1 so that he who can carve even a little neatly may be confident almost from the beginning of being able to execute even valuable work4 ,such a panel as ,fig4 #da1 when once carved1 may serve for the lid or sides of a box1 the cover of an album1 or any object with a smooth1 flat surface4 ,but ,i cannot repeat too often this injunction1 to constantly practise cutting on waste wood1 so as to acquire facility of hand1 before attempting anything which is to be shown or sold4 ,it is unfortunately true that1 left to himself or herself1 there is not a pupil in a thousand who would not devote all the time or work to producing show-pieces1 even at the first cutting1 instead of practising so as to learn how to produce them4 ,when pupils have teachers who are practical and workmanlike1 it is probable that as soon as they can handle the tools they will be set at bold1 large work4 ,this is fortunate for them1 since it is the greatest advantage one can have1 be it in ,design1 ,modelling1 ,wood-carving1 or any other art of the kind1 to be made familiar with free-hand1 large1 and vigorous execution4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,highly ,,finished ,,studies ,,of ,,foliage4 ,p4 #dh4 ,illustration ,,seventh ,,lesson4 ,,the ,,sweep-,,cut ,,or ,,free-,,hand ,,carving--,,cutting ,,notches ,,in ,,leaves--,,the ,,round-,,cut4 ,boldness in cutting is a matter of very great importance1 since no one can carve really well till he gets beyond chipping or wasting4 ,to carve boldly we must use the sweep-cut4 ,it may be observed that in modelling in clay there are certain methods of shaping the material1 which are quite peculiar2 as1 for instance1 when we press the modelling tool down or up1 and at the same time turn it to the left or right4 ,this makes an inclination upwards or a depression downwards1 yet sloping to one side or the other4 ,it is made by two movements in one2 so in cutting with a sword or long knife1 if we chop1 yet at the same instant draw the blade1 the result is a much deeper incision4 ,this is called the draw-cut1 and by means of it a man may cut a sheep in two1 or sever a handkerchief or lace veil thrown into the air4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,very much like this is the double motion of the hand in the sweep-cut1 which must be acquired by all who would learn to carve leaves well4 ,it is not quite true that all work must go through the three stages of blocking out1 bosting1 and finishing2 for when leaves are carved with the sweep-cut they are generally finished at one operation4 ,with this cut1 which is usually performed with a flat gouge1 the wood is removed so as to give a peculiar form or curve--as when a leaf slopes down and sideways--by a single but compound movement2 that is1 we must1 while pressing the edge1 also move it or give it a slight lateral motion4 ,this sweep or side-cut is developed more fully in sloping larger and especially rounded surfaces1 like whole leaves1 which rise and fall1 or undulate1 ,figs4 #da1 #db4 ,this cut1 by means of which one can carve with confidence the most brittle and difficult wood1 requires a tool of very good quality1 which must be kept scrupulously sharp4 ,it must be practised on waste wood till the pupil is a master of it1 but when it is once acquired1 wood-carving1 as regards all large and effective work1 may be said to really have no further difficulties4 ,with some it seems to come all at once1 by inspiration4 ,the simplest or first form of the sweep-cut occurs in making leaves4 ,every one who has tried this knows that the cutting the notches or making lobes in the wood1 but especially the shaping the points1 is a difficult matter1 for if we simply shove or press the edge of the cutter1 as in ordinary or plane work1 the leaf will probably break1 especially if the wood be splitty1 uneven1 or brittle4 ,having marked out a circle to include the lobes of the leaf1 we cut a notch half way between the proposed points1 and by shaving first from one side and then the other1 bring the leaf or its lobes into shape1 ,fig4 #dc4 ,of course1 in doing this we cut from the point to the corners4 ,for the present it will suffice to apply it in its simplest and easiest form to cutting groups of leaves4 ,in the previous lesson the pupil has been told how to cut out a single plain leaf in relief by simply wasting or chipping away the wood little by little with a flat gouge4 ,in like manner it might be filed1 or rasped1 or scraped like metal1 into shape4 ,let the pupil now sketch ,fig4 #dc1 and then bost it out1 by cutting round and clearing away as already described4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,the dotted lines indicate the original shape or circles in which the leaves are cut4 ,when it is all done but the finishing1 or bosted1 then cut the notches backwards in the manner already described4 ,and1 as ,i have said1 if the pupil has practised the sweep-cut1 and keeps his flat gouge perfectly sharp1 he may cut the finest notches in the smallest leaves in the splittiest wood without once breaking away a piece4 ,the sweep-cut gives perfect confidence1 and he who has acquired it1 and knows how to apply it so as to make any curve or boss or involution which he pleases1 may be said to have passed from the amateur stage to that of the artist1 or at least of the clever workman4 ,by means of it one can model the most refractory wood into any shape1 and to any one who is expert at it oak is as easy to carve as pine4 ,therefore the pupil should spare no pains to acquire it2 and it will come sooner perhaps than he expects if he first of all takes all pains to understand what it really is1 and secondly to practise it for a few hours on waste wood4 ,there are1 however1 many carvers who pass months or years in wasting away wood by simple straight cutting or chipping before they get any idea of what a sweep-cut is--if indeed they ever learn it4 ,but if the pupil has previously acquired skill1 that is to say1 ease and confidence in running gouge lines and hollow cutting and shaping simple leaves by straight cutting1 he will without doubt find that the free-hand sweep-cut comes as by inspiration4 ,illustration ,,eighth ,,lesson4 ,,further ,,application ,,of ,,the ,,sweep-,,cut ,,to ,,higher ,,relief4 ,when a leaf is in its ordinary natural condition it is generally flat1 but while growing or fading it often curls and twists into remarkable and graceful shapes1 which are extensively employed in decoration4 ,before going further ,i would impress it on the intelligent student that the mere literal imitation of any kind of leaf1 so that it would look exactly like a real leaf if it were only coloured1 should seldom or never enter within the province of wood-carving as a general decorative art4 ,what the pupil should do in copying leaves and flowers1 etc41 or in modelling them for carving1 is to observe their characteristic shape and contour1 to follow all their graceful lines and bends1 depressions and swellings1 and give the general expression and spirit of these without striving too accurately to make a mere leaf4 ,he should not make it so thin that it would break with a slight blow4 ,a great deal of the most admired work of the present day is of this kind1 which will hardly bear dusting4 ,a leaf may always be cut1 as we see it done in classical and in ancient work1 so solidly and firmly as to resist the wear and tear of centuries4 ,as nobody is expected to believe that it is a real leaf when it is palpably cut out of wood or stone1 we may as well conventionalize it 7that is1 keep only a general likeness to a leaf71 and make it attractive by grace and skilful combination4 ,and this can be done if we only cut out the leaf in its general form and leave a strong base for it to rest on1 so that it may be safely dusted or rubbed against4 ,the student should try to understand this1 for it will enable him to make all effects necessary in decorative work1 and save him much needless petty labour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,if the pupil has practised the sweep-cut1 and can with confidence work in any direction1 with both hands1 he may now attempt oak-leaves in which there are varied slopes1 cavities1 and swellings1 ,figs4 #dd and #de4 ,these seem to have been the favourite subjects of the old modellers and carvers4 ,perhaps the best designing of the kind in existence is that by ,adam ,kraft1 in ,nuremberg4 ,i repeat here1 that the more difficult and varied a leaf is the more necessity is there for the pupil to model it in clay1 or at least to draw and shade it carefully1 before beginning4 ,the reason is this1 that1 having its principal points in the memory1 it is much easier to reproduce them when cutting in wood2 we know then when and where to turn the hand or the tool4 ,and it is well to bear in mind that this practical and necessarily accurate1 though often hasty1 sketching and shading of the workshop grows very rapidly on the pupil1 so that1 being driven to it1 he learns to do such drawing more promptly and vigorously than he would in a school or class4 ,in making the sweep-cut it is necessary to get the bend or movement1 which is directing the gouge in the proper route4 ,in ordinary cutting we only push the blade forward2 in the sweep-cut there is a draw or side movement as well as a push4 ,but the bend or direction constitutes1 so to speak1 a third movement1 and this is the most difficult to determine4 ,to get a certain symmetrical turn or curve we cut without seeing1 whereas in ordinary cutting or wasting we see clearly just what we are going to slice off1 and take it away with confidence4 ,but with a little practice on waste wood1 the sweep or draw-cut will become so familiar that one can execute the most difficult curves1 not by chipping away1 but by a bold sweep4 ,amateurs who have taught themselves can generally cut or chip only straightforwards2 they cannot turn or curve a leaf with a sweep4 ,the combined movement given to the tool in making the sweep-cut may be thus analyzed1 and if the three distinct forces applied to the tool be first understood and then kept in mind in making such cuts1 success will soon and easily result4 ,suppose we are engaged upon the surface of a leaf which slopes generally downwards and off to one side1 but also has a rise or mound somewhere in the course of the slope1 and most leaves have one or more such undulations4 ,with the gouge1 straight or bent1 grasped firmly in the right hand1 and the two fingers of the left hand pressed on the surface and side of the blade about an inch from the cutting edge--the position already described3 the tool is pushed straight forward for the entire length of the cut by the right hand2 at the same time the blade is pushed to the right or pulled to the left by the two fingers of the left hand to the extent1 and as the slope may travel to the right or the left2 and thirdly1 the right wrist is raised or lowered to cause the tool to travel over the intended mounds or undulations on the leaf4 ,now these three distinct movements or forces exerted on the tool merge into one another1 and may be said to be used simultaneously1 and are really one continuous movement1 which gives the sweep-cut2 but the extent to which any one preponderates of course depends upon the particular shape of the leaf or scroll being carved1 and is soon found out by but little practice upon different forms4 ,in commencing or bosting out this pattern1 ,fig4 #dd1 and all others in high relief1 the pupil will do well to observe that he should select a gouge whose sweep will fit the curve of the leaf in the part it is intended to begin upon1 and placing the edge of the gouge outside1 but quite close to the line1 and holding the tool at a slope so as to cut away from it outwards1 give it a moderate blow with the mallet4 ,take care not to drive the gouge in too deeply4 ,this is the blocking out of the leaf1 or outlining in the solid4 ,and in doing this1 begin by making or cutting the general outline only4 ,leave the second-sized interstices or hollows for a second cutting1 and the smaller notches of the leaves and fine corners for a final finishing4 ,in this pattern1 ,fig4 #dd1 also ,figs4 #db and #de1 the leaves should be of the natural size1 or from three to five inches in length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,,circular ,,panel ,,in ,,higher ,,relief4 ,most beginners cut too closely under the leaf1 so as to get at once to relief1 which looks like finish4 ,as a rule it is better1 whatever the pattern be1 in flat ribbon-work or high relief1 to always rather slant outwards4 ,for in the first place1 when we come to finish in ribbon-work1 the pupil may find it necessary to cut so much away to bevel or round or undercut the pattern1 that 7especially when it is in narrow lines7 the thinning away will quite destroy their proportions4 ,but it is well on yet another account to be very sparing of this paring away and undercutting4 ,there are far too many wood-carvers who cut away under in order to make leaves thin and natural1 till they are like paper1 and much more fragile4 ,this is greatly admired as indicating skill1 and it certainly demands skill of a common order to effect4 ,but it requires a much higher and nobler kind of art and will to make the leaves strong and firm1 even if we conventionalize them--so that their curves are really beautiful4 ,and this may be done1 and at the same time all the most beautiful and characteristic features of leaves be preserved4 ,in ribbon or flat carving1 a strong shadow or relief may be got as follows4 ,in cutting1 slant the chisel or gouge outwards at an angle of #de1 thus 4 ,when the grounding is finished1 cut under the slope1 half way up4 ,the outline will then be like a 4 ,this sharp edge may be cut away a very little1 such as 1 or even into a rounded 1 in which case there will be a marked line of shadow all round the edge4 ,having blocked out the whole quasi-perpendicularly1 that is1 in one direction or on one side1 proceed to cut away the most apparent hollows or depressions4 ,with care and measurement even the beginner will soon find his leaves beginning to assume shape4 ,if he has not learned as yet to cut and sweep boldly1 he may finish the whole by simply wasting the wood away with straight cutting1 aided by the file1 riffler1 or rasp4 ,in fact1 for many beginners1 and especially for those who are slow to learn1 this straight cutting and rasping is really advisable1 because it at least makes them familiar with handling tools1 and teaches them how to model and hollow out4 ,beginners always experience great dread or hesitation as regards hollowing and curving in the round1 but when they perceive that an object is beginning to assume shape they take heart1 and when they have succeeded with one or two by easy1 certain work1 even with the help of rasps1 they will carve with more confidence4 ,illustration3 ,,ornament ,,from ,,the ,,duomo1 ,,florence4 ,illustration ,,ninth ,,lesson4 ,,carving ,,simple ,,figures ,,or ,,animal ,,forms--,,figurini ,,for ,,cabinets--,,simple ,,rounded ,,edges ,,and ,,approach ,,to ,,modelling4 ,when the pupil has had some practice in carving leaves and similar ornaments in relief1 he soon learns to deepen or to cut them higher and higher1 and then to model them into form4 ,he may now1 if he chooses1 attempt some simple animal forms4 ,a bird1 a duck1 or a hare hanging up1 will present no special difficulty to him1 firstly1 if he will obtain one of ,swiss work1 already carved in wood1 and imitate it4 ,there are few towns where he cannot obtain something of the kind4 ,it is true that much ,swiss wood-carving is not at all to be recommended as regards style or finish1 but it will do very well for a beginning4 ,the best method would of course be to model a hare in clay after a dead one4 ,in any case he can make a beginning by buying some toy animals1 carved in wood and not painted4 ,these are made by being sawn or turned out of wood into the profile section4 ,this is then sliced into many pieces and each of these carved1 sometimes fairly well1 into an animal4 ,the wool or hair is imitated in the very small gouges or ,v tools1 and sometimes scraped with a rasp1 comb1 or other tool4 ,after the blocking out such work presents no peculiar difficulty4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,the process is quite as easy as regards the ordinary or grotesque animals in ,gothic carving4 ,draw such an animal1 ,fig4 #df or #dh a or b1 and having fairly bosted it out1 proceed to very gradually round away the edges4 ,if it be1 for instance1 a serpent1 which is everywhere round1 this process is very simple1 especially if after the cutting we smooth it with files and glass-paper4 ,it will shape itself4 ,now the limbs of animals1 and even of human beings in low relief1 may be rounded in this manner to approximate correctness2 or to correctness enough for initial ornamental processes4 ,as the pupil proceeds1 and improves in modelling and advances to copying--let us say excellent patterns of ,renaissance and classic work--he will go far beyond such beginning4 ,but there is in itself absolutely no reason why1 if he only draws his outlines correctly1 he should not begin by this simple ,gothic work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,whatever a pupil can draw from life or a block1 that he can shadow2 and whatever he can draw and shadow he can model 7or vice vers72 and whatever he can model1 he can execute in wood2 nor would the working it out in sheet brass or leather trouble him at all4 ,this is the best way to work1 so much the best that1 under all circumstances1 and in spite of all drawbacks1 every wood-carver should strive with all his heart to learn to draw and model2 for in so doing he will learn a great deal more than all three of these cuts put together1 for he will most assuredly have acquired a faculty which will help him in anything which he may undertake4 ,having learned to sketch out1 bost1 and round simple figures1 ,i advise the pupil to execute a number of them1 with or without leaves and ornaments4 ,he may thus sketch and cut fishes1 animals of all kinds1 human figures in outline1 until he feels a certain confidence and ease as regards their execution4 ,what the pupil must do1 therefore1 in this lesson1 is to draw1 bost out1 and round easy animal forms4 ,at this stage let him pay more attention to the few points which constitute general correctness in a sketch than to minor details4 ,i refer to the general distances of the eyes1 joints1 outlines of legs and back in a horse1 deer1 hog1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh b4 ,simple figures may be executed in flat or ribbon-work1 or in the lowest relief1 as well as in any other work4 ,the ,italian carvers1 for cabinet making1 in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 made great use of figurini1 ,fig4 #di1 also the ornament on page #fj4 ,these were little statues1 generally of human beings1 from three to five inches in length4 ,they were1 in ordinary work1 rather sketched out than elaborately carved1 but the effect was good2 sometimes a hundred of them would be worked into a single cabinet4 ,these figurini were also very freely used in later ,roman and ,roman ,byzantine stone and ivory work1 generally as rows of saints or scriptural personages1 every one filling a niche under a round arch4 ,these latter were often as rudely and simply shaped as it is possible to conceive1 yet1 owing to their making up or disposition1 as subordinate parts they were in good taste4 ,any carver with a little practice can produce them4 ,rows of figurini in niches were frequently used for borders1 or to surround caskets4 ,illustration3 ,,hanging ,,box ,,for ,a ,,corner4 ,illustration ,,tenth ,,lesson4 ,,finishing ,,off--,,imitation ,,of ,,old ,,and ,,worn ,,work--,,where ,,polishing ,,is ,,required4 ,the finishing off of wood-carving depends on what the work in hand may be4 ,if it is a piece of carefully executed foliage1 or leaves 7and leaves1 like crochets in decorative art1 is a term widely applied to all shooting out or growing ornaments71 it is of course the best plan to finish only with the gouge or chisel1 so that the skill of the artist in clean cutting may be evident4 ,but it has become the fashion for writers on wood-carving to insist on it1 as a law without exception1 that all wood-carving must be finished by cutting2 that glass-paper and files should on no account be used1 and that a carver should not seek to smooth over the surface of his carving1 as if to conceal how his work has been executed4 ,in wood-carving1 as in everything else1 a true artist does not go by mere rule4 ,he uses what tools he pleases1 and finishes as he pleases4 ,he does not confine his work to a single kind1 and declare that everything should be limited to that in which he or certain experts excel4 ,an examination of the beautiful and curious wood-carving in the great hall in ,venice will convince any one that other things as well as leaves may be carved in wood2 and that when these represent1 for instance1 old books with metal clasps1 or household utensils1 or arms1 imitation may be legitimately carried so far as to polish the surface4 ,again1 it may very often occur to the artist to imitate old and worn objects1 such as a pilgrim's bottle1 a casket or horn1 for age in this way often gives very beautiful and curious effects of light and shadow1 polish or roughness1 differing very much and very advantageously from the stereotyped uniformity of style of too many schools4 ,all of this requires a wide departure from the no-polish theory4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,the truth is that the beginner should indeed learn to cut clean and well1 and to do all his work with an edge1 without files or glass-paper1 but there is no law why he should go no further4 ,a great deal of the beauty of many old objects comes from a certain worn look1 by which they have lost some crude defects4 ,we will now consider how such polish may be given4 ,draw on a panel half an inch thick1 more or less1 ,fig4 #di4 ,having bosted it out1 very slightly undercut the figure1 not completely1 but by rounding the edge a little4 ,do this firstly with the chisel1 as neatly as possible2 then take files4 ,for many places in your work1 especially for smoothing grounds where the work is difficult and the curved tool not available1 a bent file is most useful1 and these may be had of every shape and curve4 ,for rough finishing you may use rasps and large rifflers1 for finer work small files4 ,having brought your work into shape1 you may scrape the ground flat with pieces of broken glass or a tool made for the purpose1 or a chisel4 ,then take glass or glass-paper1 the former being greatly preferable1 and with care finish still more4 ,it may now be advisable to oil all the carving1 if oil is to be applied4 ,lay the oil on with a broad flat brush1 but if there are any places which it will not reach1 use a smaller paint or camel's hair pencil4 ,let the oil soak in for a few days in a warm room4 ,then with a piece of very soft pine wood1 rub with great care4 ,the harder you rub the better the polish will be1 but also the greater the risk of bending or indenting the surface of the carving2 therefore great care is necessary4 ,the longer this polishing is continued the better the effect will be4 ,workmen often spend as much time in polishing a piece of work intended to be handled as it took to carve it4 ,it may be observed that in using the glass-paper it is often very difficult to get into certain holes or cavities4 ,these are reached either by making a bit of the paper into a roll1 or by folding or rolling it around the end of a stick cut for the purpose4 ,but the most effective way of all is to take a stick1 say of the size of a lead pencil1 or according to the cavity1 round the end with a gouge and glass-paper1 dip the end into glue1 and1 while it is moist1 into powdered glass4 ,when dry these make admirable finishers1 and they can be again dipped when the glass begins to wear off4 ,glass may in this manner be put on the ends of old bent files4 ,when there are figures of animals1 or leaves1 or bands intended to be thus finished and polished all'antico1 or to resemble worn work1 it is not advisable to put in them too much inside work or in-lines4 ,inside work is1 for instance1 the feathers on a bird1 the hair on an animal1 the scales on a fish1 the middle lines and veins of leaves4 ,a very few lines to serve as indications must suffice4 ,but the student of old and time-worn carving cannot fail to draw all these conclusions for himself4 ,the last finish to be given to such work may be executed by rubbing with the hand4 ,this communicates to certain kinds of wood and other substances a peculiar polish1 which nothing else can really give4 ,in a very large proportion of simple flat or ribbon-work the effect is very much increased or improved by polishing the pattern1 and leaving the ground rough or indenting it4 ,this is not only perfectly legitimate1 but commonly done in marble or metal repouss of every kind1 as well as leather-work1 and yet every writer on wood-carving repeats as a duty the injunction that there must be no polishing1 and nothing but cutting4 ,this is1 indeed1 equivalent to prohibiting the application of wood-carving to furniture1 objects to be handled1 house and many other kinds of decoration4 ,but1 in fact1 there are instances in decoration in which paint or dyes1 ,french polish1 nails or other metal work1 may be most artistically and beautifully combined with wood-carving1 as many thousands of relics of the ,middle ,ages and ,renaissance prove4 ,polishing a pattern makes it shine1 while roughing or dotting a surface darkens it4 ,therefore1 when we want in decoration bold effects of light and shade1 we may legitimately polish the parts which are in relief4 ,elaborately cut work which is to be studied by itself in detail1 and not simply as a part of a whole1 need not be polished or rough2 its finish will depend on the conditions of its design4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,eleventh ,,lesson4 ,,diaper-,,work--,,stamped ,,diaper-,,patterns--,,cutting ,,diapers4 ,that which is called diaper-work is where the ground consists of one generally small pattern frequently repeated at regular intervals4 ,it is so called from the well-known diaper or figured linen cloth1 from the ,old ,french diapr1 meaning the same1 from the verb diaprz1 to diaper1 or diversifie with flourishings 7,cotgrave74 ,the verb1 according to ,skeat1 is from the ,old ,french diaspre1 later jasper1 a stone much used for ornamental jewellery4 ,italian1 diaspro1 a jasper4 ,diaper1 to decorate with a variety of colours1 or to embroider on a rich ground 7,anglo-,norman74 ,there was a rich figured cloth so called 7,strutt1 ii4 #f71 as also a kind of printed linen 7,halliwell74 ,the latter are still common4 ,it is1 however1 most probable that the word really comes1 as ,fairholt asserts1 from ,ypres1 i4e41 d',ypres1 which was famous for such work4 ,some writers apply the term to merely dotting1 indenting1 or roughening a ground1 but it is properly applicable to small figures4 ,,stamped ,,diaper ,,patterns4 ,these may be produced firstly and most readily by means of wood1 stamped or punched1 ,fig4 #bc and #bg1 and a hammer or mallet4 ,practise with these first on waste wood4 ,it is not at first easy to repeat them at perfectly regular intervals1 making one the same as the other4 ,the work is greatly facilitated by drawing lines like a chequer or chess-board on the ground1 and making a stamp or diaper in every dot1 or all along the lines4 ,punches for this purpose may be had in great variety4 ,this class of stamped work is very effective for narrow edgings and borders1 and on fillets1 which would otherwise be tedious and difficult to carve4 ,with but little practice this work can be executed with great rapidity4 ,,cutting ,,diapers4 ,there are some patterns which are very easily cut with a single tool1 as1 for instance1 squares1 diamonds1 and triangles4 ,for these a firmer or chisel is sufficient4 ,the reader will observe that one square1 etc41 is removed alternately1 and another left4 ,in designing or selecting these1 or any diapers1 care must be taken to choose such as fit together exactly4 ,but any figures of this kind1 whatever they are1 are well adapted for grounds4 ,a more advanced style of diaper-work is made by cutting lines with the parting-tool or smallest gouge1 unless1 indeed1 you are expert enough to do it with a chisel or firmer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,a ,,single ,,diaper ,,repeated4 ,this was the commonest kind of diapering on caskets in the ,middle ,ages4 ,a very pretty effect was often produced by filling these lines with dark brown or black paint4 ,in any case1 when oiled1 or as they grew old1 and dust and oil or moisture worked into them1 they became dark4 ,it has already been said that any kind of mere line-work can be executed on a smooth wooden surface by means of a ,v tool1 or generally by a small gouge4 ,it may also be effected with a tracing-wheel1 or with a tracer1 or with any rather dull-pointed instrument4 ,in hard wood of a light colour very beautiful effects may thus be produced4 ,the next step is to cut lines1 and combine with these cutting out and excavating spaces1 as in ordinary carving4 ,nevertheless1 it is not1 as a rule1 a good plan to make diapers too ornamental or elaborate2 for this will lead to making them large1 and then they will draw attention from the pattern1 if there is one1 or the main figures4 ,when the whole surface is all diaper1 as in a carpet1 the diapers may be as large and as elaborate as one chooses to make them4 ,there is but one general rule for designing the diaper4 ,draw a chess-board1 and then by diagonals convert these into points up and down1 squares1 or triangles2 or fill the equal spaces with equilateral triangles1 hexagons1 circles1 or pentagons1 etc4#a ,these may be filled in with any suitable decoration4 ,in ,fig4 #ej portions of the original surface of the panel have been left as ridges to separate the diapers1 and then every one of the latter has been carved with the same ornament2 a rather advanced example1 but cut only in moderate relief4 ,another plate1 ,fig4 #eb1 gives a variety of suitable figures in low relief2 some two or three of these should be chosen and repeated in regular order in neighbouring spaces4 #a ,to draw these and ornament them1 consult ,drawing and ,designing1 by ,c4 ,g4 ,leland2 ,london1 ,whittaker and ,co4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,a ,,variety ,,of ,,diaper ,,patterns4 ,where the main object is simple decoration of surfaces1 plain diaper-cutting is an important industry1 and one by means of which1 with no very great degree of skill1 beautiful results may be obtained4 ,thus1 large pieces of furniture1 chests1 and especially walls or wainscoats1 may be expeditiously adorned by means of it1 even by one who is far from being able to carve in the round or cut leaves4 ,it may be very much facilitated in many ways4 ,one of these is to cut out the patterns in duplicate1 many at once in paper1 paste them on the wood1 and carve round them4 ,then wet the paper1 and thoroughly remove it with a stiff brush4 ,another plan is to cut out the pattern in card-board1 thin brass1 or wood1 and stencil it with a lead pencil or colour which will wash off4 ,then cut away as before4 ,it is extremely easy1 when we have once cut a certain figure a few times1 to go on repeating it1 and beginners can1 therefore1 with great advantage1 be set at diaper-cutting1 since they thereby acquire not only a familiarity with the use of the tools1 but by dint of repetition familiarize themselves perfectly with at least one process2 for the greatest trouble in all arts and studies is1 that they do not1 at any early step1 sufficiently master any one thing4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,twelfth ,,lesson4 ,,building-,,up1 ,,or ,,appliqu ,,work4 ,it will often happen that in carving1 while most of the work is on a level1 some portion1 generally the centre1 will rise above the rest1 or project beyond it1 illustrated by ,fig4 #eb4 ,it would often be a waste of wood and time to cut this out of a single piece4 ,in such cases we merely glue an extra piece of wood on1 and carve it into shape4 ,sometimes in carving a face1 only the nose1 and perhaps the chin1 require to be added4 ,it is said that this method of gluing wood on to wood to obtain additional relief was first extensively practised by ,grinling ,gibbons4 ,in ,germany this addition of a central boss is so well understood1 that in many shops they sell heads or faces of men1 women1 or animals1 wreaths1 and similar centres or bosses for carvers who can execute flat or ribbon-work1 but not high relief4 ,in this way very ornamental or showy pieces of work may be executed with the least possible pains and expense4 ,in the same manner a piece of old carving1 or1 it may be1 several pieces1 are taken or saved from some half-ruined ancient specimen1 and well glued on a sound piece of old wood exactly like them in colour and texture4 ,this is then carved in the same style4 ,in this way really valuable work may be easily made1 for such half-decayed pieces of old carving are too often thrown away1 and may often be purchased for a trifle4 ,still1 this method of appliqu1 or applied wood on wood1 though it may be resorted to in certain cases to save a great deal of cutting and material1 may be carried too far1 when it degenerates into mere manufacture4 ,appliqu work of this kind falls still further into manufacture when it consists of thin boards1 cut into patterns with a fret or scroll-saw1 worked up with gouges1 and then glued on wood4 ,this is plain imitation4 ,yet it may be borne in mind1 though most writers on the subject deny it1 that while it is absolutely not high or legitimate art1 there is no law and no reason against it2 and if a man can contrive no better way to ornament his house1 he is perfectly in the right in doing so1 if he thinks fit4 ,and if he can afford the time1 skill1 and materials1 he will probably advance from appliqu work to something better4 ,in any case he will have learned something by it1 and it is worth learning4 ,it is too often the case with high art critics1 that they exact that everybody must have finished taste and high perceptions all at once1 with no regard to expense4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,,appliqu ,,work4 ,,dragon ,,in ,,thin ,,wood1 ,,appliqu ,,on ,a ,,diaper ,,ground4 ,the pupil may now attempt an easy piece of appliqu work4 ,take a panel1 ,fig4 #eb1 and trace on it the pattern4 ,leave a blank flat space of the original surface1 called the seat1 for the figures1 of their precise size1 and then work out the ground4 ,where this consists of a diaper1 it may be made either by carving or by stamping4 ,having finished the diapered ground1 saw or cut out the figures1 glue them into their places1 and carve them2 or the carving may be executed before the application4 ,appliqu work is liable to the objection1 especially where large surfaces are laid on1 that two pieces of wood are seldom of precisely the same quality and texture1 and that1 therefore1 they may sometimes afterwards shrink or swell in different directions1 with the natural result of warping and splitting4 ,this is sometimes remedied by using screws as well as glue2 but the best preventive of such accidents is to cut both the ground and the piece glued on to it from the same piece of wood1 of course perfectly seasoned4 ,in many cases frames or borders may be appliqu or glued on4 ,if the work be intended for an album or book-cover1 the frame may be made a trifle higher than the central ornament1 to protect it from being scratched when lying with the face on any surface4 ,this will not be necessary if it be used for a panel in the side of a box or in a wall4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,thirteenth ,,lesson4 ,,carving ,,in ,,the ,,round4 ,carving in the round is cutting an object which is finished on every side1 as a bust or statue4 ,it is in fact statuary4 ,it seems to be very difficult work to a beginner1 but the pupil who has mastered the rudiments which are laid down in this book1 and who can measure and cut a low relief of an inch1 or a high relief pattern of two or three inches1 will find no trouble whatever in carving something small in the round1 and in progressing from this to something larger4 ,the steps in wood-carving from hammering an indented pattern to carving a statue are perfectly defined1 and very easy if they are thoroughly mastered one at a time4 ,carving in the round will be least difficult to the one who can model his work in clay or modelling-wax4 ,this is especially easy if he alternates carving with designing and modelling2 it is1 in fact1 so great an aid to carving1 that there should be little of the latter without it4 ,he who has modelled anything in clay or wax has1 in a way1 carved it in a soft material1 while true carving is only modelling with gouges and chisels4 ,there is no difficulty for one who has mastered the first six lessons of this book1 in carving half a duck or fish in relief4 ,if he could carve the other side and join them he would have the animal complete4 ,from blocking out simple forms1 such as ducks1 fish1 hares1 or game1 in high relief1 the carver soon learns how to rough almost anything4 ,having made a bust in clay1 he knows where a bit is to be removed or cut away here or there4 ,he studies it as he proceeds1 alternately in profile or full-face1 and continually measures with callipers and compasses to see that he is preserving all the proportions4 ,the practice which he has had in delicately carving1 grooving1 sweeping1 and modelling leaves1 in cutting the hair of game1 imitating basket-work1 etc41 will all now come into play4 ,as regards fitting certain tools to form the eye-balls1 eye-lids1 etc41 if the pupil does not as yet know the measure and capacity of his tools1 he has worked to little purpose4 ,if he should be in doubt from time to time1 let him just carve an eye1 or a lip1 or mouth1 on a piece of waste wood1 and he will have no difficulty in repeating it2 and he who grudges the time for such practice will never make an artist1 ,fig4 #ec4 ,the great difficulty in carving in deep relief and in the round1 is to get the general sweep and contour and proportions of the whole1 and this is difficult for a pupil who does not design1 and shade1 and model1 while it is a mere trifle to one who does4 ,the cutting and blocking out1 which seems to be the great difficulty1 is a merely mechanical process1 performed with compasses1 carving tools1 and rasps1 and sometimes with a steel bow-saw1 here and there4 ,and it presents no difficulties to any intelligent person who has carefully executed all that is described in the previous lessons1 especially to one who has carved animals and simple figures1 or faces1 in high relief4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,,high ,,relief4 ,design by ,c4 ,g4 ,leland4 ,it is true that in shops where much large and coarse work is executed1 as1 for instance1 great pieces for ceilings1 figures for faades1 and the like1 the sculptor1 trained from the beginning to the sweep-cut and to bold chipping1 makes little account of any difficulty1 and proceeds to carve with great confidence4 ,now what the student must endeavour to attain is some of the confidence of the mere workman with the culture and knowledge of the artist4 ,and he should1 whenever an opportunity presents itself1 try to see practical carvers of all kinds at work1 for in this way he will learn much which no books give4 ,it is to be recommended that the first attempts at carving in the round be made in soft pine wood1 as it is of course most easily modelled4 ,no one should be discouraged because a first or second effort has turned out a failure4 ,i have observed that many writers on the art treat carving in high relief1 or in the round1 as if the first effect in it must necessarily be a human head or figure1 that is to say1 the most difficult of all objects4 ,but he who can cut out a wooden shoe1 or a rabbit1 or a fish1 or the simplest object1 on a large scale1 on all its sides1 will1 if he repeats this till he can do it easily1 have mastered the greatest difficulty which alarms beginners1 that of blocking out from all sides4 ,in the head by ,civitale1 full half-round1 which may easily be made full round1 the carver may begin by modelling the whole4 ,if this is not convenient1 let him mark out with the compasses the different dimensions1 and carefully bring the whole into form by first rounding all into a rude shape1 and then very gradually cut away the hollows4 ,no detailed descriptions of exactly what tools to choose for certain places1 or how to work1 would be of any real use to the pupil who has carefully executed the previous lessons1 as he will not have a single cut which he has not made before1 and in this instance a little voluntary ingenuity and reflection will do more good than any instruction4 ,illustration3 ,,head1 ,,by ,,civitale4 ,p4 #hb4 ,,appendix ,,to ,,lesson ,,xiii4 ,,on ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,saw4 7,by ,john ,j4 ,holtzapffel47 ,the steel buhl saw-frame 7,fig4 #af7 may be very usefully employed for removing many of the superfluous portions of the material in the earliest stages of carving in the round1 as in large or small figurini1 and for those parts which have to be cut away to leave the outlines or margins between leaves and other ornaments in flat works4 ,in such cases it is to be recommended1 for its use not only saves much time1 but also the risk of breakages1 to which the work is very liable when these portions have to be removed entirely with the carving-tool4 ,in round carving1 the block1 more or less roughly marked out on its surfaces to some approach to its ultimate form with thick pencil or crayon lines1 may be held on the work-bench by the carver's screw 7,fig4 #aj71 or if that be not convenient1 or if it be flat work1 it can be held in the vice4 ,a coarse strong buhl saw-blade is employed2 this is first fixed in the screw jaw at the further side of the saw-frame2 the handle of the latter is then unscrewed until it projects its jaw about half-an-inch1 and at the moment the other end of the blade is fixed therein1 the two jaws are also made to approach one another by pressing the further side of the saw-frame against the work-bench1 with the handle against the workman's chest2 after this1 the handle is screwed back again until its jaw returns home to its former position4 ,the back of the saw-blade is towards the back of the saw-frame1 and the teeth of the blade should point away from the handle1 easily discovered by passing the finger along them1 and when the saw is properly strained for use it should ring like a harp string4 ,in use1 the handle of the frame is grasped by all the fingers of the hand1 except the forefinger1 which is stretched straight out along it in the direction of the saw2 the latter is pushed straight forward and withdrawn with moderate pressure1 just sufficient to cause it to cut1 and is twisted about to follow the directions of the lines or curves of the piece to be removed4 ,during the sawing the outstretched forefinger is an unerring guide for the direction of the cut4 ,when a piece has to be removed from between others which have to be left1 as between the body and the bend of the arm1 or between the legs of a figure1 a small hole is first drilled through the block and the saw threaded through it before it is strained2 and the only necessary precaution throughout in using the saw1 is to leave sufficient material everywhere for perfect freedom in the subsequent carving by not cutting anywhere too close4 ,an entirely different method is followed in cutting out moulds1 the pieces to be used for appliqu carving1 and for the outlines of fretwork or panels pierced with many interstices of which the surface is afterwards to be carved4 ,these works cannot be held fast in the vice or otherwise1 not only because they are often thin and liable to fracture1 but because1 if so held1 it is impossible to attain the desired true1 easy-flowing outlines required at once without subsequent correction1 which can be produced without difficulty when the work is perfectly free4 ,the professional hand fret-cutter1 who produces the best and most elaborate work1 such objects as the long1 thin1 pierced panels to be backed with silk for the fronts of pianofortes1 uses a similar1 but much deeper1 yet light saw-frame made of wood1 with the same steel screw-jaws1 hung to the ceiling by a cord4 ,he sits astride a bench called a horse1 which has two tall vertical jaws in front of him1 their upper edges lined with brass1 or sometimes with cork4 ,the further jaw is fixed to withstand the thrust of the saw1 the other is notched below and springs open when left to itself1 but is closed by a diagonal strut resting loosely in mortises made in the face of the bench and in that of the movable jaw2 the strut is pulled downwards to close the jaw on the work by means of a cord passing from it through a hole in the bench to a treadle beneath the workman's foot4 ,the surfaces of his work are1 therefore1 vertical1 and the work itself is very lightly held1 so that he can twist it about in all directions with the left hand1 while he keeps the saw steadily traversing backwards and forwards in the same plane horizontally1 with the right4 ,a simpler support1 called a saw table1 ,fig4 #g b1 is used1 and thoroughly answers every purpose for the smaller class of works which we are considering4 ,this tool consists of an oblong piece of wood1 perfectly flat1 smooth and polished on its upper surface1 at the one end of which there is a slot of about an inch wide2 beneath1 it has a cross piece of wood to keep the implement steady on the bench or table on which it is placed1 and a clamp and screw to fix it there4 ,the work1 first pierced with the holes for threading the saw through all its intended interstices1 has the saw placed through one of them1 strained as before1 and is then laid down1 pattern uppermost1 on the saw table1 upon which it is lightly held and twisted about by the points of all five fingers of the left hand planted vertically upon it2 the saw is worked up and down vertically in the slot by the right hand1 the handle below the saw table4 ,the aim here is to keep the saw working always in the same place1 and to let the curve or line result from the perfectly free movement of the work alone4 ,the saw-blades employed are much finer than those previously referred to2 they are tightly strained in the same way as before1 but they are placed in the frame so that the teeth now point the reverse way1 towards the handle1 and the cut1 therefore1 takes place at the downward stroke4 ,the saws in ordinary use1 such as the brass-backed tenon and dove-tail saws and the key-hole saws of the carpenter1 also find constant employment in first roughly shaping and preparing the blocks and panels to be subsequently carved2 in their use it is only necessary1 as in all sawing upon carved works1 to cut just sufficiently wide of the lines marked to ensure that all saw-marks will be removed by the carving tool4 ,illustration ,,fourteenth ,,lesson4 ,,incised1 ,,intaglio1 ,,or ,,sunk ,,carving4 ,deep carving1 as it is termed by certain writers1 is now known among artists as incised1 sunk1 or intaglio4 ,it is an advanced form of gouge-cutting4 ,it is a very beautiful yet easy kind of work1 which was extensively practised in ,italy in early times1 and which is deserving special attention because of its applicability not only to bold1 large1 and even coarse decoration--which was1 however1 very effective--but to the most delicate and minute objects4 ,it may1 says ,general ,seaton1 who was the first to describe it1 which he does with much enthusiasm1 be called sunk carving1 for1 contrary to the usual method1 the carving is sunk1 while the ground is left at its original level4 ,like engraving on metal1 it cuts into the ground1 and depends entirely on outline1 or drawing1 and shadow for its effects4 ,it is suitable for book-covers1 or to be employed wherever the carving is liable to be handled or rubbed1 because1 being sunk beneath the ground1 it cannot be rubbed or injured till the ground itself is worn down4 ,take any wood except a coarse one1--holly1 beech1 oak1 poplar1 pear1 or walnut1--and let the surface be well planed1 or perhaps polished4 ,if it be a wood of light colour1 draw your pattern with a very soft pencil1 say ,b ,b ,b1 on paper1 lay it face down on the wood1 and rub the back carefully with an ivory or other polisher4 ,the work is chiefly executed with bent gouges and grainers1 flat and hollow1 with two or three bent chisels and stamps1 and it often happens that a good piece of incised carving can be executed with very few tools4 ,it is executed almost entirely by hand1 or without hammering4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,,incised ,,carving4 ,choose some simple pattern1 your object being to learn how to cut and not to produce something startling at a first effort4 ,if the wood be dark1 such as ,american walnut1 mark the pattern through with the prick-wheel or dot1 ,fig4 #ed4 ,if the pupil has not perfect eyesight1 or expects to carve at night1 it is advisable to outline this dot line with a very fine camel's hair brush and ,chinese white4 ,this prevents many mistakes4 ,take1 to begin1 a small gouge1 a little less than the stem to be cut in diameter1 and run it along the line4 ,when you cut leaves1 get gradually towards the centre4 ,then take a larger gouge and finish the stems4 ,keep by you a piece of clay or putty1 or moist kneaded bread1 and from time to time take an impression of your work4 ,this is important1 for the real excellence of intaglio carving consists in its being exactly like relief carving reversed4 ,in this way you will at once perceive1 without any special directions1 what tools to use in your work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,,incised ,,border3 ,,centre ,,in ,,low ,,relief4 ,fig4 #ee is a rather advanced example of this class of carving4 ,the whole of the foliage is cut in cavo relievo1 or cavities1 with gouges and chisels1 both straight and bent1 and the lines upon them with bent ,v tools4 ,the duck in the centre may be in ordinary low relief1 to give an effective contrast4 ,there is another reason for thus learning to make your work perfect4 ,if you carve in hard wood1 you can always use a piece of sunk or intaglio carving for a mould4 ,when it is finished take a piece of russet leather1 soak it in water till it is quite soft1 press it with your fingers and a sponge for some time with great care into the mould1 and then take it off4 ,if your wood be well cut1 the leather when dry will be quite as attractive as the carving itself1 and may be used in many ways4 ,the wood will not be injured in the least if you wipe it dry after taking the impression4 ,with such moulds papier-mach casts can also be taken4 ,i have now before me a beautiful specimen of old ,byzantine work made in this manner4 ,illustration3 ,egyptian ,cutting4 ,there is a peculiar kind of intaglio carving which may be called ,egyptian1 because the ancient ,egyptians used it very extensively on their monuments4 ,it consisted of cutting out the outline of a figure in the following manner4 ,on the outside the carver cut down perpendicularly1 while the inside pattern was not cut away1 but only had its edges rounded4 ,the result of this peculiar groove or cut1 straight on one side and rounded or curved on the other1 was a very strong relief and shadow4 ,it was in fact a simple combination of relief and incised or cavo carving1 by means of which a strong relief was attained by little work4 ,the main object was to make the inscription solid and durable1 and at the same time very legible4 ,the principle1 as ,i have shown1 is quite applicable to ornament1 and requires much less labour than even intaglio carving4 ,it is something more1 in fact much more1 than mere outlining1 and it is particularly applicable to mural or wall decoration4 ,incised carving is often much improved by being painted1 and sometimes varnished4 ,that is to say1 the sunken portion is thus coloured4 ,i have seen white and vermilion used with good effect1 but black and dark brown are generally preferred4 ,gilding seems peculiarly rich when thus applied in the hollow1 as the shadow gives it a fine tone4 ,though the imitation of engravings is not within the range of wood-carving1 there is1 however1 a very pretty and easy art by which drawing and painting are very ingeniously combined with a kind of carving4 ,take a panel of firm wood of lightish colour1 well planed and polished4 ,draw on it any pattern1 or even an animal1 or human figures4 ,incise the principal lines with a ,v tool1 or1 according to its size1 small gouges may be used4 ,for the fine lines and shading1 a tracer1 or any point to indent1 not so sharp as to scratch2 this is a matter of great importance2 and the wood1 which1 if possible1 should be of box1 sycamore1 beech1 or holly1 must be adapted or prepared to take a mark without breaking4 ,when all the lines are well in1 take a miniature fitch pencil1 and fill in every line with colour1 taking care not to let the paint spread beyond the lines4 ,different colours may be used4 ,this is hardly wood-carving at all1 but in skilful hands it produces beautiful and remarkable effects4 ,it is very effective indeed when applied to leather4 ,as the colour is sunk in the lines1 it is well protected2 this kind of ornamentation is therefore well adapted to book-covers4 ,i have applied it successfully to heavy card-board panels prepared for artists to paint on in oil4 ,as ,i have said1 incised cutting will be found useful to workers in leather1 papier-mach1 clay1 or plaster of ,paris1 because by means of it they can make moulds4 ,another kind of mould is made as follows3 ,cut out with a saw the outline of the pattern in a piece of board thick enough to give the requisite depth4 ,then glue the perforated board to another board1 the surfaces of both being of course first planed and smoothed4 ,this gives the mould in the rough4 ,then fill in the angles of the hollows with a composition of clay and size1 or putty1 or rice and lime with white of egg1 or any other suitable cement1 and while it is soft shape it with fingers and tools to the details of the pattern required4 ,when perfectly dry go over it carefully1 taking proofs here and there with putty1 and correct with bent files4 ,then smooth it where it is at all rough1 oil it all1 and make your cast4 ,illustration3 ,,boxwood ,,powder ,,flask4 ,,old ,,german4 ,illustration ,,fifteenth ,,lesson4 ,,carving ,,curved ,,surfaces3 ,,cocoa-,,nuts1 ,,bowls1 ,,horns1 ,,casks1 ,,tankards1 ,,etc4 ,carving concave or convex surfaces1 such as the exterior of a horn or the interior of a bowl1 is often very difficult work1 and though an ingenious artist will readily find out for himself some way to get over such difficulties1 it is well to know at once how the work may be done4 ,,horns4 ,the first difficulty is to fix the object so as to cut it4 ,a beginner who undertakes to carve such a very hard1 slippery1 and unmanageable object as a horn1 will1 if he hold it with one hand while he carves with the other1 inevitably damage his pattern or wound himself4 ,it is very dangerous to hold the work in one hand or between the knees4 ,one way to secure such an object is to take a board1 nail cross-pieces on it over the ends of the horn so that a portion may be exposed on which to work1 and in this manner one can cut with safety4 ,again1 holdfasts and clamps may be employed1 but the utmost care should be taken lest these slip away whenever too great pressure is brought to bear on them4 ,a very good means to keep the horn firm is to have a piece of wood fast to the table in which there is a hole1 into which the lesser end of the horn fits1 while the butt rests1 and is fixed1 on the table4 ,having secured it1 outline the pattern with a ,v tool or very small graining-gouge1 and then cut away the ground with quarter-flat1 and finally with flat gouges4 ,the bent file may be freely used for a horn1 and it will be necessary in many places4 ,when bosted1 finish with careful touching or fine files and glass-paper4 ,if you wish to colour the horn1 select one which is chiefly white4 ,take a solution of nitrate of silver1 which any chemist will prepare for you4 ,be very careful indeed how you handle it1 for it will burn clothes1 carpets1 or flesh1 and at least stain your fingers for a long time4 ,with a glass brush1 if you can get one1 if not1 with a glass point1 or pen1 or agate point1 or wax1 apply the acid carefully to the pattern4 ,if you use wood for this purpose it will answer1 but it is very speedily consumed by the acid4 ,this will make a yellow1 or brown1 or sometimes a black stain1 according to the strength of the solution1 the number of times it is applied1 and the hardness of the horn4 ,when the horn is covered with diaper-work1 or a great many small figures1 or a close pattern1 then always put the acid into the hollows1 and leave the design in white4 ,a black dye for horn1 as well as for metal1 is made by combining ammonia with sulphur4 ,it is very malodorous1 but is effective4 ,any chemist will make it1 and will also prepare for you the dyes used for ivory and horn4 ,it is better and cheaper for the amateur to buy these than to attempt to make them for himself4 ,in most cases black and brown are the best colours to use4 ,if a horn is boiled in hot water1 or steamed1 it will become so soft that it may be flattened4 ,then it is very easy to carve4 ,the author has in his possession two very ancient and singularly ornamented ,italian horns which were thus shaped4 ,horn1 when treated with quick-lime and hot water1 can be reduced to a paste which can be made into any shape like a cement or plaster4 ,it becomes hard again in cold water4 ,all old horns were not used for gunpowder2 many of them were for wine or other liquors2 others were used for blowing2 they all make effective ornaments4 ,carved horns are handsome ornaments when hung up with cord and tassels4 ,i have made them very attractive by gilding the raised patterns on them4 ,,to ,,carve ,a ,,bowl4 ,the exterior of a bowl presents no special difficulty1 if it be well clamped down4 ,it may be secured with blocks and nails1 or screws4 ,but the interior is harder to get at and much harder to cut4 ,this is1 of course1 chiefly done with bent gouges and chisels4 ,it requires care and patience in cases of special trouble4 ,i have1 however1 easily succeeded in wearing or wasting away the ground by the process which will be described in carving cocoa-nuts4 ,wooden bowls1 which are well adapted to carving1 may be bought cheaply at household furnishing shops4 ,they are of the kind used in every kitchen4 ,they may be mounted on bases1 such as any turner can make1 to which the bowl should be fastened with a screw and glue4 ,bowls may be coloured or gilded like horns4 ,they are very useful for many purposes1 chiefly to contain visitors' cards or other small objects on the writing1 work1 or toilet table4 ,,cocoa-,,nuts4 ,if it is to be used as a cup1 begin by sawing away the end on which is the monkey face1 or so much as is desirable4 ,sometimes the whole nut is left1 to be hung up as an amulet1 ornament1 or charm1 as ostrich eggs are hung up in the ,east4 ,then clean it smooth with a large rasp till fit to carve4 ,draw the pattern on this with ,chinese white1 that there may be no mistakes4 ,then fix the nut to the board or table1 as with the bowl 7vide p4 #ajj74 ,the ground may1 with patience1 be cut away with flat gouges1 and1 with practice1 this becomes really easy1 and more expeditious than one would at first suppose4 ,or it may be done chiefly with files4 ,but the most rapid manner of working is by a cut which is described as follows by ,gen4 ,seaton1 who1 however1 limits it to mere decoration for a ground4 ,there is a species of ornament most useful for the bend of branches1 and which is to be seen in ,swiss carved brackets4 ,this may be called the zigzag pattern or ornament4 ,it is intended to represent the cross-fissures and marks that are seen in the bark of some trees at the end of the branches4 ,it is done with a flat or quarter-round gouge1 the hand swaying from side to side1 and at the same time advancing by alternate steps each corner of the tool4 ,illustration3 ,small zigzag ,that is to say1 put the tool straight up and down1 and rock it from side to side1 and it will require little practice to learn it4 ,but to use it1 not for ornament1 but a cut1 or rather dig1 a firmer or chisel is better than a gouge2 nor need we be very particular as to the appearance of the marks made1 as they are all1 in the end1 to be cut or smoothed out4 ,rock up and down with the firmer1 pressing a little flatter than if the object were to only make lines1 or so as to scrape away some of the ground4 ,then from another direction go over this ground1 digging and scraping away again4 ,in this manner a shell may be bosted rapidly1 and by it one can work at the bottom of a bowl when even the bent tools are of little or no use4 ,when the whole ground is excavated by this process it may be easily smoothed with files or carving tools4 ,the cuttings from cocoa-nut shell1 or waste bits1 may be kept1 and when pounded to a fine powder1 and mixed with glue1 they make an admirable cement for repairing walnut or other dark wood work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,,casks4 ,a cask when carved is an admirable object for waste-papers1 or holding canes and umbrellas1 ,fig4 #ef4 ,it should be of wood at least one inch in thickness4 ,if held together by broad brass or copper hoops it will be much handsomer4 ,a bucket or pail may be carved in like manner2 and when lions' heads or other carved ornaments are applied1 it will be found that a very ornamental object may be made with little trouble or expense4 ,it is easiest to carve casks1 kegs1 buckets1 or firkins1 up and down1 or in a perpendicular position1 and to stand up while at the work1 as a true carver is sure in the end to do at all his work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,,tankards ,,and ,,waste-,,paper ,,boxes4 ,tankards1 if small1 may be turned from solid wood1 but1 when large1 it is best to have them made by the cooper1 of several pieces1 and hooped with metal4 ,to make the design for all such cylindrical objects1 take a piece of paper which will exactly go round1 or correspond to the surface1 and be sure to make the pattern continuous1 that is1 without breaks1 unless it be designed in divisions4 ,wooden measures1 such as are used by dealers in nuts1 fruit1 etc41 are well adapted to carving for tankards4 ,they may be bought at general furnishing shops4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,,old ,,irish ,,tankard4 ,the old ,irish1 and sometimes the ,danes1 made a rude kind of tankard1 ,fig4 #eh1 by fastening together with nails1 glue1 or screws1 four pieces of oak panel or thin board4 ,it was like drinking from a box4 ,it makes a useful receptacle for many purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,cocoa-,,nut ,,goblet4 ,illustration ,,sixteenth ,,lesson4 ,,bosses1 ,,knobs1 ,,bars1 ,,and ,,polished ,,ornaments4 ,there are several small effects in ornament which the carver should study with care2 they are generally applicable to most kinds of decorative art4 ,the first of these is the employment of bosses or knobs1 some left plain1 and some carved1 hemi-spherical or less4 ,they may be almost flat1 but are always smooth at the edge and polished4 ,they were very extensively used in early carving and metal-work1 and the reader may see many illustrations of them in the works of ,hulme4 ,sometimes the knob becomes a small spot or a mere dot1 employed to introduce light into a dark ground4 ,the practical theory is that the knob represents the plain or ornamental head of a nail used to hold the work to the wall1 or the rivets of armour1 which the ,goths transferred from coats of mail to linen and woollen4 ,but the real reason is to introduce points of light4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,knobs or bosses may be placed wherever there are wide spaces between patterns4 ,the rule of employing them is either a few large points or many small ones2 they must1 however1 be used sparingly4 ,the principle of introducing them is of very wide extension4 ,thus1 in all kinds of work1 especially metal1 grapes1 melons1 and other fruit are introduced solely that1 by their roundness and polish1 they may make points of light or shiners4 ,old embossed work in leather and wood-carving often owes its chief beauty to the polish1 which time and use have given to the reliefs on it4 ,of course the employment of shiners or bosses1 and of all kinds of smooth polished relief1 should1 as a general rule1 be sparing1 subordinate1 and judicious4 ,nevertheless1 in certain kinds of work1 especially in much flat-carving1 which is intended to simply ornament a surface1 at no great expenditure of labour1 just as tiles or tapestry might do1 the stems and portions of the leaves1 or sometimes all the pattern1 may be polished as highly as possible1 so as to make a relief against the dark ground4 ,grounds are pricked or punched or dotted to make them dark1 and when the oil soaks into the holes they become permanently darker4 ,therefore the pattern is to be in contrast2 and when the object is no more than to make a general decorative effect1 not perfectly finished1 but like a sketch1 it may be polished4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,there is another curious effect given by crossing the pattern alone1 or the ground alone1 with bars1 lines1 or stripes4 ,it was very common at one time4 ,in carving1 it may be produced with a small gouge or fluter2 though not natural1 except where it is given in long and short lines to represent the graining of wood1 it has a good effect simply because it distributes shadow evenly4 ,it was probably derived from the effect of ribs in cloths1 which were much admired by the ,venetian painters4 ,door-knobs are effectively bosses1 that is to say1 the same ornamentation may be applied to both1 as to handles for bureaus1 cabinets1 and other furniture4 ,figs4 #ei to #fb will give the pupil some examples and ideas for carving knobs and bosses4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,seventeenth ,,lesson4 ,,to ,,repair ,,wood-,,carving--,,glue--,,nitric ,,acid ,,glue--,,preparing ,,decayed ,,wood--,,artificial ,,wood--,,fillers--,,spraying--,,to ,,make ,,glue ,,take4 ,it will sometimes happen to a carver that1 owing to bad wood or inadvertence1 he splits away or breaks off a piece from his work4 ,in this case he must have recourse to glue4 ,this should be of the very best quality1 perfectly light and clean4 ,glue is made in what alchemists used to call a balneum mari1 that is1 of a vessel containing hot water1 within which is a smaller vessel4 ,the glue1 which is in the inner pot1 is therefore to be boiled by the heat of warm water1 and not of the fire directly4 ,before setting it to boil1 break it into very small pieces1 say of the size of a hazel nut1 and let it stand in cold water for twelve hours4 ,it will now be like a thick jelly4 ,pour off all the water not absorbed1 and put the jelly into the inner pot1 fill the outer with water and let it boil till the glue is like a thick cream4 ,use it while in this state4 ,if you add to the glue1 while thus liquid1 some nitric acid1 say about a tea-spoonful to half a pint of glue1 you will have a very superior cement1 which holds faster than the plain glue1 and is much less liable to crack or split4 ,it dries more slowly1 which makes it very valuable for veneering and for large surfaces1 where glue often dries before the whole can be applied4 ,again1 when an article fastened with common glue is detached1 it is often almost impossible to stick it on again with the same4 ,but with the acidulated glue this is easy4 ,the greatest advantage of this glue is1 that if it be kept excluded from the air it will remain in a liquid state for at least a year1 and can be used cold4 ,its disadvantages are a very pungent and not agreeable smell1 and the fact that1 when corked up1 the cork is most certain to get glued to the bottle1 and requires to be broken to get it out1 rendering a new one necessary4 ,this may be avoided1 however1 with great care4 ,stir the acid into the glue with a glass rod or tube4 ,it may happen that a rotten1 broken place is found even in the best wood2 or the carver may obtain possession of a piece of ancient1 worm-eaten1 half-decayed carving1 and with a very little skill such pieces can be perfectly repaired4 ,take a piece of similar wood1 and reduce it to fine sawdust by means of a rasp4 ,for this purpose ,american walnut and dark old oak1 or cocoa-nut shell1 which is easily pulverized in a mortar1 is excellent4 ,make this into a paste with glue1 and repair with it any broken places4 ,this1 if properly made1 is quite like wood itself1 and may be moulded into any shape4 ,it takes hold of the ground1 and when dry it may be filed into uniformity with the rest4 ,it may also be cut with ease or trimmed to shape1 or1 in fact1 carved4 ,if there is too little glue in it it will break too easily1 if there is too much it will be too glazy4 ,but a proper mixture makes it quite like wood4 ,scratches and chance cuts may be remedied by merely melting them with hot water4 ,but for such small defects a filler is useful4 ,this is a kind of paint or liquid cement1 the object of which is to fill up the pores of certain coarse woods and make the surface fine4 ,the squeezing wax1 described in the chapter on making moulds1 is a filler4 ,others are made by mixing flour with varnish1 etc4 ,any dealer in paints and varnishes will supply a filler suitable to any special work4 ,when a piece of wood-work is so decayed that it is absolutely dropping to pieces1 and cannot even be handled1 it may be preserved and rehabilitated by the following process4 ,take some thin glue and water1 or mucilage1 or size of any kind1 and a spray1 that is1 one of those articles such as are used for spraying perfumes1 etc41 and which are for sale in most chemist's shops4 ,spray or sprinkle the glue over the figure1 and1 if necessary1 gradually throw on it fine sawdust or other powder4 ,as it dries it may be shaped and worked more freely4 ,we read continually in the newspapers of the opening of old tombs and ancient subterranean caves1 in which are discovered dead bodies1 bones1 dresses1 implements of bone and wood or leather1 or even of baked earth1 which gradually dropped into dust a few hours after being exposed to the air4 ,and ,i have never known a case in which these objects could not have been preserved2 certainly all which ,i have ever seen could have been4 ,all that is necessary to do is to make a thin size1 and very gradually spraying or sprinkling it on the objects1 allow it to dry1 little by little4 ,there are very few cases in which1 indeed1 the spray cannot be successfully used4 ,it was by the application of this principle that ,sir ,joseph ,hooker preserved the ivory articles brought from ,nineveh by ,sir ,austen ,h4 ,layard1 and which would have perished but for him4 ,he advised that they should be boiled in gelatine4 ,the student who becomes an expert in such repairing will find plenty to do1 and it will be his own fault if it is not profitable4 ,nineteen people out of twenty have not the least conception of the degree to which repairs may be carried4 ,some years ago a gentleman in ,america had a very curious and valuable vase from the pyramid of ,cholula in ,mexico4 ,it was very fragile1 being made of the weakest terra-cotta1 and having been broken to pieces1 the owner was about to throw it away1 but gave it to me4 ,some months after ,i repaired it so perfectly that the closest observation could not detect a flaw in it4 ,i did this by fastening pieces of paper on the inside with gum1 and so gradually bringing the fragments together1 edge to edge1 and fastening them with the acidulated glue4 ,when all were together1 there was1 of course1 a lining of paper4 ,where there was a fault or a deficiency outside1 ,i filled it in with plaster of ,paris1 rubbed it all even1 and coloured by rubbing in paint4 ,this process would have been much easier with decayed wood4 ,in gluing ordinary wood together1 heat the two pieces first4 ,this renders them more inclined to take the glue4 ,sometimes it is a difficult thing to hold them together till they set1 that is1 adhere so firmly that they will hold4 ,for this the clamp1 ,fig4 #g;a1 may often be used4 ,in other cases1 take two pieces of wood1 put one on each side of the parts to be glued1 and tie them tightly together2 sometimes clamps may be used to connect the binding pieces1 when they are not applicable to what is to be glued4 ,strong indiarubber rings or gummed paper strips may be used in some cases4 ,but with thought1 ingenuity can generally be awakened so as to help one out of any such difficulty4 ,a very perfect resemblance to carved wood may be made by taking cocoa-nut powder or fine sawdust and mixing it with the acidulated glue1 so as to make a paste as already described4 ,then1 having ready a mould1 either of plaster of ,paris or of sunk or incised wood1 and oiling it1 take the impression4 ,these casts1 retouched and glass-papered1 are quite like wood1 and they may be used for decoration in doors4 ,the following are also excellent recipes for glue4 ,liquid glue4 ,take of best glue three parts1 place them in eight parts of water1 allow them to soak for some hours4 ,take half a part of hydrochloric acid 7muriatic acid71 three-quarters of a part of sulphate of zinc1 add to these the glue1 and keep the whole at a moderately high temperature till fluid4 ,exceedingly strong cement for glass and china4 ,take gum arabic and dissolve it in acetic acid instead of water4 ,it must be melted in a hottish place2 it will be much stronger if this be done4 ,the finest quality of sheet gelatine makes a transparent glue4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,eighteenth ,,lesson4 ,,colouring ,,wood-,,work--,,oiling--,,soda--,,stain s ,,and ,,dyes--,,ivorying ,,surfaces--,,black ,,dyes ,,and ,,ink4 ,carved or any other wood is often dyed1 stained1 or toned4 ,sometimes this is done to make one piece or part match with another2 or it may be to imitate the effect of age1 or to give light woods a colour which will prevent them from showing defects4 ,this is effected in many ways4 ,oiling alone is a kind of colouring1 for all oiled wood becomes much darker before long4 ,the more frequently it is rubbed in with a pine stick the harder and darker the surface becomes4 ,i have seen walnut tables which had been thus rubbed with a stick or a hard scrubbing brush1 until a tea-cup wet with hot water on the outside would make no mark on them4 ,had they been only softly oiled or painted1 or varnished1 an indelible stain must have resulted4 ,care should be taken that the oil is pure1 and that no wax has been boiled in it4 ,a table which has had wax on it for a polish will always show marks or stains from hot water4 ,soda dissolved in water1 and applied to oak with a sponge or brush1 will give it a darker tone1 which may be increased by several applications4 ,dark tea with a little alum is also useful1 also porter or beer1 also a decoction of walnut leaves4 ,in ,america butternut gives a very rich indelible dye4 ,let it be carefully observed that in using these1 or any other colours1 the following rules must be strictly observed4 ,i4 ,use a sponge or brush and do not apply the dye profusely or pour it on1 as you will run great risk of warping the wood1 or causing it to split4 ,,ii4 ,it may be advisable to dry it near a fire1 but in this case exercise great care that the heat be not too great4 ,,iii4 ,when dry1 rub the dye off with a rag or soft old newspaper1 or chamois skin4 ,do this very carefully1 and do not be disappointed if it seem very light and to have taken but little dye4 ,apply the dye again1 giving it plenty of time to dry between the coatings4 ,of course this depends on the dyes used1 and the degree of colour required4 ,stephens' stains of different kinds1 to imitate all kinds of wood1 or those of ,mander 7,oxford ,street1 ,london71 are very good1 and may now be purchased in every town4 ,as a rule1 most of these dyes are very strong1 and it is therefore necessary to dilute them with water and make several applications1 instead of putting on the whole strength at once4 ,the diluted dye is carefully painted over the entire surface with a full flat camel's hair brush1 and a smaller round brush is used in the corners and smaller recesses4 ,after using dyes1 and when perfectly dry1 the wood should be oiled4 ,ammonia4 ,wood1 and especially oak1 may be not only stained of a very dark rich colour1 giving the effect of age1 by washing it carefully with ammonia or spirits of hartshorn1 and then exposing it for some time in a chimney1 or otherwise to the fumes of smoke1 especially of a wood-fire if it be possible4 ,strong spirits of ammonia1 according to ,rowe1 may be placed in an open vessel and then shut up with the panel in an airtight chamber or box1 the wood darkening according to the length of time it is left in4 ,the ammonia may have to be renewed1 as it quickly evaporates4 ,for small work a glass shade may be used1 or a box can be made with a glass lid1 and after the panel and saucer of ammonia have been placed inside1 the crevices can be pasted over with brown paper4 ,when the depth of colour is obtained1 which can be seen through the glass1 the panel can be taken out4 ,the wood must be so placed that the ammonia can pass quite round the parts which require darkening4 ,but for ordinary purposes1 it will be found quite sufficient to apply strong ammonia with a brush or sponge1 and expose it to smoke4 ,umber4 ,common powdered umber1 which is used by the house painter1 is much preferable to the ,swiss brown liquid stain to produce an antique brown appearance4 ,the ,swiss dye is entirely too rich and uniform1 making everything exactly alike1 or similar to chocolate4 ,but the umber must be properly applied4 ,mix it with beer or porter2 strong coffee is also very good2 and apply it with a brush4 ,when dry rub it very carefully1 clean1 and apply it again4 ,if it be desirable to make the wood very dark1 add lamp-black to the dye1 mixing and shaking it very thoroughly4 ,but always let the first applications be of umber alone4 ,by adding the lamp-black one can darken the wood almost to blackness1 and if it be very carefully done1 and not in a hurry1 and exposed at intervals to smoke in a warm place1 a colour second to none may be thus given4 ,paint4 ,wood which is to be exposed to the air must of course be painted in the ordinary way4 ,but there is another method of applying oil paint which is not so generally known or practised1 yet which gives very good results4 ,this consists of rubbing paint with the hand into wood or on plaster of ,paris1 papier-mach1 or stone4 ,as it is much thinner than with coats laid on with a brush1 it appears more like an innate or natural colour4 ,this was the finger painting of the old ,venetian artists4 ,the appearance thus produced1 when it is skilfully done1 is very different indeed from that of an ordinary coat of paint1 and in most cases it is much more attractive4 ,ivorying4 ,take a panel1 the pattern may be carved1 or even produced in the lowest relief by simply indenting the outline with a wheel or tracer4 ,any degree of relief will1 however1 do just as well4 ,apply a coat of thick ordinary copal varnish4 ,when perfectly dry smooth it with finest glass or emery-paper4 ,then apply the paint2 two or three coats are better than one4 ,see that the last is perfectly smooth4 ,then work on the dry surface with tracer and stamps1 as you would on wood or brass4 ,when finished1 take a very small fitch-brush and paint ,vandyke brown into all the dots1 lines1 scratches1 and irregularities4 ,let there be a dark line of brown close to the outline of the pattern4 ,sometimes the entire ground may be rubbed with brown1 allowing an indication or a few dots of white yellow to show here and there4 ,when dry give two coats of retouching varnish 7that of ,shnee ,frres1 ,no4 #ai1 ,rue des ,filles du ,calvaire1 ,paris1 is specially suited to this work74 ,by using olive1 dark and light greens1 a beautiful imitation of bronze can be thus obtained4 ,in fact1 by studying the effects of colour in many kinds of old objects1 we may obtain hints for converting very ordinary wood-carving into beautiful objects4 ,bichromate of ,potash1 diluted with water to the required shade1 is a good dark dye1 but great care should be taken not to spill a drop of it on the clothing1 or to get it on the hands1 or even to inhale its fumes1 as it is a poison4 ,apply it with a brush4 ,black ,dyes4 ,of late years black dyes have been so much improved that ebony is imitated with holly1 hickory1 and beech1 to absolute perfection4 ,the best way for the carver1 as regards these and all kinds of dyes1 such as red1 yellow1 green1 etc41 is to go to a chemist or colourman1 who will obtain them for him4 ,for black the following recipes may be used4 ,i4 ,white vinegar #a pint4 ,iron filings #b ounces4 ,antimony 7powdered7 #b ounces4 ,vitriol #a ounce4 ,logwood #c ounces4 ,steep it in a corked bottle for eight days4 ,,ii4 ,gall nuts coarsely broken #b ounces4 ,rain water #a quart4 ,boil down to one half4 7,seaton47 ,to stain wood1 first apply ,no4 ,,ii41 when nearly dry put on ,no4 ,i4 and then ,no4 ,,ii4 again4 ,it will occur to the reader that this is really ink1 and1 in fact1 if he cannot get a stain1 good common ink applied a few times and well dried will answer quite as well4 ,after it has been thoroughly put on1 and quite dry1 oil the surface1 and rub it well1 and it will be found that it will not wash off from any casual application of water4 ,some of the writing inks now made are intensely black and almost indelible4 ,,nineteenth ,,lesson4 ,,making ,,moulds ,,or ,,squeezes ,,for ,,wood-,,carvers4 ,it will very soon become apparent to every wood-carver that it is easier to copy from a model than a drawing1 and that this ease is very much increased when he has made that model in clay himself4 ,however1 it is also very advisable that he shall1 after a time1 practise carving from drawings and sketches also1 as this of itself gives great skill and accuracy of perception4 ,but he will very often need or wish to have copies of carvings or casts1 and these he may obtain with ease1 if the relief be not too great or the object too large4 ,this is called taking a squeeze1 and it may be done in two ways4 ,firstly1 by means of squeezing or modelling wax1 which is sold by dealers in artists' materials4 ,the use of this and the casting in plaster of ,paris is1 however1 generally tiresome to beginners in carving4 ,for all practical purposes squeezes in paper are quite sufficient4 ,paper squeezes4 ,take any pieces of soft newspaper4 ,oil the wood or plaster cast which you wish to copy2 soak1 and then press on the paper and1 with your fingers and a sponge or a very stiff brush1 poke and squeeze it into every cranny of the original4 ,if this be done thoroughly1 the hardest part of the work is accomplished4 ,now give the paper a brush of flour-paste or gum or mucilage1 or paste strengthened with glue1 and press on new pieces of paper4 ,to merely copy the original1 a few thicknesses will suffice4 ,take the squeeze off and let it dry2 if necessary1 touch it up with colour4 ,for this the first coat should be of white paper4 ,to make a cast1 keep adding paper till the whole is at least half an inch in thickness4 ,press it as hard as you can while forming the mould4 ,when it is dry you can paint or rub the inside with any dry powder1 such as whiting1 or varnish it1 and then make a cast with the same material1 i4e4 paper and paste1 or with plaster of ,paris4 ,papier-mach casts1 when rubbed by hand with brown paint1 form perfect facsimiles of old wood-work4 ,rubbed with bronze-powders they resemble metals1 or they may be ivoried1 by the process described in the chapter on dyes4 ,plaster-casts are very easily broken1 and are heavy and difficult to transport4 ,wax is spoiled almost by a touch1 and it readily yields to heat4 ,papier-mach1 when properly managed1 with a little practice gives a mould which is equal to either for all surfaces except the most minutely delicate4 ,when dry1 such casts may be let fall1 or really thrown about1 without sustaining any injury1 and they are very portable4 ,it is very often possible to easily copy an object with paper when plaster or wax cannot be used at all4 ,the reason why it is not more generally used is because few persons have taken the pains to treat it as a plastic material suitable to the arts1 or are sufficiently practised in it to know what can really be done with it4 ,the wood-carver should do this1 because it is a very important thing for him to keep copies of his works1 or to get those of others to use in his designs4 ,with a little practice1 and at no expense1 he can make such casts in a material which is almost as durable as wood itself4 ,in large manufactories of papier-mach the pulp of paper is simply mixed with the paste or size1 and put into the moulds in large masses1 and then subjected to pressure4 ,when a good surface is secured with fine white paper1 it is not of much consequence how coarse the paper for the backing may be4 ,for this purpose it may be mixed with tow or fibre of any kind1 plaster1 or fine sawdust1 etc41 so long as the binder or size be only strong enough to hold all together4 ,but for all ordinary purposes waste-paper and paste1 thickened with common glue1 will suffice4 ,illustration3 ,,case ,,for ,,papers ,,or ,,music4 ,,twentieth ,,lesson4 ,,spot ,,cutting4 ,this is a manner of ornamenting which can hardly be called carving1 and which would not deserve special mention were it not that it is so extensively used1 it being the chief method of decoration in all the islands of the ,pacific1 and still extensively practised in ,sweden and ,norway4 ,it consists of small incised triangles1 or diamonds1 made with a skew or ordinary chisel1 which are arranged in rows or lines4 ,simple as the work may seem1 it is very effective when artistically employed2 and it has this peculiarity1 that no other kind of cutting is so well adapted1 with very little labour1 to relieve flat surfaces1 such as paddles1 tankards1 spoons1 war clubs1 and scoops or dippers4 ,the triangular incision is made with three cuts2 by adding two more from the opposite direction we make a diamond1 or the latter may be produced at once with only four cuts1 ,fig4 #fc4 ,to these we may add the hemi-spherical or cup hollow1 which is made with a gouge1 and which1 in ,scotland at least1 seems to have been the earliest pre-historic beginning of ornamentation of flat surfaces4 ,when these triangles and diamonds are tastefully arranged in lines1 and filled in with a composition1 or paint1 which contrasts in colour with the wood1 the effect is often excellent4 ,ordinary putty1 into which a little mastic has been well worked1 or plaster of ,paris with size and a little flour paste1 with one drop of oil to an ounce1 makes a good filler for such a purpose4 ,this may be applied to any incised cutting4 ,an ivory-like filling1 which may be stained of any colour1 and which was once extensively used in ,florence1 is made with rice1 lime1 and size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,any pattern which can be drawn in lines may be executed with good effect in triangular spots1 the base of every spot being on the line4 ,they may either join one another or be separated2 both methods produce a good effect4 ,the spots may be of all sizes1 and are generally not larger than those at the top in the above illustration4 ,large triangles may of course be used as well as small ones4 ,owing to the ease with which these spots are made1 and the good effect which they produce when blackened1 it is not remarkable that so simple a method of decorating wood is extensively practised4 ,by placing a gouge vertically and turning it1 as already mentioned1 a cup-like cavity is easily cut4 ,a row of these is often very effective4 ,illustration ,,appendix4 ,,objects ,,for ,,wood-,,carving4 ,the most difficult part of making is to know what to make4 ,in no circumstances should the wood-carver be at a loss for a subject to work on1 yet this is the commonest source of complaint1 especially among young artists1 that they do not know what to take up4 ,one result of this is the wearisome production of panels or fancy pieces without any definite aim1 and a constant imitation of one another's work4 ,unfortunately there are a great many who cannot understand or form any idea how a pattern would look when executed4 ,they will pass it over in an engraving1 but when they see it actually carved and made up they appreciate it4 ,now the tutor should teach the pupils1 and the students teach themselves1 to think of subjects1 to invent them1 to sketch and execute them4 ,i have found that all workers are invariably more defective in this respect than in any other1 and that it is one in which the direction of almost every art school in the world is either utterly wanting1 or else leaves much to be desired4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,pupils should be encouraged to look at every object with an eye to ornamenting or decorating it1 so far as that can be done without detracting from its usefulness4 ,in every school a list of objects for carving should be hung up1 and the workers be frequently requested to think of subjects to add to the list2 outline sketches of furniture and other objects should be supplied4 ,it is not at all understood that even a very little frequent employment of the mind inventing and planning1 no matter at what1 stimulates all the mental faculties to an extraordinary degree4 ,i therefore seriously urge that the wood-carver shall earnestly study the following list of subjects1 add to it1 and at times take one or the other of them and sketch it with variations4 ,he may remember while doing this1 that any of the ornaments given may be varied and applied to different things1 as1 for instance1 the vine on a circular panel may be easily adapted to a square4 ,full directions for doing this may be found in ,the ,manual of ,design1#b price one shilling1 which also contains many patterns perfectly adapted to carving4 #b ,london3 ,whittaker and ,co4 ,chicago3 ,rand1 ,mc,nally and ,co4 ,the first subject to be considered is3 ,what to design or make2 how its surface can be appropriately ornamented2 and1 how to produce the best effect with the least work4 ,mere elaboration is admired only by the ignorant1 and the less cultivated a pupil is1 the more inclined he will be to densely crowded petty patterns4 ,if the pupil wants a design for any of the objects described in this chapter1 and if he can draw at all1 and has any skill in adapting or changing a pattern1 as1 for instance1 to make one which fills a triangle or a square set into a circle1 or extend to a long panel or a border1 he will find something for any of them1 either in this book1 or in the ,manual of ,design already referred to4 ,let him also take pains to collect as many patterns as he can of all kinds1 and keep them in a portfolio for reference4 ,every student of wood-carving should remember that if he has a folding looking-glass1 which he can make for himself by cutting in two a square mirror of1 say1 six inches by twelve1 he can1 out of any pattern in this book1 or from any simple ornament whatever1 make 7with the least effort of ingenuity or adaptiveness7 a border by repeating it in succession1 or a centre ornament which may be multiplied in whole or in part ad infinitum4 ,that is to say1 he can fill any given space1 be it a panel1 ceiling1 circle1 triangle1 or hexagon4 ,or he can fill such spaces by simply cutting out ornaments from card-board1 and placing them together to form vines or outgrowths from one another4 ,panels4 ,a panel is defined as a board with a surrounding frame4 ,the word is derived from the old ,english panel1 a piece of cloth1 ,latin pannus1 a cloth or patch2 from the same word we have pane4 ,in wood-carving we practically apply it to small boards intended to be set in furniture1 or walls1 or ceilings1 or made into book-covers or box-lids4 ,the uses of panels are without limit1 as they may be introduced into almost every kind of furniture1 such as the backs and sides of chairs1 chests1 bedsteads1 caskets1 window-garden boxes1 doors1 or wherever a flat surface can be adorned4 ,when surrounded with a frame or several strips of moulding1 any panel becomes improved when the outer frame is not overdone4 ,as a rule the border of a panel should be plain1 so as to distinctly define or set forth the pattern4 ,for this reason many very ordinary and even rude subjects come out or look well when thus mounted4 ,a series of carved panels makes a beautiful frieze for any room4 ,a good general size for most work is a panel six inches by twelve1 more or less1 and half an inch thick4 ,in spacing a panel for ornament the pupil may begin by making one circle in the centre and one in each corner1 so that the five may fill up the whole space4 ,convert these into a vine and apply ornaments4 ,there are of course endless variations of this principle4 7,consult the ,manual of ,design47 ,chairs4 ,take any chair1 copy it1 and then fill the spaces with ornaments to be carved4 ,large1 square1 high-backed1 old-fashioned chairs admit of the most panelling1 and can be made up by any cabinet-maker or carpenter1 vide ,fig4 #fi4 ,it is a very good plan to always have such objects made up in pieces1 carve them separately1 and then have them put together4 ,it may be observed for beginners1 and those who are not much practised in cabinet-making1 that there is a very substantial kind of furniture once made very commonly in ,germany1 and which has been much revived of late years4 ,it is made entirely without glue1 nails1 or screws1 by simply cutting holes into which tenons or ends project1 which ends are fastened on the other side by holes and pins4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,on this principle every kind of furniture can be made by any man who is ingenious enough to simply measure boards1 cut square holes1 and adapt pins to them4 ,such articles as are made by this process are very much stronger than any others1 and they have the great advantage that they can be easily taken apart1 packed1 or be stored in very small space when not in use2 and the style is of course more adapted to carving than ordinary furniture4 ,the writer has in his possession chairs #bej years old made on this principle4 ,the seat is a square nearly two inches thick1 in which four holes are bored1 into which the legs are simply set1 as in a milking-stool4 ,between the hind legs two square holes are cut1 into which similar tenons made in the lower end of the back are fitted4 ,in these tenons two square holes are cut1 just exactly on the other side of the seat1 into which square pins are driven1 ,fig4 #fe4 ,with a very little ingenuity or will1 anybody can contrive to make any piece of furniture on the same principle4 ,the seats of chairs and stools1 or the faces of tables1 should never be carved1 for very apparent reasons4 ,there is plenty of space for the carver to work at on the edges and legs1 and this may be made striking enough by means of colouring and gilding1 ,figs4 #fd and #ff4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,,console ,,or ,,bracket4 ,boxes4 ,these have formed in all ages favourite subjects for decoration4 ,they vary from the smallest casket to the chest4 ,a box with the lid forms five panels1 or1 seen from any point1 three4 ,in ,italy1 of old1 they were often carved without and within4 ,boxes may be made by simply gluing1 nailing1 or screwing together1 but they may be so dovetailed by an expert workman that the juncture is quite imperceptible4 ,vide ,forty ,lessons in ,carpentry ,practice1 by ,c4 ,f4 ,mitchell4 ,cassell and ,co4 ,it is a feat in cabinet-making to do this perfectly1 and boxes thus joined are very expensive4 ,the appearance of boxes is much improved by the addition of moulding-strips1 bases1 and projecting ornaments4 ,the student is advised to carve or buy a few bosses1 such as heads of animals or faces1 and rosettes1 and try the experiment of fitting them to a box or carving them on one1 ,fig4 #fg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,caskets for ,cigars4 ,this applies also to receptacles into which glasses for flowers may be put4 ,take a cylinder of wood1 turned1 or made up like a barrel1 and fit a base to it1 and a lid4 ,they may be made of very large joints of bamboo1 which may also be beautifully carved1 and partly coloured in the lines1 as is common in ,china4 ,it is best for turned cylinders and bamboo to have them surrounded with metal rings to prevent their splitting4 ,they may also be made square1 that is1 as boxes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,,tray ,,for ,,cigar ,,ashes4 ,trays for ,cigar ,ashes4 ,these are best when carved from hard wood1 such as box1 though any other may be used4 ,it is much better that they be made rather larger and deeper than many in use1 as ashes are continually being knocked out of small and shallow ones4 ,they may be round or square1 like a fish or a small book 7with a lid71 a shell1 a tortoise1 or a scooped hand1 a face1 or a figure of any animal or human being1 ,fig4 #fh4 ,basket-work4 ,this is very easily imitated in wood1 and it forms a very pretty and fanciful style for many kinds of objects4 ,take any kind of basket-work1 either that of split osiers1 which are half-round1 or ,italian rush-work1 or ,american ,indian1 which is made of flat strips of ash or pine-bark interwoven1 or ,indian rattan1 and imitate it with flat gouges or firmers4 ,it is very easy work1 and beginners soon become expert in it4 ,it improves the effect1 when the work is finished1 if dark colour be painted into the depressions4 ,basket-work may be used for diaper ground4 ,the ,american ,indian basket-work1 in flat strips from one-third of an inch to an inch in breadth1 is easiest to imitate1 and may be executed with a single ,v tool or firmer4 ,casks1 ,small ,barrels1 ,kegs4 ,these are useful for waste-paper boxes1 or to contain canes and umbrellas4 ,when carved and coloured they form very attractive articles of furniture4 ,they may be used for garden seats4 ,heads of animals appliqu to these1 some for handles to lift them1 or else holes must be cut in them for this purpose1 vide ,fig4 #ef4 ,frames for ,pictures or ,looking-glasses4 ,these give a wide range to the wood-carver1 for all borders are suitable to frames4 ,heads may be appliqu to corners and centres of frames4 ,it is very much to be desired that designers and carvers would exert their inventiveness and endeavour to break up the monotony and feebleness which characterize most frames1 vide borders and photograph frames4 ,illustration3 ,,miniature ,,frame4 ,p4 #abh4 ,horns4 ,horns may be carved1 as previously described1 and imitations of them in wood are easily made4 ,they are ornamental objects1 and useful when hung up to contain small objects4 ,they can1 by steeping in hot water1 be softened and flattened1 vide initial to ,fifteenth ,lesson4 ,tiles4 ,these are really panels4 ,they are pieces of wood from half an inch to an inch in thickness1 the size of ordinary tiles1 carved in bold relief with free hand1 coloured or not1 and are very useful for house decoration1 chimney-piece borders1 cornices1 and corners4 ,the tile when employed with much repetition becomes the diaper ornament4 ,window ,gardens to contain flower-pots4 ,these are square chests1 as long as the window is wide1 and from a foot to eighteen inches in depth4 ,they may be made with two or three panels1 or one long panel in front1 with one at each end4 ,they form admirable subjects for decoration4 ,albums1 ,portfolios1 ,book-covers4 ,these are panels1 and afford an infinite range of design and effects in wood-carving4 ,they may be very beautifully and easily ornamented in mere stamping and outlining 7vide ,lesson ,,ii471 or by putting in diaper grounds1 or basket-work1 or by very low relief carving1 in which case there should be a border in a little higher relief to protect the pattern from being rubbed1 ,fig4 #gj4 ,canoes4 ,in many countries large or real canoes are made from one piece of wood and elaborately carved4 ,very pretty miniature canoes may be made from one to three feet in length from any kind of wood1 and covered with any kind of ornamentation4 ,it is not necessary to excavate them from a single block or log1 as they may be made from two or more pieces4 ,they form useful receptacles for many objects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,panels of ,doors4 ,these might be generally ornamented4 ,every kind of wood-carving is applicable to them1 but it should be remembered that for all such decoration a large1 free1 and bold style is absolutely necessary1 and that it is unwise to make mural work1 which should be visible at great distances1 out of pretty flowers or too delicate work4 ,a room with good bold door-panels1 wainscot1 or dado and a frieze1 seems half furnished1 while trifling and feeble ornaments detract from such appearance4 ,the great secret of the attractiveness of medival and savage decoration is its energy4 ,even eccentricity and grotesqueness lose all that is repulsive in them when they are simply and vigorously set forth4 ,carved patterns in low relief may be applied to door-panels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,,album ,,cover4 ,foot-stools4 ,these are really small panelled boxes1 unless made with supports or legs4 ,benches4 ,simple benches are seldom decorated1 but they are admirably adapted to it4 ,never carve the seats1 unless they are made to fold up to protect them from the rain1 in which case the under ornaments of choir-seats or misereres may be appropriately used4 ,when the bench has a back it becomes a rude sofa or settee or settle 7,anglo-,saxon setl1 a seat74 ,properly speaking a settle is a long bench with a high back4 ,this may be carved in panels4 ,there was an old ,saxon and early ,english double chair made to seat two1 which is like a short settle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,,hanging ,,box4 ,hanging ,boxes4 ,these are boxes generally made with a back1 which is the longest piece1 and which goes above and below the receptacle part4 ,they are useful for newspapers or letters4 ,every kind of carving is applicable to them1 ,fig4 #ga4 ,key ,boxes4 ,these are small hanging cabinets4 ,in every family there are many loose keys of trunks and furniture lying about loose1 and hard to find when wanted4 ,if there were a key box they would always be readily found4 ,make a box or frame1 let us say eighteen inches in length by ten inches width1 of four strips of deal or any wood4 ,these strips may be half an inch in thickness by an inch in width4 ,nail or glue them together so as to form the four sides of a box4 ,then take one or two or three strips of thin planed board1 and neatly nail them on to form a back to the shallow box4 ,now take a panel1 which is to form the lid or door of the cabinet4 ,it will be better to make a narrow frame of four strips1 and set the panel in this1 as a door1 with hinges and lock4 ,this is to be hung up on the wall4 ,it will very much improve the whole if the interior and outside of the cabinet1 or all the deal1 be stained to match the door1 which1 as it is to be carved1 should be of walnut or oak1 or some better class of wood4 ,then get some small silver or plated-headed nails and drive them in rows in the cabinet4 ,the keys are to be hung up on these4 ,cabinets4 ,these may be in the nature of upright boxes with doors1 with three sides ornamented1 the fourth being placed against the wall1 or three-sided for a corner4 ,the forms of cabinets are extremely varied1 and the artist should pass much time in designing them4 ,they are of all sizes1 from great armoires for clothing down to caskets4 ,the word cabinet is derived from the ,french cabane1 a cabin4 ,the earliest dwellers in ,italy made the receptacles for the ashes of the dead exactly like the cabins in which they dwelt4 ,sabots or ,wooden ,shoes4 ,these serve admirably to carve1 and are very pretty when coloured or ivoried1 bronzed in antique style1 or otherwise ornamented4 ,sabots are useful to contain small articles1 and may be turned into cigar-ash holders4 ,umbrella ,handles4 ,these offer an inexhaustible field for the designer and carver of small objects4 ,tankards4 ,these and all kinds of cylindrical objects are the same as regards design as panels1 only that the pattern when not in set divisions must be continuous1 or going round without a break4 ,they have been already described4 ,pen and ,pencil ,boxes4 ,a very convenient form is that of a round-turned wood1 plain1 upright jar4 ,small square or round carved boxes for such a purpose are not hard to make4 ,they may be made like towers or castles1 the trunks of trees1 barrels1 or almost any hollow objects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,,flask4 ,pilgrim ,bottles and ,powder ,flasks4 ,take two pieces of board1 each one inch thick1 plane them smooth1 and saw both into ovals exactly matching1 of1 say1 six inches by ten4 ,cut away the centre from both4 ,fit them exactly4 ,then round each half in such a manner that1 when brought together1 they form a round ring1 like a ,french loaf4 ,then carefully hollow out the centre of both1 including the neck1 and glue the halves together4 ,carve the outside1 ,figs4 #gb and #gc4 ,during the ,middle ,ages such bottles were made of many sizes to contain gunpowder4 ,they were carved from ivory or hard wood1 and were covered with a very great variety of subjects1 such as deer1 dogs1 wild boars1 birds1 cupids1 scenes from the heathen mythology and the ,bible1 as well as ordinary grotesques4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,,pilgrim ,,bottle4 ,shrines or ,reliquaries4 ,this is the conventional name for boxes or caskets made exactly in the form of houses1 the lid being one side of the roof4 ,the shape is a convenient one for a box4 ,they were covered with ornaments of the most varied or grotesque kinds4 ,mummies4 ,the ,egyptian mummy or its outward box or sarcophagus forms an excellent subject for a useful box4 ,take two pieces of wood1 adapt them to make a box1 like the ,egyptian type1 that is1 the lid being about one-fourth as thick as the box4 ,appliqu or glue more wood on to the lid1 in the centre4 ,the whole may be then smoothed into shape1 painted and gilt1 or else carved in low relief1 or simply stamped4 ,it may also be all gilt1 and the dot work and shadows painted in brown or ivoried4 ,take for model a real sarcophagus4 ,the work is not difficult1 and the result will be a very handsome object4 ,roman ,sarcophagus4 ,this is simply a square box carved in very high relief1 after the pattern of a ,roman tomb4 ,the ornaments may be appliqu4 ,these sarcophagi are very beautiful when ivoried4 ,books4 ,a very pretty pattern for a box is an old book of the twelfth or thirteenth century1 with its clasps and other ornaments in high relief4 ,one of the covers is set on hinges1 and forms the lid4 ,care should be taken to polish and ornament the whole so as to look like an original4 ,it was very common to make the sides of old books of wooden panels1 which were carved in high relief4 ,silver and brass or iron clasps and studs taken from such old books may be bought in many bric--brac shops4 ,staves or ,alpenstocks4 ,a staff four or five feet in length is more useful for a pedestrian going a great distance than a cane1 and it is remarkable that it should have fallen into such disuse4 ,in old times in northern countries they were often made square1 the corners being slightly rounded1 and were then covered with ,runic inscriptions and ornaments4 ,these were very often almanacks1 so that a man wishing to know what was the day of the week or month had only to consult his staff1 or to up stick4 ,these were called clogs4 ,they might be acceptable and useful to many tourists4 ,they were commonly carved by the peasants1 and a few may possibly still be found in ,suffolk4 ,spoons4 ,wooden spoons are easily carved and ornamented4 ,it is very curious1 that quite apart from any modern slang attached to the words spooney or to spoon1 two spoons1 from their fitting together exactly1 are considered in many countries as a type of matrimony and perfect agreement4 ,in ,wales1 as in ,sweden and ,algeria1 it is usual to present a newly married couple with a piece of wood carved into the form of two spoons1 and ,i myself possess specimens of such4 ,if anyone wishes to establish the custom in ,england he would probably find that the present would be generally welcome4 ,two spoons in one cup are1 it is well known1 the sign of a happy marriage4 ,i have seen large wooden spoons carved and painted and varnished1 or gilt2 two of these tied together with a ribbon were hung up as an amulet to secure peace4 ,bellows4 ,these are carved in low relief1 and may be ornamented by simple indentation or outlining and stamping4 ,it is the easiest course to get the wood and saw it out1 half or one-third inch walnut or oak1 and then carve it1 and have the bellows made up1 ,figs4 #gd and #ge4 ,platters4 ,take a piece of panel1 one-third to half of an inch in thickness1 and saw it out into any shape1 such as that of a fish1 a wild boar1 a pig1 a cat1 a rabbit1 tortoise1 hare1 etc41 care being taken that the shape always approach that of a circle1 an oval1 or at least a diamond4 ,most animals can be drawn fitting into a circular border1 as you can ascertain for yourself by putting a cat or a hare1 etc41 into a hoop4 ,indent with stamped work or carve in ribbon-work1 low relief1 finish and polish with care1 dye black1 and then oil or varnish4 ,these are useful for interposing between cups1 vases1 etc41 and the table-cloth4 ,very pretty effects may be produced by inlaying small discs of pearl or ivory to form the eyes1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,,the ,,wind-,,flower1 ,,or ,,anemone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,a ,,salamander4 ,lunettes and ,spaces4 ,it will often happen that there is over a chimney-piece or door1 or under or over a window1 a space like a semi-circle1 or half an ellipse or oval1 or square or rectangle of any kind1 which might very well be filled in1 and it will be found that1 in most cases1 there is nothing more appropriate than wood-carving4 ,it will be an easy matter for anyone in the least familiar with drawing to adapt the designs in this work1 or in the ,manual of ,design1 to such spaces4 ,false ,sofa-backs4 ,when a plain flat lounge or sofa is placed against a wall its appearance may be greatly improved in one of two ways4 ,firstly1 a carpet or cloth may be hung on the wall1 just matching it in size and meeting it4 ,secondly1 and this is very effective1 get boards or panels made into a piece1 just as broad as the sofa is long1 and from two feet to any height you please4 ,it may reach down to the ground1 or begin with the sofa4 ,carve it4 ,this will seem to be the back of the sofa1 or a guard for the wall2 in any case it will appear very well4 ,it may be made of separate panels1 say six or eight inches by twelve or sixteen1 made up into a frame4 ,such pieces may be placed to back any kind of furniture which rests permanently against the wall4 ,door ,pieces4 ,panels just as long as the door is wide1 and from one to two1 three1 or even four feet across1 when carved1 form handsome decorations to place above a door2 they may also be used to place above windows4 ,inscriptions1 or simple figures with ornament1 look very well on them4 ,outside or ,faade ,pieces4 ,many a house1 be it mansion or cottage1 which seems utterly prosaic and plain1 might be greatly improved if between its windows1 on the outside1 there could be set ornamental panels4 ,these may be painted1 carved in stone1 moulded of ,portland cement or other artificial stone1 and in many cases carved of wood4 ,ornamented inscriptions in old ,english1 and simple figures1 are suitable for these panels2 in any case let those who adopt them try not to have the commonplace cupids and ornaments generally seen in mural decoration4 ,it may not be in good form to be grotesque1 but those who entirely avoid it are almost always commonplace4 ,fig4 #gf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,wood or ,coal ,boxes4 ,these are square boxes with lids1 to be placed by the fireplace4 ,the coal-scuttle1 with the coals1 may be placed in them4 ,in carving everything of the kind it is a good idea to introduce ornamental lettering and appropriate mottoes4 ,bread ,platters4 ,these may be seen in every fancy or furnishing shop where wooden wares are sold4 ,they can be much improved by carving to serve as round panels4 ,chimney-pieces4 ,these generally consist of pilaster panels and strips1 and anybody who can execute these in detail can have them made up4 ,it is desirable for the pupil to copy a few or many chimney-pieces1 great or small1 from real ones1 and adopt the ornaments from them4 ,and as they are articles which receive a great deal of wear and tear and rubbing1 it may be well to remember that too delicate finish is misplaced where scrubbing with soap and sand is sure to set in some day1 and where1 at any rate1 dusting and other processes are inevitable4 ,after a few years the foliage or flowers undercut to the last degree1 begin to shed their leaves1 and appear broken or ragged4 ,good flat-carving1 which endures anything1 is better than this1 and the roses1 even if in high relief1 would look none the worse for being solidly though conventionally cut4 ,a good chimney-piece and a handsome high-backed armchair can be very well executed by anybody who can do ordinary panel carving4 ,there is no fireplace in even the humblest cottage for which a chimney-piece may not be made4 ,its upper portion can in most cases be made to support shelves or a cabinet2 when in a corner these of course are triangular4 ,gothic or ornamented lettering may be used in the ornament4 ,for this1 proverbs or quotations relative to the fireplace are appropriate4 ,beams4 ,when the beams which support the floor above are left exposed1 the room is improved by being made higher4 ,if these beams are carved1 even if it be done rudely1 the whole room seems to be adorned4 ,this is strikingly the case when the beams are stained a dark brown1 and then touched up a little on the prominent points with gilding4 ,if it be too difficult to carve the beams in situ or in place1 it is easy to ornament them with applied carved ornaments4 ,pains should be taken to make these appear to be uniform with the wood4 ,racks4 ,these may be for umbrellas1 hats1 garments1 pipes weapons1 and other purposes4 ,great ingenuity and taste can be developed in designing them4 ,of one thing let the designer be very careful4 ,let him see that the pegs or hooks are strongly fixed and are not ornamented4 ,i have seen such pieces of furniture1 in which a four-cornered sharp-edged flower is placed once and even twice on a hook1 while on others there is at the end a projection more than an inch in diameter1 which is flat on the back or under side1 with a sharp edge4 ,the result is1 that when a coat is hung by the loop on such a peg and is then turned or twisted once or twice1 as often happens1 it is almost impossible at times to get it off4 ,the ,boss or round central projection formed a very important part or speciality in medival wood-carving4 ,it can be advantageously used as a centre1 and sets off to good effect surrounding flat or plain carving4 ,it is sometimes used as a handle for chests4 ,it is1 when a simple half-circle1 very easily sketched into shape4 ,it may be formed into the head of an animal1 a flower1 a single curling leaf1 or several leaves4 ,the student is specially urged to copy as many as he can from ,gothic designs4 ,a boss at the bottom of a bowl1 or in a saucer or plaque1 produces a good effect1 the concave surface round it making a beautiful effect of shade1 which might be more frequently employed by picture-frame makers4 ,this ornament1 which is very easily made and very striking1 is thus prepared4 ,get a bowl or a shallow round platter2 any turner will make one for you4 ,then carve from a hemisphere of wood a head or a boss of leaves or flowers1 or a dragon4 ,round the bottom with a file to fit1 and with glue and a screw fasten it to the bowl4 ,the interior of the bowl may be polished1 varnished1 gilded1 or ivoried4 ,clock ,cases4 ,a common clock is not very expensive1 and when it is properly repainted and set in a well-carved frame its value will be very much enhanced4 ,a tower is a very good subject for a clock case4 ,vestibule4 ,the small ante-hall1 between the first and second door1 common in very many houses4 ,this can be ornamented with a wainscot or dados in long panels4 ,it is very often thus decorated in ,america4 ,for cottages and country houses1 or even for town mansions1 such panels may be beautifully and fitly decorated with gouge-work in grooves1 a flat pattern in simple cutting-in1 such as any person may learn how to execute in a few hours4 ,fill in the pattern or cuts with dark paint1 and if exposed to changes of temperament or rubbing1 let it be oiled or varnished4 ,the same work is of course as appropriate to halls as any other rooms1 but the vestibule1 being small1 may serve for a beginning4 ,staircase ,balusters4 ,these afforded inexhaustible work for the artists of the olden time1 and they should be tempting to every wood-carver4 ,it is not at all necessary that they should be strictly of open work1 in lattices or rails1 as beautiful objects of the kind were once often made in panels4 ,but the carver should especially be aware of projecting leaves or crochets1 as they are very apt to catch garments4 ,garden-work4 ,much bold wood-carving may be executed for gardens in a great variety of forms4 ,stands or tables for potted flowers and tubs may be decorated1 panels placed in walls1 and summer-houses made in far greater variety than they are at present4 ,poetry supplies an infinite variety of inscriptions appropriate to gardens1 which may be carved and ornamented4 ,it is worth noting that statues of ,flora and ,pomona and ,vertumnus in simple archaic forms were used to protect gardens and orchards among the ,romans1 and it would be an easy matter to carve these in low relief in panels4 ,gates4 ,the gates of country places1 gardens1 etc41 afford a wide scope for the skill of the carver1 and as they are the first objects generally seen about a house they may be most appropriately ornamented4 ,in this1 as in much other work1 the art of the carpenter is combined with that of the carver4 ,it should be1 however1 remembered1 as regards gates1 as of all decoration whatever1 that anything which can ever be in any manner in the way is not beautiful1 sensible1 or proper4 ,there should never be a jagged or pointed ornament wherever it can catch clothing4 ,bedsteads4 ,the bedstead was of old considered so appropriate for carving1 that ,i find in an excellent old ,italian work on furniture more illustrations of this article than any other4 ,even very simple and cheap ones may be redoubled in value by a little judicious carving4 ,trays4 ,these may be made in great variety1 to contain many kinds of objects4 ,as a rule the tray is a long shallow box1 but it may be carved from one piece of wood1 and is then used to carry objects in1 the single piece being necessary to give it strength4 ,if ornamented with carving the tray forms an attractive object when hung up on the wall4 ,and it may be here remarked that one great object of all carving is1 that most objects which are useful in some way shall be ornamental when not in use4 ,we do not wish to have trays and coal-boxes in the way if they are plain1 but when decorated they serve as well as pictures to ornament a room4 ,coal or ,wood ,boxes4 ,see ,wood or ,coal ,boxes4 ,salt ,boxes1 ,collection ,boxes4 ,these very useful articles need not be limited as regards contents1 nor confined to the kitchen or to collection4 ,if the part of the box which goes against the wall1 or its back1 be lengthened1 the salt box becomes a kind of bracket4 ,vide ,hanging ,boxes4 ,shelf-boards4 ,it very often happens that a literary man1 or draughtsman1 or architect1 though his work-table may be large1 finds it crowded with books1 etc4 ,to find place for these the shelf-board is very convenient4 ,it is simply a board1 let us say one foot wide1 placed on two supports1 which lift it twelve or fifteen inches from the table4 ,to economize room these supports may each be a square open box1 in which books may be placed4 ,the advantage of this shelf is that it may be displaced at any time when the table is cleared4 ,a plain board in a room is not an attractive object1 its edge1 or even one side of it1 may therefore be carved4 ,brackets and ,bracket ,shelves4 ,these useful objects may be made in a great variety of forms4 ,the simplest is merely three pieces of board fastened together in a triangle4 ,in the illustration1 ,fig4 #gg1 there are five pieces4 ,the centre of b slopes at an angle of #de4 ,bracket shelves are made by hanging two brackets and laying a board across them4 ,a bracket may be made on a longer board1 and have two or more shelves1 it then becomes a hanging rack or cabinet4 ,or the support may be a long strip in which pegs of wood or metal are placed1 on which objects are hung4 ,a very great variety of carved or stamped ornament may be adapted to brackets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,,bracket4 ,,the ,,tannh,,user4 ,violin and ,guitar ,cases4 ,in the old times these were often elaborately carved1 and thus formed an ornament1 instead of being1 like all now used1 anything but attractive4 ,handles for ,drawers4 ,the hanging or hinge style of old-fashioned handles1 now so prevalent1 has the drawbacks of not being always easy to open or find1 and of frequently breaking4 ,the knob1 which was screwed on1 was always wearing out and getting out of order4 ,the best and most practical kind is made with a square shank which passes through a square hole in the drawer4 ,it has also in itself a square hole into which a square pin is driven1 which holds it fast4 ,carving in very low relief may be applied to ornament these handles1 but it should never be such as to produce positive inequalities1 such as press into1 or may hurt the hand4 ,if the pin be slightly wedge-shaped1 it can never wear out1 nor can the handle become loose1 since when it does1 all that is required is to drive it in further4 ,a very plain chest of drawers may be made much more attractive with a handsome set of handles4 ,handles are another form of bosses4 ,applied ,ornaments4 ,old ,roman bronze coins1 such as may be bought for two or three pence1 are often quite handsome enough to be applied with beautiful effect in caskets1 tankards1 or boxes4 ,lay the coin on the wood1 draw its exact circle with a pin1 and do this until the line is rather deeply scratched4 ,cut out the disc with great care1 so that the coin may fit tightly into it4 ,for this purpose very thick coins are preferable4 ,let it project a little from the surface4 ,fasten it in with diamond or ,turkey cement4 ,of course1 medals or coins of any kind may be used4 ,make a border in the wood round the coin1 and if you like1 apply other ornament to this border4 ,large nails with circular boss heads are very effective in furniture4 ,chests may be beautifully ornamented with them4 ,waste-,paper ,box4 ,a carved box is much more sightly and solid than an ordinary waste-paper basket4 ,the box may be carved in a basket pattern1 and made rather wider at the top than the bottom4 ,borders4 ,any ornament continued in a line or strip forms a border4 ,a wave line1 or one made of hemi-circles1 joined or not with ornaments in every compartment1 is a good plan for a border4 ,so is a vine of any kind4 ,when the hemi-circles are squared and joined1 it becomes the basis for the ,greek ,meander or ,wall of ,troy4 ,angles and other forms are also used4 ,any diaper may be repeated so as to form a border4 ,borders around panels and other margins1 and all along the edges of boards for shelves1 brackets and most of the works mentioned in this list1 may be executed in highly decorative effect1 and with an ease and precision difficult to attain by carving1 with the hammer and stamps mentioned in the first lesson4 ,lines are first drawn on the work as guides to place the punches to insure regularity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,,lectern4 ,pilaster4 ,though this term is generally applied to what may be called a flat-sided pillar against a wall1 or a flat half pillar1 in wood-carving it means quite as often a perpendicular border in relief4 ,like borders1 pilasters are used in many ways in decoration1 as on walls1 bureaux1 cabinets1 sideboards1 tables1 or wherever a long strip is to be filled4 ,base ,moulding4 ,this is generally a border which is the lower portion of a piece of furniture1 etc4 ,thus1 if there is a panel and frame1 and under this1 just over the feet1 a carved strip1 it is a base moulding4 ,narrow fillets on these may be also decorated by stamping4 ,sideboard or ,buffet4 ,a piece of furniture eminently adapted to ornament4 ,it may be made with a back or with shelves1 niches1 or a cabinet placed on it instead of a back4 ,alms ,boxes1 ,money ,boxes4 ,these are made up for churches1 generally after ,gothic designs1 and afford a wide range of design4 ,lectern4 ,a church reading desk4 ,this has always been a favourite subject with wood-carvers1 ,fig4 #gh4 ,ends of ,pews4 ,a favourite subject for carvers in the days of old1 vide ,fig4 #hj4 ,porte-papier4 ,a very useful article to carry paper1 or a sketchbook1 or to press leaves and flowers and convey them home4 ,take two pieces of board1 from one-third to one-half an inch in thickness1 and six inches by eight in size1 more or less as may be desired4 ,the paper is placed between these boards and the whole secured with a hand-strap4 ,it is usual to carve a flower pattern on these4 ,ring or ,circular ,boxes4 ,take a board1 of any thickness1 e4g4 one of two inches1 and make of it a disc or circle1 using the steel fret saw1 ,fig4 #af2 then marking out another circle within this1 saw out a ring about three-quarters of an inch in thickness4 ,adapt to this a bottom and lid1 both1 of course1 also circular4 ,it will be like what is known as a cheese box4 ,to double the depth saw out two rings and glue them together4 ,this will give four inches depth4 ,boxes may thus be made of any shape1 such as a fish1 and then carved4 ,photograph or ,mirror ,frames1 or ,mounts4 ,take a piece of thin board1 six inches by four or five1 or any size required4 ,cut out of one corner of this as much as will be required for the photograph or mirror1 leaving enough wood for a pattern4 ,these have become very popular of late1 ,fig4 #gi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,,frame ,,for ,a ,,photograph1 ,,looking ,,glass1 ,,etc4 ,triptych4 ,two folding covers or boards on hinges1 intended to cover a picture or carved or enamelled or inlaid work4 ,these triptychs may be used reversed as writing desks1 or else carved on both sides1 and then when open hung on the wall as ornaments4 ,when there are only two boards1 as in an album1 it is called a diptych4 ,encoignures4 ,tables made with an angle to fit into a corner of a room4 ,shields4 ,carved in wood1 these form beautiful ornaments4 ,incitega4 ,a kind of stand or table for flowers4 ,it was generally made of rods or strips1 but it may be very easily formed like a box1 that is1 a truncated pyramid reversed4 ,the sides are carved4 ,monopodium or ,centre-table4 ,a small circular table supported on a central stem or foot1 used by the ancients at social entertainments4 ,orb4 ,a globe covered with ornaments carved in low relief4 ,they form very effective decorations4 ,finial4 ,a terminating ornament1 corresponding to a flower as a crochet does to a side leaf1 ,fig4 #hj1 etc4 ,coin-brackets4 ,brackets made to fit into the corner of a room4 ,corner-cabinets4 ,cabinets adapted to a corner of a room4 ,there are also coin or corner objects of furniture of all kinds4 ,mouldings4 ,these are narrow borders or strips1 and are very effective in giving relief in long spaces4 ,a good effect for a full border1 a diaper ground or a broad pattern1 may often be made by doubling1 trebling1 etc41 mouldings4 ,by using the folding mirror a segment of any moulding or border may be converted into an ornament to fill up any given space1 of any shape4 ,there are several tools specially made for cutting figures in mouldings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,,poppy-,,head4 ,poppy-heads4 ,there are many cases where carving may be applied with good effect to relieve bareness4 ,such ornaments1 generally small groups of foliage 7though often figures with leaves71 were formerly placed on the summits of bench-ends desks1 and other clerical wood-work 7,f4 ,w4 ,fairholt74 ,poppy-heads can be placed1 however1 or adapted1 to all kinds of furniture1 with a variation in form1 ,fig4 #hj4 ,sconce4 ,a wall candlestick1 which usually takes the form of a projecting bracketed support in wood or metal4 ,they originated in the fifteenth century1 and were generally of enriched design4 ,they may be sawed out of boards1 or carved in many forms4 ,trellis-screens4 ,these are thin boards of open lattice-work1 generally made by fret-sawing and subsequent carving4 ,they are useful to place behind windows1 and for many purposes4 ,tympanum4 ,a triangular space1 which may be filled in with carved ornament4 ,verge or ,barge-board4 ,the gable ornament of wood-work1 used extensively for houses in the fifteenth century4 ,it affords a wide field for decoration4 ,wreaths4 ,carved circles or rings of wood1 which form beautiful ornaments1 especially when hung up at intervals4 ,they may be used for picture-frames1 ,fig4 #ha4 ,acerra4 ,a square box1 on legs or supports4 ,heads and ,legs4 ,when a cylinder1 or square stick1 or horn1 or oval box1 is made to rudely resemble a figure by adding to it a head and legs1 this is so called4 dicula4 ,a small house or tower1 generally used as a box4 ,very effective and beautiful articles are thus made4 ,ante-fix4 ,ornament carved in stone or wood1 or made from terra-cotta1 to give an ornamental finish or to conceal unsightly junctions in masonry 7,fairholt74 ,there are few country houses or cottages where they cannot be applied4 ,ciborium1 ,synedoche4 ,very richly adorned receptacles in which the ,host is kept4 ,they may be imitated for cabinets4 ,in ,spanish churches they are called custodia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,,ring-,,box1 ,,wreath1 ,,or ,,bread ,,platter4 ,cyma4 ,a moulding consisting of a round and hollow conjoined1 termed cyma recta when hollow above1 and cyma reversa when the cavity is below4 ,modillons4 ,brackets in ,gothic architecture1 the lower portion often in the form of a grotesque animal or human being4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,,hand ,,mirror4 ,hand ,mirrors4 ,these afford an endless field for design4 ,fig4 #hb4 ,echinus4 ,the egg and tongue or egg and anchor moulding1 much like the heart and dart ornament4 ,it is easily made and is very effective4 ,faces may be cut on the eggs4 ,outlines4 ,figures of men1 animals1 etc41 cut or sawed out of boards1 and either painted or carved4 ,they are common in ,italian churches4 ,they form very effective hanging ornaments4 ,birds can be adapted to beautiful outlines4 ,hammer ,beam4 ,the projecting end of a beam1 often carved4 ,hood ,moulding4 ,the moulding which covers or surmounts a door or window on the outside1 forming a sort of hood or weather-guard4 ,it is also called a dripstone or weather moulding4 ,it can be beautifully ornamented1 and thus becomes a striking decoration4 ,impost4 ,the horizontal moulding on the summit of a pillar from which the arch springs4 ,console4 7,french47 ,brackets in furniture4 ,perfume ,chests4 ,boxes with perforated lids in which is kept pot-pourri of rose leaves1 or a mixture of powdered orris-root and spice4 ,churns4 ,a carved churn is a fanciful ornament1 used to contain papers1 etc4 ,the handle is fixed to the cover and serves to lift it4 ,handles for ,bowls1 ,cups1 or ,boxes4 ,these are sawn from board from one half to an inch in thickness1 and then fastened to the bowl or box1 generally with screws4 ,when gracefully or quaintly shaped they convert any ordinary bowl or tankard1 with very little trouble1 to an attractive ornament4 ,they are almost peculiar to ,sweden and ,norway1 where they may be seen in museums in very great variety4 ,bark ,frames4 ,a curious and striking ornament may be made in this manner4 ,take a piece of cork1 oak1 or other bark1 which may be a foot in length by six inches4 ,make in it an oval or circle1 in which carve any subject4 ,the writer once had an image of the ,virgin thus carved1 which was much admired4 ,dark brown bark is much improved by having gilding roughly spread on its projecting points4 ,if the ground of the carving be gilt and the bark left in its natural condition the effect will also be good4 ,three-legged1 or ,milking ,stools4 ,these are commonly carved on the seat4 ,ornaments may be carved and better applied as in ,fig4 #hc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,,three-,,legged ,,stool4 ,,index4 ,acerra1 #aea dicula1 #aea ,album-covers1 #abi1 #aca ,alms boxes1 #adh ,alpenstocks1 carved1 #acf ,ammonia as a wood stain1 #aab ,animal forms1 carving1 #ei ,antefix1 #aea ,appliqu work1 #ge1 #hd2 it may be carried too far1 #gf ,art1 high1 and carving1 #fd1 #gf4 ,see also ,conventional1 the1 ,rule1 etc4 ,artist1 the1 and the workman in wood-carving1 #hb ,balusters1 carving1 #adb ,barge-board1 #aea ,bark frames1 #aed ,bars1 and other ornaments1 #aja ,base moulding1 #adg ,basket-work1 imitation of1 #abh ,beam1 hammer1 #aed ,beams1 carving1 #ada ,bedsteads1 carved1 #adc ,bellows1 carving1 #acg1 #ach ,bench1 the working1 #c2 screws1 #e ,benches1 carving1 #acb ,bend1 getting the1 #ee ,bent tools1 #e1 #ie ,bichromate of ,potash as a dye1 #aac ,black dyes1 #aad ,blocking-out1 #ej1 #ef ,bold1 large work1 #dh1 #di ,bone1 ivory1 etc41 carving1 #ad ,book-box1 #acf ,book-covers1 carved1 #hh1 #ia1 #abi ,books and authorities1 quoted and referred to3 ,caddy1 ,mr41 #c2 ,fairholt's ,dictionary1 #aea2 ,gibson's ,wood ,carver1 #h2 ,holtzapffel1 ,j4 ,j41 #b1 #hc2 ,leland's ,drawing and ,designing1 #gb1 #abb2 ,mitchell's ,lessons in ,carpentry1 #abf2 ,rowe1 ,eleanor1 #db1 #aab2 ,seaton1 ,general1 #aa1 #hh1 #if1 #aad4 ,see also under names1 as ,gibbons1 ,grinling4 ,borders1 carved1 #gh1 #adf ,bosses1 or centres1 #ge1 #aja1 #ada ,bosting1 #ch1 #ej1 #ef ,bowl1 to carve a1 #ie1 #adb1 #aed ,boxes1 carving1 #abe1 #acf1 #add1 #adh2 hanging1 #acb1 #acc2 pen and pencil1 #acd4 ,see also ,cabinets1 ,caskets1 ,perfume1 etc4 ,brackets1 #abe1 #add1 #ade2 coin 7or corner71 #aej ,bread platters1 #acg1 #adj1 #aeb ,buffets1 #adh ,building-up1 or appliqu work1 #ge ,butternut as a dye1 #aaa ,cabinet-making1 #abd ,cabinets1 #acc1 #aeb2 ,figurini for1 #ei1 #fb2 corner1 #aej ,caddy1 ,mr41 his suggestions1 #c ,canoes1 carving1 #abi ,carpentry1 ,c4 ,f4 ,mitchell's ,lessons in1 #abf ,carving1 early1 #cc1 #ed1 #fh1 #gj1 #aja1 #acj1 #acd1 #ada2 objects for1 #aba4 ,see also ,cabinets1 ,horns1 ,italian work1 etc4 ,carvings1 decayed1 restoration of1 #ajf ,carvings1 imitation of1 #ajh ,case for papers or music1 #aag ,caskets1 #acf2 for cigars1 #abg4 ,see also ,boxes1 etc4 ,casks1 carving1 #ig1 #abh ,casts4 ,see ,moulds1 etc4 ,cavo-cutting1 #bh ,cavo ,relievo cutting1 #bh1 #cb ,cellini1 ,benvenuto1 #aa ,celtic patterns1 #bf ,cement1 for glass and china1 #aji2 for wood1 #ig1 #ajf1 #adf4 ,see also ,fillers1 ,glue1 etc4 ,centres1 or bosses1 #ge1 #hi ,chairs for carving1 #abd ,chimney-pieces1 decoration of1 #adj4 ,see also ,lunettes1 etc4 ,chipping1 or wasting1 #db ,chisels1 #c1 #aj ,churns1 ornamental1 #aed ,ciborium1 ,synedoche1 #aea ,clamps1 or ,cramps4 ,see ,holdfasts4 ,clock-cases1 #adb ,coal boxes1 etc41 #adj ,cocoa-nut goblet1 #ajj ,cocoa-nut shell cement1 #ig2 powder1 etc41 #ajh ,cocoa-nuts1 carving1 #ie ,coin 7or corner7 brackets1 #aej ,coins as ornaments1 #adf ,collection boxes1 #add ,colouring and staining wood1 #aaj ,common-place1 the1 v4 the grotesque1 #adj ,console1 or bracket1 #abe1 #aed ,conventional1 the1 preferable to the real1 #ed1 #eg ,corner-cabinets1 #aej2 firmers1 #d ,cramps1 or ,clamps4 ,see ,holdfasts4 ,crossing the pattern1 #ajc ,cups1 handles for1 #aed ,curve carving1 #bf ,curved surfaces1 carving1 #ic ,custodia1 ,spanish1 #aeb ,cyma1 #aeb ,decoration1 early1 #acj2 of rooms1 #acj ,see also ,rooms1 etc4 ,deep carving4 ,see ,intaglio4 ,design1 ,manual of4 ,see ,leland4 ,diaper cutting1 #ah1 #fi1 #gj1 #gf2 patterns1 #gj1 #abi1 #adg ,diptych1 #aej ,dogs1 or snibs1 #h ,door-knobs1 #ajd2 pieces1 #aci ,doors1 panels of1 #abi ,drawers1 handles for1 #ade ,drawing1 #fa1 #gb ,drill1 use of the1 #dg ,dripstone1 #aed ,dyes for wood1 #aaj ,ebony and other black dyes1 #aad ,echinus1 #aed ,egyptian intaglio1 #ij ,egyptian ,mummies 7boxes71 #acf ,encoignures1 #aej ,engravings1 imitation of1 #ia ,eye-tools1 #e ,faade pieces1 #aci ,figures1 carving simple1 #ei ,figurini1 #fb1 #hc ,files for finishing1 #fd ,fillers1 or cements for wood1 #ajf1 #aai ,finger painting1 ,venetian1 #aac ,finial1 #aej ,finishing off1 #ej1 #fd ,firmer1 the1 #c ,flasks1 carving1 #acd ,flat-cutting1 #bf1 #ce1 #dh ,flat patterns1 #bh1 #cj1 #ca ,flemish carvers1 the old1 #cc ,florence1 ornament from1 #eh ,fluter1 the1 #bb1 #cd ,foot-stools1 #acb ,frames1 bark1 #aed2 or borders1 #gh2 picture1 etc41 #abh1 #adh1 #adi1 #aea ,free-hand carving1 #di ,fret bow saw1 the1 #i4 ,see also under ,saw4 ,fret-cutting1 #hd ,furniture1 carving for1 #gd2 old and ,german1 #abd1 #abe4 ,see also under ,cabinets1 ,chairs1 ,foot-stools1 etc4 ,gable ornaments1 #aea ,garden-work1 #adc ,gardens1 window1 #abi ,gates1 carving1 #adc ,gelatine as a preservative1 #ajg ,gelatine glue1 #aji ,german furniture1 #abd ,gibbons1 ,grinling1 his work1 #ge ,gibson1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s41 his ,wood-,carver quoted1 #h ,gilding1 #ada1 #aee4 ,see also under ,finishing4 ,glass1 and glass-paper1 for finishing1 #fd1 #ff ,glue1 making and use of1 #aje1 #ajh2 acidulated and liquid1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aji ,gothic wood-carving1 #dj ,gouge lines1 #bj2 work1 #bb ,gouges1 #c1 #d1 #aj ,grain1 cutting with the1 #dd ,greek1 ancient1 work1 #dg ,grindstones1 etc41 #ab ,grooving1 #b1 #bb ,grotesque1 the1 v4 the commonplace1 #adj ,ground punches1 #af1 #ag ,grounds1 cutting1 #cd ,hammer beam1 #aed ,handles of tools1 #aa2 for drawers1 #ade2 ,swedish1 #aed ,hand screws1 #e1 #g ,hanging boxes1 #fc1 #acb ,heads and legs1 in ornament1 #aea ,holdfasts1 or clamps1 #e1 #dd1 #id ,hollow gouge1 the1 #e ,holtzapffel1 ,mr4 ,john ,j41 on the ,use of the ,saw in wood-carving1 #hc ,hood moulding1 #aed ,hooker1 ,sir ,joseph1 #ajg ,horn1 how to colour1 #id2 how to soften1 #ie ,horns1 carving1 #ic1 #abh ,house1 outside ornament of the1 #aci ,hulme1 works of1 #aja ,imitation of old work1 etc41 #fd ,implements4 ,see ,tools1 etc4 ,impost1 #aed ,incised work1 #hf ,incitega1 #aej ,indenting1 or stamping1 #b1 #ae ,ink as a dye1 #aad ,intaglio1 or sunk carving1 #hf2 ,rilevato cutting1 #bh ,irish 7,runic7 patterns1 #bf2 tankard1 old1 #ii ,italian1 early1 work1 #fb1 #hf1 #adc ,ivory and horn1 dyes1 etc41 for1 #ie ,ivorying1 #aac ,key boxes1 #acc ,knobs and bosses1 #aja ,knuckle-bends1 #aj ,kraft1 ,adam1 his work1 #ee ,layard1 ,sir ,a4 ,h41 his antiquities from ,nineveh1 #ajg ,leather work and carving1 #ij1 #ia ,leaves1 cutting1 #ci1 #ea1 #ec1 #fd ,lecterns1 #adg1 #adh ,left hand1 carving with the1 #ci1 #df ,leland1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,g41 his ,drawing and ,designing1 #gb1 #abb2 design in high relief by1 #ha ,lunettes and spaces1 filling1 #aci ,macaroni tool1 the1 #aj1 #db ,mander's stains for wood1 #aaa ,metal work1 repouss1 #ae1 #ag ,mirrors1 hand1 #aec ,mitchell1 ,c4 ,f41 his ,lessons in ,carpentry1 #abf ,modelling1 #ci1 #di1 #ee1 #fa1 #gi2 or rounding1 #ci ,modillons1 #aec ,monopodium1 or centre-table1 #aej ,mottoes1 #adj ,moulding1 hood1 #aed ,mouldings and borders1 #adg1 #aej ,moulds1 carving for1 #ij1 #ib2 making1 #aae ,mummies 7boxes71 #acf ,mural decoration1 #adj ,nails1 headed1 as ornaments1 #adf ,nineveh antiquities1 the1 #ajg ,norway1 ornament in1 #aed2 spot cutting there1 #aah ,notches in leaves1 cutting1 #ea ,oak1 treatment of1 #aaa1 #aab2 leaves1 #dc1 #ed ,objects for wood-carvers1 #aba ,oiling in finishing1 #ff1 #aaj ,oilstones1 etc41 #ab ,orbs1 carving1 #aej ,ornament1 pre-historic1 #aah ,ornamentation1 art of1 #aba4 ,see also ,decoration4 ,ornaments1 applied1 #adf ,outlines1 #aed ,outlining1 #cd ,pacific islands1 spot cutting there1 #aah ,paint1 etc41 in finishing1 #fh1 #ia1 #aac ,painting1 finger1 of the old ,venetians1 #aac ,panels for carving1 #abc1 #abi1 #acb ,paper squeezes1 #aae ,papier-mach work1 etc41 and carving1 #ij1 #ib1 #aaf ,parting tool1 the1 #aj1 #ac4 ,see also ,v tool4 ,patterns for carvers1 #gd1 #abb ,pattern-wheel1 or tracer1 the1 #ae ,pegs and hooks1 #ada ,pen and pencil boxes1 #acd ,perfume chests1 #aed ,pew-ends1 #adh ,pick1 the1 #c ,pilasters1 #adg ,pilgrim bottles1 #acd1 #ace ,plaster casts1 #aaf ,platters1 carved1 #acg1 #adj ,polished ornaments1 #ajb ,polishing wood-carvings1 #ff1 #aaa4 ,see also ,finishing4 ,poppy-heads1 #aej1 #aea ,porte-papier1 #adh ,portfolio-covers1 #abi ,powder-flasks1 #acd ,practice1 #dj1 #dh ,racks1 carved1 #ada ,rasps for finishing1 #ff ,real1 the1 not to be sought too strictly1 #ed ,relics1 ancient1 preservation of1 #ajg ,relief1 high1 design by ,c4 ,g4 ,leland1 #ha2 higher1 #ec2 low1 #hi2 progress towards1 #ci ,reliquaries 7boxes71 #acf ,repairing wood-carvings1 #aje ,repouss work1 #ae1 #ag ,ribbon carving1 #cd1 #dh1 #eg4 ,see also ,flat carving4 ,ring boxes1 #adh1 #aeb ,roman ,sarcophagus 7box71 #acf ,roman work1 early1 #dg ,rooms1 decoration of1 #acj1 #aci4 ,see also ,vestibule1 etc4 ,round1 carving in the1 or statuary1 #gi ,rounding4 ,see ,modelling4 ,router1 the1 #i ,rowe1 ,eleanor1 quoted1 #db1 #aab ,rule1 high art1 and wood-carving1 #fe1 #gf ,runic ornaments1 #bf1 #acg ,sabots1 or wooden shoes1 for carving1 #acc ,salamander1 a1 #ach ,salt boxes1 #add ,saw table1 the1 #f1 #he ,saws1 and their use1 #i1 #hc ,sconces1 #aea ,scotland1 early ornamentation in1 #aah ,scratch1 the1 #h ,screens1 trellis1 #aea ,screws1 carvers'1 #e1 #g ,scroll gouge1 the1 #e ,seaton1 ,general1 quoted1 #aa1 #hh1 #if1 #aad ,settee1 or settle1 the1 #acb ,shaded patterns and modelling1 #ci ,sharpening tools1 #aa1 #ab ,shelf-boards1 #add ,shelves and brackets1 #add ,shields1 in ornament1 #aej ,shiners1 or bosses1 #ajb ,shrines or ,reliquaries 7boxes71 #acf ,sideboards1 #adh ,side-cut1 the4 ,see ,sweep-cut4 ,skew-chisels1 #d ,slip-holder1 #ab ,slips1 for sharpening tools1 #ab ,snibs1 or dogs1 #h ,soda as a dye for wood1 #aaa ,sofa-backs1 false1 #aci ,shnee ,frres1 their varnish1 #aac ,spaces1 filling1 #aci1 #aej1 #aea ,spade chisel1 the1 #aj ,spade gouge1 the1 #aj ,splintering of wood1 #cf1 #dd1 #ea1 #aje ,see also ,wood4 ,spoons1 carved1 #acg ,spot-cutting1 #aah ,spray1 use of the1 in preserving decayed objects1 #ajg ,squeezes1 and taking a squeeze1 #ajg1 #aae ,staining wood1 #aaj ,staircase balusters1 carving1 #adb ,stamping1 or indenting1 #b1 #ae4 ,see also ,diaper4 ,statuary4 ,see ,round1 carving in the4 ,staves1 or alpenstocks1 carved1 #acf ,stephens' stains for wood1 #aaa ,stools1 #aee4 ,see also ,foot-stool4 ,strap1 the1 #ac ,sunk carving4 ,see ,intaglio4 ,sweden1 ornament in1 #aed2 spot cutting there1 #aah ,sweep-cut1 the1 #cg1 #di1 #ec1 #ee ,swiss dye for wood1 #aab ,swiss work1 #ei1 #if ,tables1 #aej ,tankards1 carving1 #ih1 #acd ,tannhuser bracket1 #ade ,tea as a dye1 #aaa ,tiles1 #abi ,tool1 the1 art of turning it about1 #ce1 #cg1 #df ,tools1 #a1 #c1 #hb1 #aej2 sharpening1 #aa1 #ab ,tracer1 the1 #ae1 #af ,trays1 carving1 #adc2 for cigar ashes1 #abg ,trellis-screens1 #aea ,triptych1 #aej ,tympanum1 #aea ,umber stain for wood1 #aab ,umbrella-handles1 #acd ,under-cutting1 #eg ,v or parting tool1 the1 #aa1 #ac1 #bh1 #ce1 #cg4 ,see also ,parting tool4 ,varnish and carving1 #ia1 #aac4 ,see also ,polishing1 etc4 ,veiners1 #e ,venetian finger painting1 #aac ,venice1 wood-carving at1 #ff ,verge or barge-board1 #aea ,vestibule1 ornamenting a1 #adb ,violin and guitar cases1 #ade ,wainscots1 etc41 carving for1 #gd ,walnut wood1 treatment of1 #aaj ,waste-paper boxes1 carving1 #ih1 #adf ,wasting1 or chipping1 #db ,wax1 for moulds1 #ajg1 #aae1 #aaf2 as a polish for wood1 #aaa ,window gardens1 #abi ,wood1 for carving1 #ad1 #cf1 #hh1 #ajf 7see also ,grain1 ,oak1 ,splintering1 ,walnut1 etc472 colouring and staining1 #aaj2 decayed1 treatment of1 #ajf2 imitation of1 #ajf1 #ajh2 oiling1 #ff ,workman1 the1 and the artist in wood-carving1 #hb ,wreaths1 in ornament1 #aea1 #aeb ,zigzag ornament1 the ,swiss1 #if ,transcriber's note ,text in italics was surrounded with underscores1 bold with signs1 and small capitals were changed to all capitals4 ,a symbol looking like a knotted point on the side was represented with symbol on page #eg4 ,in the original ,fig4 #bb did not exist4 ,errors in punctuation and misplaced spaces were corrected silently4 ,also the following corrections were made1 on page #aj lways changed to always 7do not always cut out to the edges7 #ce latter changed to later 7sooner or later47 #db ,the second ,fig4 #ch4 changed to ,panel in ,low-relief 7,see list of ,plates47 #di boldy changed to boldly 7,to carve boldly we must use7 #ge #ab changed to #eb 7or project beyond it1 illustrated by ,fig4 #eb47 #ij ,egpytian changed to ,egyptian 7,egyptian ,cutting47 #aac ,frres changed to ,frres 7that of ,shnee ,frres7 #adc ,vertemnus changed to ,vertumnus 7,flora and ,pomona and ,vertumnus in simple archaic forms74 ,otherwise the original was preserved1 including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation4