,transcriber's notes3 7#a7 ,numbers following letters 7without space7 like ,c#b were originally printed in subscript4 ,letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore1 like ,cn4 7#b7 ,characters following a carat 77 were printed in superscript4 7#c7 ,side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs4 7#d7 ,macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted4 7#e7 root stands for the root symbol2 alpha1 beta1 etc4 for greek letters4 7#f7 ,the following typographical errors have been corrected3 ,,article ,,magnetometer3 444 the determination of the magnetic elements on board ship is a matter of very considerable importance4 'determination' amended from 'determinaton'4 ,,article ,,magneto-,,optics3 ,the relation of the magnetic rotation to chemical constitution has been studied in great detail by ,perkin1 ,wachsmuth1 ,jahn and ,schnrock4 'constitution' amended from 'consitution'4 ,,article ,,magnus1 ,,heinrich ,,gustav3 444 7',magnus's green salt' is ,pt,cl#b1 #b,,nh#c71 of sulphovinic 444 ',pt,cl#b' amended from ',ptll#b'4 ,,article ,,mahomet3 ,with this change we may perhaps couple the adoption of the name ,allah for the ,deity 444 ',deity' amended from ',diety'4 ,,article ,,mahommedan ,,law3 ,it was rather the ,moslem leaders who were compelled to abandon their ideas and for the sake of the spread of ,islam to accept and incorporate much that was diametrically opposed to the original legislation either of the ,koran or of ,mahomet's recorded decisions4 'decisions' amended from 'decisons'4 ,,article ,,malay ,,archipelago3 ,in #afaa the headquarters of the ,dutch was changed from ,bantam to ,jakarta1 which in #afai was renamed ,batavia1 and was thenceforward the ,dutch capital4 ',jakarta' amended from ',jakatra'4 ,,article ,,malays3 ,when the first ,europeans visited the ,malay ,archipelago the ,malays had already acquired the art of manufacturing gunpowder and forging cannon4 'cannon' amended from 'canon'4 ,,article ,,malay ,,states3 ,the country is mountainous except close to the coast4 ,the principal rivers are the ,patani and the ,teloban1 long1 winding and shallow1 and navigable for small boats only4 'the' amended from 'tle'4 ,,article ,,malocello1 ,,lanciloto3 ,this was a ,genoese expedition1 which about #abgj seems to have sailed into the ,atlantic1 re-discovered the ',fortunate ,islands' or ,canaries ',atlantic' amended from ',alantic'4 ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica ,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1 ,,sciences1 ,,literature ,,and ,,general ,,information ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,volume ,,xvii1 ,,slice ,,iv ,magnetite to ,malt ,,articles ,,in ,,this ,,slice3 ,,magnetite ,,major1 ,,john ,,magnetograph ,,major ,,magnetometer ,,majorca ,,magneto-,,optics ,,majorian ,,magnolia ,,majority ,,magnus1 ,,heinrich ,,gustav ,,majuba ,,magny1 ,,claude ,,drigon ,,makalaka ,,mago ,,makaraka ,,magpie ,,makart1 ,,hans ,,magwe ,,making-,,up ,,price ,,magyars ,,mak ,,mahabaleshwar ,,makran ,,mahaffy1 ,,john ,,pentland ,,maksoora ,,mahallat ,,malabar ,,mahan1 ,,alfred ,,thayer ,,malabari1 ,,behramji ,,mahanadi ,,malabon ,,mahanoy ,,city ,,malacca ,,mahar ,,malachi ,,maharajpur ,,malachite ,,mahavamsa ,,malachowski1 ,,stanislaw ,,mahayana ,,malachy1 ,,st ,,mahdi ,,malacostraca ,,mahdia ,,malaga 7province of ,spain7 ,,mah ,,malaga 7city of ,spain7 ,,maheshwar ,,malakand ,,pass ,,mahi ,,malalas1 ,,john ,,mahi ,,kantha ,,malan1 ,,solomon ,,caesar ,,mahmud ,i4 ,m,,lar ,,mahmud ,,ii4 ,,malaria ,,mahmud ,,nedim ,,pasha ,,malatia ,,mahmud ,,of ,,ghazni ,,malayalam ,,mahoba ,,malay ,,archipelago ,,mahogany ,,malair ,,mahomet ,,malay ,,peninsula ,,mahommed ,,ahmed ,,ibn ,,abdullah ,,malays ,,mahommedan ,,institutions ,,malay ,,states 7,british7 ,,mahommedan ,,law ,,malay ,,states 7,siamese7 ,,mahommedan ,,religion ,,malchin ,,mahony1 ,,francis ,,sylvester ,,malcolm ,,mahout ,,malcolm1 ,,sir ,,john ,,mahrattas ,,malda ,,mahseer ,,malden ,,mai1 ,,angelo ,,maldive ,,islands ,,maia ,,maldon ,,maida ,,malebranche1 ,,nicolas ,,maidan ,,maler ,,kotla ,,maiden ,,malesherbes1 ,,chr,,tien ,,de ,,lamoignon ,,de ,,maidenhair ,,malet1 ,,lucas ,,maidenhead ,,malherbe1 ,,fran,,ois ,,de ,,maid ,,marian ,,malibran1 ,,marie ,f,,licit ,,maidstone ,,malic ,,acid ,,maihar ,,malignant ,,mail ,,malik ,,ibn ,,anas ,,mailly1 ,,louise ,,julie ,,malines ,,maimana ,,mallanwan ,,maimand ,,mallarm1 ,,fran,,ois ,,ren ,,auguste ,,maimbourg1 ,,louis ,,mallarm1 ,,st,,phane ,,maiming ,,malleco ,,maimon1 ,,salomon ,,mallemuck ,,maimonides ,,malleson1 ,,george ,,bruce ,,main 7river of ,germany7 ,,mallet1 ,,david ,,main 7power or strength7 ,,mallet1 ,,paul ,,henri ,,maina and ,,mainotes ,,mallet1 ,,robert ,,maine1 ,,anne ,,louise ,,de ,,bourbon ,,mallet ,,du ,,pan1 ,,jacques ,,maine1 ,,sir ,,henry ,,james ,,sumner ,,malling1 ,,east and ,,west ,,maine 7,french province7 ,,mallock1 ,,william ,,hurrell ,,maine 7,u4,s4 state7 ,,mallow 7town of ,ireland7 ,,maine ,,de ,,biran1 ,,fran,,ois-,,gonthier ,,mallow 7botanical genus7 ,,maine-,,et-,,loire ,,malmedy ,,mainpuri ,,malmesbury1 ,,james ,,harris ,,maintenance ,,malmesbury1 ,,james ,,howard ,,harris ,,maintenon1 ,,fran,,oise ,d',,aubign ,,malmesbury ,,mainz ,,malm ,,mairet1 ,,jean ,,de ,,malmsey ,,maistre1 ,,joseph ,,de ,,malocello1 ,,lanciloto ,,maistre1 ,,xavier ,,de ,,malolos ,,maitland1 ,,edward ,,malone1 ,,edmond ,,maitland1 ,,frederic ,,william ,,malone ,,maitland1 ,,sir ,,richard ,,malonic ,,acid ,,maitland1 ,,william ,,malory1 ,,sir ,,thomas ,,maitland1 ,,east and ,,west ,,malot1 ,,hector ,,henri ,,maitreya ,,malou1 ,,jules ,,douard ,,xavier ,,maiwand ,,malouet1 ,,pierre ,,victor ,,maize ,,malpighi1 ,,marcello ,,majesty ,,malplaquet ,,majl,,th1 ,j,,nos ,,malstatt-,,burbach ,,majolica ,,malt ,,magnetite1 a mineral forming the natural magnet 7see ,,magnetism71 and important also as an iron-ore4 ,it is an iron-black1 opaque mineral1 with metallic lustre2 hardness about #f1 sp4 gr4 #d4i to #e4b4 ,when scratched1 it yields a black streak4 ,it is an oxide of iron having the formula ,fe#c,o#d1 corresponding with #gb4d of metal1 whence its great value as an ore4 ,it may be regarded as a ferroso-ferric oxide1 ,fe,o,fe#b,o#c1 or as iron ferrate1 ,fe,fe#b,o#d4 ,titanium is often present1 and occasionally the mineral contains magnesium1 nickel1 c4 ,it is always strongly magnetic4 ,magnetite crystallizes in the cubic system1 usually in octahedra1 less commonly in rhombic dodecahedra1 and not infrequently in twins of the spinel type 7fig4 #a74 ,the rhombic faces of the dodecahedron are often striated parallel to the longer diagonal4 ,there is no distinct cleavage1 but imperfect parting may be obtained along octahedral planes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,magnetite is a mineral of wide distribution1 occurring as grains in many massive and volcanic rocks1 like granite1 diorite and dolerite4 ,it appears to have crystallized from the magma at a very early period of consolidation4 ,its presence contributes to the dark colour of many basalts and other basic rocks1 and may cause them to disturb the compass4 ,large ore-bodies of granular and compact magnetite occur as beds and lenticular masses in ,archean gneiss and crystalline schists1 in various parts of ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,finland and the ,urals2 as also in the states of ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania and ,michigan1 as well as in ,canada4 ,in some cases it appears to have segregated from a basic eruptive magma1 and in other cases to have resulted from metamorphic action4 ,certain deposits appear to have been formed1 directly or indirectly1 by wet processes4 ,iron rust sometimes contains magnetite4 ,an interesting deposit of oolitic magnetic ore occurs in the ,dogger 7,inferior ,oolite7 of ,rosedale ,abbey1 in ,yorkshire2 and a somewhat similar pisolitic ore1 of ,jurassic age1 is known on the continent as chamoisite1 having been named from ,chamoison 7or ,chamoson7 in the ,valais1 ,switzerland4 ,grains of magnetite occur in serpentine1 as an alteration-product of the olivine4 ,in emery1 magnetite in a granular form is largely associated with the corundum2 and in certain kinds of mica magnetite occurs as thin dendritic enclosures4 ,haematite is sometimes magnetic1 and ,a4 ,liversidge has shown that magnetite is probably present4 ,by deoxidation1 haematite may be converted into magnetite1 as proved by certain pseudomorphs2 but on the other hand magnetite is sometimes altered to haematite4 ,on weathering1 magnetite commonly passes into limonite1 the ferrous oxide having probably been removed by carbonated waters4 ,closely related to magnetite is the rare volcanic mineral from ,vesuvius1 called magnoferrite1 or magnesioferrite1 with the formula ,mg,fe#b,o#d2 and with this may be mentioned a mineral from ,jakobsberg1 in ,vermland1 ,sweden1 called jakobsite1 containing ,mn,fe#b,o#d4 7,f4 ,w4 ,r4997 ,,magnetograph1 an instrument for continuously recording the values of the magnetic elements1 the three universally chosen being the declination1 the horizontal component and the vertical component 7see ,,terrestrial ,,magnetism74 ,in each case the magnetograph only records the variation of the element1 the absolute values being determined by making observations in the neighbourhood with the unifilar magnetometer 7q4v47 and inclinometer 7q4v474 ,declination4--,the changes in declination are obtained by means of a magnet which is suspended by a long fibre and carries a mirror1 immediately below which a fixed mirror is attached to the base of the instrument4 ,both mirrors are usually concave2 if plane1 a concave lens is placed immediately before them4 ,light passing through a vertical slit falls upon the mirrors1 from which it is reflected1 and two images of the slit are produced1 one by the movable mirror attached to the magnet and the other by the fixed mirror4 ,these images would be short lines of light2 but a piano-cylindrical lens is placed with its axis horizontal just in front of the recording surface4 ,in this way a spot of light is obtained from each mirror4 ,the recording surface is a sheet of photographic paper wrapped round a drum which is rotated at a constant speed by clockwork about a horizontal axis4 ,the light reflected from the fixed mirror traces a straight line on the paper1 serving as a base line from which the variations in declination are measured4 ,as the declination changes the spot of light reflected from the magnet mirror moves parallel to the axis of the recording drum1 and hence the distance between the line traced by this spot and the base line gives1 for any instant1 on an arbitrary scale the difference between the declination and a constant angle1 namely1 the declination corresponding to the base line4 ,the value of this constant angle is obtained by comparing the record with the value for the declination as measured with a magnetometer4 ,the value in terms of arc of the scale of the record can be obtained by measuring the distance between the magnet mirror and the recording drum1 and in most observations it is such that a millimetre on the record represents one minute of arc4 ,the time scale ordinarily employed is #ae mm4 per hour1 but in modern instruments provision is generally made for the time scale to be increased at will to #ahj mm4 per hour1 so that the more rapid variations of the declination can be followed4 ,the advantages of using small magnets1 so that their moment of inertia may be small and hence they may be able to respond to rapid changes in the earth's field1 were first insisted upon by ,e4 ,mascart1#a while ,m4 ,eschenhagen#b first designed a set of magnetographs in which this idea of small moment of inertia was carried to its useful limit1 the magnets only weighing #a4e gram each1 and the suspension consisting of a very fine quartz fibre4 ,horizontal ,force4--,the variation of the horizontal force is obtained by the motion of a magnet which is carried either by a bifilar suspension or by a fairly stiff metal wire or quartz fibre4 ,the upper end of the suspension is turned till the axis of the magnet is at right angles to the magnetic meridian4 ,in this position the magnet is in equilibrium under the action of the torsion of the suspension and the couple exerted by the horizontal component1 ,h1 of the earth's field1 this couple depending on the product of ,h into the magnetic moment1 ,m1 of the magnet4 ,hence if ,h varies the magnet will rotate in such a way that the couple due to torsion is equal to the new value of ,h multiplied by ,m4 ,since the movements of the magnet are always small1 the rotation of the magnet is proportional to the change in ,h1 so long as ,m and the couple1 theta1 corresponding to unit twist of the suspension system remain constant4 ,when the temperature changes1 however1 both ,m and theta in general change4 ,with rise of temperature ,m decreases1 and this alone will produce the same effect as would a decrease in ,h4 ,to allow for this effect of temperature a compensating system of metal bars is attached to the upper end of the bifilar suspension1 so arranged that with rise of temperature the fibres are brought nearer together and hence the value of theta decreases4 ,since such a decrease in theta would by itself cause the magnet to turn in the same direction as if ,h had increased1 it is possible in a great measure to neutralize the effects of temperature on the reading of the instrument4 ,in the case of the unifilar suspension1 the provision of a temperature compensation is not so easy1 so that what is generally done is to protect the instrument from temperature variation as much as possible and then to correct the indications so as to allow for the residual changes1 a continuous record of the temperature being kept by a recording thermograph attached to the instrument4 ,in the ,eschenhagen pattern instrument1 in which a single quartz fibre is used for the suspension1 two magnets are placed in the vicinity of the suspended magnet and are so arranged that their field partly neutralizes the earth's field2 thus the torsion required to hold the magnet with its axis perpendicular to the earth's field is reduced1 and the arrangement permits of the sensitiveness being altered by changing the position of the deflecting magnets4 ,further1 by suitably choosing the positions of the deflectors and the coefficient of torsion of the fibre1 it is possible to make the temperature coefficient vanish4 7,see ,adolf ,schmidt1 ,zeits4 fr ,instrumentenkunde1 #aijg1 #bg1 #ade47 ,the method of recording the variations in ,h is exactly the same as that adopted in the case of the declination1 and the sensitiveness generally adopted is such that #a mm4 on the record represents a change in ,h of 4#jjjje ,c4,g4,s41 the time scale being the same as that employed in the case of the declination4 ,vertical ,component4--,to record the variations of the vertical component use is made of a magnet mounted on knife edges so that it can turn freely about a horizontal axis at right angles to its length 7,h4 ,lloyd1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,irish ,acad41 #ahci1 #a1 #ccd74 ,the magnet is so weighted that its axis is approximately horizontal1 and any change in the inclination of the axis is observed by means of an attached mirror1 a second mirror fixed to the stand serving to give a base line for the records1 which are obtained in the same way as in the case of the declination4 ,the magnet is in equilibrium under the influence of the couple ,,vm due to the vertical component ,v1 and the couple due to the fact that the centre of gravity is slightly on one side of the knife-edge4 ,hence when1 say1 ,v decreases the couple ,,vm decreases1 and hence the north end of the balanced magnet rises1 and vice versa4 ,the chief difficulty with this form of instrument is that it is very sensitive to changes of temperature1 for such changes not only alter ,m but also in general cause the centre of gravity of the system to be displaced with reference to the knife-edge4 ,to reduce these effects the magnet is fitted with compensating bars1 generally of zinc1 so adjusted by trial that as far as possible they neutralize the effect of changes of temperature4 ,in the ,eschenhagen form of vertical force balance two deflecting magnets are used to partly neutralize the vertical component1 so that the centre of gravity is almost exactly over the support4 ,by varying the positions of these deflecting magnets it is possible to compensate for the effects of changes of temperature 7,a4 ,schmidt1 loc4 cit474 ,in order to eliminate the irregularity which is apt to be introduced by dust1 c41 interfering with the working of the knife-edge1 ,w4 ,watson 7,phil4 ,mag41 #aijd #f1 #g1 #cic7 designed a form of vertical force balance in which the magnet with its mirror is attached to the mid point of a horizontal stretched quartz fibre4 ,the temperature compensation is obtained by attaching a small weight to the magnet1 and then bringing it back to the horizontal position by twisting the fibre4 ,the scale values of the records given by the horizontal and vertical force magnetographs are determined by deflecting the respective needles1 either by means of a magnet placed at a known distance or by passing an electric current through circular coils of large diameter surrounding the instruments4 ,the width of the photographic sheet which receives the spot of light reflected from the mirrors in the above instruments is generally so great that in the case of ordinary changes the curve does not go off the paper4 ,occasionally1 however1 during a disturbance such is not the case1 and hence a portion of the trace would be lost4 ,to overcome this difficulty ,eschenhagen in his earlier type of instruments attached to each magnet two mirrors1 their planes being inclined at a small angle so that when the spot reflected from one mirror goes off the paper1 that corresponding to the other comes on4 ,in the later pattern a third mirror is added of which the plane is inclined at about #cj to the horizontal4 ,the light from the slit is reflected on to this mirror by an inclined fixed mirror1 and after reflection at the movable mirror is again reflected at the fixed mirror and so reaches the recording drum4 ,by this arrangement the angular rotation of the reflected beam is less than that of the magnet1 and hence the spot of light reflected from this mirror yields a trace on a much smaller scale than that given by the ordinary mirror and serves to give a complete record of even the most energetic disturbance4 ,see also ,balfour ,stewart1 ,report of the ,british ,association1 ,aberdeen1 #ahei1 #bjj1 a description of the type of instrument used in the older observatories2 ,e4 ,mascart1 ,trait de magntisme terrestre1 p4 #aia2 ,w4 ,watson1 ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 #aija1 #f1 #ahg1 describing magnetographs used in ,india2 ,m4 ,eschenhagen1 ,verhandlungen der deutschen physikalischen ,gesellschaft1 #ahii1 #a1 #adg2 ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 #aijj1 #e1 #ei2 and #aija1 #f1 #ei2 ,zeits4 fr ,instrumentenkunde1 #aijg1 #bg1 #acg2 ,w4 ,g4 ,cady1 ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 #aijd1 #i1 #fi1 describing a declination magnetograph in which the record is obtained by means of a pen acting on a moving strip of paper1 so that the curve can be consulted at all times to see whether a disturbance is in progress4 ,the effects of temperature being so marked on the readings of the horizontal and vertical force magnetographs1 it is usual to place the instruments either in an underground room or in a room which1 by means of double walls and similar devices1 is protected as much as possible from temperature changes4 ,for descriptions of the arrangements adopted in some observatories see the following3 ,u4,s4 observatories1 ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 #aijc1 #h1 #aa2 ,utrecht1 ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 #aijj1 #e1 #di2 ,st ,maur1 ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 #ahih1 #c1 #a2 ,potsdam1 ,verffentlichungen des k4 preuss4 meteorol4 ,instituts1 ,ergebnisse der magnetischen ,beobachtungen in ,potsdam in den ,jahren #ahij und #ahia2 ,pavlovsk1 ,das ,konstantinow'sche meteorologische und magnetische ,observatorium in ,pavlovsk1 ,ausgabe der kaiserl4 ,akad4 der ,wissenschaften zu ,st ,petersburg1 #ahie4 7,w4 ,wn47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,report ,british ,association1 ,bristol1 #ahih1 p4 #gda4 #b ,verhandlungen der deutschen physikalischen ,gesellschaft1 #ahii1 #a1 #adg2 or ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 #aijj1 #e1 #ei4 ,,magnetometer1 a name1 in its most general sense1 for any instrument used to measure the strength of any magnetic field2 it is1 however1 often used in the restricted sense of an instrument for measuring a particular magnetic field1 namely1 that due to the earth's magnetism1 and in this article the instruments used for measuring the value of the earth's magnetic field will alone be considered4 ,the elements which are actually measured when determining the value of the earth's field are usually the declination1 the dip and the horizontal component 7see ,,magnetism1 ,,terrestrial74 ,for the instruments and methods used in measuring the dip see ,,inclinometer4 ,it remains to consider the measurement of the declination and the horizontal component1 these two elements being generally measured with the same instrument1 which is called a unifilar magnetometer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,unifilar ,magnetometer1 arranged to indicate declination4 ,measurement of ,declination4--,the measurement of the declination involves two separate observations1 namely1 the determination of 7a7 the magnetic meridian and 7b7 the geographical meridian1 the angle between the two being the declination4 ,in order to determine the magnetic meridian the orientation of the magnetic axis of a freely suspended magnet is observed2 while1 in the absence of a distant mark of which the azimuth is known1 the geographical meridian is obtained from observations of the transit of the sun or a star4 ,the geometrical axis of the magnet is sometimes defined by means of a mirror rigidly attached to the magnet and having the normal to the mirror as nearly as may be parallel to the magnetic axis4 ,this arrangement is not very convenient1 as it is difficult to protect the mirror from accidental displacement1 so that the angle between the geometrical and magnetic axes may vary4 ,for this reason the end of the magnet is sometimes polished and acts as the mirror1 in which case no displacement of the reflecting surface with reference to the magnet is possible4 ,a different arrangement1 used in the instrument described below1 consists in having the magnet hollow1 with a small scale engraved on glass firmly attached at one end1 while to the other end is attached a lens1 so chosen that the scale is at its principal focus4 ,in this case the geometrical axis is the line joining the central division of the scale to the optical centre of the lens4 ,the position of the magnet is observed by means of a small telescope1 and since the scale is at the principal focus of the lens1 the scale will be in focus when the telescope is adjusted to observe a distant object4 ,thus no alteration in the focus of the telescope is necessary whether we are observing the magnet1 a distant fixed mark1 or the sun4 ,the ,kew ,observatory pattern unifilar magnetometer is shown in figs4 #a and #b4 ,the magnet consists of a hollow steel cylinder fitted with a scale and lens as described above1 and is suspended by a long thread of unspun silk1 which is attached at the upper end to the torsion head ,h4 ,the magnet is protected from draughts by the box ,a1 which is closed at the sides by two shutters when an observation is being taken4 ,the telescope ,b serves to observe the scale attached to the magnet when determining the magnetic meridian1 and to observe the sun or star when determining the geographical meridian4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,unifilar ,magnetometer1 arranged to show deflexion4 ,when making a determination of declination a brass plummet having the same weight as the magnet is first suspended in its place1 and the torsion of the fibre is taken out4 ,the magnet having been attached1 the instrument is rotated about its vertical axis till the centre division of the scale appears to coincide with the vertical cross-wire of the telescope4 ,the two verniers on the azimuth circle having been read1 the magnet is then inverted1 i4e4 turned through #ahj about its axis1 and the setting is repeated4 ,a second setting with the magnet inverted is generally made1 and then another setting with the magnet in its original position4 ,the mean of all the readings of the verniers gives the reading on the azimuth circle corresponding to the magnetic meridian4 ,to obtain the geographical meridian the box ,a is removed1 and an image of the sun or a star is reflected into the telescope ,b by means of a small transit mirror ,n4 ,this mirror can rotate about a horizontal axis which is at right angles to the line of collimation of the telescope1 and is parallel to the surface of the mirror4 ,the time of transit of the sun or star across the vertical wire of the telescope having been observed by means of a chronometer of which the error is known1 it is possible to calculate the azimuth of the sun or star1 if the latitude and longitude of the place of observation are given4 ,hence if the readings of the verniers on the azimuth circle are made when the transit is observed we can deduce the reading corresponding to the geographical meridian4 ,the above method of determining the geographical meridian has the serious objection that it is necessary to know the error of the chronometer with very considerable accuracy1 a matter of some difficulty when observing at any distance from a fixed observatory4 ,if1 however1 a theodolite1 fitted with a telescope which can rotate about a horizontal axis and having an altitude circle1 is employed1 so that when observing a transit the altitude of the sun or star can be read off1 then the time need only be known to within a minute or so4 ,hence in more recent patterns of magnetometer it is usual to do away with the transit mirror method of observing and either to use a separate theodolite to observe the azimuth of some distant object1 which will then act as a fixed mark when making the declination observations1 or to attach to the magnetometer an altitude telescope and circle for use when determining the geographical meridian4 ,the chief uncertainty in declination observations1 at any rate at a fixed observatory1 lies in the variable torsion of the silk suspension1 as it is found that1 although the fibre may be entirely freed from torsion before beginning the declination observations1 yet at the conclusion of these observations a considerable amount of torsion may have appeared4 ,soaking the fibre with glycerine1 so that the moisture it absorbs does not change so much with the hygrometric state of the air1 is of some advantage1 but does not entirely remove the difficulty4 ,for this reason some observers use a thin strip of phosphor bronze to suspend the magnet1 considering that the absence of a variable torsion more than compensates for the increased difficulty in handling the more fragile metallic suspension4 ,measurement of the ,horizontal ,component of the ,earth's ,field4--,the method of measuring the horizontal component which is almost exclusively used1 both in fixed observatories and in the field1 consists in observing the period of a freely suspended magnet1 and then obtaining the angle through which an auxiliary suspended magnet is deflected by the magnet used in the first part of the experiment4 ,by the vibration experiment we obtain the value of the product of the magnetic moment 7,m7 of the magnet into the horizontal component 7,h71 while by the deflexion experiment we can deduce the value of the ratio of ,m to ,h1 and hence the two combined give both ,m and ,h4 ,in the case of the ,kew pattern unifilar the same magnet that is used for the declination is usually employed for determining ,h1 and for the purposes of the vibration experiment it is mounted as for the observation of the magnetic meridian4 ,the time of vibration is obtained by means of a chronometer1 using the eye-and-ear method4 ,the temperature of the magnet must also be observed1 for which purpose a thermometer ,c 7fig4 #a7 is attached to the box ,a4 ,when making the deflection experiment the magnetometer is arranged as shown in fig4 #b4 ,the auxiliary magnet has a plane mirror attached1 the plane of which is at right angles to the axis of the magnet4 ,an image of the ivory scale ,b is observed after reflection in the magnet mirror by the telescope ,a4 ,the magnet ,k used in the vibration experiment is supported on a carriage ,l which can slide along the graduated bar ,d4 ,the axis of the magnet is horizontal and at the same level as the mirror magnet1 while when the central division of the scale ,b appears to coincide with the vertical cross-wire of the telescope the axes of the two magnets are at right angles4 ,during the experiment the mirror magnet is protected from draughts by two wooden doors which slide in grooves4 ,what is known as the method of sines is used1 for since the axes of the two magnets are always at right angles when the mirror magnet is in its zero position1 the ratio ,m_/,h is proportional to the sine of the angle between the magnetic axis of the mirror magnet and the magnetic meridian4 ,when conducting a deflexion experiment the deflecting magnet ,k is placed with its centre at #cj cm4 from the mirror magnet and to the east of the latter1 and the whole instrument is turned till the centre division of the scale ,b coincides with the cross-wire of the telescope1 when the readings of the verniers on the azimuth circle are noted4 ,the magnet ,k is then reversed in the support1 and a new setting taken4 ,the difference between the two sets of readings gives twice the angle which the magnetic axis of the mirror magnet makes with the magnetic meridian4 ,in order to eliminate any error due to the zero of the scale ,d not being exactly below the mirror magnet1 the support ,l is then removed to the west side of the instrument1 and the settings are repeated4 ,further1 to allow of a correction being applied for the finite length of the magnets the whole series of settings is repeated with the centre of the deflecting magnet at #dj cm4 from the mirror magnet4 ,omitting correction terms depending on the temperature and on the inductive effect of the earth's magnetism on the moment of the deflecting magnet1 if theta is the angle which the axis of the deflected magnet makes with the meridian when the centre of the deflecting magnet is at a distance r1 then r,h ,p ,q --- sin theta #a --- --- c41 #b,m r r in which ,p and ,q are constants depending on the dimensions and magnetic states of the two magnets4 ,the value of the constants ,p and ,q can be obtained by making deflexion experiments at three distances4 ,it is1 however1 possible by suitably choosing the proportions of the two magnets to cause either ,p or ,q to be very small4 ,thus it is usual1 if the magnets are of similar shape1 to make the deflected magnet #j4dfg of the length of the deflecting magnet1 in which case ,q is negligible1 and thus by means of deflexion experiments at two distances the value of ,p can be obtained4 7,see ,c4 ,brgen1 ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 #ahif1 i4 p4 #agf1 and ,c4 ,chree1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #aijd #f1 #g1 p4 #aac47 ,in the case of the vibration experiment correction terms have to be introduced to allow for the temperature of the magnet1 for the inductive effect of the earth's field1 which slightly increases the magnetic moment of the magnet1 and for the torsion of the suspension fibre1 as well as the rate of the chronometer4 ,if the temperature of the magnet were always exactly the same in both the vibration and deflexion experiment1 then no correction on account of the effect of temperature in the magnetic moment would be necessary in either experiment4 ,the fact that the moment of inertia of the magnet varies with the temperature must1 however1 be taken into account4 ,in the deflexion experiment1 in addition to the induction correction1 and that for the effect of temperature on the magnetic moment1 a correction has to be applied for the effect of temperature on the length of the bar which supports the deflexion magnet4 ,see also ,stewart and ,gee1 ,practical ,physics1 vol4 #b1 containing a description of the ,kew pattern unifilar magnetometer and detailed instructions for performing the experiments2 ,c4 ,chree1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #aija 7#f71 #b1 p4 #fac1 and ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #ahii1 #fe1 p4 #cge1 containing a discussion of the errors to which the ,kew unifilar instrument is subject2 ,e4 ,mascart1 ,trait de magntisme terrestre1 containing a description of the instruments used in the ,french magnetic survey1 which are interesting on account of their small size and consequent easy portability2 ,h4 ,e4 ,d4 ,fraser1 ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 #aija1 #f1 p4 #fe1 containing a description of a modified ,kew pattern unifilar as used in the ,indian survey2 ,h4 ,wild1 ,mm4 ,acad4 imp4 sc4 ,st ,ptersbourg1 #ahif 7viii471 vol4 #c1 ,no4 #g1 containing a description of a most elaborate unifilar magnetometer with which it is claimed results can be obtained of a very high order of accuracy2 ,k4 ,haufsmann1 ,zeits4 fr ,instrumentenkunde1 #aijf1 #bf1 p4 #b1 containing a description of a magnetometer for field use1 designed by ,m4 ,eschenhagen1 which has many advantages4 ,measurements of the ,magnetic ,elements at ,sea4--,owing to the fact that the proportion of the earth's surface covered by sea is so much greater than the dry land1 the determination of the magnetic elements on board ship is a matter of very considerable importance4 ,the movements of a ship entirely preclude the employment of any instrument in which a magnet suspended by a fibre has any part1 so that the unifilar is unsuited for such observations4 ,in order to obtain the declination a pivoted magnet is used to obtain the magnetic meridian1 the geographical meridian being obtained by observations on the sun or stars4 ,a carefully made ship's compass is usually employed1 though in some cases the compass card1 with its attached magnets1 is made reversible1 so that the inclination to the zero of the card of the magnetic axis of the system of magnets attached to the card can be eliminated by reversal4 ,in the absence of such a reversible card the index correction must be determined by comparison with a unifilar magnetometer1 simultaneous observations being made on shore1 and these observations repeated as often as occasion permits4 ,to determine the dip a ,fox's dip circle#a is used4 ,this consists of an ordinary dip circle 7see ,,inclinometer7 in which the ends of the axle of the needle are pointed and rest in jewelled holes1 so that the movements of the ship do not displace the needle4 ,the instrument is1 of course1 supported on a gimballed table1 while the ship during the observations is kept on a fixed course4 ,to obtain the strength of the field the method usually adopted is that known as ,lloyd's method4#b ,to carry out a determination of the total force by this method the ,fox dip circle has been slightly modified by ,e4 ,w4 ,creak1 and has been found to give satisfactory results on board ship4 ,the circle is provided with two needles in addition to those used for determining the dip1 one 7a7 an ordinary dip needle1 and the other 7b7 a needle which has been loaded at one end by means of a small peg which fits into one of two symmetrically placed holes in the needle4 ,the magnetism of these two needles is never reversed1 and they are as much as possible protected from shock and from approach to other magnets1 so that their magnetic state may remain as constant as possible4 ,attached to the cross-arm which carries the microscopes used to observe the ends of the dipping needle is a clamp1 which will hold the needle b in such a way that its plane is parallel to the vertical circle and its axis is at right angles to the line joining the two microscopes4 ,hence1 when the microscopes are adjusted so as to coincide with the points of the dipping needle a1 the axes of the two needles must be at right angles4 ,the needle a being suspended between the jewels1 and the needle b being held in the clamp1 the cross-arm carrying the reading microscopes and the needle b is rotated till the ends of the needle a coincide with the cross-wires of the microscopes4 ,the verniers having been read1 the cross-arm is rotated so as to deflect the needle a in the opposite direction1 and a new setting is taken4 ,half the difference between the two readings gives the angle through which the needle a has been deflected under the action of the needle b4 ,this angle depends on the ratio of the magnetic moment of the needle b to the total force of the earth's field4 ,it also involves1 of course1 the distance between the needles and the distribution of the magnetism of the needles2 but this factor is determined by comparing the value given by the instrument1 at a shore station1 with that given by an ordinary magnetometer4 ,hence the above observation gives us a means of obtaining the ratio of the magnetic moment of the needle b to the value of the earth's total force4 ,the needle b is then substituted for a1 there being now no needle in the clamp attached to the microscope arm1 and the difference between the reading now obtained and the dip1 together with the weight added to the needle1 gives the product of the moment of the needle b into the earth's total force4 ,hence1 from the two observations the value of the earth's total force can be deduced4 ,in an actual observation the deflecting needle would be reversed1 as well as the deflected one1 while different weights would be used to deflect the needle b4 ,for a description of the method of using the ,fox circle for observations at sea consult the ,admiralty ,manual of ,scientific ,inquiry1 p4 #aaf1 while a description of the most recent form of the circle1 known as the ,lloyd-,creak pattern1 will be found in ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 #aija1 #f1 p4 #aai4 ,an attachment to the ordinary ship's compass1 by means of which satisfactory measurements of the horizontal component have been made on board ship1 is described by ,l4 ,a4 ,bauer in ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 #aijf1 #aa1 p4 #gh4 ,the principle of the method consists in deflecting the compass needle by means of a horizontal magnet supported vertically over the compass card1 the axis of the deflecting magnet being always perpendicular to the axis of the magnet attached to the card4 ,the method is not strictly an absolute one1 since it presupposes a knowledge of the magnetic moment of the deflecting magnet4 ,in practice it is found that a magnet can be prepared which1 when suitably protected from shock1 c41 retains its magnetic moment sufficiently constant to enable observations of ,h to be made comparable in accuracy with that of the other elements obtained by the instruments ordinarily employed at sea4 7,w4 ,wn47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,annals of ,electricity1 #ahci1 #c1 p4 #bhh4 #b ,humphrey ,lloyd1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,irish ,acad41 #ahdh1 #d1 p4 #eg4 ,,magneto-,,optics4 ,the first relation between magnetism and light was discovered by ,faraday1#a who proved that the plane of polarization of a ray of light was rotated when the ray travelled through certain substances parallel to the lines of magnetic force4 ,this power of rotating the plane of polarization in a magnetic field has been shown to be possessed by all refracting substances1 whether they are in the solid1 liquid or gaseous state4 ,the rotation by gases was established independently by ,h4 ,becquerel1#b and ,kundt and ,rntgen1#c while ,kundt#d found that films of the magnetic metals1 iron1 cobalt1 nickel1 thin enough to be transparent1 produced enormous rotations1 these being in iron and cobalt magnetized to saturation at the rate of #bjj1jjj per cm4 of thickness1 and in nickel about #hi1jjj4 ,the direction of rotation is not the same in all bodies4 ,if we call the rotation positive when it is related to the direction of the magnetic force1 like rotation and translation in a right-handed screw1 or1 what is equivalent1 when it is in the direction of the electric currents which would produce a magnetic field in the same direction as that which produces the rotation1 then most substances produce positive rotation4 ,among those that produce negative rotation are ferrous and ferric salts1 ferricyanide of potassium1 the salts of lanthanum1 cerium and didymium1 and chloride of titanium4#e ,the magnetic metals iron1 nickel1 cobalt1 the salts of nickel and cobalt1 and oxygen 7the most magnetic gas7 produce positive rotation4 ,for slightly magnetizable substances the amount of rotation in a space ,,pq is proportional to the difference between the magnetic potential at ,p and ,q2 or if theta is the rotation in ,,pq1 ,omega,p1 ,omega,q1 the magnetic potential at ,p and ,q1 then theta ,r7,omega,p - ,omega,q71 where ,r is a constant1 called ,verdet's constant1 which depends upon the refracting substance1 the wave length of the light1 and the temperature4 ,the following are the values of ,r 7when the rotation is expressed in circular measure7 for the ,d line and a temperature of #ah ,c43-- ,substance4 ,r #aje4 ,observer4 ,carbon bisulphide _/ #a4bbb ,lord ,rayleigh#f and ,kpsel4#g #a4bbe ,rodger and ,watson4#h ,water _/ 4#cgg ,arons4#i 4#chjh ,rodger and ,watson4#h ,alcohol 4#ccj ,du ,bois4#aj ,ether 4#cae ,du ,bois4#aj ,oxygen 7at #a atmosphere7 4#jjjagi ,kundt and ,rntgen 7loc4 cit47 ,faraday's heavy glass #a4gch ,the variation of ,verdet's constant with temperature has been determined for carbon bisulphide and water by ,rodger and ,watson 7loc4 cit474 ,they find if ,rt1 ,r#j are the values of ,verdet's constant at t,c and #j;,c4 respectively1 then for carbon bisulphide ,rt ,r#j 7#a - 4#jjafifa71 and for water ,rt ,r#j 7#a - 4#jjjjcjet - 4#jjjjjcjet74 ,for the magnetic metals ,kundt found that the rotation did not increase so rapidly as the magnetic force1 but that as this force was increased the rotation reached a maximum value4 ,this suggests that the rotation is proportional to the intensity of magnetization1 and not to the magnetic force4 ,the amount of rotation in a given field depends greatly upon the wave length of the light2 the shorter the wave length the greater the rotation1 the rotation varying a little more rapidly than the inverse square of the wave length4 ,verdet#aa has compared in the cases of carbon bisulphide and creosote the rotation given by the formula c _/ di theta mcgamma --------- 7 c - lamda --------- 7 lambda dlambda_/ with those actually observed2 in this formula theta is the angular rotation of the plane of polarization1 m a constant depending on the medium1 lambda the wave length of the light in air1 and i its index of refraction in the medium4 ,verdet found that1 though the agreement is fair1 the differences are greater than can be explained by errors of experiment4 ,verdet#ab has shown that the rotation of a salt solution is the sum of the rotations due to the salt and the solvent2 thus1 by mixing a salt which produces negative rotation with water which produces positive rotation1 it is possible to get a solution which does not exhibit any rotation4 ,such solutions are not in general magnetically neutral4 ,by mixing diamagnetic and paramagnetic substances we can get magnetically neutral solutions1 which1 however1 produce a finite rotation of the plane of polarization4 ,the relation of the magnetic rotation to chemical constitution has been studied in great detail by ,perkin1#ac ,wachsmuth1#ad ,jahn#ae and ,schnrock4#af ,the rotation of the plane of polarization may conveniently be regarded as denoting that the velocity of propagation of circular-polarized light travelling along the lines of magnetic force depends upon the direction of rotation of the ray1 the velocity when the rotation is related to the direction of the magnetic force1 like rotation and translation on a right-handed screw being different from that for a left-handed rotation4 ,a plane-polarized ray may be regarded as compounded of two oppositely circularly-polarized rays1 and as these travel along the lines of magnetic force with different velocities1 the one will gain or lose in phase on the other1 so that when they are again compounded they will correspond to a plane-polarized ray1 but in consequence of the change of phase the plane of polarization will not coincide with its original position4 ,reflection from a ,magnet4--,kerr#ag in #ahgg found that when plane-polarized light is incident on the pole of an electromagnet1 polished so as to act like a mirror1 the plane of polarization of the reflected light is rotated by the magnet4 ,further experiments on this phenomenon have been made by ,righi1#ah ,kundt1#ai ,du ,bois1#bj ,sissingh1#ba ,hall1#bb ,hurion1#bc ,kaz#bd and ,zeeman4#be ,the simplest case is when the incident plane-polarized light falls normally on the pole of an electromagnet4 ,when the magnet is not excited the reflected ray is plane-polarized2 when the magnet is excited the plane of polarization is rotated through a small angle1 the direction of rotation being opposite to that of the currents exciting the pole4 ,righi found that the reflected light was slightly elliptically polarized1 the axes of the ellipse being of very unequal magnitude4 ,a piece of gold-leaf placed over the pole entirely stops the rotation1 showing that it is not produced in the air near the pole4 ,rotation takes place from magnetized nickel and cobalt as well as from iron1 and is in the same direction 7,hall74 ,righi has shown that the rotation at reflection is greater for long waves than for short1 whereas1 as we have seen1 the ,faraday rotation is greater for short waves than for long4 ,the rotation for different coloured light from iron1 nickel1 cobalt and magnetite has been measured by ,du ,bois2 in magnetite the direction of rotation is opposite to that of the other metals4 ,when the light is incident obliquely and not normally on the polished pole of an electromagnet1 it is elliptically polarized after reflection1 even when the plane of polarization is parallel or at right angles to the plane of incidence4 ,according to ,righi1 the amount of rotation when the plane of polarization of the incident light is perpendicular to the plane of incidence reaches a maximum when the angle of incidence is between #dd and #fh1 while when the light is polarized in the plane of incidence the rotation steadily decreases as the angle of incidence is increased4 ,the rotation when the light is polarized in the plane of incidence is always less than when it is polarized at right angles to that plane1 except when the incidence is normal1 when the two rotations are of course equal4 ,reflection from ,tangentially ,magnetized ,iron4--,in this case ,kerr#bf found3 7#a7 ,when the plane of incidence is perpendicular to the lines of magnetic force1 no rotation of the reflected light is produced by magnetization2 7#b7 no rotation is produced when the light is incident normally2 7#c7 when the incidence is oblique1 the lines of magnetic force being in the plane of incidence1 the reflected light is elliptically polarized after reflection1 and the axes of the ellipse are not in and at right angles to the plane of incidence4 ,when the light is polarized in the plane of incidence1 the rotation is at all angles of incidence in the opposite direction to that of the currents which would produce a magnetic field of the same sign as the magnet4 ,when the light is polarized at right angles to the plane of incidence1 the rotation is in the same direction as these currents when the angle of incidence is between #j and #ge according to ,kerr1 between #j and #hj according to ,kundt1 and between #j and #gh #ed according to ,righi4 ,when the incidence is more oblique than this1 the rotation of the plane of polarization is in the opposite direction to the electric currents which would produce a magnetic field of the same sign4 ,the theory of the phenomena just described has been dealt with by ,airy1#bg ,c4 ,neumann1#bh ,maxwell1#bi ,fitzgerald1#cj ,rowland1#ca ,h4 ,a4 ,lorentz1#cb ,voight1#cc ,ketteler1#cd van ,loghem1#ce ,potier1#cf ,basset1#cg ,goldhammer1#ch ,drude1#ci ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson1#dj and ,leatham2#da for a critical discussion of many of these theories we refer the reader to ,larmor's#db ,british ,association ,report4 ,most of these theories have proceeded on the plan of adding to the expression for the electromotive force terms indicating a force similar in character to that discovered by ,hall 7see ,,magnetism7 in metallic conductors carrying a current in a magnetic field1 i4e4 an electromotive force at right angles to the plane containing the magnetic force and the electric current1 and proportional to the sine of the angle between these vectors4 ,the introduction of a term of this kind gives rotation of the plane of polarization by transmission through all refracting substance1 and by reflection from magnetized metals1 and shows a fair agreement between the theoretical and experimental results4 ,the simplest way of treating the questions seems1 however1 to be to go to the equations which represent the propagation of a wave travelling through a medium containing ions4 ,a moving ion in a magnetic field will be acted upon by a mechanical force which is at right angles to its direction of motion1 and also to the magnetic force1 and is equal per unit charge to the product of these two vectors and the sine of the angle between them4 ,for the sake of brevity we will take the special case of a wave travelling parallel to the magnetic force in the direction of the axis of z4 ,then supposing that all the ions are of the same kind1 and that there are n of these each with mass m and charge e per unit volume1 the equations representing the field are 7see ,,electric ,,waves73-- d,x#j dxi dbeta ,k#j --- #dpine ----- -------2 dt dt dz d,x#j dbeta ----- -------2 dz dt d,y#j deta dalpha ,k#j --- #dpine ------ - -------- dt dt dz d,y#j dalpha --- - --------2 dz dt dxi dxi _/ #dpi deta m ------ ,r#a ----- axi 7 ,x#j ----- nexi 7 e ,he ------ dt dt #c _/ dt deta deta _/ #dpi dxi m ------- ,r#a ------ aeta 7 ,y#j ----- neeta 7 e - ,he -----2 dt dt #c _/ dt where ,h is the external magnetic field1 ,x#j1 ,y#j the components of the part of the electric force in the wave not due to the charges on the atoms1 alpha and beta the components of the magnetic force1 xi and eta the co-ordinates of an ion1 ,r#a the coefficient of resistance to the motion of the ions1 and alpha the force at unit distance tending to bring the ion back to its position of equilibrium1 ,k#j the specific inductive capacity of a vacuum4 ,if the variables are proportional to epsilonl7pt - qz7 we find by substitution that q is given by the equation #dpinep,p #dpine,hp q - ,k#jp - ----------- -----------1 ,p - ,hep ,p - ,hep where ,p 7a - 7#d_/c7pine7 ,r#a;iotap - mp1 or1 by neglecting ,r1 ,p m7s - p71 where s is the period of the free ions4 ,if1 q#a1 q#b are the roots of this equation1 then corresponding to q#a we have ,x#j iota,y#j and to q#b ,x#j -iota,y#j4 ,we thus get two oppositely circular-polarized rays travelling with the velocities p_/q#a and p_/q#b respectively4 ,hence if v#a1 v#b are these velocities1 and v the velocity when there is no magnetic field1 we obtain1 if we neglect terms in ,h1 #a #a #dpine,hp --- -- ------------1 v#a v m7s - p7 #a #a #dpine,hp --- -- - ------------4 v#b v m7s - p7 ,the rotation r of the plane of polarization per unit length _/ #a #a #bpine,hpv p 7 --- - --- 7 -------------4 v#a v#b _/ m7s - p7 ,since #a_/v ,k#j #dpine_/m7s - p71 we have if is the refractive index for light of frequency p1 and v#j the velocity of light in vacuo4 - #a #dpinev#j _/ m7s - p7 7#a7 ,so that we may put r 7 - #a7p,h _/ spine v#j 7#b7 ,becquerel 7,comptes rendus1 #abe1 p4 #fhc7 gives for r the expression e ,h d --- ---- ---------1 m v#j dlambda where lambda is the wave length4 ,this is equivalent to 7#b7 if is given by 7#a74 ,he has shown that this expression is in good agreement with experiment4 ,the sign of r depends on the sign of e1 hence the rotation due to negative ions would be opposite to that for positive4 ,for the great majority of substances the direction of rotation is that corresponding to the negation ion4 ,we see from the equations that the rotation is very large for such a value of p as makes ,p #j3 this value corresponds to a free period of the ions1 so that the rotation ought to be very large in the neighbourhood of an absorption band4 ,this has been verified for sodium vapour by ,macaluso and ,corbino4#dc ,if plane-polarized light falls normally on a plane face of the medium containing the ions1 then if the electric force in the incident wave is parallel to x and is equal to the real part of ,aepsilonl7pt - qz71 if the reflected beam in which the electric force is parallel to x is represented by ,bepsilonl7pt qz7 and the reflected beam in which the electric force is parallel to the axis of y by ,cepsilonl7pt qz71 then the conditions that the magnetic force parallel to the surface is continuous1 and that the electric forces parallel to the surface in the air are continuous with ,y#j1 ,x#j in the medium1 give ,a ,b iota,c ----------------- ----------- ---------- 7q q#a7 7q q#b7 7q - q#aq#b7 q7q#b - q#a7 or approximately1 since q#a and q#b are nearly equal1 iota,c q7q#b - q#a7 7 - #a7p,h ------- ---------- ------------4 ,b q - q#a #dpine ,v#j ,thus in transparent bodies for which is real1 ,c and ,b differ in phase by pi_/#b1 and the reflected light is elliptically polarized1 the major axis of the ellipse being in the plane of polarization of the incident light1 so that in this case there is no rotation1 but only elliptic polarization2 when there is strong absorption so that contains an imaginary term1 ,c_/,b will contain a real part so that the reflected light will be elliptically polarized1 but the major axis is no longer in the plane of polarization of the incident light2 we should thus have a rotation of the plane of polarization superposed on the elliptic polarization4 ,zeeman's ,effect4--,faraday1 after discovering the effect of a magnetic field on the plane of polarization of light1 made numerous experiments to see if such a field influenced the nature of the light emitted by a luminous body1 but without success4 ,in #ahhe ,fievez1#dd a ,belgian physicist1 noticed that the spectrum of a sodium flame was changed slightly in appearance by a magnetic field2 but his observation does not seem to have attracted much attention1 and was probably ascribed to secondary effects4 ,in #ahif ,zeeman#de saw a distinct broadening of the lines of lithium and sodium when the flames containing salts of these metals were between the poles of a powerful electromagnet2 following up this observation1 he obtained some exceedingly remarkable and interesting results1 of which those observed with the blue-green cadmium line may be taken as typical4 ,he found that in a strong magnetic field1 when the lines of force are parallel to the direction of propagation of the light1 the line is split up into a doublet1 the constituents of which are on opposite sides of the undisturbed position of the line1 and that the light in the constituents of this doublet is circularly polarized1 the rotation in the two lines being in opposite directions4 ,when the magnetic force is at right angles to the direction of propagation of the light1 the line is resolved into a triplet1 of which the middle line occupies the same position as the undisturbed line2 all the constituents of this triplet are plane-polarized1 the plane of polarization of the middle line being at right angles to the magnetic force1 while the outside lines are polarized on a plane parallel to the lines of magnetic force4 ,a great deal of light is thrown on this phenomenon by the following considerations due to ,h4 ,a4 ,lorentz4#df ,let us consider an ion attracted to a centre of force by a force proportional to the distance1 and acted on by a magnetic force parallel to the axis of z3 then if m is the mass of the particle and e its charge1 the equations of motion are dx dy m --- ax -,he --2 dt dt dy dx m --- ay ,he --2 dt dt dz m --- ax #j4 dt ,the solution of these equations is x ,a cos 7p#at beta7 ,b cos 7p#bt beta#a7 y ,a sin 7p#at beta7 - ,b sin 7p#bt beta#a7 z ,c cos 7pt gamma7 where a - mp#a - ,he p#a a - mp#b ,he p#b p alpha_/m1 or approximately ,he ,he p#a p ---1 p#b p - ---4 m m ,thus the motion of the ion on the xy plane may be regarded as made up of two circular motions in opposite directions described with frequencies p#a and p#b respectively1 while the motion along z has the period p1 which is the frequency for all the vibrations when ,h #j4 ,now suppose that the cadmium line is due to the motion of such an ion2 then if the magnetic force is along the direction of propagation1 the vibration in this direction has its period unaltered1 but since the direction of vibration is perpendicular to the wave front1 it does not give rise to light4 ,thus we are left with the two circular motions in the wave front with frequencies p#a and p#b giving the circularly polarized constituents of the doublet4 ,now suppose the magnetic force is at right angles to the direction of propagation of the light2 then the vibration parallel to the magnetic force being in the wave front produces luminous effects and gives rise to a plane-polarized ray of undisturbed period 7the middle line of the triplet71 the plane of polarization being at right angles to the magnetic force4 ,the components in the wave-front of the circular orbits at right angles to the magnetic force will be rectilinear motions of frequency p#a and p#b at right angles to the magnetic force--so that they will produce plane-polarized light1 the plane of polarization being parallel to the magnetic force2 these are the outer lines of the triplet4 ,if ,zeeman's observations are interpreted from this point of view1 the directions of rotation of the circularly-polarized light in the doublet observed along the lines of magnetic force show that the ions which produce the luminous vibrations are negatively electrified1 while the measurement of the charge of frequency due to the magnetic field shows that e_/m is of the order #ajg4 ,this result is of great interest1 as this is the order of the value of e_/m in the negatively electrified particles which constitute the ,cathode ,rays 7see ,,conduction1 ,,electric ,,iii4 ,through ,gases74 ,thus we infer that the cathode particles are found in bodies1 even where not subject to the action of intense electrical fields1 and are in fact an ordinary constituent of the molecule4 ,similar particles are found near an incandescent wire1 and also near a metal plate illuminated by ultra-violet light4 ,the value of e_/m deduced from the ,zeeman effect ranges from #ajg to #c4d #ajg1 the value of e_/m for the particle in the cathode rays is #a4g #ajg4 ,the majority of the determinations of e_/m from the ,zeeman effect give numbers larger than this1 the maximum being about twice this value4 ,a more extended study of the behaviour of the spectroscopic lines has afforded examples in which the effects produced by a magnet are more complicated than those we have described1 indeed the simple cases are much less numerous than the more complex4 ,thus ,preston#dg and ,cornu#dh have shown that under the action of a transverse magnetic field one of the ,d lines splits up into four1 and the other into six lines2 ,preston has given many other examples of these quartets and sextets1 and has shown that the change in the frequency1 which1 according to the simple theory indicated1 should be the same for all lines1 actually varies considerably from one line to another1 many lines showing no appreciable displacement4 ,the splitting up of a single line into a quartet or sextet indicates1 from the point of view of the ion theory1 that the line must have its origin in a system consisting of more than one ion4 ,a single ion having only three degrees of freedom can only have three periods4 ,when there is no magnetic force acting on the ion these periods are equal1 but though under the action of a magnetic force they are separated1 their number cannot be increased4 ,when therefore we get four or more lines1 the inference is that the system giving the lines must have at least four degrees of freedom1 and therefore must consist of more than one ion4 ,the theory of a system of ions mutually influencing each other shows1 as we should expect1 that the effects are more complex than in the case of a single ion1 and that the change in the frequency is not necessarily the same for all systems 7see ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson1 ,proc4 ,camb4 ,phil4 ,soc4 #ac1 p4 #ci74 ,preston#di and ,runge and ,paschen have proved that1 in some cases at any rate1 the change in the frequency of the different lines is of such a character that they can be grouped into series such that each line in the series has the same change in frequency for the same magnetic force1 and1 moreover1 that homologous lines in the spectra of different metals belonging to the same group have the same change in frequency4 ,a very remarkable case of the ,zeeman effect has been discovered by ,h4 ,becquerel and ,deslandres 7,comptes rendus1 #abg1 p4 #ah74 ,they found lines in iron when the most deflected components are those polarized in the plane at right angles to the magnetic force4 ,on the simple theory the light polarized in this way is not affected4 ,thus the behaviour of the spectrum in the magnetic field promises to throw great light on the nature of radiation1 and perhaps on the constitution of the elements4 ,the study of these effects has been greatly facilitated by the invention by ,michelson#ej of the echelon spectroscope4 ,there are some interesting phenomena connected with the ,zeeman effect which are more easily observed than the effect itself4 ,thus ,cotton#ea found that if we have two ,bunsen flames1 ,a and ,b1 coloured by the same salt1 the absorption of the light of one by the other is diminished if either is placed between the poles of a magnet3 this is at once explained by the ,zeeman effect1 for the times of vibration of the molecules of the flame in the magnetic field are not the same as those of the other flame1 and thus the absorption is diminished4 ,similar considerations explain the phenomenon observed by ,egoroff and ,georgiewsky1#eb that the light emitted from a flame in a transverse field is partially polarized in a plane parallel to the magnetic force2 and also ,righi's#ec observation that if a sodium flame is placed in a longitudinal field between two crossed ,nicols1 and a ray of white light sent through one of the ,nicols1 then through the flame1 and then through the second ,nicol1 the amount of light passing through the second ,nicol is greater when the field is on than when it is off4 ,voight and ,wiechert 7,wied4 ,ann4 #fg1 p4 #cde7 detected the double refraction produced when light travels through a substance exposed to a magnetic field at right angles to the path of the light2 this result had been predicted by ,voight from theoretical considerations4 ,jean ,becquerel has made some very interesting experiments on the effect of a magnetic field on the fine absorption bands produced by xenotime1 a phosphate of yttrium and erbium1 and tysonite1 a fluoride of cerium1 lanthanum and didymium1 and has obtained effects which he ascribes to the presence of positive electrons4 ,a very complete account of magneto- and electro-optics is contained in ,voight's ,magneto- and ,elektro-optik4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,experimental ,researches1 ,series #ai4 #b ,comptes rendus1 #hh1 p4 #gji4 #c ,wied4 ,ann4 #f1 p4 #ccb2 #h1 p4 #bgh2 #aj1 p4 #beg4 #d ,wied4 ,ann4 #bc1 p4 #bbh2 #bg1 p4 #aia4 #e ,wied4 ,ann4 #ca1 p4 #ida4 #f ,phil4 ,trans41 ,a4 #ahhe1 ,pt4 #aa1 p4 #cdc4 #g ,wied4 ,ann4 #bf1 p4 #def4 #h ,phil4 ,trans41 ,a4 #ahie1 ,pt4 #ag1 p4 #fba4 #i ,wied4 ,ann4 #bd1 p4 #afa4 #aj ,wied4 ,ann4 #ca1 p4 #igj4 #aa ,comptes rendus1 #eg1 p4 #fgj4 #ab ,comptes rendus1 #dc1 p4 #ebi2 #dd1 p4 #abji4 #ac ,journ4 ,chem4 ,soc4 #ahhd1 p4 #dba2 #ahhf1 p4 #agg2 #ahhg1 pp4 #cfb and #hjh2 #ahhh1 p4 #efa2 #ahhi1 pp4 #fhj and #gej2 #ahia1 p4 #iha2 #ahib1 p4 #hjj2 #ahic1 pp4 #ge1 #ii and #dhh4 #ad ,wied4 ,ann4 #dd1 p4 #cgg4 #ae ,wied4 ,ann4 #dc1 p4 #bhj4 #af ,zeitschrift f4 physikal4 ,chem4 #aa1 p4 #gec4 #ag ,phil4 ,mag4 #e #c1 p4 #cba4 #ah ,ann4 de chim4 et de phys4 #f #d1 p4 #dcc2 #i1 p4 #fe2 #aj1 p4 #bjj4 #ai ,wied4 ,ann4 #bc1 p4 #bbh2 #bg1 p4 #aia4 #bj ,wied4 ,ann4 #ci1 p4 #be4 #ba ,wied4 ,ann4 #db1 p4 #aae4 #bb ,phil4 ,mag4 #e #ab1 p4 #aga4 #bc ,journ4 de ,phys4 #ahhd1 p4 #cfj4 #bd ,beibltter zu ,wied4 ,ann4 #ahhe1 p4 #bge4 #be ,messungen ber d4 ,kerr'sche ,erscheinung4 ,inaugural ,dissert4 ,leiden1 #ahic4 #bf ,phil4 ,mag4 #e #e1 p4 #afa4 #bg ,phil4 ,mag4 #c #bh1 p4 #dfi4 #bh ,die ,magn4 ,drehung d4 ,polarisationsebene des ,lichts1 ,halle1 #ahfc4 #bi ,electricity and ,magnetism1 chap4 xxi4 #cj ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahhj 7#b71 p4 #fia4 #ca ,phil4 ,mag4 7#e7 #aa1 p4 #bed1 #ahha4 #cb ,arch4 ,nerl4 #ai1 p4 #abc4 #cc ,wied4 ,ann4 #bc1 p4 #dic2 #fg1 p4 #cde4 #cd ,wied4 ,ann4 #bd1 p4 #aai4 #ce ,wied4 ,beibltter1 #h1 p4 #hfi4 #cf ,comptes rendus1 #ajh1 p4 #eaj4 #cg ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahb1 ,a4 p4 #cga1 #ahib2 ,physical ,optics1 p4 #cic4 #ch ,wied4 ,ann4 #df1 p4 #ga2 #dg1 p4 #cde2 #dh1 p4 #gdj2 #ej1 p4 #gbb4 #ci ,wied4 ,ann4 #df1 p4 #cec2 #dh1 p4 #abb2 #di1 p4 #fij4 #dj ,recent ,researches1 p4 #dhi et seq4 #da ,phil4 ,trans41 ,a4 #ahig1 p4 #hi4 #db ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 #ahic4 #dc ,comptes rendus1 #abg1 p4 #edh4 #dd ,bull4 de l',acad4 des ,sciences ,belg4 7#c7 #i1 pp4 #cbg1 #cha1 #ahhe2 #ab p4 #cj1 #ahhf4 #de ,communications from the ,physical ,laboratory1 ,leiden1 ,no4 #cc1 #ahif2 ,phil4 ,mag4 #dc1 p4 #bbf2 #dd1 pp4 #ee and #bee2 and #de1 p4 #aig4 #df ,arch4 ,nerl4 #be1 p4 #aij4 #dg ,phil4 ,mag4 #de1 p4 #cbe2 #dg1 p4 #afe4 #dh ,comptes rendus1 #abf1 p4 #aha4 #di ,phil4 ,mag4 #df1 p4 #ahg4 #ej ,phil4 ,mag4 #de1 p4 #cdh4 #ea ,comptes rendus1 #abe1 p4 #hfe4 #eb ,comptes rendus1 pp4 #gdh and #idi1 #ahig4 #ec ,comptes rendus1 #abg1 p4 #baf2 #abh1 p4 #de4 7,j4 ,j4 ,t47 ,,magnolia1 the typical genus of the botanical order ,magnoliaceae1 named after ,pierre ,magnol 7#afch-agae71 professor of medicine and botany at ,montpellier4 ,it contains about twenty species1 distributed in ,japan1 ,china and the ,himalayas1 as well as in ,north ,america4 ,magnolias are trees or shrubs with deciduous or rarely evergreen foliage4 ,they bear conspicuous and often large1 fragrant1 white1 rose or purple flowers4 ,the sepals are three in number1 the petals six to twelve1 in two to four series of three in each1 the stamens and carpels being numerous4 ,the fruit consists of a number of follicles which are borne on a more or less conical receptacle1 and dehisce along the outer edge to allow the scarlet or brown seeds to escape2 the seeds however remain suspended by a long slender thread 7the funicle74 ,of the old-world species1 the earliest in cultivation appears to have been ,m4 ,yulan 7or ,m4 conspicua7 of ,china1 of which the buds were preserved1 as well as used medicinally and to season rice2 together with the greenhouse species1 ,m4 fuscata1 it was transported to ,europe in #aghi1 and thence to ,north ,america1 and is now cultivated in the ,middle ,states4 ,there are many fine forms of ,m4 conspicua1 the best being ,soulangeana1 white tinted with purple1 ,lenn and stricta4 ,of the ,japanese magnolias1 ,m4 ,kobus and the purple-flowered ,m4 obovata were met with by ,kaempfer in #afij1 and were introduced into ,england in #agji and #ahjd respectively4 ,m4 pumila1 the dwarf magnolia1 from the mountains of ,amboyna1 is nearly evergreen1 and bears deliciously scented flowers2 it was introduced in #aghf4 ,the ,indian species are three in number1 ,m4 globosa1 allied to ,m4 conspicua of ,japan1 ,m4 sphenocarpa1 and1 the most magnificent of all magnolias1 ,m4 ,campbellii1 which forms a conspicuous feature in the scenery and vegetation of ,darjeeling4 ,it was discovered by ,dr ,griffith in ,bhutan1 and is a large forest tree1 abounding on the outer ranges of ,sikkim1 #hj to #aej ft4 high1 and from #f to #ab ft4 in girth4 ,the flowers are #f to #aj in4 across1 appearing before the leaves1 and vary from white to a deep rose colour4 ,the first of the ,american species brought to ,europe 7in #afhh by ,john ,banister7 was ,m4 glauca1 a beautiful evergreen species about #ae ft4 high with obtuse leathery leaves1 blue-green above1 silvery underneath1 and globular flowers varying from creamy white to pale yellow with age4 ,it is found in low situations near the sea from ,massachusetts to ,louisiana--more especially in ,new ,jersey and the ,carolinas4 ,m4 acuminata1 the so-called cucumber tree1 from the resemblance of the young fruits to small cucumbers1 ranges from ,pennsylvania to ,carolina4 ,the wood is yellow1 and used for bowls2 the flowers1 #c to #d in4 across1 are glaucous green tinted with yellow4 ,it was introduced into ,england from ,virginia about #agcf4 ,m4 tripetala 7or ,m4 umbrella71 is known as the umbrella tree from the arrangement of the leaves at the ends of the branches resembling somewhat that of the ribs of an umbrella4 ,the flowers1 #e to #h in4 across1 are white and have a strong but not disagreeable scent4 ,it was brought to ,england in #ageb4 ,m4 ,fraseri 7or ,m4 auriculata71 discovered by ,john ,bartram in #aggc1 is a native of the western parts of the ,carolinas and ,georgia1 extending southward to western ,florida and southern ,alabama4 ,it grows #cj to #ej ft4 high1 has leaves a foot or more long1 heart-shaped and bluntly auricled at the base1 and fragrant pale yellowish-white flowers1 #c to #d in4 across4 ,the most beautiful species of ,north ,america is ,m4 grandiflora1 the laurel magnolia1 a native of the south-eastern ,states1 and introduced into ,england in #agcd4 ,it grows a straight trunk1 #b ft4 in diameter and upwards of #gj ft4 high1 bearing a profusion of large1 powerfully lemon-scented creamy-white flowers4 ,it is an evergreen tree1 easily recognized by its glossy green oval oblong leaves with a rusty-brown under surface4 ,in ,england it is customary to train it against a wall in the colder parts1 but it does well as a bush tree2 and the original species is surpassed by the ,exmouth varieties1 which originated as seedlings at ,exeter from the tree first raised in ,england by ,sir ,john ,colliton1 and which flower much more freely than the parent plant4 ,other fine magnolias now to be met with in gardens are ,m4 cordata1 a ,north ,american deciduous tree #dj to #ej ft4 high1 with heart-shaped leaves1 woolly beneath1 and yellow flowers lined with purple2 ,m4 hypoleuca1 a fine ,japanese tree #fj ft4 high or more1 with leaves a foot or more long1 #f to #g in4 broad1 the under surface covered with hairs2 ,m4 macrophylla1 a handsome deciduous ,north ,american tree1 with smooth whitish bark1 and very large beautiful green leaves1 #a to #c ft4 long1 #h to #aj in4 broad1 oblong-obovate and heart-shaped at the base2 the open sweet-scented bell-shaped flowers #h to #aj in4 across1 are white with a purple blotch at the base of the petals2 ,m4 stellata or ,halleana1 a charming deciduous ,japanese shrub remarkable for producing its pure white starry flowers as early as ,february and ,march on the leafless stems2 and ,m4 ,watsoni1 another fine deciduous ,japanese bush or small tree with very fragrant pure white flowers #e to #f in4 across4 ,illustration3 ,magnolia grandiflora1 shoot with flower2 rather less than nat4 size4 #a4 ,flower after removal of the sepals and petals1 showing the indefinite stamens1 s1 and carpels1 c4 #b4 ,fruit--the ripe carpels are splitting1 exposing the seeds1 some of which are suspended by the long funicle4 #c4 ,floral diagram1 b1 bract4 ,the tulip tree1 ,liriodendron tulipifera1 a native of ,north ,america1 frequently cultivated in ,england1 is also a member of the same family4 ,it reaches a height of over #ajj ft4 in a native condition1 and as much as #fj to #hj ft4 in ,england4 ,it resembles the plane tree somewhat in appearance1 but is readily recognized by lobed leaves having the apical lobe truncated1 and by its soft green and yellow tulip-like flowers--which however are rarely borne on trees under twenty years of age4 ,for a description of the principal species of magnolia under cultivation see ,j4 ,weathers1 ,practical ,guide to ,garden ,plants1 pp4 #agd seq41 and for a detailed account of the ,american species see ,c4 ,s4 ,sargent1 ,silva of ,north ,america1 vol4 i4 ,,magnus1 ,,heinrich ,,gustav 7#ahjb-ahgj71 ,german chemist and physicist1 was born at ,berlin on the #bnd of ,may #ahjb4 ,his father was a wealthy merchant2 and of his five brothers one1 ,eduard 7#agii-ahgb71 became a celebrated painter4 ,after studying at ,berlin1 he went to ,stockholm to work under ,berzelius1 and later to ,paris1 where he studied for a while under ,gay-,lussac and ,thnard4 ,in #ahca he returned to ,berlin as lecturer on technology and physics at the university4 ,as a teacher his success was rapid and extraordinary4 ,his lucid style and the perfection of his experimental demonstrations drew to his lectures a crowd of enthusiastic scholars1 on whom he impressed the importance of applied science by conducting them round the factories and workshops of the city2 and he further found time to hold weekly colloquies on physical questions at his house with a small circle of young students4 ,from #ahbg to #ahcc he was occupied mainly with chemical researches1 which resulted in the discovery of the first of the platino-ammonium compounds 7,magnus's green salt is ,pt,cl#b1 #b,,nh#c71 of sulphovinic1 ethionic and isethionic acids and their salts1 and1 in conjunction with ,c4 ,f4 ,ammermller1 of periodic acid4 ,among other subjects at which he subsequently worked were the absorption of gases in blood 7#ahcg-ahde71 the expansion of gases by heat 7#ahda-ahdd71 the vapour pressures of water and various solutions 7#ahdd-ahed71 thermo-electricity 7#ahea71 electrolysis 7#ahef71 induction of currents 7#aheh-ahfa71 conduction of heat in gases 7#ahfj71 and polarization of heat 7#ahff-ahfh74 ,from #ahfa onwards he devoted much attention to the question of diathermancy in gases and vapours1 especially to the behaviour in this respect of dry and moist air1 and to the thermal effects produced by the condensation of moisture on solid surfaces4 ,in #ahcd ,magnus was elected extraordinary1 and in #ahde ordinary professor at ,berlin4 ,he was three times elected dean of the faculty1 in #ahdg1 #aheh and #ahfc2 and in #ahfa1 rector magnificus4 ,his great reputation led to his being entrusted by the government with several missions2 in #ahfe he represented ,prussia in the conference called at ,frankfort to introduce a uniform metric system of weights and measures into ,germany4 ,for forty-five years his labour was incessant2 his first memoir was published in #ahbe when he was yet a student2 his last appeared shortly after his death on the #dth of ,april #ahgj4 ,he married in #ahdj ,bertha ,humblot1 of a ,french ,huguenot family settled in ,berlin1 by whom he left a son and two daughters4 ,see ,allgemeine deutsche ,biog4 ,the ,royal ,society's ,catalogue enumerates #hd papers by ,magnus1 most of which originally appeared in ,poggendorff's ,annalen4 ,,magny1 ,,claude ,,drigon1 ,,marquis ,,de 7#agig-ahgi71 ,french heraldic writer1 was born in ,paris4 ,after being employed for some time in the postal service1 he devoted himself to the study of heraldry and genealogy1 his work in this direction being rewarded by ,pope ,gregory ,,xvi4 with a marquisate4 ,he founded a ,french college of heraldry1 and wrote several works on heraldry and genealogy1 of which the most important were ,archives nobiliaires universelles 7#ahdc7 and ,livre d'or de la noblesse de ,france 7#ahdd-aheb74 ,his two sons1 ,edouard ,drigon and ,achille ,ludovice ,drigon1 respectively comte and vicomte de ,magny1 also wrote several works on heraldry4 ,,mago1 the name of several ,carthaginians1 7#a7 ,the reputed founder of the military power of ,carthage1 fl4 #eej-ejj ,b4,c4 7,justin xviii4 #g1 xix4 i74 7#b7 ,the youngest of the three sons of ,hamilcar ,barca4 ,he accompanied ,hannibal into ,italy1 and held important commands in the great victories of the first three years4 ,after the battle of ,cannae 7#baf ,b4,c47 he sailed to ,carthage to report the successes gained4 ,he was about to return to ,italy with strong reinforcements for ,hannibal1 when the government ordered him to go to the aid of his other brother1 ,hasdrubal1 who was hard pressed in ,spain4 ,he carried on the war there with varying success in concert with the two ,hasdrubals until1 in #bji1 his brother marched into ,italy to help ,hannibal4 ,mago remained in ,spain with ,hasdrubal1 the son of ,gisco4 ,in #bjg he was defeated by ,m4 ,junius ,silanus1 and in #bjf the combined forces of ,mago and ,hasdrubal were scattered by ,scipio ,africanus in the decisive battle of ,silpia4 ,mago maintained himself for some time in ,gades1 but afterwards received orders to carry the war into ,liguria4 ,he wintered in the ,balearic ,isles1 where the harbour ,portus ,magonis 7,port ,mahon7 still bears his name4 ,early in #bjd he landed in ,liguria1 where he maintained a desultory warfare till in #bjc he was defeated in ,cisalpine ,gaul by the ,roman forces4 ,shortly afterwards he was ordered to return to ,carthage1 but on the voyage home he died of wounds received in battle4 ,see ,polybius iii42 ,livy xxi4-xxiii42 xxviii41 chs4 #bc-cg2 xxix41 xxx42 ,appian1 ,hispanica1 #be-cg2 ,t4 ,friedrich1 ,biographie des ,barkiden ,mago2 ,h4 ,lehmann1 ,der ,angriff der drei ,barkiden auf ,italien 7,leipzig1 #aije72 and further ,j4 ,p4 ,mahaffy1 in ,hermathena1 vii4 #bi-cf 7#ahij74 7#c7 ,the name of ,mago is also attached to a great work on agriculture which was brought to ,rome and translated by order of the senate after the destruction of ,carthage4 ,the book was regarded as a standard authority1 and is often referred to by later writers4 ,see ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist1 xviii4 #e2 ,columella1 i4 #a2 ,cicero1 ,de oratore1 i4 #eh4 ,,magpie1 or simply ,,pie 7,fr4 pie71 the prefix being the abbreviated form of a human name 7,margaret#a71 a bird once common throughout ,great ,britain1 though now nearly everywhere scarce4 ,its pilfering habits have led to this result1 yet the injuries it causes are exaggerated by common report2 and in many countries of ,europe it is still the tolerated or even the cherished neighbour of every farmer1 as it formerly was in ,england if not in ,scotland also4 ,it did not exist in ,ireland in #afag1 when ,fynes ,morison wrote his ,itinerary1 but it had appeared there within a hundred years later1 when ,swift mentions its occurrences in his ,journal to ,stella1 #ith ,july #agaa4 ,it is now common enough in that country1 and there is a widespread but unfounded belief that it was introduced by the ,english out of spite4 ,it is a species that when not molested is extending its range1 as ,j4 ,wolley ascertained in ,lapland1 where within the last century it has been gradually pushing its way along the coast and into the interior from one fishing-station or settler's house to the next1 as the country has been peopled4 ,since the persecution to which the pie has been subjected in ,great ,britain1 its habits have altered greatly4 ,it is no longer the merry1 saucy hanger-on of the homestead1 but is become the suspicious thief1 shunning the gaze of man1 and knowing that danger may lurk in every bush4 ,hence opportunities of observing it fall to the lot of few1 and most persons know it only as a curtailed captive in a wicker cage1 where its vivacity and natural beauty are lessened or wholly lost4 ,at large few ,european birds possess greater beauty1 the pure white of its scapulars and inner web of the flight-feathers contrasting vividly with the deep glossy black on the rest of its body and wings1 while its long tail is lustrous with green1 bronze1 and purple reflections4 ,the pie's nest is a wonderfully ingenious structure1 placed either in high trees or low bushes1 and so massively built that it will stand for years4 ,its foundation consists of stout sticks1 turf and clay1 wrought into a deep1 hollow cup1 plastered with earth1 and lined with fibres2 but around this is erected a firmly interwoven1 basket-like outwork of thorny sticks1 forming a dome over the nest1 and leaving but a single hole in the side for entrance and exit1 so that the whole structure is rendered almost impregnable4 ,herein are laid from six to nine eggs1 of a pale bluish-green freckled with brown and blotched with ash-colour4 ,superstition as to the appearance of the pie still survives even among many educated persons1 and there are several versions of a rhyming adage as to the various turns of luck which its presenting itself1 either alone or in company with others1 is supposed to betoken1 though all agree that the sight of a single pie presages sorrow4 ,the pie belongs to the same family of birds as the crow1 and is the ,corvus pica of ,linnaeus1 the ,pica caudata1 ,p4 melanoleuca1 or ,p4 rustica of modern ornithologists1 who have recognized it as forming a distinct genus1 but the number of species thereto belonging has been a fruitful source of discussion4 ,examples from the south of ,spain differ slightly from those inhabiting the rest of ,europe1 and in some points more resemble the ,p4 mauritanica of north-western ,africa2 but that species has a patch of bare skin of a fine blue colour behind the eye1 and much shorter wings4 ,no fewer than five species have been discriminated from various parts of ,asia1 extending to ,japan2 but only one of them1 the ,p4 leucoptera of ,turkestan and ,tibet1 has of late been admitted as valid4 ,in the west of ,north ,america1 and in some of its islands1 a pie is found which extends to the upper valleys of the ,missouri and the ,yellowstone1 and has long been thought entitled to specific distinction as ,p4 hudsonia2 but its claim thereto is now disallowed by some of the best ornithologists of the ,united ,states1 and it can hardly be deemed even a geographical variety of the ,old-,world form4 ,in ,california1 however1 there is a permanent race if not a good species1 ,p4 nuttalli1 easily distinguishable by its yellow bill and the bare yellow skin round its eyes2 on two occasions in the year #ahfg a bird apparently similar was observed in ,great ,britain 7,zoologist1 ser4 #b1 pp4 #gjf1 #ajaf74 7,a4 ,n47 ,,footnote3 #a ,magot and ,madge1 with the same origin1 are names1 frequently given in ,england to the pie2 while in ,france it is commonly known as ,margot1 if not termed1 as it is in some districts1 ,jaquette4 ,,magwe1 a district in the ,minbu division of ,upper ,burma4 ,area1 #biac sq4 m42 pop4 7#aija71 #bdf1gjh1 showing an increase of #ab4ch in the decade4 ,magwe may be divided into two portions3 the low1 flat country in the ,taungdwingyi subdivision1 and the undulating high ground extending over the rest of the district4 ,in ,taungdwingyi the soil is rich1 loamy1 and extremely fertile4 ,the plain is about #de m4 from north to south4 ,at its southern extremity it is about #cj m4 wide1 and lessens in width to the north till it ends in a point at ,natmauk4 ,on the east are the ,pegu ,yomas1 which at some points reach a height of #aejj ft4 ,a number of streams run westwards to the ,irrawaddy1 of which the ,yin and the ,pin1 which form the northern boundary1 are the chief4 ,the only perennial stream is the ,yanp4 ,rice is the staple product1 and considerable quantities are exported4 ,sesamum of very high quality1 maize1 and millet are also cultivated1 as well as cotton in patches here and there over the whole district4 ,in this district are included the well-known ,yenangyaung petroleum wells4 ,the state wells have been leased to the ,burma ,oil ,company4 ,the amount of oil-bearing lands is estimated at #hj sq4 m4 and the portion not leased to the company has been demarcated into blocks of #a sq4 m4 and offered on lease4 ,the remaining land belongs to hereditary ,burmese owners called twinsa1 who dig wells and extract their oil by the rope and pulley system as they have always done4 ,lacquered wood trays1 bowls and platters1 and cart-wheels1 are the only manufactures of any note in the district4 ,the annual rainfall averages about #bg inches4 ,the maximum temperature rises to a little over #ajj in the hot season1 and falls to an average minimum of #ec and #ed in the cold season4 ,the town of ,magwe is the headquarters of the district2 pop4 7#aija71 #fbcb4 ,it is diagonally opposite ,minbu1 the headquarters of the division1 on the right bank of the ,irrawaddy4 ,,magyars1 the name of the dominant race in ,hungary1 or ,hungarians proper4 ,though they have become physically assimilated to the western peoples1 they belong in origin and language to the ,finno-,ugrian 7q4v47 division of the ,ural-,altaic race4 ,they form barely half of the population of ,hungary1 but are by far the largest and most compact of all its racial groups4 ,magyar is the official language of ,hungary1 the official name of which 7,magyarorzg1 or country of the ,magyars7 enshrines the ,magyar claim to predominance4 ,while all ,magyars are properly ,hungarians1 all ,hungarians are not necessarily ,magyars4 ,hungarian may be used as a generic term covering all the various races of ,hungary1 while ,magyar is strictly specific to a single group4 ,the ,magyars themselves1 indeed1 sometimes apply the name ,magyarorzg to ,hungary proper1 excluding ,croatia-,slavonia1 the whole kingdom being called ,magyarbirodalom1 the ,magyar monarchy or realm4 ,see ,,hungary4 ,,mahabaleshwar1 or ,,malcolmpeth1 a hill station in ,satara district1 and the principal sanatorium in the ,bombay presidency1 ,india4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #ebii4 ,it is reached by carriage from ,wathar railway station 7#ci m47 or by motor car from ,poona 7#aai m474 ,mahabaleshwar occupies the summit of a ridge of the ,western ,ghats1 with a general elevation of #dejj ft4 above sea-level4 ,it was established in #ahbh by ,sir ,john ,malcolm1 governor of ,bombay1 who obtained the site from the raja of ,satara in exchange for another patch of territory4 ,the superior elevation of ,mahabaleshwar renders it much cooler than ,matheran 7#bdfj ft471 a sanatorium about #ej m4 ,e4 of ,bombay1 but its heavy rainfall 7#bib in4 annual average7 makes it almost uninhabitable during the rainy season4 ,the mean annual temperature is #fg ,f4 ,in the hottest season 7,march-,april7 an extreme of a little over #ij is reached during the day4 ,mahabaleshwar forms the retreat usually during spring1 and occasionally in autumn1 of the governor of ,bombay1 and the chief officers of his establishment1 and has the usual public buildings of a first-class sanatorium4 ,,mahaffy1 ,,john ,,pentland 7#ahci- 71 ,irish classical scholar1 was born in ,switzerland on the #abth of ,july #ahci4 ,he received his early education in ,switzerland and ,germany1 and later at ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 where he held the professorship of ancient history4 ,mahaffy1 a man of great versatility1 published numerous works1 some of which1 especially those dealing with what may be called the ,silver age of ,greece1 became standard authorities4 ,the following deserve mention3 ,history of ,classical ,greek ,literature 7#dth ed41 #aijc seq472 ,social ,life in ,greece from ,homer to ,menander 7#dth ed41 #aijc72 ,the ,silver ,age of the ,greek ,world 7#aijf72 ,the ,empire of the ,ptolemies 7#ahif72 ,greek ,life and ,thought from ,alexander to the ,roman ,conquest 7#bnd ed41 #ahif72 ,the ,greek ,world under ,roman ,sway from ,polybius to ,plutarch 7#ahij74 ,his translation of ,kuno ,fischer's ,commentary on ,kant 7#ahff7 and his own exhaustive analysis1 with elucidations1 of ,kant's critical philosophy are of great value4 ,he also edited the ,petrie papyri in the ,cunningham ,memoirs 7#c vols4 #ahia-aije74 ,,mahallat1 a province of central ,persia1 situated between ,kashan and ,irak4 ,pop4 about #bj1jjj2 yearly revenue about #bejj4 ,until #ahij it was one of the five central provinces 7the other four being ,irak1 ,ferahan1 ,kezzaz1 and ,savah71 which were under a governor appointed by the shah2 since then it has formed part of the ,isfahan government4 ,it is traversed by the ,anarbar or ,kum ,river1 and comprises the city of ,mahallat1 divided into upper and lower1 or ,rivkan and ,zanjirvan1 and twenty-two flourishing villages4 ,it was known in former times as ,anar1 the ,anarus of ,peutinger's tables4 ,the city1 capital of the province1 is situated at an elevation of #ehej ft4 in #cc #ea ,n41 #ej #cj ,e42 pop4 about #ijjj4 ,,mahan1 ,,alfred ,,thayer 7#ahdj- 71 ,american naval officer and historian1 was born on the #bgth of ,september #ahdj at ,west ,point1 ,new ,york4 ,his father1 ,dennis ,hart ,mahan 7#ahjb-ahga7 was a professor in the military academy1 and the author of textbooks on civil and military engineering4 ,the son graduated at the naval academy in #ahei1 became lieutenant in #ahfa1 served on the ,congress1 and on the ,pocahontas1 ,seminole1 and ,james ,adger during the ,civil ,war1 and was instructor at the naval academy for a year4 ,in #ahfe he was made lieut4-commander1 commander in #ahgb1 captain in #ahhe4 ,meanwhile he saw service in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 the ,south ,atlantic1 the ,pacific1 and ,asia1 and did shore duty at ,boston1 ,new ,york and ,annapolis4 ,in #ahhf-hi he was president of the naval war college at ,newport1 ,rhode ,island4 ,between #ahhi and #ahib he was engaged in special service for the bureau of navigation1 and in #ahic was made commander of the ,chicago1 of the ,european squadron4 ,in #ahif he retired from active service1 but was a member of the naval board of strategy during the war between the ,united ,states and ,spain4 ,he was a member of the peace congress at the ,hague in #ahii4 ,this long and varied service gave him extensive opportunities for observation1 which he supplemented by constant study of naval authorities and reflection on the interpretation of the problems of maritime history4 ,his first book was a modest and compact story of the affairs in ,the ,gulf and ,inland ,waters 7#ahhc71 in a series of volumes by various writers1 entitled ,the ,navy in the ,civil ,war2 in #ahij he suddenly acquired fame by the appearance of his masterly work entitled ,the ,influence of ,sea ,power upon ,history1 #affj-aghc4 ,having been impressed by the failure of historians to allow for the influence of sea power in struggles between nations1 he was led to make prolonged investigations of this general theme 7see ,,sea ,,power74 ,the reception accorded the volume was instant and hearty2 in ,england1 in particular1 it was deemed almost an epoch-making work1 and was studied by naval specialists1 cabinet ministers and journalists1 as well as by a large part of the general public4 ,it was followed by ,the ,influence of ,sea ,power upon the ,french ,revolution and ,empire 7#b vols4 #ahib72 ,the ,life of ,nelson1 the ,embodiment of the ,sea ,power of ,great ,britain 7#ahig72 and ,sea ,power in its ,relations to the ,war of #ahab 7#aije74 ,the author's general aim in these works--some of which have been translated into ,french1 ,german and ,japanese--was to make the consideration of maritime matters paramount to that of military1 political or economic movements1 without1 however1 as he himself says divorcing them from their surroundings of cause and effect in general history1 but seeking to show how they modified the latter1 and were modified by them4 ,he selected the year #affj as the beginning of his narrative1 as being the date when the sailing-ship era1 with its distinctive features1 had fairly begun4 ,the series as a whole has been accepted as finally authoritative1 supplanting its predecessors of similar aim1 and almost--in the words of ,theodore ,roosevelt--founding a new school of naval historical writing4 ,other works by ,mahan are a ,life of ,admiral ,farragut 7#ahib72 ,the ,interest of ,america in ,sea ,power 7#ahig72 ,lessons of the ,war with ,spain 7#ahii72 ,the ,story of the ,war with ,south ,africa and ,the ,problem of ,asia 7#aijj72 ,types of ,naval ,officers drawn from the ,history of the ,british ,navy 7#aija72 ,retrospect and ,prospect1 studies of international relations 7#aijb74 ,,mahanadi1 or ,,mahanuddy 7,the ,great ,river71 a river of ,india4 ,it rises in #bj #aj ,n41 #hb ,e41 #be m4 ,s4 of ,raipur town1 in the wild mountains of ,bastar in the ,central ,provinces4 ,at first an insignificant stream1 taking a northerly direction1 it drains the eastern portion of the ,chhattisgarh plain1 then a little above ,seorinarayan it receives the waters which its first great affluent1 the ,seonath1 has collected from the western portion of the plain2 thence flowing for some distance due ,e41 its stream is augmented by the drainage of the hills of ,uprora1 ,korba1 and the ranges that separate ,sambalpur from ,chota ,nagpur4 ,at ,padampur it turns towards the south1 and struggling through masses of rock1 flows past the town of ,sambalpur to ,sonpur4 ,from ,sonpur it pursues a tortuous course among ridges and rocky crags towards the range of the ,eastern ,ghats4 ,this mountain line it pierces by a gorge about #dj m4 in length1 overlooked by forest-clad hills4 ,since the opening of the ,bengal-,nagpur railway1 the ,mahanadi is little used for navigation4 ,it pours down upon the ,orissa delta at ,naraj1 about #g m4 west of ,cuttack town2 and after traversing ,cuttack district from west to east1 and throwing off numerous branches 7the ,katjori1 ,paika1 ,biropa1 ,chitartala1 c47 it falls into the ,bay of ,bengal at ,false ,point by several channels4 ,the ,mahanadi has an estimated drainage area of #dc1hjj sq4 m41 and its rapid flow renders its maximum discharge in time of flood second to that of no other river in ,india4 ,during unusually high floods #a1ejj1jjj cub4 ft4 of water pour every second through the ,naraj gorge1 one-half of which1 uncontrolled by the elaborate embankments1 and heavily laden with silt1 pours over the delta1 filling the swamps1 inundating the rice-fields1 and converting the plains into a sea4 ,in the dry weather the discharge of the ,mahanadi dwindles to #aabe cub4 ft4 per second4 ,efforts have been made to husband and utilize the vast water supply thrown upon the ,orissa delta during seasons of flood4 ,each of the three branches into which the parent stream splits at the delta head is regulated by a weir4 ,of the four canals which form the ,orissa irrigation system1 two take off from the ,biropa weir1 and one1 with its branch1 from the ,mahanadi weir4 ,on the #cast of ,december #ahfh the government took over the whole canal works from the ,east ,indian ,irrigation ,company1 at a cost of #ida1cfh4 ,the canals thus taken over and since completed1 are the high-level canal1 the ,kendrapara canal1 the ,taldanda canal and the ,machgaon canal1 irrigating #bge1jjj acres4 ,,mahanoy ,,city1 a borough of ,schuylkill county1 ,pennsylvania1 ,u4,s4,a41 #ef m4 ,n4,e4 of ,harrisburg4 ,pop4 7#ahij71 #aa1bhf2 7#aijj71 #ac1ejd1 of whom #chgg were foreign-born1 mostly ,slavs2 7#aiaj census7 #ae1icf4 ,it is served by branches of the ,lehigh ,valley and the ,philadelphia ,reading railways4 ,the borough is situated in the valley of ,mahanoy ,creek1 and has an elevation of #abdj ft4 above the sea2 ,broad ,mountain 7#agie ft471 a ridge extending through ,schuylkill county1 overlooks it on the ,s4,e4 ,the valley is a part of the anthracite coal region of ,pennsylvania1 fire clay abounds in the vicinity1 and the borough's principal industries are the mining and shipping of coal1 and the manufacture of shirts and foundry products4 ,mahanoy ,city1 originally a part of ,mahanoy township 7pop4 in #aiaj1 #fbef71 was incorporated as a borough in #ahfc4 ,,mahar1 the name of a servile caste in the ,deccan1 ,india4 ,their special function1 apart from that of scavenger1 is to act as village watchman1 as guardian of the village boundaries1 and as public messenger4 ,in some parts they are also weavers of coarse cotton cloth4 ,in #aija their total number in all ,india was just under three millions4 ,,maharajpur1 a village in ,gwalior state1 ,central ,india4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #cff4 ,it was the scene of a battle 7,dec4 #bi1 #ahdc7 in which ,sir ,hugh ,gough1 accompanied by the governor-general1 ,lord ,ellenborough1 defeated the insurgent army of the ,gwalior state4 ,,mahavamsa1 the ,great ,chronicle1 a history of ,ceylon from the #eth century ,b4,c4 to the middle of the #eth century ,a4,d41 written in ,pali verse by ,mahanama of the ,dighasanda ,hermitage1 shortly after the close of the period with which it deals4 ,in point of historical value it compares well with early ,european chronicles4 ,in ,india proper the decipherment of early ,indian inscriptions was facilitated to a very great extent by the data found only in the ,mahavamsa4 ,it was composed on the basis of earlier works written in ,sinhalese1 which are now lost1 having been supplanted by the chronicles and commentaries in which their contents were restated in ,pali in the course of the #eth century4 ,the particular one on which our ,mahavamsa was mainly based was also called the ,mahavamsa1 and was written in ,sinhalese prose with ,pali memorial verse interspersed4 ,the extant ,pali work gives legends of the ,buddha and the genealogy of his family2 a sketch of the history of ,india down to ,asoka2 an account of ,buddhism in ,india down to the same date2 a description of the sending out of missionaries after ,asoka's council1 and especially of the mission of ,mahinda to ,ceylon2 a sketch of the previous history of ,ceylon2 a long account of the reign of ,devanam-piya ,tissa1 the king of ,ceylon who received ,mahinda1 and established ,buddhism in the island2 short accounts of the kings succeeding him down to ,duttha ,gamiin 7,dadagamana or ,dutegemunu72 then a long account1 amounting to an epic poem1 of the adventures and reign of that prince1 a popular hero1 born in adversity1 who roused the people1 and drove the ,tamil invaders out of the island4 ,finally we have short notices of the subsequent kings down to the author's time4 ,the ,mahavamsa was the first ,pali book made known to ,europe4 ,it was edited in #ahcg1 with ,english translation and an elaborate introduction1 by ,george ,turnour1 then colonial secretary in ,ceylon4 ,its vocabulary was an important part of the material utilized in ,childer's ,pali ,dictionary4 ,its relation to the sources from which it drew has been carefully discussed by various scholars and in especial detail by ,geiger4 ,it is agreed that it gives a reasonably fair and correct presentation of the tradition preserved in the lost ,sinhalese ,mahavamsa2 that1 except in the earliest period1 its list of kings1 with the years of each reign1 is complete and trustworthy2 and that it gives throughout the view1 as to events in ,ceylon1 of a resident in the ,great ,minster at ,anuradhapura4 ,see ,the ,mahavamsa1 ed4 by ,geo4 ,turnour 7,colombo1 #ahcg72 ed4 by ,w4 ,geiger 7,london1 #aijh72 ,h4 ,oldenberg1 in the introduction to his edition of the ,dipavamsa 7,london1 #ahgi72 ,o4 ,franke1 in ,wiener ,zeitschrift fr die ,kunde des ,morgenlandes 7#aijg72 ,w4 ,geiger1 ,dipavamsa und ,mahavamsa 7,leipzig1 #aije1 trans4 by ,ethel ,m4 ,coomaraswamy1 ,colombo1 #aijh74 7,t4 ,w4 ,r4 ,d47 ,,mahayana 7,great ,vehicle71 the name given to the later ,buddhism1 the popular religion which embraced all the people and had its pantheon of ,buddhas and ,bodhisatvas1 with attendant deities and demons1 spacious temples and images1 pompous ceremonial and noisy festivals4 ,it was thus contrasted with the ,hinayana 7,little ,vehicle7 of the primitive ,buddhism which had been only for the select few4 7,see ,,buddhism47 ,,mahdi 7,arab4 he who is guided aright71 a title assumed by the third ,abbasid caliph 7see ,,caliphate3 ,abbasids1 #c74 ,according to ,moslem traditionists ,mahomet declared that one of his descendants1 the imam of ,god1 who would fill the earth with equity and justice1 would bear the name of al-mahdi4 ,the ,sunnis hold that this mahdi has not yet appeared4 ,the name of mahdi is also given by the ,shi'ite ,mahommedans to the last of the imams of the house of ',ali4 ,it was under the name of al-mahdi that ,mokhtar proclaimed ',ali's son ,mahommed as the opponent of the caliph ,abdalmalik1 and1 according to ,shahrastani1 the doctrine of the mahdi1 the hidden deliverer who is one day to appear and fill the oppressed world with righteousness1 first arose in connexion with a belief that this ,mahommed had not died but lived concealed at ,mount ,radwa1 near ,mecca1 guarded by a lion and a panther4 ,the hidden imam of the common ,shi'ites is1 however1 the twelfth imam1 ,mahommed ,abu',i-,qasim1 who disappeared mysteriously in #hgi4 ,the belief in the appearance of the mahdi readily lent itself to imposture4 ,of the many pretenders to this dignity known in all periods of ,moslem history the most famous was the first caliph of the ,fatimite dynasty in ,north ,africa1 ',obaidallah al-,mahdi1 who reigned #iji-icc4 ,after him was named the first capital of the dynasty1 the once important city of ,mahdia 7q4v474 ,another great historical movement1 headed by a leader who proclaimed himself the mahdi 7,mahommed ibn ,abdallah ibn ,tumart71 was that of the ,almohades 7q4v474 ,in #ahha ,mahommed ,ahmed ibn ,seyyid ,abdullah 7q4v471 a ,dongolese1 proclaimed himself al-mahdi and founded in the eastern ,sudan the short-lived empire overthrown by an ,anglo-,egyptian force at the battle of ,omdurman in #ahih4 ,concurrently with the claim of ,mahommed ,ahmed to be the mahdi the same title was claimed by1 or for1 the head of the ,senussites1 a confraternity powerful in many regions of ,north ,africa4 ,,mahdia 7also spelt ,mehdia1 ,mehedia1 c471 a town of ,tunisia1 on the coast between the gulfs of ,hammamet and ,gabes1 #dg m4 by rail ,s4,s4,e4 of ,susa4 ,pop4 about #hjjj4 ,mahdia is built on a rocky peninsula which projects eastward about a mile beyond the normal coast line1 and is not more than a quarter of a mile wide4 ,the extremity of the peninsula is called ,ras ,mahdia or ,cape ,africa--,africa being the name by which ,mahdia was designated by ,froissart and other ,european historians during the middle ages and the ,renaissance4 ,in the centre of the peninsula and occupying its highest point is a citadel 7#afth century72 another castle farther west is now used as a prison and is in the centre of the native town4 ,the ,european quarter and the new port are on the south-west side of the peninsula4 ,the port is available for small boats only2 steamers anchor in the roadstead about a quarter of a mile from the shore4 ,on the south-east1 cut out of the rock1 is the ancient harbour1 or cothon1 measuring about #dhj ft by #bdj ft41 the entrance being #db ft4 wide4 ,there are manufactories of olive oil1 but the chief industry is sardine fishing1 largely in the hands of ,italians4 ,mahdia occupies the site of a ,phoenician settlement and by some authorities is identified with the town called ,turris ,hannibalis by the ,romans4 ,hannibal is said to have embarked here on his exile from ,carthage4 ,after the ,arab conquest of ,north ,africa the town fell into decay4 ,it was refounded in #iab by the first ,fatimite caliph1 ',obaidallah-al-,mahdi1 after whom it was named4 ,it became the port of ,kairawan and was for centuries a city of considerable importance1 largely owing to its great natural strength1 and its position on the ,mediterranean4 ,it carried on an active trade with ,egypt1 ,syria and ,spain4 ,the town was occupied by the ,normans of ,sicily in the #abth century1 but after holding it for about twelve years they were driven out in #aaei by the ,almohades4 ,in #acij a joint ,english and ,french force vainly besieged ,mahdia for sixty-one days4 ,in the early part of the #afth century the corsair ,dragut seized the town and made it his capital1 but in #aeej the place was captured by the ,spaniards1 who held it until #aegd4 ,before evacuating the town the ,spaniards dismantled the fortifications4 ,under the rule of the ,turks and1 later1 the beys of ,tunis ,mahdia became a place of little importance4 ,it was occupied by the ,french in #ahha without opposition1 and regained some of its former commercial importance4 ,during #aijh numbers of bronzes and other works of art were recovered from a vessel wrecked off ,mahdia in the #eth century ,a4,d4 7see ,classical ,review1 ,june #aiji74 ,,mah1 a ,french settlement in the ,malabar district of ,madras1 ,india1 situated in #aa #dc ,n4 and #ge #cc ,e41 at the mouth of a river of the same name4 ,area1 #bf sq4 m42 pop4 7#aija71 #aj1bih4 ,it is the only ,french possession on the west coast of ,india1 and is in charge of a chef de service1 subordinate to the governor-general at ,pondicherry4 ,it is now a decaying place4 ,,maheshwar1 a town in ,indore state1 ,central ,india1 on the ,n4 bank of the ,narbada 7,nerbudda74 ,pop4 7#aija71 #gjdb4 ,though of great antiquity and also of religious sanctity1 it is chiefly noted as the residence of ,ahalya ,bai1 the reigning queen of the ,holkar dynasty during the last half of the #ahth century1 whose ability and munificence are famous throughout ,india4 ,close by her cenotaph stands the family temple of the ,holkars4 ,,mahi1 a river of western ,india1 which rises in ,central ,india and1 after flowing through south ,rajputana1 enters ,gujarat and falls into the sea by a wide estuary near ,cambay2 total length1 #cjj m42 estimated drainage area1 #af1jjj sq4 m4 ,it has given its name to the ,mahi ,kantha agency of ,bombay1 and also to the mehwasis1 marauding highlanders often mentioned in ,mahommedan chronicles4 ,,mahi ,,kantha1 a political agency or collection of native states in ,india1 within the ,gujarat division of ,bombay4 ,over half the territory is covered by the native state of ,idar4 ,there are eleven other chiefships1 and a large number of estates belonging to ,rajput or ,koli thakurs1 formerly feudatories of ,baroda4 ,several of the states are under ,british administration4 ,total area1 #cabe sq4 m42 pop4 7#aija71 #cfa1ede1 showing a decrease of #ch in the decade1 due to famine2 estimated revenue1 #gf1jjj2 tribute 7mostly to the gaekwar of ,baroda71 #ijjj4 ,many of the inhabitants belong to the wild tribes of ,bhils and ,kolis4 ,in #ahig a metre-gauge railway was opened from ,ahmedabad through ,parantij to ,ahmednagar4 ,at ,sadra is the ,scott ,college for the education of the sons of chiefs on the lines of an ,english public school4 ,there are also ,anglo-vernacular schools at ,sadra1 ,idar and ,mansa4 ,the famine of #ahii-aijj was severely felt in this tract4 ,,mahmud ,i4 7#afif-aged71 sultan of ,turkey1 was the son of ,mustafa ,,ii41 and succeeded his uncle ,ahmed ,,iii4 in #agcj4 ,after the suppression of a military revolt the war with ,persia was continued with varying success1 and terminated in #agcf by a treaty of peace restoring the status quo ante bellum4 ,the next enemy whom ,turkey was called upon to face was ,russia1 later joined by ,austria4 ,war went on for four years2 the successes gained by ,russia were outweighed by ,austria's various reverses1 terminating by the defeat of ,wallis at ,krotzka1 and the peace concluded at ,belgrade was a triumph for ,turkish diplomacy4 ,the sultan1 throughout desirous for peace1 is said to have been much under the influence of the chief eunuch1 ,haji ,beshir ,aga4 ,in #aged ,mahmud died of heart-disease when returning from the ,friday service at the mosque4 ,he had a passion for building1 to which are due numberless kiosques1 where nocturnal orgies were carried on by him and his boon companions4 ,in this reign the system of appointing ,phanariote ,greeks to the principalities of ,moldavia and ,wallachia was instituted4 7,see ,,phanariotes47 ,,mahmud ,,ii4 7#aghe-ahci71 sultan of ,turkey1 was the son of ,abu-ul-,hamid ,i41 and succeeded his brother1 ,mustafa ,,iv41 in #ahjh4 ,he had shared the captivity of his ill-fated cousin1 the ex-sultan1 ,selim ,,iii41 whose efforts at reform had ended in his deposition by the janissaries4 ,mahmud was thus early impressed with the necessity for dissembling his intention to institute reforms until he should be powerful enough to carry them through4 ,the reforming efforts of the grand vizier ,bairakdar1 to whom he had owed his life and his accession1 broke on the opposition of the janissaries2 and ,mahmud had to wait for more favourable times4 ,meanwhile the empire seemed in danger of breaking up4 ,not till #ahab was the war with ,russia closed by the treaty of ,bucharest1 which restored ,moldavia and the greater part of ,wallachia to the ,ottoman government4 ,but though the war was ended1 the terms of the treaty left a number of burning questions1 both internal and external1 unsettled4 ,this was notably the case with the claim of ,russia to ,poti and the valley of the ,rion 7,phasis71 which was still outstanding at the time of the congress of ,vienna 7#ahad-ahae7 and prevented the question of a ,european guarantee of the integrity of ,turkey from being considered4 ,meanwhile1 within the empire1 ambitious valis were one by one attempting to carve out dominions for themselves at the expense of the central power4 ,the ambitions of ,mehemet ,ali of ,egypt were not yet fully revealed2 but ,ali 7q4v47 of ,jannina1 who had marched to the aid of the sultan against the rebellious pasha ,pasvan ,oglu of ,widdin1 soon began to show his hand1 and it needed the concentration of all the forces of the ,turkish empire to effect his overthrow and death 7#ahbb74 ,the preoccupation of the sultan with ,ali gave their opportunity to the ,greeks whose disaffection had long been organized in the great secret society of the ,hetaeria ,philike1 against which ,metternich had in vain warned the ,ottoman government4 ,in #ahba occurred the abortive raid of ,alexander ,ypsilanti into the ,danubian principalities1 and in ,may of the same year the revolt of the ,greeks of the ,morea began the war of ,greek ,independence 7see ,,greece3 ,history74 ,the rising in the north was easily crushed2 but in the south the ,ottoman power was hampered by the defection of the sea-faring ,greeks1 by whom the ,turkish navy had hitherto been manned4 ,after three abortive campaigns ,mahmud was compelled1 infinitely against his will1 to summon to his assistance the already too powerful pasha of ,egypt1 ,mehemet ,ali1 whom he had already employed to suppress the rebellious ,wahhabis in ,arabia4 ,the disciplined ,egyptian army1 supported by a well organized fleet1 rapidly accomplished what the ,turks had failed to do2 and by #ahbf the ,greeks were practically subdued on land1 and ,ibrahim was preparing to turn his attention to the islands4 ,but for the intervention of the powers and the battle of ,navarino ,mahmud's authority would have been restored in ,greece4 ,the news of ,navarino betrayed ,mahmud into one of those paroxysms of rage to which he was liable1 and which on critical occasions were apt fatally to cloud his usual good sense4 ,after in vain attempting to obtain an apology for the unparalleled outrage against a friendly power he issued on the #bjth of ,december a solemn hatti sheriff summoning the faithful to a holy war4 ,this1 together with certain outstanding grievances and the pretext of enforcing the settlement of the ,greek ,question approved by the powers1 gave ,russia the excuse for declaring war against ,turkey4 ,after two hardly fought campaigns 7#ahbh1 #ahbi7 ,mahmud was at length1 on the #adth of ,september #ahbi1 compelled to sign the peace of ,adrianople4 ,from this moment until his death ,mahmud was1 to all intents and purposes1 the vassal of ,russia1 though not without occasional desperate efforts to break his chains4 7,for the political events of the period between the first revolt of ,mehemet ,ali 7,sept4 #ahcb7 and the death of ,mahmud see ,,mehemet ,,ali47 ,the personal attitude of the sultan1 which alone concerns us here1 was determined throughout by his overmastering hatred of the upstart pasha1 of whom he had stooped to ask aid1 and who now defied his will2 and the importance of this attitude lies in the fact that1 as the result of the success of his centralizing policy1 and notably of the destruction of the janissaries 7q4v471 the supreme authority1 hitherto limited by the practical power of the ministers of the ,porte and by the turbulence of the privileged military caste1 had become concentrated in his own person4 ,it was no longer the ,porte that decided1 but the ,seraglio1 and the sultan's private secretary had more influence on the policy of the ,ottoman empire than the grand vizier4 ,this omnipotence of the sultan in deciding the policy of the government was in striking contrast with his impotence in enforcing his views on his subjects and in his relations with foreign powers4 ,mahmud1 in spite of--or rather because of--his well-meant efforts at reform1 was hated by his ,mussulman subjects and stigmatized as an infidel and a traitor to ,islam4 ,he was1 in fact1 a victim to those half-measures which ,machiavelli condemns as fatal to success4 ,ibrahim1 the conqueror of ,syria1 scoffed at the sultan's idea that reform consisted in putting his soldiers into tight trousers and epaulettes4 ,the criticism is not entirely unjust4 ,mahmud's policy was the converse of that recommended by ,machiavelli1 viz4 in making a revolution to change the substance while preserving the semblance of the old order4 ,metternich's advice to ,mahmud to remain a ,turk was sound enough4 ,his failure to do so--in externals--left him isolated in his empire3 rayahs and true believers alike distrusted and hated him4 ,of this hatred he was fully conscious2 he knew that his subjects1 even many of his own ministers1 regarded ,mehemet ,ali as the champion of ,islam against the infidel sultan2 he suspected the pasha1 already master of the sacred cities1 of an intention to proclaim himself caliph in his stead4 ,this1 together with the weakness due to military reforms but recently begun1 drove him to rely on foreign aid2 which1 in the actual conditions of ,europe1 meant the aid of ,russia4 ,the long tradition of ,french friendship for ,turkey had been broken1 in #ahcj1 by the conquest of ,algiers4 ,austria was1 for the time1 but the faithful ally of the tsar4 ,on the #ith of ,august #ahcb ,mahmud made1 through ,stratford ,canning1 a formal proposal for an alliance with ,great ,britain1 which ,palmerston refused to consider for fear of offending ,france4 ,mahmud bitterly contrasted the fair professions of ,england with the offers of effective help from ,russia4 ,his old ally having deserted him1 he accepted the aid of his hereditary foe4 ,the ,russian expedition to the ,bosporus1 the convention of ,kutaiah1 and the treaty of ,unkiar ,skelessi 7,july #h1 #ahcc7 followed4 ,mahmud was under no illusion as to the position in which the latter placed him towards ,russia2 but his fear of ,mehemet ,ali and his desire to be revenged upon him outweighed all other considerations4 ,he resented the action of ,france and ,england in forcing the settlement of ,kutaiah upon him1 and remained shut up in his palace1 inaccessible to all save his favourites and the representative of ,russia4 ,with his single aim in view he busied himself with the creation of a national militia1 with the aid of ,moltke and other ,german officers4 ,in #ahcd the revolt of ,syria against ,ibrahim seemed to give him his opportunity4 ,he pleaded the duty of a sultan to go to the aid of his subjects when oppressed by one of his servants2 but the powers were obdurate1 even ,russia1 much occupied in affairs nearer home1 leaving him in the lurch4 ,he was astute enough to take advantage of the offence given to the powers by ,mehemet ,ali's system of monopolies1 and in #ahch signed with ,great ,britain1 and afterwards with others1 a commercial treaty which cut at the root of the pasha's system4 ,a few months later his passionate impatience overcame his policy and his fears4 ,the hand of death was upon him1 and he felt that he must strike now or never4 ,in vain the powers1 now united in their views1 warned him of the probable consequences of any aggressive action on his part4 ,he would rather die1 he exclaimed1 or become the slave of ,russia1 than not destroy his rebellious vassal4 ,on his sole initiative1 without consulting his ministers or the council of the empire1 he sent instructions to ,hafiz ,pasha1 commanding the ,ottoman troops concentrated at ,bir on the ,euphrates1 to advance into ,syria4 ,the fatal outcome of the campaign that followed he did not live to hear4 ,when the news of ,ibrahim's overwhelming victory at ,nessib 7,june #bd1 #ahci7 reached ,constantinople1 ,mahmud lay dying and unconscious4 ,early in the morning of the #ast of ,july his proud and passionate spirit passed away4 ,mahmud ,,ii4 cannot be reckoned among the great sultans1 neither had he any of the calculating statecraft which characterized ,abd-ul-,hamid ,,ii42 but his qualities of mind and heart1 none the less1 raised him far above the mass of his predecessors and successors4 ,he was well versed in state affairs and loyal to those who advised and served him1 personally brave1 humane and kindly when not maddened by passion1 active and energetic1 and always a man of his word4 ,unhappily1 however1 the taint of the immemorial corruption of ,byzantium had fallen upon him too1 and the avenue to his favour and to political power lay too often through unspeakable paths4 ,in view of the vast difficulty of the task before him at his succession it is less surprising that he failed to carry out his ideas than that he accomplished so much4 ,when he came to the throne the empire was breaking up from within2 one by one he freed the provinces from the tyrannical rulers who1 like ,ali of ,jannina1 were carving out independent1 or quasi-independent1 empires within the empire4 ,if he failed in his wider schemes of reform1 this was only one more illustration of a truth of which other enlightened sovereigns besides himself had experienced the force1 namely1 that it is impossible to impose any system1 however admirable1 from above on a people whose deepest convictions and prejudices it offends4 ,there is a great deal of valuable material for the history of ,mahmud and his policy in the unpublished ,f4,o4 records 7#ahcb-ahci71 volumes of correspondence marked ,turkey4--,from ,sir ,stratford ,canning4--,from ,mr4 ,mandeville4--,from ,lord ,ponsonby4 ,see further works mentioned under ,,turkey3 ,history2 and ,,mehemet ,,ali4 7,w4 ,a4 ,p47 ,,mahmud ,,nedim ,,pasha 7c4 #ahah-ahhc71 ,turkish statesman1 was the son of ,nejib ,pasha1 ex-governor-general of ,bagdad4 ,after occupying various subordinate posts at the ,porte he became successively under-secretary of state for foreign affairs1 governor-general of ,syria and ,smyrna1 minister of commerce1 and governor-general of ,tripoli2 minister successively of justice and of marine 7#ahfi72 grand vizier from #ahga to #ahgb and from #ahge to #ahgf4 ,he was high in favour with ,sultan ,abd-ul-,aziz and fell much under the influence of ,general ,ignatiev1 the forceful ,russian ambassador before the war of #ahgg-gh1 his subserviency to ,russia earning for him the nickname of ,mahmudoff4 ,his administration was most unsuccessful from every point of view1 and he was largely responsible for the issue of the decree suspending the interest on the ,turkish funds4 ,he was minister of the interior from #ahgi to #ahhc4 ,,mahmud#a ,,of ,,ghazni 7#iga-ajcj71 son of ,sabuktagin1 ,afghan conqueror1 was born on the #bnd of ,october #iga4 ,his fame rests chiefly on his successful wars1 in particular his numerous invasions of ,india4 ,his military capacity1 inherited from his father1 ,nasir-ud-din ,sabuktagin1 was strengthened by youthful experience in the field4 ,sabuktagin1 a ,turki slave of ,alptagin1 governor of ,khorasan under ,abdalmalik ,i4 b4 ,nuh of the ,samanid dynasty of ,bokhara1 early brought himself to notice 7see ,,samanids74 ,he was raised to high office in the state by ,alptagin's successor1 ,abu ,ishak1 and in ,a4,h4 #cff 7,a4,d4 #igg71 by the choice of the nobles of ,ghazni1 he became their ruler4 ,he soon began to make conquests in the neighbouring countries1 and in these wars he was accompanied by his young son ,mahmud4 ,before he had reached the age of fourteen he encountered in two expeditions under his father the ,indian forces of ,jaipal1 raja of ,lahore1 whom ,sabuktagin defeated on the ,punjab frontier4 ,in #iid ,mahmud was made governor of ,khorasan1 with the title of ,saif addaula 7ud-daula7 7,sword of the ,state7 by the ,samanid ,nuh ,,ii4 ,two years later1 his father ,sabuktagin died in the neighbourhood of ,balkh1 having declared his second son1 ,ismail1 who was then with him1 to be his successor4 ,as soon as ,ismail had assumed the sovereignty at ,balkh1 ,mahmud1 who was at ,nishapur1 addressed him in friendly terms1 proposing a division of the territories held by their father at his death4 ,ismail rejected the proposal1 and was immediately attacked by ,mahmud and defeated4 ,retreating to ,ghazni1 he there yielded1 and was imprisoned1 and ,mahmud obtained undisputed power as sovereign of ,khorasan and ,ghazni 7#iig74 ,the ,ghaznevid dynasty is sometimes reckoned by native historians to commence with ,sabuktagin's conquest of ,bost and ,kosdar 7#igh74 ,but ,sabuktagin1 throughout his reign at ,ghazni1 continued to acknowledge the ,samanid suzerainty1 as did ,mahmud also1 until the time1 soon after succeeding to his father's dominions1 when he received from ,qadir1 caliph of ,bagdad 7see ,,caliphate1 ,c4 #be71 a khilat 7robe of honour71 with a letter recognizing his sovereignty1 and conferring on him the titles ,yamiin-addaula 7,right hand of the ,state71 and ,amin-ul-,millat 7,guardian of the ,faith74 ,from this time it is the name of the caliph that is inscribed on ,mahmud's coins1 together with his own new titles4 ,previously the name of the ,samanid sovereign1 ,mansur ,,ii4 b4 ,nuh is given along with his own former title1 ,saif addaula ,mahmud4 ,the earliest of those of the new form gives his name ,mahmud bin ,sabuktagin4 ,thereafter his father's name does not appear on his coins1 but it is inscribed again on his tomb4 ,the new honours received from the caliph gave fresh impulse to ,mahmud's zeal on behalf of ,islam1 and he resolved on an annual expedition against the idolaters of ,india4 ,he could not quite carry out this intention1 but a great part of his reign was occupied with his ,indian campaigns4 ,in #ajjj he started on the first of these expeditions1 but it does not appear that he went farther than the hill country near ,peshawar4 ,the hostile attitude of ,khalaf ibn ,ahmad1 governor of ,seistan1 called ,mahmud to that province for a short time4 ,he was appeased by ,khalaf's speedy submission1 together with the gift of a large sum of money1 and further1 it is said1 by his subdued opponent addressing him as sultan1 a title new at that time1 and by which ,mahmud continued to be called1 though he did not formally adopt it1 or stamp it on his coins4 ,four years later ,khalaf1 incurring ,mahmud's displeasure again1 was imprisoned1 and his property confiscated4 ,mahmud's army first crossed the ,indus in #ajja1 opposed by ,jaipal1 raja of ,lahore4 ,jaipal was defeated1 and ,mahmud1 after his return from this expedition1 is said to have taken the distinctive appellation of ,ghazi 7,valiant for the ,faith71 but he is rarely so-called4 ,on the next occasion 7#ajje7 ,mahmud advanced1 as far as ,bhera on the ,jhelum1 when his adversary ,anang-pal1 son and successor of ,jaipal1 fled to ,kashmir4 ,the following year saw ,mahmud at ,multan4 ,when he was in the ,punjab at this time1 he heard of the invasion of ,khorasan by the ,ilek ,khan ,nasr ,i4 ruler of ,transoxiana whose daughter ,mahmud had married4 ,after a rapid march back from ,india1 ,mahmud repelled the invaders4 ,the ,ilek ,khan1 having retreated across the ,oxus1 returned with reinforcements1 and took up a position a few miles from ,balkh1 where he was signally defeated by ,mahmud4 ,mahmud again entered the ,punjab in #ajjh1 this time for the express purpose of chastising ,sewah ,pal1 who1 having become a ,mussulman1 and been left by ,mahmud in charge of ,multan1 had relapsed to ,hinduism4 ,the ,indian campaign of #ajji was notable4 ,near the ,indus ,mahmud was opposed again by ,anang-pal1 supported by powerful rajas from other parts of ,india4 ,after a severe fight1 ,anang-pal's elephants were so terror-struck by the fire-missiles flung amongst them by the invaders that they turned and fled1 the whole army retreating in confusion and leaving ,mahmud master of the field4 ,mahmud1 after this victory1 pushed on through the ,punjab to ,nagar-kot 7,kangra71 and carried off much spoil from the ,hindu temples to enrich his treasury at ,ghazni4 ,in #ajaa ,mahmud1 after a short campaign against the ,afghans under ,mahommed ibn ,sur in the hill country of ,ghur1 marched again into the ,punjab4 ,the next time 7#ajad7 he advanced to ,thanesar1 another noted stronghold of ,hinduism1 between the ,sutlej and the ,jumna4 ,having now found his way across all the ,punjab rivers1 he was induced on two subsequent occasions to go still farther4 ,but first he designed an invasion of ,kashmir 7#ajae71 which was not carried out1 as his progress was checked at ,loh-kot1 a strong hill fort in the north-west of the ,punjab4 ,then before undertaking his longer inroad into ,hindustan he had to march north into ,khwarizm 7,khiva7 against his brother-in-law ,mamun1 who had refused to acknowledge ,mahmud's supremacy4 ,the result was as usual1 and ,mahmud1 having committed ,khwarizm to a new ruler1 one of ,mamun's chief officers1 returned to his capital4 ,then in #ajah1 with a very large force1 he proceeded to ,india again1 extending his inroad this time to the great ,hindu cities of ,mathra on the ,jumna and ,kanauj on the ,ganges4 ,he reduced the one1 received the submission of the other1 and carried back great stores of plunder4 ,three years later he went into ,india again1 marching over nearly the same ground1 to the support1 this time1 of the raja of ,kanauj1 who1 having made friendship with the ,mahommedan invader on his last visit1 had been attacked by the raja of ,kalinjar4 ,but ,mahmud found he had not yet sufficiently subdued the idolaters nearer his own border1 between ,kabul and the ,indus1 and the campaign of #ajbb was directed against them1 and reached no farther than ,peshawar4 ,another march into ,india the following year was made direct to ,gwalior4 ,the next expedition 7#ajbe7 is the most famous of all4 ,the point to which it was directed was the temple of ,somnath on the coast of the ,gujarat peninsula4 ,after an arduous journey by ,multan1 and through part of ,rajputana1 he reached ,somnath1 and met with a very vigorous but fruitless resistance on the part of the ,hindus of ,gujarat4 ,moslem feet soon trod the courts of the great temple4 ,the chief object of worship it contained was broken up1 and the fragments kept to be carried off to ,ghazni4 ,the story is often told of the hollow figure1 cleft by ,mahmud's battle-axe1 pouring out great store of costly jewels and gold4 ,but the idol in this ,sivite temple was only a tall block or pillar of hewn stone1 of a familiar kind4 ,the popular legend is a very natural one4 ,mahmud1 it was well known1 made ,hindu temples yield up their most precious things4 ,he was a determined idol-breaker4 ,and the stone block in this temple was enriched with a crown of jewels1 the gifts of wealthy worshippers4 ,these data readily give the ,somnath exploit its more dramatic form4 ,for the more recent story of the ,somnath gates see ,,somnath4 ,after the successes at ,somnath1 ,mahmud remained some months in ,india before returning to ,ghazni4 ,then in #ajbf he crossed the ,indus once more into the ,punjab4 ,his brilliant military career closed with an expedition to ,persia1 in the third year after this1 his last1 visit to ,india4 ,the ,indian campaigns of ,mahmud and his father were almost1 but not altogether1 unvarying successes4 ,the ,moslem historians touch lightly on reverses4 ,and1 although the annals of ,rajputana tell how ,sabuktagin was defeated by one raja of ,ajmere and ,mahmud by his successor1 the course of events which followed shows how little these and other reverses affected the invader's progress4 ,mahmud's failure at ,ajmere1 when the brave raja ,bisal-deo obliged him to raise the siege but was himself slain1 was when the ,moslem army was on its way to ,somnath4 ,yet ,mahmud's ,indian conquests1 striking and important in themselves1 were1 after all1 in great measure barren1 except to the ,ghazni treasury4 ,mahmud retained no possessions in ,india under his own direct rule4 ,but after the repeated defeats1 by his father and himself1 of two successive rajas of ,lahore1 the conqueror assumed the right of nominating the governors of the ,punjab as a dependency of ,ghazni1 a right which continued to be exercised by seven of his successors4 ,and for a time1 in the reign of ,masa'ud ,,ii4 7#ajih-aaad71 ,lahore was the place of residence of the ,ghaznevid sovereign4 ,mahmud died at ,ghazni in #ajcj1 the year following his expedition to ,persia4 ,he is conspicuous for his military ardour1 his ambition1 strong will1 perseverance1 watchfulness and energy1 combined with great courage and unbounded self-reliance4 ,but his tastes were not exclusively military4 ,his love of literature brought men of learning to ,ghazni1 and his acquaintance with ,moslem theology was recognized by the learned doctors4 ,the principal histories of ,mahmud's reign are--,kitab-i-,yamini 7,utbi72 ,tarikh-us-,subuktigin 7,baihaki72 ,tabakat i ,nasiri 7,minhaj el-,siraj72 ,rauzat-us-,safa 7,mir ,khond72 ,habib-us-,sivar 7,khondamir74 ,see ,elliot1 ,history of ,india2 ,elphinstone1 ,history of ,india2 and ,roos-,keppel's translation of the ,tarikh-i-,sultan ,mahmud-i-,ghaznavi 7#aija74 ,,footnote3 #a ,the name is strictly ,mahmud4 ,,mahoba1 an ancient town in ,india1 in ,hamirpur district of the ,united ,provinces4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #aj1jgd4 ,as the capital of the ,chandel dynasty1 who ruled over ,bundelkhand from the #ith to the #acth century1 the neighbourhood is covered with architectural antiquities1 prominent among which are artificial lakes1 formed by banking up valleys with masonry dams4 ,the largest of these is more than #d m4 in circuit4 ,,mahogany1 a dark-coloured wood largely used for household furniture1 the product of a large tree indigenous to ,central ,america and the ,west ,indies4 ,it was originally received from ,jamaica2 #eba1cjj ft4 were exported from that island in #agec4 ,it is known botanically as ,swietenia ,mahogani1 and is a member of the order ,meliaceae4 ,it bears compound leaves1 resembling those of the ash1 and clusters of small flowers1 with five sepals and petals and ten stamens which are united into a tube4 ,the fruit is a pear-shaped woody capsule1 and contains many winged seeds4 ,the dark-coloured bark has been considered a febrifuge1 and the seeds were used by the ancient ,aztecs with oil for a cosmetic1 but the most valuable product is the timber1 first noticed by the carpenter on board ,sir ,walter ,raleigh's ship in #aeie for its great beauty1 hardness and durability4 ,dr ,gibbons brought it into notice as well adapted for furniture in the early part of the #ahth century1 and its use as a cabinet wood was first practically established by a cabinet-maker named ,wollaston1 who was employed by ,gibbons to work up some mahogany brought to ,england by his brother4 ,it was introduced into ,india in #agie1 and is now cultivated in ,bengal and as far north as ,saharunpur4 ,the timber of species of ,cedrela and ,melia1 other members of the order ,meliaceae1 are used as ,mahogany1 and the product of the ,west ,african ,khaya senegalensis is known as ,african mahogany4 ,there is some confusion between the product of these various trees4 ,herbert ,stone 7,the ,timbers of ,commerce1 #aijd7 says3 ,the various species of mahogany and cedar are so confusing that it is difficult to make precise statements as to their structure or origin4 ,i know of no convincing proof that any of the ,american kinds met with on the ,english market are the wood of ,swietenia ,mahogani1 nor that those shipped from ,africa are the wood of ,khaya senegalensis4 ,these two genera are very nearly allied to ,cedrela and ,melia1 and it is difficult to separate any of the four from the rest by the characters of the wood4 ,after giving the most careful attention to every detail1 ,i lean to the view that most if not all of the mahoganies commonly met with are ,cedrelas4 ,kiggelaria ,dregeana 7natural order ,bixineae71 a native of ,south ,africa1 is known as ,natal mahogany4 ,,mahomet 7strictly ,,muhammad1 commonly also ,,mohammed71 founder of the religious system called in ,europe after him ,mahommedanism1 and by himself ,islam or ,hanifism4 ,he died1 according to the ordinary synchronism1 on the #gth of ,june #fcb 7#ab ,rabia1 ,a4,h4 #aa71 and his birthday was exactly sixty-three or sixty-five years earlier1 the latter number being evidently an interpretation in lunar years of a number thought to refer to solar years4 ,the lunar system was introduced into ,arabia by ,mahomet himself quite at the close of his career2 that which existed before was certainly solar1 as it involved a process of intercalation--which1 however1 seems to have been arbitrarily manipulated by priests1 whence certain synchronisms cannot be got for the events in the ,prophet's career4 ,the number #fc for the years of his life may rest on tradition1 though it is unlikely that such matters were accurately noted2 it can also be accounted for by a priori combination4 ,a ,meccan1 it is said1 became a full citizen at the age of #dj2 this then would be the age at which the mission might be started4 ,the ,medina period 7of which count was kept7 lasted ten to eleven years2 for the ,meccan period ten years would seem a likely length4 ,finally it was known that for some years--about three--the mission had been conducted secretly4 ,the only event in contemporary history to which the ,koran alludes in its earlier parts is the ,persian conquest of ,palestine in #faf4 ,clearly ,mahomet had begun to prophesy at that date4 ,his ,country4 ,before the rise of ,islam1 ,mahomet's native place1 ,mecca1 appears to figure nowhere in historical records1 unless there be a reference to it in the valley of ,baca 7,psalm lxxxiv4 #f74 ,its sacred1 and therefore archaic1 name is ,bakkah2 hence the identification of the name with that of the sanctuary ,makoraba1 known to the ,greek geographers1 is not philologically tenable2 although so eminent a linguist as ,dozy evolved a theory of the origin of the city from this name1 which appears to be ,south ,arabian for sanctuary1 and has no connexion with ,hebrew 7as ,dozy supposed74 ,in the #crd century of ,islam the mythology of ,mecca was collected and published in book form1 but we learn little more from it than names of tribes and places2 it is clear that there was no record of the mode in which the community inhabiting the place had got there1 and that little was remembered with accuracy of the events which preceded the rise of its prophet4 ,the city had a sanctuary1 called the ,cube 7ka'ba71 of which the nucleus was the ,black ,stone1 probably to be identified with ,allah1 the god of the community2 both still exist1 or rather their legitimate substitutes1 as the ,kaba has been repeatedly reconstructed1 and the original ,black ,stone was stolen by the ,carmathians in the #dth century of ,islam2 they afterwards returned one1 but it may or may not have been the same as that which they removed4 ,at some time in the #fth century--said to have been the birth-year of the ,prophet1 but really much earlier--an ,abyssinian invader raided ,mecca with the view of abolishing this sanctuary2 but for some reason had to desist4 ,this expedition1 known as the ,raid of the ,elephant1 one of these animals being employed in it1 seems to be of great importance for explaining the rise of ,islam2 for a sanctuary which can repel an invader acquires tremendous reputation4 ,some verses in the ,koran which are perhaps not genuine1 record the miracle whereby ,allah repelled the ,people of the ,elephant4 ,the sanctuary was apparently in the possession of the tribe ,koreish 7,quraish71 the origin of whose name is unknown1 said to have come originally from ,cutha in ,mesopotamia4 ,they were known 7we are told7 as the people of ,allah1 and1 by wearing a badge1 were sacrosanct throughout ,arabia4 ,if this be true1 it was probably a privilege earned by the miraculous defence of the ,kaba1 and is sufficient to account for the rise of ,meccan commerce of which we hear much in the biography of the ,prophet1 and to which some verses of the earliest part of the ,koran allude2 for merchants who were safe from attacks by bandits would have an enormous advantage4 ,the records seem1 however1 to be inconsistent with this assertion2 and the growth of the ,meccan commerce is sufficiently accounted for by the fact that after the ,abyssinian invasion pilgrimage to the ,kaba became the practice of numerous ,arab tribes1 and for four months in the year 7selected by ,meccan priests7 raiding was forbidden1 in order to enable the pilgrimage to be safely made4 ,in addition to this it would seem that all ,mecca counted as sanctuary--i4e4 no blood might under any circumstances be shed there4 ,the community lived by purveying to pilgrims and the carrying trade2 and both these operations led to the immigration of strangers4 ,mahomet's ,family4 ,there seems to be no doubt that ,mahomet was himself a member of the tribe ,koreish1 and indeed too many of his relatives figure in history to permit of his parentage being questioned4 ,his cousin ',ali1 fourth caliph1 was the son of ,abu ,talib1 whose name attests the historical character of the kindred name ,abd al-,mottalib1 ,mahomet's grandfather3 for the fact that this name is in part enigmatical is certainly no argument against its genuineness4 ,in the #crd century of ,islam a document was shown in which a man of ,san'a in ,yemen acknowledged that he had borrowed from ,abd al-,mottalib #ajjj silver dirhems of the ,hudaida standard1 and ,allah with the two angels 7probably a euphemism for the goddesses ,al-lat and al-,uzza7 served as witness2 it is difficult to see why such a document should have been forged4 ,the name ,hashim 7for ,abd al-,mottalib's father7 may or may not be historical2 here1 as in the ascending line throughout1 we have subjects without predicates4 ,the name of ,abd al-,mottalib's son1 who was ,mahomet's father1 is given as ,abdallah2 the correctness of this has been questioned1 because ,servant of ,allah would seem to be too appropriate1 and the name was often given by the ,prophet to converts as a substitute for some pagan appellation4 ,this1 however1 is hypercritical1 as the name of the father could not easily be altered1 when relatives abounded1 and it would seem that at one time the ,prophet made no theological use of the name ,allah1 for which he intended to substitute ,rahman4 ,the name of his mother is given as ,aminah1 and with this one of his own titles1 ,amin1 agrees2 although the ,arabs do not appear to bring the two into connexion4 ,her father's name is given as ,wahb1 and she is brought into relation with a ,medinese tribe called the ,banu ,adi b4 al-,najjar1 to whom she is said to have brought her son in his early infancy4 ,the circumstances may have been suggested by his later connexion with that place2 yet in what seems a historical narrative her grave is mentioned as known to be at ,abwa1 midway between the two cities1 whence this early bond between the ,prophet and his future home may have really existed4 ,his own name is given in the ,koran in the forms ,ahmad and the familiar ,muhammad2 in contemporary poetry we also find the form ,mahmud4 ,similar variation between derivatives from the same root is found in proper names which occur in early poetry2 the meaning of all would be the praised1 if the root be given its ,arabic signification--the desired if interpreted from the ,hebrew4 ,the form ,muhammad 7ordinarily transliterated ,mohammed2 ,mahomet1 ,mehmet1 c41 represent the ,turkish pronunciation7 is found in a pre-,islamic inscription1 and appears to have been fairly common in ,arabia4 ,in ,hag4 ii4 #g a derivative of the ,hebrew equivalent root occurs in the prophecy and the desired of all nations shall come1 and this passage has suggested the idea that the name may have been taken by the ,prophet as the equivalent of ,messiah1 while the ,moslems themselves find its equivalent in the ,paraclete of the ,fourth ,gospel1 though this identification requires more ingenuity4 ,his kunyah 7i4e4 the ,arab title of respect1 in which a man is called after his son7 is ,abu'l-,qasim2 other names by which he is called are titles of honour1 e4g4 ,mustafa chosen4 7,see further the genealogical table1 ad fin47 ,early ,life4 ,in the ,koran1 ,allah says that ,he found the ,prophet an orphan1 poor and astray2 it is possible that all these expressions should be understood figuratively1 like the poor1 naked1 blind of ,christian hymns2 the ,arabs1 however1 take them literally1 and ,mahomet is said to have been a posthumous child1 whose mother died a few months or years after his birth1 and who was brought up first by his grandfather1 and then by his uncle ,abu ,talib1 one of the poorer members of the family2 in the controversy between the ,alid and ,abbasid pretenders of the #bnd century of ,islam the ,abbasid ,mansur claims that his ancestor fed the ancestor of ,ali1 i4e4 ,abu ,talib1 otherwise he would have had to beg4 ,there was evidently an apparent inconsistency between ,mahomet's being a poor orphan and the favourite grandchild of the eminent and wealthy ,abd al-,mottalib2 and it was solved in this way4 ,there was a tradition that in his early years he was sent into the desert to acquire the habits and the language of the ,bedouins2 and this seems to have been attested by the ,prophet himself4 ,in a tribal fight he is said to have acted as armour-bearer to one of his uncles1 ,zubair4 ,there seems no doubt that he often accompanied ,meccan caravans to the countries with which the ,meccans had trade relations2 such especially were ,syria and south ,arabia1 and perhaps ,egypt and ,mesopotamia4 ,it is conceivable that he may have visited ,abyssinia by sea4 ,for though accurate knowledge is nowhere to be found in the ,koran1 it exhibits a large amount of miscellaneous information1 such as a trader might well pick up4 ,his career as a caravan-conductor appears to have terminated with his marriage to ,khadija1 daughter of ,khuwailid1 represented by the tradition as a wealthy widow1 fifteen years his senior and forty years of age at the time of the union4 ,as she became the mother of a numerous family1 a special rule was discovered by ,moslem physiologists extending the child-bearing period of ,korashite women beyond that of others4 ,since it is claimed for ,mahomet that he first gave ,arab women the right to inherit property1 the difficulty noticed is not the only one connected with this marriage2 and ,robertson ,smith has called attention to some others1 unconnected with his theory of marriage and kinship in early ,arabia4 ,after his marriage ,mahomet appears to have been partner in a shop in ,mecca2 where he apparently sold agricultural produce4 ,his style is strongly marked by phrases and metaphors drawn from trade1 though as a statesman he never displayed any financial ability4 ,education4 ,writing in the monumental script of ,south ,arabia had been known for centuries in the peninsula2 and shortly before the rise of ,islam a cursive script--the parent of the ordinary ,arabic character--had been started in the ,christian state of ,hira1 with which the beginnings of modern ,arabic literature are connected4 ,a modification of this had been introduced into ,mecca1 and was probably used for contracts and similar documents4 ,the word ummi1 literally popular or plebeian 7according to one etymology71 applied to ,mahomet in the ,koran1 is said to mean one who can neither read nor write1 and the most generally accepted view is that he could do neither1 a supposition which enters into the doctrine of the miraculous nature of the ,koran4 ,according to another interpretation the word means ,meccan1 i4e4 native of the ,mother of the ,villages 7,umm al-,qura72 and the most probable theory is that he could do both1 but unskilfully4 ,indeed on one historic occasion he erased certain words in a document2 and where in the ,koran he rebuts the charge of taking notes1 he does not employ the obvious retort that he could not write1 but gives a far less convincing answer4 ,for poetry1 which seems to have been cultivated in ,arabia long before his time1 he possessed no ear2 but we have little reason for supposing that either writing or versification had yet entered into ,arabian education4 ,the former would be acquired by those who needed it1 the latter was regarded as a natural gift4 ,there is reason for thinking the language of the ,koran incorrect and ungrammatical in parts1 but as it afterwards became the ultimate standard of classical ,arabic1 this point is not easy to prove4 ,on the whole then his early life seems to have been such as was normal in the case of a man belonging to one of the more important families in a community which had not long been started on a career of prosperity4 ,social ,system4 ,of the organization of that community we unfortunately know very little1 though we hear of a council-chamber1 and1 as has been seen1 of an age-qualification for admission to it4 ,it is1 however1 certain that the theory of decision by majority was absolutely unknown to ,mahomet's second successor1 whence we learn little from this tradition 7even if it be authentic7 of the mode whereby the tribes who together formed the ,meccan population managed their common concerns1 whether commercial or political4 ,the form of government seems to have been a rudimentary oligarchy1 directed by some masterful individual2 before the ,flight we read of various prominent personages1 after the ,flight and the battle of ,badr 7,a4,h4 #b7 one chieftain1 ,abu ,sofian 7see ,,caliphate1 ad init471 appears to take the lead whether in war or in policy4 ,it would seem1 however1 that the right of independent action belonged to the individual tribes1 even to the extent of refusing to take part in a campaign4 ,for the settlement of ordinary disputes recourse was had 7it appears7 rather to soothsayers1 near or distant1 than to any regularly constituted authority or tribunal4 ,on the other hand we are furnished with a list of officials who were concerned with different parts of the festal performances and the ordinary worship4 ,of these we may mention the ,custodian of the ,kaba1 and the official whose duty was siqayah 7watering71 said to mean furnishing the pilgrims with water1 but more ingeniously interpreted in recent times as rain-bringing1 a function which even in the #bnd century of ,islam the governor in some places was supposed to exercise4 ,beginnings of the ,mission4 ,of ,arabian paganism we possess no trustworthy or complete account2 since we hear of no theological literature belonging to it1 probably no such account could have been given4 ,there were doubtless a variety of practices1 many of which have been continued to this day in the ceremonies of the pilgrimage1 and offerings of different sorts to various deities1 interpreted variously by the worshippers in accordance with their spiritual1 intellectual and moral levels2 e4g4 as actual stones1 or as men 7or more often women7 residing in the stones or otherwise connected with them1 or bearing a similar relation to trees1 or stars1 c4 ,in general every tribe had its patron of the kind1 and where there were aggregations of tribes1 connexions were established between these deities1 and affiliation-theories excogitated2 hence the theory attributed in the ,koran to the ,meccans that the goddesses al-,uzza1 c4 were the daughters of ,allah1 may well represent the outcome of such speculation4 ,these1 however1 were known to few1 whereas the practices were familiar to all4 ,some of these were harmless1 others barbarous2 many offensive1 but not very reprehensible1 superstitions4 ,external ,influences4 ,before ,mahomet's time ,arabian paganism had already been attacked both from the outside and from the inside4 ,on the one hand the northern tribes had gradually been christianized1 owing to the influence of the ,byzantine empire2 on the other hand south ,arabia had fallen successively under ,jewish1 ,abyssinian and ,persian influence2 and the last1 though little is known of ,persian rule1 is unlikely to have favoured pagan cults4 ,christianity had also some important representation in ,najran far south of ,mecca1 while ,jewish settlements were prospering north of ,mecca in the ,prophet's future home ,yathrib and its neighbourhood4 ,power1 civilization and learning were thus associated with monotheism 7,judaism71 dualism 7,mazdaism7 and tritheism 7as the ,arabs interpreted ,christianity72 paganism was the religion of ignorance 7jahiliyyah1 interpreted by ,goldziher as barbarism1 but the difference is not very considerable74 ,mecca itself and the neighbouring and allied ,taif are said to have produced some monotheists or ,christians1 who identified the ,allah of ,mecca with the ,allaha or ,god of the ,syrian ,christians1 called by the ,abyssinian ,christians ,lord of the ,regions1 and by the ,jews the ,merciful 7,rahmana72 one such is said to have been a cousin of ,khadija1 ,mahomet's wife2 his name is given as ,waraqah1 son of ,naufal1 and he is credited with copying or translating a ,gospel4 ,we even hear of flagellant monks and persons vowed to total abstinence among the precursors of ,islam4 ,with these persons ,mahomet had little in common1 since they do not appear to have claimed to enforce their views upon others1 or to have interfered with politics4 ,he appears mainly to have been struck by the personality of the founders of the systems dominant in the civilized world1 and to have aspired from the first to occupy the place of legislator or mouthpiece of the ,deity2 and that he was this was and is the main proposition of the ,mahommedan creed4 ,the ,prophet or ,apostle 7at different times he employed both the ,jewish and the ,christian phrase7 was the divinely appointed dictator of his community2 if he were not obeyed1 divine vengeance would overtake the disobedient4 ,at this proposition ,mahomet arrived by induction from the records of the ,biblical prophets1 as well as others who seem to have figured in ,arabian mythology1 e4g4 the destruction of the tribe ,thamud 7mentioned by ,pliny1 and therefore historical7 for their disobedience to their prophet ,salih1 and of ,ad 7probably mythical7 for their similar treatment of ,hud4 ,the character of the message did not affect the necessity for obedience2 at times it was condemnation of some moral offence1 at others a trivial order4 ,divine vengeance overtook those who disobeyed either4 ,the ,prophet's ,call4 ,this is the theory of the prophetic office which pervades the ,koran1 wherein the doctrine is formulated that every nation had its divine guide and that ,mecca before ,mahomet's time had none4 ,this place1 then1 ,mahomet felt a divine call to fill4 ,but we are never likely to ascertain what first put the idea into his mind4 ,the fables which his biographers tell on this subject are not worth repeating2 his own system1 in which he is brought into direct communication with the ,deity1 though at a later period the angel ,gabriel appears to have acted as intermediary1 naturally leaves no room for such speculations2 and since his dispensation was thought to be absolutely new1 and to make a tabula rasa of the pagan past1 his first followers1 having broken with that past1 left no intelligible account of the state of affairs which preceded their master's call4 ,some generations therefore elapsed before that past was studied with any sort of sympathy1 and details could not then be recovered1 any more than they can now be supplied by conjecture4 ,so far as ,mahomet may be said from the first to have formulated a definite notion of his work1 we should probably be right in thinking it to be the restoration of the religion of ,abraham1 or 7as the ,koran calls him7 ,ibrahim4 ,though we have no reason for supposing the name of ,abraham or ,ishmael to have been known in ,mecca generally before ,mahomet's time1 the ,biblical ethnology was not apparently questioned by those who were told of it1 and there are stories1 not necessarily apocryphal1 of precursors of ,mahomet going abroad in search of the religion of ,abraham4 ,one feature of that system1 associated in the ,bible with the name of ,ishmael as well1 was circumcision1 which was actually observed by the ,meccan tribes1 though it would appear with technical differences from the ,jewish method2 the association of monotheism with it would seem reasonable enough1 in view of ,jewish traditions1 such as ,mahomet may have heard on his travels2 why the doctrine of the future life should be coupled with it is less obvious4 ,that the ,meccan temple and its rites had been founded by these two patriarchs appears to have been deduced by ,mahomet himself1 but perhaps at a later stage of his career4 ,that these rites1 so far as they were idolatrous1 were in flagrant defiance of the religion of ,abraham must have struck any one who accepted the accounts of it which were current among ,jews and ,christians4 ,the precursors1 however1 appear to have felt no call to reform their fellow-citizens2 whereas it is evident that ,mahomet regarded himself as charged with a message1 which he was bound to deliver1 and which his ,god would in some way render effective4 ,as it was obvious that the claim to be ,god's mouthpiece was to claim autocracy1 ,mahomet employed the utmost caution in his mode of asserting this claim2 on the question of his sincerity there have been different opinions held1 and it is not necessary to take any view on this matter4 ,for three years his followers were a secret society2 and this period appears to have been preceded by one of private preparation1 the first revelation being received when the ,prophet was in religious retirement--a ceremony called tahannuth1 of which the meaning is uncertain1 but which can have no connexion with the ,hebrew tehinnoth 7supplications7--on ,mount ,hira1 near ,mecca4 ,the ,koran4 ,if the traditional dates assigned to the suras 7chapters7 of the ,koran 7q4v47 are correct1 the earliest revelations took the form of pages or rolls which the ,prophet was to read by the grace of ,god1 as ,joseph ,smith1 the founder of the ,mormon community1 said of the power given him to read the ,egyptian characters on the gold plates which he had found4 ,the command to read is accompanied by the statement that his most generous ,lord had taught man by the pen 7calamus7 that which he did not know4 ,waraqah1 to whom the event is said to have been communicated by ,khadija1 called these communications the ,greater ,law 7nomos74 ,the ,prophet was directed to communicate his mission at the first only to his nearest relatives4 ,the utterances were from the first in a sort of rhyme1 such as is said to have been employed for solemn matter in general1 e4g4 oracles or prayers4 ,at an early period the production of a written communication was abandoned for oral communications1 delivered by the ,prophet in trance2 their delivery was preceded by copious perspiration1 for which the ,prophet prepared 7in accordance with instructions found in the ,koran7 by wrapping himself in a blanket4 ,trusty followers were instructed to take these utterances down1 but the phenomena which accompanied their delivery at least in one case suggested imposture to the scribe1 who apostatized in consequence4 ,it is extraordinary that there is no reason to suppose that any official record was ever kept of these revelations2 the ,prophet treated them somewhat as the ,sibyl did her leaves4 ,this carelessness is equally astounding whether the ,prophet was sincere or insincere4 ,if the matter afterwards collected in the ,koran be genuine1 the early revelations must have been miscellaneous in content1 magical1 historical and homiletic4 ,to some strange oaths are prefixed4 ,apparently the purpose to be compassed was to convince the audience of their miraculous origin4 ,the formulation of doctrines belongs to a later period and that of jurisprudence to the latest of all4 ,in that last period also1 when ,mahomet was despot of ,medina1 the ,koran served as an official chronicle1 well compared by ,sprenger to the leading articles on current events in a ministerial organ4 ,where the continuous paragraph is substituted for the ejaculation1 the divine author apologizes for the style4 ,certain doctrines and practices 7e4g4 washing of the person and the garments7 must have been enjoined from the first1 but our authorities scarcely give us any clear notion what they were4 ,the doctrines to which the ,prophet himself throughout assigned most value seem to have been the unity of ,god and the future life1 or resurrection of the body4 ,the former necessitated the abandonment of the idolatrous worship which formed part of the daily life of ,mecca1 and in which ,mahomet and ,khadija had been accustomed to take their part4 ,yet it seems to have been due to the initiative of the proselytes themselves rather than to the ,prophet's orders that the ,meccan worship was actually flouted by them2 for the anecdote which represents the ,prophet and his young cousin attempting to pull down the images in or about the ,ka'ba appears to be apocryphal4 ,the first ,moslem ceremony would appear to have been the religious meeting for the purpose of hearing the delivery of revelations1 of which after the ,prophet's death the sermon 7khutbah7 took the place4 ,after various provisional meeting-places1 the house of one al-,arqam on ,mt4 ,safa was adopted for this purpose2 and here proselytes were initiated4 ,growth of the ,early ,community4 ,the names which the new community received from its founder are both philological puzzles2 for the natural sense of ,moslem 7,muslim7 appear to be traitors1 and to this a contemporary war-song of ,mahomet's enemies alludes2 while ,hanif 7especially applied in the ,koran to ,abraham7 seems to be the ,hebrew word for hypocrite4 ,the former is explained in the ,koran to mean one who hands over his face or person to ,god1 and is said to have been invented by ,abraham2 of the latter no explanation is given1 but it seems to signify from the context devotee4 ,since the divine name ,rahman was at one time favoured by ,mahomet1 and this was connected with one ,maslama of the tribe ,hanifa1 who figures in politics at the end of ,mahomet's career but must have been a religious leader far earlier1 it has been suggested that the names originally belonged to ,maslama's community4 ,the honour of having been ,mahomet's first convert is claimed for three persons3 his wife ,khadija1 his cousin ,ali1 who must have been a lad at the commencement of the mission1 and ,abu ,bekr1 son of ,abu ,quhafah1 afterwards ,mahomet's first successor4 ,this last person became ,mahomet's alter ego1 and is usually known as the ,siddiq 7,heb4 word signifying the saint1 but to the ,arabs meaning faithful friend74 ,his loyalty from first to last was absolutely unswerving2 he was selected to accompany ,mahomet on the most critical occasion of his life1 the ,flight from ,mecca2 ,mahomet is said to have declared that had he ever made a confidant of any one1 that person would have been ,abu ,bekr2 implying that there were things which were not confided even to him4 ,the success of the ,prophet's enterprise seems to have been very largely due to the part played by this adherent1 who possessed a variety of attainments which he put at ,mahomet's service2 who when an intermediary was required was always ready to represent him1 and who placed the commendation of the ,prophet above every other consideration1 private or public4 ,the two appear to have regularly laid siege to those persons in ,mecca whose adherence was desirable2 and the ability which many of the earlier converts afterwards displayed1 whether as statesmen or generals1 is a remarkable testimony to their power of gauging men4 ,it seems clear that the growth of wealth in ,mecca had led to the accentuation of the difference between persons of different station1 and that many were discontented with the oligarchy which governed the city4 ,converts could1 therefore1 be won without serious difficulty among the aliens and in general those who suffered under various disqualifications4 ,some members of the ,jewish community seem also to have joined2 and some relics of the ,abyssinian expedition 7i4e4 descendants of the invaders74 ,among the most important converts of the ,meccan period were ,mahomet's uncle ,hamza1 afterwards for his valour called the ,lion of ,god2 ',abd al-,rahman 7,abdar-rahman7 son of ',auf2 ,othman1 son of ',affan1 who married two of the ,prophet's daughters successively1 and was ,mahomet's third successor2 and1 more important than any save ,abu ,bekr1 ,omar1 son of al-,khattab1 a man of extraordinary force of character1 to whom siege seems to have been laid with extraordinary skill4 ,at some time he received the honourable title ,faruq 7,deliverer72 he is represented as regularly favouring force1 where ,abu ,bekr favoured gentle methods2 unlike ,abu ,bekr1 his loyalty was not always above suspicion4 ,his adherence is ascribed to the period of publicity4 ,the secrecy which marked its early years was of the greatest value for the eventual success of the mission2 for when ,mahomet came forward publicly he was already the head of a band of united followers4 ,his own family appear to have been either firm adherents1 or violent enemies1 or lukewarm and temporizing--this is the best which can be said for ',abbas1 eponymus of the ,abbasid dynasty2 or finally espousers of his cause1 on family grounds1 but not as believers4 ,first ,period of ,publicity4 ,rejecting accounts of ,mahomet's first appearance as a public preacher1 which are evidently comments on a text of the ,koran1 we have reason for supposing that his hand was forced by ardent followers1 who many times in his career compelled him to advance4 ,the astute rulers of the community perceived that the claim made by ,mahomet was to be dictator or autocrat2 and while this was naturally ridiculed by them1 some appear to have been devoted adherents of the gods or goddesses whom he attacked4 ,the absence of dated documents for the period between this open proclamation 7which in any case commenced before #faf7 and the ,flight to ,medina in #fbb renders the course of events somewhat conjectural1 though certain details appear to be well established4 ,apparently there was a war of words1 followed by a resort to diplomacy and then to force2 and then a period in which ,mahomet's attention was directed to foreign conversions1 resulting in his being offered and accepting the dictatorship of ,yathrib4 ,of the war of words we have an imperfect record in the ,meccan suras of the ,koran1 which occasionally state the objections urged by the opponents4 ,in the course of the debate the theological position of both parties seems to have shifted1 and the knowledge of both was probably increased in various ways4 ,the miracle of the ,koran1 which at first consisted in its mode of production1 was transformed into a marvel connected with its contents2 first by ,mahomet's claiming to tell historical narratives which had previously been unknown to him2 afterwards by the assertion that the united efforts of mankind and ,jinn would be unable to match the smallest passage of the ,koran in sublimity4 ,probably the first of these claims could not be long maintained1 though ,a4 ,j4 ,davis1 the ,seer of ,poughkeepsie1 in our own time brought a similar one in regard to his ,principles of ,nature4 ,indeed both parties evidently resorted to external aid4 ,to those who undertook to name the man who dictated stories of the ancients to ,mahomet day and night1 he replied that the individual whom they had in mind was a foreigner1 whereas the ,koran was in pure ,arabic4 ,this was obviously a quibble1 for it was scarcely asserted that he delivered the matter dictated to him without alteration4 ,the purity of the ,arabic also appears to have been very questionable2 for several expressions appear to be ,ethiopic rather than ,arabic1 and the person whom the ,meccans had in mind is likely to have been an ,abyssinian ,christian1 since the ,christian technicalities of the ,koran are mainly derived from the ,ethiopic ,gospels and ,acts4 ,on one occasion when some questions suggested by learned foreigners had been propounded to the ,prophet he required a fortnight's delay before the revelation which solved them came2 the matter contained in his reply was certainly such as required research4 ,his sources of information seem at all times to have been legendary rather than canonical2 and the community which seemed to his opponents to agree best with his views was that of the ,sabians or ,mandaeans 7qq4v474 ,it has been suggested that ,mahomet first threatened the ,meccans with temporal punishment1 and only when this threat failed to take effect resorted to the terrors of the ,day of ,judgment and the tortures of ,hell2 it seems however a mistake to distinguish between the two4 ,these threats provided the ,prophet with his most powerful sermons4 ,the boasts of incomparable eloquence which the ,koran contains are evidence that his oratorical power was effective with his audiences1 since the more successful among the ,arabic poets talk of their compositions somewhat in the same way4 ,these discourses certainly led to occasional conversions1 perhaps more frequently among women than men4 ,the ,exiles in ,axum4 ,the diplomatic war seems to have been due to the ,prophet's increasing success1 which led to serious persecution of ,mahomet's less influential followers1 though1 as has been seen1 no blood could be shed in ,mecca4 ,abu ,talib1 moreover1 prevented him from being exiled1 though he probably had to endure many personal insults4 ,something however had to be done for the persecuted ,moslems1 and 7perhaps at the suggestion of his ,abyssinian helper7 ,mahomet endeavoured to find a refuge for them in the realm of ,axum4 ,abyssinia was doubtless connected in every ,meccan mind with the ,expedition of the ,elephant2 and such an alliance secured by ,mahomet was a menace to the existence of the ,meccan community4 ,a deputation was therefore sent by the ,meccan leaders to demand extradition of the exiles2 and as chief of this expedition the future conqueror of ,egypt1 ',amr b4 al-',as 7see ',,amr ,,ibn ,,el-,,ass71 first figures in history4 ,to frustrate his efforts ,mahomet sent his cousin ,ja'far armed with an exposition of the ,prophet's beliefs and doctrines afterwards embodied in the ,koran as the ,sura of ,mary 7,no4 ,,xix42 though with the addition of some anti-,christian matter74 ,the original document contained an account of the ,nativity of ,christ with various miracles not known to either the canonical or even the apocryphal gospels which have been preserved1 but which would be found edifying rather than unorthodox by a church one of whose most popular books is ,the ,miracles of the ,virgin ,mary4 ,to this there were added certain notices of ,old ,testament prophets4 ,the ,abyssinian king and his ecclesiastical advisers took the side of ,mahomet and his followers1 whom they appear to have regarded as persecuted ,christians2 and an attempt made probably by the astute ',amr to embroil them with the ,abyssinians on the difficult question of the ,natures of ,christ failed completely4 ,there seems reason for thinking that the ,abyssinian king contemplated bringing back the exiles by force1 but was diverted from this purpose by frontier wars2 meanwhile they were safely harboured1 though they seem to have suffered from extreme poverty4 ,the want of an ,abyssinian chronicle for this period is a serious disadvantage for the study of ,islamic origins4 ,the sequel shows that regular correspondence went on between the exiles and those who remained in ,mecca1 whence the former were retained within the fold of ,islam1 with occasional though rare apostasies to ,christianity4 ,mahomet's diplomatic victory roused the ,meccan leaders to fury1 and they decided on the most vigorous measures to which they could rise2 ,abu ,talib1 ,mahomet's protector1 and the clan which acknowledged him as sheikh1 including the ,prophet and his family1 were blockaded in the quarter which they occupied2 as in other sanctuaries1 though blood might not be shed1 a culprit might be starved to death4 ,that this did not occur1 though the siege appears to have lasted some months at least1 was due to the weak good nature of the ,meccans1 but doubtless also to the fact that there were enlisted on ,mahomet's side many men of great physical strength and courage 7as their subsequent careers proved71 who could with impunity defy the ,meccan embargo4 ,after a time however the besieged found the situation intolerable1 and any assistance which they might have expected from the king of ,axum failed to come4 ,the course adopted by ,mahomet was retractation of those of his utterances which had most offended the ,meccans1 involving something like a return to paganism4 ,a revelation came acknowledging the effectiveness of the ,meccan goddesses as well as ,allah1 and the ,meccans raised the siege4 ,news of the reconciliation reached the ,abyssinian exiles and they proceeded to return4 ,by the time they reached the ,arabian coast the dispute had recommenced4 ,the revelation was discovered to be a fabrication of the ,devil1 who1 it appears1 regularly interpolates in prophetic revelations2 such at least is the apology preserved in the ,koran1 whence the fabricated verses have been expunged4 ,since our knowledge of this episode 7regarded as the most disgraceful in the ,prophet's career7 is fragmentary1 we can only guess that the ,prophet's hand had once more been forced by the more earnest of his followers1 for whom any compromise with paganism was impossible4 ,the exiles went back to ,abyssinia2 and about this time both ,abu ,talib and ,khadija died1 leaving the ,prophet unprotected4 ,he fled to the neighbouring oasis of ,taif1 where wealthy ,meccans had possessions1 and where the goddess al-,uzza was worshipped with special zeal--where she is said still to exist in the form of a block of stone4 ,he had but little success there in proselytizing1 and indeed had to cease preaching2 but he opened negotiations with various ,meccan magnates for a promise of protection in case of his return4 ,this was at last obtained with difficulty from one ,motim b4 ,adi4 ,it would appear that his efforts were now confined to preaching to the strangers who assembled at or near ,mecca for the ceremonies connected with the feasts4 ,he received in consequence some invitations to come and expound his views away from ,mecca1 but had to wait some time before one came of a sort which he could wisely accept4 ,the ,flight to ,yathrib4 ,the situation which led to ,mahomet's ,flight 7hijra1 anglicized incorrectly hejira1 q4v47 was singularly favourable to ,mahomet's enterprise1 and utilized by him with extraordinary caution and skill4 ,at the palm plantation called ,yathrib1 afterwards known as al-,medina1 ,medina1 the ,city 7i4e4 of the ,prophet71 there were various tribes1 the two most important1 called ,aus and ,khazraj1 being pagan1 and engaged in an internecine feud1 while under their protection there were certain ,jewish tribes1 whose names have come down to us as ,qainuqa1 ,nadir and ,quraiza--implying that the ,israelites1 as might be expected1 imitated the totem nomenclature of their neighbours4 ,the memory of these ,israelites is exclusively preserved by the ,moslem records2 the main stream of ,jewish history flowed elsewhere4 ,in the series of combats between the ,aus and ,khazraj the former had generally been worsted2 the ,jews1 as usual1 had avoided taking any active part in the fray4 ,finally1 owing to an act of gross perfidy1 they were compelled to fight in aid of the ,aus2 and in the so-called battle of ,buath the ,aus aided by the ,jews had won a victory1 doubtless attributed to the ,god of the ,jews4 ,as has been seen1 the divine name employed by ,mahomet 7,rahman7 was one familiar to the ,jews2 and the ,yathribites who visited ,mecca at feast-time were naturally attracted by a professed representative of al-,rahman4 ,the first ,yathribite converts appear to have been ,khazrajites1 and one ,asad1 son of ,zurarah1 is the most prominent figure4 ,their idea may have been in the first place to secure the aid of the ,israelitish ,deity in their next battle with the ,aus1 and indeed the primary object of their visit to ,mecca is said to have been to request assistance for their war4 ,for this the plan was substituted of inviting the ,prophet to come to ,mecca as dictator1 to heal the feud and restore order1 a procedure to which ,greek antiquity offers parallels4 ,the new converts were told to carry on secret propaganda in ,yathrib with this end in view4 ,at the next feast some of the rival faction embraced ,islam4 ,a trusty follower of ,mahomet1 ,mus'ab b4',umair1 who resembled ,mahomet in personal appearance1 was sent to ,yathrib to assist in the work4 ,the correspondence between this person and the ,prophet would1 if we possessed it1 be of the greatest value for the study of ,islamic antiquity4 ,we first hear at this time of the conditions of ,islam1 i4e4 a series of undertakings into which the convert entered3 namely1 to abstain from adultery1 theft1 infanticide and lying1 and to obey ,mahomet in licitis et honestis4 ,the wholesale conversion of ,yathrib was determined by that of two chieftains1 ,usaid b4 ,huraith and ,sa'd b4 ,mu'adh1 both ,ausites4 ,the example of these was quickly followed1 and iconoclasm became rife in the place4 ,at the next ,meccan feast a deputation of seventy ,yathribites brought ,mahomet a formal invitation1 which he accepted1 after imposing certain conditions4 ,the interviews between ,mahomet and the ,yathribites are known as the ',aqabah 7probably with reference to a text of the ,koran74 ,the attitude of the ,jews towards the project appears to have been favourable4 ,the ,refugees4 ,among the conditions imposed by ,mahomet on his new adherents appears to have been the protection and harbouring of the older proselytes1 whom ,mahomet most wisely determined to send before him to ,yathrib1 where1 in the event of the ,yathribite loyalty wavering1 they could be counted on with certainty4 ,the welcome given these refugees 7muhajirun71 as they were from this time known in contra-distinction to the helpers 7ansar7 or allies from ,yathrib1 is said to have been of the warmest2 a ,helper with two wives would hand one over to a wifeless ,refugee4 ,a yet more important condition which preceded the ,flight was readiness to fight men of all colours in defence of the faith4 ,although the transactions with the people of ,yathrib had been carried on with profound secrecy1 the nature of ,mahomet's contract with his new adherents was somewhat divulged to the ,meccan magnates1 and the danger of allowing an implacable enemy to establish himself on the high-road of their north-bound caravans flashed upon them4 ,the rule which forbade bloodshed in the sacred city had at last to be suspended2 but elaborate precautions were to be taken whereby every tribe 7except ,mahomet's own clan7 should have their share in the guilt1 which would thus be spread over the whole community fairly4 ,when the committee appointed to perpetrate the crime reached ,mahomet's house1 they found that it was too late2 ,mahomet had already departed1 leaving ,ali in his bed4 ,the actual ,flight from ,mecca to ,yathrib has naturally been a favourite subject for romance1 and indeed appears to have been executed with the greatest cunning4 ,accompanied by ,abu ,bekr only1 ,mahomet took refuge in a cave of ,mt ,thaur1 in the opposite direction to that which he intended to take finally1 and there remained for three days2 provision had been made of every requisite1 food1 powerful camels1 a trusty and competent guide4 ,the date at which he reached ,kuba1 on the outskirts of ,yathrib1 where there was already some sort of ,moslem oratory1 is given as #h ,rabia ,i41 of the year ,a4,h4 #a2 the fact that he arrived there on the ,jewish ,day of ,atonement gives us the date ,september #bj1 #fbb4 ,the ,meccans1 who had employed professional trackers to hunt down the fugitives1 proceeded to confiscate the houses and goods of ,mahomet and of his followers who had fled4 ,mahomet as ,despot of ,yathrib4 ,the safe arrival of ,mahomet at his destination marks the turning-point in his career1 which now became one of almost unbroken success2 his intellectual superiority over both friends and enemies enabling him to profit by defeat little less than by victory4 ,his policy appears to have been to bind his followers to himself and them to each other by every possible tie2 he instituted brotherhoods between the ,refugees and ,helpers1 which were to count as relationships for legal purposes1 and having himself no sons1 he contracted numerous marriages partly with the same end in view2 e4g4 with the infant daughter of ,abu ,bekr1 ,ayesha 7',a'ishah71 whose ability he appears to have discerned2 and the unamiable ,hafsa1 daughter of ,omar4 ,of his own daughters three were given to faithful allies1 the one by whom his line is supposed to have been continued to our time1 ,fatima1 was reserved for his cousin ,ali4 ,owing to his efforts the alliance between the ,refugees and ,helpers resisted numerous attempts on the part of enemies to break it up1 and only towards the end of the ,prophet's life1 when he appeared to favour ,meccans unduly1 do we hear of any bitterness between the two communities4 ,the ,medina ,community4 ,the population of ,yathrib1 or1 as it may now be called1 ,medina1 soon divided into three groups3 ,mahomet's united followers2 the ,jews2 and a party known as the ,hypocrites1 i4e4 professing ,moslems1 who were lukewarm1 or disaffected1 among whom the most prominent is ,abdallah b4 ,ubayy1 a ,khazrajite chieftain1 who is said to have himself aspired to be despot of ,yathrib1 and who till nearly the end of ,mahomet's career figures somewhat as a leader of the opposition2 of his importance there is no question1 but the reason for it and the mode whereby he made it felt are often obscure4 ,it would seem that the pagans remaining in ,yathrib speedily adopted ,islam after the ,prophet's arrival1 whence we hear little of serious opposition on their part4 ,coming in the capacity of prophet of the ,israelitish ,god1 ,mahomet at first seems to have courted alliance with the ,jews1 and to have been ready to adopt their system with very slight modifications--similar to those which1 according to his opinion1 ,jesus had come to introduce4 ,the ,jews met these advances by submitting him to examination in the intricacies of the ,torah1 and1 finding him very poorly equipped1 proceeded to denounce him as an imposter2 one of his examiners is said to have even translated the ,torah into ,arabic with a view of convicting him of ignorance and imposture4 ,they are' further charged with exercising their magical arts on the ,prophet and his followers1 and to have succeeded thereby in producing barrenness among the ,moslem women4 ,their conduct must not of course be judged by the statement of their enemies2 it is however clear that ,mahomet soon found that there was no possibility of compromising with them on religious questions1 or of obtaining their loyal support2 meanwhile he discovered that they were incapable of united and persistent action1 and useless as warriors except against each other4 ,he therefore resolved on their extermination4 ,his ruthlessness in their case compared with his patience and forbearance in the case of the ,hypocrites was consistent with his principle 7always faithfully observed7 that no inquiry was permissible into the motives of conversion1 and with his division of mankind into the two antagonistic factions ,believers and ,unbelievers4 ,the latter principle1 as will be seen1 was somewhat modified before the end of his life4 ,development of ,islam4 ,mahomet's failure to effect a compromise with the ,jews caused a reaction in his mind towards paganism1 and after about a year's residence at ,medina the direction of prayer1 which had till then been towards ,jerusalem1 was turned southward to the pagan temple at ,mecca4 ,with this change we may perhaps couple the adoption of the name ,allah for the ,deity2 in the ,moslem formula in the ,name of ,allah the ,rahman the ,merciful1 the translation attached to the word ,rahman1 and the prefixing to it of the name ,allah furnish clear evidence of theological transition1 though the stages are not recorded2 we know1 however1 that the ,meccans approved of the name ,allah1 but objected to the name ,rahman4 ,prayer 7salat71 said to have been prescribed on the occasion of the ,prophet's ascent into heaven after a miraculous journey from ,mecca to ,jerusalem1 began to assume a stereotyped form in the place of assembly built by ,mahomet immediately after his arrival2 the attitudes of prayer in use among many communities 7e4g4 the ,jewish standing1 the prostration of some ,christian sects7 were combined4 ,in general it was ,mahomet's principle1 while taking over a practice from some other sect1 to modify it so as to render the ,moslem method absolutely distinct2 thus when a summons to prayer became requisite1 a new mode 7by the voice of a crier called muaddhin or muezzin7 was preferred to the ,christian hammer2 a new sacred day was adopted1 in lieu of the ,jewish ,saturday and the ,christian ,sunday1 in the weekday on which he had safely reached ,kuba1 ,friday2 but the sanctity was reduced to the actual time occupied by public worship4 ,on the subject of food he was satisfied with the regulations of the ,council of ,jerusalem1 recorded in ,acts xv42 which were observed by few if any ,christian sects4 ,the prohibition of wine1 which was enacted in ,a4,h4 #c1 is said to have been occasioned by the riotous conduct of one of his followers when under the influence of liquor2 ,palgrave saw in it 7perhaps with justice7 a deliberate attempt to prevent harmony between ,moslems and ,christians1 in whose most sacred rite wine is used4 ,the ,fast of ,ramadan1 in which food both liquid and solid is forbidden from sunrise to sunset1 is said to be a pagan or semi-pagan institution2 its importance for military training and discipline is not likely to have been overlooked by the ,prophet4 ,when the direction of prayer was altered1 it is probable that ,mahomet already intended to introduce into his system the whole of the pagan pilgrimage with its antique ceremonial 7with1 of course1 a new interpretation72 before this he is supposed to have aimed at the abolition of the ,kaba and all that appertained to it4 ,the difference between religious and civil law has never been recognized by ,islamic jurists1 whose manuals deal equally with the law of contract and the amount of the body to be washed before prayer2 the ,prophet's ordinances on both subjects were suggested by the occasion in each case1 and it would seem that the opinions of trusted advisers were regularly heard before a revelation was issued4 ,even when this had been done the ordinance might be cancelled by an abrogating revelation2 it being easy for ,allah to substitute for a text already revealed another that was better or at least as good4 ,as ,islam began to spread outside the limits of ,medina both conversion to ,islam and persistence therein were reduced to simple tests2 the pronunciation of the double formula of belief in ,allah and ,mahomet was sufficient to indicate conversion1 whilst payment of an income-tax1 called by the ,jewish names for alms 7zakat and sadaqah71 was evidence of loyalty4 ,this income-tax1 of which the definite assessment perhaps belongs to a later period1 was for the support of necessitous converts--an element in the community whose presence accounts for the mode in which the development of the ,islamic state proceeded4 ,first ,campaigns of ,mahomet4 ,the industries in which the ,meccan ,refugees had been engaged were not of a sort which they could exercise at ,medina1 where the palm took the place of the camel as the basis of society4 ,moreover the ,prophet seems to have given some disastrous advice on the subject of palmiculture1 and thereby to have accentuated the poverty of the place4 ,he had1 therefore1 to find some fresh source of revenue in order to deal with this difficulty1 and one of the ,helpers is said to have suggested the plan which he adopted1 viz4 of attacking the ,meccan caravans4 ,with this view he organized a series of expeditions1 taking the lead himself sometimes1 while at others he gave it to one of his veteran followers2 and at first only ,refugees took part in them4 ,the leaders of the caravans1 however1 were expert in evading attacks of this sort1 which were doubtless regularly attempted by the desert tribes2 and in the first year of his despotism ,mahomet did not score a single success of the kind intended4 ,the attempts were not wholly fruitless2 for while on the one hand he accustomed his followers to campaigning1 on the other he made a series of agreements with the chieftains of the tribes through whose territory the caravans ordinarily passed4 ,finding continued failure intolerable1 he resolved to take advantage of his power to bind and to loose by sending an expedition of seven men under his cousin ,abdallah b4 ,jahsh to attack a caravan at the beginning of the sacred month ,rajab1 when1 as raiding during such a season was unknown1 success was practically certain4 ,the commander on this1 the ,nakhlah raid1 was given sealed orders1 to be opened after two days' march2 the men were then to be given the option of retiring1 if they disapproved4 ,of this no one seems definitely to have availed himself1 and the raid ended successfully1 for considerable booty was captured1 while of the four persons who escorted the caravan two were made prisoners1 one escaped1 and one1 ,amr b4 al-,hadrami1 was killed2 he was the first person slain fighting against an ,islamic force4 ,the violation of the sacred month seems to have caused considerable scandal in ,arabia1 but led to no serious consequence2 on the other hand the shedding of blood created a feud between the people of ,mecca and the ,refugees1 with whom the ,meccans long declined to identify the people of ,medina4 ,the fact that the man who had been killed was a client1 not a citizen1 made no difference4 ,the circumstance that booty had been actually acquired appears to have helped the ,prophet's cause very considerably4 ,attack on ,meccan ,caravan4 ,both these consequences1 the ,meccan desire to avenge the blood that had been shed and the anxiety of the ,medinese to take part in a successful raid1 manifested themselves a few months later1 when an expedition was organized by ,mahomet to attack a caravan returning from ,syria1 which had escaped him the previous year4 ,many desired to take part in the raid1 and finally some #cjj persons were selected1 including a large number of ,helpers4 ,the leader of the caravan learned somehow that an attack was being organized by ,mahomet on a large scale1 and sent to ,mecca for aid1 while hurrying home by forced marches4 ,this is the first historical appearance of ,abu ,sofian 7the leader of the caravan71 who now for some years played the part of president in the ,meccan opposition to ,mahomet1 and whose son was destined to found the second ,mahommedan dynasty 7see ,,caliphate1 ,b74 ,the day before the battle to be fought at ,badr1 near the point where the northern road leaves the coast to turn eastwards to ,mecca1 the ,moslem army learned that the ,meccan succour 7some #ajjj strong7 was near1 but that the caravan had escaped4 ,the ,meccans1 it is asserted1 would have returned home now that their object was secured1 but the patrons of the man who had been killed in the former raid were compelled to strike for vengeance4 ,the battle 7,ramadan #ai1 ,a4,h4 #b1 usually made to synchronize with ,march #ag1 #fbd7 ended in a complete victory for ,mahomet1 whose followers killed seventy of the enemy and took seventy prisoners--if we may trust what seem to be round numbers2 it was attributed by him to divine co-operation1 taking the form of an illusion wrought on the enemy1 and the despatch of a regiment of angels to the assistance of the ,believers1 while on the other hand the treachery of the ,devil did mischief to the ,meccans4 ,the popular tradition attributed it to the prowess of some of ,mahomet's followers1 especially his uncle ,hamza and his cousin ,ali4 ,in the narratives which have come down and which seem to be authentic the result is amply accounted for by the excellence of the ,moslem discipline and the complete absence of any on the ,meccan side4 ,mahomet himself is said to have fainted at the first sight of blood1 and to have remained during the battle in a hut built for him to which swift camels were tied1 to be used in case of a defeat2 yet these accounts make him responsible for the tactics1 whilst assigning the credit for the strategy to one ,hobab b4 al-,mondhir4 ,several of ,mahomet's old enemies and friends of ,meccan days perished on this occasion2 notably one ,abu ,jahl1 his uncle1 but represented as an implacable enemy2 another hostile uncle1 ,abu ,lahab1 who is cursed in the ,koran1 was not present but died shortly after the battle4 ,the day is called in the ,koran by a ,syriac expression the ,day of ,deliverance1 and both for internal and external politics it was of incalculable advantage to ,islam4 ,the booty and the ransoms of the prisoners provided the means for dealing with distress2 the story of supernatural aid soothed the feelings of the defeated ,meccans and had a tendency to disarm resistance elsewhere2 whilst ,mahomet in the popularity acquired by his victory was able to strike forcibly at his enemies in ,medina4 ,one of the sequels to the victory was a series of assassinations whereby critics of his actions were removed4 ,the ,taking of ,mecca4 ,the defeat at ,badr naturally led to efforts on the part of the ,meccans to avenge their dead and besides to secure the commerce1 by which they lived1 from an enemy who was gradually getting all the seaboard that lay between ,jeddah and ,yanbo within his sphere of influence2 and the year after ,badr 7,a4,h4 #c7 ,abu ,sofian was able to lead a force said to be three times as great as that which had been defeated1 and so numbering some #cjjj men1 against ,medina itself2 part of it was under ,khalid b4 al-,walid1 one of the greatest of ,arab captains1 afterwards conqueror of ,syria4 ,it is said that ,mahomet's plan was to remain in ,medina itself1 and leave it to the ,meccan commander to discover some way of taking the place2 but that his hand was forced by his more ardent followers4 ,others1 however1 assign this advice to ,abdallah b4 ,ubayy1 and make the ,prophet anxious to fight from the first4 ,a battle was in consequence fought under ,mt ,uhud 7or ,ohod71 north-west of ,medina1 wherein ,khalid succeeded in inflicting a severe defeat on ,mahomet's forces2 his uncle ,hamza1 hero of ,badr1 was killed on this occasion4 ,fortunately for the ,moslems1 the ,meccans considered that they had finished their task when they discovered that they had killed a number of the former equal to those who had fallen at ,badr on their own side2 instead therefore of pursuing their victory they went home4 ,the immediate effect on ,arabia appears to have been to dissipate the illusion that the ,prophet could count on supernatural assistance in his wars2 and we hear of some blows being dealt him from outside4 ,meanwhile his relations towards the ,medinese ,jews had grown more and more hostile1 and these are credited with doing their best to rouse the ,meccans to a sense of the danger which threatened them in the continuance of the ,prophet's power1 and in general to stir up hostility against him in ,arabia4 ,whether this part was played by them or not1 in the fifth year of the ,prophet's stay at ,medina a fresh invasion of the territory took place by a vast confederate force of ,meccans with their allies1 the tribes ,fazarah1 ,asad1 ,murrah1 c41 to the number1 it is said1 of #aj1jjj4 ,this time the intention of the leaders was undoubtedly to stamp out ,islam4 ,for the first time in ,arab warfare ,mahomet resorted to the expedient of defending his city by a trench1 called by a ,persian name1 and suggested by a ,persian convert4 ,but he also employed agents to sow dissension among the confederates1 and succeeded with this no less than with the other expedient4 ,after a brief stay1 and scarcely striking a blow1 the confederacy dispersed1 leaving the ,jews who still remained in ,medina to the summary vengeance of the ,prophet4 ,the want of records written from the ,meccan standpoint renders the abortiveness of this last attempt at storming the ,prophet's stronghold scarcely intelligible4 ,from this time1 however1 the road towards the eventual taking of ,mecca became easy1 and we are told that such was the importance attached to that city throughout ,arabia that its acquisition meant for the ,prophet the acquisition of the whole peninsula4 ,the next year 7,a4,h4 #f7 he deemed it advisable to make a truce with the ,meccans 7the ,truce of ,hodaibiyah71 whereby he secured for his followers the right of performing the pilgrimage in the following year2 on this occasion he even consented to forgo his title ,prophet of ,allah1 when the ,meccans refused to sign a deed in which it was employed1 greatly to the scandal of his more earnest followers1 including ,omar2 they were however too deeply committed to ,islam to be able to defy the ,prophet4 ,when the pilgrimage was performed 7,a4,h4 #g71 ,mahomet not only won important converts in the persons of ,khalid and the no less able ,amr b4 al-,as1 but in general impressed the population with the idea that his was the winning side4 ,an excuse was easily found for invading ,mecca itself in the following year1 when ,abu ,sofian took the opportunity of embracing ,islam before it was too late4 ,very little resistance was now made by the ,meccans1 whose chiefs were already in ,mahomet's camp1 and ,mahomet used his victory with great moderation2 his proscription list was finally reduced to two4 ,the theory that all offences were cancelled by conversion was loyally observed4 ,moreover the ,prophet incurred the displeasure of his ,medinese friends by the anxiety which he displayed to soothe the feelings of his former enemies and antagonists4 ,the ,medinese1 however1 prevailed upon him to maintain their city as his political capital1 while making ,mecca the religious centre of his system2 and this arrangement accounts perhaps more than anything else for the persistence of the system amid so many dynastic changes4 ,in the main he appears to have introduced little alteration into the government of ,mecca1 and it is said that he even declined to retaliate on those who had confiscated the possessions of the ,refugees4 ,even the ,kaba was left in the keeping of its former custodian1 though of course its interior as well as its precincts were cleansed of all that could offend monotheists4 ,in the following year the pilgrimage was for the first time conducted by a ,moslem official1 ,abu ,bekr4 ,a proclamation was made on that occasion1 forbidding idolaters in future to take part in the pilgrimage1 and giving all ,arabs who were not as yet converted four months' grace before force was to be brought to bear upon them4 ,in the following year ,mahomet conducted the ,pilgrimage himself4 ,this solemn occasion 7the ,farewell ,pilgrimage7 was also employed for the delivery of an important proclamation1 wherein the ,prophet declared that ,god had completed their religion4 ,the principle whereon he specially insisted was the brotherhood of ,islam2 but there is some difficulty in enucleating the original sermon from later additions4 ,conquest of ,arabia4 ,it would seem that ,mahomet's enterprise originally comprised the conversion of ,mecca only1 and that he thought of himself as sent to his fellow-citizens only1 as had been the case with earlier prophets1 whose message was for their brethren4 ,his views took a somewhat different direction after his brief exile to ,taif1 and the conquest of ,arabia was in a way forced upon him in the course of his struggle with the ,meccans4 ,it is not indeed perfectly clear by what process he arrived at the resolution to exclude paganism from ,arabia2 at first he appears to have tolerated it at ,medina1 and in some of his earlier contracts with neighbouring tribes he is represented as allowing it1 though some of our texts make him reserve to himself the right of enforcing ,islam if he chose2 only the ,meccans were at first1 according to the most authentic documents1 excluded from all truce or treaty4 ,at the battle of ,badr he appears to have formulated the rule that no one might fight on his side who had not embraced ,islam2 and when once he had won fame as a successful campaigner1 those who wished to share his adventures had to pass the ,islamic test4 ,after the battle of ,uhud 7,ohod7 we hear of a tribe demanding missionaries to instruct them in ,islamic principles2 and though in the case recorded the demand was treacherous1 the idea of sending missionaries appears not to have been unfamiliar even then1 albeit the number sent 7#gj71 if rightly recorded1 implies that the ,prophet suspected the good faith of the applicants4 ,after the taking of ,mecca1 whereby the chief sanctuary at any rate of north ,arabia had been cleared of all idolatrous associations1 and consecrated to monotheism1 paganism in general was conscious of being attacked2 and the city had scarcely been brought under the new rgime before the ,prophet had to face a confederation of tribes called ,hawazin and ,thaqif4 ,the battle which ensued1 known as the ,day of ,honain1 was near ending disastrously for ,islam2 some of ,mahomet's sturdiest followers fled2 but the terrible danger of a defeat in the neighbourhood of recently conquered ,mecca roused the ,prophet and ,ali to heroism1 and they saved the day4 ,emissaries were now sent far and wide demanding the destruction of idols1 and only ,taif appears to have made any considerable resistance2 against this place for the first time the ,prophet made use of siege artillery1 such as was employed by the ,byzantines2 though compelled by the bravery of the inhabitants to raise the siege1 he was afterwards able to take the city by capitulation4 ,it has been observed that here only do we read of much attachment to the old deities2 in most places they were discarded with few regrets when once their impotence had been found out4 ,after the taking of ,mecca and the victory of ,honain there appears to have been a general desire1 extending even to the extreme south of ,arabia1 to make the best terms with the conqueror so soon as possible2 iconoclasm became general4 ,flatterers of various kinds1 including poets1 came to seek the favour of the sovereign2 and a mock war of words appears to have been substituted by some tribes for more serious fighting1 to terminate in surrender4 ,for warfare of his sort ,mahomet had a powerful helper in the poet ,hassan b4 ,thabit1 for whose effusions a pulpit was erected in the ,medina mosque1 and whose verses were said to be inspired by the ,holy ,spirit2 though1 as has been seen1 ,mahomet was not himself able to judge of their artistic merit4 ,it was not1 however1 found easy to enforce the payment of the alms on these new converts2 and this taxation caused an almost general revolt so soon as ,mahomet's death had been ascertained4 ,plan of ,world-conquest4 ,although the central portions of the peninsula in ,mahomet's time were practically independent1 large portions of the north-west and south-east were provinces of the ,byzantine and ,persian empires respectively1 whence any scheme for the conquest of ,arabia would necessarily involve the conqueror in war with these great powers4 ,the conquest of ,persia is said to have been contemplated by the ,prophet as early as ,a4,h4 #e1 when the famous ,trench was being dug2 but it was not till the year ,a4,h4 #g1 on the eve of the taking of ,mecca1 that the ,prophet conceived the idea of sending missives to all known sovereigns and potentates1 promising them safety if1 but only if1 they embraced ,islam4 ,the text of these letters1 which only varied in the name of the person addressed1 is preserved 7doubtless faithfully7 by the ,moslem ,oral ,tradition2 in the middle of the last century a ,french explorer professed to discover in ,egypt the original of one of them--addressed to the mysterious personage called the ,muqauqis 7,mukaukis7 of ,egypt--and this1 it appears1 is still preserved amid other supposed relics of the ,prophet in ,constantinople1 though there is little reason for believing it to be genuine4 ,the anecdotes dealing with the reception of these letters by their addressees are all fabulous in character4 ,two appear to have sent favourable replies3 the king of ,axum1 who now could send the exiles whom he had so long harboured to their successful master2 and the ,egyptian governor1 who sent ,mahomet a valuable present1 including two ,coptic women for his harem4 ,the emperor ,heraclius is claimed as a secret convert to ,islam1 on whom pressure had to be put by his advisers to conceal his convictions4 ,the ,persian king is said to have sent orders to have ,mahomet arrested2 his messengers arrived in ,medina1 but were unable to carry out the commands of their master1 who died while they were there4 ,two of the letters are said to have had important results4 ,one was addressed to the ,himyarite chiefs 7called by the south ,arabian appellation qail7 in ,yemen1 and effected their conversion2 another to the governor of ,bostra in ,roman ,arabia1 who put the bearer of this insolent message to death2 a force was despatched by ,mahomet immediately afterwards 7beginning of ,a4,h4 #h7 to avenge this outrage2 and though the ,moslems were defeated in their first encounter with the ,byzantine forces at ,mutah1 they appear to have given a good account of themselves2 it was here that ,jafar1 cousin of the ,prophet1 met his death4 ,in ,a4,h4 #i a successful expedition was led by the ,prophet himself northward1 in which1 though no ,byzantine force was encountered1 a considerable region was withdrawn from the ,byzantine sphere of influence1 and made either ,islamic or tributary to ,islam4 ,at the time of his death 7of fever1 after a short illness7 he was organizing an expedition for the conquest of ,syria4 ,jewish and ,christian ,communities4 ,the ,prophet claimed throughout that his revelation confirmed the ,jewish and ,christian ,scriptures1 and this claim is on the whole reasonable1 though his acquaintance with both was in the highest degree vague and inaccurate4 ,still he reproduced the ,old ,testament as faithfully as he could1 and though he patriotically endeavours to shed some lustre on his supposed ancestor ,ishmael1 he does not appear to have questioned the ,biblical theory according to which the founder of the north ,arabian nations was the son of a slave girl4 ,on neither the truth of the ,biblical history and miracles nor the validity of the ,mosaic legislation does he appear to have cast any doubt4 ,he even allows that ,israel was the chosen people4 ,the ,gospel was known to him chiefly through apocryphal and heretical sources1 which cannot certainly be identified2 but he accepted the doctrine of the ,virgin-birth1 the miracles of healing the sick and raising the dead1 and the ascension2 the crucifixion and resurrection were clearly denied by the sect from whom he had received his information1 and rejected by him1 though certainly not because of any miracle which the latter involved4 ,his quarrel with the ,jews at ,medina appears to have been by no means of his own seeking1 but to have arisen unavoidably1 owing to his particular view of his office being such as they could not accept2 and his attempt to discredit1 not the ,mosaic ,law1 but the form in which they presented it1 was an expedient to which he resorted in self-defence4 ,an attempt was made shortly after his arrival at ,medina to settle the relations between the two communities by a treaty1 according to which1 while their equality was guaranteed there should be little interference between the two2 this1 however1 was found unworkable1 and each victory of ,mahomet over the ,meccans was followed by violent measures against the ,medinese ,israelites4 ,when experience had shown him their military incompetence he appears to have been unable to resist the temptation to appropriate their goods for the benefit of his followers2 and his attack on the flourishing ,jewish settlement of ,khaibar1 after the affair of ,hodaibiyah1 appears to have been practically unprovoked1 and designed to satisfy his discontented adherents by an accession of plunder4 ,yet the consciousness that this process was economically wasteful suggested to him an idea which ,islamic states are only now abandoning1 viz4 that of a tolerated caste1 who should till the soil and provide sustenance for the ,believers who were to be the fighting caste4 ,whereas then his former plan in dealing with ,israelites had been to banish or massacre1 he now left the former owners of ,khaibar 7who had survived the capture of the place7 in possession of the soil1 of whose produce they were to pay a fixed proportion to the ,islamic state4 ,the same principle was adopted in the case of later conquests of ,jewish settlements4 ,disputes with ,christians occur somewhat later in the ,prophet's career than those with ,jews1 for neither at ,mecca nor ,medina were the former to be found in any numbers2 individuals are likely to have been found in both cities1 and we hear of one ,medinese ,abu',amir the ,monk1 who after ,mahomet's arrival at ,medina branded him as an impostor1 and1 going himself into exile1 made many an abortive attempt to discredit and injure ,mahomet's cause4 ,the notices of him are meagre and obscure4 ,mahomet's manifesto to the world1 about the time of the taking of ,khaibar1 appears to represent his definite breach with ,christianity2 and when in the year of the embassies the ,christians of ,najran sent a deputation to him1 they found that the breach between the two systems was not to be healed4 ,of the three alternatives open to them--conversion1 internecine war1 and tribute1 they chose the last4 ,the ,christian tribes of north ,arabia showed greater inclination towards the first4 ,the ,prophet's policy was to give ,christians lighter terms than ,jews1 and though the ,koran reflects the gradual adoption by the ,prophet of an attitude of extreme hostility to both systems1 its tone is on the whole far more friendly to the former than to the latter4 ,some other communities are mentioned in the ,koran1 but merely in casual allusions3 thus we know that ,mahomet's sympathy was with the ,byzantines in their struggle with ,persia1 but in his most tolerant utterance the ,magians or ,mazdians as well as the ,sabians 7with whom his followers were identified by the ,meccans7 are mentioned with respect4 ,mahomet's ,administration4 ,the financial requirements of ,mahomet's state were of the simplest kind1 for there is no trace of any form of governmental department having been instituted by him1 even when he was master of the peninsula2 nor can we name any permanent officials in his employ except his muaddhin ,bilal1 and perhaps his court-poet ,hassan4 ,a staff of scribes was finally required both to take down his revelations and to conduct correspondence2 but although he encouraged the acquisition of penmanship 7indeed some of the prisoners at ,badr are said to have been allowed to ransom themselves by teaching it to the ,medinese71 we know of no regular secretaries in his employ4 ,as despot of ,medina he combined the functions of legislator1 administrator1 general and judge2 his duties in the last three capacities were occasionally delegated to others1 as when he appointed a governor of ,medina during his absence1 or leaders for expeditions1 with provision for successors in case of their falling1 but we hear of no permanent or regular delegation of them4 ,till near the end of his career at ,medina he maintained the principle that migration to that city was a condition of conversion2 but when1 owing to the extension of his power1 this was no longer practicable1 his plan was in the main to leave the newly converted communities to manage their internal affairs as before1 only sending occasional envoys to discharge special duties1 especially instruction in the ,koran and the principles of ,islam1 and to collect the ,alms2 quite towards the end of his life he appears to have sent persons to the provinces to act as judges1 with instructions to judge according to the ,koran1 and where that failed1 the practice 7sunna71 i4e4 the practice of the community1 for which a later generation substituted the practice of the ,prophet4 ,there were1 therefore1 no regular payments to permanent officials2 and the taxation called ,alms1 which developed into an income-tax1 but was at first a demand for voluntary contributions1 was wholly for the support of the poor ,moslems2 it might not be used for the maintenance of the state1 i4e4 ,mahomet and his family4 ,for them1 and for public business1 e4g4 the purchase of war material and gratuities to visitors1 provision was made out of the booty1 of which ,mahomet claimed one-fifth 7the chieftain's share had previously1 we are told1 been one-fourth71 while the remainder--or at least the bulk of it--was distributed among the fighting men2 the ,prophet appears to have prided himself on the justice of his distribution on these occasions1 and doubtless won popularity thereby1 though we hear occasionally of grumbling2 for difficulties occurred when a defeated tribe embraced ,islam1 and so could claim equality with their conquerors1 or when portions of the spoil were irregularly employed by ,mahomet to allay resentment3 the persons whose allegiance was thus purchased were euphemistically termed those whose hearts were united4 ,what afterwards proved the main source of revenue in ,islamic states dates from the taking of ,khaibar2 for the rent paid to the state by tolerated communities for the right to work their land developed long after ,mahomet's time into a poll-tax for ,unbelievers 7see ,,caliphate1 e4g4 ,b4 #h and ,,mahommedan ,,institutions71 and a land-tax for all owners of land4 ,immediately after the taking of ,khaibar certain communities1 of which the most notable was ,fadak1 sent tribute before they had been attacked and reduced2 their land was regarded by ,mahomet as his private domain1 but after his death it was withdrawn from his heirs by his successor ,abu ,bekr1 in virtue of a maxim that ,prophets left no inheritance1 which in the opinion of ,fatima was contrary to ,koranic doctrine1 and invented by ,ayesha's father expressly for the purpose of excluding her and her husband from their rights2 and this is likely to have been the case4 ,as a military organizer ,mahomet1 as has been seen1 was anxious to adopt the most advanced of contemporary methods1 and more than once is said to have scandalized the ,arabs by foreign innovations1 as at a later time the ,moslem chiefs who first used gunpowder scandalized their co-religionists4 ,the unit in his armies seems to have been1 as of old1 the tribe1 under its natural leader2 that he introduced no more scientific division1 and nothing like a hierarchy of officers was perhaps due to the difficulty of reconciling such a system with the equality of all ,moslems4 ,as has been seen1 the ,koran only assumed the character of a civil code as the need for one arose2 and for some time after ,mahomet's arrival at ,medina old-fashioned methods of settling disputes continued in use1 and doubtless in accordance with precedent where such was known4 ,for difficult cases1 even in ,arab opinion1 divine inspiration was required2 and since ,mahomet naturally claimed to be in sole enjoyment of this1 his utterances soon became the unique source of law1 though he did not at first think of organizing a code4 ,such a plan is said to have occurred to him1 and he even wished to dictate a code upon his deathbed2 but his friends supposed or professed to suppose him to be delirious4 ,a table regulating the ,alms was left by him1 it is said1 in the possession of ,abu ,bekr2 but other traditions assign another origin to this document4 ,just as there were no regular officials for the arrangement of business1 so there were none for its execution2 when punishment was to be administered1 any follower of ,mahomet might be called upon to administer it4 ,in the case of the massacre of the ,banu ,quraizah care was taken to see that some of the heads were struck off by their former allies1 in order that the latter might be unable at any time to bring a demand for vengeance4 ,the ,prophet hoped by the mere terror of his name to make complete security reign throughout ,arabia1 and there is no evidence that any system of policing either it or even ,medina occurred to him4 ,domestic ,life4 ,until the death of ,khadija the ,prophet's private life seems to have been normal and happy1 for though the loss of his sons in infancy is said to have earned him a contemptuous epithet1 he was fortunate in his adoption of ,zaid b4 ,harithah1 apparently a prisoner ransomed by ,khadija or one of her relatives1 who appears as dutiful almost to excess and competent in affairs4 ,the marriages of his daughters seem all to have been happy1 with1 curiously1 the exception of that between ,fatima and ,ali4 ,his domestic troubles1 to which an unreasonable amount of space seems to be devoted1 even in the ,koran1 began after the ,migration1 when1 probably in the main for political reasons1 he instituted a royal harem4 ,one of these political motives was the principle which long survived1 that the conquest of a state was consummated by possession of the former monarch's wife1 or daughter2 another1 as has been seen1 the desire to obtain the securest possible hold on his ministers4 ,in his marriage with the daughter of his arch-enemy ,abu ,sofian1 before the latter's conversion1 we can see a combination of the two4 ,few1 therefore1 of these marriages occasioned scandal2 yet public morality seemed to be violated when the ,prophet took to himself the wife of his adopted son ,zaid1 whose name has in consequence the honour of mention in the ,koran in the revelation which was delivered in defence of this act4 ,its purpose was1 according to this1 to establish the difference between adoptive and real filiation4 ,serious trouble was occasioned by a charge of adultery brought against the youthful favourite ,ayesha1 and this had to be refuted by a special revelation2 the charge1 which was backed up apparently by ,ali1 seems to have been connected with some deeper scheme for causing dissension between the ,prophet and his friends4 ,yet another revelation is concerned with a mutiny in the harem organized by ,omar's daughter ,hafsa1 owing to undue favour shown to a ,coptic concubine 7,mary1 mother of a son called ,ibrahim1 who died in infancy2 his death was marked by an eclipse1 ,january #bg1 #fcb72 and various details of factions within the harem are told us by ,mahomet's biographers4 ,of the members of this harem the only prominent one is ,ayesha1 married to the ,prophet shortly after the ,flight1 when she had scarcely passed the period of infancy1 but who appears to have been gifted with astuteness and ambition that were quite beyond her years1 and who maintained her ascendancy over the ,prophet in spite of the fact that many carping criticisms of his revelations are attributed to her4 ,some of this may have been due to the obligations 7including pecuniary obligations7 under which her father had laid ,mahomet2 but her reputation seems to have been greatly enhanced by the sending down of a revelation to exonerate her 7,a4,h4 #f71 for which she thanked ,god and not the ,prophet4 ,each accession to the harem rendered the building of a house or room necessary for the newcomer's accommodation2 a fact in which ,robertson ,smith perhaps rightly saw a relic of the older system whereby the tent was the property of women4 ,the trouble noticed above seems to have arisen from the want of a similar arrangement in the case of slave girls1 with whom ,mahomet's system permits cohabitation4 ,when ,mahomet1 whether in consequence of the fatigue incurred by the ,farewell ,pilgrimage1 or1 as others thought1 by the working of some poison put into his food some years before by a ,jewess of ,khaibar1 was attacked by the illness which proved fatal1 it was to the house of ,ayesha that he was transferred 7from that of another wife7 to be nursed2 and he apparently died in the arms of the favourite1 on whose statements we have to rely for what we know of his last hours4 ,general ,characteristics4 ,the traditional description of ,mahomet is of middle height1 greyish1 with hair that was neither straight nor curly2 with a large head1 large eyes1 heavy eyelashes1 reddish tint in the eyes1 thick-bearded1 broad-shouldered1 with thick hands and feet2 he was in the habit of giving violent expression to the emotions of anger and mirth4 ,the supposition that he at any time suffered from physical weakness seems absolutely refuted by his career as a leader of difficult1 dangerous and wearisome expeditions1 from his migration to ,medina until his death2 indeed1 during his last years he exhibited a capacity for both physical and intellectual activity which implies a high degree of both health and strength2 and without these the previous struggle at ,mecca could scarcely have been carried on4 ,the supposition that he was liable to fits 7epileptic or cataleptic7 was intended to account for certain of the phenomena supposed to accompany the delivery of revelations2 some of these however rest on very questionable authority3 and the greater number of the revelations give evidence of careful preparation rather than spontaneity4 ,the literary matter ascribed to the ,prophet consists of 7#a7 the ,koran 7q4v472 7#b7 certain contracts1 letters and rescripts preserved by his biographers2 7#c7 a number of sayings on a vast variety of topics1 collected by traditionalists4 ,the references in the ,koran to a form of literature called ,wisdom 7hikmah7 suggest that even in the ,prophet's time some attempts had been made to collect or at least preserve some of the last2 the general uncertainty of oral tradition and the length of time which elapsed before any critical treatment of it was attempted1 and the variety of causes1 creditable and discreditable1 which led to the wilful fabrication of prophetic utterances1 render the use to which ,no4 #c can be put very limited4 ,thus the lengthy description of the journey to heaven which ,sprenger was inclined to accept as genuine is regarded by most critics as a later fabrication4 ,it is very much to be regretted that the number of pices justificatives 7,no4 #b7 quoted by the biographers is so small1 and that for these oral tradition was preferred to a search for the actual documents1 some of which may well have been in existence when the earliest biographies were written4 ,their style appears to have been plain and straightforward1 though the allusions which they contain are not always intelligible4 ,in his personal relations with men ,mahomet appears to have been able to charm and impress in an extraordinary degree1 whence we find him able to control persons like ,omar and ,khalid1 who appear to have been self-willed and masterful1 and a single interview seems to have been sufficient to turn many an enemy into a devoted adherent4 ,cases 7perhaps legendary7 are quoted of his being able by a look or a word to disarm intending assassins4 ,although the titles which he took were religious in character1 and his office might not be described as sovereignty1 his interests appear to have lain far more in the building up and maintenance of empire than in ecclesiastical matters4 ,thus only can we account for the violent and sudden changes which he introduced into his system1 for his temporary lapse into paganism1 and for his ultimate adoption of the cult of the ,black ,stone1 which1 it is said1 gave offence to some of his sincere adherents 7e4g4 ,omar71 and seems hard to reconcile with his tirades against fetish-worship4 ,the same is indicated by his remarkable doctrine that the utterance of the creed constituted a ,moslem and not its cordial acceptance1 and his practice of at times buying adhesion4 ,even an historian so favourable to the ,prophet as ,prince ,caetani recognizes that ultimately what he regarded as most important was that his subjects should pay their taxes4 ,and in general his system was not favourable to fanaticism 7al-ghulu fil-din72 he repeatedly gave permission for concealment of faith when the profession of it was dangerous2 he took care to avoid institutions which1 like the ,jewish ,sabbath1 interfered seriously with military expeditions and the conduct of business1 and permitted considerable irregularity in the matters of prayer and fasting when circumstances rendered it desirable4 ,in his theory that ,koranic texts could be abrogated he made wise provision against the danger of hasty legislation1 though some of its usefulness was frustrated by his failure to provide for such abrogation after his death4 ,mahomet's ,reforms4 ,as has been seen1 ,mahomet claimed to introduce a wholly new dispensation1 and a maxim of his law is that ,islam cancels all that preceded it1 except1 indeed1 pecuniary debts2 it is not certain that even this exception always held good4 ,hence his system swept away a number of practices 7chiefly connected with the camel7 that were associated with pagan superstitions4 ,the most celebrated of these is the arrow-game1 a form of gambling for shares in slaughtered camels1 to which poetic allusions are very frequent4 ,more important than this was his attitude towards the blood-feud1 or system of tribal responsibility for homicide 7whether intentional or accidental71 whereby one death regularly led to protracted wars1 it being considered dishonourable to take blood-money 7usually in the form of camels7 or to be satisfied with one death in exchange4 ,this system he endeavoured to break down1 chiefly by sinking all earlier tribal distinctions in the new brotherhood of ,islam2 but also by limiting the vengeance to be demanded to such as was no more than the equivalent of the offence committed1 and by urging the acceptance of money-compensation instead1 or complete forgiveness of the offence4 ,the remembrance of pre-,islamic quarrels was visited by him with condign punishment on those who had embraced ,islam2 and though it was long before the tribal system quite broke down1 even in the great cities which rose in the new provinces1 and the old state of things seems to have quickly been resumed in the desert1 his legislation on this subject rendered orderly government among ,arabs possible4 ,next in importance to this is the abolition of infanticide1 which is condemned even in early ,suras of the ,koran4 ,the scanty notices which we have of the practice are not altogether consistent2 at times we are told that it was confined to certain tribes1 and consisted in the burying alive of infant daughters2 at other times it is extended to a wider area1 and said to have been carried out on males as well as females4 ,after the taking of ,mecca this prohibition was included among the conditions of ,islam4 ,in the laws relating to women it seems likely that he regulated current practice rather than introduced much that was actually new1 though1 as has been seen1 he is credited with giving them the right to inherit property2 the most precise legislation in the ,koran deals with this subject1 of which the main principle is that the share of the male equals that of two females4 ,our ignorance of the precise nature of the marriage customs prevalent in ,arabia at the rise of ,islam renders it difficult to estimate the extent to which his laws on this subject were an improvement on what had been before4 ,the pre-,islamic family1 unless our records are wholly misleading1 did not differ materially from the ,islamic2 in both polygamy and concubinage were recognized and normal2 and it is uncertain that the text which is supposed to limit the number of wives to four was intended to have that meaning4 ,the condition of ,islam whereby adultery was forbidden is said to have been ridiculed at the time1 on the ground that this practice had never been approved4 ,yet it would seem that certain forms of promiscuity had been tolerated1 though the subject is obscure4 ,against these services we must set the abrogation of some valuable practices4 ,his unfortunate essay in astronomy1 whereby a calendar of twelve lunar months1 bearing no relation to the seasons1 was introduced1 was in any case a retrograde step2 but it appears to have been connected with the abrogation of the sanctity of the four months during which raiding had been forbidden in ,arabia1 which1 as has been seen1 he was the first to violate4 ,he also1 as has been noticed1 permitted himself a slight amount of bloodshed in ,mecca itself1 and that city perhaps never quite recovered its sacrosanct character4 ,of more serious consequences for the development of the community was his encouragement of the shedding of kindred blood in the cause of ,islam2 the consequences of the abrogation of this taboo seem to have been felt for a great length of time4 ,his assassinations of enemies were afterwards quoted as precedents in books of ,tradition4 ,no less unfortunate was the recognition of the principle whereby atonement could be made for oaths4 ,on the question how far the seclusion of women was enjoined or countenanced by him different views have been held4 ,sources4 ,besides the contemporary documents enumerated above 7,koranic texts1 rescripts and authentic traditions7 many of the events were celebrated by poets1 whose verses were ostensibly incorporated in the standard biography of ,ibn ,ishaq2 in the abridgment of that biography which we possess many of these are obelized as spurious1 and1 indeed1 what we know of the procedure of those who professed to collect early poetry gives us little confidence in the genuineness of such odes4 ,a few1 however1 seem to stand criticism1 and the diwan 7or collection of poems7 attributed to ,hassan b4 ,thabit is ordinarily regarded as his4 ,though they rarely give detailed descriptions of events1 their attestation is at times of value1 e4g4 for the story that the bodies of the slain at ,badr were cast by the ,prophet into a pit4 ,besides this1 the narratives of eyewitnesses of important events1 or of those who had actually taken part in them1 were eagerly sought by the second generation1 and some of these were committed to writing well before the end of the #ast century4 ,the practice instituted by the second ,caliph1 of assigning pensions proportioned to the length of time in which the recipient had been a member of the ,islamic community1 led to the compilation of certain rolls1 and to the accurate preservation of the main sequence of events from the commencement of the mission1 and for the detailed sequence after the ,flight1 which presently became an era 7beginning with the first month of the year in which the ,flight took place74 ,the procedure whereby the original dates of the events 7so far as they were remembered7 were translated into the ,moslem calendar--for something of this sort must have been done--is unknown1 and is unlikely to have been scientific4 ,mahomet's conduct being made the standard of right and wrong1 there was little temptation to whitewash him1 although the original biography by ,ibn ,ishaq appears to have contained details which the author of the abridgment omitted as scandalous4 ,the preservation of so much that was historical left little room for the introduction of miraculous narrations2 these therefore either belong to the obscure period of his life or can be easily eliminated2 thus the narratives of the ,meccan council at which the assassination of ,mahomet was decided1 of the battles of ,badr1 ,uhud and ,honain1 and the death of ,sadb4 ,mu adh1 would lose nothing by the omission of the angels and the devil1 though a certain part is assigned the one or the other on all these occasions4 ,we should have expected biographies which were published when the ,abbasids were reigning to have falsified history for the purpose of glorifying ,abbas1 their progenitor2 the very small extent to which this expectation is justified is a remarkable testimony to their general trustworthiness4 ,,relatives ,,of ,,the ,,prohet#a #a4 ,family of ,abd al-,mottalib1 ,mahomet's maternal grandfather3--99,abbas 7d4 ,a4,h4 #cb or #cd71 99,hamza 7d4 ,a4,h4 #c71 ,abdallah1 father of the ,prophet1 99,abu ,talib 7said to be named ,abd ,manaf71 8 99,zubair1 ,harith1 ,hajal1 ,moqawwam1 ,dirar1 99,abu ,lahab 7said to be named ,abd al-,uzza1 d4 ,a4,h4 #b71 99,safiyyah 7d4 ,a4,h4 #bj71 ,umm ,hakim1 al-,baida1 ,atikah1 ,umaimah1 ,arwa1 ,barrah4 #b4 ,family of ,abu ,talib3--99,aqil 7d4 after ,a4,h4 #dj71 99,jafar 7d4 ,a4,h4 #h71 ,talib1 ,tulaiq1 ,ali1 the caliph1 ,umm ,hani'1 ,jumanah1 ,raitah4 #c4 ,family of ,mahomet4 ,wives3--99,khadija 7,children3--,qasim2 8 ,abd ,manaf 7,tahir1 ,tayyib72 99,zainab m4 ,abu'l-,as b4 ,rabi'1 d4 ,a4,h4 #g2 99,ruqayyah1 m4 ,othman b4 ,affan1 d4 ,a4,h4 #b2 99,umm ,kulthum m4 ,othman b4 ,affan1 d4 ,a4,h4 #i2 99,fatimah1 m4 ,ali1 d4 ,a4,h4 #aa73 99,saudah bint ,zamah18 d4 ,a4,h4 #ed1 99,a'ishah 7,ayesha7 bint ,abi ,bekr 7d4 ,a4,h4 #ef71 99,hafsa bint ,omar 7d4 ,a4,h4 #de or #dg71 99,zainab bint ,khuzaimah1 d4 before ,a4,h4 #aa1 99,zainab bint ,jahsh1 d4 ,a4,h4 #bj1 99,umm ,salimah1 d4 ,a4,h4 #ei1 99,maimunah1 d4 ,a4,h4 #ch1 99,juwairiyah1 d4 ,a4,h4 #ef1 99,umm ,habibah ,ramlah bint ,abi ,sofian1 d4 ,a4,h4 #dd4 ,concubines3--99,safiyyah bint ,huyyay1 d4 ,a4,h4 #cf1 99,raihanah bint ,zaid1 99,mariyah the ,copt1 d4 ,a4,h4 #ae or #af1 mother of ,ibrahim4 7,other names given by ,ibn ,sad1 vol4 viii47 ,chronological ,table of ,chief ,events in the ,life of ,mahomet4#b 8 #egj ,birth4 8 #eie ,marriage with ,khadija4 8 #faj ,commencement of call4 8 #fac ,public appearance4 #faf ,persian conquest of the nearer ,east4 8 #fag ,flight of his followers to ,abyssinia4 8 #fah-fai ,siege in ,mecca4 ,retractation and subsequent repudiation4 ,death of ,abu ,talib and ,khadija4 8 #fbj ,flight to ,taif4 #fbb ,july #af4 ,beginning of the ,moslem era4 ,sept4 #bj4 ,arrival at ,kuba after the ,flight4 #fcb ,jan4 #bg4 ,death of his son ,ibrahim4 #fcb ,june #g4 ,death of ,mahomet4 ,the following dates are given by the ,arabic historians according to their own calendar4 ,for the reasons which have been seen it is impossible to obtain certain synchronisms4 ,a4,h4 #b4 ,rajab #a4 ,raid of ,abdallah b4 ,jahsh to ,nakhlah4 ,ramadan #ai4 ,battle of ,badr4 ,shawwal #ae4 ,attack on the ,banu ,qainuqa4 #c4 ,rabia ,i4 #ad4 ,assassination of ,kab b4 al-,ashraf4 ,shawwal #g4 ,battle of ,uhud4 #d4 ,saphar4 ,massacre of ,mahomet's #gj missionaries at ,bi'r ,maunah4 ,rabia ,i4 ,attack on the ,banu ,nadir4 ,dhu'l-,qada4 ,abortive raid called the lesser ,badr4 #e4 ,shaaban #b4 ,attack on the ,banu'l-,mustaliq 7according to ,waqidi74 ,dhu'l-,qada4 ,battle of the ,trench4 ,massacre of the ,banu ,quraizah4 #f4 ,jomada i4 ,capture of a caravan by ,zaid b4 ,harithah4 ,futile attempt to assassinate ,abu ,sofian4 ,dhu'l-,qada4 ,affair of ,hodaibiyah4 #g4 ,jomada i4 ,taking of ,khaibar4 ,mission extended to the world4 ,dhu'l-,qada4 ,pilgrimage to ,mecca 7called 'umrat al-qadiyyah7 #h4 ,jomada i4 ,expedition to ,mutah4 ,ramadan #bj4 ,taking of ,mecca4 ,shawwal4 ,battle of ,honain4 ,attack on ,taif4 #i4 ,muharram4 ,tax-gatherers sent over ,arabia4 ,rajab4 ,expedition to ,tabuk4 ,rival ,mosque built at ,kuba1 destroyed on ,mahomet's return to ,medina4 ,dhu'l-,hijja4 ,pilgrimage conducted by ,abu ,bekr4 ,abolition of idolatry in ,arabia4 #aj4 ,ramadan4 ,expedition of ,ali to ,yemen4 ,dhu'l-,qada4 ,farewell ,pilgrimage4 #aa4 ,saphar4 ,expedition ordered against the ,byzantines4 ,companions of the ,prophet4 ,the sahabah1 as they are called1 are the subject of a vast literature1 and the biographical dictionaries devoted to them1 of which the best known are the ,usd ul-ghaba of the historian ,ibn ,athir and the ,isabah of ,ibn ,hajar al-,asqalani1 enumerate many thousands4 ,the following two lists are of special groups4 7a7 ,naqibs1 i4e4 leaders selected by ,mahomet from the ,medinese tribes3 i4 ,khazrajites3--,asad b4 ,zurarah1 ,sad b4 al-,rabi1 ,abdallah b4 ,rawahah1 al-,bara' b4 ,marur1 ,abdallah b4 ,amr b4 ,haram1 ,ubadah b4 al-,samit1 ,sad b4 ,ubadah1 al-,mondhir b4 ',amr2 ii4 ,ausites3 ,usaid b4 ,hudair1 ,sad b4 ,khaithamah1 ,rifaah b4 ,abd al-,mondhir4 7b7 ,commanders of ,expeditions3 names occurring in 7a7 are not repeated3 ,abdallah b4 ,jahsh1 ,abd ar-,rahman b4 ,auf1 ,abu ,bekr1 ,abu ,qatadah1 ,abu ,ubaidah b4 al-,jarrah1 ,ali1 ,alqamah b4 ,mujazziz1 ,amr b4 al-,as 7ibn el-,ass71 ,bashir b4 ,sad1 ,dahhak b4 ,sofian1 ,ghalib b4 ,abdallah1 ,ibn ,abi'l-,auja1 ,kab b4 ,umair1 ,khalid b4 al-,walid1 ,kurz b4 ,jabir1 ,marthad b4 ,abi ,marthad1 ,muhammad b4 ,maslamah1 ,qutbah b4 ,amir1 ,sad b4 ,abi ,waqqas1 ,sad d4 ,zaid1 ,salama b4 ,abd al-,asad1 ,shuja b4 ,wahb1 ,ubaidah b4 al-,harith1 ,ukkashah b4 ,mihsan1 ,umar b4 al-,khattab1 ,usamah b4 ,zaid1 ,uyainah b4 ,hisn1 ,zaid b4 ,harithah4 ,,authorities4--,the biography of ,ibn ,ishaq was before the world long before the two chief causes for the falsification of tradition had begun to have serious effects2 these were the need for legal precedents1 and the concept of saintliness1 combining those of asceticism and thaumaturgy4 ,these gave rise to the classical works on the ,evidences of ,mohammed's ,mission by ,abu ,nuaim 7d4 ,a4,d4 #ajab-ajac7 and ,baihaqi 7d4 ,a4,d4 #ajff74 ,lives of the ,prophet 7 indicates that the work is lost72 ,urwah b4 ,zubair 7d4 #gab-gac72 ,musa b4 ,ukbah 7d4 #geh-gei72 ,mohammed b4 ,ishaq 7d4 #gfh72 ,mohammed b4 ,hisham 7d4 #hbh-hbi71 ed4 ,wstenfeld 7,gttingen1 #ahfj72 reprinted in ,egypt by ,zubair ,pasha1 a series of excerpts from the last2 ,mohammed b4 ,omar al-,waqidi 7d4 #hbc71 portion published by ,kremer 7,calcutta1 #ahee71 abridged trans4 of a fuller copy by ,wellhausen1 ,muhammad in ,medina 7,berlin1 #ahhb72 ,mohammed b4 ,sad 7d4 #hdd-hde71 an encyclopaedic work on the history of ,mahomet and his followers1 called ,tabaqat1 ed4 ,sachau and others 7,berlin1 foll472 ,mohammed b4 ,jarir al-,tabari 7see ,,tabari74 ,many more writers on this subject are enumerated in the ,fihrist1 cf4 ,sprenger's ,leben ,muhammads1 iii4 #ed-gf4 ,among the most popular compilers of later times are3 ,ibn al-,athir 7q4v47 al ,jazari1 the historian 7d4 #abcc72 ,ahmad b4 ,ali al ,kastalani 7d4 ,a4,d4 #aeag71 whose al-,mawahib al-,laduniyyah was published with commentary 7,cairo1 #abgh72 ,hosain b4 ,mohammed al ,diyarbakri 7d4 #aegd7 whose work ,ta'rikh al-,khamis was published in ,cairo1 ,a4,h4 #achb2 ,ali b4 ,burhan al-din al-,halabi 7d4 ,a4,d4 #afcd71 whose biography called ,insan al-uyun was published in ,cairo1 ,a4,h4 #abib4 ,to these must be added all the collections of ,tradition4 ,modern ,authorities4--,the critical study of the ,life of ,mahomet begins in ,europe with the publication by ,th4 ,gagnier in #agbc of the ,life by ,abulfeda 7q4v474 ,presently there appeared an apologetic biography by ,henri ,cmte4 de ,boulainvilliers 7#bnd ed41 ,amsterdam1 #agca71 to which ,gagnier replied in #agcb 7,la ,vie de ,mahomet1 traduite1 c4 ibid474 ,the next considerable advance in the treatment of the subject is marked by the biography of ,g4 ,weil 7,muhammed der ,prophet1 ,stuttgart1 #ahdc71 which is wholly without religious bias2 the popular life by ,washington ,irving 7,london1 #ahdi7 is based on this4 ,that by ,j4 ,l4 ,merrick 7the ,life and ,religion of ,mohammed1 ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 #ahej7 rests on ,shiite sources4 ,the search for ,,mss4 in ,india conducted by ,a4 ,sprenger led to the discovery of fresh material1 which was utilized by ,sprenger himself in his unfinished ,life of ,mohammad 7,pt4 #a1 ,allahabad1 #ahea71 and his more elaborate ,das ,leben und die ,lehre des ,mohammad 7,berlin1 #ahfa-ahfe71 and by ,sir ,william ,muir in his ,life of ,mahomet1 7,london1 #aheh-ahfa7 #d vols43 afterwards abridged in one volume and reprinted4 ,these are still the standard treatises on the subject2 the pro-,christian bias of ,muir is very marked1 while ,sprenger has hazarded numerous conjectures on subjects with which he had little familiarity4 ,the biography by ,s4 ,w4 ,koelle1 ,mohammed and ,mohammedanism 7,london1 #ahhi71 is pro-,christian1 the popular work of ,syed ,ameer ,ali ,the ,spirit of ,islam1 7,london1 #ahif7 an apology for ,mahommedanism4 ,later treatises1 resting on original authorities1 are those by ,h4 ,grimme ,mohamed1 7,mnster1 #ahib1 and ,munich1 #aijd71 ,f4 ,buhl1 ,mohameds ,liv 7,copenhagen1 #aijc--;,danish3 since translated into ,german71 ,d4 ,s4 ,margoliouth ,mohammed and the ,rise of ,islam 7,n4,y41 #aije1 c471 and ,prince ,caetani ,annali del ,islam1 i4 ii4 7,milan1 #aije-aijg74 ,for the direction of public opinion in ,mahomet's favour the ,lecture on ,the ,hero as ,prophet in ,carlyle's ,heroes and ,hero-worship 7,london1 #ahdf7 was singularly effective2 his views were enforced by ,r4 ,bosworth ,smith ,mohammed and ,mohammedanism1 7,london1 #ahgc1 c474 ,a somewhat similar line was taken in ,france by ,j4 ,barthlmy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,mahomet et le ,coran1 7,paris1 #ahfe71 while the ,vie de ,mahomet d'aprs la ,tradition of ,e4 ,lamairesse and ,g4 ,dujarric 7,paris1 #ahig7 is written entirely from the ,moslem standpoint4 ,see further ,,caliphate1 ad init42 ,,mahommedan ,,institutions2 ,,mahommedan ,,law2 ,,mahommedan ,,religion4 7,d4 ,s4 ,m4997 ,,footnotes3 #a 99 is prefixed to names which figure on occasions which seem to be historical4 ,female names are in italics4 #b ,dates are given ,a4,d4 ,,mahommed ,,ahmed ,,ibn ,,seyyid ,,abdullah 7#ahdh-ahhe71 ,sudanese tyrant1 known as the ,mahdi1 was born in ,dongola4 ,his family1 known as excellent boat-builders1 claimed to be ,ashraf 7or ,sherifs71 i4e4 descendants of ,mahomet4 ,his father was a fiki or religious teacher1 and ,mahommed ,ahmed devoted himself early to religious studies4 ,when about twenty years old he went to live on ,abba ,island on the ,white ,nile about #aej m4 above ,khartum4 ,he first acquired fame by a quarrel with the head of the brotherhood which he had joined1 ,mahommed asserting that his master condoned transgression of the divine law4 ,after this incident many dervishes 7religious mendicants7 gathered round the young sheikh1 whose reputation for sanctity speedily grew4 ,he travelled secretly through ,kordofan1 where 7with ample justification7 he denounced to the villagers the extortion of the tax-gatherer and told of the coming of the mahdi who should deliver them from the oppressor4 ,he also wrote a pamphlet summoning true believers to purify their religion from the defilements of the ,turks i4e4 the ,egyptian officials and all non-native inhabitants of the ,sudan4 ,the influence he gained at length aroused the anxiety of the authorities1 and in ,may #ahha a certain ,abu ,saud1 a notorious scoundrel1 was sent to ,abba ,island to bring the sheikh to ,khartum4 ,abu ,saud's mission failed1 and ,mahommed ,ahmed no longer hesitated to call himself al-,mahdi al ,montasir1 ,the ,expected ,guide4 ,in ,august he defeated another force sent to ,abba ,island to arrest him1 but thereafter deemed it prudent to retire to ,jebel ,gedir1 in the ,nuba country south of ,kordofan1 where he was soon at the head of a powerful force2 and #fjjj ,egyptian troops under ,yusef ,pasha1 advancing from ,fashoda1 were nearly annihilated in ,june #ahhb4 ,by the end of #ahhb the whole of the ,sudan south of ,khartum was in rebellion1 with the exception of the ,bahr-el-,ghazal and the ,equatorial ,provinces4 ,in ,january #ahhc ,el ,obeid1 the capital of ,kordofan1 was captured4 ,in the ,november following ,hicks ,pasha's force of #aj1jjj men was destroyed at ,kashgil1 and in the same year the mahdi's lieutenant1 ,osman ,digna1 raised the tribes in the eastern ,sudan1 and besieged ,sinkat and ,tokar1 near ,suakin1 routing ,general ,valentine ,baker's force of #bejj men at ,el ,teb in ,february #ahhd4 ,the operations undertaken by ,great ,britain in face of this state of affairs are narrated under ,,egypt3 ,military ,operations4 ,it need only be added that ,general ,gordon 7q4v47 was besieged at ,khartum by the mahdi and was killed there when the town was captured by the mahdists on the #beth-#bfth of ,january #ahhe4 ,the mahdi himself died at ,omdurman a few months later 7,june #bb1 #ahhe71 and was succeeded in power by his khalifa ,abdullah4 ,when he announced his divine mission ,mahommed ,ahmed adopted the ,shiite traditions concerning the mahdi1 and thus put himself in opposition to the sultan of ,turkey as the only true commander of the faithful4 ,to emphasize his position the mahdi struck coins in his own name and set himself to suppress all customs introduced by the ,turks4 ,his social and religious reforms are contained in various proclamations1 one of which is drawn up in the form of ten commandments4 ,they concern1 chiefly1 such matters as ritual1 prayers1 soberness in food and raiment1 the cost of marriage and the behaviour of women4 ,how far the mahdi was the controller of the movement which he started cannot be known1 but from the outset of his public career his right-hand man was a ,baggara tribesman named ,abdullah 7the khalifa71 who became his successor1 and after his flight to ,jebel ,gedir the mahdi was largely dependent for his support on ,baggara sheikhs1 who gratified one of his leading tastes by giving him numbers of their young women4 ,in the few months between the fall of ,khartum and his death the mahdi1 relieved from the incessant strain of toil1 copied in his private life all the vices of ,oriental despots while maintaining in public the austerity he demanded of his followers4 ,his death is variously attributed to disease and to poisoning by a woman of his harem4 ,on the occupation of ,omdurman by the ,british 7,sept4 #ahih7 the mahdi's tomb was destroyed1 his body burnt and the ashes thrown into the ,nile 7see ,,sudan3 ,anglo-,egyptian74 ,see ,mahdiism and the ,egyptian ,sudan by ,f4 ,r4 ,wingate 7#ahia72 ,ten ,years' ,captivity in the ,mahdi's ,camp 7#ahhb-ahib7 from the ,,ms4 of ,father ,joseph ,ohrwalder by ,f4 ,r4 ,wingate 7#ahib7 and ,fire and ,sword in the ,sudan 7#ahgi-ahie7 by ,slatin ,pasha 7trans4 ,f4 ,r4 ,wingate1 #ahif74 ,both ,ohrwalder and ,slatin were personally acquainted with the mahdi1 and their narratives contain much first-hand information4 ,wingate prints many translations of the proclamations and correspondence of the mahdi4 ,,mahommedan ,,institutions4 ,the ,caliphate4 ,of all the institutions of ,islam the caliphate is the oldest1 the most fundamental1 and in essence the most enduring4 ,for its history see ,,caliphate2 the present subject is its origin and nature4 ,mahomet enjoyed absolute rule over his people as a divinely inspired and guided prophet4 ,he led the public prayers2 he acted as judge2 he ruled4 ,if he consulted with others or paid attention to public feeling or local usage1 it was as a matter of policy2 the ultimate decision lay with himself4 ,he was the state4 ,on his death a leader was put in his place of similar authority1 though without the divine prophetic guidance4 ,he was called the successor 7khalifa1 caliph7 of the ,prophet1 later also the amir-al-mu'minin1 commander of the faithful1 and was elected by the ,moslems1 just as the ,arab tribes had always elected their chiefs4 ,he was thus an absolute ruler1 but was democratically elected2 and such is the essence of the caliphate among ,sunnite ,moslems to this day4 ,for them it has been a matter of agreement 7see ,,mahommedan ,,law7 from the earliest times that the ,moslem community must appoint such a leader 7see ,,imam74 ,the ,shiites1 on the other hand1 hold that the appointment lies with ,god1 and that ,god always has appointed1 though his appointment may not always have been known and accepted4 ,their position may be called a legitimist one4 ,some few heretical sects have held that the necessity of a leader was based on reason1 not on the agreement of the community4 ,but1 for all1 the rule of the leader thus appointed is absolute1 and all authority is delegated from him and1 in theory1 can be resumed by him at any time4 ,just as ,god can require unreasoning obedience from his creatures 7his slaves in ,arabic71 so can the caliph1 his representative on earth4 ,but ,abu ,bekr1 the first caliph1 nominated his successor1 ,omar1 and that nomination was accepted and confirmed by the people4 ,so a second precedent was fixed1 which was again carried a step farther1 when ,moawiya ,i41 the first ,omayyad caliph1 nominated his son1 ,yazid ,i41 as his successor1 and caused an oath of allegiance to be taken to him4 ,the hereditary principle was thus introduced1 though some relics of the form of election persisted and still persist4 ,the true election possible in the early days of the small community at ,medina became first a formal acceptance by the populace of the capital2 then an assertion1 by the palace guard1 of their power2 and now1 in the investiture of the sultans of the ,ottoman ,turks1 who claim the caliphate1 a formal ceremony by the ulema 7q4v47 of ,constantinople4 ,the ,ottoman claim is based on an asserted nomination by the last ,abbasid1 who died in exile in ,egypt in #aech1 of the ,ottoman sultan1 ,suleiman the ,great1 as his successor4 ,such a nomination in itself was a perfectly legal act1 but in this case had a fatal flaw4 ,it is an absolute condition1 laid down in tradition1 that the caliph must be of the tribe of ,koreish 7,quraish71 that of the ,prophet4 ,the duties of this democratically elected autocrat are1 in theory1 generally stated as follows4 ,he shall enforce legal decisions and maintain the divinely revealed restrictive ordinances2 guard the frontiers and equip armies2 receive the alms2 put down robberies1 thieving1 highwaymen2 maintain the ,friday services and the festivals2 decide disputes and receive evidence bearing on legal claims2 marry minors1 male and female1 who have no guardians2 divide booty4 ,he must be a free1 male1 adult ,moslem2 must have administrative ability2 must be an effective governor and do justice to the wronged4 ,so long as he fulfils these conditions he is to be absolutely obeyed2 private immorality or even tyranny are not grounds for deposing him4 ,this is a position reached by ,islam practically4 ,but a caliph who openly denied the faith would be as impossible as an unbelieving pope4 ,the caliph1 therefore1 is the highest executive officer of a system assumed to be definite and fixed4 ,he1 in a word1 administers ,islam2 and the content of ,islam is determined by the agreement of the ,moslem people1 expressed immediately through the ulema1 and ultimately1 if indirectly and half-consciously1 by the people4 ,to depose him a fatwa 7see ,,mufti7 would be required--in ,turkey from the ,sheikh-ul-,islam--that he had violated some essential of the ,moslem faith1 and no longer fulfilled the conditions of a caliph4 ,the ,diwans4 ,but it was impossible for the caliph personally to administer the affairs of the empire1 and by degrees the supreme office was gradually put into commission1 until the caliph himself became a mere figure-head1 and vanished into the sacred seclusion of his palace4 ,the history of the creation of government bureaus 7diwans2 see ,,divan7 must therefore now be sketched4 ,the first need which appeared was that of a means of regulating and administering the system of taxation and the revenues of the state4 ,immense sums flowed into ,medina from the ,arab conquests2 the surplus1 after the requirements of the state were met1 was distributed among the believers4 ,all ,moslems had a right to a certain share of this1 which was regarded as booty4 ,omar1 the second caliph1 regulated this distribution and also the system of taxation1 and the result was the first divan and the constitution of ,omar1 looked back to now by all ,sunnite ,moslems as an ideal4 ,the sources of revenue were 7i7 the poor-rate 7zakat71 a tithe paid by every ,moslem2 7ii7 the fifth of all booty2 7iii7 the poll-tax 7jizya7 on non-,moslems2 and 7iv7 the land-tax 7kharaj7 also on non-,moslems4 ,thus the constitution determined the position of all non-,moslems in a ,moslem state4 ,the ideal was that the ,moslems should be kept apart as a superior1 fighting caste1 and that the non-,moslems should support them 7cf4 ,,caliphate1 ,b4 #h1 on the reign of ,omar ,,ii474 ,the ,moslems1 therefore1 were forbidden to acquire land in conquered countries4 ,the non-,moslems must retain their lands1 cultivate them and pay the land-tax 7the ,arabic word is also used of revenue from the work of a slave7 and the poll-tax 7the ,arabic word means also ransom71 and give contributions in kind to support the local ,moslem garrisons which were massed in great camp-cities at strategic points4 ,if a non-,moslem embraced ,islam he entered the ruling caste2 his land was distributed among his non-,moslem fellows1 and he no longer paid the land-tax but rather received support from the public funds4 ,the amount of these pensions varied with the standing of the pensioner from #aj1jjj dirhems 7a dirhem equalled about a franc7 to the widows and relations of the ,prophet down to #cjj4 ,this bureau had1 therefore1 not only to keep the books of the state1 but also to maintain a list of all ,moslems1 classified genealogically and socially4 ,its registers were kept by ,greeks1 ,copts and ,persians2 the ,arabs1 it may be said in general1 adopted the method of administration which they found in the captured countries and drew upon the trained services of their inhabitants4 ,such a system led naturally to wholesale conversions to ,islam2 and the consequent decline in revenue1 combined with large donations of lands by ,othman1 the third caliph1 to his own family1 gradually broke it down4 ,the first patriarchal period of conquest1 unearned wealth and the simple life--called by ,moslems the period of the four rightly guided caliphs1 and very happily by ,sachau1 ein mnchisches ,imperium--passed rapidly into the genuinely ,arab empire of the ,omayyads1 with whom came an immediate development of organization in the state4 ,the constructive genius in this was ,moawiya1 the first ,omayyad caliph4 ,under him the old simplicity vanished4 ,a splendid and ceremonious court was maintained at ,damascus4 ,a chamberlain kept the door2 a bodyguard surrounded the caliph1 and even in the mosque the caliph1 warned by the murder of ,othman and of ,ali1 prayed in a railed-off enclosure4 ,the beginning of the seclusion of the caliph had come1 and he no longer walked familiarly among his fellow ,moslems4 ,this seclusion increased still further when the administration of the state passed by delegation into other hands1 and the caliph himself became a sacrosanct figure-head1 as in the case of the later ,abbasids2 when theories of semi-divine nature and of theocratic rule appeared1 as in the case of the ,fatimites2 and finally when all the elaborate court ritual of ,byzantium was inherited by the ,ottoman sultans4 ,but ,moawiya ,i4 was still a very direct and personal ruler4 ,he developed a post-system for the carrying of government despatches by relays1 and thus received secret information from and kept control of the most distant provinces4 ,he established a sealing-bureau by which state papers were secured against change4 ,he dealt arbitrarily with the revenues of the state and the pensions of the ,moslems4 ,governors of provinces were given a much freer hand1 and were required to turn over to the central treasury their surplus revenue only4 ,as they were either conquerors or direct successors of conquerors they had an essentially military government1 and were really semi-independent rulers1 unhampered except by direct action of the caliph1 acting on information sent by the postmaster1 who was his local spy4 ,being thus the heads of armies of occupation1 they were not necessarily charged with the control of religious ritual and of justice4 ,these1 like every other function1 inhered in the office of the caliph and he generally appointed in each province independent cadis over the courts and imams to be in charge of religious services4 ,yet the governor was sometimes permitted to hold these two other offices 7see ,,cadi2 ,,imam74 ,the ,vizierate4 ,further administrative developments came with the ,abbasids4 ,they created a new city1 ,bagdad1 between the ,tigris and the ,euphrates1 where the three races1 ,syrian1 ,arab and ,persian1 met and sought with ,bagdad as a capital to consolidate the empire4 ,the ,arab empire1 it is true1 had passed away with the ,omayyads2 yet there might be a chance to create a world-empire of all the ,moslem peoples4 ,but not even the genius and administrative skill of the early ,abbasids could hold together that unwieldy mass4 ,the semi-independent provinces soon became fully independent1 or at most acknowledged the caliph as a spiritual head and paid a nominal tribute4 ,his name might stand on the coinage and prayers be offered for him in the ,friday service1 the two signs of sovereignty to this day in ,islam4 ,with this crumbling of the empire went a more elaborate organization2 bureaus took the place of principles and of the energy of individual rulers4 ,as the system of ,moslem law was built on that of the ,roman codes1 so was the machinery of administration on that of ,persia4 ,and with the ,abbasids the chance of the ,persians had come4 ,abu 'l-,abbas1 the first ,abbasid caliph1 was the first to appoint a vizier 7wazir1 helper1 so ,aaron is wazir to ,moses in the ,koran71 a confidential minister to advise him and come between him and the people4 ,advisers the caliphs had had before2 but not a definite adviser with this name4 ,he must1 we are told1 have a strain of the ruler in him and a strain of the people to be able to work with both4 ,he must know how to be acceptable2 fidelity and truthfulness are his capital2 sagacity1 firmness1 generosity1 clemency1 dignity1 effectiveness of speech are essential4 ,it is plain that the vizier became as important as the caliph4 ,but ,abu 'l-,abbas was fortunate in early securing as his vizier the grandfather of the house of the ,barmecides 7q4v474 ,on this ,persian family the fortunes of the ,abbasids hung1 and it secured for them and for ,islam a short golden age1 like that of the ,antonines1 until the jealous madness of ,harun al-,rashid cast them down4 ,thereafter the vizierate had many vicissitudes4 ,technically a vizier could be either limited or unlimited4 ,the limited vizier had no initiative2 he carried out the commands of the caliph4 ,the unlimited vizier1 often afterwards called the grand vizier1 exercised full authority and was the alter ego of the caliph1 to whom he was required only to report4 ,naturally the formal distinction is a later theorizing of history2 for a weak ruler his vizier became absolute1 for a strong ruler his vizier remained subordinate4 ,here1 as with regard to all ,moslem institutions1 a marked distinction must be made between the historic facts and the speculative edifices raised by constitutional theorizers4 ,compare especially ,,mahommedan ,,law4 ,until the time of ,radi 7#icd-idj7 the vizierate thus fluctuated in importance4 ,in that caliphate the vizier lost all authority1 and in his place came the amir al-omara--equivalent to the major domus of the ,franks--the head of the ,turkish bodyguard1 in terror of whom the caliph now stood4 ,when in #ide the ,buyids captured ,bagdad and the caliph became a purely spiritual sovereign1 they took the title vizier for their own chief minister1 and the caliphs retained only a secretary 7see ,,caliphate1 ,c4 #bb74 ,under the ,seljuks1 however1 they regained their viziers and some real authority4 ,elsewhere1 also the vizierate had its vicissitudes4 ,under the ,mamelukes the vizier fell to be merely the court purveyor4 ,under the ,omayyads of ,spain the title was given to several responsible officers of the state1 but their chief was called hajib1 chamberlain4 ,under the ,almohades the chamberlain was called vizier4 ,in the modern ,turkish empire the grand vizier 7called generally sadr ,azam7 is the sultan's representative in secular matters1 and nominally stands between the sovereign and all the other officials4 ,he is the president of the council of ministers1 but ,abd-ul ,hamid ,,ii4 deprived the office of almost all its importance4 ,other ,ministers4 ,under the early ,abbasids the four most important ministers were the chief cadi1 the chief of police or head of the life guards1 the minister of finance and the postmaster1 who was the head of the system of information and espionage which covered the empire4 ,but at different times the different bureaus varied greatly4 ,under ,motawakkil we find the bureau of taxes and finance2 bureau of the crown estates2 bureau of state book-keeping2 bureau of war1 i4e4 of hired troops2 bureau which kept reckoning and control of the pensions of the clients and slaves of the ruling family2 bureau of the post system2 bureau of expenditures4 ,but in spite of this elaborate system1 no ,moslem government has1 except sporadically1 been highly centralized4 ,provided the taxes are paid1 a large measure of local autonomy has always been enjoyed by the country districts4 ,under the ,abbasids almost the only exception was the necessarily centralized control of the irrigation system of the ,tigris and ,euphrates4 ,and similarly elsewhere4 ,in the case of all these offices1 we have delegation by the caliph1 under necessity1 of his too heavy burdens4 ,but one duty of an ,oriental ruler he could not so easily lay aside4 ,it had always to be possible for the oppressed to come into his presence and claim justice2 he must sit in the gate and judge4 ,therefore1 when the caliph found it necessary to delegate the ordinary administration of justice1 he found it also necessary to set up a special court of oppressions1 which developed1 to a certain extent1 into a court of appeals4 ,the first to establish such a separate court was ,abdalmalik the ,omayyad 7#fhe-gje71 and his example was followed by the more vigorous of the caliphs up to the time of ,mohtadi the ,abbasid 7#hfi-hgj74 ,if any other than the caliph presided over this court it had to be a man whose dignity1 independence and authority commanded respect4 ,he was not bound by strict rules of evidence1 method and literal application of law as was the cadi4 ,rather1 he applied a system of equity suited to the absolute source of authority which he represented4 ,as the chief of police1 mentioned above1 was rather the head of the caliph's bodyguard1 there was also a police system after our ideas1 but more thoroughgoing4 ,the muhtasib had charge in the broadest sense of public order and morals in the streets1 and had oversight as to weights1 measures and adulterations2 but had no right to interfere privately or enter houses save in the clearest and most necessary cases4 ,he had a summary jurisdiction in all minor cases where no trial was necessary2 but where witnesses and oaths entered the case must go to the cadi4 ,slaves and beasts of burden were under his guardianship2 he prevented public scandals1 such as the sale of wine2 he regulated the public conduct of ,jews and ,christians4 ,in the interest of public morals he had to find suitable husbands for widows and see that they did not marry before the legal time2 questions of paternity also he had to investigate4 ,the outdoor costume of the people he could regulate4 ,it should1 of course1 be remembered that the canon law of ,islam covers minutely all sides of life 7see ,,mahommedan ,,law74 ,it is impossible in ,islam to separate logically from the mass of institutions those which we should call religious1 as ,islam on all sides is for the ,moslem equally religious4 ,but perhaps the following may practically be separated under that rubric4 ,islam1 runs a tradition1 is built on five things3 testimony that there is no god save ,allah1 and that ,mahomet is the apostle of ,allah2 prayer2 the poor-rate2 pilgrimage2 fasting4 ,for these see ,,mahommedan ,,religion4 ,the law and usage of religious foundations in perpetuity 7waqf1 mortmain7 became as important in ,islam as monastic endowments in medieval ,europe1 and such foundations tended similarly to absorb the greater part of the national wealth4 ,it was the only safe way of providing for posterity4 ,a pious foundation could be erected in such a way that either so much from its funds would be paid yearly in perpetuity to the descendants of the erector1 or those descendants would be employed as officials of the foundation4 ,the ,imam4 ,when it became impossible for the caliph to lead the people personally in prayer in the mosque1 he delegated that part of his duties to another1 hence called imam 7q4v474 ,naturally1 then1 the appointment of the imam would lie with the supreme ruler4 ,this holds of the daily prayers in the principal mosque 7al-masjid al-jami'7 supported by the ruler where the ,friday service is held1 but in the separate smaller mosques built by each community the community chooses its own imam4 ,with regard to the ,friday service1 the schools of law disagree as to the necessity of the presence of an imam appointed by the chief ruler4 ,but the imam should certainly make mention of the ruler in his sermon and pray for him4 ,at the occasional prayers1 such as those for rain1 c41 the presence of an imam appointed by the ruler is not necessary4 ,the imam appoints the muaddhin1 the announcer of the hour of prayer from the minaret1 and both have a claim on the state treasury4 ,another office exercised when possible by the caliph1 but very frequently delegated to some high dignitary1 such as the heir to the caliphate or a prince1 was the leadership of the pilgrimage caravan to ,mecca and back4 ,sometimes this official1 called amir-al-hajj1 was appointed imam as well4 ,he then led all the pilgrimage ceremonies at ,mecca4 ,when outside of towns where there was a cadi he exercised also over the caravan the rights of a judge4 ,the ,cadi4 ,mahommedan law 7q4v47 is treated separately4 ,here1 again1 as judging is a duty of the caliph1 a cadi is the delegate1 or1 when appointed by a vizier or governor1 a delegate of his delegate4 ,he examines into disputes brought before him and enforces his judgments1 he names administrators of the estates of minors1 the insane1 c42 he supervises the waqf property of mosques and schools in his district and inspects highways and public buildings2 he watches over the execution of wills2 he inflicts the due legal penalties for apostasy1 neglect of religious duties1 refusal to pay taxes1 theft1 adultery1 outrages1 murder2 he can inflict the penalties of imprisonment1 fine1 corporal punishment1 death2 if there is no imam1 he can perform his duty1 as in fact can anyone who has the requisite knowledge4 ,but it should be noticed that all this holds only of the un-europeanized ,moslem state4 ,the ,army4 ,for the existence of an army in ,islam1 there are two grounds1 the holy war 7jihad1 q4v47 against unbelievers without the state and the suppression of rebellion within4 ,under the ordinance of ,omar the entire community was preserved and used as a weapon for the subduing of the world to ,islam1 and every able-bodied male ,moslem was theoretically a fighting man1 part of the national militia4 ,this army was divided into corps situated in the conquered lands1 as armies of occupation1 where they eventually came to form military colonies in great camp-cities4 ,the occupied countries had to support them1 and they were bound to render military service at any time4 ,but as the ideal of ,omar broke down before facts the use of mercenary and slave troops finally increased2 although there has always continued in ,moslem armies acting against unbelievers a proportion of volunteers not paid a fixed wage but subsidized by the state from the poor-rate and alms funds4 ,the generals were appointed by the caliph1 and had either unlimited authority to act as his representatives1 concluding peace1 acting as cadi and imam1 distributing booty2 or were restricted within limits1 e4g4 to simple leading of the troops and carrying on military operations4 ,they1 in turn1 appointed their subordinates2 this principle of giving a head full powers and full responsibility was very generally applied in ,islam4 ,it was controlled of course by the espionage of the postal system4 ,as war by a ,moslem power is essentially sacred war1 the regulations of jihad must be considered here4 ,unbelievers must first be invited to embrace ,islam and1 if they follow a sacred book and are not idol-worshippers1 are given a choice between 7a7 becoming ,moslems2 or 7b7 submitting to the ,moslems and entering on a treaty with them of protection and tribute2 or 7c7 fighting4 ,if they accept ,islam1 their lives1 families and property are secure1 and they form henceforth part of the ,moslem community4 ,the ability of ,islam to create a common feeling between highly different races is one of its most striking features4 ,if they submit and enter on treaty relations1 they pay a poll-tax1 for which their personal safety is assured1 and assume a definitely inferior status1 having no technical citizenship in the state1 only the condition of protected clients 7dhimmis74 ,if they elect to fight1 the door of repentance is open1 even when the armies are face to face4 ,but after defeat their lives are forfeit1 their families are liable to slavery1 and all their goods to seizure4 ,it is open to the sovereign either to put them to death2 or to enslave them2 or to give them their liberty2 or to exchange them for ransom or against ,moslem prisoners4 ,the sovereign will choose that which is best for ,islam4 ,as for their families and wealth1 the sovereign can release them only with consent of the army that has captured them4 ,apostates must be put to death4 ,four-fifths of the booty after a battle goes to the conquering army4 ,the technical art of war seems to have been little studied among ,moslems2 they have treatises on archery but very little upon tactics4 ,their writers recognize1 however1 the essential difference between the ,european and ,persian methods of charging in solid lines and holding the ground stubbornly1 and the ,arab and ,berber method of flying attacks and retreats by clouds of cavalry4 ,therefore1 one explained1 the custom grew of using a mass of ,european mercenaries as a fixed nucleus and rallying-point4 ,the early ,moslem armies1 too1 had used the solid1 unyielding charge1 which may have been the secret of their success4 ,for one of the greatest puzzles of history is the cause which changed the erratic1 untrustworthy swarms of ,arab horsemen with their childish strategy into the ever-victorious legions of the first caliphs4 ,they certainly learned rapidly4 ,byzantium and ,persia taught them the use of military engines and the entrenched camp4 ,before that they had been1 at the best1 single knights with mail-shirt1 helmet1 sword and lance4 ,bowmen1 too1 they used1 but the principal use of the bow seems to have come with the ,turks4 ,education4 ,the glory of ,moslem education was its university system1 which fed the higher learning and did not serve everyday needs4 ,its primary system was very poor1 almost non-existent2 and technical education has never been recognized in ,islam4 ,primary teachers were despised as ignorant and foolish4 ,apparently1 if we may trust the many stories of how ignorant men set up for themselves1 there was no control of them by the state4 ,their pupils were young only2 they taught the rudiments of reading1 ,koran1 catechism1 prayer1 writing and arithmetic1 but very little of the latter4 ,technical education was given by the gilds through their apprentice system1 teaching mechanical arts and crafts4 ,this was genuine instruction1 but was not so regarded2 it was looked upon rather as are the mysteries and secrets of operative masonry4 ,it produced artisans of independent character1 but not artists4 ,thus there was no distinction between architect and builder2 there was no sculpture2 and painting1 so far as it went1 was like carving1 a craft4 ,all ,moslem university education1 like all ,moslem science1 revolved round theology4 ,there were1 apparently1 only two outstanding exceptions to this rule1 the academy of ,mamun 7#hac-hcc7 at ,bagdad1 and the hall of wisdom of the ,fatimites at ,cairo 7#ajjd-aaga72 both of these are explained by their environment4 ,from the earliest times1 independent scholars instructed classes in mosques--the common places of meeting for the community--and gave their pupils personal certificates4 ,their subjects were the reading and interpretation of the ,koran2 the body of traditions from the ,prophet2 the thence deduced system of theology2 the canon law4 ,but the interpretation of the ,koran involved grammatical and lexicographical studies of early ,arabic1 and hence of the early ,arabic literature4 ,theology came to involve metaphysical and logical studies4 ,canon law required arithmetic and mensuration1 practical astronomy1 c4 ,but these last were strictly ancillary2 the object of the instruction was primarily to give knowledge of value for the life of the next world1 and1 secondarily1 to turn out theologians and lawyers4 ,medicine was in ,jewish and ,christian hands2 engineering1 architecture1 c41 with their mathematical bases1 were crafts4 ,then this instruction was gradually subsidized and organized by the state1 or endowed by individuals4 ,how early this took place is uncertain4 ,but the individual teacher1 with his certificate1 remained the object of the student2 there was nothing corresponding to our general degrees4 ,thirdly1 educational institutions came to be equipped with scholarships of money or in kind for the students4 ,the first instance of this is generally ascribed to ,nishapur 7,naisabur7 in #ajff2 but it soon became general in the system and afforded a means of control and centralization4 ,a final1 and most important1 characteristic was the wide journeying of the students in search of knowledge4 ,aided by ,arabic as the universal language of learning1 students journeyed from teacher to teacher1 and from ,samarkand to the ,atlantic1 gathering on their way hundreds of personal certificates4 ,scholars were thus kept in touch all over the ,moslem world1 and intellectual unity was maintained4 ,the ,sayyids4 ,to the democratic equality of ,islam1 in which the slave of to-day may be the prime minister of to-morrow1 there is one outstanding exception4 ,the descendants of the ,prophet and of his relatives 7the family of ,hashim7 formed and form a special class1 held in social reverence1 and guarded from contamination and injury4 ,these are the sayyids 7lords71 and genealogical registers of them are carefully preserved4 ,they are of all degrees of wealth and poverty1 but are guarded legally from msalliances with persons of ignoble origin or equivocal occupation4 ,their influence is very great1 and in some parts of the ,moslem world they have the standing and reverence of saints4 ,see ,von ,kremer1 ,culturgeschichte des ,orients1 based largely on ,mawardi's ,ahkam1 trans4 in part by ,ostrorog2 ,mc,g4 de ,slane's trans4 of ,ibn ,khaldun1 ,prolgomnes2 ,lane1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,modern ,egyptians2 ,r4 ,f4 ,burton1 ,pilgrimage to ,mekka2 ,snouck ,hurgronje1 ,mekka2 ,hughes1 ,dictionary of ,islam2 ,juynboll1 ,de ,mohammedaansche ,wet2 ,macdonald1 ,development of ,muslim ,theology1 c4 ,for women in ,islam1 see ,,harem4 7,d4 ,b4 ,ma47 ,,mahommedan ,,law4 ,the legal situation in the ,moslem world is of the highest complexity1 and can be made intelligible only by tracing its historical development4 ,first came the system 7fiqh1 sharia7 which takes the place in ,islam of canon law in ,roman ,christendom4 ,it begins with ,mahomet sitting as judge over the primitive ,moslem community at ,medina4 ,he was the ,prophet of ,god1 and judged1 as he ruled1 absolutely2 any decision of his was valid4 ,but he found it1 in general1 advisable and fitting to follow the local law or usage of ,medina when the new faith did not require a change4 ,it thus came about that his decisions followed1 at one time1 the usage of the ,arab tribes of ,medina2 at another1 the law respected by the ,jewish tribes there--a rabbinic development of the law of ,moses1 deeply affected by ,roman law2 at another1 the more developed commercial law of ,mecca1 known to his followers who had fled thence with him2 or1 finally1 his own personal judgment1 stated it might be as his own sense of right or as the decision of ,allah and even incorporated in the ,koran4 ,in his use of these he was an eclectic opportunist1 and evidently1 except as regards such frequently recurring subjects as inheritance1 marriage1 c41 had no thought of building up a system or code4 ,at his death he left behind only a few specific prescriptions in the ,koran and a mass of recorded decisions of cases that had come before him4 ,he had used himself1 in our terms1 common law1 equity1 legislation2 to guide his followers he left his legislative enactments and the record of his use of common law4 ,since his death there has been no new legislation in orthodox ,islam4 ,with the death of ,mahomet began the development and codification of ,moslem law4 ,it was at first entirely practical4 ,cases had to be decided1 and to decide them there was1 first1 the ,koran2 secondly1 if nothing ad rem was found in the ,koran1 there were the decisions of the ,prophet2 thirdly1 if these failed1 there was the common law of ,medina2 and1 fourthly1 if it1 in turn1 failed1 the common sense of the judge1 or equity4 ,a knowledge of the decisions of ,mahomet came thus to be of great importance1 and records of such decisions were eagerly sought and preserved4 ,but this was simply a part of a much wider movement and tendency4 ,as among primitive peoples in general1 custom and usage have always been potent among the ,arabs4 ,the ways of the fathers1 the old paths1 they love to tread4 ,very early there arose a special reverence for the path and usage 7sunna7 of ,mahomet4 ,whatever he did or said1 or left unsaid or undone1 and how he did it1 has become of the first importance to the pious ,moslem1 who would act in every way as did the ,prophet4 ,there is evidence that for this purpose the immediate companions of ,mahomet took notes1 either in memory or in writing1 of his table talk and wise sayings1 just as they took down or learned by heart for their private use the separate fragments of the ,koran4 ,his sayings and doings1 manners and customs1 his answers to questions on religious life and faith1 above all his decisions in legal disputes1 came to be recorded on odd sheets in private notebooks4 ,this was the beginning of the enormous literature of traditions 7hadith7 in ,islam4 ,the collecting and preserving of these1 which was at first private1 for personal guidance and edification1 finally became one of the most powerful weapons of political and theological propaganda1 and coloured the whole method and fabric of ,moslem thought4 ,all knowledge tended to be expressed in that form1 and each element of it to be traced back to1 and given in the words of1 some master or other through a chain of transmitters4 ,above all there grew up an enormous mass of evidently forged sayings put into the mouth of ,mahomet4 ,at every important political or theological crisis each party would invent and put into circulation a tradition from him1 supporting its view4 ,by a study of these flatly opposed sayings it is possible to reconstruct the different controversies of ,islam in the past1 and to discover what each party regarded as the essence of its position4 ,the first collecting of traditions was for private purposes1 and the first publication dealing with them was legal4 ,this was the ,muwatta' of ,malik ibn ,anas 7d4 #gie71 a corpus juris based partly on traditions1 and a protest in its methods against the too speculative character of the books of canon law which preceded it4 ,thereafter came collections of two different types4 ,the earlier kind was arranged according to the companions of ,mahomet1 on whose authority the traditions were transmitted2 after each companion came the traditions going back to him4 ,the best known example of this kind is the ,musnad of ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal4 ,the other kind1 called ,musannaf 7classified71 contains traditions arranged in chapters according to their subject matter4 ,that of ,bukhari is the most famous1 and is arranged to give a traditional basis for a complete system of canon law2 its rubrics are those of such a system4 ,another is that of ,muslim ibn al-,hajjaj1 who paid less attention to legal aspects and more to minute accuracy4 ,there are many others of more or less acceptance and canonicity4 ,bukhari's book enjoys a reverence only second to that of the ,koran4 ,but in all these publications the primary object was to purify the mass of traditions of forged accretions and to give to the believer a sound basis for his knowledge of the usages of the ,prophet1 whether for his personal or for public use4 ,these two kinds were a natural development4 ,in the ,moslem community there were from the first students of tradition proper whose interest lay in collecting1 testing and transmitting1 not in combining1 systematizing and elucidating2 whose preference was to take a single statement from the ,prophet and apply it to a case1 without reasonings or questionings4 ,and there were students of canon law who were interested rather in the system and results1 and who1 while they used traditions1 used them only to an end and insisted on the free application of speculative principles4 ,the conflict of the future was to be between these traditionalists1 on the one hand1 and rationalists1 on the other2 and the result was to be a compromise4 ,with the wide sweep of ,moslem conquest another element came into the development4 ,this was ,roman law1 which the ,moslem jurist found at work in the conquered ,roman provinces and in the law courts of which they went to school4 ,it is to be remembered that the ,arab armies were not devastating hordes2 they recognized the need of law and order wherever they went1 and it was the policy of their leaders to take over the administrative systems of the countries which they seized4 ,even the ,arabic legal nomenclature shows evident signs of literal translation from ,latin1 and many ,moslem principles can be traced to the ,roman codes4 ,one important development was plainly influenced by the liberty involved in the ,responsa prudentium of ,roman lawyers1 and by the broad conception of the law of nature in the ,edict of the ,praetor4 ,in its earliest stages ,moslem law recognized in the judge a liberty of opinion 7ra'y7 which went beyond even that of the ,responsa and became plain equity1 in the ,english sense1 and one school 7the ,hanifite7 established as a basis the right of preference 7istihsan7 even when the analogy of the code dictated otherwise2 while another 7the ,malikite7 used the term istislah1 a seeking of 7general7 benefit to the community1 in a similar situation4 ,but these developments were bitterly contested1 and the liberty of opinion was in the end narrowed down to a principle of analogy 7qiyas71 the nearest approach to which in ,western law is legal fiction4 ,it is necessary now to return to the first successors of ,mahomet4 ,for thirty years after my death1 he is said to have declared1 my people will tread in my path 7sunna72 thereafter will come kings and princes4 ,this tradition crystallizes the later feeling of ,islam4 ,the first thirty years were a golden age2 the centre of the state was the ,prophet's own city of ,medina2 the conditions of the state continued in close conformity to those of his own time4 ,the study of tradition1 i4e4 of his usage1 went hand in hand with the study of law4 ,they were vital functions of the state1 and it encouraged both4 ,then came the great dbcle4 ,the ancien rgime1 a semi-monkish1 theocratic empire1 went down1 and the ,omayyad dynasty1 kings and princes of the old ,arab type1 took its place 7see ,,caliphate1 ,b74 ,the public life of the state was no longer deeply religious2 the pious said that it was godless4 ,under these conditions law was indeed still needed2 but it had to be opportunist4 ,its development went on1 but became speculative4 ,the study of tradition was now private1 and its students were more and more the personally pious4 ,there were1 thus1 two results4 ,on the one hand1 the framers of systems of canon law--as it now was--no longer lived in contact with reality2 hypothetical and ideal structures were reared which could never stand the touch of the practical law-court4 ,and on another1 traditions and law1 even this hypothetical law1 came to take separate roads4 ,the interest of the students of tradition became the gathering of traditions for their own sake1 going no farther than a striving to regulate each detail of life by some specific1 concrete1 prophetic dictum4 ,they had no use for systems that went beyond the mere registering of these dicta4 ,the feeling also became widespread that any system of government which did not simply reproduce the patriarchal form of ,medina was of the world and the devil--a thing with which no religious man could have aught to do4 ,at every turn he would have to peril his soul4 ,here we must place the transition of this law with which we have hitherto dealt from being the law of the land to being in essence a variety of canon law4 ,it was always broader than any western secular law4 ,it regulated all the aspects of life--duty to ,god1 to one's neighbour1 to one's self4 ,it was really a system of duties1 ethical1 legal1 religious4 ,it did not limit itself to defining the forbidden 7haram72 but designated actions also as required 7fard1 wajib71 recommended 7mandub1 mustahabb71 indifferent 7jaiz1 mubah71 disliked 7makruh74 ,it played the part of1 or rendered necessary1 a religious director quite as much as a lawyer4 ,and for a time at ,medina it was really the law of the land4 ,but from the ,omayyad period on it has held the position of the canon law of the ,roman ,church in countries that will not recognize it and yet dare not utterly reject it4 ,it governs1 in one or other of its four schools1 the private lives of all pious ,moslems2 it regulates some semi-public relationships--e4g4 marriage1 divorce1 inheritance2 it compels respect1 if not acceptance1 from the state2 and by its ideal standard the world1 filled with righteousness by the ,mahdi1 will be ruled in the ,moslem millennium4 ,the rise of the ,abbasids brought a change1 but not a great one4 ,they had promised a return to the old religious attitudes1 and the promise was formally kept4 ,but in substance they were as much as the ,omayyads1 and though the state was outwardly on a pious footing1 and the religious sentiment of the people was respected1 the old1 absolute canon law was not restored4 ,it was made possible for more theologians and lawyers to work with the state1 but an irreconcilable party still remained1 and the situation was fixed as it is to this day4 ,it is true that the struggle to adapt such a single and detailed system to all the varying conditions1 climates and times of the great empire was impossible2 but the failure marked the great rent in the supposed unity of ,islam between the church and the world1 religion and law4 ,yet the ,abbasids did1 in their way1 encourage legal studies1 and under them processes and results1 long pursued in private1 became public4 ,almost within the first century of their dynasty the four legal schools1 or rites1 were formed and the principles established which survive to this day4 ,the first school to take definite form was the ,hanifite1 founded by ,abu ,hanifa 7d4 #gfg71 who left behind him a definite system and many enthusiastic pupils4 ,he was a man of means1 in touch with commercial1 but not with practical legal life1 a speculative or philosophical jurist4 ,being of non-,arab origin1 the usage of ,medina had small interest for him4 ,he therefore used few traditions1 and preferred to go back to the ,koran1 and extract from it by reasoning the rulings which fitted his ideas4 ,this he called the use of analogy 7qiyas72 but1 in his hands1 it became practically legal fiction1 the application of a law in some sense undreamed by its first imposer4 ,but he had another1 and still freer instrument4 ,the effect of differences in local conditions had been early observed and admitted in general terms4 ,abu ,hanifa reduced it to a subjective formula4 ,under such conditions he claimed the right of preference 7istihsan7 of a ruling suited to the local needs1 even when the strict analogy indicated otherwise4 ,this met and meets with vehement protest when formally stated1 but the usage of ,islam has practically accepted it4 ,his system1 finally1 was not developed through the exigencies of actual cases1 but was worked out as a system of casuistry1 though in a good sense4 ,he tried1 that is1 to construct a system of rules to answer any conceivable question4 ,after his death his pupils elaborated it still further1 and accepted public office4 ,the ,abbasids adopted his school1 and threw their influence on its side2 its philosophic breadth and casuistic possibilities evidently commended it to them4 ,later1 the ,ottoman ,turks also adopted it1 and it may be said to hold now a leadership among the four legal rites4 ,its influence has undoubtedly tended to broaden and humanize ,moslem law4 ,twenty-eight years after ,abu ,hanifa1 ,malik ibn ,anas1 the founder of the ,malikite school1 died at ,medina4 ,in many points his situation was precisely opposite to that of ,abu ,hanifa1 and yet his results were very similar4 ,he was a working jurist1 in practical touch with actual life2 he was in the centre of the tradition of the usage of the ,prophet1 in the line1 one might say1 of the apostolic succession4 ,he1 therefore1 used traditions much more generally than did ,abu ,hanifa1 and when he1 under pressure1 took refuge in opinion1 he certainly felt that he1 under his conditions1 had a better right to do so than any outsider4 ,but two of his principles marked a distinct advance and showed that he was no mere traditionalist4 ,for one1 he laid down the conception of public advantage 7istislah72 when a rule founded on even a valid analogy would work a general injury it was to be set aside2 justice must not be overcome by logic4 ,and1 for the other1 he laid stress on the conception of the agreement 7ijma71 an idea which was to have indefinite importance in the future4 ,when the surviving companions of the ,prophet1 after his death1 agreed upon any point as belonging to their store of tradition and experience1 their agreement was accepted as final4 ,in the first instance they agreed that such had been the statement of the ,prophet4 ,that easily passed over into an agreement that such was the true ,moslem view1 and finally into an acceptance of the principle that the ,moslem ,church1 when unanimous1 could formulate truth--practically as in the canon of ,vincent of ,lrins1 ,quod semper1 quod ubique1 quod ab omnibus4 ,but such a broadly catholic position was still in the future1 and for ,malik1 juristic agreement meant the agreement of ,medina1 though there are signs that he permitted the same latitude to other places also4 ,it was a way of allowing for local conditions rather than of reaching the voice of the ,church4 ,his law book1 the ,muwatta'1 the earliest in our possession written by the founder of a school1 has already been mentioned4 ,it is a collection of about seventeen hundred traditions of juristic importance1 arranged according to subject1 with appended remarks on the usage of ,medina and on his own view of each matter4 ,so far opinion and local usage had fully held their own1 and the philosophical jurist had been free to work out his system4 ,the difference between the istihsan of ,abu ,hanifa and the istislah of ,malik was not great2 students attended the lectures of both and combined their systems4 ,but a reaction now began1 and the traditionalist party finally made itself felt4 ,we have the inevitable rivalry between the historical-empirical and the speculative-philosophical schools of jurisprudence1 rendered all the more bitter in that the historical lawyers believed1 in this case1 that they were defending a divine institution4 ,there resulted1 first1 one of the most important schools1 the ,shafiite2 secondly1 an extremely literal school for which ash-,shafii did not go far enough1 and which has now vanished2 and thirdly1 the ,hanbalite school1 still surviving in small numbers1 more moderately traditional than the last4 ,the school founded by ash-,shafii 7d4 #hbj71 a pupil of ,malik1 came first in order of time4 ,the others were really revolts against the mildness of his compromise4 ,his characteristics were a broad-minded1 steady grasp of means and ends1 a perception of what could and what could not be done1 a willingness to admit all the tried principles in due balance1 and1 at one point especially1 the insight of genius as to the possibilities of these principles4 ,he laid great stress on tradition2 a clear1 authentic tradition he regarded as no less valid than the ,koran itself4 ,if the tradition was chronologically later than a ,koranic passage and corrected that passage1 he followed the tradition4 ,but in this he was only regulating a fixed tendency4 ,the ,koran may be regarded theoretically as the first of all the sources of law and theology2 practically its clear statements have been over-ridden in many cases4 ,most important of all1 the principle of agreement 7ijma7 came finally with him to its full rights4 ,the agreement of the ,moslem peoples was to be the voice of ,god4 ,my people1 said a tradition from ,mahomet1 will never agree in an error4 ,and so1 over traditions and over the ,koran itself1 the agreement tacitly or explicitly ruled and rules4 ,it stamps as authoritative that which the other principles lay down4 ,at the head of each section of a ,shafiite law book we read1 ,the basis of this1 before the agreement1 is such and such4 ,but with the aid of a principle of this breadth it was easy to reject the opinion which was so objectionable to the traditionalist party4 ,in its place he took analogy 7qiyas71 which1 discreetly used1 could serve almost the same purpose4 ,the ,koranic passage or the tradition with which an analogy was suggested should1 he taught1 be examined to see if there was a reason clearly stated for the command4 ,if so1 that reason would give a basis for the analogy4 ,analogy based on the mechanical or external could not hold4 ,the four bases thus laid down by ash-,shafii--,koran2 prophetic usage as expressed in traditions2 analogy2 agreement--have come to be accepted by all existing schools4 ,this applies to all spheres of life1 ethical1 social1 theological1 legal1 and it should never be forgotten that the ,koran is only one of the sources for ,moslem faith and conduct4 ,few words are needed for the other1 reactionary schools4 ,one1 now long extinct1 was founded by a certain ,daud uz-,zahiri1 ,david the ,literalist1 born three or four years before the death of ash-,shafii1 and so called because he insisted upon an absolutely literal interpretation of his texts--,koran or tradition--without account of context or metaphor4 ,in consequence he had to reject analogy1 and limited agreement to that of the companions of ,mahomet2 the ,church of ,islam was to have no constructive authority4 ,in one point he showed great sanity of judgment1 namely in his rejection of the principle jurare in verba magistri1 otherwise regnant in ,islam4 ,his school had long and interesting consequences1 mostly theological1 but is now extinct1 and never took rank with the others4 ,the ,moslem world found his positions too impossible1 and now no one swears to his words4 ,the other1 the ,hanbalite school1 was founded by the scholars of ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal after his death in #hhe4 ,he himself would never have revolted against his master1 ash-,shafii1 but it was soon felt that his system1 so far as he had any1 was in essential opposition4 ,he had been no lawyer1 but a theologian and a collector and student of traditions4 ,all his life had been a protest against speculation in divine things4 ,where the ,koran and traditions were silent1 he1 too1 had been silent4 ,for this agnostic principle he had witnessed and suffered1 and his standing with the people was that of a saint4 ,naturally1 then1 the last still existent school of traditionalist protest was launched in his name4 ,it minimizes agreement and analogy1 is literal in its interpretations1 and is now by far the smallest of the four surviving schools4 ,its external history is that of a testifying and violent minority4 ,other men1 such as ,tabari1 the historian and commentator1 have had dreams that they1 too1 might join the ,four ,imams 7see ,,imam7 as founders of legal rites1 but none has succeeded4 ,the ,four remain the ultimate exponents of this canon law1 and under the banner of one or other of them every ,moslem must range himself4 ,as there is a principle of unity in ,islam1 expressed in the alleged prophetic saying1 ,my people will never agree in an error1 so there is a principle of variety1 also expressed in an alleged prophetic saying1 ,the disagreement of my people is a mercy from ,god4 ,the four rites may differ upon many points1 yet the adherents of one never dream of regarding the adherents of the others as outside the ,church of ,islam2 they are not dissenters in the ,english sense4 ,god is merciful to his creatures1 and gives them so much liberty of choice4 ,yet in practice this liberty is not great4 ,the principle of swearing to the words of the master is a dead hand laid upon ,islam4 ,a man's legal rite is generally settled by the place and other conditions of his birth1 and after he has once accepted a rite1 he must1 if good and pious1 follow it in all its details4 ,only the avowed sceptic or the recognized eccentric can be an eclectic4 ,the geographical distribution of the rites is roughly as follows3 ,moslems in ,central ,asia and northern ,india and the ,turks everywhere are ,hanifites2 in ,lower ,egypt1 ,syria1 southern ,india and the ,malay ,archipelago they are ,shafiites2 in ,upper ,egypt and in north ,africa1 west of ,egypt1 they are ,malikites2 only the ,wahhabis 7q4v47 in central ,arabia are ,hanbalites4 ,but the will of the sovereign has also had a powerful influence and has frequently dictated the legal1 as well as the theological1 affiliations of his subjects4 ,the ,turks1 for example1 have thrown their weight almost everywhere on the ,hanifite side4 ,their policy is to appoint only ,hanifite judges 7see ,,cadi71 although for private and personal questions they appoint and pay ,muftis 7q4v47 of the other rites4 ,in other cases1 with a population of mixed legal adherence1 the government has been known to appoint judges of different rites4 ,the ,shiite canon law is dealt with separately1 but some mention of two outstanding sects is here in place4 ,the ,ibadites 7see ,,mahommedan ,,religion3 ,sects7 have a system of canon law which in essentials is of older codification than that of any of the orthodox schools1 going back to ,abdallah ibn ,ibad himself1 of the first century of the ,hijra 7,hejira74 ,its basis is above all the ,koran1 then a sparing use of traditions1 natural to their early origin1 and finally the agreement of their own learned men1 again natural to an extreme dissenting sect1 and it still rules the ,ibadite communities at ,oman1 ,zanzibar and the ,mzab in southern ,algeria4 ,at all these places they1 the last descendants of the ,kharijites1 hold severely apart1 while the other ,moslems shrink from them as heretics of the worst4 ,not nearly so far from ordinary ,islam1 but still of an extreme self-conscious ,puritanism are the ,wahhabis4 ,they are really ,hanbalites1 but apply the rules of that school with uncompromising1 reforming energy4 ,the doctrine of the agreement of the ,church of ,islam they reject2 only that of the immediate companions of ,mahomet is valid4 ,the people of ,mahomet can err and has erred2 each man must1 on his own responsibility1 draw his doctrine from the ,koran and the traditions4 ,here they follow the ,zahirites4 ,all these schools of law administer a scheme of duties1 which1 as has already been remarked1 comes nearest to the canon law of the ,roman ,church1 and which for centuries has had only a partial connexion with the real legal systems of the ,moslem peoples4 ,among the ,wahhabis and ,ibadites alone is it the whole of law4 ,elsewhere1 since the ,omayyad period1 its courts have been in great part pushed aside by others1 and its scheme has come to be regarded as an expression of impossible theory1 to be realized at best with the coming of the millennium4 ,the causes and methods of this change call now for detailed notice4 ,as ,islam spread beyond the desert and the conditions in which the life of ,mahomet and his companions had been cast1 it came to regions1 climates1 customs1 where the ,arabian usages no longer held4 ,not only were the prescripts of ,medina ill adapted to the new conditions2 the new people had legal usages of their own to which they clung and which nothing could make them abandon4 ,it was rather the ,moslem leaders who were compelled to abandon their ideas and for the sake of the spread of ,islam to accept and incorporate much that was diametrically opposed to the original legislation either of the ,koran or of ,mahomet's recorded decisions4 ,as in religion the faiths of the conquered peoples were thinly veneered with ,moslem phrases1 so in law there grew up a customary code 7adat7 for each country1 differing from every other1 which often completely obscured and annulled the prescriptions of the canon law4 ,the one was an ideal system1 studied and praised by the pious learned2 the other was the actual working of law in the courts4 ,but besides the obstinate adherence of various peoples to their old paths1 the will of individual rulers was a determining factor4 ,when these ceased to be saints and students of divine things1 and came to be worldly statesmen and opportunists1 followers of their own objects and pleasures1 no system could hold which set a limit to their authority4 ,the ,oriental ruler must rule and judge on his own initiative1 and the schools of canon law tended to reduce everything to an academic fixedness4 ,there thus arose a new and specific statute law1 emanating from the sovereign4 ,at first he judged in the gate as seemed good in his eyes and as was his right and duty 7cf4 court of oppressions2 see ,,mahommedan ,,institutions72 later1 his will was codified as in the ,turkish statute law 7qawanin7 derived from various ,european codes4 ,thus there has grown up in almost every ,moslem country at least two systems of courts1 the one administering this canon law1 and taking cognisance of private and family affairs1 such as marriage1 divorce1 inheritance1 its officials also giving rulings on purely personal religious questions1 such as details of the ritual law1 the law of oaths and vows1 c42 the other1 the true law courts of the land1 administering codes based on local custom and the decrees of the local rulers4 ,a rift almost as important entered the legal life of the ,moslem lands on another side4 ,non-,moslem communities1 settled in ,moslem territory1 have been uniformly permitted to administer and judge themselves according to their own customs and laws4 ,save when they come into direct contact and conflict with ,moslems1 they are left to themselves with a contemptuous tolerance4 ,the origin of this attitude in ,islam appears to be threefold3 7i7 ,the ,islam of theory cannot conceive of a mixed state2 it takes account1 only1 of a state containing none but ,moslems1 and its ideal is that the whole world will1 in the end1 form such a state4 ,in practice1 then1 ,moslems try to shut their eyes to the existence of non-,moslems in their midst and make no provision for them until compelled4 ,that a non-,moslem should have the same civil position as a ,moslem is unthinkable4 7ii7 ,this1 of course1 produces an attitude of extreme contempt4 ,the only citizens are ,moslems and all others are to be looked down upon and left to themselves4 ,what they do or think among themselves does not matter2 they are outside the ring-fence of ,islam4 7iii7 ,a different1 but equally important1 cause is the ,moslem indolence4 ,when the ,arabs conquered1 they knew that they must administer the conquered lands1 and they1 very wisely1 sought help from the machinery which they found in operation4 ,but besides the ordinary organization of the state1 they found also various ecclesiastical organizations1 ,christian and ,jewish1 and to these they gave over the administration of the non-,moslem sections of the community1 making their rabbis and bishops their responsible heads and the links of contact with the ,moslem rulers4 ,they1 unquestionably1 found the same method in use by the ,byzantine government2 but in ,moslem hands it went so far as to make a number of little states 7millet1 milal7 within the state and effectually to preclude the possibility of ever welding all the inhabitants of the land into one corporate life4 ,but this indolence1 when applied to resident aliens1 had consequences still more serious1 because external as well as internal4 ,following the same method of leaving the unbeliever to settle his affairs for himself1 the ,european merchant1 living and trading in the ,east1 was put first by usage and finally by treaty under the jurisdiction and control of his own consul4 ,thus there grew up the extra-territorial law of the capitulations and conventions1 by which the sanctity of the person and household of an ambassador is extended to every ,european4 ,and this in turn1 has reacted on the status of the non-,moslem subject races1 and has come to be the indirect but chief support on which they lean4 ,through it1 an element has developed which makes it practically impossible for a ,moslem state to introduce legal changes even remotely affecting its non-,moslem population1 alien or subject1 without the consent of the ,european embassies4 ,any change may be upset by their refusal to accept it as incompatible with the capitulations and conventions4 ,the embassies have thus1 as interpreters of a part1 at least1 of the constitution1 come to hold a position remarkably1 if absurdly1 like that of the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states 7see ,young1 ,corps de droit ,ottoman1 passim74 ,there may be said1 then1 in short1 to be three elements in the legal life of a ,moslem state3 the sacred and fixed canon law of ,islam2 the civil law1 based on the usages of the different peoples1 ,moslem and non-,moslem1 and on statutes going back to the will of rulers2 the international law of the capitulations1 with a contractual sanction of its own4 ,the hope for the future in ,islam1 there can be little doubt1 lies in the principle of the agreement of the ,moslem people1 with its conception of catholic unity1 and its ability1 through that unity1 to make and abrogate laws4 ,as the ,moslem peoples advance1 their law can1 thus1 advance with them1 and the grasp of the dead hand of the canon law be gradually and legally released4 ,see ,i4 ,goldziher1 ,muhammedanische ,studien1 ,i4 and ,,ii4 7,halle a4,s41 #ahhi-ahij72 ,zahiriten 7,leipzig1 #ahhd72 ,e4 ,sachau1 ,zur ltesten ,geschichte des muhammedanischen ,rechts 7,vienna ,akad41 #ahgj7 and ,muhammedanisches ,recht 7,stuttgart and ,berlin1 #ahig72 ,snouck ,hurgronje1 review of preceding in ,z4,d4,m4,g4 liii4 #abe seq4 and ,le droit musulman 7,rev4 de l'hist4 des religions1 xxxvii4 #a seq4 and #agd seq472 ,juynboll1 ,handleiding tot de ,kennis von de mohammedaansche ,wet 7,leiden1 #aijc72 ,von ,kremer1 ,culturgeschichte des ,orients unter den ,chalifen1 i4 #dgj seq4 7,vienna1 #ahge-ahgg72 ,hughes1 ,dictionary of ,islam1 pp4 #bhe seq4 7,london1 #ahif72 ,d4 ,b4 ,macdonald1 ,development of ,muslim ,theology1 c41 pp4 #fe seq4 7,new ,york1 #aijc72 ,bukhari1 ,les ,traditions islamiques traduites 444 par ,o4 ,houdas et ,w4 ,marcel 7,paris1 #aijf72 ,n4 ,b4 ,e4 ,bailie1 ,digest of ,moohummadan ,law 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahge-ahhg74 ,a good bibliography appeared in the ,bulletin of the ,new ,york ,public ,library for ,january #aijg4 7,d4 ,b4 ,ma47 ,,mahommedan ,,religion4 ,the ,mahommedan religion is generally known as ,islam--the name given to it by ,mahomet himself--and meaning the resigning or submitting oneself to ,god4 ,the participle of the same ,arabic verb1 ,muslim 7in ,english usually spelt ,moslem71 is used for one who professes this religion4 ,the expression ,mahommedan religion has arisen in the ,west probably from analogy with ,christian religion1 but is not recognized as a proper one by ,moslem writers4 ,islam claims to be a divinely revealed religion given to the world by ,mahomet1 who was the last of a succession of inspired prophets4 ,its doctrine and practices are to be found in 7i7 the ,book of ,god--the ,koran--which was sent down from the highest heaven to ,gabriel in the lowest1 who in turn revealed it in sections to ,mahomet2 7#b7 the collections of tradition 7hadith7 containing the sayings and manner of life 7sunna7 of the ,prophet2 7#c7 the use of analogy 7qiyas7 as applied to 7i7 and 7#b72 and 7#d7 the universal consent 7ijma'7 of the believers4 ,the worship of ,islam consists in 7#a7 the recital of the creed2 7#b7 the recital of the ordained prayers2 7#c7 the fast during the month of ,ramadhan2 7#d7 alms-giving2 7#e7 the hajj1 the pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,the theology of ,islam finds its first public expression among the orthodox in the teaching of al-,ashari 7d4 after #icb71 but had its real beginning among the sects that arose soon after the death of ,mahomet4 ,islam is the latest of the so-called world-religions1 and as several of the others were practised in ,arabia at the time of ,mahomet1 and the ,prophet undoubtedly borrowed some of his doctrines and some of his practices from these1 it is necessary to enumerate them and to indicate the extent to which they prevailed in the ,arabian world4 ,relations with ,other ,religions4--,the religions practised in ,arabia at the time of ,mahomet were heathenism1 ,judaism1 ,christianity1 and ,zoroastrianism4 i4 ,heathenism was the religion of the majority of the ,arabs4 ,in the cities of south ,arabia it was a survival from the forms represented in the ,sabaean1 ,minaean and ,himyaritic inscriptions of south ,arabia 7see ,,arabia3 ,antiquities74 ,the more popular form current among the nomads is known very imperfectly from the remains of pre-,islamic poetry and such works as the ,kitab ul-,asnam contained in ,yaqut's geography1 from ,shahrastani's work on the sects1 and from the few references in classical writers4 ,from these we have mostly names of local deities 7cf4 ,j4 ,wellhausen1 ,reste arabischen ,heidentums1 #bnd ed41 ,berlin1 #ahig7 and ancient religious customs1 which remained in part after the introduction of ,islam 7cf4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 ,edinburgh1 #ahhi1 and ,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia1 ,cambridge1 #ahhe74 ,from these sources we learn that ,arabian religion was a nature-worship associated with fetishism4 ,sun1 moon and stars were worshipped1 some tribes being devoted to the worship of special constellations4 ,certain stones1 wells and trees were regarded as sacred and as containing a deity4 ,many 7perhaps most7 tribes had their own idols4 ,hobal was the chief god of the ,kaba in ,mecca with its sacred stone1 but round him were grouped a number of other tribal idols4 ,it was against this association 7shirk7 of gods that ,mahomet inveighed in his attempt to unify the religion and polity of the ,arabs4 ,but there were features in this heathenism favourable to unity1 and these ,mahomet either simply took over into ,islam or adapted for his purpose4 ,the popularity of the ,kaba in ,mecca as a place of resort for worshippers from all parts of ,arabia led ,mahomet not only to institute the hajj as a duty1 but also to take over the customs connected with the heathen worship of these visits1 and later to make ,mecca the qibla1 i4e4 the place to which his followers turned when they prayed4 ,the name of ,allah1 who seems to have been the god of the ,koreish 7cf4 ,d4 ,s4 ,margoliouth1 ,mohammed1 p4 #ai1 ,london1 #aije71 was accepted by ,mahomet as the name of the one ,god1 though he abandoned the corresponding female deity ,al-lat4 #b4 ,judaism had long been known in ,arabia at the time of the ,prophet4 ,whether ,hebrews settled in ,arabia as early as the time of ,david 7cf4 ,r4 ,dozy1 ,die ,israeliten zu ,mecca1 ,leipzig1 #ahfd71 or not1 is of little importance here as ,judaism cannot be said to have existed until the end of the #eth century ,b4,c4 ,the ,seleucid persecutions and the political troubles that ended with the fall of ,jerusalem 7,a4,d4 #gj7 probably sent many ,jews to ,arabia4 ,in the #eth and #fth centuries the history of south ,arabia and of ,nejran is largely that of the strife between ,jews and ,christians4 ,in the north-west the ,jews possessed ,tema1 ,khaibar1 ,yathrib 7,medina71 ,fadak1 and other smaller settlements4 ,in these they lived as self-contained communities1 not seeking to proselytize but working at their trades1 especially concerned with money and jewelry4 ,mahomet seems to have expected their help in his proclamation of monotheism1 and his first qibla was ,jerusalem4 ,it was only when they refused to accept him as prophet that he turned in anger against them4 ,they had1 however1 supplied him with much material from the ,old ,testament1 and the stories of creation1 the patriarchs and early kings and prophets occur continually in the ,koran1 told evidently as they were recited by the common people and with many mistakes caused by his own misunderstanding4 #c4 ,christianity1 though later than ,judaism1 had a sure footing in ,arabia4 ,it had suffered persecution in ,nejran and had been supported in the south by the ,abyssinian invasions4 ,the kingdom of ,hira was largely ,christian2 the same is true of the north ,arabian tribes of ,bakr and ,taghlib1 and east of the ,jordan and on the ,syrian boundary as well as in ,yemama ,christianity had made progress4 ,pre-,islamic literature contains many allusions to the teaching and practices of ,christianity4 ,of the time of its introduction little is known2 little also of the form in which it was taught1 save that it came from the ,eastern ,church and probably to a large extent through ,monophysite and ,nestorian sects4 ,tradition says that ,mahomet heard ,christian preaching at the fair of ,ukaz1 and he probably heard more when he conducted the caravans of ,khadija4 ,gospel stories derived apparently from uncanonical works1 such as the ,gospel of the ,nativity1 occur in the ,koran4 ,the asceticism of the monks attracted his admiration4 ,a mistaken notion of the ,trinity was sharply attacked by him4 ,it is curious that his followers in the earliest times were called by the heathen ,arabs1 ,sabians 7q4v471 this being the name of a semi-,christian sect4 ,in the time of the ,omayyads ,christianity led to some of the earliest theological sects of ,islam 7see below74 #d4 ,zoroastrianism was known to the ,arab tribes in the north-east1 but does not seem to have exercised any influence in ,mecca or ,medina except indirectly through ,judaism in its angelology4 ,as soon1 however1 as the armies of ,islam conquered ,mesopotamia it began to penetrate the thought and practices of ,islam 7see below74 ,sources of ,authority4--,islam1 as we have said1 is founded on3 7#a7 the ,koran2 7#b7 the tradition or rather the sunna 7manner of life of ,mahomet7 contained in the tradition 7,hadith72 7#c7 ijma2 the universal agreement2 7#d7 qiyas 7analogy74 #a4 ,the ,koran#a 7properly ,qur'an from qara'a to collect1 or to read1 recite7 is the copy of an uncreated original preserved by ,god 7see below71 sent down from the seventh heaven to ,gabriel in the first heaven1 and revealed to ,mahomet in sections as occasion required4 ,these revelations were recited by the ,prophet and in many cases written down at once1 though from ii4 #ajj it would seem that this was not always the case4 ,god is the speaker throughout the revelations4 ,it seems probable that the whole ,koran was written in ,mahomet's lifetime1 but not brought together as a whole or arranged in order4 ,as it exists now the ,koran consists of #aad chapters called suras 7from sura1 a row of bricks in a wall1 a degree or step74 ,the first is the ,fatiha 7opening71 which occupies the place of the ,lord's ,prayer in ,christianity4 ,the others are arranged generally in order of length1 the longest coming first1 the shortest 7often the earliest in date7 coming at the end4 ,certain groups1 however1 indicated by initial unvowelled letters1 seem to have been kept together from the time of the ,prophet4 ,at the head of each sura is a title1 the place of its origin 7,mecca or ,medina7 and the number of its verses 7ayat7 together with the formula1 ,in the name of ,god the ,merciful1 the ,compassionate 7except in sura #i74 ,for liturgical purposes the whole book is divided into #fj sections 7ahzab7 or into #cj divisions 7ajza71 each subdivided into a number of prostrations 7ruka or sajda74 ,the origin of the collected and written ,koran is due to ,omar1 who in the caliphate of ,abu ,bekr pointed out that many possessors of suras were being slain in the battles of ,islam and their property lost1 that there was a danger in this way that much of the revelation might disappear1 and that men were uncertain what was to be accepted as genuine revelation4 ,accordingly ,zaid ibn ,thabit who had been secretary to ,mahomet1 was commissioned to collect all he could find of the revelation4 ,his work seems to have been simply that of a collector4 ,he seems to have done his work thoroughly and made a copy of the whole for ,abu ,bekr4 ,the collection was thus chiefly a private matter1 and this copy passed after ,abu ,bekr's death into the hands of ,omar1 and after his death to ,hafsa1 daughter of ,omar1 a widow of ,mahomet4 ,in the caliphate of ,othman it was discovered that there were serious differences between the readings of the ,koran possessed by the ,syrian troops and those of the ,eastern soldiers1 and ,othman was urged to have a copy prepared which should be authoritative for the ,moslem world4 ,he appointed ,zaid ibn ,thabit and three members of the tribe of ,koreish 7,quraish7 to do the work4 ,each of these made a copy of ,abu ,bekr's collection1 carefully preserving ,koreishite forms of words4 ,how far the text was amended by the help of other copies is doubtful2 in any case the mode of procedure was undoubtedly very conservative4 ,the four similar manuscripts were sent1 one each to ,medina1 ,cufa 7,kufa71 ,basra and ,damascus1 and an order was issued that all differing copies should be destroyed4 ,in spite of the personal unpopularity of ,othman this recension was adopted by the ,moslem world and remains the only standard text4 ,a few variant readings and differences of order of the suras in the collections of ,ubay ibn ,kab and of ,ibn ,masud were1 however1 known to later commentators4 ,the only variants after the time of ,othman were owing to different possible ways of pronouncing the consonantal text4 ,these are usually of little importance for the meaning4 ,as the text is now always vowelled1 variations are found in the vowels of different copies1 and the opinions of seven leading readers are regarded as worthy of respect by commentators 7see ,th4 ,nldeke1 ,geschichte des ,qorans1 pp4 #bgi seq41 ,gttingen1 #ahfj74 ,various characteristics enable one to establish with more or less certainty the relative chronological order of the suras in the ,koran1 at any rate so far as to place them in the first or second ,meccan period or that of ,medina4 ,the form of the sentences is a guide1 for the earliest parts are usually written in the saj form 7see ,,arabia3 ,literature74 ,the expressions used also help2 thus the ,o ye people of the ,meccan period is replaced in the ,medina suras by ,o ye who believe4 ,the oaths in the first ,meccan period are longer1 in the second shorter1 and are absent in the ,medinan4 ,in the earliest period the style is more elevated and passionate4 ,occasionally the time of origin is determined by reference to historical events4 ,in accordance with such principles of criticism two leading scholars1 ,nldeke 7loc4 cit47 and ,h4 ,grimme 7in his ,mohammed ,zweiter ,teil4 ,einleitung in den ,koran4 ,system der koranischen ,theologie1 ,mnster1 #ahie71 have arranged the suras as follows3-- ,order of ,suras in ,koran4 ,n,,ldeke4 ,mecca4 #ast to #eth yr4 7a74 #if4 #gd4 #aaa4 #ajf4 #ajh4 #ajd4 #ajg4 #ajb4 #aje4 #ib4 #ij4 #id4 #ic4 #ig4 #hf4 #ia4 #hj4 #fh4 #hg4 #ie4 #ajc4 #he4 #gc4 #aja4 #ii4 #hb4 #ha4 #ec4 #hd4 #ajj4 #gi4 #gg4 #gh4 #hh4 #hi4 #ge4 #hc4 #fi4 #ea4 #eb4 #ef4 #gj4 #ee4 #aab4 #aji4 #aac4 #aad4 #a4 #eth and #fth yr4 7b74 #ed4 #cg4 #ga4 #gf4 #dd4 #ej4 #bj4 #bf4 #ae4 #ai4 #ch4 #cf4 #dc4 #gb4 #fg4 #bc4 #ba4 #be4 #ag4 #bg4 #ah4 #gth yr4 to ,flight 7c74 #cb4 #da4 #de4 #af4 #cj4 #aa4 #ad4 #ab4 #dj4 #bh4 #ci4 #bi4 #ca4 #db4 #aj4 #cd4 #ce4 #g4 #df4 #f4 #ac4 ,medina4 #b4 #ih4 #fd4 #fb4 #h4 #dg4 #c4 #fa4 #eg4 #d4 #fe4 #ei4 #cc4 #fc4 #bd4 #eh4 #bb4 #dh4 #ff4 #fj4 #aaj4 #di4 #i4 #e4 ,,grimme4 ,mecca1 7#a74 #b ,in old saj form3 #aaa4 #ajg4 #ajf4 #aje4 #ajd4 #ajc4 #ajb4 #aja4 #ajj4 #ii4 #ajh4 #if4 #ie4 #id4 #ic4 #ib4 #ia4 #ij4 #hi4 #hh4 #hg4 #hf4 #he4 #hd4 #hc4 #hb4 #ha4 #hj4 #gi4 #gh4 #gg4 #gf4 #ge4 #gd4 #gc4 #gj4 #fi4 #fh4 #aad4 #aac4 #cf4 #ee4 #ed4 #ec4 #eb4 #ea4 #ej4 #ae4 #bb4 #ad4 7#b74 ,in loosened saj form3 #df4 #gb4 #de4 #dd4 #da4 #ig4 #dj4 #ci4 #ch4 #cg4 #cf4 #ce4 #cd4 #cb4 #ca4 #fg4 #cj4 #bi4 #bh4 #bg4 #bf4 #ga4 #be4 #bj4 #bc4 #dc4 #ba4 #ai4 #a4 #db4 #ah4 #ag4 ,medina4 #af4 #ac4 #ab4 #aa4 #aj4 #g4 #f4 #ih4 7#aab4 #aji74 ,from the ,flight to ,badr4 #b4 #fb4 #e7ae4hh4ajh-abj74 #dg and some interpolations in ,meccan suras4 ,from ,badr to ,ohod #h4 #bd4 #ei4 ,from ,ohod to capture of ,mecca4 #c4 #bi7a-ab74 #d4 #eg4 #fd4 #fa4 #fj4 #eh4 #fe4 #cc4 #fc4 #di4 #aaj4 #dh4 #e7a-ad74 #ff4 #i7a-bd74 ,after capture of ,mecca4 #i7be-abd74 ,theology4 ,on the supposition that the arrangements given above are at any rate approximately correct1 it is possible to trace a certain development in the teaching of the ,koran on some of the chief dogmas4 ,it must1 however1 be borne in mind that orthodox ,islam recognizes the ,koran as the work not of ,mahomet but of ,god4 ,yet ,moslem theologians recognize that some revelations are inconsistent with others1 and so have developed the doctrine of nasikh and mansukh 7abrogating and abrogated71 whereby it is taught that in certain definite cases a later revelation supersedes an earlier4 ,a critical study of the ,koran shows in the earlier revelations the marks of a reflective mind trained under the influence of ,arabian education and stirred by an acquaintance 7somewhat imperfect7 with ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,the later revelations seem to be influenced by the now dominant position of the ,prophet and a desire after the capture of ,mecca to incorporate such heathen religious ceremonies as are national4 ,god is one and universal from the beginning4 ,his unity is emphasized as against the mistaken conception of the ,christian ,trinity4 ,at first his might is taught by the name ,rabb 7,lord7 which is generally used with an attribute as the highest ,lord1 ,lord of the worlds1 ,lord of men1 ,lord of heaven and earth1 ,lord of the ,east and ,west1 or our ,lord4 ,then he is identified with the god ,allah 7see above7 and the first part of the later ,moslem creed is announced--la ilaha illa-llaha1 there is no god but ,allah4 ,but every act of creation is a proof not only of ,god's power but also of his beneficence 7xiv4 #cg71 and so he becomes known as ar-,rahman1 the ,compassionate4 ,the attributes of ,god may all be arranged in the three classes of his power1 unity and goodness4 ,they are expressed by the ninety-nine beautiful names applied to him in the ,koran 7see ,e4 ,h4 ,palmer1 ,the ,quran in ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 vi41 ,introd4 pp4 #fg-fh1 ,oxford1 #ahhj74 ,in the ,medina period of ,mahomet's life the nature of ,god is not so clear1 and the description of it varies according to the moods of the ,prophet4 ,spirits4 ,beside ,god are two other uncreated beings3 7#a7 the original of the ,koran1 the mother of the ,book 7xliii4 #c7 on a preserved tablet 7lauh mahfuz7 7lxxxv4 #bb71 in accordance with which ,god acts1 and 7#b7 the throne 7kursi7 7ii4 #bef74 ,when the heavens are created1 ,god sits on his throne in the seventh heaven2 around him are angels1 pure1 sexless beings1 some of whom bear the throne1 while some are engaged in praising him continually4 ,they are also his messengers and are sent to fight with the believers against the heathen4 ,some are the guardian angels of men1 others are the watchmen of hell4 ,mediate beings between ,god and man are the word 7amr7 and from it the spirit 7ruh7 or holy spirit 7ruh ul-qudus74 ,another manifestation of ,god to the believers only is the glory 7sakina74 ,cosmology4 ,ethics4 ,god created the world in six days according to the plan of the ,book4 ,each new life was created by ,god's breathing into it a soul4 ,the duality of soul and body is maintained4 ,in each man is a good and a bad impulse4 ,the bad impulse which was latent in ,adam was roused to action by ,satan 7,iblis74 ,adam by his fall lost the grace of ,god1 which was restored to him solely by the gracious choice of ,god4 ,between men and angels in their nature are the genii 7jinn7 male and female1 inhabitants of desert places1 created from smokeless fire4 ,they had been accustomed to spy round heaven1 but in ,mahomet's time could learn no more of its secrets4 ,some of them were converted by the ,prophet's teaching4 ,lowest of creation in his estate is ,satan 7,shaitan71 who was an angel but was expelled from heaven because he refused to worship ,adam at his ,lord's command4 ,god has revealed himself to man by 7#a7 writing 7kitab71 and 7#b7 prophets4 ,as he had given to the ,jews the ,law 7,taurat7 and to the ,christians the ,gospel 7,injil7 so he revealed to ,mahomet the ,koran 7,quran1 known also by other names1 e4g4 al-,furqan1 at-,tafsil1 c471 each single revelation being called an aya4 ,with his revelation ,god has also sent an apostle or prophet to each people4 ,several of these are mentioned in the ,koran1 ,moses the prophet of the ,jews1 ,jesus 7,isa7 that of the ,christians4 ,mahomet is not only the apostle of the ,moslems but the seal of the prophets1 i4e4 the final member of the class4 ,his mission at first was to warn men of imminent judgment4 ,later he became more of a teacher4 ,at first he seems to have relied for the salvation of men on his natural faculties1 but later announced the doctrine of ,god's election4 ,the ethics of the ,koran are based on belief 7iman7 and good works1 the latter alone occurring in the early ,meccan suras4 ,fear of the judgment of ,god was a motive of action2 this is followed by repentance and turning to ,god4 ,a complete surrender to ,god's will 7islam7 is the necessary condition of religious life and is expressed in the phrase so common in everyday speech among the ,moslems--inshallah1 if ,god will4 ,god has full power to overlook evil deeds if he will4 ,unbelievers can acquire no merit1 however moral their actions4 ,a short account of the chief ethical requirements of the ,koran is given in xvii4 #bc-dj3-- ,put not ,god with other gods1 or thou wilt sit despised and forsaken4 ,thy ,lord has decreed that ye shall not serve other than ,him2 and kindness to one's parents1 whether one or both of them reach old age with thee1 and say not to them1 ',fie1' and do not grumble at them1 but speak to them a generous speech4 ,and lower to them the wing of humility out of compassion1 and say1 ',o ,lord6 have compassion on them as they brought me up when ,i was little6' ,your ,lord knows best what is in your souls if ye be righteous1 and1 verily1 ,he is forgiving unto those who come back penitent4 ,and give thy kinsman his due and the poor and the son of the road2 and waste not wastefully1 for the wasteful were ever the devil's brothers1 and the devil is ever ungrateful to his ,lord4 ,but if thou dost turn away from them to seek after mercy from thy ,lord1 which thou hopest for1 then speak to them an easy speech4 ,make not thy hand fettered to thy neck1 nor yet spread it out quite open1 lest thou shouldest have to sit down blamed and straightened in means4 ,verily1 thy ,lord spreads out provision to whomsoever ,he will or ,he doles it out4 ,verily1 ,he is ever well aware of and sees ,his servants4 ,and slay not your children for fear of poverty2 we will provide for them2 beware6 for to slay them is ever a great sin4 ,and draw not near to fornication2 verily1 it is ever an abomination1 and evil is the way thereof4 ,and slay not the soul that ,god has forbidden you1 except for just cause2 for he who is slain unjustly we have given his next of kin authority2 yet let him not exceed in slaying2 verily1 he is ever helped4 ,and draw not near to the wealth of the orphan1 save to improve it1 until he reaches the age of puberty1 and fulfil your compacts2 verily1 a compact is ever enquired of4 ,and give full measure when ye measure out1 and weigh with a right balance2 that is better and a fairer determination4 ,and do not pursue that of which thou hast no knowledge2 verily1 the hearing1 the sight and the heart1 all of these shall be enquired of4 ,and walk not on the earth proudly2 verily1 thou canst not cleave the earth1 and thou shalt not reach the mountains in height4 ,all this is ever evil in the sight of your ,lord and abhorred4 7,e4 ,h4 ,palmer's translation47 ,eschatology4 ,the eschatology of the ,koran is especially prominent in its earlier parts4 ,the resurrection1 last judgment1 paradise and hell are all described4 ,at death the body again becomes earth1 while the soul sinks into a state of sleep or unconsciousness4 ,at a time decreed1 known as the hour 7as-,saa71 the day of resurrection 7yaum ul-qiyyama71 day of judgment 7yaum-ud-din71 c41 an angel will call or will sound a trumpet1 the earth will be broken up1 and the soul will rejoin the body4 ,god will appear on his throne with angels4 ,the great book will be opened1 and a list of his deeds will be given to every man1 to the good in his right hand1 to the evil in his left 7sura #fi74 ,a balance will be used to weigh the deeds4 ,the jinn will testify against the idolaters4 ,the righteous will then obtain eternal peace and joy in the garden 7al-janna7 and the wicked will be cast into the fiery ditch 7,jahannam71 where pains of body and of soul are united4 #b4 ,the ,tradition4--,the revelation of ,god is twofold--in a writing and by a prophet4 ,the former was contained in the ,koran1 the latter was known from the actions of ,mahomet in the different circumstances of life4 ,the manner of life of the ,prophet 7sunna7 was contained in the tradition 7al-hadith74 ,the information required was at first naturally obtained by word of mouth from the companions and helpers of ,mahomet4 ,these in turn bequeathed their information to their younger companions1 who quoted traditions and gave decisions in their names4 ,for long these traditions circulated orally1 the authority of each depending on the person who first gave it and the reliability of the chain 7isnad7 of men who had passed it on from him4 ,at first this tradition was regarded as explanatory of1 or at the most supplementary to1 the teaching of the ,koran4 ,early ,moslem teachers pointed to the ,jews as having two law-books--the ,taurat and the ,mishna--while ,islam had only one--the ,koran4 ,but opinion changed1 the value of tradition as an independent revelation came to be more highly esteemed until at last it was seriously discussed whether a tradition might not abrogate a passage of the ,koran with which it was at variance4 ,the writing of traditions was at first strongly discouraged1 and for more than a century the stories of the ,prophet's conduct passed from mouth to mouth4 ,had all the narrators been pious men1 this might have been tolerable1 but this was not the case4 ,the ,omayyad dynasty was not a pious one4 ,men who were not religious but wished to appear so invented traditions to justify their manner of life4 ,the sectarians did not hesitate to adopt the same means of spreading their own teaching4 ,many ,moslem writers testify to the fact that forged traditions were circulated1 and that religious opinion was confused thereby4 ,the need for some sort of authoritative collection seems to have been felt by the one pious ,omayyad caliph1 ,omar ,,ii4 7#gag-gbj71 who is said to have ordered ,ibn ,shihab uz-,zuhri to make such a collection4 ,of this work1 if it was carried out1 we know nothing further4 ,it was1 however1 by a man born during this reign that the first systematic collection of traditions was made--the ,muwatta of ,malik ibn ,anas 7q4v474 ,yet this work is not a book of tradition in the religious sense1 it is really a corpus juris and not a complete one4 ,the object of ,malik was simply to record every tradition that had been used to give effect to a legal decision4 ,the work of sifting the vast mass of traditions and arranging them according to their relation to the different parts of religious life and practice was first undertaken in the #crd century of ,islam 7,a4,d4 #hae-iab74 ,in this century all the six collections afterwards regarded as canonical by the ,sunnites 7orthodox7 were made4 ,by this time an immense number of traditions was in circulation4 ,bukhari in the course of sixteen years' journeying through ,moslem lands collected #fjj1jjj1 and of these included #gbge 7or1 allowing for repetitions1 #djjj7 in his work4 ,the six collections of tradition received by the ,sunnites as authoritative are3 7i7 ,the ,kitab ul-jami us-,sahih of ,bukhari 7q4v47 7#haj-hgj74 ,this is the most respected throughout the ,moslem world and most carefully compiled 7ed4 ,l4 ,krehl and ,t4 ,w4 ,juynboll1 ,leiden1 #ahfb--;and frequently in the ,east2 also with many commentaries4 ,french translation by ,o4 ,houdas and ,w4 ,marcais1 ,paris1 #aijc sqq474 7ii7 ,the ,sahih of ,muslim 7#hag-hge7 with an introduction on the science of tradition 7ed4 ,calcutta1 #ahdi1 c474 7iii7 ,the ,kitab us-,sunan of ,abu ,daud 7#hag-hhh7 7ed4 ,cairo1 #ahfc1 ,lucknow1 #ahhh1 ,delhi1 #ahij74 7iv7 ,the ,jami us-,sahih of ,tirmidhi 7q4v474 7v7 ,the ,kitab us-,sunan of ,nasa i 7#hcj-iae7 7ed4 ,cairo1 #ahid74 7vi7 ,the ,kitab us-,sunan of ,ibn ,maja 7#hbd-hff7 7ed4 ,delhi1 #ahfe and #ahhi74 ,the last four are not held in the same repute as the first two4 #c4 ,ijma is the universal consent which is held to justify practices or beliefs1 although they are not warranted by the ,koran or tradition1 and may be inconsistent with the apparent teaching of one or both of these4 ,these beliefs and practices1 which had often come from the pre-,islamic customs of those who had become believers1 seem to have escaped notice until the ,abbasid period4 ,they were too deeply rooted in the lives of men to be abolished4 ,it became necessary either to find a tradition to abrogate the earlier forbidding one1 or to acknowledge that ijma is higher than the tradition4 ,the former expedient was resorted to by some later theologians 7e4g4 ,nawawi7 by a fiction that such a tradition existed though it was not found now in writing4 ,but in earlier times some 7as ,ibn ,qutaiba7 had adopted the latter alternative1 saying that the truth can be derived much earlier from the ijma than from the tradition1 because it is not open to the same chances of corruption in its transmission as the latter4 ,tradition itself was found to confirm this view1 for the ,prophet is related to have said1 ,my people does not agree to an error4 ,but ijma itself has been used in different senses3 7i7 ,the ijma of ,medina was used to indicate the authority coming from the practices of the people of ,medina 7see below74 7ii7 ,the ijma of the whole community of ,moslems is that most commonly recognized4 ,it was used to support fealty to the ,abbasid dynasty4 ,by it the six books of tradition mentioned above are recognized as authoritative1 and it is the justification of the conception of ,mahomet as superhuman4 7iii7 ,some of the more thoughtful theologians recognize only the ijma of the doctors or the teachers of ,islam 7the mujtahidun71 these being restricted by the orthodox to the first few generations after ,mahomet1 while the ,shiites allow the existence of such up to the present time4 #d4 ,the fourth basis of ,islam is qiyas1 i4e4 analogy4 ,it is that process by which a belief or practice is justified on the ground of something similar but not identical in the ,koran1 the tradition or ijma4 ,originally it seems to have been instituted as a check upon the use of private opinion 7ra'y7 in the teaching of doctrine4 ,the extent to which it may be used is a subject of much discussion among theologians4 ,some would apply it only to a material similarity1 others to similarity of motive or cause as well4 ,worship and ,ritual4--,the acts of worship required by ,islam are five in number3 7i7 the recital of the creed2 7ii47 observance of the five daily prayers2 7iii7 the fast in the month of ,ramadhan2 7iv7 giving of the legal alms2 7v7 the pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,creed4 i4 ,the creed is belief--la ilaha illa-llahu1 ,muhammad rasul allahi1 there is no god but ,god 7,allah71 ,mahomet is the apostle of ,god4 ,it is required that this shall be recited at least once in a lifetime aloud1 correctly1 with full understanding of its meaning and with heartfelt belief in its truth4 ,it is to be professed without hesitation at any time until death4 ,prayer4 ii4 ,every man who professes ,islam is required in ordinary life to pray five times in each day4 ,in the ,koran these prayers are commanded1 though four only are mentioned4 ,wherefore glorify ,god1 when the evening overtaketh you1 and when ye rise in the morning1 and unto ,him be praise in ,heaven and earth2 and in the evening and when ye rest at noon 7xxx4 #af-ag71 but commentators say the evening includes the sunset and after sunset4 ,the five times therefore are3 7#a7 ,dawn or just before sunrise1 7#b7 just after noon1 7#c7 before sunset1 7#d7 just after sunset1 and 7#e7 just after the day has closed4 ,tradition decides within what limits the recitals may be delayed without impairing their validity4 ,prayer is preceded by the lesser ablution 7wadu7 consisting in the washing of face1 hands 7to the elbows7 and feet in prescribed manner4 ,complete washing of the body 7ghusl7 is required only after legal pollution4 ,in prayer the worshipper faces the qibla 7direction of prayer71 which was at first ,jerusalem1 but was changed by the ,prophet to ,mecca4 ,in a mosque the qibla is indicated by a niche 7mihrab7 in one of the walls4 ,the prayers consist of prescribed ejaculations1 petitions1 and the recital of parts of the ,koran1 always including the first sura1 accompanied by prostrations of the body4 ,detailed physical positions are prescribed for each part of the worship2 these vary slightly in the four orthodox schools 7see below74 ,on a journey1 in time of war or in other special circumstances1 the set form of prayers may be modified in accordance with appointed rules4 ,besides these private prayers1 there is the prayer of the assembly1 which is observed on a ,friday 7yaum ul-jam'a1 the day of assembly7 in a mosque1 and is usually accompanied by an address or declamation 7khutba7 delivered from a step of the pulpit 7minbar74 ,special prayers are also prescribed for certain occasions1 as on the eclipse of the sun or the moon1 c4 ,among the ,sufis special attention is given to informal prayer1 consisting chiefly in the continual repetition of the name of ,god 7dhikr7 7see ,,sufi',,ism74 ,this is still a characteristic of some of the dervish 7q4v47 communities4 ,fasting4 iii4 ,the command to fast begins with the words1 ,o ye who believe6 ,there is prescribed for you the fast1 as it was prescribed for those before you4 ,the expression those before you has been taken to refer to the ,jews1 who fasted on the day of atonement1 but more probably refers to the long fast of thirty-six days observed by the ,eastern ,christians4 ,in the passage of the ,koran referred to 7ii4 #agi-aha7 ,moslems are required to fast during the month of ,ramadhan1 wherein the ,koran was revealed1 but if one is on a journey or sick he may fast another number of days1 and if he is able to fast and does not1 he may redeem it by feeding a poor man1 but if ye fast1 it is better for you4 ,this fast was probably instituted in the second year at ,medina4 ,at that time the corrected lunar year was in use and ,ramadhan1 the ninth month1 was always in the winter4 ,a few years later ,mahomet decreed the use of the uncorrected lunar year1 which remains the standard of time for the ,moslem world1 so that the month of fasting now occurs at all seasons of the year in turn4 ,the fast is severe1 and means entire abstinence from food and drink from sunrise to sunset each day of the month4 ,the fast is associated with the statement that in this month ,god sent down the ,koran from the seventh heaven to ,gabriel in the lowest that it might be revealed to the ,prophet4 ,alms4 iv4 ,alms are of two kinds3 7#a7 the legal and determined 7zakat71 and 7#b7 voluntary 7sadaqat74 ,the former were given in cattle1 grain1 fruit1 merchandise and money once a year after a year's possession4 ,for cattle a somewhat elaborate scale is adopted4 ,of grain and fruit a tenth is given if watered by rain1 a twentieth if the result of irrigation4 ,of the value of merchandise and of money a fortieth is prescribed4 ,in the early days of ,islam the alms were collected by officials and used for the building of mosques and similar religious purposes4 ,at the present time the carrying of these prescriptions is left to the conscience of the believers1 who pay the alms to any needy fellow-,moslem4 ,a good example of a sadaqa is found in a gift to an unbeliever 7see ,c4 ,m4 ,doughty1 ,arabia deserta1 i4 #ddf1 ii4 #bgh1 ,cambridge1 #ahhh74 ,pilgrimage4 v4 ,the fifth religious duty of the ,moslem is the pilgrimage 7hajj7 to ,mecca1 which should be performed once by every ,moslem if he is able1 that is if he can provide or obtain the means to support himself on pilgrimage and his family during his absence1 and if he is physically capable4 ,the pilgrimage is made at one time of the 7,moslem7 year1 namely1 from the #gth to the #ajth of the month ,dhu'l-,hijja4 ,for the arrangements for the journey from various countries to ,mecca see ,,caravan4 ,when the pilgrim arrives within five or six miles of the holy city he puts off his ordinary dress after ablution and prayer1 and puts on the two seamless wrappers which form the dress of the pilgrim 7the ihram71 who goes without head-covering or boots or shoes4 ,he must not shave at all1 or trim the nails or anoint the head during the ceremonial period4 ,the chief parts of the ceremonial are the visit to the sacred mosque 7masjid ul-haram71 the kissing of the black stone1 the compassing of the ,kaba 7the ,tawaf7 seven times1 three times running1 four times slowly1 the visit to the ,maqam ,ibrahim1 the ascent of ,mount ,safa and running from it to ,mount ,marwa seven times1 the run to ,mount ,arafat1 hearing a sermon1 and going to ,muzdalifa1 where he stays the night1 the throwing of stones at the three pillars in ,mina on the great feast day1 and the offering of sacrifice there 7for the localities see ,,mecca74 ,after the accomplishment of these ceremonies the ordinary dress is resumed1 the pilgrimage is finished1 but the pilgrim usually remains another three days in ,mecca1 then visits ,medina to pay his respects to the tomb of ,mahomet4 ,beside the hajj 7great pilgrimage7 ,islam also recognizes the merit of the umra 7or lesser pilgrimage71 i4e4 a religious visit to ,mecca at any time accompanied by most of the ceremonies of the hajj4 ,the ceremonies of the hajj have been described by several ,european travellers who have witnessed them1 such as ,j4 ,l4 ,burckhardt in #ahad1 ,sir ,richard ,burton in #ahec 7see bibliography to ,,mecca74 ,a concise account of them is given in ,t4 ,p4 ,hughes1 ,notes on ,muhammadanism 7#crd ed41 ,london1 #ahid74 ,details in vol4 i4 of ,bukhari's traditions 7,houdas and ,marcais's ,french translation1 i4 #dic-efg74 ,the ,development of ,islam4--,the battle of ,siffin 7#feg7 between ,ali and ,moawiya was the occasion of the first breach in the unity of ,islam1 and the results remain to this day4 ,the occasion was in the first case political1 but politics were at that time too intimately connected with religion to be considered apart from it4 ,after the battle 7see ,,caliphate7 ,ali was practically compelled to submit his claims to arbitration1 whereupon a number of his supporters broke away from him1 saying that there should have been no appeal save to the ,book of ,god4 ,these men were for the most part country ,arabs1 and1 inspired by the free spirit of the desert1 were democratic1 claiming that the caliph should be elected by the whole community from any family 7and not from the ,koreish alone71 and that the caliph might be deposed for sin4 ,a few extremists were republicans and would do without a caliph altogether4 ,the whole party was known as the ,kharijites 7,kharijiyya or ,khawarij74 ,the ,moslems who disagreed with them were regarded by them as renegades and were to be put to death4 ,they were soon divided into extremists and moderates4 ,the former put to death the children of unbelievers and refused to hold intercourse in daily life with unbelievers4 ,the moderates1 who came to be known as ,ibadites 7from their leader ,abdallah ibn ,ibad71 would allow the children of unbelievers to grow up1 and would then deal with them according to their choice4 ,in ordinary life they would mix with all men1 but marriage with other ,moslems outside their own ranks was forbidden4 ,these still remain in ,oman1 parts of ,algeria and ,east ,africa4 ,another party1 consisting mainly of city ,arabs infected with ,persian ideas as to the divinity of the ruler1 clung to ,ali with inconvenient affection4 ,they regarded ,ali and his descendants as the only legitimate caliphs1 and came to be known as ,shiites 7q4v474 ,they remain to-day the largest part of ,islam outside orthodoxy4 ,during the ,omayyad caliphate 7#ffa-gej7 there were three centres of religious thought and influence2 students and teachers often passed from one to the other1 thus making universal the teachings which in their origin were due to local circumstances4 ,these centres were ,damascus 7the seat of the caliphate71 ,medina and the ,east 7,irak1 c474 ,in ,damascus the court was worldly and indifferent to the interests of ,islam4 ,the early ,omayyads were distinguished for their striving after dominion 7mulk74 ,instead of attempting to propagate ,islam1 they tolerated other religions and favoured ,christians who were distinguished as poets 7e4g4 ,akhtal7 or officials 7,john of ,damascus71 or men likely to be of use to them in any way4 ,the doctrines of ,christianity began to influence even serious ,moslems and to affect their way of stating ,moslem belief4 ,john of ,damascus 7d4 before #gfg71 the ,greek theologian1 and his pupil1 ,theodorus ,abucara 7d4 #hbf71 have written controversial works on ,islam1 from which it seems probable that disputations on subjects pertaining to religion were held between ,christians and ,moslems4 ,two schools of heretical ,moslem sects arose under these influences--that of the ,murjiites and that of the ,qadarites4 ,the ,murjiites 7postponers7 were so called because they postponed the judgment of human actions until the ,day of ,judgment4 ,in politics they accepted the ,omayyads as de facto rulers1 since they were ,moslems1 and left the judgment of their actions to ,god4 ,as theologians they taught that religion consists in belief 7iman7 in the unity of ,god and in his apostle1 and in that alone1 consequently no one who held this faith would perish eternally1 though he had been a sinner4 ,this was opposed to the ,kharijite doctrine that the unrepentant sinner would perish eternally1 even though he had professed ,islam4 ,the ,qadarites were concerned with the doctrine of predestination and free-will4 ,so long as ,moslems were fighting the battles of ,islam they naturally paid most attention to those revelations which laid stress on the absolute determination of a man's destiny by ,god4 ,they fought with great bravery because they believed that ,god had foreordained their death or life and they could not escape ,his will4 ,in the quieter realm of town and court life and in their disputations with ,christians they were called upon to reconcile this belief with the appeals made in the ,koran to man's own self-determination to good1 to courage1 c4 ,mahomet was not a systematic theologian and had done nothing to help them4 ,the ,qadarites declared that man had power over his own actions4 ,but the teaching of predestination had gained too great a hold on ,moslems to be thus displaced4 ,the teaching of the ,qadarites was held to be heresy1 and one of its first professors1 ,mabad ul-,juhani1 was put to death in #fii4c ,during this period ,medina was the home of tradition4 ,those who had been in closest relation with the ,prophet dwelt there4 ,the very people of the city derived a certain splendour and authority from the fact that ,mahomet had lived and was buried there4 ,free thought in religion had little chance of arising1 less of expressing itself1 in the holy city4 ,but the ,koran was diligently studied1 traditions were collected 7and invented7 though not yet written in books1 and innovation 7bida7 was resolutely avoided4 ,at the same time it really did contribute a new element to religious practice1 for the custom 7ijma1 see above7 of ,medina gained a certain authority even in ,syria and the ,east4 ,in the ,east1 on the other hand1 there was more mental activity1 and the religious teachers who came from ,medina had to be prepared to meet with many questions4 ,the wits of the ,moslems were sharpened by daily contact with ,christians1 ,buddhists1 ,manichaeans and ,zoroastrians4 ,hasan ul-,basri 7q4v471 who has been claimed as one of the first mystics1 also as one of the first systematic theologians of ,islam1 was remarkable alike for his personal piety and his orthodoxy4 ,yet it was among his pupils that the great rationalist movement originated4 ,its founder was ,wasil ibn ,ata1 who separated himself 7whence his followers were called ,motazilites1 strictly ,mutazilites1 ,separatists7 from his teacher and founded a school which became numerous and influential4 ,the ,mutazilites objected to the attributes of ,god being considered in any way as entities beside ,god2 they explained away the anthropomorphisms used in speaking of the deity2 they regarded the ,koran as created and as a product of ,mahomet writing under the divine influence4 ,briefly1 they asserted the supremacy of reason 7aql7 as distinct from faith received by tradition 7naql74 ,they also called themselves the people of justice and unity 7,ahl ul-adl wat-tauhid74 ,such a faith as this naturally found favour rather with the thinking classes than with the uneducated multitude1 and so went through many vicissitudes4 ,at the time of its appearance and until the reign of ,mamun its adherents were persecuted as heretics4 ,after discussions among the theologians ,mamun took the decided step of proclaiming that the ,koran was created1 and that a belief in this dogma was necessary4 ,other ,mutazilite doctrines were proclaimed later4 ,mutazilites were appointed to official posts1 and an inquisition 7mihna7 was appointed to enforce belief in their doctrines4 ,this movement was strongly opposed by the orthodox and especially by ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal 7q4v474 ,by him the founding of theology on reason was rejected1 and he suffered persecution for his faith 7see ,w4 ,n4 ,patton1 ,ahmed ibn ,hanbal and the ,mihna1 ,leiden1 #ahig74 ,mutazilism retained its sway until #hdi1 when the caliph ,motawakkil again declared the ,koran uncreate and restored orthodoxy4 ,it was during the early years of the ,abbasid rule that the four legal schools of ,abu ,hanifa 7d4 #gfg71 ,malik ibn ,anas 7d4 #gie71 ash-,shafi'i 7d4 #hai7 and ,ibn ,hanbal 7d4 #hee7 came into existence 7see ,,mahommedan ,,law74 ,as the bases of religion and law were the same1 so the methods applied in the treatment of the one affected the other4 ,abu ,hanifa depended little on tradition1 but referred back to the ,koran1 making use of individual opinion 7ray7 as controlled by analogy 7qiyas7 with a written ordinance4 ,malik ,ibn ,anas supplemented the ,koran and ,sunna by customary law founded largely on the custom 7ijma7 of ,medina1 and by what he conceived to be for the public good 7istislah74 ,shafii recognized tradition as equal to the ,koran1 and even as being able to supersede its ordinances1 while he also recognized the universal custom 7ijma7 of the ,moslem world as divine and binding4 ,his four bases of religion--,koran1 sunna1 qiyas and ijma--have been generally accepted in ,islam 7see above74 ,ibn ,hanbal's position has been already mentioned4 ,all these four schools are reckoned orthodox1 and all orthodox ,moslems belong to one or another of them4 ,another teacher of this time1 who founded a school which did not succeed in being recognized as orthodox1 was ,daud uz-,zahiri4 ,trained as a ,shafiite1 he became too strict for this school1 rejected analogy1 restricted ijma to the agreement or custom of the companions of ,mahomet1 and accepted the whole of the ,koran and tradition in the most literal and external sense4 ,his followers were called ,zahirites 7i4e4 externalists74 ,after ,ashari's time these principles were applied to theology by ,ibn ,hazm 7q4v47 see ,i4 ,goldziher1 ,die ,zahiriten1 ihr ,lehrsystem und ihre ,geschichte 7,leipzig1 #ahhd74 ,before turning to the reform of ,ashari and the introduction into orthodox theology of scholastic philosophy it is necessary to notice another phase of religious life which became the common property of orthodox and heretics4 ,this was the introduction of asceticism in religions practice and of mysticism in religious thought4 ,sufiism 7q4v471 which combined these two1 is rightly not counted among the sects of ,islam4 ,asceticism seems to have won a certain amount of approval from ,mahomet himself1 who much respected the ,christian monks4 ,the attention paid in early ,islam to the joys and punishments of the future life led to self-denial and simple living in this world4 ,an ,arabian writer1 speaking of the simplicity of manners of the first four caliphs1 says that their affairs were conducted with more consideration of the future life than of this world4 ,many ,moslems went even farther than these caliphs1 and gave up all concern as far as possible with the affairs of this world and lived in poverty1 in wanderings or in retirement 7see ,,dervish74 ,for the historical development of this movement1 with its accompanying mysticism1 see ,,sufi,,ism4 ,ashari 7d4 before #idb7 was for forty years a ,mutazilite1 then became orthodox 7see ,,ash,,ari71 and at once applied rational methods for the support and interpretation of the orthodox faith4 ,before him1 reason had not been allowed any scope in orthodox theology4 ,he was not the first to use it2 some teachers 7as al-,junaid7 had employed it in teaching1 but only in secret and for the few4 ,the methods of scholastic philosophy were now introduced into ,moslem theology4 ,the chief characteristic of his religious teaching was the adoption of the via media between materialistic grossness and the ideas of pure speculative philosophy4 ,thus he taught1 as to the attributes of ,god1 that they exist1 but are not to be compared with human attributes2 as to ,his visibility1 that ,he can be seen but without the limitations of human sight4 ,as to the great question of free will1 he denied man's power but asserted his responsibility4 ,so he passed in review the doctrines of ,god1 faith1 the ,koran1 sin1 intercession1 c41 and for the first time in the history of ,islam produced a systematic theology4 ,the teaching of ,ashari was taken up and propagated by the ,buyids soon after his death1 and was developed and perfected by ,abu ,bekr ul-,baqilani1 the ,cadi 7d4 #ajab71 but up to the middle of the #eth century of ,islam 7c4 ,a4,d4 #ajeh7 was suspected elsewhere and confounded with ,mutazilism4 ,the ,asharite al-,juwaini 7known as ,imam ul-,haramain7 was persecuted under ,toghrul ,beg 7c4 #ajec7 and exiled1 but was restored under ,alp ,arslan by the vizier ,nizam ul-,mulk1 who founded an ,asharite college 7the ,nizamiyya74 ,in the ,west1 ,ibn ,hazm 7q4v47 fiercely opposed the system1 but ,ghazali established its orthodoxy in the ,east1 and it spread from ,persia to ,syria and ,egypt under the ,ayyubites and ,mamelukes and thence to the ,almohades in ,africa under ,ibn ,tumart 7#aacj74 ,it remains the predominating influence to the present day1 its only serious rival being the theological system of al-,mataridi1 a ,hanifite 7d4 #ide71 whose creed as represented in that of an-,nasafi is still used largely by the ,turks4 ,since the #abth century no great theological movement has been made in ,islam4 ,the quiet of religious life has twice been broken1 once by ,wahhabism 7q4v47 in ,arabia1 once by ,babism 7q4v47 in ,persia4 ,,the ,,sects ,according to an early tradition ,mahomet said that ,islam would be divided into seventy-three parties 7sects71#d of which seventy-two would perish and one would be saved4 ,the orthodox ,arabian writers on heretical sects of ,islam feel compelled by this tradition to make up their number to seventy-two1 and1 as different writers adopt different divisions or are familiar with different parties1 the names of sects amount to some hundreds4 ,each writer1 however1 adopts certain main classes under which he attempts to group the others4 ,abu ,muti ,makhul at the beginning of the #ajth century in his ,refutation 7,,ms4 in ,bodleian ,library7 has six such chief classes3 ,harurites 7i4e4 ,kharijites71 ,rafidites 7i4e4 ,shiites71 ,qadarites1 ,jabarites1 ,jahmites and ,murjiites4 ,ibn ,hazm 7q4v47 adopts four classes3 ,mutazilites 7,motazilites71 ,murjiites1 ,shiites and ,kharijites4 ,shahrastani 7q4v47 complains of the want of system in earlier writers1 and suggests as bases of classification the position of parties with regard to the doctrines as to 7#a7 the divine attributes1 7#b7 predestination and free-will 7#c7 promises and threats1 faith and error1 7#d7 revelation1 reason1 the imamate4 ,in one part of his preface he gives as the chief parties the ,qadarites1 ,sifatites1 ,kharijites and ,shiites1 proposing to divide these classes according to leaders who agreed with the main doctrines of their class but differed in some points4 ,in another place he mentions four opposite pairs of sects3 7#a7 the ,qadarites with their doctrine of free-will1 and the ,jabarites1 who are necessitarians2 7#b7 the ,sifatites1 who maintain the eternal nature of the attributes of ,god1 and the ,mutazilites1 who deny it2 7#c7 the ,murjiites1 who postpone judgment of actions until the ,last ,day1 and the ,waidites1 who condemn in this life2 7#d7 the ,kharijites1 who consider the caliphate a human institution1 and the ,shiites1 who deify their ruler4 ,in his detailed treatment of the sects ,shahrastani arranged them under the headings3 ,mutazilites1 ,jabarites1 ,sifatites1 ,kharijites1 ,murjiites and ,shiites4 ,about the same time as ,shahrastani two other ,arabian writers wrote on the sects--,tahir ul-,isfaraini 7d4 #ajgh71 whose ,,ms4 is in the ,berlin library1 and ,abd ul-,qadir ul-,jilani 7#ajgh-aaff7 in his ,kitab ul-,ghaniyya li-,talibi ,tariq il-,haqqi 7,cairo1 #ahga74 ,both adopt as main classes ,rafidites 7or ,shiites71 ,qadarites 7or ,mutazilites71 ,kharijites1 ,murjiites1 ,najjarites1 ,dirarites1 ,jahmites1 ,mushabbiha1 to which ,tahir adds ,bakrites1 ,karramites1 and a class including those sects which are not reckoned as ,moslem though they have sprung from ,islam4 ,jilani adds to the eight the ,kilabites4 ,the following list is not a complete list of names of sects but is founded on that of ,shahrastani4#e ,aftahites4--,shiites of the ,imamite class1 who ascribe the imamate to ,abdallah ul-,aftahi1 the son of ,sadiq4 ,ajarida4--,kharijites1 followers of ,ibn ,ajarrad1 who agreed for the most part with the ,najadat 7below71 considered grave sins as equivalent to unbelief1 but remained friendly with those who professed ,islam but did not fight for it4 ,they rejected sura #g as a fable4 ,shahrastani enumerates seven divisions of this sect4 ,akhnasites4--,a section of the ,thaaliba not so strict in treatment of those who fear to fight for ,islam4 ,asharites4--,followers of ,ashari 7q4v47 who are counted by ,shahrastani among the ,sifatites4 ,atrafites4--,a division of the ,ajarida who agree with the ,hamzites except that they excuse the lower classes for inaction when they are ignorant of the law4 ,azraqites4--,kharijites who followed al-,azraq in the days of ,ibn ,zubair4 ,they held ,ali to be an unbeliever2 those who did not fight were unbelievers2 the children of unbelievers were to be put to death and went to hell4 ,sin is unbelief4 ,bahshamites4--,mutazilites akin to the ,jubbaites4 ,baihasites4--,kharijites1 followers of ,abu ,baihas ul-,haitham1 who was put to death by the caliph ,walid4 ,they asserted the necessity of knowledge for religion4 ,baqirites4--,shiites who followed ,abu ,jafar ul-,baqir1 the fifth imam1 and looked for his return4 ,batinites4--,ismailites1 so called because they believe that every external has an internal 7batin71 and every passage in the ,koran has an allegoric meaning4 ,bishrites4--,mutazilites1 followers of ,bishr ibn ,mutamir1 one of the most learned men of his party4 ,his teaching was philosophical and was distinguished by his doctrine of origination 7tawallud74 ,bunanites4--,kaisanites1 followers of ,bunan ibn ,siman un-,nahdi1 who claimed that the imamate passed from ,abu ,hashim to himself and that he had also acquired the divine element of ,ali4 ,butrites4--,zaidites1 followers of ,kathir un-,nawa ul-,abtar1 who agreed with the ,suleimanites 7,sulaimanites7 except that he suspended judgment as to whether ,othman was a believer or not4 ,dirarites4--,jabarites who empty ,god of his attributes1 and assert that man has a sixth sense by which he will see ,god on the day of resurrection4 ,the actions of man are created and acquired by him4 ,a caliph need not be chosen from the ,koreish4 ,ghaliites 7,ghula7 are the extreme ,shiites 7q4v47 in ascribing deity to the imams4 ,their heresies are said to be four in number3 7#a7 ,making ,god resemble man1 7#b7 ascribing change of mind to ,god1 7#c7 looking for the return of the imam1 7#d7 metempsychosis4 ,they are divided by ,shahrastani into ten classes4 ,ghassanites4--,murjiites1 followers of ,ghassan ibn ul-,kufi1 who say that faith consists of knowledge of ,god1 his apostle1 and the ,koran in general not in detail1 and that faith increases but is not diminished4 ,habities ,hayitites 7below74 ,hadathites 7,hudabites7 are ,mutazilites1 followers of ,fadl ibn ul-,hadathi1 who agreed with the ,hayitites 7below74 ,hafsites4--,ibadites1 followers of ,hafs ibn abi-l-,miqdam1 who distinguished between idolatry 7shirk7 and unbelief 7kufr74 ,hamzites4--,ajarida1 followers of ,hamza ibn ,adrak in ,sijistan4 ,they agree with the ,maimunites1 but condemn the children of unbelievers to hell4 ,harithites4--,ibadites who differ from others in holding the ,mutazilite doctrine of free-will4 ,harurites4--,a name given to the first ,kharijites1 who rebelled against ,ali1 and met in ,harura near ,kufa4 ,hashimites4--,shiites who supported ,abu ,hashim1 son of ,mahommed ibn ul-,hanafiyya1 although they held that his father had gone astray4 ,hashwiites4--,a party who asserted the eternity even of the letters of the ,koran4 ,they are not mentioned as a separate sect by ,shahrastani2 cf4 van ,vloten1 ,les ,hachwia et ,nabita1 in the ,acts of the #aath ,oriental ,congress 7,paris1 #ahii71 pt4 iii41 pp4 #ii sqq4 ,hayitites4--,mutazilites who agreed with the ,nazzamites1 but added three heresies of their own3 7#a7 the divinity of the ,messiah1 7#b7 metempsychosis1 7#c7 the interpretation of all references to the vision of ,god as referring to the first ,reason or creative ,reason4 ,hishamites4--,a name given to two sects3 7#a7 ,mutazilites1 strong in their assertion of man's free-will1 even opposing the statement of the ,koran4 7#b7 ,shiites of the extreme kind1 who attributed to ,god a body with quantities 7measurements7 and qualities4 ,hudabites4--,see ,hadathites4 ,hudhailites 7,hodhailites74--,mutazilites1 followers of ,abu-l ,hudhail ,hamdan1 who was a leading teacher of his party and developed the philosophical side of its teaching4 ,ten of his main doctrines are given by ,shahrastani4 ,ibadites4--,kharijites of moderate tendencies 7see above74 ,ilbaites4--,ghaliites who put ,ali above ,mahomet and blamed the latter because he called men to himself instead of to ,ali4 ,imamites4--,one of the chief divisions of the ,shiites 7q4v474 ,ishaqites4--,ghaliites agreeing with the ,nusairites except that they incline to speak of the imams' participation in the prophetic office rather than of their divinity4 ,ismailites4--,this name is applied to all who consider ,ismail ibn ,jafar the last imam1 some believing that he did not die but will return1 others1 that at his death his son ,mahommed became imam 7see ,,assassins72 it is also used as equivalent to the ,batinites4 ,ithnaasharites4--,imamites who accept the twelve imams 7see ,,shi,,ites74 ,jabarites4--,those who deny all actions and power to act to man and ascribe all to ,god 7see above74 ,jafarites4--,imamites who carry the imamate no farther than ,jafar us-,sadiq4 ,jahizites4--,mutazilites1 followers of the celebrated writer ,jahiz 7q4v471 who indulged in philosophical speculations1 believed in the eternity of matter1 and was regarded as a naturalist 7tabai7 rather than a theist 7allahi74 ,jahmites4--,jabarites1 followers of ,jahm ibn ,safwan1 who was put to death at ,merv toward the close of the ,omayyad period4 ,he was extreme in his denial of the attributes of ,god4 ,jarudites4--,zaidites who held that ,mahomet designated ,ali as imam1 not by name but by his attributes1 and that the ,moslem sinned by not taking sufficient trouble to recognize these attributes4 ,jubbaites4--,mutazilites who followed the philosophical teaching of ,abu ,ali ,mahommed ul-,jubbai of ,basra4 ,kaisanites4--,a main class of the ,shiites 7q4v474 ,kamilites4--,ghaliites1 followers of ,abu ,kamil1 who condemned the companions 7,ansar7 because they did not do allegiance to ,ali1 and ,ali because he surrendered his claims4 ,karramites4--,sifatites1 followers of ,ibn ,karram1 who went so far as to ascribe a body to ,god1 and assimilated his nature to human nature4 ,kayyalites4--,ghaliites1 followers of ,ahmad ibn ,kayyal1 who1 after supporting a propaganda for an ,aliite1 claimed to be the imam himself on the ground of his power over the spheres4 ,khalafites4--,ajarida of ,kerman and ,multan1 who believed that ,god wills good and evil1 but condemned the children of unbelievers to hell4 ,kharijites4--,one of the earliest sects of ,islam 7see above74 ,kharimites4--,ajarida1 agreeing mostly with the ,shuaibites and teaching that the relation of ,god to a man depends on what he professes at the end of his life4 ,khattabites4--,ghaliites1 followers of ,abu-l ,khattab1 who was put to death by ,ibn ,musa at ,kufa4 ,he was a violent supporter of ,jafar us-,sadiq1 who however disowned him4 ,khayyatites4--,mutazilites1 followers of ,abu-l ,hosain ul-,khayyat1 a teacher in ,bagdad1 part of whose philosophical teaching was that the non-existent is a thing4 ,mabadites4--,thalabites who differed from the ,akhnasites on the question of the marriage of believing women and from ,thalab on the question of taking alms from slaves4 ,maimunites4--,ajarida1 followers of ,maimun ibn ,khalid1 who believed that ,god wills good only and that man determines his actions4 ,majhulites4--,thalabites1 agreeing generally with the ,kharimites1 but teaching that he who knows some names and attributes of ,god and is ignorant of some knows ,god4 ,malumites4--,thalabites agreeing generally with the ,kharimites but alleging that a believer must know all the names and attributes of ,god4 ,mansurites4--,ghaliites1 followers of ,abu ,mansur ul-,ijli1 who at first supported al-,baqir1 but1 rejected by him1 claimed the imamate for himself4 ,he was crucified by the caliph ,hisham ibn ,abd ul-,malik 7,abdalmalik74 ,muammarites4#f--,mutazilites who strongly denied the predestination of ,god1 and affirmed that ,god created bodies only1 and that the accidents spring naturally from them4 ,mufaddalites4#f--,the same as the ,musaites 7q4v474 ,mughirites4#f--;,ghaliites1 followers of ,mughira ibn ,said ul-,ijli1 who claimed the imamate and prophetic office and held extremely gross views of ,god4 ,muhakkima#f 7the first74--,another name for the ,harurites 7above74 ,mukarramites4#f--,thalabites who taught that sin consists in ignorance of ,god4 ,mukhtarites4#f--,kaisanites1 followers of al-,mukhtar ibn ,ubaid1 who held to ,mahommed ibn ul-,hanafiyya but was disowned by him4 ,he allowed the possibility of change of mind on the part of ,god4 ,murjiites4--,those who postponed judgment of actions until the ,day of ,judgment4 ,see above4 ,musaites4--,imamites who held to the imamate of ,musa ibn ,jafar1 who was imprisoned by ,harun al-,rashid and poisoned4 ,mushabbiha4#f--,sifatites who compared ,god's actions with human actions4 ,they said that the ,koran was eternal with all its letters1 accents and written signs4 ,mutazilites4#f--,the rationalists of ,islam4 ,see above1 cf4 also ,h4 ,steiner1 ,die ,mutaziliten oder die ,freidenker im ,islam 7,leipzig1 #ahfe74 ,muzdarites4#f--,mutazilites1 followers of al-,muzdar1 a pupil of ,bishr 7cf4 ,bishrites7 whose teaching he developed further4 ,he taught that ,god has power to do evil1 but1 if he acted thus1 would be an evil ,god2 also that man can produce the equal of the ,koran4 ,najadat 7also known as ,adhirites74--,kharijites1 who followed ,najda ibn ,amir of ,yemama as he went to join the ,azraqites but withdrew from these1 being more orthodox than they4 ,he held that fear of fighting was not sin4 ,nawisites take their name from a person or a place4 ,they are ,jafarites who believe in ,sadiq as the mahdi4 ,nazzamites4--,mutazilites1 followers of ,ibrahim ibn ,sayyar un-,nazzam1 who was an extremist in his teaching of man's free-will and other philosophical doctrines4 ,numanites4#f--;,ghaliites agreeing in some points with ,hishamites1 but holding that ,god is a light in the form of a man1 yet not a body4 ,nusairites4#f--;,ghaliites who agree with the ,ishaqites except that they lay more stress on the incorporation of the deity4 ,qadarites4--,the upholders of free-will 7see above74 ,qataites4--,musaites who regard the rank of the imams as closed with the death of ,musa4 ,rafidites4--,a term used by some writers to denote the ,shiites as a whole2 by others given to a class of the ,shiites who forsook ,zaid ibn ,ali because he forbade them to abuse the ,companions4 ,rashidites4--,thalabites1 followers of ,rashid ut-,tusi1 sometimes called ,ushrites 7tithers7 because they differed from others on the question of tithing the produce of land watered by rivers and canals4 ,rizamites4--,kaisanites of ,khorasan at the time of ,abu ,muslim1 to whom they ascribed the imamate and the ,spirit of ,god4 ,they also believed in metempsychosis4 ,sabaites4--,ghaliites1 who followed ,abdallah ibn ,saba 7see ,,shi,,ites74 ,salihites4--7a7 ,zaidites1 followers of al-,hasan ibn ,salih1 who agreed with the teachings of the ,butrites 7above72 7b7 ,murjiites1 followers of ,salih ibn ,amr1 who united with the doctrines of their own party those of the ,qadarites4 ,saltites4--,ajarida who had nothing to do with the children of believers until they had grown up and professed ,islam4 ,shaibanites4--,thalabites1 followers of ,shaiban ibn ,salama1 who was killed in the time of ,abu ,muslim 7,moslem74 ,they arose chiefly in ,jorjan and ,armenia and agreed in doctrine with the ,jahmites4 ,shamitites4--,jafarites1 followers of ,yahya ibn ,abu ,shamit4 ,shiites4--,see separate article4 ,shuaibites4--,ajarida who said that ,god creates the actions of men1 and men appropriate them4 ,sifatites are those who ascribe eternity to all the attributes of ,god1 whether they denote essence or action1 or are of the class called descriptive attributes4 ,sifrites1 the same as ,ziyadites 7below74 ,sulaimanites 7,suleimanites74--,zaidites1 followers of ,suleiman ibn ,jarir1 who held that the appointment to the imamate was a matter of consultation and that the imamates of ,abu ,bekr and ,omar were legal although ,ali had a better claim4 ,thalabites4--,a party of the ,kharijites1 followers of ,thalab ibn ,amir1 who agreed with the ,ajarida except that he was friendly with children until they actually denied the faith4 ,he also took alms from slaves when they were rich1 and gave alms to poor slaves4 ,thaubanites4--,murjiites who said that faith consists in the knowledge and confession of ,god and ,his apostle1 and what the intellect is not capable of doing4 ,what the intellect can do 7or leave7 is not of faith4 ,thumamites4--,mutazilites1 followers of ,thumama ibn ,ashras in the days of ,mamun1 who taught that all non-,moslems would become dust on the day of resurrection4 ,tumanites4--,murjiites who taught that faith depends on obedience rather to the principles than to the commands of ,islam4 ,ubaidites4--,murjiites who believed that anything but idolatry might be forgiven1 and that if a man died professing the unity of ,god his sins would not hurt him4 ,waidites4--,those who1 opposed to the ,murjiites1 pronounced judgment in this life2 they are not counted as a separate sect by ,shahrastani 7see above74 ,wasilites4--,a name given to those who followed ,wasil ibn ,ata1 the founder of ,mutazilitism1 who denied the attributes of ,god1 asserted the power of man over his own actions1 taught the existence of a middle place between heaven and hell1 and despised the parties of ,othman and ,ali alike4 ,yazidites4--,ibadites who said that they followed the religion of the ,sabians in the ,koran1 and believed that ,god would send an apostle from the ,persians4 ,yunusites4--,murjiites who taught that faith consists in knowledge of ,god1 subjection to ,him1 abandonment of pride before ,him1 and love in the heart4 ,obedience apart from knowledge is not of faith4 ,zaidites4--,the moderate ,shiites 7see ,,shi,,ites74 ,ziyadites4--,kharijites1 followers of ,ziyad ibn ul-,asfar1 who did not regard those who abstained from fighting for ,islam as unbelievers1 and did not kill the children of idolaters or condemn them to hell4 ,,authorities4--,for the philosophy and theology of ,ashari see ,m4 ,a4 ,f4 ,mehren1 ,expos de la rforme de l',islamisme par ,abou-l ,hasan ,ali el-,ashari 7,leiden1 #ahgh72 ,w4 ,spitta1 ,zur ,geschichte ,abu-l ,hasan al-,asharis 7,leipzig1 #ahgf72 ,m4 ,schreiner1 ,zur ,geschichte des ,asharitenthums 7,leiden1 #ahia72 ,d4 ,b4 ,macdonald1 ,development of ,muslim ,theology1 ,jurisprudence and ,constitutional ,theory 7,london1 #aijc74 ,the last work contains translations of the creeds of ,ashari and ,nasafi 7,mataridite74 ,a further bibliography of works on the faith and outlook of ,islam will be found in ,d4 ,b4 ,macdonald's ,muslim ,theology4 ,the text of the ,koran has been edited by ,g4 ,flgel1 ,leipzig1 various dates2 and by ,g4 ,m4 ,redslob1 ,paris1 #ahfh and #ahhj4 ,there are also hundreds of ,eastern editions4 ,concordances have been published by ,g4 ,flgel1 ,leipzig1 #ahdb 7several times reprinted71 also in ,egypt1 ,palestine and ,india4 ,a dictionary and glossary were published by ,j4 ,penrice1 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,english translations have been made by ,g4 ,sale1 ,london1 #agcd 7the fullest edition is that with notes by ,e4 ,m4 ,wherry1 #d vols41 ,london1 #ahhb-ahhf72 by ,j4 ,m4 ,rodwell with notes1 ,london1 #ahfa and #ahgf2 and by ,e4 ,h4 ,palmer in vols1 vi4 and ix4 of the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 ,oxford1 #ahhj-ahhb4 ,among the best or best-known ,arabic commentaries are those of ,tabari 7q4v471 ,zamakhshari 7q4v471 ,baidhawi 7q4v471 the ,jalalain 7see ,,suyuti71 and such later ones as the ,mafatih ul-,ghaib of ar-,razi 7d4 #abaj74 ,the composition and theology of the ,koran are treated in the works of ,nldeke and ,grimme referred to above4 ,on the eschatology of ,islam see ,m4 ,wolff1 ,muhammedanische ,eschatologie 7,leipzig1 #ahgb72 and on the doctrine of revelation4 ,otto ,pautz1 ,muhammeds ,lehre von der ,offenbarung 7,leipzig1 #ahih74 7,g4 ,w4 ,t47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see also ,,koran4 #b ,underlined with interpolations4 #c ,for the doctrines of these two sects see ,shahrastani's ,book of ,sects1 and for the ,qadarites1 ,a4 de ,vlieger's ,kitab ul-,qadr1 matriaux pour servir l'tude de la doctrine de la prdestination dans la thologie musulmane 7,leiden1 #aijc74 #d ,for the origin and significance of this number see ,m4 ,steinschneider1 ,die kanonische ,zahl der muhammedanischen ,secten und die ,symbolik der ,zahl1 #gj-gc1 in ,zeitschr4 d4 deutschen morgenl4 ,gesellschaft1 iv41 #ade-agj 7#ahej72 and ,i4 ,goldziher1 ,le ,denombrement des sectes mohamtanes in ,revue de l'hist4 des religions1 xxvi4 #abi-acg 7#ahib74 #e ,the names are given throughout in the anglicized form on the analogy of ,shiites1 which is recognized in common usage4 ,the strict termination according to the scheme of transliteration adopted in this work is iyya1 or iya1 e4g4 ,hishamiyya for ,hishamites4 ,for information regarding the important sects see separate articles and the preceding portion of this article4 #f ,all these names are alternatively spelt ,mo- instead of ,mu-4 ,,mahony1 ,,francis ,,sylvester 7#ahjd-ahff71 known as ,father ,prout1 ,irish priest and author1 son of a woollen manufacturer1 was born in ,cork in #ahjd4 ,his classical education was chiefly obtained at a ,jesuit college at ,amiens1 and after studying in ,paris he entered the ,jesuit college at ,rome and was admitted into the ,society of ,jesus4 ,he served in ,switzerland and at ,clongoweswood1 ,ireland1 where he was prefect of studies and subsequently master of rhetoric4 ,here he was involved in scandals that led to his resignation4 ,on going to ,italy he was told at ,florence that he was expelled from the ,society4 ,he succeeded1 however1 in obtaining priest's orders at ,rome in #ahcb1 and returned to ,ireland1 but subsequently went to ,london1 officiating for some time in the chapel of the ,bavarian ,legation4 ,while there he fell in with ,william ,maginn1 and about #ahcd began to contribute his celebrated ,prout ,papers to ,fraser's ,magazine4 ,these consist of episodes in the life of the parish priest ,father ,prout1 and dialogues after the model of ,christopher ,north1 varied by translations of well-known ,english songs into ,latin1 ,greek1 ,french and ,italian verse1 which he humorously represents as being the true originals from which the ,english authors had merely plagiarized them4 ,mahony's translations have been universally admired for the extraordinary command which they display of the various languages into which his renderings are made1 and for their spirit and freedom both of thought and expression4 ,his original verse tends chiefly to show that with all his sarcastic and cynical wit his genius had also its tender1 serious and sentimental side4 ,his ,bells of ,shandon has always been greatly admired4 ,in #ahdf ,mahony became correspondent at ,rome to the ,daily ,news1 and his letters from that capital gave very vivid pictures of the first years of the reign of ,pius ,,ix4 ,the last twelve or fifteen years of his life were spent in ,paris1 whence he supplied the ,globe with a series of piquant letters on the incidents of the day4 ,he died in ,paris on the #ahth of ,may #ahff4 ,the ,reliques of ,father ,prout were collected from ,fraser's ,magazine and published in two volumes in #ahcf2 ,the ,final ,reliques of ,father ,prout1 chiefly extracted from the ,daily ,news and the ,globe1 were edited by ,blanchard ,jerrold in #ahgf1 and an edition of his works1 edited by ,charles ,kent1 was published in #ahha4 ,,mahout 7,hind4 mahawat71 an elephant-driver4 ,the mahout sits on the elephant's neck and directs him by voice and by the use of a goad called ankus4 ,,mahrattas1 a people of ,india1 inhabiting the district known by the ancient name of ,maharashtra 7,sans4 great kingdom or region74 ,this large tract1 extending from the ,arabian ,sea on the west to the ,satpura mountains in the north1 comprises a good part of western and central ,india1 including the modern provinces of the ,konkan1 ,khandesh1 ,berar1 the ,british ,deccan1 part of ,nagpur1 and about half the nizam's ,deccan4 ,the etymology of the word ,mahratta 7,maratha7 is uncertain4 ,the name does not indicate a social caste1 or a religious sect2 it is not even tribal4 ,strictly1 it is confined to the upper class from whom ,sivaji's generals were mostly drawn1 and who sometimes claim a ,rajput origin4 ,in a wider sense it may be extended to include all who inhabit ,maharashtra and speak ,mahratti as their mother-tongue4 ,in #aija the total number of speakers of ,mahratti in all ,india exceeded #ah millions4 ,the ,mahrattas have always been a separate nation or people1 and still regard themselves as such1 though nowadays they are almost all under ,british or ,mahommedan jurisdiction2 that is1 they belong either to ,british ,india or to the nizam's dominions4 ,there are indeed still three large native states nominally ,mahratta3 that of ,sindhia near the borders of ,hindustan in the north1 that of ,holkar in ,malwa in the heart of the ,indian continent1 and that of the gaekwar in ,gujarat on the western coast4 ,but in these states the prince1 his relatives and some of his ministers or officials only are ,mahrattas2 the mass of the people belong to other sections of the ,hindu race4 ,these states then are not to be included in the ,mahratta nation1 though they have a share in ,mahratta history4 ,in general terms the ,mahrattas1 in the wider sense1 may be described under two main heads3 first the ,brahmans1 and secondly the low-caste men4 ,the ,mahratta ,brahmans possess1 in an intense degree1 the qualities of that famous caste1 physical1 intellectual and moral4 ,they have generally the lofty brow1 the regular features1 the spare upright figure1 and the calm aspect which might be expected in a race maintained in great purity yet upon a broad basis4 ,in modern times they have proved themselves the most able and ambitious of all the ,brahmans in the ,indian ,empire4 ,they are notably divided into two sections3 the ,konkanast1 coming from the ,konkan or littoral tract on the west coast below the ,western ,ghat mountains2 and the ,deshast1 coming from the uplands or ,deccan1 on the east of the mountains4 ,though there have been many distinguished ,deshasts1 yet the most remarkable of all have been ,konkanasts4 ,for instance1 the peshwas1 or heads of the ,mahratta confederation which at one time dominated nearly all ,india1 were ,konkanast ,brahmans4 ,the birthplaces of these persons are still known1 and to this day there are sequestered villages1 nestling near the western base of the ,ghats1 which are pointed to as being the ancestral homes of men who two centuries ago had political control over half ,india4 ,apart from the ,brahmans1 the ,mahrattas may be generally designated as ,sudras1 the humblest of the four great castes into which the ,hindu race is theoretically divided4 ,but the upper classes claim to be ,kshattriyas or ,rajputs4 ,they probably are aborigines fundamentally1 with a mixture of what are now called the ,scythian tribes1 which at a very early time overran ,india4 ,the ordinary ,mahrattas1 who form the backbone of the nation1 have plain features1 an uncouth manner1 short stature1 a small but wiry frame4 ,though not powerful physically as compared with the northern races of the ,punjab and ,oudh1 they have much activity and an unsurpassed endurance4 ,born and bred in or near the ,western ,ghat mountains and the numerous tributary ranges1 they have all the qualities of mountaineers4 ,in recent times they enter military service less and less1 betaking themselves mainly to cultivation and to the carrying business connected with agriculture4 ,as husbandmen they are not remarkable2 but as graziers1 as cartmen1 as labourers1 they are excellent4 ,as artisans they have seldom signalized themselves1 save as armourers and clothweavers4 ,in the ,konkan there are some superior proprietors termed ,khots4 ,with this and perhaps some other exceptions1 there are not in the ,mahratta country many large landlords1 nor many of the superior tenure-holders whose position relatively to that of the peasantry has caused much discussion in other parts of ,india4 ,there are indeed many ,mahratta chiefs still resident in the country1 members of the aristocracy which formerly enjoyed much wealth and power4 ,they are sometimes in the position of landlords1 but often they are the assignees of the land revenue1 which they are entitled under special grants to collect for themselves instead of for government1 paying merely a small sum to ,government by way of quit-rent4 ,under them the cultivators are by ,british arrangements placed in the position of peasant proprietors4 ,the village community has always existed as the social unit in the ,mahratta territories1 though with less cohesion among its members than in the village communities of ,hindustan and the ,punjab4 ,the ancient offices pertaining to the village1 as those of the headmen 7patel71 the village accountant1 c41 are in working order throughout the ,mahratta country4 ,the ,mahratta peasantry possess manly fortitude under suffering and misfortune4 ,though patient and good-tempered in the main1 they have a latent warmth of temper1 and if oppressed beyond a certain limit they would fiercely turn upon their tormentors4 ,as a rule they are orderly and law-abiding1 but traditions of plunder have been handed down to them from early times1 and many of them retain the predatory instincts of their forefathers4 ,the neighbourhood of dense forests1 steep hill-sides1 and fastnesses hard of access offers extraordinary facilities to plunderers for screening themselves and their booty4 ,thus gang robbery is apt to break out1 gains head with rapidity1 and is suppressed with difficulty4 ,in times of peace it is kept under1 but during war1 or whenever the bands of civil order are loosened1 it becomes a cause of anxiety and a source of danger4 ,the women have frankness and strength of character2 they work hard in the fields1 and as a rule evince domestic virtue4 ,the peasantry preserve a grave and quiet demeanour1 but they have their humble ideas of gaiety1 and hold their gatherings on occasions of births or marriages4 ,they frequently beguile their toil with carols4 ,they like the gossiping and bartering at the rural markets and in the larger fairs1 which are sometimes held in strikingly picturesque localities4 ,they are superstitious1 and worship with hearty veneration any being or thing whose destructive agency they fear4 ,they even speak of the tiger with honorific titles4 ,they are ,hindus1 but their ,hinduism is held to be of a non-,aryan type4 ,they are sincerely devout in religion1 and feel an awe regarding the holy ,brahmans1 holding the life and the person of a ,brahman sacred1 even though he be a criminal of the deepest dye4 ,they of course regard the cow as equally sacred4 ,there are two principal sects among modern ,hindus--those who follow ,vishnu1 and those who follow ,siva4 ,the ,mahrattas generally follow ,siva and his wife1 a dread goddess known under many names4 ,the ,mahratta war-cry1 ,har1 ,har1 ,mahadeo1 referred to ,siva4 ,all classes high and low are fond of the religious festivals1 the principal of which1 the ,dasahra1 occurs in ,october1 when the first harvest of the year has been secured and the second crops sown4 ,this has always been held with the utmost pomp and magnificence at every centre of ,mahratta wealth and power4 ,the people frequently assemble in bowers and arbours constructed of leafy boughs to hear kathas recited4 ,these recitations are partly religious1 partly also romantic and quasi-historical4 ,after them national resolves of just resistance or of aggressive ambition have often been formed4 ,apart from the ,mahratta ,brahmans1 as already mentioned1 the ,mahratta nobles and princes are not generally fine-looking men4 ,there is general truth in what was once said by a high authority to the effect that1 while there will be something dignified in the humblest ,rajput1 there will be something mean in the highest ,mahratta4 ,bluff good-nature1 a certain jocoseness1 a humour pungent and ready1 though somewhat coarse1 a hot or even violent disposition1 are characteristics of ,mahratta chieftains4 ,they usually show little aptitude for business or for sedentary pursuits2 but1 on the other hand1 they are born equestrians and sportsmen4 ,mahratta ladies and princesses have often taken a prominent part1 for good or evil1 in public affairs and dynastic intrigues4 ,though they have produced some poetry1 the ,mahrattas have never done much for literature4 ,nor have they been distinguished in industrial art4 ,their architecture in wood1 however1 was excellent2 and the teak forests of their country afforded the finest timber for building and for carving4 ,they had also much skill in the construction of works for the supply of drinking water on a large scale and for irrigation4 ,the range of the ,western ,ghats enabled the ,mahrattas to rise against their ,mahommedan conquerors1 to reassert their ,hindu nationality against the whole power of the ,mogul ,empire1 and to establish in its place an empire of their own4 ,it is often stated that in ,india ,british conquest or annexation succeeded ,mahommedan rule2 and to a considerable extent this was the case4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the principal power1 the widest sovereignty1 which the ,british overthrew in ,india was that of the ,mahrattas4 ,during the earlier ,moslem invasions in #aajj and in subsequent years1 the ,mahrattas do not seem to have made much resistance4 ,they submitted to several ,mahommedan kings under the changing circumstances of those times4 ,it was against the ,mahommedan king of ,bijapur in the ,deccan that ,sivaji1 the hero of ,mahratta history1 first rebelled in #afeg4 ,sivaji and his fighting officers were ,mahrattas of humble caste1 but his ministers were ,brahmans4 ,when the ,mogul ,empire absorbed the ,bijapur kingdom he defied the emperor4 ,he imparted a self-reliant enthusiasm to his countrymen1 formed them into an army1 and organized them as a political community2 his mountaineer infantry1 though limited in numbers1 proved desperately courageous2 his cavalry was daring and ubiquitous4 ,the ,moslems1 having once overcome the ,hindus in almost all parts of ,india1 had not for centuries met with any noteworthy uprising4 ,sivaji1 however1 planned their expulsion1 and before the end of his restless life made much progress in the execution of that design4 ,the new state which he founded was maintained under various vicissitudes after his death4 ,mahratta resistance1 once aroused by him1 was never extinguished1 and the imperial resources were worn out by ceaseless though vain efforts to quell it4 ,the great ,mogul emperor's impoverished and enfeebled successor was fain to recognize the ,mahratta state by a formal instrument4 ,the ,mahratta king1 a descendant of ,sivaji1 had become a roi fainant1 and the arrangement was negotiated by his ,brahman minister1 whose official designation was the peshwa4 ,the office of peshwa then became hereditary in the minister's family1 and grew in importance as the ,mahratta kingdom rose1 while the king sunk into the condition of a puppet4 ,thus the ,mahratta power was consolidated throughout nearly the whole of ,maharashtra under the ,brahman peshwa as virtual sovereign1 with his capital at ,poona1 while the titular ,mahratta raja or king had his court at the neighbouring city of ,satara4 ,despite his political importance1 however1 the raja was still venerated as the descendant of ,sivaji4 ,then several chiefs carved out principalities of their own from among the ruins of the ,mogul ,empire4 ,thus ,raghoji ,bhonsla established himself in the tracts lying underneath the southern base of the ,satpura range 7namely1 ,nagpur and ,berar71 overran ,orissa and entered ,bengal4 ,damaji ,gaekwar descended from the ,western ,ghats upon the alluvial plains of ,gujarat around ,baroda2 ,tukoji ,holkar subdued the uplands of ,malwa beyond the ,vindhya range on the north bank of the ,nerbudda2 and ,mahadji ,sindhia obtained possession of large tracts immediately south of ,agra and ,delhi1 marched into ,hindustan and became virtually the master of the ,mogul emperor himself 7see ,,gwalior74 ,sivaji's own father had founded a dominion at ,tanjore in the extreme south1 which1 however1 never had relations with the central power at ,poona4 ,the same may be said of the state of ,kolhapur1 allotted to a younger branch of ,sivaji's family4 ,but these principalities1 though independent respecting internal administration1 and making war or peace with their neighbours according to opportunity1 owned allegiance to the peshwa at ,poona as the head of the ,mahratta race4 ,on state occasions heads of principalities would visit ,poona by way of acknowledging the superior position of the peshwa4 ,on the other hand1 the peshwa was careful to obtain the sanction of his nominal sovereign at ,satara to every important act of state4 ,thus a confederation was formed of which the ,brahman peshwa or head was at ,poona1 governing the adjacent territories1 while the members1 belonging to the lower castes1 were scattered throughout the continent of ,india4 ,such was the ,mahratta ,empire which supplanted the ,mogul ,empire4 ,the ,mahratta power grew and prospered till it embraced all western and most of central ,india4 ,its culminating point was reached about #agej1 or about a century after ,sivaji first rebelled against his ,mahommedan sovereign4 ,its armies drew soldiers from all parts of ,india4 ,the infantry was not of good quality2 but its cavalry was really an enormous force1 numbering fully a hundred thousand in all4 ,the horsemen were splendidly audacious in riding for long distances into the heart of a hostile country1 without support1 striking some terrific blows1 and then returning rapidly beyond reach of pursuit4 ,they could truly boast of having watered their horses in every ,indian river from the ,cauvery to the ,indus4 ,if attacked1 however1 in a competent manner1 they would not stand2 and afterwards1 in conflict with the ,british1 whole masses of them behaved in a dastardly manner4 ,as their ambition grew the chiefs began to organize their troops after the system learnt from the ,english and ,french4 ,in this way several ,frenchmen--,benoit de ,boigne1 ,perron and others--rose in the ,mahratta service to a position dangerous to the ,british4 ,but the new system was unsuited to the ,mahratta genius2 it hampered the meteoric movements of the cavalry1 which was obliged to manoeuvre in combination with the new artillery and the disciplined battalions4 ,mahratta elders hence uttered predictions of military disaster which were in the end more than fulfilled4 ,the rapid and amazing success of the ,mahratta confederation rendered it the largest ,hindu power that ever existed in ,india4 ,but it lacked the elements of true greatness4 ,it was founded by plundering expeditions1 and its subsequent existence was tainted by the baseness of this predatory origin4 ,with the exception of the peshwas1 its chiefs were little more than free-booting warriors1 for the most part rude1 violent and unlettered4 ,their custom was to offer their neighbours or victims the alternative of paying chouth1 that is1 one-fourth of the revenue1 or being plundered and ravaged4 ,thus the ,mahratta chouth came to have an ominous significance in ,indian history4 ,desultory efforts were made to establish a civil government1 but in the main there was no administration formed on statesmanlike principles4 ,the peshwas1 on the other hand1 as ,brahmans1 were men of the highest education then possible in ,india4 ,but they were absorbed by the direction of military and political combinations1 and by intrigues for the preservation of their own power2 and1 even allowing for all this1 they failed to evince the civil capacity which might have been anticipated4 ,while several displayed commanding abilities1 and some possessed many virtues1 one alone attempted to conduct an administration in an enlightened manner1 and he died prematurely4 ,there were at the same time powers existing in ,india to keep the ,mahrattas in check1 and some parts of ,india were excepted from their depredations4 ,the ,english power was rising at ,calcutta1 ,madras and ,bombay4 ,the nascent ,sikh power prevented ,mahratta incursions from being permanently successful in the ,punjab4 ,as the ,mogul ,empire broke up1 some separate ,mahommedan powers rose upon its ruins4 ,the nizam of the ,deccan established himself at ,hyderabad1 comparatively near the headquarters of the peshwa4 ,hyder ,ali was proclaimed sultan of ,mysore in the south4 ,ahmed ,shah ,abdali burst upon ,india from ,afghanistan4 ,the ,mahrattas bravely encountered him at ,panipat near ,delhi in #agfa1 and were decisively defeated4 ,the defeat1 however1 did not essentially shake the ,mahratta confederation4 ,it was collision with the ,english that broke that wonderful fabric to pieces4 ,the first collision with the ,english occurred in #agge1 arising from a disputed succession to the peshwaship4 ,the ,english government at ,bombay supported one of the claimants1 and the affair became critical for the ,english as well as for the ,mahrattas4 ,it was at this conjuncture that ,warren ,hastings displayed his political genius and rendered signal service to his country1 by succouring from ,bengal the defeated ,bombay army and negotiating a peace 7in #aghb7 that restored the status quo4 ,the next collision happened in #ahjc4 ,the peshwa had fallen into grave difficulties with some of the principal members of the ,mahratta confederation4 ,he therefore placed himself under ,british protection1 and this led to the great ,mahratta ,war1 in which the ,marquis ,wellesley displayed those talents for military and political combination which rendered him illustrious4 ,it was during the campaigns which ensued that ,general ,arthur ,wellesley defeated ,sindhia and the ,bhonsla raja at ,assaye1 and ,general ,lake won the victories of ,farrukhabad1 ,dig and ,laswari over ,sindhia and ,holkar4 ,the three confederates1 ,sindhia1 ,holkar and the ,bhonsla1 concluded peace with the ,british government1 after making large sacrifices of territory in favour of the victor1 and submitting to ,british control politically4 ,it was during these events that the ,british won the province of ,orissa1 the old ,hindustan afterwards part of the ,north-,western ,provinces1 and a part of the western coast in ,gujarat4 ,the third collision came to pass between #ahaf and #ahah1 through the conduct1 not only of the confederates1 but also of the peshwa 7,baji ,bao7 himself4 ,during the previous war the peshwa had been the protg and ally of the ,british2 and since the war he had fallen more completely than before under ,british protection--,british political officers and ,british troops being stationed at his capital4 ,he apparently felt encouraged by circumstances to rebel4 ,holkar and the ,bhonsla committed hostile acts4 ,the predatory ,pindaris offered a formidable resistance to the ,british troops4 ,so the peshwa ventured to take part in the combination against the ,british power1 which even yet the ,mahrattas did not despair of overthrowing4 ,after long-protracted menaces1 he attacked the ,british at ,kirkee1 but failed utterly1 and fled a ruined man4 ,ultimately he surrendered to ,sir ,john ,malcolm1 and was sent as a state pensioner to ,bithur1 near ,cawnpore4 ,the ,british1 however1 released the raja of ,satara from the captivity in which he had been kept during the peshwa's time1 and reinstated him on the throne1 with a limited territory4 ,owing to these events the ,british government became possessed of the ,konkan and of the greater part of the ,deccan4 ,it remains to mention briefly the fortunes of each remaining member of the once imperial confederation4 ,the principality of ,satara was held to have lapsed in #ahdh by the death of the raja without lineal heirs1 and was annexed by the ,british government4 ,the ,bhonsla raja of ,nagpur died without lineal heirs in #ahec1 and his territory was likewise annexed4 ,the house of ,holkar remained faithful to its engagements with the ,british government1 and its position as a feudatory of the empire was maintained4 ,in ,sindhia's territory1 by reason of internal feuds1 the ,british had to undertake measures which were successfully terminated after the battles of ,maharajpur and ,panniar in #ahdc4 ,but on the whole the house of ,sindhia remained faithful4 ,sindhia himself was actively loyal during the ,mutiny4 ,the gaekwar gradually fell under ,british control towards the close of the #ahth century1 and his house never engaged in hostilities with the ,british government4 ,the ex-peshwa lived to old age at ,bithur1 and died in #aheg4 ,his adopted son grew up to be the ,nana ,sahib1 of infamous memory1 who took a leading part in the ,mutiny4 ,see ,j4 ,grant ,duff1 ,history of the ,mahrattas 7#c vols41 #ahbf72 ,t4 ,d4 ,broughton1 ,letters written in a ,mahratta ,camp 7#ahac72 ,m4 ,g4 ,ranade1 ,rise of the ,maratha ,power 7,bombay1 #aijj74 7,r4 ,t42 ,j4 ,s4 ,co47 ,,mahseer1 or ,,mahaseer 7,barbus mosal71 a kind of barbel1 abundant in the rivers of ,india1 especially in pools of the upper and more rapid streams where they issue from the mountainous part of the country4 ,it is one of the largest species of the ,cyprinid family1 attaining to a length of #c to #e ft41 and sometimes exceeding a weight of #gj lb4 ,its body is well-proportioned1 rather elongate1 and somewhat like that of the ,european barbel1 but covered with very large scales1 of which there are only twenty-five or twenty-seven placed along the lateral line2 the dorsal fin is armed with a long and strong spine1 and the mouth provided with four slender and short barbels4 ,the lips are sometimes produced into fleshy lobes4 ,to the fisherman in ,india the mahseer affords the same kind of sport as the salmon in the ,british ,isles1 and it rivals that fish as regards size1 strength and activity4 ,its flesh is likewise much esteemed4 ,,mai1 ,,angelo 7#aghb-ahed71 ,italian cardinal and philologist1 was born of humble parents at ,schilpario in the province of ,bergamo1 ,lombardy1 on the #gth of ,march #aghb4 ,in #agii he entered the ,society of ,jesus1 and in #ahjd he became a teacher of classics in the college of ,naples4 ,after completing his studies at the ,collegium ,romanum1 he lived for some time at ,orvieto1 where he was engaged in teaching and palaeographical studies4 ,the political events of #ahjh necessitated his withdrawal from ,rome 7to which he had meanwhile returned7 to ,milan1 where in #ahac he was made custodian of the ,ambrosian library4 ,he now threw himself with characteristic energy and zeal into the task of examining the numerous ,,mss4 committed to his charge1 and in the course of the next six years was able to restore to the world a considerable number of long-lost works4 ,having withdrawn from the ,society of ,jesus1 he was invited to ,rome in #ahai as chief keeper of the ,vatican library4 ,in #ahcc he was transferred to the office of secretary of the congregation of the ,propaganda2 on the #abth of ,february #ahch he was raised to the dignity of cardinal4 ,he died at ,castelgandolfo1 near ,albano1 on the #hth of ,september #ahed4 ,it is on his skill as a reader of palimpsests that ,mai's fame chiefly rests4 ,to the period of his residence at ,milan belong3 ,fragments of ,cicero's ,pro ,scauro1 ,pro ,tullio1 ,pro ,flacco1 ,in ,clodium et ,curionem1 ,de aere alieno ,milonis1 ,de rege 7,alexandrino 7#ahad72 ,m4 ,corn4 ,frontonis opera inedita1 cum epistolis item ineditis1 ,antonini ,pii1 ,marci ,aurelii1 ,lucii ,veri et ,appiani 7#ahae2 new ed41 #ahbc1 with more than #ajj additional letters found in the ,vatican library72 portions of eight speeches of ,quintus ,aurelius ,symmachus2 fragments of ,plautus2 the oration of ,isaeus ,de hereditate ,cleonymi2 the last nine books of the ,antiquities of ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 and a number of other works4 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de republica quae supersunt appeared at ,rome in #ahbb2 ,scriptorum veterum nova collectio1 e vaticanis codicibus edita in #ahbe-ahch2 ,classici scriptores e vaticanis codicibus editi in #ahbh-ahch2 ,spicilegium romanum in #ahci-ahdd2 and ,patrum nova bibliotheca in #ahde-ahec4 ,his edition of the celebrated ,codex vaticanus1 completed in #ahch1 but not published 7ostensibly on the ground of inaccuracies7 till four years after his death 7#aheh71 is the least satisfactory of his labours and was superseded by the edition of ,vercellone and ,cozza 7#ahfh71 which itself leaves much to be desired4 ,although ,mai was not as successful in textual criticism as in the decipherment of manuscripts1 he will always be remembered as a laborious and persevering pioneer1 by whose efforts many ancient writings have been rescued from oblivion4 ,see ,b4 ,prina1 ,biografia del cardinale ,angelo ,mai 7,bergamo1 #ahhb71 a scientific work1 which gives a full and1 at the same time1 a just appreciation of his work2 ,cozza-,luzi1 ,epistolario del card4 ,angelo ,mai 7,bergamo1 #ahhc72 life by ,g4 ,poletto 7,siena1 #ahhg74 ,,maia1 in ,greek mythology1 the eldest of the ,pleiades1 the seven daughters of ,atlas and the ,oceanid ,pleone4 ,she and her sisters1 born on ,mt ,cyllene in ,arcadia1 are sometimes called mountain goddesses4 ,in a cave of ,cyllene ,maia became by ,zeus the mother of the god ,hermes4 ,the story is told in the ,hymn to ,hermes attributed to ,homer4 ,she was identified by the ,romans with ,maia ,majesta1 an old ,italian goddess of spring1 to whom a sacrifice was offered on the #ast of ,may by the priest of ,vulcan4 ,,maida1 a town of ,calabria1 ,italy1 in the province of ,catanzaro1 from which it is #cj m4 ,w4,s4,w4 direct1 and #ab m4 ,n4,n4,e4 of ,pizzo by rail 7the station is #h m4 ,w4 of the town74 ,pop4 7#aija71 #eaij4 ,the town gives its name to the plain of ,maida1 where in #ahjf ,british troops under ,sir ,john ,stuart defeated the ,french under ,regnier4 ,the names ,maida ,hill and ,maida ,vale in ,london are derived from this battle4 ,,maidan1 an ,indian term for any open plain4 ,the ,maidan is the name of the park in ,calcutta1 surrounding ,fort ,william1 where society people drive in the afternoon4 ,the name is also applied to one of the valleys in the ,afridi country of ,tirah1 and to the plateau portion of the state of ,mysore4 ,,maiden1 or ,,maid1 a young unmarried girl4 ,maid is a shortened form of maiden1 ,o4 ,eng4 maegden1 which represents a diminutive of a ,teutonic word meaning young person1 of either sex4 ,an old ,english word may1 meaning a kinsman or kinswoman1 and also a virgin or girl1 represents the original4 ,in early usage maiden as meaning virgin is frequently applied to the male sex1 thus1 in ,malory's ,morte d',arthur1 ,sir ,percyvale is called a parfyte clene megden4 ,apart from the direct applications of the word to the unmarried state1 such as maiden name1 maiden lady1 c41 the word is used adjectivally1 implying the preservation of the first state of an object1 or indicating a first effort of any kind4 ,probably a maiden fortress is one which has never fallen1 though the ,new ,english ,dictionary suggests that the various maiden castles in ,england1 usually ancient earthworks1 may have been so called from being so strong that they could be defended by maidens1 and points out that ,edinburgh ,castle1 called maiden-castle by ,william ,drummond of ,hawthornden 7,speech for ,edinburgh to the ,king71 is styled ,castrum puellarum1 the castle of the maidens1 in ,geoffrey of ,monmouth4 ,a maiden assize1 circuit or session is one at which there are no prisoners for trial2 a maiden over or maiden in cricket is an over from which no runs are scored4 ,a maiden speech is the first speech made by a member of parliament in the house4 ,in the ,annual ,register for #agid 7quoted in ,n4,e4,d47 the expression1 with reference to ,canning's first speech1 is said to be according to the technical language of the house4 ,maiden is applied to several objects1 to a movable framework or horse for drying and airing of linen1 to a washerwoman's dolly or wooden beater1 to the kirnbaby formed of the last sheaf of corn reaped which formerly figured in the ,scottish harvest homes1 and to the beheading instrument1 known as the ,scottish maiden 7see below74 ,maid1 apart from its primary sense of an unmarried woman1 is chiefly used for a domestic female servant1 usually with a qualifying word prefixed1 such as housemaid1 parlour-maid1 c4 ,the title of ,,maid ,,of ,,honour is given to an unmarried lady attached to the personal suite of a queen4 ,the custom of sending young girls of noble or good birth to the court of a prince or feudal superior1 for the purpose1 primarily1 of education1 goes back to early feudal times1 and is parallel with the sending of boys to act as pages and squires to the feudal castles4 ,the regular establishment of maids of honour 7filles d'honneur7 appears first in the royal court of ,france4 ,this has usually been attributed to ,anne of ,brittany1 wife of ,charles ,,viii42 she had a group of unmarried girls of high rank at her court as part of her household1 in whom she took a lively and parental interest1 educating them and bestowing a dowry upon them on their marriage4 ,a slightly earlier instance1 however1 has been found4 ,when the young ,margaret of ,austria came to ,france on her espousal to ,charles ,,viii41 broken by his marriage to ,anne of ,brittany1 there were in her train several filles d'honneur1 whose names appear in the ,comptes d'argenterie de la reine ,marguerite d',autriche1 from #adhd-adhe and #adhh-adhi 7,archives de l'empire ,k4 ,k4 #hj and #ha quoted by ,a4 ,jal1 ,dictionnaire critique de biographie et d'histoire74 ,it is from the days of ,francis ,i4 that the chroniques scandaleuses begin which circle round the maids of honour of the ,french court4 ,the maids of ,catherine de ,medici1 celebrated as the flying squadron1 l'escadron volant1 are familiar from the pages of ,pierre de l',estoile 7#aegd-afaa7 and ,brantme4 ,among those whose beauty ,catherine used in her political intrigues1 the most famous were ,isabelle de ,limeuil1 ,mlle de ,montmorency-,fosseux1 known as la belle ,fosseuse1 and ,charlotte de ,baune4 ,the filles d'honneur1 as an institution1 were suppressed in the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 at the instigation of ,mme de ,montespan--who had been one of them--and their place was taken by the dames de palais4 ,in the ,english court1 this custom of attaching maids of honour to the queen's person was no doubt adopted from ,france4 ,at the present day a queen regnant has eight maids of honour1 a queen consort four4 ,they take precedence next after the daughters of barons1 and where they have not by right or courtesy a title of their own1 they are styled ,honourable4 ,,the ,,scottish ,,maiden was an instrument of capital punishment formerly in use in ,scotland4 ,it is said to have been invented by the earl of ,morton1 who is also said to have been its first victim4 ,this1 however1 could not have been the case1 as the maiden was first used at the execution of the inferior agents in the assassination of ,rizzio 7#aefa7 and ,morton was not beheaded till #aeha4 ,the maiden was practically an early form of guillotine4 ,a loaded blade or axe moving in grooves was fixed in a frame about ten feet high4 ,the axe was raised to the full height of the frame and then released1 severing the victim's head from his body4 ,at least #abj1 suffered death by the maiden1 including the regent ,morton1 ,sir ,john ,gordon of ,haddo1 ,president ,spottiswood1 the marquis and earl of ,argyll4 ,in #agaj it ceased to be used2 it is now preserved in the museum of the ,society of ,antiquaries of ,scotland1 in ,edinburgh4 ,,maidenhair1 in botany1 the common name for a fern1 ,adiantum ,capillus-,veneris1 characterized by the spreading hairlike branches of the frond1 the ultimate pinnules of which are to #a in4 long with a rounded crenate outer edge and repeatedly forked veins2 the sori 7or masses of spore-capsules7 are in the crenatures of the pinnules1 and are protected by a kidney-shaped involucre4 ,the plant is widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions1 and is occasionally found in the western counties of ,england1 the ,isle of ,man1 and west ,ireland1 growing on damp rocks or walls especially near the sea4 ,the genus ,adiantum is a large one containing many handsome species both tropical and temperate1 well known in greenhouse and hothouse cultivation4 ,,maidenhair-,,tree is a popular name for ,ginkgo biloba1 a remarkable and handsome gymnospermous tree1 the fan-shaped leaves of which with their forked veins recall those of the maidenhair 7see ,,gymnosperms74 ,,maidenhead1 a market town and municipal borough in the ,wokingham parliamentary division of ,berkshire1 ,england2 #bd m4 ,w4 of ,london by the ,great ,western railway4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #ab1ihj4 ,area1 #babe acres4 ,it is pleasantly situated on and above the west 7right7 bank of the ,thames1 and is much in favour as a residential town and a resort of boating parties4 ,though of high antiquity it is wholly modern in appearance1 and a large number of handsome houses have been built in its vicinity4 ,a beautiful timbered house of the #aeth century1 however1 survives in ,ockwells1 a short distance south of the town4 ,the stone bridge carrying the ,london road over the ,thames dates from #aggb2 but the crossing is of ancient importance4 ,maidenhead has trade in malt and grain4 ,the borough is under a mayor1 #d aldermen and #ab councillors4 ,the history of ,maidenhead 7,maydenhutt1 ,maydenhith7 is bound up with that of the ancient bridge4 ,it is not mentioned in ,domesday4 ,edward ,i4 7#abig7 gave a grant of pontage in aid of the bridge1 which was almost broken down2 similar grants to the bailiffs and good men of ,maydenhithe were made by succeeding sovereigns4 ,in #adea ,henry ,,vi4 incorporated the gild of the ,brethren and ,sisters of ,maydenhith to provide certain necessaries for the celebration of ,mass and to keep the bridge in order3 the gild1 dissolved at the ,reformation1 was revived by ,elizabeth1 who1 however1 later 7#aeha7 substituted for it a corporation consisting of a warden1 bridgemaster1 burgesses and commonalty3 the governing charter until the #aith century was that of ,james ,i4 7#afhe7 incorporating the town under the title of the mayor1 bridgemaster and burgesses4 ,in #adjj ,thomas ,holand1 earl of ,kent1 held the bridge in the interests of the deposed ,richard ,,ii41 but was eventually forced to retire4 ,in #afdc a meeting took place in the town between ,charles ,i4 and three of his children4 ,in the #ahth century a considerable trade was done in carrying malt1 meal and timber in barges to ,london3 at that time three fairs were held which have now practically disappeared4 ,the ,wednesday market is held under a charter of ,elizabeth 7#aehb74 ,,maid ,,marian1 a personage incorporated in the ,english legend of ,robin ,hood4 ,there is no evidence that she had originally any connexion with the ,robin ,hood cycle4 ,she seems to have been an essential feature of the morris dance1 and in the may-game was paired sometimes with ,robin-,hood1 but oftener with ,friar ,tuck4 ,the well-known pastoral play of ,adam de la ,hale1 ,jeu de ,robin et ,marion1 and the many ,french songs on the subject1 account for the association of the names4 ,in the ballads on ,robin ,hood her name is twice casually mentioned1 but there is a late ballad1 by a certain ,s4 ,g4 7,f4 ,j4 ,child1 ,english and ,scottish ,ballads1 i4 #bai71 which tells how ,maid ,marian sought ,robin in the forest disguised as a page1 and fought with him for an hour before she recognized him by his voice4 ,s4 ,g4 was perhaps acquainted with the two plays1 written in #aeih1 of ,the ,downfall and ,the ,death of ,robert ,earl of ,huntingdon1 by ,anthony ,munday and ,harry ,chettle4 ,in ,the ,downfall ,matilda ,fitz ,walter escapes from the persecution of ,king ,john by following her lover to ,sherwood ,forest1 where they took the names of ,robin ,hood and ,maid ,marian1 and lived apart until they could be legally united4 ,perhaps this tale has some connexion with the romance of the outlaw ,fulk ,fitz ,warin4 ,matilda or ,mahaud1 widow of ,theobald ,walter1 escaped from ,john's solicitations by marrying the outlawed ,fulk and following him to the forest4 ,there were in semi-historical legends three ,matildas pursued by ,king ,john1 of whom particulars are given by ,h4 ,l4 ,d4 ,ward in his ,catalogue of ,romances 7i4 #ejb74 ,their several histories were fused by the ,elizabethan dramatists1 and associated with the ,maid ,marian of the morris dance1 who up to that time had probably only a vague connexion with ,robin ,hood4 ,,maidstone1 a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough1 and the county town of ,kent1 ,england1 #da m4 ,e4,s4,e4 of ,london by the ,south ,eastern ,chatham railway4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #cc1eaf2 area1 #djjh acres4 ,it lies principally on the eastern bank of the river ,medway1 the modern part spreading over the western slopes of a picturesque valley1 which is intersected and environed by orchards and hop gardens1 this being the richest agricultural district of ,kent4 ,the hop grounds form the so-called middle growth of ,kent1 and the town has the principal grain market in the county4 ,archbishop ,boniface in #abfj established a hospital here 7,newark hospital7 for poor pilgrims1 the chapel of which1 with modern additions1 is now ,st ,peter's ,church4 ,the parish church of ,st ,mary1 which had existed from ,norman times1 was demolished in #acie by ,archbishop ,courtenay1 who erected on the site the present church of ,all ,saints4 ,this fine ,perpendicular building contains1 besides many excellent monuments1 the richly carved sedilia and the twenty-eight oak seats used by the collegiate priests4 ,courtenay also founded a college of secular canons1 the ruins of which are an interesting specimen of #adth-century architecture4 ,from the reign of ,john until the ,reformation the archbishops had a residence here1 at which ,stafford and ,courtenay died4 ,this ,perpendicular building1 with its ,elizabethan east front1 was acquired by the corporation as a memorial of ,queen ,victoria's ,jubilee in #ahhg1 and houses the school of science and art4 ,the rectory1 with the manor1 passed into lay hands at the ,reformation2 and1 having been a perpetual curacy for three hundred and twenty years1 the living became a vicarage in #ahff4 ,the grammar school was founded in #aedi1 and endowed with the estates of the local ,corpus ,christi fraternity1 then dissolved2 the hall in which the gild assembled remains1 but the school is established in modern buildings on a new site4 ,there are oil-mills1 rope1 sacking and twine factories1 and cement1 lime1 and brick works4 ,there is a considerable carrying trade on the ,medway4 ,a museum1 with public library1 was opened in #aheh1 in an interesting building of the early part of the #afth century4 ,this is the headquarters of the ,kent ,archaeological ,society1 founded by the ,rev4 ,l4 ,b4 ,larking in #aheh4 ,in #ahij an art gallery was added4 ,the ,west ,kent and ,general hospital1 the county ophthalmic hospital1 county gaol and barracks may be mentioned among other institutions4 ,from ,saxon times down to #ahcj condemned malefactors were executed1 and all the great county meetings were held1 on ,penenden ,heath1 a common situated about a mile north-east of the town1 and enclosed by the corporation as a public recreation ground4 ,the parliamentary borough of ,maidstone returns one member4 ,the town is governed by a mayor1 #f aldermen and #ah councillors4 ,there is evidence of a ,roman settlement at ,maidstone4 ,the name ,maidstone 7,medwegestun1 ,meddestane1 ,maydestan71 probably meaning ,medway ,town1 is presumably of ,saxon origin4 ,at the time of the ,domesday ,survey it belonged to the archbishop of ,canterbury1 and from the reign of ,john the archbishops had a residence there4 ,its position in the centre of ,kent gave it an early importance2 the shire-moot was held on ,penenden ,heath in the #aath century1 and ,maidstone was an assize town in the reign of ,edward ,i4 ,in #aecg ,cranmer exchanged the manor of ,maidstone with the king1 and it was granted by ,edward ,,vi4 to ,sir ,thomas ,wyatt4 ,edward also incorporated the town by the title of the mayor1 jurats and commonalty2 it had formerly been governed by a portreve and #ab brethren4 ,this charter was forfeited through ,wyatt's rebellion2 a second charter was granted by ,elizabeth in #aeei and confirmed by subsequent sovereigns4 ,a new charter constituting a governing body of a mayor1 #ab jurats and #dj common councilmen was given at the petition of the inhabitants by ,george ,,ii4 in #agdg1 and remained the governing charter until #ahce4 ,four fairs were granted by the charter of #aeei2 these are now held on the #acth of ,february1 the #abth of ,may1 the #bjth of ,june and the #agth of ,october4 ,a ,thursday market was granted by ,henry ,,iii4 to ,archbishop ,boniface1 and a market every second ,tuesday in the month by charter of ,george ,,ii4 ,a corn market on ,tuesday and a cattle market on ,thursday are still held4 ,the manufacture of linen and woollen goods was introduced by ,walloons1 who settled here in #aefg4 ,this was succeeded by paper-making1 now the chief industry of the town4 ,the cultivation of hops has been carried on since the #agth century4 ,maidstone has been associated with various incidents of general history4 ,wat ,tyler broke into the prison1 liberated ,john ,ball the rebel preacher1 and committed various depredations4 ,several of the leading inhabitants joined ,jack ,cade's rising4 ,the rising of the ,kentish ,royalists in #afdh collapsed at ,maidstone1 where on the #ast of ,june ,fairfax1 after five hours' obstinate fighting1 captured the town at midnight4 ,see ,victoria ,county ,history1 ,kent2 ,i4 ,m4 ,russell1 ,history of ,maidstone 7#ahha74 ,,maihar1 a native state of ,central ,india1 in the ,baghelkhand agency4 ,area1 #djg sq4 m42 pop4 7#aija71 #fc1gjb2 estimated revenue1 #dgjj4 ,the state1 which is watered by the ,tons river1 consists mainly of alluvial soil covering sandstone1 and is fertile except in the hilly district of the south4 ,a large area is under forest1 the produce of which provides a small export trade4 ,the chief1 whose title is raja1 claims descent from the ,kachwaha ,rajput clan4 ,the state suffered severely from famine in #ahif-ahig4 ,the town of ,maihar 7pop4 #fhjb7 is on the ,east ,indian railway1 #ig m4 ,n4 of ,jubbulpore4 ,extensive ruins of shrines and other buildings in its neighbourhood indicate a former much greater extent of the place4 ,,mail4 7#a7 7,through ,fr4 maille1 from ,lat4 macula1 a spot or hole1 the mesh of a net71 properly a metal ring or link which1 joined closely with other links1 formed the fabric of body and other armour in the middle ages1 till it was superseded by plate-armour4 ,the word mail1 properly applied to this form of chain-armour1 is also used of armour generally1 whether plate or chain1 and is also transferred to the horny defensive coverings of animals1 such as the tortoise1 crab1 c4 7see ,,arms ,,and ,,armour74 7#b7 7,o4 ,eng4 ml1 speech2 probably the same as ,o4 ,saxon mahal1 assembly2 in meaning connected with ,o4 ,norse mle1 stipulation71 a ,scots law term meaning rent1 tax4 ,mails and duties are the rents1 whether in kind or money1 of an estate4 ,in ,english the word only survives in blackmail 7q4v474 7#c7 7,through ,o4 ,fr4 male1 mod4 malle1 a ,teutonic word surviving in ,dutch maal71 properly a bag1 especially one used in travelling2 this word1 which appears in ,chaucer1 is now applied chiefly to the despatch and delivery of postal matter4 ,in this sense mail is properly the bag in which such matter is conveyed1 and hence is applied to the contents of the mail1 postal matter collectively1 and to the train1 carts1 or other means used in the despatch and delivery of the same4 ,in general usage mail is confined to the foreign as opposed to the inland despatch of letters1 c41 and to which the word post is chiefly applied2 in official language1 the word refers to the inland despatch4 ,the word appears also in mail-coach1 a coach used for conveying the mails1 and in mail-cart1 a cart similarly employed4 ,this word is also applied to a light low vehicle propelled or drawn by hand1 suitable for young children4 ,the mail phaeton is a type of phaeton with high seat for two persons and drawn by a pair of horses4 ,,mailly1 ,,louise ,,julie1 ,,comtesse ,,de 7#agaj-agea71 mistress of ,louis ,,xv4 of ,france1 was the daughter of ,louis1 marquis de ,nesle4 ,she was the eldest of three sisters who succeeded one another as favourites of the king4 ,in #agbf she married her cousin1 ,louis ,alexandre de ,mailly4 ,although ,louis ,,xv4 had paid her attentions from #agcb1 she did not become titular mistress until #agch4 ,she did not use her position either to enrich herself or to interfere in politics4 ,she was supplanted by her sister1 the duchess of ,chteauroux1 and obliged to leave court in #agdb4 ,see ,e4 and ,j4 de ,goncourt1 ,la ,duchesse de ,chteauroux et ses soeurs 7#ahgi72 ,toussaint1 ,anecdotes curieuses de 444 ,louis ,,xv4 7#b vols41 #aije72 ,j4 ,b4 ,h4 ,r4 ,capefigue1 ,mesdemoiselles de ,nesle et la jeunesse de ,louis ,,xv4 7#ahfd74 ,,maimana1 a town and khanate of ,afghan ,turkestan4 ,the town is situated #ajj m4 ,s4,w4 of ,balkh1 and only some #be m4 from the frontier of ,russian ,turkestan4 ,it is about two-thirds the size of ,herat1 square built and surrounded by a ruined wall and moat4 ,the khanate was for long in dispute between ,bokhara and ,kabul1 but in #ahfh ,abdur ,rahman laid siege to the town1 and it was compelled to come to terms4 ,its political status as an ,afghan province was definitely fixed by the ,russo-,afghan boundary commission of #ahhe4 ,the inhabitants are chiefly ,uzbegs4 ,,maimand1 a town in the province of ,fars1 ,persia1 a few miles east of ,firuzabad and about #gj m4 from ,shiraz4 ,it has a population of about #ejjj1 almost wholly occupied with the manufacture and sale of rose-water1 which is largely exported to many parts of ,persia as well as to ,arabia1 ,india and ,java4 ,the district also produces great quantities of almonds4 ,the rose gardens cover several square miles4 ,in #acdi a great part of ,maimand and of three little villages belonging to it became wakf 7pious endowment7 of the shrine at ,shiraz of ,mr ,ahmed1 surnamed ,shah ,chiragh1 a son of ,musa ,kazim1 the seventh imam of the ,shiahs1 and the remainder of the ,maimand grounds was given to the shrine by ,mir ,habbib ,ullah ,sharifi and by ,shah ,ismail in #aejd2 the administration of the ,maimand property as well as the guardianship of the shrine is still with the descendants of ,mir ,habbib ,ullah4 ,,maimbourg1 ,,louis 7#afaj-afhf71 ,french ,jesuit and historian1 was born at ,nancy4 ,he entered the ,society of ,jesus at the age of sixteen1 and after studying at ,rome became a classical master in the ,jesuit college at ,rouen4 ,he afterwards devoted himself to preaching1 but with only moderate success4 ,after having taken some part in minor controversies he threw himself with energy into the dispute which had arisen as to the ,gallican liberties2 for his ,trait historique sur les prrogatives de l'glise de ,rome 7#afhb7 he was by command of ,innocent ,,xi4 expelled from the ,society1 but rewarded by ,louis ,,xiv4 with a residence at the abbey of ,st ,victor1 ,paris1 and a pension4 ,he died on the #acth of ,august #afhf4 ,his numerous works include histories of ,arianism1 the iconoclastic controversy1 the ,greek schism1 ,lutheranism1 ,calvinism1 and of the pontificates of ,leo ,i4 and ,gregory ,i42 they are mere compilations1 written indeed in a very lively and attractive style1 but inaccurate and untrustworthy4 ,the ,history of ,arianism was published in ,english 7#agbh-agbi7 by ,william ,webster1 with an appendix on the ,english writers in the ,socinian and ,arian controversies4 ,,maiming1 mutilation1 a physical injury which involves the loss of1 or incapacity to use1 a bodily member4 ,the verb to maim1 in ,m4 ,e4 maynhe1 mahayme1 mayme1 c4 was adopted from ,o4 ,fr4 mahaignier3 cf4 ,it4 magagnars1 ,med4 ,lat4 mahemiare1 mahennare1 c4 7see ,du ,cange1 ,gloss41 s4v4 ,mahamium74 ,maiming or mutilation is and has been practised by many races with various ethnical and religious significances1 and was a customary form of punishment on the principle of an eye for an eye 7see ,,mutilation74 ,in law maiming is a criminal offence2 the old law term for a special case of maiming of persons was mayhem 7q4v471 an ,anglo-,french variant form of the word4 ,maiming of animals by others than their owners is a particular form of the offences generally grouped as malicious damage4 ,for the purpose of the law as to this offence animals are divided into cattle1 which includes horses1 pigs and asses1 and other animals which are either subjects of larceny at common law or are usually kept in confinement or for domestic purposes4 ,the punishment for maiming of cattle is three to fourteen years' penal servitude4 ,malicious injury to other animals is a misdemeanour punishable on summary conviction4 ,for a second offence the penalty is imprisonment with hard labour for over twelve months4 7,malicious ,damage ,act #ahfa47 ,maiming of animals by their owner falls under the ,cruelty to ,animals ,acts4 ,,maimon1 ,,salomon 7#aged-ahjj71 ,german philosopher1 was born of ,jewish parentage in ,polish ,lithuania1 and died at ,nieder-,siegersdorf on the #bbnd of ,november #ahjj4 ,he married at the age of twelve1 and studied medicine in ,berlin4 ,in #aggj he severed his connexion with his orthodox co-religionists by his critical commentary on the ,moreh ,nebuhim of ,maimonides1 and devoted himself to the study of philosophy on the lines of ,wolff and ,moses ,mendelssohn4 ,after many vicissitudes he found a peaceful residence in the house of ,count ,kalkreuth at ,nieder-,siegersdorf in #agij4 ,during the ensuing ten years he published the works which have made his reputation as a critical philosopher4 ,hitherto his life had been a long struggle against difficulties of all kinds4 ,from his autobiography1 it is clear that his keen critical faculty was developed in great measure by the slender means of culture at his disposal4 ,it was not till #aghh that he made the acquaintance of the ,kantian philosophy1 which was to form the basis of his lifework1 and as early as #agij he published the ,versuch ber die ,transcendentalphilosophie1 in which he formulates his objections to the system4 ,he seizes upon the fundamental incompatibility of a consciousness which can apprehend1 and yet is separated from1 the thing-in-itself4 ,that which is object of thought cannot be outside consciousness2 just as in mathematics root7-#a7 is an unreal quantity1 so things-in-themselves are ex hypothesi outside consciousness1 i4e4 are unthinkable4 ,the ,kantian paradox he explains as the result of an attempt to explain the origin of the given in consciousness4 ,the form of things is admittedly subjective2 the mind endeavours to explain the material of the given in the same terms1 an attempt which is not only impossible but involves a denial of the elementary laws of thought4 ,knowledge of the given is1 therefore1 essentially incomplete4 ,complete or perfect knowledge is confined to the domain of pure thought1 to logic and mathematics4 ,thus the problem of the thing-in-itself is dismissed from the inquiry1 and philosophy is limited to the sphere of pure thought4 ,the ,kantian categories are1 indeed1 demonstrable and true1 but their application to the given is meaningless and unthinkable4 ,by this critical scepticism ,maimon takes up a position intermediate between ,kant and ,hume4 ,hume's attitude to the empirical is entirely supported by ,maimon4 ,the casual concept1 as given by experience1 expresses not a necessary objective order of things1 but an ordered scheme of perception2 it is subjective and cannot be postulated as a concrete law apart from consciousness4 ,the main argument of the ,transcendentalphilosophie not only drew from ,kant1 who saw it in ,,ms41 the remark that ,maimon alone of his all critics had mastered the true meaning of his philosophy1 but also directed the path of most subsequent criticism4 ,maimon's chief works1 in addition to the above quoted1 are ,philos4 ,wrterbuch 7#agia72 ,streifereien im ,gebiete der ,philos47#agic72 ber die ,progresse der ,philos4 7#agic72 ,die ,kategorien des ,aristoteles mit ,anmerkungen erlutert 7#agid72 ,versuch einer neuen ,logik 7#agid and #agih72 ,kritische ,untersuchungen ber den menschl4 ,geist 7#agig74 ,see ,s4 ,maimons ,lebensgeschichte von ihm selbst beschrieben 7#agib1 ed4 ,k4 ,p4 ,moritz2 ,eng4 trans4 by ,j4 ,c4 ,murray1 #ahhh72 ,wolff1 ,maimoniana 7#ahac72 ,witte1 ,s4 ,maimon 7#ahgf74 ,,maimonides1 the common name of ,,rabbi ,,moses ,,ben ,,maimon 7#aace-abjd71 also known from the initials of these last words as ,,rambam1 ,jewish philosopher4 ,his life falls into three epochs1 which may be typified by the towns in which they were passed1 viz4 ,cordova1 ,fez and ,cairo4 ,he was born in ,cordova on the #bjth of ,march #aace1 the eve of ,passover2 he had a brother1 ,david1 and one sister4 ,his early years were spent in his native town1 which had then just passed the zenith of its glory4 ,the ,arab rulers had fostered the development of science1 art1 medicine1 philosophy1 literature and learning4 ,all these influences played their part in the education of ,maimonides1 whose father1 besides training him in all branches of ,hebrew and ,jewish scholarship1 implanted in the youth a sound knowledge of these secular studies as well4 ,in #aadh ,cordova was taken from the last ,fatimite caliph by the victorious ,almohades1 who had spread over ,spain from ,n4 ,africa4 ,these militant revivalists strove to re-establish ,islam in what they considered its primitive simplicity4 ,they laid great stress on the unity of ,god1 and tolerated neither schism within the faith nor dissent without4 ,the position of the orthodox ,spanish ,jews became intolerable1 and ,maimon1 after ten years of hardships1 wanderings and escapes1 decided to take his family out of the country4 ,he settled in ,fez4 ,the years which ,maimonides spent there 7#aafj-aafe7 were memorable for his friendship with ,abdul ,arab ,ibn ,muisha--a ,moslem poet and theologian--and for the commencement of his literary activity4 ,his energies were diverted towards stimulating the religious feelings of his brethren and combating assimilation4 ,in consequence he became alarmed for his own safety1 and in #aafe left for ,egypt1 where he settled after a passing visit to the ,holy ,land4 ,cordova taught him the humanities2 ,fez humanity4 ,cairo1 besides giving him prominence at court and in the ,jewish community1 was the centre of the almost world-wide influence which he exercised over ,jewry by his monumental writings and dominant personality4 ,by #aagg ,maimonides was the recognized chief of the ,cairene congregation and consulted on important matters by communities far and wide4 ,here he was joined by his most famous disciple1 ,joseph ,aknin4 ,but his early life in ,egypt was fraught with deep sorrow4 ,his father died soon after their arrival1 and ,maimonides himself suffered severely from prostration and sickness4 ,his brother ,david1 jointly with whom he carried on a trade in gems1 was shipwrecked in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,with him perished the entire fortune of the family4 ,forced to earn a livelihood1 ,maimonides turned to medicine4 ,the fame of his skill eventually brought him the appointment of body physician to ,saladin1 to whom1 it is said1 he was so attached that when ,richard ,i4 wrote from ,ascalon1 offering him a similar post at the ,english court1 ,maimonides refused4 ,he married the sister of ,ibn al ,mali1 one of the royal secretaries4 ,in #aahf1 his son ,abraham was born4 ,his remaining years were spent in ceaseless activity and in controversy1 which he sought to avoid4 ,he died amidst universal sorrow and veneration4 ,the works of ,maimonides fall into three periods3 7a7 ,to the ,spanish period belong his commentary on the whole ,talmud 7not fully carried out71 a treatise on the calendar 7,maamar ha-ibbur71 a treatise on logic 7,milloth ,higgayon71 and his commentary on the ,mishnah 7this was called ,siraj or ,maor1 i4e4 ,light3 begun #aaeh1 completed #aafh in ,egypt74 7b7 ,while he was in ,fez1 he wrote an essay on the ,sanctification of the ,name of ,god 7,maamar ,kiddush ,hashem1 ,iggereth ,hashemad74 7c7 ,the works written in ,egypt were3 ,letter to the ,yemenites 7,iggereth ,teman or ,pethah ,tiqvah72 ,responsa on questions of law2 ,biblical and ,rabbinical ,code 7,misnheh ,torah or ,yad ,hahazaka1 completed #aahj72 ,sepher hamitzvoth1 an abbreviated handbook of the preceding2 and his great philosophical work ,moreh ,nebuhim or the guide of the perplexed 7#aaij74 ,to these must be added certain portions of the ,mishnah commentary1 such as the ,eight ,chapters1 the discussion on reward and punishment and immortality1 the ,jewish ,creed1 which have acquired fame as independent works4 ,the influence of ,moses ben ,maimon is incalculable4 ,from ,moses unto ,moses there arose not one like ,moses1 is the verdict of posterity4 ,maimonides was the great exponent of reason in faith and toleration in theology4 ,one of the main services to ,european thought of the ,guide was its independent criticism of some of ,aristotle's principles4 ,his codification of the ,talmud was equally appreciated in the study of the scholar and in practical life4 ,christian ,europe owed much to ,maimonides4 ,not only did his ,guide influence scholasticism in general1 but it was from his ,code that the ,church derived its medieval knowledge of the ,synagogue4 ,a complete bibliography will be found in ,maimonides1 by ,david ,yellin and ,israel ,abrahams 7,london1 #aijc72 the final chapter of that work gives a summary of the influence of ,maimonides on ,christian philosophers such as ,aquinas1 and ,jewish such as ,spinoza4 ,the ,guide has been translated into ,english by ,m4 ,friedlander 7#ahha-ahhe2 new ed41 #aije74 ,see also ,jewish ,encyclopedia1 articles s4v41 and the volumes edited by ,guttmann1 ,moses ben ,maimon 7,leipzig1 #aijh1 c474 7,h4 ,le47 ,,main 7,lat4 ,moenus71 a river of ,germany1 and the most important right-bank tributary of the ,rhine4 ,it has two sources1 the ,weisse ,main 7,white ,main71 which rises in the ,fichtelgebirge on the east side of the ,ochsenkopf1 and the ,rote ,main 7,red ,main71 which1 rising on the eastern slope of the ,frankish ,jura1 flows past ,bayreuth4 ,they unite #c m4 below ,kulmbach1 #ibj ft4 above the sea4 ,hence the river1 already of considerable size1 pursues a north-westerly direction1 skirting the spurs of the ,frankish ,jura in a pleasant valley4 ,at ,lichtenfels the river takes a south-westerly course1 which it retains until entering the fertile basin of ,bamberg4 ,here it receives from the south-east the waters of its chief tributary1 the ,regnitz1 and enters upon its middle course4 ,its direction is now again north-west1 and meandering through pleasant vales and pastures it passes ,hassfurt and reaches ,schweinfurt4 ,its course is now almost due south to ,ochsenfurt1 when it again proceeds north-west4 ,continuing in this direction amid vine-clad hills1 it washes the walls of the university city of ,wrzburg1 and thence1 dividing the forest-clad ranges of the ,spessart and the ,odenwald1 reaches ,gemnden4 ,here it is joined from the right by the ,frankish ,saale and1 turning abruptly south1 receives at ,wertheim the beautiful ,tauber4 ,feudal castles and medieval towns now crown its banks1 notably1 ,freudenberg and ,miltenberg4 ,from the latter it proceeds due north to ,aschaffenburg1 whence passing ,frankfort it pours its yellow waters into the green waters of the ,rhine just above ,mainz4 ,the ,main has a total length of #caj m4 and drains a basin of approximately #aa1jjj sq4 m4 ,it is navigable from the confluence of the ,regnitz1 #bdj m4 from its mouth1 for barges and other small craft1 and through the ,ludwig ,canal is connected with the ,danube4 ,see ,ulrici1 ,das ,maingebiet in seiner natrlichen ,beschaffenheit 7,kassel1 #ahhe72 ,e4 ,faber1 ,zur ,hydrographie des ,maingebiets 7,munich1 #ahie71 and ,lill1 ,mainthal1 ,main und ,mainschiffahrt 7,berlin1 #aijd74 ,,main 7from the ,aryan root which appears in may and might1 and ,lat4 magnus1 great71 a word meaning properly power or strength1 especially physical4 ,this use chiefly survives in the expression with might and main4 ,the word is more common as a substantival elliptical use of the adjective1 which usually has the sense of principal or chief in size1 strength1 importance1 c4 ,thus the main1 the high open sea1 is for main sea1 cf4 mainland1 the principal part of a territory excluding islands and sometimes far-projecting peninsulas4 ,the expression the ,spanish main properly meant that part of the main land of the ,n4,e4 coast of ,south ,america stretching from the ,orinoco to the ,isthmus of ,panama1 and the former ,spanish possessions in ,central ,america bordering on the ,caribbean ,sea1 but it is often loosely used1 especially in connexion with the buccaneers1 of the ,caribbean ,sea itself4 ,the term main is also thus used of a principal pipe or cable for conducting gas1 water1 electricity1 c4 ,the elliptical use does not appear1 however1 in such expressions as main road1 line1 stream4 ,another use of the word main has a somewhat obscure history4 ,it appears as a term in the game of hazard1 and also in cock-fighting4 ,in the last it is used for a match1 and for the cocks engaged in a match4 ,in hazard it is the number called by the caster before the dice are thrown2 this may be any number from five to nine inclusive4 ,the usual derivation is from the ,french main1 a hand1 but according to the ,new ,english ,dictionary there is no evidence for this1 and the more probable explanation is that it is an adaptation of main meaning principal or chief4 ,from this use of the word in hazard the expression main chance is derived4 ,main1 a shortened form of domain or demesne1 only now survives in ,scotland1 usually in the plural mains for a home farm4 ,,maina 7or ,,mani7 and ,,mainotes1 a district and people of the ,peloponnesus1 the modern ,morea4 ,maina is the country occupied by the mountain range of ,taygetus from ,sparta to ,cape ,matapan1 the ancient ,taenarum4 ,it is now divided between the modern districts ,oetylos and ,gythion4 ,before the organization of the present kingdom of ,greece1 ,maina was subdivided into ,greek3 ,ex ,man1 ,outer ,maina1 from the frontier of ,kalamata1 on the ,gulf of ,messenia1 to ,vitylo 7,oetylos7 and inland to the summit of ,taygetus2 ,greek3 ,kat ,man1 ,lower ,maina1 from ,vitylo to ,cape ,matapan2 and ,greek3 ,mesa ,man1 or ,inner ,maina1 on the east1 and on the ,gulf of ,laconia as far as the plain of ,elos4 ,it contained over a hundred villages4 ,the country is mountainous and inaccessible1 a formation to which it owes its historical importance4 ,the ,mainotes claim to descend from the ,spartans1 and probably represent the ,eleuthero1 or free1 ,laconians who were delivered by ,rome from the power of ,sparta1 as is suggested by the traces of ancient ,greek in their dialect and by their physical type4 ,their country being a natural fortress1 they were able to defend themselves against the ,byzantine emperors1 the barbarians who broke into the empire1 the ,latin princes of ,achaea of the house of ,villehardouin1 and the ,turks4 ,as their country is also poor and maritime1 they were early tempted to take to piratical adventure4 ,gibbon says that in the time of ,constantine ,porphyrogenitus they had acquired the name of ,mainotes1 under which they dishonour the claim of liberty by the inhuman pillage of all that is shipwrecked on their rocky shore4 ,their neighbours gave their country the name of ,kakaboulia--the land of wicked counsels4 ,the passes of their mountains were elaborately fortified and their villages were full of fortified towers 7pyrgoi7 from which they formed their own favourite epithet1 ,maina ,polypyrgos--many-towered ,maina4 ,on the western side it also contains the remains of feudal keeps1 erected by ,william ,,ii4 de ,villehardouin 7#abde-abgh7 and other ,latin princes of ,achaea4 ,the ,mainotes did not become ,christians till the #ith century4 ,from the #aeth till the #agth century they recognized a family which claimed to belong to the ,comneni of ,trebizond as head chiefs4 ,but the real power was in the hands of the chiefs of the different families and villages1 who formed a turbulent and martial aristocracy4 ,enduring and ferocious feuds were common among them4 ,in the course of the #ahth century the family of ,mavromicheli 7,black ,michael71 which belonged to lower ,maina1 established a general headship over the ,mainotes after much strife and many murders4 ,when ,russia endeavoured to promote a rising against the ,turks in the ,morea in #aggj the ,mainotes acted with her1 and the strength of their country enabled them to escape the vengeance of the ,turks when the ,christians were cynically deserted by the ,russians4 ,in #aggg their practical independence was recognized by the sultan's officers4 ,during the ,greek war of independence the ,mainotes were chiefly led by ,petros 7,petro ,bey7 ,mavromicheli1 known to his countrymen as the king of ,maina1 who undoubtedly cherished the hope of establishing a principality for himself4 ,the freedom of ,greece1 for which he had fought in his own way1 proved the ruin of his ambition4 ,he found the new order less compatible with his schemes than the ,turkish dominion4 ,petro ,bey was imprisoned by the ,greek president ,capodistrias 7see ,,capo ,d',,istria1 ,,count471 who was in revenge murdered by the ,mavromichelis4 ,the family were finally content to become courtiers and officials in the reign of ,king ,otto ,i4 ,in the #aith century ,maina was but little affected by civilization1 except in so far as the efficiency of modern navies debarred the ,mainotes from their old resource of piracy4 ,see ,w4 ,martin ,leake1 ,travels in the ,morea 7#ahcj72 ,m4 ,e4 ,yemeniz1 ,la ,maina1 in ,revue des deux mondes 7,march #a1 #ahfe72 and ,philipson1 ,zur ,ethnographie des ,peloponnes1 in ,petermanns ,mittheilungen1 vol4 #cf 7,gotha74 ,,maine1 ,,anne ,,louise ,b,n,,dicte ,,de ,,bourbon1 ,,duchesse ,,du 7#afgf-agec71 daughter of ,henri ,jules de ,bourbon1 prince de ,cond and ,anne of ,bavaria1 was born on the #hth of ,november #afgf4 ,on the #aith of ,march #afib she married ,louis ,auguste de ,bourbon1 duc du ,maine1 son of ,louis ,,xiv4 and ,mme de ,montespan4 ,the duchesse du ,maine held a little court at ,sceaux1 where she gave brilliant entertainments and immersed herself in political intrigues4 ,displeased with the action of the regent ,orleans in degrading the illegitimate children of ,louis ,,xiv4 from their precedence above the peers of ,france1 she induced her husband to join in the ,cellamare conspiracy for the transference of the regency to the king of ,spain4 ,the plot1 however1 was discovered1 and she was imprisoned in #agai4 ,the following year she returned to ,sceaux1 where she resumed her salon and gathered round her a brilliant company of wits and poets4 ,she died in ,paris on the #bcrd of ,january #agec4 ,see ,gnral de ,pipape1 ,la ,duchesse du ,maine 7#aiaj74 ,,maine1 ,,sir ,,henry ,,james ,,sumner 7#ahbb-ahhh71 ,english comparative jurist and historian1 son of ,dr ,james ,maine1 of ,kelso1 ,roxburghshire1 was born on the #aeth of ,august #ahbb4 ,he was at school at ,christ's ,hospital1 and thence went up to ,pembroke ,college1 ,cambridge1 in #ahdj4 ,at ,cambridge he was one of the most brilliant classical scholars of his time4 ,he won a ,craven scholarship and graduated as senior classic in #ahdd1 being also senior chancellor's medallist in classics4 ,shortly afterwards he accepted a tutorship at ,trinity ,hall4 ,in #ahdg he was appointed regius professor of civil law1 and he was called to the bar three years later2 he held this chair till #ahed4 ,even the rudiments of ,roman law were not then included in the ordinary training of ,english lawyers2 it was assumed at the universities that any good ,latin scholar could qualify himself at short notice for keeping up such tradition of civilian studies as survived4 ,maine cannot have known much ,roman law in #ahdg1 but in #ahef he contributed to the ,cambridge ,essays the essay on ,roman law and legal education1 republished in the later editions of ,village ,communities1 which was the first characteristic evidence of his genius4 ,meanwhile he had become one of the readers appointed by the ,inns of ,court1 in the first of their many half-hearted attempts at legal education1 in #aheb4 ,lectures delivered by ,maine in this capacity were the groundwork of ,ancient ,law 7#ahfa71 the book by which his reputation was made at one stroke4 ,its object1 as modestly stated in the preface1 was to indicate some of the earliest ideas of mankind1 as they are reflected in ancient law1 and to point out the relation of those ideas to modern thought4 ,within a year of its publication the post of legal member of council in ,india was offered to ,maine1 then a junior member of the bar with little practice1 few advantages of connexion1 and no political or official claims4 ,he declined once1 on grounds of health2 the very next year the office was again vacant4 ,this time ,maine was persuaded to accept1 not that his health had improved1 but that he thought ,india might not make it much worse4 ,it turned out that ,india suited him much better than ,cambridge or ,london4 ,his work1 like most of the work done by ,englishmen in ,india in time of peace1 was not of a showy kind--its value is shown by the fact that he was asked to prolong his services beyond the regular term of five years1 and returned to ,england only in #ahfi4 ,the subjects on which it was his duty to advise the government of ,india were as much political as legal4 ,they ranged from such problems as the land settlement of the ,punjab1 or the introduction of civil marriage to provide for the needs of unorthodox ,hindus1 to the question how far the study of ,persian should be required or encouraged among ,european civil servants4 ,on the civil marriage question in particular1 and some years earlier on the still more troublesome one of allowing the remarriage of native converts to ,christianity1 his guidance1 being not only learned but statesmanlike1 was of the greatest value4 ,plans of codification1 moreover1 were prepared1 and largely shaped1 under ,maine's direction1 which were carried into effect by his successors1 ,sir ,j4 ,fitzjames ,stephen and ,dr ,whitley ,stokes4 ,the results are open to criticism in details1 but form on the whole a remarkable achievement in the conversion of unwritten and highly technical law into a body of written law sufficiently clear to be administered by officers to many of whom its ideas and language are foreign4 ,all this was in addition to the routine of legislative and consulting work and the establishment of the legislative department of the government of ,india on substantially its present footing4 ,maine's power of swiftly assimilating new ideas and appreciating modes of thought and conduct remote from modern ,western life came into contact with the facts of ,indian society at exactly the right time1 and his colleagues and other competent observers expressed the highest opinion of his work4 ,in return ,maine brought back from his ,indian office a store of knowledge which enriched all his later writings1 though he took ,india by name for his theme only once4 ,this essay on ,india was his contribution to the composite work entitled ,the ,reign of ,queen ,victoria 7ed4 ,t4 ,h4 ,ward1 #ahhg74 ,not having been separately published1 it is perhaps the least known of ,maine's writings2 but its combination of just perception and large grasp with command of detail is not easily matched outside ,w4 ,stubbs's prefaces to some of the chronicles in the ,rolls series1 and 7more lately7 ,f4 ,w4 ,maitland's monographs4 ,as vice-chancellor of the university of ,calcutta1 ,maine commented1 with his usual pregnant ingenuity1 on the results produced by the contact of ,eastern and ,western thought4 ,three of these addresses were published1 wholly or in part1 in the later editions of ,village ,communities2 the substance of others is understood to be embodied in the ,cambridge ,rede lecture of #ahge1 which is to be found in the same volume4 ,the practical side of ,maine's experience was not long lost to ,india2 he became a member of the secretary of state's council in #ahga1 and remained so for the rest of his life4 ,in the same year he was gazetted a ,k4,c4,s4,i4 ,in #ahfi ,maine was appointed to the chair of historical and comparative jurisprudence newly founded in the university of ,oxford by ,corpus ,christi ,college4 ,residence at ,oxford was not required1 and the election amounted to an invitation to the new professor to resume and continue in his own way the work he had begun in ,ancient ,law4 ,during the succeeding years he published the principal matters of his lectures in a carefully revised literary form3 ,village ,communities in the ,east and the ,west 7#ahga72 ,early ,history of ,institutions 7#ahge72 ,early ,law and ,custom 7#ahhc74 ,in all these works the phenomena of societies in an archaic stage1 whether still capable of observation or surviving in a fragmentary manner among more modern surroundings or preserved in contemporary records1 are brought into line1 often with singular felicity1 to establish and illustrate the normal process of development in legal and political ideas4 ,in #ahgg the mastership of ,trinity ,hall1 ,cambridge1 where ,maine had formerly been tutor1 became vacant4 ,there were two strong candidates whose claims were so nearly equal that it was difficult to elect either2 the difficulty was solved by a unanimous invitation to ,maine to accept the post4 ,his acceptance entailed the resignation of the ,oxford chair1 though not continuous residence at ,cambridge4 ,ten years later considerations of a somewhat similar kind led to his election to succeed ,sir ,william ,harcourt as ,whewell professor of international law at ,cambridge4 ,his all too short performance in this office is represented by a posthumous volume which had not received his own final revision1 ,international ,law 7#ahhh74 ,meanwhile ,maine had published in #ahhe his one work of speculative politics1 a volume of essays on ,popular ,government1 designed to show that democracy is not in itself more stable than any other form of government1 and that there is no necessary connexion between democracy and progress4 ,the book was deliberately unpopular in tone2 it excited much controversial comment and some serious and useful discussion4 ,in #ahhf there appeared in the ,quarterly ,review 7clxii4 #aha7 an article on the posthumous work of ,j4 ,f4 ,m',lennan1 edited and completed by his brother1 entitled ,the ,patriarchal ,theory4 ,the article1 though necessarily unsigned 7in accordance with the rule of the ,quarterly as it then stood71 was ,maine's reply to the ,m',lennan brothers' attack on the historical reconstruction of the ,indo-,european family system put forward in ,ancient ,law and supplemented in ,early ,law and ,custom4 ,maine was generally averse from controversy1 but showed on this occasion that it was not for want of controversial power4 ,he carried the war back into the invader's country1 and charged ,j4 ,f4 ,m',lennan's theory of primitive society with owing its plausible appearance of universal validity to general neglect of the ,indo-,european evidence and misapprehension of such portions of it as ,m',lennan did attempt to handle4 ,maine's health1 which had never been strong1 gave way towards the end of #ahhg4 ,he went to the ,riviera under medical advice1 and died at ,cannes on the #crd of ,february #ahhh4 ,he left a wife and two sons1 of whom the elder died soon afterwards4 ,an excellent summary of ,maine's principal writings may be seen in ,sir ,mountstuart ,grant ,duff's memoir4 ,the prompt and full recognition of ,maine's genius by continental publicists must not pass unmentioned even in the briefest notice4 ,france1 ,germany1 ,italy1 ,russia have all contributed to do him honour2 this is the more remarkable as one or two ,english publicists of an older school signally failed to appreciate him4 ,maine warned his countrymen against the insularity which results from ignorance of all law and institutions save one's own2 his example has shown the benefit of the contrary habit4 ,his prominent use of ,roman law and the wide range of his observation have made his works as intelligible abroad as at home1 and thereby much valuable information--for example1 concerning the nature of ,british supremacy in ,india1 and the position of native institutions there--has been made the property of the world of letters instead of the peculiar and obscure possession of a limited class of ,british public servants4 ,foreign readers of ,maine have perhaps understood even better than ,english ones that he is not the propounder of a system but the pioneer of a method1 and that detailed criticism1 profitable as it may be and necessary as in time it must be1 will not leave the method itself less valid or diminish the worth of the master's lessons in its use4 ,the rather small bulk of ,maine's published and avowed work may be explained partly by a fine literary sense which would let nothing go out under his name unfinished1 partly by the drawbacks incident to precarious health4 ,maine's temperament was averse from the labour of minute criticism1 and his avoidance of it was no less a matter of prudence4 ,but it has to be remembered that ,maine also wrote much which was never publicly acknowledged4 ,before he went to ,india he was one of the original contributors to the ,saturday ,review1 founded in #ahee1 and the inventor of its name4 ,like his intimate friend ,fitzjames ,stephen1 he was an accomplished journalist1 enjoyed occasional article-writing as a diversion from official duties1 and never quite abandoned it4 ,the practice of such writing probably counted for something in the freedom and clearness of ,maine's style and the effectiveness of his dialectic4 ,his books are a model of scientific exposition which never ceases to be literature4 ,see ,sir ,a4 ,lyall and others1 in ,law ,quart4 ,rev4 iv4 #abi seq4 7#ahhh72 ,sir ,f4 ,pollock1 ,sir ,henry ,maine and his ,work1 in ,oxford ,lectures1 c4 7#ahij72 ,sir ,h4 ,maine as a ,jurist1 ,edin4 ,rev4 7,july #ahic72 ,introduction and ,notes to new ed4 of ,ancient ,law 7#aijf72 ,sir ,m4 ,e4 ,grant ,duff1 ,sir ,henry ,maine3 a brief ,memoir of his ,life1 c4 7#ahib72 ,notes from a ,diary1 passim2 ,l4 ,stephen1 ,maine in ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog4 7#ahic72 ,paul ,vinogradoff1 ,the ,teaching of ,sir ,henry ,maine 7#aijd74 7,f4 ,po47 ,,maine1 an old ,french province1 bounded ,n4 by ,normandy1 ,e4 by ,orlanais1 ,s4 by ,touraine and ,anjou1 and ,w4 by ,brittany4 ,before the ,roman ,conquest the region occupied by this province was inhabited by the ,aulerci ,cenomanni and the ,aulerci ,diablintes2 under the ,roman empire it consisted of two civitates comprised in the ,provincia ,lugdunensis ,tertia--the ,civitas ,cenomannorum and the ,civitas ,diablintum1 whose chief towns were ,le ,mans and ,jublains4 ,these two civitates were united during the barbarian period and formed a single bishopric1 that of ,le ,mans1 suffragan to the metropolitan see of ,tours4 ,under the ,merovingians and ,carolingians the diocese of ,le ,mans corresponded to the ,pagus ,cenomanensis1 and in the feudal period to the county of ,maine4 ,in the #afth century the county of ,maine1 with the addition of ,perche1 formed a military government--the province of ,maine4 ,since #agij this province has been represented approximately by the departments of ,sarthe and ,mayenne1 the respective capitals of which are ,le ,mans and ,laval4 ,in #ahee the bishopric of ,laval was separated from that of ,le ,mans4 ,maine was evangelized in the #crd century by ,st ,julian4 ,after forming part of the kingdom of ,syagrius1 it was conquered by ,clovis at the end of the #eth century4 ,owing to the scarcity of documents the history of ,maine until the end of the #ith century is merged in the history of the bishops of ,le ,mans1 which has come down to us in the ,actus pontificum ,cenomannis in urbe degentium 7ed4 ,busson-,ledru1 ,le ,mans1 #aija71 composed under the direction of ,bishop ,aldric 7#hcb-heg74 ,roger 7c4 #hib-;c4 #hih7 was perhaps the first hereditary count of ,maine2 the counts whose existence is certain are ,hugh ,i4 7c4 #ici-;before #iib71 ,hugh ,,ii4 7before #iib-ajae71 ,herbert ,i4 7#ajae-ajcb to #ajcf71 ,hugh ,,iii4 7#ajcb to #ajcf-ajea71 ,herbert ,,ii4 7#ajea-ajfb71 ,william the ,bastard 7#ajfc-ajhg71 ,robert ,curthose 7#ajhg-ajia71 ,hugh ,,iv4 7#ajia-ajib7 and ,helias 7#ajib-aaaj74 ,maine1 which was in the vassalage of ,anjou as early as the #ith century1 was united to ,anjou in #aaaj by the marriage of ,count ,helias's daughter to ,fulk ,v41 count of ,anjou1 and passed to the ,english crown in #aaed1 when ,henry ,plantagenet 7who was born at ,le ,mans7 became king of ,england4 ,in #abjd1 after the confiscation of the estates of ,john of ,england1 ,maine was united to ,france2 in #abdf it was separated from ,france by ,louis ,,ix41 who handed it over to his brother ,charles1 count of ,provence4 ,again united to ,france in #acbh1 it was given in #acef as an apanage to ,louis1 second son of ,king ,john ,,ii41 and did not definitely return to the ,french crown until #adha1 after the death of ,charles ,,ii41 count of ,maine4 ,during the ,hundred ,years' ,war ,maine was taken in #adbe by the ,english1 who lost it in #addh4 ,see ,histoire de l'glise du ,mans1 by ,dom ,piolin 7,paris1 #ahea-aheh71 which is useful but out of date2 ,revue historique et archologique du ,maine 7#ahgf72 ,la ,province du ,maine 7#ahic72 ,b4 ,haurau1 ,histoire littraire du ,maine 7#ahgj-ahgg74 ,,maine1 a ,north ,atlantic state of the ,united ,states of ,america1 the most north-easterly state in the ,union1 and the largest of the ,new ,england group4 ,it lies between #dc #d and #dg #bg #cc ,n41 and between #ff #ef #dh and #ga #f #da ,w4 ,it is bounded ,n4,w4 by the ,canadian province of ,quebec2 ,n4 and ,e4 by the ,canadian province of ,new ,brunswick1 from which it is separated in part by the natural barriers of the ,saint ,john ,river1 the ,grand 7or ,schoodic7 ,lakes1 the ,saint ,croix ,river1 and ,passamaquoddy ,bay2 ,s4,s4,e4 by the ,atlantic ,ocean2 and ,w4 by ,new ,hampshire1 the ,piscataqua and ,salmon ,falls rivers being the natural boundary lines at the ,s4,w4 ,the area of the state is #cc1jdj sq4 m41 #cade sq4 m4 being water surface4 ,maine attracts more summer visitors than any other state in the ,union4 ,this is due to the cool and refreshing summer climate2 the picturesque coast and its many islands1 which are favourite grounds for camps and summer cottages2 the mountains1 and the beautiful lakes and rivers1 many of which afford opportunities for good fishing and canoeing4 ,among the more widely known resorts are ,mount ,desert ,island1 on which is ,bar ,harbor1 a fashionable summer place of great beauty2 ,long ,island1 ,orr's and other islands in ,casco ,bay2 ,old ,orchard1 with a gently sloping white sand sea-beach #i m4 long1 ,rangeley and ,moosehead ,lakes1 favourite resorts of fishermen and hunters2 ,mt ,katahdin1 in the heart of the moose country2 and ,poland ,springs 7#ch m4 by rail from ,portland7 in ,androscoggin county1 near lake ,anasigunticook4 ,about #ahgj1 camps1 summer cottages1 summer hotels and boarding houses began to multiply throughout the state4 ,the needs of this summer population gave a new impulse and a new turn to agriculture2 and the demand for souvenirs revived among the ,indians basket-weaving1 moccasin-making1 and such crafts4 ,physical ,features4--,the surface is a gently rolling upland1 forming a part of the ,new ,england uplands1 above which rise isolated mountain peaks and clusters of peaks1 and below which are cut numerous river valleys4#a ,the highest peak is ,mt ,katahdin 7#ebjj ft471 a little ,n4,e4 of the centre of the state in ,piscataquis county1 which rises from a comparatively level upland4 ,south-west of ,katahdin1 in ,franklin county1 are most of the other high peaks of the state3 ,saddleback ,mountain 7#djjj ft471 ,mt ,abraham 7#cchh ft471 ,mt ,bigelow 7#cfjj ft471 and ,mt ,blue 7#cbjj ft474 ,a little ,n4 of this line of mountain peaks is the water-parting which divides the state into a north slope and a south slope4 ,the north slope descends gently both to the ,n4 and to the ,e42 although quite hilly in the middle and western portions it is so poorly drained that swamps abound in all sections4 ,the south slope which contains nearly all the mountains and is generally more hilly1 has a mean descent toward the sea of about #g ft4 to the mile1 the fall being greater in the ,w41 where the mountains are high at the ,n4 and the shore low at the ,s41 and less to the ,e41 where the water-parting is lower and the shore high and rocky4 ,after the uplift which caused the rivers to cut below the general uplands1 and develop well marked valleys for themselves1 came the period of the great continental glaciation4 ,the glacier or ice sheet overran all ,maine1 irregularly scouring out the bed rock to produce rock basins1 damming up many river valleys with glacial deposits and completely disarranging the drainage lines4 ,when the ice melted1 the rock basins and the dammed-up valleys filled with water to produce lakes4 ,this is the origin of the numerous lakes of ,maine1 which give it some of its most beautiful scenery1 and help to make it a holiday resort in summer4 ,these lakes are about #afjj in number1 are scattered in all parts of the state1 are especially numerous at high elevations1 and have an aggregate area of more than #bjjj sq4 m4 ,few other regions have so many large lakes so variously situated1 and with such beauty of aspect and surroundings4 ,they contribute largely to a constant supply of water power for which the course of the rivers of ,s4,w4 ,maine are exceptionally well adapted1 many of them abound in trout1 salmon1 togue1 black bass and pickerel2 and near them there is still much game4 ,moosehead ,lake 7about #abj sq4 m42 #ce m4 long and from #b m4 to #aj m4 wide71 on the boundary between ,piscataquis and ,somerset counties1 is the largest in ,maine and the largest inland body of water wholly in ,new ,england2 the ,kennebec ,river is its principal outlet and ,mt ,kineo rises abruptly to about #agfj ft4 above the sea 7about #gjj ft4 above the lake7 on its eastern shore4 ,other lakes1 such as the ,rangeley ,lakes1#b ,chesuncook and ,twin ,lakes on the ,penobscot1 and the ,grand or ,schoodic ,lakes1 in the western boundary at the head waters of the ,saint ,croix ,river1 equal or surpass ,moosehead in picturesqueness4 ,the glacier or ice sheet1 above referred to1 deposited till or boulder clay1 which was compacted under the enormous pressure of the ice sheet to form the hard-pan referred to later4 ,the glaciation is also responsible for the poor soil of most of the state1 for1 although the rocks are the same crystallines which give good soils further south in unglaciated regions1 all the decayed portions of the ,maine rocks have been removed by glacial erosion1 revealing fresh1 barren rock over great areas1 or depositing the rather sterile hard-pan as a thin coating in other places4 ,after the uplift came a period of subsidence1 during which this region sank one or more thousand feet1 allowing the sea to encroach on the land and run far inland into the previously made river valleys4 ,this depression probably occurred during the glacial period1 perhaps toward its close1 and is responsible for the second most important feature of ,maine physiography1 the embayed coast4 ,to this subsidence are due the picturesque coastal scenery1 the numerous islands and bays1 the good harbours and the peculiar coast-line4 ,the shortest distance between the ,n4,e4 and the ,s4,w4 extremities of the coast is only #bbe m42 but1 on account of projections and indentations1 the coast-line measures not less than #bejj m4 ,the headlands1 the deep indentations and the numerous islands in the bays and beyond produce a beautiful mingling of land and sea and give to the whole ocean front the appearance of a fringed and tasselled border2 west of the mouth of the ,kennebec ,river are a marshy shore and many low grassy islands2 but east of this river the shore becomes more and more bold1 rising in the precipitous cliffs and rounded summits of ,mt ,desert and ,quoddy ,head1 #aebg and #ajjj ft4 high respectively4 ,all along the coast-line there are capacious and well-protected harbours1 ,casco1 ,penobscot1 ,frenchman's1 ,machias and ,passamaquoddy bays being especially noteworthy4 ,after the subsidence came another period of uplift1 possibly still in progress4 ,this uplift has brought up submarine deposits of sand1 c41 to form little coastal plains at some points along the coast1 providing good land for settlement and clay for brick and pottery4 ,further evidence of this uplift is found in old beach lines now well above sea-level4 ,the principal river systems of ,maine are the ,saint ,john on the north slope1 and the ,penobscot1 the ,kennebec1 the ,androscoggin1 and the ,saco on the south slope4 ,the mean height of the basin of the ,st ,john is exceeded only by that of the ,androscoggin1 but the fall of the ,st ,john ,river through the greater part of its course in ,maine is only sufficient to give a sluggish or a gentle current4 ,the ,penobscot1 ,kennebec1 ,androscoggin and ,saco have numerous falls and rapids4 ,fauna4--,the animal life of ,maine shows a mixture of northern and southern forms1 and very little that is peculiar as compared with surrounding regions4 ,the state has moose1 caribou and deer1 especially in the northern part4 ,the black bear1 wolf1 catamount1 wolverine1 wild cat1 fox1 beaver1 racoon1 marten1 sable1 woodchuck1 skunk1 otter1 mink1 rabbit and squirrel are also found4 ,geese1 ducks and other water fowl frequent the lakes and bays in the migratory season1 and eagles1 gulls1 hawks1 kingfishers1 owls1 plover1 woodcock1 partridge 7ruffed grouse71 robins1 orioles1 bobolinks1 blue birds1 swallows1 sparrows1 and many other insectivorous birds are common4 ,in the inland waters salmon1 trout1 togue 7,salvelinus namaycush71 pickerel and bass abound2 along the shore there are lobsters1 clams and scallops 7,pecten irradians72 and off the shore are herring1 alewives1 mackerel1 cod1 halibut1 haddock1 smelts1 hake1 menhaden1 porgies and porpoises4 ,the game in the ,north ,woods attracts large numbers of sportsmen during the autumn season4 ,illustration3 ,map of ,maine4 ,flora4--,maine was formerly covered with forests1 principally of white pine and spruce1 but mixed with these were some hemlock1 tamarack1 cedar1 and1 on the south slope1 birch1 poplar1 oak1 maple and beech4 ,chestnut and walnut are rare and are found only near the south-west border4 ,in #aijj about #ba of the state's area was cleared1 and much besides had once been cleared1 but not being suited to agriculture had become reforested4 ,of fruit trees the chief is the apple4 ,the plum1 cherry and pear also thrive4 ,the peach grows well only in the south-west near the border4 ,species of grape1 gooseberry and currant are native1 and others are cultivated with advantage4 ,the blackberry1 raspberry1 blueberry and strawberry grow wild in profusion throughout the state4 ,climate4--,the climate of the state is moist and1 for its latitude1 cold4 ,extremes of temperature are not so great as farther inland in the same latitude2 for the summer heats are tempered by the sea and the cool north winds1 and the winter cold is so constant as to be less severely felt than the changing temperature of more southern districts4 ,the summers are short1 there being only about #d months between frosts even in the southern sections1 and the mean summer temperature is about #fb ,f4 ,the mean winter temperature is approximately #bj ,f41 and the mean annual temperature for the entire state is #db ,f41 that for the north slope being about #e ,f4 less than that for the south slope4 ,although the temperature remains pretty steadily below the freezing point for at least three months of the year1 many of the harbours remain unobstructed2 for the tides and the prevailing off-shore winds break up and drive off the ice4 ,the precipitation is about #db in4 annually1 and is distributed very evenly throughout the year1 #aj-aa in4 of rain or its equivalent in snow falling each season4 ,during #d months about #dd of the precipitation is in the form of snow2 but the snow-fall varies from about #fj in4 on the coast to more than #ajj in4 on the north slope4 ,the winds are variable2 at no season of the year is it usual for them to blow from the same direction for many days in succession4 ,but1 with the exception of those from the west1 they are maritime and consequently moisture-bearing4 ,in summer1 especially in the latter part of it1 the cool and moist ,n4 or ,n4,e4 winds often cause a considerable part of the state to be enveloped in fog for several days in succession4 ,agriculture4--,the soil is for the most part glacial drift1 containing a large mixture of clay with sand or gravel1 and the subsoil is mostly hard-pan1 i4e4 mingled clay and boulders which have been so much compressed by glacial action as to make the mixture hard and ledge-like4 ,except in the valley of the ,aroostook and along the ,kennebec1 the ,penobscot1 and some other rivers1 the soil is generally unfit for cultivation1 there being too little alluvium mixed with it to make it fertile4 ,in the ,aroostook valley1 however1 is the largest undivided area of good arable land in all ,new ,england1 the soil being a deep1 porous1 yellow loam well adapted to the growth of cereals and to market gardening4 ,the most sterile regions are on the mountains and along the coast4 ,because of the cold climate1 the large areas in which there is little or no good arable land1 the growing demand for timber land1 and the large and constant supply of water-power afforded by the principal rivers1 agriculture in ,maine1 as in all the other ,new ,england states except ,vermont1 is a smaller industry than manufacturing2 in #aijj there were #hg1icb people engaged in manufacturing and only #gf1icb engaged in agriculture4 ,only #cb4i of the state's land area was in that year included in farms1 only #cg4i of this farm land was improved1 and only #af4c of the improved land was in crops other than hay and forage4 ,nevertheless1 as indicated by the unusually large proportion of farmers who either own their farms or pay cash rent for them1 farming usually is profitable4 ,the number of farms in #aijj was #ei1bii2 of these #ah1fdd contained between #ej and #ajj acres and #ag1aia contained between #ajj and #age acres1 the average size being #ajf4b acres2 #ed1bfc 7or #ia4e7 were operated by their owners1 #gge were operated by part owners1 #bjcj by cash tenants1 and only #gde by share tenants4 ,beginning with the middle of the #aith century1 the increasing competition of the more productive soils of the ,west1 the growth of urban population in the state1 and the number of summer visitors effected the reforesting of much poor land and the more intensive cultivation of the better arable land4 ,the cultivation of cereals1 for example1 has given way to a marked extent in nearly all the farming districts except in ,aroostook county to market gardening1 dairying1 and egg and poultry production4 ,the number of dairy cows increased from #aeg1bdj in #ahij to #ahc1jjj in #aijh1 and the annual production of milk increased from #eg1ifi1gia gallons in #ahij to #ii1ehf1ahh gallons in #aijj4 ,the number of other neat cattle 7#ahj1hgh in #aijj2 #aea1jjj in #aijh7 decreased during every decade from #ahfj to #aijj2 the number of sheep in #aijj was #dbg1bji 7#ca4i less than in #ahij71 and in #aijh it was #bfg1jjj2 but the number of horses in #ahij and #aijj was about the same 7#adj1caj in #aifj1 but only #aaf1jjj in #aijh74 ,hay is still by far the largest crop1 the acreage of it and of forage in #ahii being #a1bgj1bed acres1 or #gf4e of that of all crops1 and the yield was #a1acc1icb tons2 in #aijg the acreage was #a1djj1jjj acres1 and the crop was #b1ajj1jjj tons4 ,the acreage of cereals decreased from #ahg1jac in #ahhj1 when agriculture in ,aroostook county was little developed1 to #aff1hif in #ahii1 when the cereal acreage in ,aroostook county alone was #hb1jfi4 ,maine potatoes are of a superior quality1 and the acreage of this crop increased from #di1fag in #ahhi to #aah1jjj in #aijg4 ,sweet ,indian corn1 cabbages1 turnips1 cucumbers and tomatoes are grown in large quantities4 ,the fruit crop consists very largely of apples and strawberries 7#a1dba1ggc bushels of apples and #a1jff1hfj quarts of strawberries in #ahii74 ,the output of eggs increased from #i1cfi1ecd dozen in #ahhi to #ac1cjd1aej dozen in #ahii4 ,the most productive dairy section of the state is a belt extending from the south-west corner ,n4,e4 entirely across the state and embracing the whole or parts of the counties of ,york1 ,oxford1 ,cumberland1 ,androscoggin1 ,kennebec1 ,penobscot and ,aroostook4 ,lumber ,industry4--,except in the remote parts1 the valuable white pine1 for which ,maine was long noted1 has been cut2 but the woodland of the state was estimated in #aijj at #bc1gjj sq4 m4 or #gi of its area4 ,the tendency is for this area to increase1 for the establishment between #ahij and #aijj of large paper and pulp mills on some of the principal rivers of the south slope greatly increased the value of forests1 especially those of spruce and poplar4 ,the state makes large appropriations for preventing and extinguishing forest fires1 and in #aijc established a department of forestry in the university of ,maine4 ,good spruce1 which is by far the most valuable timber in the state and is used most largely for the manufacture of paper and pulp1 stands in large quantities in the ,st ,john1 ,penobscot1 ,androscoggin and ,kennebec basins4 ,poplar1 also used for the manufacture of paper1 abounds in several sections of the south slope1 but is most abundant in the basin of the ,kennebec4 ,white birch1 used largely for the manufacture of spools1 is found throughout a wide belt extending across the middle of the state4 ,there is much cedar on the north slope4 ,oak1 maple and beech are rather scarce4 ,a new growth of white pine and other timber is gradually becoming valuable4 ,the value of the timber product increased from #aa1hdi1fed in #ahij to #ac1dhi1dja in #aijj1 and to #ag1icg1fhc in #aije4 ,fisheries4--,fishing has always been an important industry in ,maine4 ,from #aija to #aijd inclusive1 the average annual catch amounted to #aie1cce1fdf lb41 and its average value was #e1eeg1jhc4 ,in #aijh1 according to state reports1 the catch was #ahe1dgf1cdc lb41 valued at #c1hdi1ijj4 ,herrings are caught in largest quantities 7in #aijh1 according to state reports1 #fh1baj1hjj lb41 valued at #dej1ffe71 and ,maine is noted for the canning of the smaller herrings under the name of sardines4 ,in #aijh1 according to state reports1 the take of lobsters was #ag1fce1ihj lb4 valued at #a1eeh1beb4 ,maine markets more clams than any other state in the ,union1 and the catches of cod1 hake1 haddock1 smelt1 mackerel1 swordfish1 shad1 pollock1 cusk1 salmon1 alewives1 eels and halibut are of importance4 ,the scallop fishery is becoming more and more valuable4 ,for the protection and promotion of the lobster fishery the ,united ,states government has established a lobster hatchery at ,boothbay ,harbor2 and the state legislature enacted a law in #ahie prohibiting the taking of lobsters less than #aj-a_/b in4 in length 7one effect of this law being to drive the lobster-canning industry from the state7 and another law in #aijc for the protection of lobsters with eggs attached4 ,this latter law directs the state fish commissioner to purchase such lobsters whenever caught and either to liberate them or to sell them to the ,united ,states for keeping in a fish hatchery4 ,minerals4--,the principal mineral products are granite1 limestone1 slate1 clay products and mineral waters4 ,in #aije ,maine held first rank among the states of the ,union as a producer of granite1 the value of the output being #b1gac1gie4 ,in #aijg ,maine's granite was valued at #b1adf1dbj1 that of ,massachusetts at #b1cbh1ggg1 and that of ,vermont at #b1fic1hhi4 ,the stone is of superior quality1 and the largest part of it is used for building purposes2 much of it is used as paving blocks and some for monuments4 ,it abounds all along the coast east of the ,kennebec and on the adjacent islands1 and is found farther inland1 especially about the ,rangeley lakes in ,franklin and ,oxford counties1 and1 near ,mt ,katahdin1 in ,penobscot and ,piscataquis counties4 ,the principal quarries1 however1 are situated in positions most convenient for shipment by water1 in the vicinity of ,penobscot bay and in ,kennebec county1 and these have supplied the bulk of the material used in the construction of many prominent buildings and monuments in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,fox ,island granite comes from the quarries on ,vinalhaven ,island and the surrounding islands1 and on ,vinalhaven were quarried monolithic columns #ea4e to #ed ft4 long and #f ft4 in diameter for the ,cathedral of ,st ,john the ,divine in ,new ,york ,city4 ,black granite was quarried in #aijg at #ab quarries1 in ,york1 ,lincoln1 ,waldo1 ,penobscot and ,washington counties4 ,limestone abounds1 especially in the south-east part of the state1 but it is quarried chiefly in ,knox county4 ,as its colour--blue and blue-black streaked with white--renders it undesirable for building purposes1 nearly all of it is burned into lime1 which has become a very important article of manufacture in the city of ,rockland2 the industry dates back to #agcc in ,knox county4 ,in #aijg the quantity of lime burned in ,maine was #aei1did tons and its value was #gdg1idg4 ,slate is quarried chiefly in ,piscataquis county1 most of it being used for roofing1 but some for blackboards2 in #aijg the amount quarried in ,maine was valued at #bcf1ajf4 ,about #ahif some remarkably white and pure feldspar began to be quarried in ,androscoggin1 ,oxford and ,sagadahoc counties1 but afterwards the spar mined in ,maine was of less excellent quality2 in #aijg the production in ,maine was valued at #aeg1ccd1 the total for the entire country being #dii1jfi4 ,clay is obtained in various places1 and in #aije the total value of the clay products was #fai1bid4 ,in ,oxford county tourmaline1 spodumene 7or kunzite7 and beryl occur1 the tourmaline crystals being notably large and beautiful4 ,mineral water occurs in many localities1 particularly in ,androscoggin1 ,york1 ,cumberland and ,oxford counties2 the most famous springs are the ,poland ,springs in ,androscoggin county4 ,most of the mineral waters bottled in the state are chalybeate and slightly alkaline--saline2 their average temperature is about #dc4 ,in #aijh #bg springs were reported1 their aggregate sales amounting to #a1ahb1cbb gallons4 ,copper1 gold alloyed with platinum1 iron ore1 barytes1 graphite and lead occur in small quantities in the state4 ,in #aijh the total mineral product of the state was valued at #g1jdd1fgh4 ,manufactures4--,although ,maine has no coal and only a very small amount of iron ore within her borders for the encouragement of manufacturing1 yet the abundance of fine timber and the numerous coves1 bays and navigable streams along or near the coast promoted ship-building from the first1 and this was the leading industry of the state until about the middle of the #aith century1 when wooden ships began to be supplanted by those of iron and steel4 ,until about the same time1 when the ,maine liquor law was passed1 the manufacture of rum from molasses1 received in exchange for lumber and fish in the ,west ,indies1 was also an important industry4 ,it was not until early in the #aith century that the large and constant supply of water power afforded by the rivers began to be used to any considerable extent4 ,the first cotton mill was built at ,brunswick on the ,androscoggin about #ahji1 and from #ahcj the development of cotton manufacturing was rapid2 woollen mills followed1 and late in the #aith century were erected some of the largest paper and pulp mills in the country1 which are run by water power from the rivers1 and use the spruce and poplar timber in the river basins4 ,the total value of the manufactures of the state increased from #ie1fhi1ejj in #ahij to #abg1cfa1dhe in #aijj2 and in #aije the value of factory-made products alone was #add1jbj1aig1 or #bg4e greater than their value in #aijj4c ,measured by the value of the output1 paper and wood pulp rose from fifth among the state's manufactures in #ahij to third in #aijj and to first in #aije2 from #c1bha1jea in #ahij to #ac1bbc1bge in #aijj1 an increase of #cjc within the decade1 and to #bb1iea1abd in #aije1 a further increase of #gc4f in this period4 ,lumber and timber products ranked second 7#aije7--aa1hdi1fed in #ahij1 #ac1dhi1dja in #aijj1 and #ag1icg1fhc in #aije4 ,cotton goods ranked third 7#aije7 in value--#ae1caf1iji in #ahij1 #ad1fca1jhf in #aijj1 and #ae1djd1hbc in #aije4 ,woollen goods ranked fourth 7#aije7--h1gcg1fec in #ahij1 #ac1gdd1abf in #aijj1 an increase of #eg4c within the decade2 and the value of the factory-made product alone in #aije was #ac1ifi1fjj1 or #bj4a greater than in #aijj4 ,boots and shoes ranked fifth 7#aije7--ab1bie1hdg in #aijj1 and #ab1cea1bic in #aije4 ,fish1 canned and preserved1 followed next1 #a1ffj1hha in #ahij and #d1ggi1ggc in #aijj1 an increase within the decade of #ahg4h1 most of which was in one branch--the canning of small herring under the name sardines2 from #aijj to #aije the increase was slight1 only #bge1ceh1 or #e4h4 ,in the value of its manufactures as compared with those of the other states of the ,union1 in wooden ships and boats1 ,maine in #aijj and in #aije was outranked by ,new ,york only2 in canned and preserved fish by ,washington only 7the value of fish canned and preserved in ,maine in #aijj was #ba4g of the total for the ,united ,states1 and in #aije #ai4b72 in the output of woollen mills by ,massachusetts and ,pennsylvania only2 in the output of paper mills by ,new ,york and ,massachusetts only4 ,it ranked ninth in #aijj and tenth in #aije in the value of its cotton goods4 ,portland1 ,lewiston1 ,biddeford1 and ,auburn are the leading manufacturing cities1 and in #aije the total value of their manufactures was #ba4e of those of the entire state4 ,but from #aijj to #aije the value of manufactures grew most rapidly in ,rockland 7especially noted for lime71 the increase being from #a1bdc1hha to #a1hbb1eia 7#df4e71 and in ,waterville1 where the increase was from #b1bhc1ecf to #c1jfi1cji 7#cd4d74 ,among the largest paper mills are those at ,millinocket1 in ,penobscot county1 at ,madison on the ,kennebec river1 and at ,rumford ,falls on the ,androscoggin river4 ,lewiston leads in the manufacture of cotton goods2 ,auburn1 ,bangor and ,augusta1 in the manufacture of boots and shoes2 ,bath1 in ship and boat building2 ,eastport and ,lubec1 in canning sardines4 ,transportation and ,commerce4--,the south-western part of the state1 including the manufacturing1 the quarrying1 and much of the older agricultural district1 early had fairly satisfactory means of transportation either by water or by rail2 for the coast has many excellent harbours1 the ,kennebec river is navigable for coast vessels to ,augusta1 the ,penobscot to ,bangor1 and railway service was soon supplied for the villages of the south-west1 but it was not until the last decade of the #aith century that the forests1 the farming lands1 and the summer resorts of ,aroostook county were reached by a railway1 the ,bangor ,aroostook4 ,the first railway in the state1 from ,bangor to ,old ,town1 was completed in #ahcf1 and the state's railway mileage increased from #ab m4 in that year to #bde m4 in #ahej1 to #acgg4dg m4 in #ahij1 and to #bbaj4gi in ,january #aiji4 ,the principal railway systems are the ,maine ,central1 which enters every county but one1 the ,boston ,maine1 the ,bangor ,aroostook1 the ,grand ,trunk and the ,canadian ,pacific4 ,lines of steamboats ply regularly between the largest cities of the state and ,boston1 between ,portland and ,new ,york1 and between ,portland and several ,canadian ports4 ,the foreign trade1 especially that with the ,west ,indies and with ,great ,britain1 decreased after #ahge1 and yet much trade from the ,west that goes to ,montreal during the warmer months passes through ,portland during the winter season4 ,the chief exports to foreign countries are textile fabrics1 ,indian corn1 meat1 dairy products1 apples1 paraffin1 boards and shooks2 the chief imports from foreign countries are sugar1 molasses and wool4 ,fish1 canned goods1 potatoes1 granite1 lime1 paper1 and boots and shoes are also exported to foreign countries to some extent1 but they are shipped in larger quantities to other states of the ,union1 from which ,maine receives in return cotton1 coal1 iron1 oil1 c4 ,the ports of entry in ,maine are ,bangor1 ,bath1 ,belfast1 ,castine1 ,eastport1 ,ellsworth1 ,houlton1 ,kennebunk1 ,machias1 ,portland1 ,wiscasset and ,york4 ,population4--,the population in #ahhj was #fdh1icf2 in #ahij1 #ffa1jhf2 in #aijj1 #fid1dff2 and in #aiaj1 #gdb1cga4d ,from #ahhj to #aijj there was an increase of only #g1 a percentage which was exceeded in every other state in the ,union except ,nevada and ,vermont4 ,of the total population of #aijj1 #eii1bia1 or #hf4c1 were native whites1 #ic1ccj were foreign-born1 #a1cai were negroes1 #gih were ,indians1 #aai were ,chinese1 and #d were ,japanese4 ,of the inhabitants born in the ,united ,states1 #ehh1baa1 or #ig4h1 were natives of ,new ,england and #efj1ejf were natives of ,maine1 and of the foreign-born #fg1jgg1 or #ga4h1 were natives of ,canada 7#cf1afi ,english and #cj1ijh ,french71 and #aj1aei1 or #aj4h1 were natives of ,ireland4 ,of the total population1 #aii1gcd were of foreign parentage--i4e4 either one or both parents were foreign-born--and #hi1heg were of ,canadian parentage1 both on the father's and on the mother's side 7#da1cee ,english and #dh1ejb ,french74 ,the ,french-speaking inhabitants probably number considerably more than #ej1jjj4 ,they are of two quite distinct classes4 ,one1 numbering about #ae1jjj1 includes those who became citizens by the establishment of the northern boundary in #ahdb and their descendants4 ,they are largely of ,acadian stock4 ,the state has established among them a well-appointed training school for teachers1 conducted in the ,english language1 the graduates of which render excellent service in the common schools4 ,the other class is of ,french-,canadian immigrants1 who find profitable employment in the manufacturing centres4 ,the colony of ,swedes established by the state near its north-eastern border in #ahgj has proved in every way successful4 ,the ,indians are remnants of the ,penobscot and ,passamaquoddy tribes1 the ,passamaquoddies being a little the more numerous4 ,the ,penobscots' chief gathering places are on the islands of the ,penobscot river north of ,old ,town2 the ,passamaquoddies'1 on the shores of ,passamaquoddy ,bay and the banks of the ,saint ,croix river4 ,roman ,catholics are more numerous than all the ,protestant sects taken together1 having in #aijf a membership of #aac1dai out of a total of #bab1ihh in all denominations4 ,in the last decade of the #aith century the urban population 7i4e4 population of places having #d1jjj inhabitants or more7 increased from #bbf1bfh to #bea1fhe1 or #aa4b2 the semi-urban population 7i4e4 population of incorporated places1 or the approximate equivalent1 having less than #d1jjj inhabitants7 increased from #ad1bba to #bf1fgd1 or #hg4e2 while the rural population 7i4e4 population outside of incorporated places7 decreased from #dbj1eig to #daf1acd1 or #a4 ,the principal cities of the state are3 ,portland1 pop4 7#aiaj71 #eh1ega2 ,lewiston1 #bf1bdg2 ,bangor1 #bd1hjc2 ,biddeford1 #ag1jgi2 ,auburn1 #ae1jfd2 ,augusta 7the capital71 #ac1baa2 ,waterville1 #aa1deh2 ,bath1 #i1cif2 ,westbrook1 #h1bha2 and ,rockland1 #h1agd4 ,administration4--,maine has had but one state constitution2 this was ratified in ,december #ahai1 about three months before the admission of the state into the ,union4 ,it admits of amendment by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the legislature followed by a majority vote of the electorate at the next ,september election2 or1 as provided by an amendment adopted in #ahge1 the legislature may by a two-thirds vote of each house summon a constitutional convention4 ,from #ahai to #ahge twelve amendments were adopted2 in #ahge1 after nine more were added1 the twenty-one were incorporated in the text2 and between #ahge and #ahii nine more were adopted4 ,suffrage is conferred by the constitution on all male citizens of the ,united ,states who are at least twenty-one years of age and have1 for some other reason than because of being in the military1 naval or marine service of the ,united ,states1 or of being students at college1 lived in the state for three months next preceding any election2 the following classes1 however1 are excepted3 paupers1 persons under guardianship1 ,indians not taxed1 and1 as provided by an amendment adopted in #ahib1 persons intellectually incapable of reading the state constitution in the ,english language or of writing their names4 ,state elections were annual until #ahig when they were made biennial2 they are held on the second ,monday in ,september in even numbered years1 ,maine being one of the few states in the ,union in which they are not held in ,november4 ,the governor is the only executive officer of the state elected by popular vote4 ,there is no lieutenant-governor1 the president of the ,senate succeeding to the office of governor in case of a vacancy1 but there is a council of seven members elected by the legislature 7not more than one from any one senatorial district71 whose sole function is to advise the governor4 ,the governor's term of office is two years 7before #ahgi it was one year72 and the constitution further directs that he shall be at least thirty years of age at the beginning of his term1 that he shall be a native-born citizen of the ,united ,states1 that when elected he shall have been a resident of the state for five years1 and that he shall reside in the state while in office4 ,his power of appointment is unusually extensive and the advice and consent of the council 7instead of that of the ,senate as in other states7 are required for his appointments4 ,he appoints all judges1 coroners and notaries public1 besides all other civil and military officers for whose appointment neither the constitution nor the laws provide otherwise4 ,the governor is commander-in-chief of the state militia4 ,any bill of which he disapproves he can within five days after its passage prevent from becoming a law unless it is passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote of each house of the legislature4 ,he and the council examine and pass upon election returns2 he may summon extra sessions of the legislature1 and he may grant pardons1 reprieves1 and commutations in all cases except impeachment1 but the manner of hearing applications for pardon is in a measure prescribed by statute1 and he must present to the legislature an account of each case in which he grants a pardon4 ,his salary is #b1jjj a year4 ,the seven members of the council1 the secretary of state1 the treasurer1 the attorney general and the commissioner of agriculture are elected biennially by a joint ballot of the two houses of the legislature1 which also elects1 one every two years1 the three state assessors1 whose term is six years4 ,the legislature meets biennially at ,augusta1 the capital1 and is composed of a ,senate of thirty-one members and a ,house of ,representatives of one hundred and fifty-one members4 ,members of each house are elected for a term of two years3 one senator from each senatorial district and one to seven representatives 7one for a population of #a1ejj1 and seven for a population of #bf1bej7 from each township1 or1 where the township or plantation has less than #a1ejj inhabitants1 from each representative district1 according to its population4 ,there is a new reapportionment every ten years1 counting from #ahba4 ,every senator and every representative must at the beginning of his term have been for five years a citizen of the ,united ,states1 for one year a resident of the state1 and for three months next preceding his election1 as well as during his term of office1 a resident of the township or district which he represents2 and every senator must be at least twenty-five years of age4 ,all revenue bills must originate in the ,house of ,representatives1 but to such bills the ,senate may propose amendments provided they relate solely to raising revenue4 ,other bills may originate in either house4 ,in ,september #aijh a constitutional amendment was adopted providing for referendum and initiative by the people4 ,any bill proposed in the legislature or passed by it must be referred to popular vote before becoming law1 if there is a referendum petition therefor signed by #aj1jjj voters2 and a petition signed by #ab1jjj voters initiates new legislation4 ,at the head of the department of justice is the supreme judicial court1 which consists of a chief justice and seven associate justices appointed by the governor and council for a term of seven years4 ,when it sits as a law court1 at least five of its justices must be present1 and it holds three such sessions annually3 one at ,augusta1 one at ,bangor1 and one at ,portland4 ,but only one of its justices is required for a trial court1 and trial courts are held two or three times a year in each county for the trial of both civil and criminal cases which come before it in the first instance or upon appeal4 ,in ,cumberland and ,kennebec counties there is a superior court presided over by one justice and having extensive civil and criminal jurisdiction2 and in each of the counties there are a probate court for the settlement of the estates of deceased persons and courts of the trial justice and the justice of the peace for the trial of petty offences and of civil cases in which the debt or damage involved does not exceed #bj4 ,the principal forms of local government are the town 7or township71 the plantation1 the county and the city4 ,as in other parts of ,new ,england1 the town is the most important of these4 ,at the regular town meeting held in ,march the electorate of the town assembles1 decides what shall be done for the town during the ensuing year1 elects officers to execute its decisions with limited discretion1 and votes money to meet the expenses4 ,the principal officers are the selectmen 7usually three71 town clerk1 assessors1 collector1 treasurer1 school committee and road commissioner4 ,a populous section of a town1 in order to promote certain financial ends1 is commonly incorporated as a village without however becoming a governing organization distinct from the town4 ,maine is the only state in the ,union that retains what is known as the organized plantation4 ,this is a governmental unit organized from an unincorporated township having at least #bjj inhabitants1#e and its principal officers are the moderator1 clerk1 three assessors1 treasurer1 collector1 constable and school committee4 ,the county is a sort of intermediate organization between the state and the towns to assist chiefly in the administration of justice1 especially in the custody of offenders1 and in the making and care of roads4 ,its officers are three commissioners1 a treasurer1 a register of deeds1 a judge and a register of probate1 and a sheriff4 ,they are all elected3 the commissioners for a term of six years1 one retiring every two years1 the register of deeds and the judge and the register of probate for a term of four years1 and the others for two years4 ,among other duties the commissioners care for county property1 manage county business and take charge of county roads4 ,maine has no general law under which cities are chartered1 and does not even set a minimum population4 ,a town may1 therefore1 be incorporated as a city whenever it can obtain from the legislature a city charter which a majority of its electorate prefers to a continuance under its town government2 consequently there is much variety in the government of the various cities of the state4 ,by the laws of ,maine the property rights of a wife are approximately equal to those of a husband4 ,a woman does not lose nor a man acquire right to property by marriage1 and a wife may manage1 sell1 or will her property without the assent of her husband4 ,she may even receive as her own the wages of her personal labour which was not performed for her own family4 ,in the absence of a will1 bar or release1 there is no legal distinction between the rights of a widower in the estate of his deceased wife and those of a widow in the estate of her deceased husband4 ,the grounds for divorce in the state are adultery1 impotence1 extreme cruelty1 desertion for three consecutive years next preceding the application1 gross and confirmed habits of intoxication1 cruel and abusive treatment1 or a husband's gross or wanton refusal or neglect to provide a suitable maintenance for his wife4 ,under the laws of ,maine a householder owning and occupying a house and lot may hold the same1 or such part of it as does not exceed #ejj in value1 as a homestead exempt from attachment1 except for the satisfaction of liens for labour or material1 by filing in the registry of deeds a certificate stating his desire for such an exemption1 provided he is not the owner of an exempted lot purchased from the state2 and the exemption may be continued during the widowhood of his widow or the minority of his children4 ,a considerable amount of personal property1 including apparel1 household furniture not exceeding #ajj in value1 a library not exceeding #aej in value1 interest in a pew in a meeting-house1 and a specified amount of fuel1 provisions1 tools or farming implements1 and domestic animals1 and one fishing boat1 is also exempt from attachment4 ,maine was the first state in the ,union to enact a law for prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquors4 ,an act for restricting the sale of such liquors was passed in #ahdf2 the first prohibitory act was passed1 largely through the influence of ,neal ,dow1 in #ahea2 this was frequently amended2 and in #ahhd an amendment to the constitution was adopted which declares the manufacture of intoxicating liquors and their sale1 except for medicinal and mechanical purposes and the arts1 forever prohibited4 ,by the law enacted for enforcing this prohibition the governor and council appoint a state liquor commissioner from whom alone the selectmen of a town1 the mayor or aldermen of a city1 are authorized to receive the liquors which may be sold within the exceptions named in the amendment1 and the selectmen1 mayor or aldermen appoint an agent who alone is authorized to sell any of these liquors within their jurisdiction and who is forbidden to sell any whatever to minors1 ,indians1 soldiers and drunkards4 ,but the law labours under the disadvantage of all laws not vigorously sustained by general public sentiment1 and is grossly violated4 ,for the most part it is executed to the degree demanded by local sentiment in the several municipalities1 thus operating in practice much the same as a local option law4 ,the law looks to checking the demand by preventing the supply2 and since habitual reliance on the stringency of law tends to the neglect of other influences for the removal of evils from the community1 the citizens seem to absolve themselves from personal responsibility1 both for the execution of the law and for the existence of the evil itself4 ,there has been a strong movement for the repeal of the law1 and the question of prohibition has long been an important one in state politics4 ,the death penalty was abolished in ,maine in #ahgf1 restored in #ahhc1 and again abolished in #ahhg4 ,penal and ,charitable ,institutions4--,the state penal and reformatory institutions consist of the state prison at ,thomaston1 the state 7reform7 school for boys at ,south ,portland1 and a state industrial school for girls at ,hallowell1 established in #ahge and taken over by the state in #ahii4 ,the two schools are not places of punishment1 but reformatory schools for delinquent boys 7from #h to #af years of age7 and girls 7from #f to #af years71 who have been committed by the courts for violations of law1 and1 in the case of girls1 who1 by force of circumstances or associations1 are in manifest danger of becoming outcasts of society4 ,the prison is in charge of a board of three inspectors and a warden1 and each of the other two institutions is in charge of a board of trustees2 the inspectors1 warden1 and trustees are all appointed by the governor and council4 ,convicts in the prison are usually employed in the manufacture of articles that are not extensively made elsewhere in the state1 such as carriages1 harness1 furniture and brooms4 ,the inmates of the state school for boys receive instruction in farming1 carpentry1 tailoring1 laundry work1 and various other trades and occupations2 and the girls in the state industrial school are trained in housework1 laundering1 dressmaking1 c4 ,paupers are cared for chiefly by the towns and cities1 those wholly dependent being placed in almshouses and those only partially dependent receiving aid at their homes4 ,the charitable institutions maintained by the state are3 the military and naval orphan asylum at ,bath1 the ,maine institution for the blind at ,portland1 the ,maine school for the deaf 7established in #ahgf1 and taken over by the state in #ahig7 at ,portland1 the ,maine insane hospital at ,augusta1 the ,eastern ,maine insane hospital at ,bangor1 and a school for the feeble-minded 7established in #aijg7 at ,west ,pownal1 each of which is governed by trustees appointed by the governor and council1 with the exception of a part of those of the orphan asylum1 who are appointed by the corporation4 ,besides the strictly state institutions1 there are a number of private charitable institutions which are assisted by state funds2 among these are the eye and ear infirmary at ,portland1 the ,maine state sanatorium at ,hebron for the treatment of tuberculosis1 and various hospitals1 orphanages1 c4 ,the national government has a branch of the national home for disabled volunteer soldiers at ,togus1 and a marine hospital at ,portland4 ,education4--,the school-district system was established in #ahjj while ,maine was still a part of ,massachusetts and was maintained by the first school law passed1 in #ahba1 by the state legislature2 but1 beginning in the next year1 one town after another received the privilege of abolishing its districts1 and in #ahic the system was abolished by act of the legislature4 ,a state board of education1 composed of one member from each county1 was established in #ahdf1 but for this was substituted1 in #aheb1 a commissioner of schools for each county1 appointed by the governor1 and two years later a state superintendent of schools was substituted for the county commissioners4 ,county supervision by county supervisors was tried in #ahfi-ahgb4 ,since these several changes the common school system has been administered by towns and cities subject to an increasing amount of control through enactments of the state legislature and the general supervision of the state superintendent4 ,the town officers are a superintending school committee of three members and a superintendent4 ,the members of the committee are elected for a term of three years1 one retiring every year1 and women as well as men are eligible for the office4 ,the superintendent may be elected by the town or appointed by the committee1 or towns having not less than twenty or more than fifty schools may unite in employing a superintendent4 ,in cities the committee is usually larger than in towns and is commonly elected by wards4 ,since #ahhi each town and city has been required to furnish textbooks1 apparatus and supplies1 without cost to the pupils4 ,the minimum length of the school year is fixed by a statute of #ahic at twenty weeks2 the average length is about twenty-eight weeks4 ,a compulsory education law1 enacted in #aija1 requires the attendance at some public or approved private school of each child between the ages of seven and fifteen during all the time that school is in session1 except that necessary absences may be excused4 ,for the maintenance of the common schools each town is required 7since #aije7 to raise annually at least fifty-five cents per capita1 exclusive of what may be received from other sources1 and to this is added the proceeds of a state tax of one and a half mills on a dollar1 one-half the proceeds of the tax on savings banks1 a #f income from the permanent school fund 7derived mainly from the sale of school lands71 and state appropriations for the payment in part of the superintendence in towns that have united for that purpose4 ,any section of a town may establish and maintain a high school provided there be not more than two such schools in one town1 and the state makes appropriations for the support of such schools equal to one-half the cost of instruction1 but the maximum grant to any one such school is #bej4 ,the state maintains five normal schools3 that at ,farmington 7established #ahfd71 that at ,castine 7#ahff71 that at ,gorham 7#ahgi72 that at ,presque ,isle 7the ,aroostook state normal school1 #aijc71 and the ,madawaska training school at ,fort ,kent1 each of which is under the direction of a board of trustees consisting of the governor1 the state superintendent of schools1 and five other members appointed by the governor and council for not more than three years4 ,at the head of the public school system is the university of ,maine1 near the village of ,orono in ,orono township 7pop4 in #aijj1 #cbeg71 ,penobscot county4 ,this institution was founded in #ahfe as the state college of agriculture and the mechanic arts2 in #ahig the present name was adopted4 ,it embraces a college of arts and sciences1 a college of agriculture1 a college of technology 7including a department of forestry71 a college of law 7at ,bangor71 and a college of pharmacy4 ,the most conspicuous of its twenty-five buildings is the library1 built with funds contributed by ,andrew ,carnegie4 ,in #aijh-aiji the university had #ajd instructors and #hhd students1 of whom #aac were in the college of law at ,bangor and #dbj in the college of technology4 ,the university is maintained with the proceeds of an endowment fund derived chiefly from public lands given by the national government in accordance with the land grant1 or ,morrill1 ,act of #ahfb 7see ,morrill1 ,justin ,s47 and from the bequest 7#ajj1jjj7 of ,abner ,coburn 7#ahjc-ahhe72 by appropriations of ,congress under the second ,morrill ,act 7#ahij71 and under the ,nelson ,amendment of #aijg1 by appropriations of the state legislature1 and by fees paid by the students4 ,connected with the university is an agricultural experiment station1 established and maintained under the ,hatch ,act 7#ahhg7 and the ,adams ,act 7#aijf7 of the national ,congress4 ,the government of the university is entrusted1 subject to inspection of the governor and council1 to a board of eight trustees4 ,among the important institutions of learning which have no official connexion with the state are ,bowdoin ,college 7opened in #ahjb71 at ,brunswick2 ,colby ,college 7,baptist1 opened in #ahah71 at ,waterville2 and ,bates ,college 7originally ,free ,baptist but now unsectarian2 opened in #ahfc71 at ,lewiston4 ,in #aijj #e4a of the state's inhabitants ten years of age and over were illiterate 7i4e4 could neither read nor write1 or could read but not write72 of the native whites within this age limit #b4d were illiterate1 of the foreign whites1 #ai4d4 ,of the foreign-born whites #ae4g were unable to speak ,english4 ,finance4--,the chief sources of the state's revenue are a general property tax and taxes on the franchises of corporations1 especially those of railway and insurance companies and savings banks2 among the smaller sources are licences or fees1 a poll tax1 and a collateral inheritance tax4 ,the general property tax for state and local purposes is assessed by local assessors1 but their work is reviewed for the purpose of equalization among the several towns and counties by a board of state assessors1 which also assesses the corporations4 ,this board of three members 7not more than two of whom may be of the same political party7 is elected by a joint ballot of the two houses of the legislature for a term of six years1 one member retiring every two years4 ,the state is prohibited by the constitution from creating a debt exceeding #cjj1jjj except for the suppression of a rebellion1 for repelling an invasion1 or for war purposes2 and every city and town is forbidden by an amendment adopted in #ahgg from creating one exceeding #e of the assessed value of its property4 ,but the state was authorized by an amendment adopted in #ahfh to issue bonds for the reimbursement of the expenses incurred by its cities1 towns1 and plantations on account of the ,civil ,war1 and these bonds1 with those issued by the state itself during the ,civil ,war1 constituted the largest part of the state's bonded indebtedness4 ,the bonded debt1 however1 is rapidly being paid2 in ,january #aija it was #b1ajc1jjj1 and in ,january #aiji only #fih1jjj4 ,history4--,during the #afth century and the early part of the #agth1 the coast of ,maine attracted various explorers1 among them ,giovanni da ,verrazano 7#aebd71 ,estban ,gomez 7#aebe71 ,bartholomew ,gosnold 7#afjb71 ,martin ,pring 7#afjc71 ,pierre du ,guast1 ,sieur ,de ,monts 7#afjd71 ,george ,weymouth 7#afje71 and ,john ,smith 7#afad71 who explored and mapped the coast and gave to the country the name ,new ,england2 but no permanent ,english settlement was established within what are now the borders of the state until some time between #afbc and #afbi4 ,in #afjc ,de ,monts received from ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france a charter for all the region between #dj and #df ,n4 under the name of ,acadie1 or ,acadia1 and in #afjd he built a fort on ,neutral ,island at the mouth of the ,saint ,croix river4 ,this he abandoned in #afje1 but some of his followers were in the vicinity a few years later4 ,in the same year ,george ,weymouth explored the south-west coast1 kidnapped five ,indians1 and carried them to ,england1 where three of them lived for a time in the family of ,sir ,ferdinando ,gorges1 who soon became the leader in founding ,maine4 ,in #afjg the ,plymouth ,company1 of which he was an influential member and which had received a grant of this region from ,james ,i4 of ,england in the preceding year1 sent out a colony numbering #abj under ,george ,popham 7c4 #aeej-afjh71 brother of ,sir ,john ,popham1 and ,raleigh ,gilbert1 son of ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert4 ,the colony established itself at the mouth of the ,kennebec river in ,august1 but1 finding its supplies insufficient1 about three-fifths of its number returned to ,england in ,december2 a severe winter followed and ,popham died2 then ,gilbert1 who succeeded to the presidency of the council for the colony1 became especially interested in his claim to the territory under his father's charter1#f and in #afjh the colony was abandoned4 ,in #afji the ,french ,jesuits ,biard and ,masse established a fortified mission station on the island of ,mount ,desert1 and although this as well as the remnant of ,de ,monts' settlement at the mouth of the ,saint ,croix was taken in #afac by ,sir ,samuel ,argall 7d4 #afbf71 acting under the instructions of the ,english at ,jamestown1 ,virginia1 some of these colonists returned later4 ,in #afbj the ,council for ,new ,england1 the successor of the ,plymouth ,company1 obtained a grant of the country between latitude #dj and #dh ,n4 extending from sea to sea1 and two years later ,gorges and ,john ,mason 7#aehf-afce7 received from the ,council a grant of the territory between the ,merrimac and the ,kennebec rivers for #fj m4 inland under the name of the ,province of ,maine4 ,in #afbi they divided their possession1 ,gorges taking the portion between the ,piscataqua and the ,kennebec4 ,numerous grants of land in this vicinity followed within a few years2 and in the meantime permanent settlements at ,york1 ,saco1 ,biddeford1 ,port ,elizabeth1 ,falmouth 7now ,portland7 and ,scarborough were established in rapid succession4 ,the ,council for ,new ,england surrendered its charter in #afce4 ,in the division of its territory ,gorges retained the portion previously granted to him1 and the region between the ,kennebec and the ,saint ,croix north to the ,saint ,lawrence1 though still claimed by the ,french as part of ,acadia1 was conveyed to ,sir ,william ,alexander 7#aefg8-afdj72 later1 in #affd1 this was conveyed to the duke of ,york1 afterwards ,james ,,ii4 of ,england4 ,gorges named his tract the ,county of ,new ,somersetshire1 and immediately began the administration of government1 setting up in #afce or #afcf a court at ,saco under the direction of his kinsman ,william ,gorges4 ,in #afci he procured for his province a royal charter modelled after that of ,maryland1 which invested him with the feudal tenure of a county palatine and vice-regal powers of government4 ,he called into existence a formidably large number of officers to govern it1 but his charter was in conflict with the other 7mutually conflicting7 grants of the ,council for ,new ,england1 east of the ,piscataqua2 and ,gorges and his agents met with a determined opposition under the leadership of ,george ,cleeve1 the deputy-president of the ,lygonia1 or ,plough ,patent1 which extended along the coast from ,cape ,porpoise to ,casco1 and in issuing which the ,council for ,new ,england had granted governmental as well as territorial rights4 ,moreover1 ,puritan ,massachusetts1 which was naturally hostile to the ,anglicanism of ,gorges and his followers1 interpreted her charter so as to make her northern boundary run east and west from a point #c m4 north of the source of the ,merrimac river1 and on this basis laid claim to practically the whole of ,maine then settled4 ,the factional quarrels there1 together with the ,commonwealth government in ,england1 made it easy for ,massachusetts to enforce this claim at the time1 and between #afeb and #afeh ,maine was gradually annexed to ,massachusetts4 ,in #afgb ,massachusetts extended her boundary eastward as far as ,penobscot ,bay4 ,ferdinando ,gorges1 a grandson of the original proprietor1 brought before parliament his claim to ,maine and in #affd a committee of that body decided in his favour2 but ,massachusetts successfully resisted until #afgg1 when the king in council decided against her4 ,she then quietly purchased the ,gorges claim for #a1bej and held the province as a proprietor until #afia1 when by the new ,massachusetts charter ,maine was extended to the ,saint ,croix river1 and was made an integral part of ,massachusetts4 ,the ,french still claimed all territory east of the ,penobscot1 and not only was ,maine an exposed frontier and battleground during the long struggle of the ,english against the ,indians and the ,french1 but its citizens bore a conspicuous part in the expeditions beyond its borders4 ,port ,royal was taken in ,may #afij by ,sir ,william ,phipps and ,louisburg in ,june #agde by ,sir ,william ,pepperell1 both these commanders being from ,maine4 ,these expeditions were such a drain on ,maine's population that ,massachusetts was called upon to send men to garrison the little forts that protected the homes left defenceless by men who had gone to the front4 ,during the ,war of ,independence1 the town of ,falmouth 7now ,portland71 which had ardently resisted the claims of the ,british1 was bombarded and burned1 in #agge2 in the same year ,benedict ,arnold followed the course of the ,kennebec and ,dead rivers on his expedition to ,quebec2 and from #aggi to #aghc a ,british force was established at ,castine4 ,the embargo and non-intercourse laws from #ahjg to #ahab were a severe blow to ,maine's shipping1 and in the ,war of #ahab ,eastport1 ,castine1 ,hampden1 ,bangor and ,machias fell into the hands of the ,british4 ,maine was in general well governed as a part of ,massachusetts1 but a geographical separation1 a desire to be rid of the burden of a large state debt1 and a difference of economic interests as well as of politics 7,maine was largely ,democratic and ,massachusetts was largely ,federalist7 created a desire for an independent commonwealth4 ,this was felt before the close of the ,war of ,independence and in #aghe-aghg conventions were held at ,falmouth 7,portland7 to consider the matter1 but the opposition prevailed4 ,the want of protection during the ,war of #ahab revived the question1 and in #ahaf the ,general ,court in response to a great number of petitions submitted to a vote in the towns and plantations of the ,district the question3 ,shall the legislature be requested to give its consent to the separation of the ,district of ,maine from ,massachusetts1 and the erection of said ,district into a separate state8 ,the returns showed #aj1cic yeas to #feja nays1 but they also showed that less than one-half the full vote had been cast4 ,acting upon these returns the legislature passed a bill prescribing the terms of separation1 and directed another vote of the towns and plantations upon the question of separation and the election of delegates to a convention at ,brunswick which should proceed to frame a constitution in case the second popular vote gave a majority of five to four for separation2 but as that vote was only #aa1ifi yeas to #aj1cdg nays the advocates of separation were unsuccessful4 ,but a large source of opposition to separation was removed in #ahai when ,congress1 dividing the east coast of the ,united ,states into two great districts1 did away with the regulation which1 making each state a district for entering and clearing vessels1 would have required coasting vessels from the ports of ,maine as a separate state to enter and clear on every trip to or from ,boston2 as a consequence1 the separation measures were carried by large majorities this year1 a constitution was framed by a convention which met at ,portland in ,october1 this was ratified by town meetings in ,december1 and ,maine applied for admission into the ,union4 ,owing to the peculiar situation at the time in ,congress1 arising from the contest over the admission of ,missouri1 the question of the admission of ,maine became an important one in national politics4 ,by an ,act of the #crd of ,march #ahbj1 however1 ,maine was finally admitted into the ,union as a separate state1 her admission being a part of the ,missouri compromise 7q4v474 ,the boundary on the north had not yet been ascertained1 and it had long been a subject of dispute between the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain4 ,the treaty of #aghc 7,article ,,ii47 had defined the north-east boundary of the ,united ,states as extending along the middle of the river ,st ,croix from its mouth in the bay of ,fundy to its source and due north from the source of ,st ,croix river to the highlands2 along the said highlands which divide those rivers that empty themselves into the river ,st ,lawrence from those which fall into the ,atlantic ,ocean1 to the north-westernmost head of ,connecticut river2 thence down along the middle of that river to the forty-fifth degree of north latitude4 ,great ,britain claimed that the due north line was #dj m4 long and ran to ,mars ,hill in ,aroostook county1 and that the highlands ran thence westerly #aae m4 to the source of the ,chaudire2 the ,united ,states1 on the other hand1 claimed that the northerly line was #adj m4 long1 running to highlands dividing the ,ristigouche and the tributaries of the ,metis2 and there was a further disagreement with regard to the side of the highlands on which the boundary should be1 and as to what stream was the north-westernmost head of ,connecticut river4 ,the fifth article of the ,jay treaty of #agid provided for a commission to decide what the ,st ,croix river actually was1 and this commission in #agih defined the ,st ,croix1 saying that its mouth was in ,passamaquoddy bay and that the boundary ran up this river and the ,cheputnatecook to a marked monument4 ,the treaty of ,ghent in #ahad 7,article ,,iv47 referred the question of the ownership of the islands in ,passamaquoddy bay to a commission which gave ,moose1 ,dudley and ,frederick islands to the ,united ,states2 and the same treaty by ,article ,v4 provided for the survey 7which was made in #ahag-ahah7 of a part of the disputed territory1 and for a general commission4 ,the general commissioners met at ,st ,andrews1 ,n4,b41 in #ahaf1 and in ,new ,york ,city in #ahbb1 only to disagree2 and when the king of the ,netherlands1 chosen as arbitrator in #ahbi 7under the ,convention of #ahbg7 rendered in #ahca a decision against which the state of ,maine protested1 the ,federal ,senate withheld its assent to his decision4 ,in #ahch-ahci the territory in dispute between ,new ,brunswick and ,maine became the scene of a border war1 known as the ,aroostook disturbance2 ,maine erected forts along the line she claimed1 ,congress authorized the president to resist any attempt of ,great ,britain to enforce exclusive jurisdiction over the disputed territory1 and an armed conflict seemed imminent4 ,general ,winfield ,scott was sent to take command on the ,maine frontier1 and on the #bast of ,march #ahci he arranged a truce and a joint occupancy of the territory in dispute until a satisfactory settlement should be reached by the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain4 ,the ,webster-,ashburton treaty of #ahdb was a compromise1 which allowed ,maine about #eejj sq4 m4 less than she had claimed and allowed ,great ,britain about as much less than her claim2 all grants of land previously made by either party within the limits of the territory which by this treaty fell within the dominions of the other party were to be held valid1 ratified and confirmed to the persons in possession under such grants1 to the same extent as if such territory had 444 fallen within the dominions of the party by whom such grants were made2 and the government of the ,united ,states agreed to pay to ,maine and ,massachusetts#g in equal moieties the sum of #cjj1jjj as compensation for the lands which they had claimed and which under the treaty they were called upon to surrender4 ,the long controversy1 which is known in ,american history as ,the ,north-,east boundary dispute1 was not finally settled however until #aiaj4 ,it was the ,democratic majority in the district of ,maine that effected the separation from ,massachusetts1 and from the date of that separation until #ahec ,maine was classed as a ,democratic state1 although it elected a ,whig governor in #ahch and in #ahdj1 and cast its electoral vote for ,john ,quincy ,adams in #ahbd and #ahbh and for ,w4 ,h4 ,harrison in #ahdj4 ,as a result of the slavery question1 there was a party disintegration between #ahej and #ahee1 followed by the supremacy of the ,republican party from #ahef to #ahgh4 ,in #ahgh1 of the #abf1afi votes cast in the election for governor1 ,selden ,connor 7b4 #ahci71 re-nominated by the ,republicans1 received #ef1eed2 ,joseph ,l4 ,smith 7,national or ,greenback71 #da1cga2 ,alonzo ,garcelon 7#ahac-aijf7 7,democratic71 #bh1bah2 as no candidate received a majority of the votes1 the election was left to the legislature4#h ,the vote of the ,house eliminated ,connor1 and ,garcelon was chosen in the ,senate by a ,democratic-,national fusion4 ,again there was no election by popular vote in #ahgi1 and ,garcelon and his council1 to secure the election of a fusion government1 counted-in a fusion majority in the legislature by evident falsification of the returns4 ,on the #crd of ,january #ahhj the ,supreme ,court declared the governor and council in error in counting in a fusion majority1 but on the #gth the governor swore in a legislature with #gh fusion and only two ,republican members1 and1 the governor's term having expired1 the president of the ,senate1 ,james ,d4 ,lamson1 became governor1 ex-officio4 ,on the #abth the legislative chambers were seized by the ,republicans1 whose organized legislature was declared legal by the ,supreme ,court1 and who chose as governor ,daniel ,franklin ,davis 7#ahdc-ahig72 whereupon1 on the #agth1 ,joshua ,l4 ,chamberlain1 to whom the peaceful solution of the difficulty had largely been due1 retired from the task assigned him by ,garcelon on the #eth of ,january to protect the public property and institutions of the state until ,garcelon's successor should be duly qualified4 ,in #ahhj the ,democrats and ,greenbacks united and elected their candidate1 but after #ahhc ,maine was strongly ,republican until #aiaj4 ,the governors of the state have been as follows3-- ,william ,king ,democrat #ahbj ,william ,durkee ,williamson 7acting7 #ahba ,benjamin ,ames 7acting7 #ahba ,albion ,keith ,parris #ahbb ,enoch ,lincoln #ahbg ,nathan ,cutler 7acting7 #ahbi ,jonathan ,g4 ,hunton #ahcj ,samuel ,emerson ,smith #ahca ,robert ,pinckney ,dunlap #ahcd ,edward ,kent ,whig #ahch ,john ,fairfield ,democrat #ahci ,edward ,kent ,whig #ahda ,john ,fairfield ,democrat #ahdb ,edward ,kavanagh 7acting7 #ahdc ,hugh ,j4 ,anderson #ahdd ,john ,winchester ,dana #ahdg ,john ,hubbard #ahej ,william ,george ,crosby ,whig and ,free ,soil #ahec ,anson ,peaslee ,morrill ,republican #ahee ,samuel ,wells ,democrat #ahef ,hannibal ,hamlin ,republican #aheg ,joseph ,h4 ,williams 7acting7 #aheg ,lot ,myrick ,morrill #aheh ,israel ,washburn #ahfa ,abner ,coburn #ahfc ,samuel ,cony ,republican #ahfd ,joshua ,lawrence ,chamberlain #ahfg ,sidney ,perham #ahga ,nelson ,dingley #ahgd ,selden ,connor #ahgf ,alonzo ,garcelon ,democrat #ahgi ,daniel ,f4 ,davis ,republican #ahhj ,harris ,merrill ,plaisted ,democrat-,greenback #ahha ,frederick ,robie ,republican #ahhc ,joseph ,r4 ,bodwell #ahhg ,sebastian ,s4 ,marble 7acting7 #ahhg ,edwin ,c4 ,burleigh #ahhi ,henry ,b4 ,cleaves #ahic ,llewellyn ,powers #ahig ,john ,fremont ,hill #aija ,william ,t4 ,cobb #aije ,bert ,m4 ,fernald #aiji ,frederick ,w4 ,plaisted ,democrat #aiaa ,see ,s4 ,l4 ,boardman1 ,climate1 c41 of ,maine 7,washington1 #ahhd72 ,walton ,wells1 ,the ,water ,power of ,maine 7,augusta1 #ahfi72 ,g4 ,h4 ,hitchcock1 ,general ,report on the ,geology of ,maine 7,augusta1 #ahfa72 ,g4 ,h4 ,stone1 ,the ,glacial ,gravels of ,maine and their ,associated ,deposits 7,washington1 #ahii72 ,t4 ,nelson ,dale1 ,the ,granites of ,maine 7,washington1 #aijg71 being ,bulletin #cac of the ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey2 ,b4 ,f4 ,de ,costa1 ,sketches of the ,coast of ,maine and ,isle of ,shoals 7,new ,york1 #ahfi72 ,h4 ,d4 ,thoreau1 ,the ,maine ,woods 7,boston1 #ahha 72 ,l4 ,l4 ,hubbard1 ,woods and ,lakes of ,maine 7,boston1 #ahhc72 ,t4 ,s4 ,steele1 ,canoe and ,camera1 a ,two ,hundred ,mile ,tour through the ,maine ,forests 7,new ,york1 #ahhb72 ,william ,mac,donald1 ,the ,government of ,maine1 ,its ,history and ,administration 7,new ,york1 #aijb72 ,maine ,historical ,society ,collections 7,portland1 #ahca- 72 ,w4 ,d4 ,williamson1 ,history of the ,state of ,maine 7,hallowell1 #ahcb72 ,j4 ,p4 ,baxter1 ,sir ,ferdinando ,gorges and his ,province of ,maine 7,boston1 #ahij7 and ,george ,cleeve of ,casco ,bay 7,portland1 #ahhe72 ,george ,folsom1 ,history of ,saco and ,biddeford1 with notices of other ,early ,settlements and of the ,proprietary ,governments in ,maine 7,saco1 #ahcj72 ,j4 ,l4 ,chamberlain1 ,maine1 ,her ,place in ,history 7,augusta1 #ahgg72 ,e4 ,s4 ,whitin1 ,factory ,legislation in ,maine 7,new ,york1 #aijh74 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this condition results from the fact that ,maine and the adjacent region were worn down nearly to sea-level by stream erosion1 except certain peaks and ridges inland2 then the region was elevated and numerous river valleys were cut down below the general erosion surface formed before4 ,thus we have a general upland surface1 above which the mountain remnants tower1 and below which the rivers have been entrenched4 #b ,this name is applied to a chain of lakes 7the ,rangeley1 or ,oquossoc1 the ,cupsuptic1 the ,mooselookmeguntic1 the ,molechunkamunk or ,upper ,richardson1 the ,welokenebacook or ,lower ,richardson1 and the ,umbagog7 in ,franklin and ,oxford counties1 in the western part of the state2 the ,umbagog extends into ,new ,hampshire and its outlet helps to form the ,androscoggin ,river4 ,these lakes are connected by straits1 have a total area of between #hj and #ij sq4 m41 and are from #abjj to #aejj ft4 above the sea4 ,they are sometimes called the ,androscoggin ,lakes4 #c ,the census of #aije was taken under the direction of the ,united ,states census bureau1 but the statistics for hand trades were omitted4 #d ,according to previous censuses the population was as follows3 7#agij7 #if1edj2 7#ahjj7 #aea1gai2 7#ahaj7 #bbh1gje2 7#ahbj7 #bih1cce2 7#ahcj7 #cii1dee2 7#ahdj7 #eja1gic2 7#ahej7 #ehc1afi2 7#ahfj7 #fbh1bgi2 7#ahgj7 #fbf1iae4 #e ,an unincorporated township containing less than #bjj inhabitants may1 on the application of three resident voters1 be organized as a plantation1 but does not pay state or county taxes unless by special legislative order4 ,other unincorporated districts1 especially islands along the coast1 are called grants1 surpluses1 gores or tracts4 #f ,by this charter1 issued in #aegh1 ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert was entitled to all territory lying within two hundred leagues of any colony that he might plant within six years2 although it had long since lapsed1 ,raleigh ,gilbert seems not to have been aware of it4 #g ,an article in the ,act relating to the separation of ,maine from ,massachusetts stipulated that the lands within the ,district of ,maine which prior to the separation had belonged to ,massachusetts should after the separation belong one-half to ,maine and one-half to ,massachusetts4 ,in #ahbf the wild lands of ,maine were surveyed and divided between the two states2 and in #ahec ,maine acquired from ,massachusetts1 for #cfb1ejj1 all of this land still remaining in possession of the latter state4 #h ,according to ,art4 ,v4 of the constitution a majority of the total number of votes cast was required for election2 in case no candidate should receive a majority1 it was prescribed that the ,house of ,representatives shall1 by ballot1 from the persons having the four highest numbers of votes on the lists1 if so many there be1 elect two persons and make returns of their names to the ,senate1 of whom the ,senate shall1 by ballot1 elect one1 who shall be declared the governor4 ,an amendment1 which became a part of the constitution on the #ith of ,november #ahhj1 provided that a plurality of the total number of votes cast should be sufficient for election4 ,,maine ,,de ,,biran1 ,,fran,,ois-,,pierre-,,gonthier 7#agff-ahbd71 ,french philosopher1 was born at ,bergerac1 on the #bith of ,november1 #agff4 ,the name ,maine he assumed 7some time before #aghg7 from an estate called ,le ,maine1 near ,mouleydier4 ,after studying with distinction under the doctrinaires of ,prigueux1 he entered the life-guards of ,louis ,,xvi41 and was present at ,versailles on the memorable #eth and #fth of ,october #aghi4 ,on the breaking up of the gardes du corps ,biran retired to his patrimonial inheritance of ,grateloup1 near ,bergerac1 where his retired life preserved him from the horrors of the ,revolution4 ,it was at this period that1 to use his own words1 he passed per saltum from frivolity to philosophy4 ,he began with psychology1 which he made the study of his life4 ,after the ,reign of ,terror ,maine de ,biran took part in political affairs4 ,having been excluded from the council of the ,five ,hundred on suspicion of royalism1 he took part with his friend ,lan in the commission of #ahac1 which gave expression for the first time to direct opposition to the will of the emperor4 ,after the ,restoration he held the office of treasurer to the chamber of deputies1 and habitually retired during the autumn recess to his native district to pursue his favourite study4 ,he died on the #bjth 7#afth1 or #bcrd1 according to others7 of ,july #ahbd4 ,maine de ,biran's philosophical reputation has suffered from two causes--his obscure and laboured style1 and the fact that only a few1 and these the least characteristic1 of his writings appeared during his lifetime4 ,these consisted of the essay on habit 7,sur l'influence de l'habitude1 #ahjc71 a critical review of ,p4 ,laromiguire's lectures 7#ahag71 and the philosophical portion of the article ,leibnitz in the ,biographie universelle 7#ahai74 ,a treatise on the analysis of thought 7,sur la dcomposition de la pense71 although sent to press1 was never printed4 ,in #ahcd these writings1 together with the essay entitled ,nouvelles considrations sur les rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme1 were published by ,victor ,cousin1 who in #ahda added three volumes1 under the title ,oeuvres philosophiques de ,maine de ,biran4 ,but the publication 7in #ahei7 by ,e4 ,naville 7from ,,mss4 placed at his father's disposal by ,biran's son7 of the ,oeuvres indites de ,maine de ,biran1 in three volumes1 first rendered possible a connected view of his philosophical development4 ,at first a sensualist1 like ,condillac and ,locke1 next an intellectualist1 he finally shows himself a mystical theosophist4 ,the ,essai sur les fondements de la psychologie represents the second or completest stage of his philosophy1 the fragments of the ,nouveaux essais d'anthropologie the third4 ,maine de ,biran's first essays in philosophy were written avowedly from the point of view of ,locke and ,condillac1 but even in them he was brought to signalize the essential fact on which his later speculation turns4 ,dealing with the formation of habits1 he is compelled to note that passive impressions1 however transformed1 do not furnish a complete or adequate explanation4 ,with ,laromiguire he distinguishes attention as an active effort1 of no less importance than the passive receptivity of sense1 and with ,butler distinguishes passively formed customs from active habits4 ,he finally arrived at the conclusion that ,condillac's notion of passive receptivity as the one source of conscious experience was not only an error in fact but an error of method--in short1 that the mechanical mode of viewing consciousness as formed by external influence was fallacious and deceptive4 ,for it he proposed to substitute the genetic method1 whereby human conscious experience might be exhibited as growing or developing from its essential basis in connexion with external conditions4 ,the essential basis he finds in the real consciousness1 of self as an active striving power1 and the stages of its development1 corresponding to what one may call the relative importance of the external conditions and the reflective clearness of self-consciousness he designates as the affective1 the perceptive and the reflective4 ,in connexion with this ,biran treats most of the obscure problems which arise in dealing with conscious experience1 such as the mode by which the organism is cognized1 the mode by which the organism is distinguished from extra-organic things1 and the nature of those general ideas by which the relations of things are known to us--cause1 power1 force1 c4 ,in the latest stage of his speculation ,biran distinguishes the animal existence from the human1 under which the three forms above noted are classed1 and both from the life of the spirit1 in which human thought is brought into relation with the supersensible1 divine system of things4 ,this stage is left imperfect4 ,altogether ,biran's work presents a very remarkable specimen of deep metaphysical thinking directed by preference to the psychological aspect of experience4 ,the ,oeuvres indites of ,maine de ,biran by ,e4 ,naville contain an introductory study2 in #ahhg appeared ,science et psychologie3 nouvelles oeuvres indites1 with introduction by ,a4 ,bertrand4 ,see also ,o4 ,merton1 tude critique sur ,maine de ,biran 7#ahfe72 ,e4 ,naville1 ,maine de ,biran1 sa vie et ses penses 7#ahgd72 ,j4 ,grard1 ,maine de ,biran1 essai sur sa philosophie 7#ahgf72 ,mayonade1 ,penses et pages indites de ,maine de ,biran 7,prigueux1 #ahif72 ,g4 ,allievo1 ,maine de ,biran e la sua dottrina antropologica 7,turin1 #ahif1 in ,memorie dell' accademia delle scienze1 #bnd ser41 xlv1 pt4 #b72 ,a4 ,lang1 ,maine de ,biran und die neuere ,philosophie 7,cologne1 #aija72 monographs by ,a4 ,khtmann 7,bremen1 #aija7 and ,m4 ,couailhac 7#aije72 ,n4 ,e4 ,truman in ,cornell ,studies in ,philosophy1 ,no4 #e 7#aijd7 on ,maine de ,biran's ,philosophy of ,will4 ,,maine-,,et-,,loire1 a department of western ,france1 formed in #agij for the most part out of the southern portion of the former province of ,anjou1 and bounded ,n4 by the departments of ,mayenne and ,sarthe1 ,e4 by ,indre-et-,loire1 ,s4,e4 by ,vienne1 ,s4 by ,deux-,svres and ,vende1 ,w4 by ,loire-,infrieure1 and ,n4,w4 by ,ille-et-,vilaine4 ,area1 #bghf sq4 m4 ,pop4 7#aijf71 #eac1dij4 ,maine-et-,loire is made up of two distinct regions1 the line of demarcation running roughly from north to south along the valley of the ,sarthe1 then turning south-west and passing ,brissac and ,dou2 that to the west consists of granites1 felspars1 and a continuation of the geological formations of ,brittany and ,vende2 to the east1 schists1 limestone and chalk prevail4 ,the department is traversed from east to west by the majestic valley of the ,loire1 with its rich orchards1 nurseries and market-gardens4 ,the highest altitudes are found in the south-west1 where north-east of ,cholet one eminence reaches #fhi ft4 ,elsewhere the surface is low and undulating in character4 ,the department belongs entirely to the basin of the ,loire1 the bed of which is wide but shallow1 and full of islands1 the depth of the water in summer being at some places little more than #b ft4 ,floods are sudden and destructive4 ,the chief affluent of the ,loire within the department is the ,maine1 formed a little above ,angers by the junction of the ,mayenne and the ,sarthe1 the latter having previously received the waters of the ,loire4 ,all three are navigable4 ,other tributaries of the ,loire are the ,thouet 7with its tributary the ,dive71 the ,layon1 the ,evre1 and the ,divatte on the left1 and the ,authion on the right4 ,the ,mayenne is joined on the right by the ,oudon1 which can be navigated below ,segr4 ,the ,erdre1 which joins the ,loire at ,nantes1 and the ,moine1 a tributary of the ,svre-,nantaise1 both rise within this department4 ,the climate is very mild4 ,the mean annual temperature of ,angers is about #ec1 slightly exceeding that of ,paris2 the rainfall 7between #bc and #bd in4 annually7 is distinctly lower than that of the rest of ,france4 ,notwithstanding this deficiency1 the frequent fogs1 combined with the peculiar nature of the soil in the south-east of the department1 produce a degree of moisture which is highly favourable to meadow growths4 ,the winter colds are never severe1 and readily permit the cultivation of certain trees which cannot be reared in the adjoining departments4 ,the agriculture of the department is very prosperous4 ,the produce of cereals1 chiefly wheat1 oats and barley1 is in excess of its needs1 and potatoes and mangels also give good returns4 ,extensive areas in the valley of the ,loire are under hemp1 and the vegetables1 melons and other fruits of that region are of the finest quality4 ,good wine is produced at ,serrant and other places near ,angers1 and on the right bank of the ,layon and near ,saumur1 the sparkling white wine of which is a rival of the cheaper brands of champagne4 ,cider is also produced1 and the cultivation of fruit is general4 ,forests and woodland in which oak and beech are the chief trees cover large tracts4 ,the fattening of cattle is an important industry round ,cholet1 and horses much used for light cavalry are reared4 ,several thousand workmen are employed in the slate quarries in the vicinity of ,angers1 tufa is worked in the river valleys1 and freestone and other stone1 mispickel1 iron and coal are also found4 ,cholet1 the chief industrial town1 and its district manufacture pocket-handkerchiefs1 as well as linen cloths1 flannels1 cotton goods1 and hempen and other coarse fabrics1 and similar industries are carried on at ,angers1 which also manufactures liqueurs1 rope1 boots and shoes and parasols4 ,saumur1 besides its production of wine1 makes beads and enamels4 ,the commerce of ,maine-et-,loire comprises the exportation of live stock and of the various products of its soil and industries1 and the importation of hemp1 cotton1 and other raw materials4 ,the department is served by the railways of the state and the ,orlans and ,western companies4 ,the ,mayenne1 the ,sarthe and the ,loir1 together with some of the lesser rivers1 provide about #acj m4 of navigable waterway4 ,in the south-east the canal of the ,dive covers some #aj m4 in the department4 ,there are five arrondissements--,angers1 ,baug1 ,cholet1 ,saumur and ,segr1 with #cd cantons and #cha communes4 ,maine-et-,loire belongs to the acadmie 7educational division7 of ,rennes1 to the region of the ,,viii4 army corps1 and to the ecclesiastical province of ,tours4 ,angers 7q4v471 the capital1 is the seat of a bishopric and of a court of appeal4 ,other principal places are ,cholet1 ,saumur1 and ,fontevrault1 which receive separate treatment4 ,for architectural interest there may also be mentioned the chteaux of ,brissac 7#agth century71 ,serrant 7#aeth and #afth centuries71 ,montreuil-,bellay 7#adth and #aeth centuries71 and ,ecuill 7#aeth century71 and the churches of ,puy-,notre-,dame 7#acth century7 and ,st ,florent-le-,vieil 7#acth1 #agth1 and #aith centuries71 the last containing the fine monument to ,charles ,bonchamps1 the ,vendean leader1 by ,david d',angers4 ,gennes has remains of a theatre and other ruins of the ,roman period1 as well as two churches dating in part from the #ajth century4 ,ponts-de-,c1 an interesting old town built partly on islands in the ,loire1 is historically important1 because till the ,revolution its bridges formed the only way across the ,loire between ,saumur and ,nantes4 ,,mainpuri1 or ,,mynpooree1 a town and district of ,british ,india1 in the ,agra division of the ,united ,provinces4 ,the town has a station on a branch of the ,east ,indian railway recently opened from ,shikohabad4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #ai1jjj4 ,it consists of two separate portions1 ,mainpuri proper and ,mukhamganj4 ,holkar plundered and burned part of the town in #ahjd1 but was repulsed by the local militia4 ,since the ,british occupation the population has rapidly increased and many improvements have been carried out4 ,the ,agra branch of the ,grand ,trunk road runs through the town1 forming a wide street lined on both sides by shops1 which constitute the principal bazaar4 ,mainpuri has a speciality in the production of carved wooden articles inlaid with brass wire4 ,the ,american ,presbyterian mission manages a high school4 ,the ,,district ,,of ,,mainpuri lies in the central ,doab4 ,area1 #afge sq4 m4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #hbi1ceg1 an increase of #h4h in the decade4 ,it consists of an almost unbroken plain1 intersected by small rivers1 with a few undulating sand ridges4 ,it is wooded throughout with mango groves1 and isolated clumps of bbul trees occasionally relieve the bareness of its saline usar plains4 ,on the south-western boundary the ,jumna flows in a deep alluvial bed1 sometimes sweeping close to the high banks which overhang its valley1 and elsewhere leaving room for a narrow strip of fertile soil between the river and the upland plain4 ,from the low-lying lands thus formed a belt of ravines stretches inland for some #b m41 often covered with jungle1 but affording good pasturage for cattle4 ,the district is watered by two branches of the ,ganges canal1 and is traversed by the main line of the ,east ,indian railway4 ,mainpuri anciently formed part of the great kingdom of ,kanauj1 and after the fall of that famous state it was divided into a number of petty principalities1 of which ,rapri and ,bhongaon were the chief4 ,in #aaid ,rapri was made the seat of a ,moslem governor4 ,mainpuri fell to the ,moguls on ,baber's invasion in #aebf1 and1 although temporarily wrested from them by the short-lived ,afghan dynasty of ,shere ,shah1 was again occupied by them on the reinstatement of ,humayun after the victory of ,panipat4 ,like the rest of the lower ,doab1 ,mainpuri passed1 towards the end of the #ahth century1 into the power of the ,mahrattas1 and finally became a portion of the province of ,oudh4 ,when this part of the country was ceded to the ,british1 in #ahja1 ,mainpuri town became the headquarters of the extensive district of ,etawah1 which was in #ahef reduced by the formation of ,etah and ,mainpuri into separate collectorates4 ,on the outbreak of the ,mutiny in #aheg the regiment stationed at ,mainpuri revolted and attacked the town1 which was successfully defended by the few ,europeans of the station for a week1 until the arrival of the ,jhansi mutineers made it necessary to abandon the district4 ,,maintenance 7,fr4 maintenance1 from maintenir1 to maintain1 support1 ,lat4 manu tenere1 to hold in the hand74 ,the action of giving support1 supplying means of subsistence1 keeping efficient or in working order4 ,in ,english law maintenance is an officious intermeddling in an action that in no way belongs to one by maintaining or assisting either party1 with money or otherwise1 to prosecute or defend it4 ,it is an indictable offence1 both at common law and by statute1 and punishable by fine and imprisonment4 ,it invalidates all contracts involving it4 ,it is also actionable4 ,there are1 however1 certain cases in which maintenance is justifiable1 e4g4 any one who has an interest1 even if it be only contingent1 in the matter at variance can maintain another in an action concerning the matter2 or several parties who have a common interest in the same thing may maintain one another in a suit concerning the same4 ,neither is it reckoned maintenance to assist another in his suit on charitable grounds1 or for a master to assist his servant1 or a parent his son1 or a husband his wife4 ,the law with regard to the subject is considered at length in ,bradlaugh v4 ,newdegate1 #ahhc1 #aa ,q4,b4,d4 #a4 ,see also ,,champerty4 ,for the practice of livery and maintenance see ,,english ,,history1 v4 and vi4 ,a ,,cap ,,of ,,maintenance1 i4e4 a cap of crimson velvet turned up with ermine1 is borne1 as one of the insignia of the ,british sovereign1 immediately before him at his coronation or on such state occasions as the opening of parliament4 ,it is carried by the hereditary bearer1 the marquess of ,winchester1 upon a white wand4 ,a similar cap is also borne before the lord mayor of ,london4 ,the origin of this symbol of dignity is obscure4 ,it is stated in the ,new ,english ,dictionary that it was granted by the pope to ,henry ,,vii4 and ,henry ,,viii4 ,it is probably connected with the cap of estate or dignity1 sometimes also styled cap of maintenance1 similar to the royal symbol with two peaks or horns behind1 which is borne as a heraldic charge by certain families4 ,it seems originally to have been a privilege of dukes4 ,where it is used the crest is placed upon it1 instead of on the usual wreath4 ,,maintenon1 ,,fran,,oise ,d',,aubign1 ,,marquise ,,de 7#afce-agai71 the second wife of ,louis ,,xiv41 was born in a prison at ,niort1 on the #bgth of ,november #afce4 ,her father1 ,constant d',aubign1 was the son of ,agrippa d',aubign1 the famous friend and general of ,henry ,,iv41 and had been imprisoned as a ,huguenot malcontent1 but her mother1 a fervent ,catholic1 had the child baptized in her religion1 her sponsors being the duc de la ,rochefoucauld1 father of the author of the ,maxims1 and the comtesse de ,neuillant4 ,in #afci ,constant d',aubign was released from prison and took all his family with him to ,martinique1 where he died in #afde1 after having lost what fortune remained to him at cards4 ,mme d',aubign returned to ,france1 and from sheer poverty unwillingly yielded her daughter to her sister-in-law1 ,mme de ,villette1 who made the child very happy1 but converted or pretended to convert her to ,protestantism4 ,when this was known an order of state was issued that she should be entrusted to ,mme de ,neuillant1 her godmother4 ,every means was now used to convert her back to ,catholicism1 but at the last she only yielded on the condition that she need not believe that the soul of ,mme de ,villette was lost4 ,once reconverted1 she was neglected and sent home to live with her mother1 who had only a small pension of #bjj livres a year1 which ceased on her death in #afej4 ,the chevalier de ,mer1 a man of some literary distinction1 who had made her acquaintance at ,mme de ,neuillant's1 discovered her penniless condition1 and introduced his young ,indian1 as he called her1 to ,scarron1 the famous wit and comic writer1 at whose house all the literary society of the day assembled4 ,scarron took a fancy to the friendless girl1 and offered either to pay for her admission to a convent1 or1 though he was deformed and an invalid1 to marry her himself4 ,she accepted his offer of marriage1 and became ,mme ,scarron in #afea4 ,for nine years she was not only his most faithful nurse1 but an attraction to his house1 where she tried to bridle the licence of the conversation of the time4 ,on the death of ,scarron1 in #affj1 ,anne of ,austria continued his pension to his widow1 and even increased it to #bjjj livres a year1 which enabled her to entertain and frequent the literary society her husband had made her acquainted with2 but on the queen-mother's death in #afff the king refused to continue her pension1 and she prepared to leave ,paris for ,lisbon as lady attendant to the queen of ,portugal4 ,but before she started she met ,mme de ,montespan1 who was already1 though not avowedly1 the king's mistress1 and who took such a fancy to her that she obtained the continuance of her pension1 which put off for ever the question of going to ,portugal4 ,mme de ,montespan did yet more for her1 for when1 in #affi1 her first child by the king was born1 ,mme ,scarron was established with a large income and a large staff of servants at ,vaugirard to bring up the king's children in secrecy as they were born4 ,in #afgd the king determined to have his children at court1 and their governess1 who had now made sufficient fortune to buy the estate of ,maintenon1 accompanied them4 ,the king had now many opportunities of seeing ,mme ,scarron1 and1 though at first he was prejudiced against her1 her even temper contrasted so advantageously with the storms of passion and jealousy exhibited by ,mme de ,montespan1 that she grew steadily in his favour1 and had in #afgh the gratification of having her estate at ,maintenon raised to a marquisate and herself entitled ,mme de ,maintenon by the king4 ,such favours brought down the fury of ,mme de ,montespan's jealousy1 and ,mme de ,maintenon's position was almost unendurable1 until1 in #afhj1 the king severed their connexion by making the latter second lady in waiting to the dauphiness1 and soon after ,mme de ,montespan left the court4 ,the new amie used her influence on the side of decency1 and the queen openly declared she had never been so well treated as at this time1 and eventually died in ,mme de ,maintenon's arms in #afhc4 ,the queen's death opened the way to yet greater advancement2 in #afhd ,mme de ,maintenon was made first lady in waiting to the dauphiness1 and in the winter of #afhe-afhf she was privately married to the king by ,harlay1 archbishop of ,paris1 in the presence1 it is believed1 of ,pre la ,chaise1 the king's confessor1 the marquis de ,montchevreuil1 the chevalier de ,forbin1 and ,bontemps4 ,no written proof of the marriage is extant1 but that it took place is nevertheless certain4 ,her life during the next thirty years can be fully studied in her letters1 of which many authentic examples are extant4 ,as a wife she was wholly admirable2 she had to entertain a man who would not be amused1 and had to submit to that terribly strict court etiquette of absolute obedience to the king's inclination1 which ,saint-,simon so vividly describes1 and yet be always cheerful and never complain of weariness or ill-health4 ,her political influence has probably been exaggerated1 but it was supreme in matters of detail4 ,the ministers of the day used to discuss and arrange all the business to be done with the king beforehand with her1 and it was all done in her cabinet and in her presence1 but the king in more important matters often chose not to consult her4 ,such mistakes as1 for instance1 the replacing of ,catinat by ,villeroi may be attributed to her1 but not whole policies--notably1 according to ,saint-,simon1 not the policy with regard to the ,spanish succession4 ,even the revocation of the edict of ,nantes and the dragonnades have been laid to her charge1 but recent investigations have tended to show that in spite of ardent ,catholicism1 she at least opposed1 if not very vigorously1 the cruelties of the dragonnades1 although she was pleased with the conversions they procured4 ,she was apparently afraid to imperil her great reputation for devotion1 which had in #afib obtained for her from ,innocent ,,xii4 the right of visitation over all the convents in ,france4 ,where she deserves blame is in her use of her power for personal patronage1 as in compassing the promotions of ,chamillart and ,villeroi1 and the frequent assistance given to her brother ,comte ,charles d',aubign4 ,her influence was on the whole a moderating and prudent force4 ,her social influence was not as great as it might have been1 owing to her holding no recognized position at court1 but it was always exercised on the side of decency and morality1 and it must not be forgotten that from her former life she was intimate with the literary people of the day4 ,side by side with this public life1 which wearied her with its shadowy power1 occasionally crossed by a desire to be recognised as queen1 she passed a nobler and sweeter private existence as the foundress of ,st ,cyr4 ,mme de ,maintenon was a born teacher2 she had so won the hearts of her first pupils that they preferred her to their own mother1 and was similarly successful later with the young and impetuous duchess of ,burgundy1 and she had always wished to establish a home for poor girls of good family placed in such straits as she herself had experienced4 ,as soon as her fortunes began to mend she started a small home for poor girls at ,ruel1 which she afterwards moved to ,noisy1 and which was the nucleus of the splendid institution of ,st ,cyr1 which the king endowed in #afhf1 at her request1 out of the funds of the ,abbey of ,st ,denis4 ,she was in her element there4 ,she herself drew up the rules of the institution2 she examined every minute detail2 she befriended her pupils in every way2 and her heart often turned from the weariness of ,versailles or of ,marly to her little girls at ,st ,cyr4 ,it was for them that ,racine wrote his ,esther and his ,athalie1 and it was because he managed the affairs of ,st ,cyr well that ,michel ,chamillart became controller-general of the finances4 ,the later years of her power were marked by the promotion of her old pupils1 the children of the king and ,mme de ,montespan1 to high dignity between the blood royal and the peers of the realm1 and it was doubtless under the influence of her dislike for the duke of ,orleans that the king drew up his will1 leaving the personal care of his successor to the duke of ,maine1 and hampering the duke of ,orleans by a council of regency4 ,on or even before her husband's death she retired to ,st ,cyr1 and had the chagrin of seeing all her plans for the advancement of the duke of ,maine overthrown by means of the parliament of ,paris4 ,however1 the regent ,orleans in no way molested her1 but1 on the contrary1 visited her at ,st ,cyr and continued her pension of #dh1jjj livres4 ,she spent her last years at ,st ,cyr in perfect seclusion1 but an object of great interest to all visitors to ,france1 who1 however1 with the exception of ,peter the ,great1 found it impossible to get an audience with her4 ,on the #aeth of ,april #agai she died1 and was buried in the choir at ,st ,cyr1 bequeathing her estate at ,maintenon to her niece1 the only daughter of her brother ,charles and wife of the marchal de ,noailles1 to whose family it still belongs4 ,l4 ,a4 la ,beaumelle published the ,lettres de ,madame de ,maintenon1 but much garbled1 in #b vols4 in #ageb1 and on a larger scale in #i vols4 in #agef4 ,he also1 in #agee1 published ,mmoires de ,madame de ,maintenon1 in #f vols41 which caused him to be imprisoned in the ,bastille4 ,all earlier biographies were superseded by ,thophile ,lavalle's ,histoire de ,st ,cyr1 reviewed in ,causeries du lundi1 vol4 viii41 and by his edition of her ,lettres historiques et difiantes1 c41 in #g vols4 and of her ,correspondance gnrale1 in #d vols4 7#ahhh71 which latter must1 however1 be read with the knowledge of many forged letters1 noticed in ,p4 ,grimblot's ,faux autographes de ,madame de ,maintenon4 ,saint-,simon's fine but biased account of the court in her day and of her career is contained in the twelfth volume of ,chruel and ,regnier's edition of his ,mmoires4 ,see also ,mademoiselle d',aumale's ,souvenirs sur ,madame de ,maintenon1 published by the ,comte d',haussonville and ,g4 ,hanotaux 7,paris1 #c vols41 #aijb-aijd72 an excellent account by ,a4 ,geffroy1 ,madame de ,maintenon d'aprs sa correspondance authentique 7,paris1 #b vols41 #ahhg72 ,p4 de ,noailles1 ,histoire de ,madame de ,maintenon et des principaux vnements du rgne de ,louis ,,xiv4 7#d vols41 #ahdh-aheh72 ,a4 de ,boislisle1 ,paul ,scarron et ,franoise d',aubign d'aprs des documents nouveaux 7#ahid72 4 ,pilastre1 ,vie et caractre de ,madame de ,maintenon d'aprs les oeuvres du duc de ,saint-,simon et des documents anciens ou rcents 7#aijg72 ,a4 ,rosset1 ,madame de ,maintenon et la rvocation de l'dit de ,nantes 7#ahig74 7,h4 ,m4 ,s47 ,,mainz 7,fr4 ,mayence7 a city1 episcopal see and fortress of ,germany1 situated on the left bank of the ,rhine1 almost opposite the influx of the ,main1 at the junction of the important main lines of railway from ,cologne to ,mannheim and ,frankfort-on-,main1 #be m4 ,w4 of the latter4 ,pop4 7#aije71 #ia1abd 7including a garrison of #gejj men71 of whom two-thirds are ,roman ,catholic4 ,the ,rhine1 which here attains the greatest breadth of its upper course1 is crossed by a magnificent bridge of five arches1 leading to the opposite town of ,castel and by two railway bridges4 ,the old fortifications have recently been pushed farther back1 and their place occupied by pleasant boulevards4 ,the river front has been converted into a fine promenade1 commanding extensive views of the ,taunus range of mountains1 and the ,rheingau1 the most favoured wine district of ,germany4 ,alongside the quay are the landing-places of the steamboats navigating the ,rhine4 ,the railway1 which formerly incommoded the bank1 has been diverted1 and now1 following the ceinture of the new line of inner fortifications1 runs into a central station lying to the south of the city4 ,the interior of the old town consists chiefly of narrow and irregular streets1 with many quaint and picturesque houses4 ,the principal street of the new town is the ,kaiserstrasse1 leading from the railway station to the river4 ,the first object of historical and architectural interest in ,mainz is the grand old cathedral1 an imposing ,romanesque edifice with numerous ,gothic additions and details 7for plan1 c4 see ,,architecture3 ,romanesque and ,gothic in ,germany74 ,it was originally erected between #ige and #ajji1 but has since been repeatedly burned down and rebuilt1 and in its present form dates chiefly from the #abth1 #acth and #adth centuries4 ,the largest of its six towers is #cjj ft4 high4 ,the whole building was restored by order of ,napoleon in #ahad1 and another thorough renovation was made more recently4 ,the interior contains the tombs of ,boniface1 the first archbishop of ,mainz1 of ,frauenlob1 the ,minnesinger1 and of many of the electors4 ,mainz possesses nine other ,roman ,catholic churches1 the most noteworthy of which are those of ,st ,ignatius1 with a finely painted ceiling1 of ,st ,stephen1 built #abeg-acbh1 and restored after an explosion in #aheg1 and of ,st ,peter4 ,the old electoral palace 7#afbg-afgh71 a large building of red sandstone1 now contains a valuable collection of ,roman and ,germanic antiquities1 a picture gallery1 a natural history museum1 the ,gutenberg ,museum1 and a library of #bbj1jjj volumes4 ,among the other principal buildings are the palace of the grand duke of ,hesse1 built in #agca-agci as a lodge of the ,teutonic order1 the theatre1 the arsenal1 and the government buildings4 ,a handsome statue of ,gutenberg1 by ,thorwaldsen1 was erected at ,mainz in #ahcg4 ,mainz still retains many relics of the ,roman period1 the most important of which is the ,eigelstein1 a monument believed to have been erected by the ,roman legions in honour of ,drusus4 ,it stands within the citadel1 which occupies the site of the ,roman castrum4 ,a little to the south-west of the town are the remains of a large ,roman aqueduct1 of which upwards of sixty pillars are still standing4 ,the educational and scientific institutions of ,mainz include an episcopal seminary1 two gymnasia and other schools1 a society for literature and art1 a musical society1 and an antiquarian society4 ,the university1 founded in #adgg1 was suppressed by the ,french in #agih4 ,the site of ,mainz would seem to mark it out naturally as a great centre of trade1 but the illiberal rule of the archbishops and its military importance seriously hampered its commercial and industrial development1 and prevented it from rivalling its neighbour ,frankfort4 ,it is now1 however1 the chief emporium of the ,rhenish wine traffic1 and also carries on an extensive transit trade in grain1 timber1 flour1 petroleum1 paper and vegetables4 ,the natural facilities for carriage by water are supplemented by the extensive railway system4 ,large new harbours to the north of the city were opened in #ahhg4 ,the principal manufactures are leather goods1 furniture1 carriages1 chemicals1 musical instruments and carpets1 for the first two of which the city has attained a wide reputation4 ,other industries include brewing and printing4 ,mainz is the seat of the administrative and judicial authorities of the province of ,rhein-,hessen1 and also of a ,roman ,catholic bishop4 ,history4--,mainz1 one of the oldest cities in ,germany1 was originally a ,celtic settlement4 ,its strategic importance was early recognized by the ,romans1 and about #ac ,b4,c4 ,drusus1 the son-in-law of ,augustus1 erected a fortified camp here1 to which the castellum ,mattiacorum 7the modern ,castel7 on the opposite bank was afterwards added1 the two being connected with a bridge at the opening of the ,christian era4 ,the ,celtic name became latinized as ,maguntiacum1 or ,moguntiacum1 and a town gradually arose around the camp1 which became the capital of ,germania ,superior4 ,during the ,vlkerwanderung ,mainz suffered severely1 being destroyed on different occasions by the ,alamanni1 the ,vandals and the ,huns4 ,christianity seems to have been introduced into the town at a very early period1 and in the #fth century a new ,mainz was founded by ,bishop ,sidonius4 ,in the middle of the #hth century under ,boniface it became an archbishopric1 and to this the primacy of ,germany was soon annexed4 ,charlemagne1 who had a palace in the neighbourhood1 gave privileges to ,mainz1 which rose rapidly in wealth and importance1 becoming a free city in #aaah4 ,during the later middle ages it was the seat of several diets1 that of #aahd being of unusual size and splendour4 ,in #aafj the citizens revolted against ,archbishop ,arnold1 and in #aafc the walls of the city were pulled down by order of the emperor ,frederick ,i4 ,but these events did not retard its progress4 ,in #abdd certain rights of self-government were given to the citizens2 and in #abed ,mainz was the centre and mainspring of a powerful league of ,rhenish towns4 ,owing to its commercial prosperity it was known as goldene ,mainz1 and its population is believed to have been as great as it is at the present day4 ,but soon a decline set in4 ,in #adfb there was warfare between two rival archbishops1 ,diether or ,dietrich ,,ii4 of ,isenburg 7d4 #adfc7 and ,adolph ,,ii4 of ,nassau 7d4 #adge74 ,the citizens espoused the cause of ,diether1 but their city was captured by ,adolph2 it was then deprived of its privileges and was made subject to the archbishop4 ,many of the inhabitants were driven into exile1 and these carried into other lands a knowledge of the art of printing1 which had been invented at ,mainz by ,johann ,gutenberg in #adej4 ,during the ,thirty ,years' ,war ,mainz was occupied by the ,swedes in #afca and by the ,french in #afdd1 the fortifications being strengthened by the former under ,gustavus ,adolphus2 in #afhh it was captured again by the ,french1 but they were driven out in the following year4 ,in #agib the citizens welcomed the ideas of the ,french ,revolution2 they expelled their archbishop1 ,friedrich ,karl ,joseph d',erthal1 and opened their gates to the ,french troops4 ,taken and retaken several times during the next few years1 ,mainz was ceded to ,france by the treaty of ,campo ,formio in #agig1 and again by the ,treaty of ,lunville in #ahja4 ,in #ahad it was restored to ,germany and in #ahaf it was handed over to the grand duke of ,hesse2 it remained1 however1 a fortress of the ,german confederation and was garrisoned by ,prussian and ,austrian troops4 ,since #ahga it has been a fortress of the ,german ,empire4 ,there were disturbances in the city in #ahdh4 ,see ,brhl1 ,mainz1 geschichtlich1 topographisch und malerisch 7,mainz1 #ahbi72 ,c4 ,a4 ,schaab1 ,geschichte der ,stadt ,mainz 7,mainz1 #ahda-ahde72 ,k4 ,klein1 ,mainz und seine ,umgebungen 7#ahfh72 ,c4 ,g4 ,bockenheimer1 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der ,stadt ,mainz 7#ahgd72 ,neeb1 ,fhrer durch ,mainz und ,umgebung 7,stuttgart1 #aijc72 and ,o4 ,beck1 ,mainz und sein ,handel 7,mainz1 #ahha74 ,the ,,archbishopric ,,of ,,mainz1 one of the seven electorates of the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 became a powerful state during the middle ages and retained some of its importance until the dissolution of the empire in #ahjf4 ,its archbishop was president of the electoral college1 arch-chancellor of the empire and primate of ,germany4 ,its origin dates back to #gdg1 when the city of ,mainz was made the seat of an archbishop1 and a succession of able and ambitious prelates1 obtaining lands and privileges from emperors and others1 made of the district under their rule a strong and vigorous state4 ,among these men were ,hatto ,i4 7d4 #iac71 ,siegfried ,,iii4 of ,eppstein 7d4 #abdi71 ,gerhard of ,eppstein 7d4 #acje71 and ,albert of ,brandenburg 7d4 #aede71 all of whom played important parts in the history of ,germany4 ,there were several violent contests between rivals anxious to secure so splendid a position as the electorate1 and the pretensions of the archbishops occasionally moved the citizens of ,mainz to revolt4 ,the lands of the electorate lay around ,mainz1 and were on both banks of the ,rhine2 their area at the time of the ,french ,revolution was about #cbjj sq4 m4 ,the last elector was ,karl ,theodor von ,dalberg4 ,the archbishopric was secularized in #ahjc1 two years after the lands on the left bank of the ,rhine had been seized by ,france4 ,some of those on the right bank of the river were given to ,prussia and to ,hesse2 others were formed into a grand duchy for ,dalberg4 ,the archbishopric itself was transferred to ,regensburg4 ,for the history of the electorate see the ,scriptores rerum moguntiacarum1 edited by ,g4 ,c4 ,joannis 7,frankfort1 #agbb-agbg72 ,schunk1 ,beitrge zur ,mainzer ,geschichte 7,frankfort1 #aghh-agia72 ,hennes1 ,die ,erzbischfe von ,mainz 7,mainz1 #ahgi72 ,ph4 ,jaff1 ,monumenta moguntina 7,berlin1 #ahff71 and ,j4 ,f4 ,bhmer and ,c4 ,will1 ,regesta archiepiscoporum moguntinensium 7,innsbruck1 #ahgg-ahhf74 ,,mairet1 ,,jean ,,de 7#afjd-afhf71 ,french dramatist1 was born at ,besanon1 and baptized on the #ajth of ,may #afjd4 ,his own statement that he was born in #afaj has been disproved4 ,he went to ,paris to study at the ,collge des ,grassins about #afbe1 in which year he produced his first piece ,chriside et ,arimand1 followed in #afbf by ,sylvie1 a pastoral tragi-comedy4 ,in #afcd appeared his masterpiece1 ,sophonisbe1 which marks1 in its observance of the rules1 the beginning of the regular tragedies4 ,mairet was one of the bitterest assailants of ,corneille in the controversy over ,the ,cid4 ,it was perhaps his jealousy of ,corneille that made him give up writing for the stage4 ,he was appointed in #afdh official representative of the ,franche-,comt in ,paris1 but in #afec he was banished by ,mazarin4 ,he was subsequently allowed to return1 but in #affh he retired to ,besanon1 where he died on the #cast of ,january #afhf4 ,his other plays include ,silvanire ou la ,morte-vive1 published in #afca with an elaborate preface on the observance of the unities1 ,les ,galanteries du duc d',orsonne 7#afcb71 ,virginie 7#afcc71 ,marc-,antoine 7#afce71 and ,le ,grand et dernier ,solyman 7#afcg74 ,see ,g4 ,bizos1 tude sur la vie et les oeuvres de ,jean de ,mairet 7#ahgg74 ,sophonisbe was edited by ,k4 ,vollmller 7,heilbronn1 #ahhh71 and ,silvanire by ,r4 ,otto 7,bamberg1 #ahij74 ,,maistre1 ,,joseph ,,de 7#aged-ahba71 ,french diplomatist and polemical writer1 was born at ,chambry on the #ast of ,april #aged4 ,his family was an ancient and noble one1 enjoying the title of count1 and is said to have been of ,languedocian extraction4 ,the father of ,joseph was president of the senate of ,savoy1 and held other important offices4 ,joseph himself1 after studying at ,turin1 received various appointments in the civil service of ,savoy1 finally becoming a member of the senate4 ,in #aghf he married ,franoise de ,morand4 ,the invasion and annexation of ,savoy by the ,french ,republicans made him an exile4 ,he did not take refuge in that part of the king of ,sardinia's domains which was for the time spared1 but betook himself to the as yet neutral territory of ,lausanne4 ,there1 in #agif1 he published his first important work 7he had previously written certain discourses1 pamphlets1 letters1 c471 ,considrations sur la ,france4 ,in this he developed his views1 which were those of a ,legitimist1 but a ,legitimist entirely from the religious and ,roman ,catholic point of view4 ,the philosophism of the #ahth century was ,joseph de ,maistre's lifelong object of assault4 ,after the still further losses which1 in the year of the publication of this book1 the ,french ,revolution inflicted on ,sardinia1 ,charles ,emmanuel summoned ,joseph de ,maistre to ,turin1 and he remained there for the brief space during which the king retained a remnant of territory on the mainland4 ,then he went to the island of ,sardinia1 and held office at ,cagliari4 ,in #ahjb he was appointed envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary at ,st ,petersburg1 and journeyed thither the next year4 ,although his post was no sinecure1 its duties were naturally less engrossing than the official life1 with intervals of uneasy exile and travelling1 which he had hitherto known1 and his literary activity was great4 ,he only published a single treatise1 on the ,principe gnrateur des ,constitutions2 but he wrote his best and most famous works1 ,du ,pape1 ,de ,l'glise gallicane and the ,soires de ,st ,ptersbourg1 the last of which was never finished4 ,du ,pape1 which the second-named book completes1 is a treatise in regular form1 dealing with the relations of the sovereign pontiff to the ,church1 to temporal sovereigns1 to civilization generally1 and to schismatics1 especially ,anglicans and the ,greek ,church4 ,it is written from the highest possible standpoint of papal absolutism4 ,the ,soires de ,st ,ptersbourg1 so far as it is anything 7for the arrangement is somewhat desultory71 is a kind of thodice1 dealing with the fortunes of virtue and vice in this world4 ,it contains two of ,de ,maistre's most famous pieces1 his panegyric on the executioner as the foundation of social order1 and his acrimonious1 and in part unfair1 but also in part very damaging1 attack on ,locke4 ,the ,du ,pape is dated ,may #ahag2 on the ,soires the author was still engaged at his death4 ,besides these works he wrote an examination of the philosophy of ,bacon1 some letters on the ,inquisition 7an institution which1 as may be guessed from the remarks just noticed about the executioner1 was no stumbling-block to him71 and1 earlier than any of these1 a translation of ,plutarch's ,essay on the ,delay of ,divine ,justice1 with somewhat copious notes4 ,after #ahae he returned to ,savoy1 and was appointed to high office1 while his ,du ,pape made a great sensation4 ,but the world to which he had returned was not altogether in accordance with his desires4 ,he had domestic troubles2 and chagrin of one sort and another is said to have had not a little to do with his death by paralysis on the #bfth of ,february #ahba at ,turin4 ,most of the works mentioned were not published till after his death1 and it was not till #ahea that a collection of ,lettres et opuscules appeared1 while even since that time fresh matter has been published4 ,joseph de ,maistre was one of the most powerful1 and by far the ablest1 of the leaders of the neo-,catholic and anti-revolutionary movement4 ,the most remarkable thing about his standpoint is that1 layman as he was1 it was entirely ecclesiastical4 ,unlike his contemporary ,bonald1 ,joseph de ,maistre regarded the temporal monarchy as an institution of altogether inferior importance to the spiritual primacy of the pope4 ,he was by no means a political absolutist1 except in so far as he regarded obedience as the first of political virtues1 and he seldom loses an opportunity of stipulating for a tempered monarchy4 ,but the pope's power is not to be tempered at all1 either by councils or by the temporal power or by national churches1 least of all by private judgment4 ,the peculiarity of ,joseph de ,maistre is that he supports his conclusions1 or if it be preferred his paradoxes1 by the hardest and heaviest argument4 ,although a great master of rhetoric1 he never makes rhetoric do duty for logic4 ,every now and then it is possible to detect fallacies in him1 but for the most part he has succeeded in carrying matters back to those fundamental differences of opinion which hardly admit of argument1 and on which men take sides in consequence chiefly of natural bent1 and of predilection for one state of things rather than for another4 ,the absolute necessity of order may be said to have been the first principle of this thinker1 who1 in more ways than one1 will invite comparison with ,hobbes4 ,he could not conceive such order without a single visible authority1 reference to which should settle all dispute4 ,he saw that there could be no such temporal head1 and in the pope he thought that he saw a spiritual substitute4 ,the anarchic tendencies of the ,revolution in politics and religion were what offended him4 ,it ought to be added that he was profoundly and accurately learned in history and philosophy1 and that the superficial blunders of the #ahth-century philosophes irritated him as much as their doctrines4 ,to ,voltaire in particular he shows no mercy4 ,of the two works named as his masterpieces1 ,du ,pape and the ,soires de ,st ,ptersbourg1 editions are extremely numerous4 ,no complete edition of his works appeared till #ahhd-ahhg1 when one was published at ,lyons in #ad volumes4 ,this had been preceded1 and has been followed1 by numerous biographies and discussions3 ,c4 ,barthlemy1 ,l',esprit de ,joseph de ,maistre 7#ahei72 ,r4 de ,szeval1 ,joseph de ,maistre 7#ahfe71 and ,j4 ,c4 ,glaser1 ,graf ,joseph ,maistre 7same year72 ,l4 ,i4 ,moreau1 ,joseph de ,maistre 7#ahgi72 ,f4 ,paulhan1 ,joseph de ,maistre et sa philosophie 7#ahic72 ,l4 ,cogordan1 ,joseph de ,maistre in the ,grands crivains franais 7#ahid72 ,f4 ,descostes1 ,joseph de ,maistre avant la rvolution 7#ahif71 and other works by the same writer2 ,j4 ,mandoul1 ,un ,homme d'tat italien3 ,joseph de ,maistre et la politique de la maison de ,savoie 7#aijj72 and ,e4 ,grasset1 ,joseph de ,maistre 7#aija74 7,g4 ,sa47 ,,maistre1 ,,xavier ,,de 7#agfc-aheb71 younger brother of ,joseph de ,maistre1 was born at ,chambry in ,october #agfc4 ,he served when young in the ,piedmontese army1 and wrote his delightful fantasy1 ,voyage autour de ma chambre 7published #agid7 when he was under arrest at ,turin in consequence of a duel4 ,xavier shared the politics and the loyalty of his brother1 and on the annexation of ,savoy to ,france1 he left the service1 and took a commission in the ,russian army4 ,he served under ,suvarov in his victorious ,austro-,russian campaign and accompanied the marshal to ,russia4 ,he shared the disgrace of his general1 and supported himself for some time in ,st ,petersburg by miniature painting4 ,but on his brother's arrival in ,st ,petersburg he was introduced to the minister of marine4 ,he was appointed to several posts in the capital1 but also saw active service1 was wounded in the ,caucasus1 and attained the rank of major-general4 ,he married a ,russian lady and established himself in his adopted country1 even after the overthrow of ,napoleon1 and the consequent restoration of the ,piedmontese dynasty4 ,for a time1 however1 he lived at ,naples1 but he returned to ,st ,petersburg and died there on the #abth of ,june #aheb4 ,he was only once in ,paris 7in #ahci71 when ,sainte-,beuve1 who has left some pleasant reminiscences of him1 met him4 ,besides the ,voyage already mentioned1 ,xavier de ,maistre's works 7all of which are of very modest dimensions7 are ,le ,lpreux de la cit d',aoste 7#ahaa71 a touching little story of human misfortune2 ,les ,prisonniers du ,caucase1 a powerful sketch of ,russian character1 ,la ,jeune ,sibrienne1 and the ,expdition nocturne1 a sequel to the ,voyage autour de ma chambre 7#ahbe74 ,his style is of remarkable ease and purity4 ,his works1 with the exception of some brief chemical tractates1 are included in the collections of ,charpentier1 ,garnier1 c4 ,see ,sainte-,beuve's ,portraits contemporains1 vol4 iii4 ,,maitland1 ,,edward 7#ahbd-ahig71 ,english humanitarian writer1 was born at ,ipswich on the #bgth of ,october #ahbd1 and was educated at ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,the son of ,charles ,david ,maitland1 perpetual curate of ,st ,james's ,chapel1 ,brighton1 he was intended for the ,church1 but his religious views did not permit him to take holy orders4 ,for some years he lived abroad1 first in ,california and then as a commissioner of ,crownlands in ,australia4 ,after his return to ,england in #aheg he took up an advanced humanitarian position1 and claimed to have acquired a new sense by which he was able to discern the spiritual condition of other people4 ,he was associated with ,mrs ,anna ,kingsford 7#ahdf-ahhh71 the lady-doctor and supporter of vegetarianism and anti-vivisectionism1 who1 besides being one of the pioneers of higher education for women1 had become a devotee of mystical theosophy2 with her he brought out ,keys of the ,creeds 7#ahge71 ,the ,perfect ,way3 or the ,finding of ,christ 7#ahhb71 and founded the ,hermetic ,society in #ahhd4 ,after her death he founded the ,esoteric ,christian ,union in #ahia1 and wrote her ,life and ,letters 7#ahif74 ,he died on the #bnd of ,october #ahig4 ,,maitland1 ,,frederic ,,william 7#ahej-aijf71 ,english jurist and historian1 son of ,john ,gorham ,maitland1 was born on the #bhth of ,may #ahej1 and educated at ,eton and ,trinity1 ,cambridge1 being bracketed at the head of the moral sciences tripos of #ahgb1 and winning a ,whewell scholarship for international law4 ,he was called to the bar 7,lincoln's ,inn7 in #ahgf1 and made himself a thoroughly competent equity lawyer and conveyancer1 but finally devoted himself to comparative jurisprudence and especially the history of ,english law4 ,in #ahhd he was appointed reader in ,english law at ,cambridge1 and in #ahhh became ,downing professor of the laws of ,england4 ,though handicapped in his later years by delicate health1 his intellectual grasp and wide knowledge and research gradually made him famous as a jurist and historian4 ,he edited numerous volumes for the ,selden ,society1 including ,select ,pleas for the ,crown1 #abjj-abbe1 ,select ,pleas in ,manorial ,courts and ,the ,court ,baron2 and among his principal works were ,gloucester ,pleas 7#ahhd71 ,justice and ,police 7#ahhe71 ,bracton's ,note-,book 7#ahhg71 ,history of ,english ,law 7with ,sir ,f4 ,pollock1 #ahie2 new ed4 #ahih2 see also his article ,,english ,,law in this encyclopaedia71 ,domesday ,book and ,beyond 7#ahig71 ,township and ,borough 7#ahih71 ,canon ,law in ,england 7#ahih71 ,english ,law and the ,renaissance 7#aija71 the ,life of ,leslie ,stephen 7#aijf71 besides important contributions to the ,cambridge ,modern ,history1 the ,english ,historical ,review1 the ,law ,quarterly ,review1 ,harvard ,law ,review and other publications4 ,his writings are marked by vigour and vitality of style1 as well as by the highest qualities of the historian who recreates the past from the original sources2 he had no sympathy with either legal or historical pedantry2 and his death at ,grand ,canary on the #aith of ,december #aijf deprived ,english law and letters of one of their most scholarly and most inspiring representatives1 notable alike for sweetness of character1 acuteness in criticism1 and wisdom in counsel4 ,see ,p4 ,vinogradoff's article on ,maitland in the ,english ,historical ,review 7#aijg72 ,sir ,f4 ,pollock's in the ,quarterly ,review 7#aijg72 ,g4 ,t4 ,lapsley's in ,the ,green ,bag 7,boston1 ,mass41 #aijg72 ,a4 ,l4 ,smith1 ,f4 ,w4 ,maitland 7#aijh72 ,h4 ,a4 ,l4 ,fisher1 ,f4 ,w4 ,maitland 7#aiaj74 ,,maitland1 ,,sir ,,richard 7,,lord ,,lethington7 7#adif-aehf71 ,scottish lawyer1 poet1 and collector of ,scottish verse1 was born in #adif4 ,his father1 ,sir ,william ,maitland of ,lethington and ,thirlestane1 fell at ,flodden2 his mother was a daughter of ,george1 ,lord ,seton4 ,he studied law at the university of ,st ,andrews1 and afterwards in ,paris4 ,his castle at ,lethington was burnt by the ,english in #aedi4 ,he was in #aeeb one of the commissioners to settle matters with the ,english about the debateable lands4 ,about #aefa he seems to have lost his sight1 but this did not render him incapable of attending to public business1 as he was the same year admitted an ordinary lord of session with the title of ,lord ,lethington1 and a member of the privy council2 and in #aefb he was appointed keeper of the ,great ,seal4 ,he resigned this last office in #aefg1 in favour of ,john1 prior of ,coldingham1 his second son1 but he sat on the bench till he attained his eighty-eighth year4 ,he died on the #bjth of ,march #aehf4 ,his eldest son1 by his wife ,mary ,cranstoun of ,crosbie1 was ,william ,maitland 7q4v473 his second son1 ,john 7c4 #aede-aeie71 was a lord of session1 and was made a lord of parliament in #aeij1 with the title of ,lord ,maitland of ,thirlestane1 in which he was succeeded by his son ,john1 also for some time a lord of session1 who was created earl of ,lauderdale in #afbd4 ,one of ,sir ,richard's daughters1 ,margaret1 assisted her father in preparing his collection of old ,scots verse4 ,the poems of ,sir ,richard ,maitland1 none of them lengthy1 are for the most part satirical1 and are principally directed against the social and political abuses of his time4 ,he is chiefly remembered as the industrial collector and preserver of many pieces of ,scots poetry4 ,these were copied into two large volumes1 one in folio and another in quarto1 the former written by himself1 and the latter by his daughter4 ,after being in the possession of his descendant the duke of ,lauderdale1 these volumes were purchased at the sale of the duke's library by ,samuel ,pepys1 and have since been preserved in the ,pepysian ,library1 ,magdalene ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,they lay there unnoticed for many years till ,bishop ,percy published one of the poems in his ,reliques of ,english ,poetry4 ,several of the prices were then transcribed by ,john ,pinkerton1 who afterwards published them under the title of ,ancient ,scottish ,poems 7#b vols41 #aghf47 ,for an account of the ,maitland ,folio ,,ms4 see ,gregory ,smith's ,specimens of ,middle ,scots1 #aijb 7p4 lxxiii474 ,the ,scottish ,text ,society has undertaken an edition of the entire manuscript4 ,maitland's own poems were reprinted by ,sibbald in his ,chronicle of ,scottish ,poetry 7#ahjb71 and in #ahcj by the ,maitland ,club1 named after him1 and founded for the purpose of continuing his efforts to preserve the remains of early ,scots literature4 ,sir ,richard left in manuscript a history of the family of ,seton1 and a volume of legal decisions collected by him between the years #aeej and #aefe4 ,both are preserved in the ,advocates' ,library1 ,edinburgh2 the former was published by the ,maitland ,club1 in #ahbi4 ,,maitland 7,,maitland ,,of ,,lethington71 ,,william 7c4 #aebh-aegc71 ,scottish statesman1 eldest son of the preceding1 was educated at ,st ,andrews4 ,at an early age he entered public life and began in various ways to serve the regent1 ,mary of ,lorraine1 becoming her secretary of state in #aeeh4 ,in #aeei1 however1 he deserted her and threw in his lot with the lords of the congregation1 to whom his knowledge of foreign1 and especially of ,english1 politics and his general ability were assets of the highest value4 ,the lords sent him to ,england to ask for assistance from ,elizabeth1 and his constant aim throughout his political career was to bring about a union between the two crowns4 ,he appears to have feared the return of ,mary ,queen of ,scots to ,scotland1 but after her arrival in #aefa he was appointed secretary of state1 and for about six years he directed the policy of ,scotland and enjoyed the confidence of the queen4 ,his principal antagonist was ,john ,knox2 there were several tussles between them1 the most famous1 perhaps1 being the one in the general assembly of #aefd1 and on the whole ,maitland held his own against the preachers4 ,he was doubtless concerned in the conspiracy against ,david ,rizzio1 and after the favourite's murder he was obliged to leave the court and was himself in danger of assassination4 ,in #aefg1 however1 he was again at ,mary's side4 ,he was a consenting party to the murder of ,darnley1 although he had favoured his marriage with ,mary1 but the enmity between ,bothwell and himself was one of the reasons which drove him into the arms of the queen's enemies1 among whom he figured at ,langside4 ,he was one of the ,scots who met ,elizabeth's representatives at ,york in #aefh2 here he showed a desire to exculpate ,mary and to marry her to the duke of ,norfolk1 a course of action probably dictated by a desire to avoid all revelations about the ,darnley murder4 ,but this did not prevent him from being arrested in ,september #aefi on account of his share in the crime4 ,he was1 however1 delivered from his captors by a ruse on the part of his friend1 ,sir ,william ,kirkcaldy of ,grange1 and was brought into ,edinburgh ,castle1 while his trial was put off because the city was thronged with his adherents4 ,maitland now became the leader of the remnant which stood by the cause of the imprisoned queen4 ,already a physical wreck1 he was borne into ,edinburgh ,castle in ,april #aega and with ,kirkcaldy he held this fortress against the regent ,morton and his ,english auxiliaries4 ,the castle surrendered in ,may #aegc and on the #gth or the #ith of ,june following ,maitland died at ,leith1 there being very little evidence for the theory that he poisoned himself4 ,secretary ,maitland was a man of great learning with a ready wit and a caustic tongue4 ,he was reputed to be the most versatile and accomplished statesman of his age1 and almost alone among his ,scottish contemporaries he placed his country above the claims of either the ,roman ,catholic or the ,protestant religions4 ,among the testimonies to his great abilities are those of ,queen ,elizabeth1 of ,william ,cecil and of ,knox4 ,by his second wife1 ,mary ,fleming1 one of ,queen ,mary's ladies1 whom he married in #aefg1 he had a son and daughter4 ,his son ,james died without issue about #afbj4 ,see ,john ,skelton1 ,maitland of ,lethington 7#ahid72 ,a4 ,lang1 ,history of ,scotland1 vol4 ii4 7#aijb74 ,,maitland1 ,,east and ,,west1 adjoining municipalities in ,northumberland county1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,australia1 #abj m4 by rail ,n4 of ,sydney4 ,pop4 7#aija71 ,west ,maitland1 #fgih2 ,east ,maitland1 #cbhg4 ,these towns are situated in a valley on the ,hunter ,river1 which is liable to sudden floods1 to guard against which the river is protected by stone embankments at ,west ,maitland1 while there are flood-gates at ,east ,maitland4 ,maitland is the centre of the rich agricultural district of the ,hunter ,valley1 which produces maize1 wheat and other cereals1 lucerne1 tobacco1 fruit and wine2 excellent coal also is worked in the vicinity4 ,east ,maitland is the see of a ,roman ,catholic bishop1 whose cathedral 7,st ,john's71 however1 is situated in the larger town4 ,besides this1 ,west ,maitland contains several handsome public and commercial buildings4 ,,maitreya1 the name of the future ,buddha4 ,in one of the works included in the ,pali canon1 the ,digha ,nikaya1 a prophecy is put into the ,buddha's mouth that after the decay of the religion another ,buddha1 named ,metteyya1 will arise who will have thousands of followers instead of the hundreds that the historical ,buddha had4 ,this is the only mention of the future ,buddha in the canon4 ,for some centuries we hear nothing more about him4 ,but when1 in the period just before and after the ,christian era1 some ,buddhists began to write in ,sanskrit instead of ,pali1 they composed new works in which ,maitreya 7the ,sanskrit form of ,metteyya7 is more often mentioned1 and details are given as to his birthplace and history4 ,these are entirely devised in imitation of the details of the life of the historical ,buddha1 and have no independent value4 ,only the names differ4 ,the document in which the original prophecy occurs was put together at some date during the #ast century after the ,buddha's death 7see ,,nikaya74 ,it is impossible to say whether tradition was1 at that time1 correct in attributing it to the ,buddha4 ,but whoever chose the name 7it is a patronymic or family1 not a personal name71 had no doubt regard to the etymological connexion with the word for love1 which is ,metta in ,pali4 ,this would only be one of those punning allusions so frequent in ,indian literature4 ,long afterwards1 probably in the #fth or #gth century1 a reformer in south ,india1 at a time when the incoming flood of ritualism and superstition threatened to overwhelm the simple teaching of the earlier ,buddhism1 wrote a ,pali poem1 entitled the ,anagata ,vamsa4 ,in this he described the golden age of the future when1 in the time of ,metteyya1 kings1 ministers and people would vie one with the other in the maintenance of the original simple doctrine1 and in the restoration of the good times of old4 ,the other side also claimed the authority of the future ,buddha for their innovations4 ,statues of ,maitreya are found in ,buddhist temples1 of all sects1 at the present day2 and the belief in his future advent is universal among ,buddhists4 ,authorities4--,digha ,nikaya1 vol4 iii41 edited by ,j4 ,e4 ,carpenter1 7,london1 #aijh72 ,anagata ,vamsa1 edited by ,j4 ,minayeff in ,journal of the ,pali ,text ,society 7#ahhf72 ,watters on ,yuan ,chwang1 edited by ,rhys ,davids and ,s4 ,w4 ,bushell 7,london1 #aijd-aije74 7,t4 ,w4 ,r4 ,d47 ,,maiwand1 a village of ,afghanistan1 #ej m4 ,n4,w4 of ,kandahar4 ,it is chiefly notable for the defeat inflicted on a ,british brigade under ,general ,burrows by ,ayub ,khan on the #bgth of ,july #ahhj during the second ,afghan ,war 7see ,,afghanistan74 ,ayub ,khan1 ,shere ,ali's younger son1 who had been holding ,herat during the ,british operations at ,kabul and ,kandahar1 set out towards ,kandahar with a small army in ,june #ahhj1 and a brigade under ,general ,burrows was detached from ,kandahar to oppose him4 ,burrows advanced to the ,helmund1 opposite ,girishk1 to oppose ,ayub ,khan1 but was there deserted by the troops of ,shere ,ali1 the wali of ,kandahar1 and forced to retreat to ,kushk-i-,nakhud1 half way to ,kandahar4 ,in order to prevent ,ayub passing to ,ghazni1 ,burrows advanced to ,maiwand on the #bgth of ,july1 and attacked ,ayub1 who had already seized that place4 ,the ,afghans1 who numbered #be1jjj1 outflanked the ,british1 the artillery expended their ammunition1 and the native portion of the ,brigade got out of hand and pressed back on the few ,british infantry4 ,the ,british were completely routed1 and had to thank the apathy of the ,afghans for escaping total annihilation4 ,of the #bdgf ,british troops engaged1 #icd were killed and #age wounded or missing4 ,this defeat necessitated ,sir ,frederick ,roberts' famous march from ,kabul to ,kandahar4 ,see ,lord ,roberts1 ,forty-one ,years in ,india 7#ahif74 ,,maize1 or ,,indian ,,corn1 ,zea ,mays 7from ,greek3 ze or ,greek3 zei1 which appears to have been spelt1 ,triticum spelta1 according to the description of ,theophrastus71 a plant of the tribe ,maydeae of the order ,gramineae or grasses 7see fig4 #a74 ,it is unknown in the native state1 but is most probably indigenous to tropical ,america4 ,small grains of an unknown variety have been found in the ancient tombs of ,peru1 and ,darwin found heads of maize embedded on the shore in ,peru at #he ft4 above the present sea-level4 ,bonafous1 however 7,histoire naturelle du mas71 quotes authorities 7,bock1 #aecb1 ,ruel and ,fuchs7 as believing that it came from ,asia1 and maize was said by ,santa ,rosa de ,viterbo to have been brought by the ,arabs into ,spain in the #acth century4 ,a drawing of maize is also given by ,bonafous from a ,chinese work on natural history1 ,li-chi-tchin1 dated #aefb1 a little over sixty years after the discovery of the ,new ,world4 ,it is not figured on ,egyptian monuments1 nor was any mention made of it by ,eastern travellers in ,africa or ,asia prior to the #afth century4 ,humboldt1 ,alphonse de ,candolle and others1 however1 do not hesitate to say that it originated solely in ,america1 where it had been long and extensively cultivated at the period of the discovery of the ,new ,world2 and that is the generally accepted modern view4 ,some hold the view that maize originated from a common ,mexican fodder grass1 ,euchlaena mexicana1 known as ,teosinte1 a closely allied plant which when crossed with maize yields a maize-like hybrid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,maize--,zea ,mays--unripe cob4 ,the membranous spathes have been cut and drawn aside1 revealing the spike of fruit which bears the long silky styles4 ,one-third nat4 size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,spike of ,male ,flowers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,male ,spikelet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,female ,spike4 ,the plant is monoecious1 producing the staminate 7male7 flowers in a large feathery panicle at the summit1 and the 7female7 dense spikes of flowers1 or cobs1 in the axils of the leaves below1 the long pink styles hanging out like a silken tassel4 ,they are invested by the sheaths of leaves1 much used in packing oranges in south ,europe1 and the more delicate ones for cigarettes in ,south ,america4 ,fig4 #b shows a branch of the terminal male inflorescence4 ,fig4 #c is a single spikelet of the same1 containing two florets1 with the three stamens of one only protruded4 ,fig4 #d is a spike of the female inflorescence1 protected by the sheaths of leaves--the blades being also present4 ,usually the sheaths terminate in a point1 the blades being arrested4 ,fig4 #e is a spikelet of the female inflorescence1 consisting of two outer glumes1 the lower one ciliated1 which enclose two florets--one 7a7 barren 7sometimes fertile71 consisting of a flowering glume and pale only1 and the other 7b7 fertile1 containing the pistil with elongated style4 ,the mass of styles from the whole spike is pendulous from the summit of the sheaths1 as in fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #f shows the fruit or grain4 ,more than three hundred varieties are known1 which differ more among themselves than those of any other cereal4 ,some come to maturity in two months1 others require seven months2 some are as many feet high as others are inches2 some have kernels eleven times larger than others4 ,they vary similarly in shape and size of ears1 colour of the grain1 which may be white1 yellow1 purple1 striped1 c41 and also in physical characters and chemical composition4 ,dr ,e4 ,lewis ,sturtevant1 who has made an extended study of the forms and varieties1 classes into seven groups those grown primarily for the grain1 the distinguishing characters of which are based on the grains or kernels2 there are1 in addition1 forms of horticultural interest grown for ornament4 ,pod corn 7var4 tunicata7 is characterized by having each kernel enclosed in a husk4 ,pop corn 7var4 everta7 has a very large proportion of the endosperm--the nutritious matter which with the small embryo makes up the grain--of a horny consistency1 which causes the grain to pop when heated1 that is to say1 the kernel becomes turned inside out by the explosion of the contained moisture4 ,it is also characterized by the small size of the grain and ear4 ,flint corn 7var4 indurata7 has a starchy endosperm enclosed in a horny layer of varying thickness in the different varieties4 ,the colour of the grain is white1 yellow1 red1 blue or variegated4 ,it is commonly cultivated in ,canada and northern ,united ,states1 where the seasons are too short for ,dent corn1 and has been grown as far north as #ej ,n4 lat4 ,dent or field corn 7var4 indentata7 has the starchy endosperm extending to the summit of the grain1 with horny endosperm at the sides4 ,the top of the grain becomes indented1 owing to the drying and shrinkage of the starchy matter2 the character of the indented surface varies with the height and thickness of the horny endosperm4 ,this is the form commonly grown in the ,united ,states2 the varieties differ widely in the size of the plants and the appearance of the ear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,female ,spikelet4 ,the colour of the grain varies greatly1 being generally white1 yellow1 mottled red1 or less commonly red4 ,soft corn 7var4 amylacea7 has no horny endosperm1 and hence the grains shrink uniformly4 ,it is cultivated only to a limited extent in the ,united ,states1 but seems to have been commonly grown by the ,indians in many localities in ,north and ,south ,america4 ,sweet corn 7var4 saccharata7 is characterized by the translucent horny appearance of the grains and their more or less wrinkled condition4 ,it is pre-eminently a garden vegetable1 the ear being used before the grain hardens1 when it is well filled but soft and milky4 ,it is often cooked and served in the cob2 when canned it is cut from the cob4 ,canned sweet corn is an important article of domestic commerce in ,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,in starchy sweet corn 7var4 amylea-saccharata7 the grain has the external appearance of sweet corn1 but examination shows the lower half to be starchy1 the upper horny and translucent4 ,a form of flint corn1 with variegated leaves1 is grown for ornament under the name ,zea japonica or ,japanese striped corn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,grain4 ,chemical analysis1 like common experience1 shows that ,indian corn is a very nutritious article of food1 being richer in albuminoids than any other cereals when ripe 7calculated in the dry weight74 ,it can be grown in the tropics from the level of the sea to a height equal to that of the ,pyrenees and in the south and middle of ,europe1 but it cannot be grown in ,england with any chance of profit1 except perhaps as fodder4 ,frost kills the plant in all its stages and all its varieties2 and the crop does not flourish well if the nights are cool1 no matter how favourable the other conditions4 ,consequently it is the first crop to disappear as one ascends into the mountain regions1 and comparatively little is grown west of the great plains of ,north ,america4 ,in ,brittany1 where it scarcely ripens the grain1 it furnishes a strong crop in the autumn upon sandy soil where clover and lucerne will yield but a poor produce4 ,it prefers a deep1 rich1 warm1 dry and mellow soil1 and hence the rich bottoms and fertile prairies of the ,mississippi basin constitute the region of its greatest production4 ,it is extensively grown throughout ,india1 both for the ripe grain and for use of the unripe cob as a green vegetable4 ,it is the most common crop throughout ,south ,africa1 where it is known as mealies1 being the staple food of the natives4 ,it is also largely used for fodder and is an important article of export4 ,as an article of food maize is one of the most extensively used grains in the world4 ,although rich in nitrogenous matter and fat1 it does not make good bread4 ,a mixture of rye and corn meal1 however1 makes an excellent coarse bread1 formerly much used in the ,atlantic states1 and a similar bread is now the chief coarse bread of ,portugal and some parts of ,spain4 ,it is either baked into cakes1 called tortilla by the ,indians of ,yucatan1 or made into a kind of porridge1 as in ,ireland4 ,when deprived of the gluten it constitutes oswego1 maizena or corn flour4 ,maize contains more oil than any other cereal1 ranging from #c4e to #i4e in the commercial grain4 ,this is one of the factors in its value for fattening purposes4 ,in distilling and some other processes this oil is separated and forms an article of commerce4 ,when maize is sown1 broadcast or closely planted in drills the ears may not develop at all1 but the stalk is richer in sugar and sweeter2 and this is the basis of growing corn-fodder4 ,the amount of forage that may be produced in this way is enormous2 #ej1jjj to #hj1jjj lb4 of green fodder are grown per acre1 which makes #hjjj to #ab1jjj lb4 as field-cured4 ,sugar and molasses have from time to time been manufactured from the corn stalks4 ,see articles on corn and ,zea ,mays in ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,cyclopaedia of ,american ,horticulture 7#aijj-aijb72 and for cultivation in ,india1 ,watt's ,dictionary of the ,economic ,products of ,india1 vi4 7#ahic74 ,,majesty 7,fr4 majest2 ,lat4 majestas1 grandeur1 greatness1 from the base mag-1 as in magnus1 great1 major1 greater1 c471 dignity1 greatness1 a term especially used to express the dignity and power of a sovereign4 ,this application is to be traced to the use of majestas in ,latin to express the supreme sovereign dignity of the ,roman state1 the majestas reipublicae or populi ,romani1 hence majestatem laedere or minuere1 was to commit high treason1 crimen majestatis4 7,for the modern law and usage of laesa majestas1 lse majest1 ,majesttsbeleidigung1 see ,,treason47 ,from the republic majestas was transferred to the emperors1 and the majestas populi ,romani became the majestas imperii1 and augustalis majestas is used as a term to express the sovereign person of the emperor4 ,honorius and ,theodosius speak of themselves in the first person as nostra majestas4 ,the term majesty was strictly confined in the middle ages to the successors of the ,roman emperors in the ,west1 and at the treaty of ,cambrai 7#aebi7 it is reserved for the emperor ,charles ,v4 ,later the word is used of kings also1 and the distinction is made between imperial majesty 7caesareana majestas7 and kingly or royal majesty4 ,from the #afth century dates the application of ,most ,christian and ,catholic ,majesty to the kings of ,france1 of ,catholic ,majesty to the kings of ,spain1 of ,most ,faithful ,majesty to the kings of ,portugal1 and ,apostolic ,majesty to the kings of ,hungary4 ,in ,england the use is generally assigned to the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 but it is found1 though not in general usage1 earlier2 thus the ,new ,english ,dictionary quotes from an ,address of the ,kings ,clerks to ,henry ,,ii4 in #aaga 7,materials for the ,history of ,archbishop ,becket1 vii4 #dga1 ,rolls ,series1 #ahhe71 where the king is styled vestra majestas1 and ,selden 7,titles of ,honour1 part i4 ch4 #g1 p4 #ih1 ed4 #afgb7 finds many early uses in letters to ,edward ,i41 in charters of creation of peers1 c4 ,the fullest form in ,english usage is ,his ,most ,gracious ,majesty2 another form is ,the ,king's ,most ,excellent ,majesty1 as in the ,english ,prayer-book4 ,his ,sacred ,majesty was common in the #agth century2 and of this form ,selden says3 ,it is true1 ,i think1 that in our memory or the memory of our fathers1 the use of it first began in ,england4 ,his ,majesty1 abbreviated ,h4,m41 is now the universal ,european use in speaking of any reigning king1 and ,his ,imperial ,majesty1 ,h4,i4,m41 of any reigning emperor4 ,from the particular and very early use of majesty for the glory and splendour of ,god1 the term has been used in ecclesiastical art of the representation of ,god the ,father enthroned in glory1 sometimes with the other persons of the ,trinity1 and of the ,saviour alone1 enthroned with an aureole4 ,,majl,,th1 ,j,,nos1 or ,,john1 ,,count 7#aghf-ahee71 ,hungarian historian and poet1 was born at ,pest on the #eth of ,october #aghf4 ,first educated at home1 he subsequently studied philosophy at ,eger 7,erlau7 and law at ,gyr 7,raab71 his father1 ,count ,joseph ,majlth1 an ,austrian minister of state1 eventually obtaining for him an appointment in the public service4 ,majlth devoted himself to historical research and the translation into ,german of ,magyar folk-tales1 and of selections from the works of the best of his country's native poets4 ,moreover1 as an original lyrical writer1 and as an editor and adapter of old ,german poems1 ,majlth showed considerable talent4 ,during the greater part of his life he resided either at ,pest or ,vienna1 but a few years before his death he removed to ,munich1 where he fell into a state of destitution and extreme despondency4 ,seized at last by a terrible infatuation1 he and his daughter ,henriette1 who had long been his constant companion and amanuensis1 drowned themselves in the ,lake of ,starnberg1 a few miles south-west of ,munich1 on the #crd of ,january #ahee4 ,of his historical works the most important are the ,geschichte der ,magyaren 7,vienna1 #ahbh-ahca1 #e vols42 #bnd ed41 ,ratisbon1 #aheb-ahec7 and his ,geschichte des sterreichischen ,kaiserstaats 7,hamburg1 #ahcd-ahej1 #e vols474 ,specially noteworthy among his metrical translations from the ,hungarian are the ,magyarische ,gedichte 7,stuttgart and ,tbingen1 #ahbe72 and ,himfy's auserlesene ,liebeslieder 7,pest1 #ahbi2 #bnd ed41 #ahca74 ,a valuable contribution to folk-lore appeared in the ,magyarische ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,erzhlungen 7,brnn1 #ahbe2 #bnd ed41 ,stuttgart and ,tbingen1 #ahcg1 #b vols474 ,,majolica1 a name properly applied to a species of ,italian ware in which the body is coated with a tin-enamel1 on which is laid and fired a painted decoration4 ,it is also applied to similar wares made in imitation of the ,italian ware in other countries4 ,the word in ,italian is maiolica4 ,du ,cange 7,gloss4 s4v4 ,majorica7 quotes from a chronicle of ,verona of #acfh1 in which the form majolica occurs for the more usual ,latin form majorica4 ,it has usually been supposed that this type of pottery was first made in the island of ,majorca1 but it is more probable that the name was given by the ,italians to the lustred ,spanish ware imported by ships hailing from the ,balearic ,islands4 7,see ,,ceramics3 ,medieval and ,later ,italian47 ,,major 7or ,,mair71 ,,john 7#adgj-aeej71 ,scottish theological and historical writer1 was born at the village of ,gleghornie1 near ,north ,berwick1 ,scotland1 in the year #adgj4 ,he was educated at the school of ,haddington1 where ,john ,knox was later a pupil4 ,after a short period spent at ,cambridge 7at ,god's ,house1 afterwards ,christ's ,college7 he entered the university of ,paris in #adic1 studying successively at the colleges of ,st ,barbe1 ,montaigu and ,navarre1 and graduating as master of arts in #adif4 ,promoted to the doctorate in #aeje1 he lectured on philosophy at ,montaigu ,college and on theology at ,navarre4 ,he visited ,scotland in #aeae and returned in #aeah1 when he was appointed principal regent in the university of ,glasgow1 ,john ,knox being among the number of those who attended his lectures there4 ,in #aebb he removed to ,st ,andrew's ,university1 where in #aebe ,george ,buchanan was one of his pupils4 ,he returned to the college of ,montaigu in #aebe1 but was once more at ,st ,andrew's in #aeca1 where he was head of ,st ,salvator's ,college from #aecd until his death4 ,major's voluminous writings may be grouped under 7a7 logic and philosophy1 7b7 ,scripture commentary1 and 7c7 history4 ,all are in ,latin1 all appeared between #aejc and #aecj1 and all were printed at ,paris4 ,the first group includes his ,exponabilia 7#aejc71 his commentary on ,petrus ,hispanus 7#aeje-aejf71 his ,inclitarum artium libri 7#aejf1 c471 his commentary on ,joannes ,dorp 7#aejd1 c471 his ,insolubilia 7#aeaf1 c471 his introduction to ,aristotle's logic 7#aeba1 c471 his commentary on the ethics 7#aecj71 and1 chief of all1 his commentary on ,peter ,lombard's ,sentences 7#aeji1 c472 the second consists of a commentary on ,matthew 7#aeah7 and another on the ,four ,gospels 7#aebi72 the last is represented by his famous ,historia ,majoris ,britanniae tam ,angliae quam ,scotiae per ,j4 ,m4 7#aeba74 ,in political philosophy he maintained the ,scotist position1 that civil authority was derived from the popular will1 but in theology he was a scholastic conservative1 though he never failed to show his approbation of ,gallicanism and its plea for the reform of ecclesiastical abuses4 ,he has left on record that it was his aim and hope to reconcile realism and nominalism in the interests of theological peace4 ,he had a world-wide reputation as a teacher and writer4 ,buchanan's severe epigram1 perhaps the only unfriendly words in the flood of contemporary praise1 may be explained as a protest against the compromise which ,major appeared to offer rather than as a personal attack on his teacher4 ,major takes a more independent attitude in his ,history1 which is a remarkable example of historical accuracy and insight4 ,he claims that the historian's chief duty is to write truthfully1 and he is careful to show that a theologian may fulfil this condition4 ,the ,history1 on which his fame now rests1 was reprinted by ,freebairn 7,edinburgh1 #agdj71 and was translated in #ahib by ,archibald ,constable for the ,scottish ,history ,society4 ,the latter volume contains a full account of the author by ,aeneas ,j4 ,g4 ,mackay and a bibliography by ,thomas ,graves ,law4 ,,major 7,lat4 for greater71 a word used1 both as a substantive and adjective1 for that which is greater than another in size1 quality1 degree1 importance1 c41 often opposed correlatively to that to which minor is applied in the same connotation4 ,in the categorical syllogism in logic1 the major term is the term which forms the predicate of the conclusion1 the major premise is that which contains the major term4 7,for the distinction between major and minor intervals1 and other applications in music1 see ,,music and ,,harmony47 ,the use of ,major as part of an official title in ,med4 ,lat4 has given the ,span4 mayor1 ,fr4 maire1 and ,eng4 mayor 7q4v474 ,in ,english the unadapted form major is the title of a military officer now ranking between a captain and a lieutenant-colonel4 ,originally the word was used adjectivally in the title sergeant-major1 an officer of high rank 7third in command of an army7 who performed the same duties of administration1 drill and encampments on the staff of the chief commander as the sergeant in a company performs as assistant to the captain4 ,this was in the latter half of the #afth century1 and very soon afterwards the sergeant-major became known as the sergeant-major-general--hence the modern title of major-general4 ,by the time of the ,english ,civil ,war majors had been introduced in each regiment of foot1 who corresponded in a lesser sphere to the major-general of the whole army4 ,the major's sphere of duties1 precedence and title have since varied but little1 though he has1 in the ,british service1 taken the place of the lieutenant-colonel as second in command--the latter officer exercising the command of the cavalry regiment1 infantry battalion or artillery brigade1 and the colonel being1 save for certain administrative functions1 little more than the titular chief of his regiment4 ,junior majors command companies of infantry2 squadrons of cavalry and batteries of artillery are also commanded by majors4 ,in most ,european armies1 however1 and of late years in the army of the ,united ,states also1 the major has become a battalion commander under the orders of a regimental commander 7colonel or lieutenant-colonel74 ,the word appears also in the ,british service in brigade-major 7the adjutant or staff officer of a brigade74 ,town-majors 7garrison staff officers7 are now no longer appointed4 ,in the ,french service up to #ahga the major-general was the chief of the general staff of a field army1 and thus preserved the tradition of the former sergeant-major or sergeant-major-general4 ,,majorca 7,mallorca71 the largest of the group of ,spanish islands in the ,mediterranean ,sea known as the ,balearic ,islands 7q4v474 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #bdh1aia2 area1 #dcj sq4 m4 ,majorca has the shape of a trapezoid1 with the angles directed to the cardinal points2 and its diagonal1 from ,cape ,grozer in the west to ,cape ,pera in the east1 is about #fj m4 ,on the north-west the coast is precipitous1 but on the other sides it is low and sloping4 ,on the north-east there are several considerable bays1 of which the chief are those of ,alcudia and ,pollensa2 while on the south-west is the still more important bay of ,palma4 ,no fewer than twelve ports or harbours are enumerated round the island1 of which may be mentioned ,andraitx and ,sller4 ,in the north-west ,majorca is traversed by a chain of mountains running parallel with the coast1 and attaining its highest elevation in ,silla de ,torrellas 7#eaed ft474 ,towards the south and east the surface is comparatively level1 though broken by isolated peaks of considerable height4 ,the northern mountains afford great protection to the rest of the island from the violent gales to which it would otherwise be exposed1 and render the climate remarkably mild and pleasant4 ,the scenery of ,majorca has all the picturesqueness of outline that usually belongs to a limestone formation4 ,some of the valleys1 such as those of ,valdemosa and ,sller1 with their luxuriant vegetation1 are delightful resorts4 ,there are quarries of marble of various grains and colours--those near ,santay1 in the district of ,manacor1 being especially celebrated2 while lead1 iron and cinnabar have also been obtained4 ,coal of a jet-like character is found at ,benisalem1 where it was first worked in #ahcf2 at ,selva1 where it has been mined since #ahea2 near ,santa ,maria and elsewhere4 ,it is used in the industrial establishments of ,palma1 and in the manufacture of lime1 plaster and bricks near the mines4 ,a considerable quantity is also exported to ,barcelona4 ,the inhabitants are principally devoted to agriculture1 and most of the arable land is cultivated4 ,the mountains are terraced2 and the old pine woods have in many places given way to the olive1 the vine and the almond tree1 to fields of wheat and flax1 or to orchards of figs and oranges4 ,for the last-mentioned fruits the valley of ,sller is one of the most important districts1 the produce being largely transmitted to ,france4 ,the yield of oil is very considerable1 and ,inca is the centre of the oil district4 ,the wines are light but excellent1 especially the ,muscadel and ,montona4 ,during the summer there is often great scarcity of water2 but1 according to a system handed down by the ,moors1 the rains of autumn and winter are collected in enormous reservoirs1 which contain sufficient water to last through the dry season2 and on the payment of a certain rate1 each landholder has his fields flooded at certain intervals4 ,mules are used in the agriculture and traffic of the island4 ,the cattle are small1 but the sheep are large and well fleeced4 ,pigs are reared for export to ,barcelona1 and there is abundance of poultry and small game4 ,brandy is made and exported in large quantities4 ,excellent woollen and linen cloths are woven2 the silkworm is reared and its produce manufactured2 and canvas1 rope and cord are largely made1 from both native and foreign materials4 ,the roads are excellent1 the four principal being those from ,alcudia1 ,manacor1 ,sller and ,andraitx to the capital4 ,forty-eight miles of railway were open at the beginning of the #bjth century4 ,the main line runs from ,palma to ,manacor and ,alcudia4 ,the telegraphic system is fairly complete1 and there is regular steam communication with ,barcelona and ,alicante4 ,the principal towns include--besides ,palma 7#fc1icg71 ,felanitx 7#aa1bid7 and ,manacor 7#ab1djh71 which are described in separate articles--,andraitx 7#feaf71 ,inca 7#gegi71 ,llummayor 7#hhei71 ,pollensa 7#hcjh71 ,santay 7#ffib7 and ,sller 7#hjbf74 ,,majorian 7,,julius ,,valerius ,,majorianus71 emperor of the ,west from #deg to #dfa4 ,he had distinguished himself as a general by victories over the ,franks and ,alemanni1 and six months after the deposition of ,avitus he was declared emperor by the regent ,ricimer4 ,after repelling an attack by the ,vandals upon ,campania 7#deh7 he prepared a large force1 composed chiefly of barbarians1 to invade ,africa1 which he previously visited in disguise4 ,having during his stay in ,gaul defeated and concluded an alliance with ,theodoric the ,visigoth1 at the beginning of #dfj he crossed the ,pyrenees for the purpose of joining the powerful fleet which he had collected at ,carthagena4 ,the ,vandal king ,genseric1 however1 after all overtures of peace had been rejected1 succeeded through the treachery of certain officers in surprising the ,roman fleet1 most of the ships being either taken or destroyed4 ,majorian thereupon made peace with ,genseric4 ,but his ill-success had destroyed his military reputation2 his efforts to put down abuses and improve the condition of the people had roused the hatred of the officials2 and ,ricimer1 jealous of his fame and influence1 stirred up the foreign troops against him4 ,a mutiny broke out in ,lombardy1 and on the #bnd of ,august #dfa ,majorian was forced to resign4 ,he died five days afterwards1 either of dysentery or by violence4 ,majorian was the author of a number of remarkable laws1 contained in the ,theodosian ,code4 ,he remitted all arrears of taxes1 the collection of which was for the future placed in the hands of the local officials4 ,he revived the institution of defensores1 defenders of cities1 whose duty it was to protect the poor and inform the emperor of abuses committed in his name4 ,the practice of pulling down the ancient monuments to be used as building material1 which was connived at by venal officials1 was strictly prohibited4 ,he also passed laws against compulsory ordination and premature vows of celibacy4 ,see ,sidonius ,apollinaris1 ,panegyric of ,majorian2 ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall1 ch4 xxxvi4 7where an outline of the novels of ,majorian is given72 ,j4 ,b4 ,bury1 ,later ,roman ,empire1 bk4 iii4 ,,majority 7,fr4 majorit2 ,med4 ,lat4 majoritas2 ,lat4 major1 greater71 a term signifying the greater number4 ,in legislative and deliberative assemblies it is usual to decide questions by a majority of those present at a meeting and voting4 ,in law1 majority is the state of being of full age1 which in the ,united ,kingdom is twenty-one years of age4 ,a person attains his majority at twelve o'clock at night of the day preceding his twenty-first birthday 7see ,,infant2 ,,age74 ,,majuba 7properly ,,amajuba1 ,zulu for the hill of doves71 a mountain in northern ,natal1 part of the ,drakensberg range1 rising about #gjjj ft4 above the sea and over #bjjj ft4 above the level of the surrounding country4 ,it overlooks the pass through the ,drakensberg known as ,laing's ,nek1 is #h m4 ,s4 of the ,transvaal border and #ah m4 ,n4 of the town of ,newcastle4 ,the railway from ,durban to ,johannesburg skirts the base of the mountain4 ,during the ,boer ,war of #ahhj-ha ,majuba was occupied on the night of the #bfth of ,february #ahha by some #fjj ,british troops under ,sir ,george ,pomeroy ,colley4 ,on the following morning the hill was stormed by the ,boers under ,piet ,joubert and the ,british routed1 ,colley being among the slain4 ,,makalaka1 a general designation used by the ,bechuana1 ,matabele and kindred peoples1 for conquered or slave tribes4 ,thus many of the tribes subjugated by the ,makololo chief1 ,sebituane1 about #ahcj were called ,makalaka 7see ,david ,livingstone's ,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,south ,africa1 ,london1 #aheg74 ,by early writers on south-central ,africa certain of the inhabitants of ,barotseland were styled ,makalaka2 the name is more frequently used to designate the ,makalanga1 one of the tribes now classed as ,mashonas 7q4v471 who were brought into subjection by the ,matabele4 ,,makaraka1 or ,,iddio 7,cannibals71 a negroid people of ,central ,africa1 closely related to the powerful ,azandeh or ,niam-,niam race1 occupying the ,bahr-el-,ghazal west of ,lado4 ,they came originally from the country of the ,kibas1 north of the ,welle4 ,dr ,w4 ,junker described them as among the most trustworthy1 industrious and intelligent people of the ,bahr-el-,ghazal4 ,they are a reddish-black1 with nose less flat and cheek-bones less prominent than the ordinary negroes1 and1 unlike the latter1 do not extract the incisors4 ,their long silky hair is built up in the most fantastic form by means of vegetable substances4 ,they are well-known for strength and staying power4 ,see ,w4 ,junker1 ,travels in ,africa 7#ahij-ahib74 ,,makart1 ,,hans 7#ahdj-ahhd71 ,austrian painter1 born at ,salzburg1 was the son of an inspector of the imperial castle4 ,he has been aptly called the first ,german painter of the #aith century4 ,when he1 as a youth1 entered the ,vienna ,academy ,german art was under the rule of ,cornelius's cold classicism4 ,it was entirely intellectual and academic4 ,clear and precise drawing1 sculpturesque modelling1 and pictorial erudition were the qualities most esteemed2 and it is not surprising that ,makart1 poor draughtsman to the very last1 with a passionate and sensual love of colour1 and ever impatient to escape the routine of art-school drawing1 was found to be devoid of all talent and forced to leave the ,vienna ,academy4 ,he went to ,munich1 and after two years of independent study attracted the attention of ,piloty1 under whose guidance he made rapid and astonishing progress4 ,the first picture he painted under ,piloty1 ,lavoisier in ,prison1 though timid and conventional1 attracted attention by its sense of colour4 ,in the next1 ,the ,knight and the ,water ,nymphs1 he first displayed the decorative qualities to which he afterwards sacrificed everything else in his work4 ,with the ,cupids and ,the ,plague in ,florence of the next year his fame became firmly established4 ,romeo and ,juliet was soon after bought by the ,austrian emperor for the ,vienna ,museum1 and ,makart was invited to come to ,vienna1 where a large studio was placed at his disposal4 ,in ,vienna ,makart became the acknowledged leader of the artistic life of the city1 which in the 'seventies passed through a period of feverish activity1 the chief results of which are the sumptuously decorated public buildings of the ,ringstrasse4 ,the enthusiasm of the time1 the splendour of the ftes over which ,makart presided1 and the very obvious appeal of his huge compositions in their glowing richness of colour1 in which he tried to emulate ,rubens1 made him appear a very giant to his contemporaries in ,vienna1 and indeed in all ,austria and ,germany4 ,the appearance of each of his ambitious historical and allegorical paintings was hailed with enthusiasm--the ,catherina ,cornaro1 ,diana's ,hunt1 ,the ,entry of ,charles ,v4 into ,antwerp1 ,abundantia1 ,spring1 ,summer1 ,the ,death of ,cleopatra and the ,five ,senses4 ,he reached the zenith of his fame when1 in #ahgi1 he designed1 single-handed1 the costumes1 scenic setting1 and triumphal cars of the grand pageant with which the citizens of ,vienna celebrated the silver wedding of their rulers4 ,some #ae1jjj people participated in the pageant1 all dressed in the costumes of the ,rubens and ,rembrandt period4 ,makart died in ,vienna in ,october #ahhd4 ,unfortunately ,makart was in the habit of using such villainous pigments and mediums that in the few decades which have passed since his death1 the vast majority of his large paintings have practically perished4 ,the blues have turned into green2 the bitumen has eaten away the rich glow of the colour harmonies2 the thickly applied paint has cracked and in some instances crumbled away4 ,and this loss of their chief quality has accentuated the weaknesses of these pictures--the faulty drawing1 careless and hasty execution1 lack of deeper significance and prevalence of glaring anachronisms4 ,important examples of his work are to be found at the galleries of ,vienna1 ,berlin1 ,hamburg and ,stuttgart4 ,for the ,vienna ,museum he also executed a series of decorative lunettes4 ,,making-,,up ,,price1 a term used in the ,london and other ,british ,stock ,exchanges1 to denote the price at which speculative bargains are carried over from one account to the next4 ,the carrying over of a bull position in ,eries1 for example1 implies a sale for cash and a simultaneous repurchase for the new account1 both bargains being done at the making-up price4 ,this is fixed at noon on carry-over day1 in accordance with the market price then current 7see ,,account2 ,,stock ,,exchange74 ,the term is also used in ,new ,york1 where the making-up prices are fixed at the end of a day's business1 in accordance with the ,american system of daily settlements4 ,,mak1 a town of ,hungary1 capital of the county of ,csand #ace m4 ,s4,e4 of ,budapest by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #cc1gja4 ,it is situated near the right bank of the ,maros1 and is a typical ,hungarian town of the ,alfld4 ,the most noteworthy building is the palace of the bishop of ,csand1 whose usual residence is in ,temesvr4 ,the town possesses numerous mills1 and the surrounding country is fertile4 ,the communal lands are extensive2 they afford excellent pasturage for horses and sheep and also for large herds of horned cattle1 for the size and quality of which ,mak has obtained a high repute4 ,,makran1 or ,,mekran1 a province of ,baluchistan1 fringing the ,arabian ,sea from ,persia almost to ,sind for about #bjj m4 ,it is subject to the khan of ,kalat under ,british political supervision4 ,estimated area1 #bf1jjj sq4 m42 estimated pop4 7#aijc71 #gh1jjj4 ,the long lateral valley of ,kej is usually associated with ,makran in early geographical records4 ,the ,kej-,macoran of ,marco ,polo is the ,makran of to-day4 ,the long stretch of sandy foreshore is broken on the coast-line by the magnificent cliffs of ,malan1 the hammer-shaped headlands of ,ormarah and ,gwadar1 and the precipitous cliffs of ,jebel ,zarain1 near ,pasni4 ,within them lies the usual frontier band of parallel ridges1 alternating with narrow valleys4 ,amongst them the ranges called ,talana and ,talur are conspicuous by their height and regular configuration4 ,the normal conformation of the ,baluchistan frontier is somewhat emphasized in ,makran4 ,here the volcanic action1 which preceded the general upheaval of recent strata and the folding of the edges of the interior highlands1 is still in evidence in occasional boiling mud volcanoes on the coast-line4 ,it is repeated in the blazing summit of the ,kuh-i-taftan 7the burning mountain of the ,persian frontier7 which is the highest active volcano in ,asia 7#ac1jjj ft471 and probably the farthest inland4 ,evidence of extinct mud volcanoes exists through a very wide area in ,baluchistan and ,seistan4 ,probably the miri1 or fort1 at ,quetta represents one of them4 ,the coast is indented by several harbours4 ,ormarah1 ,khor ,kalmat1 ,pasni and ,gwadar are all somewhat difficult of approach by reason of a sand-bar which appears to extend along the whole coast-line1 and which is very possibly the last evidence of a submerged ridge2 and they are all subject to a very lively surf under certain conditions of wind4 ,of these the port of ,gwadar 7which belongs to ,muscat and is therefore foreign territory7 is the most important4 ,they all are 7or were7 stations of the ,indo-,persian telegraph system which unites ,karachi with ,bushire4 ,with the exception of the ,kej valley1 and that of the ,bolida1 which is an affluent of the ,kej1 there are no considerable spaces of cultivation in ,makran4 ,these two valleys seem to concentrate the whole agricultural wealth of the country4 ,they are picturesque1 with thick groves of date palms at intervals1 and are filled with crops and orchards4 ,they are indeed exceedingly beautiful2 and yet the surrounding waste of hills is chiefly a barren repetition of sun-cracked crags and ridges with parched and withered valleys intersecting them1 where a trickle of salt water leaves a white and leprous streak amongst the faded tamarisk or the yellow stalks of last season's grass4 ,makran is the home of remnants of an innumerable company of mixed people gathered from the four corners of ,asia and eastern ,africa4 ,the ancient ,dravidians1 of whom the ,brahui is typical1 still exist in many of the districts which are assigned to them in ,herodotus4 ,amongst them there is always a prominent ,arab element1 for the ,arabs held ,makran even before they conquered ,sind and made the ,kej valley their trade highway to ,india4 ,there are negroes on the coast1 bred from imported slaves4 ,the ,meds of the ,indus valley still form the greater part of the fishing population1 representing the ,ichthyophagi of ,arrian4 ,the old ,tajik element of ,persia is not so evident in ,makran as it is farther north2 and the ,karak pirates whose depredations led to the invasion of ,india and the conquest of ,sind1 seem to have disappeared altogether4 ,the fourth section includes the valleys formed by the ,rakshan and ,mashkel1 which1 sweeping downwards from the ,kalat highlands and the ,persian border east and west1 unite to break through the intervening chain of hills northward to form the ,mashkel swamps1 and define the northern limits of ,makran4 ,in these valleys are narrow strips of very advanced cultivation1 the dates of ,panjgur being generally reckoned superior even to those of the ,euphrates4 ,the great ,mashkel swamp and the ,kharan desert to the east of it1 mark the flat phase of southern ,baluchistan topography4 ,it is geologically part of an ancient inland lake or sea which included the present swamp regions of the ,helmund1 but not the central depression of the ,lora4 ,the latter is buttressed against hills at a much higher elevation than the ,kharan desert1 which is separated from the great expanse of the ,helmund desert within the borders of ,afghanistan by a transverse band of serrated hills forming a distinct watershed from ,nushki to ,seistan4 ,here and there these jagged peaks appear as if half overwhelmed by an advancing sea of sand4 ,they are treeless and barren1 and water is but rarely found at the edges of their foothills4 ,the ,koh-i-,sultan1 at the western extremity of the northern group of these irregular hills1 is over #fjjj ft4 above sea-level1 but the general level of the surrounding deserts is only about #bjjj ft41 sinking to #aejj ft4 in the ,mashkel ,hamun and the ,gaod-i-,zirreh4 ,the whole of this country has been surveyed by ,indian surveyors and the boundary between ,persian and ,british ,baluchistan was demarcated by a commission in #ahie-ahif4 ,in #ahih a column of ,british troops under ,colonel ,mayne was despatched to ,makran by sea1 owing to a rebellion against the authority of the khan of ,kalat1 and an attack made by some ,makran chiefs on a ,british survey party4 ,the campaign was short and terminated with the capture of the ,kej citadel4 ,another similar expedition was required in #aija to storm the fort at ,nodiz4 ,the headquarters of the native governor1 under the khan of ,kalat1 are at ,turbat1 with deputies at ,tump1 ,kolwa1 ,pasni and ,panjgur4 ,a levy corps1 with two ,british officers1 is stationed along the western frontier4 ,the port of ,gwadur forms an enclave belonging to the sultan of ,muscat4 ,baluchistan ,district ,gazetteer1 vol4 vii4 7,bombay1 #aijg74 7,t4 ,h4 ,h4997 ,,maksoora1 the term in ,mahommedan architecture given to the sanctuary or praying-chamber in a mosque1 which was sometimes enclosed with a screen of lattice-work2 the word is occasionally used for a similar enclosure round a tomb4 ,,malabar1 a district of ,british ,india1 in the ,madras ,presidency4 ,geographically the name is sometimes extended to the entire western coast of the peninsula4 ,properly it should apply to the strip below the ,ghats1 which is inhabited by people speaking the ,malayalam language1 a branch of the ,dravidian stock1 who form a peculiar race1 with castes1 customs and traditions of their own4 ,it would thus be coextensive with the old kingdom of ,chera1 including the modern states of ,travancore and ,cochin1 and part of ,kanara4 ,in #aija the total number of persons speaking ,malayalam in all ,india was #f1jbi1cjd4 ,the district of ,malabar extends for #ade m4 along the coast1 running inland to the ,ghats with a breadth varying from #gj to #be m4 ,the administrative headquarters are at ,calicut4 ,area1 #egie sq4 m4 ,malabar is singularly diversified in its configuration2 from the eastward1 the great range of the ,western ,ghats1 only interrupted by the ,palghat gap1 looks down on a country broken by long spurs1 extensive ravines1 dense forests and tangled jungle4 ,to the westward1 gentler slopes and downs1 and gradually widening valleys closely cultivated1 succeed the forest uplands1 till1 nearer the seaboard1 the low laterite table-lands shelve into rice plains and backwaters fringed with coco-nut palms4 ,the coast runs in a south-easterly direction1 and forms a few headlands and small bays1 with a natural harbour in the south at ,cochin4 ,in the south there is considerable extent of table-land4 ,the mountains of the ,western ,ghats run almost parallel to the coast1 and vary from #cjjj to #gjjj ft4 in height4 ,one of the most characteristic features of ,malabar is an all but continuous chain of lagoons or backwaters lying parallel to the coast1 which have been formed by the action of the waves and shore currents in obstructing the waters of the rivers4 ,connected by artificial canals1 they form a cheap means of transit2 and a large local trade is carried on by inland navigation4 ,fishing and fishcuring is an important industry4 ,the forests are extensive and of great value1 but they are almost entirely private property4 ,the few tracts which are conserved have come into government hands by escheat or by contract4 ,wild animals include the elephant1 tiger1 panther1 bison1 sambhar1 spotted deer1 ,nilgiri ibex1 and bear4 ,the population in #aija was #b1hjj1eee1 showing an increase of #e4f in the decade4 ,the staple crop is rice1 the next most important product being coco-nuts4 ,coffee is grown chiefly in the upland tract known as the ,wynaad1 where there are also a few acres under tea4 ,the ,madras railway crosses the district and has been extended from ,calicut to ,cannanore along the coast4 ,there are eleven seaports1 of which the principal are ,calicut1 ,tellicherry1 ,cannanore and ,cochin4 ,the principal exports are coffee1 coco-nut products and timber4 ,there are factories for cleaning coffee1 pressing coir and making matting1 making tiles1 sawing timber and weaving cotton4 ,see ,malabar ,district ,gazetteer 7,madras1 #aijh74 ,,malabari1 ,,behramji 7#ahec- 71 ,indian journalist and social reformer1 was born in #ahec at ,baroda1 the son of a poor ,parsi in the employment of the state1 who died shortly after his birth4 ,his mother took him to ,surat1 where he was educated in a mission school1 but he never succeeded in gaining an academical degree4 ,coming to ,bombay1 he fell under the influence of ,dr ,john ,wilson1 principal of the ,scottish ,college4 ,as early as #ahge he published a volume of poems in ,gujarati1 followed in #ahgg by ,the ,indian ,muse in ,english ,garb1 which attracted attention in ,england1 notably from ,tennyson1 ,max ,mller1 and ,florence ,nightingale4 ,his life work began in #ahhj when he acquired the ,indian ,spectator1 which he edited for twenty years until it was merged in the ,voice of ,india4 ,in #aija he became editor of ,east and ,west4 ,always holding aloof from politics1 he was an ardent and indefatigable advocate of social reform in ,india1 especially as regards child marriage and the remarriage of widows4 ,it was largely by his efforts1 both in the press and in tours through the country1 that the ,age of ,consent ,act was passed in #ahia4 ,his account of his visits to ,england1 entitled ,the ,indian ,eye on ,english ,life 7#ahic71 passed through three editions1 and an earlier book of a somewhat satirical nature1 ,gujarat and the ,gujaratis 7#ahhc71 was equally popular4 ,see ,r4 ,p4 ,karkaria1 ,india1 ,forty ,years of ,progress and ,reform1 7,london1 #ahif74 ,,malabon1 a town of the province of ,rizal1 ,luzon1 ,philippine ,islands1 #a m4 inland from the shore of ,manila ,bay and #c m4 ,n4 of the city of ,manila1 with which it is connected by an electric tramway4 ,pop4 7#aijc71 #bj1acf4 ,the leading industries are the refining of sugar1 fishing1 trade1 the weaving of jusi cloth1 the making of cigars1 and the cultivation of ilang-ilang-trees 7,cananga odorata7 for their flowers1 from which a fine perfume is distilled2 ilang-ilang is one of the principal exports1 mostly to ,france4 ,tagalog and ,spanish are the principal languages4 ,malabon was formerly known as ,tambbong4 ,,malacca1 a town on the west coast of the ,malay ,peninsula1 in #b #ad ,n41 #ajb #ab ,e41 which1 with the territory lying immediately around and behind it forms one of the ,straits ,settlements1 and gives its name to the ,straits which divide ,sumatra from the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,its name1 which is more correctly transliterated melaka1 is that of a species of jungle fruit1 and is also borne by the small river on the right bank of which the old ,dutch town stands4 ,the ,dutch town is connected by a bridge with the business quarter on the left bank1 which is inhabited almost exclusively by ,chinese1 ,eurasians and ,malays4 ,malacca1 now a somnolent little town1 a favourite resort of rich ,chinese who have retired from business1 is visited by few ships and is the least important of the three ,british settlements on the ,straits which give their name to the colony4 ,it has1 however1 a remarkable history4 ,the precise date of its foundation cannot be ascertained1 but there is strong reason to believe that this event took place at the earliest in the #adth century4 ,the ,roman youth ,ludovigo ,barthema is believed to have been the first ,european to visit it1 some time before #aejc2 and in #aeji ,diogo ,lopez de ,siqueira sailed from ,portugal for the express purpose of exploiting ,malacca4 ,at first he was hospitably received1 but disagreements with the natives ensued and word was brought to ,siqueira by ,magellan1 who was one of his company1 that a treacherous attack was about to be made upon his ships4 ,siqueira then sent a native man and woman ashore with an arrow passed through their skulls to the sultan1 who was thus informed1 says de ,barros1 through his subjects that unless he kept a good watch the treason which he had perpetrated would be punished with fire and sword4 ,the sultan retaliated by arresting ,ruy de ,araujo1 the factor1 and twenty other men who were ashore with him collecting cargo for the ships4 ,siqueira immediately burned one of his vessels and sailed direct for ,portugal4 ,in #aeaj ,mendez de ,vasconcellos with a fleet of four ships set out from ,portugal to go and conquer ,malacca1 but d',alboquerque detained him at ,goa1 and it was not until #aeaa that d',alboquerque himself found time to visit ,malacca and seek to rescue the ,portuguese prisoners who all this time had remained in the hands of the sultan4 ,an attack was delivered by d',alboquerque on the #beth of ,july #aeaa1 but it was only partially successful1 and it was not until the #dth of ,august1 when the assault was repeated1 that the place finally fell4 ,since that time ,malacca has continued to be the possession of one or another of the ,european ,powers4 ,it was a ,portuguese possession for #acj years1 and was the headquarters of their trade and the base of their commercial explorations in south-eastern ,asia while they enjoyed1 and later while they sought to hold1 their monopoly in the ,east4 ,it was from ,malacca1 immediately after its conquest1 that d',alboquerque sent d',abreu on his voyage of discovery to the ,moluccas1 or ,spice ,islands1 which later were the objective of ,magellan's voyage of circumnavigation4 ,during the ,portuguese tenure of ,malacca the place was attacked at least twice by the ,achinese2 its shipping was harried by ,lancaster in #aeib1 when the first ,british fleet made its way into these seas2 it was besieged by the ,dutch in #afjf1 and finally fell to a joint attack of the ,dutch and the ,achinese in #afda4 ,it was under the ,portuguese government that ,st ,francis ,xavier started a mission in ,malacca1 the first ,christian mission in ,malayan lands4 ,the ,dutch held ,malacca till #agie1 when it was taken from them by ,great ,britain1 and the ,dutch system of monopoly in the straits was forthwith abolished4 ,the colony was restored to the ,dutch1 however1 in #ahah1 but six years later it came finally into the hands of ,great ,britain1 being exchanged by a treaty with ,holland for the ,east ,india ,company's settlement of ,benkulen and a few other unimportant places on the western coast of ,sumatra4 ,by this treaty the ,dutch were precluded from interference in the affairs of the ,malay ,peninsula1 and ,great ,britain from similar action in regard to the ,states of ,sumatra1 with the sole exception of ,achin1 the right to protect that state being maintained by ,great ,britain until #ahgb when it was finally abandoned by a treaty concluded with ,holland in that year4 ,the ,dutch took advantage of this immediately to invade ,achin1 and the strife begun in #ahgc still continues and is now a mere war of extermination4 ,it was not until #ahcc that the whole territory lying at the back of ,malacca was finally brought under ,british control1 and as late as #ahhg the ,negri ,sembilan1 or ,nine ,states1 which adjoin ,malacca territory on the east and north-east1 were completely independent4 ,they to-day form part of the ,federated ,malay ,states1 which are under the protection of ,great ,britain1 and are governed with the assistance and by the advice of ,british officers4 ,malacca1 in common with the rest of the ,straits ,settlements1 was administered by the government of ,india until #ahfg1 when it became a crown colony under the control of the ,colonial ,office4 ,it is to-day administered by a resident councillor1 who is responsible to the governor of the ,straits ,settlements1 and by a number of district officers and other officials under his direction4 ,the population of the town and territory of ,malacca in #aija was #id1dhg1 of whom #gd were ,europeans and ,americans1 #aeih were ,eurasians1 the rest being ,asiatics 7chiefly ,malays with a considerable sprinkling of ,chinese74 ,the population in #ahia was #ib1agj1 and the estimated population for #aije was #ig1jjj4 ,the birth-rate is about #ce per thousand1 and the death-rate about #bi per thousand4 ,the trade of this once flourishing port has declined1 most of the vessels being merely coasting craft1 and no large line of steamers holding any communication with the place4 ,this is due partly to the shallowness of the harbour1 and partly to the fact that the ports of ,penang and ,singapore1 at either entrance to the straits1 draw all the trade and shipping to themselves4 ,the total area of the settlement is about #gjj sq4 m4 ,the colony is wholly agricultural1 and the land is almost entirely in the hands of the natives4 ,about #ej1jjj acres are under tapioca1 and about #ijjj acres are under rubber 7hevea74 ,this cultivation is rapidly extending4 ,there are still considerable areas unoccupied which are suitable for rubber and for coco-nuts4 ,the settlement is well opened up by roads2 and a railway1 which is part of the ,federated ,malay ,states railway system1 has been constructed from the town of ,malacca to ,tampin in the ,negri ,sembilan4 ,there is a good rest-house at ,malacca and a comfortable seaside bungalow at ,tanjong ,kling1 seven miles from the town4 ,malacca is #aah m4 by sea from ,singapore and #ej m4 by rail from ,seremban1 the capital of the ,negri ,sembilan4 ,there is excellent snipe-shooting to be had in the vicinity of ,malacca4 ,see ,the ,commentaries of d',alboquerque 7,hakluyt ,society72 ,the ,voyages and ,adventures of ,fernand ,mendez ,pinto 7,london1 #afec72 ,an ,account of the ,east ,indies1 by ,captain ,alexander ,hamilton 7,edinburgh4 #agbg72 ,valentyn's ,history of ,malacca1 translated by ,dudley ,hervey2 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society2 ,our ,tropical ,possessions in ,malayan ,india1 by the same author1 ibid42 ,further ,india1 by ,hugh ,clifford 7,london1 #aijd72 ,british ,malaya1 by ,sir ,frank ,swettenham 7,london1 #aijf74 7,h4 ,cl47 ,,malachi1 the name assigned to the last book of the ,old ,testament in ,english 7the last of the prophets in the ,hebrew ,bible71 which according to the title 7,mal4 i4 #a7 contains the word of ,yahweh to ,israel by the hand of ,malachi4 ,in form the word means my messenger4 ,it could be explained as a contraction of ,malachiah1 messenger of ,yahweh2 but the ,septuagint is probably right in not regarding it as a proper name 7by the hand of ,his messenger74 ,not only do we know nothing from internal or external evidence of the existence of a prophet of this name1#a but the occurrence of the word in the title is naturally explained as derived from iii4 #a3 ,behold1 ,i send my messenger 7cf4 ii4 #g74 ,the prophecy must1 therefore1 be regarded as anonymous2 the title was added by the compiler who wrote similar editorial titles to the anonymous prophecies beginning ,zech4 ix4 #a1 xii4 #a4 ,the contents of the prophecy fall into a series of clearly marked sections1 as in the paragraph division of the ,revised ,version4 ,these apply1 in various ways1 the truth emphasized at the outset3 ,yahweh's love for ,israel in contrast with his treatment of ,edom 7i4 #b-e74 ,israel's response should be a proper regard for the ritual of ,his worship2 yet any offering1 however imperfect1 is thought good enough for ,yahweh's altar 7i4 #f-ad74 ,let the priests1 who are responsible1 take warning1 and return to their ancient ideals 7ii4 #a-i74 ,again1 the common ,fatherhood of ,god should inspire a right relation among fellow ,israelites1 not such conduct as the divorce of ,israelite wives in order to marry non-,israelite women 7ii4 #aj-af74b ,the prevalence of wrong-doing has provoked scepticism as to righteous judgment2 but the messenger of ,yahweh is at hand to purge away indifferentism from worship and immorality from conduct 7ii4 #ag-;iii4 #f74 ,the payment of tithes now withheld will be followed by the return of prosperity 7iii4 #g-ab74 ,religion may seem useless1 but ,yahweh remembers ,his own1 and will soon in open judgment distinguish them from the irreligious 7iii4 #ac-;iv4 #c74 ,the book closes with an appeal to observe the law of ,moses1 and with a promise that ,elijah shall come before the threatened judgment4#c ,the topics noticed clearly relate the prophecy to the period of ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 when the ,temple had been rebuilt 7i4 #aj2 iii4 #a1 #aj71 the province of ,judah was under a ,persian governor 7i4 #h71 and there had been time enough for the loss of earlier enthusiasm4 ,the majority of modern scholars are agreed that the prophet prepares for the work of those reformers 7,ezra1 #deh2 ,nehemiah1 #ddd1 #dcb ,b4,c474 ,the abuses of which he particularly complains are such as were found rampant by ,ezra and ,nehemiah--marriage with foreign women 7ii4 #aa2 cf4 ,ezra ix42 ,neh4 xiii4 #bc seq42 ,deut4 vii4 #c7 and failure in payment of sacred dues 7iii4 #h seq42 cf4 ,neh4 x4 #cd seq42 xiii4 #aj seq42 ,deut4 xxvi4 #ab seq474 ,the priests have fallen into contempt 7ii4 #i7 and have neglected what is still one of their chief trusts1 the oral law 7ii4 #f seq474 ,the priestly code of written law was not promulgated until #ddd ,b4,c4 7,neh4 viii4-x472 ,malachi writes under the influence of the earlier ,code of ,deuteronomy only1#d and must therefore belong to a date prior to #ddd4 ,the independent character of the attack on current abuses also suggests priority to the work of ,ezra in #deh4 ,the prophecy affords an interesting and valuable glimpse of the post-exilic community1 with its various currents of thought and life4 ,the completion of the second ,temple 7#eaf ,b4,c47 has been followed by disillusionment as to the anticipated prosperity1 by indifference to worship1 scepticism as to providence1 and moral laxity4#e ,in view of these conditions1 the prophet's message is to reassert the true relation of ,israel to ,yahweh1 and to call for a corresponding holiness1 especially in regard to questions of ritual and of marriage4 ,he saw that the disobedience of his time was the outcome of a lowered morality1 not of a clearer spiritual vision4#f ,a strong sense of the unique privileges of the children of ,jacob1 the objects of electing love 7i4 #b71 the children of the ,divine ,father 7ii4 #aj71 is combined with an equally strong assurance of ,yahweh's righteousness notwithstanding the many miseries that pressed on the unhappy inhabitants of ,judaea4 ,at an earlier date the prophet ,haggai had taught that the people could not expect ,yahweh's blessing while the ,temple lay in ruins4 ,in ,malachi's time the ,temple was built 7i4 #aj7 and the priests waited in their office1 but still a curse seemed to rest on the nation's labours 7iii4 #i74 ,to ,malachi the reason of this is plain4 ,the law of ,moses was forgotten 7iv4 #d iii4 #bb72 let the people return to ,yahweh1 and ,he will return to them4 ,it was in vain to complain1 saying1 ,every one that doeth evil is good in the eyes of ,yahweh1 or ,where is the ,god of judgment8--vain to ask ,wherein shall we return8 ,obedience to the law is the sure path to blessing 7ii4 #ag-;iii4 #ab74 ,he calls the people to repentance1 and he enforces the call by proclaiming the approach of ,yahweh in judgment against the sorcerers1 the adulterers1 the false swearers1 the oppressors of the poor1 the orphan and the stranger4 ,then it shall be seen that ,he is indeed a ,god of righteous judgment1 distinguishing between those that serve ,him and those that serve ,him not4 ,the ,sun of ,righteousness shall shine forth on those that fear ,yahweh's name2 they shall go forth with joy1 and tread the wicked under foot4 ,the conception of the day of final decision1 when ,yahweh shall come suddenly to ,his temple 7iii4 #a7 and confound those who think the presumptuous godless happy 7iii4 #ae71 is taken from earlier prophets1 but is applied wholly within the ,jewish nation4 ,the day of ,yahweh would be a curse1 not a blessing1 if it found the nation in its present state3 the priests listlessly performing a fraudulent service 7i4 #g-;ii4 #i71 the people bound by marriage to heathen women1 while the tears of the daughters of ,israel1 thrust aside to make way for strangers1 cover the altar 7ii4 #aa-af71 all faith in divine justice gone 7ii4 #ag2 iii4 #ad seq471 sorcery1 uncleanness1 falsehood and oppression rampant 7iii4 #e71 the house of ,god deprived of its dues 7iii4 #h71 and the true fearers of ,god a little flock gathered together in private exercises of religion 7perhaps the germ of the later synagogue7 in the midst of a godless nation 7iii4 #af74 ,that the day of ,yahweh is delayed in such a state of things is but a new proof of ,his unchanging love 7iii4 #f71 which refuses to consume the sons of ,jacob4 ,meantime ,he is about to send ,his messenger to prepare ,his way before ,him4 ,the prophet ,elijah must reappear to bring back the hearts of fathers and children before the great and terrible day of ,yahweh come4 ,elijah was the advocate of national decision in the great concerns of ,israel's religion2 and it is such decision1 a clear recognition of what the service of ,yahweh means1 a purging of ,his professed worshippers from hypocritical and half-hearted service 7iii4 #c7 that ,malachi with his intense religious earnestness sees to be the only salvation of the nation4 ,in thus looking to the return of the ancient prophet to do the work for which later prophecy is too weak1 ,malachi unconsciously signalizes the decay of the order of which he was one of the last representatives2 and the somewhat mechanical measure which he applies to the people's sins1 as for example when he teaches that if the sacred dues were rightly paid prosperous seasons would at once return 7iii4 #aj71 heralds the advent of that system of formal legalism which thought that all religious duty could be reduced to a system of set rules4 ,yet ,malachi himself is no mere formalist4 ,to him1 as to the ,deuteronomic legislation1 the forms of legal observance are of value only as the fitting expression of ,israel's peculiar sonship and service1 and he shows himself a true prophet when he contrasts the worthless ministry of unwilling priests with the pure offering of prayer and praise that rises from the implicit monotheism of even ,gentile worship#g 7i4 #aa71 or when he asserts the brotherhood of all ,israelites under their one ,father 7ii4 #aj71 not merely as a ground of separation from the heathen1 but as inconsistent with the selfish and cruel freedom of divorce current in his time4#h ,the book is a significant landmark in the religious history of ,israel4 ,its emphasis on the observance of ritual finds fullest development in the ,priestly ,code1 subsequently promulgated2 its protest against foreign marriages is made effective through the reforms of ,ezra and ,nehemiah2#i the influence of its closing words on later expectation is familiar to every reader of the new ,testament4#aj ,the style of ,malachi1 like his argument1 corresponds in its generally prosaic character to that transformation or decay of prophecy which began with ,ezekiel2 and ,ewald rightly called attention to the fact that the conduct of the argument already shows traces of the dialectic manner of the schools4 ,yet there is a simple dignity in the manner not unworthy of a prophet1 and rising from time to time to poetical rhythm4 ,,literature4--,nowack1 ,die kleinen ,propheten 7#ahig2 #bnd ed41 #aijd72 ,wellhausen1 id4 7iii4 #ahih72 ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,the ,book of the ,twelve 7ii4 #ahih72 ,a4 ,c4 ,welch1 art4 ,malachi in ,hastings's ,dict4 of the ,bible1 iii4 #bah-bbb 7#aijj72 ,c4 ,c4 ,torrey1 id4 in ,ency4 ,bib4 iii4 c4 #bijg-biaj 7#aijb72 ,marti1 ,dodekapropheton 7#aijd72 ,stade1 ,biblische ,theologie des ,alten ,test4 #ada 7#aije72 ,driver1 ,the ,minor ,prophets1 ii4 7,century ,bible1 #aijf74 7,w4 ,r4 ,s42 ,h4 ,w4 ,r4997 ,,footnotes3 #a ,a ,hebrew tradition given in the ,targum of ,jonathan1 and approved by ,jerome1 identifies ,malachi with ,ezra the priest and scribe4 #b ,torrey 7,ency4 ,bib4 c4 #bijh7 holds that the reference here is purely figurative2 ,judah has dealt falsely with the wife of his youth1 the covenant religion1 and is wedding a strange cult4 ,but he assigns the book to the #dth century4 #c ,this closing prophecy may possibly be a later addition 7so ,marti7 rounding off the prophetic canon by reference to the two great names of ,moses and ,elijah1 and their characteristic activities4 ,in this case1 ,elijah will represent an early interpretation 7cf4 ,ecclus4 xlviii4 #aj7 of the messenger1 originally conceived as a purely ideal figure4 ,the only other passage in the book whose originality is not generally accepted is that referring to mixed marriages 7ii4 #aa1 #ab74 #d ,it is the ,deuteronomic law that is most familiar to him1 as appears from his use of the name ,horeb for the mountain of the law1 and the ,deuteronomic phrase statutes and judgments 7iv4 #d71 from his language as to tithes and offerings 7iii4 #h1 #aj2 cf4 ,deut4 xii4 #aa2 xxvi4 #ab71 and especially from his conception of the priesthood as resting on a covenant with ,levi 7ii4 #d seq474 ,malachi indeed assumes that the whole tithe--the ,deuteronomic phrase for the tithe in which the ,levites shared--is not stored in each township1 but brought into the treasury at the ,temple4 ,but this was a modification of the ,deuteronomic law naturally called for under the circumstances of the return from ,babylon1 and ,neh4 x4 and xiii4 produce the impression that it was not introduced for the first time by ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 though the collection of the tithe was enforced by them4 ,see further1 ,w4,r4,s4 in ,o4,t4,j4,c4 ii4 #dbe-dbg4 #e ,cf4 ,stade's reconstruction1 ,g4,v4,i4 ii4 #abh-ach4 #f ,welch in ,d4,b4 iii4 #bbj4 #g ,this remarkable utterance is sometimes 7as by ,w4,r4,s47 interpreted of the worship of ,jews scattered in the ,dispersion3 reasons for the above view are given by ,driver4 #h ,in ii4 #af the ,targum renders ,if thou hatest her put her away4 ,it is characteristic of later ,judaism that an arbitrary exegesis transformed the above anticipation of the doctrine of marriage laid down in the gospel into an express sanction of the right of the husband to put away his wife at will4 #i ,the permanence of ,judaism depended on the religious separateness of the ,jews 7,ryle1 ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 p4 #adc74 #aj ,matt4 xvii4 #c1 #d1 #aj-ac2 xxvii4 #dg1 #di2 ,john i4 #ba1 #be4 ,,malachite1 a copper-ore of fine green colour1 sometimes polished as an ornamental stone4 ,the name is derived from ,gr4 ,greek3 malch1 the mallow1 in allusion to the colour of the mineral being rather like that of the mallow-leaf4 ,malachite was perhaps one of the green minerals described by ,theophrastus under the general name of ,greek3 smaragdos2 and according to the late ,rev4 ,c4 ,w4 ,king it was probably the smaragdus medicus of ,pliny1 whilst his molochites seems to have been a different stone from our malachite and may have been a green jasper4 ,it is suggested by ,j4 ,l4 ,myres 7,ency4 ,bib47 that malachite may have been the ,heb4 soham1 of the high priest's breastplate4 ,malachite is a basic cupric carbonate1 represented by the formula ,cu,c,o#c;,cu7,,ho7#b1 and has usually been formed by the action of meteoric agencies on other copper-minerals2 hence it is found in the upper part of ore-deposits1 often as an incrustation1 and occasionally as a pseudomorph after cuprite1 chalcocite1 c4 ,when formed1 as commonly happens1 by the alteration of copper-pyrites the iron of this mineral usually takes the form of limonite1 which may remain associated with the malachite4 ,occasionally1 though but rarely1 malachite occurs in small dark-green prismatic crystals of the monoclinic system4 ,its usual mode of occurrence is in nodular or stalagmitic forms1 with a mammillated1 reniform or botryoidal surface1 whilst in other cases it forms fibrous1 compact or even earthy masses4 ,the nodules1 though commonly dull on the outside1 may display on fracture a beautiful zonary structure1 the successive layers often succeeding each other as curved deposits of light and dark tints4 ,the colours include various shades of apple-green1 grass-green1 emerald-green and verdigris-green4 ,certain varieties exhibit a finely fibrous structure1 producing on the fractured surface a soft silky sheen4 ,whilst malachite is found in greater or less quantity in most copper-mines1 the finer varieties useful for ornamental purposes are of very limited occurrence1 and the lapidary has generally drawn his supply from ,russia and ,australia4 ,the principal source in recent years has been the ,medno-,rudiansk mine near ,nizhne ,tagilsk1 on the ,siberian side of the ,urals1 but it was formerly obtained from mines near ,bogoslovsk to the north and ,gumishev to the south of this locality4 ,a mass from ,gumishev1 preserved in the museum of the ,mining ,institute of ,st ,petersburg weighs #cbdjlb4 and still larger masses have been found near ,nizhne ,tagilsk4 ,the mineral is prized in ,russia for use in mosaic-work1 and for the manufacture of vases1 snuff-boxes and various ornamental objects4 ,even folding doors1 mantelpieces1 table-tops and other articles of furniture have been executed in malachite1 the objects being veneered with thin slabs cleverly fitted together so as to preserve the pattern1 and having the interspaces filled up with fragments and powder of malachite applied with a cement4 ,the malachite is sawn into slabs1 ground with emery and polished with tripoli4 ,its hardness is less than #d1 but it takes a good polish like marble3 it is rather denser than marble1 having a specific gravity of #c4g to #d1 but it is more difficult to work1 in consequence of a tendency to break along the curved planes of deposition4 ,exceptionally fine examples of the application of malachite are seen in some of the columns of ,st ,isaac's ,cathedral in ,st ,petersburg1 which are hollow iron columns encrusted with malachite4 ,large masses of ornamental malachite have been found in ,australia1 especially at the old ,burra ,burra copper-mine in ,south ,australia4 ,the ,copper ,queen and other mines in ,arizona have yielded fine specimens of malachite associated with azurite1 and polished slabs of the mixed minerals sometimes show the vivid green and the deep blue carbonate in very striking contrast4 ,this natural association1 cut as an ornamental stone1 has been named1 by ,dr ,g4 ,f4 ,kunz1 azurmalachite4 ,malachite is occasionally used for cameo-work1 and some fine antique examples are known4 ,it was formerly worn as an amulet to preserve the wearer from lightning1 contagion and witchcraft4 ,the mineral1 when ground1 has been used as a pigment under the name of mountain green4 ,the coarser masses are extensively used1 with other minerals1 as ores of copper1 malachite containing about #eg of metal4 ,blue malachite is a name sometimes given to azurite 7q4v471 whilst siliceous malachite is a term inappropriately applied to chrysocolla 7q4v474 7,f4 ,w4 ,r4997 ,,malachowski1 ,,stanislaw 7#agcf-ahji71 ,polish statesman1 the younger son of ,stanislaw ,malachowski1 palatine of ,posen1 the companion in arms of ,sobieski4 ,from his youth ,malachowski laboured zealously for the good of his country1 and as president of the royal court of justice won the honourable title of the ,polish ,aristides4 ,he was first elected a deputy to the ,coronation ,diet of #agfd1 and the great ,four ,years' ,diet unanimously elected him its speaker at the beginning of its session in #aghh4 ,accurately gauging the situation1 ,malachowski speedily gathered round him all those who were striving to uphold the falling republic and warmly supported every promising project of reform4 ,he was one of the framers of the constitution of the #crd of ,may #agia1 exceeding in liberality all his colleagues and advocating the extension of the franchise to the towns and the emancipation of the serfs4 ,he was the first to enter his name as a citizen of ,warsaw in the civic register and to open negotiations with his own peasantry for their complete liberation4 ,disappointed in his hopes by the overthrow of the constitution1 he resigned office and left the country in #agib1 going first to ,italy and subsequently to his estates in ,galicia1 where he was imprisoned for a time on a false suspicion of conspiracy4 ,in #ahjg ,malachowski was placed at the head of the executive committee appointed at ,warsaw after its evacuation by the ,prussians1 and when the grand duchy of ,warsaw was created ,malachowski became president of the senate under ,king ,frederick ,augustus of ,saxony4 ,in the negotiations with the ,austrian government concerning the ,galician salt-mines ,malachowski came to the assistance of the depleted treasury by hypothecating all his estates as an additional guarantee4 ,in #ahji he died at ,warsaw4 ,his death was regarded as a public calamity1 and multitudes followed his remains to their last resting-place in the ,church of the ,holy ,cross4 ,in all the other towns of the grand duchy funeral services were held simultaneously as a tribute of the respect and gratitude of the ,polish nation4 ,see ,august ,sokolowski1 ,illustrated ,history of ,poland 7,pol471 vol4 iv4 7,vienna1 #aijj72 ,life and ,memoirs of ,s4 ,malachowski1 edited by ,lucyan ,siemienski 7,pol2 ,cracow1 #ahec74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,malachy1 ,,st 7c4 #ajid-aadh71 otherwise known as ,maol-,maodhog 7or ,maelmaedhog7 ,ua ,morgair1 archbishop of ,armagh and papal legate in ,ireland1 was born at ,armagh4 ,his father1 an ,irish clergyman1 the ,fearleighlinn1 or lector1 at the university1 was said to have been of noble family4 ,having been ordained to the priesthood1 he for some time acted as vicar of ,archbishop ,celsus or ,ceallach of ,armagh1 and carried out many reforms tending to increase conformity with the usage of the ,church of ,rome4 ,in order to improve his knowledge of the ,roman ritual he spent four years with ,malchus1 bishop of ,lismore 7in ,munster71 a strong advocate of ,romanism4 ,here he became acquainted with ,cormac ,mac,carthy1 king of ,desmond1 who had sought refuge with ,malchus1 and1 when he subsequently regained his kingdom1 rendered great services to ,malachy4 ,on his return from ,lismore1 ,malachy undertook the government of the decayed monastery of ,bangor 7in ,co4 ,down71 but very soon afterwards he was elected bishop of ,connor 7now a small village near ,ballymena74 ,after the sack of that place by the king of ,ulster he withdrew into ,munster2 here he was kindly received by ,cormac ,mac,carthy1 with whose assistance he built the monastery of ,ibrach 7in ,kerry74 ,meanwhile he had been designated by ,celsus 7in whose family the see of ,armagh had been hereditary for many years7 to succeed him in the archbishopric2 in the interests of reform he reluctantly accepted the dignity1 and thus became involved for some years in a struggle with the so-called heirs4 ,having finally settled the diocese1 he was permitted1 as had been previously stipulated by himself1 to return to his former diocese1 or rather to the smaller and poorer portion of it1 the bishopric of ,down4 ,although the ,roman party had by this time obtained a firm hold in the north of ,ireland1 the organization of the ,church had not yet received the sanction of the pope4 ,accordingly1 in #aaci1 ,malachy set out from ,ireland with the purpose of soliciting from the pope the pallium 7the token of archiepiscopal subjection to ,rome7 for the archbishop of ,armagh4 ,on his way to ,rome he visited ,clairvaux1 and thus began a lifelong friendship with ,st ,bernard4 ,malachy was received by ,innocent ,,ii4 with great honour1 and made papal legate in ,ireland1 though the pope refused to grant the pallium until it had been unanimously applied for by a general council of the bishops1 clergy and nobles4 ,on his way home ,malachy revisited ,clairvaux1 and took with him from there four members of the ,cistercian order1 by whom the abbey of ,mellifont 7in the county of ,louth7 was afterwards founded in #aada4 ,for the next eight years after his return from ,rome ,malachy was active in the discharge of his legatine duties1 and in #aadh1 at a synod of bishops and clergy held at ,inis-,patrick 7,st ,patrick's ,island1 near ,skerries1 ,co4 ,dublin71 he was commissioned to return to ,rome and make fresh application for the pallium2 he did not1 however1 get beyond ,clairvaux1 where he died in the arms of ,st ,bernard on the #bnd of ,november #aadh4 ,the object of his life was realized four years afterwards1 in #aaeb1 during the legateship of his successor4 ,malachy was canonized by ,clement ,,iii4 in #aaij4 ,the influence of ,malachy in ,irish ecclesiastical affairs has been compared with that of ,boniface in ,germany4 ,he reformed and reorganized the ,irish ,church and brought it into subjection to ,rome2 like ,boniface1 he was a zealous reformer and a promoter of monasticism4 ,but perhaps his chief claim to distinction is that of having opened the first ,cistercian monastery in ,ireland1 five more being soon afterwards established4 ,several works are attributed to him1 but are all probably spurious4 ,the most curious of these is a ,prophecy concerning the ,future ,roman ,pontiffs1 which has produced an extensive literature4 ,it is now generally attributed to the year #aeij1 and is supposed to have been forged to support the election of ,cardinal ,simoncelli to the papal chair4 ,st ,bernard's ,life of ,malachy1 and two sermons on his death will be found in ,j4 ,p4 ,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina2 clxxxii41 clxxxiii42 see also ,annals of the ,kingdom of ,ireland by the ,four ,masters1 ed4 ,j4 ,o',donovan 7,dublin1 #ahea72 ,g4 ,germano1 ,vita1 gesti e predittioni del padre san ,malachia 7,naples1 #afgj72 the ecclesiastical histories of ,ireland by ,j4 ,lanigan 7#ahbi7 and ,w4 ,d4 ,killen 7#ahge72 ,a4 ,bellesheim1 ,geschichte der katholischen ,kirche in ,irland1 ,bd4 ,i4 7,mainz1 #ahij72 ,g4 ,t4 ,stokes1 ,ireland and the ,celtic ,church 7#fth ed41 #aijg72 ,j4 ,o',hanlon1 ,life of ,saint ,malachy 7,dublin1 #ahei72 articles in ,dictionary of ,national ,biography and ,herzog-,hauck's ,realencyklopdie fr protestantische ,theologie4 ,on the ,prophecy1 see the treatise by ,c4 ,f4 ,mentrier 7,paris1 #afhi72 ,marquis of ,bute in ,dublin ,review 7#ahhe72 ,a4 ,harnack in ,zeitschrift fr ,kirchengeschichte1 ,bd4 ,,iii4 ,,malacostraca4 ,under this zoological title are included several groups of ,crustacea 7q4v471 united by characters which attest their common origin1 though some1 and probably all of them1 were already separated in distant geological ages1 and some have now attained a peculiar isolation4 ,throughout the whole1 the researches made since #ahfj have not only added a great throng of new species1 genera and families1 but have thrown a flood of light upon questions of their phylogeny1 systematic arrangement1 horizontal and bathymetric distribution1 organization1 habits of life and economic importance4 ,there are at least seven orders3 the stalk-eyed ,brachyura1 ,macrura1 ,schizopoda1 ,stomatopoda1 and the sessile-eyed ,sympoda1 ,isopoda1 ,amphipoda4 ,an ocular segment claimed by the former division is not present or in no case demonstrable in the latter4 ,in neither does the terminal segment or telson1 whether large or obsolescent1 whether articulated or coalescent1 carry appendages1 unless occasionally in fusion with itself4 ,between the eyes and the tail-piece in all the orders nineteen segments are counted1 the proof of a segment's existence depending on its separateness1 complete or partial1 or on a sutural indication1 or else on the pair of appendages known to belong to it4 ,all these marks may fail1 and then the species must be proved to be ,malacostracan by other evidence than the number of its segments2 but if some exceptions exhibit fewer1 none of the ,malacostraca exhibits more than #ai 7#a or #b7 segments1 unless the ,nebaliidae be included4 ,of the corresponding pairs of appendages thirteen belong to the head and trunk1 two pairs of antennae1 one pair of mandibles1 two pairs of maxillae1 followed by three which may be all maxillipeds or may help to swell the number of trunk-legs to which the next five pairs belong4 ,the abdomen or pleon carries the remaining six pairs1 of which from three to five are called pleopods and the remainder uropods4 ,underlying the diversity of names and functions and countless varieties of shape1 there is a common standard to which the appendages in general can be referred4 ,in the maxillipeds and the trunk-legs it is common to find or otherwise easy to trace a seven-jointed stem1 the endopod1 from which may spring two branches1 the epipod from the first joint1 the exopod from the second4#a ,the first antennae are exceptional in branching1 if at all1 at the third joint4 ,in the mandibles and maxillae some of the terminal joints of the stem are invariably wanting4 ,in the rest of the appendages they may either be wanting or indistinguishable4 ,the latter obscurity results either from coalescence1 to which all joints and segments are liable1 or from subdivision1 which occasionally affects joints even in the trunk-legs4 ,the carapace1 formerly referred only to the antennar-mandibular segments1 may perhaps in fact contain elements from any number of other segments of head and trunk1 ,huxley1 ,alcock1 ,bouvier giving support to this opinion by the sutural or other divisional lines in ,potamobius1 ,nephrops1 ,thalassina1 and various fossil genera4 ,not all questions of classification internal to this division are yet finally settled4 ,between the ,brachyura and ,macrura some authors uphold an order ,anomura1 though in a much restricted sense1 the labours of ,huxley1 ,boas1 ,alcock and conjointly ,alphonse ,milne-,edwards and ,bouvier1 having resulted in restoring the ,dromiidea and ,raninidae to the ,brachyura1 among which de ,haan long ago placed them4 ,the ,french authors argue that from the macruran lobsters 7,nephropsidae7 anciently diverged two lines3 one leading through the ,dromiidea to the genuine ,brachyura2 or crabs1 the other independently to the ,anomura proper1 which may conveniently be named and classed as ,macrura anomala4 ,spence ,bate maintained that the ,schizopoda ought not to form a separate order1 but to be ranged as a macruran tribe1 more nearly allied to the degraded forms of the ,penaeidea than to those of any other group 7,challenger ,reports1 ,macrura1 p4 #dgb1 #ahhh74 ,according to ,sars1 the ,sympoda 7or ,cumaceans71 in spite of their sessile eyes1 have closer affinities with the stalk-eyed orders4 ,h4 ,j4 ,hansen and others form a distinct order ,tanaidea for the decidedly anomalous group called by ,sars ,isopoda chelifera4 #a4 ,,brachyura4--,for the present1 as of old1 the true ,brachyura are divided into four tribes3 ,cyclometopa1 with arched front as in the common eatable crab2 ,catometopa1 with front bent down as in the land-crabs and the little oyster-crab2 ,oxyrhyncha1 with sharpened beak-like front as in the various spider-crabs2 ,oxystomata1 including the ,raninidae1 and named not from the character of the front but from that of the buccal frame which is usually narrowed forwards4 ,in these tribes the bold and active habits1 the striking colours1 or the fantastic diversities of structure1 have so long attracted remark that recent investigations1 while adding a multitude of new species and supplying the specialist with an infinity of new details1 have not materially altered the scientific standpoint4 ,new light1 however1 has been thrown upon the intellectual capacity of ,crustacea by the proof that the spider-crabs deliberately use changes of raiment to harmonize with their surroundings1 donning and doffing various natural objects as we do our manufactured clothes4 ,others have the power of producing sounds1 one use to which they put this faculty being apparently to signal from their burrow in the sand that they are not at home to an inopportune visitor4 ,deep-sea exploration has shown that some species have an immensely extended range1 and still more1 that species of the same genus1 and genera of the same family1 though separated by great intervals of space1 may be closely allied in character4 ,a curious effect of parasitism1 well illustrated in crabs1 though not confined to them1 has been expounded by ,professor ,giard1 namely1 that it tends to obliterate the secondary sexual characters4 ,modern research has discovered no crab to surpass ,macrocheira kmpferi1 ,de ,haan1 that can span between three and four yards with the tips of its toes1 but at the other end of the scale it has yielded ,collodes malabaricus1 ,alcock1 of which the carapace1 in an adult and egg-laden female1 is less than one-sixth of an inch in its greatest diameter4 ,the most abyssal of all crabs yet known is ,ethusina abyssicola1 ,smith1 or what is perhaps only a variety of it1 ,e4 challengeri1 ,miers4 ,of the latter the ,albatross obtained a specimen from a depth of #bbcb fathoms 7,faxon1 #ahie71 of the former from #bbba fathoms1 and of this ,s4 ,i4 ,smith remarks that it has distinctly faceted black eyes1 although in them there are only a very few visual elements at the tips of the immobile eye-stalks4 ,the ,brachyura anomala1 or ,dromiidea1 have preserved the external characters and probably also the organization of the ,brachyura of the ,secondary epoch 7,milne-,edwards and ,bouvier1 #aija74 ,they agree with the true crabs in not having appendages 7uropods7 to the sixth segment of the pleon1 the atrophy being complete in the ,homolidae and ,homolodromiidae1 whereas in the ,dromiidae and ,dynomenidae a pair of small plates appear to be vestiges of these organs4 ,in the family ,homolidae stands the strange genus ,latreillia1 ,roux1 with long slender limbs and triangular carapace after the fashion of oxyrhynch spider-crabs4 ,in ,homola the carapace is quadrilateral4 ,between these two a very interesting link was discovered by the ,challenger in the species ,latreillopsis bispinosa4 ,henderson4 ,bouvier 7#ahif7 has shown that ,palaeinachus longipes1 ,woodward1 from the ,forest ,marble of ,wiltshire1 is in close relationship1 not to the oxyrhynch ,inachidae1 but to the genera ,homolodromia and ,dicranodromia of the ,homolodromiidae1 and that the ,jurassic crabs in general1 of the family ,prosoponidae 7,meyer71 are ,dromiidea4 #b4 ,,macrura4--,the ,macrura anomala1 or ,anomura in restricted sense1 are popularly known through the hermit-crabs alone4 ,these only partially represent one of the three main divisions1 ,paguridea1 ,galatheidea1 ,hippidea4 ,the first of these is subdivided into ,pagurinea1 ,lithodinea1 ,lomisinea1 each with a literature of its own4 ,among the ,pagurinea is the ,birgus latro1 or robber-crab1 whose expertness in climbing the coco-nut palm need no longer be doubted1 since in recent years it has been noted and photographed by trustworthy naturalists in the very act4 ,alcock observed one of these crabs drinking from a runnel of rain-water1 by dipping the fingers of one of its chelipeds into the water and then carrying the wet fingers to its mouth4 ,hermits of the genus ,coenobita he found feeding voraciously on nestling sea-terns4 ,that pagurids must have the usually soft pleon or abdomen protected by the shell of a mollusc is now known to be subject to a multitude of exceptions4 ,birgus dispenses with a covering2 ,coenobita can make shift with half the shell of a coco-nut2 ,chlaenopagurus wraps itself up in a blanket of colonial polyps2 ,cancellus tanneri1 ,faxon1 was found in a piece of dead coral rock2 ,xylopagurus rectus1 ,a4 ,milne-,edwards1 lodges in tubes of timber or bits of hollow reed4 ,the last-named species has a straight symmetrical abdomen1 with the penultimate segment expanded and strongly calcified to form a back-door to the very unconventional habitation4 ,this it enters head-foremost from the rear1 while hermits in general are forced to go backwards into their spiral or tapering shelters by the front4 ,some of the species can live in the ocean at a depth of two or three miles4 ,some can range inland up to a considerable height on mountains4 ,the advantage that this group has derived from the adoption of mollusc shells as houses or fortresses1 ready built and light enough for easy transport1 is obviously discounted by a twofold inconvenience4 ,there is nothing to ensure that the supply will be equal to the demand1 and ,nature has not arranged that the borrowed tenement shall continue to grow with the growth of its new tenant4 ,to meet these defects it is found that numerous species encourage or demand the companionship of various zoophytes1 simple or colonial4 ,these sometimes completely absorb the shell on which they are settled1 but then act as a substitute for it1 and in any case by their outgrowth they extend the limits of the dwelling1 so that the inmate can grow in comfort without having to hunt or fight for a larger abode4 ,among the ,lithodinea1 or stone crabs1 besides important readjustments of classification 7,bouvier1 #ahie1 #ahif71 should be noticed the evidence of their cosmopolitan range1 and the species ,neolithodes agassizii 7,smith7 and ,n4 grimaldii1 ,milne-,edwards and ,bouvier1 which carry to an extreme the spinosity characteristic of the group 7fig4 #a74 ,s4 ,i4 ,smith's investigations on the early stages of ,hippa talpoida1 ,say1 were published in #ahgg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,neolithodes grimaldii1 ,a4 ,milne-,edwards and ,bouvier4 ,with regard to the accessions to knowledge in the enormous group of the genuine ,macrura1 reference need only be made to the extensive reports in which ,spence ,bate1 ,s4 ,i4 ,smith1 ,faxon1 ,wood-,mason1 ,alcock1 and others have made known the results of celebrated explorations4 ,various larval stages have been successfully investigated by ,sars4 ,alcock 7#aija7 describes from his own observation the newly hatched ,phyllosoma larva of ,thenus orientalis1 ,fabricius4 ,an admirable discrimination of the larval and adult characters of the genus ,sergestes has been given by ,h4 ,j4 ,hansen 7,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc41 ,london1 #ahif74 ,singularity excites our wonder in ,thaumastocheles zaleucus1 v4 ,willemoes ,suhm1 which makes up for its vanished eyes by its extraordinarily elongate and dentated claws2 in ,psalidopus huxleyi1 ,wood-,mason and ,alcock 7#ahib71 bristling with spikes from head to tail2 in the ,nematocarcinidae1 with their long thread-like limbs and longer antennae2 in species of ,aristaeopsis reported by ,chun from deep water off the east coast of ,africa1 bright red prawns nearly a foot long1 with antennae about five times the length of the body4 ,that certain species1 particularly many from deep water1 have disproportionately large eggs1 is explained by the supposition that the young derive the advantage of being hatched in an advanced stage of development4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,anaspides tasmaniae1 ,thomson4 #c4 ,,schizopoda4--,this order of animals for the most part delicately beautiful1 has for the moment five families--,lophogastridae1 ,eucopiidae1 ,euphausiidae1 ,mysidae and ,anaspididae4 ,in the ,euphausiidae the digitiform-arborescent branchiae1 as if conscious of their own extreme elegance1 remain wholly uncovered4 ,in the two preceding families they are partially covered4 ,in the ,mysidae the branchiae are wanting1 and some would form this family into a separate order1 ,mysidacea4 ,in ,anaspides1 a peculiar fresh-water genus discovered in #ahib by ,g4 ,m4 ,thomson on ,mount ,wellington1 in ,tasmania1 the gills are not arborescent1 and there are seven segments of the trunk free of the carapace 7fig4 #b74 ,a membranaceous carapace separates the ,eucopiidae from the more solidly invested ,lophogastridae4 ,among many papers that the student will find it necessary to consult may be mentioned the ,challenger ,report on ,schizopoda1 by ,sars1 #ahhe1 dealing with the order at large2 ,british ,schizopoda1 by ,norman ,ann4 ,nat4 ,hist4 7#ahib72 ,decapoden und ,schizopoden1 ,plankton-,expedition 7,ortmann1 #ahic72 ,euphausiidae1 by ,stebbing1 ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc4 7,london1 #aijj72 ,mysidae of the ,russian ,empire1 by ,czerniavski 7#ahhb-ahhc72 and ,mysidae of the ,caspian1 by ,sars 7#ahic-ahie-ahig74 #d4 ,,stomatopoda4--,this order1 at one time a medley of heterogeneous forms1 is now confined to the singularly compact group of the ,squillidae4 ,here the articulation of the ocular segment is unusually distinct1 and here two characters quite foreign to all the preceding groups come into view4 ,the second maxillipeds are developed into powerful prehensile organs1 and the branchiae1 instead of being connected with the appendages of head and trunk1 are developed on the pleopods1 appendages of the abdomen4 ,at least three segments of the trunk are left uncovered by the carapace4 ,the developing eggs are not carried about by the mother1 but deposited in her subaqueous burrow1 where they are aerated by the currents of water produced by the abdominal feet of the parent4 ,an excellent synopsis of the genera and species is provided by ,r4 ,p4 ,bigelow 7,proc4 ,u4,s4 ,mus4 vol4 xvii41 #ahid74 ,for the habits and peculiarities of these and many other ,crustaceans1 ,a4 ,e4 ,verrill and ,s4 ,i4 ,smith on the ,invertebrates of ,vineyard ,sound should be consulted 7#ahgd74 ,the general subject has been illuminated by the labours of ,claus1 ,miers1 ,brooks 7,challenger ,report1 #ahhf71 and the latest word on the relationship between the various larvae and their respective genera has been spoken by ,h4 ,j4 ,hansen 7,plankton-,expedition ,report1 #ahie74 ,the striking forms of ,alima and ,erichthus1 at one time regarded as distinct genera1 are now with more or less certainty affiliated to their several squillid parents4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,pseudocuma pectinatum1 ,sowinsky4 #e4 ,,sympoda4--,this order of sessile-eyed decapods was absolutely unknown to science till #aggi4 ,a species certainly belonging to it was described by ,lepekhin in #aghj1 but the obscure ,gammarus esca1 food ,gammarus beloved of herrings1 described by ,j4 ,c4 ,fabricius in the preceding year1 may also be one of its members4 ,nutritious possibilities are implied in ,diastylis rathkii1 ,kryer1 one of the largest forms1 which1 though slender and rarely an inch long1 in its favourite ,arctic waters is found in incalculable masses1 in thousands of specimens 7,stuxberg1 #ahhj74 ,far on in the #aith century eminent naturalists were still debating whether in this group there were eyes or no eyes1 whether the eyes were stalked or sessile1 whether the animals observed were larval or adult4 ,the ,american ,t4 ,say in #ahah gave a good description of a new species and founded the premier genus ,diastylis1 but other investigators derived little credit from the subject till more than sixty years after its introduction by the ,russian ,lepekhin4 ,then ,goodsir1 ,kryer1 ,lilljeborg1 ,spence ,bate and one or two others made considerable advances1 and in #ahfe a memorable paper by ,g4 ,o4 ,sars led the way to the great series of researches which he has continued to the present day4 ,the name ,cumacea1 however1 which he uses cannot be retained1 being founded on the preoccupied name ,cuma 7,milne-,edwards1 #ahbh74 ,the more recent name ,sympoda 7see ,willey1 ,results1 pt4 v4 p4 #fji1 #aijj7 alludes to the huddling together of the legs1 which is conspicuous in most of the species4 ,ten families are now distinguished--,diastylidae1 ,lampropidae1 ,platyaspidae1 ,pseudocumidae1 all with an articulated telson2 without one1 the ,bodotriidae 7formerly called ,cumidae71 ,vaunthompsoniidae1 ,leuconidae1 ,nannastacidae1 ,campylaspidae1 ,procampylaspidae4 ,all the ,leuconidae and ,procampylaspidae are blind1 and some species in most of the other families4 ,usually the sides of the carapace are strangely produced into a mock rostrum in front of the ocular lobe1 be it oculiferous or not4 ,the last four or five segments of the trunk are free from the carapace4 ,the slender pleon has always six distinct segments1 the sixth carrying two-branched uropods1 the preceding five armed with no pleopods in the female1 whereas in the male the number of pairs varies from five to none4 ,the resemblance of these creatures to miniature ,macrura is alluded to in the generic name ,nannastacus1 meaning dwarf-lobster4 ,in this genus alone of the known ,sympoda the eyes sometimes form a pair1 in accordance with the custom of all other malacostracan orders except this and of this order itself in the embryo 7,sars1 #aijj74 ,the most but not the only remarkable character lies in the first maxillipeds4 ,these1 with the main stem more or less pediform1 have the epipod and exopod modified for respiratory purposes4 ,the backward-directed epipods usually carry branchial vesicles4 ,the forward-directed exopods either act as valves or form a tube 7rarely two tubes71 protensile and retractile1 for regulating egress of water from the branchial regions4 ,this mechanism as a whole is unique1 although1 as ,sars observes1 the epipod of the first maxillipeds has a respiratory function also in the ,lophogastridae and ,mysidae and in the cheliferous isopods4 ,as a rule armature of the carapace is much more developed in the comparatively sedentary female than in the usually more active male4 ,only in the male do the second antennae attain considerable length1 with strong resemblance to what is found in some of the ,amphipoda4 ,about #aej species distributed among thirty-four genera are now known1 many from shallow water and from between tide-marks1 some from very great depths4 ,h4 ,j4 ,hansen concludes that they are all typically ground animals1 and as yet no species has been taken under such conditions that it could be reckoned to the pelagic plankton4 ,as they have been found in all zones and chiefly by a very few observers1 it is probable that a great many more species remain to be discovered4 ,in recent years thirteen species1 all belonging to the same genus ,pseudocuma 7fig4 #c71 have been recorded by ,sars from the ,caspian ,sea4 ,a bibliography of the order is given in that author's ,crustacea of ,norway1 vol4 iii4 7#ahii-aijj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,rhabdosoma piratum1 ,stebbing4 #f4 ,,isopoda4--,this vast and populous order can be traced far back in geological time4 ,it is now represented in all seas and lands1 in fresh-water lakes and streams1 and even in warm springs4 ,it adapts itself to parasitic life not only in fishes1 but in its own class ,crustacea1 and that in species of every order1 its own included4 ,in this process changes of structure are apt to occur1 and sometimes unimaginable sacrifices of the normal appearance4 ,the order has been divided into seven tribes1 of which a fuller summary than can here be given will be found in ,stebbing1 ,history of ,crustacea 7#ahic74 ,the first tribe1 called ,chelifera1 from the usually chelate or claw-bearing first limbs1 may be regarded as ,isopoda anomala1 of which some authors would form a separate order1 ,tanaidea4 ,like the genuine isopods1 they have seven pairs of trunk-legs1 but instead of having seven segments of the middle body 7or peraeon7 normally free1 they have the first one or two of its segments coalesced with the head4 ,instead of the breathing organs being furnished by the appendages of the pleon with the heart in their vicinity1 the respiration is controlled by the maxillipeds1 with the heart in the peraeon 7see ,delage1 ,arch4 ,zool4 expr4 et gn41 vol4 ix41 #ahha74 ,there are two families1 ,tanaidae and ,apseudidae4 ,occasionally the ocular lobes are articulated4 ,the genuine ,isopoda are divided among the ,flabellifera1 in which the terminal segment and uropods form a flabellum or swimming fan2 the ,epicaridea1 parasitic on ,crustaceans2 the ,valvifera1 in which the uropods fold valve-like over the branchial pleopods2 the ,asellota1 in which the first pair of pleopods of the female are usually transformed into a single opercular plate2 the ,phreatoicidea1 a fresh-water tribe1 known as yet only from subterranean waters in ,new ,zealand and an ,australian swamp nearly #fjjj ft4 above sea-level2 and lastly1 the ,oniscidea1 which are terrestrial4 ,only the last of these1 under the contemptuous designation of wood-lice1 has established a feeble claim to popular recognition4 ,few persons hear without surprise that ,england itself possesses more than a score of species in this air-breathing tribe4 ,those known from the world at large number hundreds of species1 distributed among dozens of genera in six families4 ,that a wood-louse and a land-crab are alike ,malacostracans1 and that they have by different paths alike become adapted to terrestrial life1 are facts which even a philosopher might condescend to notice4 ,of the other tribes which are aquatic there is not space to give even the barest outline4 ,their swarming multitudes are of enormous importance in the economy of the sea4 ,if in their relation to fish it must be admitted that many of them plague the living and devour the dead1 in return the fish feed rapaciously upon them4 ,among the most curious of recent discoveries is that relating to some of the parasitic ,cymothoidae1 as to which ,bullar has shown that the same individual can be developed first as a male and then as a female4 ,of lately discovered species the most striking is one of the deep-sea ,cirolanidae1 ,bathynomus giganteus1 ,a4 ,m4 ,edwards 7#ahgi71 which is unique in having supplementary ramified branchiae developed at the bases of the pleopods4 ,its eyes are said to contain nearly #djjj facets4 ,the animal attains what in this order is the monstrous size of #i in4 by #d4 ,a general uniformity of the trunk-limbs in ,isopoda justifies the ordinal name1 but the valviferous ,astacillidae1 and among the ,asellota the ,munnopsidae1 offer some remarkable exceptions to this characteristic4 ,among many essential works on this group may be named the ,monogr4 ,cymothoarum of ,schidte and ,meinert 7#ahgi-ahhc72 ,challenger ,report1 ,beddard 7#ahhd-ahhf72 ,cirolanidae1 ,h4 ,j4 ,hansen 7#ahij72 ,isopoda ,terrestria1 ,budde-,lund 7#ahhe72 ,bopyridae1 ,bonnier 7#aijj72 ,crustacea of ,norway1 vol4 ii4 7,isopoda71 ,sars 7#ahif-ahii71 while their multitude precludes specification of important contributions by ,benedict1 ,bovallius1 ,chilton1 ,dohrn1 ,dollfus1 ,fraisse1 ,giard and ,bonnier1 ,harger1 ,haswell1 ,kossmann1 ,miers1 ,m',murrich1 ,norman1 ,harriet ,richardson1 ,ohlin1 ,studer1 ,g4 ,m4 ,thomson1 ,a4 ,o4 ,walker1 ,max ,weber and many others4 #g4 ,,amphipoda4--,as in the genuine ,isopoda1 the eyes of ,amphipoda are always sessile1 and generally paired1 and1 in contrast to crabs and lobsters1 these two groups have only four pairs of mouth-organs instead of six1 but seven pairs of trunk-legs instead of five4 ,from the above-named isopods the present order is strongly differentiated by having heart and breathing organs not in the pleon1 but in the peraeon1 or middle body1 the more or less simple branchial vesicles being attached to some or all of the last six pairs of trunk-legs4 ,normally the pleon carries six pairs of two-branched appendages1 of which the first three are much articulated flexible swimming feet1 the last three few-jointed comparatively indurated uropods4 ,there are three tribes1 ,gammaridea1 ,caprellidea1 ,hyperiidea4 ,the middle one contains but two families1 the cylindrical and often thread-like skeleton shrimps1 ,caprellidae1 and their near cousins1 the broad1 flattened1 so-called whale-lice1 ,cyamidae4 ,this tribe has the pleon dwindled into insignificance1 whereas in the other two tribes it is powerfully developed4 ,the ,hyperiidea are distinguished by having their maxillipeds never more than three-jointed4 ,in the companion tribes these appendages have normally seven joints1 and always more than three4 ,the order thus sharply divided is united by an intimate interlacing of characters1 and forms a compact whole at present defying intrusion from any other crustacean group4 ,since #agge1 when ,j4 ,c4 ,fabricius instituted the genus ,gammarus for five species1 of which only three were amphipods1 while he left five other amphipods in the genus ,oniscus1 from this total of eight science has developed the order1 at first very slowly1 but of late by great leaps and bounds1 so that now the ,gammaridea alone comprise more than #acjj species1 distributed among some #cjj genera and #ci families4 ,they burrow in the sands of every shore2 they throng the weeds between tide-marks2 they ascend all streams2 they are found in deep wells1 in caverns1 in lakes2 in ,arctic waters they swarm in numbers beyond computation2 they find lodgings on crabs1 on turtles1 on weed-grown buoys2 they descend into depths of the ocean down to hundreds or thousands of fathoms2 they are found in mountain streams as far above sea-level as some of their congeners live below it4 ,the ,talitridae1 better known as sandhoppers1 can forgo the briny shore and content themselves with the damp foliage of inland forests or casual humidity in the crater of an extinct volcano4 ,over the ocean surface1 as well as at various depths1 float and swim innumerable ,hyperiidea--the wonderful ,phronima1 glass-like in its glassy barrel hollowed out of some ,tunicate2 the ,cystisoma1 #d or #e in4 long1 with its eye-covered head2 the ,rhabdosoma1 like a thin rod of glass1 with needle-like head and tail1 large eyes1 but limbs and mouth-organs all in miniature1 and the second antennae of the male folding up like a carpenter's rule 7fig4 #d74 ,on jelly-fishes are to be found species of ,hyperia and their kindred1 so fat and wholesome that they have been commended to shipwrecked men in open boats as an easily procurable resource against starvation4 ,many of the ,amphipoda are extremely voracious4 ,some of them are even cannibals4 ,the ,cyamid afflict the giant whale by nibbling away its skin2 the ,chelura terebrans is destructive to submerged timber4 ,but1 on the other hand1 they largely help to clear the sea and other waters of refuse and carrion1 and for fishes1 seals and whales they are food desirable and often astoundingly copious4 ,from the little flea-like species1 scarcely a tenth of an inch long1 up to the great and rare but cosmopolitan ,eurythenes gryllus1 ,lichtenstein1 and the still larger ,alicella gigantea1 ,chevreux1 nearly half a foot long1 captured by the prince of ,monaco from a depth of #bicf fathoms1 not one of these ubiquitous1 uncountable hordes has ever been accused of assailing man4 ,for the naturalist they have the recommendation that many are easy to obtain1 that most1 apart from the very minute1 are easy to handle1 and that all1 except as to the fleeting colours1 are easy to preserve4 ,a nearly complete bibliography of the order down to #ahhh will be found in the ,challenger ,reports1 vol4 xxviii41 and supplementary notices in ,della ,valle's ,monograph of the ,gammarini 7#ahic71 the scope of his work1 however1 not covering the ,hyperiidea and ,oxycephalidae of ,bovallius 7#ahhi1 #ahij72 but since these dates very numerous additions to the literature have been made by ,birula1 ,bonnier1 ,norman1 ,walker and others1 especially the ,crustacea of ,norway1 vol4 i4 7,amphipoda71 ,sars 7#ahij-ahie71 demanding attention1 and the quite recent ,amphipoda of the ,hirondelle1 ,chevreux 7#aijj71 and ,hyperiidea of the ,plankton-,expedition1 ,vosseler 7#aija74 7,t4 ,r4 ,r4 ,s47 ,,footnote3 #a ,in ,huxley's terminology the first two or three joints of the stem constitute a protopodite1 from which spring the endopodite and exopodite4 ,,malaga1 a maritime province of southern ,spain1 one of the eight modern subdivisions of ,andalusia2 bounded on the ,w4 by ,cadiz1 ,n4 by ,seville and ,cordova1 ,e4 by ,granada1 and ,s4 by the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #eaa1ihi2 area1 #bhab sq4 m4 ,the northern half of ,malaga belongs to the great ,andalusian plain watered by the ,guadalquivir1 the southern is mountainous1 and rises steeply from the coast4 ,of the numerous sierras may be mentioned that of ,alhama1 separating the province from ,granada1 and at one point rising above #gjjj ft42 its westward continuation in the ,sierra de ,abdalajis and the ,axarquia between ,antequera and ,malaga2 and not far from the ,cadiz boundary the ,sierras de ,ronda1 de ,mijas1 de ,tolox and ,bermeja1 converging and culminating in a summit of nearly #fejj ft4 ,the rivers which rise in the watershed formed by all these ranges reach the sea after a short and precipitous descent1 and in rainy seasons are very liable to overflow their banks4 ,in #aijg great loss of life and destruction of property were caused in this manner4 ,the principal river is the ,guadalhorce1 which rises in the ,sierra de ,alhama1 and1 after a westerly course past the vicinity of ,antequera1 bends southward through the wild defile of ,pearrubia and the beautiful vega or vale of ,malaga1 falling into the sea near that city4 ,the only other considerable stream is the ,guadiaro1 which has the greater part of its course within the province and flows past ,ronda4 ,there is an extensive salt lagoon near the northern boundary4 ,the mountains are rich in minerals1 lead1 and 7in the neighbourhood of ,marbella7 iron1 being obtained in large quantities4 ,there are warm sulphurous springs and baths at ,carratraca4 ,though the methods of agriculture are for the most part rude1 the yield of wheat in good seasons is considerably in excess of the local demand2 and large quantities of grapes and raisins1 oranges and lemons1 figs and almonds1 are annually exported4 ,the oil and wines of ,malaga are also highly esteemed1 and after #ahgj the manufacture of beet and cane sugar developed into an important industry4 ,in #aije there were about #ejj flour mills and #bcj oil factories beside #ie stills and #ajj wine-presses in the province4 ,malaga has suffered severely from the agricultural depression prevalent throughout southern ,spain1 but its manufacturing industries tend to expand4 ,the fisheries are important2 a fleet of about #cjj boats brings in #ah1jjj1jjj lb4 annually1 of which #be is exported4 ,the internal communications are in many parts defective1 owing to the broken nature of the surface2 but the province is traversed from north to south by the ,cordova-,malaga railway1 which sends off branches from ,bobadilla to ,granada and ,algeciras4 ,a branch line along the coast from ,malaga to ,vlez ,malaga was opened in #aijh4 ,malaga1 the capital 7pop4 #acj1aji71 ,antequera 7#ca1fji71 ,vlez ,malaga 7#bc1ehf71 ,ronda 7#bj1iie71 ,con 7#ab1cbf71 and ,alora 7#aj1cbe71 are described in separate articles4 ,other towns with more than #gjjj inhabitants are ,marbella 7#ifbi71 ,estepona 7#icaj71 ,archidona 7#hhhj7 and ,nerja 7#gaab74 ,the population of the province tends gradually to decrease1 as many families emigrate to ,south ,america1 ,algeria and ,hawaii4 ,,malaga1 the capital of the province of ,malaga1 an episcopal see1 and1 next to ,barcelona1 the most important seaport of ,spain1 finely situated on the ,mediterranean coast1 at the southern base of the ,axarquia hills and at the eastern extremity of the fertile vega 7plain7 of ,malaga in #cf #dc ,n4 and #d #be ,w4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #acj1aji4 ,from the clearness of its sky1 and the beautiful sweep of its bay1 ,malaga has sometimes been compared with ,naples4 ,the climate is one of the mildest and most equable in ,europe1 the mean annual temperature being #ff4g ,fahr4 ,the principal railway inland gives access through ,bobadilla to all parts of ,spain1 and a branch line along the coast to ,vlez-,malaga was opened in #aijh4 ,malaga lies principally on the left bank of a mountain torrent1 the ,guadalmedina 7river of the city72 the streets near the sea are spacious and comparatively modern1 but those in the older part of the town1 where the buildings are huddled around the ancient citadel1 are narrow1 winding and often dilapidated4 ,well-built suburbs have also spread on all sides into the rich and pleasant country which surrounds ,malaga1 and several acres of land reclaimed from the sea have been converted into a public park4 ,there are various squares or plazas and public promenades2 of the former the most important are the ,plaza de ,riego 7containing the monument to ,general ,jos ,maria ,torrijos1 who1 with forty-eight others1 was executed in ,malaga on the #aath of ,december #ahca1 for promoting an insurrection in favour of the constitution7 and the ,plaza de la ,constitucion2 adjoining the quays is the fine ,paseo de la ,alameda4 ,the city has no public buildings of commanding architectural or historical importance4 ,the cathedral1 on the site of an ancient mosque1 was begun about #aebh2 after its construction had been twice interrupted1 it was completed to its present state in the #ahth century1 and is in consequence an obtrusive record of the degeneration of ,spanish architecture4 ,the woodwork of the choir1 however1 is worthy of attention4 ,the church of ,el ,cristo de la ,victoria contains some relics of the siege of #adhg4 ,there are an ,english church and an ,english cemetery1 which dates from #ahcj2 up to that year all ,protestants who died in ,malaga were buried on the foreshore1 where their bodies were frequently exposed by the action of wind and sea4 ,of the old ,moorish arsenal only a single horseshoe gateway remains1 the rest of the site being chiefly occupied by an iron structure used as a market2 the ,alcazba1 or citadel1 has almost disappeared4 ,the castle of ,gibralfaro1 on a bold eminence to the north-east dates from the #acth century1 and is still in fairly good preservation4 ,during the #aith century so much silt accumulated in the harbour that vessels were obliged to lie in the roads outside1 and receive and discharge cargo by means of lighters2 but new harbour works were undertaken in #ahhj1 and large ships can now again load or discharge at the quays1 which are connected with the main railway system by a branch line4 ,about #baej ships of #a1gej1jjj tons enter at ,malaga every year4 ,iron1 lead1 wine1 olive oil1 almonds1 fresh and dried fruit1 palmetto hats and canary seed are exported in large quantities1 while the imports include grain1 codfish1 fuel1 chemicals1 iron and steel1 machinery1 manures and staves for casks4 ,although trade was impeded during the early years of the #bjth century by a succession of bad harvests and by the disastrous floods of ,september #aijg1 the number of industries carried on in and near ,malaga tends steadily to increase4 ,there are large cotton mills1 iron foundries1 smelting works and engineering works4 ,pottery1 mosaic1 artificial stone and tiles are produced chiefly for the home market1 though smaller quantities are sent abroad4 ,there is a chromo-lithographic establishment1 and the other industries include tanning1 distilling and the manufacture of sugar1 chocolate1 soap1 candles1 artificial ice1 chemical products1 white lead and pianos4 ,foreign capital has played a prominent part in the development of ,malaga2 a ,french syndicate owns the gas-works1 and the electric lighting of the streets is controlled by ,british and ,german companies4 ,malaga is the ,greek3 ,mlaka of ,strabo 7iii4 #aef7 and ,ptolemy 7ii4 #d1 #g7 and the ,malaca foederatorum of ,pliny 7iii4 #c74 ,the place seems to have been of some importance even during the ,carthaginian period2 under the ,romans it became a municipium1 and under the ,visigoths an episcopal see4 ,in #gaa it passed into the possession of the ,moors1 and soon came to be regarded as one of the most important cities of ,andalusia4 ,it was attached to the caliphate of ,cordova1 but on the fall of the ,omayyad dynasty it became for a short time the capital of an independent kingdom2 afterwards it was dependent on ,granada4 ,in #adhg it was taken and treated with great harshness by ,ferdinand and ,isabella after a protracted siege4 ,in #ahaj it was sacked by the ,french under ,general ,sebastiani4 ,the citizens of ,malaga are noted for their opposition to the ,madrid government2 they took a prominent part in the movements against ,espartero 7#ahdc71 against ,queen ,isabella 7#ahfh7 and in favour of a republic 7#ahgc74 ,,malakand ,,pass1 a mountain pass in the ,north-,west ,province of ,india1 connecting the ,british district of ,peshawar with the ,swat ,valley4 ,it is now a military post and the headquarters of a political agency4 ,it came into prominence for the first time in #ahie during the ,chitral campaign1 when #gjjj ,pathans held it against ,sir ,robert ,low's advance1 but were easily routed4 ,after the campaign was over a fortified camp was formed on the ,malakand to guard the road to ,chitral4 ,during the frontier risings of #ahig the ,swatis made a determined attack on the ,malakand1 where #gjj were killed1 and on the adjacent post of ,chakdara1 where #bjjj were killed4 ,this was the origin of the ,malakand ,expedition of the same year4 7,see ,,swat47 ,,malalas 7or ,,malelas7 7,syriac for orator71 ,,john 7c4 #dia-egh71 ,byzantine chronicler1 was born at ,antioch4 ,he wrote a ,greek3 ,chronographia in #ah books1 the beginning and the end of which are lost4 ,in its present state it begins with the mythical history of ,egypt and ends with the expedition to ,africa under ,marcianus1 the nephew of ,justinian4 ,except for the history of ,justinian and his immediate predecessors1 it possesses little historical value2 it is written without any idea of proportion and contains astonishing blunders4 ,the writer is a supporter of ,church and ,state1 an upholder of monarchical principles4 ,the work is rather a chronicle written round ,antioch1 which he regarded as the centre of the world1 and 7in the later books7 round ,constantinople4 ,it is1 however1 important as the first specimen of a chronicle written not for the learned but for the instruction of the monks and the common people1 in the language of the vulgar1 with an admixture of ,latin and ,oriental words4 ,it obtained great popularity1 and was conscientiously exploited by various writers until the #aath century1 being translated even into the ,slavonic languages4 ,it is preserved in an abridged form in a single ,,ms4 now at ,oxford4 ,for the authorities consulted by ,malalas1 the influence of his work on ,slavonic and ,oriental literature1 the state of the text1 the original form and extent of the work1 the date of its composition1 the relation of the concluding part to the whole1 and the literature of the subject1 see ,c4 ,krumbacher's ,geschichte der byzantinischen ,litteratur 7#ahig74 ,see also the editio princeps1 by ,e4 ,chilmead 7,oxford1 #afia71 containing an essay by ,humphrey ,hody and ,bentley's well-known letter to ,mill2 other editions in the ,bonn ,corpus scriptorum hist4 byz41 by ,l4 ,dindorf 7#ahca71 and in ,j4 ,p4 ,migne ,patrologia graeca1 xcvii4 ,,malan1 ,,solomon ,,caesar 7#ahab-ahid71 ,british divine and orientalist1 was by birth a ,swiss descended from an exiled ,french family1 and was born at ,geneva on the #bbnd of ,april #ahab1 where his father1 ,dr ,henry ,abraham ,caesar ,malan 7#aghg-ahfd7 enjoyed a great reputation as a ,protestant divine4 ,from his earliest youth he manifested a remarkable faculty for the study of languages1 and when he came to ,scotland as tutor in the marquis of ,tweeddale's family at the age of #ah he had already made progress in ,sanskrit1 ,arabic and ,hebrew4 ,in #ahcc he matriculated at ,st ,edmund ,hall1 ,oxford2 and ,english being almost an unknown tongue to him1 he petitioned the examiners to allow him to do his paper work of the examination in ,french1 ,german1 ,spanish1 ,italian1 ,latin or ,greek1 rather than in ,english4 ,but his request was not granted4 ,after gaining the ,boden and the ,pusey and ,ellerton scholarships1 he graduated #bnd class in ,lit4 hum4 in #ahcg4 ,he then proceeded to ,india as classical lecturer at ,bishop's ,college1 ,calcutta1 to which post he added the duties of secretary to the ,bengal branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society2 and although compelled by illness to return in #ahdj1 laid the foundation of a knowledge of ,tibetan and ,chinese4 ,after serving various curacies1 he was presented in #ahde to the living of ,broadwindsor1 ,dorset1 which he held until #ahhf4 ,during this entire period he continued to augment his linguistic knowledge1 which he carried so far as to be able to preach in that most difficult language1 ,georgian1 on a visit which he paid to ,nineveh in #ahgb4 ,his translations from the ,armenian1 ,georgian and ,coptic were numerous4 ,he applied his ,chinese learning to the determination of important points connected with ,chinese religion1 and published a vast number of parallel passages illustrative of the ,book of ,proverbs4 ,in #ahhj the university of ,edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree of ,d4,d4 ,no modern scholar1 perhaps1 has so nearly approached the linguistic omniscience of ,mezzofanti2 but1 like ,mezzofanti1 ,dr ,malan was more of a linguist than a critic4 ,he made himself conspicuous by the vehemence of his opposition to ,westcott and ,hort's text of the ,new ,testament1 and to the transliteration of ,oriental languages1 on neither of which points did he in general obtain the suffrages of scholars4 ,his extensive and valuable library1 some special collections excepted1 was presented by him in his lifetime to the ,indian ,institute at ,oxford4 ,he died at ,bournemouth on the #beth of ,november #ahid4 ,his life has been written by his son4 ,m,,lar1 a lake of ,sweden1 extending #gc m4 westward from ,stockholm1 which lies at its junction with the ,saltsj1 an arm of the ,baltic ,sea4 ,the height of the lake is normally only from #aa in4 to #b ft4 above sea-level1 and its outflow is sometimes reversed4 ,the area is #ddi sq4 m4 ,the bottom consists of a series of basins separate by ridges from which rise numerous islands4 ,the deepest sounding is #baj ft4 ,the outline is very irregular1 the mean breadth being about #ae m41 but an arm extends northward for #cj m4 nearly to the city of ,upsala with many ramifications4 ,the area of the drainage basin is #hghi sq4 m41 of which #aabd are occupied by lakes4 ,the navigable connexions with the lake are--7#a7 with lake ,hjelmar to the south-west by the ,arboga river and the ,hjelmar canal2 and by the ,eskilstuna river and the ,thorshlla canal2 7#b7 with the ,baltic southward through the ,sdertelge canal1 the route followed by the ,gta canal steamers2 7#c7 with the ,baltic by two channels at ,stockholm4 ,the more important towns1 besides ,stockholm1 are ,vesters on the north1 ,sdertelge and ,eskilstuna near the south shore4 ,the lake offers a field for recreation fully appreciated by the inhabitants of the capital1 and many of those whose business lies at ,stockholm have their residences on the shores of ,mlar4 ,on ,drottningholm 7,queen's ,island1 named from ,catherine1 wife of ,john ,,iii47 is a palace with a fine park and formal gardens4 ,john ,,iii4 built a palace at the close of the #afth century1 but the existing building1 by ,nicodemus ,tessin and his son ,nicodemus1 dates from the second half of the #agth century4 ,at ,mariefred on the south shore there is the castle of ,gripsholm 7#aecg71 built by ,gustavus ,vasa1 a picturesque erection with four towers1 richly adorned within1 and containing a large collection of portraits4 ,strengns1 on the same shore1 became an episcopal see in #abia1 when the fine cathedral1 much altered since1 was consecrated4 ,in the episcopal palace1 a building of the #aeth century now used as a school1 ,gustavus ,vasa was elected to the throne of ,sweden in #aebc4 ,on the northward arm of the lake is the palace of ,rosenberg1 used as a school of gunnery1 in a well-wooded park4 ,on a branch of the same arm is ,sigtuna1 a village whose ruined churches are a memorial of its rank among the principal towns of ,sweden after its foundation in the #aath century4 ,remains prove that on ,bjrk1 an island in the eastern part of the lake1 there was a large settlement of earlier importance than ,sigtuna4 ,here a cross commemorates the preaching of ,christianity by ,st ,ansgar in #hbi4 ,finally1 on the northern arm about #aj m4 south of ,upsala1 there is the chteau of ,skokloster1 occupying the site of a monastery1 and presented by ,gustavus ,adolphus to ,marshal ,herman ,wrangel1 whose son ,charles ,gustavus ,wrangel stored it with a remarkable collection of trophies from ,germany1 taken during the ,thirty ,years' ,war2 including a library1 an armoury1 and a great accumulation of curios4 ,,malaria1 an ,italian colloquial word 7from mala1 bad1 and aria1 air71 introduced into ,english medical literature by ,macculloch 7#ahbg7 as a substitute for the more restricted terms marsh miasm or paludal poison4 ,it is generally applied to the definite unhealthy condition of body known by a variety of names1 such as ague1 intermittent 7and remittent7 fever1 marsh fever1 jungle fever1 hill fever1 fever of the country and fever and ague4 ,a single paroxysm of simple ague may come upon the patient in the midst of good health or it may be preceded by some malaise4 ,the ague-fit begins with chills proceeding as if from the lower part of the back1 and gradually extending until the coldness overtakes the whole body4 ,tremors of the muscles more or less violent accompany the cold sensations1 beginning with the muscles of the lower jaw 7chattering of the teeth71 and extending to the extremities and trunk4 ,the expression has meanwhile changed3 the face is pale or livid2 there are dark rings under the eyes2 the features are pinched and sharp1 and the whole skin shrunken2 the fingers are dead white1 the nails blue4 ,all those symptoms are referable to spasmodic constriction of the small surface arteries1 the pulse at the wrist being itself small1 hard and quick4 ,in the interior organs there are indications of a compensating accumulation of blood1 such as swelling of the spleen1 engorgement 7very rarely rupture7 of the heart1 with a feeling of oppression in the chest1 and a copious flow of clear and watery urine from the congested kidneys4 ,the body temperature will have risen suddenly from the normal to #ajc or higher4 ,this first or cold stage of the paroxysm varies much in length2 in temperate climates it lasts from one to two hours1 while in tropical and subtropical countries it may be shortened4 ,it is followed by the stage of dry heat1 which will be prolonged in proportion as the previous stage is curtailed4 ,the feeling of heat is at first an internal one1 but it spreads outwards to the surface and to the extremities2 the skin becomes warm and red1 but remains dry2 the pulse becomes softer and more full1 but still quick2 and the throbbings occur in exposed arteries1 such as the temporal4 ,the spleen continues to enlarge2 the urine is now scanty and high-coloured2 the body temperature is high1 but the highest temperatures occur during the chill2 there is considerable thirst2 and there is the usual intellectual unfitness1 and it may be confusion1 of the feverish state4 ,this period of dry heat1 having lasted three or four hours or longer1 comes to an end in perspiration1 at first a mere moistness of the skin1 passing into sweating that may be profuse and even drenching4 ,sleep may overtake the patient in the midst of the sweating stage1 and he awakes1 not without some feeling of what he has passed through1 but on the whole well1 with the temperature fallen almost or altogether to the normal1 or it may be even below the normal2 the pulse moderate and full2 the spleen again of its ordinary size2 the urine that is passed after the paroxysm deposits a thick brick-red sediment of urates4 ,the three stages together will probably have lasted six to twelve hours4 ,the paroxysm is followed by a definite interval in which there is not only no fever1 but even a fair degree of bodily comfort and fitness2 this is the intermission of the fever4 ,another paroxysm begins at or near the same hour next day 7quotidian ague71 which results from a double tertian infection1 or the interval may be forty-eight hours 7tertian ague71 or seventy-two hours 7quartan ague74 ,it is the general rule1 with frequent exceptions1 that the quotidian paroxysm comes on in the morning1 the tertian about noon1 and the quartan in the afternoon4 ,another rule is that the quartan has the longest cold stage1 while its paroxysm is shortest as a whole2 the quotidian has the shortest cold stage and a long hot stage1 while its paroxysm is longest as a whole4 ,the point common to the various forms of ague is that the paroxysm ceases about midnight or early morning4 ,quotidian intermittent is on the whole more common than tertian in hot countries2 elsewhere the tertian is the usual type1 and quartan is only occasional4 ,if the first paroxysm should not cease within the twenty-four hours1 the fever is not reckoned as an intermittent1 but as a remittent4 ,remittent is a not unusual form of the malarial process in tropical and subtropical countries1 and in some localities or in some seasons it is more common than intermittent4 ,it may be said to arise out of that type of intermittent in which the cold stage is shortened while the hot stage tends to be prolonged4 ,a certain abatement or remission of the fever takes place1 with or without sweating1 but there is no true intermission or interval of absolute apyrexia4 ,the periodicity shows itself in the form of an exacerbation of the still continuing fever1 and that exacerbation may take place twenty-four hours after the first onset1 or the interval may be only half that period1 or it may be double4 ,a fever that is to be remittent will usually declare itself from the outset3 it begins with chills1 but without the shivering and shaking fit of the intermittent2 the hot stage soon follows1 presenting the same characters as the prolonged hot stage of the quotidian1 with the frequent addition of bilious symptoms1 and it may be even of jaundice and of tenderness over the stomach and liver4 ,towards morning the fever abates2 the pulse falls in frequency1 but does not come down to the normal2 headache and aching in the loins and limbs become less1 but do not cease altogether2 the body temperature falls1 but does not touch the level of apyrexia4 ,the remission or abatement lasts generally throughout the morning2 and about noon there is an exacerbation1 seldom ushered in by chills1 which continues till the early morning following1 when it remits or abates as before4 ,a patient with remittent may get well in a week under treatment1 but the fever may go on for several weeks2 the return to health is often announced by the fever assuming the intermittent type1 or1 in other words1 by the remissions touching the level of absolute apyrexia4 ,remittent fevers 7as well as intermittents7 vary considerably in intensity2 some cases are intense from the outset1 or pernicious1 with aggravation of all the symptoms--leading to stupor1 delirium1 collapse1 intense jaundice1 blood in the stools1 blood and albumen in the urine1 and1 it may be1 suppression of urine followed by convulsions4 ,the severe forms of intermittent are most apt to occur in the very young1 or in the aged1 or in debilitated persons generally4 ,milder cases of malarial fever are apt to become dangerous from the complications of dysentery1 bronchitis or pneumonia4 ,severe remittents 7pernicious or bilious remittents7 approximate to the type of yellow fever 7q4v471 which is conventionally limited to epidemic outbreaks in western longitudes and on the west coast of ,africa4 ,of the mortality due to malarial disease a small part only is referable to the direct attack of intermittent1 and chiefly to the fever in its pernicious form4 ,remittent fever is much more fatal in its direct attack4 ,but probably the greater part of the enormous total of deaths set down to malaria is due to the malarial cachexia4 ,the dwellers in a malarious region like the ,terai 7at the foot of the ,himalayas7 are miserable1 listless and ugly1 with large heads and particularly prominent ears1 flat noses1 tumid bellies1 slender limbs and sallow complexions2 the children are impregnated with malaria from their birth1 and their growth is attended with aberrations from the normal which practically amount to the disease of rickets4 ,the malarial cachexia that follows definite attacks of ague consists in a state of ill-defined suffering1 associated with a sallow skin1 enlarged spleen and liver1 and sometimes with dropsy4 ,causation4--,from the time of ,hippocrates onwards the malarial or periodical fevers have engaged the attention of innumerable observers1 who have suggested various theories of causation1 and have sometimes anticipated--vaguely1 indeed1 but with surprising accuracy--the results of modern research2 but the true nature of the disease remained in doubt until the closing years of the #aith century4 ,it has now been demonstrated by a series of accurate investigations1 contributed by many workers1 that malaria is caused by a microscopic parasite in the blood1 into which it is introduced by the bites of certain species of mosquito4 7,see ,,parasitic ,,diseases and ,,mosquitoes47 ,history of ,discovery4 ,the successive steps by which the present position has been reached form an interesting chapter in the history of scientific progress4 ,the first substantial link in the actual chain of discovery was contributed in #ahhj by ,laveran1 a ,french army surgeon serving in ,algeria4 ,on the #fth of ,november in that year he plainly saw the living parasites under the microscope in the blood of a malarial patient1 and he shortly afterwards communicated his observations to the ,paris ,acadmie de ,mdecine4 ,they were confirmed1 but met with little acceptance in the scientific world1 which was preoccupied with the claims of a subsequently discredited ,bacillus malariae4 ,in #ahhe the ,italian pathologists came round to ,laveran's views1 and began to work out the life history of his parasites4 ,the subject has a special interest for ,italy1 which is devastated by malaria1 and ,italian science has contributed materially to the solution of the problem4 ,the labours of ,golgi1 ,marchiafava1 ,celli and others established the nature of the parasite and its behaviour in the blood2 they proved the fact1 guessed by ,rasori so far back as #ahdf1 that the periodical febrile paroxysm corresponds with the development of the organisms2 and they showed that the different forms of malarial fever have their distinct parasites1 and consequently fall into distinct groups1 defined on an etiological as well as a clinical basis--namely1 the mild or spring group1 which includes tertian and quartan ague1 and the malignant or aestivo-autumnal group1 which includes a tertian or a semi-tertian and the true quotidian type4 ,three distinct parasites1 corresponding with the tertian1 quartan and malignant types of fever1 have been described by ,italian observers1 and the classification is generally accepted2 intermediate types are ascribed to mixed and multiple infections4 ,so far1 however1 only half the problem1 and from the practical point of view the less important half1 had been solved4 ,the origin of the parasite and its mode of introduction into the blood remained to be discovered4 ,an old popular belief current in different countries1 and derived from common observation1 connected mosquitoes with malaria1 and from time to time this theory found support in more scientific quarters on general grounds1 but it lacked demonstration and attracted little attention4 ,in #ahid1 however1 ,sir ,patrick ,manson1 arguing with greater precision by analogy from his own discovery of the cause of filariasis and the part played by mosquitoes1 suggested that the malarial parasite had a similar intermediate host outside the human body1 and that a suctorial insect1 which would probably be found to be a particular mosquito1 was required for its development4 ,following up this line of investigation1 ,major ,ronald ,ross in #ahie found that if a mosquito sucked blood containing the parasites they soon began to throw out flagellae1 which broke away and became free2 and in #ahig he discovered peculiar pigmented cells1 which afterwards turned out to be the parasites of aestivo-autumnal malaria in an early stage of development1 within the stomach-wall of mosquitoes which had been fed on malarial blood4 ,he further found that only mosquitoes of the genus ,anopheles had these cells1 and that they did not get them when fed on healthy blood4 ,then1 turning his attention to the malaria of birds1 he worked out the life-history of these cells within the body of the mosquito4 ,he saw that they increased in size1 divided1 and became full of filiform spores1 then ruptured and poured out their multitudinous progeny into the body-cavity of their insect host4 ,finally1 he saw the spores accumulate within the cells of the salivary glands1 and discovered that they actually passed down the salivary ducts and along the grooved hypopharynx into the seat of puncture1 thus causing infection in a fresh vertebrate host 7,sambon74 ,to apply these discoveries to the malaria of man was an obvious step4 ,in working out the details the ,italian school have again taken a prominent part4 ,experiment4 ,thus we get a complete scientific demonstration of the causation of malaria in three stages3 7#a7 the discovery of the parasite by ,laveran2 7#b7 its life-history in the human host and connexion with the fever demonstrated by the ,italian observers2 7#c7 its life-history in the alternate host1 and the identification of the latter with a particular species of mosquito by ,ross and ,manson4 ,the conclusions derived from the microscopical laboratory were confirmed by actual experiment4 ,in #ahih it was conclusively shown in ,italy that if a mosquito of the ,anopheles variety bites a person suffering from malaria1 and is kept long enough for the parasite to develop in the salivary gland1 and is then allowed to bite a healthy person1 the latter will in due time develop malaria4 ,the converse proposition1 that persons efficiently protected from mosquito bites escape malaria1 has been made the subject of several remarkable experiments4 ,one of the most interesting was carried out in #aijj for the ,london ,school of ,tropical ,medicine by ,dr ,sambon and ,dr ,low1 who went to reside in one of the most malarious districts in the ,roman ,campagna during the most dangerous season4 ,together with ,signor ,terzi and two ,italian servants1 they lived from the beginning of ,july until the #aith of ,october in a specially protected hut1 erected near ,ostia4 ,the sole precaution taken was to confine themselves between sunset and sunrise to their mosquito-proof dwelling4 ,all escaped malaria1 which was rife in the immediate neighbourhood4 ,mosquitoes caught by the experimenters1 and sent to ,london1 produced malaria in persons who submitted themselves to the bites of these insects at the ,london ,school of ,tropical ,medicine4 ,experiments in protection on a larger scale1 and under more ordinary conditions1 have been carried out with equal success by ,professor ,celli and other ,italian authorities4 ,the first of these was in #ahii1 and the subjects were the railwaymen employed on certain lines running through highly malarious districts4 ,of #bd protected persons1 all escaped but four1 and these had to be out at night or otherwise neglected precautions2 of #ch unprotected persons1 all contracted malaria except two1 who had apparently acquired immunity4 ,in #aijj further experiments gave still better results4 ,of #eb protected persons on one line1 all escaped except two1 who were careless2 of #eb protected on another line1 all escaped2 while of #ea unprotected persons1 living in alternate houses1 all suffered except seven4 ,out of a total of #bjg persons protected in these railway experiments1 #aig escaped4 ,in two peasants' cottages in the ,campagna1 protected with wire netting by ,professor ,celli1 all the inmates--#aj in number--escaped1 while the neighbours suffered severely2 and three out of four persons living in a third hut1 from which protection was removed owing to the indifference of the inmates1 contracted malaria4 ,in the malarious islet of ,asinara a pond of stagnant water was treated with petroleum and all windows were protected with gauze4 ,the result was that the houses were free from mosquitoes and no malaria occurred throughout the entire season1 though there had been #dj cases in the previous year4 ,eight ,red ,cross ambulances1 each with a doctor and attendant1 were sent into the most malarious parts of the ,campagna in #aijj4 ,by living in protected houses and wearing gloves and veils at night all the staff escaped malaria except one or two attendants4 ,these and other experiments1 described by ,dr ,manson in the ,practitioner for ,march #aijj1 confirming the laboratory evidence as they do1 leave no doubt whatever of the correctness of the mosquito-parasitic theory of malaria4 ,it is possible1 though not probable1 that malaria may also be contracted in some other way than by mosquito bite1 but there are no well-authenticated facts which require any other theory for their explanation4 ,the alleged occurrence of the disease in localities free from mosquitoes or without their agency is not well attested2 its absence from other localities where they abound is accounted for by their being of an innocent species1 or--as in ,england--free from the parasite4 ,the old theory of paludism or of a noxious miasma exhaled from the ground is no longer necessary4 ,the broad facts on which it is based are sufficiently accounted for by the habits of mosquitoes4 ,for instance1 the swampy character of malarial areas is explained by their breeding in stagnant water2 the effect of drainage1 and the general immunity of high-lying1 dry localities1 by the lack of breeding facilities2 the danger of the night air1 by their nocturnal habits2 the comparative immunity of the upper storeys of houses1 by the fact that they fly low2 the confinement of malaria to well-marked areas and the diminution of danger with distance1 by their habit of clinging to the breeding-grounds and not flying far4 ,similarly1 the subsidence of malaria during cold weather and its seasonal prevalence find an adequate explanation in the conditions governing insect life4 ,at the same time it should be remembered that many points await elucidation1 and it is unwise to assume conclusions in advance of the evidence4 ,parasites4 ,with regard to the parasites1 which are the actual cause of malaria in man1 an account of them is given under the heading of ,,parasitic ,,diseases1 and little need be said about them here4 ,they belong to the group of ,protozoa1 and1 as already explained1 have a double cycle of existence3 7#a7 a sexual cycle in the body of the mosquito1 7#b7 an asexual cycle in the blood of human beings4 ,they occupy and destroy the red corpuscles1 converting the haemoglobin into melanin2 they multiply in the blood by sporulation1 and produce accessions of fever by the liberation of a toxin at the time of sporulation 7,ross74 ,the number in the blood in an acute attack is reckoned by ,ross to be not less than #bej millions4 ,a more general and practical interest attaches to the insects which act as their intermediate hosts4 ,these mosquitoes or gnats--the terms are synonymous--belong to the family ,culicidae and the genus ,anopheles1 which was first classified by ,meigen in #ahah4 ,it has a wide geographical distribution1 being found in ,europe 7including ,england71 ,asia ,minor1 ,burma1 ,straits ,settlements1 ,java1 ,china1 ,formosa1 ,egypt2 west1 south and ,central ,africa2 ,australia1 ,south ,america1 ,west ,indies1 ,united ,states and ,canada1 but is generally confined to local centres in those countries4 ,about fifty species are recognized at present4 ,it is believed that all of them may serve as hosts of the parasite4 ,the species best known in connexion with malaria are ,a4 maculipennis 7,europe and ,america71 ,a4 funestus and ,a4 costales 7,africa74 ,in colour ,anopheles is usually brownish or slaty1 but sometimes buff1 and the thorax frequently has a dark stripe on each side4 ,the wings in nearly all species have a dappled or speckled appearance1 owing to the occurrence of blotches on the front margin and to the arrangement of the scales covering the veins in alternating light and dark patches 7,austen74 ,the genus with which ,anopheles is most likely to be confounded is ,culex1 which is the commonest of all mosquitoes1 has a world-wide distribution1 and is generally a greedy blood-sucker4 ,a distinctive feature is the position assumed in resting2 ,culex has a humpbacked attitude1 while in ,anopheles the proboscis1 head and body are in a straight line1 and in many species inclined at an angle to the wall1 the tail sticking outwards4 ,in the female of ,culex the palpi are much shorter than the proboscis2 in ,anopheles they are of the same length4 ,the wings in ,culex have not the same dappled appearance4 ,anopheles is also a more slender insect1 with a smaller head1 narrower body and thinner legs4 ,there are further differences in the other stages of life4 ,mosquitoes go through four phases3 7#a7 ovum1 7#b7 larva1 7#c7 nympha1 7#d7 complete insect4 ,the ova of ,anopheles are tiny black rod-shaped objects1 which are deposited on the water of natural puddles1 ponds1 or slowly moving streams1 by preference those which are well supplied with vegetation2 they float1 singly or attached to other objects or clustered together in patterns4 ,they can live in brackish and even in sea water4 ,the larva has no breathing-tube1 and floats horizontally at the surface1 except when feeding2 it does not frequent sewage or foul water4 ,the ova of ,culex1 on the other hand1 are deposited in any stagnant water1 including cesspools1 drains1 cisterns1 or water collected in any vessel2 they float in boat-shaped masses on the surface4 ,the larva has a breathing-tube1 and floats head downwards2 when disturbed it wriggles to the bottom 7,christy74 ,some observers maintain that ,anopheles does not sing1 like the common mosquito1 and its bite is much less irritating4 ,only the females suck blood2 the act is believed to be necessary for fertilization and reproduction4 ,anopheles rarely bites by day1 and then only in dark places4 ,in the daytime the gorged females rest motionless on the walls and ceilings of rooms1 choosing always the darkest situations for this purpose 7,austen74 ,in temperate climates the impregnated females hibernate during the winter in houses1 cellars1 stables1 the trunks of trees1 c41 coming out to lay their eggs in the spring4 ,the four phases are passed in thirty days in a favourable season1 and consequently there are ordinarily four or five generations from ,april to ,september 7,celli74 ,the most important question raised by the mosquito-parasitic theory of malaria is that of prevention4 ,this may be considered under two heads3 7#a7 individual prophylaxis2 7#b7 administrative prevention on a large scale4 ,prophylaxis4 7#a7 ,in the first place1 common sense suggests the avoidance1 in malarious countries1 of unhealthy situations1 and particularly the neighbourhood of stagnant water4 ,among elements of unhealthiness is next to be reckoned the proximity of native villages1 the inhabitants of which are infected4 ,in the tropics no ,european house should be located nearer to a native village than half a mile 7,manson71 and1 since children are almost universally infected1 the presence of young natives in the house should be absolutely interdicted 7,manson74 ,when unhealthy situations cannot be avoided1 they may be rendered more healthy by destroying the breeding-grounds of mosquitoes in the neighbourhood4 ,all puddles and collections of water should be filled in or drained2 as a temporary expedient they may be treated with petroleum1 which prevents the development of the larvae4 ,when a place cannot be kept free from mosquitoes the house may be protected1 as in the experiments in ,italy1 by wire gauze at the doors and windows4 ,the arrangement used for the entrance is a wire cage with double doors4 ,failing such protection mosquito curtains should be used4 ,mosquitoes in the house may be destroyed by the fumes of burning sulphur or tobacco smoke4 ,according to the experiments of ,celli and ,casagrandi1 these are the most effective culicides2 when used in sufficient quantity they kill mosquitoes in one minute4 ,the same authorities recommend a powder1 composed of larvicide 7an aniline substance71 chrysanthemum flowers1 and valerian root1 to be burnt in bedrooms4 ,anointing the skin with strong-smelling substances is of little use in the open air1 but more effective in the house2 turpentine appears to be the best4 ,exposure at night should be avoided4 ,all these prophylactic measures are directed against mosquitoes4 ,there remains the question of protection against the parasite4 ,chills are recognized as predisposing both to primary infection and to relapses1 and malnutrition is also believed to increase susceptibility2 both should therefore be avoided4 ,then a certain amount of immunity may be acquired by the systematic use of quinine4 ,manson recommends five to ten grains once or twice a week2 ,ross recommends the same quantity every day before breakfast4 ,there is some evidence that arsenic has a prophylactic effect4 ,an experiment made on the railway staff at ,bovino1 a highly malarious district on the ,adriatic1 gave a striking result4 ,the number of persons was #gh1 and they were divided into two equal groups of #ci each4 ,one group was treated with arsenic1 and of these #cf escaped altogether1 while three had mild attacks2 the remaining #ci who were not treated1 all had fever4 ,in a more extended experiment on #feg railwaymen #djb escaped4 ,this was in #ahhi2 but in spite of the encouraging results the use of arsenic does not appear to have made any further progress4 ,experiments in immunizing by sero-therapeutic methods have not as yet met with success4 ,administrative ,measures4 7#b7 ,much attention has been directed in scientific circles to the possibility of stamping out epidemic malaria by administrative measures4 ,the problem is one of great practical importance1 especially to the ,british ,empire4 ,there are no data for estimating the damage inflicted by malaria in the ,british colonies4 ,it is1 indeed1 quite incalculable4 ,in ,italy the annual mortality from this cause averages #ae1jjj1 which is estimated to represent two million cases of sickness and a consequent loss of several million francs4 ,in ,british tropical possessions the bill is incomparably heavier4 ,there is not only the heavy toll in life and health exacted from ,europeans1 but the virtual closing of enormous tracts of productive country which would otherwise afford scope for ,british enterprise4 ,the deadly climates1 to which so much dread attaches1 generally mean malaria1 and the mastery of this disease would be equivalent to the addition of vast and valuable areas to the empire4 ,the problem1 therefore1 is eminently one for the statesman and administrator4 ,a solution may be sought in several directions1 suggested by the facts already explained4 ,the existence of the parasite is maintained by a vicious interchange between its alternate hosts1 mosquitoes and man1 each infecting the other4 ,if the cycle be broken at any point the parasite must die out1 assuming that it has no other origin or mode of existence4 ,the most effective step would obviously be the extermination of the ,anopheles mosquito4 ,a great deal may be done towards this end by suppressing their breeding-places1 which means the drying of the ground4 ,it is a question for the engineer1 and may require different methods in different circumstances4 ,put comprehensively1 it involves the control of the subsoil and surface waters by drainage1 the regulation of rivers and floods1 suitable agriculture1 the clearing of forests or jungles1 which tend to increase the rainfall and keep the ground swampy4 ,the city of ,rome is an example of what can be done by drainage2 situated in the midst of malaria1 it is itself quite healthy4 ,recent reports also show us how much may be done in infected districts4 ,at ,ismailia malaria was reduced from #aeea cases in #aijb to #cg cases in #aije4 ,the cost of operations amounted to an initial expenditure of #f4be francs1 and an annual expenditure of about #b4c francs per head of the population4 ,the results are due to mosquito reduction together with cinchonization4 ,the following is a tabulated list of the cases4 ,the population of ,ismailia is about #fjjj4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,year #aijj #aija #aijb99 #aijc #aijd #aije ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,cases of ,malaria #bbej #aiij #aedh #bad #ij #cgbb ---------------------------------------- ----------------- 99 ,drainage works begun4 ,klang and ,port ,swettenham are contiguous towns in the ,federated ,malay ,states1 having a population of #djjj and a rainfall of #ajj in4 a year4 ,at ,klang the expenditure has been #cajj1 with an annual expenditure of #bgj1 devoted to clearing and draining #ccb acres4 ,at ,port ,swettenham #gjjj1 with an annual upkeep of #bdj1 has been devoted to treating #aaj acres4 ,in ,hong-,kong similar measures were carried out1 with the result that the hospital admissions for malaria diminished from #abid in #aija1 the year when operations were begun1 to #dai in #aije4 ,klang and ,port ,swettenham4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,year #aijj #aija99 #aijb #aijc #aijd #aije ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,cases of ,malaria #eaj #faj #aii #fi #cb #bc ---------------------------------------- --------------- 99 ,nearly all were relapses of previous infection4 ,a systematic campaign for the destruction of breeding-places has been inaugurated in the ,british ,west ,african colonies1 with encouraging results4 ,the planting of eucalyptus trees is out of favour at present1 but it appears to have been successful in ,portugal1 not from any prophylactic virtues in the plant1 but through the great absorption of moisture by its deep roots1 which tends to dry the subsoil4 ,treating the breeding-ponds with petroleum or similar preparations seems to be hardly applicable on a large scale1 and in any case can only be a temporary expedient4 ,h4 ,ziemann advocates the destruction of mosquito larvae by the growing of such plants as the water-pest 7,anacharis alsinatrum7 which covers the surface of the water and suffocates larvae and nymphae4 ,short of suppressing mosquitoes1 the parasitic cycle may theoretically be broken by preventing them from giving the infection to man or taking it from him4 ,the means of accomplishing the former have been already pointed out1 but they are obviously difficult to carry out on a large scale1 particularly in native communities4 ,it is one thing to protect individuals from mosquito bites1 another to prevent the propagation of the parasite in a whole community4 ,perhaps the converse is more feasible in some circumstances--that is to say1 preventing mosquitoes from having access to malarial persons1 and so propagating the parasite in themselves4 ,it could be carried out where the infected persons are few1 by isolating and protecting them1 but not where many are infected1 as in native villages4 ,koch has suggested that the disinfection of malarial persons by quinine would have the desired effect1 but other authorities of greater experience do not consider it practicable4 ,in spite of the difficulties1 however1 there is no doubt that a great deal can be done to reduce1 if not stamp out1 malaria by the methods indicated1 which should be applied according to circumstances4 ,an encouraging example is afforded by the remarkable fact that malaria1 which was once rife in certain districts of ,england1 has now died out1 although the ,anopheles maculipennis mosquito still exists there4 ,the parasitic cycle has been broken1 and the insect is no longer infected4 ,the suggested causes are 7#a7 reduction of insects by drainage1 7#b7 reduced population1 7#c7 the use of quinine4 ,sir ,patrick ,manson has suggested that the problem of stamping out malaria may be assisted by the discovery of some at present unknown factors4 ,he has pointed out that certain areas and certain islands are entirely free from the disease1 while neighbouring areas and islands are devastated4 ,this immunity is apparently not due to the absence of favourable conditions1 but rather to the presence of some inimical factor which prevents the development of the parasite4 ,if this factor could be discovered it might be applied to the suppression of the disease in malarious localities4 ,a few other points may be noted4 ,the pathological changes in malaria are due to the deposition of melanin and the detritus of red corpuscles and haemoglobin1 and to the congregation of parasites in certain sites 7,ross74 ,in chronic cases the eventual effects are anaemia1 melanosis1 enlargement of the spleen and liver1 and general cachexia4 ,apparently the parasites may remain quiescent in the blood for years and may cause relapses by fresh sporulation4 ,recent discoveries have done little or nothing for treatment4 ,quinine still remains the one specific4 ,in serious cases it should not be given in solid form1 but in solution by the stomach1 rectum1 or--better--hypodermically 7,manson74 ,according to ,ross1 it should be given promptly1 in sufficient doses 7up to #cj grains71 and should be continued for months4 ,euquinine is by some preferred to quinine1 but it is more expensive4 ,nucleogen and ,aristochin have also been recommended instead of quinine4 ,the nature of immunity is not known4 ,some persons are naturally absolutely immune 7,celli71 but this is rare2 immunity is also sometimes acquired by infection1 but as a rule persons once infected are more predisposed than others4 ,races inhabiting malarious districts acquire a certain degree of resistance1 no doubt through natural selection4 ,children are much more susceptible than adults4 ,malaria in the ,lower ,vertebrates4--,birds are subject to malaria1 which is caused by blood parasites akin to those in man and having a similar life-history4 ,two species1 affecting different kinds of birds1 have been identified4 ,their alternate hosts are mosquitoes of the ,culex genus4 ,oxen1 sheep1 dogs1 monkeys1 bats1 and probably horses also suffer from similar parasitic diseases4 ,in the case of oxen the alternate host of the parasite is a special tick 7,smith and ,kilborne74 ,in the other animals several parasites have been described by different observers1 but the alternate hosts are not known4 ,,authorities4--,celli1 ,malaria2 ,christy1 ,mosquitoes and ,malaria2 ,manson1 ,tropical ,diseases2 ,allbutt's ,system of ,medicine2 ,ross1 ,malaria1 ,quain's ,dictionary of ,medicine1 #crd ed42 ,the ,practitioner1 ,march1 #aija 7,malaria ,number72 ,lancet 7,sept4 #bi1 #aijg72 ,british ,medical ,journal 7,oct4 #ai1 #aijg72 ,indian ,medical ,gazette 7,february #aijh74 7,a4 ,sl42 ,h4 ,l4 ,h47 ,,malatia 7,,malatieh or ,,aspuzu7 the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the ,mamuret el-,aziz vilayet of ,asia ,minor1 and a military station on the ,samsun-,sivas-,diarbekr road1 altitude #bijj ft41 situated about #aj m4 ,s4,w4 of the junction of the ,tokhma ,su 7med4 ,kubakib7 with the ,euphrates1 near the south end of a fertile plain1 and at the northern foot of the ,taurus4 ,pop4 about #cj1jjj1 including1 besides many ,armenian ,christians1 bodies of ,kurds and ,kizilbash4 ,it is a wholly modern place1 rebuilt since the earthquake of #ahic1 contains fine public buildings1 and is noted for its fruit orchards4 ,there are ,protestant 7,american7 and ,roman ,catholic missions1 and an ,armenian ,catholic archbishop has his seat here4 ,eskishehr or ,old ,malatia 7,melitene71 #e m4 ,n4,e4 and #c m4 from the great medieval bridge 7,kirkgeuz7 over the ,tokhma ,su1 is said to owe its present desolation largely to its occupation by ,hafiz ,pasha as his headquarters in #ahch before his advance to fight the disastrous battle of ,nizib with the ,egyptian1 ,ibrahim4 ,but it has still many inhabitants and large gardens and many ruinous mosques1 baths1 c41 relics of ,mansur's city4 ,it was the residence of von ,moltke for some months1 while attached to ,hafiz's army4 ,the earliest site was possibly ,arslan ,tepe about #b m4 south of ,eskishehr were two ,hittite stelae1 representing hunting scenes1 now in the ,constantinople and ,paris museums1 were found in #ahid4 ,in the time of ,strabo 7xii4 #ecg7 there was no town in the district of ,melitene1 which was reckoned part of ,cappadocia4 ,under ,titus the place became the permanent station of the #abth 7,thundering7 legion2 ,trajan raised it to a city4 ,lying in a very fertile country at the crossing point of important routes1 including the ,persian ,royal ,road1 and two imperial military highways from ,caesarea and along the ,euphrates bank1 it grew in size and importance1 and was the capital of ,armenia ,minor or ,secunda4 ,justinian1 who completed the walls commenced by ,anastasius1 made it the capital of ,armenia ,tertia2 it was then a very great place 7,procop41 ,de aed41 iii4 #d74 ,the town was burnt by ,chosroes on his retreat after his great defeat there in #egg4 ,taken by the ,saracens1 retaken and destroyed by ,constantine ,copronymus1 it was presently recovered to ,islam1 and rebuilt under ,mansur 7,a4,d4 #gef74 ,it again changed hands more than once1 being reckoned among the frontier towns of ,syria 7,istakhry1 pp4 #ee1 #fb74 ,at length the ,greeks recovered it in #icd1 and ,nicephorus ,,ii41 finding the district much wasted1 encouraged the ,jacobites to settle in it1 which they did in great numbers4 ,a convent of the ,virgin1 and the great church which bears his name1 were erected by the bishop ,ignatius 7,isaac the ,runner74 ,from this time ,malatia continued to be a great seat of the ,jacobites1 and it was the birthplace of their famous maphrian ,barhebraeus 7or ,abulfaragius74 ,at the commencement of the #aath century the population was said to number #fj1jjj fighting men 7,assem41 ,bib4 ,or41 ii4 #adi2 cf4 ,barheb41 ,chr4 ,eccl41 i4 #daa1 #dbc74 ,at the time of the first crusade1 the city1 being hard pressed by the ,turks under ,ibn ,danishmend1 was relieved by ,baldwin1 after ,bohemund had failed and lost his liberty in the attempt4 ,but the ,jacobites had no cause to love ,byzantium1 and the ,greek governor ,gabriel was so cruel and faithless that the townsmen were soon glad to open their gates to ,ibn ,danishmend 7#aajb71 and the city subsequently became part of the realm of ,kilij ,arslan1 sultan of ,iconium4 ,see ,h4 ,c4 ,b4 v4 ,moltke1 ,briefe ber ,zustnde1 c4 in der ,trkei 7#ahce-ahci74 7,d4 ,g4 ,h47 ,,malayalam1 a language of the ,dravidian family1 spoken on the west coast of southern ,india4 ,it is believed to have developed out of ,tamil as recently as the #ith century4 ,it possesses a large literature1 in which words borrowed from ,sanskrit are conspicuous4 ,in #aija the total number of speakers of ,malayalam in all ,india was just about six millions4 ,,malay ,,archipelago#a 7variously called ,malaysia1 the ,indian ,archipelago1 the ,east ,indies1 ,indonesia1 ,insulinde71 the largest group of islands in the world1 lying south-east of ,asia and north and north-west of ,australia4 ,it includes the ,sunda ,islands1 the ,moluccas1 ,new ,guinea1 and the ,philippine ,islands1 but excludes the ,andaman-,nicobar group4 ,the equator passes through the middle of the archipelago2 it successively cuts ,sumatra1 ,borneo1 ,celebes and ,halmahera1 four of the most important islands4 ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace 7who includes the ,solomon ,islands as well as ,new ,guinea in the group7 points out that the archipelago includes two islands larger than ,great ,britain2 and in one of them1 ,borneo1 the whole of the ,british ,isles might be set down1 and would be surrounded by a sea of forests4 ,sumatra is about equal in extent to ,great ,britain2 ,java1 ,luzon1 and ,celebes are each about the size of ,ireland4 ,eighteen more islands are on the average as large as ,jamaica2 and more than a hundred are as large as the ,isle of ,wight4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,area4 ,estimated ,population4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,sunda ,islands #dei1egh #cb1fcb1djj ,moluccas1 with ,celebes #aae1ccd #c1jjj1jjj ,new ,guinea #cab1cbi #hjj1jjj ,philippine ,islands #aae1jbf #g1fce1djj ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,the islands of the archipelago nearly all present bold and picturesque profiles against the horizon1 and at the same time the character of the scenery varies from island to island and even from district to district4 ,the mountains are arranged for the most part in lines running either from north-west to south-east or from west to east4 ,in ,sumatra and in the islands between ,sumatra and ,borneo the former direction is distinctly marked1 and the latter is equally noticeable in ,java and the other southern islands4 ,the mountains of ,borneo1 however1 rise rather in short ridges and clusters4 ,nothing in the general physiognomy of the islands is more remarkable than the number and distribution of the volcanoes1 active or extinct4 ,running south-east through ,sumatra1 east through ,java and the southern islands to ,timor1 curving north through the ,moluccas1 and again north1 from the end of ,celebes through the whole line of the ,philippines1 they follow a line roughly resembling a horseshoe narrowed towards the point4 ,the loftiest mountain in the archipelago would appear to be ,kinabalu in ,borneo 7#ac1fih ft474 ,an important fact in the physical geography of the archipelago is that ,java1 ,bali1 ,sumatra and ,borneo1 and the lesser islands between them and the ,asiatic mainland1 all rest on a great submerged bank1 nowhere more than #ajj fathoms below sea-level1 which may be considered a continuation of the continent2 while to the east the depth of the sea has been found at various places to be from #ajjj to #bejj fathoms4 ,as the value of this fact was particularly emphasized by ,wallace1 the limit of the shallow water1 which is found in the narrow but deep channel between ,bali and ,lombok1 and strikes north to the east of ,borneo1 has received the name of ,wallace's ,line4 ,the ,philippines on the other hand1 are almost surrounded by deep sea1 but are connected with ,borneo by means of two narrow submarine banks 7,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,island ,life74 ,the archipelago1 in effect1 is divided between two great regions1 the ,asiatic and the ,australian1 and the fact is evident in various branches of its geography--zoological1 botanical1 and even human4 ,it is believed that there was a land-connexion between ,asia and ,australia in the later part of the ,secondary epoch1 and that the ,australian continent1 when separated1 became divided into islands before the south-eastern part of the ,asiatic did so4 ,the most notable fact in the geological history of the archipelago is the discovery in ,java of the fossil remains of ,pithecanthropus erectus1 a form intermediate between the higher apes and man4 ,in its structure and cranial capacity it is entitled to a higher place in the zoological scale than any anthropoid1 for it almost certainly walked erect2 and1 on the other hand1 in its intellectual powers it must have been much below the lowest of the human race at present known4 ,the strata in which it was found belong to the ,miocene or ,upper ,pliocene4 ,among the rocks of economic importance may be mentioned granite of numerous kinds1 syenite1 serpentine1 porphyry1 marble1 sandstones and marls4 ,coal is worked in ,sumatra1 ,borneo and ,labuan4 ,diamonds are obtained in ,borneo1 garnets in ,sumatra1 ,bachian and ,timor1 and topazes in ,bachian1 antimony in ,borneo and the ,philippines2 lead in ,sumatra1 ,borneo and the ,philippines2 copper and malachite in the ,philippines1 ,timor1 ,borneo and ,sumatra2 and1 most important of all1 tin in ,banka1 ,billiton and ,singkep4 ,iron is pretty frequent in various forms4 ,gold is not uncommon in the older ranges of ,sumatra1 ,banka1 ,celebes1 ,bachian1 ,timor and ,borneo4 ,manganese could be readily worked in ,timor1 where it lies in the ,carboniferous ,limestone4 ,platinum is found in ,landak and other parts of ,borneo4 ,petroleum is a valuable product of ,sumatra and ,java1 and is also found in ,borneo4 ,climate1 ,flora1 ,fauna4--,the most striking general fact as regards climate in the archipelago is that wherever that part of the south-east monsoon which has passed over ,australia strikes1 the climate is comparatively dry1 and the vegetation is less luxuriant4 ,the east end of ,java1 e4g4 has a less rainfall than the west2 the distribution of the rain on the north coast is quite different from that on the south1 and a similar difference is observed between the east and the west of ,celebes4 ,the north-west monsoon1 beginning in ,october and lasting till ,march1 brings the principal rainy season in the archipelago4 ,most of the islands of the archipelago belong to the great equatorial forest-belt4 ,in its economical aspect the vegetation1 whether natural or cultivated1 is of prime interest4 ,the list of fruits is very extensive1 though few of them are widely known4 ,these1 however1 include the orange1 mango1 mangosteen1 shaddock1 guava and the durian4 ,the variety of food-plants is equally notable4 ,not only are rice and maize1 sugar and coffee1 among the widely cultivated crops1 but the coco-nut1 the bread-fruit1 the banana and plantain1 the sugar-palm1 the tea-plant1 the sago-palm1 the coco-tree1 the ground-nut1 the yam1 the cassava1 and others besides1 are of practical importance4 ,the cultivation of sugar and coffee owes its development mainly to the ,dutch2 and to them also is due the introduction of tea4 ,they have greatly encouraged the cultivation of the coco-nut among the natives1 and it flourishes1 especially in the coast districts1 in almost every island in their territory4 ,the oil is largely employed in native cookery4 ,pepper1 nutmegs and cloves were long the objects of the most important branch of ,dutch commerce2 and gutta-percha1 camphor1 dammar1 benzoin and other forest products have a place among the exports4 ,to the naturalist the ,malay ,archipelago is a region of the highest interest2 and from an early period it has attracted the attention of explorers of the first rank4 ,the physical division between the ,asiatic and ,australian regions is clearly reflected in the botany and zoology4 ,the flora of the ,asiatic islands 7thus distinguished7 is a special development of that prevailing from the ,himalayas to the ,malay ,peninsula and south ,china4 ,farther east this flora intermingles with that of ,australia 7,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia74 ,similarly1 in the ,asiatic islands are found the great mammals of the continent--the elephant1 tiger1 rhinoceros1 anthropoid ape1 c41 which are wanting in the ,australian region1 with which the eastern part of the archipelago is associated4 7,for details concerning flora and fauna1 see separate articles1 especially ,,java47 ,illustration3 ,map of ,malay ,archipelago4 ,inhabitants4--,the majority of the native inhabitants of the ,malay ,archipelago belong to two races1 the ,malays and the ,melanesians 7,papuans74 ,as regards the present racial distribution1 the view accepted by many anthropologists1 following ,a4 ,h4 ,keane1 is that the ,negritos1 still found in the ,philippines1 are the true aborigines of ,indo-,china and western ,malaysia1 while the ,melanesians1 probably their kinsmen1 were the earliest occupants of eastern ,malaysia and western ,polynesia4 ,at some date long anterior to history it is supposed that ,indo-,china was occupied first by a fair ,caucasian people and later by a yellow ,mongolian race4 ,from these two have come all the peoples--other than ,negrito or ,papuan--found to-day from the ,malay ,peninsula to the farthest islands of ,polynesia4 ,the ,malay ,archipelago was thus first invaded by the ,caucasians1 who eventually passed eastward and are to-day represented in the ,malay ,archipelago only by the ,mentawi islanders4 ,they were followed by an immigration of ,mongol-,caucasic peoples with a preponderance of ,caucasic blood--the ,indonesians of some1 the pre-,malays of other writers--who are to-day represented in the archipelago by such peoples as the ,dyaks of ,borneo and the ,battas of ,sumatra4 ,at a far later date1 probably almost within historic times1 the true ,malay race1 a combination of ,mongol and ,caucasic elements1 came into existence and overran the archipelago1 in time becoming the dominant race4 ,a ,hindu strain is evident in ,java and others of the western islands2 ,moors and ,arabs 7that is1 as the names are used in the archipelago1 ,mahommedans from various countries between ,arabia and ,india7 are found more or less amalgamated with many of the ,malay peoples2 and the ,chinese form1 from an economical point of view1 one of the most important sections of the community in many of the more civilized districts4 ,chinese have been established in the archipelago from a very early date3 the first ,dutch invaders found them settled at ,jacatra2 and many of them1 as1 for instance1 the colony of ,ternate1 have taken so kindly to their new home that they have acquired ,malay to the disuse of their native tongue4 ,chinese tombs are among the objects that strike the traveller's attention at ,amboyna and other ancient settlements4 ,there is a vast field for philological explorations in the archipelago4 ,of the great number of distinct languages known to exist1 few have been studied scientifically4 ,the most widely distributed is the ,malay1 which has not only been diffused by the ,malays themselves throughout the coast regions of the various islands1 but1 owing partly to the readiness with which it can be learned1 has become the common medium between the ,europeans and the natives4 ,the most cultivated of the native tongues is the ,javanese1 and it is spoken by a greater number of people than any of the others4 ,to it ,sundanese stands in the relation that ,low ,german holds to ,high ,german1 and the ,madurese in the relation of a strongly individualized dialect4 ,among the other languages which have been reduced to writing and grammatically analysed are the ,balinese1 closely connected with the ,javanese1 the ,batta 7with its dialect the ,toba71 the ,dyak and the ,macassarese4 ,alfurese1 a vague term meaning in the mouths of the natives little else than non-,mahommedan1 has been more particularly applied by ,dutch philologists to the native speech of certain tribes in ,celebes4 ,the commercial activity of the ,buginese causes their language to be fairly widely spoken--little1 however1 by ,europeans4 ,political ,division4--,politically the whole of the archipelago1 except ,british ,north ,borneo1 c4 7see ,,borneo71 part of ,timor 7,portuguese71 ,new ,guinea east of the #adast meridian 7,british and ,german71 and the ,philippine ,islands1 belongs to the ,netherlands4 ,the ,philippine ,islands which had been for several centuries a ,spanish possession1 passed in #ahih by conquest to the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,for these several political units see the separate articles2 a general view1 however1 is here given of the government1 economic conditions1 c41 of the ,dutch possessions1 which the ,dutch call ,nederlandsch-,indi4 ,,netherlands ,,india ,administration4--,the ,dutch possessions in ,asia lie between #f ,n4 and #aa ,s4 and #ie ,e4 and #ada ,e4 ,politically they are divided into lands under the direct government of the ,netherlands vassal lands and confederated lands4 ,administratively they are further divided into residencies1 divisions1 regencies1 districts1 and dessas or villages4 ,in the principal towns and villages there are parish councils1 and in some provinces county councils have been established4 ,natives1 ,chinese and ,arabs1 are given seats1 and in certain instances some of the members are elected1 but more generally they are appointed by government4 ,the islands are often described as of two groups1 ,java and ,madura forming one1 and the other consisting of ,sumatra1 ,borneo1 ,riouw-,lingga ,archipelago1 ,banka1 ,billiton1 ,celebes1 ,molucca ,archipelago1 the small ,sunda ,islands1 and a part of ,new ,guinea--the ,outposts as they are collectively named4 ,the ,outposts are divided into #bj provinces4 ,a governor-general holds the superior administrative and executive authority1 and is assisted by a council of five members1 partly of a legislative and partly of an advisory character1 but with no share in the executive work of the government4 ,in #aijg a ,bill was introduced to add four extraordinary members to the council1 but no immediate action was taken4 ,the governor-general not only has supreme executive authority1 but can of his own accord pass laws and regulations1 except in so far as these1 from their nature1 belong of right to the home government1 and as he is bound by the constitutional principles on which1 according to the ,regulations for the ,government of ,netherlands ,india1 passed by the king and ,states-,general in #ahed1 the ,dutch ,east ,indies must be governed4 ,there are nine departments1 each under a director3 namely1 justice2 interior2 instruction1 public worship and industry2 agriculture 7created in #aije72 civil public works2 government works 7created in #aijh72 finance2 war2 marine4 ,the administration of the larger territorial divisions 7gouvernement1 residentie7 is in the hands of ,dutch governors1 residents1 assistant residents and contrleurs4 ,in local government a wide use is made of natives1 in the appointment of whom a primary consideration is that if possible the people should be under their own chieftains4 ,in ,surakarta and ,jokjakarta in ,java1 and in many parts of the ,outposts1 native princes preserve their positions as vassals2 they have limited power1 and act generally under the supervision of a ,dutch official4 ,in concluding treaties with the vassal princes since #aije1 the ,dutch have kept in view the necessity of compelling them properly to administer the revenues of their states1 which some of them formerly squandered in their personal uses4 ,provincial banks have been established which defray the cost of public works4 ,population4--,the following table gives the area and population of ,java 7including ,madura7 and of the ,outposts3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,area3 ,pop4 ,english ------------------------ sq4 m4 #aijj4 #aije4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,java and ,madura #ej1igj #bh1gdf1fhh #cj1jih1jjh _/ ,sumatra1 ,west ,coast #ca1fdi #a1ebg1big ,sumatra1 ,east ,coast #ce1cab #dba1jij ,benkulen #i1cii #afb1cif ,sumatra ,lampong ,districts #aa1bhd #adb1dbf #d1jbi1eje ,palembang #ec1dig #hjd1bii ,achin #bj1dga #aaj1hjd _/ ,riouw-,lingga ,archipelago #af1cja #hf1ahf #aab1baf ,banka #d1ddf #ajf1cje #aae1ahi ,billiton #a1hfc #dc1chf #cf1heh ,borneo1 ,west ,coast #ee1hbe #dac1jfg ,borneo1 ,south and ,east #a1bcc1fee ,districts #aef1iab #gaf1hbb _/ ,celebes _/ ,celebes #di1cij #ded1cfh #dae1dii ,menado #bb1jhj #dbi1ggc #dcf1djf ,molucca ,islands #dc1hfd #daj1aij #djg1dai ,timor ,archipelago #ag1fih #aai1bci #cjh1fjj ,bali and ,lombok #d1jfe #a1jda1fif #ebc1ece ,new ,guinea to #ada ,e4 #aea1ghi #bjj1jjj 4444 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,total #gcf1hae #cf1jjj1jjj #cg1gag1cgg99 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- 99 ,including #dhg in ,merauke1 the capital of ,dutch ,new ,guinea4 ,in no case are the above figures for population more than fairly accurate1 and in some instances they are purely conjectural4 ,the population is legally divided into ,europeans and persons assimilated to them1 and natives and persons assimilated to them4 ,the first class includes half-castes 7who are numerous1 for the ,dutch are in closer relationship with the natives than is the case with most colonizing peoples71 and also ,armenians1 ,japanese1 c4 ,the total number of this class in #aijj was #ge1hcc2 #gb1jai of these were called ,dutch1 but #fa1jbb of them were born in ,netherlands ,india2 there were also #achb ,germans1 #dda ,british and #cej ,belgians4 ,among the natives and persons assimilated to them were about #ecg1jjj ,chinese and #bg1jjj ,arabs4 ,in the decade #ahij-aijj the increase of the ,european population was #cj4i1 of the ,arabs #bf4f1 and of the ,chinese #af4e4 ,a large proportion of the ,europeans are government officials1 or retired officials1 for many of the ,dutch1 once established in the colonies1 settle there for life4 ,the remaining ,europeans are mostly planters and heads of industrial establishments2 the ,arabs are nearly all traders1 as are some of the ,chinese1 but a large number of the latter are labourers in the ,sumatra tobacco plantations and the tin mines of ,banka1 ,billiton1 c4 ,the bulk of the natives are agriculturists4 ,religion and ,instruction4--,entire liberty is granted to the members of all religious confessions4 ,the ,reformed ,church has about #dj ministers and #cj assistants1 the ,roman ,catholic #ce curates and #bj priests1 not salaried out of the public funds4 ,there are about #agj ,christian missionaries1 and the progress of their work may be illustrated by showing that the number of ,christians among the natives and foreign ,orientals was3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,in #ahgc4 ,in #ahif4 ,in #aijc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,in ,java and ,madura #e1fgc #ai1aic ,about #cd1jjj ,in the ,outposts #adh1fgb #bij1jfe #cij1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,about #aj1jjj natives go annually to ,mecca on pilgrimage4 ,both the government and private enterprise maintain vernacular schools4 ,large sums have been voted in ,holland for the establishment of primary and secondary schools1 and the government has undertaken to assist in the establishment of parochial schools1 the object being that every village1 at least in ,java1 should possess one4 ,there are schools for higher education at ,batavia1 ,surabaya and ,semarang2 at the first two of these towns are government schools for mechanical engineering1 and at ,batavia a crafts school and a medical school for natives4 ,there are five colleges for native schoolmasters and four for sons of native officials4 ,government schools for the ,european education of ,chinese children are established in the principal towns4 ,private mechanical and crafts schools are established at ,jokjakarta1 ,surabaya and ,semarang1 and there is an agricultural school at ,buitenzorg4 ,justice4--,as regards the administration of justice1 the distinction is maintained between 7#a7 ,europeans and persons assimilated with them 7who include ,christians and ,japanese71 and 7#b7 natives1 together with ,chinese1 ,arabs1 c4 ,the former are subject to laws closely resembling those of the mother country1 while the customs and institutions of natives are respected in connexion with the administration of justice to the latter4 ,in #aijf a bill was passed somewhat modifying the existing status of the classes above mentioned1 and especially directing new ordinances with regard to the judicial treatment of ,christian natives4 ,a general judicial revision being also in contemplation1 this bill did not immediately come into force4 ,justice for ,europeans is administered by ,european judges1 but1 as with administration at large so in judicial matters1 native chiefs have extensive powers in native affairs4 ,for ,european justice the ,high ,court of ,justice is established at ,batavia2 there are councils of justice at ,batavia1 ,semarang and ,surabaya1 with authority not only over ,java but over parts of the ,outposts2 there is a resident court of justice in each residency4 ,for native justice there are courts in the districts and regencies2 residents act as police judges2 provincial councils have judicial powers1 and there are councils of priests with powers in matrimonial disputes1 questions of succession1 c4 ,as regards pauperism1 the government subsidizes ,protestant and ,catholic orphan houses4 ,finance4--,the revenue of ,netherlands ,india has been derived mainly from customs1 excise1 ground-tax1 licences1 poll-tax1 c41 from monopolies--opium1 salt and pawn-shops 7the management of which began to be taken over by the government in #aijc1 in place of the previous system of farming-out71 coffee1 c41 railways1 tin mines and forests1 and from agricultural and other concessions4 ,but attempts have been made1 and have been largely successful1 to make the revenue dependent to a less extent on monopolies and the products 7especially agricultural7 of the land2 and to abolish licences and substitute direct taxes4 ,there is a progressive income-tax for ,europeans1 and the system has also been applied in the case of natives4 ,the following table affords comparisons in the revenue and expenditure3-- --------------------------------- ,year4 ,revenue4 ,expenditure4 --------------------------------- #ahhj #ab1bcf1ejj #ab1bdd1fff #ahij #aa1dhb1deg #aj1fdd1gbh #aijj #aa1hcb1dag #ab1cac1hed #aije #ab1iea1dig #ac1hdd1agc --------------------------------- ,the monetary system is similar to that of ,holland 7the unit being the guilder71 but there are also certain silver and copper coins of small value bearing ,malay or ,javanese inscriptions4 ,the ,java ,bank1 established in #ahbh1 with headquarters at ,batavia1 is the only bank issuing notes1 two-fifths of the amount of which must be covered by specie or bullion4 ,the government has a control over the administration of this bank4 ,defence4--,the army is purely colonial1 i4e4 distinct from that of the ,netherlands4 ,its strength is a little under #dj1jjj1 about one-third being ,europeans of various nationalities and two-thirds natives of various races4 ,no portion of the regular army of the ,netherlands is allowed to be sent on colonial service1 but individual soldiers are at liberty to enlist1 by permission of their commanding officers1 in the army of ,netherlands ,india1 and they form its nucleus4 ,native and ,european soldiers are generally mixed together in the same battalions1 though in separate companies4 ,the officers were all ,dutch till #aijh1 when a trial was made of native officers from noble ,javanese families4 ,the artillery is composed of ,european gunners1 with native riders1 while the cavalry are ,europeans and natives4 ,a military academy is established at ,meester ,cornelis1 near ,batavia4 ,schools for soldiers are attached to every battalion4 ,there are certain local forces outside the regular army--militia in some of the large towns1 native infantry in ,madura1 and guards of some of the vassal princes4 ,unlike the army1 which is purely colonial1 the navy in ,netherlands ,india is partly colonial1 partly belonging to the royal navy of the ,netherlands1 and its expenses are therefore borne partly by the mother country and partly by the colony4 ,about six ironclads and twenty smaller vessels of the royal navy are stationed in colonial waters2 the vessels of the colonial marine number about twenty-four1 and undertake police supervision1 prevention of slave trading1 c4 ,trade and ,industries4--,the principal articles of export are sugar1 tobacco1 copra1 forest products 7various gums1 c471 coffee1 petroleum1 tea1 cinchona1 tin1 rice1 pepper1 spices and gambier4 ,the average annual value of exports during #aijj-aije was #bb1dif1dfh1 and of imports #ag1jej1cch4 ,a great proportion of the exports goes to the mother country1 though a considerable quantity of rice is exported to ,china4 ,an indication of the mineral products has already been given2 as regards the export trade1 tin is the most important of these1 but the ,ombilin coalfields of ,sumatra1 connected by a railway with the coast1 call for mention here also4 ,agricultural labour is very carefully regulated by law1 in the enforcement of which the residents and lower officials have wide powers4 ,one day's gratuitous labour out of seven or more can be demanded of labourers either on private or on government estates2 but in #ahhb this form of labour was for the most part abolished as far as government estates were concerned1 each labourer so exempted paying one guilder per year4 ,the principal private agricultural estates are in the west of ,java1 in which island the greater part of the soil is government property4 ,such estates have increased greatly in number and extent1 not only in ,java but elsewhere1 since the agrarian law of #ahgj1 under which it became possible for settlers to obtain waste lands on hereditary lease for #ge years4 ,in #ahii the total acreage of land ceded was #a1jjb1gff acres2 in #aijc it was #a1jgg1bie4 ,the government ceased to cultivate sugar in #ahia1 but coffee1 and to some extent cinchona1 are cultivated on government plantations1 though not in equal quantity to that grown on land held on emphyteusis4 ,the average annual yield of sugar in #aijj-aije was #heb1djj tons1 but it increased steadily during that period4 ,the average annual yield of coffee during the same period was #aja1iga1acb lb42 it fluctuates greatly4 ,the average annual production of tobacco is about fifty million pounds from each of the islands of ,java and ,sumatra4 ,the total annual yield of the tin mines is about #ae1jjj tons1 and of the coal mines #bdj1jjj tons4 ,the average output of petroleum annually in #aijj-aije was #abj1jjj1jjj gallons2 this1 again1 has fluctuated greatly4 ,there are upwards of #cjjj miles of railways and steam tramways in ,netherlands ,india1 but these are almost entirely in ,java2 elsewhere only ,sumatra has a few short lines4 ,the principal steamship company in the archipelago is the ,royal ,packet 7,koninklyke ,paketvaart7 ,company4 ,,bibliography4--,see ,aardrijkskundig en statistisch ,woordenboek van ,nederl4 ,indi 7,amsterdam1 #ahfi71 to which ,p4 ,j4 ,veth and other specialists were contributors4 ,a general survey of the people1 administration and resources of the ,dutch colony is provided in ,twentieth ,century ,impressions of ,netherlands ,india1 ed4 by ,arnold ,wright 7,london1 #aiaj74 ,see also ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,malay ,archipelago 7,london1 #ahfi1 and later editions1 notably for zoological distribution7 and ,island ,life 7,london1 #ahhj1 notably for ornithology74 ,h4 ,o4 ,forbes1 ,a ,naturalist's ,wanderings in the ,eastern ,archipelago 7,london1 #ahhe72 ,p4 van der ,lith1 ,nederlandsch ,oostindi 7#bnd ed41 ,leiden1 #ahic-ahie72 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 vol4 ii41 in ,stamford's ,compendium 7,london1 #ahid72 ,encyclopaedie van ,nederlandsch-,indi 7the ,hague1 #ahie-aijd72 ,guide travers la section des ,indes nerlandaises1 ,paris ,exhibition 7the ,hague1 #aijj72 ,a4 ,r4 ,colquhoun1 ,the ,mastery of the ,pacific 7,london1 #aijb72 ,m4 ,weber1 ,der indo-australische ,archipel und die ,geschichte seiner ,tierwelt 7,jena1 #aijb72 ,g4 ,karsten and ,h4 ,schenck1 ,vegetationsbilder1 vol4 ii4 7,jena1 #aijc72 ,j4 van ,bemmelen and ,g4 ,b4 ,hooyer1 ,guide through ,netherlands ,india 7,london1 #aijc72 ,d4 ,bezemer1 ,nederlandsch ,oost-,indi 7the ,hague1 #aijd72 ,h4 ,blink1 ,nederlandsch ,oost- en ,west-,indi1 geographisch1 ethnologisch1 en economisch beschreven 7,leiden1 #aijd1 sqq474 ,among ,dutch official publications may be mentioned ,jaarcijfers door het ,centraal ,bureau voor de ,statistiek2 ,jaarboek van het ,mijnwezen in ,nederlandsch ,oost-,indi 7,amsterdam72 ,koloniale-,economische ,bijdragen 7the ,hague72 ,koloniaal ,verslag 7the ,hague72 ,regeerings-,almanak voor ,nederlandsch-,indi 7,batavia74 ,a number of important periodicals 7,tijdschrift7 of various institutions are issued at ,batavia1 c4 ,languages3 ,p4 ,j4 ,veth in ,de ,gids 7#ahfd72 ,r4 ,n4 ,cust1 ,sketch of the ,modern ,languages of the ,east ,indies 7,london1 #ahgh72 and for bibliography1 ,boele van ,neusbroek1 ,de ,beoefening der oostersche talen 444 7,leiden1 #ahge74 ,,history ,portuguese and ,spanish ,ascendancy1 #aeaa-aeie4--,ptolemy and other ancient geographers describe the ,malay ,archipelago1 or part of it1 in vague and inaccurate terms1 and the traditions they preserved were supplemented in the middle ages by the narratives of a few famous travellers1 such as ,ibn ,batuta1 ,marco ,polo1 ,odoric of ,pordenone and ,niccol ,conti4 ,malay and ,chinese records also furnish material for the early history of individual islands1 but the known history of the archipelago as a whole begins in the #afth century4 ,at this period a civilization1 largely of ,hindu origin1 had flourished and decayed in ,java1 where1 as in all the more important islands1 ,mahommedanism had afterwards become the dominant creed4 ,but the smaller islands and the remoter districts1 even of ,java and ,sumatra1 remained in a condition of complete savagery4 ,the ,portuguese were the first ,europeans to colonize any part of the archipelago4 ,a ,portuguese squadron under ,diogo ,lopes de ,sequeira arrived off ,sumatra in #aeji1 explored the north coast for some distance1 and noted that the inhabitants of the interior were cannibals1 while those of the littoral were civilized and possessed a gold coinage4 ,the main object of the ,portuguese was to obtain a share in the lucrative spice trade carried on by the ,malays1 ,chinese and ,japanese2 the trade-routes of the archipelago converged upon ,malacca1 which was the point of departure for spice merchants trading with every country on the shores of the ,indian ,ocean and ,arabian ,sea4 ,in #aeaa the ,portuguese under ,alphonso d',albuquerque occupied ,malacca1 and in ,november of that year an expedition under ,antonio de ,abreu was despatched to find a route to the ,moluccas and ,banda ,islands1 then famous for their cloves and nutmegs4 ,the explorers reached ,amboyna and ,ternate1 after gaining some knowledge of ,java1 ,madura1 ,sumbawa and other islands1 possibly including ,new ,guinea4 ,during the return voyage the second-in-command1 ,francisco ,serro1 was shipwrecked1 but succeeded in making his way in a native boat to ,mindanao4 ,thus the ,philippines were discovered3 ,in #aead a second ,portuguese fleet arrived at ,ternate1 which during the next five years became the centre of ,portuguese enterprise in the archipelago2 regular traffic with ,malacca and ,cochin was established1 and the native raja became a vassal of ,portugal4 ,meanwhile the ,spanish government was considering whether the ,moluccas did not fall within the ,spanish sphere of influence as defined by the ,treaty of ,tordesillas in #adid2 and in ,august #aeai an expedition commanded by ,ferdinand ,magellan 7q4v47 sailed from ,seville to seek a westward passage to the archipelago4 ,after losing the commander in the ,philippines and discovering ,borneo1 the two surviving ships reached the ,moluccas late in #aebj4 ,one vessel returned to ,seville by the ,cape route1 thus completing the first voyage round the world2 the other attempted to return by the ,pacific1 but was driven back to ,tidore and there welcomed by the natives as a useful ally against the ,portuguese4 ,reinforcements from ,spain arrived in #aebe and #aebh2 but in #aebi a treaty was concluded between the emperor ,charles ,v4 and ,john ,,iii4 of ,portugal1 by which1 in return for #cej1jjj gold ducats1 the ,spanish claim to the ,moluccas was withdrawn4 ,the boundary between the ,spanish and ,portuguese spheres was fixed at #ag ,e4 of the ,moluccas1 but by a geographical fiction the ,philippines were included within the ,spanish sphere4 ,further disputes occurred from time to time1 and in #aedb a ,spanish fleet came into conflict with the ,portuguese off ,amboyna2 but after #aebi the supremacy of each power in its own sphere was never seriously endangered4 ,though the ,portuguese traders frequented the coast of ,java1 they annexed no territory either there or in ,sumatra2 but farther east they founded numerous forts and factories1 notably in ,amboyna1 the ,banda ,island1 ,celebes and ,halmahera4 ,ternate remained the seat of the governor of the ,moluccas1 who was the highest official in the archipelago1 though subordinate to the viceroy or governor of ,portuguese ,india4 ,the first attempt to enter into relations with the states of ,borneo was made by ,d4 ,jorge de ,menezes1 who visited ,brunci in #aebf1 and in #aebh sent an envoy to its raja4 ,the embassy failed in a curious manner4 ,among the gifts sent by ,menezes was a piece of tapestry representing the marriage of ,catherine of ,aragon to ,arthur1 prince of ,wales4 ,the raja was persuaded that these mysterious figures were demons under a spell1 which might come to life and kill him as he slept4 ,the envoy was therefore dismissed4 ,in #aecf1 after a period of war and anarchy caused by the tyrannical rule of ,menezes1 ,antonio ,galvo1 the historian1 was appointed governor of the ,moluccas4 ,he crushed the rebellion and won the affection of the natives by his just and enlightened administration1 which had no parallel in the annals of ,portuguese rule in the archipelago4 ,he returned to ,europe in #aedj 7see ,,portugal3 ,literature71 after inaugurating an active missionary movement1 which was revived in #aedf-aedg by ,francis ,xavier 7q4v474 ,at this period the ,portuguese power in the ,east was already beginning to wane2 in the archipelago it was weakened by administrative corruption and by incessant war with native states1 notably ,bintang and ,achin2 bitter hostility was aroused by the attempts which the ,portuguese made to establish a commercial monopoly and to force ,christianity upon their native subjects and allies 7see ,,portugal3 ,history74 ,from #aehj to #afdj ,portugal was itself united to ,spain--a union which differed from annexation in little but name4 ,the ,english and ,dutch1 #aeie-afgd4--,pirates from ,dieppe visited the archipelago between #aebg and #aeci4 ,it is possible that they reached ,australia#b--more than sixty years before the first voyage thither of which there is any clear record2 but their cruise had no political significance1 and the ,spaniards and ,portuguese remained without ,european competitors until the appearance of ,sir ,francis ,drake in #aegi4 ,an ,english squadron under ,sir ,james ,lancaster came into conflict with the ,portuguese in #aeia1 and an expedition under ,sir ,henry ,middleton traded in the archipelago in #afjd4 ,but the ,english were simple traders or explorers2 far more formidable were the ,dutch1 who came to the ,east partly to avenge the injuries inflicted on their country by the ,spaniards1 partly to break the commercial monopoly of the peninsular states4 ,as middlemen they already possessed a large interest in the spice trade1 for the ,portuguese1 having no direct access to the principal ,european markets1 had made a practice of sending cargo to the ,netherlands for distribution by way of the ,scheldt and ,rhine4 ,the ,dutch now sought to monopolize not only the distribution but the production of spices--an enterprise facilitated by the co-operation of many exiled ,portuguese ,jews who had settled in ,holland4 ,the first ,dutch fleet sailed from ,texel1 under the command of ,cornelis ,houtman1 on the #bnd of ,april #aeie and reached ,sumatra on the #ast of ,january #aeif4 ,it visited ,madura1 and came into conflict with the ,portuguese at ,bantam in ,java1 returning to ,holland in #aeig4 ,though not a commercial success1 the expedition had demonstrated the weakness of the ,portuguese4 ,in #afjb the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company 7q4v47 was incorporated1 and for nearly two centuries this organization played the chief part in the history of the archipelago4 ,by #afjd the ,dutch could already claim to be the stronger power at sea4 ,they had attacked the ,portuguese in ,ceylon 7#afja71 established friendly relations with ,achin 7#afjb71 and defeated a powerful fleet off ,banda 7#afjb74 ,in #afjf they concluded a treaty of alliance with the sultan of ,johor1 and in #afjh they forced the ,portuguese to assent to an armistice for twelve years4 ,on the #bith of ,november #afji ,pieter ,both was chosen by the states-general1 on the nomination of the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company1 as first governor-general of ,netherlands ,india4 ,in #afaa the headquarters of the ,dutch was changed from ,bantam to ,jakarta1 which in #afai was renamed ,batavia1 and was thenceforward the ,dutch capital4 ,meanwhile the ,english ,east ,india ,company1 chartered in #afjj1 had also extended its operations to the archipelago4 ,after #afaa the commercial rivalry between the ,dutch and ,british became acute1 and in #afac1 #afae and #afah commissioners met in ,london to discuss the matters in dispute4 ,the result of their deliberations was the ,treaty of ,defence1 signed on the #bnd of ,june #afai and modified on the #bdth of ,january #afbj1 which arranged for co-operation between the ,dutch and ,british companies1 and especially for the maintenance of a joint fleet4 ,but neither company could restrain its agents in the ,east from aggressive action1 and many fresh causes of dispute arose1 the chief being the failure of the ,british to provide the naval forces required for service against the ,portuguese1 and the so-called massacre of ,amboyna 7q4v47 in #afbc4 ,the ,treaty of ,defence lapsed in #afcg1 but as early as #afcd the ,british made peace with ,portugal4 ,even without allies1 however1 the ,dutch continued to extend their trade and to annex fresh territory1 for the ,british were weakened by civil war at home1 while1 after #afdj1 the ,portuguese were struggling to maintain their independence against ,spain4 ,the ,dutch company opened up a profitable trade with ,japan and ,china1 and prosecuted the war against ,portugal with great vigour1 invading ,portuguese ,india and capturing ,point de ,galle in #afdj1 ,malacca in #afda1 ,cochin and ,cannanore in #affc4 ,the war with ,england in #afeb-ed and the renewal of the ,anglo-,portuguese alliance by the marriage of ,charles ,,ii4 to ,catherine of ,braganza in #affa were unable to check the growth of ,dutch power2 more serious was the resistance offered by some of the native states4 ,rebellions in ,java 7#afbi7 and the ,moluccas 7#afej7 were suppressed with great severity1 but in #affb the company suffered a heavy reverse in ,formosa1 all its colonists being expelled from the island4 ,a new war between ,great ,britain and ,holland broke out in #afgb and was terminated by the ,treaty of ,westminster 7,february #ag1 #afgd71 by which the points at issue between the two companies were referred first to commissioners and finally to an arbitrator4 ,the full details of the settlement are unknown1 but thenceforward the ,british company devoted its energies chiefly to the development of its ,indian possessions1 while the ,dutch were left supreme in the archipelago4 ,in #afhd the ,british even evacuated ,bantam1 their chief settlement1 and retired to ,benkulen in ,sumatra1 which remained for more than a century their sole territorial possession in the archipelago4 ,dutch ,ascendancy1 #afgd-agdi4--,the weakness of ,spain and ,portugal and the withdrawal of the ,british left the ,dutch company free to develop its vast colonial and commercial interests4 ,in #afbg the so-called ,dutch colonial system had been inaugurated by the fourth governor-general1 ,jan ,pieterszoon ,coen 7q4v474 ,under this system1 which was intended to provide ,netherlands ,india with a fixed population of ,european descent1 ,dutch girls were sent to the archipelago to be married to white settlers1 and subsequently marriages between ,dutchmen and captive native women were encouraged4 ,as early as #afbd vast fortunes had been acquired by trade3 two members of the company who died in that year were stated to possess seven and eight tons of gold respectively1 an amount approximately equivalent1 in the aggregate1 to #b1jjj1jjj4 ,the use of slave labour1 and the application of the corve system to natives who were nominally free1 enabled the company to lower the cost of production1 while the absence of competition enabled it to raise prices4 ,the hardship inflicted on the native races provoked an insurrection throughout ,java1 in which the ,chinese settlers participated2 but the ,dutch maintained naval and military forces strong enough to crush all resistance1 and a treaty between the company and the ,susuhunan in ,november #agdi made them practically supreme throughout the island4 ,decline of ,dutch ,power1 #agdi-ahaa4--;,in the second half of the #agth century the monopoly system and the employment of slaves and forced labour gave rise to many abuses1 and there was a rapid decline in the revenue from sugar1 coffee and opium1 while the competition of the ,british ,east ,india ,company1 which now exported spices1 indigo1 c4 from ,india to ,europe1 was severely felt4 ,the administration was corrupt1 largely because of the vast powers given to officials1 who were invariably underpaid2 and the financial methods of the company precipitated its ruin1 large dividends being paid out of borrowed money4 ,the burden of defence could no longer be sustained2 piracy and smuggling became so common that the company was compelled to appeal to the states-general for aid4 ,in #agih it was abolished and its authority vested in a ,council of the ,asiatic ,possessions4 ,in #ahjc a commission met to consider the state of the ,dutch colonies1 and advocated drastic administrative and commercial reforms1 notably freedom of trade in all commodities except firearms1 opium1 rice and wood--with coffee1 pepper and spices1 which were state monopolies4 ,some of these reforms were carried out by ,h4 ,w4 ,daendels 7#ahjh-ahaa71 who was sent out as governor-general by ,louis ,bonaparte1 after the ,french conquest of ,holland4 ,daendels1 however1 maintained the existing restrictions upon trade and even made rice a state monopoly4 ,his harsh rule aroused great antagonism2 in #ahaa he was recalled and ,j4 ,w4 ,janssens became governor-general4 ,british ,occupation1 #ahaa-ahaf4--,netherlands ,india was at this time regarded as a part of the ,napoleonic ,empire1 with which ,great ,britain was at war4 ,a ,british naval squadron arrived in the ,moluccas in ,february #ahaj and captured ,amboyna1 ,banda1 ,ternate and other islands4 ,in #ahaa a strong fleet was equipped by ,lord ,minto1 then governor-general of ,india1 for the conquest of ,java2 a ,british force was landed on the #dth of ,august2 ,batavia was captured on the #bfth1 and on the #ahth of ,september ,janssens and the remnant of his army surrendered4 ,lord ,minto had issued a proclamation establishing ,british rule on the #aath of ,september1 and ,thomas 7afterwards ,sir ,thomas7 ,stamford ,raffles was appointed lieutenant-governor4 ,raffles 7q4v47 held office until ,march #ahaf1 and introduced many important changes in the departments of revenue1 commerce and judicature4 ,he was succeeded by ,john ,fendall1 who in #ahaf carried out the retrocession of ,netherlands ,india to the ,dutch1 in accordance with the ,treaty of ,vienna 7#ahad74 ,restoration and ,reform of ,dutch ,power1 #ahaf-aiaj4--,various disputes between ,great ,britain and the ,netherlands1 arising chiefly out of the transfer of power in ,java and the ,british occupation of ,singapore 7#ahai71 were settled by treaty between the two powers in #ahbd4 ,by this treaty the ,dutch were given almost entire freedom of action in ,sumatra1 while the ,malay ,peninsula was recognized as within the ,british sphere of influence4 ,in #ahbe-cj a serious rebellion in ,java involved the despatch of a large military force from the ,netherlands1 and was with difficulty suppressed4 ,an outbreak of ,mahommedan fanaticism in ,sumatra also gave much trouble4 ,the reform movement inaugurated by the commission of #ahjc was resumed in #ahcj1 when ,governor-,general ,johannes van den ,bosch endeavoured to improve the conditions of land-tenure and agriculture by introducing the so-called culture system4 ,the native cultivators were to be exempted from the ground-tax1 but were to cultivate one-fifth of their land as the government might direct1 the government taking the produce4 ,this culture-system worked fairly during ,van den ,bosch's tenure of office1 but gave rise to many abuses between #ahcc and #ahdd1 involving1 as it did1 a combination of the mtayer and corve systems4 ,in #ahdh the ,grondwet1 or fundamental law of the ,netherlands1 recognized for the first time the responsibility of the ,dutch nation for its colonial dependencies4 ,the ,grondwet involved certain important changes1 which were embodied in an act passed in #ahed and commonly known as the ,regulations for the ,government of ,netherlands ,india4 ,the ,regulations substituted statute law for administrative and military despotism1 and made the governor-general in council responsible to the minister of the colonies at the ,hague4 ,they reformed the judicature1 introduced elementary education for the natives1 and abolished slavery in ,java as from the #ast of ,january #ahfj4 ,they also prepared the way for further legislation tending towards the gradual emancipation of the natives from the culture system1 and from semi-feudal servitude to their native rulers4 ,that servitude existed in many forms all over the archipelago1 but among the most curious must be reckoned the pandelingschap or pledgedom1 which originated in ,borneo1 and according to which a man had the power to make his debtors his serfs until their debts were paid4 ,the reform movement was aided by the publication in #ahfj of ,max ,havelaar1 a romance by ,e4 ,douwes ,dekker 7q4v471 which contained a scathing indictment of the colonial system4 ,many important financial and agrarian measures were carried between #ahfj and #ahij4 ,in #ahfc ,fransen van de ,putte1 minister for the colonies1 introduced the first of the annual colonial budgets for which the ,regulations had provided1 thus enabling the states-general to control the revenue and expenditure of ,netherlands ,india2 in #ahfe he reduced and in #ahgb abolished the differentiation of customs dues in favour of goods imported from ,holland1 substituting a uniform import duty of #f and establishing a number of free ports throughout the archipelago4 ,the import duty was considered so moderate that an increase required for revenue purposes was readily conceded in #ahhf4 ,in #ahgf the practice of paying a yearly surplus 7batig slot7 from the revenues of ,netherlands ,india to the treasury at the ,hague was discontinued4 ,the chief reforms in the land system were those introduced by ,de ,waal1 then minister for the colonies1 in #ahgj4 ,the cultivation of pepper1 cochineal1 cinnamon and indigo for the government had already ceased2 ,de ,waal restricted the area of the sugar plantations 7carried on by forced native labour7 as from #ahgh1 and provided for their abolition after #ahij4 ,he also enabled natives to secure proprietary rights over the land they cultivated1 and legalized the leasing of ,crown forest-lands to ,europeans4 ,the extension of ,dutch political power--notably in ,java1 ,sumatra1 ,celebes1 the ,moluccas1 ,borneo1 the ,sunda ,islands and ,new ,guinea--proceeded simultaneously with the reform movement1 and from time to time involved war with various native states4 ,a large expedition was sent to ,lombok in #ahid1 and almost the whole of that island was incorporated in the ,dutch dominions4 ,the long and costly war with ,achin 7q4v47 began in #ahgc and reached its climax in the military occupation of the country after #aije1 when the native sultan surrendered and was deported4 ,a guerrilla war was still carried on by his subjects1 but their principal leader1 the chief ,panglima ,polim1 was captured in #aijg2 in #aijh-aiaj the condition of ,achin under the military rule of ,general ,swart was one of almost unbroken peace1 and taxes were regularly paid4 ,while the ,dutch were thus consolidating their authority1 other countries were acquiring new commercial or colonial interests in the archipelago4 ,immigration from ,china and ,japan steadily increased1 especially towards the end of the period #ahaf-aiaj4 ,the enterprise of ,sir ,james ,brooke 7q4v47 led1 after #ahch1 to the establishment of ,british sovereignty in ,north ,borneo2 in #ahie ,new ,guinea was divided between ,great ,britain1 ,germany and the ,netherlands2 and the ,spanish-,american ,war of #ahih resulted in the cession of the ,philippines1 ,sulu ,island and the largest of the ,mariana ,islands to the ,united ,states1 and the sale of the ,caroline group to ,germany4 ,australian and ,japanese trade in the archipelago was stimulated by the establishment of the ,australian ,commonwealth 7#aija7 and the ,russo-,japanese ,war 7#aijd-e74 ,in #aiaj the nations most directly interested in the future of the archipelago were the ,netherlands1 ,great ,britain1 the ,united ,states1 ,germany1 ,japan1 ,china and ,portugal4 ,,bibliography4--,for the period #aeaa-aeie1 the chief ,portuguese authorities are the chronicles of ,barros1 ,corra1 ,castanheda and ,couto 7see ,,portugal3 ,history71 with the letters of ,xavier 7q4v471 and the ,tratado of ,a4 ,galvo 7,lisbon1 #aefc and #agca71 of which a translation entitled ,discoveries of the ,world was made for ,richard ,hakluyt and reprinted by the ,hakluyt ,society 7,london1 #ahfb74 ,see also ,m4 ,f4 de ,navarette1 ,coleccion de los viages 7vols4 #d and #e1 ,madrid1 #ahcg74 ,for later history see ,john ,crawfurd1 ,history of the ,indian ,archipelago 7,edinburgh1 #ahbj71 which quotes from native as well as ,european records1 and ,twentieth-,century ,impressions of ,netherlands ,india 7ed4 ,a4 ,wright1 ,london1 #aiaj71 which gives references to the principal ,english and ,dutch authorities4 ,further bibliography will be found in ,j4 ,a4 van der ,chijs1 ,proeve eener nederlandsch-indische ,bibliografie1 #afei-ahgj 7,batavia1 #ahge74 7,k4 ,g4 ,j47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,for more detailed information respecting the several islands and groups of the archipelago1 see the separate articles ,,borneo2 ,,java2 ,,philippine ,,islands2 ,,sumatra1 c4 #b ,see ,the ,geographical ,journal1 ix4 #hj seq4 7,london1 #ahig74 ,,malair1 a small province of ,persia1 situated between ,hamadan and ,burujird4 ,it has a population of about #gj1jjj1 and1 together with the district ,tusirkhan1 pays a yearly revenue of about #ac1jjj4 ,it produces much corn and fruit2 a great quantity of the latter1 dried1 is exported4 ,its capital and seat of government is ,doletabad 7,dowletabad71 a thriving little city1 with a population of about #ejjj1 situated at an elevation of #efhj ft41 #ch m4 from ,hamadan and #cb m4 from ,burujird4 ,it has post and telegraph offices4 ,,malay ,,peninsula 7called by the ,malays ,tanah ,malayu1 i4e4 the ,malay ,land71 a lozenge-shaped strip of land projecting into the ,china ,sea1 and forming the most southerly portion of the continent of ,asia4 ,geographically1 the peninsula begins at the isthmus of ,kra1 #aj ,n41 at which point it is only between #fj and #gj m4 in width1 and the distance from sea to sea is further diminished by a large irregular salt-water inlet4 ,politically and anthropologically1 however1 this upper portion must be regarded as a continuation of the kingdom of ,siam rather than as a section of ,malaya4 ,from the isthmus of ,kra the peninsula extends south with a general inclination towards the east1 the most southerly point being ,tanjong ,bulus in #a #af ,n4 ,a line drawn diagonally down the centre from the isthmus of ,kra to ,cape ,romania 7,ramunya7 gives the extreme length at about #gej miles4 ,the breadth at the widest point1 from ,tanjong ,pen-unjut in ,trengganu to ,tanjong ,hantu in the ,dindings territory1 is about #bjj m4 ,the area is estimated at about #gj1jjj sq4 m4 ,the peninsula is bounded on the ,n4 by ,siam1 on the ,s4 by the island and strait of ,singapore1 on the ,e4 by the ,china ,sea1 and on the ,w4 by the ,strait of ,malacca4 ,physical ,characteristics4--,a range of granite mountains forms a backbone which divides the peninsula into two unequal portions1 the larger of which lies to the east and the smaller to the west of the chain4 ,smaller ranges run parallel to the main mountain chain in many places1 and there are numerous isolated spurs which have no connexion with either4 ,the country is covered with limestone in many parts1 and large isolated bluffs of this formation stand up in the plains both on the eastern and the western slopes4 ,the descent from the summits of the range into the plain is somewhat less abrupt on the western than it is on the eastern side1 and between the foot of the mountains and the ,strait of ,malacca the largest known alluvial deposits of tin are situated4 ,on the eastern side of the range1 after a steep descent1 the granite formation speedily gives place to slates of vast depth1 intersected here and thereby fissures of quartz containing gold1 and in many places covered by limestone which has been superimposed upon the slates4 ,the highest known peak in the main range is that of ,gunong ,korbu1 #gbag ft4 above sea-level4 ,the highest mountain is believed to be ,gunong ,tahan1 which forms part of an isolated range on the eastern side1 between ,pahang and ,kelantan1 and is estimated at about #hjjj ft4 ,the west coast throughout its whole length is covered to a depth of some miles with mangrove swamps1 with only a few isolated stretches of sandy beach1 the dim foliage of the mangroves and the hideous mud flats presenting a depressing spectacle4 ,on the east coast the force of the north-east monsoon1 which beats upon the shores of the ,china ,sea annually from ,november to ,february1 has kept the land for the most part free from mangroves1 and the sands1 broken here and there by rocky headlands thickly wooded1 and fringed by casuarina trees1 stretch for miles without interruption4 ,the islands on each coast present the features of the shore to which they are adjacent4 ,on both the east and the west coast the islands are thickly wooded1 but whereas the former are surrounded by beautiful sands and beaches1 the latter are fringed by mangrove-swamps4 ,the whole peninsula may be described as one vast forest1 intersected in every direction by countless streams and rivers which together form the most lavish water-system in the world4 ,only an insignificant fraction of these forests has ever been visited by human beings1 the ,malays and even the aboriginal tribe having their homes on the banks of the rivers1 and never1 even when travelling from one part of the country to another1 leaving the banks of a stream except for a short time when passing from one river-system to another4 ,the bulk of the jungle1 therefore1 which lies between stream and stream1 has never been trodden by the foot of man4 ,the principal rivers on the west coast are the ,perak1 the ,bernam and the ,muar4 ,the first-named is far finer than its fellows1 and is navigable for steamers for about #dj m4 from its mouth1 and for native craft for over #bej m4 ,it is exceedingly shallow1 however1 and is not of much importance as a waterway4 ,the ,bernam runs through flat swampy country for the greater part of its course1 and steam-launches can penetrate to a distance of over #ajj m4 from its mouth1 and it is therefore probably the deepest river4 ,the country which it waters1 however1 is not of any value1 and it is not much used4 ,the ,muar waters a very fertile valley1 and is navigable for native boats for over #aej m4 ,on the east coast the principal streams are the ,petani1 ,telubin1 ,kelantan1 ,besut1 ,trengganu1 ,dungun1 ,kmamun1 ,kuantan1 ,pahang1 ,rompin1 ,endau and ,sedeli1 all guarded by difficult bars at their mouths1 and dangerous during the continuance of the north-east monsoon4 ,the deepest rivers are the ,kuantan and ,rompin2 the largest are the ,kelantan and the ,pahang1 both of which are navigable for native boats for a distance of over #bej m4 ,the ,trengganu river is obstructed by impassable rapids at a distance of about #cj m4 from its mouth4 ,the rivers on the east coast are practically the only highways1 the ,malays always travelling by boat in preference to walking1 but they serve their purpose very indifferently1 and their great beauty is their chief claim to distinction4 ,magnificent caves are found on both slopes of the peninsula1 those at ,batu in ,selangor being the finest on the west coast1 while those of ,chadu and ,koto ,glanggi in ,pahang are the most extensive yet visited by ,europeans on the east coast4 ,they are all of limestone formation4 ,so far as is known1 the ,malay ,peninsula consists of an axial zone of crystalline rocks1 flanked on each side by an incomplete band of sedimentary deposits4 ,granite is the most widely spread of the crystalline rocks2 but dikes of various kinds occur1 and gneiss1 schist and marble are also met with4 ,these rocks form the greater part of the central range1 and they are often--especially the granite--decomposed and rotten to a considerable depth4 ,the sedimentary deposits include slate1 limestone and sandstone4 ,impure coal has also been recorded4 ,the limestone has yielded ,proetus1 ,chonetes and other fossils1 and is believed to be of ,carboniferous age4 ,in the sandstone ,myophoria and other ,triassic fossils have been found1 and it appears to belong to the ,rhaetic or ,upper ,trias4#a ,the minerals produced are tin1 gold1 iron1 galena and others1 in insignificant quantities4 ,the tin occurs in the form of cassiterite1 and is found chiefly in or near the crystalline rocks1 especially the granite4 ,as stream tin it occurs abundantly in some of the alluvial deposits derived from the crystalline area1 especially on the west coast4 ,only two tin lodes are worked1 however1 and both are situated on the east coast1 the one at ,kuantan in ,pahang1 the other at ,bandi in ,trengganu territory4 ,on the west coast no true lode has yet been discovered1 though the vast alluvial deposits of tin found there seem to make such a discovery probable in the future4 ,since #ahij the tin produced from these alluvial beds has supplied between #ej and #ge of the tin of the world4 ,gold is worked with success in ,pahang1 and has been exploited from time immemorial by the natives of that state and of ,kelantan4 ,small quantities have also been found on the western slope in ,perak4 ,climate1 c4--,it was formerly the custom to speak of the ,malay ,peninsula as an unhealthy climate1 and even to compare it with the west coast of ,africa4 ,it is now generally admitted1 however1 that1 though hot1 it compares favourably with that of ,burma4 ,the chief complaint which ,europeans make concerning it is the extreme humidity1 which causes the heat to be more oppressive than is the case where the air is dry4 ,on the other hand1 the thermometer1 even at ,singapore on the southern coast1 which is the hottest portion of the peninsula1 seldom rises above #ih in the shade1 whereas the mean for the year at that place is generally below #hj4 ,on the mainland1 and more especially on the eastern slope1 the temperature is cooler1 the thermometer seldom rising above #ic in the shade1 and falling at night below #gj4 ,on an average day in this part of the peninsula the temperature in a ,european house ranged from #hh to #fh4 ,the number of rainy days throughout the peninsula varies from #afj to over #bjj in each year1 but violent gusts of wind1 called ,sumatras1 accompanied by a heavy downpour of short duration1 are more common than persistent rain4 ,the rainfall on the west coast varies from #ge to #abj in4 per annum1 and that of the east coast1 where the north-east monsoon breaks with all its fury1 is usually about #aee in4 per annum4 ,malarial fevers make their appearance in places where the forest has been recently felled1 or where the surface earth has been disturbed4 ,it is noticed that labourers employed in deep mines worked by shafts suffer less from fever than do those who are engaged in stripping the alluvial deposits4 ,this1 of course1 means that a new station1 where clearing1 digging1 and building are in progress1 is often unhealthy for a time1 and to this must be attributed the evil reputation which the peninsula formerly enjoyed4 ,to ,europeans the climate is found to be relaxing and enervating1 but if1 in spite of some disinclination for exertion1 regular exercise is taken from the beginning1 and ordinary precautions against chills1 more especially to the stomach1 are adopted1 a ,european has almost as good a chance of remaining in good health in the peninsula as in ,europe4 ,a change of climate1 however1 is imperatively necessary every five or six years1 and the children of ,european parents should not be kept in the peninsula after they have attained the age of four or five years4 ,the ,chinese immigrants suffer chiefly from fever of a malarial type1 from beri-beri1 a species of tropical dropsy1 and from dysentery4 ,the ,malays formerly suffered severely from smallpox epidemics1 but in the portion of the peninsula under ,british rule vaccination has been introduced1 and the ravages of the disease no longer assume serious dimensions4 ,occasional outbreaks of cholera occur from time to time1 and in the independent states these cause terrible loss of life1 as the natives fly from the disease and spread the infection in every direction4 ,as a whole1 the ,malays are1 however1 a remarkably healthy people1 and deformity and hereditary diseases are rare among them4 ,there is little leprosy in the peninsula1 but there is a leper hospital near ,penang on ,pula ,deraja and another on an island on the west coast for the reception of lepers from the ,federated ,malay ,states4 ,flora and ,fauna4--,the soil of the peninsula is remarkably fertile both in the plains and on the mountain slopes4 ,in the vast forests the decay of vegetable matter during countless ages has enriched the soil to the depth of many feet1 and from it springs the most marvellous tangle of huge trees1 shrubs1 bushes1 underwood1 creepers1 climbing plants and trailing vines1 the whole hung with ferns1 mosses1 and parasitic growths1 and bound together by rattans and huge rope-like trailers4 ,in most places the jungle is so dense that it is impossible to force a way through it without the aid of a wood-knife1 and even the wild beasts use well-worn game-tracks through the forest4 ,in the interior brakes of bamboos are found1 many of which spread for miles along the river banks4 ,good hard-wood timber is found in plenty1 the best being the merabau1 penak1 rasok and chengal4 ,orchids of countless varieties abound4 ,the principal fruit trees are the duri-an1 mangosteen1 custard-apple1 pomegranate1 rambut-an1 pulas-an1 langsat1 rambai1 jack-fruit1 coco-nut1 areca-nut1 sugar-palm1 and banana4 ,coffee1 tobacco1 sugar-cane1 rice1 pepper1 gambier1 cotton and sago are cultivated with success4 ,great developments have been made of recent years in the cultivation of rubber in ,british ,malaya4 ,the principal jungle products are gutta and rubber of several varieties1 and many kinds of rattan4 ,the mangrove grows on the shores of the west coast in profusion4 ,agilawood1 the camphor tree1 and ebony are also found in smaller quantities4 ,the fauna of the peninsula is varied and no less profuse than is the vegetable life4 ,the ,asiatic elephant2 the seladang1 a bison of a larger type than the ,indian gaur2 two varieties of rhinoceros2 the honey bear 7bruang71 the tapir1 the sambhur 7rusa72 the speckled deer 7kijang71 three varieties of mouse-deer 7napoh1 plandok and kanchil72 the gibbon 7ungka or wawa'71 the siamang1 another species of anthropoid ape1 the brok or coco-nut monkey1 so called because it is trained by the ,malays to gather the nuts from the coco-nut trees1 the lotong1 kra1 and at least twenty other kinds of monkey2 the binturong 7arctictis binturong71 the lemur2 the ,asiatic tiger1 the black panther1 the leopard1 the large wild cat 7harimau akar71 several varieties of jungle cat2 the wild boar1 the wild dog2 the flying squirrel1 the flying fox2 the python1 the cobra1 and many other varieties of snake1 including the hamadryad2 the alligator1 the otter and the gavial1 as well as countless kinds of squirrel1 rat1 c41 are found throughout the jungles of the peninsula in great numbers4 ,on the east coast peafowl are found1 and throughout the interior the argus pheasant1 the firebacked pheasant1 the blue partridge1 the adjutant-bird1 several kinds of heron and crane1 duck1 teal1 cotton-teal1 snipe1 wood-pigeon1 green-pigeon of several varieties1 swifts1 swallows1 pied-robins1 hornbills1 parakeets1 fly-catchers1 nightjars1 and many other kinds of bird are met with frequently4 ,a few specimens of solitary goose have been procured1 but the bird is rarely met with4 ,the forests literally swarm with insects of all kinds1 from cicadae to beautiful butterflies1 and from stick- and leaf-insects to endless varieties of ants4 ,the scorpion and the centipede are both common4 ,the study of the insect life of the peninsula opens a splendid field for scientific research1 and the profusion and variety of insects found in these forests probably surpass those to be met with anywhere else in the world4 ,political ,divisions and ,population4--,politically the ,malay ,peninsula is divided into four sections3 the colony of the ,straits ,settlements and the ,federated ,malay ,states2 the independent ,malay ,state of ,johor1 which is within the ,british sphere of influence2 the non-federated states under ,british protection2 and the groups of states to the north of ,perak and ,pahang which are now recognized as lying within the sphere of influence of ,siam4 ,the colony of the ,straits ,settlements consists of the islands of ,singapore1 ,penang and the ,dindings1 the territory of ,province ,wellesley1 on the mainland opposite to ,penang1 the insignificant territory of the ,dindings1 and the town and territory of ,malacca4 ,the ,federated ,malay ,states under ,british protection consist of the sultanates of ,perak1 ,selangor and the ,negri ,sambilan on the west coast1 and the sultanate of ,pahang on the east coast4 ,johor is the only ,malay state in the southern portion of the peninsula1 the whole of which is within the ,british sphere1 which has been suffered to remain under native rule4 ,the non-federated states under ,british protection 7since #aiji7 are ,kelantan1 ,trengganu1 ,kedah and ,perlis 7,palit74 ,the population of the peninsula numbers about #b1jjj1jjj1 of whom about #fjj1jjj inhabit the colony of the ,straits ,settlements1 about #ijj1jjj the ,federated ,malay ,states1 about #bjj1jjj the ,malay ,state of ,johor1 and about #bej1jjj to #cjj1jjj the remainder of the peninsula4 ,the population of the peninsula includes about #hej1jjj ,chinese1 mostly immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the southern provinces of ,china1 of whom about #cjj1jjj reside in the colony of the ,straits ,settlements1 #cfe1jjj in the ,federated ,malay ,states1 #aej1jjj in ,johor1 and the remainder in smaller communities or as isolated traders scattered throughout the villages and small towns of the peninsula4 ,the ,malay population of the peninsula1 including immigrants from the eastern archipelago1 number some #gej1jjj to #hjj1jjj1 while the ,tamils and other natives of ,india number about #ajj1jjj1 the aboriginal natives of the peninsula perhaps #bj1jjj1 ,europeans and ,americans about #fejj1 and ,eurasians about #ijjj4 ,the colony of the ,straits ,settlements1 and to a lesser extent the towns of the ,federated ,malay ,states1 carry a considerable heterogenous population1 in which most of the races of ,asia find their representatives4 ,illustration3 ,map of ,malay ,peninsula4 ,races of the ,peninsula4--,excluding the ,tai1 or ,siamese1 who are undoubtedly recent intruders from the north1 there are three races which for an extended period of time have had their home in the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,these are the ,semang or ,pangan1 the ,sakai or ,jakun1 and the ,malays4 ,the ,semang1 as they are most usually called by the ,malays1 are ,negritos--a small1 very dark people1 with features of the negroid type1 very prognathous1 and with short1 woolly hair clinging to the scalp in tiny crisp curls4 ,these people belong to the race which would seem to be the true aboriginal stock of southern ,asia4 ,representatives of it are found scattered about the islands from the ,andaman group southwards4 ,the state of civilization to which they have attained is very low4 ,they neither plant nor have they any manufactures except their rude bamboo and rattan vessels1 the fish and game traps which they set with much skill1 and the bows1 blow-pipes and bamboo spears with which they are armed4 ,they are skilful hunters1 however1 catch fish by ingeniously constructed traps1 and live almost entirely on jungle-roots and the produce of their hunting and fishing4 ,the most civilized of these people is found in ,upper ,perak1 and the members of this clan have acquired some knowledge of the art of planting1 c4 ,they cannot1 however1 be taken as typical of their race1 and other specimens of this people are seldom seen even by the ,sakai4 ,from time to time they have been raided by the latter1 and many ,negritos are to be found in captivity in some of the ,malayan villages on the eastern side of the peninsula4 ,the mistake of speaking of the ,sakai tribes as practically identical with the ,semang or ,pangan has very frequently been made1 but as a matter of fact the two races are absolutely distinct from one another4 ,it has also been customary to include the ,sakai in the category of ,malayan races1 but this too is undoubtedly incorrect4 ,the ,sakai still inhabit in greatest numbers the country which forms the interior of ,pahang1 the ,plus and ,kinta districts of ,perak1 and the valley of ,nenggiri in ,kelantan4 ,representatives of their race are also found scattered among the ,malayan villages throughout the country1 and also along the coast1 but these have intermixed so much with the ,malays1 and have acquired so many customs1 c41 from their more civilized neighbours1 that they can no longer be regarded as typical of the race to which they belong4 ,the pure ,sakai in the interior have a good knowledge of planting rice1 tapioca1 c41 fashion pretty vessels from bamboos1 which they decorate with patterns traced by the aid of fire1 make loin-cloths 7their only garment7 from the bark of the trap and ipoh trees2 are very musical1 using a rude lute of bamboo1 and a nose-flute of a very sweet tone1 and singing in chorus very melodiously2 and altogether have attained in their primitive state to a higher degree of civilization than have the ,semang4 ,they are about as tall as the average ,malay1 are slimly built1 light of colour1 and have wavy fine hair4 ,in their own language they usually have only three numerals1 viz4 na-nun1 one2 nar1 two2 and ne'1 three1 or variants of these2 all higher arithmetical ideas being expressed by the word kerpn1 which means many4 ,a few cases have been recorded1 however1 of tribes who can count in their own tongue up to four and five4 ,among the more civilized1 however1 the ,malay numerals up to ten are adopted by the ,sakai4 ,an examination of their language seems to indicate that it belongs to the ,mon-,khmer group of languages1 and the anthropological information forthcoming concerning the ,sakai points to the conclusion that they show a greater affinity to the people of the ,mon-,khmer races than to the ,malayan stock4 ,though they now use metal tools imported by the ,malays1 it is noticeable that the names which they give to those weapons which most closely resemble in character the stone implements found in such numbers all over the peninsula are native names wholly unconnected with their ,malay equivalents4 ,on account of this1 it has been suggested that in a forgotten past the ,sakai were themselves the fashioners of the stone implements1 and certain it is that all tools which have no representatives among the stone kelts are known to the ,sakai by obvious corruptions of their ,malayan names4 ,the presence of the ,sakai1 a people of the ,mon-,khmer stock1 in the interior of the peninsula has also been considered as one of many proofs that the ,malays intruded from the south and approached the peninsula by means of a sea-route1 since had they swept down from the north1 being driven thence by the people of a stronger breed1 it might be expected that the fringe of country dividing the two contending races would be inhabited by men of the more feeble stock4 ,instead1 we find the ,sakai occupying this position1 thus indicating that they have been driven northward by the ,malays1 and that the latter people has not been expelled by the ,mon-,khmer races from the countries now represented by ,burma1 ,siam and ,french ,indo-,china4 ,the ,sakai population is dying out1 and must eventually disappear4 7,with regard to the ,malay1 see ,,malays47 ,archaeology4--,the only ancient remains found in the peninsula are the stone implements1 of which mention has already been made1 and some remarkable ancient mines1 which are situated in the ,jelai valley in ,pahang4 ,the stone implements are generally of one or two types3 a long rectangular adze or wedge rudely pointed at one end1 and used in conjunction with a mallet or flat stone1 and a roughly triangular axe-head1 which has evidently been fixed in the cleft of a split stick4 ,a few stones1 which might perhaps be arrowheads1 have been found1 but they are very rare4 ,the mines1 which have been constructed for the purpose of working quartz lodes containing gold1 are very extensive1 and argue a high stage of civilization possessed by the ancient miners4 ,they consist of a number of circular or rectangular pits sunk from the cap of a hill1 and going down to a depth of in some cases as much as #abj ft41 until in fact the miners have been stopped by being unable to cope with the quantity of water made when the level of the valley was reached4 ,the shafts are placed so close together that in many instances they are divided by only a couple of feet of solid ground1 but at their bases a considerable amount of gallery work has been excavated1 though it is possible that this was done by miners who came after the people who originally sank the shafts4 ,native tradition attributes these mines to the ,siamese1 but no importance can be attached to this1 as it is very general for the ,malays to give this explanation for anything which is obviously not the work of their own ancestors4 ,a theory1 which seems to have some probability in its favour1 is that these mines were worked by the ,khmer people during the period of power1 energy and prosperity which found its most lofty expression in the now ruined and deserted city of ,angkor ,thom2 while another attributes these works to the natives of ,india whose ,hindu remains are found in ,java and elsewhere1 whose influence was at one time widespread throughout ,malayan lands1 and of whose religious teaching remnants still linger in the superstitions of the ,malays and are preserved in some purity in ,lombok and ,bali4 ,in the absence1 however1 of any relics of a kind which might lead to the identification of the ancient miners1 their nationality and origin are matters which must continue to be mere questions of speculation and conjecture4 ,history4--,the first hint to reach ,europe concerning the existence of habitable lands to the eastward of the ,ganges is to be found in the writings of ,pomponius ,mela 7,a4,d4 #dc7 which speak of ,chryse1 or the ,golden ,isle1 as lying off ,cape ,tamus--supposed to be the most easterly point in ,asia--and over against the estuary of the ,ganges4 ,thereafter there occur vague references to ,chryse in the ,periplus of the ,erythrean ,sea1 c41 but the earliest trace of anything resembling first-hand knowledge concerning the peninsula of ,indo-,china and ,malaya is revealed in the writings of ,ptolemy1 whose views were mainly derived from those of his predecessor ,marinus of ,tyre1 who in his turn drew his deductions from information supplied to him by the mariner ,alexander who1 there is every reason to think1 had himself voyaged to the ,malay ,peninsula and beyond4 ,in the light of present knowledge concerning the trade-routes of ,asia1 which had been in existence for thousands of years ere ever ,europeans attempted to make use of them1 it is safe to identify ,ptolemy's ,sinus ,perimulicus with the ,gulf of ,siam1 the ,sinus ,sabaricus with the ,straits of ,malacca from their southern portals to the ,gulf of ,martaban1 the ,aurea ,chersonesus with the ,malay ,peninsula1 and the island of ,iabadius or ,sabadius--the reading of the name is doubtful--with ,sumatra1 not as has often been mistakenly attempted with ,java4 ,although the first definite endeavour to locate the ,golden ,chersonese thus dates from the middle of the #bnd century of our era1 the name was apparently well known to the learned of ,europe at a somewhat earlier period1 and in his ,antiquities of the ,jews1 written during the latter half of the #ast century1 ,josephus says that ,solomon gave to the pilots furnished to him by ,hiram of ,tyre commands that they should go along with his stewards to the land that of old was called ,ophir1 but now the ,aurea ,chersonesus1 which belongs to ,india1 to fetch gold4 ,after the time of ,ptolemy no advance in knowledge concerning the geography of south-eastern ,asia was made until ,cosmas ,indicopleustes1 a monk and an ,alexandrian ,greek1 wrote from personal knowledge between ,a4,d4 #ecj and #eej4 ,his primary object was to prove that the world was built after the same shape and fashion as the ,ark made by the ,children of ,israel in the desert2 but he was able to show that the ,malay ,peninsula had to be rounded and thereafter a course steered in a northerly direction if ,china was to be reached4 ,meanwhile inter-,asiatic intercourse by means of sea-routes had been steadily on the increase since the discovery of the way to utilize the monsoons and to sail directly to and fro across the ,indian ,ocean 7attributed to the ,greek pilot ,hippalus7 had been made4 ,after the decline of the power of ,rome1 the dominant force in ,asiatic commerce and navigation was ,persia1 and from that time onward1 until the arrival of the ,portuguese upon the scene early in the #afth century the spice trade1 whose chief emporia were in or near the ,malay ,peninsula1 was in ,persian or ,arab hands4 ,there is considerable reason to think1 however1 that the more frequent ports of call in the ,straits of ,malacca were situated in ,sumatra1 rather than on the shores of the ,malay ,peninsula1 and two famous medieval travellers1 ,marco ,polo and ,ibn ,batuta1 both called and wintered at the former1 and make scant mention of the latter4 ,the importance of the ,malay ,peninsula1 as has been noted1 consisted in the privilege which its locality conferred upon it of being the distributing centre of the spices brought thither from the ,moluccas en route for ,india and ,europe4 ,as early as the #crd century ,b4,c4 ,megasthenes makes mention of spices brought to the shores of the ,ganges from the southern parts of ,india1 and the trade in question was probably one of the most ancient in the world4 ,so long1 however1 as ,india held the monopoly of the clove1 the ,malay ,peninsula was ignored1 the ,hindus spreading their influence through the islands of the archipelago and leaving traces thereof even to this day4 ,the ,mahommedan traders from ,persia and ,arabia1 following the routes which had been prepared for them by their forebears1 broke down the ,hindu monopoly and ousted the earlier exploiters so effectually that by the beginning of the #afth century the spice trade was almost exclusively in their hands4 ,these traders were also missionaries of their religion1 as indeed is every ,mahommedan1 and to them is due the conversion of the ,malays from rude pantheism1 somewhat tinctured by ,hindu mythology1 to the ,mahommedan creed4 ,the desire to obtain the monopoly of the spice trade has been a potent force in the fashioning of ,asiatic history4 ,the ,moluccas were1 from the first1 the objective of the ,portuguese invaders1 and no sooner had the white men found their way round the ,cape of ,good ,hope and established themselves successively upon the coast of ,east ,africa1 in the neighbourhood of the ,gulf of ,aden and the ,malabar coast1 than ,malacca1 then the chief trading centre of the ,malayan ,archipelago1 became the object of their desire4 ,the first ,portuguese expedition sent out to capture ,malacca was under the command of ,diogo ,lopez de ,siqueira and sailed from ,portugal in #aejh4 ,at ,cochin ,siqueira took on board certain adherents of ,alphonso d',alboquerque who were in bad odour with his rival d',almeida1 among them being ,magellan1 the future circumnavigator of the world1 and ,francisco ,serro1 the first ,european who ever lived in the ,spice ,islands4 ,siqueira's expedition ended in failure1 owing partly to the aggressive attitude of the ,portuguese1 partly to the very justifiable suspicions of the ,malays1 and he was presently forced to destroy one of his vessels1 to leave a number of his men in captivity1 and to sail direct for ,portugal4 ,in #aeaj a second expedition against ,malacca was sent out from ,portugal under the command of ,diogo ,mendez de ,vasconcellos1 but d',alboquerque retained it at ,cochin to aid him in the retaking of ,goa1 and it was not until #aeaa that the great viceroy could spare time to turn his attention to the scene of ,siqueira's failure4 ,after some futile negotiations1 which had for their object the recovery of the ,portuguese captives before hostilities should begin1 an assault was delivered upon ,malacca1 and though the first attempt to take the city failed after some hard fighting1 a second assault made some days later succeeded1 and ,malacca passed for ever into ,european hands4 ,the ,portuguese were satisfied with the possession of ,malacca itself and did not seek further to extend their empire in ,malaya4 ,instead they used every endeavour to establish friendly relations with the rulers of all the neighbouring kingdoms1 and before d',alboquerque returned to ,india he despatched embassies to ,china1 ,siam1 and several kingdoms of ,sumatra1 and sent a small fleet1 with orders to assume a highly conciliatory attitude toward all natives1 in search of the ,moluccas4 ,very soon the spice trade had become a ,portuguese monopoly1 and ,malacca was the great headquarters of the trade4 ,it should moreover be noted that ,magellan's famous expedition had for its object not the barren feat of circumnavigation but the breaking down of this monopoly1 without violating the terms of the papal bull which gave to ,spain the conquest of the ,west1 to ,portugal the possession of the ,east4 ,in #aebh a ,french expedition sailed from ,dieppe1 penetrated as far as ,achin in ,sumatra1 but returned without reaching the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,it was1 however1 the first attempt ever made to defy the papal bull4 ,in #aeia1 three years after the defeat of the ,armada1 ,raymond and ,lancaster rounded the ,cape1 and after cruising off ,penang1 decided to winter in ,achin4 ,they subsequently hid among the ,pulau ,sambilan near the mouth of the ,perak river1 and thence captured a large ,portuguese vessel which was sailing from ,malacca in company with two ,burmese ships4 ,in #aeie the first ,dutch expedition sailed from the ,texel1 but it took a more southerly course than its predecessors and confined its operations to ,java and the neighbouring islands4 ,during this period ,achin developed a determined enmity to the ,portuguese1 and more than one attempt was made to drive the strangers from ,malacca4 ,eventually1 in #afda1 a joint attack was made by the ,achinese and the ,dutch1 but the latter1 not the people of the sturdy little ,sumatran kingdom1 became the owners of the coveted port4 ,malacca was taken from the ,dutch by the ,british in #agie2 was restored to the latter in #ahah2 but in #ahbd was exchanged for ,benkulen and a few more unimportant places in ,sumatra4 ,the first ,british factory in the peninsula was established in the native state of ,patani on the east coast in #afac1 the place having been used by the ,portuguese in the #afth century for a similar purpose2 but the enterprise came to an untimely end in #afbj when ,captain ,jourdain1 the first president1 was killed in a naval engagement in ,patani ,roads by the ,dutch4 ,penang was purchased from ,kedah in #aghf1 and ,singapore from the then sultan of ,johor in #ahai4 ,the ,straits ,settlements--,singapore1 ,malacca and ,penang--were ruled from ,india until #ahfg1 when they were erected into a crown colony under the charge of the ,colonial ,office4 ,in #ahgd the ,malay state of ,perak was placed under ,british protection by a treaty entered into with its sultan2 and this eventually led to the inclusion in a ,british protectorate of the neighbouring ,malay ,states of ,selangor1 ,sungei ,ujong1 the cluster of small states called the ,negri ,sembilan and ,pahang1 which now form the ,federated ,malay ,states4 ,by a treaty made between ,great ,britain and ,siam in #aijb the northern ,malay states of the peninsula were admitted to lie within the ,siamese sphere of influence1 but by a treaty of #aiji ,siam ceded her suzerain rights over the states of ,kelantan1 ,trengganu1 ,kedah and ,perlis to ,britain4 ,singapore is the political1 commercial and administrative headquarters of the colony of the ,straits ,settlements1 and the governor for the time being is ex officio high commissioner of the ,federated ,malay ,states1 ,british ,north ,borneo1 ,sarawak1 the ,cocos-,keeling and ,christmas ,islands1 and governor of ,labuan4 ,see ,sir ,f4 ,swettenham1 ,british ,malaya 7#aijf72 ,h4 ,clifford1 ,further ,india 7#aijd72 ,journal of the ,malay ,archipelago1 ,logan 7,singapore72 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society 7,singapore72 ,weld1 ,maxwell1 ,swettenham and ,clifford in the ,journal of the ,royal ,colonial ,institute 7,london72 ,clifford in the ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society 7,london74 7,h4 ,cl47 ,,footnote3 #a ,see ,r4 ,b4 ,newton1 ,notes on ,literature bearing upon the ,geology of the ,malay ,peninsula2 with an ,account of a ,neolithic ,implement from that ,country 7,geol4 ,mag41 #aija1 pp4 #abh-acd74 ,see also the various reports by ,j4 ,b4 ,scrivenor in ,suppl4 ,perak ,gov4 ,gazette1 #aije4 ,,malays1 the name given by ,europeans to the people calling themselves ,orang ,malayu1 i4e4 ,malayan folk1 who are the dominant race of the ,malay ,peninsula and of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,broadly speaking1 all the brown races which inhabit the portion of ,asia south of ,siam and ,indo-,china1 and the islands from the ,philippines to ,java1 and from ,sumatra to ,timor1 may be described as belonging to the ,malayan family1 if the aboriginal tribes1 such as the ,sakai and ,semang in the ,malay ,peninsula1 the ,bataks in ,sumatra1 and the ,muruts in ,borneo1 be excepted4 ,for the purposes of this article1 however1 only those among these races which bear the name of ,orang ,malayu1 speak the ,malayan language1 and represent the dominant people of the land1 can be included under the title of ,malays4 ,these people inhabit the whole of the ,malayan ,peninsula to the borders of lower ,siam1 the islands in the vicinity of the mainland1 the shores of ,sumatra and some portions of the interior of that island1 ,sarawak and ,brunei in ,borneo1 and some parts of ,dutch ,borneo1 ,batavia and certain districts in ,java1 and some of the smaller islands of the archipelago4 ,though in these lands they have for not less than a thousand years enjoyed the position of the dominant race1 they all possess a tradition that they are not indigenous1 and that their first rulers came out of the sea1 with a large band of ,malayan warriors in their train4 ,in the peninsula especially1 where the presence of the ,malays is more recent than elsewhere1 many traditions exist which point to a comparatively recent occupation of the country4 ,it has been remarked that there is evidence that the ,malays had attained to a certain stage of civilization before ever they set foot in ,malaya4 ,for instance1 the names which they give to certain fruits1 such as the duri-an1 the rambut-an and the pulas-an1 which are indigenous in the ,malayan countries1 and are not found elsewhere1 are all compound words meaning respectively the thorny1 the hairy and the twisted fruit4 ,these words are formed by the addition of the substantial affix -an1 the use of which is one of the recognized methods by which the ,malays turn primitive words into terms of more complex meaning4 ,this may be taken to indicate that when first the ,malays became acquainted with the fruits which are indigenous in ,malayan lands they already possessed a language in which most primary words were represented1 and also that their tongue had attained to a stage of development which provided for the formation of compound words by a system sanctioned by custom and the same linguistic instinct which causes a ,malay to-day to form similar compounds from ,european and other foreign roots4 ,for any aboriginal race inhabiting these countries1 such important articles of diet as the duri-an1 c41 could not fail to be among the first natural objects to receive a name1 and thus we find primary terms in use among the ,sakai and ,semang1 the aborigines of the ,peninsula1 to describe these fruits4 ,the use by the ,malays of artificially constructed terms to denote these things may certainly be taken to strengthen the opinion that the ,malays arrived in the lands they now inhabit at a comparatively late period in their history1 and at a time when they had developed considerably from the original state of primitive man4 ,in the ,malay ,peninsula itself there is abundant evidence1 ethnological and philological1 of at least two distinct immigrations of people of the ,malayan stock1 the earlier incursions1 it is probable1 taking place from the eastern archipelago to the south1 the later invasion spreading across the ,straits of ,malacca from ,sumatra at a comparatively recent date4 ,the fact that the semi-wild tribes1 which are ethnologically ,malayan and distinct from the aboriginal ,semang and ,sakai1 are met with almost invariably in the neighbourhood of the coast would seem to indicate that they reached the peninsula by a sea1 not by a land route1 a supposition which is strengthened by their almost amphibious habits4 ,many of these tribes have retained their pristine paganism1 but many others it is certain have adopted the ,mahommedan religion and have been assimilated by the subsequent and stronger wave of ,sumatran immigrants4 ,a study of the local dialects to be met with in some of the districts of the far interior1 e4g4 the ,tembeling valley in ,pahang1 whose people are now ,mahommedans and in many respects indistinguishable from the ordinary ,malays of the peninsula1 reveals the fact that words1 current in the archipelago to the south but incomprehensible to the average peninsula ,malays1 by whom these more ancient populations are now completely surrounded1 have been preserved as local words1 whereas they really belong to an older dialect once spoken widely in the peninsula1 as to-day it is spoken in the ,malayan islands4 ,this would seem to show that in some instances the earlier ,malay immigrants fell or were driven by the later invaders back from the coast and sought refuge in the far interior4 ,theories of ,origin4 ,until recently many eminent scientists held the theory that the ,malayan peoples were merely an offspring of the ,mongol stock1 and that their advance into the lands they now inhabit had taken place from the cradle of the ,mongolian race--that is to say1 from the north4 ,in the fifth edition of his ,malay ,archipelago1 ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace notes the resemblance which he traced between the ,malays and the ,mongolians1 and others have recorded similar observations as to the physical appearance of the two races4 ,to-day1 however1 fuller data are available than when ,wallace wrote1 and the more generally accepted theory is that the ,malayan race is distinct1 and came from the south1 until it was stayed by the ,mongolian races living on the mainland of southern ,asia4 ,the cranial measurements of the ,malays and an examination of their hair sections seem to bear out the theory that they are distinct from the ,mongolian races4 ,their language1 which is neither monosyllabic nor tonic1 has nothing in common with that of the ,mon-,annam group4 ,it has1 moreover1 been pointed out that had the ,malays been driven southwards by the stronger races of the mainland of ,asia1 it might be expected that the people inhabiting the country nearest to the border between ,siam and ,malaya would belong to the ,malayan and not to the ,mon-,annam or ,mon-,khmer stock4 ,as a matter of fact the ,skai of the interior of the peninsula belong to the latter race4 ,it might also be anticipated1 were the theory of a southward immigration to be sustained1 that the ,malays would be new-comers in the islands of the archipelago1 and have their oldest settlements on the ,malayan ,peninsula4 ,the facts1 however1 are in exact contradiction to this2 and accordingly the theory now most generally held by those who have studied the question is that the ,malays form a distinct race1 and had their original home in the south4 ,where this home lay it is not easy to say1 but the facts recorded by many writers as to the resemblance between the ,polynesian and the ,malayan races1 and the strong ,malayan element found in the languages of the former 7see ,tregear's ,maori and ,comparative ,polynesian ,dictionary1 ,london1 #ahia71 have led some students to think that the two races may have had a common origin4 ,john ,crawfurd1 in the ,dissertation to his ,dictionary of the ,malay ,language1 published in #ahdj1 noted the prevalence of ,malayan terms in the ,polynesian languages1 and attributed the fact to the casting away of ships manned by ,malays upon the islands of the ,polynesian ,archipelago4 ,the appearance of the same ,malayan words in localities so widely separated from each other1 however1 cannot be satisfactorily accounted for by any such explanation1 and the theory is now more generally held that the two races are probably allied and may at some remote period of history have shared a common home4 ,it has been suggested that their separation did not take place until after the continent which once existed in the north ,pacific had become submerged1 and that the ,malays wandered northward1 while the ,polynesian race spread itself over the islands of the southern archipelago4 ,all this1 however1 must necessarily be of the nature of the purest speculation1 and the only facts which we are able to deduce in the present state of our knowledge of the subject may be summed up as follows3 7a7 ,that the ,malays ethnologically belong to a race which is allied to the ,polynesians2 7b7 that the theory formerly current to the effect that the ,sakai and other similar races of the peninsula and archipelago belonged to the ,malayan stock cannot be maintained1 since recent investigations tend to identify them with the ,mon-,annam or ,mon-,khmer family of races2 7c7 that the ,malays are1 comparatively speaking1 new-comers in the lands which they now inhabit2 7d7 that it is almost certain that their emigration took place from the south2 7e7 and that1 at some remote period of their history1 they came into close contact with the ,polynesian race1 probably before its dispersion over the extensive area which it now occupies4 ,religion and ,superstitions4 ,the ,malays to-day are ,sunni ,mahommedans of the school of ,shafi'i1 and they habitually use the terms ,orang ,malayu1 i4e4 a ,malay1 and ,orang ,islam1 i4e4 a ,mahommedan1 as synonymous expressions4 ,their conversion from paganism took place during the #acth1 #adth and #aeth centuries of our era4 ,the raja of ,achin1 in northern ,sumatra1 is said to have been converted as early as #abjf1 while the ,bugis people in ,celebes are supposed not to have become ,mahommedans until #adie4 ,mahommedanism undoubtedly spread to the ,malays of the peninsula from ,sumatra1 but their conversion was slow and gradual1 and may even now in some respects be regarded as imperfect4 ,upon the bulk of the ,malayan peoples their religion sits but lightly4 ,few are found to observe the law concerning the ,five ,hours of ,prayer1 and many fail to put in an appearance at the ,friday congregational services in the mosques4 ,the ,fast of ,ramadhan1 however1 is generally observed with some faithfulness4 ,compared with other ,mahommedan peoples1 the ,malays are not fanatical1 though occasionally an outbreak against those of a different creed is glorified by them into a holy war4 ,the reason of such outbreaks1 however1 is usually to be found in political and social rather than in religious grievances4 ,prior to their conversion to ,mahommedanism the ,malays were subjected to a considerable ,hindu influence1 which reached them by means of the traders who visited the archipelago from ,india4 ,in the islands of ,bali and ,lombok the people still profess a form of ,hinduism1 and ,hindu remains are to be found in many other parts of the archipelago1 though their traces do not extend to the peninsula4 ,throughout1 however1 the superstitions of the ,malays show indications of this ,hindu influence1 and many of the demons whom their medicine-men invoke in their magic practices are clearly borrowed from the pantheon of ,india4 ,for the rest1 a substratum of superstitious beliefs1 which survives from the days when the ,malays professed only their natural religion1 is to be found firmly rooted in the minds of the people1 and the influence of ,mahommedanism1 which regards such things with horror1 has been powerless to eradicate this4 ,mr ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat's ,malay ,magic 7,london1 #aijj7 is a compilation of all the writings on the subject of ,malay superstitions by the best authorities and contains considerable original matter4 ,mode of ,life1 c4 ,the ,malays of the coast are a maritime people1 and were long famous for the daring character of their acts of piracy4 ,they are now peaceable fisher-folk1 who show considerable ingenuity in their calling4 ,inland the ,malays live by preference on the banks of rivers1 building houses on piles some feet from the ground1 and planting groves of coco-nut1 betel-nut1 sugar-palm and fruit-trees around their dwellings4 ,behind their villages the rice-fields usually spread1 and rice1 which is the staple food of the people1 is the principal article of agriculture among them4 ,sugar-cane1 maize1 tapioca and other similar products are grown1 however1 in smaller quantities4 ,in planting rice three methods are in use3 the cultivation of swamp-rice in irrigated fields2 the planting of ploughed areas2 and the planting of hill-rice by sowing each grain separately in holes bored for the purpose4 ,in the irrigated fields the rice plants are first grown in nurseries1 and are subsequently transplanted when they have reached a certain stage of development4 ,the ,malays also work jungle produce1 of which the most important are gutta1 rattans1 agila wood1 camphor wood1 and the beautiful kamuning wood which is used by the natives for the hilts of their weapons4 ,the principal manufactures of the ,malays are cotton and silk cloths1 earthenware and silver vessels1 mats and native weapons4 ,the best cotton cloths are those manufactured by the ,bugis people in ,celebes1 and the batek cloths which come from ,java and are stamped with patterns4 ,the best silks are produced by the natives of ,pahang1 ,kelantan and ,johor in the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,lord ,leighton pronounced the silver ware from ,malaya to be the most artistic of any exhibited at the ,colonial ,exhibition held in ,london in #ahhf4 ,the pottery of the ,malays is rude but curious4 ,when the first ,europeans visited the ,malay ,archipelago the ,malays had already acquired the art of manufacturing gunpowder and forging cannon4 ,the art of writing also appears to have been independently invented by the ,malayan races1 since numerous alphabets are in use among the peoples of the archipelago1 although for the writing of ,malay itself the ,arabic character has been adopted for some hundreds of years4 ,the ,malays are excellent boat-builders4 ,character1 c4 ,while the ,malays were famous almost exclusively for their piratical expeditions they naturally bore an evil reputation among ,europeans1 but now that we have come into closer contact with them1 and have learned to understand them better1 the old opinions concerning them have been greatly modified4 ,they used to be described as the most cruel and treacherous people in the world1 and they certainly are callous of the pain suffered by others1 and regard any strategy of which their enemies are the victims with open admiration4 ,in ordinary circumstances1 however1 the ,malay is not treacherous1 and there are many instances recorded in which men of this race have risked their own lives on behalf of ,europeans who chanced to be their friends4 ,as a race they are exceedingly courteous and self-respecting4 ,their own code of manners is minute and strict1 and they observe its provisions faithfully4 ,unlike many ,orientals1 the ,malays can be treated with a friendly familiarity without such treatment breeding lack of respect or leading to liberties being taken with the superior4 ,the ,malays are indolent1 pleasure-loving1 improvident beyond belief1 fond of bright clothing1 of comfort1 of ease1 and they dislike toil exceedingly4 ,they have no idea of the value of money1 and little notion of honesty where money is concerned4 ,they would always borrow rather than earn money1 and they feel no shame in adopting the former course4 ,they will frequently refuse to work for a wage when they most stand in need of cash1 and yet at the invitation of one who is their friend they will toil unremittingly without any thought of reward4 ,they are much addicted to gambling1 and formerly were much given to fighting1 though they never display that passion for war in the abstract which is characteristic of some of the white races1 and their courage on the whole is not high if judged by ,european standards4 ,it is notorious1 however1 on the coasts that a ,malay gang on board a ship invariably gets the better of any fight which may arise between it and the ,chinese crew4 ,the sexual morality of the ,malays is very lax1 but prostitution is not common in consequence4 ,polygamy1 though allowed by their religion1 is practised for the most part among the wealthy classes only4 ,the ,malays are an intensely aristocratic people1 and show a marvellous loyalty to their rajas and chiefs4 ,their respect for rank is not marred by any vulgarity or snobbery4 ,the ruling classes among them display all the vices of the lower classes1 and few of the virtues except that of courtesy4 ,they are for the most part1 when left to their own resources1 cruel1 unjust1 selfish and improvident4 ,much has been written concerning the acts of homicidal mania called amuck 7amok71 which word in the vernacular means to attack4 ,it was formerly believed that these outbursts were to be attributed to madness pur et simple1 and some cases of amok can certainly be traced to this source4 ,these are not1 however1 in any sense typical1 and might equally have been perpetrated by men of another race4 ,the typical amok is usually the result of circumstances which render a ,malay desperate4 ,the motive is often inadequate from the point of view of a ,european1 but to the ,malay it is sufficient to make him weary of life and anxious to court death4 ,briefly1 where a man of another race might not improbably commit suicide1 a ,malay runs amok1 killing all whom he may meet until he himself is slain4 ,the nervous affliction called latah1 to which many ,malays are subject1 is also a curious trait of the people4 ,the victims of this affliction lose for the time all self-control and all sense of their own identity1 imitating the actions of any person who chances to rivet their attention4 ,accounts of these manifestations will be found in ,swettenham's ,malay ,sketches 7,london1 #ahie7 and ,clifford's ,studies in ,brown ,humanity 7,london1 #ahig74 ,costume1 ,weapons1 c4 ,the ,malays wear a loose coat and trousers1 and a cap or head-kerchief1 but the characteristic item of their costume is the sarong1 a silk or cotton cloth about two yards long by a yard and a quarter wide1 the ends of which are sewn together1 forming a kind of skirt4 ,this is worn round the waist folded in a knot1 the women allowing it to fall to the ankle1 the men1 when properly dressed in accordance with ancient custom1 folding it over the hilt of their waist-weapon1 and draping it around them so that it reaches nearly to the knee4 ,in the hall of a raja on state occasions a head-kerchief twisted into a peak is worn1 and the coat is furnished with a high collar extending round the back of the neck only4 ,this coat is open in front1 leaving the chest bare4 ,the trousers are short and of a peculiar cut and material1 being coloured many hues in parallel horizontal lines4 ,the sarong is of ,celebes manufacture and made of cotton1 to the surface of which a high polish is imparted by friction with a shell4 ,the typical fighting costume of the ,malay is a sleeveless jacket with texts from the ,koran written upon it1 short tight drawers reaching to the middle of the thigh1 and the sarong is then bound tightly around the waist1 leaving the hilt of the dagger worn in the girdle exposed to view4 ,the principal weapon of the ,malays is the kris1 a short dagger with a small wooden or ivory handle1 of which there are many varieties4 ,the blade of a kris may either be wavy or straight1 but if wavy the number of waves must always be uneven in number4 ,the kris most prized by the ,malays are those of ,bugis 7,celebes7 manufacture1 and of these the kind called tuasek are of the greatest value4 ,besides the short kris1 the ,malays use long straight kris with very narrow blades1 shorter straight kris of the same form1 short broad swords called sundang1 long swords of ordinary pattern called pedang1 somewhat shorter swords curved like scimitars with curiously carved handles called chenangkas1 and short stabbing daggers called tumbok lada4 ,the principal tools of the ,malays are the parang or glok1 a heavy knife used in the jungle1 without which no peasant ever stirs abroad from his house1 the beliong or native axe1 and the pisau raut1 which is used for scraping rattan4 ,their implements are very primitive1 consisting of a plough fashioned from a fork of a tree1 and a rude harrow4 ,reaping is usually performed by the aid of a curious little knife which severs each ear of grain separately4 ,the fisher-folk use many kinds of nets1 which they manufacture themselves4 ,sails1 paddles1 oars and punting-poles are all in use4 ,,malay ,,language ,,and ,,literature ,the ,malay language is a member of the ,malayan section of the ,malayo-,polynesian class of languages1 but it is by no means a representative type of the section which has taken its name from it4 ,the area over which it is spoken comprises the peninsula of ,malacca with the adjacent islands 7the ,rhio-,lingga ,archipelago71 the greater part of the coast districts of ,sumatra and ,borneo1 the seaports of ,java1 the ,sunda and ,banda ,islands4 ,it is the general medium of communication throughout the archipelago from ,sumatra to the ,philippine ,islands1 and it was so upwards of three hundred and fifty years ago when the ,portuguese first appeared in those parts4 ,there are no ,malay manuscripts extant1 no monumental records with inscriptions in ,malay1 dating from before the spreading of ,islam in the archipelago1 about the end of the #acth century4 ,by some it has been argued from this fact that the ,malays possessed no kind of writing prior to the introduction of the ,arabic alphabet 7,w4 ,robinson1 ,j4 ,j4 de ,hollander72 whereas others have maintained1 with greater show of probability1 that the ,malays were in possession of an ancient alphabet1 and that it was the same as the ,rechang 7,marsden1 ,friederich71 as the ,kawi 7,van der ,tuuk71 or most like the ,lampong 7,kern7--all of which alphabets1 with the ,battak1 ,bugi and ,macassar1 are ultimately traceable to the ancient ,cambojan characters4 ,with the ,mahommedan conquest the ,perso-,arabic alphabet was introduced among the ,malays2 it has continued ever since to be in use for literary1 religious and business purposes4 ,where ,javanese is the principal language1 ,malay is sometimes found written with ,javanese characters2 and in ,palembang1 in the ,menangkabo country of ,middle ,sumatra1 the ,rechang or ,renchong characters are in general use1 so called from the sharp and pointed knife with which they are cut on the smooth side of bamboo staves4 ,it is only since the ,dutch have established their supremacy in the archipelago that the ,roman character has come to be largely used in writing and printing ,malay4 ,this is also the case in the ,straits ,settlements4 ,by the simplicity of its phonetic elements1 the regularity of its grammatical structure1 and the copiousness of its nautical vocabulary1 the ,malay language is singularly well fitted to be the lingua franca throughout the ,indian archipelago4 ,it possesses the five vowels a1 i1 u1 e1 o1 both short and long1 and one pure diphthong1 au4 ,its consonants are k1 g1 ng1 ch1 j1 1 t1 d1 n1 p1 b1 m1 y1 r1 l1 w1 s1 h4 ,long vowels can only occur in open syllables4 ,the only possible consonantal nexus in purely ,malay words is that of a nasal and mute1 a liquid and mute and vice versa1 and a liquid and nasal4 ,final k and h are all but suppressed in the utterance4 ,purely ,arabic letters are only used in ,arabic words1 a great number of which have been received into the ,malay vocabulary4 ,but the ,arabic character is even less suited to ,malay than to the other ,eastern languages on which it has been foisted4 ,as the short vowels are not marked1 one would1 in seeing1 e4g4 the word bntng1 think first of bintang1 a star2 but the word might also mean a large scar1 to throw down1 to spread1 rigid1 mutilated1 enceinte1 a kind of cucumber1 a redoubt1 according as it is pronounced1 bantang1 banting1 bentang1 buntang1 buntung1 bunting1 bonteng1 benteng4 ,malay is essentially1 with few exceptions1 a dissyllabic language1 and the syllabic accent rests on the penultimate unless that syllable is open and short2 e4g4 datang1 namaa1 besr1 diumpatkanalah4 ,nothing in the form of a root word indicates the grammatical category to which it belongs2 thus1 kasih1 kindness1 affectionate1 to love2 ganti1 a proxy1 to exchange1 instead of4 ,it is only in derivative words that this vagueness is avoided4 ,derivation is effected by infixes1 prefixes1 affixes and reduplication4 ,infixes occur more rarely in ,malay than in the cognate tongues4 ,examples are--guruh1 a rumbling noise1 gumuruh1 to make such a noise2 tunjuk1 to point1 telunjuk1 the forefinger2 chuchuk1 to pierce1 cheruchuk1 a stockade4 ,the import of the prefixes--me 7meng1 me1 men1 mem71 pe 7peng1 pe1 pen1 pem ber 7bel71 per1 pel1 ka1 di1 ter1--and affixes--an1 kan1 i1 lah--will best appear from the following examples--root word ajar1 to teach1 to learn2 mengajar1 to instruct 7expresses an action72 bleajar1 to study 7state or condition72 mengajari1 to instruct 7some one1 trans472 mengajarkan1 to instruct 7in something1 causative72 pengajar1 the instructor2 pelajar1 the learner2 pengajaran1 the lesson taught1 also the school2 pelajaran1 the lesson learnt2 diajar1 to be learnt2 terajar1 learnt2 terajarkan1 taught2 terajari1 instructed2 peraja 7from raja1 prince71 to recognize as prince2 perajakan1 to crown as prince2 karajaan1 royalty2 ajarkanlah1 teach6 ,examples of reduplication are--ajar-ajar1 a sainted person2 ajar-berajar 7or belajar71 to be learning and teaching by turns2 similarly there are forms like ajar-mengajar1 berajar-ajaran1 ajar-ajari1 memperajar1 memperajarkan1 memperajari1 terbelajarkan1 perbelajarkan1 c4 ,altogether there are upwards of a hundred possible derivative forms1 in the idiomatic use of which the ,malays exhibit much skill4 ,see especially ,h4 von ,dewall1 ,de vormveranderingen der ,maleische taal 7,batavia1 #ahfd7 and ,i4 ,pijnappel1 ,maleisch-,hollandsch ,woordenboek 7,amsterdam1 #ahge71 ,inleiding4 ,in every other respect the language is characterized by great simplicity and indefiniteness4 ,there is no inflexion to distinguish number1 gender or case4 ,number is never indicated when the sense is obvious or can be gathered from the context2 otherwise plurality is expressed by adjectives such as sagala1 all1 and baak1 many2 more rarely by the repetition of the noun1 and the indefinite singular by sa or satu1 one1 with a class-word4 ,gender may1 if necessary1 be distinguished by the words laki-laki1 male1 and perampuan1 female1 in the case of persons1 and of jantan and betina in the case of animals4 ,the genitive case is generally indicated by the position of the word after its governing noun4 ,also adjectives and demonstrative pronouns have their places after the noun4 ,comparison is effected by the use of particles4 ,instead of the personal pronouns1 both in their full and abbreviated forms1 conventional nouns are in frequent use to indicate the social position or relation of the respective interlocutors1 as1 e4g4 hamba tuan1 the master's slave1 i4e4 ,i4 ,these nouns vary according to the different localities4 ,another peculiarity of ,malay 7and likewise of ,chinese1 ,shan1 ,talaing1 ,burmese and ,siamese7 is the use of certain class-words or coefficients with numerals1 such as orang 7man71 when speaking of persons1 ekor 7tail7 of animals1 keping 7piece7 of flat things1 biji 7seed7 of roundish things2 e4g4 lima biji1 telor1 five eggs4 ,the number of these class-words is considerable4 ,malay verbs have neither person or number nor mood or tense4 ,the last two are sometimes indicated by particles or auxiliary verbs2 but these are generally dispensed with if the meaning is sufficiently plain without them4 ,the ,malays avoid the building up of long sentences4 ,the two main rules by which the order of the words in a sentence is regulated are--subject1 verb1 object2 and qualifying words follow those which they qualify4 ,this is quite the reverse of what is the rule in ,burmese4 ,the history of the ,malays amply accounts for the number and variety of foreign ingredients in their language4 ,hindus appear to have settled in ,sumatra and ,java as early as the #dth century of our era1 and to have continued to exercise sway over the native populations for many centuries4 ,these received from them into their language a very large number of ,sanskrit terms1 from which we can infer the nature of the civilizing influence imparted by the ,hindu rulers4 ,not only in words concerning commerce and agriculture1 but also in terms connected with social1 religious and administrative matters that influence is traceable in ,malay4 ,see ,w4 ,e4 ,maxwell1 ,manual of the ,malay ,language 7#ahhb71 pp4 #e-cd1 where this subject is treated more fully than by previous writers4 ,this ,sanskrit element forms such an integral part of the ,malay vocabulary that in spite of the subsequent infusion of ,arabic and ,persian words adopted in the usual course of ,mahommedan conquest it has retained its ancient citizenship in the language4 ,the number of ,portuguese1 ,english1 ,dutch and ,chinese words in ,malay is not considerable2 their presence is easily accounted for by political or commercial contact4 ,the ,malay language abounds in idiomatic expressions1 which constitute the chief difficulty in its acquisition4 ,it is sparing in the use of personal pronouns1 and prefers impersonal and elliptical diction4 ,as it is rich in specific expressions for the various aspects of certain ideas1 it is requisite to employ always the most appropriate term suited to the particular aspect4 ,in ,maxwell's ,manual1 pp4 #abj seq41 no less than sixteen terms are given to express the different kinds of striking1 as many for the different kinds of speaking1 eighteen for the various modes of carrying1 c4 ,an unnecessary distinction has been made between ,high ,malay and ,low ,malay4 ,the latter is no separate dialect at all1 but a mere brogue or jargon1 the medium of intercourse between illiterate natives and ,europeans too indolent to apply themselves to the acquisition of the language of the people2 its vocabulary is made up of ,malay words1 with a conventional admixture of words from other languages2 and it varies1 not only in different localities1 but also in proportion to the individual speaker's acquaintance with ,malay proper4 ,a few words are used1 however1 only in speaking with persons of royal rank--e4g4 santap1 to eat 7of a raja7 instead of makan2 beradu1 to sleep1 instead of tidor2 gring1 unwell1 instead of sakit2 mangkat1 to die1 instead of mati1 c4 ,the use is different as regards the term ,jawi as applied to the ,malay language4 ,this has its origin in the names ,great ,java and ,lesser ,java1 by which the medieval ,java and ,sumatra were called1 and it accordingly means the language spoken along the coasts of the two great islands4 ,literature4 ,the ,malays cannot1 strictly speaking1 be said to possess a literature1 for none of their writings can boast any literary beauty or value4 ,their most characteristic literature is to be found1 not in their writings1 but in the folk-tales which are transmitted orally from generation to generation1 and repeated by the wandering minstrels called by the people ,peng-lipor ,lara1 i4e4 ,soothers of ,care4 ,some specimens of these are to be found in the ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,asiatic ,society 7,singapore74 ,the collections of ,malay ,proberbs made by ,klinkert1 ,maxwell and ,clifford also give a good idea of the literary methods of the ,malays4 ,their verse is of a very primitive description1 and is chiefly used for purposes of love-making4 ,there are numerous rhymed fairy tales1 which are much liked by the people1 but they are of no literary merit4 ,the best ,malay books are the ,hikayat ,hang ,tuak1 ,bestamam and the ,hikayat ,abdullah4 ,the latter is a diary of events kept during ,sir ,stamford ,raffle's administration by his ,malay scribe4 ,,authorities4--,hugh ,clifford1 ,in ,court and ,kampong 7,london1 #ahig72 ,studies in ,brown ,humanity 7,london1 #ahih72 ,in a ,corner of ,asia 7,london1 #ahii72 ,bush-whacking 7,london #aija72 ,clifford and ,swettenham1 ,dictionary of the ,malay ,language1 parts i4 to v4 ,a-,g4 ,taiping 7,perak1 #ahid-ahih72 ,john ,crawfurd1 ,history of the ,indian ,archipelago 7#c vols41 ,edinburgh1 #ahbj72 ,grammar and ,dictionary of the ,malay ,language 7#b vols41 ,london1 #aheb72 ,a ,descriptive ,dictionary of the ,indian ,islands and ,adjacent ,countries 7,london1 #ahef72 ,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago 7#ab vols41 ,singapore1 #ahdg-ahfb72 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 #cc ,nos4 7,singapore1 #ahgh-aijj72 ,h4 ,c4 ,klinkert1 ,nieuw ,maleisch-,nederlandisch ,woordenboek 7,leiden1 #ahic72 ,john ,leyden1 ,malay ,annals 7,london1 #ahba72 ,william ,marsden1 ,the ,history of ,sumatra 7,london1 #ahaa72 ,malay ,dictionary 7,london1 #ahbd72 ,sir ,william ,maxwell1 ,a ,manual of the ,malay ,language 7,london1 #ahhh72 ,t4 ,j4 ,newbold1 ,political and ,statistical ,account of the ,british ,settlements in the ,straits of ,malacca2 ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic 7,london1 #aijj72 ,skeat and ,blagden1 ,pagan ,races of the ,malay ,peninsula 7,london1 #aijf72 ,sir ,frank ,swettenham1 ,malay ,sketches 7,london1 #ahie72 ,the ,real ,malay 7,london1 #ahii72 ,british ,malaya 7,london1 #aijf72 ,h4 von-de ,wall1 edited by ,h4 ,n4 van der ,tuuk1 ,maleisch-,nederlandisch ,woordenboek 7,batavia1 #ahgg-ahhj72 ,malay ,dictionary 7,singapore1 #aijc71 ,wilkinson4 7,h4 ,cl47 ,,malay ,,states 7,,british74 ,the native states of the ,malay ,peninsula under ,british protection are divided into two groups3 7#a7 federated1 and 7#b7 non-federated4 ,i4--,,federated ,,states ,the federated states1 under the protection of ,great ,britain1 but not ,british possessions1 are ,perak1 ,selangor and the confederation of small states known as the ,negri ,sembilan 7i4e4 ,nine ,states7 on the west coast1 and the state of ,pahang on the east coast4 ,each state is under the rule of a sultan1 who is assisted in his legislative duties by a state council1 upon which the resident1 and in some cases the secretary to the resident1 has a seat1 and which is composed of native chiefs and one or more ,chinese members nominated by the sultan with the advice and consent of the resident4 ,the council1 in addition to legislative and other duties1 revises all sentences of capital punishment4 ,the administrative work of each state is carried on by the resident and his staff of ,european officials1 whose ranks are recruited by successful candidates in the competitive examinations held annually by the ,civil ,service commissioners4 ,the sultan of each state is bound by treaty with the ,british government to accept the advice of the resident1 who is thus practically paramount2 but great deference is paid to the opinions and wishes of the sultans and their chiefs1 and the ,british officials are pledged not to interfere with the religious affairs of the ,mahommedan community4 ,in the actual administration of the ,malay population great use is made of the native aristocratic system1 the peasants being governed largely by their own chiefs1 headmen and village elders1 under the close supervision of ,british district officers4 ,the result is a benevolent autocracy admirably adapted to local conditions and to the character and traditions of the people4 ,a recognition of the fact that the welfare of the ,malays1 who are the people of the land and whose sultans have never ceded their territories to the ,british1 must be regarded as the first consideration has been the guiding principle of the administration of the ,malay ,states1 and this has resulted in an extraordinary amelioration of the condition of the natives1 which has proceeded concurrently with a notable development of the country and its resources1 mineral and agricultural4 ,to the work of development1 however1 the ,malays have themselves contributed little1 sound administration having been secured by the ,british officials1 enterprise and capital having been supplied mainly by the ,chinese1 and the labour employed being almost entirely ,chinese or ,tamil4 ,meanwhile the ,malays have improved their ancestral holdings1 have enjoyed a peace and a security to which their past history furnishes no parallel1 have obtained easy access to new and important markets for their agricultural produce1 and for the rest have been suffered to lead the lives best suited to their characters and their desires4 ,each principal department of the administration has its federal head1 and all the residents correspond with and are controlled by the resident-general1 who1 in his turn1 is responsible to the high commissioner1 the governor of the ,straits ,settlements for the time being4 ,the estimated aggregate area of the ,federated ,malay ,states is #bh1jjj sq4 m41 and the estimated population in #aije was #hfj1jjj1 as against #fgh1eie in #aija4 ,of these only about #bcj1jjj are ,malays4 ,the revenue of the federation in #aije was #bc1ifd1eic 7about #b1gie1jjj71 and the expenditure was #bj1gej1cie 7about #b1dfj1jjj74 ,the imports for the same year were valued at #ej1ege1dee 7about #e1ijj1jjj71 and the exports at #hj1jeg1fed 7about #i1cdj1jjj71 making a total trade of nearly #ae millions sterling4 ,the principal sources of revenue are an export duty on tin1 the rents paid for the revenue farms of the right to collect import duties on opium1 wine and spirits1 and to keep licensed gambling-houses for the exclusive use of the ,chinese population1 railway receipts1 land and forest revenue and postal revenue4 ,the tin is won from large alluvial deposits found in the states of the western seaboard1 and the mines are worked almost exclusively by ,chinese capital and labour4 ,since #ahhi the ,federated ,malay ,states have produced considerably more than half the tin of the world4 ,recently there has been a great development in agricultural enterprise1 especially with regard to rubber1 which is now grown in large quantities1 the estates being mainly in the hands of ,europeans1 and the labour mostly ,tamil4 ,the states are opened up by over #bejj m4 of some of the best metalled cart-roads in the world1 and by a railway system1 #cej m4 of which1 extending from the mainland opposite ,penang to the ancient town of ,malacca1 are open to traffic4 ,another #aej m4 of railway is under construction4 ,the government offices at ,kuala ,lumpor1 the federal capital of the states1 are among the finest buildings of the kind in ,asia4 ,the whole of this extraordinary development1 it should be noted1 has been effected by careful1 sound and wise administration coupled with a courageous and energetic policy of expenditure upon public works4 ,throughout1 not one penny of debt has been incurred1 the roads1 railways1 c41 being constructed entirely from current balances4 ,this of course has only been rendered possible by the extraordinary mineral wealth which the states on the western seaboard have developed in the hands of ,chinese miners amid the peace and security which ,british rule has brought to these once lawless lands4 ,the value of the tin output for the year #aije amounted to #fi1dfj1iic 7#h1ajd1aii74 ,although agricultural enterprise in the ,malay ,states is assuming considerable proportions and a growing importance1 the total value of the principal agricultural products1 including timber1 for the year #aije only aggregated #b1dce1eac 7#bhi1adc74 ,the whole of the ,malay ,peninsula is one vast forest1 through which flow countless streams that form one of the most lavish water-systems in the world4 ,the rivers1 though many of them are of imposing appearance and of considerable length1 are uniformly shallow1 only a few on the west coast being navigable by ships for a distance of some #dj m4 from their mouths4 ,in spite of the notable development above referred to1 only a very small fraction of the entire area of the states has as yet been touched either by mining or agricultural enterprise4 ,it is not too much to assert that the larger half of the forest-lands has never been trodden by the foot of man4 7,for information concerning the botany1 geology1 c41 of the ,malay ,states see ,,malay ,,peninsula4 ,for the ethnology see ,,malays47 ,,perak is situated between the parallels #c #cg and #f #e ,n4 and #ajj #c to #aja #ea ,e4 on the western side of the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,it is bounded on the ,n4 by the ,british possession of ,province ,wellesley and the ,malay state of ,kedah2 on the ,s4 by the protected native state of ,selangor2 on the ,e4 by the protected native state of ,pahang and the independent states of ,kelantan and ,petani2 and on the ,w4 by the ,straits of ,malacca4 ,the coast-line is about #ij m4 in length4 ,the extreme distance from the most northerly to the most southerly portions of the state is about #agb m41 and the greatest breadth from east to west is about #ajj m4 ,the total area of the country is estimated at about #aj1jjj sq4 m4 ,the ,perak river1 which runs in a southerly direction almost parallel with the coast for nearly #aej m4 of its course1 is navigable for small steamers for about #dj m4 from its mouth1 and by native trading boats for nearly #bjj m4 ,the ,plus1 ,batang1 ,padang and ,kinta rivers are its principal tributaries1 all of them falling into the ,perak on its left bank4 ,the other principal rivers of the state are the ,krian1 ,kurau1 ,larut and ,bruas to the north of the mouth of the ,perak1 and the ,bernam to the south4 ,none of these rivers is of any great importance as a waterway1 although the ,bernam ,river is navigable for small steamers for nearly #ajj m4 of its course4 ,the mountain ranges1 which cover a considerable area1 run from the north-east to the south-west4 ,the highest altitudes attained by them do not exceed #gejj ft41 but they average about #bejj ft4 ,they are all thickly covered with jungle4 ,the ranges are two1 running parallel to one another1 with the valley of the ,perak between them4 ,the larger is a portion of the main chain1 which runs down the peninsula from north to south4 ,the lesser is situated in the district of ,larut4 ,there are several hill sanatoria in the state at heights which vary from #bejj to #dgjj ft4 above sea-level1 but the extreme humidity of the atmosphere renders the coolness thus obtainable the reverse of enjoyable4 ,geology4 ,mr ,leonard ,wray1 curator of the ,perak museum1 writes as follows on the subject of the geological formation of the state3 ,there are really only four formations represented--firstly1 the granitic rocks2 secondly1 a large series of beds of gneiss1 quartzite1 schist and sandstone1 overlaid in many places by thick beds of crystalline limestone2 thirdly1 small sheets of trap rock2 and fourthly1 river-gravels and other ,quaternary deposits4 ,the granites are of many varieties1 and also1 in all probability1 of several different geological periods4 ,the series of quartzites1 schists1 and limestone are of great age1 but as no fossils have ever been found in any of them1 nothing definite can be stated as to their exact chronological position4 ,their lithological characteristics and the total absence of all organic remains point to the ,archaean period4 ,the failure to discover signs of life in them is1 of course1 merely negative evidence1 and the finding of a single fossil would at once upset it4 ,however1 until this happens they may be conveniently classed as ,laurentian4 ,it is at present impossible to form anything approaching an accurate estimate of the thickness of this extensive series1 but it is probable that it is somewhere between #djjj and #ejjj ft4 ,unconformability has been noticed between the limestones and the beds beneath1 but whether this is sufficient to separate them or not is a matter for future investigation4444 ,the taller hills are exclusively composed of granite1 as also are some of the lower ones4444 ,the ores of the following metals have been found in the formations named3 ,granite--tin1 lead1 iron1 arsenic1 tungsten and titanium2 ,laurentian--tin1 gold1 lead1 silver1 iron1 arsenic1 copper1 zinc1 tungsten1 manganese and bismuth2 ,quaternary--tin1 gold1 copper1 tungsten1 iron and titanium4 ,this is not to be considered a complete list1 as small quantities of other metals have also been found4 ,history4 ,the early history of ,perak is obscure1 the only information on the subject being obtained from native traditions1 which are altogether untrustworthy4 ,according to these authorities1 however1 a settlement was first made by ,malays in ,perak at ,bruas1 and the capital was later moved to the banks of the ,perak ,river1 the site chosen being a little village called ,temong1 which lies some miles up stream from ,kuala ,kangsar1 the present residence of the sultan4 ,when the ,malacca sultanate fell1 owing to the invasion of the ,portuguese in #aeaa1 a member of that royal house is said to have migrated to ,perak1 and the present dynasty claims to have been descended from him4 ,as this boast is also made by almost every ruling family in the peninsula1 the tradition is not worthy of any special attention4 ,what is more certain is the tradition that ,perak was twice invaded by the ,achinese1 and its rulers carried off into captivity1 one of them1 ,sultan ,mansur ,shah1 subsequently becoming the ruler of ,achin4 ,the first ,european settlement in ,perak was made by the ,dutch in #afej1 under a treaty entered into with the ,achinese1 but the natives of the country rose against the ,dutch again and again1 and it was abandoned in #aghc1 though it was afterwards reoccupied1 the ,dutch being finally ejected by the ,british in #agie4 ,in #ahah the ,siamese conquered ,perak1 but its independence was secured by a treaty between the ,british and ,siamese governments in #ahbd4 ,from that date until #ahgd ,perak was ruled by its own sultans1 but in that year1 owing to internal strife1 ,sultan ,abdullah applied to the then governor of the ,straits ,settlements1 ,sir ,andrew ,clarke1 for the assistance of a ,british ,resident4 ,the treaty of ,pangkor was concluded on the #bjth of ,january #ahgd1 and the first resident1 ,mr ,j4 ,w4 ,w4 ,birch1 was murdered on the #bnd of ,november #ahge4 ,a punitive expedition became necessary2 sultan ,abdullah and the other chiefs concerned in the murder were banished1 the actual murderers were hanged1 and ,raja ,muda ,jusuf was declared regent4 ,he died in #ahhh1 and was succeeded by the sultan ,raja ,idris1 ,k4,c4,m4,g41 a most enlightened ruler1 who was from the first a strong and intelligent advocate of ,british methods of administration4 ,sir ,hugh ,low was appointed resident1 a position which he held until #ahhi1 when he was succeeded by ,sir ,frank ,swettenham4 ,since then the history of ,perak has been one of continuous peace and growing prosperity and wealth4 ,although the federal capital is ,kuala ,lumpor in ,selangor1 ,perak still enjoys the honour of being the senior and leading state of the federation4 ,population4 ,by the census taken on the #eth of ,april #ahia the population of ,perak was shown to be as follows3 ,europeans1 #cff2 ,eurasians1 ,jews and ,armenians1 #bic2 ,malays1 #if1gai2 ,chinese1 #id1cde2 ,tamils1 #ac1jhf2 aborigines1 #eggi2 other nationalities1 #cfff2 thus making a grand total of #bad1bed1 of whom #aef1djh were males and #eg1hdf were females4 ,the estimated population in #aije was #djj1jjj1 of whom #bjj1jjj were ,chinese and #afj1jjj were ,malays1 but owing to the disparity of the proportions between the sexes the deaths in each year largely outnumber the births1 and the increase in the population is accounted for solely by the number of immigrants1 chiefly from the mainland of ,china1 and to a lesser extent from ,india also4 ,the revenue of ,perak in #ahgd amounted to #bbf1ccc4 ,that for #aije amounted to #ab1bdb1hig4 ,of this latter sum #d1hgf1djj was derived from duty on exported tin1 #b1dhi1cjj from railway receipts1 #eje1cjj from land revenue and #adb1hjj from postal and telegraphic revenue4 ,the remainder is mainly derived from the revenue farms1 which are leased to ,chinese capitalists for a short term of years1 conveying to the lessee the right to collect import duties upon opium1 wine and spirits1 to keep pawnbroking shops1 and to keep public licensed gambling-houses for the use of ,chinese only4 ,the expenditure for #aije amounted to #aj1ada1ihj4 ,of this sum #d1bcf1jjj was expended upon railway upkeep and construction and #b1agf1ajj upon public works4 ,the value of the imports into ,perak during #aije was over #bj1jjj1jjj1 and that of the exports exceeded #dj1jjj1jjj1 making a total of over #fj1jjj1jjj1 equivalent to about seven million sterling4 ,the output of tin from ,perak ranged between #ah1ifj tons1 valued at #bc1jii1ejf in #ahii1 and #bf1fjj tons1 valued at #ce1ejj1jjj1 in #aije4 ,the fluctuating character of the output is due1 not to any exhaustion of the mineral deposits of the state--that is not to be anticipated for many years yet to come--but to the uncertainty of the labour supply4 ,the mining population is recruited exclusively from the districts of southern ,china1 and during certain years an increased demand for labourers in ,china itself1 in ,french ,indo-,china1 in the ,dutch colonies1 and in ,south ,africa temporarily and adversely affected immigration to the ,straits of ,malacca4 ,the output has1 moreover1 been affected from time to time by the price of tin1 which was #cb4bj per pikul in #ahif1 rose to #db4if in #ahih1 to #gd4ae in #aijj1 and averaged #hj4fj in #aije4 ,exclusive of tin1 the principal exports were #ajh1jjj worth of ,para rubber1 #aha1jjj of copra1 #ed1jjj of hides1 #dh1jjj of patchouli1 and considerable quantities of timber1 rattans and other jungle produce4 ,the agricultural development of the state is still in its infancy1 but rubber is cultivated in rapidly increasing areas1 and the known fertility of the soil1 the steady and regular rainfall1 the excellent means of communication1 and the natural and artificial conditions of the country1 justify the expectation that the future of ,perak as an agricultural country will be prosperous4 ,general4 ,although so much has been done to develop the resources of ,perak1 by far the greater portion of the state is still covered by dense and virgin forest4 ,in #ahih it was calculated that only #ccj1bdi acres of land were occupied or cultivated out of a total acreage of #f1djj1jjj4 ,the area of agricultural holdings has notably increased1 but a considerable period must yet elapse before it will amount to even one-tenth of the whole4 ,a line of railway connects the port of ,teluk ,anson with the great mining district of ,kinta1 whence the line runs1 crossing the ,perak ,river at ,enggor1 to ,kuala ,kangsar1 the residence of the sultan1 thence to ,taiping1 the administrative capital of the state1 and via ,krian to a point opposite to the island of ,penang4 ,a second line runs south from ,perak and connects with the railway system of ,selangor1 which in its turn connects with the ,negri ,sembilan and ,malacca line1 thus giving through railway communication between the last-named town and ,penang4 ,perak also possesses some #fjj miles of excellent metalled cart-road1 and the length of completed road is annually increasing4 ,for administrative purposes the state is divided into six districts3 ,upper ,perak1 ,kuala ,kangsar and ,lower ,perak1 on the ,perak ,river2 ,kinta2 ,batany ,padang and ,larut and ,krian4 ,of these1 ,larut and ,kinta are the principal mining centres1 while ,krian is the most prosperous agricultural district4 ,the districts on the ,perak ,river are mostly peopled by ,malays4 ,the administrative capital is ,taiping1 the chief town of ,larut4 ,kuala ,kangsar is chiefly memorable as having been the scene of the first federal meeting of native chiefs1 who1 with the ,british ,residents from each state1 met together in #ahig for friendly discussion of their common interests for the first time in history1 under the auspices of the high commissioner1 ,sir ,charles ,h4 ,b4 ,mitchell4 ,this1 in the eyes of those who are acquainted with the character of the ,malays and of the relations which formerly subsisted between the rulers of the various states1 is perhaps the most signal token of the changes which ,british influence has wrought in the peninsula4 ,,selangor is situated between the parallels #b #cb and #c #cg ,n4 and #ajj #ch and #ajb ,e41 on the western side of the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,it is bounded on the ,n4 by the protected native state of ,perak1 on the ,s4 by the protected states of the ,negri ,sembilan1 on the ,e4 by ,pahang and the ,negri ,sembilan1 and on the ,w4 by the ,straits of ,malacca4 ,the coast-line is about #ajj m4 in length1 greatest length about #ajd m41 and greatest breadth about #dh m41 total area estimated at about #cjjj sq4 m4 ,the state consists of a narrow strip of land between the mountain range which forms the backbone of the peninsula and the ,straits of ,malacca4 ,compared with other states in the peninsula1 ,selangor is poorly watered4 ,the principal rivers are the ,selangor1 the ,klang and the ,langat4 ,the principal port of the state is ,port ,swettenham1 situated at the mouth of the ,klang ,river1 and is connected with the capital1 ,kuala ,lumpor1 by a railway4 ,the geology of the state closely resembles that of ,perak4 ,the state is possessed of most valuable deposits of alluvial tin1 and mining for this metal is the chief industry of the population4 ,kuala ,lumpor is also the federal capital of the ,malay ,states4 ,history4 ,according to native tradition1 the ruling house of ,selangor is descended from a ,bugis raja1 who1 with two of his brothers1 settled in the state in #agah1 the son of the youngest brother eventually becoming ruler of the country4 ,in #aghc the then sultan of ,selangor joined with the ,iang-di-per-,tuan ,muda of ,riau in an unsuccessful attack upon the ,dutch who then held ,malacca4 ,in retaliation the ,dutch1 under ,admiral ,van ,braam1 invaded ,selangor and drove the sultan out of his country4 ,in #aghe1 aided by the ,bendahara of ,pahang1 ,sultan ,ibrahim of ,selangor reconquered his state2 but the ,dutch blockaded his ports1 and eventually forced him to enter into a treaty whereby he consented to acknowledge their sovereignty4 ,the earliest ,british political communication with ,selangor began in #ahah1 when a commercial treaty was concluded with the governor of ,penang4 ,in #ahfg ,sultan ,abdul ,samad of ,selangor appointed his son-in-law1 ,tungku ,dia ,udin1 to be viceroy2 and this gave rise to a civil war which lasted almost without intermission till #ahgc1 when the enemies of ,tungku ,dia ,udin were finally vanquished1 largely by the agency of the ,bendahara of ,pahang1 who1 at the invitation of the governor of the ,straits ,settlements1 sent a warlike expedition to the assistance of the viceroy4 ,in #ahgd the occurrence of an atrocious act of piracy off the mouth of the ,langat ,river led to the governor1 ,sir ,andrew ,clarke1 appointing1 at the request of the sultan1 a ,british ,resident to aid him in the administration of his kingdom4 ,since that date there has been no further breach of the peace1 and the prosperity of ,selangor has increased annually4 ,by the census taken on the #eth of ,april #ahia the population of ,selangor was given at #ha1eib souls1 of whom #fg1jea were males and only #ad1eda were females4 ,the census taken on the #eth of ,april #aija gave a total population of #afh1ghi souls1 of whom #acf1hbc were males and #ca1iff females4 ,of these #ajh1gfh were ,chinese1 #cc1iig were ,malays1 #af1gdh were ,tamils1 and only #dhg were ,europeans4 ,the returns deal with nearly a score of different nationalities4 ,since #aija the population has been much increased and now certainly exceeds #bjj1jjj souls4 ,now1 however1 that instead of a single port of entry there exist easy means of access to the state by rail both from the north and the south1 it is no longer possible to estimate the annual increase by immigration with any approach to accuracy4 ,it will be noted that the inhabitants of this erstwhile ,malayan state were1 even at the time of the census of #aija1 over #fd ,chinese1 while the ,malays were little more than #bj of the population4 ,in ,selangor1 as elsewhere in the ,malay ,peninsula1 the deaths annually far outnumber the births recorded 7e4g4 in #aije births #hbic1 deaths #ab1ejj74 ,the disproportion of the female to the male sections of the population is greater in ,selangor than in any other part of the colony or ,malay ,states4 ,the development of planting enterprise in ,selangor1 and more especially the cultivation of rubber1 has led during recent years to the immigration of a considerable number of ,tamil coolies1 but the ,tamil population is still insignificant as compared with the ,chinese4 ,finance1 ,trade1 c4 ,the revenue of ,selangor in #ahge amounted to only #aae1fef2 in #aije it had increased to #h1heg1gic4 ,of this latter sum #c1aie1cah was derived from duty on tin exported1 #a1igb1fbh from federal receipts1 and #cdj1cfj from land revenue4 ,the balance is chiefly derived from the revenue farms1 which include the right to collect import duty on opium and spirits4 ,the expenditure for #aije amounted to #g1ahf1adf1 of which sum #c1gag1bch was on account of federal charges and #a1hej1gaa for public works4 ,the value of the imports in #aije was #bd1fdc1fai and that of the exports was #bf1fhc1caf1 making a total of #ea1cbf1ice1 equivalent to #e1ihh1jjj4 ,tin is the principal export4 ,the amount exported in #aije was #ag1bed tons4 ,the total area of alienated mining land at the end of #aije amounted to #fe1egc acres1 and it was estimated that over #fj1jjj ,chinese were employed in the mines4 ,the main trunk line of the ,federated ,malay ,states railways passes through ,selangor4 ,it enters the state at ,tanjong ,malim on the ,perak boundary1 runs southward through ,kuala ,lumpor and so into the ,negri ,sembilan4 ,it runs for #ha m4 in ,selangor territory4 ,a branch line #bg m4 long connects ,kuala ,lumpor with ,port ,swettenham on the ,klang ,straits where extensive wharves1 capable of accommodating ocean-going vessels1 have been constructed4 ,a second branch line1 measuring rather more than #d m4 in length1 has been opened to traffic4 ,it connects the caves at ,batu with ,kuala ,lumpor4 ,frequent communication is maintained by steamer between ,port ,swettenham and ,singapore1 and by coasting vessels between the former port and those on the shores of the ,straits of ,malacca4 ,all the principal places in the state are connected with one another by telegraph4 ,for administrative purposes ,selangor is divided into six districts3 ,kuala ,lumpor1 in which the capital and the principal tin-fields are situated2 ,ulu ,selangor1 which is also a prosperous mining district2 ,kuala ,selangor1 which is agricultural1 and poorly populated by ,malays2 ,ulu ,langat1 mining and agricultural2 ,kuala ,langat1 the residence of the late sultan ,abdul ,samad1 agricultural2 and ,klang1 the only prosperous port of the state4 ,much money has been expended upon the capital1 ,kuala ,lumpor1 which possesses some fine public buildings1 waterworks1 c41 and where the principal residence of the ,resident-,general is situated4 ,in some sort ,kuala ,lumpor is the capital not only of ,selangor1 but also of the whole federation4 ,its scenery is very attractive4 ,,negri ,,sembilan 7the ,nine ,states7 is a federation of small native states which is now treated as a single entity1 being under the control of a ,british ,resident1 and is situated between parallels #b #bh and #c #ah ,n4 and #aja #de and #ajb #de ,e41 on the western side of the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,it is bounded on the ,n4 by the protected state of ,pahang1 on the ,s4 by the territory of ,malacca1 on the ,e4 by ,pahang and the independent state of ,johor1 and on the ,w4 by the ,straits of ,malacca4 ,the coast-line is about #bh m4 in length1 and the extreme distance from north to south is #ee m41 and that from east to west about #fe m4 ,the estimated area is about #cjjj sq4 m4 ,port ,dickson1 or ,arang-,arang1 is the only port on the coast4 ,it is connected with the capital1 ,seremban1 by a railway #bd m4 in length4 ,most of the states comprising the federation depend largely for their prosperity upon agriculture1 but in some of the districts tin is being worked in considerable quantities1 with good results4 ,history4 ,as is the case with the history of most ,malayan states1 much rests upon no surer ground than tradition1 in so far as the records of the ,negri ,sembilan are concerned4 ,at the same time the native story that the states which now form the federation of the ,negri ,sembilan were originally peopled by tribes of ,sakai1 or aborigines of the peninsula1 who descended from the mountains of the interior and peopled the valleys1 is supported by much corroborative evidence4 ,not only does the ,malay's contempt for the ,sakai make it exceedingly unlikely that the tradition1 which is hardly a matter for pride1 should have been preserved if it were not true1 but also many of the laws and customs in force in these states are wholly foreign to those of the ,malays1 and can plainly be traced to the aborigines4 ,as an instance1 the custom of inheriting rank and property through the mother instead of through the father may be mentioned4 ,tradition further relates that towards the end of the #ahth century a raja of the royal house of ,menangkabu came from ,sumatra to rule over the federation of small states1 each of which continued to be governed in all its local affairs by its own chief and by the village and other councils sanctioned by ancient custom4 ,the ,sumatran raja took the title of ,iang-di-per-,tuan of ,sri ,menanti4 ,although they bore the name of the ,nine ,states1 only six seem to have belonged to the federation during the time of which history speaks4 ,these are ,sri ,menanti1 ,johol1 ,tampin1 ,rembau1 ,jelebu1 and ,sungei ,ujong4 ,later the two latter separated themselves from the confederation4 ,ancient tradition says that the names of the nine states were originally ,klang1 ,jelebu1 ,sungei ,ujong1 ,johol1 ,segamat1 ,pasir ,besar1 ,naning1 ,rembau and ,jelai4 ,of these ,klang was annexed by ,selangor1 ,segamat and ,pasir ,besar by ,johor1 and ,naning by ,malacca4 ,during the last years of the #ahth century the ,iang-di-per-,tuan appointed an ,iang-di-per-,tuan ,muda to rule ,rembau1 and the state of ,tampin was created to provide for the family of the new chief4 ,in #ahhg the governor of the ,straits ,settlements sent ,mr ,martin ,lister to the ,negri ,sembilan1 which had become disintegrated1 and by his influence the ancient federal system was revived under the control of a ,resident appointed by the governor4 ,the states which formed this new confederation were ,johol1 ,ulu ,muar1 ,jempol1 ,terachi1 ,inas1 ,gunong ,pasir1 ,rembau1 ,tampin and ,gemencheh4 ,prior to this1 in #ahgc1 owing to a civil war in ,sungei ,ujong1 ,sir ,andrew ,clarke sent a military force to that state1 put an end to the disturbances1 and placed the country under the control of a ,british ,resident4 ,jelebu was taken under ,british protection in #ahhf1 and was thenceforth managed by a magistrate under the orders of the ,resident of ,sungei ,ujong4 ,in #ahif1 when the federation of all the ,malayan states under ,british control was effected1 ,sungei ,ujong and ,jelebu were reunited to the confederation of small states from which they had so long been separated and the whole1 under the old name of the ,negri ,sembilan1 or ,nine ,states1 was placed under one ,resident4 ,the population of the ,negri ,sembilan1 which according to the census taken in ,april #ahia was only #gj1gcj1 had increased to #if1jbh by #aija1 and was estimated at #aai1ded in #aije4 ,of these #df1ejj are ,chinese1 #fe1jjj ,malays1 #fgjj ,tamils1 and #ijj ,europeans and ,eurasians4 ,the births registered slightly exceed the deaths in number1 there being a large ,malay population in the ,negri ,sembilan among whom the proportion of women to men is fair1 a condition of things not found in localities where the inhabitants are mostly ,chinese immigrants4 ,finance and ,trade4 ,the revenue of the ,negri ,sembilan amounted to only #bbc1dce in #ahhh4 ,in #ahih it had increased to #gja1ccd1 in #aijj to #a1bea1cff1 and in #aije to #b1cce1ecd4 ,the revenue for #aije was derived mainly as follows3--customs #a1bfh1fjb1 land revenue #ade1dge1 land sales #ba1djg1 while the revenue farms contributed #ehd1dei4 ,the expenditure in #aije amounted to #b1bad1jic1 of which #a1abe1cee was expended upon public works4 ,the trade returns for #aije1 which are not1 however1 complete1 show an aggregate value of about #ac1jjj1jjj4 ,the value of the tin exported during #aije exceeded #f1ijj1jjj1 and the value of the agricultural produce1 of which gambier represented #baa1jjj and damar #hj1jjj1 amounted to #djg1iij4 ,general4 ,seremban1 the administrative capital of the ,negri ,sembilan1 is connected with ,port ,dickson by a railway line1 owned by the ,sungei ,ujong ,railway ,company1 which is #bd m4 in length4 ,it is also situated on the trunk line of the ,federated ,malay ,states1 and is thus joined by rail to ,selangor on the north and to ,malacca on the south4 ,frequent steam communication is maintained between ,port ,dickson and the ports on the ,straits of ,malacca and with ,singapore4 ,for administrative purposes the ,negri ,sembilan is divided into five districts1 viz4 the ,seremban ,district1 the ,coast ,district1 ,jelebu1 ,kuala ,pilah and ,tampin4 ,each of these is under the charge of a ,european district officer1 who is responsible to the ,resident4 ,the ,iang-di-per-,tuan lives at ,kuala ,pilah1 but the capital of the federation is at ,seremban in ,sungei ,ujong1 where the ,resident is stationed4 ,the hereditary chiefs of the various states aid in the government of their districts1 and have seats upon the state council1 over which the ,iang-di-per-,tuan presides4 ,the watering-place of ,magnolia ,bay1 where excellent sea-bathing is obtainable1 is one of the pleasure resorts of this part of the peninsula4 ,,pahang1 on the east coast of the peninsula1 is situated between parallels #b #bh and #c #de ,n4 and #aja #cj and #ajc #cj ,e4 ,it is bounded on the ,n4 by the independent native states of ,kelantan and ,trengganu2 on the ,s4 by the ,negri ,sembilan and ,johor2 on the ,e4 by the ,china ,sea2 and on the ,w4 by the protected states of ,perak and ,selangor4 ,the coast-line is about #aab m4 in length2 the greatest length is about #baj m41 and greatest breadth about #acj m4 ,the state is the largest in the peninsula1 its area being estimated at #ae1jjj sq4 m4 ,the ports on the coast are the mouths of the ,endau1 ,rompin1 ,pahang and ,kuantan rivers1 but during the north-east monsoon the coast is not easy of approach1 and the rivers1 all of which are guarded by difficult bars1 are impossible of access except at high tides4 ,the principal river of the state is the ,pahang1 from which it takes its name4 ,at a distance of #ahj m4 from the coast this river is formed by two others named respectively the ,jelai and the ,tembeling4 ,the former is joined #bj m4 farther up stream by the ,lipis1 which has its rise in the mountains which form the boundary with ,perak4 ,the ,jelai itself has its rise also in a more northerly portion of this range1 while its two principal tributaries above the mouth of the ,lipis1 the ,telom and the ,serau1 rise1 the one in the plateau which divides ,perak from ,pahang1 the other in the hills which separate ,pahang from ,kelantan4 ,the ,tembeling has its rise in the hills which divide ,pahang from ,kelantan1 but some of its tributaries rise on the ,trengganu frontier1 while the largest of its confluents comes from the hills in which the ,kuantan ,river takes its rise4 ,the ,pahang is navigable for large boats as far as ,kuala ,lipis1 #bjj m4 from the mouth1 and light-draught launches can also get up to that point4 ,smaller boats can be taken some #hj m4 higher up the ,jelai and ,telom4 ,the river1 however1 as a waterway is of little use1 since it is uniformly shallow4 ,the ,rompin and ,kuantan rivers are somewhat more easily navigated for the first #cj m4 of their course1 but taken as a whole the waterways of ,pahang are of little value4 ,the interior of ,pahang is chiefly noted for its auriferous deposits4 ,gunong ,tahan is situated on the boundary between ,pahang and ,kelantan4 ,its height is estimated at #hjjj ft4 above sea-level1 but it has never yet been ascended4 ,pahang1 like the states on the west coast1 is covered almost entirely by one vast forest1 but in the ,lipis valley1 which formerly was thickly populated1 there is a considerable expanse of open grass plain unlike anything to be seen on the western seaboard4 ,the coast is for the most part a sandy beach fringed with casuarina trees and there are only a few patches of mangrove-swamp throughout its entire length4 ,history4 ,the ancient name of ,pahang was ,indrapura4 ,it is mentioned in the history of ,hang ,tuah1 the great ,malacca brave1 who flourished in the #afth century1 and succeeded in abducting a daughter of the then ruling house of ,pahang for his master1 the sultan of ,malacca4 ,prior to this1 ,pahang had been ruled by the ,siamese4 ,when ,malacca fell into the hands of the ,portuguese in #aeaa the sultan1 ,muhammad ,shah1 fled to ,pahang1 and the present ruling house claims to have been descended from him4 ,the title of the ruler of ,pahang was ,bendahara until #ahhb1 when the present 7#aijb7 ruler1 ,wan ,ahmad1 assumed the title of sultan1 taking the name of ,sultan ,ahmad ,maatham ,shah4 ,up to that time the ,bendahara had been installed on his accession by the sultan of ,riau1 and held his office by virtue of that chief's letter of authority4 ,about #ahee the father of the present sultan died at ,pekan1 and his son ,bendahara ,korish1 who succeeded him1 drove ,wan ,ahmad from the country4 ,after making three unsuccessful attempts to conquer the land and to dethrone his elder brother1 ,wan ,ahmad at last succeeded in #ahfe in invading the state and wresting the throne from his nephew1 who had succeeded his father some years earlier4 ,from that time1 in spite of two attempts to shake his power by invasions from ,selangor which were undertaken by his nephews ,wan ,aman and ,wan ,da1 ,bendahara ,ahmad ruled his country with a rod of iron4 ,in #ahhg he consented to enter into a treaty with the governor of the ,straits by which he accepted a consular agent at his court4 ,this treaty was finally signed on the #hth of ,october #ahhg4 ,in ,february of the following year a ,chinese ,british subject was murdered at ,pekan in circumstances which pointed to the responsibility of the sultan for the crime1 and in ,october #ahhh a ,resident was appointed to assist the sultan in the administration of his country1 that being1 in the opinion of the ,british government1 the only guarantee for the safety of the life and property of ,british subjects which it could accept4 ,in ,december #ahia disturbances broke out in ,pahang1 the nominal leaders of which were certain of the sultan's most trusted chiefs4 ,the sultan himself took no part in the outbreak1 but it undoubtedly had his sympathy1 even if it was not caused by his direct commands4 ,the rebels were driven to seek safety in flight in ,november #ahib1 but in ,june #ahid they gathered strength for a second disturbance1 and raided ,pahang from ,kelantan1 in which state they had been given shelter by the ,mahommedan rulers4 ,this event1 added to the occurrence of other raids from across the border1 led to an irregular expedition being led into ,trengganu and ,kelantan by the ,resident of ,pahang 7,mr ,hugh ,clifford7 in #ahie1 and this had the desired result4 ,the rebel chiefs were banished to ,siam1 and no further breach of the peace has troubled the tranquillity of ,pahang since that time4 ,pahang joined the ,federated ,malay ,states by a treaty signed in #ahie1 and the sultan and his principal chiefs were present at the federal durbar held at ,kuala ,kangsar in ,perak in #ahig4 ,population4 ,the census taken in ,april #aija gave the total population of ,pahang at #hd1aac1 of whom #gc1dfb were ,malays1 #hfie ,chinese1 #abbg ,tamils and other natives of ,india1 #ahj ,europeans and ,eurasians1 and #edi people of other nationalities4 ,the population in #aije was estimated at #ajj1jjj1 the increase being due to immigration mainly from the states on the western seaboard4 ,in former days ,pahang was far more thickly populated than in modern times1 but the long succession of civil wars which racked the land after the death of ,bendahara ,ali caused thousands of ,pahang ,malays to fly the country4 ,to-day the valley of the ,lebir ,river in ,kelantan and the upper portions of several rivers near the ,perak and ,selangor boundaries are inhabited by ,pahang ,malays1 the descendants of these fugitives4 ,the ,pahang natives are almost all engaged in agriculture4 ,the work of the mines1 c41 is performed by ,chinese and foreign ,malays4 ,in the ,lipis valley the descendants of the ,rawa ,malays1 who at one time possessed the whole of the interior in defiance of the ,pahang rajas1 still outnumber the people of the land4 ,finance and ,trade4 ,the revenue of ,pahang in #ahii amounted to only #fb1jgg2 in #aijj to #dai1aej4 ,in #aije it was #ebh1cfh4 ,the expenditure in #aije amounted to #a1bjh1agf4 ,of this sum #gcf1hhf was expended on public works4 ,pahang is still a source of expense to the federation1 its progress having been retarded by the disturbances which lasted from ,december #ahia until #ahie1 with short intervals of peace1 but the revenue is now steadily increasing1 and the ultimate financial success of the state is considered to be secure4 ,pahang owes something over #c1iff1ejj to ,selangor and #a1age1jjj to ,perak1 which have financed it now for some years out of surplus revenue4 ,the value of the imports in #aije was #a1cdd1cdf1 that of the exports was #c1hch1ibh1 thus making a total trade value of #e1ahc1bgd4 ,the most valuable export is tin1 the value of which in #aije amounted to #b1hbj1gde4 ,the value of the gutta exported exceeded #adj1jjj1 that of dried and salted fish amounted to nearly #gj1jjj1 and that of timber to #cbe1jjj4 ,general4 ,the geological formation of the states lying to the eastward of the main range of mountains which splits the peninsula in twain differs materially from that of the western states4 ,at a distance of about a dozen miles from the summits of the mountains the granite formation is replaced by slates1 which in many places are intersected by fissures of quartz1 and in others are overlaid by vast thicknesses of limestone4 ,those of the quartz fissures which have been exploited are found to be auriferous1 and several mining companies have attempted to work the deposits4 ,their efforts1 however1 have not hitherto been successful4 ,a magnificent road over the mountains1 with a ruling grade of #a in #cj1 joins ,kuala ,lipis1 the administrative capital of ,pahang1 to ,kuala ,kubu1 the nearest railway station in ,selangor4 ,the road measures #hb m4 in length4 ,pekan1 where the sultan has his residence1 was the capital of ,pahang until the middle of #ahih1 when the administrative headquarters were transferred to the interior as being more central4 ,none of these towns is of any size or importance4 ,in the ,kuantan valley1 which lies parallel to the ,pahang ,river1 a ,european company is working tin lodes with considerable success4 ,these lodes are the only mines of the kind being worked in the ,federated ,malay ,states4 ,pahang is fertile and well suited for agriculture of many kinds4 ,the rainfall is heavy and regular4 ,the climate is cooler than that of the west coast1 and the full force of the monsoon is felt from ,october to ,february in each year4 ,for administrative purposes ,pahang is divided into four districts--,ulu ,pahang1 in which the present capital is situated2 ,temerloh1 which includes #hj odd miles of the ,pahang valley and the ,semantan ,river2 ,pekan1 which includes the coast rivers down to ,endau2 and ,kuantan4 ,each of these is under the charge of a district officer1 who is responsible to the resident4 ,the boundary with ,johor and the ,negri ,sembilan was rectified by a commission which sat in ,london in #ahig-ahih4 ,,authorities4--,journal of the ,eastern ,archipelago 7,singapore72 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society 7,singapore72 ,maxwell1 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,colonial ,institute1 vol4 xxiii42 ,swettenham1 ibid4 vol4 xxvii2 ,clifford1 ibid4 vol4 xxx4 7,london1 #ahib1 #ahie1 #ahii72 ,swettenham1 ,about ,perak 7,singapore1 #ahic72 ,malay ,sketches 7,london1 #ahie72 ,the ,real ,malay 7,london1 #ahii72 ,british ,malaya 7,london1 #aijf72 ,clifford1 ,in ,court and ,kampong 7,london1 #ahig72 ,studies in ,brown ,humanity 7,london1 #ahih72 ,in a ,corner of ,asia 7,london1 #ahii72 ,bush-whacking 7,london1 #aija72 ,further ,india 7,london1 #aijd72 ,de la ,croix1 ,les ,mines d'etins de ,perak 7,paris1 #ahhb72 ,bluebook1 ,c4 #iebd 7,london1 #ahii72 ,the ,straits ,directory 7,singapore1 #aijf72 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic 7,london1 #aijj72 ,skeat and ,blagden1 ,pagan ,races of the ,malay ,peninsula 7,london1 #aijf74 7,h4 ,cl47 ,,ii4--,,non-,,federated ,,states ,in #aiji a treaty was made between ,great ,britain and ,siam1 one provision of which was the cession to the former of the suzerain rights enjoyed by the latter over certain territories in the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,these territories consisted of the four ,siamese ,malay ,states3 ,kelantan1 ,trengganu1 ,kedah and ,perlis1 very ancient dependencies of ,siam1 all of which except ,trengganu1 were in a flourishing condition and had been administered by ,british officers in the service of ,siam for some years prior to their transference4 ,though the four states were loyal to ,siam and wished to retain their former allegiance1 the change was effected without disturbance of any kind1 the ,british government on assuming the rights of suzerainty placing an adviser at the court of each raja and guaranteeing the continuance of the administration on the lines already laid down by ,siam so far as might be compatible with justice and fair treatment for all4 ,the four states lie to the north of the ,federated ,malay ,states1 two on the east and two on the west side of the peninsula4 ,,kelantan4--,this state on the east coast1 bounded ,n4 and ,n4,e4 by the ,china ,sea1 ,e4 by ,trengganu1 ,s4 by ,pahang and ,w4 by ,perak and ,ra-ng1 lies between #d #dh and #f #bj ,n4 and #aja #cc and #ajb #de ,e4 ,the greatest length from north to south is #aae m4 and the greatest breadth from east to west #fj m4 ,the area is about #ejjj sq4 m4 ,the northern part of the state is flat and fertile1 but the southern district which comprises more than half the total area1 is mountainous and uncultivated4 ,next to the ,pahang1 the ,kelantan ,river is the largest on the east coast4 ,it is #abj miles long and is navigable for shallow-draft launches and big country boats for about #hj miles1 and for vessels of #h ft4 draft for about six miles4 ,its principal tributaries are the ,galas1 ,pergau and ,lebir4 ,the ,golok and ,semarak rivers water the west and east parts of the state1 falling into the sea a few miles on either side of the mouth of the ,kelantan ,river4 ,the climate of ,kelantan is mild and singularly healthy in the open cultivated regions4 ,the population is about #cjj1jjj of which #aj1jjj are aboriginal tribes 7,sakeis and ,jakuns71 #aj1jjj ,siamese and ,chinese and the rest ,malays4 ,the ,chinese are increasing and natives of different parts of ,india are resorting to the state for purposes of trade4 ,kota ,bharu 7pop4 #aj1jjj7 is the only town in the state4 ,it lies on the right bank of the river1 about six miles from the sea4 ,since #aijd it has been laid out with metalled roads and many public and private buildings have been erected4 ,the town is the commercial as well as the administrative centre of the state4 ,tumpat and ,tabar on the coast1 with population #djjj and #cjjj respectively1 are the places next in importance after ,kota ,bharu4 ,a network of creeks render communication easy in the northern districts1 the river and its tributaries afford means of access to all parts of the south2 #bj miles of road have been made in the neighbourhood of ,kota ,bharu4 ,kelantan is connected by telegraph with ,bangkok and ,singapore1 and maintains regular postal communication with those places4 ,rice cultivation is the principal industry and is increasing rapidly4 ,coco-nut and betel-nut growing are also largely practised4 ,much livestock is raised4 ,about #djj1jjj acres of land are under cultivation4 ,though reputed rich in minerals1 past misrule prevented mining enterprise in ,kelantan until1 in #aijj1 a large concession was given to an ,englishman and the country was opened to foreigners4 ,in #aiji three mining syndicates were at work1 and several others were in process of formation4 ,gold1 tin and galena have been found in several localities and during the years #aijf-aiji #bh1jjj ounces of gold were dredged from the ,kelantan ,river4 ,the ,kelantanese are expert fishermen1 some #cj1jjj finding employment in fishing and fish-drying4 ,silk-weaving is a growing industry4 ,foreign trade1 which in #aiji reached the value of two and a half million dollars1 is chiefly with ,singapore4 ,principal exports are copra1 rice1 fish1 cattle and gold2 chief imports are cotton goods1 hardware and specie4 ,the currency is the ,straits ,settlements dollar and small silver coin1 supplemented by a locally made tin coin of low value4 ,by virtue of a mutual agreement made in #aijb ,siam appointed a resident commissioner to ,kelantan and consented1 so long as the advice of that officer should be followed1 to leave internal affairs to be conducted locally4 ,under this arrangement a council of state was appointed1 departments of government were organized1 penal1 civil and revenue laws were passed and enforced1 courts were established and a police force was raised4 ,though formerly of an evil reputation1 the people were found to be naturally peaceful and law-abiding1 and serious crime is rare4 ,the state revenue1 which was practically nothing in #aijb1 amounted to #cbj1jjj in #aijg4 ,islamism was adopted about #cjj years ago but the old animistic superstitions are still strong4 ,the state is divided into mukim or parishes1 but the imam no longer exercise temporal authority4 ,there are three schools at ,kota ,bharu1 education in the interior being in the hands of the imam assisted with government grants4 ,no historical records of ,kelantan exist1 and the state was not noticed by the ,european merchants of the #afth and #agth centuries4 ,consequently little is known of its early history beyond what is to be gathered from brief references in the ,malay annals and the old chronicles of ,siam4 ,the sites of ancient towns and the remains of former gold diggings are visible here and there1 but all knowledge of the men who made these marks has been lost4 ,the present ruling family dates from about #agij4 ,siam was frequently called upon to maintain internal peace and in #ahib a royal prince was sent to reside in ,kelantan as commissioner4 ,complications brought about by the incapacity of the ruler led to the making of the agreement of #aijb above mentioned1 to the fixing of a regular tribute in money to ,siam1 and ultimately to the merging of the state from chaotic lawlessness into the path of reform4 ,on the #aeth of ,july #aiji the state came under ,british suzerainty and the commissioner of ,siam was replaced by a ,british adviser1 from which date the liability to payment of tribute ceased1 though in all other respects the administrative arrangements of ,siam remained unaltered4 ,,trengganu4--,this state on the east coast1 bounded ,n4 and ,n4,e4 by the ,china ,sea1 ,s4 by ,pahang and ,w4 by ,pahang and ,kelantan1 lies between parallels #d #d and #d #df ,n4 and #ajb #cj and #ajc #bf ,e4 ,the greatest length from north to south is #abj m41 and the greatest breadth from east to west #ej m4 ,it has a coast-line of #acj m4 and an estimated area of about #ejjj sq4 m4 ,there are several islands off the coast1 some of which are inhabited4 ,the surface is generally mountainous4 ,principal rivers are the ,besut1 ,stiu1 ,trengganu1 ,dungun and ,kmamun1 none of which is navigable for any distance4 ,the climate is mild and fairly healthy4 ,the population numbers about #ahj1jjj1 almost all ,malays1 and mostly clusters round the mouths and lower reaches of the rivers4 ,the capital1 which is situated at the mouth of the ,trengganu ,river1 contains1 with its suburbs1 not less than #cj1jjj people4 ,difficulty of access by river and by land render the interior districts almost uninhabitable4 ,communication is maintained by boat along the coast4 ,there are no roads and no postal or telegraphic communications4 ,the majority of the people are sailors and fishermen4 ,rice is grown1 but not in sufficient quantities to supply local needs4 ,much pepper and gambier were at one time grown and exported1 but about the year #aijc agriculture began to fall off owing to prevailing insecurity of life and property4 ,not much livestock is raised1 the few head of cattle exported from ,besut being mostly stolen from across the neighbouring ,kelantan border4 ,a successful tin mine under ,european control exists in the ,kmamun district1 but as everything possible was done in the past to discourage all foreign enterprise1 the probable mineral wealth of the country is still practically untouched4 ,silk-weaving1 carried on entirely by the women1 is a considerable industry4 ,the silk is imported raw and is re-exported in the form of ,malay clothing 7sarongs7 of patterns and quality which are widely celebrated4 ,the manufacture of native weapons and of brassware was at one time brisk but is declining4 ,the trade of ,trengganu is not increasing4 ,it is valued roughly at about one and a half million dollars a year1 is chiefly with ,singapore1 and is to a great extent carried in ,trengganu-built ships1 which latter also do some carrying trade for other states on the east coast4 ,the ,trengganu sultanate is one of the most ancient in the peninsula and ranks with that of ,riau4 ,the state was feudatory to ,malacca in the #acth century and during the #adth1 #aeth and #afth centuries its possession was frequently disputed between ,malacca and ,siam4 ,the present sultan is the descendant of an ancient family1 the members of which have quarrelled and fought with each other for the succession from time immemorial4 ,the last serious disturbance was in #ahcg when the grandfather of the present sultan stole the throne from his nephew4 ,until the acquisition of the state by ,great ,britain a triennial tribute of gold flowers was paid to ,siam1 and this with occasional letters of instructions and advice1 constituted almost the only tangible evidence of ,siamese suzerainty4 ,of government there was practically none4 ,the sultan1 having alienated most of his powers and prerogatives to his relatives1 passed his life in religious seclusion and was ruler in no more than name4 ,the revenues were devoured by the relatives1 a small part of those accruing from the capital sufficing for the sultan's needs4 ,there were no written laws1 no courts and no police4 ,all manner of crime was rampant1 the peasantry was mercilessly downtrodden1 but the land was full of holy men and the cries of the miserable were drowned in the noise of ostentatious prayer4 ,in fine1 ,trengganu presented in the beginning of the year #aiji the type of untrammelled ,malay rule which had fortunately disappeared from every other state in the peninsula4 ,in ,july of that year1 however1 the first ,british adviser or agent arrived in the state1 which was shortly afterwards visited by the governor of the ,straits ,settlements1 who discussed with the sultan the changed conditions consequent upon the ,anglo-,siamese treaty and laid the foundations of future reform4 ,,kedah4--,this state1 on the west coast of the peninsula1 lies between parallels #e #bj and #f #db ,n41 and is bounded1 ,n4 by ,palit and ,songkla1 ,e4 by ,songkla and ,raman1 ,s4 by ,province ,wellesley and ,perak1 and ,w4 by the sea4 ,the coast-line is #fe m4 long1 the greatest distance from north to south is #aae m4 and the greatest breadth #df m4 ,off the coast lies a group of islands1 the largest of which is ,langkawi1 well peopled and forming a district of the state4 ,the total area of ,kedah is about #djjj sq4 m4 ,the land is low-lying and swampy near the coast except towards the south where the height known as ,kedah ,hill rises from the shore opposite ,penang1 flat and fertile farther inland1 and mountainous towards the eastern border4 ,the rivers are small1 the ,sungei ,kedah1 navigable for a few miles for vessels of #ej tons1 and the ,s4 ,muda1 which forms the boundary with ,province ,wellesley1 being the only streams worthy of notice4 ,the plains are formed of marine deposit1 and in the mountains limestone and granite preponderate4 ,the population is estimated at #bbj1jjj1 of whom about #ajj1jjj are ,malays1 #ej1jjj ,siamese and ,samsams and #gj1jjj ,chinese and ,madrassis 7,klings74 ,there are three towns of importance4 ,alor ,star1 the capital1 on the ,kedah river1 #aj miles from the sea1 in a flat1 unhealthy1 but fertile locality1 is a well laid out town with good streets1 many handsome public and private buildings1 and good wharfage for small vessels4 ,the population is about #bj1jjj1 of whom more than half are ,chinese and the remainder government servants and retainers of the local aristocracy4 ,kuala ,muda 7pop4 #aj1jjj7 and ,kulim 7pop4 #hjjj7 situated in the south1 are unimposing collections of small birch houses and thatched bamboo huts2 the latter is the centre of the ,kedah tin mining industry4 ,the bulk of the population is scattered over the plains in small villages4 ,a good road runs north from ,alor ,star to the border of the state1 a distance of #dj miles1 and other roads are being constructed4 ,the state has #ahe miles of telegraph line and #ge miles of telephone line4 ,mails are closed daily at ,alor ,star for ,penang and there is a good internal postal service4 ,the chief industry is rice cultivation4 ,coco-nut1 betel-nut and fruit plantations are many1 and the cultivation of rubber has recently been taken up with prospects of success4 ,the estimated area under cultivation is about #cjj1jjj acres4 ,there are rice-mills at ,alor ,star and at ,kuala ,muda4 ,the principal exports are rice1 cattle and tin4 ,the chief imports are cotton goods1 provisions1 hardware and raw silk4 ,accurate trade statistics are not available4 ,the ruler holds the rank of sultan and is assisted in the government by a council and by the ,british adviser who since the state passed from ,siamese to ,british protection in #aiji1 has replaced the officer formerly appointed by ,siam4 ,the sultan comes of a family long recognized by ,siam as having hereditary right to the rulership4 ,the penal and civil laws are administered in accordance with the precepts of ,islamism1 the official religion of the state4 ,though much has been done to improve the courts1 justice is not easily obtainable4 ,a land registration system is in force but is in a state of confusion1 though a land law passed in #aije gives security of tenure over lands newly acquired4 ,the mining laws are similar to those of ,siam4 ,in #aije the ,siamese government advanced two and a half million dollars to ,kedah1 to pay the debts of the state1 which sum was refunded by the ,british ,government on assuming the position of protector4 ,the annual revenue is #a1jjj1jjj and the expenditure about the same4 ,chief heads of revenue are opium and land tax4 ,many revenue monopolies1 created in the past1 have not yet expired2 but for this the revenue would be greater than it is4 ,there is no army4 ,in #aijf the police service was reorganized under ,british officers1 resulting in great improvement to this department4 ,the state is divided into a number of administrative districts under ,malay officials4 ,each district comprises several mukim or parishes1 the imam of which exercise both spiritual and temporal control4 ,there are schools in the chief towns1 but education has not yet been seriously undertaken4 ,kedah was founded by colonists from ,india in ,a4,d4 #abjj1 about which time the ,siamese had subdued ,nakhon ,sri ,tammarat and claimed the whole ,malay ,peninsula4 ,when the rise of ,malacca shook ,siamese authority in the peninsula1 ,kedah oscillated between them1 and on the conquest of ,malacca by the ,portuguese1 fell to ,siam1 though the capital was raided and burnt by the ,europeans4 ,the ruler and his people were converted to ,islam in the #aeth century4 ,in #agfh1 the ,siamese kingdom being disorganized1 the sultan of ,kedah entered into direct political relations with the ,hon4 ,east ,india ,company1 leasing the island of ,penang to the latter4 ,further treaties followed in #agia and #ahjb1 but in #ahba ,siam reasserted her control1 expelling the rebellious sultan after a sanguinary war4 ,the sultan made several fruitless efforts to recover the state1 and at length made full submission1 when he was reinstated4 ,in #ahfh an agreement between ,great ,britain and ,siam was substituted for the treaties of the ,east ,india ,company with the sultan4 ,the present sultan succeeded in #ahha1 and for #ad years governed well1 but in #ahie he began to contract debts and to leave the government to his minions4 ,the result was chaos1 and in #aije the ,siamese government had to intervene to avert a condition of bankruptcy1 adjusting the finances and reorganizing the general administration to such effect that when1 four years later1 the state became a ,british dependency1 a government was found established on a sound basis and requiring nothing but the presence of a firm and experienced officer as adviser to maintain its efficiency and assist its further advance4 ,,perlis 7,palit74--,this small state1 consisting of the left bank drainage area of the ,perlis ,river1 lies between ,setul and ,kedah1 which bound it on the ,n4 and ,w4 and on the ,e4 respectively4 ,it touches the sea only round the mouth of the river4 ,the population is about #aj1jjj1 ,malays and ,chinese4 ,the chief town1 ,perlis1 is situated about #ab m4 up the river4 ,a good deal of tin is worked1 and rice and pepper are grown and exported4 ,in the early part of the #aith century ,perlis was a district of ,kedah1 but during a period of disturbance in the latter state it established itself as a separate chiefdom4 ,in #ahig ,siam restored the nominal authority of ,kedah1 but the measure was not productive of good4 ,in #aije the ,siamese government advanced a loan of #bjj1jjj to ,perlis1 and appointed an ,english adviser to assist in the general administration4 ,this money was refunded to ,siam and the adviser relieved by a ,british officer when the state became ,british in ,july #aiji4 ,the condition of the state has improved1 but the revenue1 #hj1jjj1 is not sufficient for the immediate needs of government4 ,authorities4--,norman1 ,the ,far ,east 7,london1 #ahie72 ,h4 ,clifford1 in the ,geographical ,journal 7,london1 #ahif72 ,carter1 ,the ,kingdom of ,siam 7,london1 #aijd72 ,graham1 ,reports on ,kelantan 7,bangkok1 #aije-aiji72 ,skeat and ,blagden1 ,pagan ,races of the ,malay ,peninsula 7,london1 #aijf72 ,hart1 ,reports on ,kedah 7,calcutta1 #aijg-aiji72 ,graham1 ,kelantan1 a ,handbook 7,glasgow1 #aijg74 7,w4 ,a4 ,g47 ,,malay ,,states 7,,siamese74 ,the authority of ,siam1 which at one time covered the whole of the ,malay peninsula1 now extends southward to an irregular line drawn across the ,peninsula at about #f #cj ,n4 ,between that line and the ,isthmus of ,kra1 usually accepted as the northernmost point of the ,malay ,peninsula1 there lie some #bj1jjj sq4 m4 of territory inhabited by a mixed population of ,siamese and ,malays with here and there a few remnants of the aboriginal inhabitants clinging to the wilder districts1 and with a few ,chinese settlers engaged in commerce4 ,formerly this tract was divided into a number of states1 each of which was ruled by a chief 7,siamese1 ,chao ,muang2 ,malay1 raja71 who held his title from the king of ,siam1 but1 subject to a few restrictions1 conducted the affairs of his state in accordance with his own desires2 the office of chief1 moreover1 was hereditary1 subject always to the approval of the suzerain4 ,the states formed two groups3 a northern1 including ,langsuan1 ,chaya1 ,nakhon ,sri ,tammarat1 ,songkla1 ,renawng1 ,takoapa1 ,pang ,nga1 ,tongka and ,trang1 in which the ,siamese element predominated and of which the chiefs were usually ,siamese or ,chinese2 and a southern1 including ,palean1 ,satun 7,setul71 ,patani1 ,raman1 ,jering1 ,sai 7,teloban71 ,re ,nge 7,legeh71 ,yala 7,jalor7 and ,nong ,chik1 in which the population was principally ,malay and the ruler also ,malay4 ,four other states of the southern group1 ,kelantan1 ,trengganu1 ,kedah and ,perlis1 of which the population is entirely ,malay1 passed from ,siamese to ,british protection in #aiji4 ,with the gradual consolidation of the ,siamese kingdom all the states of the northern group have been incorporated as ordinary provinces of ,siam 7q4v471 the hereditary ,chao ,muang having died or been pensioned and replaced by officials of the ,siamese ,civil ,service1 while the states themselves now constitute provinces of the administrative divisions of ,chumpon1 ,nakhon ,sri ,tammarat and ,puket4 ,the states of the southern group1 however1 retain their hereditary rulers1 each of whom presides over a council and governs with the aid of a ,siamese assistant commissioner and with a staff of ,siamese district officials1 subject to the general control of high commissioners under whom the states are grouped4 ,this southern group1 with a total area of about #gjjj sq4 m4 and a population of #cge1jjj1 constitutes the ,siamese ,malay ,states4 ,a ,british consul with headquarters at ,puket1 and a vice-consul who resides at ,songkla1 watch over the interests of ,british subjects in the states of the west and east sides of the peninsula respectively4 ,other foreign powers are unrepresented4 ,palean4--,this small state on the west coast1 bounded ,n4 by the province of ,trang1 ,e4 by the ,songkla division1 ,s4 by the state of ,setul1 and ,w4 by the sea1 is about #ijj sq4 m4 in area1 and has a population of about #bj1jjj4 ,it is attached for administrative purposes to the province of ,trang1 and its people are chiefly engaged in the cultivation of pepper1 of which about #aej tons are annually exported4 ,a few tin mines are also worked4 ,satun 7,setul74--,this small state1 bounded ,n4 by ,palean1 ,e4 by ,songkla1 ,s4 by ,perlis1 and ,w4 by the sea1 contains about #ajjj sq4 m4 area with a population of about #be1jjj1 ,malays1 ,siamese and a few ,chinese4 ,the principal production is pepper1 which is exported in junks and in the small ,penang steamers which ply on the west coast of the peninsula4 ,in #ahig ,setul was placed under the control of ,kedah1 then a ,siamese dependency1 but the arrangement was not a success1 and in #aijg the ,siamese government was forced1 owing to prevailing corruption and misrule1 to restrict the powers of the chief and1 cancelling the authority of ,kedah1 to place him to some extent under the orders of the high commissioner of ,songkla4 ,by the terms of the ,anglo-,siamese treaty of #aiji about half of the state of ,perlis was added to ,satun1 an arrangement by which the importance of the latter was considerably increased4 ,patani4--,the seven ,malay states of ,nawng ,chik1 ,patani1 ,jering1 ,yala 7,jalor71 ,sai 7,teloban71 ,raman and ,ra-ng 7,legeh7 were constituted from the old state of ,patani at the beginning of the #aith century4 ,in #aijf they were reunited to form the ,patani administrative division of ,siam1 but each state retains its ,malay ruler1 who governs jointly with a ,siamese officer under the direction of the ,siamese high commissioner1 and many of the ancient privileges and customs of ,malay government are preserved4 ,the group of ,states is situated between #e #cd and #f #eb ,n4 and #ajj #ed and #aja #eh ,e4 ,it is bounded ,n4 by the ,china ,sea1 ,e4 by the ,china ,sea and ,kelantan1 ,s4 by ,perak1 and ,w4 by ,kedah4 ,the total area is about #ejjj sq4 m4 ,the country is mountainous except close to the coast4 ,the principal rivers are the ,patani and the ,teloban1 long1 winding and shallow1 and navigable for small boats only4 ,the population is about #cce1jjj1 of whom the great majority are ,malays4 ,each state has its capital1 but ,patani 7the headquarters of the high commissioner7 is the only town of importance4 ,communications are poor and are chiefly by river1 but roads are under construction4 ,patani and ,sai are in telegraphic communication with ,bangkok and ,singapore1 and regular weekly mails are despatched to those places4 ,the area under cultivation is small except round about ,patani and in ,nawng ,chik1 where much rice is grown4 ,tin mining is a growing industry2 many ,chinese own mines and several ,european syndicates are at work in ,raman1 ,ra-ng and ,patani1 prospecting for1 or mining1 this metal4 ,fishing and salt-evaporation occupy a large proportion of the population4 ,the annual export of tin is about #djj tons1 and dried fish1 salt1 cattle and elephants are other exports4 ,steamers up to #cjj tons maintain frequent communication with ,bangkok and ,singapore1 and the ,patani roads afford good anchorage at all seasons4 ,mahommedan law is followed in the settlement of inherited property disputes and of matrimonial affairs2 otherwise the laws of ,siam obtain4 ,efficient law courts have been established in each state1 and there is a serviceable force of gendarmerie recruited from amongst ,malays and ,siamese alike4 ,the revenue amounts to about #fjj1jjj ticals1 or #de1jjj a year1 one-third being payable to the rulers as private income for themselves and their relatives1 one-third expended on the administration1 and one-third reserved for special purposes1 but it is usually found necessary to devote the last-mentioned third to the expenses of administration4 ,patani has been subject to ,siam from the remotest times4 ,it is said that the old state adopted ,islamism in the #afth century1 the chief1 a relative of the kings of ,siam1 embracing that religion and at the same time revolting to ,malacca4 ,it has several times been necessary to send punitive expeditions to recall the state to its allegiance4 ,the present rulers are mostly descended from the ruling families of the neighbouring state of ,kelantan1 but the chief of ,patani itself is a member of the family which ruled there in the days of its greatness4 ,throughout the #agth century ,patani was resorted to by ,portuguese1 ,dutch and ,english merchants1 who had factories ashore and used the place as an emporium for trade with ,siam4 ,in #afba an engagement took place in the ,patani roads between three ,dutch and two ,british ships1 the latter being taken after the president of the ,british merchants1 ,john ,jourdain1 had been killed4 ,in #ahii the border between the state of ,perak and ,raman was fixed by an agreement between ,england and ,siam1 a dispute of old standing being thereby settled1 but the question was reopened in the negotiations which preceded the ,anglo-,siamese treaty of #aiji1 when a new border line was fixed between ,british and ,siamese possessions in the ,peninsula4 7,w4 ,a4 ,g47 ,,malchin1 a town of ,germany1 in the grand-duchy of ,mecklenburg-,schwerin1 on the river ,peene1 between lakes ,malchin and ,kummerow1 #bh m4 by rail ,n4,w4 of ,neu-,brandenburg4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #gddi4 ,it is1 alternately with ,sternberg1 the place of assembly of the ,diet of ,mecklenburg4 ,here are the chteaux of ,remplin1 ,basedow and ,schlitz2 a church dating from the #adth century1 and a fine town-hall4 ,the well-wooded and undulating country1 environing the shores of ,lake ,malchin1 is known as the ,mecklenburg ,switzerland1 and is increasing in favour as a summer resort4 ,a canal unites ,lake ,kummerow with the ,peene4 ,the industries of the town include the manufacture of sugar and bricks1 and brewing and malting4 ,malchin became a town in #abcf4 ,,malcolm1 the name of four kings of the ,scots1 two of whom1 ,,malcolm ,i41 king from #idc to #ied1 and ,,malcolm ,,ii41 king from #ajje to #ajcd1 are shadowy and unimportant personages4 ,,malcolm ,,iii4 7d4 #ajic71 called ,canmore or the large-headed1 was a son of ,king ,duncan ,i41 and became king after the defeat of the usurper ,macbeth in ,july #ajed1 being crowned at ,scone in ,april #ajeg4 ,having married as his second wife1 7,st7 ,margaret 7q4v471 a sister of ,edgar theling1 who was a fugitive at his court1 he invaded ,england in #ajgj to support the claim of ,edgar to the ,english throne1 returning to ,scotland with many captives after harrying ,northumbria4 ,william the ,conqueror answered this attack by marching into ,scotland in #ajgb1 whereupon ,malcolm made peace with the ,english king at ,abernethy and was his man4 ,however1 in spite of this promise he ravaged the north of ,england again and again1 until in #ajia ,william ,rufus invaded ,scotland and received his submission4 ,then in #ajib a fresh dispute arose between the two kings1 and ,william summoned ,malcolm to his court at ,gloucester4 ,the ,scot obeyed1 and calling at ,durham on his southward journey was present at the foundation of ,durham ,cathedral4 ,when he reached ,gloucester ,rufus refused to receive him unless he did homage for his kingdom2 he declined and returned home in high dudgeon4 ,almost at once he invaded ,northumbria1 and was killed at a place afterwards called ,malcolm's ,cross1 near ,alnwick1 on the #acth of ,november #ajic4 ,four of ,malcolm's sons1 ,duncan ,,ii41 ,edgar1 ,alexander ,i41 and ,david ,i41 became kings of ,scotland2 and one of his daughters1 ,matilda1 became the wife of ,henry ,i4 of ,england1 a marriage which united the ,saxon and the ,norman royal houses4 ,,malcolm ,,iv4 7c4 #aada-aafe7 was the eldest son of ,henry1 earl of ,huntingdon 7d4 #aaeb71 son of ,king ,david ,i41 and succeeded his grandfather ,david as king of ,scotland in #aaec4 ,he is called the ,maiden1 and died unmarried on the #ith of ,december #aafe4 ,see ,e4 ,a4 ,freeman1 ,the ,norman ,conquest1 vols4 iv4 and v4 7#ahfg-ahgi71 and ,the ,reign of ,william ,rufus 7#ahhb72 ,w4 ,f4 ,skene1 ,celtic ,scotland 7#ahgf-ahhj72 ,e4 ,w4 ,robertson1 ,scotland under her ,early ,kings 7#ahfb72 and ,a4 ,lang1 ,history of ,scotland1 vol4 i4 7#aijj74 ,,malcolm1 ,,sir ,,john 7#agfi-ahcc71 ,anglo-,indian soldier1 diplomatist1 administrator and author1 was born at ,burnfoot on the ,esk1 near ,langholm1 ,dumfriesshire1 ,scotland1 on the #bnd of ,may #agfi4 ,his father was a humble farmer1 but three of his sons attained the honour of knighthood4 ,at the age of twelve he received a cadetship in the ,indian army1 and in ,april #aghc he landed at ,madras1 shortly afterwards joining his regiment at ,vellore4 ,in #agib1 having for some time devoted himself to the study of ,persian1 he was appointed to the staff of ,lord ,cornwallis as ,persian interpreter1 but two years afterwards was compelled by ill health to leave for ,england4 ,on his return to ,india in #agif he became military secretary to ,sir ,alured ,clarke1 commander-in-chief at ,madras1 and afterwards to his successor ,general ,harris2 and in #agih he was appointed by ,lord ,wellesley assistant to the resident at ,hyderabad4 ,in the last-mentioned capacity he highly distinguished himself by the manner in which he gave effect to the difficult measure of disbanding the ,french corps in the pay of the nizam4 ,in #agii1 under the walls of ,seringapatam1 began his intimacy with ,colonel ,arthur ,wellesley1 which in a short time ripened into a lifelong friendship4 ,in the course of the same year he acted as first secretary to the commission appointed to settle the ,mysore government1 and before its close he was appointed by ,lord ,wellesley to proceed as envoy to the court of ,persia for the purpose of counteracting the policy of the ,french by inducing that country to form a ,british alliance4 ,arriving at ,teheran in ,december #ahjj1 he was successful in negotiating favourable treaties1 both political and commercial1 and returned to ,bombay by way of ,bagdad in ,may #ahja4 ,he now for some time held the interim post of private secretary to ,lord ,wellesley1 and in #ahjc was appointed to the ,mysore residency4 ,at the close of the ,mahratta ,war1 in #ahjd1 and again in #ahje1 he negotiated important treaties with ,sindhia and ,holkar1 and in #ahjf1 besides seeing the arrangements arising out of these alliances carried out1 he directed the difficult work of reducing the immense body of irregular native troops4 ,in #ahjh he was again sent on a mission to ,persia1 but circumstances prevented him from getting beyond ,bushire2 on his reappointment in #ahaj1 he was successful indeed in procuring a favourable reception at court1 but otherwise his embassy1 if the information which he afterwards incorporated in his works on ,persia be left out of account1 was 7through no fault of his7 without any substantial result4 ,he sailed for ,england in #ahaa1 and shortly after his arrival in the following year was knighted4 ,his intervals of leisure he devoted to literary work1 and especially to the composition of a ,history of ,persia1 which was published in two quarto volumes in #ahae4 ,on his return to ,india in #ahag he was appointed by ,lord ,moira his political agent in the ,deccan1 with eligibility for military command2 as brigadier-general under ,sir ,t4 ,hislop he took a distinguished part in the victory of ,mehidpur 7,december #ba1 #ahag71 as also in the subsequent work of following up the fugitives1 determining the conditions of peace and settling the country4 ,in #ahba he returned once more to ,england1 where he remained until #ahbg1 when he was appointed governor of ,bombay4 ,his influence in this office was directed to the promotion of various economical reforms and useful administrative measures4 ,leaving ,india for the last time in #ahcj1 he shortly after his arrival in ,england entered parliament as member for ,launceston1 and was an active opponent of the ,reform ,bill4 ,he died of paralysis on the #cjth of ,may #ahcc4 ,besides the work mentioned above1 ,sir ,john ,malcolm published ,sketch of the ,political ,history of ,india since 444 #aghd 7in #ahaa and #ahbf72 ,sketch of the ,sikhs 7#ahab72 ,observations on the ,disturbances in the ,madras ,army in #ahji 7#ahab72 ,persia1 a ,poem1 anonymous 7#ahad72 ,a ,memoir of ,central ,india 7#b vols41 #ahbc72 and ,sketches of ,persia1 anonymous 7#ahbg74 ,a posthumous work1 ,life of ,robert1 ,lord ,clive1 appeared in #ahcf4 ,see ,life and ,correspondence of ,sir ,john ,malcolm1 by ,j4 ,w4 ,kaye 7#b vols41 #ahef74 ,,malda1 a district of ,british ,india1 in the ,rajshahi division of ,eastern ,bengal and ,assam4 ,area1 #ahii sq4 m42 pop4 7#aija71 #hhd1jcj1 showing an increase of #h4e in the decade4 ,the administrative headquarters are at ,english ,bazar 7pop4 #ac1ffg7 near the town of ,old ,malda4 ,the district is divided into two almost equal parts by the ,mahananda river1 flowing from north to south4 ,the western tract between the ,mahananda and the main stream of the ,ganges is an alluvial plain of sandy soil and great fertility4 ,the eastern half is an elevated region broken by the deep valleys of the ,tangan and ,purnabhaba rivers and their small tributary streams4 ,the soil here is a hard red clay2 and the whole is overgrown with thorny tree jungle known as the katal4 ,agricultural prosperity centres on the ,mahananda1 where mango orchards and high raised plots of mulberry land extend continuously along both banks of the river4 ,the ,ganges nowhere intersects the district1 but skirts it from its north-western corner to the extreme south4 ,the ,mahananda flows in a deep well-defined channel through the centre1 and joins the ,ganges at the southern corner4 ,its tributaries are the ,kalindri on the right1 and the ,tangan and ,purnabhaba on the left bank4 ,the two principal industries are the production of indigo and silk4 ,the first has declined1 and so has the second as far as concerns the weaving of piece goods1 but the rearing of silkworms and the export of raw silk and silk thread are carried on upon a large scale4 ,no railway touches the district1 but the communications by water are good4 ,malda supplied two great capitals to the early ,mahommedan kings of ,bengal2 and the sites of ,gaur and ,pandua exhibit the most interesting remains to be found in the lower valley of the ,ganges4 7,see ,,gaur47 ,the connexion of the ,east ,india ,company with ,malda dates from a very early period4 ,as far back as #afgf there was a factory there4 ,in #aggj ,english ,bazar was fixed upon for a commercial residency1 the buildings of which at the present day form both the public offices and private residence of the collector4 ,,malden1 a city1 including several villages1 of ,middlesex county1 ,massachusetts1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,malden river1 about #e m4 ,n4 of ,boston4 ,pop4 7#ahij71 #bc1jca1 7#aijj71 #cc1ffd1 of whom #ieac were foreign-born1 #cfgc being ,english ,canadians1 #hgj ,english1 and #fag ,swedes2 7#aiaj census7 #dd1djd4 ,malden had in #aijf a land area of #d4gh sq4 m4 ,it is served by the ,boston ,maine railroad1 and by inter-urban electric railways4 ,although it is largely a residential suburb of ,boston--its post office is a ,boston sub-station--it has important manufacturing industries4 ,the most valuable manufactured product is rubber boots and shoes4 ,the capital invested in manufacturing in #aije was #e1eec1dcb2 and the value of the factory product1 #aa1bce1fce1 was #gj4b greater than the value of the factory product in #aijj4 ,among ,malden's institutions are the public library 7endowed by ,elisha ,s4 ,converse71 the ,malden hospital1 the ,malden day nursery1 a ,young ,men's ,christian ,association1 and a home for the aged4 ,a fine system of parks is maintained2 the best known is possibly ,pine ,banks4 ,to the north and west is the ,middlesex ,fells1 a state reservation2 about #fj acres of this and about #bj acres of the ,middlesex ,fells ,parkway lie within ,malden4 ,malden1 when first settled about #afdj1 was part of ,charlestown1 and was known for some years as ,mystic ,side4 ,it was incorporated as a town under the name of ,mauldon in #afdj1 and was chartered as a city in #ahha4 ,the north part of ,malden was set off in #ahej to form ,melrose1 and the south part in #ahgj to form the town of ,everett4 ,malden was the birthplace of ,adoniram ,judson1 the apostle to ,burma4 ,michael ,wigglesworth was pastor here from #afef until #agje4 ,see ,d4 ,p4 ,corey1 ,history of ,malden 7,malden1 #ahii72 and ,malden1 ,past and ,present 7,malden1 #ahii74 ,,maldive ,,islands1 an archipelago of coral islets in the ,indian ,ocean1 forming a chain between #g #f ,n4 and #j #db ,s4 ,it consists of seventeen atolls with an immense number of islands1 of which some three hundred are inhabited4 ,in the extreme south are the isolated atolls of ,addu and ,fua-,mulaku1 separated from ,suvadiva by the ,equatorial ,channel1 which is itself separated from the main chain of atolls by ,one-and-a-half-degree ,channel4#a ,following the chain northward from this channel1 we have ,haddumati and ,kolumadulu1 after which the chain becomes double3 to the east the chief atolls are ,mulaku1 ,felidu1 ,south ,mal1 ,north ,mal1 ,kardiva 7where the channel of the same name1 #ce m4 broad1 partly breaks the chain71 and ,fadiffolu4 ,to the west are ,south ,nilandu1 ,north ,nilandu1 ,ari1 ,south ,mahlos1 ,north ,mahlos and ,miladumadulu4 ,to the north again are ,tiladumati and ,ihavandifulu4 ,finally1 to the north of ,eight-degree ,channel is ,minikoi1 #ga m4 from the nearest point of the ,maldives1 and #aaj m4 from that of the ,laccadives to the north4 ,the main part of the archipelago1 north of ,one-and-a-half-degree ,channel1 consists of a series of banks either surrounded or studded all over with reefs 7see ,j4 ,s4 ,gardiner1 ,formation of the ,maldives1 in ,geographical ,journ4 xix4 #bgg seq474 ,mr ,gardiner regarded these banks as plateaus rising to different elevations beneath the surface of the sea from a main plateau rising steeply from the great depths of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,after the ,portuguese1 from about #aeah onwards1 had attempted many times to establish themselves on the islands by force1 and after the ,maldivians had endured frequent raids by the ,mopla pirates of the ,malabar coast1 they began to send tokens of homage and claims of protection 7the first recorded being in #afde7 to the rulers of ,ceylon1 and their association with this island has continued practically ever since4 ,the hereditary sultan of the archipelago is tributary to the ,british government of ,ceylon4 ,the population of the ,maldives is estimated at #cj1jjj4 ,all are ,mahommedans4 ,by ,messrs4 ,gardiner and ,cooper they are classed in four ethnological divisions4 7#a7 ,those of the atolls north of the ,kardiva ,channel4 ,here the reefs are generally less perfect than elsewhere1 seldom forming complete central lagoons1 and as they were formerly exposed to the constant attacks of the ,mopla pirates from ,india1 the people are hardier and more vigorous than their less warlike southern neighbours4 ,they annually visited the coasts of ,india or ,ceylon1 and often married ,indian wives1 thus acquiring distinct racial characters of an approximately ,dravidian type4 7#b7 ,those of the central division1 comprising the atolls between ,north ,mal and ,haddumati1 who are under the direct rule of the sultan1 and have been more exposed to ,arab influences4 ,they formerly traded with ,arabia and ,malaysia1 and many ,arabs settled amongst them1 so that they betray a strong strain of ,semitic blood in their features4 7#c and #d7 ,the natives of ,suvadiva1 ,addu1 ,mulaku and the other southern clusters1 who have had little communication with the ,central ,mal people1 and probably preserve more of the primitive type1 approximating in appearance to the ,sinhalese villagers of ,ceylon4 ,they are an intelligent and industrious people1 growing their own crops1 manufacturing their own cloth and mats1 and building their own boats1 while many read ,arabic more or less fluently1 although still believers in magic and witchcraft4 ,the language is a dialect of ,sinhalese1 but indicating a separation of ancient date and more or less mahommedanized4 ,the sultan's residence and the capital of the archipelago is the island of ,mal4 ,from the earliest notices the production of coir1 the collection of cowries1 and the weaving of excellent textures on these islands have been noted4 ,the chief exports of the islands besides coir and cowries 7a decreasing trade7 are coco-nuts1 copra1 tortoise-shell and dried bonito-fish4 ,minikoi atoll1 with the numerous wrecks on its reefs1 its lighthouse1 and its position on the track of all eastward-bound vessels1 is a familiar sight to seafarers in these waters4 ,the atoll1 which is pear-shaped and disposed in the direction from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e4 is #e m4 long1 with an extreme breadth of nearly #c m41 with a large but shallow lagoon approached from the north by a passage two fathoms deep4 ,the atoll is growing outwards on every side1 and at one place rises #ai ft4 above sea-level4 ,the population1 which numbers about #cjjj1 is sharply divided into five castes1 of which the three highest are pure ,maldivians1 the lower two the same as in the ,laccadives4 ,all are centred in a small village opposite ,mou ,rambu ,point on the west or lagoon side2 but most of the men are generally absent1 many being employed with the ,lascar crews on board the large liners plying in the eastern seas4 ,in #ahii-aijj ,messrs4 ,j4 ,stanley ,gardiner and ,c4 ,forster ,cooper carried out an expedition to the ,maldives and ,laccadives1 for the important results of which see ,the ,fauna and ,geography of the ,maldive and ,laccadive ,archipelagoes1 ed4 ,j4 ,s4 ,gardiner 7,cambridge1 #aija-aije71 also ,proceedings of the ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society1 vol4 xi4 pt4 #a 7#aijj71 and the ,geographical ,journ41 loc4 cit41 c4 ,a ,french adventurer1 ,franois ,pyrard de la ,val1 was wrecked in the ,maldives in #afjb and detained there five years2 he wrote an interesting account of the archipelago1 ,voyage de ,f4 ,p4 de la ,val 7,paris1 #afgi2 previous editions #afaa1 c474 ,see also ,a4 ,agassiz1 ,an ,expedition to the ,maldives in ,amer4 ,journ4 ,science1 vol4 xiii4 7#aijb74 ,,footnote3 #a ,these and other channels in the locality are named from their position under parallels of latitude4 ,,maldon1 a market town1 municipal borough and port1 in the ,maldon parliamentary borough of ,essex1 ,england1 on an acclivity rising from the south side of the ,blackwater1 #dc m4 ,e4,n4,e4 from ,london by a branch from ,witham of the ,great ,eastern railway4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #eefe4 ,there are east and west railway stations4 ,the church of ,all ,saints1 dating from #ajef1 but1 as it stands1 ,early ,english and later1 consists of chancel1 nave and aisles1 with a triangular ,early ,english tower 7a unique form7 at the west end surmounted by a hexagonal spire4 ,the tower of ,st ,mary's ,church shows ,norman work with ,roman materials4 ,the other public buildings are the grammar school1 founded in #aedg2 the town-hall1 formerly ,d',arcy's tower1 built in the reign of ,henry ,,vi42 and the public hall4 ,there are manufactures of crystallized salt1 breweries1 an oyster fishery and some shipping4 ,on ,osea ,island1 in the ,blackwater estuary1 there is a farm colony for the unemployed4 ,a mile west of ,maldon are remains of ,beeleigh ,abbey1 a ,premonstratensian foundation of the #abth century4 ,they consist of the chapter-house and another chamber1 and are of fine ,early ,english work4 ,the borough is under a mayor1 #d aldermen and #ab councillors4 ,area1 #cjbh acres4 ,at ,maldon 7,maelduna1 ,melduna1 ,mealdon or ,meaudon7 palaeolithic1 neolithic and ,roman remains that have been found seem to indicate an early settlement4 ,it is not1 however1 an important ,roman site4 ,an earthwork1 of which traces exist1 may be ,saxon or ,danish4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle relates that ,edward the ,elder established a burh there about #iba1 and that ,ealdorman ,brihtnoth was killed there by the ,danes in #iia4 ,the position of ,maldon may have given it some commercial importance1 but the fortress is the point emphasized by the ,chronicle4 ,maldon remained a royal town up to the reign of ,henry ,i41 and thus is entered as on terra regis in ,domesday4 ,henry ,,ii4 granted the burgesses their first charter1 probably in #aaee1 giving them the land of the borough and suburb with sac and soc and other judicial rights1 also freedom from county and forest jurisdiction1 danegeld1 scutage1 tallage and all tolls1 by the service of one ship a year for forty days4 ,this charter was confirmed by ,edward ,i4 in #abij1 by ,edward ,,iii4 in #acdd1 and by ,richard ,,ii4 in #acgh4 ,in #adjc the bishop of ,london granted further judicial and financial rights1 and ,henry ,v4 confirmed the charters in #adag1 ,henry ,,vi4 in #addc1 and ,henry ,,viii4 in #aebe4 ,maldon was incorporated by ,philip and ,mary in #aeed1 and received confirmatory charters from ,elizabeth in #aefc and #aeib1 from ,charles ,i4 in #afca1 ,charles ,,ii4 and ,james ,,ii4 ,in #agfh the incorporation charter was regranted1 with modifications in #ahaj4 ,,malebranche1 ,,nicolas 7#afch-agae71 ,french philosopher of the ,cartesian school1 the youngest child of ,nicolas ,malebranche1 secretary to ,louis ,,xiii41 and ,catherine de ,lauzon1 sister of a viceroy of ,canada1 was born at ,paris on the #fth of ,august #afch4 ,deformed and constitutionally feeble1 he received his elementary education from a tutor1 and left home only when sufficiently advanced to enter upon a course of philosophy at the ,collge de la ,marche1 and subsequently to study theology at the ,sorbonne4 ,he had resolved to take holy orders1 but his studious disposition led him to decline a stall in ,notre ,dame1 and in #affj he joined the congregation of the ,oratory4 ,he was first advised by ,pre ,lecointe to devote himself to ecclesiastical history1 and laboriously studied ,eusebius1 ,socrates1 ,sozomen and ,theodoret1 but the facts refused to arrange themselves in his mind1 and mutually effaced one another4 ,richard ,simon undertook to teach him ,hebrew and ,biblical criticism with no better success4 ,at last in #affd he chanced to read ,descartes's ,trait de l'homme 7de homine71 which moved him so deeply that 7it is said7 he was repeatedly compelled by palpitations of the heart to lay aside his reading4 ,malebranche was from that hour consecrated to philosophy1 and after ten years' study of the works of ,descartes he produced the famous ,de la recherche de la vrit1 followed at intervals by other works1 both speculative and controversial4 ,like most of the great metaphysicians of the #agth century1 ,malebranche interested himself also in questions of mathematics and natural philosophy1 and in #afii was admitted an honorary member of the ,academy of ,sciences4 ,during his later years his society was much courted1 and he received many visits from foreigners of distinction4 ,he died on the #acth of ,october #agae2 his end was said to have been hastened by a metaphysical argument into which he had been drawn in the course of an interview with ,bishop ,berkeley4 ,for a critical account of ,malebranche's place in the history of philosophy1 see ,,cartesianism4 ,,works4--,de ,la recherche de la vrit 7#afgd2 #fth ed41 #agab2 ed4 ,bouillier1 #ahhj2 ,latin trans1 by ,j4 ,lenfant at ,geneva in #afhe2 ,english trans4 by ,r4 ,sault1 #afid2 and ,t4 ,taylor1 #afid1 #agab72 ,conversations chrtiennes 7#afgg1 and frequently2 ,eng4 trans41 ,london1 #afie72 ,trait de la nature et de la grce 7#afhj2 ,eng4 trans41 ,london1 #afie72 ,mditations chrtiennes et mtaphysiques 7#afhc72 ,trait de morale 7#afhd2 separate ed4 by ,h4 ,joly1 #ahhb2 ,eng4 trans1 by ,sir ,j4 ,shipton1 #afii72 several polemical works against ,arnauld from #afhd to #afhh2 ,entretiens sur la mtaphysique et sur la religion 7#afhh72 ,trait de l'amour de ,dieu 7#afig72 ,entretiens d'un philosophe chrtien et d'un philosophe chinois sur l'existence et la nature de ,dieu 7#agjh72 ,rflexions sur la prmotion physique 7#agae74 ,a convenient edition of his works in two volumes1 with an introduction1 was published by ,jules ,simon in #ahdb4 ,a full account by ,mrs ,norman ,smith of his theory of vision1 in which he unquestionably anticipated and in some respects surpassed the subsequent work of ,berkeley1 will be found in the ,british ,journal of ,psychology 7,jan4 #aije74 ,for recent criticism see ,h4 ,joly1 in the series ,les ,grands philosophes 7,paris1 #aija72 ,l4 ,oll-,laprune1 ,la ,philosophie de ,malebranche 7#ahgj72 ,m4 ,novaro1 ,die ,philosophie des ,nicolaus ,malebranche 7#ahic74 ,,maler ,,kotla1 a native state of ,india1 within the ,punjab4 ,it ranks as one of the ,cis-,sutlej states1 which came under ,british influence in #ahji4 ,the territory lies south of ,ludhiana4 ,area1 #afg sq4 m4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #gg1ejf1 showing an increase of #b in the decade4 ,estimated gross revenue1 #cj1ajj4 ,the military force numbers #bhj men2 and there is no tribute4 ,the town ,maler ,kotla is #cj m4 ,s4 of ,ludhiana2 pop4 7#aija71 #ba1abb4 ,the nawab or chief is of ,afghan descent2 his family originally came from ,kabul1 and occupied positions of trust in ,sirhind under the ,mogul emperors4 ,they gradually became independent as the ,mogul ,empire sank into decay in the course of the #ahth century4 ,in ,general ,lake's campaign against ,holkar in #ahje the nawab of ,maler ,kotla sided with the ,british4 ,after the subjugation and flight of ,holkar1 the ,english government succeeded to the power of the ,mahrattas in the districts between the ,sutlej and the ,jumna2 and in #ahji its protection was formally extended to ,maler ,kotla1 as to the other ,cis-,sutlej states1 against the formidable encroachments of ,ranjit ,singh4 ,in the campaigns of #ahjf1 #ahjg and #ahjh ,ranjit ,singh had made considerable conquests across the ,sutlej2 in #ahjh he marched on ,maler ,kotla and demanded a ransom of #aj1jjj from the nawab4 ,this led to the interference of the ,british1 who addressed an ultimatum to ,ranjit ,singh1 declaring the ,cis-,sutlej states to be under ,british protection4 ,finally the raja of ,lahore submitted1 and the nawab was reinstated in ,february #ahji4 ,owing to the mental incapacity of nawab ,ibrahim ,ali ,khan1 the state was administered in recent years for some time by the chief of ,loharu2 but his son1 ,ahmed ,ali ,khan1 was made regent in ,february #aije4 ,see ,maler ,kotla ,state ,gazetteer 7,lahore1 #aijh74 ,,malesherbes1 ,,chr,,tien ,,guillaume ,,de ,,lamoignon ,,de 7#agba-agid71 commonly known as ,lamoignon-,malesherbes1 ,french statesman1 minister1 and afterwards counsel for the defence of ,louis ,,xvi41 came of a famous legal family4 ,he was born at ,paris on the #fth of ,december #agba1 and was educated for the legal profession4 ,the young lawyer soon proved his intellectual capacity1 when he was appointed president of the cour des aides in the parlement of ,paris in #agej on the promotion of his father1 ,guillaume de ,lamoignon1 to be chancellor4 ,one of the chancellor's duties was to control the press1 and this duty was entrusted to ,malesherbes by his father during his eighteen years of office1 and brought him into connexion with the public far more than his judicial functions4 ,to carry it out efficiently he kept in communication with the literary leaders of ,paris1 and especially with ,diderot1 and ,grimm even goes so far as to say that without the assistance of ,malesherbes the ,encyclopdie would probably never have been published4 ,in #agga he was called upon to mix in politics2 the parlements of ,france had been dissolved1 and a new method of administering justice devised by ,maupeou1 which was in itself commendable as tending to the better and quicker administration of justice1 but pernicious as exhibiting a tendency to over-centralization1 and as abolishing the hereditary nobility of the robe1 which1 with all its faults1 had from its nature preserved some independence1 and been a check on the royal power4 ,malesherbes presented a strong remonstrance against the new system1 and was at once banished to his country seat at ,st ,lucie1 to be recalled1 however1 with the old parlement on the accession of ,louis ,,xvi41 and to be made minister of the maison du roi in #agge4 ,he only held office nine months1 during which1 however1 he directed his attention to the police of the kingdom1 which came under his department1 and did much to check the odious practice of issuing lettres de cachet4 ,the protest of the cour des aides in #agge is one of the most important documents of the old rgime in ,france4 ,it gives a complete survey of the corrupt and inefficient administration1 and presented the king with most outspoken criticism4 ,on retiring from the ministry with ,turgot in #aggf1 he betook himself entirely to a happy country and domestic life and travelled through ,switzerland1 ,germany and ,holland4 ,an essay on ,protestant marriages 7#aghg7 did much to procure for them the civil recognition in ,france4 ,he had always been an enthusiastic botanist2 his avenue at ,st ,lucie was world famous2 he had written against ,buffon on behalf of the botanists whom ,buffon had attacked1 and had been elected a member of the ,acadmie des sciences as far back as #agej4 ,he was now elected a member of the ,acadmie franaise1 and everything seemed to promise a quiet and peaceful old age spent in the bosom of his family and occupied with scientific and literary pursuits1 when the king in his difficulties wished for the support of his name1 and summoned him back to the ministry in #aghg4 ,lamoignon-,malesherbes held office but a short time1 but returned to his country life this time with a feeling of insecurity and disquiet1 and1 as the troubles increased1 retired to ,switzerland4 ,nevertheless1 in ,december #agib1 in spite of the fair excuse his old age and long retirement would have given him1 he voluntarily left his asylum and undertook with ,tronchet and ,desze the defence of the king before the ,convention1 and it was his painful task to break the news of his condemnation to the king4 ,after this effort he returned once more to the country1 but in ,december #agic he was arrested with his daughter1 his son-in-law ,m4 de ,rosambo1 and his grandchildren1 and on the #bcrd of ,april #agid he was guillotined1 after having seen all whom he loved in the world executed before his eyes for their relationship to him4 ,malesherbes is one of the sweetest characters of the #ahth century2 though no man of action1 hardly a man of the world1 by his charity and unfeigned goodness he became one of the most popular men in ,france1 and it was an act of truest self-devotion in him to sacrifice himself for a king who had done little or nothing for him4 ,there are in print several scientific works of ,malesherbes of varying value1 of which the most interesting is his ,observations sur ,buffon et ,daubenton1 written when he was very young1 and published with a notice by ,abeille in #agih4 ,there exist also his ,mmoire pour ,louis ,,xvi41 his ,mmoire sur la libert de la presse 7published #ahji7 and extracts from his remonstrances1 published as ,oeuvres choisies de ,malesherbes in #ahji4 ,for his life should be read the ,notice historique 7#crd ed41 #ahjf7 of ,dubois1 the loge historique 7#ahje7 of ,gaillard1 and the interesting ,essai sur la vie1 les crits et les opinions de ,m4 de ,malesherbes 7in #b vols41 #ahah71 of ,f4 ,a4 de ,boissy d',anglas4 ,there are also many loges on him in print1 of which the best-known is that of ,m4 ,dupin1 which was delivered at the ,academy in #ahda1 and was reviewed with much light on ,malesherbes's control of the press by ,sainte-,beuve in the #bnd volume of the ,causeries du lundi4 ,the protest of the cour des aides has been published with translation by ,g4 ,robinson in the ,translations and ,reprints of the ,university of ,pennsylvania 7#aijj74 ,for his defence of ,louis ,,xvi4 see ,marquis de ,beaucourt1 ,captivit et derniers moments de ,louis ,,xvi4 7#b vols41 #ahib1 ,soc4 d'hist4 contemp471 and ,a4 ,tuetey1 ,rpertoire gnral des sources manuscrites de l'hist4 de ,paris pendant la ,rev4 fr41 vol4 viii4 7#aijh74 ,,malet1 ,,lucas1 the pen-name of ,mary ,st ,leger ,harrison 7#aheb- 71 ,english novelist4 ,she was the eldest daughter of ,charles ,kingsley1 and was born at ,eversley on the #dth of ,june #aheb4 ,she studied at the ,slade school and at ,university ,college1 ,london1 and married in #ahgf ,william ,harrison1 rector of ,clovelly4 ,after her husband's death in #ahig she eventually settled in ,london4 ,she had already written several books--,mrs ,lorimer 7#ahhb71 ,colonel ,enderby's ,wife 7#ahhe71 ,little ,peter 7#ahhg71 ,a ,counsel of ,perfection 7#ahhh7--when she published her powerful story1 ,the ,wages of ,sin 7#ahia71 which attracted great attention4 ,her ,history of ,sir ,richard ,calmady 7#aija7 had an even greater success4 ,her other novels include ,the ,carissima 7#ahif71 ,the ,gateless ,barrier 7#aijj71 ,on the ,far ,horizon 7#aijf74 ,,malherbe1 ,,fran,,ois ,,de 7#aeee-afbh71 ,french poet1 critic and translator1 was born at ,caen in #aeee4 ,his family was of some position1 though it seems not to have been able to establish to the satisfaction of heralds the claims which it made to nobility older than the #afth century4 ,the poet was the eldest son of another ,franois de ,malherbe1 conseiller du roi in the magistracy of ,caen4 ,he himself was elaborately educated at ,caen1 at ,paris1 at ,heidelberg and at ,basel4 ,at the age of twenty-one1 preferring arms to the gown1 he entered the household of ,henri d',angoulme1 grand prior of ,france1 the natural son of ,henry ,,ii4 ,he served this prince as secretary in ,provence1 and married there in #aeha4 ,it seems that he wrote verses at this period1 but1 to judge from a quotation of ,tallemant des ,raux1 they must have been very bad ones4 ,his patron died when ,malherbe was on a visit in his native province1 and for a time he had no particular employment1 though by some servile verses he obtained a considerable gift of money from ,henry ,,iii41 whom he afterwards libelled4 ,he lived partly in ,provence and partly in ,normandy for many years after this event2 but very little is known of his life during this period4 ,his ,larmes de ,saint ,pierre1 imitated from ,luigi ,tansillo1 appeared in #aehg4 ,it was in the year parting the two centuries 7#afjj7 that he presented to ,marie de' ,medici an ode of welcome1 the first of his remarkable poems4 ,but four or five years more passed before his fortune1 which had hitherto been indifferent1 turned4 ,he was presented by his countryman1 the ,cardinal ,du ,perron1 to ,henry ,,iv42 and1 though that economical prince did not at first show any great eagerness to entertain the poet1 he was at last summoned to court and endowed after one fashion or another4 ,it is said that the pension promised him was not paid till the next reign4 ,his father died in #afjf1 and he came into his inheritance4 ,from this time forward he lived at court1 corresponding affectionately with his wife1 but seeing her only twice in some twenty years4 ,his old age was saddened by a great misfortune4 ,his son1 ,marc ,antoine1 a young man of promise1 fell in a duel in #afbf4 ,his father used his utmost influence to have the guilty parties 7for more than one were concerned1 and there are grounds for thinking that it was not a fair duel7 brought to justice4 ,but he died before the suit was decided 7it is said in consequence of disease caught at the camp of ,la ,rochelle1 whither he had gone to petition the king71 in ,paris1 on the #afth of ,october1 #afbh1 at the age of seventy-three4 ,the personal character of ,malherbe was far from amiable1 but he exercised1 or at least indicated the exercise of1 a great and enduring effect upon ,french literature1 though by no means a wholly beneficial one4 ,the lines of ,boileau beginning ,enfin ,malherbe vint are rendered only partially applicable by the extraordinary ignorance of older ,french poetry which distinguished that peremptory critic4 ,but the good as well as bad side of ,malherbe's theory and practice is excellently described by his contemporary and superior ,regnier1 who was animated against him1 not merely by reason of his own devotion to ,ronsard but because of ,malherbe's discourtesy towards ,regnier's uncle ,p4 ,desportes1 whom the ,norman poet had at first distinctly copied4 ,these are the lines3-- ,cependant leur savoir ne s'tend nullement ,qu' rgratter un mot douteuse au jugement1 ,prendre garde qu'un qui ne heurte une diphthongue1 ,epier si des vers la rime est brve ou longue1 ,ou bien si la voyelle l'autre s'unissant ,ne rend point l'oreille un vers trop languissant4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,c'est proser de la rime et rimer de la prose4 ,this is perfectly true1 and from the time of ,malherbe dates that great and deplorable falling off of ,french poetry in its more poetic qualities1 which was not made good till #ahcj4 ,nevertheless the critical and restraining tendency of ,malherbe was not ill in place after the luxuriant importation and innovation of the ,pliade2 and if he had confined himself to preaching greater technical perfection1 and especially greater simplicity and purity in vocabulary and versification1 instead of superciliously striking his pen through the great works of his predecessors1 he would have deserved wholly well4 ,as it was1 his reforms helped to elaborate the kind of verse necessary for the classical tragedy1 and that is the most that can be said for him4 ,his own poetical work is scanty in amount1 and for the most part frigid and devoid of inspiration4 ,the beautiful ,consolation ,duperier1 in which occurs the famous line-- ,et1 rose1 elle a vcu ce que vivent les roses-- the odes to ,marie de' ,medici and to ,louis ,,xiii41 and a few other pieces comprise all that is really worth remembering of him4 ,his prose work is much more abundant1 not less remarkable for care as to style and expression1 and of greater positive value4 ,it consists of some translations of ,livy and ,seneca1 and of a very large number of interesting and admirably written letters1 many of which are addressed to ,peiresc1 the man of science of whom ,gassendi has left a delightful ,latin life4 ,it contains also a most curious commentary on ,desportes1 in which ,malherbe's minute and carping style of verbal criticism is displayed on the great scale4 ,the chief authorities for the biography of ,malherbe are the ,vie de ,malherbe by his friend and pupil ,racan1 and the long ,historiette which ,tallemant des ,raux has devoted to him4 ,the standard edition is the admirable one of ,ludovic ,lalanne 7#e vols41 ,paris1 #ahfb-ahfi74 ,of the poems only1 there is an excellent and handsome little issue in the ,nouvelle collection ,jannet 7,paris1 #ahgd74 ,of modern works devoted to him1 ,la ,doctrine de ,malherbe1 by ,g4 ,brunot 7#ahia71 is not only the most important but a work altogether capital in regard to the study of ,french language and literature4 ,others are ,a4 ,gast1 ,la ,jeunesse de ,malherbe 7#ahij72 ,v4 ,bourrienne1 ,points obscurs dans la vie normande de ,malherbe 7#ahie72 and the duc de ,broglie's ,malherbe in ,les ,grands crivains franais4 ,on his position in ,french and general critical history1 ,g4 ,saintsbury's ,history of ,criticism1 vol4 ii41 may be consulted4 7,g4 ,sa47 ,,malibran1 ,,marie ,f,,licit 7#ahjh-ahcf71 operatic singer1 daughter of ,manoel ,garcia1 was born in ,paris on the #bdth of ,march #ahjh4 ,her father was then a member of the company of the ,thtre des ,italiens1 and she accompanied him to ,italy and ,london4 ,she possessed a soprano voice of unusual beauty and phenomenal compass1 which was carefully cultivated by her father4 ,she was only seventeen when1 in consequence of an indisposition of ,madame ,pasta1 she was suddenly asked to take her place in ,the ,barber of ,seville at ,covent ,garden4 ,she was forthwith engaged for the remaining six weeks of the season1 and then followed her father to ,new ,york1 where she appeared in ,othello1 ,the ,barber of ,seville1 ,don ,juan1 ,romeo and ,juliet1 ,tancred4 ,her gifts as an actress were on a par with her magnificent voice1 and her gaiety made her irresistible in light opera1 although her great triumphs were obtained chiefly in tragic parts4 ,she married a ,french banker of ,new ,york1 named ,malibran1 who was much older than herself4 ,the marriage was an unhappy one1 and ,mme ,malibran returned alone to ,europe in #ahbh1 when she began the series of representations at the ,thtre des ,italiens1 which excited an enthusiasm in ,paris only exceeded by the reception she received in the principal towns of ,italy4 ,she was formally divorced from ,malibran in #ahce1 and married the ,belgian violinist1 ,charles de ,beriot2 but she died of fever on the #bcrd of ,september #ahcf4 ,see ,memoirs of ,mme ,malibran by the comtesse de ,merlin and other intimate friends1 with a selection from her correspondence 7#b vols41 #ahdj72 and ,m4 ,teneo1 ,la ,malibran1 d'aprs des documents indits1 in ,sammelbnde der internationalen ,musik-,gesellschaft 7,leipzig1 #aijf74 ,,malic ,,acid 7,,hydroxyethylene ,,succinic ,,acid71 ,c#d;,h#f,o#e1 an organic acid found abundantly in the juices of many plants1 particularly in mountain-ash berries1 in unripe apples and in grapes4 ,the acid potassium salt is also found in the leaves and stalks of rhubarb4 ,since the acid contains an asymmetric carbon atom1 it can exist in three forms1 a dextro-rotatory1 a laevo-rotatory and an inactive form2 the acid obtained in the various synthetical processes is the inactive form4 ,it may be prepared by heating racemic acid 7see ,,tartaric ,,acid7 with fuming hydriodic acid2 by heating fumaric acid 7q4v47 with water at #aej-bjj ,c42 by the action of nitrous acid on inactive aspartic acid2 and by the action of moist silver oxide on monobromsuccinic acid4 ,it forms deliquescent crystals1 which are readily soluble in alcohol and melt at #ajj ,c4 ,when heated for some time at #acj ,c4 it yields fumaric acid 7q4v471 and on rapid heating at #ahj ,c4 gives maleic anhydride and fumaric acid4 ,it yields coumarins when warmed with sulphuric acid and phenols 7,h4 v4 ,pechmann1 ,ber41 #ahhd1 #ag1 #ibi1 #afdi et seq474 ,potassium bichromate oxidizes it to malonic acid2 nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic acid2 and hydriodic acid reduces it to succinic acid4 ,the inactive variety may be split into the component active forms by means of its cinchonine salt 7,g4 ,j4 ,w4 ,bremer1 ,ber41 #ahhj1 #ac1 #ceb74 ,,malignant 7,lat4 malignus1 evil-disposed1 from maligenus71 wicked1 of a malicious or wilfully evil disposition4 ,the word was early applied by the ,protestants to the ,romanists1 with an allusion to the congregation of evil doers 7,vulgate ,ecclesiam malignantium7 of ,psalm xxvi4 #e4 ,in ,english history1 during the ,great ,rebellion1 the name was given to the ,royalists by the ,parliamentary party4 ,in the ,great ,remonstrance of #afda occur the words the malignant partie1 wherof the ,archbishop 7,laud7 and the earl of ,strafford being heads4 ,the name throughout the period had special reference to the religious differences between the parties4 ,in medical science1 the term malignant is applied to a particularly virulent or dangerous form which a disease may take1 or to a tumour or growth of rapid growth1 extension to the lymphatic glands1 and recurrence after operation4 ,,malik ,,ibn ,,anas 7c4 #gah-gie71 the founder of the ,malikite school of canon law1 was born at ,medina about ,a4,d4 #gah3 the precise date is not certain4 ,he studied and passed his life there1 and came to be regarded as the greatest local authority in theology and law4 7,for his legal system and its history see ,,mahommedan ,,law47 ,his life was one of extreme honour and dignity1 but uneventful1 being given to study1 lecturing on law and acting as mufti and judge4 ,only two episodes stand out in his biography4 ,when ,mahommed ibn ',abdallah1 the ',alid1 rose in ,a4,d4 #gfb at ,medina against the ',abbasids1 ,malik gave a fatwa1 or legal opinion1 that the oath of allegiance to the ',abbasids was invalid1 as extorted by force4 ,for this independence he was severely scourged by the ',abbasid governor1 who1 apparently1 did not dare to go beyond scourging with a man of his standing with the people4 ,the second episode gave equal proof of independence4 ,in #gie ,harun al-,rashid made the pilgrimage1 came with two of his sons to ,medina1 and sat at the feet of ,malik as he lectured in the mosque4 ,the story1 legendary or historical1 adds that ,malik had refused to go to the caliph1 saying that it was for the student to come to his teacher4 ,late in life he seems to have turned to asceticism and contemplation4 ,it is said that he retired from all active1 public life and even neglected plain1 public duties1 replying to reproaches1 ,not every one can speak in his own excuse 7,ibn ,qutaiba1 ,ma 'arif1 #bej74 ,he is also entered among the early ascetic ,sufis 7cf4 ,fihrist1 #ahc74 ,he died in ,medina1 ,a4,d4 #gie4 ,for a description of his principal book1 the ,muwatta'1 see ,goldziher's ,muhammedanische ,studien1 ii4 #bac sqq4 ,he wrote also a ,koran commentary1 now apparently lost1 and a hortatory epistle to ,harun al-,rashid4 ,see further1 de ,slane's trans4 of ,ibn ,khallikan1 ii4 #ede sqq42 von ,kremer1 ,culturgeschichte1 i4 #dgg sqq42 ,brockelmann1 ,gesch4 der arab4 ,litt41 i4 #age sqq42 ,macdonald1 ,muslim ,theology1 c41 #ii sqq4 and index2 ,fihrist1 #aih seq42 ,nawawi1 #ecj sqq4 7,d4 ,b4 ,ma47 ,,malines 7,flemish1 ,mechelen1 called in the middle ages by the ,latin name ,mechlinia1 whence the spelling ,mechlin71 an ancient and important city of ,belgium1 and the seat since #aeei of the only archbishopric in that country4 ,pop4 7#aijd71 #eh1aja4 ,the name is supposed to be derived from maris linea1 and to indicate that originally the sea came up to it4 ,it is now situated on the ,dyle1 and is in the province of ,antwerp1 lying about half-way between ,antwerp and ,brussels4 ,the chief importance of ,malines is derived from the fact that it is in a sense the religious capital of ,belgium--the archbishop being the primate of the ,catholic ,church in that country4 ,the archbishop's palace is in a picturesque situation1 and dates from the creation of the dignity4 ,the principal building in the city is the exceedingly fine cathedral dedicated to ,st ,rombaut4 ,this cathedral was begun in the #abth and finished early in the #adth century1 and although modified in the #aeth after a fire1 it remains one of the most remarkable specimens of ,gothic architecture in ,europe4 ,the massive tower of over #cjj ft41 which is described as unfinished because the original intention was to carry it to #ejj ft41 is its most striking external feature4 ,the people of ,malines gained in the old distich--gaudet ,mechlinia stultis--the reputation of being fools1 because one of the citizens on seeing the moon through the dormer windows of ,st ,rombaut called out that the place was on fire1 and his fellow-citizens1 following his example1 endeavoured to put out the conflagration until they realized the truth4 ,the cathedral contains a fine altar-piece by ,van ,dyck1 and the pulpit is in carved oak of the #agth century4 ,another old palace is that of ,margaret of ,austria1 regent for ,charles ,v41 which has been carefully preserved and is now used as a court of justice4 ,in the church of ,notre ,dame 7#afth century7 is ,rubens' masterpiece the miraculous draught of fishes1 and in that of ,st ,john is a fine triptych by the same master4 ,malines1 although no longer famous for its lace1 carries on a large trade in linen1 needles1 furniture and oil1 while as a junction for the line from ,ghent to ,louvain and ,lige1 as well as for that from ,antwerp to ,brussels and the south1 its station is one of the busiest in ,belgium1 and this fact has contributed to the general prosperity of the city4 ,the lordship of ,malines was conferred as a separate fief by ,pippin the ,short on his kinsman ,count ,adon in #ged4 ,in the #ith century ,charles the ,bald bestowed the fief on the bishop of ,lige1 and after being shared between ,brabant and ,flanders it passed into the hands of ,philip the ,bold1 founder of the house of ,burgundy1 in #achd4 ,during the religious troubles of the #afth century ,malines suffered greatly1 and in #aegb it was sacked by ,alva's troops during three days4 ,in the wars of the #agth and #ahth centuries it was besieged many times and captured by the ,french1 ,dutch and ,english on several occasions4 ,the ,french finally removed the fortifications in #ahjd1 since which year it has been an open town4 ,,mallanwan1 a town in ,hardoi district1 the ,united ,provinces1 ,india4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #aa1aeh4 ,under native rule the town possessed considerable political importance1 and upon the ,british annexation of ,oudh it was selected as the headquarters of the district1 but was abandoned in favour of ,hardoi after the ,mutiny4 ,saltpetre and brass utensils are manufactured4 ,,mallarm1 ,,fran,,ois ,,ren ,,auguste 7#agee-ahce71 ,french ,revolutionist1 the son of a lawyer1 was born at ,nancy on the #beth of ,february #agee4 ,he was brought up in his father's profession1 and was appointed procureur-syndic of the district of ,pont--,mousson4 ,during the ,revolution he was elected by the department of ,meurthe deputy to the ,legislative ,assembly and the ,convention1 where he attached himself to the ,mountain and voted for the death of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,he was elected president of the ,convention on the #cjth of ,may #agic1 and by his weakness during the crisis of the following day contributed much to the success of the insurrection against the ,girondists4 ,he took an active part in the leve-en-masse1 and in ,november #agic was given the task of establishing the revolutionary government in the departments of ,meuse and ,moselle1 where he gained an unenviable notoriety by ordering the execution of the sentence of death decreed by the revolutionary tribunal on some young girls at ,verdun who had offered flowers to the ,prussians when they entered the town4 ,after the fall of ,robespierre he joined the group of ,thermidorians and was sent on mission to the south of ,france1 where he closed the ,jacobin club at ,toulouse and set free a number of imprisoned suspects4 ,on the #ast of ,june #agie he was denounced and arrested1 but was soon set at liberty4 ,in #agif he was appointed by the ,directory commissioner for the organization of the departments of ,dyle and ,mont-,tonnerre4 ,under the empire he was receiver of the droits runis at ,nancy1 and lost his money in #ahad in raising a levy of volunteers4 ,appointed sub-prefect of ,avesnes during the ,hundred ,days1 he was imprisoned by the ,prussians in revenge for the death of the maidens of ,verdun1 and lived in exile during the ,restoration4 ,he returned to ,france after the revolution of #ahcj1 and died at ,richemont 7,seine-,infrieure7 on the #beth of ,july #ahce4 ,,mallarm1 ,,st,,phane 7#ahdb-ahih71 ,french poet and theorist1 was born at ,paris1 on the #ahth of ,march #ahdb4 ,his life was simple and without event4 ,his small income as professor of ,english in a ,french college was sufficient for his needs1 and1 with his wife and daughter1 he divided the year between a fourth-floor flat in ,paris and a cottage on the banks of the ,seine4 ,his ,tuesday evening receptions1 which did so much to form the thought of the more interesting of the younger ,french men of letters1 were almost as important a part of his career as the few carefully elaborated books which he produced at long intervals4 ,l',aprs-midi d'un faune 7#ahgf7 and other fragments of his verse and prose had been known to a few people long before the publication of the ,posies compltes of #ahhg1 in a facsimile of his clear and elegant handwriting1 and of the ,pages of #ahia and the ,vers et prose of #ahic4 ,his remarkable translation of poems of ,poe appeared in #ahhh1 ,the ,raven having been published as early as #ahge1 with illustrations by ,manet4 ,divagations1 his own final edition of his prose1 was published in #ahig1 and a more or less complete edition of the ,posies1 posthumously1 in #ahii4 ,he died at ,valvins1 ,fontainebleau1 on the #ith of ,september #ahih4 ,all his life ,mallarm was in search of a new aesthetics1 and his discoveries by the way were often admirable4 ,but he was too critical ever to create freely1 and too limited ever to create abundantly4 ,his great achievement remains unfinished1 and all that he left towards it is not of equal value4 ,there are a few poems and a few pieces of imaginative prose which have the haunting quality of ,gustave ,moreau's pictures1 with the same jewelled magnificence1 mysterious and yet definite4 ,his later work became more and more obscure1 as he seemed to himself to have abolished limit after limit which holds back speech from the expression of the absolute4 ,finally1 he abandoned punctuation in verse1 and invented a new punctuation1 along with a new construction1 for prose4 ,patience in the study of so difficult an author has its reward4 ,no one in our time has vindicated with more pride the self-sufficiency of the artist in his struggle with the material world4 ,to those who knew him only by his writings his conversation was startling in its clearness2 it was always1 like all his work1 at the service of a few dignified and misunderstood ideas4 ,see also ,paul ,verlaine1 ,les ,potes maudits 7#ahhd72 ,j4 ,lematre1 ,les ,contemporains 7#eth series1 #ahia72 ,albert ,moekel1 ,stphane ,mallarm1 un hros 7#ahii72 ,e4 ,w4 ,gosse1 ,french ,profiles 7#aije7 and ,a4 ,symons1 ,the ,symbolist ,movement in ,literature 7#aijj74 ,a complete bibliography is given in the ,potes d'aujourd'hui 7#ahhj-aijj1 #aath ed41 #aije7 of ,,mm4 ,a4 van ,bever and ,p4 ,lautaud4 7,a4 ,sy47 ,,malleco1 a province of southern ,chile1 once a part of the ,indian territory of ,araucania 7q4v471 lying between the provinces of ,bio-,bio on the ,n4 and ,e41 ,cautin on the ,s4 and ,arauco on the ,w4 ,area1 #bigc sq4 m4 ,pop4 7#ahie71 #ih1jcb4 ,it belongs to the rainy1 forested region of southern ,chile1 and is thinly populated1 a considerable part of its population being ,araucanian ,indians1 who occupy districts in the ,andean foothills4 ,gold placer mining has attracted some attention1 but the output is small4 ,the principal industries are cattle and wheat raising and timber-cutting4 ,the capital is ,angol 7pop41 #gjef in #ahie2 estimated at #gfch in #aijb71 a small town in the northern part of the province1 on the ,malleco river1 and a station on the ,traiguen branch of the state railway4 ,traiguen 7pop41 #egcb in #ahie2 estimated at #gjii in #aijb7 in the southern part of the province is the second town in importance1 and ,victoria 7pop41 #fihi in #ahie2 estimated at #aj1jjb in #aijb71 about #bj m4 ,e4 of the last-named town1 was for a time the terminal station of the main line of the railway4 ,,mallemuck1 from the ,german rendering of the ,dutch ,mallemugge 7which originally meant small flies or midges that madly whirl round a light71 a name given by the early ,dutch ,arctic voyagers to the ,fulmar 7q4v471 of which the ,english form is nowadays most commonly applied by our sailors to the smaller albatrosses1 of about the size of a goose1 met with in the ,southern ,ocean--corrupted into molly mawk1 or mollymauk4 ,a number of species have been identified4 ,diomedea irrorata of ,west ,peru is sooty-brown with white mottlings and a white head2 ,d4 migripes of the ,north ,pacific is similar in colour but with white only near the eye and at the base of the tail and bill2 ,d4 immutabilis of ,japan is darker but has a white head4 ,d4 melanophrys of the southern oceans has been found in summer both in ,california1 in ,england1 and as far north as the ,faeroes4 ,according to ,j4 ,gould the latter is the commonest species of albatross inhabiting the ,southern ,ocean1 and its gregarious habits and familiar disposition make it well known to every voyager to or from ,australia1 for it is equally common in the ,atlantic as well as the ,pacific4 ,the back1 wings and tail are of a blackish-grey1 but all the rest of the plumage is white1 except a dusky superciliary streak1 whence its name of black-browed albatross1 as also its scientific epithet1 are taken4 ,the bill of the adult is of an ochreous-yellow1 while that of the young is dark4 ,this species breeds on the ,falkland ,islands4 ,d4 bulleri of the ,new ,zealand seas is greyish-brown1 with white underparts and rump and ashy head4 ,diomedea 7or ,thalassogeron7 culminata and chlororhyncha of the southern seas1 ,d4 7or ,t47 cauta of ,tasmania1 salvini of ,new ,zealand and layardi of the ,cape resemble ,d4 bulleri1 but have a strip of naked skin between the plates of the maxilla towards its base4 ,h4 ,n4 ,moseley 7,notes of a ,naturalist1 #acj7 describes ,d4 culminata as making a cylindrical nest of grass1 sedge and clay1 with a shallow basin atop and an overhanging rim--the whole being about #ad in4 in diameter and #aj in height4 ,the bird lays a single white egg1 which is held in a sort of pouch1 formed by the skin of the abdomen1 while she is incubating4 ,the feet of ,d4 bulleri are red1 of ,d4 chlororhyncha flesh-coloured1 of the others yellow4 7,a4 ,n47 ,,malleson1 ,,george ,,bruce 7#ahbe-ahih71 ,indian officer and author1 was born at ,wimbledon1 on the #hth of ,may #ahbe4 ,educated at ,winchester1 he obtained a cadetship in the ,bengal infantry in #ahdb1 and served through the second ,burmese ,war4 ,his subsequent appointments were in the civil line1 the last being that of guardian to the young maharaja of ,mysore4 ,he retired with the rank of colonel in #ahgg1 having been created ,c4,s4,i4 in #ahgb4 ,he died at ,kensington1 on the #ast of ,march #ahih4 ,he was a voluminous writer1 his first work to attract attention being the famous ,red ,pamphlet1 published at ,calcutta in #aheg1 when the ,mutiny was at its height4 ,he continued1 and considerably rewrote the ,history of the ,indian ,mutiny 7#f vols41 #ahgh-ahhj71 which was begun but left unfinished by ,sir ,john ,kaye4 ,among his other books the most valuable are ,history of the ,french in ,india 7#bnd ed41 #ahic7 and ,the ,decisive ,battles of ,india 7#crd ed41 #ahhh74 ,,mallet 7or ,,malloch71 ,,david 78#agje-agfe71 ,scottish poet and dramatist1 the son of a ,perthshire farmer1 was born in that county1 probably in #agje4 ,in #agag he went to the high school at ,edinburgh1 and some three years later to the university1 where he made the friendship of ,james ,thomson1 author of ,the ,seasons4 ,as early as #agbj he began to publish short poems in the manner of the period1 a number of which appeared during the next few years in collections such as the ,edinburgh ,miscellany and ,allan ,ramsay's ,tea ,table ,miscellany1 in which his ballad ,william and ,margaret was published in #agbd4 ,for some years from #agbc he was private tutor to the duke of ,montrose's sons1 with whom he travelled on the ,continent in #agbg4 ,his real name was ,malloch2 but this he changed to ,mallet in #agbd4 ,in #agce he took the ,m4,a4 degree at ,oxford4 ,he had already made the friendship of ,pope1 whose vanity he flattered in a poem on ,verbal ,criticism1 in #agcc2 and through ,pope he became acquainted with ,bolingbroke and other ,tory politicians1 especially those attached to the party of the prince of ,wales1 who in #agdb appointed ,mallet to be his paid secretary4 ,after ,pope's death1 in #agdd1 ,mallet1 at the instigation of ,bolingbroke and forgetful of past favours and friendship1 vilified the poet's memory1 thereby incurring the resentment of ,pope's friends4 ,for his services as a party pamphleteer1 in which character he published an attack on ,admiral ,byng1 ,mallet received from ,lord ,bute a lucrative sinecure in #agfj4 ,he died on the #bast of ,april #agfe4 ,mallet was a small man1 in his younger days something of a dandy and inordinately vain4 ,he was twice married2 by his first wife he had a daughter1 ,dorothy1 who married ,pietro ,paolo ,celesia1 a ,genoese gentleman1 and was the author of several poems and plays1 notably ,almida1 produced by ,garrick at ,drury ,lane in #agga4 ,mallet's own works included several plays1 some of which were produced by ,garrick1 who was ,mallet's personal friend4 ,eurydice1 a tragedy1 with prologue and epilogue by ,aaron ,hill1 was produced at ,drury ,lane in #agca2 ,mustapha1 also a tragedy1 had considerable success at the same theatre in #agci2 in #agdj1 in collaboration with ,thomson1 he produced the masque ,alfred1 of which he published a new version in #agea1 after ,thomson's death1 claiming it to be almost entirely his own work4 ,this masque is notable as containing the well-known patriotic song1 ,rule ,britannia1 the authorship of which has been attributed to ,mallet1 although he allowed it to appear without protest in his lifetime with ,thomson's name attached4 ,his other writings include ,poems on ,several ,occasions 7#agdc72 ,amyntor and ,theodora1 or the ,hermit 7#agdg72 another volume of ,poems 7#agfb74 ,in #agei a collected edition of ,mallet's ,works was published in three volumes2 and in #aheg his ,ballads and ,songs were edited by ,f4 ,dinsdale with notes1 and a biographical memoir of the author4 ,,mallet1 ,,paul ,,henri 7#agcj-ahjg71 ,swiss writer1 was born on the #bjth of ,august #agcj1 in ,geneva4 ,after having been educated there1 he became tutor in the family of the count of ,calenberg in ,saxony4 ,in #ageb he was appointed professor of belles lettres to the academy at ,copenhagen4 ,he was naturally attracted to the study of the ancient literature and history of his adopted country1 and in #agee he published the first fruits of his researches1 under the title ,introduction l'histoire du ,danemarck o l'on traite de la religion1 des moeurs1 des lois1 et des usages des anciens ,danois4 ,a second part1 more particularly relating to the ancient literature of the country1 ,monuments de la mythologie et de la poesie des ,celtes1 et particulirement des anciens ,scandinaves1 was issued in #agef1 and was also translated into ,danish4 ,a translation into ,english1 with notes and preface1 by ,bishop ,percy1 was issued in #aggj under the title of ,northern ,antiquities 7republished with additions in #ahdg74 ,the book had a wide circulation1 and attracted much attention on account of its being the first 7though a very defective7 translation into ,french of the ,edda4 ,the king of ,denmark showed his appreciation by choosing ,mallet to be preceptor of the crown prince4 ,in #agfj he returned to ,geneva1 and became professor of history in his native city4 ,while there he was requested by the czarina to undertake the education of the heir-apparent of ,russia 7afterwards the czar ,paul ,i471 but declined the honour4 ,an invitation more congenial to his tastes led to his accompanying ,lord ,mountstuart in his travels through ,italy and thence to ,england1 where he was presented at court and commissioned to write the history of the house of ,brunswick4 ,he had previously received a similar commission from the landgrave of ,hesse-,cassel for the preparation of a history of the house of ,hesse1 and both works were completed in #aghe4 ,the quietude of a literary life was rudely broken by the shock of the ,revolution1 to which he was openly hostile4 ,his leanings to the unpopular side were so obnoxious to his fellow-citizens that he was obliged to quit his native country in #agib1 and remained in exile till #ahja4 ,he died at ,geneva1 on the #hth of ,february #ahjg4 ,a memoir of his life and writings1 by ,sismondi1 was published at ,geneva in #ahjg4 ,besides the ,introduction to the ,history of ,denmark1 his principal works are3 ,histoire du ,danemarck 7#c vols41 ,copenhagen1 #ageh-aggg72 ,histoire de la maison de ,hesse 7#d vols41 #agfg-aghe72 ,histoire de la maison de ,brunswick 7#d vols41 #agfg-aghe72 ,histoire de la maison et des tats du ,mecklenbourg 7#agif72 ,histoire des ,suisses ou ,helvtiens 7#d vols41 ,geneva1 #ahjc7 7mainly an abridgment of ,j4 von ,mller's great history72 ,histoire de la ligue hansatique 7#ahje74 ,,mallet1 ,,robert 7#ahaj-ahha71 ,irish engineer1 physicist and geologist1 was born in ,dublin1 on the #crd of ,june #ahaj4 ,he was educated at ,trinity ,college in that city1 and graduated ,b4,a4 in #ahcj4 ,trained as an engineer1 he was elected ,m4,inst4,c4,e4 in #ahdb2 he built in #ahdh-ahdi the ,fastnet ,rock lighthouse1 south-west of ,cape ,clear1 and was engaged in other important works4 ,devoting much attention to pure science1 he became especially distinguished for his researches on earthquakes1 and from #aheb-aheh he was engaged 7with his son ,john ,william ,mallet7 in the preparation of his great work1 ,the ,earthquake ,catalogue of the ,british ,association 7#aheh74 ,in #ahfb he published two volumes1 dealing with the ,great ,neapolitan ,earthquake of #aheg and ,the ,first ,principles of ,observational ,seismology4 ,he then brought forward evidence to show that the depth below the earth's surface1 whence came the impulse of the ,neapolitan earthquake1 was about #h or #i geographical miles4 ,one of his most important essays was that communicated to the ,royal ,society 7,phil4 ,trans4 clxiii4 #adg2 #ahgd71 entitled ,volcanic ,energy3 an ,attempt to develop its ,true ,origin and ,cosmical ,relations4 ,he sought to show that volcanic heat may be attributed to the effects of crushing1 contortion and other disturbances in the crust of the earth2 the disturbances leading to the formation of lines of fracture1 more or less vertical1 down which water would find its way1 and if the temperature generated be sufficient volcanic eruptions of steam or lava would follow4 ,he was elected ,f4,r4,s4 in #ahed1 and he was awarded the ,wollaston medal by the ,geological ,society of ,london in #ahgg4 ,he died at ,clapham1 ,london1 on the #eth of ,november #ahha4 ,,mallet ,,du ,,pan1 ,,jacques 7#agdi-ahjj71 ,french journalist1 of an old ,huguenot family1 was born near ,geneva in #agdi1 the son of a ,protestant minister4 ,he was educated at ,geneva1 and through the influence of ,voltaire obtained a professorship at ,cassel4 ,he soon1 however1 resigned this post1 and going to ,london joined ,h4,s4,n4 ,linguet in the production of his ,annales politiques 7#aggh-aghj74 ,during ,linguet's imprisonment in the ,bastille ,mallet du ,pan continued the ,annales by himself 7#agha-aghc72 but ,linguet resented this on his release1 and ,mallet du ,pan changed the title of his own publication to ,mmoires historiques 7#aghc74 ,from #aghc he incorporated this work with the ,mercure de ,france in ,paris1 the political direction of which had been placed in his hands4 ,on the outbreak of the ,french ,revolution he sided with the ,royalists1 and was sent on a mission 7#agia-agib7 by ,louis ,,xvi4 to ,frankfort to try and secure the sympathy and intervention of the ,german princes4 ,from ,germany he travelled to ,switzerland and from ,switzerland to ,brussels in the ,royalist interest4 ,he published a number of anti-revolutionary pamphlets1 and a violent attack on ,bonaparte and the ,directory resulted in his being exiled in #agig to ,berne4 ,in #agih he came to ,london1 where he founded the ,mercure britannique4 ,he died at ,richmond1 ,surrey1 on the #ajth of ,may #ahjj1 his widow being pensioned by the ,english government4 ,mallet du ,pan has a place in history as a pioneer of modern political journalism4 ,his son ,,john ,,lewis ,,mallet 7#agge-ahfa7 spent a useful life in the ,english civil service1 becoming secretary of the ,board of ,audit2 and ,j4 ,l4 ,mallet's second son1 ,,sir ,,louis ,,mallet 7#ahbc-ahij7 also entered the civil service in the ,board of ,trade and rose to be a distinguished economist and a member of the ,council of ,india4 ,mallet du ,pan's ,mmoires et correspondance was edited by ,a4 ,sayous 7,paris1 #ahea74 ,see ,mallet du ,pan and the ,french ,revolution 7#aijb71 by ,bernard ,mallet1 son of ,sir ,louis ,mallet1 author also of a biography of his father 7#aijj74 ,,malling1 ,,east and ,,west1 two populous villages in the ,medway parliamentary division of ,kent1 ,england1 respectively #e and #f m4 ,w4 by ,n4 of ,maidstone1 with a station on the ,south-,eastern and ,chatham railway4 ,pop4 7#aija71 ,east ,malling1 #bcia2 ,west ,malling1 #bcab4 ,they are situated in a rich agricultural district on the western slope of the valley of the ,medway1 and ,east ,malling has large paper mills4 ,at ,west ,malling are remains of ,malling ,abbey1 a ,benedictine nunnery founded in #ajij by ,gundulf1 bishop of ,rochester4 ,the remains1 which are partly incorporated in a modern building1 include the ,norman west front of the church1 the ,early ,english cloisters1 the chapter-house1 gate-house 7the chapel of which is restored to use71 and other portions4 ,about ,addington near ,west ,malling are considerable prehistoric remains1 including mounds1 single stones1 stone circles and pits in the chalk hills2 while at ,leybourne are the gateway and other fragments of the castle held by the ,leybourne family from the #abth to the #adth century4 ,,mallock1 ,,william ,,hurrell 7#ahdi- 71 ,english author1 was born at ,cockington ,court1 ,devonshire4 ,he was educated privately1 and at ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,he won the ,newdigate prize in #ahgb1 and took a second class in the final classical schools in #ahgd4 ,he attracted considerable attention by his satirical story ,the ,new ,republic 7#b vols41 #ahgg71 in which he introduced characters easily recognized as prominent living men1 ,mark ,pattison1 ,matthew ,arnold1 ,w4 ,k4 ,clifford and others4 ,his keen logic and gift for acute exposition and criticism were displayed in later years both in fiction and in controversial works4 ,in a series of books dealing with religious questions he insisted on dogma as the basis of religion and on the impossibility of founding religion on purely scientific data4 ,in ,is ,life ,worth ,living8 7#ahgi7 and ,the ,new ,paul and ,virginia 7#ahgh7 he attacked ,positivist theories1 and in a volume on the intellectual position of the ,church of ,england1 ,doctrine and ,doctrinal ,disruption 7#aijj71 he advocated the necessity of a strictly defined creed4 ,later volumes on similar topics were ,religion as a ,credible ,doctrine 7#aijc7 and ,the ,reconstruction of ,belief 7#aije74 ,he published several brilliant works on economics1 directed against ,radical and ,socialist theories3 ,social ,equality 7#ahhb71 ,property and ,progress 7#ahhd71 ,labour and the ,popular ,welfare 7#ahic71 ,classes and ,masses 7#ahif7 and ,aristocracy and ,evolution 7#ahih72 and among his anti-socialist works should be classed his novel1 ,the ,old ,order ,changes 7#ahhf74 ,his other novels include ,a ,romance of the ,nineteenth ,century 7#ahha71 ,a ,human ,document 7#ahib71 ,the ,heart of ,life 7#ahie7 and ,the ,veil of the ,temple 7#aijd74 ,he published a volume of ,poems in #ahhj1 and in #aijj ,lucretius on ,life and ,death in verse4 ,,mallow1 a market town and watering place of ,co4 ,cork1 ,ireland1 on the ,blackwater1 #add m4 ,s4,w4 from ,dublin1 and #ba ,n4 from ,cork by the ,great ,southern and ,western railway4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #dedb4 ,it is a junction for lines westward to ,killarney and ,co4 ,kerry1 and eastward to ,lismore and ,co4 ,waterford4 ,the town owes its prosperity to its beautiful situation in a fine valley surrounded by mountains1 and possesses a tepid mineral spring1 considered efficacious in cases of general debility and for scorbutic and consumptive complaints4 ,a spa-house with pump-room and baths was erected in #ahbh4 ,the parish church dates from #ahah1 but there are remains of an earlier building adjoining it4 ,there are manufactures of mineral water and condensed milk1 corn-mills and tanneries4 ,mallow received a charter of incorporation from ,james ,i4 ,its name was originally ,magh ,allo1 that is1 ,plain of the ,allo 7the old name used by ,spenser for this part of the river71 and the ford was defended by a castle1 built by the ,desmonds1 the ruins of which remain4 ,a bridge connects the town with the suburb of ,ballydaheen4 ,mallow is a centre for the fine salmon fishing on the ,blackwater4 ,the climate is very mild4 ,the town was a parliamentary borough till #ahhe4 ,it is governed by an urban district council4 ,,mallow1 botanically ,malva1 the typical genus of the natural order ,malvaceae1 embracing about sixteen species of annual and perennial herbaceous plants1 widely distributed throughout the northern hemisphere4 ,the mallows possess the reniform one-celled anthers which specially characterize the ,malvaceae 7q4v474 ,the petals also are united by their base to the tube formed by the coalesced filaments of the stamens4 ,the special characters which separate the genus ,malva from others most nearly allied to it are the involucre1 consisting of a row of three separate bracts attached to the lower part of the true calyx1 and the numerous single-seeded carpels disposed in a circle around a central axis1 from which they become detached when ripe4 ,the flowers are mostly white or pinkish1 never yellow1 the leaves radiate-veined1 and more or less lobed or cut4 ,three species are natives of ,britain4 ,the musk mallow 7,malva moschata7 is a perennial herb with five-partite1 deeply-cut leaves1 and large rose-coloured flowers clustered together at the ends of the branched stems1 and is found growing along hedges and borders of fields1 blossoming in ,july and ,august4 ,it owes its name to a slight musky odour diffused by the plant in warm dry weather when it is kept in a confined situation4 ,the round-leaved dwarf mallow 7,malva rotundifolia7 is a creeping perennial1 growing in waste sandy places1 with roundish serrate leaves and small pinkish-white flowers produced in the axils of the leaves from ,june to ,september4 ,it is common throughout ,europe and the north of ,africa1 extending to western and northern ,asia4 ,the common mallow 7,malva sylvestris71 the mauve of the ,french1 is an erect biennial or perennial plant with long-stalked roundish-angular serrate leaves1 and conspicuous axillary reddish-purple flowers1 blossoming from ,may to ,september4 ,like most plants of the order it abounds in mucilage1 and hence forms a favourite domestic remedy for colds and sore throats4 ,the aniline dye called mauve derives its name from its resemblance to the colour of this plant4 ,illustration3 ,mallow 7,malva sylvestris71 #a_/c nat4 size4 #a4 ,flower in section4 #b4 ,stamens showing the union of the filaments into a common tube 7monadelphous74 #c4 ,fruit with persistent calyx4 #a1 #b and #e enlarged4 #d4 ,same seen from the back showing the #c-leaved epicalyx4 #e4 ,seed4 ,the marsh mallow 7,althaea officinalis71 the guimauve of the ,french1 belongs to another genus having an involucre of numerous bracts4 ,it is a native of marshy ground near the sea or in the neighbourhood of saline springs4 ,it is an erect perennial herb1 with somewhat woody stems1 velvety1 ovate1 acute1 unequally serrate leaves1 and delicate pink showy flowers blooming from ,july to ,september4 ,the flowers are said to yield a good deal of honey to bees4 ,the marsh mallow is remarkable for containing asparagin1 ,c#d;,h#h,n#b,o#c1 ,h#b,o1 which1 if the root be long kept in a damp place1 disappears1 butyric acid being developed4 ,the root also contains about #be of starch and the same quantity of mucilage1 which differs from that of gum arabic in containing one molecule less of water and in being precipitated by neutral acetate of lead4 ,it is used in pte de guimauve lozenges4 ,althaea rosea is the hollyhock 7q4v474 ,the mallow of ,scripture1 ,job xxx4 #d1 has been sometimes identified with ,jew's mallow 7,corchorus olitorius71 a member of the closely allied order ,tiliaceae1 but more plausibly 7the word ,hebrew3 maluah implying a saline plant7 with ,atriplex ,halimus1 or sea orache4 ,in ,syria the ,halimus was still known by the name ,malluh in the time of ,ibn ,beitar4 ,see ,bochart1 ,hieroz4 iii4 #af4 ,,malmedy1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian ,rhine ,province1 lying in a wild and deep basin1 on the ,warche1 #bj m4 ,s4 of ,aix-la-,chapelle by rail via ,eupen4 ,it contains two ,roman ,catholic churches1 a modern town-hall and a classical school4 ,its industries include tanning1 dyeing and paper-making4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #dfhj4 ,malmedy was famous for its ,benedictine abbey1 founded about #fge1 which was united with that of ,stablo1 the abbot of the joint house being a prince of the empire4 ,in #ahjb the lands of the abbey passed to ,france1 and in #ahae they were divided between ,prussia and ,netherlands4 ,see ,kellen1 ,malmedy und die preussische ,wallonie 7,essen1 #ahig74 ,,malmesbury1 ,,james ,,harris1 #a,,st ,,earl ,,of 7#agdf-ahbj71 ,english diplomatist1 was born at ,salisbury on the #bast of ,april #agdf1 being the son of ,james ,harris 7q4v471 the author of ,hermes4 ,educated at ,winchester1 ,oxford and ,leiden1 young ,harris became secretary in #agfh to the ,british embassy at ,madrid1 and was left as charg d'affaires at that court on the departure of ,sir ,james ,grey until the arrival of ,george ,pitt1 afterwards ,lord ,rivers4 ,this interval gave him his opportunity2 he discovered the intention of ,spain to attack the ,falkland ,islands1 and was instrumental in thwarting it by putting on a bold countenance4 ,as a reward he was appointed minister ad interim at ,madrid1 and in ,january #aggb minister plenipotentiary to the court of ,prussia4 ,his success was marked1 and in #aggg he was transferred to the court of ,russia4 ,at ,st ,petersburg he made his reputation1 for he managed to get on with ,catherine in spite of her predilections for ,france1 and steered adroitly through the accumulated difficulties of the first ,armed ,neutrality4 ,he was made a knight of the ,bath at the end of #aggh1 but in #aghb he returned home owing to ill-health1 and was appointed by his friend ,fox to be minister at the ,hague1 an appointment confirmed after some delay by ,pitt 7#aghd74 ,he did very great service in furthering ,pitt's policy of maintaining ,england's influence on the ,continent by the arms of her allies1 and held the threads of the diplomacy which ended in the king of ,prussia's overthrowing the republican party in ,holland1 which was inclined to ,france1 and re-establishing the prince of ,orange4 ,in recognition of his services he was created ,baron ,malmesbury of ,malmesbury 7,sept4 #aghh71 and permitted by the king of ,prussia to bear the ,prussian eagle on his arms1 and by the prince of ,orange to use his motto ,je maintiendrai4 ,he returned to ,england1 and took an anxious interest in politics1 which ended in his seceding from the ,whig party with the duke of ,portland in #agic2 and in that year he was sent by ,pitt1 but in vain1 to try to keep ,prussia true to the first coalition against ,france4 ,in #agid he was sent to ,brunswick to solicit the hand of the unfortunate ,princess ,caroline for the prince of ,wales1 to marry her as proxy1 and conduct her to her husband in ,england4 ,in #agif and #agig he was at ,paris and ,lille vainly negotiating with the ,french ,directory4 ,after #agig he became partially deaf1 and quitted diplomacy altogether2 but for his long and eminent services he was in #ahjj created earl of ,malmesbury1 and ,viscount ,fitzharris1 of ,heron ,court in the county of ,hants4 ,he now became a sort of political ,nestor1 consulted on foreign policy by successive foreign ministers1 trusted by men of the most different ideas in political crises1 and above all the confidant1 and for a short time after ,pitt's death almost the political director1 of ,canning4 ,younger men were also wont to go to him for advice1 and ,lord ,palmerston particularly1 who was his ward1 was tenderly attached to him1 and owed many of his ideas on foreign policy directly to his teaching4 ,his later years were free from politics1 and till his death on the #bast of ,november #ahbj he lived very quietly and almost forgotten4 ,as a statesman1 ,malmesbury had an influence among his contemporaries which is scarcely to be understood from his writings1 but which must have owed much to personal charm of manner and persuasiveness of tongue2 as a diplomatist1 he seems to have deserved his reputation1 and shares with ,macartney1 ,auckland and ,whitworth the credit of raising diplomacy from a profession in which only great nobles won the prizes to a career opening the path of honour to ability4 ,he was succeeded as #bnd earl by his son ,james ,edward 7#aggh-ahda71 under-secretary for foreign affairs under ,canning2 from whom the title passed to ,james ,howard1 #crd earl of ,malmesbury 7q4v474 ,malmesbury did not publish anything himself1 except an account of the ,dutch revolution1 and an edition of his father's works1 but his important ,diaries 7#ahdd7 and ,letters 7#ahgj7 were edited by his grandson4 ,,malmesbury1 ,,james ,,howard ,,harris1 #c,,rd ,,earl ,,of 7#ahjg-ahhi71 ,english statesman1 son of the #bnd earl1 was born on the #beth of ,march #ahjg1 and educated at ,eton and ,oriel ,college1 ,oxford4 ,he led a life of travel for several years1 making acquaintance with famous people2 and in #ahda he had only just been elected to the ,house of ,commons as a ,conservative1 when his father died and he succeeded to the peerage4 ,his political career1 though not one which made any permanent impression on history1 attracted a good deal of contemporary attention1 partly from his being foreign secretary in #aheb and again in #aheh-ahei 7he was also lord privy seal in #ahff-ahfh and in #ahgd-ahgf71 and partly from his influential position as an active ,tory of the old school in the ,house of ,lords at a time when ,lord ,derby and ,mr ,disraeli were1 in their different ways1 moulding the ,conservatism of the period4 ,moreover his long life--he survived till the #agth of ,may #ahhi--;and the publication of his ,memoirs of an ,ex-,minister in #ahhd1 contributed to the reputation he enjoyed4 ,these ,memoirs1 charmingly written1 full of anecdote1 and containing much interesting material for the history of the time1 remain his chief title to remembrance4 ,lord ,malmesbury also edited his grandfather's ,diaries and ,correspondence 7#ahdd71 and in #ahgj published ,the ,first ,lord ,malmesbury and ,his ,friends3 ,letters from #agde to #ahbj4 ,he was succeeded as #dth earl by his nephew1 ,edward ,james 7#ahdb-ahii71 whose son1 ,james ,edward 7b4 #ahgb7 became the #eth earl in #ahii4 ,,malmesbury1 a market town and municipal borough in the ,chippenham parliamentary division of ,wiltshire1 ,england1 #id m4 ,w4 of ,london by the ,great ,western railway4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #bhed4 ,it lies on a ridge surrounded on all sides except the north-west by the river ,avon and a small tributary4 ,the church of ,st ,mary and ,st ,aldhelm1 standing high1 is a majestic fragment consisting of the greater part of the nave 7with aisles7 of a ,benedictine abbey church4 ,the ruined skeleton of the great tower arches now terminates the building eastward4 ,the nave is transitional ,norman1 with a ,decorated superstructure including the clerestory4 ,the south porch is one of the finest ,norman examples extant1 both the outer and the inner doorways 7especially the first7 exhibiting the typical ornament of the period in remarkable exuberance4 ,with the exception of a crypt1 the monastic buildings have disappeared4 ,in the market square stands a fine market cross of the #afth century1 borne upon an octagonal battlemented basement4 ,early ,english fragments of a hospital of ,st ,john of ,jerusalem appear in the corporation almshouse4 ,malmesbury has an agricultural trade1 with breweries1 tanneries and manufactures of silk and pillow lace4 ,it is governed by a mayor1 #d aldermen and #ab councillors4 ,area1 #agh acres4 ,maildulphus1 a ,scottish or ,irish monk1 who came into ,england about #fce1 built a hermitage near the site of the modern ,malmesbury 7,maildulphi-urbs1 ,maldelmesburh1 ,malmesbiri7 and gathered disciples round him1 thus forming the nucleus of the later abbey of which ,aldhelm his pupil became the first abbot4 thelstan1 who was buried here 7though his tomb in the church only dates from the #afth century71 rebuilt and endowed the monastery4 ,round the abbey the town of ,malmesbury grew up1 and by the time of the ,domesday ,survey it had become one of the only two ,wiltshire boroughs4 ,the first charter1 said to be a forgery1 purports to have been given by thelstan4 ,it granted to the burgesses all privileges and free customs such as they held in the time of ,edward the ,elder1 with many additional exemptions1 in return for help rendered against the ,danes4 ,the castle built at ,malmesbury during the reign of ,henry ,i4 gave a further impetus to the growth of the town during the #abth and #acth centuries4 ,it was not incorporated1 however1 until #afde1 when it was made a free borough under the title of aldermen and burgesses of the borough of ,malmesbury1 ,county ,wilts4 ,by this charter it was governed until #ahhe4 ,the borough returned two members to parliament from #abie to #ahcb when the number was reduced to one4 ,finally in #ahhe its representation was merged in that of the county4 ,a grant of a yearly fair on the #cast of ,march1 the feast of ,st ,aldhelm1 was obtained from ,william ,,ii41 and another for three days from the #beth of ,july from ,john4 ,in #agib fairs were held on the #bhth of ,march1 the #bhth of ,april and the #bith of ,june1 but in #ahia they had ceased entirely4 ,john also granted a weekly market on ,thursday4 ,in the #afth and #ahth centuries it was held on ,saturday1 and in #ahia on the third ,wednesday in each month4 ,in the middle ages ,malmesbury possessed a considerable cloth manufacture1 and at the ,dissolution the abbey was bought by a rich clothier and fitted with looms for weaving4 ,the trade in wool still flourished in #agea4 ,see ,victoria ,county ,history3 ,wiltshire2 and ,registrum malmesburiense 7#ahgi-ahhj74 ,,malm1 a seaport of ,sweden1 chief town of the district 7ln7 of ,malmhus1 on a small bay of the ,sound1 #chd m4 ,s4,s4,w4 of ,stockholm by rail4 ,pop4 7#ahjj71 #ch1jed2 7#aijj71 #fj1heg4 ,it is connected with ,copenhagen1 #ag m4 ,w4 by ,n41 by steam-ferry1 the ,sound being kept open in winter by an ice-breaker4 ,it is also the first important station in ,sweden on the ,berlin-,stockholm route1 which crosses the sea between ,sassnitz in ,rgen and ,trelleborg1 #bj m4 ,s4,e4 of ,malm4 ,the town1 which stands upon a level plain1 formerly had strong fortifications1 of which only the citadel 7,malmhus7 remains2 in it the earl of ,bothwell was imprisoned by ,frederick ,,ii4 of ,denmark for some time after his departure from ,scotland in #aefg4 ,the town-hall 7#aedf1 largely restored in #ahfd7 contains a handsome chamber1 the ,knutssal1 formerly used by the council of the gild of ,canute4 ,the hall fronts the central square 7,stortorg7 which is planted with trees and contains a colossal statue of ,charles ,x4 by ,johan ,helenus ,brjeson 7b4 #ahce7 erected in #ahif4 ,the most notable church is that of ,st4 ,peter 7,peterkyrka71 dating in part from #acai4 ,malm is second to ,stockholm as an industrial centre4 ,there are breweries and large works for the manufacture of machinery1 among which may be mentioned the ,kockum mechanical works1 with yards for the construction of vessels of war1 and others2 of cotton and woollen goods1 gloves1 chocolate1 sweetmeats and tobacco4 ,a large export trade is carried on in butter and other agricultural produce1 and matches4 ,coal is the chief import4 ,the harborage includes an outer harbour of #bb ft4 depth1 and two inner basins admitting vessels of #ba ft4 draught1 with dry dock and patent slip4 ,malm returns four members to the second chamber of the ,riksdag 7parliament74 ,malm 7,malmhauge1 ,malmey1 ,malmye1 ,malmoughe71 sometimes called ,ancona ,scanorum or ,ellenbogen1 first appears in history about the middle of the #acth century4 ,during the ,hanseatic period it was the most important commercial town on the ,sound1 but in the #afth and #agth centuries greatly lost ground owing to the decay of its herring fisheries and the rise of its rival1 ,copenhagen4 ,its modern prosperity is largely due to the enterprise of ,frans ,snell1 one of its merchants in the second half of the #ahth century1 who first constructed the harbour4 ,,malmsey1 a strong sweet wine1 originally made at ,monemvasia 7,gr4 ,greek3 ,monembasia71 ,napoli di ,malvasia1 in the ,morea1 ,greece4 ,the name of the place was corrupted in ,med4 ,lat4 into malmasia1 whence the ,english form of the word4 ,the corruption malvasia gives the ,o4 ,fr4 malvesie1 from which comes the alternative ,english form malvoisie4 ,the wine is now made not only in ,greece but also in ,spain1 ,madeira and the ,azores4 ,,malocello1 ,,lanciloto 7,,lanzarote1 the ',lancelot ,maloisiel' of the ,french71 leader of the first of modern ,european oceanic enterprises4 ,this was a ,genoese expedition1 which about #abgj seems to have sailed into the ,atlantic1 re-discovered the ,fortunate ,islands or ,canaries1 and made something of a conquest and settlement in one of the most northerly isles of this archipelago1 still known 7after the ,italian captain7 as ,lanzarote4 ,according to a ,spanish authority of about #acde1 the anonymous ,franciscan's ,conosimiento de todos los reinos1 ,lancarote was killed by the ,canarian natives2 but the castle built by him was standing in #adjb-adjd1 when it was utilized for the storage of grain by the ,french conquerors under ,gadifer de la ,salle4 ,to ,malocello's enterprise1 moreover1 it is probable that ,petrarch 7born #acjd7 alludes when he tells how1 within the memory of his parents1 an armed fleet of ,genoese penetrated to the ,fortunatae2 this passage some would refer1 without sufficient authority1 to the expedition of #abia4 ,malocello's name and nationality are certainly preserved by those early ,portolani or scientific charts 7such as the ,dulcert of #acci and the ,laurentian ,portolano of #acea71 in which the ,african islands appear1 for the first time in history1 in clear and recognizable form4 ,thus ,dulcert reads ,insula de ,lanzarotus and ,marocelus1 the ,laurentian map ,i4 de ,lanzarote1 against ,lanzarote ,island1 which is well depicted on both designs1 and marked with the cross of ,genoa4 ,the ,conosimiento 7as noticed above7 explicitly derives the island-name from the ,genoese commander who perished here4 ,malocello's enterprise not only marks the beginning of the oversea expansion of western ,europe in exploration1 conquest and colonization 7after the age of ,scandinavian world-roving had passed72 it is also probably not unconnected with the great ,genoese venture of #abia 7in search of a waterway to ,india1 which soon follows71 with which this attempt at ,canarian discovery and dominion has been by some unjustifiably identified4 ,see the ,conosimiento1 p4 #ajj1 as edited by ,marcos ,jimenez de la ,espada in the ,boletin de la sociedad geogrfica de ,madrid1 7,february #ahgg72 ,le ,canarien in ,p4 ,margry1 ,conqute des 444 ,canaries1 p4 #agg2 ,m4 ,a4 ,p4 d',avezac in vol4 vi41 part ii41 of ,l',univers1 pp4 #a-da 7les africaines de l'ocan atlantique72 ,c4 ,r4 ,beazley1 ,dawn of ,modern ,geography1 iii4 #daa-dac1 #ddi1 #dea4 ,,malolos1 a town and the capital of the province of ,bulacn1 island of ,luzon1 ,philippine ,islands1 on a branch of the ,pampanga ,grande river4 ,pop4 7#aijc71 after the annexation of ,barasoain and ,santa ,isabel1 #bg1jbe4 ,there are thirty-eight villages1 or barrios1 of which eight had1 in #aijc1 #ajjj inhabitants or more4 ,the principal language is ,tagalog1 but ,spanish is spoken to some extent4 ,malolos is served by the ,manila ,dagupan railway1 and is a trade centre of considerable importance4 ,the cultivation of rice is an important industry4 ,in #ahih-ii1 during the ,filipino revolt1 ,malolos was the seat of the rebel government1 but it was captured and reduced to desolation in ,march #ahii4 ,in #aijd a new municipal school building1 a municipal market and a provincial building were erected4 ,,malone1 ,,edmond 7#agda-ahab71 ,irish ,shakespearian scholar and editor1 was born in ,dublin1 on the #dth of ,october #agda1 the son of a barrister and a member of the ,irish ,house of ,commons4 ,he was educated at ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 and was called to the ,irish bar in #agfg4 ,the death of his father in #aggd assured him a competency1 and he went to ,london1 where he frequented literary and artistic circles4 ,he frequently visited ,dr ,johnson and was of great assistance to ,boswell in revising and proofreading his ,life1 four of the later editions of which he annotated4 ,he was intimate with ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 to whom he sat for a portrait now in the ,national ,portrait ,gallery4 ,he was one of ,reynolds' executors1 and published a posthumous collection of his works 7#agih7 with a memoir4 ,horace ,walpole1 ,burke1 ,canning1 ,lord ,charlemont1 and1 at first1 ,george ,steevens1 were among ,malone's friends4 ,encouraged by the two last he devoted himself to the study of ,shakespearian chronology1 and the results of his ,attempt to ascertain the ,order in which the ,plays of ,shakespeare were written 7#aggh7 are still largely accepted4 ,this was followed in #aghj by two supplementary volumes to ,steevens's version of ,dr ,johnson's ,shakespeare1 partly consisting of observations on the history of the ,elizabethan stage1 and of the text of doubtful plays2 and this again1 in #aghc1 by an appendix volume4 ,his refusal to alter some of his notes to ,isaac ,reed's edition of #aghe1 which disagreed with ,steevens's1 resulted in a quarrel with the latter4 ,the next seven years were devoted to ,malone's own edition of ,shakespeare in eleven volumes1 of which his essays on the history of the stage1 his biography of ,shakespeare1 and his attack on the genuineness of the three parts of ,henry ,,vi41 were especially valuable4 ,his editorial work was lauded by ,burke1 criticized by ,walpole and damned by ,joseph ,ritson4 ,it certainly showed indefatigable research and proper respect for the text of the earlier editions4 ,malone published a denial of the claim to antiquity of the ,rowley poems 7see ,,chatterton71 and in this 7#aghb7 as in his branding 7#agif7 of the ,ireland ,,mss4 7see ,,ireland1 ,,william ,,henry7 as forgeries1 he was among the first to guess and state the truth4 ,his elaborate edition of ,dryden's works 7#ahjj71 with a memoir1 was another monument to his industry1 accuracy and scholarly care4 ,in #ahja the university of ,dublin made him an ,,ll4,d4 ,at the time of his death1 on the #beth of ,april #ahab1 ,malone was at work on a new octavo edition of ,shakespeare1 and he left his material to ,james ,boswell the younger2 the result was the edition of #ahba--;generally known as the ,third ,variorum edition--in twenty-one volumes4 ,lord ,sunderlin 7#agch-ahaf71 his elder brother and executor1 presented the larger part of ,malone's splendid collection of books1 including dramatic varieties1 to the ,bodleian ,library1 which afterwards bought many of his ,,ms4 notes and his literary correspondence4 ,the ,british ,museum also owns some of his letters and his annotated copy of ,johnson's ,dictionary4 ,a memoir of ,malone by ,james ,boswell is included in the ,prolegomena to the edition of #ahba4 ,see also ,sir ,j4 ,prior's ,life of ,edmond ,malone 7#ahfj74 ,,malone1 a village and the county-seat of ,franklin county1 in the township of ,malone1 in the ,n4,e4 part of ,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a41 about #fj m4 ,e4,n4,e4 of ,ogdensburg4 ,pop4 7#ahij71 #dihf2 7#aijj71 #eice 7#iaj foreign-born72 7#aije1 state census71 #fdgh2 7#aiaj71 #fdfg4 ,it is served by the ,new ,york ,central ,hudson ,river and the ,rutland 7,n4,y4 ,central ,lines7 railways4 ,the village has a ,memorial ,park1 ,arsenal ,green1 on the site of an arsenal and parade-ground sold by the state in #ahej1 a state armoury1 the ,northern ,new ,york ,institute for ,deaf ,mutes1 ,franklin ,academy1 ,st ,joseph's ,ursuline ,academy1 and a detention-house for ,chinamen entering the state from ,canada4 ,from ,malone tourists visit the ,great ,north ,woods1 in the ,adirondack foothills1 about #ae m4 distant4 ,iron ore and ,potsdam sandstone are found near ,malone4 ,in the surrounding region hops1 potatoes1 c41 are grown1 and there are dairying and livestock interests4 ,the village is a centre for the collection of hides and pelts4 ,it manufactures woollen goods1 paper and pulp1 c41 and has foundry and machine shops and car repair shops4 ,malone1 being on the line of communication between lakes ,champlain and ,ontario1 was of strategic importance in the war of #ahab1 and later was twice the rendezvous of ,fenians for attacks on ,canada4 ,the township of ,malone was settled and erected from ,chateaugay in #ahje4 ,the village was first known as ,harison1 was named ,ezraville1 in honour of ,ezra ,l',hommedieu1 in #ahjh1 received its present name in #ahab1 and was incorporated in #ahec4 ,,malonic ,,acid1 ,c#c;,h#d,o#d or ,,ch#b7;,,cooh7#b1 occurs in the form of its calcium salt in the sugar beet4 ,it was first prepared in #aheh by ,v4 ,dessaignes1 who obtained it by oxidizing malic acid 7,ann41 #aheh1 #ajg1 p4 #bea74 ,it may also be obtained by oxidizing allylene and propylene with cold potassium permanganate solution1 by the hydrolysis of barbituric acid 7malonyl urea7 with alkalis 7,a4 ,baeyer1 ,ann41 #ahfd1 #acj1 p4 #adc72 by the hydrolysis of cyanacetic acid 7,h4 ,kolbe1 ,ann41 #ahfd1 #aca1 p4 #cdi2 ,h4 ,muller1 ,ann41 #ahfd1 #aca1 p4 #ceb71 and by the action of silver oxide on beta-di-chloracrylic ester at #abe ,c4 7,o4 ,wallach1 ,ann41 #ahgh1 #aic1 ,p4 #be7 ,c,cl#b3;,,ch,,cooc#b;,h#e ,ag#b,o ,h#b,o #b;,ag,cl ,,hooc,,ch#b;,,cooc#b;,h#e4 ,it crystallizes in monoclinic tables1 and is readily soluble in water1 alcohol and ether4 ,the acid melts at #acb ,c41 and at a higher temperature it rapidly decomposes into acetic acid and carbon dioxide4 ,when heated with bromine and water to #ajj ,c4 it forms tribromacetic acid1 some bromoform being produced at the same time4 ,malonic acid1 as well as its esters1 is characterized by the large number of condensation products it can form4 ,in the presence of a dehydrating agent 7such as acetic anhydride71 it combines with aldehydes to form compounds of the type ,r,,ch3,c7,,cooh7#b1 or their decomposition products 7formed by loss of ,,co#b7 ,r,,ch3,,ch,,cooh4 ,many salts of the acid are known and1 with the exception of those of the alkali metals1 they are difficultly soluble in water4 ,many esters of malonic acid have been prepared1 the most important being the diethyl ester 7malonic ester71 ,,ch#b7;,,cooc#b;,h#e7b1 which is obtained by dissolving monochloracetic acid in water1 neutralizing the solution with potassium carbonate1 and then adding potassium cyanide and warming the mixture until the reaction begins4 ,when the reaction has finished1 the whole is evaporated and heated to about #acj-adj ,c4 and then allowed to cool4 ,the mass is then covered with two-thirds of its weight of alcohol1 and saturated with hydrochloric acid gas4 ,the whole is then poured into ice-cold water1 extracted by ether and the ethereal solution distilled 7,l4 ,claisen1 ,ann41 #ahhc1 #bah1 p4 #aca74 ,it is a colourless liquid boiling at #aig4g-aih4b ,c4 7,w4 ,h4 ,perkin74 ,it is a most important synthetic reagent2 with sodium or sodium ethylate it forms sodio-malonic ester1 which reacts readily with alkyl halides1 forming alkyl malonic esters1 which are again capable of forming sodium derivatives1 that by further treatment with alkyl halides yield the di-alkyl malonic esters4 ,these esters are readily hydrolysed and yield the mono- and di-alkyl malonic acids which1 on heating1 are readily decomposed1 with evolution of carbon dioxide and the formation of mono- and di-alkyl acetic acids4 ,the scheme of reactions is shown thus3 ,r,i ,,ch#b7;,,coor7#b -- ,,chna 7,,coor7#b -- ,,chr7,,coor7#b ,na,o,h _/ ,,co#b ,,ch#b,r,,cooh -- ,,chr7,,cooh7#b ,r,i ,,chr7,,cooh7#b,na,o,h -- ,c,na,r7,,coor7#b -- ,,cr,r7,,coor7#b _/ ,na,o,h ,,co#b ,,chr,r,,cooh -- ,,cr,r7,,cooh7#b ,when sodio-malonic ester is heated to #ade ,c41 it undergoes condensation1 with elimination of alcohol and formation of the benzene derivative1 phloroglucin tricarboxylic ester4 ,the addition of urea to an alcoholic solution of sodio-malonic ester results in the formation of barbituric acid 7,a4 ,michael1 ,jour4 pr4 ,chem41 #ahhg #b1 #ce1 p4 #def7 ,the half nitrile of malonic acid is cyanacetic acid1 ,,cn,,ch#b ,,cooh1 which1 in the form of its ester1 may be obtained by the action of a solution of potassium cyanide on monochloracetic acid4 ,the solution obtained is neutralized1 concentrated on the water-bath1 acidified by sulphuric acid and extracted with ether4 ,it is then converted into the lead salt1 which is decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen and the solution is carefully concentrated 7,th4 ,meves1 ,ann41 #ahfg1 #adc1 p4 #bja74 ,it melts at #gj ,c4 and at higher temperatures decomposes1 with evolution of carbon dioxide and formation of aceto-nitrile1 ,,ch#c;,,cn4 ,the true nitrile of malonic acid is methylene cyanide1 ,,ch#b7;,,cn7#b1 which is obtained by distilling a mixture of cyanacetamide and phosphorus pentoxide4 ,it is a crystalline solid1 which melts at #bi-cj ,c4 and boils at #bah-bai ,c41 and is readily soluble in alcohol and ether4 ,,malory1 ,,sir ,,thomas1 translator and compiler of the famous ,english classic1 the ,morte d',arthur4 ,previous to the publication of ,professor ,kittredge's monograph1 ,who was ,sir ,thomas ,malory8 the identity of this writer remained an unsolved problem4 ,mr4 ,sidney ,lee1 in the ,dictionary of ,national ,biography1 was compelled to admit that he could find no one of that name fulfilling the necessary conditions4 ,of direct evidence we have very little2 in the concluding passage of the book the author asks the prayers of the reader for ,syr ,thomas ,maleore knyght1 and states that the book was ended the ix4 yere of the reygne of ,kyng ,edward the fourth4 ,caxton1 in his preface1 says that he printed the book after a copye unto me delivered whyche copye ,syr ,thomas ,malorye dyd take oute of certeyn bookes of frensshe and reduced it in to ,englysshe2 in his colophon he repeats this statement1 adding that he himself is responsible for the division of the work into books and chapters1 and that it was printed in #adhe4 ,it will be noted that ,caxton does not say that he received the book from ,malory1 only that he had received a copy made by ,malory2 from this ,professor ,kittredge draws the conclusion that the compiler was no longer living4 ,the problem then is to find a ,thomas ,malory who was 7a7 a knight1 7b7 alive in the ninth year of ,king ,edward ,,iv4 7,mar4 #d1 #adfi-,mar4 #c1 #adgj71 and 7c7 who was no longer living in ,july 7or ,june7 #adhe4 ,all these conditions ,professor ,kittredge finds fulfilled in the life of ,sir ,thomas ,malory1 knight1 of ,newbold ,revell 7or ,fenny ,newbold71 ,m4,p4 for ,warwickshire in #adde4 ,the date of ,sir ,thomas's birth is uncertain1 but he succeeded his father1 ,sir ,john1 in #adcc or #adcd4 ,previously to this he had served in ,france1 in the retinue of the earl of ,warwick1 most probably during the time that that nobleman held the office of captain of ,calais4 ,it seems probable that he is also to be identified with a ,thomas ,malorie1 miles1 who in #adfh was1 on account of the part played by him in the ,wars of the ,roses1 excluded with several others from the operation of a pardon issued by ,edward ,,iv4 ,as1 however1 on the death of ,sir ,thomas on the #adth of ,march #adgj1 there was no difficulty as to inheritance1 his estates passing to his grandson1 he must1 if this identification be correct1 have come under the general amnesty of #adfi4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that so far as it is in our power to state the question this ,sir ,thomas ,malory fulfils all the necessary conditions4 ,it is interesting to note that the career of the earl of ,warwick in ,france was marked by certain picturesque and chivalric features which might well impress the imagination of a young retainer4 ,john ,rous1 in his ,life of ,richard ,earl of ,warwick1 tells us that at a certain tourney held near ,calais at ,christmastide1 ,earl ,richard appeared three days running in different armour1 overthrowing his adversary on each occasion--an exploit obviously imitated from the chivalric romances of the period4 ,the work with which ,malory's name is connected is an abridged compilation of the great body of ,arthurian romance in its latest form4 ,the ,merlin 7,vulgate and ,suite71 ,tristan1 ,lancelot1 ,queste and ,mort ,artus are all represented1 the only branch omitted is that dealing with the early history of the ,grail1 the ,joseph of ,arimathea and ,grand ,s4 ,graal4 ,thanks mainly to the labours of ,dr ,oskar ,sommer1 we can now assign the majority of the books to their separate sources1 although certain stories1 such as the adventures of ,sir ,gareth under the pseudonym of ,beaumains1 the handling of ,sir ,urre of ,hungary1 and the details of the abduction of ,guenevere by ,meleagaunt1 still remain unidentified4 ,but we do not yet know whether ,malory himself was responsible for this selection1 or whether he found it ready to hand in a ,,ms41 the ,frensshe ,booke to which he often refers4 ,to make such a compilation at first hand1 considering the extent of the ground covered1 would involve an enormous amount of study and selection1 and the access to a very large library--conditions which scarcely seem to fit in with the social position and activities of ,sir ,thomas4 ,on the other hand it is undeniable that the medieval copyists1 at the instance of their patrons1 did make compilations from the various romances within their reach1 such as e4g4 the enormous codex #aab 7fonds ,fran47 of the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 which includes large sections of the ,tristan1 the ,lancelot1 and the ,merlin ,suite4 ,taking into consideration alike what ,malory retains and what he omits1 it seems most probable that he was in possession1 not of complete copies of the romances1 but of one or more volumes of compilations from these sources4 ,from the point of view of matter it must be admitted that the ,morte d' ,arthur does not represent the ,arthurian cycle at its best1 but rather in the period of its decadence2 nor does ,malory in any way endeavour to overcome the difficulties caused by the juxtaposition of a number of independent 7and often contradictory7 versions4 ,this is especially noticeable in his treatment of ,gawain2 in the section derived from the ,lancelot and ,mort ,artus he is a good and valiant knight1 a ful noble knyghte as ever was borne1 in those derived from the ,tristan and the ,queste1 he is treacherous1 dissolute1 and a murderer of good knights4 ,the great charm of ,malory's work lies in his style2 stately1 earnest and dignified1 it has lent to the relations between ,lancelot and ,guenevere a character of truth and vitality in which the ,french original is wholly lacking4 ,malory achieved a remarkable feat--he took the ,arthurian story in its worst and weakest form and he imparted to it a moral force and elevation which the cycle1 even in its earlier and finer stage1 had1 save in the unique case of ,von ,eschenbach's ,parzival1 never possessed4 ,while genuine lovers of the ,arthurian cycle must regret that the romances should only be known to the great majority of ,english readers through the versions of ,malory and ,tennyson1 it is impossible to withhold from the ,morte d' ,arthur the admiration due to an imperishable monument of ,english language and literature4 ,see ,who was ,sir ,thomas ,malory8 ,g4 ,l4 ,kittredge 7,harvard ,studies and ,notes1 vol4 v41 #ahif72 ,morte d' ,arthur1 ed4 by ,dr ,oskar ,sommer 7an exact reproduction of the original text in #b vols47--vol4 iii4 a study on ,the ,sources of ,malory4 ,the sections on ,lancelot and ,queste are unfortunately very inadequate2 for these cf4 ,the ,legend of ,sir ,lancelot1 ,grimm ,library1 vol4 xii4 7,j4 ,l4 ,w47 ,,malot1 ,,hector ,,henri 7#ahcj-aijg71 ,french novelist and man of letters1 the son of a notary1 was born at ,la ,bouille 7,seine ,infrieure7 on the #bjth of ,may #ahcj4 ,he studied law at ,rouen and ,paris1 but literature early absorbed his attention4 ,he collaborated in the ,biographie gnrale of ,didot1 became literary critic of ,l',opinion ,nationale1 and dramatic critic of the ,lloyd franais4 ,he is the author of a long series of popular novels dealing with contemporary life1 including3 a trilogy of domestic novels entitled ,victimes d'amour 7#ahei1 #ahfe1 #ahff72 ,un ,beau frre 7#ahfi72 ,madame ,obernin 7#ahgj72 ,le ,docteur ,claude 7#ahgi72 ,justice 7#ahhi74 ,les ,aventures de ,romain ,kalbris 7#ahfi7 and ,sans famille 7#ahhh7 are excellent stories for children4 ,a complete edition of ,hector ,malot's works appeared in #ahid-ahig4 ,he died at ,vincennes in ,july #aijg4 ,,malou1 ,,jules ,,douard ,,xavier 7#ahaj-ahhf71 ,belgian statesman1 one of the leaders of the clerical party1 was born at ,ypres on the #aith of ,october #ahaj4 ,he was a civil servant in the department of justice when he was elected to the ,chamber of ,deputies by his native constituency in #ahda1 and was for some time governor of the province of ,antwerp4 ,he was minister of finance in the coalition ministry of ,j4 ,b4 ,nothomb in #ahdd1 and formed with ,b4 ,t4 de ,theux a ,catholic cabinet in #ahdf1 which was overthrown in the ,liberal victory of #ahdg4 ,malou then became a member of the senate1 and his party only regained ascendancy in #ahgj4 ,the extreme clerical ministry of ,baron d',anethan retired in ,december #ahga after serious rioting in ,brussels1 and ,malou was the real1 though not the nominal1 head of the more moderate clerical administrations of de ,theux and ,aspremont-,lynden 7#ahgj-ahgh74 ,he was wise enough to disavow the noisy sympathy of ,belgian ,ultramontane politicians with the ,german victims of the ,kulturkampf1 and1 retaining in his own hands the portfolio of finance1 he subordinated his clerical policy to a useful administration in commercial matters1 including a development of the railway system4 ,it was only after the fall of the ministry in #ahgh that he adopted a frankly clerical policy1 and when he became chief of a new government in ,june #ahhd he proceeded to undo the educational compromise of his predecessors in the ,frre-,orban ministry4 ,his legislation in favour of the ,catholic schools caused rioting in ,brussels1 and in ,october the king demanded the retirement of ,,mm4 ,jacobs and ,woeste1 the members of the cabinet against whom popular indignation was chiefly directed4 ,malou followed them into retirement1 and died at ,woluwe ,saint ,lambert1 in ,brabant1 on the #aath of ,july #ahhf4 ,he was a financier of great knowledge and experience1 and his works 7of which a long list is given in ,koninck's ,bibliographie nationale de ,belgique7 include three series 7#ahgd-ahhj7 of memoirs on financial questions1 edited by him for the ,chamber of ,deputies1 besides pamphlets on railroad proposals1 mining and other practical questions4 ,his brother ,jean ,baptiste ,malou 7#ahji-ahfd7 was a well-known divine4 ,,malouet1 ,,pierre ,,victor1 ,,baron 7#agdj-ahad71 ,french publicist and politician1 was born at ,riom 7,puy-de-,dme7 on the #aath of ,february #agdj1 the son of a lawyer4 ,he entered the civil service and was employed successively at the ,french embassy in ,lisbon1 in the administrative department of the duc de ,broglie's army1 as commissary in ,san ,domingo from #agfg-aggd1 and1 after his return to ,france1 as commissary-general of the marine4 ,in #aggf he was entrusted to carry out plans of colonization in ,french ,guiana1 but was superseded in #aggi4 ,on his return to ,france he was well received at court1 and the execution of his plans in ,guiana was assured4 ,he became intendant of the port of ,toulon1 and in #aghi was returned to the states-general1 where he soon became well known as a defender of the monarchical principle4 ,he emigrated to ,england in ,september1 #agib1 but shortly afterwards sought in vain permission to return to assist in the defence of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,his name was erased from the list of emigrants in #ahja by ,napoleon1 who restored him to his position in the service and sent him to ,antwerp as commissioner-general and maritime prefect to superintend the erection of defence works1 and the creation of a fleet4 ,he entered the council of state in #ahaj1 but1 having offended the emperor by his plainness of speech1 he was disgraced in #ahab4 ,at the ,restoration1 ,louis ,,xviii4 made him minister of marine2 and he died on the #gth of ,september #ahad4 ,the most important documents for his domestic and colonial policy are a ,collection de ses opinions l',assemble ,nationale 7#c vols41 #agia-agib72 and ,collection de mmoires et correspondances officielles sur l'administration des colonies et notamment sur la ,guiane franaise et hollandaise 7#e vols41 #ahjb74 ,,malpighi1 ,,marcello 7#afbh-afid71 ,italian physiologist1 was born at ,crevalcuore near ,bologna1 on the #ajth of ,march #afbh4 ,at the age of seventeen he began the study of philosophy2 it appears that he was also in the habit of amusing himself with the microscope4 ,in #afdi he started to study medicine2 after four years at ,bologna he graduated there as doctor4 ,he at once applied to be admitted to lecture in the university1 but it was not till after three years 7#afef7 that his request was granted4 ,a few months later he was appointed to the chair of theoretical medicine at ,pisa1 where he enjoyed the friendship and countenance of ,g4 ,a4 ,borelli4 ,at the end of four years he left ,pisa1 on the ground of ill-health1 and returned to ,bologna4 ,a call to be professor primarius at ,messina 7procured for him through ,borelli1 who had in the meantime become professor there7 induced him to leave ,bologna in #affb4 ,his engagement at ,messina was for a term of four years1 at an annual stipend of #ajjj scudi4 ,an attempt was made to retain him at ,messina beyond that period1 but his services were secured for his native university1 and he spent the next twenty-five years there4 ,in #afia1 being then in his sixty-fourth year1 and in failing health1 he removed to ,rome to become private physician to ,pope ,innocent ,,xii41 and he died there of apoplexy three years later1 on the #cjth of ,november #afid4 ,shortly before his death1 he drew up a long account of his academical and scientific labours1 correspondence and controversies1 and committed it to the charge of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 a body with which he had been in intimate relations for more than twenty years4 ,the autobiography1 along with some other posthumous writings1 was published in ,london in #afif1 at the cost of the ,society4 ,the personal details left by ,malpighi are few and dry4 ,his narrative is mainly occupied with a summary of his scientific contributions and an account of his relations to contemporary anatomists1 and is entirely without graces of style or elements of ordinary human interest4 ,malpighi was one of the first to apply the microscope to the study of animal and vegetable structure2 and his discoveries were so important that he may be considered to be the founder of microscopic anatomy4 ,it was his practice to open animals alive1 and some of his most striking discoveries were made in those circumstances4 ,although ,harvey had correctly inferred the existence of the capillary circulation1 he had never seen it2 it was reserved for ,malpighi in #affa 7four years after ,harvey's death7 to see for the first time the marvellous spectacle of the blood coursing through a network of small tubes on the surface of the lung and of the distended urinary bladder of the frog4 ,we are enabled to measure the difficulties of microscopic observation at the time by the fact that it took ,malpighi four years longer to reach a clear understanding of the corpuscles in the frog's blood1 although they are the parts of the blood by which its movement in the capillaries is made visible4 ,his discovery of the capillary circulation was given to the world in the form of two letters ,de ,pulmonibus1 addressed to ,borelli1 published at ,bologna in #affa and reprinted at ,leiden and other places in the years following2 these letters contained also the first account of the vesicular structure of the human lung1 and they made a theory of respiration for the first time possible4 ,the achievement that comes next both in importance and in order of time was a demonstration of the plan of structure of secreting glands2 against the current opinion 7revived by ,f4 ,ruysch forty years later7 that the glandular structure was essentially that of a closed vascular coil from which the secretion exuded1 he maintained that the secretion was formed in terminal acini standing in open communication with the ducts4 ,the name of ,malpighi is still associated with his discovery of the soft or mucous character of the lower stratum of the epidermis1 of the vascular coils in the cortex of the kidney1 and of the follicular bodies in the spleen4 ,he was the first to attempt the finer anatomy of the brain1 and his descriptions of the distribution of grey matter and of the fibre-tracts in the cord1 with their extensions to the cerebrum and cerebellum1 are distinguished by accuracy2 but his microscopic study of the grey matter conducted him to the opinion that it was of glandular structure and that it secreted the vital spirits4 ,at an early period he applied himself to vegetable histology as an introduction to the more difficult study of the animal tissues1 and he was acquainted with the spiral vessels of plants in #affb4 ,it was not till #afga that he wrote his ,anatome plantarum and sent it to the ,royal ,society1 who published it in the following year4 ,an ,english work under a similar title 7,anatomy of ,vegetables7 had been published in ,london a few months earlier1 by ,nehemiah ,grew2 so that ,malpighi's priority as a vegetable histologist is not so incontestable as it is in animal histology4 ,the ,anatome plantarum contained an appendix1 ,observations de ovo incubato1 which gave an account 7with good plates7 of the development of the chick 7especially of the later stages7 in many points more complete than that of ,harvey1 although the observations were needlessly lessened in value by being joined to the metaphysical notion of praedelineation in the undeveloped ovum4 ,he also wrote ,epistolae anatomicae ,marc4 ,malpighii et ,car4 ,fracassati 7,amsterdam1 #affb7 7on the tongue1 brain1 skin1 omentum1 c472 ,de viscerum structura3 exercitatio anatomica 7,london1 #affi72 ,de structura glandularum conglobatarum 7,london1 #afhi72 ,opera posthuma1 et vita a seipso scripta 7,london1 #afig2 another edition1 with preface and additions1 was published at ,amsterdam in #agjj474 ,an edition containing all his works except the last two was published in ,london in #afhg1 in #b vols4 folio1 with portrait and plates4 ,,malplaquet1 a village of ,france in the department of the ,nord1 close to the ,belgian frontier and about #aj miles ,s4 by ,e4 of ,mons1 famous as the scene of the battle1 ,september #agji1 between the ,allies under the duke of ,marlborough and ,prince ,eugne and the ,french commanded by ,marshal ,villars1 in which the former were victorious4 ,the country to the west and south of ,mons is enclosed by a semicircular wall of woods and broken ground1 through which there are only two important gaps--that of ,jemappes 7famous in #agib7 to the west1 and that of ,aulnois1 in which stands the village of ,malplaquet1 to the south4 ,in the latter gap and the woods on either side ,villars took up his position facing north-eastwards1 on ,august #bi_/,september #i4 ,the forces in presence1 over #ij1jjj on each side1 were exceptionally large1 and the ,french army in particular represented the spirit of its nation to a degree unusual in the armies of that time4 ,villars was the best general in the service of ,louis ,,xiv4 and the veteran ,marshal ,boufflers1 though senior to him1 had volunteered to serve as his second in command4 ,marlborough and ,eugne lay with their army between ,mons and the ,french camps1 which were almost within cannon shot4 ,marlborough's own wish was for an immediate battle1 but he was opposed by the ,dutch deputies at his headquarters1 and even by ,eugne1 so that it was only on ,august #ca_/,september #aa that the attack actually took place4 ,villars had made full use of his respite4 ,the ,french right stood at the fringe of the wood of ,lanire1 the left was strongly posted in the midst of the wood of ,taisnire1 and across the two and a half miles of open ground between the woods the position was entrenched with several successive lines of works4 ,the troops were almost equally distributed along the whole line as usual1 and the cavalry was massed in rear of the infantry4 ,in the ,allied army the mounted troops were also kept back1 but for the most part distributed to the various infantry commands4 ,the intention of ,marlborough and ,eugne1 when on the morning of the battle they examined this formidable position1 was to deliver the main attack upon the ,french left wing1 combining the assaults of several columns on its front and flanks4 ,in this quarter the ,french not only held the interior of the wood but also were thrown forward so as to occupy the edges of its north-eastern salient1 and upon the two faces of this salient ,count ,lottum 7#afej-agai7 with the ,prussians1 and ,count von der ,schulenburg 7#affa-agdg7 with the ,austrian infantry were to deliver a double attack1 while farther to the ,allied right a column under the ,english ,general ,withers was detached to make a wide turning movement through the woods4 ,marlborough took command on the right1 ,eugne on the left4 ,the centre1 which was intended only to observe the enemy until the decision had been forced at the wood of ,taisnire1 consisted of ,lord ,orkney's ,british corps and the prince of ,orange's ,dutch contingent4 ,these extended across the ,troue d',aulnois as soon as the combined attack of ,lottum and ,schulenburg opened4 ,the general advance was covered by a heavy cannonade1 and the salient of the ,taisnire wood was duly attacked on its two faces by the ,prussians and ,austrians about #i a4m4 ,they encountered a sterner resistance than in any of the battles and combats of the past seven campaigns1 for on this field the defenders were fighting1 not as hitherto for the interests of their king1 but to defend their country1 and the regiments of ,picardie and ,champagne which held the salient were the oldest and most famous of the ,french line4 ,lottum attacked the works on the eastern edge1 again and again without success1 until three ,british battalions had to be sent to reinforce him1 and ,marlborough placed himself with a corps of cavalry in close support4 ,at last the entrenchments were stormed4 ,schulenburg1 with the ,austrians1 had by this time fought his way through the woods and undergrowth1 and the united force pressed back the ,french farther and farther into the wood4 ,still1 so stubborn was the defence and so dense the wood that the impetus of the assault died away and the troops on both sides broke up into small disconnected bodies1 fighting too fiercely to be amenable to superior control4 ,illustration3 ,after ,hon4 ,j4 ,w4 ,fortescue1 ,history of the ,british ,army1 by permission of ,macmillan ,co41 ,ltd4 ,but the ,french were not reinforced from their right wing as ,villars expected4 ,the prince of ,orange1 far from merely observing the hostile right as he had been ordered to do1 committed his corps1 very early in the battle1 to a serious assault upon it1 which ,boufflers repulsed with enormous loss4 ,the ,dutch infantry never recovered from its casualties on this day1 and the memory of ,malplaquet was strong even at ,fontenoy nearly forty years afterwards4 ,some ,hanoverian troops which took part in this futile attack suffered equally heavily4 ,the only advantage to the ,allies--an advantage which1 as it happened1 counted for much--was that ,boufflers did not dare to send reinforcements to the hard-pressed left wing4 ,thanks to this the ,austrians and ,prussians1 with the ,english detached to their aid1 made steady progress in the wood of ,taisnire4 ,villars launched the ,irish brigade to check the advance of the ,allies1 and this famous corps charged into the forest4 ,villars1 ,eugne and ,marlborough personally led their troops in the encounter which followed4 ,eugne was wounded1 but refused to quit the field4 ,villars was more seriously hurt1 and after trying in vain to direct the fighting from a chair was carried insensible from the field4 ,at this crisis ,general ,withers1 who commanded the force that had been ordered to turn the ,french extreme left1 and had fought his way through the forest1 appeared on the scene4 ,the ,british #ahth regiment 7,royal ,irish71 encountering the ,french ,royal ,irlandais1 put it to the rout1 and ,villars's counterstroke was at an end4 ,the ,french maintained themselves on this side only by the aid of troops drawn from the centre and right1 and this gave the ,allied centre the opportunity which the prince of ,orange had so rashly anticipated4 ,the great attack over the open was carried out1 in spite of the previous repulse1 with the greatest determination4 ,preceded by forty guns1 the corps of the prince of ,orange and ,lord ,orkney swiftly carried the first line of works4 ,the ,allied cavalry then pushed out to the front1 and horse1 foot and artillery were combined in the last advance4 ,boufflers's cavalry masses1 coming into play for the first time1 fought hard1 and the struggle fluctuated with the arrival of successive reserves on either side1 but in the end1 shortly before #c p4m41 ,boufflers 7who had been in command since ,villars's fall7 decided to retreat4 ,the ,allies had no troops left intact for the pursuit1 and those engaged had expended their last efforts4 ,moreover ,boufflers1 experienced soldier as he was1 drew off his men before they had lost their order and discipline4 ,thus this very murdering battle as ,marlborough called it--the last and greatest pitched battle of the war--was almost barren of results4 ,the ,allies lost not less than twenty thousand men1 or nearly a quarter of the whole force1 the thirty battalions of the ,dutch infantry losing half their numbers4 ,on the ,french side there were some twelve thousand casualties4 ,if further evidence were necessary to prove that the ,french fought their hardest1 it could be found in the fact that whereas in almost every other battle1 from #affj to #agib1 there were deserters and prisoners by the thousand1 at ,malplaquet only #ejj of the ,french fell into the hands of the victors unwounded4 ,,malstatt-,,burbach1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian ,rhine province on the right bank of the ,saar 7,sarre71 which separates it from ,saarbrcken4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #ca1aie4 ,it lies in the midst of an important coal-mining and industrial district1 and is itself little more than a long and narrow row of manufactories and workmen's houses4 ,the largest factories are engaged in the production of iron1 steel and cement4 ,there is a large wharf on the river for the export of coal4 ,malstatt received municipal rights in #acba4 ,these1 however1 were afterwards resigned to the newer town of ,saarbrcken1 and in #ahah ,malstatt and ,burbach were two small villages with a joint population of only about #hjj4 ,about the middle of the century the population began to increase rapidly1 in consequence of the development of the mining industry of the district and the extension of the railway system1 and in #ahgd the two villages were united to form a town4 ,,malt 7,o4 ,eng41 mealt2 ,o4 ,sax41 malt2 ,o4 ,teut41 maltos2 ,mod4 ,ger41 ,malz2 ,scand41 malt2 probably derived from the ,sanskrit mrdu1 soft1 thus having reference to the fact that malt is raw grain rendered soft or tender71 the name given to grain in which germination has been caused to proceed to a certain stage and has then been arrested by the removal of water and the application of heat4 ,during this limited germination enzymes are developed 7see ,,fermentation71 and the constituents of the grain modified so that the finished malt1 when ground and submitted to the mashing process 7see ,,brewing71 differs from the original raw grain in that the greater portion dissolves4 ,this solubility is1 however1 a direct one to a slight extent only2 it is due for the most part to the action of the malt enzymes1 diastase1 c4 on the constituents of the grain1 the main portion of which are of themselves insoluble4 ,thus starch1 the main constituent of all graminaceous seeds1 probably exists in the same condition in raw grain and in malt4 ,when however the malt is mashed1 the starch is attacked by the enzyme diastase1 and converted by the process of hydrolysis into a mixture of soluble compounds1 e4g4 the crystalline sugar1 maltose1 and a number of gummy substances known as maltodextrins4 ,but to a certain extent starch and other carbohydrate substances are rendered directly soluble and diffusible during the malting process1 some of the products serving the respiratory needs of the growing germ1 others being assimilated by the plantlet and reconverted into reserve carbohydrates in the tissues of the germ and rootlets1 whilst the remaining portions are retained as such in the finished malt4 ,similarly certain of the nitrogenous constituents of the grain1 the protens1 are broken down and rendered soluble by proteolytic enzymes1 the products being assimilated to a certain extent by the germ and rootlets1 by the cells of which they are again built up into complex protens1 whilst others remain in their simplified form4 ,it is now known that proteolytic enzymes exist in finished malt1 and that1 when the mashing process is conducted under certain conditions1 these are able to degrade and render soluble some of the higher protens present in the malt4 ,when germination is allowed to proceed as it does when the grain is planted in the soil1 the whole of the contents are rendered soluble by degrees and in turn assimilated by the growing plantlet4 ,by the limited germination which constitutes the malting process1 however1 the balance of soluble compounds left in the finished malt is from #ae to #be of the total weight of the corn4 ,although other seeds of the natural order ,gramineae are occasionally malted1 the greater portion of malt is made from the various species of ,hordeum1 known by the name of barley 7q4v471 bigg1 or bere4 ,indeed ordinary beer derives its characteristic flavour to the greatest extent from barley malt4 ,a small proportion of malted oats or malted wheat is sometimes used in conjunction with barley malt for certain kinds of beer1 whilst rye1 maize1 and even rice are occasionally malted4 ,barley is1 however1 the grain best adapted for making malt intended for brewing beer1 and accordingly some space will be devoted to a description of those varieties of this grain which are used by the brewer4 ,barley belongs to the genus ,hordeum1 of which there are numerous species and varieties4 ,linnaeus and the earlier botanists recognized six species of cultivated barleys1 but modern botanists usually consider all cultivated barleys as belonging to one species to which the name ,h4 sativum has been given4 ,krnicke regards ,h4 spontaneum1 a very long thin-grained two-rowed barley 7see below7 which grows in the ,east1 as being the parent form2 but ,e4 ,s4 ,beaven inclines to the view that wild species of more than one form were originally used as food and subsequently cultivated4 ,the last-named author has drawn up a scheme of classification for the varieties and races of cultivated barleys4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,fig4 #d4 _/ ,,fig4 #a4--;,h4 hexastichum4 a4 ,three spikelets in situ on the rachis1 showing short internodes4 b4 ,spike4 ,median spikelets uppermost1 and with lower awns removed4 ,six-rowed c4 ,spike4 ,lateral spikelets uppermost1 and with lower awns barleys4 removed4 ,,fig4 #b4--;,h4 vulgare4 a4 ,three spikelets in situ on the rachis1 showing long internodes4 b4 ,spike4 ,median spikelets uppermost4 c4 ,spike4 ,lateral spikelets uppermost4 _/ ,,fig4 #c4--;,h4 zeocriton4 a1 d4 ,spikelets4 ,rachis edgewise1 showing short internodes4 b4 ,var4 zeocrithum 7fan barley74 ,spike converging4 ,two-rowed c4 ,var4 erectum 7,goldthorpe74 ,spike parallel4 barleys4 ,,fig4 #d4--;,h4 distichum4 a4 d4 ,spikelets4 ,rachis edgewise1 showing long internodes4 b4 ,var4 nutans 7,chevallier74 c4 ,ouchak barley4 ,figures #a-d redrawn from a paper by ,e4 ,s4 ,beaven in ,journ4 ,fed4 ,inst4 ,brewing 7#aijb71 #h4 #edb4 ,in an ear of barley the primary axis or rachis is divided into internodes of which there may be any number up to forty4 ,each internode bears three single-flowered spikelets arranged alternately on either side of the rachis4 ,in the six-rowed varieties the whole of these spikelets attain maturity1 whilst in the two-rowed varieties only one on each side of the rachis1 viz4 the median1 develops4 ,british beer is brewed principally from the malt made from home-grown two-rowed barleys4 ,of late years1 however1 it has been found advantageous to employ a proportion of malt made from the thinner and more husky foreign barleys1 mostly six-rowed varieties4 ,the corns of two-rowed barleys are as a rule plumper than those of six-rowed barleys4 ,the most favourite barley for malting purposes grown in the ,united ,kingdom is the narrow-eared two-rowed ,h4 distichum1 commonly known as ,chevallier1 from the name of the original cultivator1 the ,rev4 ,john ,chevallier4 ,of late years the quantity of barley of the so-called ,goldthorpe type 7,h4 zeocriton71 used for malting1 has increased4 ,the paleae or outer coverings of the corns of this variety are somewhat greasy in appearance1 and do not adhere so closely to the corn as in the ,chevallier4 ,the corns of ,goldthorpe barley possess a small dimple or transverse furrow near the basal end4 ,further the basal bristle or rachilla 7the prolongation of the axis or point from which the corn was originally developed7 is invariably covered with long hairs1 whilst in the case of ,chevallier it has generally very short hairs4 ,in the variety of ,chevallier known as ,archer1 however1 the rachilla has somewhat long hairs4 ,further the corns of ,chevallier barley lie nearly vertical1 that is almost parallel to the rachis1 whereas in ,goldthorpe they are spread out at a greater angle1 hence the name fan or peacock barley given to that variety commonly known as sprat4 ,it is believed by some brewers that ,goldthorpe barleys never yield malt of so high a quality as do ,chevallier barleys4 ,on the other hand1 when well matured1 ,goldthorpes work evenly and freely on the malting floors2 and from an agricultural point of view they have the advantage of standing up better against unfavourable weather conditions on account of their stouter straws4 ,numerous fresh varieties of barley are continually being introduced as a result of artificial cross-fertilization1 but cross-fertilization rarely if ever occurs naturally4 ,hungarian two-rowed barleys are excellent as regards quality1 and command a high price4 ,the so-called ,californian ,chevallier and ,chilean ,chevallier contain a certain admixture of the six-rowed ,h4 vulgare4 ,of the imported thin barleys may be mentioned ,brewing ,californian1 ,brewing ,chilean1 ,danubian and ,smyrna 7,yerli71 all for the most part six-rowed varieties2 also ,ouchak1 consisting principally of a two-rowed variety4 ,for the manufacture of grain spirit a malt of high diastatic activity is required1 and this is largely made from a very thin barley shipped from ,odessa4 ,in the common six-rowed ,english barley or ,scottish bere 7,h4 vulgare71 the two lateral rows of spikelets springing from one side of the rachis1 either partially or entirely intersect and overlap the alternate lateral spikelets which spring from the opposite side of the rachis4 ,this has given rise to the term four-rowed barley4 ,figs4 #a-d show some typical barleys in the ear4 ,the production of new varieties by cross-fertilization has of late years attained a degree of almost mathematical precision by the application of the law of inheritance first discovered by ,gregor ,mendel in #ahfe1 and brought to light in #aija independently by de ,vries1 ,correns and ,tschermak4 ,constitution of ,barley4--,a grain of barley is shuttle-shaped2 the end containing the germ which was originally attached to the rachis is known as the proximal end1 whilst the opposite end of the corn is called the distal end4 ,a deep furrow runs down the more convex side1 which is accordingly denoted the ventral side1 the opposite side being distinguished as the dorsal side4 ,within the ventral furrow at the proximal end is the rachilla already referred to4 ,the skin or husk of a barleycorn consists of two paleae1 one adhering to the dorsal side 7the palea inferior7 and the other to the ventral side 7the palea superior72 the former overlaps the edges of the latter4 ,the awn or beard is merely an elongation of the palea inferior4 ,if the two paleae are removed from a barleycorn after soaking it in water1 it will be seen that there are other skins completely enveloping the embryo and endosperm4 ,these are the true skins1 and are known as the pericarp and the testa respectively4 ,it may here be mentioned that ,a4 ,j4 ,brown has shown recently that the embryo and endosperm of a barleycorn are enclosed in a semi-permeable membrane1 i4e4 one which allows the passage of water to the interior of the corn1 but not of certain salts and acids4 ,this property appears to be associated with one of the layers of the testa4 ,next to these skins will be seen the triple layer of thick-walled square-shaped aleurone cells4 ,the histology of the barleycorn is best studied by the examination of sections under the microscope4 ,the grain consists of two main portions1 the embryo or germ1 and the endosperm1 the storehouse of reserve materials for the growing plant4 ,the accompanying illustrations show portions of longitudinal sections of a barleycorn magnified to different degrees4 ,on examining fig4 #e1 which represents a section of the germ end of a grain of barley cut through the ventral furrow1 it will be noticed that the rudimentary leaves1 stem and roots are distinguishable4 ,the embryo lies embedded in a mass of cells1 the part dividing it from the endosperm being known as the scutellum4 ,special note should be taken of the elongated cells known as the absorptive epithelial layer1 which has certain very important functions to fulfil during the process of germination1 notably in feeding the embryo when it begins to develop into a young plant4 ,next to this1 actually between the scutellum and the endosperm1 will be seen a layer of empty cells4 ,these at one time in the history and the development of the corn contained starch granules1 but this starch was absorbed during its later development by the embryo4 ,it will be observed further that the endosperm is filled with a network of thin-walled cells closely packed with starch granules1 and smaller granules of proten matter 7fig4 #f74 ,nearest the skin will be seen the triple layer of aleurone cells already referred to 7fig4 #g74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,median longitudinal section of a barleycorn showing the germ and its appendages4 a1 ,rudimentary leaves or plumules2 b1 ,rudimentary stem2 c1 ,rudimentary root2 d1 ,empty starch cells of the endosperm2 e1 ,absorptive epithelial layer2 f1 ,compressed layer of empty cells2 g1 ,starch cells 7filled74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,section showing absorptive epithelial layer more highly magnified4 d1 ,walls of starch cells2 e1 ,epithelial layer2 f1 ,compressed layer of empty cells2 g1 ,cells filled with starch granules2 h1 ,cells of the scutellum4 ,germination4--,the barleycorn in its resting stage is in a state which may be described as one of dormant vitality2 it respires very slowly and thus loses weight during storage4 ,the best and driest barleys are said to lose #a4c of their weight in the first year1 #j4i in the second1 and #j4e in the third4 ,the loss is considerably more with coarse and damp samples4 ,when the grain is steeped this dormant vitality gives place to that complicated series of processes comprised under the general term germination4 ,when germination begins1 enzymes are secreted1 and these act on the reserve materials1 starch and protens of the endosperm1 converting them into simpler compounds1 capable of diffusing to various parts of the growing germ4 ,following this1 starch and protens are re-formed1 the former being deposited in the tissues of the germ and in the cells of the scutellum1 which previously were almost free from starch2 the proten matter deposited in the latter disappears to a considerable extent1 and the protoplasmic content of the cells assumes a very granular appearance4 ,the pointed mass of cells constituting the root-sheath is pushed forward by the root which protrudes through the base of the grain4 ,it is at this stage that the barley is said by the maltster to chit4 ,after the first rootlet has broken through the ends of the sheath1 it is followed by others4 ,the cotyledonary sheath begins to elongate on the third or fourth day of germination and ruptures the true covering of the seed2 it then grows upwards between this and the husk and forms the acrospire or spire of the maltster4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,section showing the aleurone layer4 g1 ,starch cells2 i1 ,aleurone layer2 k1 ,layers which collectively constitute the husk4 ,figs4 #e-g from ,sykes ,ling1 ,principles and ,practice of ,brewing 7#aijg71 ,charles ,griffin ,co41 ,ltd4 ,according to ,brown and ,morris1 when the first rootlet is breaking through the sheath1 starch begins to appear in the tissues of the grain1 also in the protoplasm of those cells which are nearest the epithelial layer1 and it gradually invades the deeper-seated cells4 ,further the cellulose walls of the endosperm1 situated immediately above the secretory layer1 are partially dissolved1 the dissolved matter passing into the scutellum1 there to be transformed into starch4 ,brown and ,morris state that this process gradually extends to the cellulose walls of the endosperm1 and until these are affected there is no evidence of any solvent action on the starch granules themselves4 ,thus according to these authors the first enzyme to be formed is one which dissolves cell walls1 and it was consequently termed by them a cytohydrolyst4 ,they assert further that the so-called mealy or modified condition1 which the maltster desires to bring about to the fullest degree1 depends on the extent to which the cell walls have been affected1 and they enter into a minute description of the entire disappearance of these during the malting process4 ,on the other hand1 ,j4 ,grss has pointed out that the action which takes place on the cell walls of the endosperm during germination does not consist in their complete solution4 ,schulze has shown that these cell walls consist of two carbohydrates1 an araban and a xylan4 ,grss states that the araban is completely dissolved1 whilst the xylan is more or less unattacked4 ,the cell walls become1 however1 transparent so that they can only be seen in sections which have been stained2 ,brown and ,morris examined unstained sections4 ,the writer 7,a4 ,r4 ,ling7 has proved that the cell wall is present in the most friable and well modified finished malt4 ,condition4--,barley is bought in the open market solely on the evidence of certain external signs1 and judgment can only be acquired by long experience4 ,the corns should be plump1 even in size1 and the colour should be uniform from end to end4 ,the sample should have a sweet odour1 and it should be dry to the touch4 ,the presence of light or weevilled corns may be detected by the fact that they float in water4 ,careless threshing or dressing is responsible for much damage done to barley4 ,in this way many of the corns may be broken1 have the palcae partly stripped off or portions removed along with the awn4 ,all broken and dead corns are prone to become mouldy on the malting floors1 the contagion thus presented becoming general4 ,e4 ,r4 ,moritz drew attention in #ahie to the ill effects of close dressing1 and more recently 7#aije7 the matter has been brought before the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society1 chiefly through ,montagu ,baird1 who with ,c4 ,h4 ,babington was instrumental in inducing the ,board of ,agriculture to publish a leaflet recommending more careful methods of threshing barley4 ,close dressing was at one time practised as a means of raising the bushel weight1 and thus giving a fictitious value to the barley4 ,immature barley feels cold to the hand1 has a greenish-yellow colour1 and1 when dry1 a starved wrinkled appearance4 ,over-ripeness in barley is distinguished by a white dead appearance of the corn4 ,mature or dry grains slip through the fingers more readily than unripe or damp ones4 ,the contents of the endosperm should present a white friable or mealy appearance when the corns are bitten or cut in two with a penknife4 ,the condition of the grain may be determined by means of a mechanical cutter1 which cuts a certain number of corns 7fifty or more7 at one time4 ,some cutters are constructed to cut the corns transversely1 others to cut them longitudinally4 ,the so-called transparency test may be used for the same purpose4 ,it is carried out in an apparatus known as the diaphanoscope1 which consists of a box fitted with a sliding tray1 furnished with a certain number of shuttle-shaped holes 7usually #ejj71 each of such a size as just to hold a barleycorn longitudinally4 ,into the portion of the box below this tray an electric lamp is placed1 and the corns are looked at from above4 ,thoroughly mealy corns are opaque1 whilst steely corns are transparent4 ,when certain portions of a corn are steely1 these present the appearance of lakes4 ,by this means the percentage of mealy1 steely1 or half steely corns in a sample may readily be estimated4 ,e4 ,prior points out that steeliness of barley is of two kinds1 one of which disappears after the grain has been steeped and dried1 and therefore does not necessarily influence the malting value of the sample1 and the other which is permanent1 and therefore retards the modification of the corn4 ,he proposed to determine what he called the coefficient of mellowness of a sample of barley by means of the formula3-- 7,m#a - ,m7#ajj ,a ----------- ,m1 #ajj - ,m in which ,a is the degree of mellowness1 ,m is the percentage of mealy corns in the original barley1 and ,m#a is the percentage of mealy corns after steeping and drying the barley4 ,prior points out that1 generally speaking1 the degree of mellowness varies inversely as the proten content4 ,the physical differences between steely and mealy grains were first investigated by ,johansen1 who arrived at the conclusion that mealiness is always accompanied by the presence of air spaces in the endosperm4 ,munro and ,beaven confirmed and extended this4 ,their conclusions are as follow3 ,mealy grains have a lower specific gravity than steely grains1 and contain a larger amount of interstitial air4 ,the total nitrogen content of mealy grains is less than that of steely grains4 ,steely grains contain a relatively high proportion of nitrogenous substances soluble 7a7 in #e salt solution1 and 7b7 in alcohol of specific gravity #j4i4 ,mealy barley modifies better than steely during germination4 ,the process of drying damp and under-matured barley intact at #ajj ,f4 produced an apparent mellowing or maturation4 ,other things being equal1 maturation1 which is physiologically a post-ripening process1 is correlated with the mealy appearance of the endosperm4 ,h4 ,t4 ,brown and his collaborators point out that thin sections of steely corns when examined under the microscope no longer exhibit a translucent appearance1 but show the mealy properties as completely as if they had been cut from a mealy grain1 and they suggest that in a steely corn the whole of the endosperm is under a state of tensile stress which cannot be maintained in the thin sections4 ,if1 however1 a thin section of a steely barley be cemented to a slide with ,canada balsam and then pared away with a razor1 steeliness and translucency may be preserved even in the thinnest sections4 ,the mealy appearance in the endosperm of barley is assumed to be a direct consequence of the formation of interspaces around the cell-contents and within the cell walls4 ,under ordinary conditions it is conjectured that these interspaces are filled with air1 but it is pointed out that they can also be produced under circumstances which suggest that they are at times vacuous or partly so4 ,according to the last-mentioned authors they appear to originate from a system of stresses and strains induced within the endosperm by its gradual loss of water1 a break of continuity taking place which gives rise to these interspaces when the cohesive power of the heterogeneous cell-contents falls below a certain point4 ,it is further suggested by them that the most important factor in producing the stresses and strains is probably the shrinkage of the starch granules as their water content is reduced from1 say1 #dj to about #ae4 ,it is pointed out1 however1 that actual discontinuity in the cell-contents can only take place when the tensile strength of the protoplasmic matrix in which the starch granules are embedded has been surpassed1 and this being so it might be anticipated that those cells which contain the larger amount of proten material would probably best resist the internal stresses and strains1 a deduction in close agreement with observed facts1 steely grains being as a rule richer in proten than mealy grains4 ,brown and his co-workers determine the coefficient of mealiness of a barley as follows3 ,five hundred corns are cut transversely in a corn cutter and the percentage of mealy1 half mealy and steely corns is noted4 ,the number #ajj is taken to represent complete mealiness1 #a complete steeliness1 and #ej the intermediate class4 ,if the percentage of each class be multiplied by its special value1 and the sum of the products divided by #ajj1 the result is the coefficient of mealiness4 ,by steeping and drying a very steely ,scottish barley1 the coefficient of mealiness was raised from #bi4g to #hg4a1 whilst concurrently the specific gravity fell from #a4dag to #a4bhi4 ,barley even of the same kind varies widely in its chemical composition1 but on an average the proximate constituents of ,british malting barleys be within the following limits3-- ,moisture #ah --#ab per cent4 ,nitrogenous matters expressed as protens #h --#ae ,fat #b -- #b4e ,starch #fj --#fe ,sugars #a4e-- #b4j ,gums #a4g-- #b4j ,fibre 7cellulose7 #e -- #g ,ash #b -- #b4e ,any sample of barley which contains more than #bj of moisture would be considered damp4 ,the late ,professor ,lintner expressed the view several years ago that a good malting barley should not contain more than #aj of proten1 but ,r4 ,wahl asserts that in ,america six-rowed barleys containing a far higher percentage of proten are used successfully1 indeed preferably1 for malting purposes4 ,the only precise knowledge we possess of the proten compounds of barley is due to the researches of ,t4 ,b4 ,osborne4 ,according to this observer1 barley contains the under-mentioned compounds of this class in the following proportions3-- ,soluble in water _/ ,leucosin 7albumin7 #j4cj per cent4 ,proteose _/ ,soluble in salt solution3 ,edestin 7globulin7 #a4ie ,soluble in #ge alcohol _/ ,horden #d4jj ,insoluble proten #d4ej ----- ,total #aj4ge ,it should be pointed out here that the above are only average values for the particular samples of barley investigated4 ,undoubtedly the nitrogenous constituents of different barleys vary widely in nature as well as in amount4 ,raw barley contains enzymes1 thus diastase of translocation1 so called by ,horace ,t4 ,brown and ,g4 ,h4 ,morris1 and catalase 7,h4 van ,laer74 ,proteolytic enzymes appear only to arise with the beginning of germination2 but it has been asserted that raw barley contains proenzymes 7zymogens71 which can be rendered active by treatment with dilute lactic acid at an appropriate temperature4 ,the action of the diastase of raw barley on starch has been studied by ,julian ,l4 ,baker4 ,barley should not be cut until it is properly ripe1 but over-ripeness is much more to be guarded against by the maltster than premature cutting1 as it is accompanied by a loss in germinative power4 ,moreover1 unripe corn may to a certain extent be matured in stack1 whilst a great improvement in germinative capacity is frequently produced by sweating4 ,very wet seasons are prejudicial to the ripening of the grain1 and when the latter is stacked in too moist a condition it is apt to become what is known as mow burnt4 ,especially is this the case with barleys containing large percentages of nitrogen and of high enzymatic activities4 ,such barleys are denoted warm by ,m4 ,delbrck from their tendency to heat when stored in a moist condition4 ,the effect of this heating is exhibited in the corns becoming black and discoloured at the tips2 they are then said to be magpied4 ,even in an otherwise dry season a large amount of rain during harvest causes the corns to become weathered1 whilst some of them begin germinating and rot4 ,at the same time heavy dews at night whilst the barley lies cut in the field1 or even a sprinkling of rain1 assists in mellowing the grain1 which often in consequence works the more freely on the malting floors4 ,properly harvested barley is all the better for remaining in stack for two or three months1 as was the practice in former years2 if1 however1 it has been stacked too wet the sooner it is broken down the better4 ,it is difficult to give any specific test for ripeness1 but a series of observations has been made by ,h4 ,t4 ,brown and ,f4 ,escombe4 ,samples of barley were taken from the field on the #bjth1 #bdth and #bith of ,july1 and on the #bnd1 #fth and #ajth of ,august1 and preserved in spirit so that they remained in the same state as when they were gathered4 ,sections were then cut of these corns1 when it was found that the progress of maturation is attended by deformation and ultimate disintegration of the cell nuclei4 ,the change which is denoted by the term nuclear senescence is said to begin in the starch-containing cells1 near the periphery of the corn1 immediately underlying the layer next to the aleurone layer4 ,this deformation is followed by complete disintegration of the nucleus1 and at the end of seven or eight days nearly the whole of the endosperm has been involved4 ,brown and ,escombe state that when this nuclear test is properly applied it stamps as immature those corns in a sample which are manifestly unripe owing to premature desiccation as well as those in which the ratio of nitrogen to carbohydrate is unduly high1 owing to an excess of nitrogenous manure in the soil1 or to sparser sowing with its consequent reduction of root competition4 ,this method1 interesting though it be1 is not fitted for practical use1 and the agriculturist must rely as heretofore upon empirical methods for deciding whether or not the grain has attained ripeness or maturity4 ,the bushel weight is a useful criterion in arriving at an opinion regarding the value of a sample of barley2 but in basing judgment upon this factor regard must be paid to the fact already mentioned that if the grains be dressed closely the bushel weight is increased4 ,the reason of this is that with the removal of the awns the corns pack more closely together4 ,the best ,british malting barleys should weigh #eb-ef lb4 per bushel1 the standard weight for malting barleys being #ef lb4 ,during the storage of barley access of air is necessary1 otherwise the grain dies from asphyxiation4 ,sound barley after being kiln-dried retains its vitality for a number of years2 but the statement that the corns found in the ,egyptian mummy cases1 in which they had remained for several thousands of years1 were still capable of germination1 is contrary to modern experience4 ,moisture must also be carefully excluded1 as it initiates germination in a few cells only of the endosperm and causes heating4 ,a constant repetition of wetting such as may take place on account of alterations of the atmospheric temperature1 which causes moisture to be deposited1 in the form of dew1 may ultimately destroy the vitality and foster the growth and development of mould fungi which usually grow on broken and damaged corns4 ,in this connexion the advantage of screening and sweating of barley before storing it will be apparent 7see below74 ,an immense amount of damage is caused to the grain1 during storage1 by various insects1 one of the most destructive of these being the common weevil 7,calandra granaria74 ,when fully developed this insect measures 7#a_/f7th to 7#a_/h7th of an inch in length1 and is of a bright chestnut colour4 ,the larvae are fleshy legless grubs1 shorter than the perfect insect1 with a series of tubercles along each side of the body2 the head is round with strong jaws4 ,the pupa is white1 clear and transparent1 showing the form of the future weevil4 ,the female bores a hole in the grain with her snout and deposits an egg4 ,the larva when hatched lives on the contents of the grain and undergoes its changes therein4 ,windisch asserts that only barley which has ripened in the granary is attacked by weevil4 ,grain which is only slightly attacked should be kilned at a temperature of #abb ,f41 which destroys the weevil in all stages of development4 ,to detect weevil in a sample of barley1 the grain should be spread out on a sheet of white paper in bright sunlight4 ,if weevils are present they soon appear1 and betake themselves to a position outside the sunlight1 to which they are averse4 ,treatment of the grain with carbon bisulphide has been suggested as a means of destroying weevil2 even if efficacious1 however1 such a process could not be recommended on account of its danger1 carbon bisulphide being highly inflammable4 ,the only practical means of ridding a granary or shop of weevil is to clear out all the grain and leave it empty for a year or more4 ,the vitality of barley may be determined by causing a sample to germinate in any of the well-known forms of apparatus devised for that purpose1 and counting the percentage of germinating and idle corns4 ,the germinative capacity of a sample of barley may frequently be raised by sweating 7see below71 which1 as already mentioned1 brings about a kind of artificial maturation4 ,malting4--,there are two systems of malting used in ,england3 floor malting and pneumatic or drum malting4 ,these systems will be described separately4 ,a floor malting consists of a rectangular building of several storeys1 having the cisterns at one end and the kilns at the other4 ,the uppermost floor is devoted to barley4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,longitudinal section of #bjj quarter malting at ,mortlake4 7,julian ,l4 ,baker1 architect47 ,figure #h shows a longitudinal section of ,messrs ,watney1 ,combe1 ,reid ,co4's #bjj quarter malting at ,mortlake4 ,the barley is carried to the top of the building by the elevator ,a1 where the screening and dressing machinery is situated4 ,after leaving these machines the grain is conveyed on bands to the barley floors ,b and ,c4 ,the floor ,c contains also the steeping cisterns4 ,the six working floors are ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 ,k4 ,the floors are ventilated by louvres1 ,n1 ,n1 ,n4 ,the cisterns are connected to the floors by means of plugs4 ,the pieces1 as they are termed1 of germinating barley are gradually worked along the floors to the kilns ,m1 ,m1 on to which they are loaded by rotary bands4 ,the fire-places ,o1 ,o1 are arranged so that the draught may be easily controlled4 ,the hot air and products of combustion pass up the shafts ,p1 ,p1 to the hot-air chamber ,r1 ,r1 where they strike the baffle plates ,s1 ,s4 ,these plates disperse the hot air and gases evenly beneath the kiln floors ,t1 ,t1 through the green malt4 ,after drying and curing1 the malt is allowed to cool and is then carried by bands to the floor ,u1 where by suitable machinery the coombs or rootlets are removed4 ,the finished malt is stored in the bins ,v1 ,v1 ,v4 ,on arrival at the malting the barley has to be put through the following operations seriatim3 receiving1 hoisting and weighing1 rough screening1 drying and sweating1 storing until required for use1 screening1 grading and removing broken corns1 steeping1 couching1 flooring1 withering1 drying and curing1 dressing and polishing1 storing1 weighing1 sacking and discharging the finished malt4 ,in sweating barley the temperature should not be allowed to rise above #abj ,f42 it is usually conducted at #ajj ,f42 and subsequently the barley should be stored for some weeks before it is steeped4 ,the capacity of a malting is described by the number of quarters which are put through it every four days4 ,a fifty quarter malting does not merely mean that the cisterns have a capacity of fifty quarters1 but that this quantity of barley goes through the house every four days4 ,the average time the germinating barley is on the floors is twelve days1 and1 as a rule1 kilning occupies four days4 ,if1 as sometimes happens1 the malt has to be kept on the floors thirteen1 fourteen1 fifteen days1 or even longer1 the malting is not being worked at the capacity under which it is described1 and the kilns may remain unused for a day or more4 ,conversely1 when the malt is loaded at less than twelve days1 a day or two has to be missed in steeping4 ,in the former case when the kilns are not being used for drying and curing malt1 advantage may be taken to utilize them for sweating barley4 ,steeping cisterns were formerly rectangular vessels1 of slate1 brick or cement1 from which the barley had to be discharged by shovelling it out4 ,the forms approved most at the present day are conical and constructed of iron2 they have arrangements at the apex of the cone1 the lower portion1 for discharging the grain by gravitation4 ,the steeping period ranges from #dh to #gj hours2 it varies according to the kind of barley1 and the time of the year4 ,in some of the older maltings there are no arrangements for heating the steep water1 and in the winter steeping has occasionally to be performed with water at a temperature near its freezing-point4 ,steeping should be carried out at a temperature as near as possible to #ee and not higher than #fj ,f4 ,the usual practice is to fill the cistern up to a certain height with water and throw the barley into it1 stirring it until it is about level2 the heavy corns will then sink directly to the bottom1 whilst the light corns and refuse float on the surface and may be skimmed off4 ,during the time the barley remains in the cistern it is usual to change the steep water two or three times1 generally at intervals of twelve hours or tides4 ,the advantage of this is not merely to keep the grain fresh and sweet1 but to bring it into contact with the air during the time it is taking up water4 ,aration of the steep has long been recognized in ,germany as promoting germination1 and several arrangements are on the market enabling air to be passed through the grain while it is in the cistern4 ,it has been recommended by ,graham1 ,stopes1 ,moritz and ,morris1 and experimental evidence as to its beneficial effects has been published by ,windisch1 ,bleisch1 ,will1 and ,baker and ,dick4 ,when the corn is steep ripe it contains some #fj of water4 ,steeping does not consist1 however1 merely in the imbibition of a certain amount of water2 in order to bring about germination this water must remain within the corn a certain length of time4 ,thus1 although it is quite possible to force the necessary amount of water into the grain in less than the #dh-gj hours usually taken up by the steeping process1 the grain is not steep-ripe until certain changes initiated by the water have taken place1 and these require time for their completion4 ,the following average data are useful to remember in connexion with the steeping process3-- ,amount of water in steep-ripe barley 7about7 #fj4 ,matter removed from barley during steeping 7about7 #a4e4 ,increase in volume of barley due to water absorption 7about7 #ah-bj4 ,there has been much discussion as to the influence of saline matters in water on the steeping process4 ,the late ,professor ,lintner stated that common salt in water tended to extract the nitrogenous constituents of the grain1 but impeded its germination4 ,mills and ,pettigrew found that waters containing calcium salts extracted a minimum of nitrogenous compounds from the barley2 they also came to the conclusion that the esteem in which the ,lichfield water is held for steeping purposes is due to the presence of nitrates which1 they assert1 have a stimulating effect on the subsequent germination of the grain4 ,the writer has added lime-water to the extent of one-third of the total volume of water at the first change1 believing it to promote regularity of germination4 ,bearing in mind1 however1 the observations of ,adrian ,j4 ,brown1 that the barleycorn is enclosed in a membrane permeable to water but impermeable to most salts1 it is difficult to see how the saline constituents of water can have any effect except in removing matter from the external portions of the grain and on those corns which are broken4 ,the apparent beneficial effect of lime-water in the steep is probably entirely due to the removal of matters from the husks or paleae4 ,malting floors may be constructed of cement1 tiles or slate1 the two former being preferable to the latter4 ,ford1 in #ahdi1 recommended #bjj sq4 ft4 per quarter of barley steeped as the area of the working floors1 and he was quite convinced of the necessity of allowing ample floor room1 so that the grain could be worked on the slow1 cool system4 ,subsequently1 however1 maltsters reduced their floor area1 and put the grain rapidly through the malting1 thus producing what is termed forced malt4 ,this kind of malt was1 however1 condemned by practical brewers1 and a chemical test whereby forcing could be detected having been devised by ,e4 ,r4 ,moritz and ,g4 ,h4 ,morris1 maltsters have been compelled again to increase the area of their working floors4 ,at the present time the approved area may be placed at #age-bjj sq4 ft4 per quarter of barley steeped4 ,the area is1 however1 largely ruled by the kind of barley to be malted4 ,after the barley has been thrown out of the cistern it is made up in a rectangular heap #af-bj in4 deep1 called the couch2 the object of this is to enable it to gather heat and so start germinating4 ,it usually remains in couch for #ab-bd hours1 until in fact the interior portion of the heap registers a temperature of about #fj ,f4 ,during the days of the malt tax the exciseman gauged the quantity of the barley while it was in the couch4 ,after couching the barley is spread thinly and evenly on the floor1 forming what is known as the young floor or ,no4 #a piece4 ,the first visible sign of germination is the sprouting of the rootlet1 termed chitting1 and this occurs either while the grain is on the couch or on the young floor4 ,as already mentioned1 it may be quickened by aerating the grain in the cistern4 ,from the time the barley is first cast out of the cistern up to the stage of the young floor1 or ,no4 #a piece1 it has a pleasant ethereal odour resembling apples4 ,drs ,thomson1 ,hope and ,coventry stated in the earlier part of the #aith century that they distilled spirits from germinating barley at this stage4 ,in the light of our present knowledge it would not be surprising if alcoholic fermentation were proved to occur within the grain at this stage1 since intramolecular or anaerobic respiration in certain vegetables has been found to be due to alcoholic fermentation4 ,the thickness at which the young floor is spread depends upon the outside temperature and the nature of the barley4 ,if the weather be warm1 or if there be a tendency for the barley to heat1 the piece must be spread all the thinner4 ,at this stage the grain loses its external wet appearance4 ,when spread too thickly the grain will begin to sweat1 and the rootlets will be thrown out suddenly and unevenly4 ,as a rule1 under these circumstances1 the rootlets will be long and thin1 when they are said to be wild4 ,a piece which has been allowed to get into this condition must at once be spread thinner4 ,if the sweating has not continued long1 the harm done may be confined to increased loss by respiration4 ,the young floor is usually turned with a plough twice during twelve hours1 and it may be forked between whiles1 but no hard and fast rule can be laid down as to when this is necessary2 it must be left to the maltster's judgment1 as it depends entirely on what is going on within the grain4 ,the object of turning is in the first place to aerate the grain and freshen it1 secondly to check excessive rise of temperature1 and thirdly to promote evenness of growth4 ,too frequent turning is not to be advised4 ,after remaining four days on the young floor three or four rootlets should have appeared1 and the acrospire should have begun to grow up the back of the corn4 ,the apple-like odour of the piece then gives place to one resembling that of the common rush1 and this should continue the whole time that the malt remains on the floor4 ,on the fifth day the piece is next moved to ,no4 #b position1 a stage nearer the kiln4 ,it is here that sprinkling is resorted to when necessary4 ,the amount of sprinkling and the time it is given cannot be exactly prescribed4 ,the amount may vary from two to five gallons per quarter1 and it should only be given when the rootlets1 which ought to be short and curly1 and five or more in number1 show signs of losing their freshness4 ,if an excessive amount of sprinkling be given forced growth ensues4 ,it is preferable not to add the whole of the water at one time1 but to divide it over two lots2 and immediately after the piece has been sprinkled it should be thoroughly and carefully mixed1 otherwise some of the grain will receive an undue proportion of water4 ,when all the sprinkling water has been given to the piece1 which as a rule should not be done later than at the sixth or seventh day of flooring1 the temperature should be kept down to about #ee ,f4 by turning4 ,too frequent turning may1 however1 detach the rootlet1 and it may cause the grain to lose its vitality prematurely1 so that growth of the acrospire stops4 ,by about the eighth day of flooring the acrospire should be about three-quarters up the corn4 ,after this the germinating corn is moved forward to ,no4 #c piece1 which is at first spread as thinly on the floors as in the previous pieces4 ,here it gradually dries and incipient withering of the rootlets sets in4 ,the only treatment which is now given to the grain is to heap it up thicker and thicker by degrees until it is ready for loading on the kiln4 ,this increase in thickness of the piece 7now called the old piece7 should not be too sudden1 especially if the grain be fresh in appearance and contain a large quantity of water4 ,when the piece is thickened up to say #aj in4 in depth1 while it is in a very moist condition1 heating and sweating take place1 with additional growth of acrospire and rootlet4 ,under such forcing conditions a large production of sugar and degradation of the protens will take place4 ,when1 however1 the moisture has been gradually reduced before thickening up1 the rootlet dies off2 and although increase of temperature may occur1 this is accompanied by little or no further growth of the acrospire1 action being confined to the mellowing of the grain by the enzymes4 ,when the malt is ready for loading on the kiln it should be possible to break down the contents of each corn between the thumb and finger4 ,opinions differ as to what the final temperature on the withering floor should be4 ,if the moisture content of the malt be about #ej1 the piece must be kept thin to avoid sweating4 ,but under these conditions mellowing does not occur1 hence the necessity of reducing the moisture content gradually after the last sprinkling water has been given4 ,when the process has been conducted properly the temperature of the old piece may be allowed to rise as high as #gj ,f4 during the six hours previous to loading4 ,the moisture content of the green malt when loaded should not be much above #dj4 ,the endosperm of green malt which is ready for the kiln should be soft and mealy1 and should not exude moisture when pressed between the thumb-nails1 but should crumble and disintegrate to a chalky mass having little or no adhesiveness4 ,the foregoing observations are not to be regarded as hard and fast rules1 but they are simply intended to give some indications of the malting process when it proceeds on normal lines2 it may be that on account of the presence of damaged corns the piece begins to develop mould by about the tenth day1 and it then has to be kept thin and sometimes even loaded on kiln prematurely4 ,the malt made for grain distillers1 in which a high diastatic activity is required1 is manufactured on quite different lines from those above indicated4 ,it is often sprinkled late1 and loaded on kiln often in a sodden condition4 ,in some cases sprinkling on kiln is resorted to1 but it is doubtful if this leads to the desired object4 ,other things being equal1 the smaller the corns--i4e4 the greater number of embryos in a given weight--the higher the diastatic activity of the malt4 ,in selecting a barley for the production of highly diastatic malt1 the diastatic power of the original raw grain is a factor of great importance4 ,kilning4--,when loaded on kiln1 malt intended for brewing ale and stout is1 if properly withered1 in a moribund condition2 nevertheless1 during the first stages of the kilning process a certain amount of vital activity is manifested1 and the malt undergoes mellowing by the action of enzymes on the contents of the endosperm4 ,if the malt be loaded while the rootlets appear fresh on account of the presence of too much moisture1 rapid growth of the acrospire ensues1 giving rise to overshot corns1 known in ,germany as hussars4 ,to check this the moisture must be rapidly removed by the passage of large volumes of air through the malt4 ,but under such circumstances mellowing does not occur4 ,the ideal conditions of kilning are when the malt has been properly withered on the floors before loading1 and1 assuming that drying and curing occupy four days1 that #be-cj of the moisture be removed very gradually1 this occupying the first three days1 at the end of which the malt is said to be hand-dry4 ,the thickness at which the malt is spread on the kiln should not exceed #g-h in41 and until hand-dry 7that is to say1 reduced to a moisture content of #ab-ae7 it should not be turned2 if moved at all 7and that only is necessary when reek occurs71 it should only be lightly forked4 ,the rate at which the temperature is raised depends largely on the kind of malt to be made and the construction of the kiln4 ,if high flavour and colour are required1 these are produced by keeping the malt for several hours near a temperature of #afj ,f4 while it still contains #ab-ae of moisture4 ,if more than this amount of moisture be present when the temperature reaches the limit just mentioned1 the conditions known as stewing would obtain1 with the result that forced malt would be produced4 ,a certain amount of colour is produced at the final temperature to which the malt is raised2 but when such means are relied upon for the production of the greater part of the colour1 reduction of extract and deficiency of flavour follow1 the colour being then almost exclusively the result of caramelization of the carbohydrates4 ,the so-called curing stage constitutes the last part of the kilning process1 and the malt must then be turned frequently to ensure uniformity of action4 ,mechanical turners are exceedingly useful for this purpose4 ,curing in a drum1 as in the so-called pneumatic malting process 7see below71 also effects satisfactory curing4 ,the following table will give an idea of the kilning temperatures usually employed for the three kinds of malt mentioned1 but it must be remembered that these temperatures are largely regulated by the construction of the kiln and the amount of draught available4 ,in this connexion it may be mentioned that the final curing temperature is not necessarily a criterion of the tint of the malt4 ,a malt may have been finished off at a very high temperature and still be a pale malt1 provided the moisture percentage has been sufficiently reduced in the initial stages of kilning4 ,running ,pale ,malt4 ,ale ,malt4 ,amber ,malt4 #ast day temp4 #ij-ajj ,f4 #ij-ajj ,f4 #ij-ajj ,f4 #bnd #ajj-abj #ajj-abj #ajj-acj #crd #abj-acj7aj hrs47 #abj-acj7 #f hrs47 #acj-aej7 #f hrs47 #crd #acj-ahj7 #h 7 #acj-aej7ab 7 #aej-afj7ab 7 #crd #ahj-aij7 #f 7 #aej-ahj7 #f 7 #afj-ahj7 #f 7 #dth drop to #agj7ab 7 #ahj-aij7ab 7 #ahj-bjj7ab 7 #dth #aij-bjj7 #f 7 #bjj-bbj7 #f 7 #dth drop to #ahj7 #f 7 drop to #aij7 #f 7 ,the average laboratory values obtained from malts of the descriptions after about two months' storage should be as follows3-- ,running ,pale ,malt4 ,ale ,malt4 ,amber ,malt4 ,extract per standard quarter of #ccf lb4 #ie-ih lb4 #id-if lb4 #id-if lb4 ,moisture about #b4j in each case ,diastatic activity 7,lintner7 #cj-ce #bj-cj #h-aj ,tint 7,lovibond #eb series neutral7 #c-e #f-h #bj-be ,metabolic ,changes4--,all through the malting process metabolic changes are proceeding1 in which both carbohydrates and protens are concerned4 ,in its resting stage the embryo of a barleycorn is generally free from starch2 as soon as germination sets in1 however1 starch appears in the scutellum1 while the amount of sucrose there present increases1 these being apparently formed from maltose originating from the action of diastase on the starch of the endosperm4 ,sucrose also augments in the aleurone layer1 but starch is never formed in the aleurone cells4 ,these changes occur when the malt is first loaded on kiln2 indeed1 at no part of the malting process is there greater physiological activity4 ,kilning has been specially studied by ,j4 ,grss1 who divides the process into four stages1 the first being that at which the temperature limit is #aac ,f4 ,it is characterized by a continuation of the living processes1 especially growth of the acrospire1 which1 as already stated1 proceeds too far if the malt be loaded too wet4 ,in any case the rootlet dies away4 ,the metabolism of the carbohydrates already mentioned is accompanied by that of the nitrogenous constituents1 the reserve proten of the sub-aleurone layer being attacked by proteolytic enzymes and broken down into simpler compounds4 ,this is a most important matter from the point of view of the brewing value of barley1 for the degradation products of the protens are necessary constituents of wort as yeast food4 ,moreover1 unless proper modification of these proten bodies occurs it is impossible to produce tender malt4 ,a barley which contains a high percentage of reserve proten is as a rule unfitted for malting purposes1 and indeed1 the higher the proten content the greater the difficulty the maltster experiences in dealing with it4 ,proten hydrolysis requires the presence of a certain amount of moisture1 and if this be removed too rapidly by a forced draught at the early stages of kilning the proteolytic enzymes cannot perform their function4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the grain be loaded in too moist a condition1 and the temperature be raised too quickly1 the proteolytic enzymes lose their activity and the protens remain for the most part unattacked4 ,when germination is allowed to proceed on the kiln too great degradation of the proten occurs1 and the malt is liable to produce fretty beers1 on account of the presence of an excessive amount of nitrogenous nutritive matter1 which leads to the development of disease organisms4 ,the second stage of the kilning process1 according to ,grss1 is that at which the temperatures range from #aac to #afg ,f4 ,the life of the corn is now suspended1 but enzymatic processes continue4 ,the starch is further saccharified1 and the dividing line of the aleurone layer at the furrow is attacked1 as are also the cell walls of the endosperm1 which are still intact1 these being partially converted into gummy substances4 ,this change1 however1 also requires the presence of a certain amount of moisture4 ,if too much air be passed through the malt at this stage the above-named dividing partition of the cell walls is not attacked4 ,the air may expand the grain to some extent and produce malt of a low bushel weight1 which1 however1 is not properly modified and cannot give satisfactory results in practice4 ,during the third stage of kilning1 an enzyme1 which ,grss claims to have recognized1 and which he denotes spermoxidase1 is said to exert its activity4 ,schnfeld has confirmed the discoveries of ,grss by practical experiments4 ,fuel4--,the fuel used for drying and curing malt is either anthracite or coke1 and the greatest care is necessary in selecting it on account of its liability to contain arsenic1 which is to a greater or less extent an invariable constituent of all coal4 ,the fuel used for malting purposes should not contain more arsenic than 7#a_/bj7th grain per lb4 ,gas coke should on no account be used1 unless it has been proved to be sufficiently free from arsenic2 but the best oven coke frequently contains so little arsenic that it may be employed with perfect safety1 especially if it be mixed with a proportion 7e4g4 #e7 of milk of lime1 which retains the arsenic as calcium arsenate4 ,in ,germany malt is1 as a rule1 dried and cured with hot air1 whilst in ,great ,britain the products of combustion are passed through the malt1 as it is believed that they exert a beneficial influence on the flavour4 ,the proportion of fuel used for drying and curing malt varies according to the quality of the fuel and the construction of the kiln1 but on an average it may be placed at #ej-hj lb4 per quarter4 ,illustration3 ,from ,sykes ,ling1 ,principles and ,practice of ,brewing 7#aijg71 ,charles ,griffin ,co41 ,ltd4 ,fig4 #i4--;,diagrammatic view of pneumatic malting1 showing pneumatic washing and steeping cisterns4 ,storing4--,after the malt has passed through the curing stage it is generally heaped up for a few hours4 ,this is believed to increase its flavour4 ,the malt is then stripped from the kiln1 and the rootlets1 technically known as the coombs1 are removed4 ,formerly this was effected by workmen treading the malt1 who wore heavy boots for the purpose4 ,at the present time1 however1 the rootlets are usually removed by machinery1 special forms of which have been devised for this as well as for dressing and polishing the malt4 ,it is the custom of some maltsters to store malt with the rootlets still attached2 but this is an objectionable practice1 since malt coombs attract moisture1 and the presence of more than #c of moisture in malt produces the condition known as slackness4 ,when the malt is packed in bin it is often covered with a layer of coombs1 which then prevent access of atmospheric moisture4 ,malt1 to preserve its good qualities intact1 should be stored in bins made as nearly as possible air-tight1 and it should never be placed in bin until it is quite cool4 ,it is probably wrong to store malt in bins adjacent to the kilns1 where it is kept at a higher temperature than that of the surrounding atmosphere4 ,during storage of the malt a kind of mellowing occurs1 the mechanism of which is not understood4 ,it is1 however1 known by practical brewers that the best results cannot be obtained when new malt is used4 ,premature ,malting4--,several years ago ,galland suggested germinating barley in a drum1 his idea being to do away with handling of the grain1 and also to be independent of changes of atmospheric temperature4 ,the latest development of this system1 the so-called ,galland-,henning process of pneumatic malting1 has been improved by ,mr ,r4 ,blair ,robertson1 and a diagrammatic view of the interior of one of these maltings1 showing the drums and conical steeping cisterns1 is shown in fig4 #i4 ,the drums are provided with a perforated channel for the passage of air through the malt1 which is packed in the annular space between this channel and outside wall of the drum4 ,each drum is capable of revolving on its axis1 and there are arrangements for passing either moist1 saturated or dry air through the malt4 ,the system as now improved is capable of producing some of the best malt1 especially if1 after germination has been completed in the drums1 the green malt is loaded on an ordinary kiln and the initial stages of kilning 7see above7 conducted in the usual way2 the curing1 however1 may be carried out successfully in a special form of drum4 ,yield and ,weight4--,the malting process is attended with a certain amount of loss of dry substance of the barley1 as follows3-- ,in the steep #a4e to #b4j ,by respiration on floors and on kilns #c4j #e4j ,coombs #c4j #d4j --- ----- ,total #g4e #aa4j ,in addition to this1 barley1 as already mentioned1 contains from #ae to #bj of moisture1 whereas finished malt contains #a to #b4 ,the total loss in weight which barley undergoes in the malting process may be put down at from #ag to #bh4 ,since1 however1 malt is lighter than barley 7and the quantity of both was in former years measured exclusively by volume71 it frequently happens that a given number of quarters of barley yields a larger number of quarters of finished malt4 ,when this happens it is usual to speak of an increase having been obtained4 ,at the present time weight replaces measure for both barley and malt1 and although it is usual to speak of the quantity of grain in terms of quarters1 what is meant is not the measured quarter1 but so many weighed standard quarters4 ,the standard quarter for ,english malting barley is #ddh lb4 and for malt #ccf lb4 ,from this it will be seen that when a given number of weighed quarters of barley yields the same number of quarters of finished malt1 the actual yield is #ge1 and there is then said to be neither increase nor decrease4 ,as a rule1 in practical working the yield of malt varies from a #d decrease to a #aj increase1 corresponding to an actual yield on the original barley of #gb to #hb4e4 ,j4 ,baverstock1 an old writer1 says that finished malt should weigh one-fifth less than the barley from which it is produced4 ,this corresponds to a malting increase of about #g1 which is a high yield4 ,as a rule1 foreign barley will give a greater malting increase than ,english barley1 because1 on the one hand1 the former usually contains less moisture than the latter1 and1 further1 because there is less loss on the floors by respiration and rootlet growth4 ,the yield of malt from barley may be determined in the laboratory in an extremely simple manner4 ,since every grain of barley must yield a grain of malt1 if we know the respective weights of a definite number of barley and malt grains1 provided that this number is large enough to represent the average1 then obviously this gives the data requisite for calculating the yield of malt from barley4 ,the number of corns the weight of which is determined for this purpose is usually #ajjj1 and if the weight of this number be determined on several different #ajjj corns1 the average will closely approximate to the truth4 ,instead of counting the corns by hand1 an instrument may be used for this purpose4 ,if #ajjj corns of a barley were found to weigh #db grammes1 and #ajjj corns of a finished malt from the same barley #cb grammes1 then the yield of malt is 7#cb #ajj7_/db #gf4a1 this corresponding to a #a increase4 ,assuming that the moisture content of the barley was #ae and that of the finished malt #b1 #ajj grammes of malt will contain #b grammes of moisture1 and #gf4a grammes will contain 7#gf4a #b7_/ajj #a4e grammes moisture2 therefore #gf4a grammes of malt contain #gf4a - #a4e #gd4f grammes of dry matter4 ,this was obtained from #ajj - #ae #he grammes of barley dry substance4 ,hence #ajj parts of barley dry substance will yield 7#gd4f #ajj7_/he #hg4g corresponding with a loss of dry substance equal to #ab4e of the dry substance of the barley1 or with a loss of #aj4g on the barley containing #ae of moisture4 ,the results obtained by this method of laboratory control when it is accurately carried out agree very closely with those deduced from the practical results of weighing the barley1 malt and coombs in the malting4 ,special ,malts4--,in addition to the kinds of malt considered in what precedes1 there are others mostly used for imparting specific flavours and colour to beers and stout4 ,these are crystal malt1 imperial malt1 brown or blown malt1 and black or roasted malt4 ,crystal malt is grown for a shortened period on the floors1 and then placed in a wire cylinder1 which is rotated over a fire so that it is dried at a very high temperature4 ,the weight per quarter is from #bej to #bhj lb4 ,imperial malt is dried off on an ordinary kiln at a final temperature of #bdj-bgj ,f41 but it is not allowed the usual length of time on the withering floor4 ,it is placed on the drying kiln in a layer not exceeding one inch and a half in thickness4 ,a moderate heat from burnt wood is first applied until the bulk of the moisture has been driven off1 when the temperature is suddenly raised so that the grains swell some #be and the malt takes up a strong empyreumatic flavour from the products of combustion4 ,this kind of malt weighs #bgj-cjj lb4 per quarter4 ,black or roasted malt is prepared by roasting malt in a cylinder4 ,ford states that perfectly malted corn gives a colour of less intensity and permanence than does partially malted corn1 and this has been confirmed by other observers4 ,a certain quantity of the so-called black malt is actually made from raw barley1 but this gives a product of inferior flavour4 ,the weight per quarter of black malt varies as much as from #bae to #bij lb4 ,valuation4--,for the valuation of malt the following determinations are usually carried out3 ,extract per standard quarter1 moisture1 diastatic activity by the ,lintner process1 tint1 and matters soluble in cold water4 ,the physical examination of malt is also a matter of importance1 inasmuch as direct evidence is obtained thereby of the modification of the malt4 ,among the methods adopted for this purpose may be mentioned counting the percentage of corns in which the acrospire has grown up to one-half1 two-thirds and three-fourths the entire length of the corn4 ,in properly made malt the modification of the endosperm should proceed pari passu with the growth of the acrospire4 ,the sinker test is also useful when carried out in an intelligent manner4 ,those corns which sink in water and lie flat are improperly modified4 ,normal malt has a specific gravity less than water and the corns have equal density throughout2 consequently they float horizontally in water4 ,in forced samples the proximal ends are frequently lighter than the distal ends1 and the corns float horizontally in water1 with the germ directed upwards4 ,the latter1 however1 may in some cases fill with water1 and the corns lie flat or sink4 ,this is a characteristic of over-modified malt4 ,it will be seen from these remarks that it is essential to carry out the sinker test 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