,,philosophy ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem ,illustration3 colophon ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,boston ,,chicago ,,dallas ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,limited ,,london ,,bombay ,,calcutta ,,melbourne ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,of ,,canada1 ,,ltd4 ,,toronto ,,philosophy ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem ,,by ,,will ,,durant1 ,,ph4,d4 ,,instructor ,,in ,,philosophy1 ,,extension ,,teaching ,,columbia ,,university 1 4 --,,unknown ,,dramatic ,,poet4 ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #aiag ,all rights reserved ,,copyright1 #aiag1 ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,september1 #aiag4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,to ,,alden ,,freeman ,,contents ,,page ,,introduction #a ,,part ,i ,,historical ,,approach ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,present ,,significance ,,of ,,the ,,socratic ,,ethic ,i4 ,history as rebarbarization #e ,,ii4 ,philosophy as disintegrator #f ,,iii4 ,individualism in ,athens #g ,,iv4 ,the ,sophists #i ,v4 ,intelligence as virtue #ab ,,vi4 ,the meaning of virtue #ae ,,vii4 8,instinct0 and 8reason0 #bc ,,viii4 ,the secularization of morals #bg ,,ix4 8,happiness0 and 8virtue0 #ca ,x4 ,the ,socratic challenge #cc ,,chapter ,,ii ,,plato3 ,,philosophy ,,as ,,politics ,i4 ,the man and the artist #cf ,,ii4 ,how to solve the social problem #dj ,,iii4 ,on making philosopher-kings #dd ,,iv4 ,dishonest democracy #eb ,v4 ,culture and slavery #ee ,,vi4 ,plasticity and order #fj ,,vii4 ,the meaning of justice #fb ,,viii4 ,the future of ,plato #fd ,,chapter ,,iii ,,francis ,,bacon ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,possibilities ,,of ,,science ,i4 ,from ,plato to ,bacon #fg ,,ii4 ,character #fi ,,iii4 ,the expurgation of the intellect #gj ,,iv4 ,knowledge is power #gd ,v4 ,the socialization of science #gf ,,vi4 ,science and ,utopia #gi ,,vii4 ,scholasticism in science #ha ,,viii4 ,the ,asiatics of ,europe #he ,,chapter ,,iv ,,spinoza ,,on ,,the ,,social ,,problem ,i4 ,hobbes #ij ,,ii4 ,the spirit of ,spinoza #ia ,,iii4 ,political ethics #ic ,,iv4 ,is man a political animal8 #ie ,v4 ,what the social problem is #ih ,,vi4 ,free speech #aja ,,vii4 ,virtue as power #aje ,,viii4 ,freedom and order #ajh ,,ix4 ,democracy and intelligence #aab ,x4 ,the legacy of ,spinoza #aae ,,chapter ,v ,,nietzsche ,i4 ,from ,spinoza to ,nietzsche #aag ,,ii4 ,biographical #abj ,,iii4 ,exposition #abf #a4 ,morality as impotence #abf #b4 ,democracy #abh #c4 ,feminism #aca #d4 ,socialism and anarchism #acc #e4 ,degeneration #ach #f4 ,nihilism #ada #g4 ,the will to power #adc #h4 ,the superman #aej #i4 ,how to make supermen #aee #aj4 ,on the necessity of exploitation #aei #aa4 ,aristocracy #afb #ab4 ,signs of ascent #afe ,,iv4 ,criticism #agb ,v4 ,nietzsche replies #agg ,,vi4 ,conclusion #agh ,,part ,,ii ,,suggestions ,,chapter ,i ,,solutions ,,and ,,dissolutions ,i4 ,the problem #ahe ,,ii4 8,solutions0 #aij #a4 ,feminism #aij #b4 ,socialism #aid #c4 ,eugenics #aih #d4 ,anarchism #bjj #e4 ,individualism #bjb #f4 ,individualism again #bjb ,,iii4 ,dissolutions #bje ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,reconstructive ,,function ,,of ,,philosophy ,i4 ,epistemologs #bad ,,ii4 ,philosophy as control #bah ,,iii4 ,philosophy as mediator between science and statesmanship #bbb ,,chapter ,,iii ,,organized ,,intelligence ,i4 ,the need #bbg ,,ii4 ,the organization of intelligence #bcj ,,iii4 ,information as panacea #bcd ,,iv4 ,sex1 art1 and play in social reconstruction #bdj ,v4 ,education #bdf ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,reader ,,speaks ,i4 ,the democratization of aristocracy #bea ,,ii4 ,the professor as ,buridan's ass #bee ,,iii4 ,is information wanted8 #beg ,,iv4 ,finding ,mcenas #bfa ,v4 ,the chance of philosophy #bfd ,,conclusion #bfh ,,part ,i ,,historical ,,approach ,,philosophy ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem ,,introduction ,the purpose of this essay is to show3 first1 that the social problem has been the basic concern of many of the greater philosophers2 second1 that an approach to the social problem through philosophy is the first condition of even a moderately successful treatment of this problem2 and third1 that an approach to philosophy through the social problem is indispensable to the revitalization of philosophy4 ,by 8philosophy0 we shall understand a study of experience as a whole1 or of a portion of experience in relation to the whole4 ,by the 8social problem0 we shall understand1 simply and very broadly1 the problem of reducing human misery by modifying social institutions4 ,it is a problem that1 ever reshaping itself1 eludes sharper definition2 for misery is related to desire1 and desire is personal and in perpetual flux3 each of us sees the problem unsteadily in terms of his own changing aspirations4 ,it is an uncomfortably complicated problem1 of course2 and we must bear in mind that the limit of our intention here is to consider philosophy as an approach to the problem1 and the problem itself as an approach to philosophy4 ,we are proposing no solutions4 ,let us1 as a wholesome measure of orientation1 touch some of the mountain-peaks in philosophical history1 with an eye for the social interest that lurks in every metaphysical maze4 8,aristotle10 says ,professor ,woodbridge1 8set treatise-writers the fashion of beginning each treatise by reviewing previous opinions on their subject1 and proving them all wrong40#a ,the purpose of the next five chapters will be rather the opposite3 we shall see if some supposedly dead philosophies do not admit of considerable resuscitation4 ,instead of trying to show that ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,bacon1 ,spinoza1 and ,nietzsche were quite mistaken in their views on the social problem1 we shall try to see what there is in these views that can help us to understand our own situation to-day4 ,we shall not make a collection of systems of social philosophy2 we shall not lose ourselves in the past in a scholarly effort to relate each philosophy to its social and political environment2 we shall try to relate these philosophies rather to our own environment1 to look at our own problems successively through the eyes of these philosophers4 ,other interpretations of these men we shall not so much contradict as seek to supplement4 ,each of our historical chapters1 then1 will be not so much a review as a preface and a progression4 ,the aim will be neither history nor criticism1 but a kind of construction by proxy4 ,it is a method that has its defects3 it will1 for example1 sacrifice thoroughness of scholarship to present applicability1 and will necessitate some repetitious gathering of the threads when we come later to our more personal purpose4 ,but as part requital for this1 we shall save ourselves from considering the past except as it is really present1 except as it is alive and nourishingly significant to-day4 ,and from each study we shall perhaps make some advance towards our final endeavor1--the mutual elucidation of the social problem and philosophy4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,present ,,significance ,,of ,,the ,,socratic ,,ethic ,i ,history as ,rebarbarization ,history is a process of rebarbarization4 ,a people made vigorous by arduous physical conditions of life1 and driven by the increasing exigencies of survival1 leaves its native habitat1 moves down upon a less vigorous people1 conquers1 displaces1 or absorbs it4 ,habits of resolution and activity developed in a less merciful environment now rapidly produce an economic surplus2 and part of the resources so accumulated serve as capital in a campaign of imperialist conquest4 ,the growing surplus generates a leisure class1 scornful of physical activity and adept in the arts of luxury4 ,leisure begets speculation2 speculation dissolves dogma and corrodes custom1 develops sensitivity of perception and destroys decision of action4 ,thought1 adventuring in a labyrinth of analysis1 discovers behind society the individual2 divested of its normal social function it turns inward and discovers the self4 ,the sense of common interest1 of commonwealth1 wanes2 there are no citizens now1 there are only individuals4 ,from afar another people1 struggling against the forces of an obdurate environment1 sees here the cleared forests1 the liberating roads1 the harvest of plenty1 the luxury of leisure4 ,it dreams1 aspires1 dares1 unites1 invades4 ,the rest is as before4 ,rebarbarization is rejuvenation4 ,the great problem of any civilization is how to rejuvenate itself without rebarbarization4 ,,ii ,philosophy as ,disintegrator ,the rise of philosophy1 then1 often heralds the decay of a civilization4 ,speculation begins with nature and begets naturalism2 it passes to man--first as a psychological mystery and then as a member of society--and begets individualism4 ,philosophers do not always desire these results2 but they achieve them4 ,they feel themselves the unwilling enemies of the state3 they think of men in terms of personality while the state thinks of men in terms of social mechanism4 ,some philosophers would gladly hold their peace1 but there is that in them which will out2 and when philosophers speak1 gods and dynasties fall4 ,most states have had their roots in heaven1 and have paid the penalty for it3 the twilight of the gods is the afternoon of states4 ,every civilization comes at last to the point where the individual1 made by speculation conscious of himself as an end per se1 demands of the state1 as the price of its continuance1 that it shall henceforth enhance rather than exploit his capacities4 ,philosophers sympathize with this demand1 the state almost always rejects it3 therefore civilizations come and civilizations go4 ,the history of philosophy is essentially an account of the efforts great men have made to avert social disintegration by building up natural moral sanctions to take the place of the supernatural sanctions which they themselves have destroyed4 ,to find--without resorting to celestial machinery--some way of winning for their people social coherence and permanence without sacrificing plasticity and individual uniqueness to regimentation1--that has been the task of philosophers1 that is the task of philosophers4 ,we should be thankful that it is4 ,who knows but that within our own time may come at last the forging of an effective natural ethic8--an achievement which might be the most momentous event in the history of our world4 ,,iii ,individualism in ,athens ,the great ages in the history of ,european thought have been for the most part periods of individualistic effervescence3 the age of ,socrates1 the age of ,csar and ,augustus1 the ,renaissance1 the ,enlightenment2--and shall we add the age which is now coming to a close8 ,these ages have usually been preceded by periods of imperialist expansion3 imperialism requires a tightening of the bonds whereby individual allegiance to the state is made secure2 and this tightening1 given a satiety of imperialism1 involves an individualistic reaction4 ,and again1 the dissolution of the political or economic frontier by conquest or commerce breaks down cultural barriers between peoples1 develops a sense of the relativity of customs1 and issues in the opposition of individual 8reason0 to social tradition4 ,a political treatise attributed to the fourth-century ,b4,c4 reflects the attitude that had developed in ,athens in the later fifth century4 8,if all men were to gather in a heap the customs which they hold to be good and noble1 and if they were next to select from it the customs which they hold to be base and vile1 nothing would be left over40#b ,once such a view has found capable defenders1 the custom-basis of social organization begins to give way1 and institutions venerable with age are ruthlessly subpnaed to appear before the bar of reason4 ,men begin to contrast 8,nature0 with custom1 somewhat to the disadvantage of the latter4 ,even the most basic of ,greek institutions is questioned3 8,the ,deity10 says a fourth-century ,athenian ,rousseau1 8made all men free2 ,nature has enslaved no man40#c ,botsford speaks of 8the powerful influence of fourth-century socialism on the intellectual class40#d ,euripides and ,aristophanes are full of talk about a movement for the emancipation of women4#e ,law and government are examined3 ,anarcharsis' comparison of the law to a spider's web1 which catches small flies and lets the big ones escape1 now finds sympathetic comprehension2 and men arise1 like ,callicles and ,thrasymachus1 who frankly consider government as a convenient instrument of mass-exploitation4 ,,iv ,the ,sophists ,the cultural representatives of this individualistic development were the ,sophists4 ,these men were university professors without a university and without the professorial title4 ,they appeared in response to a demand for higher instruction on the part of the young men of the leisure class2 and within a generation they became the most powerful intellectual force in ,greece4 ,there had been philosophers1 questioners1 before them2 but these early philosophers had questioned nature rather than man or the state4 ,the ,sophists were the first group of men in ,greece to overcome the natural tendency to acquiesce in the given order of things4 ,they were proud men1--humility is a vice that never found root in ,greece1--and they had a buoyant confidence in the newly discovered power of human intelligence4 ,they assumed1 in harmony with the spirit of all ,greek achievement1 that in the development and extension of knowledge lay the road to a sane and significant life1 individual and communal2 and in the quest for knowledge they were resolved to scrutinize unawed all institutions1 prejudices1 customs1 morals4 ,protagoras professed to respect conventions1#f and pronounced conventions and institutions the source of man's superiority to the beast2 but his famous principle1 that 8man is the measure of all things10 was a quiet hint that morals are a matter of taste1 that we call a man 8good0 when his conduct is advantageous to us1 and 8bad0 when his conduct threatens to make for our own loss4 ,to the ,sophists virtue consisted1 not in obedience to unjudged rules and customs1 but in the efficient performance of whatever one set out to do4 ,they would have condemned the bungler and let the 8sinner0 go4 ,that they were flippant sceptics1 putting no distinction of worth between any belief and its opposite1 and willing to prove anything for a price1 is an old accusation which later students of ,greek philosophy are almost unanimous in rejecting4#g ,the great discovery of the ,sophists was the individual2 it was an achievement for which ,plato and his oligarchical friends could not forgive them1 and because of which they incurred the contumely which it is now so hard to dissociate from their name4 ,the purpose of laws1 said the ,sophists1 was to widen the possibilities of individual development2 if laws did not do that1 they had better be forgotten4 ,there was a higher law than the laws of men1--a natural law1 engraved in every heart1 and judge of every other law4 ,the conscience of the individual was above the dictates of any state4 ,all radicalisms lay compact in that pronouncement4 ,plato1 prolific of innovations though he was1 yet shrank from such a leap into the new4 ,but the ,sophists pressed their point1 men listened to them1 and the ,greek world changed4 ,when ,socrates appeared1 he found that world all out of joint1 a war of all against all1 a stridency of uncordinated personalities rushing into chaos4 ,and when he was asked1 ,what should men do to be saved1 he answered1 simply1 ,let us think4 ,v ,intelligence as ,virtue ,intelligence as virtue3 it was not a new doctrine2 it was merely a new emphasis placed on an already important element in the ,greek--or rather the ,athenian--view of life4 ,but it was a needed emphasis4 ,the ,sophists 7not ,socrates1 pace ,cicero7 had brought philosophy down from heaven to earth1 but they had left it grovelling at the feet of business efficiency and success1 a sort of ancilla pecuni1 a broker knowing where one's soul could be invested at ten per cent4 ,socrates agreed with the ,sophists in condemning any but a very temporary devotion to metaphysical abstractions1--the one and the many1 motion and rest1 the indivisibility of space1 the puzzles of predication1 and so forth2 he joined them in ridiculing the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake1 and in demanding that all thinking should be focussed finally on the real concerns of life2 but his spirit was as different from theirs as the spirit of ,spinoza was different from that of a medival money-lender4 ,with the ,sophists philosophy was a profession2 they were 8lovers of wisdom0--for a consideration4 ,with ,socrates philosophy was a quest of the permanently good1 of the lastingly satisfying attitude to life4 ,to find out just what are justice1 temperance1 courage1 piety1--8that is an inquiry which ,i shall never be weary of pursuing so far as in me lies40 ,it was not an easy quest2 and the results were not startlingly definite3 8,i wander to and fro when ,i attempt these problems1 and do not remain consistent with myself40 ,his interlocutors went from him apparently empty2 but he had left in them seed which developed in the after-calm of thought4 ,he could clarify men's notions1 he could reveal to them their assumptions and prejudices2 but he could not and would not manufacture opinions for them4 ,he left no written philosophy because he had only the most general advice to give1 and knew that no other advice is ever taken4 ,he trusted his friends to pass on the good word4 ,now what was the good word8 ,it was1 first of all1 the identity of virtue and wisdom1 morals and intelligence2 but more than that1 it was the basic identity1 in the light of intelligence1 of communal and individual interests4 ,here at the ,sophist's feet lay the dbris of the old morality4 ,what was to replace it8 ,the young ,athenians of a generation denuded of supernatural belief would not listen to counsels of 8virtue10 of self-sacrifice to the community4 ,what was to be done8 ,should social and political pressure be brought to bear upon the ,sophists to compel them to modify the individualistic tenor of their teachings8 ,analysis destroys morals4 ,what is the moral--destroy analysis8 ,the moral1 answered ,socrates1 is to get better morals1 to find an ethic immune to the attack of the most ruthless sceptic4 ,the ,sophists were right1 said ,socrates2 morality means more than social obedience4 ,but the ,sophists were wrong in opposing the good of the individual to that of the community2 ,socrates proposed to prove that if a man were intelligent1 he would see that those same qualities which make a man a good citizen--justice1 wisdom1 temperance1 courage--are also the best means to individual advantage and development4 ,all these 8virtues0 are simply the supreme and only virtue--wisdom--differentiated by the context of circumstance4 ,no action is virtuous unless it is an intelligent adaptation of means to a criticised end4 8,sin0 is failure to use energy to the best account2 it is an unintelligent waste of strength4 ,a man does not knowingly pursue anything but the ,good2 let him but see his advantage1 and he will be attracted towards it irresistibly2 let him pursue it1 and he will be happy1 and the state safe4 ,the trouble is that men lack perspective1 and cannot see their true ,good2 they need not 8virtue0 but intelligence1 not sermons but training in perspective4 ,the man who has 1 who rules within1 who is strong enough to stop and think1 the man who has achieved 1--the self-knowledge that brings self-command1--such a man will not be deceived by the tragedy of distance1 by the apparent smallness of the future good alongside of the more easily appreciable good that lies invitingly at hand4 ,hence the moral importance of dialectic1 of cross-examination1 of concept and definition3 we must learn 8how to make our ideas clear02 we must ask ourselves just what it is that we want1 just how real this seeming good is4 ,dialectic is the handmaiden of virtue2 and all clarification is morality4 ,,vi ,the ,meaning of ,virtue ,this is frank intellectualism1 of course2 and the best-refuted doctrine in philosophy4 ,it is amusing to observe the ease with which critics and historians despatch the ,socratic ethic4 ,it is 8an extravagant paradox10 says ,sidgwick1#h 8incompatible with moral freedom40 8,nothing is easier10 says ,gomperz1#i 8than to detect the one-sidedness of this point of view40 8,this doctrine10 says ,grote1#aj 8omits to notice1 what is not less essential1 the proper conditions of the emotions1 desires1 etc40 8,it tended to make all conduct a matter of the intellect and not of the character1 and so in a sense to destroy moral responsibility10 says ,hobhouse4#aa 8,himself blessed with a will so powerful that it moved almost without friction10 says ,henry ,jackson1#ab 8,socrates fell into the error of ignoring its operations1 and was thus led to regard knowledge as the sole condition of well-doing40 8,socrates was a misunderstanding10 says ,nietzsche2#ac 8reason at any price1 life made clear1 cold1 cautious1 conscious1 without instincts1 opposed to the instincts1 was in itself only a disease1 444 and by no means a return to #8virtue1' to #8health1' and to happiness40 ,and the worn-out dictum about seeing the better and approving it1 yet following the worse1 is quoted as the deliverance of a profound psychologist1 whose verdict should be accepted as a final solution of the problem4 ,before refuting a doctrine it is useful to try to understand it4 ,what could ,socrates have meant by saying that all real virtue is intelligence8 ,what is virtue8 ,a civilization may be characterized in terms of its conception of virtue4 ,there is hardly anything more distinctive of the ,greek attitude1 as compared with our own1 than the ,greek notion of virtue as intelligence4 ,consider the present connotations of the word virtue3 men shrink at having the term applied to them2 and 8nothing makes one so vain10 says ,oscar ,wilde1 8as being told that one is a sinner40 ,during the ,middle ,ages the official conception of virtue was couched in terms of womanly excellence2 and the sternly masculine ,god of the ,hebrews suffered considerably from the inroads of ,mariolatry4 ,protestantism was in part a rebellion of the ethically subjugated male2 in ,luther the man emerges riotously from the monk4 ,but as people cling to the ethical implications of a creed long after the creed itself has been abandoned1 so our modern notion of virtue is still essentially medival and feminine4 ,virginity1 chastity1 conjugal fidelity1 gentility1 obedience1 loyalty1 kindness1 self-sacrifice1 are the stock-in-trade of all respectable moralists2 to be 8good0 is to be harmless1 to be not 8bad10 to be a sort of sterilized citizen1 guaranteed not to injure4 ,this sheepish innocuousness comes easily to the natively uninitiative1 to those who are readily amenable to fear and prohibitions4 ,it is a static virtue2 it contracts rather than expands the soul2 it offers no handle for development1 no incentive to social stimulation and productivity4 ,it is time we stopped calling this insipidly negative attitude by the once mighty name of virtue4 ,virtue must be defined in terms of that which is vitally significant in our lives4 ,and therefore1 too1 virtue cannot be defined in terms of individual subordination to the group4 ,the vitally significant thing in a man's life is not the community1 but himself4 ,to ask him to consider the interests of the community above his own is again to put up for his worship an external1 transcendent god2 and the trouble with a transcendent god is that he is sure to be dethroned4 ,to call 8immoral0 the refusal of the individual to meet such demands is the depth of indecency2 it is itself immoral1--that is1 it is nonsense4 ,the notion of 8duty0 as involving self-sacrifice1 as essentially duty to others1 is a soul-cramping1 funereal notion1 and deserves all that ,ibsen and his progeny have said of it4#ad ,ask the individual to sacrifice himself to the community1 and it will not be long before he sacrifices the community to himself4 ,granted that1 in the language of ,heraclitus1 there is always a majority of fools1 and that self-sacrifice can be procured by the simple hypnotic suggestion of post-mortem remuneration3 sooner or later come doubt and disillusionment1 and the society whose permanence was so easily secured becomes driftwood on the tides of time4 ,history means that if it means anything4 ,no2 the intelligent individual will give allegiance to the group of which he happens to find himself a member1 only so far as the policies of the group accord with his own criticised desires4 ,whatever allegiance he offers will be to those forces1 wherever they may be1 which in his judgment move in the line of these desires4 ,even for such forces he will not sacrifice himself1--though there may be times when martyrdom is a luxury for which life itself is not too great a price4 ,since these forces have been defined in terms of his own judgment and desire1 conflict between them and himself can come only when his behavior diverges from the purposes defined and resumed in times of conscious thought1--i4e41 only when he ceases to adapt means to his ends1 ceases1 that is1 to be intelligent4 ,the prime moral conflict is not between the individual and his group1 but between the partial self of fragmentary impulse and the cordinated self of conscious purpose4 ,there is a group within each man as well as without3 a group of partial selves is the reality behind the figment of the unitary self4 ,every individual is a society1 every person is a crowd4 ,and the tragedies of the moral life lie not in the war of each against all1 but in the restless interplay of these partial selves behind the stage of action4 ,as a man's intelligence grows this conflict diminishes1 for both means and ends1 both behavior and purposes1 are being continually revised and redirected in accordance with intelligence1 and therefore in convergence towards it4 ,progressively the individual achieves unity1 and through unity1 personality4 ,faith in himself has made him whole4 ,the ethical problem1 so far as it is the purely individual problem of attaining to cordinated personality1 is solved4 ,moral responsibility1 then1--whatever social responsibility may be1--is the responsibility of the individual to himself4 ,the social is not necessarily the moral--let the sociological fact be what it will4 ,the unthinking conformity of the 8normal social life0 is1 just because it is unthinking1 below the level of morality3 let us call it sociality1 and make morality the prerogative of the really thinking animal4 ,in any society so constituted as to give to the individual an increase in powers as recompense for the pruning of his liberties1 the unsocial will be immoral1--that is1 self-destructively unreasonable and unintelligent2 but even in such a society the moral would overflow the margins of the social1 and would take definition ultimately from the congruity of the action with the criticised purposes of the individual self4 ,this does not mean that all ethics lies compact in the shibboleth1 8,be yourself40 ,those who make the least sparing use of this phrase are too apt to consider it an excuse for lives that reek with the heat of passion and smack of insufficient evolution4 ,these people need to be reminded--all the more forcibly since the most palatable and up-to-date philosophies exalt instinct and deride thought--that one cannot be thoroughly one's self except by deliberation and intelligence4 ,to act indeliberately is not to be1 but in great part to cancel1 one's self4 ,for example1 the vast play of direct emotional expression is almost entirely indeliberate3 if you are greatly surprised1 your lips part1 your eyes open a trifle wider1 your pulse quickens1 your respiration is affected2 and if ,i am surprised1 though you be as different from me as ,hyperion from a satyr1 my respiration will be affected1 my pulse will quicken1 my eyes will open a trifle wider1 and my lips will part2--my direct reaction will be essentially the same as yours4 ,the direct expression of surprise is practically the same in all the higher animals4 ,darwin's classical description of the expression of fear is another example2 it holds for every normal human being2 not to speak of lower species4 ,so with egotism1 jealousy1 anger1 and a thousand other instinctive reaction-complexes2 they are common to the species1 and when we so react1 we are expressing not our individual selves so much as the species to which we happen to belong4 ,when you hit a man because he has 8insulted0 you1 when you swagger a little after delivering a successful speech1 when you push aside women and children in order to take their place in the rescue boat1 when you do any one of a million indeliberate things like these1 it is not you that act1 it is your species1 it is your ancestors1 acting through you2 your acquired individual difference is lost in the whirlwind of inherited impulse4 ,your act1 as the ,scholastics phrased it1 is not a 8human0 act2 you yourself are not really acting in any full measure of yourself1 you are but playing slave and mouth-piece to the dead4 ,but subject the inherited tendencies to the scrutiny of your individual experience1 think1 and your action will then express yourself1 not in any abbreviated sense1 but up to the hilt4 ,there is no merit1 no 8virtue10 no development in playing the game of fragmentary impulses1 in living up to the past2 to be moral1 to grow1 is to be not part but all of one's self1 to call into operation the acquired as well as the inherited elements of one's character1 to be whole4 ,so many of us invite ruin by actions which do not really express us1 but are the voice of the merest fragment of ourselves1--the remainder of us being meanwhile asleep4#ae ,to be whole1 to be your deliberate self1 to do what you please but only after considering what you really please1 to follow your own ideals 7but to follow them671 to choose your own means and not to have them forced upon you by your ancestors1 to act consciously1 to see the part sub specie totius1 to see the present act in its relation to your vital purposes1 to think1 to be intelligent1--all these are definitions of virtue and morality4 ,there is1 then1 in the old sense of the word1 no such thing as morality1 there is only intelligence or stupidity4 ,yes1 virtue is calculus1 horrible as that may sound to long and timid ears3 to calculate properly just what you must do to attain your real ends1 to see just what and where your good is1 and to make for it1--that is all that can without indecency be asked of any man1 that is all that is ever vouchsafed by any man who is intelligent4 ,perhaps you think it is an easy virtue1--this cleaving to intelligence1--easier than being harmless4 ,try it4 ,,vii 8,instinct0 and 8,reason0 ,and now to go back to the refutations4 ,the strongest objection to the ,socratic doctrine is that intelligence is not a creator1 but only a servant1 of ends4 ,what we shall consider to be our good appears to be determined not by reason1 but by desire4 ,reason itself seems but the valet of desire1 ready to do for it every manner of menial service4 ,desire is an adept at marshalling before intelligence such facts as favor the wish1 and turns the mind's eye resolutely away from other truth1 as a magician distracts the attention of his audience while his hands perform their wonders4 ,if morality is entirely a matter of intelligence1 it is entirely a question of means1 it is excluded irrevocably from the realm of ends4 ,the conclusion may be allowed in substance1 though it passes beyond the warrant of the facts4 ,it is true that basic ends are never suggested by intelligence1 reason1 knowledge2 but it is also true that many ends suggested by desire are vetoed by intelligence4 ,why are the desires of a man more modest than those of a boy or a child1 if not because the blows of repeated failure have dulled the edge of desire8 ,desires lapse1 or lose in stature1 as knowledge grows and man takes lessons from reality4 ,there is an adaptation of ends to means as well as of means to ends2 and desire comes at last to take counsel of its slave4 ,be it granted1 none the less1 that ends are dictated by desire1 and that if morality is intelligence1 there can be no question of the morality of any end per se4 ,that1 strangely1 is not a refutation of the ,socratic ethic so much as an essential element of it and its starting-point4 ,every desire has its own initial right2 morality means not the suppression of desires1 but their cordination4 ,what that implies for society we shall see presently2 for the individual it implies that he is immoral1 not when he seeks his own advantage1 but when he does not really behave for his own advantage1 when some narrow temporary purpose upsets perspective and overrides a larger end4#af ,what we call 8self-control0 is the permanent predominance of the larger end2 what we call weakness of will is instability of perspective4 ,self-control means an intelligent judgment of values1 an intelligent cordination of motives1 an intelligent forecasting of effects4 ,it is far-sight1 far-hearing1 an enlargement of the sense2 it hears the weakened voice of the admonishing past1 it sees results far down the vista of the future2 it annihilates space and time for the sake of light4 ,self-control is cordinated energy1--which is the first and last word in ethics and politics1 and perhaps in logic and metaphysics too4 ,weak will means that desires fall out of focus1 and taking advantage of the dark steal into action3 it is a derangement of the light1 a failure of intelligence4 ,in this sense a 8good will0 means cordination of desires by the ultimate desire1 end1 ideal2 it means health and wholeness of will2 it means1 literally1 integrity4 ,in the old sense 8good will0 meant1 too often1 mere fear either of the prohibitions of present law or of the prohibitions stored up in conscience4 ,such conscience1 we all know1 is a purely negative and static thing1 a convenient substitute for policemen1 a degenerate descendant of that conscientia1 or knowing-together1 which meant to the ,romans a discriminating awareness in action1--discriminating awareness of the whole that lurks round the corner of every part4 ,this is one instance of a sort of pathology of words1--words coming to function in a sense alien to their normal intent4 ,right and wrong1 for example1 once carried no ethical connotation1 but merely denoted a direct or tortuous route to a goal2 and significantly the ,hebrew word for sin meant1 in the days of its health1 an arrow that had missed its mark4 ,but1 it is urged1 there is no such thing as intelligence in the sense of a control of passion by reason1 desire by thought4 ,granted2 it is so much easier to admit objections than to refute them6 ,let intelligence be interpreted as you will1 so be it you recognize in it a delayed response1 a moment of reprieve before execution1 giving time for the appearance of new impulses1 motives1 tendencies1 and allowing each element in the situation to fall into its place in a cordinated whole4 ,let intelligence be a struggle of impulses1 a survival of the fittest desire2 let us contrast not reason with passion1 but response delayed by the rich interplay of motive forces1 with response immediately following upon the first-appearing impulse4 ,let impulse mean for us fruit that falls unripe from the tree1 because too weak to hang till it is mature4 ,let us understand intelligence as not a faculty superadded to impulse1 but rather that cordination of impulses which is wrought out by the blows of hard experience4 ,the ,socratic ethic fits quite comfortably into this scheme2 intelligence is delayed response and morality means1 ,take your time4 ,it is charged that the ,socratic view involves determinism2 and this charge1 too1 is best met with open-armed admission4 ,we need not raise the question of the pragmatic value of the problem4 ,but to suppose that determinism destroys moral responsibility is to betray the mid-,victorian origin of one's philosophy4 ,men of insight like ,socrates1 ,plato1 and ,spinoza1 saw without the necessity of argument that moral responsibility is not a matter of freedom of will1 but a relation of means to ends1 a responsibility of the agent to himself1 an intelligent cordination of impulses by one's ultimate purposes4 ,any other morality1 whatever pretty name it may display1 is the emasculated morality of slaves4 ,,viii ,the ,secularization of ,morals ,the great problem involved in the ,socratic ethic lies1 apparently1 in the bearings of the doctrine on social unity and stability4 ,apparently2 for it is wholesome to remember that social organization1 like the ,sabbath1 was made for man1 and not the other way about4 ,if social organization demands of the individual more sacrifices than its advantages are worth to him1 then the stability of that organization is not a problem1 it is a misfortune4 ,but if the state does not demand such sacrifices1 the advantage of the individual will be in social behavior2 and the question whether he will behave socially becomes a question of how much intelligence he has1 how clear-eyed he is in ferreting out his own advantage4 ,in a state that does not ask more from its members than it gives1 morality and intelligence and social behavior will not quarrel4 ,the social problem appears here as the twofold problem of1 first1 making men intelligent1 and1 second1 making social organization so great an advantage to the individual as to insure social behavior in all intelligent men4 ,which has the better chance of survival3--a society of 8good0 men or a society of intelligent men8 ,so far as a man is 8good0 he merely obeys1 he does not initiate4 ,a society of 8good0 men is necessarily stagnant2 for in such a society the virtue most in demand1 as ,emerson puts it1 is conformity4 ,if great men emerge through the icy crust of this conformity1 they are called criminals and sinners2 the lives of great men all remind us that we cannot make our lives sublime and yet be 8good40 ,but intelligence as an ethical ideal is a progressive norm2 for it implies the progressive cordination of one's life in reference to one's ultimate ideals4 ,the god of the 8good0 man is the status quo2 the intelligent man obeys rather the call of the status ad quem4 ,observe how the problem of man versus the group is clarified by thus relating the individual to a larger whole determined not by geographical frontiers1 but by purposes born of his own needs and moulded by his own intelligence4 ,for as the individual's intelligence grows1 his purposes are brought more and more within the limits of personal capacity and social possibility3 he is ever less inclined to make unreasonable demands upon himself1 or men in general1 or the group in which he lives4 ,his ever broadening vision makes apparent the inherent self-destructiveness of anti-social aims2 and though he chooses his ends without reference to any external moral code1 those ends are increasingly social4 ,enlightenment saves his social dispositions from grovelling conformity1 and his 8self-regarding sentiments0 from suicidal narrowness4 ,and now the conflict between himself and his group continues for the most part only in so far as the group makes unreasonable demands upon him4 ,but this1 too1 diminishes as the individuals constituting or dominating the group become themselves more intelligent1 more keenly cognizant of the limits within which the demands of the group upon its members must be restricted if individual allegiance is to be retained4 ,since the reduction of the conflict between the individual and the community without detriment to the interests of either is the central problem of political ethics1 it is obvious that the practical task of ethics is not to formulate a specific moral code1 but to bring about a spread of intelligence4 ,and since the reduction of this conflict brings with it a better cordination of the members of the group1 through their greater ability to perceive the advantages of communal action in an intelligently administered group1 the problem of social coherence and permanence itself falls into the same larger problem of intellectual development4 8,how to make our ideas clear02--what if that be the social problem8 ,what a wealth of import in that little phrase of ,socrates1-- --8what is it80 ,what is my good1 my interest8 ,what do ,i really want8--,to find the answer to that1 said ,robert ,louis ,stevenson1 is to achieve wisdom and old age4 ,what is my country8 ,what is patriotism8 8,if you wish to converse with me10 said ,voltaire1 8you must define your terms40 ,if you wish to be moral1 you must define your terms4 ,if our civilization is to keep its head above the flux of time1 we must define our terms4 ,for these are the critical days of the secularization of moral sanctions2 the theological navel-string binding men to 8good behavior0 has snapped4 ,what are the leaders of men going to do about it8 ,will they try again the old gospel of self-sacrifice8 ,but a world fed on self-sacrifice is a world of lies1 a world choking with the stench of hypocrisy4 ,to preach self-sacrifice is not to solve1 it is precisely to shirk1 the problem of ethics1--the problem of eliminating individual self-sacrifice while preserving social stability3 the problem of reconciling the individual as such with the individual as citizen4 ,or will our leaders try to replace superstition with an extended physical compulsion1 making the policeman and the prison do all the work of social cordination8 ,but surely compulsion is a last resort2 not because it is 8wrong10 but because it is inexpedient1 because it rather cuts than unties the knot1 because it produces too much friction to allow of movement4 ,compulsion is warranted when there is question of preventing the interference of one individual or group with another2 but it is a poor instrument for the establishment or maintenance of ideals4 ,suppose we stop moralizing1 suppose we reduce regimentation1 suppose we begin to define our terms4 ,suppose we let people know quite simply 7and not in ,academese7 that moral codes are born not in heaven but in social needs2 and suppose we set about finding a way of spreading intelligence so that individual treachery to real communal interest1 and communal exploitation of individual allegiance1 may both appear on the surface1 as they are at bottom1 unintelligently suicidal4 ,is that too much to hope for8 ,perhaps4 ,but then again1 it may be1 the worth and meaning of life lie precisely in this1 that there is still a possibility of organizing that experiment4 ,,ix 8,happiness0 and 8,virtue0 ,a word now about the last part of the ,socratic formula3 intelligence virtue happiness4 ,and this a word of warning3 remember that the 8virtue0 here spoken of is not the medival virtue taught in ,sunday schools4 ,surely our children must wonder are we fools or liars when we tell them1 8,be good and you will be happy40 ,better forget 8virtue0 and read simply3 intelligencehappiness4 ,that appears more closely akin to the rough realities of life3 intelligence means ability to adapt means to ends1 and happiness means success in adapting means to ends2 happiness1 then1 varies with ability4 ,happiness is intelligence on the move2 a pervasive physiological tonus accompanying the forward movement of achievement4 ,it is not the consciousness of virtue3 that is not happiness1 but snobbery4 ,and similarly1 remorse is1 in the intelligent man1 not the consciousness of 8sin10 but the consciousness of a past stupidity4 ,so far as you fail to win your real ends you are unhappy1--and have proved unintelligent4 ,but the ,preacher says1 8,he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow40 ,true enough if the increment of knowledge is the correction of a past error2 the sorrow is a penalty paid for the error1 not for the increase of knowledge4 ,true1 too1 that intelligence does not consistently lessen conflicts1 and that it discloses a new want for every want it helps to meet4 ,but the joy of life lies not so much in the disappearance of difficulties as in the overcoming of them2 not so much in the diminution of conflict as in the growth of achievement4 ,surely it is time we had an ethic that stressed achievement rather than quiescence4 ,and further1 intelligence must not be thought of as the resignation of disillusionment1 the consciousness of impotence2 intelligence is to be conceived of in terms of adaptive activity1 of movement towards an end1 of cordinated self-expression and behavior4 ,finally1 it is but fair to interpret the formula as making happiness and intelligence coincide only so far as the individual's happiness depends on his own conduct4 ,the causes of unhappiness may be an inherited deformity1 or an accident not admitting of provision2 such cases do not so much contradict as lie outside the formula4 ,so far as your happiness depends on your activities1 it will vary with the degree of intelligence you show4 ,act intelligently1 and you will not know regret2 feel that you are moving on toward your larger ends1 and you will be happy4 ,x ,the ,socratic ,challenge ,but if individual and social health and happiness depend on intelligence rather than on 8virtue10 and if the exaltation of intelligence was a cardinal element in the ,athenian view of life1 why did the ,socratic ethic fail to save ,athens from decay8 ,and why did the supposedly intelligent ,athenians hail this generous old ,dr4 ,johnson of philosophy into court and sentence him to death8 ,the answer is1 ,because the ,athenians refused to make the ,socratic experiment4 ,they were intelligent1 but not intelligent enough4 ,they could diagnose the social malady1 could trace it to the decay of supernatural moral norms2 but they could not find a cure1 they had not the vision to see that salvation lay not in the compulsory retention of old norms1 but in the forging of new and better ones1 capable of withstanding the shock of questioning and trial4 ,what they saw was chaos2 and like most statesmen they longed above all things for order4 ,they were not impressed by ,socrates' allegiance to law1 his cordial admission of the individual's obligations to the community for the advantages of social organization4 ,they listened to the disciples3 to ,antisthenes1 who laughed at patriotism2 to ,aristippus1 who denounced all government2 to ,plato1 scorner of democracy2 and they attacked the master because 7not to speak of pettier political reasons7 it was he1 they thought1 who was the root of the evil4 ,they could not see that this man was their ally and not their foe2 that rescue for ,athens lay in helping him rather than in sentencing him to die4 ,and how well they could have helped him6 ,for to preach intelligence is not enough2 there remains to provide for every one the instrumentalities of intelligence4 ,what men needed1 what ,athenian statesmanship might have provided1 was an organization of intelligence for intelligence1 an organization of all the forces of intelligence in the state in a persistent intellectual campaign4 ,if that could not save ,athens1 ,athens could not be saved4 ,but the myopic leaders of the ,athenian state could not see salvation in intelligence1 they could only see it in hemlock4 ,and ,socrates had to die4 ,it will take a wise courage to accept the ,socratic challenge1--such courage as battle-fields and senate-chambers are not wont to show4 ,but unless that wise courage comes to us our civilization will go as other civilizations have come and gone1 8kindled and put out like a flame in the night40 ,,note4--,from a book whose interesting defence of the ,socratic ethic from the standpoint of psychoanalysis was brought to the writer's attention after the completion of the foregoing essay3 8,the ,freudian ethics is a literal and concrete justification of the ,socratic teaching4 ,truth is the sole moral sanction1 and discrimination of hitherto unrealized facts is the one way out of every moral dilemma4444 ,virtue is wisdom40 ,practical morality is 8the establishment1 through discrimination1 of consistent1 and not contradictory 7mutually suppressive71 courses of action toward phenomena4 ,the moral sanction lies always in facts presented by the phenomena2 morality in the discrimination of those facts40 ,moral development is 8the progressive1 lifelong integration of experience40--,the ,freudian ,wish and ,its ,place in ,ethics1 by ,edwin ,b4 ,holt1 ,new ,york1 #aiae1 pp4 #ada1 #ade1 #adh4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,plato3 ,,philosophy ,,as ,,politics ,i ,the ,man and the ,artist ,why do we love ,plato8 ,perhaps because ,plato himself was a lover3 lover of comrades1 lover of the sweet intoxication of dialectical revelry1 full of passion for the elusive reality behind thoughts and things4 ,we love him for his unstinted energy1 for the wildly nomadic play of his fancy1 for the joy which he found in life in all its unredeemed and adventurous complexity4 ,we love him because he was alive every minute of his life1 and never ceased to grow2 such a man can be loved even for the errors he has made4 ,but above all we love him because of his high passion for social reconstruction through intelligent control2 because he retained throughout his eighty years that zeal for human improvement which is for most of us the passing luxury of youth2 because he conceived philosophy as an instrument not merely for the interpretation1 but for the remoulding1 of the world4 ,he speaks of himself1 through ,socrates1 as 8almost the only ,athenian living who sets his hand to the true art of politics2 ,i am the only politician of my time40#ag ,philosophy was for him a study of human possibilities in the light of human realities and limitations2 his daily food consisted of the problems of human relations and endeavors3 problems of liberty versus order2 of sex relations and the family2 of ideals of character and citizenship1 and the educational approaches to those ideals2 problems of the control of population1 of heredity and environment1 of art and morals4 ,with all his liking for the poetry of mysticism1 philosophy none the less was to him preminently an adventure in this world2 and unlike ourselves1 who follow one or another of his many leads1 he sailed virginal seas4 ,every reader in every age has called him modern2 but what age can there be to which ,plato will not still be modern8 ,plato was twenty-eight when ,socrates died2#ah and though he was not present at the drinking of the hemlock1 yet the passing of the master must have been a tragic blow to him4 ,it brought him face to face with death1 the mother of metaphysics4 ,proudest of all philosophers1 he did not hide his sense of debt to ,socrates3 8,i thank the gods10 he said1 8that ,i was born freeman1 not slave2 ,greek1 not barbarian2 man1 not woman2 but above all that ,i was born in the time of ,socrates40 ,the old philosopher gone1 ,athens became for a time intolerable to ,plato 7some say1 ,plato to ,athens72 and the young philosopher sailed off to see foreign shores and take nourishment of other cultures4 ,he liked the peaceful orderliness and aged dignity with which a long dominant priesthood had invested ,egypt2 beside this mellow civilization1 he was willing to be told1 the culture of his native ,athens was but a precarious ethnological sport4 ,he liked the ,pythagoreans of southern ,italy1 with their aristocratic approach to the problem of social construction and their communal devotion to plain living and high thinking2 above all he liked their emphasis on harmony as the fundamental pervasive relation of all things and as the ideal in which our human discords might be made to resolve themselves had men artistry enough4 ,other lands he saw and learnt from3 stories tell how he risked his handsome head to build an ideal state in ,syracuse2 how he was sold into slavery and redeemed by a friend2 and how he passed down through ,palestine even to ,india1 absorbing the culture of their peoples with a kind of osmotic genius4 ,and at last1 after twelve years of wandering1 he heard again the call of ,athens1 and went home1 stored with experience and ripe with thought4 ,arrived now at the mid-point of his life1 he turned to the task of self-expression4 ,should he join one of the political parties and try to make the government of ,athens a picture of his thought8 ,perhaps he felt that his thought was not yet definite enough for that2 politics requires answers in ,yes or ,no1 and philosophy deals only in ,yes-and-,no4 ,he hesitated to join a party or pledge himself to a dogma2 and was prepared to be hated by all parties alike for this hesitation4#ai ,aristocracy was in his blood1 and he would not stoop to conquer by a plebiscite4 ,he thought of turning to the stage1 as ,euripides had done1 and teaching through the mask2 in his youth he had written plays1 and smiled now to think how he had hoped to rival ,aristophanes4 ,but there were too many limitations here1 of religious subject and dramatic form2 ,plato's philosophy was a thing of ever broadening borders1 and could not be cramped into a ceremony4 ,but neither was his philosophy an arid academic affair1 to be written down as one places in order the bones of a skeleton2 it was vibrantly alive1 it was itself a drama and a religion4 ,why should there not be a drama of idea as well as of action8--,had not the play of thought its tragedies and comedies8--,was not philosophy1 after all1 a matter of life and death8 ,in such a juncture of desires came that fusion of drama and philosophy which we know as ,plato's dialogues1--assuredly the finest production in all the history of philosophy4 ,here was just the instrument for a man whose thought had not congealed into dogmas and a system4 ,all genius is heterogeneous2 a great man is a sum of many men2--let the soul give its selves a voice1 and it will speak in dialogue4#bj ,just instrument1 too1 for a man who wished to play with the varied possibilities of speculation1 who cared to clarify his own mind rather than to give forth finalities where life itself was so blind and inconclusive4 ,a conclusion is too often but the point at which thought has lost its wind2 being not so much a solution of the problem as a dissolution of thought4 ,hence the riotous play of the imagination in ,plato2 lively game of trial and error1 merry-go-round of thought2 here is imagery squandered with lordly abandon2 here is humor such as one misses in our ponderous modern philosophers2 here is no system but all systems2#ba here is one abounding fountain-head of ,european thought2 here is prose strong and beautiful as the great temples where ,greek joy disported itself in marble2 here literary prose is born1--and born adult4 ,,ii ,how to ,solve the ,social ,problem ,to understand ,plato one must remember the ,pythagorean motif3 harmony is the heart of ,plato's metaphysics1 of his psychological and educational theory1 of his ethics and his politics4 ,to feel such harmony as there is1 and to make such harmony as may be1--that to ,plato is the meaning of philosophy4 ,we observe this at the outset in the more-mystified-than mystifying theory of ideas4 ,obviously1 the theory of ideas belongs to ,socrates2 the ,platonic element is a theory not of ideas so much as of ideals4 ,socrates wants truth1 but ,plato wants beauty1 harmony4 ,socrates is bent on argument1 and points you to a concept2 ,plato is a poet with a vision1 and points you to the picture that he sees4 ,understanding1 says ,plato1 is of the earth earthly2 but poetic vision is divine4#bb ,hence the maze of quibbling in the dialogues2 it is ,plato and not ,socrates who is culprit here4 ,reasoning was an alien art to ,plato2 try as he might to become a mathematician he remained always a poet1--and perhaps most so when he dealt with numbers4 ,dialectic was in ,plato's day a recent invention2 he plays with it like a youth in the breakers1 letting it now raise him to heights of ecstatic vision and now bury him in the deadliest logic-chopping4 ,but--let us not doubt it--he knows when he is logic-chopping2 he goes on1 partly that he may paint his picture1 partly for the mere joy of parrying pros and cons2 this new game1 he feels1 is a sport for the gods4 ,let us smile at the heavy seriousness of those who suppose that this man meant everything he said4 ,no one does1 but least of all men ,plato1 who hardly taught except in parables4 ,what is the 8heaven0 of the ideas but a poet's way of saying that the constancies observable in the relations among things are not identical with the things themselves1 but have a reality and permanence of their own8 ,so we phrase it in our own distinguished verbiage2 but ,plato prefers1 as ever1 to draw a picture4 ,and notice1 in this picture1 the ever present reference to social needs4 ,what is a concept1 after all1 but a scheme for the conservation of mental resources1 an instrument of prediction1 a method of control8 ,without the power to form concepts we could never turn experience to use1 it would slip between our fingers2 we should be like the maidens condemned to carry water in a sieve4 ,the idea of anything is the sum of its observed constancies of behavior2 hence the medium of our adaptation and control4 ,to have ideas of things is to know the map or plan of things2 it is to see tendencies1 directions1 and results2 it is to know how to use things4 ,that is why knowledge is power2 every idea is a tool with which to bend the world to serve our will4 ,and that too is why the ,ideas are real3 they have power1 and 8anything which possesses any sort of power is real40#bc ,all this1 as was said1 is but an embellishment of the ,socratic doctrine that salvation lies in brains4 ,but ,plato rushes on4 ,not only may everything be brought under a concept1 an ,idea1 but it may be brought under a perfect ,form1 an ,ideal4 ,things are not what they might be4 ,men are not such as men might be1 states are often sorry states1 beds might be more ideal beds1 even dirt could be more perfectly dirt4 ,to all things that are1 there correspond perfect ,ideals of what they might be1 in a thoroughly harmonious world4 ,to say that these ,ideals are real1 that they exist1 is only to claim for them that they are operative1 and get results4 ,whether his supernaturalism was only part of his political theory1 others may dispute2 let it suffice us at present that ,plato believed that the ,ideals could and did operate through human agency4 ,the distinctive thing about man is that perceiving the thing that is1 he can conceive the thing that might be4 ,he is the forward-looking1 ideal-making animal2 through him1 if he but will it1 proceeds creation4 ,the brute may be a thinker1 but man may be also an artist4 ,out of the abundance of the sexual instinct 7as ,plato implies in the ,symposium7 emerges this ideal-seeking and -making quality2 from which come art and ethics and religion4 ,william ,morris looks at a slum and conceives ,utopia2 and forthwith begins to make for ,utopia even though the road lead him through a jail4 ,is it that ,william ,morris loves 8humanity08 ,not at all2 he loves beauty and his dream2 he is uncomfortable with all this dirt and despair before him2 it is his fortune or misfortune that he cannot see these slums without falling thrall to a vision of better things4 ,so with most of us 8reformers03 we wish to change things1 not because we love our fellows much more than 8conservatives0 do1 nor because we believe that happiness varies with income2 but because we hear the call of the beautiful1 and see in the mind's eye another form wherein the world might come more pleasingly to sight4 ,what we have to do1 says ,plato1 is to make people conceive a better world1 so that they may see this world as ugly1 and may strive to reshape it4 ,we must conceive the perfect ,forms of things1 and batter this poor world till it reform itself and take these perfect shapes4 ,to learn to see--and seeing learn to make--these perfect ,forms3 that is the task of philosophers4 ,to make philosophers3 that is the social problem4 ,,iii ,on ,making ,philosopher-,kings ,it is simple1 isn't it8 ,give us enough philosophers1 and the beautiful city will walk out of the picture into the fact4 ,but how make philosophers8 ,and perhaps there is a perfect ,form for philosophers1 too8 ,how shall we 8see--and seeing learn to make0--the perfect philosopher8 ,let us not worry about this little matter of dialectics1 says ,plato2 we know quite well some of the things we must do in order that we may have more and greater philosophers4 ,it is quite clear that one thing we must do is to give our best brains to education4 ,is that trite8 ,not at all4 ,do we give our best brains to education8 ,do we offer more to our ministers or commissioners of education than to our presidents1 or governors1 or mayors1 or bank presidents1 or pugilists8 ,or do we honor them more8 ,when ,plato says that the office of minister of education is 8of all the great offices of state the greatest10 and that the citizens should elect their very best man to this office1#bd he is not pronouncing a platitude1 he is making a radical1 a revolutionary proposition4 ,it has never been done1 and it will not soon be done2 for men1 naturally enough1 are more interested in making money than in making philosophers4 ,and yet1 says ,plato1 gently but resolutely1 we may as well understand that until we give our best brains to the problem of making philosophers our much-ado about social ills will amount to noise and wind1 and nothing more4 8,how charming people are60 he writes1 drawing an analogy between the individual and the body politic2 8they are always doctoring--and thereby increasing and complicating--their disorders1 fancying they will be cured by some nostrum which somebody advises them to try1--never getting better but always growing worse4444 ,are they not as good as a play1 trying their hand at legislation1 and imagining that by reforms they will make an end to the dishonesties and rascalities of mankind1 not knowing that they are in reality cutting away at the heads of a hydra80#be ,notice that the aim of the educational process is1 for ,plato1 not so much the general spread of intelligence as the discovery and development of the superior man4 7,this conception of the task of the educator appears again and again in later thought3 we hear it in the nineteenth century1 for example1 in ,carlyle's 8hero10 ,schopenhauer's 8genius10 and ,nietzsche's 8superman407 ,it is very nave1 thinks ,plato1 to look to the masses as the source and hope of social improvement2 the proper function of the masses is to toil as cheerfully as may be for the development and support of the genius who will make them happy--so far as they are capable of happiness4 ,to aim directly at the elevation of all is to open the door to mediocrity and futility2 to find and nurse the potential genius1--that is an end worthy the educator's subtle art4 ,now if you are going to discover genius in the bud you must above all things handle your material1 at the outset at least1 with tender care4 ,you must not overflow with prohibitions1 or indulge yourself too much in the luxury of punishments4 8,mother and father and nurse and tutor set to quarrelling about the improvement of the child as soon as ever he is able to understand them3 he cannot say or do anything without their setting forth to him that this is just and that unjust1 this honorable and that dishonorable1 this holy and that unholy1 do this and don't do that4 ,and if he obeys1 well and good2 if not he is straightened by threats and blows1 like a piece of warped wood40#bf ,suppress here1 and you get expression there2--often enough1 abnormal expression4 ,better have no hard mould of uniformity and conformity wherein to crush and deform each differently aspiring soul4 ,think twice before forcing your 'isms and 'ologies upon the child2 his own desires will be your best curriculum4 8,the elements of instruction10 writes ,plato1 in a too-little-noticed passage1 8should be presented to the mind in childhood1 but without any notion of forcing them4 ,for a freeman ought to be a freeman in the acquisition of knowledge4 ,bodily exercise1 when compulsory1 does no harm2 but knowledge which is acquired under compulsion has no hold on the mind4 ,therefore do not use compulsion1 but let early education be a sort of amusement2 that will better enable you to find out the natural bent40#bg ,there is a stroke of ,plato's genius here3 it is a point which we laggards are coming to after some two thousand three hundred years4 8,to find out the natural bent10 to catch the spark of divine fire before conformity can put it out2 that is the beginning and yet the summit of the educator's task1--the initium dimidium facti4 ,in this search for genius all souls shall be tried4 ,education must be universal and compulsory2 children belong not to parents but to the state and to the future4#bh ,and education cannot begin too early4 ,cleinias1 asking whether education should begin at birth1 is astonished to be answered1 8,no1 before02 and if ,plato could have his way1 no doubt there would be a realization of ,dr4 ,holmes' suggestion that a man's education should begin two thousand years before he is born4 ,the chief concern at the outset will be to develop the body1 and not to fill the soul with letters2 let the child be taught his letters at ten1 but not before4#bi ,music will share with gymnastics the task of rounded development4 ,the boy who tells his teacher that the athletic field is as important and necessary a part of education as the lecture-room is right4 8,how shall we find a gentle nature which has also great courage80#cj ,music mixed with athletics will do it4 8,i am quite aware that your mere athlete becomes too much of a savage1 and that the musician is melted and softened beyond what is good for him40#ca ,there is a determination here that even the genius shall be healthy2 ,plato will not tolerate the notion that to be a genius one needs to be sick3 let the genius have his say1 but let him1 too1 be reminded that he is no disembodied spirit4 ,and let art take care lest its vaunted purgation be a purgation of our strength and manhood2 poetry and soft music may make men slaves4 ,no man shall bother with music after the age of sixteen4#cb ,at twenty a general test will weed out those who give indication that further educative labor will be wasted on them2 the others will go on for another decade1 and a second test will eliminate those who will in the meantime have reached the limit of their capacities for development4 ,the final survivors will then--and not before--be introduced to philosophy4 8,they must not be allowed to taste the dear delight too early2 that is a thing especially to be avoided2 for young men1 as you may have observed1 when they first get the taste in their mouths1 argue for amusement1 and are always contradicting and refuting1 like puppy-dogs that delight to tear and pull at all who come near them4444 ,and when they have made many conquests and received defeats at the hands of many1 they violently and speedily get into a way of not believing anything that they believed before1 and hence not only they1 but philosophy generally1 have a bad name with the rest of the world40#cc ,five happy years are given to the study of philosophy4 ,gradually1 the student learns to see the universal behind the particular1 to judge the part by relating it to the whole2 the fragments of his experience fall into a harmonious philosophy of life4 ,the sciences which he has learned are now united as a consistent application of intelligence to life2 indeed1 the faculty of uniting the sciences and focussing them on the central problems of life1 is precisely the criterion of the true philosopher4#cd ,but involved in this is a certain practical quality1 a sense for realities and limitations4 ,one must study books--and men2 one should read much1 but live more4 ,so ,plato legislates that his new philosophers shall spend the years from thirty-five to fifty in the busy din of practical life2 they must1 in his immortal image1 go back into the cave4 ,the purpose of higher education is to detach us for a time from the life of action1 but only so that we may later return to it with a better perspective4 ,to be put for a goodly time upon one's own resources1 to butter one's own bread for a while1--that is an almost indispensable prerequisite to greatness4 ,out of such a test men come with the scars of many wounds2 but to those who are not fools every scar is the mark of a lesson learned4 ,and now here are our philosophers1 ripe and fifty1 hardened by the tests of learning and of life4 ,what shall we do with them8 ,put them away in a lecture-room and pay no further attention to them8 ,give them1 as their life-work1 the problem of finding how ,spinoza deduces1 or fails to deduce1 the ,many from the ,one8 ,have them fill learned esoteric journals with unintelligible jargon about the finite and the infinite1 or space and time1 or the immateriality of roast beef8 ,no1 says ,plato2 let them govern the state4 ,did ,plato mean it8 ,was he so enraged at the state-murder of the most beloved of philosophers that he forearmed himself against such a contretemps in his ,utopia by making the philosophers supreme8--,was it only his magnificent journalistic revenge8 ,was it merely his reaction to the observed cramping and mediocritization of superior intellects in a democracy8 ,was it but ,plato's dramatic way of emphasizing the ,socratic plea for intelligence as the basis of morals and social life8 ,perhaps all this2 but much more4 ,it was his sober judgment2 it was the influence of the ,egyptian priesthood and the ,pythagorean brotherhood coming to the surface in him2 it was the long-accumulated deposit of the stream of his personal experience4 ,we have to remember here that by philosopher ,plato does not mean ,immanuel ,kant4 ,he means a living being1 a man like ,seneca or ,francis ,bacon1 a man in whom knowledge is fused with action1 and keen perception joins with steady hand2 a man who has had not only the teaching of books but the discipline of hard experience2 a man who has learned with equal readiness to obey and to command2 a man whose thought is cordinated by application to the vital problems of human society4 8,inasmuch as philosophers alone are able to grasp the eternal and unchangeable1 and those who wander in the region of the many and variable are not philosophers1 ,i must ask you which of the two kinds should be rulers of our state80#ce ,well1 then1 8,until philosophers are kings1 or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power of philosophy1 444 cities will never cease from ill1 nor the human race40#cf ,that1 of course1 is the heart and soul of ,plato4 ,,iv ,dishonest ,democracy ,let us get back to the circumference and approach this same point by another route4 ,i grant you1 says ,plato1 that to have rulers at all is very disagreeable4 ,and indeed we should not need to have them were it not for a regrettable but real porcine element in us4 ,my own ,utopia is not an aristocracy nor a democracy1 nor any kind of an 'ocracy2 it is what some of you would call an anarchist communism4 ,i have described it very clearly in the second book of my ,republic1 but nobody cares to notice it1 except to repeat my brother's gibe about it4#cg ,but instead of this ,utopia of mine being a 8,city of ,pigs10 it is just because we are pigs that ,i had to give up painting this picture and turn to describing 8not only a state1 but a luxurious state40 ,i am still 8of opinion that the true state1 which may be said to be a healthy constitution1 is the one which ,i have described10 and not the 8inflamed constitution0 to which ,i devoted the rest of my book1 and which in my opinion is much more a 8,city of ,pigs0 than the other4 ,it is because people want 8to lie on sofas1 and dine off tables1 and have dainties and dessert in the modern fashion1 444 and perfumes1 and incense1 and courtesans1 and cakes1 and gold1 and ivory1 444 hunters and actors1 444 musicians1 players1 dancers1 444 tutors1 444 servants 444 nurses wet and dry1 444 barbers1 confectioners and cooks1 444 and hosts of animals 7if people are to eat animals71 444 and physicians2 444 then a slice of neighbor's land 444 and then war10#ch--;in short1 it is because people are pigs that you must have soldiers and rulers and laws4 ,but if you must have them1 why not train your best men for the work1 just as you train some to be doctors1 and others to be lawyers1 and others to be engineers8 ,think of taking a man's pills just because he can show a count of noses in his favor6 ,think of letting a man build the world's greatest bridge because he is popular6 ,you accuse me of plagiarizing from ,pythagoras1 but in truth1 you who believe in democracy are the ,pythagoreans of politics1--you believe in number as your god4 ,your equality is the equality of the unequal1 and is all a matter of words and never of reality2 your liberty is anarchy1 it is the congenital sickness wherein your democracy was conceived and delivered1 and whereof it inevitably dies2 your freedom of speech is a license to lie2 your elections are a contest in flattery and prevarication4 ,your democracy is a theatrocracy2 and woe to the genius who falls into your hands4 ,perhaps you like democracy because you are like democracy3 all your desires are on a level2 that you should respect some of them and discipline others is an idea that never enters your heads4 ,it has never occurred to you that it takes more time and training to make a statesman than it does to make a bootblack4 ,but statesmanship is something that can never be conferred by plebiscite2 it must be pursued through the years1 and must find the privilege of office without submitting to a vote4 ,wisdom is too subtle a thing to be felt by the coarsened senses of the mob4 ,your industry is wonderful because it is shot through with specialization and training2 but because you reject specialization and training in filling the offices of your government the word politics has become dishonored in your mouths4 ,and just because you will let any one be your leader no real man ever submits himself to your choice4 ,v ,culture and ,slavery ,there is much exaggeration here1 of course1 as might be expected of one whose material and social concerns were bound up with the oligarchical party at ,athens1 whose friends and relatives had died in battle against the armies of the democracy2 whose early years had seen the democratic mismanagement of the ,peloponnesian war and the growth of a disorderly individualism in ,athens4 ,but there are also lessons here for those who are strong enough to learn even from their enemies4#ci ,to press home these lessons at this point would take us too far afield2 our plan for the moment is to follow ,plato's guidance until he has led us out into a clear view of his position4 ,we shall suppose such a scheme of education as ,plato desires2 we shall suppose that a moderate number of those who entered the lists at birth have survived test after test1 have 8tasted the dear delight0 of philosophy for five years1 and have passed safely through the ordeal of practical affairs2 these men 7and women1 as we shall see7 now automatically become the rulers of the ,platonic state3 let us observe them in their work and in their lives4 ,to the guardians it is a matter of first principles that the function of the state--and therefore their function--is a positive function2 they are to lead the people1 and not merely to serve as an umpire of disputes4 ,they are the protagonists of a social evolution that has at last become conscious2 they are resolved that henceforth social organization shall be a far-seeing plan and not a haphazard flux of expediencies of control4 ,they know that they are asked to be experts in foresight and cordination2 they will legislate accordingly1 and will no more think of asking the people what laws should be passed than a physician would ask the people what measures should be taken to preserve the public health4 ,and first of all they will control population2 they will consider this to be the indispensable prerequisite to a planned development4 ,the state must not be larger than is consistent with unity and with the efficacy of central control4 ,people may mate as they will1--that is their own concern2 but they must understand quite clearly that procreation is an affair of the state4 ,children must be born not of love but of science2 marriage will be a temporary relation1 allowing frequent remating for the sake of beautiful offspring4 ,men shall not have children before thirty1 nor after forty4 ,deformed or incurably diseased children will be exposed to die4 ,children must leave their mothers at birth1 and be brought up by the state4 ,women must be freed from bondage to their children1 if women are to be real citizens1 interested in the public weal1 and loving not a narrow family but the great community4 ,for women are to be citizens2 it would be foolish to let half the people be withdrawn from interest in and service to the state4 ,women will receive all the educational advantages offered to men2 they will even wrestle with them1 naked1 in the games4 ,if any of them--and surely some of them will--pass all the tests1 they shall be guardians1 too4 ,people are to be divided1 for political purposes1 not by difference of sex1 but by difference of capacity4 ,some women may be fit not for housekeeping but for ruling1--let them rule2 some men may be fit not for ruling but for housekeeping1--let them keep house4 ,without family1 and without clearly ascertainable relationship between any man and any child1 there can be no individual inheritance of property2 the guardians will have all things in common1 and without ,tertullian's exception4#dj ,shut off from the possibility of personal bequests or of 8founding a family10 the guardians will have no stimulus to laying up a hoard of material goods2 nay1 they will not be moved to such hoarding by fear of the morrow1 for a modest but sufficient maintenance will be supplied them by the working classes4 ,there will be no money in use among them2 they will live a hard simple life1 devoted to the problems of communal defence and development4 ,freed from family ties1 from private property and luxury1 from violence and litigation1 and all distinctions of ,mine and ,thine1 they will have no reason to oppress the workers in order to lay up stores for themselves2 they will be happy in the exercise of their high responsibilities and powers4 ,they will not be tempted to legislate for the good of their own class rather than for the good of the community2 their joy will lie in the creation of a prosperous and harmonious state4 ,under their direction will be the soldiers1 also specially selected and trained1 and supported by the workers4 ,but these workers8 ,they will be those who have been eliminated in the tests4 ,the demands of specialization will have condemned them to labor for those who have the gift of guidance4 ,they shall have no voice in the direction of the state2 that1 as said1 is a reward for demonstrated capacity1 and not a 8natural right40#da ,frankly1 there are some people who are not fit to be other than slaves2 and to varnish that fact with oratory about 8the dignity of labor0 is merely to give an instance of the indignities to which a democratic politician will descend4 ,these workers are incapable of a subtler happiness than that of knowing that they are doing what they are fit to do1 and are contributing to the maintenance of communal prosperity4 ,such as they are1 these workers1 like the other members of the state1 will find their highest possibilities of development in such an organized society4 ,and to make sure that they will not rebel1 they will have been taught by 8royal lies0 that their position and function in the state have been ordained by the gods4 ,there is no sense in shivering at this quite judicious juggling with the facts2 there are times when truth is a barrier to content1 and must be set aside4 ,physicians have been known to cure ailments with a timely lie4 ,labor stimulated by such deception may be slavery1 if you wish to call it so2 but it is the inevitable condition of order1 and order is the inevitable condition of culture and communal success4 ,,vi ,plasticity and ,order ,but is it just8--some one asks4 ,perhaps there are other things than order to be considered4 ,perhaps this hunger for order is a disease1 like the monistic hunger for unity2 perhaps it is a corollary to the priori type of mind2 perhaps it is part of the philosopher's general inability to face a possibly irrational reality4 ,here for order's sake the greater part of the people must work in silence3 they shall not utter their desires4 ,here for order's sake are sacrificed that communal plasticity1 that freedom of variety1 that happy looseness and changeability of structure1 in which lie all the suggestion and potency of social reconstruction4 ,if there is any lesson which shines out through all the kaleidoscope of history1 it is that a political system is doomed to early death if its charter offer no provision and facility for its own reform4 ,plasticity is king4 ,human ideals change1 and leave nations1 institutions1 even gods1 in their wake4 8,law and order in a state are0 not 8the cause of every good02#db they are the security of goods attained1 but they may be also the hindrance of goods conceived4 ,a state without freedom of criticism and variation is like a sail-boat in a calm2 it stands but it cannot move4 ,such a state is a geometrical diagram1 a perfect syllogism evolved out of impossible premises2 and its own perfection is its refutation4 ,in such a state there could be no ,plato1 with a penchant for conceiving ,utopias2 much less a ,socrates1 holding that a life uncriticised is unworthy of a man4 ,it would be a state not for philosophers but for priests3 very truly its basis would not be dialectical clarity but royal lies4 ,here is the supreme pessimism1 the ultimate atheism1 of the aristocrat1 that he does not believe in the final wholesomeness of truth4 ,and surely something can be said for democracy4 ,granted that democracy is not a problem solved but a problem added2 it is at least a problem that time may help to clarify4 ,granted that men used to slavery cannot turn and wisely rule themselves2 what is better than that they should1 by inevitable trial and error1 learn8 ,errando discimus4 ,granted that physicians do not consult us in their prescriptions2 but neither do they come to us before they are chosen and called4 8,that the guardian should require another guardian to guard him is ridiculous indeed40#dc ,but he would6 ,power corrupts unless it is shared by all4 8,cities cannot exist1 if a few only share in the virtues1 as in the arts40#dd ,to build your culture on the backs of slaves is to found your city on ,vesuvius4 ,men will not be lied to forever1--at least with the same lies6 ,and to end with such a ,utopia1--what is it but to yield to ,thrasymachus1 to arrange all things at last in the interest of the stronger8 ,is it just8 ,,vii ,the ,meaning of ,justice ,but what is justice8--asks ,plato4 ,don't you see that our notion of justice is the very crux of the whole business8 ,is justice merely a matter of telling the truth8 ,nonsense2 it may be well to have our children believe that2 but those who are not children know that if a lie is a better instrument of achievement than the truth in some given juncture of events1 then a lie is justified4 ,truth is a social value1 and has its justification only in that2 if untruth prove here and there of social value1 then untruth is just4#de ,the confusion of justice with some absolute eternal law comes of a separation of ethics from politics1 and an attempt to arrive at a definition of justice from the study of individuals4 ,but morals grow out of politics2 justice is essentially a political relation4 ,and taking the state as a whole1 it is clear that nothing is 8good0 unless it works2 that it would be absurd to say that justice demands of a state that it should be ordered in such a way as to make for its own decay4 ,social organization must be effective1 and lies and class-divisions are justified if they make for the effectiveness of a political order4 ,surely social effectiveness forbids that men fit to legislate should live out their lives as cobblers1 or that men should rule whose natural aptitude is for digging ditches4 ,justice means1 for politics at least1 that each member of society is minding his natural business1 is doing that for which he is fitted by his own natural capacity4 ,injustice is the encroachment of one part on another2 justice is the efficient functioning of each part4 ,justice1 then1 is social cordination and harmony4 ,it is not 8the interest of the stronger10 it is the harmony of the whole4 ,so in the individual1 justice is the harmonious operation of a unified personality2 each element in one's nature doing that which it is fitted to do2 again it is not mere strength or forcefulness1 but harmonious1 organized strength2 it is effective order4 ,and effective order demands a class division4 ,you may mouth as you please the delusive delicacies of democracy2 but classes you will have1 for men will always be some of gold and some of silver and some of brass4 ,and the brass must not pass itself off as silver1 nor the silver as gold4 ,give the brass all the time and opportunity in the world1 and it will still be brass4 ,of course brass will not believe that it is brass1 but we had better make it understand once for all that it is so1 even if we have to tell a thousand lies to get the truth believed4 ,and as for variation and plasticity1 remember that these too are valueless except as they make for a better society4 ,they assuredly make for change2 but change is not betterment4 ,history is a chaos of variations2 without some organ for their control they cancel one another and terminate inevitably in futility4 ,our problem is not how to change1 but how to set our best brains to controlling change for the sake of a finer life4 ,,viii ,the ,future of ,plato ,there are aperus here1 and a bewildering wealth of suggestions1 which one is tempted to pursue to their ultimate present significance4 ,but to do that would be to encroach too much on the subjects of later chapters4 ,the vital thing here is not to accept or refute any special element in ,plato's political philosophy2 it is rather to see how inextricably politics and philosophy were bound together in his mind as two sides of fundamentally one endeavor4 ,here is the passion to remould things2 here is the seeing of perfection and the will to make perfection2 here speaks out for the first time in ,european history the courage of the intellect that not only will perceive but will remake4 ,here is a man2 no dead academic cobweb-weaver1 but a masterful1 kingly soul1 mixed up in warm intimacy with the complex flow of the life about him4 ,he paints ,utopia2 but at the same time he takes his own counsel anent the importance of an educational approach to the social problem1 and founds the most famous and influential university the world has ever seen4 ,picture him in the gardens and lecture-halls of his ,academy1 arranging and supervising and cordinating1 and turning out men to whom nations looked--and not in vain--for statesmen4 ,not merely to lift men up to the beatific vision of unities and perfections1 but to teach them the art of creation1 to fire them with the ardor of a new artistry2 this he aimed to do1 and did4 8,the greatest works grow in importance1 as trees do after the death of the mortal men who planted them40#df ,so grew the ,republic1 and the ,academy4 ,to catch in a chapter the deep yet subtle spirit and meaning of this 8finest product of antiquity10#dg--;it is not easy4 ,in ,plato's ,utopia there would no doubt have been a law against writing so briefly on so vast a phenomenon1--with1 in this case1 the inevitably consequent derangement of the ,platonic perspective1 and the impossibility1 within such compass1 of focussing ,plato in the political and philosophical meaning of his time4 ,one's feeling here is of having desecrated with small talk the ,parthenon of philosophy4 ,perhaps as we go on we shall be able to see more clearly the still-living value of ,plato's thought3 in almost everything that we shall hereinafter discuss his voice will be heard1 even though unnamed4 ,to-day1 at last1 he comes again into his own--as in ,renaissance days--after centuries dominated by the influence of his first misinterpreter2 and generations bred on the throned lukewarmness of the ,nicomachean ,ethics yield to a generation that is learning to feel the hot constructive passion of the ,republic4 ,dead these two thousand and some hundred years1 ,plato belongs to the future4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,francis ,,bacon ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,possibilities ,,of ,,science ,i ,from ,plato to ,bacon 8,as ,i read ,plato10 writes ,professor ,dewey1 8philosophy began with some sense of its essentially political basis and mission--a recognition that its problems were those of the organization of a just social order4 ,but it soon got lost in dreams of another world40#dh ,plato and ,aristotle are the crura cerebri of ,europe4 ,but in ,aristotle1 along with a wealth of acute observation of men and institutions1 we find a diminishing interest in reconstruction2 the ,stagirite spent too much of his time in card-cataloguing ,plato1 and allowed his imagination to become suffocated with logic4 ,with the ,stoics and ,epicureans begin that alienation of ethics from politics1 and that subordination of philosophy to religious needs1 which it is part of the task of present thinking to undo4 ,alexander had conquered the ,orient1 only to have ,orientalism conquer ,greece4 ,under ,scholasticism it was the fate of great minds to retrace worn paths in the cage of a system of conclusions determined by external authority2 and the obligation to uphold the established precluded any practical recognition of the reconstructive function of thought4 ,with the ,renaissance--that ,indian summer of ,greek culture--the dream of a remoulded world found voice again4 ,campanella1 through the darkness of his prison cell1 achieved the vision of a communist utopia2 and other students of the rediscovered ,plato painted similar pictures4 ,indeed this reawakening of ,plato's influence gave to the men of the ,renaissance an inspiriting sense of the wonders that lay potential in organized intelligence4 ,again men faced the task of replacing with a natural ethic the falling authoritarian sanctions of supernatural religion2 and for a time one might have hoped that the thought of ,socrates was to find at last its due fruition4 ,but again men lost themselves in the notion of a cultured class moving leisurely over the backs of slaves2 and perhaps it was well that the whole movement was halted by the more ,puritan but also more democratic outburst of the ,reformation4 ,what the world needed was a method which offered hope for the redemption not of a class1 but of all4 ,galileo and ,roger ,bacon opened the way to meeting this need by their emphasis on the value of hypothesis and experiment1 and the necessity of combining induction with deduction2 it remained for ,francis ,bacon to lay out the road for the organized employment of these new methods1 and to inspire all ,europe with his warm vision of their social possibilities4 ,,ii ,character ,if you would understand ,bacon1 you must see him as not so much a philosopher as an administrator4 ,you find him a man of great practical ability3 he remoulds philosophy with one hand and rules part of ,england with the other2 not to speak of writing ,shakespeare's plays between times6 ,he rises brilliantly from youthful penury to the political pinnacle2 and meanwhile he runs over the whole realm of human knowledge1 scattering praise and censure with lordly hand4 ,did we not know the fact as part of the history of ,england we should never suspect that the detailed and varied learning of this man was the incidental accomplishment of a life busied with political intrigue4 ,bene vixit qui bene latuit3 surely here is a man who has lived widely1 and in no merely physical sense has made the world his home4 ,life is no 8brief candle0 to him1 nor men 8such stuff as dreams are made of02 life is a glorious gift1 big with blessing for him who will but assist at the delivery4 ,there is nothing of the timid ascetic about him2 like ,socrates1 he knows that there is a sort of cowardice in shunning pleasure2#di best of all1 there is so much work to be done1 so many opportunities for the man of unnarrowed soul4 ,he feels the exhilaration of one who has burst free from the shackles of intellectual authority3 he sees before him an uncharted future1 raw material for hands that dare to mould it2 and he dares4 ,all his life long he is mixed up with the heart of things2 every day is an adventure4 ,exiled from politics he plunges gladly into the field of scientific reconstruction2 he does not forget that he is an administrator1 any more than ,plato could forget that he was a dramatist2 he finds the world of thought a chaos1 and bequeaths it a planful process for the cordination of human life2 all ,europe responds to his call for the 8enlarging of the bounds of human empire40 ,he works joyfully and buoyantly to the very last1 and dies as he has wished1 8in an earnest pursuit1 which is like one that is wounded in hot blood1 who1 for the time1 scarce feels the hurt40 ,,iii ,the ,expurgation of the ,intellect ,consider the reaction of an experienced statesman who leaves the service of a king to enter the service of truth4 ,he has left a field wherein all workers moved in subordination to one head and one focal purpose2 he enters a field in which each worker is working by himself1 with no division of labor1 no organization of endeavor1 no correlation of ends4 ,there he has found administration1 here he finds a nave laissez-faire2 there order1 here anarchy2 there some sense of common end and effort1 here none4 ,he understands at once the low repute of philosophy among men of affairs4 8,for the people are very apt to contemn truth1 upon account of the controversies raised about it2 and so think those all in a wrong way1 who never meet40#ej ,he understands at once why it is that the world has been so little changed by speculation and research4 ,he is a man whose consciousness of pervasive human misery is too sharp for comfort2#ea and he sees no hope of remedy for this in isolated guerilla attacks waged upon the merest outposts of truth1 each attack with its jealously peculiar strategy1 its own dislocated1 almost irrelevant end4 ,and yet if there is no remedy for men's ills in this nascent science and renascent philosophy1 in what other quarter1 then1 shall men look for hope and cure8 ,there is no other1 ,bacon feels2 unless victory is first won in the laboratory and the study it will never be won in political assemblies2 no plebiscite or royal edict1 but only truth1 can make men free4 ,man's hope lies in the reorganization of the processes of discovery and interpretation4 ,unless philosophy and science be born again of social aims and social needs they cannot have life in them4 ,a new spirit must enter4 ,but first old spirits must be exorcised4 ,speculation and research must bring out a declaration of independence against theology4 8,the corruption of philosophy by superstition and an admixture of theology is 444 widely spread1 and does the greatest harm40#eb ,the search for final causes1 for design in nature1 must be left to theologians2 the function of science is not to interpret the purposes of nature1 but to discover the connections of cause and effect in nature4 ,dogma must be set aside3 8if a man will begin with certainties he shall end in doubts2 but if he will be content to begin in doubts he shall end in certainties40#ec ,dogma must be set aside1 too1 because it necessitates deduction as a basic method2 and deduction as a basic method is disastrous4 ,but that is not all2 there is much more in the way of preliminaries3 there must be a general 8expurgation of the intellect40 ,the mind is full 7some would say made up7 of prejudices1 wild fancies1 8idols10 or imaginings of things that are not so3 if you are to think correctly1 usefully1 all these must go4 ,try1 then1 to get as little of yourself as possible in the way of the thing you wish to see4 ,beware of the very general tendency to put order and regularity in the world and then to suppose that they are native to the structure of things2 or to force all facts into the unyielding mould of a preconceived opinion1 carefully neglecting all contrary instances2 or to give too credulous an ear to that which flatters the wish4 ,look into yourself and see the forest of prejudices that has grown up within you3 through your temperamental attitudes2 through your education2 through your friends 7friendship is so often an agreement in prejudices72 through your favorite authors and authorities4 ,if you find yourself seizing and dwelling on anything with particular satisfaction1 hold it in suspicion4 ,beware of words1 for they are imposed according to the apprehension of the crowd2 make sure that you do not take abstractions for things4 ,and remind yourself occasionally that you are not the measure of all things1 but their distorting mirror4 ,so much by way of clearing the forest4 ,comes then induction as the fount and origin of all truth3 patient induction1 obedient to the call of fact1 and with watchful eye for1 above all things1 the little unwelcome instance that contradicts4 ,not that induction is everything2 it includes experiment1 of course1 and is punctuated by hypothesis4#ed 7,more1 it is clearly but the servant of deduction1 since the aim of all science is to predict by deduction from generalizations formed by induction2 but just as clear is it that the efficacy of the whole business lies grounded in the faithfulness of the induction3 induction is servant1 but it has all men at its mercy47 ,and to formulate methods of induction1 to surround the process by mechanical guards1 to protect it from the premature flights of young generalizations1--that is a matter of life and death to science4 ,,iv ,knowledge is ,power ,and now1 armed with these methods of procedure1 we stand face to face with nature4 ,what shall we ask her8 ,prudens questio dimidium scienti3 to know what to ask is half of every science4 ,you must ask for laws1--or1 to use a ,platonic term1 forms4 ,in every process there is matter and there is form3 the matter being the seat of the process or operation1 and the form its method or law4 8,though in nature nothing really exists besides individual bodies1 performing pure individual acts1 according to a fixed law1 yet in philosophy the very law1 and the investigation1 discovery1 and explanation of it1 is the foundation as well of knowledge as of operation4 ,and it is this law1 with its clauses1 that ,i mean when ,i speak of ,forms40#ee ,not so much what a 8thing0 is1 but how it behaves2--that is the question4 ,and what is more1 if you will examine your conception of a 8thing10 you will see that it is really a conception of how the 8thing0 behaves2 every ,what is at last a ,how4 ,every 8thing0 is a machine1 whose essence or meaning is to be found not by a mere description of its parts1 but by an account of how it operates4 8,how does it work80 asks the boy before a machine2 see to it that you ask the same question of nature4 ,for observe1 if you know how a thing works1 you are on the way to managing and controlling it4 ,indeed1 a ,form can be defined as those elements in a process which must be known before the process can be controlled4 ,here we see the meaning of science2 it is an effort to discover the laws which must be known in order 8that the mind may exercise her power over the nature of things40#ef ,science is the formulation of control2 knowledge is power4 ,the object of science is not merely to know1 but to rebuild2 every science longs to be an art4 ,the quest for knowledge1 then1 is not a matter of curiosity1 it is a fight for power4 ,we 8put nature on the rack and compel her to bear witness0 against herself4 ,where this conception reigns1 logic-chopping is out of court4 8,the end of our new logic is to find not arguments but arts2 444 not probable reasons but plans and designs of works2 444 to overcome not an adversary in argument but nature in action40#eg ,but there is logic-chopping in other things than logic4 ,all strife of men with men1 of group with group1 if it leaves no result beyond the victory and passing supremacy of the individual or group1 is logic-chopping4 ,such victories pass from side to side1 and cancel themselves into final nullity4 ,real achievement is victory1 not over other men but with them4 8,it will not be amiss to distinguish the three kinds1 and as it were grades1 of ambition in mankind4 ,the first is of those who desire to extend their own power in their native country2 which kind is vulgar and degenerate4 ,the second is of those who labor to extend the power of their country and its dominion among men4 ,this certainly has more dignity1 though not less covetousness4 ,but if a man endeavor to establish and extend the power and dominion of the human race over the universe1 his ambition is without doubt both a more wholesome thing and a more noble than the other two4 ,the empire of man over things depends wholly on the arts and sciences4 ,for we cannot command nature except by obeying her40#eh ,v ,the ,socialization of ,science ,natura non vincitur nisi parendo4 8,i accept the universe10 says ,margaret ,fuller4 8,gad6 you'd better60 says ,carlyle4 ,i accept it1 says ,bacon1 but only as raw material4 ,we will listen to nature1 but only that we may learn what language she understands4 ,we stoop to conquer4 ,there is nothing impossible but thinking makes it so4 8,by far the greatest obstacle to the progress of science and the undertaking of new tasks 444 is found in this1 that men despair and think things impossible4444 ,if therefore any one believes or promises more1 they think this comes of an ungoverned and unripened mind40#ei ,there is nothing that we may not do1 if we will1 but we must will2 and must will the means as well as the end4 ,would we have an empire of man over nature8 ,very well3 organize the arts and sciences4 8,consider what may be expected from men abounding in leisure1 and from association of labors1 and from successions of ages2 the rather because it is not a way over which only one man can pass at a time 7as is the case with that of reasoning71 but within which the labors and industries of men 7especially as regards the collecting of experience7 may with the best effort be distributed and then combined4 ,for then only will men begin to know their strength when instead of great numbers doing all the same things1 one shall take charge of one thing and another of another40#fj ,there should be more coperation1 less chaotic rivalry1 in research4 ,and the coperation should be international2 the various universities of the world1 so far as they engage in research1 should be like the different buildings of a great manufacturing plant1 each with its own particular specialty and quest4 ,is it not remarkable how 8little sympathy and correspondence exists between colleges and universities1 as well throughout ,europe as in the same state and kingdom80#fa ,why cannot all the research in the world be cordinated into one unified advance8 ,perhaps the truth-seekers would be unwilling2 but has that been shown8 ,and is the number of willing coperators too small to warrant further effort8 ,how can we know without the trial8 ,grant that the genius would balk at some external central direction2 but research after all is seldom a matter of genius4 8,the course ,i propose 444 is such as leaves but little to the acuteness and strength of wits1 but places all wits and understandings nearly on the level40#fb ,let scope and freedom be amply provided for the genius2 it is the work of following up the aperus of genius that most sorely needs cordination4 ,organization of research means really the liberation of genius3 liberation from the halting necessities of mechanical repetition in experiment4 ,nor is cordination regimentation2 let each man follow his hobby to whatever university has been assigned to the investigation of that particular item4 ,liberty is futility unless it is organized4 ,it is a plan1 you see1 for the socialization of science4 ,it is a large and royal vision2 to make it real involves 8indeed opera basilica10 it is the business of a king1 8towards which the endeavors of one man can be but as the sign on a cross-road1 which points out the way but cannot tread it40#fc ,it will need such legislative appropriations as are now granted only to the business of competitive destruction on land and sea4 8,as the secretaries and spies of princes and states bring in bills for intelligence1 so you must allow the spies and intelligencers of nature to bring in their bills if you would not be ignorant of many things worthy to be known4 ,and if ,alexander placed so large a treasure at ,aristotle's command for the support of hunters1 fowlers1 fishers and the like1 in much more need do they stand of this beneficence who unfold the labyrinths of nature40#fd ,,vi ,science and ,utopia ,such an organization of science is ,bacon's notion of ,utopia4 ,he gives us in ,the ,new ,atlantis1 in plain strong prose1 a picture of a state in which this organization has reached the national stage4 ,it is a state nominally ruled by a king 7,bacon never forgets that he is a loyal subject and counsellor of ,james ,i72 but 8preminent amongst the excellent acts of the king 444 was the erection and institution of an ,order or ,society which we call ,solomon's ,house2 the noblest foundation1 as we think1 that ever was upon the earth1 and the lantern of this kingdom4 ,it is dedicated to the study of the nature of all things40#fe ,every twelve years this ,order sends out to all parts of the world 8merchants of light02 men who remain abroad for twelve years1 gather information and suggestions in every field of art and science1 and then 7the next expedition having brought men to replace them7 return home laden with books1 instruments1 inventions1 and ideas4 8,thus1 you see1 we maintain a trade not for gold1 silver or jewels2 nor for silk2 nor for spices2 nor for any other commodity or matter2 but only for ,god's first creation1 which was ,light40#ff ,meanwhile at home there is a busy army filling many laboratories1 experimenting in zology1 medicine1 dietetics1 chemistry1 botany1 physics1 and other fields2 there are1 in addition to these men1 8three that collect the experiments in all the books2 444 three that try new experiments02 three that tabulate the results of the experimenters2 8three that look into the experiments of their fellows1 and cast about how to draw out of them things of use 444 for man's life2 444 three that direct new experiments02 three that from the results draw up 8observations1 axioms1 and aphorisms40#fg 8,we imitate also the flights of birds2 we have some degree of flying in the air2 we have ships and boats for going under water40#fh ,and the purpose of it all1 he says1 with fine ,baconian ring1 is 8the enlarging of the bounds of human empire1 to the effecting of all things possible40#fi ,,vii ,scholasticism in ,science ,this is the voice of the ,renaissance1 speaking with some method to its music4 ,it is the voice of ,erasmus rather than that of ,luther2 but it is the voice of a larger and less class-bound vision than that which moved the polite encomiast of folly4 ,such minds as were not lost in the religious turmoil of the time responded to ,bacon's call for a new beginning2 a 8sense of liberation1 444 of new destinies1 pulsates in that generation at ,bacon's touch40#gj ,bacon says1 and with justice1 that he 8rang the bell which called the wits together40#ga ,when1 in #affj1 a group of ,london savants formed the ,royal ,society1 it was from ,bacon that they took their inspiration1 and from the 8,house of ,solomon0 part of their plan of organization4 ,diderot and ,d',alembert acknowledged the impetus given by their reading of ,bacon to the adventurous enterprise which completed and distributed the ,encyclopdie despite the prohibition of the king4 ,to-day1 after two hundred years of ,cartesian futility about mind and body and the problem of knowledge1 the ,baconian emphasis on the socially-reconstructive function of thought renews its power and appeal4 ,the world returns to ,socrates1 to ,plato1 and to ,bacon4 ,but with some measure of wholesome disillusionment4 ,these last two centuries have told us that science1 unaided1 cannot solve our social problem4 ,we have invented1 invented1 invented1 invented2 and with what result8 ,the gap between class and class has so widened during these inventive years that there are now not classes but castes4 ,social harmony is a matter of brief interludes in a drama more violent than any ever mimicked on the stage4 ,men trained and accomplished in science1 like ,prince ,kropotkin1 abandon it on the score that it has turned its back on the purpose that gave it vitality and worth4#gb ,what is the purpose of science8 ,what do scientists consider to be the purpose of science8 ,the laboratories are crowded with men who have no inkling of any other than a purely material reconstruction as the function of their growing knowledge4 ,specialization has so divided science that hardly any sense of the whole survives4 ,the ghosts of scholasticism--of a pursuit of knowledge divorced from its social end--hover about the microscopes and test-tubes of the scientific world2 and the upshot of it all is that to them who have1 more is given4 ,let ,bacon speak here3 8,there is another great and powerful cause why the sciences have made but little progress1 which is this4 ,it is not possible to run a course aright1 when the goal itself has not been rightly placed40#gc ,sciences with obvious social functions have languished through lapse of all sense of direction1 all feeling of focus2 psychology1 for example1 is but now reviving under the stimulus of men who dared to 8stir the earth a little about the roots of this science10#gd because they had perceived its purpose and meaning in the drama of reconstruction4 ,the blunt truth is that unless a scientist is also a philosopher1 with some capacity to see things sub specie totius1--unless he can come out of his hole into the open1--he is not fit to direct his own research4 8,as no perfect discovery can be made upon a flat or level1 neither is it possible to discover the more remote and deeper parts of any science1 if you stand but upon the level of the same science1 and ascend not to a higher science40#ge ,before it can be of real service to life1 science must be enlightened by some discrimination of values1 some consideration and fitting together of human ends3 without philosophy as its eye piece1 science is but the traditional child who has taken apart the traditional watch1 with none but the traditional results4 ,there is more to this indictment4 ,science has been organized1 though very imperfectly1 for research2 it has been organized hardly at all for social application and control4 ,the notion that science can be used in conserving the vital elements of order and at the same time facilitating experimental and progressive change1 is but beginning to walk about4 ,indeed1 the employment and direction of scientific ability in the business of government is still looked upon as a doubtful procedure2 to say that the administration of municipal affairs1 for example1 is to be given over to men trained in the social sciences rather than to men artful in trapping votes with oratorical molasses1 is still a venture into the loneliness of heresy4 ,again let ,bacon speak1 who was administrator and philosopher in one4 8,it is wrong to trust the natural body to empirics who commonly have a few receipts whereon they rely1 but who know neither the causes of the disease1 nor the constitution of patients1 nor the danger of accidents1 nor the true methods of cure4 ,and so it must needs be dangerous to have the civil body of states managed by empirical statesmen1 unless well mixed with others who are grounded in learning4 ,on the contrary it is almost without instance that any government was unprosperous under learned governors40#gf ,plato over again1 you say4 ,yes2 just as 8,greek philosophy is the dough with which modern philosophers have baked their bread1 kneading it over and over again10#gg so this vital doctrine of the application of the best available intelligence to the problem of social order and development must be restated in every generation until at last the world may see its truth and merit exemption from its repetition4 ,,viii ,the ,asiatics of ,europe ,but the place of ,bacon in the continuum of history is hardly stated by connecting him with ,plato4 ,conceive of him rather as a new protagonist in the long epic of intelligence2 another blow struck in the seemingly endless war between magic and science1 between supernaturalism and naturalism1 between the spirit of worship and the spirit of control4 ,primitive man--and he lives everywhere under the name of legion--looks out upon nature as something to be feared and obeyed1 something to be cajoled by ritual and sacrifice and prayer4 ,in ages of great social disorder1 such as the millennium inaugurated in ,western ,europe by the barbarian invasions1 the primitive elements in the mental make-up of men emerge through the falling cultural surface2 and cults rich in ritual and steeped in emotional luxury grow in rank abundance4 ,it is in the character of man to worship power3 if he feels the power without him more intensely than the power within1 he worships nature with a humble fear1 and leans on magic and supernatural rewards2 if he feels the power within him more intensely than the power without1 he sees divinity in himself and other centres of remoulding activity1 and thinks not of worshipping and obeying nature1 but of controlling and commanding her4 ,the second attitude comes1 of course1 with knowledge1 and action that expresses knowledge2 it is quite human that nature should not be worshipped once she has been known4 ,a man is primitive1 then1 when he worships nature and makes no effort to control her2 he is mature when he stops worshipping and begins to control1--when he understands that 8,nature is not a temple but a workshop10#gh not a barrier to divinity1 but the raw material of ,utopia4 ,now the essence of ,bacon is not the replacement of deduction by induction1 but the change of emphasis from worship to control4 ,this emphasis1 once vivid in ,plato but soon obscured by ,oriental influence1 is one of the two dominant elements in modern thought 7the other being the puzzling over an artificial problem of knowledge72 and unless the ,baconian element finally subordinates the ,cartesian1 the word modern must no longer arrogate to itself a eulogistic connotation4 ,hence ,bacon1 and not ,descartes1 is the initiator of modern philosophy2 part initiator1 at least1 of that current of thought which finds rebellious expression in the enlightenment of the eighteenth-century1 and comes to supremacy in the scientific victories of the nineteenth4 ,the vital sequence in modern philosophy is not ,descartes1 ,berkeley1 ,kant1 ,hegel1 and ,bergson 7for these are the ,asiatics of ,europe71 but ,bacon1 ,hobbes1 ,condorcet1 ,comte1 ,darwin1 and ,james4#gi ,the hope of the world is in this resolute spirit of control1--control of the material without us1 and of the passions within4 ,bit by bit1 one is not afraid to say1 we shall make for ourselves a better world4 ,shall we not find a way to eliminate disease1 to control the increase of population1 to find in plastic organization a substitute for revolution8 ,shall we perhaps even succeed in transmuting the lust for power over man into ambition to conquer the forces that impede man8 ,shall we make men understand that there is more potency of joy in the sense of having contributed to the power of men over nature than in any personal triumph of one over another man8--more glory in a conquest of bacteria than in all the martial victories that have ever spilled human blood8 ,here is the beginning of real civilization1 and the mark of man4 8,the environment transforms the animal2 man transforms the environment40#hj 8,looking at the history of the world as a whole1 the tendency has been in ,europe to subordinate nature to man2 out of ,europe1 to subordinate man to nature4 ,formerly the richest countries were those in which nature was most bountiful2 now the richest countries are those in which man is most active40#ha ,control is the sign of maturity1 the achievement of ,europe1 the future of ,america4 ,it is1 one argues again1 the drama of history1 this war between ,asia and ,europe1 between nature and man1 between worship and control4 ,fundamentally it is the upward struggle of intelligence3 ,plato is its voice1 ,zeno its passing exhaustion1 ,bacon its resurrection4 ,it was not an unopposed rebirth3 there is still no telling whether ,east or ,west will win4 ,surrounded by the backwash of ,oriental currents everywhere1 the lover of the ,baconian spirit needs constantly to refresh himself at the fount of ,bacon's inexhaustible inspiration and confidence4 8,i stake all10 he says1 8on the victory of art over nature in the race40 ,and one needs to hold ever before oneself ,bacon's favorite device3 ,a ship passing through the ,pillars of ,hercules out into the unknown sea1 and over it the words1 ,,plus ,,ultra4 ,more beyond6 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,spinoza ,,on ,,the ,,social ,,problem#hb ,i ,hobbes ,passing from ,bacon to ,spinoza we meet with ,thomas ,hobbes1 a man from whom ,spinoza drew many of his ideas1 though very little of his inspiration4 ,the social incidence of the greater part of ,hobbes's thinking has long been recognized2 he is not a figure over whom the biographer of social thought finds much cause to quarrel4 ,he is at once the materialist par excellence of modern philosophy1 and the most uncompromising protagonist of the absolutist theory of the state4 ,the individual1 all compact of pugnacity1 was to ,hobbes the bogey which the state1 voracious of all liberties1 became two centuries later to ,herbert ,spencer4 ,he had in acute degree the philosopher's natural appetite for order2 and trembled at the thought of initiatives not foreseen by his political geometry4 ,he lived in the midst of alarms3 war stepped on the heels of war in what was very nearly a real bellum omnium contra omnes4 ,he lived in the midst of political reaction3 men were weary of ,renaissance exuberance and ,reformation strife1 and sank gladly into the open arms of the past4 ,there could be no end1 thought ,hobbes1 to this turmoil of conflicting egos1 individual and national1 until all groups and individuals knelt in absolute obedience to one sovereign power4 ,but all this has been said before2 we need but remind ourselves of it here so that we may the better appreciate the vibrant sympathy for the individual man1 the generous defence of popular liberties1 that fill with the glow of subdued passion the pages of the gentle ,spinoza4 ,,ii ,the ,spirit of ,spinoza ,yet ,spinoza was not wanting in that timidity and that fear of unbridled instinct which stood dictator over the social philosophy of ,hobbes4 ,he knew as well as ,hobbes the dangers of a democracy that could not discipline itself4 8,those who have had experience of how changeful the temper of the people is1 are almost in despair4 ,for the populace is governed not by reason but by emotion2 it is headlong in everything1 and easily corrupted by avarice and luxury40#hc ,and even more than ,hobbes he withdrew from the affairs of men and sought in the protection of a suburban attic the peace and solitude which were the vital medium of his thought4 ,he found that sometimes at least1 8truth hath a quiet breast40 8,se tu sarai solo10 wrote ,leonardo1 8tu sarai tutto tuo40 ,and surely ,goethe thought of ,spinoza when he said3 8,no one can produce anything important unless he isolate himself40 ,but this dread of the crowd was only a part of ,spinoza's nature1 and not the dominant part4 ,his fear of men was lost in his boundless capacity for affection2 he tried so hard to understand men that he could not help but love them4 8,i have labored carefully not to mock1 lament1 or execrate1 but to understand1 human actions2 and to this end ,i have looked upon passions 444 not as vices of human nature1 but as properties just as pertinent to it as are heat1 cold1 storm1 thunder1 and the like to the nature of the atmosphere40#hd ,even the accidents of time and space were sinless to his view1 and all the world found room in the abundance of his heart4 8,spinoza deified the ,all in order to find peace in the face of it10 says ,nietzsche3#he but perhaps1 too1 because all love is deification4 ,all in all1 history shows no man more honest and independent2 and the history of philosophy shows no man so sincere1 so far above quibbling and dispute and the picking of petty flaws1 so eager to receive the truth even when brought by the enemy1 so ready to forgive even persecution in the depth and breadth of his tolerance4 ,no man who suffered so much injustice made so few complaints4 ,he became great because he could merge his own suffering in the suffering of all1--a mark of all deep men4 8,they who have not suffered10 says ,ibsen1--and1 one might add1 suffered with those they saw suffer1--8never create2 they only write books40 ,spinoza did not write much2 the long-suffering are seldom long-winded4 ,a fragment ,on the ,improvement of the ,understanding2 a brief volume on religion and the state2 the ,ethics2 and as he began to write the chapter on democracy in the ,political ,treatise consumption conquered him4 ,bacteria take no bribes4 ,,iii ,political ,ethics ,had he lived longer it would have dawned perhaps even on the ,german historians that ,spinoza's basic interest was not in metaphysics so much as in political ethics4 ,the ,ethics1 because it is the most sustained flight of reasoning in philosophy1 has gathered round it all the associations that throng about the name of ,spinoza1 so that one is apt to think of him in terms of a mystical 8pantheism0 rather than of cordinative intelligence1 democracy1 and free thought4#hf ,hffding considers it a defect in ,spinoza's philosophy that it takes so little notice of epistemology3 but should we not be grateful for that8 ,here are men suffering1 said ,spinoza1 here are men enslaved by passions and prelates and kings2 surely till these things are dealt with we have no time for epistemological delicacies4 ,instead of increasing the world's store of learned ignorance by writing tomes on the possibility of a subject knowing an object1 ,spinoza thought it better to give himself to the task of helping to keep alive in an age of tyrannical reaction the ,renaissance doctrine of popular sovereignty4 ,instead of puzzling himself and others about epistemology he pondered the problem of stimulating the growth of intelligence and evolving a rational ethic4 ,he thought that philosophy was something more than a chess-game for professors4 ,there is no need to spend time and space here on what for ,spinoza1 as for ,socrates and ,plato1 was the problem of problems1--how human reason could be developed to a point where it might replace supernatural sanctions for social conduct and provide the medium of social reconstruction4 ,one point1 however1 may be profitably emphasized4 ,a careless reading of the ,ethics may lead to the belief that ,spinoza bases his philosophy on a nave opposition of reason to passion4 ,it is not so4 8,a desire cannot be restrained or removed10 says ,spinoza1 8except by an opposite and stronger desire40#hg ,reason is not dictator to desire1 it is a relation among desires1--that relation which arises when experience has hammered impulses into cordination4 ,an impulse1 passion or emotion is by itself 8a confused idea10 a blurred picture of the thing that is indeed desired4 ,thought and impulse are not two kinds of mental process3 thought is impulse clarified by experience1 impulse is thought in chaos4 ,,iv ,is ,man a ,political ,animal8 ,why is there a social problem8 ,is it because men are 8bad08 ,nonsense1 answers ,spinoza3 the terms 8good0 and 8bad10 as conveying moral approval and disapproval1 are philosophically out of court2 they mean nothing except that 8each of us wishes all men to live according to his desire10 and consoles himself for their non-complaisance by making moral phrases4 ,there is a social problem1 says ,spinoza1 because men are not naturally social4 ,this does not mean that there are no social tendencies in the native human constitution2 it does mean that these tendencies are but a sorry fraction of man's original nature1 and do not avail to chain the 8ape and tiger0 hiding under his extremely civilized shirt4 ,man is a 8political animal02 but he is also an animal4 ,we must approach the social problem through a very respectful consideration of the ape and tiger2 we must follow ,hobbes and inquire into 8the natural condition of man40 8,in the state of nature every man lives as he wishes10#hh--;he is not pestered with police regulations and aldermanic ordinances4 ,he 8may do whatever he can3 his rights extend to the utmost limits of his powers40#hi ,he may fight1 hate1 deceive1 exploit1 to his heart's desire2 and he does4 ,we moderns smile at the 8natural man0 as a myth1 and think our forbears were social ab initio4 ,but be it remembered that by 8social0 ,spinoza implies no mere preference of society to solitude1 but a subordination of individual caprice to more or less tacit communal regulation4 ,and ,spinoza considers it useful1 if we are going to talk about 8human nature in politics10 to ask whether man naturally submits to regulation or naturally rebels against it4 ,when he wrote of a primitive non-social human condition he wrote as a psychologist inferring the past rather than as an historian revealing it4 ,he observed man1 kindly yet keenly2 he saw that 8everyone desires to keep down his fellow-men by all possible means1 and when he prevails1 boasts more of the injuries he has done to others than of the advantage he has won for himself02#ij and he concluded that if we could trace human history to its sources we should find a creature--call him human or pre-human--willing1 perhaps glad1 to have the company of his like1 but still unattracted and unhampered by social organization4 ,we like to laugh at the simple anthropology of ,spinoza and ,rousseau2 but the laugh should be turned upon us when we suppose that the historical motif played any but a very minor part in the discussion of the natural state of man4 ,history was not the point at all3 these men were not interested in the past so much as in the possibilities of the future4 ,that is why the eighteenth century was so largely their creation4 ,when a man is interested in the past he writes history2 when he is interested in the future he makes it4 ,the point to be borne in mind1 ,spinoza urges1 is that we are still essentially unsocialized2 the instinct to acquire possession and power1 if necessary by oppression and exploitation1 is still stronger than the disposition to share1 to be tolerant of disagreement1 and to work in mutual aid4 ,the 8natural man0 is not a myth1 he is the solid reality that struts about dressed in a little brief civilization4 8,religion teaches that each man should love his neighbor as himself1 and defend the rights of others as earnestly as he would his own4 ,yet this conviction has very little influence over man's emotions4 ,it is no doubt of some account in the hour of death1 for then disease has weakened the emotions1 and the man lies helpless4 ,and the principle is assented to in church1 for there men have no dealings with one another4 ,but in the mart or the court it has little or no effect1 though that is just where the need for it is greatest40#ia ,he still 8does everything for the sake of his own profit02#ib nor will even the unlimited future change him in that1 for it is his very essence4 ,his happiness is in the pursuit of his profit1 his supreme joy is in the increase of his power4 ,and a social order built upon any other basis than this exuberant egoism of man will be as lasting1 in the eye of history1 as a name that is writ in water4 ,v ,what the ,social ,problem ,is ,but what if it is a good basis8 ,what if 8the foundation of virtue is the endeavor to preserve one's own being0 to the uttermost8#ic ,what if there is a way in which1 without any hypocritical mystification1 this self-seeking1 while still remaining self-seeking1 may become coperation8 ,spinoza's answer is not startling3 it is the ,socratic answer1 issuing from a profound psychological analysis4 ,given the liberation and development of intelligence1 and the discordant strife of egos will yield undreamed-of harmonies4 ,men are so made1 they are so compact of passion and obscurity1 that they will not let one another be free2 how can that be changed8 ,deception has been tried1 and has succeeded only temporarily if at all4 ,compulsion has been tried2 but compulsion is a negative force1 it makes for inhibition rather than inspiration4 ,it is a necessary evil2 but hardly the last word of constructive social thinking4 ,there is something more in a man than his capacity for fear1 there is some other way of appealing to him than the way of threats2 there is his hunger and thirst to know and understand and develop4 ,think of the untouched resources of this human desire for mental enlargement2 think of the millions who almost starve that they may learn4 ,is that the force that is to build the future and fashion the city of our dreams8 ,here are men torn with impulses1 shaken by mutual interference2 is it conceivable that they would be so deeply torn and shaken if that hunger of theirs for knowledge--knowledge of themselves1 too1--were met with generous opportunity8 ,men long to be reasonable2 they know1 even the least of them1 that under the tyranny of impulse there is no ultimately fruitful life2 what is there that they would not give for the power to see things clearly and be captains of their souls8 ,here if anywhere is an opportunity for such statesmanship as does not often grace the courts of emperors and kings6 ,how we can come to know ourselves1 our inmost nature1 how we can through this knowledge achieve cordination and our real desires1--that is for ,spinoza the heart of the social problem4 ,the source of man's strength is that he can know his weakness4 ,if he can but find himself out1 then he can change himself4 8,a passion ceases to be a passion as soon as we form a clear and distinct idea of it40#id ,when a passion is tracked to its lair and confronted with its futile partiality1 its sting is drawn1 it can hurt us no more2 it may coperate but it may no longer rule4 ,it is seen to be 8inadequate10 to express but a fragment of us1 and so seen it sinks into its place in the hierarchy of desires4 8,and in proportion as we know our emotions better1 the more are they susceptible to control40#ie ,passion is passivity2 control is power4 ,knowledge brings control1 and control brings freedom2 freedom is not a gift1 it is a victory4 ,knowledge1 control1 freedom1 power1 virtue3 these are all one thing4 ,before the 8empire of man over nature0 must come the empire of man over himself1 must come cordination4 ,achievement is born of clear vision and unified intent1 not of actions that are but bubbles on the muddy rapids of desire4 ,,vi ,free ,speech 8,before all things1 a means must be devised for improving and clarifying the understanding40#if 8,since there is no single thing we know which is more excellent than a man who is guided by reason1 it follows that there is nothing by which a person can better show how much skill and talent he possesses than by so educating men that at last they will live under the direct authority of reason40#ig ,but how8 ,first of all1 says ,spinoza1 thought must be absolutely free3 we must have the possible profit of even the most dangerous heresies4 ,if that proposition appear a trifle trite1 let it be remembered that ,spinoza wrote at a time when ,galileo's broken-hearted retraction was still fresh in men's memories1 and when ,descartes was modifying his philosophy to soothe the ,jesuits4 ,the chapter on freedom of thought is really the pivotal point and raison d'tre of the ,tractatus ,theologico-politicus2 and it is still rich in encouragement and inspiration4 ,perhaps there is nothing else in ,spinoza's writings that is so typical at once of his gentleness and of his strength4 ,free speech should be granted1 ,spinoza argues1 because it must be granted4 ,men may conceal real beliefs1 but these same beliefs will inevitably influence their behavior2 a belief is not that which is spoken1 it is that which is done4 ,a law against free speech is subversive of law itself1 for it invites derision from the conscientious4 8,all laws which can be broken without any injury to another are counted but a laughing-stock40#ih ,it is useless for the state to command 8such things as are abhorrent to human nature40 8,men in general are so constituted that there is nothing they will endure with so little patience as that views which they believe to be true should be counted crimes against the law4444 ,under such circumstances men do not think it disgraceful1 but most honorable1 to hold the laws in abhorrence1 and to refrain from no action against the government40#ii ,where men are not permitted to criticise their rulers in public1 they will plot against them in private4 ,there is no religious enthusiasm stronger than that with which laws are broken by those whose liberty has been suppressed4 ,spinoza goes further4 ,thought must be liberated not only from legal restrictions but from indirect and even unintentional compulsion as well4 ,spinoza feels very strongly the danger to freedom1 that is involved in the organization of education by the state4 8,academies that are founded at the public expense are instituted not so much to cultivate men's natural abilities as to restrain them4 ,but in a free commonwealth arts and sciences will be best cultivated to the full if everyone that asks leave is allowed to teach in public1 at his own cost and risk40#ajj ,he would have preferred such 8free lances0 as the ,sophists to the state universities of the ,american ,middle ,west4 ,he did not suggest means of avoiding the apparent alternative of universities subsidized by the rich4 ,it is a problem that has still to be solved4 ,in demanding absolute freedom of speech ,spinoza touches the bases of state organization4 ,nothing is so dangerous and yet so necessary2 for ignorance is the mother of authority4 ,the defenders of free speech have never yet met the contention of such men as ,hobbes1 that freedom of thought is subversive of established government4 ,the reason is only this1 that the contention is probably true1 so far as most established governments go4 ,absolute liberty of speech is assuredly destructive of despotism1 no matter how constitutional the despotism may be2 and those who have at heart the interests of any such government may be forgiven for hesitating to applaud ,spinoza4 ,freedom of speech makes for social vitality1 certainly2 without it1 indeed1 the avenues of mental and social development would be blocked1 and life hardly worth living4 ,but freedom of speech cannot be said to make for social stability and permanence1 unless the social organization in question invites criticism and includes some mechanism for profiting by it4 ,where democracy is real1 or is on the way to becoming real1 free speech will help1 not harm1 the state2 for there is no man so loyal as the man who knows that he may criticise his government freely and to some account4 ,but where there is the autocracy of a person or a class1 freedom of speech makes for dissolution1--dissolution1 however1 not of the society so much as of the government4 ,the ,bourbons are gone1 but ,france remains4 ,nay1 if the ,bourbons had remained1 ,france might be gone4 ,but to argue to-day for freedom of speech is to invite the charge of emphasizing the obvious4 ,it may be wholesome to remind ourselves1 by a few examples1 that however universal the theory of free speech may be1 the practice is still rather sporadic4 ,an ,american professor is dismissed because he thinks there is a plethora of unearned income in his country2 an ,english publicist is reported to have been refused 8permission0 to fill lecture engagements in ,america because he had not been sufficiently patriotic2 and one of the most prominent of living philosophers loses his chair because he supposes that conscience has rights against cabinets4 ,but indeed our governing bodies are harmless offenders here in comparison with the people themselves4 ,the last lesson which men and women will learn is the lesson of free thought and free speech4 ,the most famous of living dramatists finds himself unsafe in ,london streets1 because he has dared to criticise his government2 the most able of living novelists finds it convenient to leave ,paris because there are still some ,germans whom he does not hate2 and an ,american community full of constitutional lawyers shows its love of 8law and order0 by stoning a group of boys bent on expounding the desirability of syndicalism4 ,perhaps the world has need of many ,spinozas still4 ,,vii ,virtue as ,power ,freedom of expression is the corner-stone of ,spinoza's politics2 the postulate without which he refuses to proceed4 ,but ,spinoza does not have to be told that this question of free speech precipitates him into the larger problems of 8the individual vs4 the state02 he knows that that problem is the very raison d'tre of political philosophy2 he knows that indeed the problem goes to the core of philosophy1 and finds its source and crux in the complex socio-egoistical make-up of the individual man4 ,the 8,god-intoxicated0 ,spinoza is quite sober and disillusioned about the social possibilities of altruism4 8,it is a universal law of human nature that no one ever neglects anything which he judges to be good1 except with the hope of gaining a greater good40#aja 8,this is as necessarily true as that the whole is greater than its part40#ajb ,this confident reduction of human conduct to self-reference does not for ,spinoza involve any condemnation3 8reason1 since it asks for nothing that is opposed to nature1 demands that every person should 444 seek his own profit40#ajc ,observe1 reason demands this2 this same self-seeking is the most valuable and necessary item in the composition of man4 ,spinoza1 as said1 goes so far as to identify this self-seeking with virtue3 8to act absolutely in conformity with virtue is1 in us1 nothing but to act1 live1 and preserve our being 7these three have the same meaning7 as reason directs1 from the ground of seeking our own profit40#ajd ,this is a brave rejection of self-renunciation and asceticism by one whose nature1 so far as we can judge it now1 inclined him very strongly in the direction of these 8virtues40 ,what we have to do1 says ,spinoza1 is not to deny the self1 but to broaden it2 here again1 of course1 intelligence is the mother of morals4 ,progress lies not in self-reduction but in self-expansion4 ,progress is increase in virtue1 but 8by virtue and power ,i understand the same thing02#aje progress is an increase in the ability of men to achieve their ends4 ,it is part of our mental confectionery to define progress in terms of our own ends2 a nation is 8backward0 or 8forward0 according as it moves towards or away from our own ideals4 ,but that1 says ,spinoza1 is nave nonsense2 a nation is progressive or backward according as its citizens are or are not developing greater power to realize their own purposes4 ,that is a doctrine that may have 8dangerous0 implications1 but intelligence will face the implications and the facts1 ready not to suppress them but to turn them to account4 ,it was the passion for power that led to the first social groupings and developed the social instincts4 ,our varied sympathies1 our parental and filial impulses1 our heroisms and generosities1 all go back to social habits born of individual needs4 8,since fear of solitude exists in all men1 because no one in solitude is strong enough to defend himself and procure the necessaries of life1 it follows that men by nature tend towards social organization40#ajf 8,let satirists scoff at human affairs as much as they please1 let theologians denounce them1 and let the melancholy1 despising men and admiring brutes1 praise as much as they can a life rude and without refinement1--men will nevertheless find out that by mutual help they can much more easily procure the things they need1 and that it is only by their united strength that they can avoid the dangers which everywhere threaten them40#ajg ,nihil homine homini utilius4 ,men discover that they are useful to one another1 and that mutual profit from social organization increases as intelligence grows4 ,in a 8state of nature0--that is1 before social organization--each man has a 8natural right0 to do all that he is strong enough to do2 in society he yields part of this sovereignty to the communal organization1 because he finds that this concession1 universalized1 increases his strength4 ,the fear of solitude1 and not any positive love of fellowship1 is the prime force in the origin of society4 ,man does not join in social organization because he has social instincts2 he develops such instincts as the result of joining in such organization4 ,,viii ,freedom and ,order ,even to-day the social instincts are not strong enough to prevent unsocial behavior4 8,men are not born fit for citizenship1 but must be made so40#ajh ,hence custom and law4 ,each man1 in his sober moments1 desires such social arrangements as will protect him from aggression and interference4 8,there is no one who does not wish to live1 so far as possible1 in security and without fear2 and this cannot possibly happen so long as each man is allowed to do as he pleases40#aji 8,that men who are necessarily subject to passions1 and are inconstant and changeable1 may be able to live together in security1 and to trust one another's fidelity10--that is the purpose of law4#aaj ,ideally1 the state is to the individual what reason is to passion4#aaa ,law protects a man not only from the passions of others1 but from his own2 it is a help to delayed response4 ,how to frame laws so that the greatest possible number of men may find their own security and fulfilment in allegiance to the law1--that is the problem of the statesman4 ,law implies force1 but so does life1 so does nature2 indeed1 the punishments decreed by 8man-made0 states are usually milder than those which in a 8state of nature0 would be the natural consequents of most interferences2 not seldom the law--as when it prevents lynching--protects an aggressor from the natural results of his act4 ,force is the essence of law2 hence international law will not really be law until nations are cordinated into a larger group possessed of the instrumentalities of compulsion4#aab ,it is clear that ,spinoza has the philosophic love of order4 8,whatever conduces to human harmony and fellowship is good2 whatever brings discord into the state is evil40#aac ,but discord1 one must repeat1 is often the prelude to a greater harmony2 development implies variation1 and all variation is a discord except to ears that hear the future4 ,the social sanction of liberty lies of course in the potential value of variations2 without that vision of new social possibilities which is suggested by variations from the norm a people perishes4 ,spinoza does not see this2 but there is a fine passage in the ,tractatus ,politicus#aad which shows him responsive to the ideal of liberty as well as to that of order3 8,the last end of the state is not to dominate men1 nor to restrain them by fear2 rather it is so to free each man from fear that he may live and act with full security and without injury to himself or his neighbor4 ,the end of the state is1 ,i repeat1 not to make rational beings into brute beasts or machines4 ,it is to enable their bodies and their minds to function safely4 ,it is to lead men to live by1 and to exercise1 a free reason1 that they may not waste their strength in hatred1 anger1 and guile1 not act unfairly toward one another4 ,thus the end of the state is really liberty40 ,so it is that ,spinoza takes sharp issue with ,hobbes and exalts freedom1 decentralization1 and democracy1 where ,hobbes1 starting with almost identical premises1 concludes to a centralized despotism of body and soul4 ,this does not mean that ,spinoza had no eye for the defects of democracy4 8,experience is supposed to teach that it makes for peace and concord when all authority is conferred upon one man4 ,for no political order has stood so long without notable change as that of the ,turks1 while none have been so short-lived1 nay1 so vexed by seditions1 as popular or democratic states4 ,but if slavery1 barbarism1 and desolation are to be called peace1 then peace is the worst misfortune that can befall a state4 ,it is true that quarrels are wont to be sharper and more frequent between parents and children than between masters and slaves2 yet it advances not the art of home life to change a father's right into a right of property1 and count his children as only his slaves4 ,slavery1 then1 and not peace1 comes from the giving of all power to one man4 ,for peace consists not in the absence of war1 but in a union and harmony of men's souls40#aae ,no2 better the insecurity of freedom than the security of bondage4 ,better the dangers that come of the ignorance of majorities than those that flow from the concentration of power in the hands of an inevitably self-seeking minority4 ,even secret diplomacy is worse than the risks of publicity4 8,it has been the one song of those who thirst after absolute power that the interest of the state requires that its affairs be conducted in secret4444 ,but the more such arguments disguise themselves under the mask of public welfare the more oppressive is the slavery to which they will lead4444 ,better that right counsels be known to enemies1 than that the evil secrets of tyrants should be concealed from the citizens4 ,they who can treat secretly of the affairs of a nation have it absolutely under their authority2 and as they plot against the enemy in time of war1 so do they against the citizens in time of peace4444 ,it is folly to choose to avoid a small loss by means of the greatest of evils40#aaf ,this is but one of many passages in ,spinoza that startle the reader with their present applicability and value4 ,there is in the same treatise a plan for an unpaid citizen soldiery1 much like the scheme adopted in ,switzerland2 there is a plea against centralization and for the development of municipal pride by home rule and responsibility2 there is a warning against the danger to democracy involved in the territorial expansion of states2 and there is a plan for the state ownership of all land1 the rental from this to supply all revenue in time of peace4 ,but let us pass to a more characteristic feature of ,spinoza's political theory1 and consider with him the function of intelligence in the state4 ,,ix ,democracy and ,intelligence 8,there is no single thing in nature which is more profitable to man than a man who lives according to the guidance of reason40#aag ,such a man1 to begin with1 has made his peace with the inevitable1 and accepts with good cheer the necessary limitations of social life4 ,he has a genial sense of human imperfections1 and does not cushion himself upon ,utopia4 ,he pursues his own ends but with some perspective of their social bearings2 and he is confident that 8when each man seeks that which is really profitable to himself1 then are men most profitable to one another40#aah ,he knows that the ends of other men will often conflict with his2 but he will not for that cause make moral phrases at them4 ,he feels the tragedy of isolated purposes1 and knows the worth of coperation4 ,as he comes to understand the intricate bonds between himself and his fellows he finds ever more satisfaction in purposes that overflow the narrow margins of his own material advantage2 until at last he learns to desire nothing for himself without desiring an equivalent for others4#aai ,given such men1 democracy follows2 such democracy1 too1 as will be a fulfilment and not a snare4 ,given such men1 penal codes will interest only the antiquarian4 ,given such men1 a society will know the full measure of civic allegiance and communal stability and development4 ,how make such men8 ,by revivals8 ,by the gentle ansthesia of heaven and the cheap penology of hell8 ,by memorizing catechisms and commandments8 ,by appealing like ,comte1 to the heart1 and trusting to the eternal feminine to lead us ever onward8 7,onward whither87 ,or by spreading the means of intelligence8 ,it is at this point that the social philosophy of ,spinoza1 like that of ,socrates1 betrays its weaker side4 ,how is intelligence to be spread8 ,perhaps it is too much to ask the philosopher this question2 he may feel that he has done enough if he has made clear what it is which will most help us to achieve our ends4 ,spinoza1 after all1 was not the kind of man who could be expected to enter into practical problems2 his soul was filled with the vision of the eternal laws and had no room for the passing expediencies of action4 ,his devotional geometry was a typical ,jewish performance2 there is something in the emotional make-up of the ,jew which makes him slide very easily into the attitude of worship1 as contrasted with the ,grco-,roman emphasis on intellect and control4 ,all pantheism tends to quietism2 to see things sub specie eternitatis may very well pass from the attitude of the scientist to the attitude of the mystic who has no interest in temporal affairs4 ,it is the task of philosophy to study the eternal and universal not for its own sake but for its worth in directing us through the maze of temporal particulars2 the philosopher must be like the mariner who guides himself through space and time by gazing at the everlasting stars4 ,it is wholesome that the history of philosophy should begin with ,thales2 so that all who come to the history of philosophy may learn1 at the door of their subject1 that though stars are beautiful1 wells are deep4 ,x ,the ,legacy of ,spinoza ,but to leave the matter thus would be to lose a part of the truth in the glare of one's brilliance4 ,we have to recognize that though ,spinoza stopped short 7or rather was cut short7 at merely a statement of the prime need of all democracies1--intelligence1--he was nevertheless the inspiration of men who carried his beginning more nearly to a practical issue4 ,to ,spinoza1 through ,voltaire and the ,english deists1 one may trace not a few of the thought-currents which carried away the foundations of ecclesiastical power1 civil and intellectual1 in eighteenth-century ,france1 and left the middle class conscience-free to engineer a revolution4 ,it was from ,spinoza chiefly that ,rousseau derived his ideas of popular sovereignty1 of the general will1 of the right of revolution1 of the legitimacy of the force that makes men free1 and of the ideal state as that in which all the citizens form an assembly with final power4#abj ,the ,french ,declaration of ,rights and the ,american ,declaration of ,independence go back in part to the forgotten treatises of the quiet philosopher of ,amsterdam4 ,to have initiated or accelerated such currents of thought--theoretical in their origin but extremely practical in their issue--is thereby once for all to have put one's self above the reach of mere fault-finding4 ,one wonders again1 as so many have wondered1 what would have been the extent of this man's achievement had he not died at the age of forty-four4 ,when ,spinoza's pious landlady returned from church on the morning of ,february #ba1 #afgg1 and found her gentle philosopher dead1 she stood in the presence of one of the great silent tragedies of human history4 ,,chapter ,v ,,nietzsche ,i ,from ,spinoza to ,nietzsche ,let us dare to compress within a page or two the social aspect of philosophical thought from ,spinoza to ,nietzsche4 ,without forgetting that our purpose is to show the social problem as the dominant interest of only many1 not all1 of the greater philosophers1 we may yet risk the assertion that the majority of the men who formed the epistemological tradition from ,descartes to ,kant were at heart concerned less with the problem of knowledge than with that of social relations4 ,descartes slips through this generalization2 he is a man of leisure lost in the maze of a puzzle which he has not discovered so much as he has unconsciously constructed it4 ,in ,locke's hands the puzzle is distorted into the question of 8innate ideas10 in order that under cover of an innocent epistemological excursion a blow may be struck at hereditary prejudices and authoritarian teaching1 and the way made straight for the advance of popular sovereignty 7as against the absolutism of ,hobbes71 free speech1 reasonable religion1 and social amelioration4 ,the dominance of the social interest is not so easily shown in the case of ,leibniz2 but let it be remembered none the less that epistemology was but an aside in the varied drama of ,leibniz' life1 and that his head was dizzy with schemes for the betterment of this 8best of all possible worlds40 ,bishop ,berkeley begins with esse est percipi and ends with tar-water as the solution of all problems4 ,david ,hume1 in the midst of a life busied with politics and the discussion of social1 political1 and economic problems1 spares a year or two for epistemology1 only to use it as a handle whereby to deal a blow to dogma2 he 8was more damaging to religion than ,voltaire1 but was ingenious enough not to get the credit for it40#aba ,the social incidence of philosophy in eighteenth-century ,france was so decided that one might describe that philosophy as part of the explosive with which the middle class undermined the status quo4 ,this social emphasis continues in ,comte1 who cannot forget that he was once the secretary of ,st4 ,simon1 and will not let us forget that the function of the philosopher is to cordinate experience with a view to the remoulding of human life4 ,john ,stuart ,mill is radical first and logician afterward2 and the more lasting as well as the more interesting element in ,spencer is the sociological1 educational1 and political theory4 ,in ,kant the basic social interest is buried under epistemological cobwebs2 yet not so choked but that it finds very resolute voice at last4 ,the essence of the matter here is the return of the prodigal1 the relapse of a once adventurous soul into the comfort of religious and political absolutes1 categorical--and ,potsdam--imperatives4 ,here is 8dogmatic slumber0 overcome only to yield to the torpor and abtisement of 8practical reason02 here is no 8,copernican revolution0 but a stealthy attempt to recover an anthropocentricism lost in the glare of the ,enlightenment4 ,it dawns on us that the importance of ,german philosophy is not metaphysical1 nor epistemological1 but political2 the vital remnant of ,kant to-day is to be found not in our overflowing ,mississippi of ,kantiana1 but in the ,german notion of obedience4#abb ,fichte renforces this notion of unquestioning obedience with the doctrine of state socialism3 he begins by tending geese1 and ends by writing philosophy for them4 ,so with ,hegel3 he starts out buoyantly with the proposition that revolution is the heart of history1 and ends by discovering that the ,king of ,prussia is ,god in disguise4 ,in ,schopenhauer the bubble bursts2 a millennium of self-deception ends at last in exhaustion and despair4 ,every ,hildebrand has his ,voltaire1 and every ,voltaire his ,schopenhauer4 ,,ii ,biographical 8,in future10 ,nietzsche once wrote1 8let no one concern himself about me1 but only about the things for which ,i lived40 ,we must make this biographical note brief4 ,nietzsche was born in ,rcken1 ,germany1 #ahdd1 the son of a 8noble young parson40 ,he was brought up in strict piety1 and prepared himself to enter the ministry2 even at boarding-school he was called 8the little minister10 and made people cry by his recitations from the ,bible4 ,we have pictures of him which show him in all his boyish seriousness2 it is evident that he is of a deeply religious nature1 and therefore doomed to heresy4 ,at eighteen he discovers that he has begun to doubt the traditional creed4 8,when ,i examine my own thoughts10 he writes1 8and hearken into my own soul1 ,i often feel as if ,i heard the buzzing and roaring of wild-contending parties40#abc ,at twenty-one1 while studying in the ,university of ,leipzig1 he discovers the philosophy of ,schopenhauer2 he reads all hungrily1 feeling here a kindred youth2 8the need of knowing myself1 even of gnawing at myself1 forcibly seized upon me40#abd ,he is ripe for pessimism1 having both religion and a bad stomach4 ,because of his defective eyesight he is barred from military service2 in #ahgj he burns with patriotic fever1 and at last is allowed to join the army as a nurse2 but he is almost overcome at sight of the sick and wounded1 and himself falls ill with dysentery and dyspepsia4 ,in this same year he sees a troop of cavalry pass through a town in stately gallop and array2 his weakened frame thrills with the sight of this strength3 8,i felt for the first time that the strongest and highest ,will to ,life does not find expression in a miserable struggle for existence1 but in a ,will to ,war1 a ,will to ,power1 a ,will to ,overpower60#abe ,nevertheless1 he settles down to a quietly ascetic life as professor of philology at the ,university of ,basle4 ,but there is adventure in him2 and in his first book#abf he slips from the prose of philology into an almost lyrical philosophy4 ,illness finds voice here in the eulogy of health2 weakness in the deification of strength2 melancholy in the praise of 8,dionysian joy02 loneliness in the exaltation of friendship4 ,he has a friend--,wagner--the once romantic rebel of revolution's barricades2 but this friend too is taken from him1 with slowly painful breaking of bond after bond4 ,for ,wagner1 the strong1 the overbearing1 the ruthless1 is coming to a philosophy of ,christian sympathy and gentleness2 qualities that cannot seem divine to ,nietzsche1 because they are long-familiar elements in his own character4 8,what ,i am not10 he says1 most truthfully1 8that for me is ,god and virtue40#abg ,and so he stands at last alone1 borne up solely by the exhilaration of creative thought4 ,he has acquaintances1 but he puts up with them 8simply1 like a patient animal02 8not one has the faintest inkling of my task40 ,and he suffers terribly 8through this absence of sympathy and understanding40#abh ,he leaves even these acquaintances1 and abandons his work at ,basle2 broken in health he finds his way hopefully to the kindlier climate of ,italy4 ,doctor after doctor prescribes for him1 one prescription reading1 8a nice ,italian sweetheart40 ,he longs for the comradeship1 but dreads the friction1 of marriage4 8,it seems to me absurd10 he writes1 8that one who has chosen for his sphere 444 the assessment of existence as a whole1 should burden himself with the cares of a family1 with winning bread1 security1 and social position for wife and children40 ,he does not hesitate to conclude that 8where the highest philosophical thinking is concerned all married men are suspect40#abi ,nevertheless he wanders humanly into something very like a love-affair2 he is almost shattered with rapid disillusionment1 and takes refuge in philosophy4 8,every misunderstanding10 he tells himself1 8has made me freer4 ,i want less and less from humanity1 and can give it more and more4 ,the severance of every individual tie is hard to bear2 but in each case a wing grows in its place40#acj ,and yet the need of comradeship is still there1 like a gnawing hunger3 many years later he catches a passing smile from a beautiful young woman1 whom he has never seen before2 and 8suddenly my lonely philosopher's heart grew warm within me40#aca ,but she walks off without seeing him1 and they never meet again4 ,the simple ,italians who rent him his attic room in ,genoa understand him better perhaps than he can be understood by more pretentious folk4 ,they know his greatness1 though they cannot classify it4 ,the children of his landlady call him 8,il ,santo02 and the market-women keep their choicest grapes for the bent philosopher who1 it is whispered1 writes bitterly about women and 8the superfluous40 ,but what they know for certain is that he is a man of exceeding gentleness and purity1 that he is the very soul of chivalry2 8stories are still told of his politeness towards women to whom no one else showed any kindness40#acb ,let him write what he pleases1 so long as he is what he is4 ,he lives simply1 almost in poverty4 8,his little room10 writes a visitor1 8is bare and cheerless4 ,it has evidently been selected for cheapness rather than for comfort4 ,no carpet1 not even a stove4 ,i found it fearfully cold40#acc ,his publisher has made no profit on his books2 they are too sharply opposed to the 8spirit of the age02 hence the title he gives to two of his volumes3 ,unzeitgemsse ,betrachtungen1--,thoughts ,out of ,season4 ,there is no money1 he is now informed1 in such untimely volumes2 hereafter he must publish his books at his own cost4 ,he does1 stinting himself severely to meet the new expense2 his greatest books see the light in this way4#acd ,he works hard1 knowing that his shaken frame has but short lease of life2 and he comes to love his painful solitude as a gift4 8,i can't help seeing an enemy in any one who breaks in upon my working summer4444 ,the idea that any person should intrude upon the web of thought which ,i am spinning around me1 is simply appalling4 ,i have no more time to lose--unless ,i am stingy with my precious half-hours ,i shall have a bad conscience40#ace ,half-hours2 his eyes will not work for more than thirty minutes at a time4 ,he feels that only to him to whom time is holy does time bring reward4 8,he is fully convinced10 an acquaintance writes of him1 8about his mission and his permanent importance4 ,in this belief he is strong and great2 it elevates him above all misfortune40#acf ,he speaks of his ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra in terms of almost conscious exaggeration3 8,it is a book10 he says1 8that stands alone4 ,do not let us mention the poets in the same breath2 nothing perhaps has ever been produced out of such a superabundance of strength40#acg ,he does not know that it is his illness and his hunger for appreciation that have demanded this self-laudation as restorative and nourishment4 ,he predicts1 rightly enough1 that he will not begin to get his due meed of appreciation till #aija4ach ,his 8unmasking of ,christian morality10 he says1 8is an event unequalled in history40#aci ,all this man's energy is in his brain2 he oozes ideas at every pore4 ,he crowds into a sentence the material of a chapter2 and every aphorism is a mountain-peak4 ,he dares to say that which others dare only to think3 and we call him witty because truth tabooed is the soul of wit4 ,every page bears the imprint of the passion and the pain that gave it birth4 8,i am not a man10 he says1 8,i am dynamite02 he writes like a man who feels error after error exploding at his touch2 and he defines a philosopher as 8a terrible explosive in the presence of which everything is in danger40#adj 8,there are more idols than realities in the world2 and ,i have an #8evil eye' for idols40#ada ,what is this philosophy which seemed to its creator more important than even the mightiest events of the past8 ,how shall we compress it without distorting it1 as it has been distorted by so many of its lovers and its haters8 ,let us ask the man himself to speak to us2 let us see if we cannot put the matter in his own words1 ourselves but supplying1 so to speak1 connective tissue4 ,that done1 we shall understand the man better1 and ourselves1 and perhaps our social problem4 ,,iii ,exposition #a ,morality as ,impotence ,from a biological standpoint the phenomenon morality is of a highly suspicious nature4#adb ,cui bono8--,whom shall we suspect of profiting by this institution8 ,is it a mode of enhancing life8--,does it make men stronger and more perfect8--or does it make for deterioration and decay8 ,it is obvious that up to the present1 morality has not been a problem at all2 it has rather been the very ground on which people have met after all distrust1 dissension1 and contradiction1 the hallowed place of peace1 where thinkers could obtain rest even from themselves4#adc ,but what if morality be the greatest of all the stumbling-blocks in the way of human self-betterment8 ,is it possible that morality itself is the social problem1 and that the solution of that problem lies in the judicious abolition of morality8 ,it is a view for which something can be said4 ,you have heard that morality is a means used by the strong to control the weak4 ,and it is true3 just consider the conversion of ,constantine4 ,but to stop here is to let half the truth be passed off on you as the whole2 and half a truth is half a lie4 ,much more true is it that morality is a means used by the weak to control the strong1 the chain which weakness softly lays upon the feet of strength4 ,the whole of the morality of ,europe is based upon the values which are useful to the herd4#add ,every one's desire is that there should be no other teaching and valuation of things than those by means of which he himself succeeds4 ,thus the fundamental tendency of the weak and mediocre of all times has been to enfeeble the strong and to reduce them to the level of the weak2 their chief weapon in this process was the moral principle4#ade ,good is every one who does not oppress1 who hurts no one1 attacks no one1 does not take vengeance but hands over vengeance to ,god2 who goes out of the way of evil1 and demands little from life2 like ourselves1 patient1 meek1 just4 ,good is to do nothing for which we are not strong enough4#adf ,zarathustra laughed many times over the weaklings who thought themselves good because they had lame paws6#adg ,obedience1 subordination1 submission1 devotion1 love1 the pride of duty2 fatalism1 resignation1 objectivity1 stoicism1 asceticism1 self-denial2 in short1 anemia3 these are the virtues which the herd would have all men cultivate1--particularly the strong men4#adh ,and the deification of ,jesus1--that is to say of meekness1--what was it but another attempt to lull the strong to sleep8 #b ,democracy ,see1 now1 how nearly that attempt has succeeded4 ,for is not democracy1 if not victorious1 at least on the road to victory to-day8 ,and what is the democratic movement but the inheritor of ,christianity8#adi ,not the ,christianity of the great popes2 they knew better1 and were building a splendid aristocracy when ,luther spoiled it all by letting loose the levelling instincts of the herd4#aej ,the instinct of the herd is in favor of the leveller 7,christ74#aea ,i very much fear that the first ,christian is in his deepest instincts a rebel against everything privileged2 he lives and struggles unremittingly for 8equal rights40#aeb ,it is by ,christianity1 more than by anything else1 that the poison of this doctrine of 8equal rights0 has been spread abroad4 ,and do not let us underestimate the fatal influence6 ,nowadays no one has the courage of special rights1 of rights of dominion4 ,the aristocratic attitude of mind has been most thoroughly undermined by the lie of the equality of souls4#aec ,but is not this the greatest of all lies--the 8equality of men08 ,that is to say1 the dominion of the inferior4 ,is it not the most threadbare and discredited of ideas8 ,democracy represents the disbelief in all great men and select classes2 everybody equals everybody else2 8at bottom we are all herd40 ,there is no welcome for the genius here2 the more promising for the future the modern individual happens to be1 the more suffering falls to his lot4#aed ,if the rise of great and rare men had been made dependent upon the voices of the multitude1 there never would have been any such thing as a great man4 ,the herd regards the exception1 whether it be above or beneath its general level1 as something antagonistic and dangerous4 ,their trick in dealing with the exceptions above them--the strong1 the mighty1 the wise1 the fruitful--is to persuade them to become their head-servants4#aee ,but the torture of the exceptional soul is only part of the villainy of democracies4 ,the other part is chaos4 ,voltaire was right3 8,quand la populace se mle de raisonner1 tout est perdu40 ,democracy is an aristocracy of orators1 a competition in headlines1 a maelstrom of ever new majorities1 a torrent of petty factions sweeping on to ruin4 ,under democracy the state will decay1 for the instability of legislation will leave little respect for law1 until finally even the policeman will have to be replaced by private enterprise4#aef ,democracy has always been the death-agony of the power of organization3#aeg remember ,athens1 and look at ,england4 ,within fifty years these ,babel governments will clash in a gigantic war for the control of the markets of the world2 and when that war comes1 ,england will pay the penalty for the democratic inefficiency of its dominant muddle-class4#aeh ,this wave of democracy will recede1 and recede quickly1 if men of ability will only oppose it openly4 ,it is necessary for higher men to declare war on the masses4 ,in all directions mediocre people are joining hands in order to make themselves master4 ,the middle classes must be dissolved1 and their influence decreased2#aei there must be no more intermarrying of aristocracy with plutocracy2 this democratic folly would never have come at all had not the master-classes allowed their blood to be mingled with that of slaves4#afj ,let us fight parliamentary government and the power of the press2 they are the means whereby cattle become rulers4#afa ,finally1 it is senseless and dangerous to let the counting-mania 7the custom of universal suffrage7--which is still but a short time under cultivation1 and could easily be uprooted--take deeper root2 its introduction was merely an expedient to steer clear of temporary difficulties2 the time is ripe for a demonstration of democratic incompetence and a restoration of power to men who are born to rule4#afb #c ,feminism ,democracy1 after all1 is a disease2 an attempt on the part of the botched to lay down for all the laws of social health4 ,you may observe the disease in its growth-process by studying the woman movement4 ,woman's first and last function is that of bearing robust children4#afc ,the emancipated ones are the abortions among women1 those who lack the wherewithal to have children 7,i go no farther1 lest ,i should become medicynical74#afd ,all intellect in women is a pretension2 when a woman has scholarly inclinations there is generally something wrong with her sex4 ,these women think to make themselves charming to free spirits by wearing advanced views2 as though a woman without piety would not be something perfectly obnoxious and ludicrous to a profound and godless man6#afe ,if there is anything worthy of laughter it is the man who takes part in this feminist agitation4 ,let it be understood clearly that the relations between men and women make equality impossible4 ,it is in the nature of woman to take color and commandment from a man1--unless she happens to be a man4 ,man's happiness is 8,i will10 woman's happiness is 8,he will40#aff ,woman gives herself1 man takes her3 ,i do not think one will get over this natural contrast by any social contract4#afg ,indeed1 women will lose power with every step towards emancipation4 ,since the ,french ,revolution the influence of woman has declined in proportion as she has increased her rights and claims4 ,let her first do her proper work properly 7consider how much man has suffered from stupidity in the kitchen71 and then it may be time to consider an extension of her activities4 ,to be mistaken in this fundamental problem of 8man and woman10 to deny here the profoundest antagonism1 and the necessity for an eternally hostile tension1 to dream here of equal rights1 equal training1 equal claims and obligations3 that is a typical sign of shallow-mindedness4 ,on the other hand1 a man who has depth of spirit as well as of desires1 and has also the depth of benevolence which is capable of severity and harshness1 and easily confounded with them1 can only think of woman as ,orientals do3 he must conceive of her as a possession1 as confinable property1 as a being predestined for service and accomplishing her mission therein--he must take his stand in this matter upon the immense rationality of ,asia1 upon the superiority of the instincts of ,asia4#afh #d ,socialism and ,anarchism ,all this uprising of housekeepers is1 of course1 part of the general sickness with which ,christianity has inoculated and weakened the strong races of ,europe4 ,consider now the more virulent forms of the disease3 socialism and anarchism4 ,the coming of the 8kingdom of ,god0 has here been placed in the future1 and been given an earthly1 a human1 meaning2 but on the whole the faith in the old ideal is still maintained4 ,there is still the comforting delusion about equal rights1 with all the envy that lurks in that delusion4 ,one speaks of 8equal rights03 that is to say1 so long as one is not a dominant personality1 one wishes to prevent one's competitors from growing in power4#afi ,it is a pleasure for all poor devils to grumble--it gives them a little intoxicating sensation of power4 ,there is a small dose of revenge in every lamentation4#agj ,when you hear one of those reformers talk of humanity1 you must not take him seriously2 it is only his way of getting fools to believe that he is an altruist2 beneath the cover of this buncombe a man strong in the gregarious instincts makes his bid for fame and followers and power4 ,this pretense to altruism is only a roundabout way of asking for altruism1 it is the result of a consciousness of the fact that one is botched and bungled4#aga ,in short1 socialism is not justice but covetousness4#agb ,no doubt we should look upon its exponents and followers with ironic compassion3 they want something which we have4#agc ,from the standpoint of natural science the highest conception of society according to socialists is the lowest in the order of rank among societies4 ,a socialist community would be another ,china1 a vast and stifling mediocracy2 it would be the tyranny of the lowest and most brainless brought to its zenith4#agd ,a nation in which there would be no exploitation would be dead4 ,life itself is essentially appropriation1 conquest of the strange and weak2 to put it at its mildest1 exploitation4#age ,the absence of exploitation would mean the end of organic functioning4 ,surely it is as legitimate and valuable for superior men to command and use inferior men as it is for superior species to command and use inferior species1 as man commands and uses animals4#agf ,it is not surprising that the lamb should bear a grudge against the great birds of prey1 but that is no reason for blaming the great birds of prey4#agg ,what should be done with muscle except to supply it with directive brains8 ,how1 otherwise1 can anything worthy ever be built by men8 ,in fact1 man has value and significance only in so far as he is a stone in a great building2 for which purpose he has first of all to be solid2 he has to be a 8stone40#agh ,now the common people understand this quite well1 and are as happy as any of the well-to-do1 so long as a silly propaganda does not disturb them with dreams that can never be fulfilled4#agi ,poverty1 cheerfulness1 and independence--it is possible to find these three qualities combined in one individual2 poverty1 cheerfulness1 and slavery--this is likewise a possible combination3 and ,i can say nothing better to the workmen who serve as factory-slaves4#ahj ,as for the upper classes1 they need be at no loss for weapons with which to fight this pestilence4 ,an occasional opening of the trap-door between the ,haves and the ,have-nots1 increasing the number of property-owners1 will serve best of all4 ,if this policy is pursued1 there will always be too many people of property for socialism ever to signify anything more than an attack of illness4#aha ,a little patience with inheritance and income taxes1 and the noise of the cattle will subside4#ahb ,notice1 meanwhile1 that socialism and despotism are bedfellows4 ,give the socialist his way1 and he will put everything into the hands of the state1--that is to say1 into the hands of demagogue politicians4#ahc ,and then1 all in the twinkling of an eye1 socialism begets its opposite in good ,hegelian fashion1 and the dogs of anarchism are let loose to fill the world with their howling4 ,and not without excuse or benefit2 for politicians must be kept in their place1 and the state rigidly restricted to its necessary functions1 even if anarchist agitation helps one to do it4#ahd ,and the anarchists are right3 the state is the coldest of all monsters1 and this lie creeps out of its mouth1 8,i1 the ,state1 am the people40#ahe ,so the wise man will turn anarchism1 as well as socialism1 to account2 and he will not fret even when a king or two is hurried into heaven with nitroglycerine4 ,only since they have been shot at have princes once more sat securely on their thrones4#ahf ,anarchism justifies itself in the aristocrat1 who feels law as his instrument1 not as his master2 but the rebellion against law as such is but one more outburst of physiological misfits bent on levelling and revenge4#ahg ,it is childish to desire a society in which every individual would have as much freedom as another4#ahh ,decadence speaks in the democratic idiosyncrasy against everything which rules and wishes to rule1 the modern misarchism 7to coin a bad word for a bad thing74#ahi ,when all men are strong enough to command1 then law will be superfluous2 weakness needs the vertebr of law4 ,he is commanded who cannot obey his own self4 ,let the anarchist be thankful that he has laws to obey4 ,to command is more difficult2 whenever living things command they risk themselves2 they take the hard responsibilities for the result4#aij ,freedom is the will to be responsible for ourselves2#aia when the mob is capable of that1 it will be time to think of dispensing with law4 ,the truth is1 of course1 that the anarchist is lulled into nonsense by ,rousseau's notion of the naturally good man4 ,he does not understand that revolution merely unlashes the dogs in man1 till they once more cry for the whip4#aib ,cast out the ,bourbons1 and in ten years you will welcome ,napoleon4 ,that is the end of anarchism2 and it is the end of democracy1 too4 ,the truth is that men are willing and anxious to be ruled by rulers worthy of the name4 ,but the corrupted ruling classes have brought ruling into evil odor4 ,the degeneration of the ruler and of the ruling classes has been the cause of all the disorders in history4 ,democracy is not ruling1 but drifting2 it is a political relaxation1 as if an organism were to allow each of its parts to do just as it pleased4 ,precisely these disorganizing principles give our age its specific character4 ,our society has lost the power to function properly2 it no longer rids itself naturally of its rotten elements2 it no longer has the strength even to excrete4#aic #e ,degeneration ,what kind of men is to be found in such a society8 ,mediocre men2 men stupid to the point of sanctity2 fragile1 useless souls-de-luxe2 men suffering from a sort of hemiplegia of virtue1--that is to say1 paralyzed in the self-assertive instincts2 men tamed1 almost emasculated by a morality whose essence is the abdication of the will4#aid ,now1 as a rule1 the taming of a beast is achieved only by deteriorating it2 so too the moral man is not a better man1 he is rather a weaker member of his species4 ,he is altruistic1 of course2 that is1 he feels that he needs help4 ,there is no place for really great men in this march towards nonentity2 if a great man appears he is called a criminal4#aie ,a ,periclean ,greek1 a ,renaissance ,florentine1 would breathe like one asphyxiated in this moralic acid atmosphere2 the first condition of life for such a man is that he free himself from this ,chinadom of the spirit4#aif ,but the number of those who are capable of rising into the pure air of unmoralism is very small2 and those who have made timid sallies into theological heresy are the most addicted to the comfort and security of ethical orthodoxy4 ,in short1 men are coming to look upon lowered vitality as the heart of virtue2 and morality will be saddled with the guilt if the maximum potentiality of the power and splendor of the human species should never be attained4#aig ,men of this stamp require a good deal of religious pepsin to overcome the indigestibility of life2 if they leave one faith in the passing bravery of their youth they soon sink back into another4#aih ,god1 previously diluted from tribal deity into substantia and ding-an-sich1#aii now recovers a respectable degree of reality2 the imaginary pillar on which men lean is made stronger and more concrete as their weakness increases4 ,how much faith a person requires in order to flourish1 how much fixed opinion he needs which he does not wish to have shaken1 because he holds himself thereby1--is a measure of his power 7or more plainly speaking1 of his weakness74#bjj ,the same criterion classifies our friends the metaphysicians1--those albinos of thought1--who are1 of course1 priests in disguise4#bja ,the degree of a man's will-power may be measured by the extent to which he can dispense with the meaning in things2 by the extent to which he is able to endure a world without meaning2 because he himself arranges a small portion of it4#bjb ,the world has no meaning3 all the better2 put some meaning into it1 says the man with a man's heart4 ,the world has no meaning3 but it is only a world of appearance1 says the weak-kneed philosopher2 behind this phenomenal world is the real world1 which has meaning1 and means good4 ,of the real world 8there is no knowledge2 consequently there is a ,god0--what novel elegance of syllogism6#bjc ,this belief that the world which ought to be is real is a belief proper to the unfruitful who do not wish to create a world4 ,the 8will to truth0 is the impotence of the 8will to create40#bjd ,even monism is being turned into medicine for sick souls2 clearly these lovers of wisdom seek not truth1 but remedies for their illnesses4#bje ,there is too much beer and midnight oil in modern philosophy1 and not enough fresh air4#bjf ,philosophers condemn this world because they have avoided it2 those who are contemplative naturally belittle activity4#bjg ,in truth1 the history of philosophy is the story of a secret and mad hatred of the prerequisites of life1 of the feelings which make for the real values of life4#bjh ,no wonder that philosophy is fallen to such low estate4 ,science flourishes nowadays1 and has the good conscience clearly visible on its countenance2 while the remnant to which modern philosophy has gradually sunk excites distrust and displeasure1 if not scorn and pity4 ,philosophy reduced to a 8theory of knowledge10 a philosophy that never gets beyond the threshold1 and rigorously denies itself the right to enter--that is philosophy in its last throes1 an end1 an agony2 something that awakens pity4 ,how could such a philosophy rule6#bji #f ,nihilism ,all these things1 democracy1 feminism1 socialism1 anarchism1 and modern philosophy1 are heads of the ,christian hydra1 each a sore in the total disease4 ,given such illness1 affecting all parts of the social body1 and what result shall we expect and find8 ,pessimism1 despair1 nihilism1--that is1 disbelief in all values of life4#baj ,confidence in life is gone2 life itself has become a problem4 ,love of life is still possible1--only it is the love of a woman of whom one is doubtful4#baa ,the 8good man0 sees himself surrounded by evil1 discovers traces of evil in every one of his acts4 ,and thus he ultimately arrives at the conclusion1 which to him is quite logical1 that nature is evil1 that man is corrupted1 and that being good is an act of grace 7that is to say1 it is impossible to man when he stands alone74 ,in short1 he denies life4#bab ,the man who frees himself from the theology of the ,church but adheres to ,christian ethics necessarily falls into pessimism4 ,he perceives that man is no longer an assistant in1 let alone the culmination of1 the evolutionary process2 he perceives that ,becoming has been aiming at ,nothing1 and has achieved it2 and that is something which he cannot bear4#bac ,suffering1 which was1 before1 a trial with promised reward1 is now an intolerable mystery2 if he is materially comfortable himself1 he finds source for sentiment and tears in the pain and misery of others2 he concocts a 8social problem10 and never dreams that the social problem is itself a result of decadence4#bad ,he does not feel at home in this world in which the ,christian ,god is dead1 and to which1 nevertheless1 he brings nothing more appreciative than the old ,christian moral attitude4 ,he despairs because he is a chaos1 and knows it2 8,i do not know where ,i am1 or what ,i am to do2 ,i am everything that knows not where it is or what to do10 he sighs4#bae ,life1 he says at last1 is not worth living4 ,let us not try to answer such a man2 he needs not logic but a sanitarium4 ,but see1 through him1 and in him1 the destructiveness of ,christian morals4 ,this despicable civilization1 says ,rousseau1 is to blame for our bad morality4 ,what if our good morality is to blame for this despicable civilization8#baf ,see how the old ethic depreciates the joy of living1 and the gratitude felt towards life2 how it checks the knowledge and unfolding of life2 how it chokes the impulse to beautify and ennoble life4#bag ,and at what a time6 ,think what a race with masculine will could accomplish now6 ,precisely now1 when will in its fullest strength were necessary1 it is in the weakest and most pusillanimous condition4 ,absolute mistrust concerning the organizing power of the will3 to that we have come4#bah ,the world is dark with despair at the moment of greatest light4 ,what if man could be made to love the light and use it8 #g ,the ,will to ,power ,is it possible that this despair is not the final state in the exhaustion of a race1 but only a transition from belief in a perfect and ethical world to an attitude of transvaluation and control8#bai ,perhaps we are at the bottom of our spiritual toboggan1 and an ascending movement is around the corner of the years4 ,now that our ,christian bubble has burst into ,schopenhauer1 we are left free to recover some part of the joyous strength of the ancients4 ,let us become again as little children1 unspoiled by religion and morality2 let us forget what it is to feel sinful2 let the thousandfold laughter of children clear the air of the odor of decay4 ,let us begin anew2 and the soul will rise and overflow all its margins with the joy of rediscovered life4#bbj ,life has not deceived us6 ,on the contrary1 from year to year it appears richer1 more desirable1 and more mysterious2 the old fetters are broken by the thought that life may be an experiment and not a duty1 not a fatality1 not a deceit6#bba ,life--that means for us to transform constantly into light and flame all that we are1 and also all that we meet with2 we cannot possibly do otherwise4#bbb ,to be natural again1 to dare to be as immoral as nature is2 to be such pagans as were the ,greeks of the ,homeric age1 to say ,yea to life1 even to its suffering2 to win back some of that mountain-air ,dionysian spirit which took pleasure in the tragic1 nay1 which invented tragedy as the expression of its super-abundant vitality1 as the expression of its welcome of even the cruelest and most terrible elements of life6#bbc ,to be healthy once more6 ,for there is no other virtue than health1 vigor1 energy4 ,all virtues should be looked upon as physiological conditions1 and moral judgments are symptoms of physiological prosperity or the reverse4 ,indeed1 it might be worth while to try to see whether a scientific order of values might not be constructed according to a scale of numbers and measures representing energy4 ,all other values are matters of prejudice1 simplicity1 and misunderstanding4#bbd ,instead of moral values let us use naturalistic values1 physiological values2 let us say frankly with ,spinoza that virtue and power are one and the same4 ,what is good8 ,all that enhances the feeling of power1 the will to power1 and power itself1 in man4 ,what is bad8 ,all that proceeds from weakness4 ,what is happiness8 ,the feeling that power is increasing1 that resistance is being overcome4#bbe ,this is not orthodox ethics2 and perhaps it will not do for long ears1--though an unspoiled youth would understand it4 ,a healthy and vigorous boy will look up sarcastically if you ask him1 8,do you wish to become virtuous80--but ask him1 8,do you wish to become stronger than your comrades80 and he is all eagerness at once4#bbf ,youth knows that ability is virtue2 watch the athletic field4 ,youth is not at home in the class room1 because there knowledge is estranged from action2 and youth measures the height of what a man knows by the depth of his power to do4#bbg ,there is a better gospel in the boy on the field than in the man in the pulpit4 ,which of the boys whom we know do we love best in our secret hearts--the prayerful ,aloysius1 or the masterful leader of the urchins in the street8 ,we moralize and sermonize in mean efforts to bring the young tyrant down to our virtuous anmia2 but we know that we are wrong1 and respect him most when he stands his ground most firmly4 ,to require of strength that it should express itself as weakness is just as absurd as to require of weakness that it should express itself as strength4#bbh ,let us go to school to our children1 and we shall understand that all native propensities are beneficent1 that the evil impulses are to a far view as necessary and preservative as the good4#bbi ,in truth we worship youth because at its finest it is a free discharge of instinctive strength2 and we know that happiness is nothing else than that4 ,to abandon instinct1 to deliberate1 to clog action with conscious thought1--that is to achieve old age4 ,after all1 nothing can be done perfectly so long as it is done consciously2 consciousness is a defect to be overcome4#bcj ,instinct is the most intelligent of all kinds of intelligence which have hitherto been discovered4#bca ,genius lies in the instincts2 goodness too2 all consciousness is theatricality4#bcb ,when a people begins to worship reason1 it begins to die4#bcc ,youth knows better3 it follows instinct trustfully1 and worships power4 ,and we worship power too1 and should say so were we as honest as our children4 ,our gentlest virtues are but forms of power3 out of the abundance of the power of sex come kindness and pity2 out of revenge1 justice2 out of the love of resistance1 bravery4 ,love is a secret path to the heart of the powerful1 in order to become his master2 gratitude is revenge of a lofty kind2 self-sacrifice is an attempt to share in the power of him to whom the sacrifice is made4 ,honor is the acknowledgment of an equal power2 praise is the pride of the judge2 all conferring of benefits is an exercise of power4#bcd ,behold a man in distress3 straightway the compassionate ones come to him1 depict his misfortune to him1 at last go away1 satisfied and elevated2 they have gloated over the unhappy man's misfortune and their own2 they have spent a pleasant ,sunday afternoon4#bce ,so with the scientist and the philosopher3 in their thirst for knowledge lurks the lust of gain and conquest4 ,and the cry of the oppressed for freedom is again a cry for power4#bcf ,you cannot understand man1 you cannot understand society1 until you learn to see in all things this will to power4 ,physiologists should bethink themselves before putting down the instinct of self-preservation as the cardinal instinct of an organic being4 ,a living thing seeks above all to discharge its strength3 self-preservation is only one of the results of this4 ,and psychologists should think twice before saying that happiness or pleasure is the motive of all action4 ,pleasure is but an incident of the restless search for power2 happiness is an accompanying1 not an actuating1 factor4 ,the feeling of happiness lies precisely in the discontentedness of the will1 in the fact that without opponents and obstacles it is never satisfied4 ,man is now master of the forces of nature1 and master too of his own wild and unbridled feelings2 in comparison with primitive man the man of to-day represents an enormous quantum of power1 but not an increase of happiness4 ,how can one maintain1 then1 that man has striven after happiness8 ,no2 not happiness1 but more power2 not peace at any price1 but war2 not virtue1 but capacity2 that is the secret of man's longing and man's seeking4#bcg ,let biologists1 too1 rexamine the stock-in-trade of their theory4 ,life is not the continuous adjustment of internal to external relations1 but will to power1 which1 proceeding from within1 subjugates and incorporates an ever-increasing quantity of 8external phenomena40 ,all motive force1 all 8causation0 whatever1 is this will to power2 there is no other force1 physical1 dynamical1 or psychical4#bch ,as to the famous 8struggle for existence10 it seems at present to be more of an assumption than a fact4 ,it does occur1 but as an exception2 and it is due not to a desire for food but tergo to a surcharge of energy demanding discharge4 ,the general condition of life is not one of want or famine1 but rather of riches1 of lavish luxuriance1 and even of absurd prodigality2 where there is a struggle it is a struggle for power4 ,we must not confound ,malthus with ,nature4#bci ,one does indeed find the 8cruelty of ,nature0 which is so often referred to1 but in a different place3 ,nature is cruel1 but against her lucky and well-constituted children2 she protects and shelters and loves the lowly4 ,darwin sees selection in favor of the stronger1 the better-constituted4 ,precisely the reverse stares one in the face3 the suppression of the lucky cases1 the reversion to average1 the uselessness of the more highly constituted types1 the inevitable mastery of the mediocre4 ,if we drew our morals from reality1 they would read thus3 the mediocre are more valuable than the exceptional creatures2 the will to nonentity prevails over the will to life4 ,we have to beware of this formulation of reality into a moral4#bdj ,no2 morality is not mediocrity1 it is superiority2 it does not mean being like most people1 but being better1 stronger1 more capable than most people4 ,it does not mean timidity3 if anything is virtue it is to stand unafraid in the presence of any prohibition4#bda ,it does not mean the pursuit of ends sanctified by society2 it means the will to your own ends1 and to the means to them4 ,it means behaving as states behave1--with frank abandonment of all altruistic pretence4 ,corporate bodies are intended to do that which individuals have not the courage to do3 for this reason all communities are vastly more upright and instructive as regards the nature of man than individuals1 who are too cowardly to have the courage of their desires4 ,all altruism is the prudence of the private man2 societies are not mutually altruistic4 ,altruism and life are incompatible3 all the forces and instincts which are the source of life lie stagnant beneath the ban of the old morality4 ,but real morality is certainty of instinct1 effectiveness of action2 it is any action which increases the power of a man or of men2 it is an expression of ascendent and expanding life2 it is achievement2 it is power4#bdb #h ,the ,superman ,with such a morality you breed men who are men2 and to breed men who are men is all that your 8social problem0 comes to4 ,this does not mean that the whole race is to be improved3 the very last thing a sensible man would promise to accomplish would be to improve mankind4 ,mankind does not improve1 it does not even exist4 ,the aspect of the whole is much more like that of a huge experimenting workshop where some things in all ages succeed1 while an incalculable number of things fail4 ,to say that the social problem consists in a general raising of the average standard of comfort and ability amounts to abandoning the problem2 there is as little prospect of mankind's attaining to a higher order as there is for the ant and the ear-wig to enter into kinship with ,god and eternity4 ,the most fundamental of all errors here lies in regarding the many1 the herd1 as an aim instead of the individual3 the herd is only a means4 ,the road to perfection lies in the bringing forth of the most powerful individuals1 for whose use the great masses would be converted into mere tools1 into the most intelligent and flexible tools possible4 ,every human being1 with his total activity1 has dignity and significance only so far as he is1 consciously or unconsciously1 a tool in the service of a superior individual4 ,all that can be done is to produce here and there1 now and then1 such a superior individual1 l'uomo singulare1 the higher man1 the superman4 ,the problem does not concern what humanity as a whole or as a species is to accomplish1 but what kind of man is to be desired as highest in value1 what kind of man is to be worked for and bred4 ,to produce the superman3 that is the social problem4 ,if this is not understood1 nothing is understood4#bdc ,now what would such a man be like8 ,shall we try to picture him8 ,we see him as above all a lover of life3 strong enough1 too1 to love life without deceiving himself about it4 ,there is no memento mori here2 rather a memento vivere2 rich instincts call for much living4 ,a hard man1 loving danger and difficulty3 what does not kill him1 he feels1 leaves him stronger4 ,pleasure--pleasure as it is understood by the rich--is repugnant to him3 he seeks not pleasure but work1 not happiness but responsibility and achievement4 ,he does not make philosophy an excuse for living prudently and apart1 an artifice for withdrawing successfully from the game of life2 he does not stand aside and merely look on2 he puts his shoulder to the wheel2 for him it is the essence of philosophy to feel the obligation and burden of a hundred attempts and temptations1 the joy of a hundred adventures2 he risks himself constantly2 he plays out to the end this bad game4#bdd ,to risk and to create1 this is the meaning of life to the superman4 ,he could not bear to be a man1 if man could not be a poet1 a maker4 ,to change every 8,it was0 into a 8,thus ,i would have it60--in this he finds that life may redeem itself4 ,he is moved not by ambition but by a mighty overflowing spendthrift spirit that drives him on2 he must remake2 for this he compels all things to come to him and into him1 in order that they may flow back from him as gifts of his love and his abundance2 in this refashioning of things by thought he sees the holiness of life2 the greatest events1 he knows1 are these still creative hours4#bde ,he is a man of contrasts1 or contradictions2 he does not desire to be always the same man2 he is a multitude of elements and of men2 his value lies precisely in his comprehensiveness and multifariousness1 in the variety of burdens which he can bear1 in the extent to which he can stretch his responsibility2 in him the antagonistic character of existence is represented and justified4 ,he loves instinct1 knows that it is the fountain of all his energies2 but he knows1 too1 the natural delight of sthetic natures in measure1 the pleasure of self-restraint1 the exhilaration of the rider on a fiery steed4 ,he is a selective principle1 he rejects much2 he reacts slowly to all kinds of stimuli1 with that tardiness which long caution and deliberate pride have bred in him2 he tests the approaching stimulus4 ,he decides slowly2 but he holds firmly to a decision made4#bdf ,he loves and has the qualities which the folk call virtues1 but he loves too and shows the qualities which the folk call vices2 it is again in this union of opposites that he rises above mediocrity2 he is a broad arch that spans two banks lying far apart4 ,the folk on either side fear him2 for they cannot calculate on him1 or classify him4 ,he is a free spirit1 an enemy of all fetters and labels2 he belongs to no party1 knowing that the man who belongs to a party perforce becomes a liar4 ,he is a sceptic 7not that he must appear to be one72 freedom from any kind of conviction is a necessary factor in his strength of will4 ,he does not make propaganda or proselytes2 he keeps his ideals to himself as distinctions2 his opinion is his opinion3 another person has not easily a right to it2 he has renounced the bad taste of wishing to agree with many people4 ,he knows that he cannot reveal himself to anybody2 like everything profound1 he loves the mask2 he does not descend to familiarity2 and is not familiar when people think he is4 ,if he cannot lead1 he walks alone4#bdg ,he has not only intellect2 if that were all it would not be enough2 he has blood4 ,behind him is a lineage of culture and ability2 lives of danger and distinction2 his ancestors have paid the price for what he is1 just as most men pay the price for what their ancestors have been4 ,naturally1 then1 he has a strong feeling of distance2 he sees inequality and gradation1 order and rank1 everywhere among men4 ,he has the most aristocratic of virtues3 intellectual honesty4 ,he does not readily become a friend or an enemy2 he honors only his equals1 and therefore cannot be the enemy of many2 where one despises one cannot wage war4 ,he lacks the power of easy reconciliation2 but 8retaliation0 is as incomprehensible to him as 8equal rights40 ,he remains just even as regards his injurer2 despite the strong provocation of personal insult the clear and lofty objectivity of the just and judging eye 7whose glance is as profound as it is gentle7 is untroubled4 ,he recognizes duties only to his equals2 to others he does what he thinks best2 he knows that justice is found only among equals4 ,he has that distinctively aristocratic trait1 the ability to command and with equal readiness to obey2 that is indispensable to his pride4 ,he will not permit himself to be praised2 he does what serves his purpose4 ,the essence of him is that he has a purpose1 for which he will not hesitate to run all risks1 even to sacrifice men1 to bend their backs to the worst4 ,that something may exist which is a hundred times more important than the question whether he feels well or unwell1 and therefore too whether the others feel well or unwell3 this is a fundamental instinct of his nature4 ,to have a purpose1 and to cleave to it through all dangers till it be achieved1--that is his great passion1 that is himself4#bdh #i ,how to ,make ,supermen ,it is our task1 then1 to procreate this synthetic man1 who embodies everything and justifies it1 and for whom the rest of mankind is but soil2 to bring the philosopher1 the artist1 and the saint1 within and without us1 to the light1 and to strive thereby for the completion of nature4 ,in this cultivation lies the meaning of culture3 the direction of all life to the end of producing the finest possible individuals4 ,what is great in man is that he is a bridge and not a goal2 his very essence is to create a being higher than himself2 that is the instinct of procreation1 the instinct of action and of work4 ,even the higher man himself feels this need of begetting2 and for lesser men all virtue and morals lie in preparing the way that the superman may come4 ,there is no greater horror than the degenerating soul which says1 8,all for myself40 ,in this great purpose1 too1 is the essence of a better religion1 and a surpassing of the bounds of narrow individualism2 with this purpose there come moments1 sparks from the clear fire of love1 in whose light we understand the word 8,i0 no longer2 we feel that we are creating1 and therefore in a sense becoming1 something greater than ourselves4#bdi ,how to make straight the way for the superman8 ,first by reforming marriage4 ,let it be understood at once that love is a hindrance rather than a help to such marriages as are calculated to breed higher men4 ,to regard a thing as beautiful is necessarily to regard it falsely2 that is why love-marriages are from the social point of view the most unreasonable form of matrimony4 ,were there a benevolent ,god1 the marriages of men would cause him more displeasure than anything else2 he would observe that all buyers are careful1 but that even the most cunning one buys his wife in a sack2 and surely he would cause the earth to tremble in convulsions when a saint and a goose couple4 ,when a man is in love1 he should not be allowed to come to a decision about his life1 and to determine once for all the character of his lifelong society on account of a whim4 ,if we treated marriage seriously1 we would publicly declare invalid the vows of lovers1 and refuse them permission to marry4 ,we would remake public opinion1 so that it would encourage trial marriage2 we would exact certificates of health and good ancestry2 we would punish bachelorhood by longer military service1 and would reward with all sorts of privileges those fathers who should lavish sons upon the world4 ,and above all we would make people understand that the purpose of marriage is not that they should duplicate1 but that they should surpass1 themselves4 ,perhaps we would read to them from ,zarathustra1 with fitting ceremonies and solemnities3 8,thou art young1 and wishest for child and marriage4 ,but ,i ask thee1 art thou a man who dareth to wish for a child8 ,art thou the victorious one1 the self-subduer1 the commander of thy senses1 the master of thy virtues8--or in thy wish doth there speak the animal1 or necessity8 ,or solitude8 ,or discord with thyself8 ,i would that thy victory and freedom were longing for a child4 ,thou shalt build living monuments unto thy victory and thy liberation4 ,thou shalt build beyond thyself4 ,but first thou must build thyself square in body and soul4 ,thou shalt not only propagate thyself1 but propagate thyself upward6 ,marriage3 thus ,i call the will of two to create that one which is more than they who created it4 ,i call marriage reverence unto each other as unto those who will such a will40#bej ,in a word1 eugenic marriage2 and after eugenic marriage1 rigorous education4 ,but interest in education will become powerful only when belief in a ,god and his care have been abandoned1 just as medicine began to flourish only when the belief in miraculous cures had lapsed4 ,when men begin at last to believe in education1 they will endure much rather than have their sons miss going to a good and hard school at the proper time4 ,what is it that one learns in a hard school8 ,to obey and to command4 ,for this is what distinguishes hard schooling1 as good schooling1 from every other schooling1 namely that a good deal is demanded1 severely exacted2 that excellence is required as if it were normal2 that praise is scanty1 that leniency is non-existent2 that blame is sharp1 practical1 and without reprieve1 and has no regard to talent and antecedents4 ,to prefer danger to comfort2 not to weigh in a tradesman's balance what is permitted and what is forbidden2 to be more hostile to pettiness1 slyness1 and parasitism than to wickedness2--we are in every need of a school where these things would be taught4 ,such a school would allow its pupils to learn productively1 by living and doing2 it would not subject them to the tyranny of books and the weight of the past2 it would teach them less about the past and more about the future2 it would teach them the future of humanity as depending on human will1 on their will2 it would prepare the way for and be a part of a vast enterprise in breeding and education4#bea ,but even such a school would not provide all that is necessary in education4 ,not all should receive the same training and the same care2 select groups must be chosen1 and special instruction lavished on them2 the greatest success1 however1 will remain for the man who does not seek to educate either everybody or certain limited circles1 but only one single individual4 ,the last century was superior to ours precisely because it possessed so many individually educated men4 #aj ,on the ,necessity of ,exploitation ,and next slavery4 ,this is one of those ugly words which are the verba non grata of modern discussion1 because they jar us so ruthlessly out of the grooves of our thinking4 ,nevertheless it is clear to all but those to whom self-deception is the staff of life1 that as the honest ,greeks had it1 some are born to be slaves4 ,try to educate all men equally1 and you become the laughing-stock of your own maturity4 ,the masses seem to be worth notice in three aspects only3 first as the copies of great men1 printed on bad paper from worn-out plates2 next as a contrast to the great men2 and lastly as their tools4 ,living consists in living at the cost of others3 the man who has not grasped this fact has not taken the first step towards truth to himself4 ,and to consider distress of all kinds as an objection1 as something which must be done away with1 is the greatest nonsense on earth2 almost as mad as the will to abolish bad weather1 out of pity to the poor1 so to speak4 ,the masses must be used1 whether that means or does not mean that they must suffer2--it requires great strength to live and forget how far life and injustice are one4 ,what is the suffering of whole peoples compared to the creative agonies of great individuals8#beb ,there are many who threw away everything they were worth when they threw away their slavery4 ,in all respects slaves live more securely and more happily than modern laborers2 the laborer chooses his harder lot to satisfy the vanity of telling himself that he is not a slave4 ,these men are dangerous2 not because they are strong1 but because they are sick2 it is the sick who are the greatest danger to the healthy2 it is the weak ones1 they who mouth so much about their sickness1 who vomit bile and call it newspaper1--it is they who instil the most dangerous venom and scepticism into our trust in life1 in man1 and in ourselves2 it is they who most undermine the life beneath our feet4 ,it is for such as these that ,christianity may serve a good purpose 7so serving our purpose too74 ,those qualities which are within the grasp only of the strongest and most terrible natures1 and which make their existence possible--leisure1 adventure1 disbelief1 and even dissipation--would necessarily ruin mediocre natures--and does do so when they possess them4 ,in the case of the latter1 industry1 regularity1 moderation1 and strong 8conviction0 are in their proper place--in short1 all 8gregarious virtues02 under their influence these mediocre men become perfect4 ,we good ,europeans1 then1 though atheists and immoralists1 will take care to support the religions and the morality which are associated with the gregarious instinct2 for by means of them an order of men is1 so to speak1 prepared1 which must at some time or other fall into our hands1 which must actually crave for our hands4#bec ,slavery1 let us understand it well1 is the necessary price of culture2 the free work1 or art1 of some involves the compulsory labor of others4 ,as in the organism so in society3 the higher function is possible only through the subjection of the lower functions4 ,a high civilization is a pyramid2 it can stand only on a broad base1 its first prerequisite is a strongly and soundly consolidated mediocrity4 ,in order that there may be a broad1 deep1 and fruitful soil for the development of art1 the enormous majority must1 in the service of a minority1 be slavishly subjected4 ,at their cost1 through the surplus of their labor1 that privileged class is to be relieved from the struggle for existence1 in order to create and to satisfy a new world of want4 ,the misery of the toilers must still increase in order to make the production of a world of art possible to a small number of ,olympian men4#bed #aa ,aristocracy ,the greatest folly of the strong is to let the weak make them ashamed to exploit1 to let the weak suggest to them1 8,it is a shame to be happy--there is too much misery60 ,let us therefore reaffirm the right of the happy to existence1 the right of bells with a full tone over bells that are cracked and discordant4 ,not that exploitation as such is desirable2 it is good only where it supports and develops an aristocracy of higher men who are themselves developing still higher men4 ,this philosophy aims not at an individualistic morality but at a new order of rank4 ,in this age of universal suffrage1 in this age in which everybody is allowed to sit in judgment upon everything and everybody1 one feels compelled to restablish the order of rank4 ,the higher men must be protected from contamination and suffocation by the lower4 ,the richest and most complex forms perish so easily6 ,only the lowest succeed in maintaining their apparent imperishableness4#bee ,the first question as to the order of rank3 how far is a man disposed to be solitary or gregarious8 ,if he is disposed to be gregarious1 his value consists in those qualities which secure the survival of his tribe or type2 if he is disposed to be solitary1 his qualities are those which distinguish him from others2 hence the important consequence3 the solitary type should not be valued from the standpoint of the gregarious type1 or vice versa4 ,viewed from above1 both types are necessary2 and so is their antagonism4 ,degeneration lies in the approximation of the qualities of the herd to those of the solitary creature1 and vice versa2 in short1 in their beginning to resemble each other4 ,hence the difference in their virtues1 their rights and their obligations2 in the light of this difference one comes to abhor the vulgarity of ,stuart ,mill when he says1 8,what is right for one man is right for another40 ,it is not2 what is right for the herd is precisely what is wrong for their leaders2 and what is right for the leaders is wrong for the herd4 ,the leaders use1 the herd is used2 the virtues of either lie in the efficiency here of leadership1 there of service4 ,slave-morality is one thing1 and master-morality another4#bef ,and leadership of course requires an aristocracy4 ,let us repeat it3 democracy has always been the death-agony of the power of organization and direction2 these require great aristocratic families1 with long traditions of administration and leadership2 old ancestral lines that guarantee for many generations the duration of the necessary will and the necessary instincts4 ,not only aristocracy1 then1 but caste2 for if a man have plebeian ancestors1 his soul will be a plebeian soul2 education1 discipline1 culture will be wasted on him1 merely enabling him to become a great liar4 ,therefore intermarriage1 even social intercourse of leaders with herd1 is to be avoided with all precaution and intolerance2 too much intercourse with barbarians ruined the ,romans1 and will ruin any noble race4#beg ,in what direction may one turn with any hope of finding even the aspiration for such an aristocracy8 ,only there where a noble attitude of mind prevails1 an attitude of mind which believes in slavery and in manifold orders of rank1 as the prerequisites of any higher degree of culture4 ,men with this attitude of mind will insistently call for1 and will at last produce1 philosophical men of power1 artist-tyrants1--a higher kind of men which1 thanks to their preponderance of will1 knowledge1 riches1 and influence1 will avail themselves of democratic ,europe as the most suitable and subtle instrument for taking the fate of ,europe into their hands1 and working as artists upon man himself4 ,the fundamental belief of these great desirers will be that society must not be allowed to exist for its own sake1 but only as the foundation and scaffolding by means of which a select class of beings may be able to elevate themselves to their highest duties1 and in general to a higher existence3 like those sun-climbing plants in ,java which encircle an oak so long and so often with their arms that at last1 high above it1 but supported by it1 they can unfold their tops in the open light1 and exhibit their happiness4#beh #ab ,signs of ,ascent ,are we moving toward such a consummation8 ,can we detect about us any signs of this ascending movement of life8 ,not signs of 8progress02 that is another narcotic1 like ,christianity1--good for slaves1 but to be avoided by those who rule4 ,man as a species is not progressing2 the general level of the species is not raised4 ,but humanity as mass sacrificed to the prosperity of the one stronger type of ,man1--that would be a progress4#bei ,progress of this kind1 to some degree1 there has always been4 ,the ruling class in ,greece1 as seen in ,homer and even in ,thucydides 7though with ,socrates degeneration begins71 is an example of this kind of progress or attainment4 ,imagine this culture1 which has its poet in ,sophocles1 its statesman in ,pericles1 its physician in ,hippocrates1 its natural philosopher in ,democritus2 here is a yea-saying1 a gratitude1 to life in all its manifestations2 here life is understood1 and covered with art that it may be borne2 here men are frivolous so that they may forget for a moment the arduousness and perilousness of their task2 they are superficial1 but from profundity2 they exalt philosophers who preach moderation1 because they themselves are so immoderate1 so instinctive1 so hilariously wild2 they are great1 they are elevated above any ruling class before or after them because here the morals of the governing caste have grown up among the governing caste1 and not among the herd4#bfj ,we catch some of the glory of these ,greeks in the men of the ,renaissance3 men perfect in their immorality1 terrible in their demands2 we should not dare to stand amid the conditions which produced these men and which these men produced2 we should not even dare to imagine ourselves in those conditions3 our nerves would not endure that reality1--not to speak of our muscles4 ,one man of their type1 continuator and development of their type1 brother 7as ,taine most rightly says7 of ,dante and ,michelangelo1--one such man we have known with less of the protection of distance2 and he was too hard to bear4 ,that ,ens ,realissimum1 synthesis of monster and superman1 surnamed ,napoleon6 ,the first man1 and the man of greatest initiative and developed views1 of modern times2 a man of tolerance1 not out of weakness1 but out of strength1 able to risk the full enjoyment of naturalness and be strong enough for this freedom4 ,in such a man we see something in the nature of 8disinterestedness0 in his work on his marble1 whatever be the number of men that are sacrificed in the process4 ,men were glad to serve him2 as most normal men are glad to serve the great man2 the crowd was tired of 8equal rights10 tired of being masterless2 it longed to worship genius again4 ,what was the excuse for that terrible farce1 the ,french ,revolution8 ,it made men ready for ,napoleon4#bfa ,when shall we produce another superman8 ,let us go back to our question3 ,can we detect about us any signs of strength8 ,yes4 ,we are learning to get along without ,god4 ,we are recovering from the noble sentiments of ,rousseau4 ,we are giving the body its due2 physiology is overcoming theology4 ,we are less hungry for lies1--we are facing squarely some of the ugliness of life1--prostitution1 for example4 ,we speak less of 8duty0 and 8principles02 we are not so enamored of bourgeois conventions4 ,we are less ashamed of our instincts2 we no longer believe in a right which proceeds from a power that is unable to uphold it4 ,there is an advance towards 8naturalness03 in all political questions1 even in the relations between parties1 even in merchants'1 workmen's circles only questions of power come into play2 what one can do is the first question1 what one ought to do is a secondary consideration4 ,there is a certain degree of liberal-mindedness regarding morality2 where this is most distinctly wanting we regard its absence as a sign of a morbid condition 7,carlyle1 ,ibsen1 ,schopenhauer72 if there is anything which can reconcile us to our age it is precisely the amount of immorality which it allows itself without falling in its own estimation4#bfb ,modern science1 despite its narrowing specialization1 is a sign of ascent4 ,here is strictness in service1 inexorability in small matters as well as great1 rapidity in weighing1 judging1 and condemning2 the hardest is demanded here1 the best is done without reward of praise or distinction2 it is rather as among soldiers1--almost nothing but blame and sharp reprimand is heard2 for doing well prevails here as the rule1 and the rule has1 as everywhere1 a silent tongue4 ,it is the same with this 8severity of science0 as with the manners and politeness of the best society3 it frightens the uninitiated4 ,he1 however1 who is accustomed to it1 does not like to live anywhere but in this clear1 transparent1 powerful1 and highly electrified atmosphere1 this manly atmosphere4#bfc ,in this achievement of science lies such an opportunity as philosophy has never had before4 ,science traces the course of things but points to no goal3 what it does give consists of the fundamental facts upon which the new goal must be based4 ,all the sciences have now to pave the way for the future task of the philosopher2 this task being understood to mean that he must solve the problem of value1 that he has to fix the hierarchy of values4 ,he must become lawgiver1 commander2 he must determine the 8whither0 and 8why0 for mankind4 ,all knowledge must be at his disposal1 and must serve him as a tool for creation4#bfd ,most certain of the signs of a reascending movement of life is the development of militarism4 ,the military development of ,europe is a delightful surprise4 ,this fine discipline is teaching us to do our duty without expecting praise4 ,universal military service is the curious antidote which we possess for the effeminacy of democratic ideas4 ,men are learning again the joy of living in danger4 ,some of them are even learning the old truth that war is good in itself1 aside from any gain in land or other wealth2 instead of saying 8,a good cause will hallow every war10 they learn to say 8,a good war hallows every cause40 ,when the instincts of a society ultimately make it give up war and conquest1 it is decadent3 it is ripe for democracy and the rule of shopkeepers4 ,a state which should prevent war would not only be committing suicide 7for war is just as necessary to the state as the slave is to society72 it would be hostile to life1 it would be an outrage on the future of man4 ,the maintenance of the military state is the last means of adhering to the great traditions of the past2 or where it has been lost1 of reviving it4 ,only in this can the superior or strong type of man be preserved4#bfe ,a nation is a detour of nature to arrive at six or seven great men1 and then to get around them4 ,the state is the organization of immorality for the attainment of this purpose4 ,but as existing to-day the state is a very imperfect instrument1 subject at any moment to democratic foundering4 ,what concerns the thinker here is the slow and hesitant formation of a united ,europe4 ,this was the thought1 and the sole real work and impulse1 of the only broad-minded and deep-thinking men of this century1--the tentative effort to anticipate the future of 8the ,european40 ,only in their weaker moments1 or when they grew old1 did they fall back again into the national narrowness of the 8,fatherlanders0--then they were once more 8patriots40 ,one thinks here of men like ,napoleon1 ,heine1 ,goethe1 ,beethoven1 ,stendhal1 ,schopenhauer4 ,and after all1 is there a single idea behind this bovine nationalism8 ,what possible value can there be in encouraging this arrogant self-conceit when everything to-day points to greater and more common interests8--at a moment when the spiritual dependence and denationalization which are obvious to all are paving the way for the rapprochements and fertilizations which make up the real value and sense of present-day culture8#bff ,what an instrument such a united ,europe would be for the development and protection and expression of superior individuals6 ,what a buoyant ascent of life after this long descent into democracy6 ,see now1 in review1 the two movements which we have studied and on which we have strung our philosophy3 on the one hand ,christian mythology and morality1 the cult of weakness1 the fear of life1 the deterioration of the species1 ever increasing suppression of the privileged and the strong1 the lapse into democracy1 feminism1 socialism1 and at last into anarchy1--all terminating in pessimism1 despair1 total loss of the love of life2 on the other hand the reaffirmation of the worth of life1 the resolute distinction between slave-morality and master-morality1 the recognition of the aristocratic valuation of health1 vigor1 energy1 as moral in all their forms1 and of the will to power as the source and significance of all action and all living2 the conception of the higher man1 of the exceptional individual1 as the goal of human endeavor2 the redirection of marriage1 of education1 of social structure1 to the fostering and cherishing of these higher types2--culminating in the supernational organization of ,europe as the instrumentality and artistic expression of the superior man4#bfg ,is this philosophy too hard to bear8 ,very well4 ,but those races that cannot bear it are doomed2 and those which regard it as the greatest blessing are destined to be masters of the world4#bfh ,,iv ,criticism ,what shall one say to this8 ,what would a democrat say1--such a democrat as would be a friend to socialism and feminism1 and even to anarchism1--and a lover of ,jesus8 ,one pictures such a man listening with irritated patience to the foregoing1 and responding very readily to an invitation to take the floor4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are lessons here1 he begins1 as if brushing away an initial encumbrance4 ,there is something of ,nietzsche in all of us1 just as there is something of ,jesus 7almost as there is something of man and of woman in all of us1 as ,weininger argued72 and part of that crowd called myself is flattered by this doctrine of ruthless power4 ,nietzsche stood outside our social and moral structure1 he was a sort of hermit in the world of thought2 and so he could see things in that structure which are too near to our noses for easy vision4 ,and as you listen to him you see history anew as a long succession of masterings and enslavings and deceivings1 and you become almost reconciled to the future being nothing but a further succession of the same4 ,and then you begin to see that if the future is to be different1 one of the things we must do is to pinch ourselves out of this ,nietzschean dream4 ,and a good way to begin is with ,nietzsche's own principle1 that every philosophy is a physiology4#bfi ,he asks us to believe that there is no such thing as a morbid trait in him1#bgj but we must not take him at his word4 ,the most important point about this philosophy is that it was written by a sick man1 a man sick to the very roots--if you will let me say it1 abnormal in sexual constitution2 a man not sufficiently attracted to the other sex1 because he has so much of the other sex in him4 8,she is a woman10 he writes in ,zarathustra1 8and never loves anyone but a warrior02 that is1 if ,nietzsche but knew it1 the diagnosis of his own disease4 ,this hatred of women1 this longing for power1 this admiration for strength1 for successful lying1#bga this inability to see a tertium quid between tyranny and slavery1#bgb--;all these are feminine traits4 ,a stronger man would not have been so shrewishly shrill about woman and ,christianity2 a stronger man would have needed less repetition1 less emphasis and underlining1 less of italics and exclamation points2 a stronger man would have been more gentle1 and would have smiled where ,nietzsche scolds4 ,it is the philosophy1 you see1 of a man abnormally weak in the social instincts1 and at the same time lacking in proper outlet for such social instincts as nature has left him4 ,consequently1 he never gets beyond the individual4 ,he thinks society is made up of individuals1 when it is really made up of groups4 ,he supposes that the only virtues a man can have are those which help him as an isolated unit2 the idea that a man may find self-expression in social expression1 in coperation1 that there are virtues which are virtues because they enable one to work with others against a common evil1--this notion never occurs to him4 ,he does not see that sympathy and mutual aid1 for example1 though they preserve some inferior individuals1 yet secure that group-solidarity1 and therefore group-survival1 without which even the strong ones would perish4#bgc ,he does not imagine that perhaps the barbarians who invaded ,rome needed the gospel of a 8gentle ,jesus meek and mild0 if anything at all was to remain of that same classical culture which he paints so lovingly4#bgd ,he laughs at self-denial2 and then invites you to devote yourself forever to some self-elected superman4 ,this philosophy of aristocracy1 of the necessity of slavery1 of the absurdity of democracy1--of course it is exciting to all weak people who would like to have power1--and who have not read it all before in ,plato4 ,in this particular case the humor of the situation lies in the very powerful attack which ,nietzsche makes on the irreligious religious humbug which has proved one of the chief instruments of mastery in the hands of the class whose power he is trying to strengthen4 8,i hope to be forgiven10 says ,nietzsche1 8for discovering that all moral philosophy hitherto has belonged to the soporific appliances40#bge 8,discovering0--as if the aristocracy had not known that all along6 8,here is a nave bookworm10 these 8strong men0 will say among themselves1 8who has discovered what every one of us knows4 ,he presumes to tell us how to increase our power1 and he can find no better way of helping us than to expose in print the best secrets of our trade40 ,just in this lies the value of ,nietzsche1 as ,rousseau said of ,machiavelli3 he lets us in behind the scenes of the drama of exploitation4 ,we know better now the men with whom democracy must deal4 ,we see the greed for power that hides behind the contention that culture cannot exist without slavery4 ,grant that contention3 so much the worse for culture6 ,if culture means the increasing concentration of the satisfactions of life in the hands of a few 8superior0 pigs1 their culture may be dispensed with2 if it is to stay1 it will have to mean the direction of knowledge and ability to the spread of the satisfactions of life4 ,which is finer1--the relationship of master and slave1 or that of friend and friend8 ,surely a world of people liking and helping one another is a finer world to live in than one in which the instincts of aggression are supreme4 ,and such a coperative civilization need not fear the tests of survival2 selection puts an ever higher premium on solidarity1 an ever lower value on pugnacity4 ,intelligence1 not ready anger1 will win the great contests of the future4 ,friendship will pay4 ,the history of the world is a record of the patient and planful attempt to replace hatred by understanding1 narrowness by large vision1 opposition by coperation1 slavery by friendship4 ,friendship3 a word to be avoided by those who would appear blas4 ,but let us repeat it2 words have been known to nourish deeds which without them might never have grown into reality4 ,some find heaven in making as many men as possible their slaves2 others find heaven in making as many men as possible their friends4 ,which type of man will we have8 ,which type of man1 if abundant1 would make this world a splendor and a delight8 ,the hope for which ,jesus lived was that man might some day come to mean friend4 ,it is the only hope worth living for4 ,v ,nietzsche ,replies 8,it is certainly not the least charm of a theory10 says ,nietzsche1 8that it is refutable40#bgf ,but 8what have ,i to do with mere refutations80#bgg 8,a prelude ,i am of better players40#bgh 8,verily1 ,i counsel you10 said ,zarathustra1 8depart from me and defend yourselves against ,zarathustra6 ,and better still1 be ashamed of him4 ,perhaps he hath deceived you4 ,the man of perception must not only be able to love his enemies1 but also to hate his friends4 ,one ill requiteth one's teacher by always remaining only his scholar4 ,why will ye not pluck at my wreath8 ,ye revere me2 but how if your reverence one day falleth down8 ,beware of being crushed to death with a statue6 ,ye say ye believe in ,zarathustra8 ,but what is ,zarathustra worth8 ,ye are my faithful ones2 but what are all faithful ones worth8 ,when ye had not yet sought yourselves ye found me4 ,thus do all faithful ones2 hence all belief is worth so little4 ,now ,i ask you to lose me and find yourselves2 not until all of you have disowned me shall ,i return unto you40#bgi ,,vi ,conclusion 8,look10 says ,rudin1 in ,turgenev's story1 8you see that apple tree8 ,it has broken down with the weight and multitude of its own fruit4 ,it is the emblem of genius40 8,to perish beneath a load one can neither bear nor throw off10 wrote ,nietzsche1--8that is a philosopher40#bhj ,i shall announce the song of the lightning1 said ,zarathustra1 and perish in the announcing4#bha ,insanity with such a man is but a matter of time2 he feels it coming upon him2 he values his hours like a man condemned to execution4 ,in twenty days he writes the ,genealogy of ,morals2 in one year 7#ahhh7 he produces ,the ,twilight of the ,idols1 ,antichrist1 ,the ,case of ,wagner1 ,ecce ,homo1 and his longest and greatest book1 ,the ,will to ,power4 ,he not only writes these books2 he reads the proof-sheets1 straining his eyes beyond repair4 ,he is almost blind now2 he is deceived1 taken advantage of1 because he can hardly see farther than his touch4 8,if ,i were blind10 he writes pitifully1 8,i should be healthy40#bhb ,yet his body is racked with pain3 8on #aah days this year ,i have had severe attacks40#bhc 8,i have given a name to my pain1 and call it #8a dog'--it is just as pitiful1 just as importunate and shameless2 and ,i can domineer over it1 vent my bad humor on it1 as others do with their dogs1 servants1 and wives40#bhd ,meanwhile the world lives on unnoticing1 or noticing only to misunderstand4 8,my foes have become mighty1 and have so distorted my teaching1 that my best beloved must be ashamed of the gifts that ,i gave them40#bhe ,he learns that the libertines of ,europe are using his philosophy as a cloak for their sins3 8,i can read in their faces that they totally misunderstand me1 and that it is only the animal in them which rejoices at being able to cast off its fetters40#bhf ,he finds one whom he thinks to make his disciple2 he is buoyed up for a few days by the hope2 the hope is shattered1 and loneliness closes in once more upon him4 8,a kingdom for a kind word60 he cries out in the depth of his longing2 and again he writes1 8,for years no milk of human kindness1 no breath of love40#bhg ,in ,december1 #ahhh1 one whom he has thought friendly writes that his brother-in-law is sending to a magazine an attack on him4 ,it is the last blow2 it means that his sister has joined the others in deserting him4 8,i take one sleeping-draught after another to deaden the pain1 but for all that ,i cannot sleep4 ,to-day ,i will take such a dose that ,i will lose my wits40#bhh ,he has been taking chloral1 and worse drugs1 to pay for the boon of sleep2 the poison tips the scale already made heavy by his blindness and eye-strain1 by his loneliness1 by the treachery of his friends1 by his general bodily ailments2 he wakes up from this final draught in a stupor from which he never recovers2 he writes to ,brandes and signs himself 8,the ,crucified02 he wanders into the street1 is tormented by children1 falls in a fit2 his good landlord helps him back to his room1 sends for the simple1 ignorant doctor of the neighborhood2 but it is too late2 the man is insane4 ,age1 forty-four2 another--the only name greater than his among modern philosophers--had died at that pitifully early age4 ,the body lingered eleven years behind the mind4 ,death came in #aijj4 ,he was buried as he had wished3 8,promise me10 he had asked his sister1 many years before1 8that when ,i die only my friends shall stand about my coffin1 and no inquisitive crowd4 ,see that no priest or anyone else utters falsehoods at my graveside1 when ,i can no longer defend myself2 and let me descend into my tomb as an honest pagan40#bhi ,after his death the world began to read him4 ,as in so many cases the life had to be given that the doctrine might be heard4 8,only where there are graves10 he had written in ,zarathustra1 8are there resurrections40#bij ,,part ,,ii ,,suggestions ,,chapter ,i ,,solutions ,,and ,,dissolutions ,i ,the ,problem ,and so we come through our five episodes in the history of the reconstructive mind1 and find ourselves in the bewildering present1 comfortably seated1 let us say1 in the great reading room of our ,columbia ,library4 ,an attendant liberates us from the maze of 8,nietzsche's ,works0 lying about us1 and returns presently with a stack of thirty books purporting to give the latest developments in the field of social study and research4 ,we are soon lost in their graphs and statistics1 their records and results2 gradually we come to feel beneath these dead facts the lives they would reveal2 and as we read we see a picture4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is the picture of one life4 ,we see it beginning helplessly in the arms of the factory physician2 it is only after some violence that it consents to breathe1--as if it hesitates to enter upon its adventure4 ,it has a touch of consumption but is otherwise a fair enough baby1 says the factory physician4 ,it will do1--not saying for what or whom4 ,luckily1 it is a boy1 and will be able to work soon4 ,he does2 at the age of nine he becomes a newsboy2 he is up at five in the morning and peddles news till eight2 at nine he gets to school1 fagged out but restless2 he gives trouble2 cannot memorize quickly enough1 nor sit still long enough2 plays truant1 loving the hard lessons of the street2 school over1 he has a half-hour of play1 but must then travel his news route till six2 after supper he has no taste for study2 if he cannot go down into the street1 he will go to bed4 ,at fourteen1 hating the school where he is beaten or scolded daily1 he connives with his parents at certain falsehoods which secure his premature entrance into the factory4 ,he works hard1 and for a time happily enough2 there is more freedom here than in the school4 ,he discovers sex1 passes through the usual chapter of accidents1 and finally achieves manhood in the form of a sexual disease4 ,he falls in love several times1 and out as many times but one2 he marries1 shares his disease with his wife1 and begets ten children1--nearly all of them feeble1 and two of them blind2 he does not want so many children1 but the priest has told him that religion commands it4 ,he works harder to support them1 but his health is giving way1 and life becomes a heavy burden to him4 ,the factory installs scientific management1 and he finds himself performing the same operation every ten seconds from seven to twelve and from one to six2--some three thousand times a day2 he protests1 but is told that science commands it4 ,he joins a union1 and goes out on strike2 his family suffer severely1 one of the children dying of malnutrition2 he wins a wage-increase of five per cent2 his landlord raises his rent1 and a month later his wife informs him that the prices of food and clothing have gone up six per cent4 ,his country goes to war about a piece of territory he has never heard of2 his one fairly strong boy rushes off to the defence of the colors1 returns 7age twenty7 with one leg and almost an arm1 and sits in the house smoking1 drinking1 and dribbling in repetitious semi-torpor his memories of battle4 ,then comes street-corner talk of socialism1 capitalism1 and other things new and therefore hard to understand2 a glimmer of hope1 a cloud of doubt1 then resignation4 ,four of the children die before they are twenty2 two others become consumptive weaklings4 ,the father is sent away from the factory because he is too old and feeble2 he finds work in a saloon2 drink helps him to slip down2 he steals a bracelet from the factory-owner's kept woman1 is arrested1 tries to hang himself1 but is discovered when half dead1 and is restored to life against his will4 ,he serves his sentence1 returns to his family1 and becomes a beggar4 ,he dies of exposure and disease1 and his widow is supported by two of his daughters1 who have become successful prostitutes4 ,it is the picture of one life4 ,and as you look at it you see beyond it the hundred thousand lives of which it is one2 you see this suffering and meaninglessness as but one hundredth part of a thousandth part of the meaningless suffering of men2 you hear the angry cries of the rebellious young1 the drunken laughter of the older ones who have no more rebellion in them1 the quiet weeping of the mothers of many children4 ,around you here you see the happy faces of young students1 eloquent of comfortable homes2 at your elbow a gentleman of family is writing a book on the optimism of ,robert ,browning4 ,and then suddenly1 beneath this world of leisure and learning1 you feel the supporting brawn of the wearied workers2 you vision the very pillars of this vast edifice held up painfully1 hour after hour1 on the backs of a million sweating men2 your leisure is their labor1 your learning is paid for by their ignorance1 your luxury is their toil4 ,for a moment the great building seems to tremble1 as if rebellion stirred beneath and upheaval was upon the world4 ,then it is still once more1 and you and ,i are here with our thirty books4 ,one feels guilty of sentiment here 7after reading ,nietzsche671 and hurries back to the sober features of those crowded volumes4 ,here1 in cold scientific statement1 is our social problem3 here are volumes biological on heredity1 eugenics1 dietetics1 and disease2 volumes sociological on marriage1 prostitution1 the family1 the position of woman1 contraception and the control of population2 volumes psychological on education1 criminology1 and the replacement of supernatural by social religion2 volumes economic on private property1 poverty1 child labor1 industrial methods1 arbitration1 minimum wage1 trusts1 free trade1 immigration1 prohibition1 war2 volumes political on individualism and communism1 anarchism and socialism1 single tax1 ,darwinism and politics1 democracy and aristocracy1 patriotism1 imperialism1 electoral and administrative methods2 methodological volumes on trade-unions and craft-unions1 8direct action0 and 8political action10 violence and non-resistance1 revolution and reform4 ,it is a discouraging maze2 we plunge into it almost hopelessly4 ,several of these authors have schemes for taking the social machine apart1 and a few even have schemes for putting it together again2 hardly one of them remembers the old warning that this machine must be kept going while it is being repaired4 ,and each of these solutions1 as its author never suspects1 is but an added problem4 ,let us listen to these men for a while1 let us follow them for a space1 and see where they bring us out4 ,they may not bring us out at all2 but perhaps that is just what we need to see4 ,,ii 8,solutions0 #a ,feminism ,and first1 with due propriety1 let us listen to the case of woman vs4 the status quo4 ,we imagine the argument as put by a studious and apparently harmless young lady4 ,she begins gently and proceeds crescendo4 8,the case for woman is quite simple2 as simple as the case for democracy4 ,we are human beings1 we are governed1 we are taxed2 and we believe that just government implies the consent of the governed4 8,we might have been content with the old life1 had you masters of the world been content to leave us the old life4 ,but you would not4 ,your system of industry has made the position of most young men so hopeless and insecure that they are year by year putting back the age of marriage4 ,you have forced us out of our homes into your factories2 and you have used us as a means of making still harder the competition for employment among the men4 ,your advocates speak of the sacredness of the home2 and meanwhile you have dragged #e1jjj1jjj ,english women out of their homes to be the slaves of your deadening machines4#bia ,you exalt marriage2 and in this country one woman out of every ten is unmarried1 and one out of every twenty married women works in your unclean shops4 ,the vile cities born of your factory-system have made life so hard for us1 temptations so frequent1 vice so attractive and convenient1 that we cannot grow up among you without suffering some indelible taint4 8,some of us go into your factories because we dread marriage1 and some of us marry because we dread your factories4 ,but there is not much to choose between them4 ,if we marry we become machines for supplying another generation of workers and soldiers2 and if we talk of birth-control you arrest us4 ,as if we had no right to all that science has discovered6 ,and the horror of it is that while you forbid us to learn how to protect ourselves and our children from the evils of large families1 you yourselves buy this knowledge from your physicians and use it2 and one of your societies for the prevention of birth-control has been shown to consist of members with an average of #a4e children per family4#bib ,your physicians meet in learned assemblies and vote in favor of maintaining the law which forbids the spread of this information2 and then we find that physicians have the smallest average family in the community4#bic ,one must be a liar and a thief to fit comfortably into this civilization which you ask us to defend4 8,but we are resolved to get this information2 and all your laws to prevent us will only lessen our respect for law4 ,we will not any longer bring children into the world unless we have some reasonable hope of giving them a decent life4 ,and not only that4 ,we shall end1 too1 the hypocrisies of marriage4 ,if you will have monogamy you may have it2 but if you continue merely to pretend monogamy we shall find a way of regaining our independence4 ,we shall not rest until we have freed ourselves from the sting of your generosity2 until our bread comes not from your hand in kindness but from the state or our employers in recognition of our work4 ,then we shall be free to leave you1 and you free to leave us1 as we were free to take one another at the beginning1--so far1 alas6 as the categorical imperative of love left us free4 ,and our children will not suffer2 better for them that they see us part than that they live with us in the midst of hypocrisy and secret war4 8,because we want this freedom--to stay or to go--this freedom to know and control the vital factors of our lives1 therefore we demand equal suffrage4 ,it is but a little thing1 a mere beginning2 and beware how you betray your secrets in your efforts to bar us from this beginning4 ,are you afraid to share with us the power of the ballot8 ,do you confess so openly that you wish to command us without our consent1 that you wish to use us for your secret ends8 ,you dare not fight fair and in the open8 ,is the ballot a weapon which you use on us and will not let us use on you8 ,it is so you conceive citizenship6 ,or will you ask us to believe that you are thinking not of your own interests but of posterity8 8,but we shall get this from you1 just as we get other things from you1--by repetition4 ,and then we shall go on to make the world more fit for women to live in3 we shall force open all the avenues of life that have been closed to us before1 making us narrow and petty and dull4 ,we shall compel your universities to admit us to their classes2 we shall enter your professions1 we shall compete with you for office1 we shall win the experiences and dare the adventures which we need to make us your rivals in literature and philosophy and art4 ,you say we cannot be your comrades1 your friends2 that we can be only tyrants or slaves2 but what else can we be1 with all the instructive wealth of life kept from us8 ,you hide from us the great books that are being written to-day1 and then you are surprised at our gossip1 our silly scandal-mongering1 our inability to converse with you on business and politics1 on science and religion and philosophy2 you will not let us grow1 and then you complain because we are so small4 ,but we want to grow now1 we want to grow6 ,we cannot longer be mothers only4 ,the world does not need so many children2 and even to bring up better children we must have a wider and healthier life4 ,we must have our intellects stimulated more and our feelings less4 ,we have burst the bonds of our old narrow world2 we must explore everything now4 ,it is too late to stop us2 and if you try you will only make life a mess of hatred and conflict for us both4 ,and after all1 do you know why we want to grow8 ,it is because we long for the day when we shall be no longer merely your mistresses1 but also your friends40 #b ,socialism ,another complainant3 a young ,socialist3 such a man as works far into almost every night in the dingy office of his party branch1 and devotes his ,sundays to ,das ,kapital2 bright-eyed1 untouched by disillusionment2 fired by the vision of a land of happy comrades4 8,i agree with the young lady10 he says2 8the source of all our ills is the capitalist system4 ,it was born of steam-driven machinery and conceived in laissez-faire4 ,it saw the light in ,adam ,smith's ,england1 ruined the health of the men of that country1 and then came to ,america1 where it grew fat on #8liberty' and #8the right to do as one pleases with one's own4' ,it believed in competition--that is to say war--as its ,god1 in whom all things lived and moved and sweated dividends2 it made the acquisition of money1 by no matter what means1 the test of virtue and success1 so that honest men became ashamed of themselves if they did not fail2 it made all life a matter of #8push' and #8pull1' like the two sides of a door in one of those business palaces which make its cities great mazes of brick and stone rising like new ,babels in the face of heaven4 ,its motto was1 ,beware of small profits2 its aim was the greatest possible happiness of the smallest possible number4 ,out of competition it begot the trust1 the rebate1 and the #8gentleman's agreement'2 out of #8freedom of contract' it begot wage-slavery2 out of #8liberty1 equality and fraternity' it begot an industrial feudalism worse than the old feudalism1 based on the inheritance not of land1 but of the living bodies and souls of thousands of men1 women and children4 ,when it came 7in #aggj7 the annual income of ,england was #fjj1jjj1jjj2 in #aija the annual income of ,england was #h1jjj1jjj1jjj2 the system has made a thousand millionaires1 but it has left the people starving as before4#bid ,it has increased wages1 and has increased prices a trifle more4 ,it has improved the condition of the upper tenth of the workers1 and has thrown the great remaining mass of the workers into a hell of torpor and despair4 ,it has crowned all by inventing the myopic science of scientific management1 whereby men are made to work at such speed1 and with such rigid uniformity1 that the mind is crazed1 and the body is worn out twenty years before its time4 ,it has made the world reek with poverty1 and ugliness1 and meanness1 and the vulgarity of conspicuous wealth4 ,it has made life intolerable and disgraceful to all but sheep and pigs4 8,there is only one way of saving our civilization--such as there is of it--from wasting away through the parasitic degeneration of a few of its parts and the malnutrition of the rest2 and that is by frankly abandoning this laissez-faire madness1 and changing the state into a mechanism for the management of the nation's business4 ,we workers must get hold of the offices1 and turn government into administration4 ,without that our strikes and boycotts1 our #8direct action' and economic organization1 arrive at little result2 every strike we #8win' means that prices will go up1 and our time and energy--and dues--have gone to nothing but self-discipline in solidarity4 ,we can control prices only by controlling monopolies2 and we can control monopolies only by controlling government4 ,that means politics1 and it's a scheme that won't work until the proletariat get brains enough to elect honest and sensible men to office2 but if they haven't the brains to do that they won't have the brains to do anything effective on the economic or any other field4 ,we know how hard it is to get people to think2 but we flatter ourselves that our propaganda is an educative force that grows stronger every year1 and has already achieved such power as to decide the most important election held in this country since the ,civil ,war4 8,already a large number of people have been educated--chiefly by our propaganda--to understand1 for example1 the economic greed that lies behind all wars4 ,they perceive that so long as capital finds its highest rate of profit in the home market1 capitalists see to it that peace remains secure2 but that when capital has expanded to the point at which the rate of interest begins to fall1 or when labor has ceased to be docile1 because it has ceased to be unorganized and uninformed1 capitalists then seek foreign markets and foreign investments1 and soon require the help of war--that is1 the lives of the workers at home--to help them enforce their terms on foreign governments and peoples4 ,only the national ownership of capital can change that4 ,we thought once that we were too civilized ever to go to war again2 we begin to see that our industrial feudalism leads inevitably to war and armaments1 and the intellectual stagnation that comes from a militaristic mode of national life4 ,we begin to see all history as a ,dark ,age 7with fitful intervals of light71--a long series of wars in which men have killed and died for delusions1 fighting to protect the property of their exploiters4 ,and it becomes a little clearer to us than before that this awful succession of killings and robberies is no civilization at all1 and that we shall never have a civilization worthy of the name until we transform our industrial war into the coperative commonwealth1 and all #8foreigners' into friends40 #c ,eugenics 8,my dear young man10 says the ,eugenist at this point1 8you must study biology4 ,your plan for the improvement of mankind is all shot through with childish ignorance of nature's way of doing things4 ,come into my laboratory for a few years2 and you will learn how little you can do by merely changing the environment4 ,it's nature that counts1 not nurture4 ,improvement depends on the elimination of the inferior1 not on their reformation by ,socialist leaflets or settlement work4 ,what you have to do is to find some substitute for that natural selection--the automatic and ruthless killing off of the unfit--which we are more and more frustrating with our short-sighted charity4 ,humanitarianism must get informed4 ,our squeamishness about interfering with the holy #8liberty of the individual' will have to be moderated by some sense of the right of society to protect itself from interference by the individual4 ,here are the feeble-minded1 for example2 they breed more rapidly than healthy people do1 and they almost always transmit their defect4 ,if you don't interfere with these people1 if you don't teach them or force them to be childless1 you will have an increase in insanity along with the development of humanity4 ,think of making a woman suffer to deliver into the world a cripple or an idiot4 ,and further1 consider that the lowest eighth of the people produce one-half of the next generation4 ,the better people1 the more vigorous and healthy people1 are refusing to have children2 every year the situation is becoming more critical4 ,city-life and factory-life make things still worse2 young men coming from the country plunge into the maelstrom of the city1 then into its femalestrom2 they emerge with broken health1 marry deformities dressed up in the latest fashion1 and produce children inferior in vigor and ability to themselves4 ,given a hundred years more of this1 and western ,europe and ,america will be in a condition to be overcome easily by the fertile and vigorous races of the ,east4 ,that is what you have to think of4 ,the problem is larger than that of making poor people less poor2 it is the problem of preserving our civilization4 ,your socialism will help1 but it will be the merest beginning2 it will be but an introduction to the socialization of selection1--which is eugenics4 ,we will prevent procreation by people who have a transmissible defect or disease2 we will require certificates of health and clean ancestry before permitting marriage2 we will encourage the mating1 with or without love1 of men and women possessed of energy and good physique4 ,we will teach people1 in ,mr4 ,marett's phrase1 to marry less with their eyes and more with their heads4 ,it will take us a long while to put all this into effect2 but we will put it4 ,time is on our side2 every year will make our case stronger4 ,within half a century the educated world will come and beg us to guide them in a eugenic revolution40 #d ,anarchism ,a gentle anarchist3 8,you do well to talk of revolution2 but you do wrong to forget the individual in the race4 ,your eugenic revolution will not stop the exploitation of the workers by the manufacturers through the state4 ,give men justice and they will soon be healthy2 give them the decent life which is the only just reward for their work1 and you will not need eugenics4 ,instead of bothering about parasitic germs you should attend to parasitic exploiters2 it is in this social parasitism that the real danger of degeneration lies4 ,continued injustice of employers to employees is splitting every western nation into factions2 class-loyalty will soon be stronger than loyalty to the community2 and the time will come when nations in which this civil war has not been superseded by voluntary mutual aid will crumble into oblivion4 8,and yet men are willing to be loyal to the community1 if the community is organized to give them justice4 ,if exploitation were to cease there would be such bonds of brotherhood among men as would make the community practically everlasting4 ,all you need do is to let men cooperate in freedom4 ,they long to coperate2 all evolution shows a growth in the ability to cooperate2 man surpassed the brute just because of this4 ,nor is law or state needed2 coercive government is necessary only in societies founded on injustice4 ,the state has always been an instrument of exploitation2 and law is merely the organized violence of the ruling class4 ,it is a subtle scheme2 it enables industrial lords to do without any pangs of conscience what but for their statute-books might give them a qualm or two4 ,notice1 for example1 how perfectly ,christian such slaughters as those in ,colorado or ,virginia can be made to appear--even to the slaughterers--by the delightful expedient of the statute-book4 ,they kill and call it law1 so that they may sleep4 8,and then we are told that one must never use violence in labor disputes4 ,but obviously it is precisely violence that is used against labor1 and against the free spirit4 ,as a matter of history1 rebels did not begin to use violence on the authorities until the authorities had used violence on them4 ,we feel ourselves quite justified in using any means of attack on a system so founded in coercion4 ,the whole question with us is one not of morals but of expediency4 ,we have been moral a little too long40 #e ,individualism 8,precisely10 says the ,stirnerite anarchist2 8it is all a question of might1 not of right2 and we exploited ones may be as right as rectitude and never get anywhere unless we can rhyme a little might to our right4 ,each of us has a right to do whatever he is strong enough to do4 #8,one gets farther with a handful of might than with a bagful of right4' ,he who wants much1 and knows how to get it1 has in all times taken it1 as ,napoleon did the continent1 and the ,french ,algeria4 ,therefore the only point is that the respectful #8lower classes' should at length learn to take for themselves what they want40 #f ,individualism ,again ,and lastly1 ,advocatus ,diaboli1 ,mr4 ,status ,quo3 8,i agree with you right heartily1 ,sir ,stirnerite anarchist2 it is time you children came to understand that everything is a question of power4 ,let the fittest survive and let us all use whatever means we find expedient4 ,i am frank with you now2 but you must not be surprised if to-morrow ,i write out a few checks for the salaries of the liars whom ,i have in my employ4 ,why should we tell the truth and go under8 ,surely you will understand that not all knowledge is good for all men4 ,if it gives you satisfaction1 for example1 to spread information about birth-control1 you will not feel hurt if it gives us satisfaction to oppose you1 for the sake of the future armies of unemployed without which our great scheme of industry would be seriously hampered4 8,and ,i agree with your fellow-anarchist1 that the state is often a nuisance4 ,i can make use of a little government2 but when the state begins to tell me how to run my business then ,i feel as if your criticism of the state is very just--and convenient4 ,i am an individualist1--a good old ,american individualist1--like ,jefferson and ,emerson4 ,the state can't manage industry half as well as we can4 ,you know--as our ,socialists do not--that government ownership is only ownership by politicians1 by ,hinky-,dinks and ,bath-house ,johns2 and ,i can tell you from intimate knowledge of these people that they will do anything for money except efficient administrative work4 8,your scheme of having the workers take over the industries is a good scheme--for the millennium4 ,where would you get men to direct you8 ,they come to us because we pay them well2 if your syndicalist shops would pay them as well as we do1 they would be the beginning of a new aristocracy2 if you think these clever men will work for #8honor' you are leaning on an airy dream4 ,destroy private property and you will have a nation of hoboes and ,hindus4 8,as to exploitation1 what would you have8 ,we are strong1 and you are weak2 it is the law of nature that we should use you1 just as it is the law of nature that one species should use the weaker species as its prey4 ,the weaker will always suffer1 with or without law4 ,even if all bellies are full1 the majority will envy the intellectual power of their betters1 and will suffer just as keenly on the intellectual plane as they do now on the physical4 ,the alternative of the under-dog is to get intelligence and power1 or #8stay put4' 8,my advice1 then1 is to let things be4 ,you can change the superficial conditions of the struggle for existence and for power1 but the fundamental facts of it will remain4 ,monarchy1 aristocracy1 democracy1--it's all the same4 ,the most powerful will rule1 whether by armies or by newspapers2 it makes no difference if ,god is on the side of the biggest battalions1 or the side of the biggest type4 ,we bought the battalions2 we buy the type4 8,come1 let us get back to our business40 ,,iii ,dissolutions ,here is a reductio ad absurdum of our social 'isms2 and here is the history of many a social rebel4 ,from dissatisfaction to socialism1 from socialism to anarchism1 from anarchism to ,stirnerism1 from ,stirnerism and the cult of the ego to ,nietzsche and the right to exploit2--so has many a man made the merry-go-round of thought and come back wearily at last to the terra firma of the thing that is4 ,we sail into the sea of social controversy without chart or compass or rudder2 and though we encounter much wind1 we never make the port of our desire4 ,we need maps1 and instruments1 and knowledge2 we need to make inquiries1 to face our doubts1 to define our purposes2 we shall have to examine more ruthlessly our preconceptions and hidden premises1 to force into the light the wishes that secretly father our illegitimate thoughts4 ,we must ask ourselves questions that will reach down to the tenderest roots of our philosophies4 ,you are a feminist1 let us say4 ,very well4 ,have you ever considered the sociological consequences of that very real disintegration of the 8home0 which an advancing feminism implies8 ,granted that this disintegration has been begun by the industrial revolution4 ,do you want it to go on more rapidly8 ,do you want women to become more like men8 ,do you think that the 8new woman0 will care to have children8 ,it is surely better for the present comfort of our society that there should be a considerable fall in the birth rate2 but will that expose the people of ,europe and ,america to absorption by the races of the ,east8 ,you argue that the case for feminism is as simple as the case for democracy2 but is the case for democracy simple8 ,is democracy competent8 ,is it bringing us where we want to go8 ,or is it a sort of collective determination to drift with the tide1--a sort of magnified laissez-faire8 ,and as to 8rights0 and 8justice10 how do you answer ,nietzsche's contention that the more highly organized species1 sex1 or class1 must by its very nature use1 command1 and exploit the less highly organized species1 sex1 or class8 ,you are a ,socialist2 and you yearn for a ,utopia of friends and equals2 but will you1 to make men equal1 be compelled to chain the strength of the strong with many laws and omnipresent force8--will you sacrifice the superiority of the chosen few to the mediocrity of the many8 ,will you1 to control the exploiter1 be obliged to control all men1 even in detail8--will your socialism really bring the slavery and servile state that ,spencer and ,chesterton and ,belloc fear8 ,is further centralization of government desirable8 ,have you considered sufficiently the old difficulty about the stimulus to endeavor in a society that should restrict private property to a minimum and prohibit inheritance8 ,have you arranged to protect your coperative commonwealth by limiting immigration--from ,europe and from heaven8#bie ,are you not1 in general1 exaggerating the force of the aggregative as against the segregative tendencies in human nature8 ,and do you think that a change of laws can make the weak elude the exploiting arm of the strong8 ,will not the strongest men always make whatever laws are made1 and rule wherever men are ruled8 ,can any government stand that is not the expression of the strongest forces in the community8 ,and if the strongest force be organized labor1 are you sure that organized labor will not exploit and tyrannize8 ,will the better organized and skilled workers be 8just0 to the unskilled and imperfectly organized workers8 ,and what do you mean by 8justice08 ,and as to the eugenist1 surely it is unnecessary to expose his unpreparedness to meet the questions which his programme raises4 ,questions1 for example1 as to what 8units0 of character to breed for1 if there are such 8units02 whether definite breeding for certain results would forfeit adaptive plasticity2 whether compulsory sterilization is warranted by our knowledge of heredity2 whether serious disease is not often associated with genius2 whether the native mental endowments of rich and poor are appreciably different1 and whether the 8comparative infertility of the upper classes0 is really making for the deterioration of the race2 whether progress depends on racial changes so much as on changes in social institutions and traditions4 ,and so on4 ,and the anarchist1 whom one loves if only for the fervor of his hope and the beauty of his dream1--the anarchist falters miserably in the face of interrogation4 ,if all laws were to be suspended to-morrow1 all coercion of citizen by state1 how long would it be before new laws would arise8 ,would the aforementioned strong cease to be strong and the weak cease to be weak8 ,would people be willing to forego private property8 ,are not belief and disbelief in private property determined less by logic and 8justice0 than by one's own success or failure in the acquisition of private property8 ,do only the weak and uncontrolled advocate absolute lack of restraint8 ,do most men want liberty so much that they will tolerate chaos and a devil-take-the-hind-most individualism for the sake of it8 ,can it be1 after all1 that freedom is a negative thing1--that what men want is1 for some1 achievement1 for others1 peace1--and that for these they will give even freedom8 ,what if a great number of people dread liberty1 and are not at all so sensitive to restraint and commandment as the anarchist8 ,perhaps only children and geniuses can be truly anarchistic8 ,perhaps freedom itself is a problem and not a solution8 ,does the mechanization1 through law and custom1 of certain elements in our social behavior1 like the mechanization1 through habit and instinct1 of certain elements in individual behavior1 result in greater freedom for the higher powers and functions8 ,again1 to have freedom for all1 all must be equal2 but does not development make for differentiation and inequality8 ,consider the ,america of three hundred years ago2 a nation of adventurous settlers1 hardly any of them better off than any other1--all of a class1 all on a level2 and see what inequalities and castes a few generations have produced6 ,is there a necessary antithesis between liberty and order1 freedom and control8--or are order and control the first condition of freedom8 ,does not law serve many splendid purposes1--could it not serve more8 ,is the state necessary so long as there are long-eared and long-fingered gentry8 ,as for your revolutions1 who profits by them8 ,the people who have suffered1 or the people who have thought8 ,is a revolution1 so far as the poor are concerned1 merely the dethronement of one set of rulers or exploiters so that another set may have a turn8 ,do not most revolutions1 like that which wished to storm heaven by a tower1 end in a confusion of tongues8 ,and after each outbreak do not the workers readapt themselves to their new slavery with that ease and torpid patience which are the despair of every leader1 until they are awakened by another quarrel among their masters8 99 99 99 99 99 ,one could fling about such questions almost endlessly1 till every 'ism should disappear under interrogation points4 ,every such 'ism1 clearly1 is but a half-truth1 an arrested development1 suffering from malinformation4 ,one is reminded of the experiment in which a psychologist gave a ring-puzzle to a monkey1 and--in another room--a like puzzle to a university professor3 the monkey fell upon the puzzle at once with teeth and feet and every manner of hasty and haphazard reaction1--until at last the puzzle1 dropped upon the floor1 came apart by chance2 the professor sat silent and motionless before the puzzle1 working out in thought the issue of many suggested solutions1 and finally1 after forty minutes1 touched it to undo it at a stroke4 ,our 'isms are simian reactions to the social puzzle4 ,we jump at conclusions1 we are impinged upon extremes1 we bound from opposite to opposite1 we move with blinders to a passion-colored goal4 ,some of us are idealists1 and see only the beautiful desire2 some of us are realists1 and see only the dun and dreary fact2 hardly any of us can look fact in the face and see through it to that which it might be4 ,we 8bandy half-truths0 for a decade and then relapse into the peaceful insignificance of conformity4#bif ,it dawns on students of social problems1 as it dawned long since on philosophers1 that the beginning of their wisdom is a confession of their ignorance4 ,we know now that the thing we need1 and for lack of which we blunder valiantly into futility1 is not good intentions but informed intelligence4 ,all problems are problems of education2 all the more so in a democracy4 ,not because education can change the original nature of man1 but because intelligent coperation can control the stimuli which determine the injuriousness or beneficence of original dispositions4 ,impulse is not the enemy of intelligence2 it is its raw material4 ,we desire knowledge--and particularly knowledge of ourselves--so that we may know what external conditions evoke destructive1 and what conditions evoke constructive1 responses4 ,we do not1 for example1 expect intelligence to eradicate pugnacity2 we do not want it to do so2 but we want to eradicate the environmental conditions which turn this impulse to wholesale suicide4 ,men should fight2 it is the essence of their value that they are willing to fight2 the problem of intelligence is to discuss and to create means for the diversion of pugnacity to socially helpful ends4 ,character is per se neither good nor bad1 but becomes one or the other according to the nature of the stimuli presented4 ,what we call moral reform1 then1 waits on information and consequent remoulding of the factors determining the direction of our original dispositions4 ,we become 8better0 men and women only so far as we become more intelligent4 ,just as psychoanalysis can1 in some measure1 reconstruct the personal life1 so social analysis can reconstruct social life and turn into productive channels the innocent but too often destructive forces of original nature4#big ,our problem1 then1 to repeat once more our central theme1 is to facilitate the growth and spread of intelligence4 ,with this definition of the issue we come closer to our thesis1--that the social problem must be approached through philosophy1 and philosophy through the social problem4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,reconstructive ,,function ,,of ,,philosophy ,i ,epistemologs ,now there are a great many people who will feel no thrill at all at the mention of philosophy1--who will rather consider themselves excused by the very occurrence of the word from continuing on the road which this discussion proposes to travel4 ,no man dares to talk of philosophy in these busy days except after an apologetic preface2 philosophers themselves have come to feel that their thinking is so remote from practical endeavor that they have for the most part abandoned the effort to relate their work to the concrete issues of life4 ,in the eyes of the man who does things philosophy is but an arial voyaging among the mists of transcendental dialectic1 or an ineffective moralizing substitute for supernatural religion4 ,philosophy was once mistress of all the disciplines of thought and search2 now none so poor to do her reverence4 ,there is no way of meeting this indictment other than to concede it4 ,it is true4 ,it is mild4 ,only a lover of philosophy can know--with the intimacy of a particeps criminis--how deeply philosophy has fallen from her ancient heights4 ,looking back to ,greece we find that philosophy there was a real pursuit of wisdom1 a very earnest effort to arrive by discussion and self-criticism at a way of life1 a philosophia vit magistra1 a knowledge of the individual and social good and of the means thereto1 a conscious direction of social institutions to ethical ends2 philosophy and life in those days were bound up with one another as mechanics is now bound up with efficient construction4 ,even in the ,middle ,ages philosophy meant cordinate living1 synthetic behavior2 with all their reputation for cobweb-spinning1 the ,scholastics were much closer to life in their thinking than most modern philosophers have been in theirs4 ,the lapse of philosophy from her former significance and vitality is the result of the exaggerated emphasis placed on the epistemological problem by modern thinkers2 and this in turn is in great part due to the difficulties on which ,descartes stumbled in his effort to reconcile his belief in mechanism with his desire to placate the ,jesuits4 ,how minor a rle is played by the problems of the relation between subject and object1 the validity of knowledge1 epistemological realism and idealism1 in a frankly mechanist philosophy1 appears in ,bacon1 ,hobbes1 and ,spinoza2#bih these men--deducting ,bacon's astute obeisance to theology--know what they want and say what they mean2 they presume1 with a maturity so natural as to be mistaken for navet1 that the validity of thought is a matter to be decided by action rather than by theory2 they take it for granted that the supreme and ultimate purpose of philosophy is not analysis but synthesis1 not the intellectual categorizing of experience but the intelligent reconstruction of life4 ,indeed1 as one pursues this clew through the devious--almost stealthy--course of modern speculation it appears that no small part of the epistemological development has been made up of the oscillations1 compromises1 and obscurities natural in men who were the exponents and the victims of a painful transition4 ,civilization was passing from one intellectual basis to another2 and in these weird epistemologs the vast process came uncomfortably to semiconsciousness4 ,they were old bottles bursting with new wine2 and their tragedy was that they knew it4 ,they clung to the old world even while the new one was swimming perilously into their ken2 they found a pitiful solace in the old phrases1 the old paraphernalia of a dead philosophy2 and in the suffering of their readjustment there was1 quite inevitably1 some measure of self-deception4 ,and that is why they are so hard to understand4 ,even so subtle a thinker as ,santayana finds them too difficult1 and abandons them in righteous indignation4 ,there is no worse confounding of confusion than self-deception3 let a man be honest with himself1 and he may lie with tolerable intelligibility and success2 but let him be his own dupe and he may write a thousand critiques and never get himself understood4 ,indeed1 some of them do not want to be understood1 they only want to be believed4 ,hegel1 for example1 was not at all surprised to find that no one understood him2 he would have been surprised and chagrined to find that some one had4 ,obscurity can cover a multitude of sins4 ,add to this self-befoggery the appalling historismus 7as ,eucken calls it71 the strange lifeless interest in the past for its own sake1 the petty poring over problems of text and minuti of theory in the classics of speculation2--and the indictment of philosophy as a useless appanage of the idle rich gains further ground4 ,we do not seem to understand how much of the past is dead1 how much of it is but a drag on the imaginative courage that dares to think of a future different from the past1 and better4 ,philosophy is too much a study of the details of superseded systems2 it is too little the study of the miraculous living moment in which the past melts into the present and the future finds creation4 ,most people have an invincible habit of turning their backs to the future2 they like the past because the future is an adventure4 ,so with most philosophers to-day2 they like to write analyses of ,kant1 commentaries on ,berkeley1 discussions of ,plato's myths2 they are students remembering1 they have not yet become men thinking4 ,they do not know that the work of philosophy is in the street as well as in the library1 they do not feel and understand that the final problem of philosophy is not the relation of subject and object but the misery of men4 ,and so it is well that philosophy1 such as it chiefly is in these days1 should be scorned as a busy idler in a world where so much work is asking to be done4 ,philosophy was vital in ,plato's day2 so vital that some philosophers were exiled and others put to death4 ,no one would think of putting a philosopher to death to-day4 ,not because men are more delicate about killing2 but because there is no need to kill that which is already dead4#bii ,,ii ,philosophy as ,control ,but after all1 this is not a subject for rhetoric so much as for resolution4 ,here we are again in our splendid library2 here we sit1 financially secure1 released from the material necessities of life1 to stand apart and study1 to report and help and state and solve2 under us those millions holding us aloft so that we may see for them1 dying by the thousand so that we may find the truth that will make the others free2 and what do we do8 ,we make phrases like 8esse est percipi10 8synthetic judgments priori10 and 8being is nothing02 we fill the philosophic world with great ,saharas of ,kantiana2 we write epistemology for two hundred years4 ,surely there is but one decent thing for us to do3 either philosophy is of vital use to the community1 or it is not4 ,if it is not1 we will abandon it2 if it is1 then we must seek that vital use and show it4 ,we have been privileged to study and think and travel and learn the world2 and now we stand gaping before it as if there were nothing wrong1 as if nothing could be done1 as if nothing should be done4 ,we are expert eyes1 asked to point the way2 and all that we report is that there is nothing to see1 and nowhere to go4 ,we are without even a partial sense of the awful responsibility of intelligence4 ,it is time we put this problem of knowledge1 even the problem of the validity of knowledge1 into the hands of science4 ,how we come to know1 what the process of knowledge is1 what 8truth0 is1--all these are questions of fact2 they are problems for the science of psychology1 they are not problems for philosophy4 ,this continual sharpening of the knife1 as ,lotze put it1 becomes tiresome--almost pathetic--if1 after all1 there is no cutting done4 ,like ,faust1 who found himself when1 blinded by the sun1 he turned his face to the earth1 so we shall have to forget our epistemological heaven and remember mother earth2 we shall have to give up our delightful ,german puzzles and play our living part in the flow of social purpose4 ,philosophers must once more learn to live4 ,to make such a demand for a new direction of philosophy to life is after all only a development of pragmatism1 turning that doctrine of action as the test and significance of thought to uses not so individual as those in which ,william ,james found its readiest application4 ,if philosophy has meaning1 it must be as life become aware of its purposes and possibilities1 it must be as life cross-examining life for the sake of life2 it must be as specialized foresight for the direction of social movement1 as reconstructive intelligence in conscious evolution4 ,man finds himself caught in a flux of change2 he studies the laws operating in the flux2 studying1 he comes to understand2 understanding1 he comes to control2 controlling1 he comes face to face with the question of all questions1 ,for what8 ,where does he wish to go1 what does he want to be8 ,it is then that man puts his whole experience before him in synthetic test2 then that he gropes for meanings1 searches for values1 struggles to see and define his course and goal2 then that he becomes philosopher4 ,consider these questions of goal and course as questions asked by a society1 and the social function of philosophy appears4 ,science enlightens means1 philosophy must enlighten ends4 ,science informs1 philosophy must form4 ,a philosopher is a man who remakes himself2 the social function of philosophy is to remake society4 ,have we yet felt the full zest of that brave discovery of the last century1--that purpose is not in things but in us8 ,what a declaration of independence there is in that simple phrase1 what liberation of a fettered thought to dare all ventures of creative endeavor6 ,here at last is man's coming-of-age6 ,well3 now that we have won this freedom1 what shall we do with it8 ,that is the question which freedom begets1 often as its ,frankenstein2 for unless freedom makes for life1 freedom dies4 ,once our sloth and cowardice might have pleaded the uselessness of effort in a world where omnipotent purpose lay outside of us1 superimposed and unchangeable2 now that we can believe that divinity is in ourselves1 that purpose and guidance are through us1 we can no longer shirk the question of reconstruction4 ,the world is ours to do with what we can and will4 ,once we believed in the unchangeable environment--that new ogre that succeeded to the ,absolute--and 7as became an age of laissez-faire7 we thought that wisdom lay in meeting all its demands2 now we know that environments can be remade2 and we face the question1 ,how shall we remake ours8 ,this is preminently a problem in philosophy2 it is a question of values4 ,if the world is to be remade1 it will have to be under the guidance of philosophy4 ,,iii ,philosophy as ,mediator between ,science and ,statesmanship ,but why philosophy8--some one asks4 ,why will not science do8 ,philosophy dreams1 while one by one the sciences which she nursed steal away from her and go down into the world of fact and achievement4 ,why should not science be called upon to guide us into a better world8 ,because science becomes more and more a fragmentated thing1 with ever less cordination1 ever less sense of the whole4 ,our industrial system has forced division of labor here1 as in the manual trades1 almost to the point of idiocy3 let a man seek to know everything about something1 and he will soon know nothing about anything else2 efficiency will swallow up the man4 ,because of this shredded science we have great zologists talking infantile patriotism about the war1 and great electricians who fill sensational sheets with details of their trips to heaven4 ,we live in a world where thought breaks into pieces1 and cordination ebbs2 we flounder into a chaos of hatred and destruction because synthetic thinking is not in fashion4 ,consider1 for example1 the problem of monopoly3 we ask science what we are to do here2 why is it that after we have listened to the economist1 and the historian1 and the lawyer1 and the psychologist1 we are hardly better off than before8 ,because each of these men speaks in ignorance of what the others have discovered4 ,we must find some way of making these men acquainted with one another before they can become really useful to large social purposes2 we must knock their heads together4 ,we want more uniters and cordinators1 less analyzers and accumulators4 ,specialization is making the philosopher a social necessity of the very first importance4 ,this does not mean that we must put the state into the hands of the epistemologists4 ,hardly4 ,the type of philosopher who must be produced will be a man too close to life to spend much time on merely analytical problems4 ,he will feel the call of action1 and will automatically reject all knowledge that does not point to deeds4 ,the essential feature of him will be grasp3 he will have his net fixed for the findings of those sciences which have to do1 not with material reconstructions1 but with the discovery of the secrets of human nature4 ,he will know the essentials of biology and psychology1 of sociology and history1 of economics and politics2 in him these long-divorced sciences will meet again and make one another fertile once more4 ,he will busy himself with ,mendel and ,freud1 ,sumner and ,veblen1 and will scandalously neglect the ,absolute4 ,he will study the needs and exigencies of his time1 he will consider the ,utopias men make1 he will see in them the suggestive pseudopodia of political theory1 and will learn from them what men at last desire4 ,he will sober the vision with fact1 and find a focus for immediate striving4 ,with this focus he will be able to cordinate his own thinking1 to point the nose of science to a goal2 science becoming thereby no longer inventive and instructive merely1 but preventive and constructive4 ,and so fortified and unified he will preach his gospel1 talking not to students about ,god1 but to statesmen about men4 ,for we come again--ever and ever again--to ,plato3 unless wisdom and practical ability1 philosophy and statesmanship1 can be more closely bound together than they are1 there will be no lessening of human misery4 ,think of the learning of scientists and the ignorance of politicians6 ,you see all these agitated1 pompous men1 making laws at the rate of some ten thousand a year2 you see those quiet1 unheard of1 underpaid seekers in the laboratories of the world2 unless you can bring these two groups together through cordination and direction1 your society will stand still forever1 however much it moves4 ,philosophy must take hold2 it must become the social direction of science1 it must become1 strange to say1 applied science4 ,we stand to-day in social science where ,bacon stood in natural science3 we seek a method first for the elucidation of causes1 and second for the transformation1 in the light of this knowledge1 of man's environment and man4 8,we live in the stone age of political science10 says ,lester ,ward2 8in politics we are still savages40#cjj ,our political movements are conceived in impulse and developed in emotion2 they end in fission and fragmentation because there is no thought behind them4 ,who will supply thinking to these instincts1 direction to this energy1 light to this wasted heat8 ,our young men talk only of ideals1 our politicians only of fact2 who will interpret to the one the language of the other8 ,what is it1 too1 that statesmen need if not that saving sense of the whole which makes philosophy1 and which philosophy makes8 ,just as philosophy without statesmanship is--let us say--epistemology1 so statesmanship without philosophy is--,american politics4 ,the function of the philosopher1 then1 is to do the listening to to-day's science1 and then to do the thinking for to-morrow's statesmanship4 ,the philosophy of an age should be the organized foresight of that age1 the interpreter of the future to the present4 8,selection adapts man to yesterday's conditions1 not to to-day's02#cja the organized foresight of conscious evolution will adapt man to the conditions of to-morrow4 ,and an ounce of foresight is worth a ton of morals4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,organized ,,intelligence ,i ,the ,need ,intelligence is organized experience2 but intelligence itself must be organized4 ,consider the resources of the unused intelligence of the world2 intelligence potential but undeveloped2 intelligence developed but isolated2 intelligence allowed to waste itself in purely personal pursuits1 unasked to enter into coperation for larger ends4 ,consider the ,platos fretting in exile while petty politicians rule the world2 consider ,montaigne1 and ,hobbes1 and ,hume1 and ,carlyle1 and the thousand other men whose genius was left to grow--or die--in solitude or starvation2 consider the vast number of university-trained minds who are permitted1 for lack of invitation and organized facilities1 to slip into the world of profit and loss and destructively narrow intent2 consider the expert ability in all lines which can be found in the faculties of the world1 and which goes to training an infinitesimal fraction of the community4 ,the thought of university graduates1 of university faculties1 of university-trained investigators1 has had a rapidly growing influence in the last ten years in ,america2 and because it is an influence due to enlightenment it is fundamentally an influence for 8good40 ,it was this influence that showed when ,president ,wilson said that the eight-hour day was demanded by the informed opinion of the time4 ,the sources of such influence have merely been touched2 they are deep2 we must find a way to make informed opinion more articulate and powerful4 8,the most valuable knowledge consists of methods10 said ,nietzsche2#cjb and the most valuable methods are methods of organization1 whether of data or of men4 ,organization's the thing4 ,economic forces are organized2 the forces of intelligence are not4 ,to organize intelligence2 that is surely one method of approach to the social problem2 and what if1 indeed1 it be the very heart and substance of the social problem8 ,now a very easy way of making the propounder of such an organization feel unusually modest is to ask him that little trouble-making question1 ,how8 ,to answer that would be to answer almost everything that can be answered4 ,here are opera basilica again6--for what are we doing1 after all1 but trying to take ,francis ,bacon seriously8 ,of course the difficulty in organizing intelligence is how to know who are intelligent1 and how to get enough people to agree with you that you know4 ,if each man's self-valuation were accepted1 our organization would be rather bulky4 ,are there any men very widely recognized as intelligent1 who could be used as the nucleus of an organization8 ,there are individual men so recognized1--,edison1 for example1 and1 strange to say1 one or two men who by accident are holding political office4 ,but these are stray individuals2 are there any groups whose average of intelligence is highly rated by a large portion of the community8 ,there are4 ,physicians are so rated2 so much so that by popular usage they have won almost a monopoly on the once more widely used term doctor4 ,university professors are highly rated4 ,let us take the physicians and the professors2 here is a nucleus of recognized intelligence4 ,there are objections1 here1 of course2 some one urges that many physicians are quacks1 another that professors are rated as intelligent1 but only in an unpractical sort of way4 ,perhaps we shall find some scheme for eliminating the quacks2 but the professors present a difficult problem4 ,it is true that they suffer from intellectualism1 academitis1 overfondness for theories1 and other occupational diseases2 it is true that the same people who stand in awe of the very word professor would picture the article indicated by the word as a thin1 round-shouldered1 be-spectacled ninny1 incapable of finding his way alone through city streets1 and so immersed in the stars that he is sooner or later submerged in a well4 ,but what if this quality of detachment1 of professorial calm1 be just one of the qualities needed for the illumination of our social problem8 ,perhaps we have too much emotion in these questions1 and need the colder light of the man who is trained to use his 8head0 and not his 8heart40 ,perhaps the most useful thing in the world for our purpose is this terribly dispassionate1 coldly scrutinizing professor4 ,we need men as impartial and clear-eyed as men come2 and whatever a professor may say1 yet he sees his field more clearly and impartially than any other group of men whatever4 ,let the professors stay4 ,and so we have our physicians and our professors1--say all physicians and professors who have taught or practised three years in institutions1 or as the graduates of institutions1 of recognized standing4 ,and now let us dream our dream4 ,,ii ,the ,organization of ,intelligence ,these men1 through meetings and correspondence1 organize themselves into a 8,society for ,social ,research02 they begin at once to look for an 8inspired millionaire0 to finance the movement for six months or so2 they advertise themselves diligently in the press1 and make known their intention to get together the best brains of the country to study the facts and possibilities of the social problem4 ,and then--a difficult point--they face the task of arranging some more or less impersonal method of deciding who are the intelligent people and who not4 ,they ask themselves just what kind of information a man should be expected to have1 to fit him for competent handling of social questions2 and after long discussions they conclude that such a man should be well trained in one--and acquainted with the general findings of the others--of what we may call the social disciplines3 biology1 psychology1 sociology1 history1 economics1 law1 politics1 philosophy1 and perhaps more4 ,they formulate a long and varied test for the discovery of fitness in these fields2 and they arrange that every university in the country shall after plentiful advertisement and invitation to all and sundry1 give these tests1 and pay the expenses incurred by any needy candidate who shall emerge successful from the trial4 ,in this way men whose studies have been private1 and unadorned with academic degree1 are to find entrance to the ,society4 ,it is recognized that the danger of such a test lies in the premium which it sets on the bookish as against the practical man3 on the man whose knowledge has come to him in the classroom or the study1 as against the man who has won his knowledge just by living face to face with life4 ,there are philosophers who have never heard of ,kant1 and psychologists who have been ,freudians for decades without having ever read a book4 ,a society recruited by such a test will be devoid of artists and poets1 may finally eliminate all but fact-gathering dryasdusts1 and so end deservedly in nothing4 ,and yet some test there must be1 to indicate1 however crudely1 one's fitness or unfitness to take part in this work2 the alternative would be the personal choice of the initial few1 whose prejudices and limitations would so become the constitution and by-laws of the society4 ,perhaps1 too1 some way may appear of using the artists and poets1 and the genius who knows no books4 ,well3 the tests are given2 the original nucleus of physicians and professors submit themselves to these tests1 and some1 failing1 are eliminated2 other men come1 from all fields of work1 and from them a number survive the ordeal and pass into the ,society4 ,so arises a body of say #ejjj men1 divided into local groups but working in unison so far as geographical separateness will permit2 and to them now come1 impressed with their earnestness1 a wealthy man1 who agrees to finance the ,society for such time as may be needed to test its usefulness4 ,now what does our ,society do8 ,it seeks information4 ,that1 and not a programme1 is the fruitful beginning of reform4 8,men are willing to investigate only the small things of life10 says ,samuel ,butler2 this ,society for ,social ,research is prepared and resolved to investigate anything that has vital bearing on the social problem2 it stands ready to make enemies1 ready to soil its hands4 ,it appoints committees to gather and formulate all that biologists can tell of human origin and the innate impulses of men2 all that psychology in its varied branches can tell of human behavior2 all that sociology knows of how and why human societies and institutions rise and fall2 all that medicine can tell of social ills and health2 it appoints committees to go through all science with the loadstone of the social purpose1 picking up this fact here and that one there2 committees to study actual and proposed forms of government1 administrative and electoral methods2 committees to investigate marriage1 eugenics1 prostitution1 poverty1 and the thousand other aspects and items of the social problem2 committees to call for and listen to responsible expressions of every kind of opinion2 committees to examine and analyze social experiments1 profit-sharing plans1 ,oneida communities2 even a committee on ,utopia1 before which persons with schemes and 'isms and perfect cities in their heads may freely preach their gospel4 ,in short this ,society becomes the organized eye and ear of the community1 ready and eager to seek out all the facts of human life and business that may enlighten human will4 ,and having found the facts it publishes them4 ,its operations show real earnestness1 sincerity1 and ability2 and in consequence it wins such prestige that its reports find much heralding1 synopsis1 and comment in the press4 ,but in addition to that it buys1 for the first day of every month1 a half-page of space in several of the more widely circulated periodicals and journals of the country1 and publishes its findings succinctly and intelligibly4 ,it gives full references for all its statements of fact2 it makes verification possible for all doubters and deniers4 ,it includes in each month's report a reliable statement of the year's advances in some one of the social disciplines1 so that its twelve reports in any year constitute a record of the socially vital scientific findings of the year4 ,it limits itself strictly to verifiable information1 and challenges demonstration of humanly avoidable partiality4 ,and it takes great care that its reports are couched not in learned and technical language but in such phraseology as will be intelligible to the graduates of an average grammar school4 ,that is central4 ,,iii ,information of ,panacea ,without some such means of getting and spreading information there is no hope for fundamental social advance4 ,we have agreed1 have we not1 that to make men happier and more capable we must divert their socially injurious impulses into beneficent channels2 that we can do this only by studying those impulses and controlling the stimuli which arouse them2 that we can control those stimuli only by studying the varied factors of the environment and the means of changing them2 in short1 that at the bottom of the direction of impulse lies the necessity of knowledge1 of information spread to all who care to receive it4 ,autocracy may improve the world without spreading enlightenment2 but democracy cannot4 ,delenda est ignorantia4#cjc ,this1 after all1 is a plan for the democratization of aristocracy2 it is ,plato translated into ,america4 ,it utilizes superior intelligence and gives it voice1 but sanctions no change that has not received the free consent of the community4 ,it gives the aristocracy of intellect the influence and initiative which crude democracy frustrates2 but it avoids the corruption that usually goes with power1 by making this influence work through the channels of persuasion rather than compulsion4 ,it counteracts the power of wealth to disseminate partisan views through news-items and editorials1 and relies on fact to get the better at last of double-leaded prejudice4 ,it rests on the faith that lies will out4 ,would the mass of the people listen to such reports8 ,consider1 first1 the repute that attaches to the professorial title4 ,let a man write even the sorriest nonsense but sign himself as one of the faculty of some responsible institution1 and he will find a hearing2 the reader1 perhaps1 need not go far to find an example4 ,in recent industrial and political issues the pronouncements of a few professors carried very great weight2 and there are some modest purveyors of so supposedly harmless a thing as philosophy whose voice is feared by all interests that prosper in the dark4 ,will the combined reputation of the most enlightened men in the country mean less8 ,a report published by this ,society for ,social ,research will mean that a large body of intelligent men have from their number appointed three or five or ten to find the facts of a certain situation or dispute2 these appointed men will1 if they report hastily1 or carelessly1 or dishonestly1 impair the repute of all their fellows in the ,society2 they will take care1 then1 and will probably find honesty as good a policy as some of us pretend it to be4 ,with every additional report so guarded from defect the repute of the society will grow until it becomes the most powerful intellectual force in the world4 ,when one reflects how many pages of misrepresentation were printed in the papers of only one city in the presidential campaign of #aiaf1 and then imagines what would have been the effect of a mere statement of facts on both sides1--the records of the candidates and the parties1 their acknowledged connections1 friends and enemies1 their expressed principles and programmes1 the facts about the tariff1 the ,german issue1 international law1 the railway-brotherhood dispute1 and so forth--one begins to appreciate the importance of information4 ,after the initial and irrevocable differences of original nature nothing is so vital as the spread of enlightenment2 and nothing offers itself so well to organized effort4 ,eugenics is weak because it has no thought-out programme2 'isms rise and fall because people are not informed4 ,let who can1 improve the native qualities of men2 but that aside1 the most promising plan is the dissemination of fact4 ,such a society for research would be a sort of social consciousness1 a 8mind of the race40 ,it would make social planning possible for the first time2 it would make history conscious4 ,it would look ahead and warn2 it would point the nose of the community to unwelcome but important facts2 it would examine into such statements as that of ,sir ,william ,ramsay1 that ,england's coal fields will be exhausted in one hundred and seventy-five years2 and its warnings1 backed by the prestige of its expert information1 would perhaps avert the ravages of social waste and private greed4 ,nature1 said ,lester ,ward1 is a spendthrift1 man an economizer4 ,but economy means prevision1 and social economy means organized provision4 ,here would be not agitation1 not propaganda1 not moralizing1 but only clarification2 these men would be 8merchants of light10 simply giving information so that what men should do they might do knowingly and not in the dark4 ,indeed1 if one can clarify one need not agitate4 ,just to state facts is the most terrible thing that can be done to an injustice4 ,sermons and stump-speeches stampede the judgment for a moment1 but the sound of their perorations still lingers in the air when reaction comes4 ,fact has this advantage over rhetoric1 that time strengthens the one and weakens the other4 ,tell the truth and time will be your eloquence4 ,let us suppose that our ,society has existed some three years2 let us suppose that on the first day of every month it has spread through the press simple reports of its investigations1 simple accounts of socially significant work in science1 and simple statements of fact about the economic and political issues of the day2 let us suppose that by far the greater part of these reports have been conscientious and accurate and clear4 ,very well3 in the course of these three years a large number of mentally alert people all over the country will have developed the habit of reading these monthly reports2 they will look forward to them1 they will attach significance to them1 they will herald them as events1 almost as decisions4 ,in any question of national policy its statements will influence thousands and thousands of the more independent minds4 ,let us calculate the number of people who1 in these ,united ,states1 would be reached by such reports2 let us say the reports are printed in three or four ,new ,york dailies1 having a total circulation of one million2 in other dailies throughout the country totalling some five million circulation2 and in one or more weeklies or monthlies with a large or a select circulation4 ,one may perhaps say that out of the seven or eight million people so reached 7mostly adult males71 five per cent will be so influenced by the increasing prestige of the ,society that they will read the reports4 ,of these four hundred thousand readers it is reasonable to suppose that three hundred thousand will be voters1 and not only voters but men of influence among their fellows4 ,these men will each of them be a medium through which the facts reported will be spread2 it is not too much to say that the number of ,american voters influenced directly or indirectly by these reports will reach to a million4#cjd ,now imagine the influence of this million of voters on a presidential election4 ,their very existence would be a challenge2 candidates would have them in mind when making promises and criticisms2 parties would think of them when formulating policies and drawing up platforms2 editors would beware of falling into claptrap and deceit for fear of these million men armed with combustible fact4 ,it would mean such an elevation of political discussion and political performance as democracy has never yet produced2 such an elevation as democracy must produce or die4 ,,iv ,sex1 ,art1 and ,play in ,social ,reconstruction ,so far our imagined ,society has done no more than to seek and give information4 ,it has1 it is true1 listened to propagandists and ,utopians1 and has published extracts from their testimony2 but even this has been not to agitate but to inform2 that such and such opinions are held by such and such men1 and by such and such a number of men1 is also a point of information4 ,merely to state facts is the essential thing1 and the extremely effective thing4 ,but now there are certain functions which such a ,society might perform beyond the giving of facts--functions that involve personal attitudes and interpretations4 ,it may be possible for our ,society to take on these functions without detracting from the trust reposed in its statements of fact4 ,what are these functions8 ,first of all1 the stimulation of artistic production1 and the extension of artistic appreciation4 ,our ,society1 which is composed of rather staid men1 themselves not peculiarly fitted to pass judgment outside the field of science1 will invite1 let us say1 twenty of the most generally and highly valued of ,english and ,american authors to form themselves into a ,committee on ,literary ,awards1 as a branch of the ,society for ,social ,research4 ,imagine ,thomas ,hardy and ,george ,bernard ,shaw and ,h4 ,g4 ,wells and ,john ,galsworthy and ,rudyard ,kipling and ,john ,masefield and ,george ,moore and ,joseph ,conrad and ,w4 ,d4 ,howells and ,theodore ,dreiser and many more1 telling the world every month1 in individual instalments1 their judgment on current fiction1 drama1 poetry1 ,english literature in general2 imagine the varied judgments printed with synoptic cordination of the results as a way of fixing the standing of a book in the ,english literary world2 and judge of the stimulus that would reside in lists signed by such names4 ,imagine another group of men1 the literary lite of ,france1 making briefer reports on ,french literature2 and other groups in ,germany1 ,russia1 ,italy1 ,spain1 ,scandinavia2 imagine the world getting every month the judgment of ,anatole ,france and ,remain ,rolland and ,gerhardt ,hauptmann and ,anton ,tchekov and ,georg ,brandes on the current literature of their peoples2 imagine them making lists1 too1 of the best books in all their literatures2 imagine eager young men and women poring over these conflicting lists1 discussing them1 making lists of their own1 and getting guidance so4 ,and to the literary lists add monthly reports1 by a committee of the ,society itself1 on the best books in the various fields of science4 ,finally1 let the artists speak1--painters and sculptors and all2 let them say where excellence has dwelt this month in their respective fields4 ,there are hundreds of thousands who hunger for such guidance as this plan would give4 ,there are young people who flounder about hopelessly because they find no guidance2 young people who are easily turned to fine work by the stimulus of responsible judgment1 and as easily lapse into the banalities of popular fiction and popular magazines when this guiding stimulus fails to come4 ,there are thousands of people who would be glad to pay their modest contribution to the support of any organization that would manage to get such direction for them4 ,half the value of a university course lies in this1 that the teacher will suggest readings1 judge books1 and provide general guidance for individual work4 ,perhaps the most valuable kind of information in the world is that which guides one in the search for information4 ,such guidance1 given to all who ask for it1 would go far to save us from the mediocrity that almost stifles our national life4#cje ,and more2 why should not the stimulation be for the producers as well as for the consumers8 ,why should not some kind of award be made1 say every six months1 to the authors adjudged best in their lines by their qualified contemporaries8 ,why should such a book as ,jean ,christophe or ,the ,brothers ,karamazov go unheralded except in fragmentary individual ways8 ,why not reward such productions with a substantial prize8--or1 if that be impossible1 by some presentation of certificate8 ,even a 8scrap of paper0 would go a long way to stimulate the writer and guide the reader4 ,but why should not a money reward be possible8 ,if rich men will pay thousands upon thousands for the 7perhaps7 original works of dead artists1 why should they not turn their wealth into spiritual gold by helping the often impecunious writers of the living day8 ,it is a convenient error to believe that financial aid would detract from the independence of the creator3 it would1 did it come from men rewarding on the basis of their own judgment2 it would not if the judgment of the world's men of letters should be taken as criterion4 ,and perhaps fewer ,chattertons and ,davidsons would mar the history of literature and art4 ,this direction of attention to what is best and greatest in the work of our age is a matter of deeper moment than superficial thought can grasp4 ,if1 by some such method1 the meaning of 8success0 could be freed from monetary implication and attached rather to excellence in art and science1 the change would have almost inestimably far-reaching results4 ,men worship money1 as has often been pointed out1#cjf not for its own sake1 nor for the material good it brings1 but for the prestige of success that goes with its 8conspicuous consumption02 let the artist find more appreciation for his ability than the captain of industry finds for his1 and there will be a great release of energy from economic exploitation to creative work in science1 literature1 and art4 ,a large part of the stimuli that prompt men to exploit their fellows will be gone2 and that richest of all incentives--social esteem--will go to produce men eager to contribute to the general power and happiness of the community4#cjg ,the art impulse1 as is generally believed1 is a diversion of sex energy4 ,an organism is essentially not a food-getting but a reproductive mechanism2 the food-getting is a contributory incident in the reproduction4 ,as development proceeds the period of pregnancy and adolescence increases1 more of the offspring survive to maturity1 large broods1 litters1 or families become unnecessary1 and more and more of the energy that was sexual slides over into originally secondary pursuits1 like play and art4 ,at the same time there is a gradual diminution in pugnacity 7which was another factor in the drama of reproduction71 and rivalry in games and arts encroaches more and more on the emotional field once monopolized by strife for mates and food4 ,the game--a sort of ,hegelian synthesis of hostility and sociability--takes more and more the place of war1 and artistic creation increasingly replaces reproduction4 ,if all this is anything more than theoretic skating over thin sheets of fact1 it means that one 8way out0 from our social perplexities lies in the provision of stronger stimulus to creation and recreation1 art and games4 ,it is a serious part of the social planner's work to find some way of nourishing the art impulse wherever it appears1 and drawing it on by arranging rewards for its productions4 ,and again we shall have to understand that play is an important matter in a nation's life2 that one of the best signs for the future of ,america is the prevalence of healthy athleticism2 and that an attempt to widen these sport activities to greater intersectional and international scope than they have yet attained will get at some of the roots of international pugnacity4 ,a wise government would be almost as interested in the people's games as in their schools1 and would spend millions in making rivalry absorb the dangerous energy of pugnacity4 ,olympic games should not be ,olympic games1 occurring only with ,olympiads2 not a month should pass but great athletes1 selected by eliminative tests from every part of every country1 should meet1 now here1 now there1 to match brawn and wits in the friendly enmity of games4 ,let men know one another through games1 and they will not for slight reasons pass from sportsmanship to that competitive destruction and deceit which our political ,barnums call 8the defence of our national honor40 ,v ,education ,this diversion of the sexual instinct into art and games 7a prophylactic which has long since been applied to individuals1 and awaits application to groups7 must begin in the early days of personal development2 so that our ,society for ,social ,research would1 if it were to take on this task1 find itself inextricably mixed up with the vast problem of educational method and aim4 ,here more than anywhere one hears the call for enlightenment and sees the need for clarification4 ,here is an abundance of 'isms and a dearth of knowledge4 ,most teachers use methods which they themselves consider antiquated1 and teach subjects which they will admit not one in a hundred of their pupils will ever need to know4 ,curious lessons in ethics are administered1 which are seldom practised in the classroom1 and make initiative children come to believe that commandment-breaking is heroic4 ,boys and girls bursting with vitality and the splendid exuberance of youth are cramped for hours into set positions1 while by a sort of water-cure process knowledge is pumped into them from books duller than a doctor's dissertation in philosophy4 ,and so forth3 the indictment against our schools has been drawn up a thousand times and in a thousand ways1 and needs no renforcement here4 ,but though we have indicted we have not made any systematic attempt to find just what is wrong1 and how1 and where2 and what may be done to remedy the evil4 ,experiments have been made1 but their bearings and results have been very imperfectly recorded4 ,suppose now that our ,society for ,social ,research should appoint a great ,committee on ,education to hire expert investigators and make a thorough attempt to clarify the issues in education4 ,here the function of philosophy should be clear2 for the educator touches at almost every point those problems of values1 individual and social1 which are the special hunting-ground of the philosopher4 ,the importance of psychology here is recognized1 but the importance of biology and pathology has not been seen in fit perspective4 ,why should not a special group of men be set aside for years1 if necessary1 to study the applicability of the several sciences to education8 ,why should not all scientific knowledge1 so far as it touches human nature1 be focused on the semi-darkness in which the educator works8 ,two special problems in this field invite research4 ,one concerns the effect1 on national character and capacity1 of a system of education controlled by the government4 ,the point was made by ,spinoza1 as may be remembered1 that a government will1 if it controls the schools1 aim to restrain rather than to develop the energies of men4 ,kant remarked the same difficulty4 ,the function of education in the eyes of a dominant class is to make men able to do skilled work but unable to do original thinking 7for all original thinking begins with destruction72 the function of education in the eyes of a government is to teach men that eleventh commandment which ,god forgot to give to ,moses3 thou shalt love thy country right or wrong4 ,all this1 of course1 requires some marvellous prestidigitation of the truth1 as school text-books of national history show4 ,the ignorant1 it seems1 are the necessary ballast in the ship of state4 ,the alternative to such schools seems to be a return to private education1 with the rich man's son getting even more of a start on the poor boy than he gets now4 ,is there a tertium quid here8 ,perhaps this is one point which a resolute effort to get the facts would clarify4 ,what does such governmentally-regulated education do to the forces of personal difference and initiative8 ,will men and women educated in such a way produce their maximum in art and thought and industry8 ,or will they be automata1 always waiting for a push8 ,what different results would come if the nationally-owned schools were to confine their work absolutely to statements of fact1 presentations of science1 and were to leave 8character-moulding0 and lessons in ethics to private persons or institutions8 ,then at least each parent might corrupt his own child in his own pet way2 and there might be a greater number of children who would not be corrupted at all4 ,another problem which might be advanced towards a solution by a little light is that of giving higher education to those who want it but are too poor to pay4 ,there are certain studies1 called above the social disciplines1 which help a man not so much to raise himself out of his class and become a snob1 as to get a better understanding of himself and his fellow-men4 ,since mutual understanding is a hardly exaggerable social good1 why should not a way be found to provide for all who wish it evening instruction in history1 sociology1 economics1 psychology1 biology1 philosophy1 and similar fields of knowledge8 ,every added citizen who has received instruction in these matters is a new asset to the community2 he will vote with more intelligence1 he will work better in coperation1 he will be less subject to undulations of social mania1 he will be a hint to all office-seekers to put their usual nonsense on the shelf4 ,perhaps by this medium too our ,society would spread its reports and widen its influence4 ,imagine a nation of people instructed in these sciences3 with such a people civilization would begin4 ,and then again1 our busy-body ,society would turn its research light on the universities1 and tell them a thing or two of what the light would show4 ,it would betray the lack of cordination among the various sciences1--the department of psychology1 for example1 never coming to so much as speaking terms with the department of economics2 it would call for an extension1 perhaps1 of the now infrequent seminars and conferences between departments whose edges overlap1 or which shed light on a common field4 ,it would invite the university to give less of its time to raking over the past1 and help it to orient itself toward the future2 it would suggest to every university that it provide an open forum for the responsible expression of all shades of opinion2 it would1 in general1 call for a better organization of science as part of the organization of intelligence2 it would remind the universities that they are more vital even than governments2 and it might perhaps succeed in getting engraved on the gates of every institution of learning the words of ,thomas ,hobbes3 8,seeing the universities are the foundation of civil and moral doctrine1 from whence the preachers and the gentry1 drawing such water as they find1 use to sprinkle the same upon the people1 there ought certainly to be great care taken to have it pure40 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,reader ,,speaks ,i ,the ,democratization of ,aristocracy ,and now we stop for objections4 8,this plan is a hare-brained scheme for a new priesthood and a new aristocracy4 ,it would put a group of college professors and graduates into a position where they could do almost as they please4 ,you think you avoid this by telling the gentlemen that they must limit themselves to the statement of fact2 but if you knew the arts of journalism you would not make so nave a distinction between airing opinions and stating facts4 ,when a man buys up a newspaper what he wants to do is not so much to control the editorials as to #8edit' the news1--that is1 to select the facts which shall get into print4 ,it's wonderful what lies you can spread without telling lies4 ,for example1 if you want to hurt a public man1 you quote all his foolish speeches and ignore his wise ones2 you put his mistakes into head-lines and hide his achievements in a corner4 ,i will guarantee to prove anything ,i like1 or anything ,i don't like1 just by stating facts4 ,so with your ,society for ,social ,research2 it would become a great political1 rather than an educational1 organization2 it would almost unconsciously select its information to suit its hobbies4 ,why1 the thing is psychologically impossible4 ,if you want something to be true you will be half blind and half deaf to anything that obstructs your desire2 that is the way we're made4 ,and even if nature did not attend to this1 money would3 as soon as your society exercised real power on public opinion it would be bought up1 in a gentle1 sleight-o'hand way1 by some economic group2 a few of the more influential members of the ,society would be #8approached1' some #8present' would be made1 and justice would have another force to contend with4 ,no2 your ,society won't do40 99 99 99 99 99 ,well1 let us see4 ,here you have a body of #ejjj men2 rather a goodly number for even an ,american millionaire to purchase4 ,they wish to investigate1 say1 the problem of birth-control2 what do they do8 ,they vote1 without nominations1 for six of their number to manage the investigation2 the six men receiving the highest vote investigate and write out a report4 ,now if any report were published which misstated facts1 or omitted important items1 the fault would at once diminish the repute and influence of the ,society4 ,let merely the suspicion get about that these reports are unfair1 and the ,society would begin to decay4 ,that is1 the power of the ,society would grow with its fairness and fall with its unfairness1--a very happy arrangement4 ,the fear of this fall in influence would be the best incentive to impartial reports4 ,every committee would feel that the future of the ,society depended on the fairness of its own report2 and every man on every committee would hesitate before making himself responsible for the disrepute of the ,society2 he would feel himself on trial before his fellow-members1 and would halt himself in the natural slide into partiality4 ,not that he would always succeed2 men are men4 ,but it is reasonable to expect that men working under these conditions would be considerably more impartial than the average newspaper4 ,again1 who is as impartial as the scientist8 ,one cannot do much in science without a stern control of the personal equation2 to describe protozoa1 for example1 as one would like them to be1 is no very clever way of attaining repute in protozology4 ,this is not so true in the social as in the physical sciences1 though even in this new field scientific fairness and accuracy are rapidly increasing4 ,one can get more reliable and impartial reports of an industrial situation1--e4g41 of the ,colorado troubles1--from the scientific investigators than from either side to the controversy4 ,the very deficiencies of the student type--incapacity for decisions or for effective methods in action--involve a compensatory grasp of understanding and impartiality of attitude4 ,our best guarantee against dishonesty is not virtue but intelligence1 and our ,society is supposed to be a sort of distilled intelligence4 ,that the scheme savors of aristocracy is not to its discredit4 ,we need aristocracy1 in the sense of better methods for giving weight to superior brains2 we need a touch of ,plato in our democracy4 ,after all1 the essence of the plan1 as we have said1 is the democratization of ,plato and ,nietzsche and ,carlyle2 the intelligent man gets more political power1 but only through the mechanism of democracy4 ,his greater power comes not by his greater freedom to do what he pleases despite the majority1 but by improved facilities for enlightening and converting the majority4 ,democracy1 ideally1 means only that the aristocracy is periodically elected and renewed2 and this is a plan whereby the aristocrats--the really best--shall be more clearly seen to be so4 ,furthermore1 the plan avoids the great defect of ,plato's scheme1--that philosophers are not fitted for executive and administrative work1 that those skilled to see are very seldom also able to do4 ,here the philosopher1 the man who gets at the truth1 rules1 but only indirectly1 and without the burdens of office and execution4 ,and indeed it is not the philosopher who rules1 but truth4 ,the liberator is made king4 ,,ii ,the ,professor as ,buridan's ,ass 8,you have anticipated my objection1 and cleverly twisted it into an argument4 ,but that would be too facile an escape2 you must face more squarely the fact that your professors are mere intellectualist highbrows1 incapable of understanding the real issues involved in our social war1 and even more incapable of suggesting practical ways out4 ,the more you look the more you see2 the more you see1 the less you do4 ,you think that reflection leaves you peace of mind2 it doesn't1 it leaves your mind in pieces4 ,the intellectual is like ,dr4 ,buridan's ass3 he is so careful to stand in the middle that he never gives a word of practical advice1 for fear that he will compromise himself and fracture a syllogism4 ,the trouble is that we think too much1 not too little2 we make thinking a substitute for action4 ,really1 as ,rousseau argued1 thinking is unnatural2 what the world needs is men who can make up their minds and then march on1 almost in blinders1 to a goal4 ,we know enough1 we know too much2 and surely we have a plethora of investigating committees4 ,a committee is just a scientific way of doing nothing4 ,your plan would flood the country with committees and leave courage buried under facts4 ,you should call your organization a ,society for ,talky-talk40 ,the only flaw in this argument is that it does not touch the proposal4 ,what is suggested is not that the ,society take action or make programmes1 much less execute them2 we ask our professors merely to do for a larger public1 and more thoroughly and systematically1 what we are glad to have them do for a small number of us in college and university4 ,action is ex hypothesi left to others2 the function of the researcher is quite simply to look and tell us what he sees4 ,that he is a highbrow1 an intellectual1 and even a ,buridan's ass1 does not interfere with his seeing2 nobody ever argued that ,buridan's ass was blind4 ,we forget that seeing is itself an art4 ,some of us have specialized in the art1 and have naturally failed to develop cleverness in practical affairs4 ,but that does not mean that our special talent cannot be used by the community1 any more than ,sir ,oliver ,lodge's fondness for celestial exploration makes us reject his work on electricity4 ,thinking is itself a form of action1 and not the easiest nor the least effective4 ,it is true that 8if you reflect too much you will never accomplish anything10 but if you reflect too little you will accomplish about as much4 ,we make headway only by the head way4 ,action without forethought tends to follow a straight line2 but in life the straight line is often the longest distance between two points1 because1 as ,leonardo said1 the straightest line offers the greatest resistance4 ,thought is roundabout1 and loves flank attacks4 ,the man of action rushes into play courageously1 succeeds now1 fails then2 and sooner or later wishes--if he lives to wish--that he could think more4 ,the increasing dependence of industry on scientific research1 and of politics on expert investigators1 shows how the world is coming to value the man whose specialty is seeing4 ,faith in intellect1 as ,santayana says1 8is the only faith yet sanctioned by its fruit40#cjh ,the two most important men in ,america just now are1 or have been1 college professors4 ,to speak still more boldly3 the greatest single human source of good in our generation is the 8intellectual0 researcher and professor4 ,the man to be feared above all others is the man who can see4 ,,iii ,is ,information ,wanted8 8,but your whole scheme shows a very amateur knowledge of human nature4 ,you seem to think you can get people interested in fact4 ,you can't2 fact is too much against their interest4 ,if the facts favor their wish1 they are interested2 if not1 they forget them4 ,the hardest thing in the world is to listen to truth that threatens to frustrate desire4 ,that is why people won't listen to your reports1 unless you tell them what they want to hear4 ,they will--and perhaps excusably--prefer the bioscope to your embalmed statistics2 just as they will prefer to read ,the ,family ,herald rather than the subtleties recommended by the ,mutual ,admiration ,society which you would make out of our men of letters4 ,you can investigate till you are blue in the face1 and all you will get out of it won't be worth the postage stamps you use4 ,public opinion doesn't follow fact1 it follows desire2 people don't vote for a man because he is supported by #8truth' but because he promises to do something they like4 ,and the man who makes the biggest promises to the biggest men will get office ninety-nine times out of a hundred1 no matter what the facts are4 ,what counts is not truth but money40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is the basic difficulty4 ,is it worth while to spread information8 ,think how much information is spread every week in ,europe and ,america2--the world remaining the while as 8wicked0 as it probably ever was4 ,public opinion is still1 it seems1 as ,sir ,robert ,peel described it to be3 8a compound of folly1 weakness1 prejudice1 wrong feeling1 right feeling1 obstinacy1 and newspaper paragraphs10#cji--particularly the paragraphs4 ,once we thought that the printing-press was the beginning of democracy1 that ,gutenberg had enfranchised the world4 ,now it appears that print and plutocracy get along very well together4 ,nevertheless the hope of the weak lies in numbers and in information2 in democracy and in print4 8,the remedy for the abuses of public opinion is not to discredit it but to instruct it40#caj ,the cure for misstatements is better statements4 ,if the newspapers are used to spread falsehood that is no reason why newspapers should not be used to spread truth4 ,after all1 the spread of information has done many things1--killed dogma1 sterilized many marriages1 and even prevented wars2 and there is no reason why a further spread may not do more valuable things than any yet done4 ,it has been said1 so often that we are apt to admit it just to avoid its repetition1 that discussion effects nothing4 ,but indeed nothing else effects anything4 ,whatever is done without information and discussion is soon undone1 must be soon undone2 all that bears time is that which survives the test of thought4 ,all problems are at last problems in information3 to find out just how things stand is the only finally effective way of getting at anything4 ,as to the limited number of persons who would be reached by the reports1 let us not ask too much4 ,there is no pretence here that the great mass of the people would be reached2 no doubt these would go on living what ,wells calls the 8normal social life40 ,but these people do not count for constructive purposes2 they divide about evenly in every election4 ,the men who do count--the local leaders1 the clergymen1 the lecturers1 the teachers1 the union officials1 the newspaper men1 the 8agitators10 the arch-rebels and the arch-,tories1--all these men will be reached2 and the information given will strengthen some and weaken others1 and so play its effective part in the drama of social change4 ,each one of these men will be a center for the further distribution of information4 ,imagine a new monthly with a country-wide circulation of one million voters 7that is1 a general circulation of five million72 would such a periodical have power8--would not millions be given to control it8 ,well1 here we have more power1 because not so concentrated in a few editorial hands1 not so easily purchaseable1 and based on better intellect and repute4 ,the money that would be paid at any time for the control of a periodical of such influence would finance our ,society for many years4 ,it is impossible to believe that such a spread of knowledge as is here suggested would do nothing to elevate the moral and political life of the country4 ,consider the increased scrupulousness with which a ,congressman would vote if he knew that at the next election his record would be published in cold print in a hundred newspapers1 over the name of the ,society for ,social ,research4 ,consider the effect1 on ,congressional appropriations for public buildings1 of a plain statement of the population and size of the towns which require such colossal edifices for their mail4 ,publicity1 it has been said1 is the only cure for bad motives4 ,consider the stimulus which such reports would give to political discussion everywhere4 ,hardly a dispute occurs which is not based upon insufficient acquaintance with the facts2 here would be information up to date1 ready to give the light which dispels the heat4 ,men would turn to these reports all the more willingly because the reports were pledged to confine themselves to fact4 ,men would find here no attacks1 no argument1 no theory or creed2 it would be refreshing1 in some ways1 to bathe the mind1 hot with contention1 in these cool streams of fact1 and to emerge cleansed of error and filled with the vitality of truth4 ,we have spent so much time attacking what we hate that we have not stopped to tell people what we like2 if we would only affirm more and deny less there would be less of cross-purpose in the world4 ,and information is affirmation4 ,it would not open the wounds of controversy so much as offer points of contact2 and in the light of fact1 enemies might see that their good lay for the most part on a common road4 ,if you want to change a foe into a friend 7or1 some cynic will say1 a friend into a foe71 give him information4 ,,iv ,finding ,mcenas 8,well2 suppose you are right4 ,suppose information1 as you say1 is king4 ,how are you going to do it8 ,do you really think you will get some benevolent millionaire to finance you8 ,and will you1 like ,fourier1 wait in your room every day at noon for the man who will turn your dream into a fact80 99 99 99 99 99 ,what we tend to forget about rich men is that besides being rich they are men4 ,there are a surprising number of them--particularly those who have inherited money--who are eager to return to the community the larger part of their wealth1 if only they could be shown a way of doing it which would mean more than a change of pockets4 ,merely to give to charity is1 in ,aristotle's phrase1 to pour water into a leaking cask4 ,what such men want is a way of increasing intelligence2 they know from hard experience that in the end intelligence is the quality to be desired and produced4 ,they have spent millions1 perhaps billions1 on education2 and this plan of ours is a plan for education4 ,if it is what it purports to be1 some one of these men will offer to finance it4 ,and not only one4 ,let the beginnings of our ,society be sober and efficient1 let its first investigations be thorough and intelligent1 let its initial reports be impartial1 succinct1 illuminating and simple1 and further help will come almost unasked4 ,after a year of honest and capable work our ,society would find itself supported by rather a group of men than by one man2 it might conceivably find itself helped by the state1 at the behest of the citizens4 ,what would prevent a candidate for governor from declaring his intention that should he be elected he would secure an annual appropriation for our ,society8--and why should not the voters be attracted by such a declaration8 ,why should not the voters demand such a declaration8 ,nor need we fear that a ,society so helped by the rich man and the state would turn into but one more instrumentality of obstructionism4 ,not that such an organization of intelligence would be 8radical03 the words 8radical0 and 8conservative0 have become but instruments of calumny1 and truth slips between them4 ,but in the basic sense of the word our ,society would be extremely radical2 for there is nothing so radical1 so revolutionary1 as just to tell the truth1 to say what it is you see4 ,that surely is to go to the radix of the thing4 ,and truth has this advantage1 that it is discriminately revolutionary3 there are some things old to which truth is no enemy1 just as there are some things new which will melt in the glare of fact4 ,let the fact say4 ,this is the final faith3 that truth will make us free1 so far as we can ever be free4 ,let the truth be published to the world1 and men separated in the dark will see one another1 and one another's purposes1 more clearly1 and with saner understanding than before4 ,the most disastrous thing you can do to an evil is to describe it4 ,let truth be told1 and the parasite will lose his strength through shame1 and meanness will hide its face4 ,only let information be given to all and freely1 and it will be a cleansing of our national blood2 enmity will yield to open and honest opposition1 where it will not indeed become coperation4 ,all we need is to see better4 ,let there be light4 ,v ,the ,chance of ,philosophy 8,one more objection before you take the money4 ,and that is3 ,what on earth has all this to do with philosophy8 ,i can understand that to have economists on your investigating committees1 and biologists1 and psychologists1 and historians1 would be sensible2 but what could a philosopher do8 ,these are matters for social science1 not for metaphysics4 ,leave the philosophers out and some of us may take your scheme seriously40 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is a good objection1 if only because it shows again the necessity for a new kind of philosopher4 ,merely to make such an objection is to renforce the indictment brought above against the philosopher as he is4 ,but what of the philosopher as he might be8 ,what might the philosopher be8 ,well1 first of all1 he would be a living man1 and not an annotator of the past4 ,he would have grown freely1 his initial spark of divine fire unquenched by scholastic inflexibilities of discipline and study4 ,he would have imbibed no sermons1 but his splendid curiosity would have found food and encouragement from his teachers4 ,he would have lived in and learned to love the country and the city2 he would be at home in the ploughed fields as well as in the centres of learning2 he would like the cleansing solitude of the woods and yet too the invigorating bustle of the city streets4 ,he would be brought up on ,plato and ,thucydides1 ,leonardo and ,michelangelo1 ,bacon and ,montaigne2 he would study the civilization of ,greece and that of the ,renaissance on all sides1 joining the history of politics1 economics1 and institutions with that of science1 literature1 and philosophy2 and yet he would find time to study his own age thoroughly4 ,he would be interested in life1 and full of it2 he would jump into campaigns1 add his influence carefully to movements he thought good1 and help make the times live up more nearly to their possibilities4 ,he would not shut himself up forever in laboratories1 libraries1 and lecture rooms2 he would live more widely than that4 ,he would be of the earth earthly1 of the world worldly4 ,he would not talk of ideals in the abstract and do nothing for them in the concrete2 above all else in the world he would abhor the kind of talk that is a refuge from the venture and responsibility of action4 ,he would not only love wisdom1 he would live it4 ,but we must not make our ideal philosopher too repulsively perfect4 ,let us agree at least to this1 that a man who should know the social disciplines1 and not merely one science1 would be of help in some such business as we have been proposing2 and if we suppose that he has not only knowledge but wisdom1 that his acquaintance with the facts of science is matched by his knowledge of life1 that through fellowship with genius in ,greece and ,florence he has acquired a fund of wisdom which needs but the nourishment of living to grow richer from day to day1--then we are on the way to seeing that this is the sort of man our ,society would need above all other sorts of men4 ,such philosophers would be worthy to guide research and direct the enlightenment of the world2 such philosophers might be to their generation what ,socrates and ,plato were to their generations and ,francis ,bacon to his2 such a philosophy1 in ,nietzsche's words1 might rule6 ,this is the chance of philosophy4 ,it may linger further in that calm death of social ineffectiveness in which we see it sinking2 or it may catch the hands of the few philosophers who insist on focusing thought on life1 and so regain the position which it alone is fitted to fill4 ,unless that position is filled1 and properly1 all the life of the world is zigzag and fruitless1--what we have called the logic-chopping life2 and unless that position is filled philosophy too is logic-chopping1 zigzag1 and fruitless1 and turns away from life men whom life most sorely needs4 ,there are some among us1 even some philosophers among us1 who are eager to lead the way out of bickering into discussion1 out of criticism into construction1 out of books into life4 ,we must keep a keen eye for such men1 and their beginnings2 and we must strengthen them with our little help4 ,philosophy is too divinely splendid a thing to be kept from the most divine of things1--creation4 ,some of us love it as the very breath of our lives2 it is our vital medium1 without which life would be less than vegetation2 and we will not rest so long as the name philosopher means anything less aspiring and inspiring than it did with ,plato4 ,science flourishes and philosophy languishes1 because science is honest and philosophy sycophantic1 because science touches life and helps it1 while philosophy shrinks fearfully and helplessly away4 ,if philosophy is to live again1 it must rediscover life1 it must come back into the cave1 it must come down from the 8real0 and transcendental world and play its venturesome part in the hard and happy world of efforts and events4 ,it is the chance of philosophy4 ,,conclusion ,see now1 in summary1 how modest a suggestion it is1 grandiloquent though it may have seemed4 ,we propose no 'ism1 we make no programme2 we suggest1 tentatively1 a method4 ,we propose a new start1 a new tack1 a new approach1--not to the exclusion of other approaches1 but to their assistance4 ,if this thing should be done1 it would not mean that other gropers toward a better world would have to stand idle2 it would but give light to them that walk in darkness4 ,and it would make possible a more generous coperation among the different currents in the stream of reconstructive thought4 ,we are a little discouraged to-day2 we lovers of the new have become doubtful of the object of our love4 ,perhaps--we sometimes feel--all this effort is a vain circling in the mist2 perhaps we do not advance1 but only move4 ,our faith in progress is dimmed4 ,we even tire of the 8social problem02 we have tried so many ways1 knocked at so many doors1 and found so little of that which we sought4 ,sometimes1 in the lassitude of mistaken effort and drear defeat1 we almost think that the social problem is never to find even partial solution1 that it is not a problem but a limitation1 a limitation forever4 ,we need a new beginning1 a new impetus1--perhaps a new delusion8 ,see1 too1 how the thought of our five teachers lies concentrated and connected in this new approach3 what have we done but renew concretely the ,socratic plea for intelligence1 the ,platonic hope for philosopher-kings1 ,bacon's dream of knowledge organized and ruling the world1 ,spinoza's gentle insistence on democracy as the avenue of development1 and ,nietzsche's passionate defence of aristocracy and power8 ,there was something in us that thrilled at ,plato's conception of a philosophy that could guide as well as dissect our social life2 but there was another something in us that hesitated before his plan of slavery as the basis of it all4 ,we felt that we would rather be free and miserable than bound and filled4 ,why should a man feed himself if his feet are chained1 and he must never move8 ,and we were inspired1 too1 by the demand that the best should rule1 that they should have power fitted to their worth2 we should be glad to find some way whereby the best could have power1 could rule1 and yet with the consent of all1--we wanted an aristocracy sanctioned by democracy1 a social order standing on the broad base of free citizenship and wide coperation4 ,socrates shows us how to use ,bacon to reconcile ,plato and ,nietzsche with ,spinoza3 intelligence will organize intelligence so that superior worth may have superior influence and yet work with and through the will of all4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and here at the end comes a thought that some of us perhaps have had more than once as this discussion advanced3 ,what could the ,church do for the organization of intelligence8 ,it could do wonderful things4 ,it has power1 organization1 facilities1 through which the gospel of 8the moral obligation to be intelligent0 could be preached to a wider audience than any newspaper could reach4 ,and among the clergy are hundreds of young men who have found new inspiration in the figure of ,jesus seen through the aspirations of democracy2 hundreds eager to do their part in any work that will lessen the misery of men4 ,what if they were to find in this organization of intelligence a focus for their labor8--what if they should not only themselves undertake the studies which would fit them for membership in the ,society1 but should also make it their business to stir up in all who might come to them the spirit of the seeker1 to incite them to read religiously the reports of the ,society1 to call on them to spread abroad the good news of truth to be had for the asking8 ,what if these men should make their churches extension centers for the educational work of the ,society1--giving freely the use of their halls and even contributing to the expense of organizing classes and paying for skilled instruction8 ,what if they should see in the spread of intelligence the best avenue to that wide friendship which ,jesus so passionately preached8 ,what better way is there to make men love one another than to make men understand one another8 ,true charity comes only with clarity1--just as 8mercy0 is but justice that understands4 ,surely the root of all evil is the inability to see clearly that which is2 how better can religion combat evil than to preach clarity as the beginning of social redemption8 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of the many burdens that drag on the soul is a knowledge of the past4 ,it is a strong man who can know history and keep his courage2 a great dream that can face the fact and live4 ,we look at those flitting experiments called civilizations3 we see them rise one after another1 we see them produce and produce and produce1 we feel the weight of their accumulating wealth2 still visionable to us the busyness of geniuses and slaves piling stone upon stone and making pyramids to greet the stars1 still audible the voices of ,socrates in the agora and of old ,plato passing quietly among the students in the grove1 still haunting us the white faces of martyrs in the amphitheatres of ,rome3 and then the pyramids stand bare and lonely1 the voices of ,greek genius are hushed1 the ,colosseum is a ruin and a memory2 one after another these peoples pass1 these wonderful peoples1 greater perhaps1 wiser and nobler perhaps1 than the peoples of our time2 and we almost choke with the heavy sense of a vast futility encompassing the world4 ,some of us turn away then from the din of effort1 and seek in resignation the comfort of a living death2 some others find in the doubt and difficulty the zest and reward of the work4 ,after all1 the past is not dead1 it has not failed2 only the vileness of it is dead1 gone with the winnowing of time2 that which was great and worthy lives and works and is real4 ,plato speaks to us still1 speaks to millions and millions of us2 and the blood of martyrs is the seed of saints4 ,we speak and pass1 but the word remains4 ,effort is not lost4 ,not to have tried is the only failure1 the only misery2 all effort is happiness1 all effort is success4 ,and so again we write ourselves in books and stone and color1 and smile in the face of time2 again we hear the call of the work1 that it be done3 ,edens that wait the wizardry of thought1 ,beauty that craves the touch of artist hands1 ,truth that but hungers to be felt or seen2 and again we are hot with the passion for perfection4 ,we will remake4 ,we will wonder and desire and dream and plan and try4 ,we are such beings as dream and plan and try2 and the glory of our defeats dims the splendor of the sun4 ,we will take thought and add a cubit to our stature2 we will bring intelligence to the test and call it together from all corners of the earth2 we will harness the genius of the race and renew creation4 ,we will remake4 ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following pages contain advertisements of a few of the ,macmillan books on kindred subjects4 ,poverty and ,social ,progress ,,by ,,maurice ,,parmelee1 ,,ph4,d4 ,cloth1 crown #hvo1 #dgg pp41 #a4ij 8,suitable for college classes as well as for the general reader1 and contains a great mass of material of value to the citizen who really wants to know40--,independent4 8,a very competent presentation of the various social factors that go to make up the problem of poverty40--,churchman4 8,a most useful and educative book4 ,it would be well if every serious-minded person interested in social welfare would read this calm1 impartial survey of the problems of poverty1 and learn from it that poverty is not a spontaneous phenomenon1 and that it could be practically wiped out by the reorganization of society4 ,the book is offered for use as a text for college courses on charities1 poverty1 pauperism1 dependency1 and the like1 but its most useful place is in the hands of the worker1 the producer1 the business man and woman1 the serious shapers and makers of the present economic state of society40--,american ,review of ,reviews4 8,promoters of the democratic and humanitarian movement of our time will find this volume replete with valuable data and stimulating to close and careful thinking4 ,dr4 ,parmelee defines social progress as advancement toward realization of a normal human life for all mankind4 ,he shows this obstructed by poverty in so many ways that there is no panacea for it1 and a variety of remedies are requisite4 ,the chief obstructions being in the production and distribution of wealth1 his discussion centers mainly in the problems of these40--,outlook4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ,the ,great ,society ,a ,psychological ,analysis ,,by ,,graham ,,wallas ,author of 8,human ,nature in ,politics0 ,cloth1 crown #hvo1 #chc pp41 #b4jj ,graham ,wallas's new book1 8,the ,great ,society10 will be equally interesting to the psychologists1 students of sociology1 politics and the general reader4 ,mr4 ,wallas is a man of wide connections in ,england1 a man whose experience has well fitted him for the task which he has essayed4 ,he has been for many years a university extension lecturer2 he was at one time a member of the school-board of ,london1 chairman of the ,school ,management ,committee1 a member of the ,technical ,education ,board1 of the ,london ,county ,council and of the ,education ,committee of that council4 ,he has been1 since #ahif1 a lecturer at the ,london ,school of ,economics4 ,he has served on the ,senate of ,london ,university1 as university reader in political science and on the ,royal ,commission on ,civil ,service4 ,he has written more or less widely1 his most popular publication being1 perhaps1 8,human ,nature in ,politics40 ,the present work1 a portion of which was delivered last winter as the ,lowell ,lecture in ,boston1 begins with an exposition of what the author means by the term 8,the ,great ,society40 ,it then proceeds to a consideration of the following topics3 ,disposition1 ,social ,psychology1 ,instinct and ,intelligence1 ,disposition and ,environment1 ,habit1 ,fear1 ,pleasure1 ,pain1 ,happiness1 ,the ,psychology of the ,crowd1 ,love and ,hatred1 ,thought1 ,the ,organization of ,thought1 ,the ,organization of ,will1 and the ,organization of ,happiness4 8,his deft and almost subtle grasp of the viewpoints of the philosophic factors in history2 his focusing of a theory into the tiny sunspot of an illuminant sentence1 and adopting a style that is as inviting and penetrating as ,havelock ,ellis1 make the book one of sustained interest0--,galveston ,daily ,news4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ,the ,social ,problem ,a ,,constructive ,,analysis ,,by ,,charles ,a4 ,,ellwood1 ,,ph4,d4 ,professor of ,sociology in the ,university of ,missouri1 ,author of 8,sociology in ,its ,psychological ,aspects10 8,sociology and ,modern ,social ,problems10 etc4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #bee pp41 #a4be ,this work is a brief analysis of the social problem in ,western civilization4 ,it outlines a scientific social philosophy which can serve as a basis for a well-balanced progress4 ,the author points out that the present crisis in our civilization calls for a reconstruction of our social philosophy2 for we cannot build anew the structure of ,western society upon the inadequate bases of eighteenth and nineteenth century thought4 ,the book indicates the direction which our social thinking must take if we are to avoid revolution1 on the one hand1 and reaction1 on the other4 ,it aims to furnish a scientific basis for the progressive social movement2 and it is commended to progressives in whatever class1 party1 or sect they may happen to find themselves4 ,the attitude of the book is thoroughly positive and constructive toward all the essential values of our civilization4 8#8,the ,social ,problem' by ,professor ,charles ,a4 ,ellwood is one of the best books of the kind ,i have ever seen4 ,the subject is handled in a masterful way4 ,the best books ,i read in my field ordinarily do not gain more than eighty-five or ninety per cent of my assent4 ,this book1 however1 ,i would endorse to ninety-eight or ninety-nine per cent4 8,it is not only sound in its general positions1 but sound in details4 ,every statement is guarded and weighty4 ,there is a fine sense of the value of words1 there is no duplication1 and the author reaches his goal with the fewest possible sentences4 ,i know of no book upon the social problem1 which can command so completely the endorsement of social thinkers everywhere40--,professor ,edward ,a4 ,ross of the ,university of ,wisconsin1 ,author of 8,the ,changing ,chinese10 8,social ,psychology10 etc4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ,,american ,,social ,,progress ,,series ,the ,city ,worker's ,world in ,america ,,by ,,mary ,,kingsbury ,,simkhovitch ,director of ,greenwich ,house ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4be ,a new volume in the ,american ,social ,progress ,series edited by ,,samuel ,,mccune ,,lindsay4 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,a plain description of the facts of the city dweller's life1 with some indications of the evolutionary process going on at the city's heart4 ,social ,reform and the ,constitution ,,by ,,frank ,j4 ,,goodnow #abmo1 #a4ej 8,the work is well worth not only reading but study and is a decided contribution to the literature of the subject40--,boston ,transcript4 ,the ,new ,basis of ,civilization ,,by ,,simon ,n4 ,,patten #abmo1 #a4jj 8,the book is valuable and inspiring in its general conception and guiding principles4 ,social workers will welcome it1 and moralists should greatly profit by its teachings40 --,chicago ,evening ,post4 ,standards of ,public ,morality ,,by ,,arthur ,,twining ,,hadley #abmo1 #a4jj 8,the book is worth reading not only once1 but twice40--,new ,york ,times4 ,misery and ,its ,causes ,,by ,,edward ,t4 ,,devine #abmo4 #a4be 8,one of the most vital and helpful books on social problems ever published40 --,congregationalist and ,christian ,world4 ,governmental ,action for ,social ,welfare ,,by ,,jeremiah ,w4 ,,jenks #abmo1 #a4jj 8,professor ,jenks' little book ought to be in the hands of every member of every legislature in the country40--,review of ,reviews4 ,the ,social ,basis of ,religion ,,by ,,simon ,n4 ,,patten #abmo1 #a4be 8,it is a work of deep thought and abundant research4 ,those who read it will find their ideas and thoughts quickened and will be sure that their time has been profitably spent40 --,salt ,lake ,tribune4 ,the ,church and ,society ,,by ,r4 ,,fulton ,,cutting #abmo1 #a4be 8,a stimulating and informing little book40--,boston ,herald4 ,the ,juvenile ,court ,,by ,,thomas ,d4 ,,eliot #abmo1 #a4be 8,another volume which will repay careful reading--the most useful treatise on youthful criminology40--,providence ,journal4 ,social ,insurance3 ,a ,program for ,social ,reform ,,by ,,henry ,,rogers ,,seager #abmo1 #a4jj ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ,,footnotes3 #a ,class-lectures4 ,as ,bacon has it1 ,aristotle1 after the ,ottoman manner1 did not believe that he could rule securely unless he first put all his brothers to death4 #b ,the ,dialexeis2 cf4 ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 ,new ,york1 #aija1 vol4 i1 p4 #djd4 #c ,gompers1 vol4 i1 p4 #djc4 #d ,botsford and ,sihler1 ,hellenic ,civilization1 ,new ,york1 #aiae1 p4 #dcj4 #e ,ibid41 p4 #cdj1 etc4 #f ,and sincerely1 says ,burnet1 because he had gone through radicalism to scepticism1 and felt that one convention was as good as another4 #g ,cf4 ,henry ,jackson1 article 8,sophists10 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 eleventh edition4 #h ,history of ,ethics1 ,london1 #ahib1 p4 #bd4 #i ,op4 cit41 vol4 ii1 #aije1 p4 #fg4 #aj ,history of ,greece1 vol4 viii1 p4 #acd4 #aa ,morals in ,evolution1 ,new ,york1 #aiae1 p4 #eef4 #ab ,henry ,jackson1 article 8,socrates10 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 eleventh edition4 #ac ,twilight of the ,idols1 ,london1 #aiae1 p4 #ae4 ,for ,nietzsche's answer to ,nietzsche1 cf4 ibid41 p4 #eg3 8,to accustom the eye to calmness1 to patience1 and to allow things to come up to it2 to defer judgment1 and to acquire the habit of approaching and grasping an individual case from all sides1--this is the first preparatory schooling of intellectuality10 this is one of 8the three objects for which we need educators4444 ,one must not respond immediately to a stimulus2 one must acquire a command of the obstructing and isolating instincts4 ,to learn to see1 as ,i understand this matter1 amounts almost to that which in popular language is called #8strength of will'3 its essential feature is precisely 444 to be able to postpone one's decision4444 ,all lack of intellectuality1 all vulgarity1 arises out of the inability to resist a stimulus40 #ad 8,why art thou sad8 ,assuredly thou hast performed some sacred duty80--,bazarov in ,turgenev's ,fathers and ,children1 #aijc1 p4 #ahe4 #ae 8,morality is the effort to throw off sleep4444 ,i have never yet met a man who was wide awake4 ,how could ,i have looked him in the face80--,thoreau1 ,walden1 ,new ,york1 #ahii1 p4 #ib4 #af ,what happens when ,i 8see the better and approve it1 but follow the worse10 is that an end later approved as 8better0--i4e41 better for me--is at the time obscured by the persistent or recurrent suggestion of an end temporarily more satisfying1 but eventually disappointing4 ,most self-reproach is the use of knowledge won post factum to criticise a self that had to adventure into action unarmed with this hindsight wisdom4 #ag ,gorgias1 p4 #eba4 #ah #cii ,b4,c4 #ai ,epistles1 viii1 #cbe4 #bj 8,when the soul does not speak in dialogue it is not in difficulty40--,professor ,wood bridge1 in class4 #ba 8,if we look for a system of philosophy in ,plato1 we shall probably not find it2 but if we look for none we may find most of the philosophies ever written40--,professor ,woodbridge4 #bb ,phdrus1 #bdd4 #bc ,sophist1 #bdg4 #bd ,laws1 #gfe-f4 #be ,republic1 #dbe4 #bf ,protagoras1 #cbe4 #bg ,republic1 #ecf4 #bh ,laws1 #hjd4 #bi ,ibid41 #haj4 #cj ,republic1 #cge4 #ca ,ibid41 #daj4 #cb ,laws1 #haj4 #cc ,republic1 #eci4 #cd ,republic1 #ecg4 #ce ,republic1 #ahd4 #cf ,ibid41 #dgc4 #cg ,the passage1 abbreviated1 follows3 8,first1 then1 let us consider what will be their way of life1 now that we have thus established them4 ,will they not produce corn1 and wine1 and clothes1 and shoes1 and build houses for themselves8 ,and when they are housed1 they will work in summer commonly stripped and barefoot1 but in winter substantially clothed and shod4 ,they will feed on barley and wheat1 baking the wheat and kneading the flour1 making noble puddings and loaves2 these they will serve up on a mat of reeds or clean leaves1 themselves reclining the while upon beds of yew or myrtle boughs4 ,and they and their children will feast1 drinking of the wine which they have made1 wearing garlands on their heads1 and having the praises of the gods on their lips1 living in sweet society1 and having a care that their families do not exceed their means2 for they will have an eye to poverty or war4444 ,of course they will have a relish1--salt1 and olives1 and cheese1 and onions1 and cabbages or other country herbs which are fit for boiling2 and we shall give them a dessert of figs1 and pulse1 and beans1 and myrtle-berries1 and beech-nuts1 which they will roast at the fire1 drinking in moderation4 ,and with such a diet they may be expected to live in peace to a good old age1 and bequeath a similar life to their children after them40--,republic1 #cgb4 ,cf4 ,the ,rousseauian anthropology of ,laws1 #fgi4 #ch ,republic1 #cgb-c4 #ci ,much of modern criticism of democracy finds its inspiration in ,plato4 ,cf4 ,bernard ,shaw3 8,the democratic politician remains exactly as ,plato described him40 ,cf4 also the ,modern ,utopia and ,research ,magnificent of ,h4 ,g4 ,wells4 ,nietzsche's debt to ,plato will appear in a later chapter4 #dj 8,omnia communia inter nos habemus1 praeter mulieres40 #da ,let us remember that a property-qualification for the vote remained in our own political system till the time of ,jefferson1 and has in our own day been resuscitated in some of the ,southern states4 #db ,laws1 #ghc4 #dc ,republic1 #djc #dd ,protagoras1 #cbb4 #de ,plato1 says ,cleanthes1 8cursed as impious him who first sundered the just from the useful40--,gomperz1 ii1 #gc4 ,cf4 ,republic1 #cca4 #df ,edmund ,gosse1 ,life of ,henrik ,ibsen1 p4 #ajj1 note4 #dg ,nietzsche1 ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 pref4 #dh ,influence of ,darwin on ,philosophy1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj1 p4 #ba4 #di ,cf4 ,de ,augmentis1 bk4 viii1 ch4 #b4 #ej ,advancement of ,learning1 ,boston1 #ahfc1 bk4 i4 #ea ,philosophical ,works1 ed4 ,j4 ,m4 ,robertson1 ,london1 #ahje1 p4 #cc4 #eb ,novum ,organum1 i1 #fe4 #ec ,advancement of ,learning1 p4 #acc4 #ed ,called by ,bacon the 8first vintage40 #ee ,novum ,organum1 ii1 #b4 #ef ,preface to ,magna ,instauratio4 #eg ,novum ,organum1 pref4 #eh ,novum ,organum1 i1 #abi4 #ei ,ibid41 i1 #ib4 #fj ,ibid41 i1 #aac4 #fa ,advancement of ,learning1 bk4 ii1 ch4 #a4 #fb ,novum ,organum1 i1 #fa4 #fc ,advancement of ,learning1 bk4 i1 ch4 #a4 #fd ,ibid41 bk4 ii1 ch4 #a4 #fe ,new ,atlantis1 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #aijj1 p4 #bb4 #ff ,ibid41 p4 #bd4 #fg ,pp4 #dd1 #de4 #fh ,p4 #dc4 #fi ,p4 #cd4 #gj ,j4 ,m4 ,robertson1 preface to ,philosophical ,works4 #ga ,robert ,adamson1 article 8,bacon10 ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 #gb ,cf4 preface to ,memoirs of a ,revolutionist4 #gc ,novum ,organum1 i1 #ha4 #gd ,advancement of ,learning1 p4 #bjg4 #ge ,ibid41 p4 #aca4 #gf ,advancement of ,learning41 bk4 i4 #gg ,professor ,woodbridge1 class-lectures4 #gh ,turgenev1 in ,fathers and ,children4 #gi ,this division into saints and sinners must be taken with reservations1 of course4 ,in many respects ,descartes belongs to the second group1 and in some respects ,james and ,comte belong to the first4 ,but the dichotomy clarifies1 if only by exaggeration4 #hj ,l4 ,ward1 ,pure ,sociology1 p4 #af4 #ha ,buckle1 ,history of ,civilization1 i1 #ach4 #hb ,special acknowledgment for some of the material of this chapter is due to ,r4 ,a4 ,duff1 ,spinoza's ,political and ,ethical ,philosophy1 ,glasgow1 #aijc4 #hc ,tractatus ,theologico-politicus1 ch4 #ag4 #hd ,tractatus ,theologico-politicus1 ch4 #a4 #he ,will to ,power1 vol4 i1 #ie4 #hf ,cf4 ,duff1 op4 cit41 pref43 8,it can be shown that ,spinoza had no interest in metaphysics for its own sake1 while he was passionately interested in moral and political problems4 ,he was a metaphysician at all only in the sense that he was resolute in thinking out the ideas1 principles1 and categories which are interwoven with all our practical endeavor1 and the proper understanding of which is the condition of human welfare40 #hg ,ethics1 bk4 iv1 prop4 #g4 #hh ,tractatus ,theologico-,politicus1 v1 #b4 #hi ,ibid41 ch4 #af4 #ij ,ethics1 bk4 iv1 prop4 #eh1 schol4 #ia ,tractatus ,theologico-politicus1 i1 #e4 #ib ,ethics1 bk4 i1 appendix4 #ic ,ibid41 bk4 iv1 prop4 #ah1 schol4 #id ,ethics1 bk4 iv1 prop4 #c4 #ie ,ibid41 cor4 #if ,de ,intellectus ,emendatione4 #ig ,ethics1 bk4 iv1 appendix1 #i4 #ih ,tractatus ,theologico-politicus1 ch4 #aj4 #ii ,ibid41 ch4 #ai4 #ajj ,ibid41 ch4 #h4 #aja ,tractatus ,theologico-politicus1 ch4 #af4 #ajb ,ethics1 bk4 iv1 prop4 #ah1 schol4 #ajc ,ibid4 #ajd ,ibid41 bk4 iv1 prop4 #bd4 #aje ,bk4 iv1 def4 #h4 #ajf ,tractatus ,theologico-politicus1 ch4 #f1 #a4 #ajg ,ethics1 bk4 iv1 prop4 #ce1 schol4 #ajh ,tractatus ,theologico-politicus1 ch4 #e1 #b4 #aji ,ibid41 ch4 #af4 #aaj ,ethics1 bk4 iv1 prop4 #cg1 schol4 #b4 #aaa ,contrast ,plato3 the state 7i4e41 the governing classes7 is to the lower classes as reason is to passion4 #aab ,tractatus ,theologico-politicus1 ch4 #c1 #ad4 #aac ,ethics1 bk4 iv1 prop4 #dj4 #aad ,ch4 #bj4 #aae ,tractatus ,theologico-politicus1 ch4 #f1 #d4 #aaf ,tractatus ,theologico-politicus1 ch4 #f1 #d1 ch4 #g1 #bi4 #aag ,ethics1 bk4 iv1 prop4 #ce1 cor4 #a4 #aah ,ibid41 cor4 #b4 #aai ,ibid41 prop4 #ah1 schol42 also prop4 #cg4 ,cf4 ,whitman3 8,by ,god6 ,i will accept nothing which all cannot have their counterpart of on the same terms40 #abj ,not that these ideas were original with ,spinoza2 they were the general legacy of ,renaissance political thought4 ,but it was through the writings of ,spinoza that this legacy was transmitted to ,rousseau4 ,cf4 ,duff1 p4 #cai4 #aba ,professor ,woodbridge3 class-lectures4 #abb ,cf4 ,professor ,dewey's ,german ,philosophy and ,politics1 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 #abc ,frster-,nietzsche1 ,the ,young ,nietzsche1 ,london1 #aiab1 p4 #ih4 #abd ,ibid41 p4 #aeb4 #abe ,ibid41 p4 #bce4 #abf ,the ,birth of ,tragedy1 #ahgb4 #abg ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 p4 #abi4 #abh ,frster-,nietzsche1 ,the ,lonely ,nietzsche1 ,london1 #aiae1 pp4 #bia1 #bab1 #gg4 #abi ,ibid41 p4 #cac4 #acj ,ibid41 p4 #aha4 #aca ,ibid41 p4 #dbd4 #acb ,ibid41 p4 #big4 #acc ,ibid41 p4 #aie4 #acd ,chronology of ,nietzsche's chief works1 with initials used in subsequent references3 ,thoughts ,out of ,season 78,t4 ,o4 ,s407 7#ahgc-f72 ,human ,all ,too ,human 78,h4 ,h407 7#ahgf-hj72 ,dawn of ,day 78,d4 ,d407 7#ahha72 ,joyful ,wisdom 78,j4 ,w407 7#ahhb72 ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra 78,z407 7#ahhc-d72 ,beyond ,good and ,evil 78,b4 ,g4 ,e407 7#ahhf72 ,genealogy of ,morals 78,g4 ,m407 7#ahhg72 ,twilight of the ,idols 78,t4,i407 7#ahhh72 ,antichrist 78,antich4072 ,ecce ,homo 78,e4 ,h4071 and ,will to ,power 78,w4 ,p407 7#ahhi74 #ace ,lonely ,n41 p4 #ajd4 #acf ,ibid41 p4 #aie4 #acg ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ajf4 #ach ,j4 ,w41 #cga4 #aci ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ada4 #adj ,ibid41 pp4 #aca1 #ha4 #ada ,t4 ,i41 pref4 #adb ,w4 ,p41 #djj 7all references to ,w4 ,p4 will be by sections74 #adc ,j4 ,w41 #cde 7all references to ,j4 ,w4 by section unless otherwise stated74 #add ,w4 ,p41 #bgf4 #ade ,ibid41 #cde4 #adf ,g4 ,m41 p4 #df4 #adg ,z41 p4 #aff4 #adh ,w4 ,p41 #gba2 ,t4 ,i41 p4 #hi4 #adi ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 #bjb4 #aej ,j4 ,w41 #ceh2 ,antich41 #cfa4 #aea ,w4 ,p41 #bhd4 #aeb ,antich41 #df4 #aec ,ibid41 #dc4 #aed ,w4 ,p41 #dfd1 #hfa1 #gdh1 #geb1 #fhf4 #aee ,ibid41 #hhe1 #bha4 #aef ,h4 ,h41 #dbh1 #dgb4 #aeg ,t4 ,i41 p4 #if4 #aeh ,g4 ,m41 p4 #bbe2 written in #ahhg4 #aei ,w4 ,p41 #hfa1 #hia4 #afj ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #bcc4 #afa ,w4 ,p41 #gec4 #afb ,g4 ,m41 p4 #bbc4 #afc ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #ahi4 #afd ,e4 ,h41 p4 #fe4 #afe ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 pp4 #if1 #ahi4 #aff ,z41 p4 #hi4 #afg ,j4 ,w41 #cfc4 #afh ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 pp4 #ahh1 #ahd1 #ahi4 #afi ,w4 ,p41 #cci1 #hf4 #agj ,t4 ,i41 p4 #hf4 #aga ,j4 ,w41 #cgg2 ,w4 ,p41 #cej1 #cae1 #cgc4 #agb ,h4 ,h41 #dea4 #agc ,w4 ,p41 #gfa4 #agd ,ibid41 #ea1 #abe4 #age ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #bbf4 #agf ,w4 ,p41 #hef4 #agg ,g4 ,m41 p4 #dd4 #agh ,j4 ,w41 #cef4 #agi ,lonely ,n41 p4 #hc4 #ahj ,d4 ,d41 #bjf4 #aha ,w4 ,p41 #abe4 #ahb ,wanderer and ,his ,shadow1 #bib 7,h4 ,h41 ii1 p4 #cdc74 #ahc ,h4 ,h41 i1 #dgc4 #ahd ,d4 ,d41 #agi4 #ahe ,z41 p4 #fb4 #ahf ,w4 ,p41 #cbi4 #ahg ,t4 ,i41 p4 #hf2 ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ff2 ,antich41 #eg4 #ahh ,w4 ,p41 #hei4 #ahi ,g4 ,m41 p4 #ia4 #aij ,z41 p4 #aei4 #aia ,t4 ,i41 p4 #id4 #aib ,h4 ,h41 #dfc4 #aic ,w4 ,p41 #gej1 #hgd1 #fe1 #ej4 #aid ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #agc2 ,w4 ,p41 #hbc1 #hea1 #hga1 #aa4 #aie ,w4 ,p41 #cig1 #ab1 #gcf4 #aif ,e4 ,h41 p4 #acf4 #aig ,g4 ,m41 p4 #aj4 #aih ,t4 ,o4 ,s41 i1 p4 #gh4 #aii ,antich41 #ag4 #bjj ,j4 ,w41 #cdg4 #bja ,antich41 #ag2 ,d4 ,d41 #edb4 #bjb ,w4 ,p41 #ehe4 #bjc ,g4 ,m41 p4 #bjb4 #bjd ,w4 ,p41 #ehe4 #bje ,ibid41 #fjj2 ,d4 ,d41 #dbd4 #bjf ,j4 ,w41 #cff4 #bjg ,d4 ,d41 #da4 #bjh ,w4 ,p41 #dfa4 #bji ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #acf4 #baj ,w4 ,p41 #h4 #baa ,j4 ,w41 p4 #g4 #bab ,w4 ,p41 #cea4 #bac ,ibid41 #ab4 #bad ,ibid41 #dc4 #bae ,antich41 #a4 #baf ,d4 ,d41 #afc4 #bag ,w4 ,p41 #bff4 #bah ,ibid41 #bj4 #bai ,ibid41 #ehe4 #bbj ,z41 pp4 #aic1 #cae2 ,e4 ,h41 pp4 #ga1 #bh4 #bba ,j4 ,w41 #cbd4 #bbb ,ibid41 p4 #f4 #bbc ,w4 ,p41 #abj1 #ajbi2 ,antich41 #ee2 ,e4 ,h41 pp4 #gb1 #gj2 ,birth of ,tragedy1 passim4 #bbd ,w4 ,p41 #bee1 #beh1 #gaj1 #dfb1 #cib1 #cje4 #bbe ,antich41 #b4 #bbf ,w4 ,p41 #iah4 #bbg ,t4 ,o4 ,s41 p4 #gf4 #bbh ,g4 ,m41 p4 #de4 #bbi ,j4 ,w41 #d4 #bcj ,antich41 #ad4 #bca ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #afb4 #bcb ,w4 ,p41 #ddj1 #bhi4 #bcc ,e4 ,h41 p4 #aj4 #bcd ,w4 ,p41 #bee1 #ggd1 #gge2 ,d4 ,d41 #bae2 ,j4 ,w41 #ac4 #bce ,d4 ,d41 #bbd4 #bcf ,w4 ,p41 #cgf1 #ggf4 #bcg ,w4 ,p41 #fej1 #feg1 #fhe1 #fif1 #gjd2 ,antich41 #b4 #bch ,ibid41 #fha1 #fhh1 #fhi4 #bci ,t4 ,i41 p4 #ga2 ,w4 ,p41 #fdi4 #bdj ,w4 ,p41 #fhe4 #bda ,z41 p4 #cih4 #bdb ,w4 ,p41 #hhj1 #gaf1 #cdc1 #dbc1 #bia4 #bdc ,e4 ,h41 p4 #b2 ,d4 ,d41 #di2 ,lonely ,n41 p4 #ag2 ,w4 ,p41 #bfi1 #ij1 #gff1 #ffj4 #bdd ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ach2 ,t4 ,o4 ,s41 ii1 p4 #ff2 ,z41 p4 #bbb2 ,w4 ,p41 #icd1 #idd2 ,j4 ,w41 p4 #h2 ,t4 ,i41 #dj2 ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #ach4 #bde ,z41 pp4 #aii1 #ajc1 #ahf2 ,w4 ,p41 #gib4 #bdf ,w4 ,p41 #hha1 #hgj1 #iah2 ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #aed2 ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ac2 ,d4 ,d41 #eeb4 #bdg ,w4 ,p41 #ifg1 #cff-g1 #cdi2 ,z41 p4 #ada2 ,antich41 #ee2 ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 pp4 #ed1 #eg4 #bdh ,w4 ,p41 #ifi1 #cga1 #cef1 #ibf1 #idf1 #bf2 ,z41 p4 #dcj2 ,e4 ,h41 pp4 #bc1 #ai1 #abh2 ,g4 ,m41 p4 #he2 ,d4 ,d41 #fj4 #bdi ,w4 ,p41 #hff2 ,t4 ,o4 ,s41 ii1 p4 #aed2 ,z41 pp4 #h1 #ajd2 ,t4 ,i41 p4 #bfi4 #bej ,w4 ,p41 #hjd1 #gcb-c2 ,z41 pp4 #id-f2 ,d4 ,d41 #aej-a4 #bea ,h4 ,h41 #bdb2 ,w4 ,p41 #iab2 ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #abi2 ,d4 ,d41 #aid2 8,schopenhauer as ,educator0 7in ,t4 ,o4 ,s471 passim4 #beb ,t4 ,o4 ,s41 ii1 pp4 #hd1 #bh2 ,w4 ,p41 #cfi1 #ife2 ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ace4 #bec ,z41 pp4 #hd1 #fd2 ,h4 ,h41 #deg2 ,g4 ,m41 #aef-g2 ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 #fa-b2 ,w4 ,p41 #cgc1 #ija1 #acb4 #bed ,h4 ,h41 #dci2 ,w4 ,p41 #ffj2 ,antich41 #eg2 ,lonely ,n41 p4 #g4 #bee ,g4 ,m41 pp4 #afj-a2 ,w4 ,p41 #bhg1 #hed1 #hfd4 #bef ,w4 ,p41 #hhf1 #ibf4 #beg ,t4 ,i41 p4 #if2 ,w4 ,p41 #ieg2 ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #bci2 ,t4 ,o4 ,s41 ii1 p4 #ci4 #beh ,w4 ,p41 #dfd1 #ifj2 ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #bbe4 #bei ,w4 ,p41 #dd1 #fhd1 #iji2 ,g4 ,m41 p4 #ia4 #bfj ,d4 ,d41 #afe1 #afh2 ,w4 ,p41 #ajeb2 ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #fi2 ,j4 ,w41 p4 #aj4 #bfa ,t4 ,i41 pp4 #ia1 #aaj2 ,j4 ,w41 #cfb2 ,g4 ,m41 pp4 #ef1 #bbf2 ,w4 ,p41 #ige1 #hgg2 ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 pp4 #bja1 #ec4 #bfb ,w4 ,p41 #aji-cd1 #gdg4 #bfc ,j4 ,w41 #bic4 #bfd ,t4 ,i41 p4 #bfj2 ,g4 ,m41 p4 #eh2 ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #aea2 ,lonely ,n41 p4 #bba4 #bfe ,w4 ,p41 #abg1 #gbh-i2 ,g4 ,m41 pp4 #hh1 #bbf2 ,j4 ,w41 #bhc2 ,z41 p4 #fj2 ,lonely ,n41 p4 #ae4 #bff ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #id2 ,w4 ,p41 #gag1 #gdh2 ,g4 ,m41 pp4 #bbc-d4 #bfg ,w4 ,p41 #gab4 #bfh ,ibid41 #ajec4 #bfi ,j4 ,w41 p4 #e4 #bgj ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ec4 #bga ,w4 ,p41 #edd1 with footnote quoting ,napoleon3 8,an almost instinctive belief with me is that all strong men lie when they speak1 and much more so when they write40 #bgb 8,far too long a slave and a tyrant have been hidden in woman3 444 she is not yet capable of friendship40--,z41 p4 #ge4 #bgc ,hobhouse1 ,social ,evolution and ,political ,theory1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa1 p4 #be4 #bgd ,there is something verging on a recognition of this in ,w4 ,p41 #djc-d4 #bge ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #agc4 #bgf ,b4 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #be4 #bgg ,g4 ,m41 p4 #f4 #bgh ,z41 p4 #cjc4 #bgi ,z41 p4 #ajg4 #bhj ,t4 ,i41 p4 #b4 #bha ,z41 p4 #aj4 #bhb ,j4 ,w41 #cab4 #bhc ,ibid41 p4 #fi2 referring to #ahgi4 #bhd ,ibid41 #cab4 #bhe ,lonely ,n41 p4 #bjf4 #bhf ,ibid41 p4 #bah4 #bhg ,lonely ,n41 p4 #bhi4 #bhh ,ibid41 p4 #cia4 #bhi ,ibid41 p4 #fe4 #bij ,ibid41 p4 #aeg4 #bia ,mrs4 ,gallichan1 ,the ,truth about ,woman1 ,new ,york1 #aiad1 p4 #bha4 #bib ,jos4 ,mc,cabe1 ,tyranny of ,shams1 ,london1 #aiaf1 p4 #aga4 #bic ,dr4 ,drysdale1 ,the ,small ,family ,system1 ,london1 #aiae4 #bid ,winston ,churchill in ,parliament1 quoted by ,schoonmaker1 ,the ,world-,war and ,beyond1 ,new ,york1 #aiae1 p4 #ie4 #bie ,carver1 ,essays in ,social ,justice1 ,new ,york1 #aiae1 p4 #bfa4 #bif ,the 8experimental attitude 444 substitutes detailed analyses for wholesale assertions1 specific inquiries for temperamental convictions1 small facts for opinions whose size is in precise ratio to their vagueness4 ,it is within the social sciences1 in morals1 politics1 and education1 that thinking still goes on by large antitheses1 by theoretical oppositions of order and freedom1 individualism and socialism1 culture and utility1 spontaneity and discipline1 actuality and tradition4 ,the field of the physical sciences was once occupied by similar #8total' views1 whose emotional appeal was inversely as their intellectual clarity4 ,but with the advance of the experimental method1 the question has ceased to be which one of two rival claimants has a right to the field4 ,it has become a question of clearing up a confused subject matter by attacking it bit by bit4 ,i do not know a case where the final result was anything like victory for one or another among the prexperimental notions4 ,all of them disappeared because they became increasingly irrelevant to the situation discovered1 and with their detected irrelevance they became unmeaning and uninteresting40--,professor ,john ,dewey1 ,new ,republic1 ,feb4 #c1 #aiag4 #big ,all this has been indicated--with1 however1 too little emphasis on the reconstructive function of intelligence--by ,bertrand ,russell in ,principles of ,social ,reconstruction 7,london1 #aiaf72 and more popularly by ,max ,eastman in ,understanding ,germany 7,new ,york1 #aiaf72 it has been put very briefly again and again by ,professor ,dewey1--e4g41 in an essay on 8,progress0 in the ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 ,april1 #aiaf4 #bih ,this is not a defence of mechanism or materialism2 it is a plea for a better perspective in philosophy4 #bii ,it would be invidious to name the exceptions which one is glad to remember here2 but it is in place to say that the practical arrest of ,bertrand ,russell is a sign of resuscitation on the part of philosophy1--a sign for which all lovers of philosophy should be grateful4 ,when philosophers are once more feared1 philosophy will once more be respected4 #cjj ,american ,journal of ,sociology1 ,march1 #aije1 p4 #fde4 #cja ,ross1 ,social ,control1 ,new ,york1 #aijf1 p4 #i4 #cjb ,will to ,power1 #dfi4 #cjc ,barker1 ,political ,thought of ,plato and ,aristotle1 p4 #hj4 #cjd ,perhaps this million could be reached more surely and economically through direct pamphlet-publication by the ,society4 #cje ,some students--e4g41 ,joseph ,mc,cabe1 ,the ,tyranny of ,shams1 ,london1 #aiaf1 p4 #bdh--;are so impressed with the dangers lying in our vast production of written trash that they favor restricting the circulation of cheap fiction in our public libraries4 ,but what we have to do is not to prohibit the evil but to encourage the good1 to give positive stimulus rather than negative prohibition4 ,people hate compulsion1 but they grope for guidance4 #cjf ,e4g41 by ,g4 ,lowes ,dickinson1 ,justice and ,liberty1 p4 #acc4 #cjg ,cf4 ,russell1 ,principles of ,social ,reconstruction1 p4 #bcf3 8,the supreme principle1 both in politics and in private life1 should be to promote all that is creative1 and so to diminish the impulses and desires that center round possession40 #cjh ,reason in ,common ,sense1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa1 p4 #if4 #cji ,quoted by ,walter ,weyl1 ,the ,new ,democracy1 p4 #acf4 #caj ,ross1 ,social ,control1 ,new ,york1 #aijf1 p4 #ajc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber3 seee things clearly see things clearly pg #ajj whosesale assertions wholesale assertions footnote pg #baa