,the ,story of the ,earth and ,man4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,dawson ,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,earth',s ,,history4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,animals ,,rock ,,formations ,,plants ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,age ,n ,modern ,age of ,e ,t ,post-pliocene of ,man ,o i ,pliocene ,angiosperms 7,upper ,z m ,pliocene and ,strata7 ,o e ,miocene ,plants and ,i ,eocene ,mammals ,c ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,m ,age ,e ,cretaceous ,age ,s ,t of of ,o i ,jurassic ,cycads ,z m and ,reptiles ,o e ,triassic ,pines ,i ,c ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,permian ,age of ,age of ,p ,amphibians ,a ,carboniferous ,acrogens and ,fishes ,l ,t i ,erian or and ------ ,o m ,z e ,devonian ,gymnosperms ,age of ,o ,mollusks ,i ,silurian ------ ,corals ,c and ,siluro- ,age ,crustaceans ,cambrian of ,cambrian ,alg ,huronian8 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,age of ,e ,laurentian ,plants ,protozoa ,o ,t ,z i not ,o m ,i e determinable ,c ,harper ,brothers ,new ,york4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,and ,,man1 ,,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,dawson1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,k4,s41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,,principal ,,and ,,vice-,,chancellor ,,of ,mc,g,i,l,l ,,university1 ,,montreal1 ,,author ,,of ,,archaia1 ,,acadian ,,geology1 ,,etc4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,publishers1 ,,franklin ,,square ,,preface ,the science of the earth as illustrated by geological research1 is one of the noblest outgrowths of our modern intellectual life4 ,constituting the sum of all the natural sciences in their application to the history of our world1 it affords a very wide and varied scope for mental activity1 and deals with some of the grandest problems of space and time and of organic existence4 ,it invites us to be present at the origin of things1 and to enter into the very workshop of the ,creator4 ,it has1 besides1 most important and intimate connection with the industrial arts and with the material resources at the disposal of man4 ,its educational value1 as a means of cultivating the powers of observing and reasoning1 and of accustoming the mind to deal with large and intricate questions1 can scarcely be overrated4 ,but fully to serve these high ends1 the study of geology must be based on a thorough knowledge of the subjects which constitute its elementary data4 ,it must be divested as far as possible of merely local colouring1 and of the prejudices of specialists4 ,it must be emancipated from the control of the bald metaphysical speculations so rife in our time1 and above all it must be delivered from that materialistic infidelity1 which1 by robbing nature of the spiritual element1 and of its presiding ,divinity1 makes science dry1 barren1 and repulsive1 diminishes its educational value1 and even renders it less efficient for purposes of practical research4 ,that the want of these preliminary conditions mars much of the popular science of our day is too evident2 and ,i confess that the wish to attempt something better1 and thereby to revive the interest in geological study1 to attract attention to its educational value1 and to remove the misapprehensions which exist in some quarters respecting it1 were principal reasons which induced me to undertake the series of papers for the ,leisure ,hour1 which are reproduced1 with some amendments and extension1 in the present work4 ,how far ,i have succeeded1 ,i must leave to the intelligent and1 ,i trust1 indulgent reader to decide4 ,in any case ,i have presented this many-sided subject in the aspect in which it appears to a geologist whose studies have led him to compare with each other the two great continental areas which are the classic ground of the science1 and who retains his faith in those unseen realities of which the history of the earth itself is but one of the shadows projected on the field of time4 ,to geologists who may glance at the following pages1 ,i would say that1 amidst much that is familiar1 they will find here and there some facts which may be new to them1 as well as some original suggestions and conclusions as to the relations of things1 which though stated in familiar terms1 ,i have not advanced without due consideration of a wide range of facts1 ,to the general reader ,i have endeavoured to present the more important results of geological investigation divested of technical difficulties1 yet with a careful regard to accuracy of statement1 and in such a manner as to invite to the farther and more precise study of the subject in nature1 and in works which enter into technical details4 ,i have endeavoured as far as possible to mention the authors of important discoveries2 but it is impossible in a work of this kind to quote authority for every statement1 while the omission of much important matter relating to the topics discussed is also unavoidable4 ,shortcomings in these respects must be remedied by the reader himself1 with the aid of systematic text-books4 ,those who may desire any farther explanation of the occasional allusions to the record of creation in ,genesis1 will find this in my previously published volume entitled ,archaia4 ,j4 ,w4 ,d1 ,mc,gill ,college1 ,montreal1 ,january1 #ahgc4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,chapter ,i4--,the ,genesis ,of ,the ,earth4 ,uniformity and ,progress4--,internal ,heat4--,nebular ,theory4--,probable ,condition of the ,primitive ,world #a ,chapter ,,ii4--,the ,eozoic ,ages4 ,the ,laurentian ,rocks4--,their ,character and ,distribution4--,the ,conditions of their ,deposition4--,their ,metamorphism4--,eozoon ,canadense4--,laurentian ,vegetation #ag ,chapter ,,iii4--,the ,primordial or ,cambrian ,age4 ,connection of the ,laurentian and ,primordial4--,animals of the ,primordial ,seas4--,lingula1 ,trilobites1 ,oldhamia1 etc4--,the terms ,cambrian and ,silurian4--,statistics of ,primordial ,life #cf ,chapter ,,iv4--,the ,silurian ,ages4 ,geography of the ,continental ,plateaus4--,life of the ,silurian4--,reign of ,invertebrates4--,corals1 ,crinoids1 ,mollusks1 ,crustaceans4--,the ,first ,vertebrates4 ,silurian ,fishes4--,land ,plants #ef ,chapter ,v4--,the ,devonian or ,erian ,age4 ,physical ,character of the ,age4--,difference of ,deposits in ,marginal and ,continental ,areas4--,specialisation of ,physical ,geography4--,corals1 ,crustaceans1 ,fishes1 ,insects1 ,plants #ha ,chapter ,,vi4--,the ,carboniferous ,age4 ,perfection of ,palozoic ,life4--,carboniferous ,geography4--,colours of ,sediments4--,vegetation4--,origin of ,coal4--,land ,life4--,reptiles1 ,land ,snails1 ,millipedes1 etc4--,oceanic ,life #aji ,chapter ,,vii4--,the ,permian ,age4 ,movements of the ,land4--,plication of the ,crust4--,chemical ,conditions of ,dolomite1 etc4--,geographical ,results of ,permian ,movements4--,life of the ,period4 ,summary of ,palozoic ,history #afj ,chapter ,,viii4--,the ,mesozoic ,ages4 ,characters of the ,trias4--,summary of ,changes in the ,triassic and ,cretaceous ,periods4--,changes of the ,continental ,plateaus4--,relative ,duration of the ,palozoic and ,mesozoic4--,mesozoic ,forests4--,land ,animals4--,the reign of ,reptiles4--,early ,mammals and ,birds #ahh ,chapter ,,ix4--,the ,mesozoic ,ages 7continued74 ,animals of the ,sea4--,great ,sea ,lizards1 ,fishes1 ,cephalopods1 etc4--,chalk and its ,history4--,tabular ,view of the ,mesozoic ,ages #baa ,chapter ,x4--,the ,neozoic ,ages4 ,physical ,changes at the end of ,mesozoic4--,subdivisions of the ,neozoic4--,great ,eocene ,seas4--,land ,animals and ,plants4 ,life of the ,miocene4--,reign of ,mammals #bce ,chapter ,,xi4--,the ,neozoic ,ages 7continued74 ,later ,vegetation4--,the ,animals of the ,pliocene ,period4 ,approach of the ,glacial ,period4--,character of the ,post-pliocene or ,glacial #beh ,chapter ,,xii4--,close of the ,post-pliocene1 and ,advent or ,man4 ,connection of ,geological and ,human ,history4--,the ,post-glacial ,period4--,its ,relations to the ,pre-,historic ,human ,period4--,elevation of ,post-,pliocene ,land4--,introduction of ,man4--,subsidence and ,re-elevation4--,calculations as to ,time4--,tabular ,view of the ,neozoic ,ages #bhb ,chapter ,,xiii4--,advent ,of ,man 7continued74 ,relations of ,post-pliocene and ,modern ,animals4--,cavern ,deposits4--,kent's ,cave4--,general ,remarks4 #bii ,chapter ,,xiv4--,primitive ,man4 ,theory of ,evolution as applied to ,man4--,its ,demands4--,its ,deficiencies4--,fallacious ,character of ,arguments of ,derivationists4 ,hypothesis of ,creation4--,its ,demands and ,advantages #caf ,chapter ,,xv4--,primitive ,man 7continued74 ,geological ,conditions of ,man's ,introduction4--,his ,modern ,date4--,his ,isolated ,position4--,his ,higher ,powers4--,pictures of ,primitive ,man according to ,evolution and ,creation4--,general ,conclusion #cej ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,ideal ,sections ,illustrating the ,genesis or the ,earth #h ,america ,in ,the ,laurentian ,period #ah ,eozoon ,canadense #bd ,life in the ,primordial ,age #dj ,organic ,limestone of the ,silurian #fc ,life in the ,silurian #ff ,life in the ,devonian #hh ,vegetation of the ,devonian #ajc ,carboniferous ,plants #abf ,oldest ,land ,snails #aci ,carboniferous ,reptiles #adf ,foldings of the ,crust in the ,permian ,period #afb ,curves of ,elevation and ,depression #agi ,culmination of ,types of ,palozoic ,animals #ahc ,land ,animals of the ,mesozoic #aid ,aquatic ,animals of the ,mesozoic #bai ,foraminiferal ,rock-builders #bdc ,miocene ,mammals #bec ,britain in the ,post-pliocene #cja ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,and ,,man4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,genesis ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,the title of this work is intended to indicate precisely its nature4 ,it consists of rough1 broad sketches of the aspects of successive stages in the earth's history1 as disclosed by geology1 and as they present themselves to observers at the present time4 ,the last qualification is absolutely necessary1 when dealing with a science whose goal to-day will be its starting point to-morrow1 and in whose view every geological picture must have its light and shaded portions1 its clear foreground and its dim distance1 varying according to the lights cast on them by the progress of investigation1 and according to the standpoint of the observer4 ,in such pictures results only can be given1 not the processes by which they have been obtained2 and with all possible gradations of light and distance1 it may be that the artist will bring into too distinct outline facts still only dimly perceived1 or will give too little prominence to others which1 should appear in bold relief4 ,he must in this judge for himself2 and if the writer's impressions do not precisely correspond with those of others1 he trusts that they will allow something for difference of vision and point of view4 ,the difficulty above referred to perhaps rises to its maximum in the present chapter4 ,for how can any one paint chaos1 or give form and filling to the formless void8 ,perhaps no word-picture of this period of the first phase of mundane history can ever equal the two negative touches of the inspired penman--without form and void--a world destitute of all its present order1 and destitute of all that gives it life and animation4 ,this it was1 and not a complete and finished earth1 that sprang at first from its ,creator's hand2 and we must inquire in this first chapter what information science gives as to any such condition of the earth4 ,in the first place1 the geological history of the earth plainly intimates a beginning1 by utterly negativing the idea that all things continue as they were from the creation of the world4 ,it traces back to their origin not only the animals and plants which at present live1 but also their predecessors1 through successive dynasties emerging in long procession from the depths of a primitive antiquity4 ,not only so2 it assigns to their relative ages all the rocks of the earth's crust1 and all the plains and mountains built up of them4 ,thus1 as we go back in geological time1 we leave behind us1 one by one1 all the things with which we are familiar1 and the inevitable conclusion gains on us that we must be approaching a beginning1 though this may be veiled from us in clouds and thick darkness4 ,how is it1 then1 that there are ,uniformitarians in geology1 and that it has been said that our science shows no traces of a beginning1 no indications of an end8 ,the question deserves consideration2 but the answer is not difficult4 ,in all the lapse of geological time there has been an absolute uniformity of natural law4 ,the same grand machinery of force and matter has been in use throughout all the ages1 working out the great plan4 ,yet the plan has been progressive and advancing1 nevertheless4 ,the uniformity has been in the methods1 the results have presented a wondrous diversity and development4 ,again1 geology1 in its oldest periods1 fails to reach the beginning of things4 ,it shows us how course after course of the building has been laid1 and how it has grown to completeness1 but it contains as yet no record of the laying of the foundation-stones1 still less of the quarry whence they were dug4 ,still the constant progress which we have seen points to a beginning which we have not seen2 and the very uniformity of the process by which the edifice has been erected1 implies a time when it had not been begun1 and when its stones were still reposing in their native quarry4 ,what1 then1 is the oldest condition of the earth actually shown to us by geology1--that which prevailed in the ,eozoic or ,laurentian period1 when the oldest rocks known1 those constituting the foundation-stones of our present continents1 were formed and laid in their places8 ,with regard to physical conditions1 it was a time when our existing continents were yet in the bosom of the waters1 when the ocean was almost universal1 yet when sediments were being deposited in it as at present1 while there were also volcanic foci1 vomiting forth molten matter from the earth's hidden interior4 ,then1 as now1 the great physical agencies of water and fire were contending with one another for the mastery1 doing and undoing1 building up and breaking down4 ,but is this all8 ,has the earth no earlier history8 that it must have had1 we may infer from many indications2 but as to the nature of these earlier states1 we can learn from conjecture and inference merely1 and must have recourse to other witnesses then those rocky monuments which are the sure guides of the geologist4 ,one fact bearing on these questions which has long excited attention1 is the observed increase in temperature in descending into deep mines1 and in the water of deep artesian wells--an increase which may be stated in round numbers at one degree of heat of the centigrade thermometer for every #ajj feet of depth from the surface4 ,these observations apply of course to a very inconsiderable depth1 and we have no certainty that this rate continues for any great distance towards the centre of the earth4 ,if1 however1 ,we regard it as indicating the actual law of increase of temperature1 it would result that the whole crust of the earth is a mere shell covering a molten mass of rocky matter4 ,thus a very slight step of imagination would carry us back to a time when this slender crust had not yet formed1 and the earth rolled through space an incandescent globe1 with all its water and other vaporisable matters in a gaseous state4 ,astronomical calculation has1 however1 shown that the earth1 in its relation to the other heavenly bodies1 obeys the laws of a rigid ball1 and not of a fluid globe4 ,hence it has been inferred that its actual crust must be very thick1 perhaps not less then #b1ejj miles1 and that its fluid portion must therefore be of smaller dimensions then has been inferred from the observed increase of temperature4 ,further1 it seems to have been rendered probable1 from the density of rocky matter in the solid and liquid states1 that a molten globe would solidify at the centre as well as at the surface1 and consequently that the earth must not only have a solid crust of great thickness1 but also a solid nucleus1 and that any liquid portions must be of the nature of a sheet or of detached masses intervening between these4 ,on the other hand1 it has recently been maintained that the calculations which are supposed to have established the great thickness of the crust1 on the ground that the earth does not change its form in obedience to the attraction of the sun and moon1 are based on a misconception1 and that a molten globe with a thin crust would attain to such a state of equilibrium in this respect as not to be distinguishable from a solid planet4 ,this view has been maintained by the ,french physicist1 ,delaunay1 and for some time it made geologists suppose that1 after all1 the earth's crust may be very thin4 ,sir ,william ,thomson1 however1 and ,archdeacon ,pratt1 have ably maintained the previous opinion1 based on ,hopkins' calculations2 and it is now believed that we may rest upon this as representing the most probable condition of the interior of the earth at present4 ,another fact bearing on this point is the form of the earth1 which is now actually a spheroid of rotation2 that is1 of such a shape as would result from the action of gravity and centrifugal force in the motion of a huge liquid drop rotating in the manner in which the earth rotates4 ,of course it may be said that the earth may have been made in that shape to fit it for its rotation2 but science prefers to suppose that the form is the result of the forces acting on it4 ,this consideration would of course corroborate the deductions from that just mentioned4 ,again1 if we examine a map showing the distribution of volcanoes upon the earth1 and trace these along the volcanic belt of ,western ,america and ,eastern ,asia1 and in the ,pacific ,islands1 and in the isolated volcanic regions in other parts of the world2 and if we add to these the multitude of volcanoes now extinct1 we shall be convinced that the sources of internal heat1 of which these are the vents1 must be present almost everywhere under the earth's crust4 ,lastly1 if we consider the elevations and depressions which large portions of the crust of the earth have undergone in geological time1 and the actual crumpling and folding of the crust visible in great mountain chains1 we arrive at a similar conclusion1 and also become convinced that the crust has been not too thick to admit of extensive fractures1 flexures1 and foldings4 ,there are1 however1 it must be admitted1 theories of volcanic action1 strongly supported by the chemical nature of the materials ejected by modern volcanoes1 which would refer all their phenomena to the softening1 under the continued influence of heat and water1 of materials within the crust of the earth rather then under it4,a ,still1 the phenomena of volcanic action1 and of elevation and subsidence1 would1 under any explanation1 suppose intense heat1 and therefore probably an original incandescent condition4 ,a ,dr4 ,t4 ,sterry ,hunt1 in ,silliman'a ,journal1 #ahgj4 ,la ,place long ago based a theory of the originally gaseous condition of the solar system on the relation of the planets to each other1 and to the sun1 on their planes of revolution1 the direction of their revolution1 and that of their satellites4 ,on these grounds he inferred that the solar system had been formed out of a nebulous mass by the mutual attraction of its parts4 ,this view was further strengthened by the discovery of nebulae1 which it might be supposed were undergoing the same processes by which the solar system was produced4 ,this nebular theory1 as it was called1 was long very popular4 ,it was subsequently supposed to be damaged by the fact that some of the nebul which had been regarded as systems in progress of formation were found by improved telescopes to be really clusters of stars1 and it was inferred that the others might be of like character4 ,the spectroscope has1 however1 more recently shown that some nebul are actually gaseous2 and it has even been attempted to demonstrate that they are probably undergoing change fitting them to become systems4 ,this has served to revive the nebular hypothesis1 which has been further strengthened by the known fact that the sun is still an incandescent globe surrounded by an immense luminous envelope of vapours rising from its nucleus and condensing at its surface4 ,on the other hand1 while the sun may be supposed1 from its great magnitude1 to remain intensely heated1 and while it will not be appreciably less powerful for myriads of years1 the moon seems to be a body which has had time to complete the whole history of geological change1 and to become a dry1 dead1 and withered world1 a type of what our earth would in process of time actually become4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #a to #e4--;,ideal sections illustrating the ,genesis of the ,earth4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a vaporous world4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a world with a central fluid nucleus 7b7 and a photosphere 7a74 ,fig4 #c4 ,the photosphere darkened1 and a solid crust 7c7 and solid nucleus 7d7 formed4 ,fig4 #d4 ,water 7e7 deposited on the crust1 forming a universal ocean4 ,fig4 #e4 ,the crust crumpled by shrinkage1 land elevated1 and the water occupying the intervening depressions4 ,the figures are all of uniform size2 but the circle 7,a7 shows th diameter of the globe when in the state of fig4 #a1 and that marked 7,b7 its diameter when in the state of fig4 #e4 ,in all the figures 7a7 represents vapour or air2 7b7 liquid rock2 7c7 solid rock as a crust2 7d7 solid nucleus2 7e7 water4 ,such considerations lead to the conclusion that the former watery condition of our planet was not its first state1 and that we must trace it back to a previous reign of fire4 ,the reasons which can be adduced in support of this are no doubt somewhat vague1 and may in their details be variously interpreted2 but at present we have no other interpretation to give of that chaos1 formless and void1 that state in which nor aught nor nought existed1 which the sacred writings and the traditions and poetry of ancient nations concur with modern science in indicating as the primitive state of the earth4 ,let our first picture1 then1 be that of a vaporous mass1 representing our now solid planet spread out over a space nearly two thousand times greater in diameter then that which it now occupies1 and whirling in its annual round about the still vaporous centre of our system1 in which at an earlier period the earth had been but an exterior layer1 or ring of vapour4 ,the atoms that now constitute the most solid rocks are in this state as tenuous as air1 kept apart by the expansive force of heat1 which prevents not only their mechanical union1 but also their chemical combination4 ,but within the mass1 slowly and silently1 the force of gravitation is compressing the particles in its giant hand1 and gathering the denser toward the centre1 while heat is given forth on all sides from the condensing mass into the voids of space without4 ,little by little the denser and less volatile matters collect in the centre as a fluid molten globe1 the nucleus of the future planet2 and in this nucleus the elements1 obeying their chemical affinities hitherto latent1 are arranging themselves in compounds which are to constitute the future rocks4 ,at the same time1 in the exterior of the vaporous envelope1 matters cooled by radiation into the space without1 are combining with each other1 and are being precipitated in earthy rain or snow into the seething mass within1 where they are either again vaporised and sent to the surface or absorbed in the increasing nucleus4 ,as this process advances1 a new brilliancy is given to the faint shining of the nebulous matter by the incandescence of these solid particles in the upper layers of its atmosphere1 a condition which at this moment1 on a greater scale1 is that of the sun2 in the case of the earth1 so much smaller in volume1 and farther from the centre of the system1 it came on earlier1 and has long since passed away4 ,this was the glorious starlike condition of our globe3 in a physical point of view1 its most perfect and beautiful state1 when1 if there were astronomers with telescopes in the stars1 they might have seen our now dull earth flash forth--a brilliant white star secondary to the sun4 ,but in process of time this passes away4 ,all the more solid and less volatile substances are condensed and precipitated2 and now the atmosphere1 still vast in bulk1 and dark and misty in texture1 contains only the water1 chlorine1 carbonic acid1 sulphuric acid1 and other more volatile substances2 and as these gather in dense clouds at the outer surface1 and pour in fierce corrosive rains upon the heated nucleus1 combining with its materials1 or flashing again into vapour1 darkness dense and gross settles upon the vaporous deep1 and continues for long ages1 until the atmosphere is finally cleared of its acid vapours and its superfluous waters4,b ,in the meantime1 radiation1 and the heat abstracted from the liquid nucleus by the showers of condensing material from the atmosphere1 have so far cooled its surface that a crust of slag or cinder forms upon it4 ,broken again and again by the heavings of the ocean of fire1 it at length sets permanently1 and receives upon its bare and blistered surface the ever-increasing aqueous and acid rain thrown down from the atmosphere1 at first sending it all hissing and steaming back1 but at length allowing it to remain a universal boiling ocean4 ,then began the reign of the waters1 and the dominion of fire was confined to the abysses within the solid crust4 ,under the primeval ocean were formed the first stratified rocks1 from the substances precipitated from its waters1 which must have been loaded with solid matter4 ,we must not imagine this primeval ocean like our own blue sea1 clear and transparent1 but filled with earthy and saline matters1 thick and turbid1 until these were permitted to settle to the bottom and form the first sediments4 ,the several changes above referred to are represented in diagrammatic form in figs4 #a to #d4 ,b ,hunt1 ,chemistry of the ,primeval ,earth1 ,silliman's ,journal1 #aheh4 ,in the meantime all is not at rest in the interior of the new-formed earth4 ,under the crust vast oceans of molten rock may still remain1 but a solid interior nucleus is being crystallised in the centre1 and the whole interior globe is gradually shrinking4 ,at length this process advances so far that the exterior crust1 like a sheet of ice from below which the water has subsided1 is left unsupported2 and with terrible earthquake-throes it sinks downward1 wrinkling up into huge folds1 between which are vast sunken areas into which the waters subside1 while from the intervening ridges the earth's pent-up fires belch forth ashes and molten rocks4 7,fig4 #e47 ,so arose the first dry land3-- ,the mountains huge appear ,emergent1 and their broad bare backs upheave ,into the clouds1 their tops ascend the sky1 ,so high as heaved the tumid hills1 so low ,down sunk a hollow bottom1 broad and deep1 ,capacious bed of waters4 ,the cloud was its garment1 it was swathed in thick darkness1 and presented but a rugged pile of rocky precipices2 yet well might the morning stars sing together1 and all the sons of ,god shout with joy1 when its foundations were settled and its corner-stone laid1 for then were inaugurated the changes which were to lead to the introduction of life on the earth1 and to all the future development of the continents4 ,physical geographers have taught us that the great continents1 whether we regard their coasts or their mountain chains1 are built up on lines which run north-east and south-west1 and north-west and south-east2 and it is also observed that these lines are great circles of the earth tangent to the polar circle4 ,further1 we find1 as a result of geological investigation1 that these lines determined the deposition and the elevation of the oldest rocks known to us4 ,hence it is fair to infer that these were the original directions of the first lines of fracture and upheaval4 ,whether these lines were originally drawn by the influence of of the seasons on the cooling globe1 or by the currents of its molten interior1 or of the superficial ocean1 they bespeak a most uniform and equable texture for the crust1 and a definite law of fracture and upheaval2 and they have modified all the subsequent action of the ocean as a depositor of sediment1 and of the internal heat as a cause of alteration and movement of rocks4 ,against these earliest belts of land the ocean first chafed and foamed4 ,along their margins marine denudation first commenced1 and the oceanic currents first deposited banks of sediment2 and along these first lines have the volcanic orifices of all periods been most plentiful1 and elevatory movements most powerfully felt4 ,we must not suppose that the changes thus shortly sketched were rapid and convulsive4 ,they must have required periods of enormous duration1 all of which had elapsed before the beginning of geological time1 properly so called4 ,from ,sir ,william ,thomson's calculations1 it would appear that the time which has elapsed from the first formation of a solid crust on the earth to the modern period may have been from seventy to one hundred millions of years1 and the whole time from the vaporous condition of the solar system to the present1 must of course have been still greater then even this enormous series of ages4 ,such a lapse of time is truly almost inconceivable1 but it is only a few days to ,him with whom one day is as a thousand years1 and a thousand years as one day4 ,how many and strange pictures does this series of processes call up6 ,first1 the uniform vaporous nebula4 ,then the formation of a liquid nucleus1 and a brilliant photosphere without4 ,then the congealing of a solid crust under dark atmospheric vapours1 and the raining down of acid and watery showers4 ,then the universal ocean1 its waves rolling unobstructed around the globe1 and its currents following without hindrance the leading of heat and of the earth's rotation4 ,then the rupture of the crust and the emergence of the nuclei of continents4 ,some persons seem to think that by these long processes of creative work we exclude the ,creator1 and would reduce the universe into a mere fortuitous concourse of atoms4 ,to put it in more modern phrase1 given a quantity of detached fragments cast into space1 then mutual gravitation and the collision of the fragments would give us the spangled heavens4 ,but we have still to ask the old question1 ,whence the atoms8 and we have to ask it with all the added weight of our modern chemistry1 so marvellous in its revelations of the original differences of matter and their varied powers of combination4 ,we have to ask1 ,what is gravitation itself1 unless a mode of action of ,almighty power8 ,we have to ask for the origin of of thousands of correlations1 binding together the past and the future in that orderly chain of causes and effects which constitutes the plan of the creation4 ,if it pleased ,god to create in the beginning an earth formless and void and to elaborate from this all that has since existed1 who are we1 to say that the plan was not the best8 ,nor would it detract from our view of the creative wisdom and power if we were to hold that in ages to come the sun may experience the same change that has befallen the earth1 and may become black as sackcloth of hair1 preparatory perhaps1 to changes which may make him also the abode of life2 or if the earth1 cooling still further1 should1 like our satellite the moon1 absorb all its waters and gases into its bosom1 and become bare1 dry1 and parched1 until there shall be no more sea how do we know but that then there shall be no more need of the sun1 because a better light may be provided8 ,or that there may not be a new baptism of fire in store for the earth1 whereby1 being melted with fervent heat1 it may renew its youth in the fresh and heavenly loveliness of a new heaven and a new earth1 free from all the evils and imperfections of the present8 ,god is not slack in these things1 as some men count slackness2 but ,his ways are not like our ways4 ,he has eternity wherein to do ,his work1 and takes ,his own time for each of ,his operations4 ,the ,divine wisdom1 personified by a sacred writer1 may well in this exalt his own office3-- ,jehovah possessed me in the beginning of ,his way1 ,before ,his work of old4 ,i was set up from everlasting1 ,from the beginning1 or ever the earth was4 ,when there were no deeps1 ,t was brought forth2 ,when there were no fountains abounding in water4 ,before the mountains were settled1 ,before the hills1 was ,i brought forth3 ,while as yet ,he had not made the earth1 ,nor the plains1 nor the higher part of the habitable world1 ,when ,he gave the sea ,his decree1 that her waters should not pass ,his limits2 ,when ,he determined the foundations of the earth4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,eozoic ,,ages4 ,the dominion of heat has passed away2 the excess of water has been precipitated from the atmosphere1 and now covers the earth as a universal ocean4 ,the crust has folded itself into long ridges1 the bed of the waters has subsided into its place1 and the sea for the first time begins to rave against the shores of the newly elevated land1 while the rain1 washing the bare surfaces of rocky ridges1 carries its contribution of the slowly wasting rocks back into the waters whence they were raised1 forming1 with the material worn from the crust by the surf1 the first oceanic sediments4 ,do we know any of these earliest aqueous beds1 or are they all hidden from view beneath newer deposits1 or have they been themselves worn away and destroyed by denuding agencies8 ,whether we know the earliest formed sediments is1 and may always remain1 uncertain2 but we do know certain very ancient rocks which may be at least their immediate successors4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,the ,laurentian nucleus of the ,american continent4 ,deepest and oldest of all the rocks we are acquainted with in the crust of the earth1 are certain beds much altered and metamorphosed1 baked by the joint action of heat and heated moisture--rocks once called ,azoic1 as containing no traces of life1 but for which ,i have elsewhere proposed the name ,eozoic1 or those that afford the traces of the earliest known living beings4 ,these rocks are the ,laurentian ,series of ,sir ,william ,logan1 so named from the ,laurentide hills1 north of the ,river ,st4 ,lawrence1 which are composed of these ancient beds1 and where they are more largely exposed then in any other region4 ,it may seem at first sight strange that any of these ancient rocks should be found at the surface of the earth2 but this is a necessary result of the mode of formation of the continents4 ,the oldest rocks1 thrown up in places into high ridges1 have either not been again brought under the waters1 or have lost by denudation the sediments once resting on them2 and being of a hard and resisting nature1 still remain2 and often rise into hills of considerable elevation1 showing as it were portions of the skeleton of the earth protruding through its superficial covering4 ,such rocks stretch along the north side of the ,st4 ,lawrence river from ,labrador to ,lake ,superior1 and thence northwardly to an unknown distance1 constituting a wild and rugged district often rising into hills #djjj feet high1 and in the deep gorge of the ,saguenay forming cliffs #a1ejj feet in sheer height from the water's edge4 ,south of this great ridge1 the isolated mass of the ,adirondack ,mountains rises to the height of #f1jjj feet1 rivalling the newer1 though still very ancient1 chain of the ,white ,mountains4 ,along the eastern coast of ,north ,america1 a lower ridge of ,laurentian rock1 only appearing here and there from under the overlying sediments1 is seen in ,newfoundland1 in ,new ,brunswick1 possibly in ,nova ,scotia1 and perhaps farther south in ,massachusetts1 and as far as ,maryland4 ,in the old world1 rocks of this age do not1 so far as known1 appear so extensively4 ,they have been recognised in ,norway and ,sweden1 in the ,hebrides1 and in ,bavaria1 and may1 no doubt1 be yet discerned in other localities4 ,still1 the grandest and most instructive development of these rocks is in ,north ,america2 and it is there that we may best investigate their nature1 and endeavour to restore the conditions in which they were deposited4 ,it has been already stated that the oldest wrinkles of the crust of the globe take the direction of great circles of the earth tangent to the polar circle1 forming north-east and south-west1 and north-west and south-east lines4 ,to such lines are the great exposures of ,laurentian rock conformed1 as may be well seen from the map of ,north ,america 7fig4 #f71 taken from ,dana1 with some additions4 ,the great angular ,laurentian belt is evidently the nucleus of the continent1 and consists of two broad bands or ridges meeting in the region of the great lakes4 ,the remaining exposures are parallel to these1 and appear to indicate a subordinate coast-line of comparatively little elevation4 ,it is known that these ,laurentian exposures constitute the oldest part of the continent1 a part which was land before any of the rocks of the shaded portion of the map were deposited in the bed of the ocean--all this shaded portion being composed of rocks of various geological ages resting on the older ,laurentian4 ,it is further to be observed that the beds occurring in the ,laurentian bands are crumpled and folded in a most remarkable manner1 and that these folds were impressed upon them before the deposition of the rocks next in geological age4 ,what then are these oldest rocks deposited by the sea--the first-born of the reign of the waters8 ,they are very different in their external aspect from the silt and mud1 the sand and gravel1 and the shell and coral rocks of the modern sea1 or of the more recent geological formations4 ,yet the difference is one in condition rather then composition4 ,the members of this ancient aristocracy of the rocks are made of the same clay with their fellows1 but have been subjected to a refining and crystallizing process which has greatly changed their condition4 ,they have been1 as geologists say1 metamorphosed2 and are to ordinary rocks what a china vase is to the lump of clay from which it has been made4 ,deeply buried in the earth under newer sediments1 they have been baked1 until sandstones1 gravels1 and clays came out bright and crystalline1 as gneiss1 mica-schist1 hornblende-schist1 and quartzite--all hard crystalline rocks showing at first sight no resemblance to their original material1 except in the regularly stratified or bedded arrangement which serves to distinguish them from igneous or volcanic rocks4 ,in like manner certain finer1 calcareous sediments have been changed into ,labrador feldspar1 sometimes gay with a beautiful play of colour1 and what were once common limestones appear as crystalline marble4 ,if the evidence of such metamorphoses is asked for1 this is twofold4 ,in the first place1 these rocks are similar in structure to more modern beds which have been partially metamorphosed1 and in which the transition from the unaltered to the altered state can be observed4 ,secondly1 there are limited areas in the ,laurentian itself1 in which the metamorphism has been so imperfect as to permit traces of the original character of the rocks to remain4 ,it seems also quite certain1 and this is a most important point for our sketch1 that the ,laurentian ocean was not universal1 but that there were already elevated portions of the crust capable of yielding sediment to the sea4 ,in ,north ,america these ,laurentian rocks attain to an enormous thickness4 ,this has been estimated by ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan at #cj1jjj feet1 so that the beds would1 if piled on each other horizontally1 be as high as the highest mountains on earth4 ,they appear to consist of two great series1 the ,lower and ,upper ,laurentian4 ,even if we suppose that in the earlier stages of the world's history erosion and deposition were somewhat more rapid then at present1 the formation of such deposits1 probably more widely spread then any that succeeded them1 must have required an enormous length of time4 ,geologists long looked in vain for evidences of life in the ,laurentian period2 but just as astronomers' have suspected the existence of unknown planets from the perturbations due to their attraction1 geologists have guessed that there must have been some living things on earth even at this early time4 ,dana and ,sterry ,hunt especially have committed themselves to such speculations4 ,the reasons for this belief may be stated thus3 7#a47 ,in later formations limestone is usually an organic rock1 produced by the accumulation of shells1 corals1 and similar calcareous organisms in the sea1 and there are enormous limestones in the ,laurentian1 constituting regular beds4 7#b47 ,in later formations coaly matter is an organic substance1 derived from vegetables1 and there are large quantities of ,laurentian carbon in the form of graphite4 7#c47 ,in later formations deposits of iron ores are almost always connected with the deoxidising influence of organic matters as an efficient cause of their accumulation1 and the ,laurentian contains immense deposits of iron ore1 occurring in layers in the manner of later deposits of these minerals4 7#d47 ,the limestone1 carbon1 and iron of the ,laurentian exist in association with the other beds in the same manner as in the later formations in which they are known to be organic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,eozoon ,canadense4 ,dawson4 ,the oldest known animal4 ,portion of skeleton1 two-thirds natural size1 7a7 ,tabulated cell-wall1 magnified1 7b7 ,portion of canal system1 magnified4 ,in addition to this inferential evidence1 however1 one well-marked animal fossil has at length been found in the ,laurentian of ,canada1 ,eozoon ,canadense1 7fig4 #g71 a gigantic representative of one of the lowest forms of animal life1 which the writer had the honour of naming and describing in #ahfe--;its name of ,dawn-animal having reference to its great antiquity and possible connection with the dawn of life on our planet4 ,in the modern seas1 among the multitude of low forms of life with which they swarm1 occur some in which the animal matter is a mere jelly1 almost without distinct parts or organs1 yet unquestionably endowed with life of an animal character4 ,some of these creatures1 the ,foraminifera1 have the power of secreting at the surface of their bodies a calcareous shell1 often divided into numerous chambers1 communicating with each other1 and with the water without1 by pores or orifices through which1 the animal can extend soft and delicate prolongations of its gelatinous body1 which1 when stretched out into the water1 serve for arms and legs4 ,in modern times these creatures1 though extremely abundant in the ocean1 are usually small1 often microscopic2 but in a fossil state there are others of somewhat larger size1 though few equaling the ,eozoon1 which seems to been a sessile creature1 resting on the bottom of the sea1 and covering its gelatinous body with a thin crust of carbonate of lime or limestone1 adding to this1 as it grew in size1 crust after crust1 attached to each other by numerous partitions1 and perforated with pores for the emission of gelatinous filaments4 ,this continued growth of gelatinous animal matter and carbonate of lime went on from age to age1 accumulating great beds of limestone1 in some of which the entire form and most minute structures of the creature are preserved1 while in other cases the organisms have been broken up1 and the limestones are a mere congeries of their fragments4 ,it is a remarkable instance of the permanence of fossils1 that in these ancient organisms the minutest pores through which the semi-fluid matter of these humble animals passed1 have been preserved in the most delicate perfection4 ,the existence of such creatures supposes that of other organisms1 probably microscopic plants1 on which they could feed4 ,no traces of these have been observed1 though the great quantity of carbon in the beds probably implies the existence of larger sea-weeds4 ,no other form of animal has yet been distinctly recognized in the ,laurentian limestones1 but there are fragments of calcareous matter which may have belonged to organisms distinct from ,eozoon4 ,of life on the ,laurentian land we know nothing1 unless the great beds of iron ore already referred to may be taken as a proof of land vegetation4,c ,c ,it is proper to state here that some geologists and naturalists still doubt the organic nature of ,eozoon4 ,their objections however1 so far as stated publicly1 have been shown to depend on misapprehension as to the structures observed and their state of preservation2 and specimens recently found in comparatively unaltered rocks have indicated the true character of those more altered by metamorphism4 ,to an observer in the ,laurentian period1 the earth would have presented an almost boundless ocean1 its waters1 perhaps1 still warmed with the internal heat1 and sending up copious exhalations to be condensed in thick clouds and precipitated in rain4 ,here and there might be seen chains of rocky islands1 many of them volcanic1 or ranges of bleak hills1 perhaps clothed with vegetation the forms of which are unknown to us4 ,in the bottom of the sea1 while sand and mud and gravel were being deposited in successive layers in some portions of the ocean floor1 in others great reefs of ,eozoon were growing up in the manner of reefs of coral4 ,if we can imagine the modern ,pacific1 with its volcanic islands and reefs of coral1 to be deprived of all other forms of life1 'we should have a somewhat accurate picture of the ,eozoic time as it appears to us now4 ,i say as it appears to us now2 for we do not know what new discoveries remain to be made4 ,more especially the immense deposits of carbon and iron in the ,laurentian would seem to bespeak a profusion of plant life in the sea or on the land1 or both1 second to that of no other period that succeeded1 except that of the great coal formation4 ,perhaps no remnant of this primitive vegetation exists retaining its form or structure2 but we may hope for better things1 and cherish the expectation that some fortunate discovery may still reveal to us the forms of the vegetation of the ,laurentian time4 ,it is remarkable that the humbly organized living things which built up the ,laurentian limestones have continued to exist unchanged1 save in dimensions1 up to modern times2 and here and there throughout the geological series we find beds of ,foraminiferous limestone1 similar1 except in the species of ,foraminifera composing them1 to that of the ,laurentian4 ,it is true that other kinds of creatures1 the coral animals more particularly1 have been introduced1 and have proved equally efficient builders of limestones2 but in the deeper parts of the sea the ,foraminifera continue to assert their pre-eminence in this respect1 and the dredge reveals in the depths of our modern oceans beds of calcareous matter which may be regarded as identical in origin with the limestones formed in the period which is to us the dawn of organic life4 ,many inquiries suggest themselves to the zoologist in connection with the life of the ,laurentian period4 ,was ,eozoon the first creature in which the wondrous forces of animal life were manifested1 when1 in obedience to the ,divine fiat1 the waters first swarmed with swarmers1 as the terse and expressive language of the ,mosaic record phrases it8 ,if so1 in contemplating this organism we are in the presence of one of the greatest of natural wonders--brought nearer then in any other case to the actual workshop of the ,almighty ,maker4 ,still we cannot affirm that other creatures even more humble may not have preceded ,eozoon1 since such humble organisms are known in the present world4 ,attempts have often been made1 and very recently have been renewed with much affirmation of success1 to prove that such low forms of life may originate spontaneously from their materials in the waters2 but so far these attempts merely prove that the invisible germs of the lower animals and plants exist everywhere1 and that they have marvellous powers of resisting extreme heat and other injurious influences4 ,we need not1 therefore1 be surprised if even lower forms then ,eozoon may have preceded that creature1 or if some of these may be found1 like the organisms said to live in modern boiling springs1 to have had the power of existing even at a time when the ocean may have been almost in a state of ebullition4 ,another problem is that of means of subsistence for the ,eozoic ,foraminifera4 ,a similar problem exists in the case of the modern ocean1 in whose depths live multitudes of creatures1 where1 so far as we know1 vegetable matter1 ordinarily the basis of life1 cannot exist in a living condition4 ,it is probable1 however1 from the researches of ,dr4 ,wyville ,thompson1 that this is to be accounted for by the abundance of life at the surface and in the shallower parts of the sea1 and by the consequent diffusion through the water of organic matter in an extremely tenuous state1 but yet sufficient to nourish these creatures4 ,the same may have been the case in the ,eozoic sea1 where1 judging from the vast amount of residual carbon1 there must have been abundance of organic matter1 either growing at the bottom1 or falling upon it from the surface2 and as the ,eozoon limestones are usually free from such material1 we may assume that the animal life in them was sufficient to consume the vegetable pabulum4 ,on the other hand1 as detached specimens of ,eozoon occur in graphitic limestones1 we suppose that in some cases the vegetable matter was in excess of the animal1 and this may have been either because of its too great exuberance1 or because the water was locally too shallow to permit ,eozoon and similar creatures to nourish4 ,these details we must for the present fill up conjecturally2 bu the progress of discovery may give us further light as to the precise conditions of the beginning of life in the great and wide sea wherein are moving things innumerable and which is as much a wonder now as in the days of the author of the ,hymn of ,creation,d in regard to the life that swarms in all its breadth and depth1 the vast variety of that life1 and its low and simple types1 of which we can affirm little else then that they move4 ,d ,psalm civ4 ,the enormous accumulations of sediment on the still thin crust of the earth in the ,laurentian period--accumulations probably arranged in lines parallel to the directions of disturbance already indicated--weighed down the surface1 and caused great masses of the sediment to come within the influence of the heated interior nucleus4 ,thus1 extensive metamorphism took place1 and at length the tension becoming too great to be any longer maintained1 a second great collapse occurred1 crumpling and disturbing the crust1 and throwing up vast masses of the ,laurentian itself1 probably into lofty mountains--many of which still remain of considerable height1 though they have been subjected to erosion throughout all the extent of subsequent geological time4 ,the ,eozoic age1 whose history we have thus shortly sketched1 is fertile in material of thought for the geologist and the naturalist4 ,until the labours of ,murchison1 ,sedgwick1 ,hall1 and ,barrande had developed the vast thickness and organic richness of the ,silurian and ,cambrian rocks1 no geologist had any idea of the extent to which life had reached backward in time4 ,but when this new and primitive world of ,siluria was unveiled1 men felt assured that they had now at last reached to the beginnings of life4 ,the argument on this side of the ,question was thus put by one of the most thoughtful of ,english geologists1 ,professor ,phillips3 ,it is ascertained that in passing downwards through the lower ,palozoic strata1 the forms of life grow fewer and fewer1 until in the lowest ,cambrian rocks they vanish entirely4 ,in the thick series of these strata in the ,longmynd1 hardly any traces of life occur1 yet these strata are of such a kind as might be expected to yield them4444 ,the materials are fine-grained or arenaceous1 with or without mica1 in laminae or beds quite distinct1 and of various thicknesses1 by no means unlikely to retain impressions of a delicate nature1 such as those left by graptolites1 or mollusks1 or annulose crawlers4 ,indeed1 one or two such traces are supposed to have been recognised1 so that the almost total absence of the traces of life in this enormous series is best understood by the supposition that in these parts of the sea little or no life existed4 ,but the same remark of the excessive rarity of life in the lower deposits is made in ,north ,america1 in ,norway1 and in ,bohemia1 countries well searched for this very purpose1 so that all our observations lead to the conviction that the lowest of all the strata are quite deficient of organic remains4 ,the absence is general--it appears due to a general cause4 ,is it not probable that during these very early periods the ocean and its sediments were nearly devoid of plants and animals1 and in the earliest time of all1 which is represented by sediments1 quite deprived of such8 ,these words were written ten years ago1 and about the same time were published in ,america those anticipations of the probability of life in the ,laurentian already referred to1 and ,lyell was protesting against the name ,primordial1 on the ground that it implied that we had reached the beginning of life1 when this was not proved4 ,yet there were elements of truth in both views4 ,it is true now1 as then1 that the ,primordial seems to be a morning hour of life1 having1 as we shall see in our next paper1 unmistakable signs about it of that approach to the beginning to which ,phillips refers4 ,it is also true that it is not so early a morning hour as one who has not risen with the dawn might suppose1 since with its apparently small beginnings of life it is almost as far removed from the ,eozoon reefs of the early ,laurentian on the one hand1 as it is from the modern period on the other4 ,the dawn of life seems to have been a very slow and protracted process1 and it may have required as long a time between the first appearance of ,eozoon and the first of those primordial ,trilobites which the next period will introduce to our notice1 as between these and the advent of ,adam4 ,perhaps no lesson is more instructive then this as to the length of the working days of the ,almighty4 ,another lesson lies ready for us in these same facts4 ,theoretically1 plants should have preceded animals2 and this also is the assertion of the first chapter of ,genesis2 but the oldest fossil certainly known to us is an animal4 ,what if there were still earlier plants1 whose remains are still to be discovered8 ,for my own part1 ,i can see no reason to despair of the discovery of an ,eophytic period preceding the ,eozoic2 perhaps preceding it through ages of duration to us almost immeasurable1 though still within the possible time of the existence of the crust of the earth4 ,it is even possible that in a warm and humid condition of the atmosphere1 before it had been caused to rain upon the earth and when dense mists ascended from the earth and watered the whole surface of the ground1,e vegetation may have attained to a profusion and grandeur unequalled in the periods whose flora is known to us4 ,e ,genesis ii4 #e4 ,for a description of this ,eophytic period of ,genesis1 see the ,author's ,archaia1 pp4 #afj et seq4 ,but while ,eozoon thus preaches of progress and of development1 it has a tale to tell of unity and sameness ,just as ,eozoon lived in the ,laurentian sea1 and was preserved for us by the infiltration of its canals with siliceous mineral matters1 so its successors and representatives have gone on through all the ages accumulating limestone in the sea bottom4 ,to-day they are as active as they were then1 and are being fossilised in the same way4 ,the ,english chalk and the chalky modern mud of the ,atlantic sea-bed1 are precisely similar in origin to the ,eozoic limestones4 ,there is also a strange parallelism in the fact that in the modern seas ,foraminifera can live under conditions of deprivation of light and vital air1 and of enormous pressure1 under which few organisms of greater complexity could exist1 and that in like manner ,eozoon could live in seas which were perhaps as yet unfit for most other forms of life4 ,it has been attempted to press the ,eozoic ,foraminifers into the service of those theories of evolution which would deduce the animals of one geological period by descent with modification from those of another2 but it must be confessed that ,eozoon proves somewhat intractable in this connection4 ,in the first place1 the creature is the grandest of his class1 both in form and structure2 and if1 on the hypothesis of derivation1 it has required the whole lapse of geological time to disintegrate ,eozoon into ,orbulina1 ,globigerina1 and other comparatively simple ,foraminifers of the modern seas1 it may have taken as long1 probably much longer1 to develop ,eozoon from such simple forms in antecedent periods4 ,time fails for such a process4 ,again1 the deep sea has been the abode of ,foraminifers from the first4 ,in this deep sea they have continued to live without improvement1 and with little material change4 ,how little likely is it that in less congenial abodes they could have improved into higher grades of being2 especially since we know that the result in actual fact of any such struggle for existence is merely the production of depauperated ,foraminifers8 ,further1 there is no link of connection known to us between ,eozoon and any of the animals of the succeeding ,primordial1 which are nearly all essentially new types1 vastly more different from ,eozoon then it is from many modern creatures4 ,any such connection is altogether imaginary and unsupported by proof4 ,the laws of creation actually illustrated by this primeval animal are only these3 ,first1 that there has been a progress in creation from few1 low1 and generalised types of life to more numerous1 higher1 and more specialised types2 and secondly1 that every type1 low or high1 was introduced at first in its best and highest form1 and was1 as a type1 subject to degeneracy1 and to partial or total replacement by higher types subsequently introduced4 ,i do not mean that we could learn all this from ,eozoon alone2 but that1 rightly considered1 it illustrates these laws1 which we gather from the subsequent progress of the creative work4 ,as to the mystery of the origin of living beings from dead matter1 or any changes which they may have undergone after their creation1 it is absolutely silent4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,primordial1 ,,or ,,cambrian ,,age4 ,between the time when ,eozoon ,canadense flourished in the seas of the ,laurentian period1 and the age which we have been in the habit of calling ,primordial1 or ,cambrian1 a great gap evidently exists in our knowledge of the succession of life on both of the continents1 representing a vast lapse of time1 in which the beds of the ,upper ,laurentian were deposited1 and in which the ,laurentian sediments were altered1 contorted1 and upheaved1 before another immense series of beds1 the ,huronian1 or ,lower ,cambrian1 was formed in the bottom of the sea4 ,eozoon and its companions occur in the ,lower ,laurentian4 ,the ,upper ,laurentian has afforded no evidence of life2 and even those conditions from which we could infer life are absent4 ,the ,lowest ,cambrian1 as we shall see1 presents only a few traces of living beings4 ,still1 the physical history of this interval must have been most important4 ,the wide level bottom of the ,laurentian sea was broken up and thrown into those bold ridges which were to constitute the nuclei of the existing continents4 ,along the borders of these new-made lands intense volcanic eruptions broke forth1 producing great quantities of lava and scori and huge beds of conglomerate and volcanic ash1 which are characteristic features of the older ,cambrian in both hemispheres4 ,such conditions1 undoubtedly not favourable to life1 seem to have prevailed1 and extended their influence very widely1 so that the sediments of this period are among the most barren in fossils of any in the crust of the earth4 ,if any quiet undisturbed spots existed in which the ,lower ,laurentian life could be continued and extended in preparation for the next period1 we have yet discovered few of them4 ,the experience of other geological periods would1 however1 entitle us to look for such oases in the ,lower ,cambrian desert1 and to expect to find there some connecting links between the life of the ,eozoic and the very dissimilar fauna of the ,primordial4 ,the western hemisphere1 where the ,laurentian is so well represented1 is especially unproductive in fossils of the immediately succeeding period4 ,the only known exception is the occurrence of ,eozoon and of apparent casts of worm-burrows in rocks at ,madoc in ,canada1 overlying the ,laurentian1 and believed to be of ,huronian age1 and certain obscure fossils of uncertain affinities1 recently detected by ,mr4 ,billings1 in rocks supposed to be of this age1 in ,newfoundland4 ,here1 however1 the ,european series comes in to give us some small help4 ,gmbel has described in ,bavaria a great series of gneissic rocks corresponding to the ,laurentian1 or at least to the lower part of it2 above these are what he calls the ,hercynian mica-slate and primitive clay-slate1 in the latter of which he finds a peculiar species of ,eozoon1 which he names ,eozoon ,bavaricum4 ,in ,england also the ,longmynd groups of rocks in ,shropshire and in ,wales appears to be the immediate successor to the ,upper ,laurentian2 and it has afforded some obscure worm-burrows or1 perhaps1 casts of sponges or fucoids1 with a small shell of the genus ,lingulella1 and also fragments of crustaceans 7,paleopyge74 ,the ,fucoid ,sandstones of ,sweden1 believed to be of similar age1 afford traces of marine plants and burrows of worms1 while the ,harlech beds of ,wales have afforded to ,mr4 ,hicks a considerable number of fossil animals1 not very dissimilar from those of the ,upper ,cambrian4 ,if these rocks are really the next in order to the ,eozoic1 they show a marked advance in life immediately on the commencement of the ,primordial period4 ,in ,ireland1 the curious ,oldhamia1 noticed below1 appears to occur in rocks equally old4 ,as we ascend1 however1 into the ,middle and ,upper parts of the ,cambrian1 the ,menevian and ,lingula flag-beds of ,britain1 and their equivalents in ,bohemia and ,scandinavia1 and the ,acadian and ,potsdam groups of ,america1 we find a rich and increasing abundance of animal remains1 constituting the first ,primordial fauna of ,barrande4 ,the rocks of the ,primordial are principally sandy and argillaceous1 forming flags and slates1 without thick limestones1 and often through great thicknesses1 very destitute of organic remains1 but presenting some layers1 especially in their upward extension1 crowded with fossils4 ,these are no longer mere ,protozoa1 but include representatives of all the great groups of animals which yet exist1 except the vertebrates4 ,we shall not attempt any systematic classification of these2 but1 casting our dredge and tow-net into the ,primordial sea1 examine what we collect1 rather in the order of relative abundance then of classification4 ,over great breadths of the sea bottom we find vast numbers of little bivalve shells of the form and size of a finger-nail1 fastened by fleshy peduncles imbedded in the sand or mud2 and thus anchored1 collecting their food by a pair of fringed arms from the minute animals and plants which swarm in the surrounding waters4 ,these are the ,lingul1 from the abundance of which some of the ,primordial beds have received in ,england and ,wales the name of ,lingula flags4 ,in ,america1 in like manner1 in some beds near ,st4 ,john1 ,new ,brunswick1 the valves of these shells are so abundant as to constitute at least half of the material of the bed2 and alike in ,europe and ,america1 ,lingula and allied forms are among the most abundant ,primordial fossils4 ,the ,lingul are usually reckoned to belong to the great sub-kingdom of mollusks1 which includes all the bivalve and univalve shell-fish1 and several other groups of creatures2 but an able ,american naturalist1 ,mr4 ,morse1 has recently shown that they have many points of resemblance to the worms2 and thus1 perhaps1 constitute one of those curious old-fashioned comprehensive types1 as they have been called1 which present resemblances to groups of creatures1 in more modern times quite distinct from each other4 ,he has also found that the modern ,lingul are very tenacious of life1 and capable of suiting themselves to different circumstances1 a fact which1 perhaps1 has some connection with their long persistence in geological time4 ,they are in any case members of the group of lamp-shells1 creatures specially numerous and important in the earlier geological ages4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,,life ,,in ,,the ,,primordial ,,sea4 ,on the bottom are seen1 proceeding from left to right1 ,oldhamia antiqua1 ,lingul1 ,arenicol1 ,oldhamia radiata1 ,paradoxides1 ,histioderma1 ,agnostus1 ,oldhamia radiata1 ,alg1 and ,lingul4 ,in the water are ,hymenocaris1 different species of ,trilobites1 and ,pteropods4 ,the ,lingul are especially interesting as examples of a type of beings continued almost from the dawn of life until now2 for their shells1 as they exist in the ,primordial1 are scarcely distinguishable from those of members of the genus which still live4 ,while other tribes of animals have run through a great number of different forms1 these little creatures remain the same4 ,another interesting point is a most curious chemical relation of the ,lingula1 with reference to the material of its shell4 ,the shells of mollusks generally1 and even of the ordinary lamp-shells1 are hardened by common limestone or carbonate of lime3 the rarer substance1 phosphate of lime1 is in general restricted to the formation of the bones of the higher animals4 ,in the case of the latter1 this relation depends apparently on the fact that the albuminous substances on which animals are chiefly nourished require for their formation the presence of phosphates in the plant4 ,hence the animal naturally obtains phosphate of lime or bone-earth with its food1 and its system is related to this chemical fact in such wise that phosphate of lime is a most appropriate and suitable material for its teeth and bones4 ,now1 in the case of the lower animals of the sea1 their food1 not being of the nature of the richer land plants1 but consisting mainly of minute alg and of animals which prey on these1 furnishes1 not phosphate of lime1 but carbonate4 ,an exception to this occurs in the case of certain animals of low grade1 sponges1 etc41 which1 feeding on minute plants with siliceous cell-walls1 assimilate the flinty matter and form a siliceous skeleton4 ,but this is an exception of downward tendency1 in which these animals approach to plants of low grade4 ,the exception in the case of ,lingul is in the other direction4 ,it gives to these humble creatures the same material for their hard parts which is usually restricted to animals of much higher rank4 ,the purpose of this arrangement1 whether in relation to the cause of the deviation from the ordinary rule or its utility to the animal itself1 remains unknown4 ,it has1 however1 been ascertained by ,dr4 ,hunt1 who first observed the fact in the case of the ,primordial ,lingul1 that their modern successors coincide with them1 and differ from their contemporaries among the mollusks in the same particular4 ,this may seem a trifling matter1 but it shows in this early period the origination of the difference still existing in the materials of which animals construct their skeletons1 and also the wonderful persistence of the ,lingul1 through all the geological ages1 in the material of their shells4 ,this is the more remarkable1 in connection with our own very slender acquaintance with the phenomenon1 in relation either to its efficient or final causes4 ,before leaving the ,lingul1 ,i may mention that ,mr4 ,morse informs me that living specimens1 when detached from their moorings1 can creep like worms1 leaving long furrows on the sand1 and that they can also construct sand-tubes wherein to shelter themselves4 ,this shows that some of the abundant worm burrows of the ,primordial may have been the work of these curious little shell-fishes1 as well as1 perhaps1 some of the markings which have been described under the name of ,eophyton1 and have been supposed1 ,i think incorrectly1 to be remains of land plants4 ,in addition to ,lingula we may obtain1 though rarely1 lamp-shells of another type1 that of the ,orthids1 ,these have the valves hinged along a straight line1 in the middle of which is a notch for the peduncle1 and the valves are often marked with ribs or striae4 ,the ,orthids were content with limestone for their shells1 and apparently lived in the same circumstances with the ,lingul2 and in the period succeeding the ,primordial they became far more abundant4 ,yet they perished at an early stage of the world's progress1 and have no representatives in the modern seas4 ,in many parts of the ,primordial ocean the muddy bottom swarmed with crustaceans1 relatives of our shrimps and lobsters1 but of a form which differs so much from these modern shell-fishes that the question of their affinities has long been an unsettled one with zoologists4 ,hundreds of species are known1 some almost microscopic in size1 others a foot in length4 ,all are provided with a broad flat horseshoe-shaped head-plate1 which1 judging from its form and a comparison with the modern king-crabs or horseshoe-crabs1 must have been intended as a sort of mud-plough to enable them to excavate burrows or hide themselves in the slimy ooze of the ocean bed4 ,on the sides of this buckler are placed the prominent eyes1 furnished with many separate lenses1 on precisely the same plan with those of modern crustaceans and insects1 and testifying1 as ,buckland long ago pointed out1 to the identity of the action of light in the ancient and the modern seas4 ,the body was composed of numerous segments1 each divided transversely into three lobes1 whence they have received the name of ,trilobites1 and the whole articulated1 so that the creature could roll itself into a ball1 like the modern slaters or wood-lice1 which are not very distant relatives of these old crustaceans4,f ,the limbs of ,trilobites were long unknown1 and it was even doubted whether they had any2 but recent discoveries have shown that they had a series of flat limbs useful both for swimming and creeping4 ,the ,trilobites1 under many specific and generic forms1 range from the ,primordial to the ,carboniferous rocks1 but are altogether wanting in the more recent formations and in the modern seas4 ,the ,trilobites lived on muddy bottoms1 and their remains are extremely abundant in shaly and slaty beds1 though found also in limestone and sandstone4 ,in the latter they have left most curious traces of their presence in the trails which they have produced4 ,some of the most ancient sandstones have their surfaces covered with rows of punctured impressions 7,protichnites1 first footprints71 others have strange series of transverse grooves with longitudinal ones at the side 7,climactichnites1 ladder footprints72 others are oval burrows1 marked with transverse lines and a ridge along the middle 7,rusichnites1 wrinkle footprints74 ,all of these so nearly resemble the trails and tracks of modern king-crabs that there can be little doubt as to their origin4 ,many curious striated grooves and bifid marks1 found on the surfaces of ,primordial beds1 and which have been described as plants1 are probably only the marks of the oral organs or feet of these and similar creatures1 which passed their lives in grubbing for food in the soft1 slimy ooze1 though they could1 no doubt1 like the modern king-crabs1 swim when necessary4 ,some still more shrimp-like creatures1 ,hymenocaris1 which are found with them1 certainly had this power4 ,f ,woodward has recently suggested affinities of ,trilobites with the ,isopods or equal-footed crustaceans1 on the evidence of a remarkable specimen with remains of feet described by ,billings4 ,a lower type of annulose or ringed animal then that of the ,trilobites1 is that of the worms4 ,these creatures cannot be preserved in a fossil state1 except in the case of those which inhabit calcareous tubes3 but the marks which their jointed bodies and numerous side-bristles leave on the sand and mud may1 when buried under succeeding sediments1 remain2 and extensive surfaces of very old rocks are marked in this way1 either with cylindrical burrows or curious trails with side scratches looking like pinnate leaves4 ,these constitute the genus ,crusiana1 while others of more ordinary form belong to the genus ,arenicolites1 so named from the common ,arenicola1 or lobworm1 whose burrows they are supposed to resemble4 ,markings referable to seaweed also occur in the ,primordial rocks1 and also some grotesque and almost inexplicable organisms known as ,oldhamia1 which have been chiefly found in the ,primordial of ,ireland4 ,one of the most common forms consists of a series of apparently jointed threads disposed in fan-like clusters on a central stem 7,oldhamia antiqua74 ,another has a wider and simpler fan-like arrangement of filaments4 ,these have been claimed by botanists as alg1 and have been regarded by zoologists as minute ,zoophytes1 while some more sceptical have supposed that they may be mere inorganic wrinklings of the beds4 ,this last view does not1 however1 seem tenable4 ,they are1 perhaps1 the predecessors of the curious ,graptolites1 which we shall have to represent in the ,silurian4 ,singularly enough1 ,foraminifera1 the characteristic fossils of the ,laurentian1 have been little recognised in the ,primordial1 nor are there any limestones known so massive as those of the former series4 ,there are1 however1 a number of remarkable organisms1 which have usually been described as sponges1 but are more probably partly of the nature of sponges and partly of that of ,foraminifera4 ,of this kind are some of the singular conical fossils described by ,billings as ,archocyathus1 and found in the ,primordial limestone of ,labrador4 ,they are hollow within1 with radiating pores and plates1 calcareous in some1 and in others with siliceous spicules like those of modern sponges4 ,some of them are several inches in diameter1 and they must have grown rooted in muddy bottoms1 in the manner of some of the deep-sea sponges of modern times4 ,one species at least of these creatures was a true ,foraminifer1 allied1 though somewhat distantly1 to ,eozoon4 ,in some parts of the ,primordial sandstones1 curious funnel-shaped casts in sand occur1 sometimes marked with spiral lines4 ,the name ,histioderma has been given to some of these1 and they have been regarded as mouths of worm-burrows4 ,others of larger size have been compared to inverted stumps of trees4 ,if they were produced by worms1 some of these must have been of gigantic size1 but ,billings has recently suggested that they may be casts of sponges that lived like some modern species imbedded in the sand4 ,in accordance with this view ,i have represented these curious objects in the engraving1 ,on the whole1 the life of these oldest ,palozoic rocks is not very abundant2 but there are probably representatives of three of the great subdivisions of animals or1 as some would reckon them1 of four the ,protozoa1 the ,radiata 7,coelenterata71 the ,mollusca1 and the ,annulosa4 ,and it is most interesting thus to find in these very old rocks the modern subdivisions of animals already represented1 and these by types some of them nearly allied to existing inhabitants of the seas ,i have endeavoured in the engraving to represent some of the leading forms of marine life in this ancient period4 ,perhaps one of the most interesting discoveries in these rocks is that of rain-marks and shrinkage-cracks1 in some of the very oldest beds--those of the ,longmynd in ,shropshire4 ,on the modern muddy beach any ordinary observer is familiar with the cracks produced by the action of the sun and air on the dried surfaces left by the tides4 ,such cracks1 covered by the waters of a succeeding tide1 may be buried in newer silt1 and once preserved in this way are imperishable4 ,in like manner1 the pits left by passing showers of rain on the mud recently left bare by the tide may1 when the mud has dried1 become sufficiently firm to be preserved4 ,in this way we have rain-marks of various geological ages2 but the oldest known are those of the ,longmynd1 where they are associated both with ripple-marks and shrinkage-cracks4 ,we thus have evidence of the action of tides1 of sun1 and of rain1 in these ancient periods just as in the present day4 ,were there no land animals to prowl along the low tidal flats in search of food8 ,were there no herbs or trees to drink in the rains and flourish in the sunshine8 ,if there were1 no bone or footprint on the shore1 or drifted leaf or branch1 has yet revealed their existence to the eyes of geologists ,the beds of the ,primordial age exist in ,england1 in ,bohemia1 in ,sweden and ,norway1 and also in ,north ,america4 ,they appear to have been deposited along the shores of the old ,laurentian continent1 and probably some of them indicate very deep water4 ,the ,primordial rocks are in many parts of the world altered and hardened4 ,they have often assumed a slaty structure1 and their bedding1 and the fossils which they contain1 are both affected by this4 ,the usual view entertained as to what is called slaty structure is1 that it depends on pressure1 acting on more or less compressible material in some direction usually different from that of the bedding4 ,such pressure has the effect of arranging all the flat particles as scales of mica1 etc4 in planes parallel to the compressing surface4 ,hence1 if much material of this kind is present in the sediment1 the whole rock assumes a fissile character causing it to split readily into thin plates4 ,that such yielding to pressure has actually taken place is seen very distinctly in microscopic sections of some slaty rocks1 which often show not only a laminated structure1 but an actual crumpling on a small scale1 causing them to assume almost the aspect of woody fibre4 ,such rocks often remind a casual observer of decaying trunks of trees1 and sections of them under the microscope show the most minute and delicate crumpling4 ,it is also proved by the condition of the fossils the beds contain4 ,these are often distorted1 so that some of them are lengthened and others shortened1 and if specimens were selected with1 that view1 it would be quite easy to suppose that those lengthened by distortion are of different species from those distorted so as to be shortened4 ,slaty cleavage and distortion are not1 however1 confined to ,primordial rocks1 but occur in altered sediments of various ages4 ,the ,primordial sediments must have at one time been very widely distributed1 and must have filled up many of the inequalities produced by the rending and contortion of the ,laurentian beds4 ,their thicker and more massive portions are1 however1 necessarily along the borders of the ,laurentian continents1 and as they in their turn were raised up into land1 they became exposed to the denuding action first of the sea1 and afterwards of the rain and rivers1 and were so extensively wasted away that only in a few regions do large areas of them remain visible4 ,that of ,bohemia has afforded to ,barrande a great number of most interesting fossils4 ,the rocks of ,st4 ,david's in ,wales1 those of ,shropshire in ,england1 and those of ,wicklow in ,ireland are also of great interest2 and next to these in importance are1 perhaps1 the ,huronian and ,acadian groups of ,north ,america1 in which continent--as for example in ,nova ,scotia and in some parts of ,new ,england--there are extensive areas of old metamorphic rocks whose age has not been determined by fossils1 but which may belong to this period4 ,the question of division lines of formations is one much agitated in the case of the ,cambrian rocks4 ,whether certain beds are to be called ,cambrian or ,silurian has been a point greatly controverted2 and the terms ,primordial and ,primordial ,silurian have been used as means to avoid the raising of this difficulty4 ,many of our division lines in geology are arbitrary and conventional1 and this may be the case with that between the ,primordial and ,silurian1 the one age graduating into the other4 ,there appears to be1 however1 the best reason to recognise a distinct ,cambrian period1 preceding the two great periods1 those of the second and third faunas of ,barrande1 to which the term ,silurian is usually applied4 ,on the other hand1 in so far as our knowledge extends at present1 a strongly marked line of separation exists between the ,laurentian and ,primordial1 the latter resting on the edges of the former1 which seems then to have been as much altered as now4 ,still a break of this kind may be1 perhaps must be1 merely local2 and may vary in amount4 ,thus1 in some places we find rocks of ,silurian and later ages resting directly on the ,laurentian1 without the intervention of the ,primordial4 ,in any case1 where a line of coast is steadily sinking1 each succeeding deposit will overlap that which went before2 and this seems to have been the case with the ,laurentian shore when the ,primordial and ,silurian were being deposited4 ,hence over large spaces the ,primordial is absent1 being probably buried up1 except where exposed by denudation at the margin of the two formations4 ,this occurs in several parts of ,canada1 while the ,laurentian rocks have evidently been subjected to metamorphism and long-continued weathering before the ,lower ,silurian were deposited2 and in some cases the latter rest on weather-worn and pitted surfaces1 and are filled with angular bits of the underlying rock1 as well as with drift-shells which have been cast on these old ,laurentian shores2 while in other cases the ,silurian rests on smooth water-worn ,laurentian rocks1 and is filled at the junction with well-rounded pebbles and grains of sand which have evidently been subjected to a more thorough attrition then those of the present beach4 ,with respect to the line of division between the ,primordial and the next succeeding rocks1 it will be seen that important movements of the continents occurred at the close of the ,cambrian1 and in some places the ,cambrian rocks have been much disturbed before the deposition of the ,lower ,silurian4 ,seated on some ancient promontory of the ,laurentian1 and looking over the plain which1 in the ,primordial and ,lower ,silurian periods was the sea1 ,i have often wished for some shred of vegetable matter to tell what lived on that land when the ,primordial surf beat upon its shore1 and washed up the ,trilobites and ,brachiopods of those old seas2 but no rock has yet taken up its parable to reveal the secret1 and the ,primordial is vocal only with the old story3 ,and ,god said1 ,let the waters swarm with swarming living things1 and it was so4 ,so our picture of the period may represent a sea-bottom swarming with animals of low grade1 some sessile1 some locomotive2 and we may merely suppose a distant shore with vegetation dimly seen1 and active volcanoes2 but a shore on which no foot of naturalist has yet trod to scan its productions4 ,very different estimates have been formed of the amount of life in this period1 according to the position given to its latest limit4 ,taking some of the more modern views of this subject1 we might have included among the ,primordial animals many additional creatures1 which we prefer noticing in the ,silurian1 since it may at least be affirmed that their head-quarters were in that age1 even if they had a beginning in the ,primordial4 ,it may be interesting here1 however1 to note the actual amount of life known to us in this period1 taken in its largest scope4 ,in doing this1 ,i shall take advantage of an interesting table given by ,dr4 ,bigsby1,g and representing the state of knowledge in #ahfh1 and shall group the species in such a manner as to indicate the relative abundance of distinct types of structure4 ,we find then-- ,plants 7all1 or nearly all1 supposed to be sea-weeds1 and some1 probably1 mere tracks or trails of animals7 #bb species4 ,sponges1 and similar creatures #bg ,corals and their allies #f ,starfishes and their allies #d ,worms #bi ,trilobites and other crustaceans #ddb ,lamp-shells and other molluscoids #aic ,common bivalve mollusks #ab ,common univalve mollusks and their allies #agb ,higher mollusks1 nautili1 cuttle-fishes1 etc4 #fe --- ,in all #igb ,g ,thesaurus ,siluricus4 ,now in this enumeration we observe1 in the first place1 a representation of all the lower or invertebrate groups of the waters4 ,we have next the remarkable fact that the ,radiata of ,cuvier1 the lowest and most plant-like of the marine animals1 are comparatively slenderly represented1 yet that there are examples of their higher as well as of their lower forms4 ,we have the further fact that the crustaceans1 the highest marine animals of the annulose type1 are predominant in the waters2 and that in the mollusks the highest and lowest groups are most plentiful1 the middle less so4 ,the whole number of species is small1 and this may arise either from our having here reached an early period in the history of life1 or from our information being defective4 ,both are probably true4 ,still1 of the animals known1 we cannot say that the proportions of the different kinds depend on defective knowledge4 ,there is no reason1 for example1 why corals should not have been preserved as well as ,trilobites1 or why ,brachiopods should have been preserved rather then ordinary bivalves4 ,the proportions1 therefore1 it may be more safe to reason from then the aggregate4 ,in looking at these proportions1 and comparing them with those of modern seas1 we are struck with the great number of species representing some types either now extinct or comparatively rare3 the ,trilobites and ,brachiopods more particularly4 ,we are astonished at the enormous preponderance of these two groups1 and especially of the ,trilobites4 ,further1 we observe that while some forms1 like ,lingula and ,nautilus1 have persisted down to modern times1 others1 like the ,trilobites and ,orthids1 perished very early4 ,in all this we can dimly perceive a fitness of living things to physical conditions1 a tendency to utilise each type to the limit of its capacities for modification1 and then to abandon it for something higher2 a tendency of low types to appear first1 but to appear in their highest perfection and variety2 a sudden apparition of totally diverse plans of structure subserving similar ends simultaneously with each other1 as for instance those of the ,mollusk and the ,crustacean2 the appearance of optical and mechanical contrivances1 as for example the compound eyes of the ,trilobite and the swimming float of the ,orthoceras1 in all their perfection at first1 just as they continue to this day in creatures of similar grade4 ,that these and other similar things point to a uniform and far-reaching plan1 no rational mind can doubt2 and if the world had stopped short in the ,primordial period1 and attained to no further development1 this would have been abundantly apparent2 though it shines forth more and more conspicuously in each succeeding page of the stony record4 ,how far such unity and diversity can be explained by the modern philosophy of a necessary and material evolution out of mere death and physical forces1 and how far it requires the intervention of a ,creative mind1 are questions which we may well leave with the thoughtful reader1 till we have traced this history somewhat further4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,lower ,,and ,,upper ,,silurian ,,ages4 ,by ,english geologists1 the great series of formations which succeeds to the ,cambrian is usually included under the name ,silurian ,system1 first proposed by ,sir ,roderick ,murchison4 ,it certainly1 however1 consists of two distinct groups1 holding the second and third faunas of ,barrande4 ,the older of the two1 usually called the ,lower ,silurian1 is the ,upper ,cambrian of ,sedgwick1 and may properly be called the ,siluro-,cambrian4 ,the newer is the true ,silurian1 or ,silurian proper--the ,upper ,silurian of ,murchison4 ,we shall in this chapter1 for convenience1 consider both in connection1 using occasionally the term ,lower ,silurian as equivalent to ,siluro-,cambrian4 ,the ,silurian presents us with a definite physical geography1 for the northern hemisphere at least2 and this physical geography is a key to the life conditions of the time4 ,the ,north ,american continent1 from its great unbroken area1 affords1 as usual1 the best means of appreciating this4 ,in this period the northern currents1 acting perhaps in harmony with old ,laurentian outcrops1 had deposited in the sea two long submarine ridges1 running to the southward from the extreme ends of the ,laurentian nucleus1 and constituting the foundations of the present ridges of the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,alleghanies4 ,between these the extensive triangular area now constituting the greater part of ,north ,america1 was a shallow oceanic plateau1 sheltered from the cold polar currents by the ,laurentian land on the north1 and separated by the ridges already mentioned from the ,atlantic and ,pacific4 ,it was on this great plateau of warm and sheltered ocean that what we call the ,silurian fauna lived2 while of the creatures that inhabited the depths of the great bounding oceans1 whose abysses must have been far deeper and at a much lower temperature1 we know little4 ,during the long ,silurian periods1 it is true1 the great ,american plateau underwent many revolutions1 sometimes being more deeply submerged1 and having clear water tenanted by vast numbers of corals and shell-fishes1 at others rising so as to become shallow and to receive deposits of sand and mud2 but it was always distinct from the oceanic area without4 ,in ,europe1 in like manner1 there seems to have been a great internal plateau bounded by the embryo hills of ,western ,europe on the west1 and harbouring a very similar assemblage of creatures to those existing in ,america4 ,further1 during these long periods there were great changes1 from a fauna of somewhat primordial type up to a new order of things in the ,upper ,silurian1 tending toward the novelties which were introduced in the succeeding ,devonian and ,carboniferous4 ,we may1 in the first place1 sketch these changes as they occurred on the two great continental plateaus1 noting as we proceed such hints as can be obtained with reference to the more extensive oceanic spaces4 ,before the beginning of the age1 both plateaus seem to have been invaded by sandy and muddy sediments charged at some periods and places with magnesian limestone2 and these circumstances were not favourable to the existence or preservation of organic remains4 ,such are the ,potsdam and ,calciferous beds of ,america and the ,tremadoc and ,llandeilo beds of ,england4 ,the ,potsdam and ,tremadoc are by their fossils included in the ,cambrian1 and may at least be regarded as transition groups4 ,it is further to be observed1 in the case of these beds1 that if we begin at the west side of ,europe and proceed easterly1 or at the east side of ,america and proceed westerly1 they become progressively thinner1 the greater amount of material being deposited at the edges of the future continents2 just as on the sides of a muddy tideway the flats are higher1 and the more coarse sediment deposited near the margin of the channel1 and fine mud is deposited at a greater distance and in thinner beds4 ,the cause1 however1 on the great scale of the ,atlantic1 was somewhat different1 ancient ridges determining the border of the channel4 ,this statement holds good not only of these older beds1 but of the whole of the ,silurian1 and of the succeeding ,devonian and ,carboniferous1 all deposited on these same plateaus4 ,thus1 in the case of the ,silurian in ,england and ,wales1 the whole series is more then #bj1jjj feet thick1 but in ,russia1 it is less then #a1jjj feet4 ,in the eastern part of ,america the thickness is estimated at quite as great an amount as in ,europe1 while in the region of the ,mississippi the ,silurian rocks are scarcely thicker then in ,russia1 and consist in great part of limestones and fine sediments1 the sandstones and conglomerates thinning out rapidly eastward of the ,appalachian ,mountains4 ,in both plateaus the earlier period of coarse accumulations was succeeded by one in which was clear water depositing little earthy sediment1 and this usually fine2 and in which the sea swarmed with animal life1 from the dbris of which enormous beds of limestone were formed the ,trenton limestone of ,america and the ,bala limestone of ,europe4 ,the fossils of this part of the series open up to us the head-quarters of ,lower ,silurian life1 the second great fauna of ,barrande1 that of the ,upper ,cambrian of ,sedgwick2 and in ,america more especially1 the ,trenton and its associated limestones can be traced over forty degrees of longitude2 and throughout the whole of this space its principal beds are composed entirely of comminuted corals1 shells1 and crinoids1 and studded with organisms of the same kinds still retaining their forms4 ,out of these seas1 in the ,european area1 arose in places volcanic islets1 like those of the modern ,pacific4 ,in the next succeeding era the clear waters became again invaded with muddy and sandy sediments1 in various alternations1 and with occasional bands of limestone1 constituting the ,caradoc beds of ,britain and the ,utica and ,hudson ,river groups of ,america4 ,during the deposition of these1 the abounding life of the ,siluro-,cambrian plateaus died away1 and a middle group of sandstones and shales1 the ,oneida and ,medina of ,america and the ,mayhill of ,england1 form the base of the ,upper ,silurian4 ,but what was taking place meanwhile in the oceanic areas separating our plateaus8 ,these were identical with the basins of the ,atlantic and ,pacific1 which already existed in this period as depressions of the earth's crust1 perhaps not so deep as at present4 ,as to the deposits in their deeper portions we know nothing2 but on the margin of the ,atlantic area are some rocks which give us at least a little information4 ,in the later part of the ,cambrian period the enormous thickness of the ,quebec group of ,north ,america appears to represent a broad stripe of deep water parallel to the eastern edge of the ,american plateau1 and in which an immense thickness of beds of sand and mud was deposited with very few fossils1 except in particular beds1 and these of a more primordial aspect then those of the plateau itself4 ,these rocks no doubt represent the margin of a deep ,atlantic area1 over which cold currents destructive of life were constantly passing1 and in which great quantities of sand and mud1 swept from the icy regions of the ,north1 were continually being laid4 ,the researches of ,dr4 ,carpenter and ,dr4 ,wyville ,thomson show us that there are at present cold areas in the deeper parts of the ,atlantic1 on the ,european side1 as we have long known that they exist at less depths on the ,american side2 and these same researches1 with the soundings on the ,american banks1 show that sand and gravel may be deposited not merely on shallows1 but in the depths of the ocean1 provided that these depths are pervaded by cold and heavy currents capable of eroding the bottom1 and of moving coarse material4 ,the ,quebec group in ,canada and the ,united ,states1 and the metalliferous ,lower ,silurian rocks of ,nova ,scotia and ,newfoundland1 destitute of great marine limestones and coral reefs1 evidently represent deep and cold-water areas on the border of the ,atlantic plateau4 ,at a later period1 the beginning of the ,upper ,silurian1 the richly fossiliferous and exceptional deposits of the ,island of ,anticosti1 formed in the deep hollow of the ,gulf of ,st4 ,laurence1 show that when the plateau had become shallowed up by deposition and elevation1 and converted into desolate sand-banks1 the area of abundant life was transferred to the still deep ,atlantic basin and its bordering bays1 in which the forms of ,lower ,silurian life continued to exist until they were mixed up with those of the ,upper ,silurian4 ,if we turn now to these latter rocks1 and inquire as to their conditions on our two great plateaus1 we shall find a repetition of changes similar to those which occurred in the times preceding4 ,the sandy shallows of the earlier part of this period give place to wide oceanic areas similar to those of the ,lower ,silurian2 ,in these we find vast and thick coral and shell limestones1 the ,wenlock of ,england and ,niagara of ,america1 as rich in life as the limestones of the ,lower ,silurian1 and with the generic and family forms similar1 but the species for the most part different4 ,in ,america these limestones were followed by a singularly shallow condition of the plateau1 in which the surface was so raised as at times to be converted into separate salt lakes in which beds of salt were deposited4 ,on both plateaus there were alternations of oceanic and shallow conditions1 under which the ,lower ,helderberg and ,ludlow beds1 the closing members of the ,silurian1 were laid down4 ,of the ,atlantic beds of this period we know little1 except that the great limestones appear to be wanting1 and to be replaced by sandy and muddy deposits1 in some parts at least of the margins of the area4 ,in some portions also of the plateaus and their margins1 extensive volcanic outbursts seem to have occurred2 so that the ,american plateau presented1 at least in parts1 the aspect of a coral sea with archipelagos of volcanic islands1 the ejections from which became mixed with the aqueous deposits forming around them4 ,having thus traced the interesting series of geographical conditions indicated by the ,silurian series1 we may next take our station on one of the submerged plateaus1 and inquire as to the new forms of life now introduced to our notice2 and in doing so shall include the life of both the ,lower and ,upper ,silurian4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,fragment of ,lower ,silurian ,limestone1 sliced and magnified ten diameters1 showing the manner in which it is made up of fragments of corals1 crinoids1 and shells4 7,from a paper oil the ,microscopic ,structure of ,canadian limestone1 ,canadian ,naturalist47 ,first1 we may remark the vast abundance and variety of corals4 ,the polyps1 close relatives of the common sea-anemone of our coasts1 which build up our modern coral reefs1 were represented in the ,silurian seas by a great number of allied yet different forms1 equally effectual in the great work of secreting carbonate of lime in stony masses1 and therefore in the building-up of continents4 ,let us note some of the differences4 ,in the first place1 whereas our modern coral-workers can show us but the topmost pinnacles of their creations1 peeping above the surface of the sea in coral reefs and islands1 the work of the coral animals of the ,silurian has been finished1 by these limestones being covered with masses of new sediment consolidated into hard rock1 and raised out of the sea to constitute a part of the dry land4 ,in the ,silurian limestones we thus have1 not merely the coral reefs1 but the wide beds of comminuted coral1 mixed with the remains of other animals1 which are necessarily accumulated in the ocean bed around the reefs and islands4 ,further1 these beds1 which we might find loose and unconsolidated in the modern sea1 have their fragments closely cemented together in the old limestones4 ,the nature of this difference can be well seen by comparing a fragment of modern coral or shell limestone from ,bermuda1 with a similar fragment of the ,trenton limestone1 both being sliced for examination under the microscope4 ,the old limestone is black or greyish1 the modern one is nearly white1 because in the former the organic matter in the animal fragments has been carbonised or converted into coaly and bituminous matter4 ,the old limestone is much more dense and compact1 partly because its materials have been more closely compressed by superincumbent weight1 but chiefly because calcareous matter in solution in water has penetrated all the interstices1 and filled them up with a deposit of crystalline limestone4 ,in examining a slice1 however1 under the microscope1 it will be seen that the fragments of corals and other organisms are as distinct and well preserved as in the crumbling modern rock1 except that they are perfectly imbedded in a paste of clear transparent limestone1 or rather calcareous spar1 infiltrated between them4 ,i have examined great numbers of slices of these limestones1 ever with new wonder at the packing of the organic fragments which they present4 ,the hard marble-like limestones used for building in the ,silurian districts of ,europe and ,america1 are thus in most cases consolidated masses of organic fragments4 ,in the next place1 the animals themselves must have differed somewhat from their modern successors4 ,this we gather from the structure of their stony cells1 which present points of difference indicating corresponding difference of detail in the soft parts4 ,zoologists thus separate the rugose or wrinkled corals and the tabulate or floored corals of the ,silurian from those of the modern seas4 ,the former must have been more like the ordinary coral animals2 the latter were very peculiar1 more especially in the close union of the cells1 and in the transverse floors which they were in the habit of building across these cells as they grew in height4 ,they presented1 however1 all the forms of our modern corals4 ,some were rounded and massive in form1 others delicate and branching4 ,some were solitary or detached1 others aggregative in communities4 ,some had the individual animals large and probably showy1 others had them of microscopic size4 ,perhaps the most remarkable of all is the ,american ,beatricea1,h which grew like a great trunk of a tree twenty feet or more in height1 its solitary animal at the top like a pillar-saint1 though no doubt more appropriate and comfortable2 and multitudes of delicate and encrusting corals clinging like mosses or lichens to its sides4 ,this creature belongs to the very middle of the ,silurian1 and must have lived in great depths1 undisturbed by swell or breakers1 and sheltering vast multitudes of other creatures in its stony colonnades4 ,h ,first described by ,mr4 ,billings4 ,it has been regarded as a plant1 and as a cephalopod shell2 but ,i believe it was a coral allied to ,cystiphyllum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,,life ,,in ,,the ,,silurian ,,age4 ,on the bottom are seen1 proceeding from left to right1 ,corals 7,stenopora and ,beatricea7 and a ,gasteropod2 ,orthoceras2 ,coral 7,patria72 ,crinoids1 ,lingul1 and ,cystideans2 a ,trilobite and ,cyrtolites4 ,in the water is a large ,pterygotus1 and under it a ,trinucleus4 ,further on1 are ,cephalopods1 a ,heteropod1 and ,fishes4 ,at the surface1 ,phyllograptus1 ,graptolithus1 and ,bellerophon4 ,on the ,land1 ,lepidodendron1 ,psilophyton1 and ,prototaxites4 ,lastly1 the ,silurian corals nourished in latitudes more boreal then their modern representatives4 ,in both hemispheres as far north as ,silurian limestones have been traced1 well-developed corals have been found4 ,on the great plateaus sheltered by ,laurentian ridges to the north1 and exposed to the sun and to the warmer currents of the equatorial regions1 they nourished most grandly and luxuriantly3 but they lived also north of the ,laurentian bands in the ,arctic ,sea basins1 though probably in the shallower and more sheltered parts4 ,undoubtedly the geographical arrangements of the ,silurian period contributed to this4 ,we have already seen how peculiarly adapted to an exuberant marine life were the submerged continents of the period2 and there was probably little ,arctic land producing icebergs to chill the seas4 ,the great ,arctic currents1 which then as now flowed powerfully toward the equator1 must have clung to the deeper parts of the ocean basins1 while the return waters from the equator would spread themselves widely over the surface2 so that wherever the ,arctic ,seas presented areas a little elevated out of the cold water bottom1 there might be suitable abodes for coral animals4 ,it has been supposed that in the ,silurian period the sea might have derived some appreciable heat from the crust of the earth below1 and astronomical conditions have been suggested as tending to produce changes of climate2 but it is evident that whatever weight may be due to these causes1 the observed geographical conditions are sufficient to account for the facts of the case4 ,it is also to be observed1 that we cannot safely infer the requirements as to temperature of ,silurian coral animals from those of the tenants of the modern ocean4 ,in the modern seas many forms of life thrive best and grow to the greatest size in the colder seas2 and in the later tertiary period there were elephants and rhinoceroses sufficiently hardy to endure the rigours of an ,arctic climate4 ,so there may have been in the ,silurian seas corals of much less delicate constitution then those now living4 ,next to the corals we may place the crinoids1 or stone-lilies--creatures abounding throughout the ,silurian seas1 and realizing a new creative idea1 to be expanded in subsequent geological time into all the multifarious types of star-fishes and sea-urchins4 ,a typical crinoid1 such as the ,glyptocrinus of the ,lower ,silurian1 consists of a flexible jointed stem1 sometimes several feet in length1 composed of short cylindrical discs1 curiously articulated together1 a box-like body on top made up of polygonal pieces attached to each other at the edges1 and five radiating jointed arms furnished with branches and branchlets1 or fringes1 all articulated and capable of being flexed in any direction4 ,such a creature has more the aspect of a flower then of an animal2 yet it is really an animal1 and subsists by collecting with its arms and drifting into its mouth minute creatures floating in the water4 ,another group1 less typical1 but abundantly represented in the ,silurian seas1 is that of the ,cystideans1 in which the body is sack-like1 and the arms few and sometimes attached to the body4 ,they resemble the young or larv of crinoids4 ,in the modern seas the crinoids are extremely few1 though dredging in very deep water has recently added to the number of known species2 but in the ,silurian period they had their birth1 and attained to a number and perfection not afterwards surpassed4 ,perhaps the stone-lilies of the ,upper ,silurian rocks of ,dudley1 in ,england1 are the most beautiful of ,palozoic animals4 ,judging from the immense quantities of their remains in some limestones1 wide areas of the sea bottom must have been crowded with their long stalks and flower-like bodies1 presenting vast submarine fields of these stony water-lilies4 ,passing over many tribes of mollusks1 continued or extended from the ,primordial--and merely remarking that the lamp-shells and the ordinary bivalve and univalve shell-fishes are all represented largely1 more especially the former group1 in the ,silurian--we come to the highest of the ,mollusca1 represented in our seas by the cuttle-fishes and nautili1 creatures which1 like the crinoids1 may be said to have had their birth in the ,silurian1 and to have there attained to some of their grandest forms4 ,the modern pearly nautilus shell1 well known in every museum1 is beautifully coiled in a disc-like form1 and when sliced longitudinally shows a series of partitions dividing it into chambers1 air-tight1 and serving as a float to render the body of the creature independent of the force of gravity4 ,as the animal grows it retracts its body toward the front of the shell1 and forms new partitions1 so that the buoyancy of the float always corresponds with the weight of the animal2 while by the expansion and contraction of the body and removal of water from a tube or syphon which traverses the chambers1 or the injection of additional water1 slight differences can be effected1 rendering the creature a very little lighter or heavier then the medium in which it swims4 ,thus practically delivered from the encumbrance of weight1 and furnished with long flexible arms provided with suckers1 with great eyes and a horny beak1 the nautilus becomes one of the tyrants of the deep1 creeping on the bottom or swimming on the surface at will1 and everywhere preying on whatever animals it can master4 ,fortunately for us1 as well as for the more feeble inhabitants of the sea1 the nautili are not of great size1 though some of their allies1 the cuttle-fishes1 which1 however1 want the floating apparatus1 are sufficiently powerful to be formidable to man4 ,in the ,silurian period1 however1 there were not only nautili like ours1 but a peculiar kind of straight nautilus--the ,orthoceratites--which sometimes attained to gigantic size4 ,the shells of these creatures may be compared to those of nautili straightened out1 the chambers being placed in a direct line in front of each other4 ,a great number of species have been discovered1 many quite insignificant in size1 but others as much as twelve feet in length and a foot in diameter at the larger end4 ,indeed1 accounts have been given of individuals of much larger growth4 ,these large ,orthoceratites were the most powerful marine animals known to us in the ,silurian1 and must have been in those days the tyrants of the seas4,i ,i ,zoologists will observe that ,i have1 in the illustrations given the ,orthoceras the arms rather of a cuttle-fish then of a nautilus4 ,the form of the outer chamber of the shell1 ,i think1 warrants this view of the structure of the animal1 which must have been formed on a very comprehensive type4 ,among the crustaceans1 or soft shell-fishes of the ,silurian1 we meet with the ,trilobites1 continued from the ,primordial in great and increasing force1 and represented by many and beautiful species2 while an allied group of shell-fishes of low organization but gigantic size1 the ,eurypterids1 characteristic of the ,upper ,silurian1 were provided with powerful limbs1 long flexible bodies1 and great eyes in the front of the head1 and were sometimes several feet in length4 ,instead of being mud grovellers1 like the ,trilobites and modern king-crabs1 these ,eurypterids must have been swimmers1 careering rapidly through the water1 and probably active and predaceous4 ,there were also great multitudes of those little crustaceans which are inclosed in two horny or shelly valves like a bivalve shell-fish1 and the remains of which sometimes fill certain beds of ,silurian shale and limestone4 ,no remains found in the ,silurian rocks have been more fertile sources of discussion then the so-called ,graptolites1 or written stones--a name given long ago by ,linnus1 in allusion to the resemblance of some species having rows of cells on one side1 to minute lines of writing4 ,these little bodies usually appear as black coaly stains on the surface of the rock1 showing a slender stem or stalk1 with a row of little projecting cells at one side1 or two rows1 one on each side4 ,the more perfect specimens show that1 in many of the species at least1 these fragments were branches of a complex organism spreading from a centre2 and at this centre there is sometimes perceived a sort of membrane connecting the bases of the branches1 and for which various uses have been conjectured4 ,the branches themselves vary much in different species4 ,they may be simple or divided1 narrow1 or broad and leaf-like1 with one row of cells1 or two rows of cells4 ,hence arise generic distinctions into single and double graptolites1 leaf and tree graptolites1 net graptolites1 and so on4 ,but while it is easy to recognise these organisms1 and to classify them in species and genera1 it is not so easy to say what their affinities are with modern things4 ,they are exclusively ,silurian1 disappearing altogether at the close of this period1 and1 so far as we know1 not succeeded by any similar creatures serving to connect them with modern forms4 ,hence the most various conjectures as to their nature4 ,they have been supposed to be plants1 and have been successively referred to most of the great divisions of the lower animals4 ,most recently they have been regarded by ,hall1 ,nicholson1,j and others1 who have studied them most attentively1 as zoophytes or hydroids allied to the ,sertularise1 or tooth-corallines and sea-fir-corallines of our coasts1 to the cell-bearing branches of which their fragments bear a very close resemblance4 ,in this case1 each of the little cells or teeth at the sides of the fibres must have been the abode of a little polyp1 stretching out its tentacles into the water1 and enjoying a common support and nutrition with the other polyps ranged with it4 ,still the mode of life of the community of branching stems is uncertain4 ,in some species there is a little radicle or spike at the base of the main stem1 which may have been a means of attachment4 ,in others the hollow central disk has been conjectured to have served as a float4 ,occurring as the specimens do usually in shales and slates1 which must have been muddy beds1 they could not have been attached to stones or rocks1 and they must have lived in clear water1 either seated on the surface of the mud1 attached to sea-weeds1 or floating freely by means of hollow disks filled with air4 ,after much thought on their structure and mode of occurrence1 ,i am inclined to believe that in their younger stages they were attached1 but by a very slender thread2 that at a more advanced stage they became free1 and acquiring a central membranous disk filled with air1 floated by means of this at the surface1 their long branches trailing in the waters below4 ,they would thus be1 with reference to their mode of life1 though not to the details of their structure1 prototypes of the modern ,portuguese man-of-war1 which now drifts so gaily over the surface of the warmer seas4 ,i have represented them in this attitude2 but in case ,i should be mistaken1 the reader may imagine it possible that they may be adhering to the lower surface of floating tangle4 ,the head-quarters of the ,graptolites seem to be in the upper part of the ,cambrian1 and in the ,siluro-,cambrian1 and they are widely distributed in ,europe1 in ,america1 and in ,australia4 ,this very wide distribution of the species is probably connected with their floating and oceanic habits4 ,j ,see also an able paper by ,carruthers1 in the ,geological ,magazine1 vol4 v41 p4 #fd4 ,lastly1 just as the ,silurian period was passing away1 we find a new thing in the earth--vertebrate animals1 represented by several species of shark-like fishes1 which came in here as forerunners of the dynasty of the vertebrates1 which from that day to this have been the masters of the world4 ,these earliest vertebrates are especially interesting as the first known examples of a plan of structure which culminates only in man himself4 ,they appear to have had cartilaginous skeletons2 and in this and their shagreen-like skin1 strong bony spines1 and trenchant teeth1 to have much resembled our modern sharks1 or rather the dog-fishes1 for they were of small size4 ,one genus 7,pteraspis71 apparently the oldest of the whole1 belongs1 however1 to a tribe of mailed fishes allied to some of those of the old red sandstone4 ,in both cases the groups of fishes representing the first known appearance of the vertebrates were allied to tribes of somewhat high organization in that class2 and they asserted their claims to dominancy by being predaceous and carnivorous creatures1 which must have rendered themselves formidable to their invertebrate contemporaries4 ,coprolites1 or fossil masses of excrement1 which are found with them1 indicate that they chased and devoured orthoceratites and sea-snails of various kinds1 and snapped ,lingul and crinoids from their stalks2 and we can well imagine that these creatures1 when once introduced1 found themselves in rich pasture and increased accordingly4 ,space prevents us from following further our pictures of the animal life of the great ,silurian era1 the monuments of which were first discovered by two of ,england's greatest geologists1 ,murchison and ,sedgwick4 ,how imperfect such a notice must be1 may be learned from the fact that ,dr4 ,bigsby1 in his ,thesaurus ,siluricus in #ahfh1 catalogues #h1hig ,silurian species1 of which only #igb are known in the ,primordial4 ,our illustration1 carefully studied1 may do more to present to the reader the teeming swarms of the ,silurian seas then our word-picture1 and it includes many animal forms not mentioned above1 more especially the curved and nautilus-like cuttle-fishes1 those singular molluscous swimmers by fin or float known to zoologists as violet-snails1 winged-snails or pteropods1 and carinarias2 and which1 under various forms1 have existed from the ,silurian to the present time4 ,the old ,lingul are also there as well as in the ,primordial1 while the fishes and the land vegetation belong1 as far as we yet know1 exclusively to the ,upper ,silurian1 and point forward to the succeeding ,devonian4 ,we know as yet no ,silurian animal that lived on the land or breathed air4 ,but our knowledge of land plants1 though very meagre1 is important4 ,without regarding such obscure and uncertain forms as the ,eophyton of ,sweden1 ,hooker1 ,page1 and ,barrande have noticed1 in the ,upper ,silurian1 plants allied to the ,lycopods or club-mosses4 ,i have found in the same deposits another group of plants allied to ,lycopods and pill-worts 7,psilophyton71 and fragments of wood representing the curious and primitive type of pine-like trees known as ,prototaxites4 ,these are probably only a small instalment of ,silurian land plants1 such as a voyager might find floating in the sea on his approach to some unknown shore1 which had not yet risen above his horizon4 ,time and careful search will1 no doubt1 add largely to our knowledge4 ,in the ,silurian1 as in the ,cambrian1 the head-quarters of animal life were in the sea4 ,perhaps there was no animal life on the land2 but here our knowledge may be at fault4 ,it is1 however1 interesting to observe the continued operation of the creative fiat1 ,let the waters swarm with swarmers which1 beginning to be obeyed in the ,eozoic age1 passes down through all the periods of geological time to the moving things innumerable of the modern ocean4 ,can we infer anything further as to the laws of creation from these ,silurian multitudes of living things8 ,one thing we can see plainly1 that the life of the ,silurian is closely related to that of the ,cambrian4 ,the same generic and ordinal forms are continued4 ,even some species may be identical4 ,does this indicate direct genetic connection1 or only like conditions in the external world correlated with likeness in the organic world8 ,it indicates both4 ,first1 it is in the highest degree probable that many of the animals of the ,lower ,silurian are descendants of those of the ,cambrian4 ,sometimes these descendants may be absolutely unchanged4 ,sometimes they may appear as distinct varieties4 ,sometimes they may have been regarded as distinct though allied species4 ,the continuance in this manner of allied forms of life is necessarily related to the continuance of somewhat similar conditions of existence1 while changes in type imply changed external conditions4 ,but is this all8 ,i think not2 for there are forms of life in the ,silurian which cannot be traced to the ,cambrian1 and which relate to new and even prospective conditions1 which the unaided powers of the animals of the earlier period could not have provided for4 ,these new forms require the intervention of a higher power1 capable of correlating the physical and organic conditions of one period with those of succeeding periods4 ,whatever powers may be attributed to natural selection or to any other conceivable cause of merely genetic evolution1 surely prophetic gifts cannot be claimed for it2 and the life of all these geological periods is full of mute prophecies to be read only in the light of subsequent fulfilments4 ,the fishes of the ,upper ,silurian are such a prophecy4 ,they can claim no parentage in the older rocks1 and they appear at once as kings of their class4 ,with reference to the ,silurian itself1 they are of little consequence2 and in the midst of its gigantic forms of invertebrate life they seem almost misplaced4 ,but they predict the coming ,devonian1 and that long and varied reign of vertebrate life which culminates in man himself4 ,no such prophetic ideas are represented by the giant crustaceans and cuttle-fishes and swarming graptolites4 ,they had already attained their maximum1 and were destined to a speedy and final grave in the ,silurian1 or to be perpetuated only in decaying families whose poverty is rendered more conspicuous by the contrast with the better days gone by4 ,the law of creation provided for new types1 and at once for the elevation and degradation of them when introduced2 and all this with reference to the physical conditions not of the present only but of the future4 ,such facts1 which cannot be ignored save by the wilfully blind1 are beyond the reach of any merely material philosophy4 ,the little that we know of ,silurian plants is as eloquent of plan and creation as that which we can learn of animals4 ,i saw not long ago a series of genealogies in geological time reduced to tabular form by that ingenious but imaginative physiologist1 ,haeckel4 ,in one of these appeared the imaginary derivation of the higher plants from ,alg or sea-weeds4 ,nothing could more curiously contradict actual facts4 ,alg were apparently in the ,silurian neither more nor less elevated then in the modern seas1 and those forms of vegetable life which may seem to bridge over the space between them and the land plants in the modern period1 are wanting in the older geological periods1 while land plants seem to start at once into being in the guise of club-mosses1 a group by no means of low standing4 ,our oldest land plants thus represent one of the highest types of that cryptogamous series to which they belong1 and moreover are better developed examples of that type then those now existing4 ,we may say1 if we please1 that all the connecting links have been lost2 but this is begging the whole question1 since no thing 'but the existence of such links could render the hypothesis of derivation possible4 ,further1 the occurrence of any number of successive yet distinct species would not be the kind of chain required1 or rather would not be a chain at all4 ,yet in some respects development is obvious in creation4 ,old forms of life are often embryonic1 or resemble the young of modern animals1 but enlarged and exaggerated1 as if they had overgrown themselves and had prematurely become adult4 ,old forms are often generalized1 or less specific in their adaptations then those of modern times4 ,there is less division of labour among them4 ,old forms sometimes not only rise to the higher places in their groups1 but usurp attributes which in later times are restricted to their betters4 ,old forms are often gigantic in size in comparison with their modern successors1 which1 if they could look back on their predecessors1 might say1 ,there were giants in those days4 ,some old forms have gone onward in successive stages of elevation by a regular and constant gradation4 ,others have remained as they were through all the ages1 ,some have no equals in their groups in modern days4 ,all these things speak of order1 but of order along with development1 and this development not evolution2 unless by this term we understand the emergence into material facts of the plans of the creative mind4 ,these plans we may hope in some degree to understand1 though we may not be able to comprehend the mode of action of creative power any more then the mode in which our own thought and will act upon the machinery of our own nerves4 ,still1 the power is not the less real1 that we are ignorant of its mode of operation4 ,the wind bloweth whither it listeth1 and we feel its strength1 though we may not be able to calculate the wind of to-morrow or the winds of last year4 ,so is the ,spirit of ,god when it breathes into animals the breath of life1 or the ,almighty word when it says1 ,let the waters bring forth4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,devonian ,,age4 ,paradoxical as it may appear1 this period of geological history has been held as of little account1 and has even been by some geologists regarded as scarcely a distinct age1 just because it was one of the most striking and important of the whole4 ,the ,devonian was an age of change and transition1 in both physical and organic existence2 and an age which introduced1 in the ,northern hemisphere at least1 more varied conditions of land and water and climate then had previously existed4 ,hence1 over large areas of our continents1 its deposits are irregular and locally diverse2 and the duration and importance of the period are to be measured rather by the changes and alterations of previous formations1 and the ejection of masses of molten rock from beneath1 then by a series of fossiliferous deposits4 ,nevertheless1 in some regions in ,north ,america and ,eastern ,europe1 the formations of this era are of vast extent and volume1 those of ,north ,america being estimated at the enormous thickness of #ae1jjj feet1 while they are spread over areas of almost continental breadth4 ,at the close of the ,upper ,silurian1 the vast continental plateaus of the northern hemisphere were almost wholly submerged4 ,no previous marine limestone spreads more widely then that of the ,upper ,silurian1 and in no previous period have we much less evidence of the existence of dry land2 yet before the end of the period we observe1 in a few fragments of land plants scattered here and there in the marine limestones--evidence that islands rose amid the waste of waters4 ,as it is said that the sailors of ,columbus saw the first indications of the still unseen ,western ,continent in drift canes1 and fragments of trees floating in mid ocean1 so the voyager through the ,silurian seas finds his approach to the verdant shores of the ,devonian presaged by a few drift plants borne from shores yet below the horizon4 ,the small remains of land in the ,upper ,silurian were apparently limited to certain clusters of islands in the north-eastern part of ,america and north-western part of ,europe1 with perhaps some in the intervening ,atlantic ,on these limited surfaces grew the first land plants certainly known to us--herbs and trees allied to the modern club-mosses1 and perhaps forests of trees allied to the pines1 though of humbler type2 and this wide ,upper ,silurian sea1 with archipelagos of wooded islands1 may have continued for a long time4 ,but with the beginning of the ,devonian1 indications of an unstable condition of the earth's crust began to develop themselves4 ,new lands were upheaved2 great shallow1 muddy1 and sandy flats were deposited around them the domains of corals and sea-weeds were contracted and on banks1 and in shallows and estuaries1 there swarmed shoals of fishes of many species1 and some of them of most remarkable organization4 ,on the margins of these waters stretched vast swamps1 covered with a rank vegetation4 ,but the period was one of powerful igneous activity4 ,volcanoes poured out their molten rocks over sea and land1 and injected huge dykes of trap into the newly-formed beds4 ,the land was shaken with earthquake throes1 and was subject to many upheavals and subsidences4 ,violent waves desolated the coasts1 throwing sand and gravel over the flats1 and tearing up newly-deposited beds2 and poisonous exhalations1 or sudden changes of level1 often proved fatal to immense shoals of fishes4 ,this was the time of the ,lower ,devonian1 and it is marked1 both in the old world and the new1 by extensive deposits of sandstones and conglomerates4 ,but the changes going on at the surface were only symptomatic of those occurring beneath4 ,the immense accumulations of ,silurian sediment had by this time so overweighted certain portions of the crust1 that great quantities of aqueous sediment had been pressed downward into the heated bowels of the earth1 and were undergoing1 under an enormous weight of superincumbent material1 a process of baking and semi-fusion4 ,this process was of course extremely active along the margins of the old ,silurian plateaus1 and led to great elevation of land1 while in the more central parts of the plateaus the oceanic conditions still continued2 and in the ,middle ,devonian1 in ,america at least1 one of the most remarkable and interesting coral limestones in the world--the corniferous limestone--was deposited4 ,in process of time1 however1 these clear waters became shallow1 and were invaded by muddy sediments2 and in the ,upper ,devonian the swampy flats and muddy shallows return in full force1 and in some degree anticipate the still greater areas of this kind which existed in the succeeding ,coal formation4 ,such is a brief sketch of the ,devonian1 or1 as it may be better called in ,america1 from the vast development of its beds on the south side of ,lake ,erie1 the ,erian formation4 ,in ,america the marine beds of the ,devonian were deposited on the same great continental plateau which supported the seas of the ,upper and ,lower ,silurian1 and the beds were thicker towards the east and thinned towards the west1 as in the case of the older series4 ,but in the ,devonian there was much1 land in the north-east of ,america2 and on the eastern margin of this land1 as in ,gasp and ,new ,brunswick1 the deposits throughout the whole period were sandstones and shales1 without the great coral limestones of the central plateau4 ,something of the same kind occurred in ,europe1 where1 however1 the area of ,devonian sea was smaller4 ,there the fossiliferous limestones of the ,middle ,devonian in ,devon1 in the ,eifel district1 in ,france and in ,russia1 represent the great corniferous limestone of ,america2 while the sandstones of ,south ,wales1 of ,ireland1 and of ,scotland1 resemble the local conditions of ,gasp and ,new ,brunswick1 and belonged to a similar area in the north-west of ,europe1 in which shallow water and land conditions prevailed during the whole of the ,devonian1 and which was perhaps connected with the corresponding region in ,eastern ,america by a ,north ,atlantic archipelago1 now submerged4 ,this whole subject is so important to the knowledge of the ,devonian1 and of geology in general1 that ,i may be pardoned for introducing it here in a tabular form1 taking the ,european series from ,etheridge's excellent and exhaustive paper in the ,journal of the ,geological ,society4 ,,devonian ,,of ,,erian4 ,,divisions4 ,,central ,,areas4 ,devon4 ,rhen4 ,prussia4 ,new ,york4 ,pilton group3-- ,clymenia1 ,cypridina1 ,chemung and ,portage4 ,brown calcareous etc4 ,shales1 ,sandstones ,upper shales1 brown and limestones1 and and shales4 yellow sandstone4 sandstones4 ,plants and marine ,land plants and ,plants and marine shells4 marine shells4 shells4 ,ilfracombe group3-- ,eifel limestone1 ,hamilton shales1 ,grey and red ,calceola shales1 and ,corniferous ,middle sandstones and etc4 or cherty flags1 calcareous ,corals1 shells1 limestone4 slates and etc4 ,many corals and limestones1 with shells1 also corals1 etc4 plants4 ,lynton group3-- ,coblentz and ,schoharie and ,bed and purple ,wissenbach shales1 ,caudagalli grits4 ,lower sandstones4 ,marine ,rhenish greywacke1 ,oriskany shells1 etc4 ,spinier sandstones4 sandstone4 ,marine shells4 ,marine shells4 ,,divisions4 ,,marginal ,,areas4 ,scotland4 ,ireland4 ,gasp and ,new ,brunswick4 ,yellow and red ,yellow and red ,red and grey sandstones4 sandstones1 etc4 sandstones1 grits ,upper ,fishes and plants4 ,plants1 fishes1 and shales1 and etc4 conglomerates of ,gasp and ,mispeck4 ,plants4 ,red shales and ,grits and ,grey and ,red sandstones1 and sandstones of sandstones1 and ,middle conglomerates4 ,dingle4 grey and dark ,caithness flags4 shales4 ,gasp ,fishes and plants4 and ,st4 ,john4 ,many plants and fishes4 ,flagstones1 shales ,glengariff grits1 ,sandstone and and conglomerates4 etc4 conglomerate4 ,lower ,fishes and plants4 ,gasp and ,st4 ,john4 ,plants and fishes4 ,a glance at this table suffices to show that when we read ,hugh ,miller's graphic descriptions of the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,scotland1 with its numerous and wonderful fishes1 we have before us a formation altogether distinct from that of ,devonshire or the ,eifel4 ,but the one represents the shallow1 and the other the deeper seas of the same period4 ,we learn this by careful tracing of the beds to their junction with1 corresponding series1 and by the occasional occurrence of the characteristic fishes of the ,scottish strata in the ,english and ,german beds4 ,in like manner a geologist who explores the ,gasp sandstones or the ,new ,brunswick shales has under his consideration a group of beds very dissimilar from that which he would have to study on the shores of ,lake ,erie4 ,but here again identity of relations to the ,silurian below and the carboniferous above1 shows the contemporaneousness of the beds1 and this is confirmed by the occurrence in both series of some of the same plants and shells and fishes4 ,it will further be observed that it is in the middle that the greatest difference occurs4 ,sand and mud and pebble-banks were almost universal over our two great continental plateaus in the ,older and ,newer ,devonian4 ,but in the ,middle there were in some places deeper waters with coral reefs1 in others shallow flats and swamps rich in vegetation4 ,herein we see the greater variety and richness of the ,devonian4 ,had we lived in that age1 we should not have seen great continents like those that now exist1 but we could have roamed over lovely islands with breezy hills and dense lowland jungles1 and we could have sailed over blue coral seas1 glowing below with all the fanciful forms and brilliant colours of polyp life1 and filled with active and beautiful fishes4 ,especially did all these conditions culminate in the ,middle ,devonian1 when what are now the continental areas of the northern hemisphere must have much resembled the present insular and oceanic regions of the ,south ,pacific4 ,out of the rich and varied life of the ,devonian ,i may select for illustration its corals1 its crustaceans1 its fishes1 its plants1 and its insects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,,corals1 ,,fishes1 ,,and ,,crustaceans ,,of ,,the ,,devonian ,in the foreground are ,corals of the genera ,favosites1 ,michelina1 ,phillipsatrea1 ,zaphrentis1 ,blothrophyllum1 and ,syringopora1 and the seaweed ,spirephyton2 also ,fishes of the genera ,cephalaspis and ,pterichthys4 ,above are ,pterygotus and ,dinichtys1 with ,fishes of the genera ,diplacanthus1 ,osteolepis1 ,holoptychius1 ,pteraspis1 ,coccosteus1 etc4 ,the distant land had ,lepidodendra1 ,pines and ,tree-ferns4 ,the central limestones of the ,devonian may be regarded as the head-quarters of the peculiar types of coral characteristic of the ,palozoic age4 ,here they were not only vastly numerous1 but present some of their grandest and also their most peculiar forms4 ,edwards and ,haime1 in their ,monograph of ,british ,fossil ,corals in #ahed1 enumerate one hundred and fifty well-ascertained species1 and the number has since been largely increased2 ,i have no doubt that my friend ,dr4 ,bigsby1 in his forth-coming ,thesaurus ,devonicus1 will more then double it4 ,in the ,devonian limestones of ,england1 as for instance at ,torquay1 the specimens1 though abundant and well preserved as to their internal structure1 are too firmly imbedded in the rock to show their external forms4 ,in the ,devonian of the continent of ,europe much finer specimens occur2 but1 perhaps1 in no part of the world is there so clear an exhibition of them as in the ,devonian limestones of the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell thus expresses his admiration of the exposure of these corals1 which he saw at the falls of the ,ohio1 near ,louisville4 ,he says1 ,although the water was not at its lowest1 ,i saw a grand display of what may be termed an ancient coral-reef1 formed by zoophytes which flourished in a sea of earlier date then the ,carboniferous period4 ,the ledges of horizontal limestone1 over which the water flows1 belong to the ,devonian group1 and the softer parts of the stone have decomposed and wasted away1 so that the harder calcareous corals stand out in relief4 ,many branches of these zoophytes project from their erect stems precisely as if they were living4 ,among other species ,i observed large masses1 not less then five feet in diameter1 of ,favosites ,gothlandica1 with its beautiful honeycomb structure well displayed4 ,there was also the cup-shaped ,cyathophyllum1 and the delicate network of ,fenestella1 and that elegant and well-known ,european species of fossil1 the chain coral1 ,catenipora escharoides1 with a profusion of others which it would be tedious to all but the geologist to enumerate4 ,although hundreds of fine specimens have been detached from these rocks to enrich the museums of ,europe and ,america1 another crop is constantly working its way out under the action of the stream1 and of the sun and rain in the warm season when the channel is laid dry4,k ,these limestones have been estimated to extend1 as an almost continuous coral reef1 over the enormous area of five hundred thousand square miles of the now dry and inland surface of the great ,american continental plateau4 ,the limestones described by ,sir ,charles are known in the ,western ,states as the ,cliff limestone4 ,in the ,state of ,new ,york and in ,western ,canada the ,corniferous limestone1 so called from the masses of hornstone1 like the flint of the ,english chalk1 contained in it1 presents still more remarkable features4 ,the corals which it contains have been replaced by the siliceous or flinty matter in such a manner that1 when the surrounding limestone weathers away1 they remain projecting in relief in all the beauty of their original forms4 ,not only so1 but on the surface of the country they remain as hard siliceous stones1 and may be found in ploughing the soil and in stone fences and roadside heaps1 so that tons of them could often be collected over a very limited space4 ,when only partly disengaged from the matrix1 the process may be completed by immersing them in a dilute acid4 ,the beauty of these specimens when thus prepared is very great not at all inferior to that of modern corals1 which they often much resemble in general form1 though differing in details of structure4 ,one of the most common forms is that of the ,favosites1 or honeycomb coral1 presenting regular hexagonal cells with transverse floors or tabul4 ,of these there are several species1 usually flat or massive in form2 but one species1 ,f4 polymorpha1 branches out like the modern stag-horn corals4 ,another curious form1 ,michelina1 looks exactly like a mass of the papery cells of the great ,american hornet in a petrified state1 and the convex floors simulate the covers of the cells1 so that it is quite common to find them called fossil wasps' nests4 ,some of the largest belong to the genus ,phillipsastrea or ,smithia1 which ,hugh ,miller has immortalized by comparing its crowded stars1 with confluent rays1 to the once-popular calico pattern known as ,lane's net--a singular instance of the accidental concurrence of a natural and artificial design4 ,another very common type is that of the conical ,zaphrentis1 with a deep cut at top to lodge the body of the animal1 whose radiating chambers are faithfully represented by it's delicate lamell4 ,perhaps the most delicate of the whole is the ,syringopora1 with its cylindrical worm-like pipes bound together by transverse processes1 and which sometimes can be dissolved out in all its fragile perfection by the action of an acid on a mass of ,corniferous limestone filled with these corals in a silicified state4 ,k ,travels in ,north ,america4 second series4 ,these ,devonian corals1 like those of the ,silurian1 belong to the great extinct groups of ,tabulate and ,rugose corals2 groups which present1 on the one hand1 points of resemblance to the ordinary coral animals of the modern seas1 and1 on the other1 to those somewhat exceptional corals1 the ,millepores1 which are produced by another kind of polyp1 the ,hydroids4 ,some of them obviously combine properties belonging to both1 as1 for example1 the radiating partitions with the arrangement of the parts in multiples of four1 the horizontal floors1 and the external solid wall2 and this fact countenances the conclusion that in these old corals we have a group of high and complex organization1 combining properties now divided between two great groups of animals1 neither of them probably1 either in their stony skeletons or the soft parts of the animal1 of as high organization as their ,paleozoic predecessors4 ,this sort of disintegration of composite types1 or dissolution of old partnerships1 seems to have been no unusual occurrence in the history of life4,l ,l ,verril has suggested that the ,tabulata may be divided into two groups1 one referable to ,actinoids1 the other to ,hydroids4 ,if the ,devonian witnessed the culmination of the ,palozoic corals1 its later stages saw the final decadence of the great dynasty of the ,trilobites4 ,of these creatures there are in the ,devonian some large and ornate species1 remarkable for their spines and tubercles2 as if in this1 the latter day of their dominion1 they had fallen into habits of luxurious decoration unknown to their sterner predecessors1 and at the same time had found it necessary to surround their now disputed privileges with new safeguards of defensive armour4 ,not improbably the decadence of the ,trilobites may have been connected with the introduction of the numerous and formidable fishes of the period4 ,but while the venerable race of the ,trilobites was preparing to fight its last and unsuccessful battle1 another and scarcely less ancient tribe of crustaceans1 the ,eurypterids1 already strong in the ,silurian1 was armed with new and formidable powers4 ,the ,pterygotus anglicus1 which should have been named scoticus1 since its head-quarters are in ,scotland1 was in point of size the greatest of known crustaceans1 recent or fossil4 ,according to ,mr4 ,henry ,woodward1 who has published an admirable description and figures of the creature in the ,palontographical ,society's ,memoirs1 it must have been six feet in length1 and nearly two feet in breadth4 ,its antenn were1 unlike the harmless feelers of modern ,crustacea1 armed with powerful claws4 ,two great eyes stood in the front of the head1 and two smaller ones on the top4 ,it had four pairs of great serrated jaws1 the largest as wide as a man's hand4 ,at the sides were a pair of powerful paddles1 capable of urging it swiftly through the water as it pursued its prey2 and when attacked by any predaceous fish1 it could strike the water with its broad tail1 terminated by a great flat telson1 and retreat backward with the rapidity of an arrow4 ,woodward says it must have been the shark of the ,devonian seas2 rather1 it was the great champion of the more ancient family of the lobsters1 set to arrest1 if possible1 the encroachments of the coming sharks4 ,the ,trilobites and ,eurypterids constitute a hard case for the derivationists4 ,unlike those ,melchisedeks1 the fishes of the ,silurian1 which are without father or mother1 the ,devonian crustaceans may boast of their descent1 but they have no descendants4 ,no distinct link connects them with any modern crustaceans except the ,limuli1 or horse-shoe crabs2 and here the connection is most puzzling1 for while there seems some intelligible resemblance between the adult ,eurypterids and the horse-shoe1 or king-crabs1 the latter1 in their younger state1 rather resemble ,trilobites1 as ,dr4 ,packard has recently shown4 ,thus the two great tribes of ,eurypterids and ,trilobites have united in the small modern group of king-crabs1 while on the other hand1 there are points of resemblance1 as already stated1 between ,trilobites and ,isopods1 and the king-crabs had already begun to exist1 since one species is now known in the ,upper ,silurian4 ,so puzzling are these various relationships1 that one naturalist of the derivationist school has recently attempted to solve the difficulty by suggesting that the ,trilobites are allied to the spiders6 ,thus nature sports with our theories1 showing us in some cases1 as in the corals and fishes1 partnerships split up into individuals1 and in others distinct lines of being converging and becoming lost in one slender thread4 ,barrande1 the great palontologist of ,bohemia1 has recently1 in an elaborate memoir on the ,trilobites1 traced these and other points through all their structures and their whole succession in geological time thereby elaborating a most powerful inductive argument against the theory of evolution1 and concluding that1 so far from the history of these creatures favouring such a theory1 it seems as if expressly contrived to exclude its possibility4 ,but1 while the gigantic ,eurypterids and ornate ,trilobites of the ,devonian were rapidly approaching their end1 a few despised little crustaceans1--represented by the ,amphipeltis of ,new ,brunswick and ,kampecaris of ,scotland1--were obscurely laying the foundation of a new line of beings1 that of the ,stomapods1 destined to culminate in the ,squillas and their allies1 which1 however different in structure1 are practically the ,eurypterids of the modern ocean4 ,so change the dynasties of men and animals4 ,thou takest away their breath1 they die1 ,they return to their dust2 ,thou sendest forth ,thy ,spirit1 ,they are created2 ,thou renewest the form of the earth4 ,the reign of fishes began in the ,upper ,silurian1 for in the rocks of this age1 more especially in ,england1 several species have been found4 ,they occur1 however1 only in the newer beds of this formation1 and are not of large size1 nor very abundant4 ,it is to be observed that1 in so far as the fragments discovered can be interpreted1 they indicate the existence already of two distinct types of fishes1 the ,ganoids1 or gar-fishes1 protected with bony plates and scales1 and the ,placoids1 or shark-like fishes2 and that in the existing world these fishes are regarded as occupying a high place in their class4 ,further1 these two groups of fishes are those which throughout a large portion of geological time continue to prevail to the exclusion of other types1 the ordinary bony fishes having been introduced only in comparatively recent periods4 ,with the ,devonian1 however1 there comes a vast increase to the finny armies2 and so characteristic are these that the ,devonian has been called the age of fishes par excellence1 and we must try1 with the help of our illustration1 to paint these old inhabitants of the waters as distinctly as we can4 ,among the most ancient and curious of these fishes are those singular forms covered with broad plates1 of which the ,pteraspis of the ,upper ,silurian is the herald1 and which are represented in the ,lower ,devonian by several distinct genera4 ,of these1 one of the most curious is the ,cephalaspis1 or buckler-head1 distinguished by its broad flat head1 rounded in front and prolonged at the sides into two great spines1 which project far beyond the sides of the comparatively slender body4 ,this fish1 it may be mentioned1 is the type of a family highly characteristic of the ,lower ,devonian1 as well as of the ,upper ,silurian1 and all of which are provided with large plate-like cephalic coverings1 sometimes with a long snout in front1 and1 in so far as is known1 a comparatively weak body and tail4 ,they were all probably ground-living creatures1 feeding on worms and shell-fishes1 and rooting for these in the mud1 or burrowing therein for their safety4 ,in these respects they have a most curious analogy to the ,trilobites1 which in habits they must have greatly resembled1 though belonging by their structure to an entirely different and much higher class4 ,so close is this resemblance1 that their head-shields used to be mistaken for those of ,trilobites4 ,the case is one of those curious analogies which often occur in nature1 and which must always be distinguished from the true affinities which rest on structural resemblances4 ,another group of small fishes1 likewise cuirassed in bony armour of plates1 may be represented by the ,pterichthys1 with its two strong bony fins at the sides1 which may have served for swimming1 but probably also for defence1 and for creeping on or shovelling up the mud at the bottom of the sea4 ,but1 besides the ,ganoids which were armed in plated cuirasses1 there were others1 active and voracious1 clad in shining enamelled scales1 like the bony pikes of the ,american rivers and the ,polypterus of the ,nile4 ,some of these1 like the ,diplacanthus1 or double-spine were of small size1 and chiefly remarkable for their sharp defensive bony spines4 ,others1 like ,holoptychius 7wrinkled-scale7 and ,osteolepis 7bone-scale71 were strongly built1 and sometimes of great size4 ,one ,russian species of ,asterolepis 7star-scale7 is supposed to have been twenty feet in length1 and furnished with strong and trenchant teeth in two rows4 ,these great fishes afford a good reason for the spines and armour-plates of the contemporary trilobites and smaller fishes4 ,just as man has been endeavouring to invent armour impenetrable to shot1 for soldiers and for ships1 and1 on the other hand1 shot and shells that can penetrate any armoury so nature has always presented the spectacle of the most perfect defensive apparatus matched with the most perfect weapons for destruction4 ,in the class of fishes1 no age of the world is more eminent in these respects then the ,devonian4,m ,in addition to these fishes1 there were others1 represented principally by their strong bony spines1 which must have been allied to some of the families of modern sharks1 most of them1 however1 probably to that comparatively harmless tribe which1 furnished with flat teeth1 prey upon shell-fishes4 ,there are other fishes difficult to place in our systems of classification2 and among these an eminent example is the huge ,dinichthys of ,newberry1 from the ,hamilton group of ,ohio4 ,the head of this creature is more then three feet long and eighteen inches broad1 with the bones extraordinarily strong and massive4 ,in the upper jaw1 in addition to strong teeth1 there were in front two huge sabre-shaped tusks or incisors1 each nearly a foot long2 and corresponding to these in the massive lower jaw were two closely joined conical tusks1 fitting between those of the upper jaw4 ,no other fish presents so frightful an apparatus for destruction2 and if1 as is probable1 this was attached to a powerful body1 perhaps thirty feet in length1 and capable of rapid motion through the water1 we cannot imagine any creature so strong or so well armed as to cope with the mighty ,dinichthys4 ,m ,many of these were discovered and successfully displayed and described by ,hugh ,miller1 and are graphically portrayed in his celebrated work on the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 published in #ahda4 ,the difference between the fishes of the ,devonian and those of the modern seas is well marked by the fact that1 while the ordinary bony fishes now amount to probably #i1jjj species1 and the ganoid fishes to less then thirty1 the finny tribes of the ,devonian are predominantly ganoids1 and none of the ordinary type are known4 ,to what is this related1 with reference to conditions of existence8 ,two explanations1 different yet mutually connected1 may be suggested4 ,one is that armour was especially useful in the ,devonian as a means of defence from the larger predaceous species1 and the gigantic crustaceans of the period4 that this was the case may be inferred from the conditions of existence of some modern ganoids4 ,the common bony pike of ,canada 7,lepidosteus71 frequenting shallow and stagnant waters1 seems to be especially exposed to injury from its enemies4 ,consequently1 while it is rare to find an ordinary fish showing any traces of wounds1 a large proportion of the specimens of the bony pike which ,i have examined have scars on their scales1 indicating injuries which they have experienced1 and which possibly1 to fishes not so well armed1 might have proved fatal4 ,again1 in the modern ,amia1 or mud-fish1 in the bony pike and ,polypterus1 there is an extremely large air-bladder1 amply supplied with blood-vessels1 and even divided into cells or chambers1 and communicating with the mouth by an air-duct4 ,this organ is unquestionably in function a lung1 and enables the animal to dispense in some degree with the use of its gills1 which of course depend for their supply of vital air on the small quantity of oxygen dissolved in the water4 ,hence1 by the power of partially breathing air1 these fishes can live in stagnant and badly aerated waters1 where other fishes would perish4 ,in the case of the ,amia1 the grunting noises which it utters1 its habit of frequenting the muddy creeks of swamps1 and its possession of gill-cleaners1 correspond with this view4 ,it is possible that the ,devonian fishes possessed this semi-reptilian respiration2 and if so1 they would be better adapted then other fishes to live in water contaminated with organic matter in a state of decay1 or in waters rich in carbonic acid or deficient in oxygen4 ,possibly the palozoic waters1 as well as the palozoic atmosphere1 were less rich in pure oxygen then those of the present world2 and it is certain that1 in many of the beds in which the smaller ,devonian fishes abound1 there was so much decaying vegetable matter as to make it probable that the water was unfit for the ordinary fishes4 ,thus1 though at first sight the possession of external armour and means to respire air1 in the case of these peculiar fishes1 may seem to have no direct connection with each other1 their obvious correlation in some modern ganoids may have had its parallel on a more extensive scale among their ancient relatives4 ,just as the modern gar-fish1 by virtue of its lungs1 can live in stagnant shallows and hunt frogs1 but on that account needs strong armour to defend it against the foes that assail it in such places2 so in the ,devonian the capacity to inhabit unarated water and defensive plates and scales may have been alike necessary1 especially to the feebler tribes of fishes4 ,we shall find that in the succeeding carboniferous period there is equally good evidence of this4 ,we have reserved little space for the ,devonian plants and insects2 but we may notice both in a walk through a ,devonian forest1 in which we may include the vegetation of the several subordinate periods into which this great era was divisible4 ,the ,devonian woods were probably1 like those of the succeeding carboniferous period1 dense and dark1 composed of but few species of plants1 and these somewhat monotonous in appearance1 and spreading out into broad swampy jungles1 encroaching on the shallow bays and estuaries4 ,landing on one of these flats1 we may first cast our eyes over a wide expanse1 covered with what at a distance we might regard as reeds or rushes4 ,but on a near approach they appear very different2 rising in slender1 graceful stems1 they fork again and again1 and their thin branches are sparsely covered with minute needle-like leaves1 while the young shoots curl over in graceful tresses1 and the older are covered with little oval fruits1 or spore-cases2 for these plants are cryptogamous1 or flowerless4 ,this singular vegetation stretches for miles along the muddy flats1 and rises to a height of two or three feet from a knotted mass of cylindrical roots or root-stocks1 twining like snakes through and over the soil4 ,this plant may1 according as we are influenced by its fruit or structure1 be regarded as allied to the modern club-mosses or the modern pill-worts4 ,it is ,psilophyton1 in every country one of the most characteristic plants of the period1 though1 when imperfectly preserved1 often relegated by careless and unskilled observers to the all-engulfing group of fucoids4 ,a little further inland we see a grove of graceful trees1 forking like ,psilophyton1 but of grander dimensions1 and with the branches covered with linear leaves1 and sometimes terminated by cones4 ,these are ,lepidodendra1 gigantic club-mosses1 which were developed to still greater dimensions in the coal period4 ,near these we may see a still more curious tree1 more erect in its growth1 with rounded and somewhat rigid leaves and cones of different form1 and with huge cable-like roots1 penetrating the mud1 and pitted with the marks of long rootlets4 ,this is ,cyclostigma1 a plant near to the ,lepidodendron1 but distinct1 and peculiar to the ,devonian4 ,some of its species attain to the dimensions of considerable trees2 others are small and shrubby4 ,another small tree1 somewhat like the others1 but with very long shaggy leaves1 and its bark curiously marked with regular diamond-shaped scars1 is the ,leptophleum4 ,all these plants are probably allied to our modern club-mosses1 which are1 however1 also represented by some low and creeping species cleaving to the ground4 ,a little further1 and we reach a dense clump of ,sigillari1 with tall sparsely forking stems1 and ribbed with ridges holding rows of leaf-scars a group of plants which we shall have further occasion to notice in the coal formation2 and here is an extensive jungle of ,calamites1 gigantic and overgrown mares'-tails1 allies of the modern equisetums4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,,vegetation ,,of ,,the ,,devonian4 ,to the left are ,calamites2 next to these1 ,leptophleum2 in the centre are ,lepidodendron1 ,sigillaria1 and a ,pine4 ,below are ,psilophyton1 ,cordaites1 ,ferns1 and ,asterophyllites4 ,amidst these trees1 every open glade is filled with delicate ferns of marvellous grace and beauty2 and here and there a tree-fern rears its head1 crowned with its spreading and graceful leaves1 and its trunk clad with a shaggy mass of arial roots--an old botanical device1 used in these ancient times1 as well as now1 to strengthen and protect the stems of trees not fitted for lateral expansion4 ,beyond this mass of vegetation1 and rising on the slopes of the distant hills1 we see great trees that look like pines4 ,we cannot approach them more nearly2 but here on the margin of a creek we see some drift-trunks1 that have doubtless been carried down by a land flood4 ,one of them is certainly a pine1 in form and structure of its wood very like those now living in the southern hemisphere2 it is a ,dadoxylon4 ,another is different1 its sides rough and gnarled1 and marked with huge irregular ridges2 its wood loose1 porous1 and stringy1 more like the bark of modern pines1 yet having rings of growth and a true bark of its own1 and sending forth large branches and roots4 ,it is the strange and mysterious ,prototaxites1 one of the wonders of the ,devonian land1 and whose leaves and fruits would be worth their weight in gold in our museums1 could we only procure them4 ,a solitary fragment further indicates that in the yet unpenetrated solitudes of the ,devonian forests there may be other trees more like our ordinary familiar friends of the modern woods2 but of these we know as yet but little4 ,what inhabitants have these forests8 ,all that we yet know are a few large insects1 relatives of our modern ,may-flies1 flitting with broad veined wings over the stagnant waters in which their worm-like larv dwell1 and one species at least assuming one of the properties of the grasshopper tribe1 and enlivening the otherwise silent groves with a cricket-like chirp1 the oldest music of living things that geology as yet reveals to us2 and this1 not by the hearing of the sound itself1 but by the poor remains of the instrument attached to a remnant of a wing from the ,devonian shales of ,new ,brunswick4 ,a remarkable illustration of the abundance of certain plants in the ,devonian1 and also of the slow and gradual accumulation of some of its beds1 is furnished by layers of fossil spore-cases1 or the minute sacs which contain the microscopic germs of club-mosses and similar plants4 ,in the ,american forests1 in spring1 the yellow pollen-grains of spruces and pines sometimes drift away in such quantities in the breeze that they fall in dense showers1 popularly called showers of sulphur2 and this vegetable sulphur1 falling in lakes and ponds1 is drifted to the shore in great sheets and swathes4 ,the same thing appears to have occurred in the ,devonian1 not with the pollen of flowering plants1 but with the similar light spores and spore-cases of species of ,lepidodendron and allied trees4 ,in a bed of shale1 at ,kettle ,point1 ,lake ,huron1 from #ab to #ad feet thick1 not only are the surfaces of the beds dotted over with minute round spore-cases1 but1 on making a section for the microscope1 the substance of each layer is seen to be filled with them2 and still more minute bodies1 probably the escaped spores1 are seen to fill up their interstices4 ,the quantity of these minute bodies is so great that the shale is combustible1 and burns with much flame4 ,a bed of this nature must have been formed in shallow and still water1 on the margin of an extensive jungle or forest2 and as the spore-cases are similar to those of the ,lepidodendra of the coal-measures1 the trees were probably of this kind4 ,year after year1 as the spores became ripe1 they were wafted away1 and fell in vast quantities into the water1 to be mixed with the fine mud there accumulating4 ,when we come to the coal period1 we shall see that such beds of spore-cases occur there also1 and that they have even been supposed to be mainly instrumental in the accumulation of certain beds of coal4 ,their importance in this respect may have been exaggerated1 but the fact of their occurrence in immense quantities in certain coals and shales is indisputable4 ,this is but a slender sketch of the ,devonian forests3 but we shall find many of the same forms of plants in the carboniferous period which succeeds4 ,with one thought we may close4 ,we are prone to ask for reasons and uses for things1 but sometimes we cannot be satisfied4 ,of what use were the ,devonian forests8 ,they did not1 like those of the coal formation1 accumulate rich beds of coal for the use of man4 ,except possibly a few insects1 we know no animals that subsisted on their produce1 nor was there any rational being to admire their beauty4 ,their use1 except as helping us in these last days to complete the order of the vegetable kingdom as it has existed in geological time1 is a mystery4 ,we can but fall back on that ascription of praise to ,him who liveth for ever and ever1 on the part of the heavenly elders who cast down their crowns before the throne and say1 ,thou art worthy1 ,lord1 to receive the glory1 and the honour1 and the might2 because ,thou didst create all things1 and by reason of ,thy will they are and were created4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,carboniferous ,,age4 ,that age of the world's history which1 from its richness in accumulations of vegetable matter destined to be converted into coal1 has been named the ,carboniferous1 is in relation to living beings the most complete and noble of the ,palozoic periods4 ,in it those varied arrangements of land and water which had been increasing in perfection in the previous periods1 attained to their highest development4 ,in it the forms of animal and plant life that had been becoming more numerous and varied from the ,eozoic onward1 culminated4 ,the ,permian which succeeded was but the decadence of the ,carboniferous1 preparatory to the introduction of a new order of things4 ,thus the ,carboniferous was to the previous periods what the ,modern is to the preceding ,tertiary and ,mesozoic ages the summation and completion of them all1 and the embodiment of their highest excellence4 ,if the world's history had closed with the ,carboniferous1 a naturalist1 knowing nothing further1 would have been obliged to admit that it had already fulfilled all the promise of its earlier years4 ,it is important to remember this1 since we shall find ourselves entering on an entirely new scene in the ,mesozoic period1 and since this character of the ,carboniferous1 as well as its varied conditions and products1 may excuse us for dwelling on it a little longer then on the others1 ,on the other hand1 the immense economic importance of the coal formation1 and the interesting points connected with it1 have made the ,carboniferous more familiar to general readers then most other geological periods1 so that we may select points less common and well-known for illustration4 ,popular expositions of geology are1 however1 generally so one-sided and so distorted by the prevalent straining after effect1 that the true aspect of this age is perhaps not much better known then that of others less frequently described4 ,let us first consider the ,carboniferous geography of the northern hemisphere2 and in doing so we may begin with a fact concerning the preceding age4 ,one of the most remarkable features of the ,newer ,devonian is the immense quantity of red rocks1 particularly red sandstones1 contained in it4 ,red sandstones1 it is true1 occur in older formations1 but comparatively rarely2 their great head-quarters1 both in ,europe and ,america1 in so far as the ,palozoic is concerned1 are in the ,upper ,devonian4 ,now red sandstone is an infallible mark of rapid deposition1 and therefore of active physical change4 ,if we examine the grains of sand in a red sandstone1 we shall find that they are stained or coated1 externally1 with the peroxide of iron1 or iron rust2 and that this coating1 with perhaps a portion of the same substance in the intervening cement1 is the cause of the colour4 ,in finer sandstones and red clays the same condition exists1 though less distinctly perceptible4 ,consequently1 if red sands and clays are long abraded or scoured in water1 or are subjected to any chemical agent capable of dissolving the iron1 they cease to be red1 and resume their natural grey or white colour4 ,now in nature1 in addition to mechanical abrasion1 there is a chemical cause most potent in bleaching red rocks1 namely1 the presence of vegetable or animal matter in a state of decay4 ,without entering into chemical details1 we may content ourselves with the fact that organic matter decaying in contact with peroxide of iron tends to take oxygen from it1 and then to dissolve it in the state of protoxide1 while the oxygen set free aids the decay4 ,carrying this fact with us1 we may next affirm that iron is so plentiful in the crust of the earth that nearly all sands and clays when first produced from the weathering of rocks are stained with it1 and that when this weathering takes place in the air1 the iron is always in the state of peroxide4 ,more especially does this apply to the greater number of igneous or volcanic rocks1 which nearly always weather brown or red4 ,now premising that the original condition of sediment is that of being reddened with iron1 and that it may lose this by abrasion1 or by the action of organic matter1 it follows that when sand has been produced by decay of rocks in the air1 and when it is rapidly washed into the sea and deposited there1 red beds will result4 ,for instance1 in the ,bay of ,fundy1 whose rapid tides cut away the red rocks of its shores and deposit their materials quickly1 red mud and sand constitute the modern deposit4 ,on the other hand1 when the red ,band and mud are long washed about1 their red matter may disappear2 and when the deposition is slow and accompanied with the presence of organic matter1 the red colour is not only removed1 but is replaced by the dark tints due to carbon4 ,thus1 in the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 where red rocks similar to those of the ,bay of ,fundy are being more slowly wasted1 and deposited in the presence of sea-weeds and other vegetable substances1 the resulting sands and clays are white and grey or blackened in colour4 ,an intermediate condition is sometimes observed1 in which red beds are stained with grey spots and lines1 where sea-weeds or land-plants have rested on them4 ,i have specimens of ,devonian red shale with the forms of fern leaves1 the substance of which has entirely perished1 traced most delicately upon them in greenish marks4 ,it follows from these facts that extensive and thick deposits of red beds evidence sub-arial decay of rocks1 followed by comparatively rapid deposition in water1 and that such red rocks will usually contain few fossils1 not only because of their rapid deposition1 but because the few organic fragments deposited with them will probably have been destroyed by the chemical action of the superabundant oxide of iron1 which1 so to speak1 iron-moulds them1 just as stains of iron eat holes out of linen4 ,now when ,sir ,roderick ,murchison tells us of #aj1jjj feet in thickness of red iron-stained rocks in the old red sandstone of ,england1 we can see in this the evidence of rapid aqueous deposition1 going on for a very long time1 and baring vast areas of former land surface4 ,consequently we have proof of changes of level and immense and rapid denudation--a conclusion further confirmed by the apparent unconformity of different members of the series to each other in some parts of the ,british ,islands1 the lower beds having been tilted up before the newer were deposited4 ,such was the state of affairs very generally at the close of the ,devonian1 and it appears to have been accompanied with some degree of subsidence of the land1 succeeded by re-elevation at the beginning of the ,carboniferous1 when many and perhaps large islands and chains of islands were raised out of the sea1 along whose margins there were extensive volcanic eruptions1 evidenced by the dykes of trap traversing the ,devonian1 and the beds of old lava interstratified in the lower part of the ,carboniferous1 where also the occurrence of thick beds of conglomerate or pebble-rock indicates the tempestuous action of the sea4 ,but a careful study of the ,lower ,carboniferous beds1 where their margins rest upon the islands of older rocks1 shows great varieties in these old shores4 ,in some places there were shingly beaches2 in others1 extensive sand-banks2 in others1 swampy flats clothed with vegetation1 and sometimes bearing peaty beds1 still preserved as small seams of coal4 ,the bays and creeks swarmed with1 fishes4 ,a few sluggish reptiles crept along the muddy or sandy shores1 and out sea-ward were great banks and reefs of coral and shells in the clear blue sea4 ,the whole aspect of nature1 taken in a general view1 in the ,older ,carboniferous period1 must have much resembled that at present seen among the islands of the southern hemisphere4 ,and the plants and animals1 though different1 were more like those of the modern ,south ,pacific then any others now living4 ,as the age wore on1 the continents were slowly lifted out of the water1 and the great continental plateaus were changed from coral seas into swampy flats or low uplands1 studded in many places with shallow lakes1 and penetrated with numerous creeks and sluggish streams4 ,in the eastern continent these land surfaces prevailed extensively1 more especially in the west2 and in ,america they spread both eastward and westward from the ,appalachian ridge1 until only a long north and south ,mediterranean1 running parallel to the ,rocky ,mountains1 remained of the former wide internal ocean4 ,on this new and low land1 comparable with the ,sylvas of the ,south ,american continent1 flourished the wondrous vegetation of the ,coal period1 and were introduced the new land animals1 whose presence distinguishes the close of the ,palozoic4 ,after a vast lapse of time1 in which only slow and gradual subsidence occurred1 a more rapid settlement of the continental areas brought the greater part of the once fertile plains of the coal formation again under the waters2 and shifting sand-banks and muddy tides engulfed and buried the remains of the old forests1 and heaped on them a mass of sediment1 which1 like the weights of a botanical press1 flattened and compressed the vegetable dbris preserved in the leaves of the coal formation strata4 ,then came on that strange and terrible ,permian period1 which1 like the more modern boulder-formation1 marked the death of one age and the birth of another4 ,the succession just sketched is the normal one2 but the terms in which it has been described show that it cannot be universal4 ,there are many places in which the whole thickness of the ,carboniferous is filled with fossils of the land1 and of estuaries and creeks4 ,there are places1 on the other hand1 where the deep sea appears to have continued during the whole period4 ,in ,america this is seen on the grandest scale in the absence of the marine members along the western slopes of the ,appalachians1 and the almost exclusive prevalence of marine beds in the far west1 where the great ,carboniferous ,mediterranean of ,america spread itself1 and continued uninterruptedly into the succeeding ,permian period4 ,in our survey of the ,carboniferous age1 though there are peculiarities in the life of its older1 middle1 and newer divisions1 we may take the great coal measures of the middle portion as the type of the land life of the period1 and the great limestones of the lower portion as that of the marine life2 and as the former is in this period by far the most important1 we may begin with it4 ,before doing so1 however1 to prevent misapprehension1 it is necessary to remind the reader that the ,flora of the ,middle ,coal ,period is but one of a succession of related floras that reach from the ,upper ,silurian to the ,permian4 ,the meagre flora of club-mosses and their allies in the ,upper ,silurian and ,lower ,devonian was succeeded by a comparatively rich and varied assemblage of plants in the ,middle ,devonian4 ,the ,upper ,devonian was a period of decadence1 and in the ,lower ,carboniferous we have another feeble beginning1 presenting features somewhat different from those of the ,upper ,devonian4 ,this was the time of the ,culm of ,germany1 the ,tweedian formation of the ,north of ,england and ,south of ,scotland1 and the ,lower ,coal formation of ,nova ,scotia4 ,it was a period eminently rich in ,lepidodendra4 ,it was followed by the magnificent flora of the ,middle ,coal formation1 and then there was a time of decadence in the ,upper ,coal formation and only a slight revival in the ,permian4 ,in the present condition of our civilization1 coal is the most important product which the bowels of the earth afford to man4 ,and though there are productive beds of coal in most of the later geological formations1 down to the peats of the modern period1 which are only unconsolidated coals1 yet the coal of the ,carboniferous age is the earliest valuable coal in point of time1 and by far the most important in point of quantity4 ,mineral coal may be defined to be vegetable matter which has been buried in the strata of the earth's crust1 and there subjected to certain chemical and mechanical changes4 ,the proof of its vegetable origin will grow upon us as we proceed4 ,the chemical changes which it has undergone are not very material4 ,wood or bark1 taken as an example of ordinary vegetable matter1 consists of carbon or charcoal1 with the gases hydrogen and oxygen4 ,coal has merely parted with a portion of these ingredients in the course of a slow and imperfect putrefaction1 so that it comes to have much less oxygen and considerably less hydrogen then wood1 and it has been blackened by the disengagement of a quantity of free carbon4 ,the more bituminous flaming coals have a larger amount of residual hydrogen4 ,in the anthracite coals the process of carbonisation has proceeded further1 and little remains but charcoal in a dense and compact form4 ,in cannel coals1 and in certain bituminous shales1 on the contrary1 the process seems to have taken place entirely under water1 by which putrefaction has been modified1 so that a larger proportion then usual of hydrogen has been retained4 ,the mechanical change which the coal has experienced consists in the flattening and hardening effect of the immense pressure of thousands of feet of superincumbent rock1 which has crashed together the cell-walls of the vegetable matter1 and reduced what was originally a pulpy mass of cellular tissue to the condition of a hard laminated rock4 ,to understand this1 perhaps the simplest way is to compare under the microscope a transverse section of recent pine-wood with a similar section of a pine trunk compressed into brown coal or jet4 ,in the one the tissue appears as a series of meshes with thin woody walls and comparatively wide cavities for the transmission of the sap4 ,in the other the walls of the cells have been forced into direct contact1 and in some cases have altogether lost their separate forms1 and have been consolidated into a perfectly compact structureless mass4 ,with regard to its mode of occurrence1 coal is found in beds ranging in vertical thickness from less then an inch to more then thirty feet1 and of wide horizontal extent4 ,many such beds usually occur in the thickness of the coal formation1 or coal measures1 as the miners call it1 separated from each other by beds of sandstone and compressed clay or shale4 ,very often the coal occurs in groups of several beds1 somewhat close to each other and separated from other groups by barren measures of considerable thickness4 ,in examining a bed of coal1 where it is exposed in a cutting or shore cliff1 we nearly always find that the bed below it1 or the underclay1 as it is termed by miners1 is a sort of fossil soil1 filled with roots and rootlets4 ,on this rests the coal1 which1 when we examine it closely1 is found to consist of successive thin layers of hard coal of different qualities as to lustre and purity1 and with intervening laminae of a dusty fibrous substance1 like charcoal1 called mother coal by miners1 and sometimes mineral charcoal4 ,thin partings of dark shale also occur1 and these usually present marks and impressions of the stems and leaves of plants4 ,above the coal is its roof of hardened clay or sandstone1 and this generally holds great quantities of remains of plants1 and sometimes large stumps of trees with their bark converted into coal1 and the hollow once occupied with wood filled with sandstone1 while their roots spread over the surface of the coal4 ,such fossil forests of erect stumps are also found at various levels in the coal measures1 resting directly on under-clays without any coals4 ,a bed of coal would thus appear to be a fossil bog or swamp4 ,this much being premised about the general nature of the sooty blocks which fill our coal-scuttles1 we may now transport ourselves into the forests and bogs of the coal formation1 and make acquaintance with this old vegetation1 while it still waved its foliage in the breeze and drank in the sunshine and showers4 ,we are in the midst of one of those great low plains formed by the elevation of the former sea bed4 ,the sun pours down its fervent rays upon us1 and the atmosphere1 being loaded with vapour1 and probably more rich in carbonic acid then that of the present world1 the heat is as it were accumulated and kept near the surface1 producing a close and stifling atmosphere like that of a tropical swamp4 ,this damp and oppressive air is1 however1 most favourable to the growth of the strange and grotesque trees which tower over our heads1 and to the millions of delicate ferns and club-mosses1 not unlike those of our modern woods1 which carpet the ground4 ,around us for hundreds of miles spreads a dense and monotonous forest1 with here and there open spaces occupied by ponds and sluggish streams1 whose edges are bordered with immense savannahs of reed-like plants1 springing from the wet and boggy soil4 ,everything bespeaks a rank exuberance of vegetable growth2 and if we were to dig downward into the soil1 we should find a thick bed of vegetable mould evidencing the prevalence of such conditions for ages4 ,but the time will come when this immense flat will meet with the fate which in modern times befell a large district at the mouth of the ,indus4 ,quietly1 or with earthquake shocks1 it will sink under the waters2 fishes and mollusks will swarm where trees grew1 beds of sand and mud will be deposited by the water1 inclosing and preserving the remains of the vegetation1 and in some places surrounding and imbedding the still erect trunks of trees4 ,many feet of such deposits may be formed1 and our forest surface1 with its rich bed of vegetable mould1 has been covered up and is in process of transformation into coal2 while in course of time the shallow waters being filled up with deposit1 or a slight re-elevation occurring1 a new forest exactly like the last will flourish on the same spot4 ,such changes would be far beyond the compass of the life even of a ,methuselah2 but had we lived in the ,coal period1 we might have seen all stages of these processes contemporaneously in different parts of either of the great continents4 ,but let us consider the actual forms of vegetation presented to us in the ,coal period1 as we can restore them from the fragments preserved to us in the beds of sandstone and shale1 and as we would have seen them in our imaginary excursion through the ,carboniferous forests4 ,to do this we must first glance slightly at the great subdivisions of modern plants1 which we may arrange in such a way as to give an easy means for comparison of the aspects of the vegetable kingdom in ancient and modern times4 ,in doing this ,i shall avail myself of an extract from a previous publication of my own on this subject4 ,the modern flora of the earth admits of a grand twofold division into the ,phnogamous1 or flowering and seed-bearing plants1 and the ,cryptogamous1 or flowerless and spore-bearing plants4 ,in the former series1 we have1 first1 those higher plants which start in life with two seed-leaves1 and have stems with distinct bark1 wood1 and pith--the ,exogens2 secondly1 those similar plants which begin life with one seed-leaf only1 and have no distinction of bark1 wood1 and pith1 in the stem--the ,endogens2 and1 thirdly1 a peculiar group starting with two or several seed-leaves1 and having a stem with bark1 wood1 and pith1 but with very imperfect flowers1 and wood of much simpler structure then either of the others--the ,gymnosperms4 ,to the first of these groups or classes belong most of the ordinary trees of temperate climates4 ,to the second belong the palms and allied trees found in tropical climates4 ,to the third belong the pines and cycads4 ,in the second or ,cryptogamous series we have also three classes1--7#a47 ,the ,acrogens1 or ferns and club-mosses1 with stems having true vessels marked on the sides with cross-bars--the ,scalariform vessels4 7#b47 ,the ,anophytes1 or mosses and their allies1 with stems and leaves1 but no vessels4 7#c47 ,the ,thallophytes1 or lichens1 fungi1 sea-weeds1 etc41 without true stems and leaves4 ,in the existing climates of the earth we find these classes of plants variously distributed as to relative numbers4 ,in some1 pines predominate4 ,in others1 palms and tree-ferns form a considerable part of the forest vegetation4 ,in others1 the ordinary exogenous trees predominate1 almost to the exclusion of others4 ,in some ,arctic and ,alpine regions1 mosses and lichens prevail4 ,in the ,coal period we have found none of the higher ,exogens1 though one species is known in the ,devonian1 and only a few obscure indications of the presence of ,endogens2 but ,gymnosperms abound1 and are highly characteristic4 ,on the other hand1 we have no mosses or lichens1 and very few alg1 but a great number of ferns and ,lycopodiace or club-mosses4 ,thus the coal formation period is botanically a meeting-place of the lower ,phnogams and the higher ,cryptogams1 and presents many forms which1 when imperfectly known1 have puzzled botanists in regard to their position in one or other series4 ,in the present world1 the flora most akin to that of the ,coal period is that of moist and warm islands in the southern hemisphere4 ,it is not properly a tropical flora1 nor is it the flora of a cold region1 but rather indicative of a moist and equable climate4 ,in accordance with this is the fact that the equable but not warm climate of the southern hemisphere at present 7which is owing principally to its small extent of land7 enables sub-tropical plants to extend into high latitudes4 ,in the ,coal period this uniformity was evidently still more marked1 since we find similar plants extending from regions within the ,arctic circle to others near to the tropics4 ,still we must bear in mind that we may often be mistaken in reasoning as to the temperature required by extinct species of plants differing from those now in existence4 ,further1 we must not assume that the climatal conditions of the northern hemisphere were in the ,coal period at all similar to those which now prevail4 ,as ,sir ,charles ,lyell has argued1 a less amount of land in the higher latitudes would greatly modify climates1 and there is every reason to believe that in the ,coal period there was less land then now4 ,it has been shown by ,tyndall that a very small additional amount of carbonic acid in the atmosphere would1 by obstructing the radiation of heat from the earth1 produce almost the effect of a glass roof or conservatory1 extending over the whole world4 ,there is much in the structure of the leaves of the coal plants1 as well as in the vast amount of carbon which they accumulated in the form of coal1 and the characteristics of the animal life of the period1 to indicate1 on independent grounds1 that the ,carboniferous atmosphere differed from that of the present world in this way1 or in the presence of more carbonic acid--a substance now existing in the very minute proportion of one-thousandth of the whole by weight1 a quantity adapted to the present requirements of vegetable and animal life1 but probably not to those of the ,coal period4 ,returning from this digression to the forests of the ,coal period1 we may first notice that which is the most conspicuous and abundant tree in the swampy levels--the ,sigillaria or seal-tree1 so called from the stamp-like marks left by the fall of its leaves--a plant which has caused much discussion as to its affinities4 ,some regard it as a gymnosperm1 others as a cryptogam4 ,most probably we have under this name trees allied in part to both groups1 and which1 when better known1 may bridge over the interval between them4 ,these trees present tall pillar-like trunks1 often ribbed vertically with raised bands1 and marked with rows of scars left by the fallen leaves4 ,they are sometimes branchless1 or divide at top into a few thick limbs1 covered with long rigid grass-like foliage4 ,on their branches they bear long slender spikes of fruit1 and we may conjecture that quantities of nut-like seeds scattered over the ground around their trunks are their produce4 ,if we approach one of these trees closely1 more especially a young specimen not yet furrowed by age1 we are amazed to observe the accurate regularity and curious forms of the leaf-scars1 and the regular ribbing1 so very different from that of our ordinary forest trees4 ,if we cut into its stem1 we are still further astonished at its singular structure4 ,externally it has a firm and hard rind4 ,within this is a great thickness of soft cellular inner bark1 traversed by large bundles of tough fibres4 ,in the centre is a core or axis of woody matter very slender in proportion to the thickness of the trunk1 and still further reduced in strength by a large cellular pith4 ,thus a great stem four or five feet in diameter is little else then a mass of cellular tissue1 altogether unfit to form a mast or beam1 but excellently adapted1 when flattened and carbonised1 to blaze upon our winter hearth as a flake of coal4 ,the roots of these trees were perhaps more singular then their stems2 spreading widely in the soft soil by regular bifurcation1 they ran out in long snake-like cords1 studded all over with thick cylindrical rootlets1 which spread from them in every direction4 ,they resembled in form1 and probably in function1 those cable-like root-stocks of the pond-lilies which run through the slime of lakes1 but the structure of the rootlets was precisely that of those of some modern ,cycads4 ,it was long before these singular roots were known to belong to a tree4 ,they were supposed to be the branches of some creeping aquatic plant1 and botanists objected to the idea of their being roots2 but at length their connection with ,sigillaria was observed simultaneously by ,mr4 ,binney1 in ,lancashire1 and by ,mr4 ,richard ,brown1 in ,cape ,breton1 and it has been confirmed by many subsequently observed facts4 ,this connection1 when once established1 further explained the reason of the almost universal occurrence of ,stigmaria1 as these roots were called1 under the coal beds2 while trunks of the same plants were the most abundant fossils of their partings and roofs4 ,the growth of successive generations of ,sigillari was1 in fact1 found to be the principal cause of the accumulation of a bed of coal4 ,two species form the central figures in our illustration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,,group ,,of ,,carboniferous ,,plants1 ,,restored ,,from ,,actual ,,specimens4 7a7 ,calamites 7type of ,c4 ,suckovii74 7b7 ,lepidofloios1 or ,ulodendron4 7c7 ,sigillaria 7type of ,s4 reniformis74 7d7 7type of ,s4 elegans74 7e7 ,lepidodendron 7type of ,l4 corrugatum74 7f7 ,megaphyton 7type of ,m4 magnificum74 7g7 ,cordaites1 or ,pychnophyllum 7type of ,c4 borassifolia74 ,along with the trees last mentioned1 we observe others of a more graceful and branching form1 the successors of those ,lepidodendra already noticed in the ,devonian1 and which still abound in the ,carboniferous1 and attain to larger dimensions then their older relations1 though they are certainly more abundant and characteristic in the lower portions of the carboniferous4 ,relatives1 as already stated1 of our modern club-mosses1 now represented only by comparatively insignificant species1 they constitute the culmination of that type1 which thus had attained its acme very long ago1 though it still continues to exist under depauperated forms4 ,they all branched by bifurcation1 sometimes into the most graceful and delicate sprays4 ,they had narrow slender leaves1 placed in close spirals on the branches4 ,they bore their spores in scaly cones4 ,their roots were similar to ,stigmaria in general appearance1 though differing in details4 ,in the coal period there were several generic forms of these plants1 all attaining to the dimensions of trees4 ,like the ,sigillari1 they contributed to the materials of the coal2 and one mode of this has recently attracted some attention4 ,it is the accumulation of their spores and spore-cases already referred to in speaking of the ,devonian1 and which was in the ,carboniferous so considerable as to constitute an important feature locally in some beds of coal4 ,a similar modern accumulation of spore-cases of tree-ferns occurs in ,tasmania2 but both in the ,modern and the ,carboniferous1 such beds are exceptional2 though wherever spore-cases exist as a considerable constituent of coal1 from their composition they give to it a highly bituminous character1 an effect1 however1 which is equally produced by the hard scales supporting the spores1 and by the outer epidermal tissues of plants when these predominate in the coal1 more especially by the thick corky outer bark of ,sigillaria4 ,in short1 the corky substance of bark and similar vegetable tissues1 from its highly carbonaceous character1 its indestructibility1 and its difficult permeability by water carrying mineral matter in solution1 is the best of all materials for the production of coal2 and the microscope shows that of this the principal part of the coal is actually composed4 ,in the wide1 open forest glades1 tree-ferns almost precisely similar to those of the modern tropics reared their leafy crowns4 ,but among them was one peculiar type1 in which the fronds were borne in pairs on opposite sides of the stem1 leaving when they fell two rows of large horseshoe-shaped scars marking the sides of the trunk4 ,botanists1 who have been puzzled with these plants almost as much as with the ,stigmaria1 have supposed these scars to be marks of branches1 of cones1 and even of arial roots2 but specimens in my collection prove conclusively that the stem of this genus was a great caudex made up of the bases of two rows of huge leaves cemented together probably by intervening cellular tissue4 ,as in the ,devonian and in modern times1 the stems of the tree-ferns of the ,carboniferous strengthened themselves by immense bundles of cord-like arial roots1 which look like enormous fossil brooms1 and are known under the name ,psaronius4 ,we have only time to glance at the vast brakes of tall ,calamites which fringe the ,sigillaria woods1 and stretch far sea-ward over tidal flats4 ,they were allied to modern ,mares' ,tails or ,equisetums1 but were of gigantic size1 and much more woody structure of stem4 ,the ,calamites grew on wet mud and sand-flats1 and also in swamps2 and they appear to have been especially adapted to take root in and clothe and mat together soft sludgy material recently deposited or in process of deposition4 ,when the seed or spore of a ,calamite had taken root1 it probably produced a little low whorl of leaves surrounding one small joint1 from which another and another1 widening in size1 arose1 producing a cylindrical stem1 tapering to a point below4 ,to strengthen the unstable base1 the lower joints1 especially if the mud had been accumulating around the plant1 shot out long roots instead of leaves1 while secondary stems grew out of the sides at the surface of the soil1 and in time there was a stool of ,calamites1 with tufts of long roots stretching downwards1 like an immense brush1 into the mud4 ,when ,calamites thus grew on inundated flats1 they would1 by causing the water to stagnate1 promote the elevation of the surface by new deposits1 so that their stems gradually became buried2 but this only favoured their growth1 for they continually pushed out new stems1 while the old buried ones shot out bundles of roots instead of regular whorls of leaves4 ,the ,calamites1 growing in vast fields along the margins of the ,sigillaria forests1 must have greatly protected these from the effects of inundations1 and by collecting the mud brought down by streams in times of flood1 must have done much to prevent the intrusion of earthy deposits among the vegetable matter4 ,their chief office1 therefore1 as coal-producers1 seems to have been to form for the ,sigillaria forests those reedy fringes which1 when inundations took place1 would exclude mud1 and prevent that mixture of earthy matter in the coal which would have rendered it too impure for use4 ,quantities of fragments of their stems can1 however1 be detected by the microscope in most coals4 ,the modern ,mares' ,tails have thin-walled hollow stems1 and some of the gigantic calamites of the coal resembled them in this4 ,but others1 to which the name ,calamodendron1 or ,reed-tree1 has been given1 had stems with thick woody walls of a remarkable structure1 which1 while similar in plan to that of the ,mares' ,tails1 was much more perfect in its development4 ,professor ,williamson has shown that there were forms intervening between these extremes2 and thus in the calamites and calamodendrons we have another example of the exaltation in ancient times of a type now of humble structure2 or1 in other words1 of a comprehensive type1 low in the modern world1 but in older periods taking to itself by anticipation the properties afterward confined to higher forms4 ,the gigantic club-mosses of the ,coal period constitute a similar example1 and it is very curious that both of these types have been degraded in the modern world1 though retaining precisely their general aspect1 while the tree-ferns contemporary with them in the ,palozoic still survive in all their original grandeur4 ,barely in the swampy flats1 perhaps more frequently in the uplands1 grew great pines of several kinds2 trees capable of doing as good service for planks and beams as many of their modern successors1 but which lived before their time1 and do not appear even to have aided much in the formation of coal4 ,these pines of the ,coal-period seem to have closely resembled some species still living in the southern hemisphere2 and1 like the ferns1 they present to us a vegetable type which has endured through vast periods of time almost unchanged4 ,indeed1 in the ,middle ,devonian we have pines almost as closely resembling those of the ,modern world as do those of the ,coal period4 ,it is in accordance with this long duration of the ferns and pines1 that they are plants now of world-wide distribution--suited to all climates and stations4 ,capacity to exist under varied conditions is near akin to capacity to survive cosmical changes4 ,a botanist in the strange and monstrous woods which we have tried to describe1 would probably have found many curious things among the smaller herbaceous plants1 and might have gathered several precursors of the modern ,exogens and ,endogens which have not been preserved to us as fossils1 or are known only as obscure fragments4 ,but incomplete though our picture necessarily is1 and obscured by the dust of time1 it may serve in some degree to render green to our eyes those truly primeval forests which treasured up for our long winter nights the ,palozoic sunshine1 and established for us those storehouses of heat-giving material which work our engines and propel our ships and carriages4 ,truly they lived not in vain1 both as realizing for us a type of vegetation which otherwise we could not have imagined1 and as preparing the most important of all the substrata of our modern arts and manufactures4 ,in this last regard even the vegetable waste of the old coal swamps was most precious to us1 as the means of producing the clay iron ores of the coal measures4 ,i may close this notice of the ,carboniferous forests with a suggestive extract from a paper by ,professor ,huxley in the ,contemporary ,review3-- ,nature is never in a hurry1 and seems to have had always before her eyes the adage1 ',keep a thing long enough1 and you will find a use for it4' ,she has kept her beds of coal for millions of years without being able to find much use for them2 she has sent them down beneath the sea1 and the sea-beasts could make nothing of them3 she has raised them up into dry land and laid the black veins bare1 and still for ages and ages there was no living thing on the face of the earth that could see any sort of value in them2 and it was only the other day1 so to speak1 that she turned a new creature oat of her workshop1 who by degrees acquired sufficient wits to make a fire1 and then to discover that the black rock would burn4 ,i suppose that nineteen hundred years ago1 when ,julius ,csar was good enough to deal with ,britain as we have dealt with ,new ,zealand1 the primeval ,briton1 blue with cold and woad1 may have known that the strange black stone1 of which he found lumps here and there in his wanderings1 would burn1 and so help to warm his body and cook his food4 ,saxon1 ,dane1 and ,norman swarmed into the land4 ,the ,english people grew into a powerful nation1 and ,nature still waited for a return for the capital she had invested in the ancient club-mosses4 ,the eighteenth century arrived1 and with it ,james ,watt4 ,the brain of that man was the spore out of which was developed the steam-engine1 and all the prodigious trees and branches of modern industry which have grown out of this4 ,but coal is as much an essential condition of this growth and development as carbonic acid is for that of a club-moss4 ,wanting the coal1 we could not have smelted the iron needed to make our engines1 nor have worked our engines when we had got them4 ,but take away the engines1 and the great towns of ,yorkshire and ,lancashire vanish like a dream4 ,manufactures give place to agriculture and pasture1 and not ten men could live where now ten thousand are amply supported4 ,thus all this abundant wealth of money and of vivid life is ,nature's investment in club-mosses and the like so long ago4 ,but what becomes of the coal which is burnt in yielding the interest8 ,heat comes out of it1 light comes out of it1 and if we could gather together all that goes up the chimney and all that remains in the grate of a thoroughly-burnt coal fire1 we should find ourselves in possession of a quantity of carbonic acid1 water1 ammonia1 and mineral matters1 exactly equal in weight to the coal4 ,but these are the very matters with which ,nature supplied the club-moss which made the coal4 ,she is paid back principal and interest at the same time2 and she straightway invests the carbonic acid1 the water1 and the ammonia in new forms of life1 feeding with them the plants that now live4 ,thrifty ,nature6 surely no prodigal1 but most notable of housekeepers6 ,all this is true and admirably put4 ,its one weak point is the poetical personification of ,nature as an efficient planner of the whole4 ,such an imaginary goddess is a mere superstition1 unknown alike to science and theology4 ,surely it is more rational to hold that the mind which can utilize the coal and understand the manner of its formation1 is itself made in the image and likeness of the ,supreme ,creative ,spirit1 in whom we live and move and have our being1 who knows the end from the beginning1 whose power is the origin of natural forces1 whose wisdom is the source of laws and correlations of laws1 and whose great plan is apparent alike in the order of nature of the ,palozoic world and of the modern world1 as well as in the relation of these to each other4 ,in the ,carboniferous1 as in the ,devonian age1 insects existed1 and in greater numbers4 ,the winged insects of the period1 so far as known1 belong to three of the nine or ten orders into which modern insects are usually divided4 ,conspicuous among them are representatives of our well-known domestic pests the cockroaches1 which thus belong geologically to a very old family4 ,the ,carboniferous roaches had not the advantage of haunting our larders1 but they had abundance of vegetable food in the rank forests of their time1 and no doubt lived much as the numerous wild out-of-door species of this family now do4 ,it is1 however1 a curious fact that a group of insects created so long ago1 should prove themselves capable of the kind of domestication to which these creatures attain in our modern days2 and that1 had we lived even so far back as the coal period1 we might have been liable to the attacks of this particular kind of pest4 ,another group1 represented by many species in the coal forests1 was that of the ,may-flies and shad-flies1 or ephemeras1 which spend their earlier days under water1 feeding on vegetable matter1 and affording food to many fresh-water fishes--a use which they no doubt served in the coal period also4 ,some of them were giants in their way1 being probably seven inches in expanse of wing1 and their larv must have been choice morsels to the ganoid fishes1 and would have afforded abundant bait had there been anglers in those days4 ,another group of insects was that of the weevils1 a family of beetles1 whose grubs must have found plenty of nuts and fruits to devour1 without attracting the wrathful attentions of any gardener or orchardist4 ,a curious and exceptional little group of creatures in the present world is that of the galley-worms or millipedes2 wingless1 many-jointed1 and many-footed crawlers1 resembling worms1 but more allied to insects4 ,these animals seem to have swarmed in the coal forests1 and perhaps attained their maximum numbers and importance in this period1 though they still remain1 a relic of an ancient comprehensive type4 ,i have myself found specimens referred by ,mr4 ,scudder1 a most competent entomologist1 to two genera and five species1 in a few decayed fossil stumps in ,nova ,scotia1 and several others have been discovered in other parts of the world4 ,it is not wonderful that animals like these1 feeding on decayed vegetable matter1 should have flourished in the luxuriant ,sigillaria swamps4 ,a few species of scorpions and spiders1 very like those of the modern world1 have been found in the coal measures1 both in ,europe and ,america2 so that while we know of no enemy of the ,devonian insects except the fishes1 we know in addition to these in the ,carboniferous the spiders and their allies1 and the smaller reptiles or batrachians to be noticed in the sequel4 ,with reference to the latter1 it is a curious fact that one of the first fragments of a winged insect found in the coal-fields of ,america was a part of a head and some other remains contained in the coprolites or excrementitious matter of one of the smaller fossil reptiles4 ,it is perhaps equally interesting that this head shows one of the compound facetted eyes as perfectly developed as those of any modern ,neuropter1 a group of insects remarkable even in the present world for their large and complex organs of vision4 ,we may pause here to note that1 just as in the ,primordial we already have the ,trilobites presenting all the modifications of which the type is susceptible1 so in the ,carboniferous we have in the case of the terrestrial articulates a similar fact--highly specialised forms like the beetles1 the spiders1 and the scorpions1 already existing along with comprehensive forms like the millipedes4 ,let us formulate the law of creation which the ,primordial trilobites1 the ,devonian fishes1 and the ,carboniferous club-mosses and insects have taught us3 it is1 that every new type rapidly attains its maximum of development in magnitude and variety of forms1 and then remains stationary1 or even retrogrades1 in subsequent ages4 ,we may connect this with other laws in the sequel4 ,in the coal measures we also meet1 for the first time in our ascending progress1 the land snails so familiar now in every part of the world1 and which are represented by two little species found in the coal formation of ,nova ,scotia4 ,the figures of these must speak for themselves2 but the fact of their occurrence here and the mode of their preservation require some detailed mention4 ,the great province of the ,mollusks we have carried with us since we met with the ,lingul in the ,primordial1 but all its members have been aquatic1 and probably marine4 ,for the first time1 in the ,carboniferous period1 snails emerge from the waters1 and walk upon the ground and breathe air2 for1 like the modern land snails1 these creatures no doubt had air-sacks instead of gills4 ,they come suddenly upon us--two species at once1 and these representing two distinct forms of the snail tribe1 the elongated and the rounded4 ,they were very numerous4 ,in the beds where they occur1 probably thousands of specimens1 more or less perfect1 could be collected4 ,were they the first-born of land snails8 ,it would be rash to affirm this1 more especially since in all the coal-fields of the world no specimens have been found except at one locality in ,nova ,scotia2,n and in all the succeeding beds we meet with no more till we have reached a comparatively modern time4 ,yet it is very unlikely that these creatures were in the coal period limited to one country1 and that1 after that period1 they dropped out of existence for long ages1 and then reappeared4 ,still it may have been so4 ,n ,bradley has recently announced the discovery of other species in the coal-field of ,illinois4 ,,the ,,two ,,oldest ,,land ,,snails4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,pupa ,vetusta1 ,dawson4 7a7 ,natural size1 7b7 ,enlarged1 7c7 ,apex1 enlarged1 7d7 ,sculpture1 magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,conulus ,priscus1 ,carpenter4 7a7 ,specimen enlarged1 7b7 ,sculpture1 magnified4 ,there are cases of geographical limitation quite as curious now4 ,here again another peculiarity meets us4 ,if these are really the oldest land snails1 it is curious that they are so small1--so much inferior to many of their modern successors even in the same latitudes4 ,the climate of the coal period must have suited them1 and there was plenty of vegetable food1 though perhaps not the richest or most tender4 ,there is no excuse for them in their outward circumstances4 ,why1 then1 unlike so many other creatures1 do they enter on existence in this poor and sneaking way4 ,we must here for their benefit modify in two ways the statement broadly made in a previous chapter1 that new types come in under forms of great magnitude4 ,first1 we often have1 in advance of the main inroad of a new horde of animals1 a few insignificant stragglers as a sort of prelude to the rest--precursors intimating beforehand what is to follow4 ,we shall find this to be the case with the little reptiles of the coal1 and the little mammals of the ,trias1 preceding the greater forms which subsequently set in4 ,secondly1 this seems to be more applicable in the case of land animals then in the case of those of the waters4 ,to the waters was the fiat to bring forth living things issued4 ,they have always kept to themselves the most gigantic forms of life2 and it seems as if new forms of life entering on the land had to begin in a small way and took more time to culminate4 ,the circumstances in which the first specimens of ,carboniferous snails and gally-worms were found are so peculiar and so characteristic of the coal formation1 that ,i must pause here to notice them1 and to make of them an introduction to the next group of creatures we have to consider4 ,in the coal formation in all parts of the world it is not unusual1 as stated already in a previous page1 to find erect trees or stumps of trees1 usually ,sigillari1 standing where they grew2 and where the beds are exposed in coast cliffs1 or road cuttings1 or mines1 these fossil trees can be extracted from the matrix and examined4 ,they usually consist of an outer cylinder of coal representing the outer bark1 while the space within1 once occupied by the inner bark and wood1 is filled with sandstone1 sometimes roughly arranged in layers1 the lowest of which is usually mixed with coaly matter or mineral charcoal derived from the fallen remains of the decayed wood1 a kind of deposit which affords to the fossil botanist one of the best modes of investigating the tissues of these trees4 ,these fossil stumps are not uncommon in the roofs of the coal-seams4 ,in some places they are known to the miners as coal pipes1 and are dreaded by them in consequence of the accidents which occur from their suddenly falling after the coal which supported them has been removed4 ,an old friend and helper of mine in ,carboniferous explorations had a lively remembrance of the fact that one of these old trees1 falling into the mine in which he was working1 had crushed his leg and given him a limp for life2 and if he had been a few inches nearer to it would have broken his back4 ,the manner in which such trees become fossilized may be explained as follows3--,imagine a forest of ,sigillari growing on a low flat4 ,this becomes submerged by subsidence or inundation1 the soil is buried under several feet of sand or mud1 and the trees killed by this agency stand up as bare and lifeless trunks4 ,the waters subside1 and the trees rapidly decay1 the larv of wood-boring insects perhaps aiding in the process1 as they now do in the ,american woods4 ,the dense coaly outer bark alone resists decomposition1 and stands as a hollow cylinder until prostrated by the wind or by the waters of another inundation1 while perhaps a second forest or jungle has sprung up on the new surface4 ,when it falls1 the part buried in the soil becomes an open hole1 with a heap of shreds of wood and bark in the bottom4 ,such a place becomes a fit retreat for gally-worms and land-snails2 and reptiles pursuing such animals1 or pursued by their own enemies1 or heedlessly scrambling among the fallen trunks1 may easily fall into such holes and remain as prisoners4 ,i remember to have observed1 when a boy1 a row of post-holes dug across a pasture-field and left open for a few days1 and that in almost every hole one or two toads were prisoners4 ,this was the fate which must have often befallen the smaller reptiles of the coal forests in the natural post-holes left by the decay of the ,sigillari4 ,yet it may be readily understood that the combination of circumstances which would effect this result must have been rare1 and consequently this curious fact has been as yet observed only in the coal formation of ,nova ,scotia2 and in it only in one locality1 and in this in one only out of more then sixty beds in which erect trees have been found4 ,but these hollow trees must be filled up in order to preserve their contents2 and as inundation and subsequent decay have been the grave-diggers for the reptiles1 so inundations filled up their graves with sand1 to be subsequently hardened into sandstone1 burying up at the same time the newer vegetation which had grown upon the former surface4 ,the idea that something interesting might be found in these erect stumps1 first occurred to ,sir ,c4 ,lyell and the writer while exploring the beautiful coast cliffs of ,western ,nova ,scotia in #ahea2 and it was in examining the fragments scattered on the beach that we found the bones of the first ,carboniferous reptile discovered in ,america1 and the shell of the oldest known land snail4 ,these were not1 however1 the earliest known instances of ,carboniferous reptiles4 ,in #ahda1 ,sir ,william ,logan found footprints of a reptile at ,horton ,bluff1 in ,nova ,scotia1 in rocks of ,lower ,carboniferous age4 ,in #ahdd1 ,von ,dechen found reptilian bones in the coal-field of ,saarbruck2 and in the same year ,dr4 ,king found reptilian footprints in the ,carboniferous of ,pennsylvania4 ,like ,robinson ,crusoe on his desert island1 we saw the footprints before we knew the animals that produced them2 and the fact that there were marks on a slab of shale or sandstone that must have been made by an animal walking on feet1 was as clear and startling a revelation of the advent of a new and higher form of life1 as were the footprints of ,man ,friday4 ,within the thirty years since the discovery of the first slab of footprints1 the knowledge of coal formation reptiles has grown apace4 ,i can scarcely at present sum up exactly the number of species1 but may estimate it at thirty-five at least4 ,i must1 however1 here crave pardon of some of my friends for the use of the word reptile4 ,in my younger days frogs and toads and newts used to be reptiles2 now we are told that they are more like fishes1 and ought to be called ,batrachians or ,amphibians1 whereas reptiles are a higher type1 more akin to birds then to these lower and more grovelling creatures4 ,the truth is1 that the old class ,reptilia bridges over the space between the fishes and the birds1 and it is in some degree a matter of taste whether we make a strong line at the two ends of it alone1 or add another line in the middle4 ,i object to the latter course1 however1 in the period of the world's history of which ,i am now writing1 since ,i am sure that there were animals in those days which were batrachians in some points and true reptiles in others2 while there are some of them in regard to which it is quite uncertain whether they are nearer to the one group or the other4 ,although1 therefore1 naturalists1 with the added light and penetration which they obtain by striding on to the ,mesozoic and ,modern periods1 may despise my old-fashioned grovellers among the mire of the coal-swamps1 ,i shall1 for convenience1 persist in calling them reptiles in a general way1 and shall bring out whatever claims ,i can to justify this title for some of them at least4 ,perhaps the most fish-like of the whole are the curious creatures from the coal measures of ,saarbruck1 first found by ,yon ,dechen1 and which constitute the genus ,archegosaurus4 ,their large heads1 short necks1 supports for permanent gills1 feeble limbs1 and long tails for swimming1 show that they were aquatic creatures presenting many points of resemblance to the ganoid fishes with which they must have associated2 still they were higher then these in possessing lungs and true feet1 though perhaps better adapted for swimming then even for creeping4 ,from these creatures the other coal reptiles diverge1 and ascend along two lines of progress1 the one leading to gigantic crocodile-like animals provided with powerful jaws and teeth1 and probably haunting the margins of the waters and preying on fishes2 the other leading to small and delicate lizard-like species1 with well-developed limbs1 large ribs1 and ornate horny scales and spines1 living on land and feeding on insects and similar creatures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,,restorations ,,of ,,baphetes1 ,,dendrerpeton4 ,,hylonomus1 ,,and ,,hylerpeton1 ,,with ,,carboniferous ,,plants ,,in ,,the ,,distance4 ,in the first direction we have a considerable number of species found in the ,jarrow coal-field in ,ireland1 and described by ,professor ,huxley4 ,some of them were like snakes in their general form1 others more like lizards4 ,still higher stand such animals as ,baphetes and ,eosaurus from the ,nova ,scotia coal-field and ,anthracosaurus from that of ,scotland4 ,the style and habits of these creatures it is easy to understand1 however much haggling the comparative anatomists may make over their bones4 ,they were animals of various size1 ranging from a foot to at least ten feet in length1 the body generally lizard-like in form1 with stout limbs and a flattened tail useful in swimming4 ,their heads were flat1 stout1 and massive1 with large teeth1 strengthened by the insertion and convolution of plates of enamel4 ,the fore limbs were probably larger then the hind limbs1 the better to enable them to raise themselves out of the water4 ,the belly was strengthened by bony plates and closely imbricated scales1 to resist1 perhaps1 the attacks of fishes from beneath1 and to enable them without injury to drag their heavy bodies over trunks of trees and brushwood1 whether in the water or on the land4 ,their general aspect and mode of life were therefore by no means unlike those of modern alligators2 and in the vast swamps of the coal measures1 full of ponds and sluggish streams swarming with fish1 such creatures must have found a most suitable habitat1 and probably existed in great numbers1 basking on the muddy banks1 surging through the waters1 and filling the air with their bellowings4 ,the most curious point about these creatures is1 that while rigid anatomy regards them as allied in structure more to frogs and toads and newts then to true lizards1 it is obvious to common sense that they were practically crocodiles2 and even anatomy must admit that their great ribs and breastplates1 and powerful teeth and limbs1 indicate a respiration1 circulation1 and general vitality1 quite as high as those of the proper reptiles4 ,hence1 it happens that very different views are stated as to their affinities2 questions into which we need not now enter1 satisfied with the knowledge of the general appearance and mode of life of these harbingers of the reptilian life of the succeeding geological periods4 ,in the other direction1 we find several animals of small size but better developed limbs1 leading to a group of graceful little creatures1 quite as perplexing with regard to affinities as those first mentioned1 but tending towards the smaller lizards of the modern world4 ,at the top of these ,i may place the genus ,hylonomus from hollow fossil trees of ,nova ,scotia1 of which two species are represented as restored in our illustration4 ,in these restorations ,i have adhered as faithfully as possible to the proportions of parts as seen in my specimens4 ,imagine a little animal six or seven inches long1 with small short head1 not so flat as those of most lizards1 but with a raised fore-head1 giving it an aspect of some intelligence4 ,its general form is that of a lizard1 but with the hind feet somewhat large1 to aid it in leaping and standing erect1 and long and flexible toes4 ,its belly is covered with bony scales1 its sides with bright and probably coloured scale armour of horny consistency1 and its neck and back adorned with horny crests1 tubercles1 and pendants4 ,it runs1 leaps1 and glides through the herbage of the coal forests1 intent on the pursuit of snails and insects1 its eye glancing and its bright scales shining in the sun4 ,this is a picture of the best known species of ,hylonomus drawn from the life4 ,yet the anatomist1 when he examines the imperfectly-ossified joints of its backbone1 and the double joint at the back of its skull1 will tell you that it is after all little better then a mere newt1 an ass in a lion's skin1 a jackdaw with borrowed feathers1 and that it has no right to have fine scales1 or to be able to run on the land4 ,it may be so2 but ,i may plead in its behalf1 that in the old coal times1 when reptiles with properly-made skeletons had not been created1 the next best animals may have been entitled to wear their clothes and to assume their functions as well4 ,in short1 functionally or officially1 our ancient batrachians were reptiles2 in point of rank1 as measured by type of skeleton1 they belonged to a lower grade4 ,to this view of the case ,i think most naturalists will agree1 and they will also admit that the progress of our views has been in this direction1 since the first discovery of ,carboniferous air-breathing vertebrates4 ,in evidence of this ,i may quote from ,professor ,huxley's description of his recently found species1,o ,after noticing the prevalent views that the coal reptiles were of low organization1 he says3 ,discoveries in the ,nova ,scotia coal-fields first shook this view1 which ceased to be tenable when the great ,anthracosaurus of the ,scotch coal-field was found to have well-ossified biconcave vertebrae4 ,o ,geological ,magazine1 vol4 iii4 ,the present writer may1 however1 be suspected of a tendency to extend forms of life backward in time1 since it has fallen to his lot to be concerned in this process of stretching backward in several cases4 ,he has named and described the oldest known animal4 ,he has described the oldest true exogen1 and the oldest known pine-tree4 ,he was concerned in the discovery of the oldest known land snails1 and found the oldest millipedes4 ,he has just described the oldest bituminous bed composed of spore-cases1 and he claims that his genus ,hylonomus includes the oldest animals which have a fair claim to be considered reptiles4 ,still this discovery of old things comes rather of fortune and careful search then of a desire to innovate2 and a distinction should be drawn between that kind of novelty which consists in the development of new truths1 and that which consists in the invention of new fancies1 or the revival of old ones4 ,there is too much of this last at present2 and it would be a more promising line of work for our younger naturalists1 if they would patiently and honestly question nature1 instead of trying to extort astounding revelations by throwing her on the rack of their own imaginations4 ,we may pause here a moment to contemplate the greatness of the fact we have been studying the introduction into our world of the earliest known vertebrate animals which could open their nostrils and literally breathe the breath of life4 ,all previous animals that we know1 except a few ,devonian insects1 had respired in the water by means of gills or similar apparatus1 ,now we not only have the little land snails1 with their imperfect substitutes for lungs1 but animals which must have been able to draw in the vital air into capacious chambered lungs1 and with this power must have enjoyed a far higher and more active style of vitality2 and must have possessed the faculty of uttering truly vocal sounds4 ,what wondrous possibilities unknown to these creatures1 perhaps only dimly perceived by such rational intelligences as may have watched the growth of our young world1 were implied in these gifts4 ,it is one of the remarkable points in the history of creation in ,genesis1 that this step of the creative work is emphatically marked4 ,of all the creatures we have noticed up to this point1 it is stated that ,god said1 ,let the waters bring them forth--but it is said that ,god created great reptiles 7tanninim74,p ,no doubt these great tanninim culminate in the succeeding ,mesozoic age1 but their first introduction dates as far back as the ,carboniferous2 and this introduction was emphatically a creation1 as being the commencement of a new feature among living beings4 ,what further differences may be implied in the formul1 ,let the waters produce and ,god created1 we do not know2 very probably he who wrote the words did not fully know4 ,but if we could give a scientific expression to this difference1 and specify the cases to which its terms apply1 we might be able to solve one of the most vexed questions of biology4 ,p ,not whales1 as in our version4 ,let us observe1 however1 that even here1 where1 if anywhere1 we have actual creation1 especial pains are taken to bridge over the gap1 and to prevent any appearance of discontinuity in the work4 ,the ganoid fishes of the coal period very probably had1 like their modern congeners1 well-developed air-bladders1 serving to some extent1 though very imperfectly1 as lungs4 ,the humbler and more aquatic reptiles of the period retained the gills1 and also some of the other features of the fishes2 so that1 like some modern creatures of their class1 they stood1 as to respiration1 on two stools1 and seemed unwilling altogether to commit themselves to the new mode of life in the uncongenial element of air4 ,even the larger and more lizard-like of the coal reptiles may--though this we do not certainly know1 and in some cases there are reasons for doubting it--have passed the earliest stage of their lives in the water as gilled tadpoles1 in the manner of our modern frogs4 ,thus at the very point where one of the greatest advances of animal life has its origin1 we have no sudden stop1 but an inclined plane2 and yet1 as ,i have elsewhere endeavoured to show by arguments which cannot be repeated here1,q we have not a shadow of reason to conclude that1 in the coal period1 fishes were transmuted into reptiles4 ,q ,air-breathers of the ,coal ,period1 p4 #gg4 ,but the reader may be wearied with our long sojourn in the pestilential atmosphere of the coal swamps1 and in the company of their low-browed and squalid inhabitants4 ,let us turn for a little to the sea1 and notice the animal life of the great coral reefs and shell beds preserved for us in the ,carboniferous limestone4 ,before doing so1 one point merits attention4 ,the coal formation for the first time distinctly presents to us the now familiar differences in the inhabitants of the open sea and those of creeks1 estuaries and lakes4 ,such distinctions are unknown to us in the ,silurian4 ,there all is sea4 ,they begin to appear in the ,devonian1 in the shallow fish-banks and the ,anodon-like bivalves found with fossil plants4 ,in the coal period they become very manifest4 ,the animals found in the shales with the coal are all1 even the aquatic ones1 distinct from those of the open seas of the period4 ,some of them may have lived in salt or brackish water1 but not in the open sea4 ,they are creatures of still and shallow waters4 ,it is true that in some coal-fields marine beds occur in the coal measures with their characteristic fossils1 but these are quite distinct from the usual animal remains of the coal-fields1 and mark occasional overflows of the sea1 owing to subsidence of the land4 ,it is important to notice this geographical difference1 marking the greater specialisation and division of labour1 if we may so speak1 that was in the process of introduction4 ,the sea of the ,carboniferous period presented in the main similar great groups of animals to those of the ,devonian1 represented however by different species4 ,we may notice merely some of the salient points of resemblance or difference4 ,the old types of corals continue in great force2 but it is their last time1 for they rapidly decay in the succeeding ,permian and disappear4 ,the ,crinoids are as numerous and beautiful as in any other period1 and here for the first time we meet with the new and higher type of the sea-urchin1 in large and beautiful species4 ,one curious group1 that of the ,pentremites1 a sort of larval form1 is known here alone4 ,among the lamp-shells we may note1 as peculiarly and abundantly ,carboniferous1 those with one valve very convex and the other very concave and anchored in the mud by long spines instead of a peduncle attached to stones and rocks4,r ,there are many beautiful shells allied to modern scallops1 and not a few sea-snails of various sorts4 ,the grand ,orthoceratites of the ,silurian diminish in size preparatory to their disappearance in the ,permian1 and the more modern type of ,nautilus and its allies becomes prevalent4 ,among the ,crustaceans we may notice the appearance of the ,limulus1 or king-crab1 of which the single little species described by ,woodward from the ,upper ,silurian may be regarded as merely a prophecy4 ,it is curious that the ,carboniferous king-crabs are very small1 apparently another case of a new form appearing in humble guise2 but as the young of modern king-crabs haunt creeks and swampy flats1 while the adults live in the sea1 it may be that only the young of the ,carboniferous species are yet known to us1 the specimens found being mostly in beds likely to be frequented by the young rather then by the full-grown individuals4 ,r ,the ,productid4 ,the old order of the ,trilobites1 which has accompanied us from ,primordial times1 here fails us1 and a few depauperated species alone remain1 the sole survivors of their ancient race--small1 unornamented1 and feeble representatives of a once numerous and influential tribe4 ,how strange that a group of creatures so numerous and apparently so well adapted to conditions of existence which still continue in the sea1 should thus die out1 while the little bivalved crustaceans1 which began life almost as far back and lived on the same sea-floors with the ,trilobites1 should still abound in all our seas2 and while the king-crabs1 of precisely similar habits with the ,trilobites1 should apparently begin to prosper4 ,equally strange is the fate of the great swimming ,eurypterids which we saw in the ,devonian4 ,they also continue1 but in diminished force1 in the ,carboniferous1 and there lay down for ever their well-jointed cuirasses and formidable weapons1 while a few little shrimp-like creatures1 their contemporaries1 form the small point of the wedge of our great tribes of squillas and crabs and lobsters4 ,some years ago the late lamented palontologist1 ,salter1 a man who scarcely leaves his equal in his department1 in conjunction with ,mr4 ,henry ,woodward1 prepared a sort of genealogical chart of the ,crustacea on which these facts are exhibited4 ,some new species have since been discovered1 and a little additional light about affinities has been obtained2 but taken as it stands1 the history of the ,crustacea as there shown in one glance1 has in it more teaching on the philosophy of creation then ,i have been able to find in many ponderous quartos of tenfold its pretensions4 ,had ,salter been enabled1 with the aid of other specialists like ,woodward1 to complete similar charts of other classes of invertebrate animals1 scientific palaeontology in ,england would have been further advanced then it is likely to be in the next ten years4 ,to return to our ,trilobites3 one of the most remarkable points in their history is their appearance in full force in the ,primordial4 ,in these rocks we have some of the largest in size--some species of ,paradoxides being nearly two feet long1 and some of the very smallest4 ,we have some with the most numerous joints1 others with the fewest2 some with very large tails1 others with very small2 some with no ornamentation1 others very ornate2 some with large eyes1 others with none that have been made out1 though it is scarcely probable that they were wholly blind4 ,they increased in numbers and variety through the ,silurian and ,devonian1 and then suddenly drop off at the end of the ,lower ,carboniferous4 ,throughout their whole term of existence they kept rigidly to that type of the mud-plough which the king-crab still retains1 and which renders the anterior extremity so different from that of the ordinary ,crustacea4 ,they constitute one of the few cases in which we seem to see before us the whole history of an animal type2 and the more we look into that history1 the more do we wonder at their inscrutable introduction1 the unity and variety mingled in their progress1 and their strange and apparently untimely end4 ,i have already referred 7page #ie7 to the use which ,barrande makes of this as an argument against theories of evolution2 but must refer to his work for the details4 ,one word more ,i must say before leaving their graves4 ,i have reason to believe that they were not only the diggers of the burrows1 and of the ladder-tracks and pitted tracks,s of the ,silurian and ,primordial1 but that with the strokes of their rounded or spinous tails1 the digging of their snouts1 and the hoe-work of their hard upper lips1 or ,hypostomes1 they made nearly all those strange marks in the ,primordial mud which have been referred to fucoids1 and even to higher plants4 ,the ,trilobites worked over all the mud bottoms of the ,primordial1 even in places where no remains of them occur1 and the peculiarities of the markings which they left are to be explained only by a consideration of the structures of individual species4 ,s ,climactichnites and ,protichnites4 ,i had almost lost sight of the fishes of the ,carboniferous period1 but after saying so much of those of the ,devonian1 it would be unfair to leave their successors altogether unnoticed4 ,in the ,carboniferous we lose those broad-snouted plate-covered species that form so conspicuous a feature in the ,devonian2 and whatever its meaning1 it is surely no accident that these mud-burrowing fishes should decay along with those crustacean mud-burrowers1 the ,trilobites4 ,but swarms of fishes remain1 confined1 as in the ,devonian1 wholly to the two orders of the ,gar-fishes 7,ganoids7 and the sharks 7,placoids74 ,in the former we have a multitude of small and beautiful species haunting the creeks and ponds of the coal swamps1 and leaving vast quantities of their remains in the shaly and even coaly beds formed in such places4 ,such were the pretty1 graceful fishes of the genera ,paloniscus and ,amblypterus4 ,pursuing and feeding on these were larger ganoids1 armed with strong bony scales1 and formidable conical or sharp-edged teeth4 ,of these were ,rhizodus and ,acrolepis4 ,there were besides multitudes of sharks whose remains consist almost wholly of their teeth and spines1 their cartilaginous skeletons having perished4 ,one group was allied to the few species of modern sharks whose mouths are paved with flat teeth for crushing shells4 ,these were the most abundant sharks of the ,carboniferous--slow and greedy monsters1 haunting shell banks and coral reefs1 and grinding remorselessly all the shell-fishes that came in their way4 ,there were also sharks furnished with sharp and trenchant teeth1 which must have been the foes of the smaller mailed fishes1 pursuing them into creeks and muddy shallows2 and if we may judge from the quantity of their remains in some of these places1 sometimes perishing in their eager efforts4 ,on the whole1 the fishes of the ,carboniferous were1 in regard to their general type1 a continuation of those of the ,devonian1 but the sharks and the scaly ganoids were relatively more numerous4 ,they differed from our modern fishes in the absence of the ordinary horny-scaled type to which all our more common fishes belong1 and in the prevalence of that style of tail which has been termed heterocercal1 in which the continuation of the backbone forms the upper lobe of the tail1 a style which1 if we may judge from modern examples1 gives more power of upward and downward movement1 and is especially suitable to fishes which search for food only at the bottom1 or only above the surface of the waters4 ,most reluctantly ,i must here leave one of the most remarkable periods of the world's history1 and reserve to our next chapter the summation of the history of the older world of life in its concluding stage1 the ,permian4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,permian ,,age ,,and ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,pal,,ozoic4 ,the immense swamps and low forest-clad plains which occupied the continental areas of the ,northern ,hemisphere1 and which we now know extended also into the regions south of the equator1 appear at the close of the ,carboniferous age to have again sunk beneath the waves1 or to have relapsed into the condition of sand and gravel banks2 for a great thickness of such deposits rests on the coal measures and constitutes the upper coal formation1 the upper barren measures of the coal-miners4 ,there is something grand in the idea of this subsidence of a world of animal and vegetable life beneath the waters4 ,the process was very slow1 so slow that at first vegetable growth and deposition of silt kept pace with it2 and this is the reason of the immense series of deposits1 in some places nearly #ae1jjj feet thick1 which inclose or rest upon the coal beds2 but at length it became more rapid1 so that forests and their inhabitants perished1 and the wild surf drifted sand and pebbles over their former abodes4 ,so the ,carboniferous world1 like that of ,noah1 being overflowed with water1 perished4 ,but it was not a wicked world drowned for its sins1 but merely an old and necessarily preliminary system1 which had fully served its purpose2 and1 like the stubble of last year1 must be turned under by the plough that it may make way for a new verdure4 ,the plough passed over it1 and the winter of the ,permian came1 and then the spring of a new age4 ,the ,permian and the succeeding ,triassic are somewhat chilly and desolate periods of the earth's history4 ,the one is the twilight of the ,palozoic day1 the other is the dawn of the ,mesozoic4 ,yet to the philosophical geologist no ages excel them in interest4 ,they are times of transition1 when old dynasties and races pass away and are replaced by new and vigorous successors1 founding new empires and introducing new modes of life and action4 ,three great leading points merit our attention in entering on the ,permian age4 ,the first is the earth-movements of the period4 ,the second is the resulting mineral characteristics of the deposits formed4 ,the third is the aspect of the animal and vegetable life of this age in their relation more especially to those which preceded4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,foldings ,,of ,,the ,,crust ,,in ,,the ,,permian ,,period4 7,the vertical scale of heights and depressions exaggerated more then six times47 ,the lower figure shows a portion of folded strata in the ,appalachians--after ,rogers4 ,with respect to the first point above named1 the earth's crust was subjected in the ,permian period to some of the grandest movements which have occurred in the whole course of geologic time1 and we can fix the limits of these1 in ,europe and ,america at least1 with some distinctness4 ,if we examine the ,permian rocks in ,england and ,germany1 we shall find that everywhere they lie on the upturned edges of the preceding ,carboniferous beds4 ,in other words1 the latter have been thrown into a series of folds1 and the tops of these folds have been more or less worn away before the ,permian beds were placed on them4 ,but if we pass on to the eastward1 in the great plain between the ,volga and the ,ural mountains1 where1 in the ancient kingdom of ,perm1 the greatest known area of these rocks is found1 an area equal in extent to twice that of ,france1 and which ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison1 who first proposed the name1 took as the typical district1 we find1 on the contrary1 that the ,permian and ,carboniferous are conformable to one another4 ,if now we cross the ,atlantic and inquire how the case stands in ,america1 we shall find it precisely the same4 ,here the great succession of earth-waves constituting the ,appalachian ,mountains rises abruptly at the eastern edge of the continent1 and becomes flatter and flatter1 until1 in the broad plains west of the ,mississippi1 the ,permian beds appear1 as in ,russia1 resting upon the ,carboniferous so quietly that it is not always easy to draw a line of separation between them4 ,as ,dana has remarked1 we find at the western side of ,europe and the eastern side of ,america1 great disturbances inaugurating the ,permian period2 and in the interior of both1 in the plains between the ,volga and the ,ural in one1 and between the ,mississippi and ,rocky ,mountains in the other1 an entire absence of these disturbances4 ,the main difference is1 that in eastern ,america the whole ,carboniferous areas have apparently been so raised up that no ,permian was deposited on them1 while in ,europe considerable patches of the disturbed areas became or remained submerged4 ,another ,american geologist has largely illustrated the fact that the movements which threw up the ,appalachian folds were strongest to the eastward1 and that the ridges of rock are steepest on their west sides1 the force which caused them acting from the direction of the sea4 ,it seems as if the ,atlantic area had wanted elbow-room1 and had crushed up the edges of the continents next to it4 ,in other words1 in the lapse of the ,palozoic ages the nucleus of the earth had shrunk away from its coating of rocky layers1 which again collapsed into great wrinkles4 ,such a process may seem difficult of comprehension4 ,to understand it we must bear in mind some of its conditions4 ,first1 the amount of this wrinkling was extremely small relatively to the mass of the earth4 ,in the diagram on page #afb it is greatly exaggerated1 yet is seen to be quite insignificant1 however gigantic in comparison with microscopic weaklings like ourselves4 ,secondly1 it was probably extremely slow4 ,beds of solid rock cannot be suddenly bent into great folds without breaking1 and the abruptness of some of the folds may be seen from our figure1 copied from ,rogers 7page #afb71 of some of the foldings of the ,appalachian ,mountains4 ,thirdly1 the older rocks below the ,carboniferous and the ,devonian must have been in a softened and plastic state1 and so capable of filling up the vacancies left by the bending of the hard crust above4 ,in evidence of this1 we have in the ,lower ,permian immense volcanic ejections--lavas and other molten rocks spewed out to the surface from the softened and molten masses below4 ,fourthly1 the basin of the ,atlantic must have been sufficiently strong to resist the immense lateral pressure1 so that the yielding was all concentrated on the weaker parts of the crust near the old fractures at the margins of the great continents4 ,in these places also1 as we have seen in previous papers1 the greatest thickness of deposits had been formed2 so that there was great downward pressure1 and probably1 also1 greater softening of the lower part of the crust4 ,fifthly1 as suggested in a previous chapter1 the folding of the earth's crust may have resulted from the continued shrinkage of its interior in consequence of cooling1 leading after long intervals to collapse of the surface4 ,astronomers have1 however1 suggested another cause4 ,the earth bulges at the equator1 and is flattened at the poles in consequence of1 or in connection with1 the swiftness of its rotation2 but it has been shown that the rotation of the earth is being very gradually lessened by the attraction of the moon4,t ,pierce has recently brought forward the idea,u that this diminution of rotation1 by causing the crust to subside in the equatorial regions and expand in the polar1 might produce the movements observed2 and which1 according to ,lesley1 have amounted in the whole course of geological time to about two per cent1 of the diameter of our globe4 ,we thus have two causes1 either of which seems sufficient to produce the effect4 ,t ,sir ,william ,thomson1 who quotes ,adams and ,delaunay4 ,u ,nature1 ,february1 #ahga4 ,viewed in this way1 the great disturbances at the close of the ,palozoic period constitute one of the most instructive examples in the whole history of the earth of that process of collapse to which the crust was subject after long intervals1 and of which no equally great instance occurs except at the close of the ,laurentian and the close of the ,mesozoic4 ,the mineral peculiarities of the ,permian are also accounted for by the above considerations4 ,let us now notice some of these4 ,in nearly all parts of the world the ,permian presents thick beds of red sandstone and conglomerate as marked ingredients4 ,these1 as we have already seen1 are indications of rapid deposition accompanying changes of level4 ,in the ,permian1 as elsewhere1 these beds are accompanied by volcanic rocks1 indicating the subterranean causes of the disturbances4 ,again1 these rocks are chiefly abundant in those regions1 like ,western ,europe1 where the physical changes were at a maximum4 ,another remarkable feature of the ,permian rocks is the occurrence of great beds of magnesian limestone1 or dolomite4 ,in ,england1 the thick yellow magnesian limestone1 the outcrop of which crosses in nearly a straight line through ,durham1 ,yorkshire1 and ,nottingham1 marks the edge of a great ,permian sea extending far to the eastward4 ,in the marls and sandstones of the ,permian period there is also much gypsum4 ,now1 chemistry shows us that magnesian limestones and gypsums are likely to be deposited where sea water1 which always contains salts of magnesia1 is evaporating in limited or circumscribed areas into which carbonate of lime and carbonate of soda are being carried by streams from the land or springs from below2,v and it is also to be observed that solutions of sulphuric acid1 and probably also of sulphate of magnesia1 are characteristic products of igneous activity4 ,hence we find in various geological periods magnesian limestones occurring as a deposit in limited shallow sea basins1 and also in connection with volcanic breccias4 ,now these were obviously the new ,permian conditions of what had once been the wide flat areas of the ,carboniferous period4 ,still further1 we find in ,europe1 as characteristic of this period1 beds impregnated with metallic salts1 especially of copper4 ,of this kind are very markedly the copper slates of ,thuringia4 ,such beds are not1 any more then magnesian limestones1 limited to this age2 but they are eminently characteristic of it4 ,to produce them it is required that water should bring forth from the earth's crust large quantities of metallic salts1 and that these should come into contact with vegetable matters in limited submerged areas1 so that sulphates of the metals should be deoxidized into sulphides4 ,a somewhat different chemical process1 as already explained1 was very active in the coal period1 and was connected with the production of its iron ores2 but1 in the ,permian1 profound and extensive fractures opened up the way to the deep seats of copper and other metals1 to enrich the copper slate and its associated beds4 ,it is also to be observed that the alkaline springs and waters which contain carbonate of soda1 very frequently hold various metallic salts2 so that where1 owing to the action of such waters1 magnesian limestone is being deposited1 we may expect also to find various metallic ores4 ,v ,hunt1 ,silliman's ,journal1 #ahei and #ahfc4 ,let us sum up shortly this history4 ,we have foldings of the earth's crust1 causing volcanic action and producing limited and shallow sea-basins1 and at the same time causing the evolution of alkaline and metalliferous springs4 ,the union of these mechanical and chemical causes explains at once the conglomerates1 the red sandstones1 the trap rocks1 the magnesian limestones1 the gypsum1 and the metalliferous beds of the ,permian4 ,the same considerations explain the occurrence of similar deposits in various other ages of the earth's history2 though1 perhaps1 in none of these were they so general over the ,northern ,hemisphere as in the ,permian4 ,from the size of the stones in some of the ,permian conglomerates1 and their scratched surfaces1 it has been supposed that there were in this period1 on the margins of the continents1 mountains sufficiently high to have snow-clad summits1 and to send down glaciers1 bearing rocks and stones to the sea1 on which may have floated1 as now in the ,north ,atlantic1 huge icebergs4,w ,this would be quite in accordance with the great elevation of land which we know actually occurred2 and the existence of snow-clad mountains along with volcanoes would be a union of fire and frost of which we still have examples in some parts of the earth's surface1 and this in proximity to forms of vegetable life very similar to those which we know existed in the ,permian4 ,w ,ramsay has ably illustrated this in the ,permian conglomerates of ,england4 ,with the exception of a few small and worthless beds in ,russia1 the ,permian is not known to contain any coal4 ,the great swamps of the coal period had disappeared4 ,in part they were raised up into rugged mountains4 ,in part they were sunken into shallow sea areas4 ,thus1 while there was much dry land1 there was little opportunity for coal production1 or for the existence of those rank forests which had accumulated so much vegetable matter in the ,carboniferous age4 ,in like manner the fauna of the ,permian waters is poor4 ,according to ,murchison1 the ,permian limestones of ,europe have afforded little more then one-third as many species of fossils as the older ,carboniferous4 ,the fossils themselves also have a stunted and depauperated aspect1 indicating conditions of existence unfavourable to them4 ,this is curiously seen in contrasting ,davidson's beautiful illustrations of the ,british ,lamp-shells of the ,permian and ,carboniferous periods4 ,another illustrative fact is the exceptionally small size of the fossils even in limestones of the ,carboniferous period when these are associated with gypsum1 red sandstones1 and magnesian minerals2 as1 for instance1 those of some parts of ,nova ,scotia4 ,in truth1 the peculiar chemical conditions conducive to the production of magnesian limestones and gypsum are not favourable to animal life1 though no doubt compatible with its existence4 ,hence the rich fauna of the ,carboniferous seas died out in the ,permian1 and was not renewed2 and the ,atlantic areas of the period are unknown to us4 ,they were1 however1 probably very deep and abrupt in slope1 and not rich in life4 ,this would be especially the case if they were desolated by cold ice-laden currents4 ,during the ,permian period there was in each of our continental areas a somewhat extensive inland sea4 ,that of ,western ,america was a northward extension of the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,that of ,eastern ,europe was a northward extension of the ,euxine and ,caspian4 ,in both1 the deposits formed were very similar--magnesian limestones1 sandstones1 conglomerates1 marls1 and gypsums4 ,in both1 these alternate in such a way as to show that there were frequent oscillations of level1 producing alternately shallow and deep waters4 ,in both1 the animal remains are of similar species1 in many instances even identical4 ,but in the areas intervening between these sea basins and the ,atlantic the conditions were somewhat different4 ,in ,europe the land was interrupted by considerable water areas1 not lakes1 but inland sea basins2 sometimes probably connected with the open sea1 sometimes isolated4 ,in these were1 deposited the magnesian limestone and its associated beds in ,england1 and the ,zechstein and ,rotheliegende with their associates in ,germany4 ,in ,america the case was different4 ,in all that immense area which extends from the ,atlantic to the plains east of the ,mississippi1 we know no ,permian rocks1 unless a portion of those reckoned as ,upper ,carboniferous1 or ,permo-carboniferous in ,northern ,nova ,scotia1 and ,prince ,edward ,island1 should be included in this group4 ,if such existed1 they may possibly be covered up in some places by more modern deposits1 or may have been swept away by denudation in the intervening ages2 but even in these cases we should expect to find some visible remains of them4 ,their entire absence would seem to indicate that a vast1 and in many parts rugged and elevated1 continent represented ,north ,america in the ,permian period4 ,yet if so1 that great continent is an absolute blank to us4 ,we know nothing of the animals or plants which may have lived on it1 nor do we even know with certainty that it had active volcanoes1 or snow-clad mountains sending down glaciers4 ,our picture of the ,permian ,world has not been inviting1 yet in many respects it was a world more like that in which we live then was any previous one4 ,it certainly presented more of variety and grand physical features then any of the previous ages2 and we might have expected that on its wide and varied continents some new and higher forms of life would have been introduced4 ,but it seems rather to have been intended to blot out the old ,palozoic life1 as an arrangement which had been fully tried and served its end1 preparatory to a new beginning in the succeeding age4 ,still the ,permian has some life features of its own1 and we must now turn to these4 ,the first is the occurrence here1 not only of the representatives of the great ,batrachians of the coal period1 but of true reptiles1 acknowledged to be such by all naturalists4 ,the animals of the genus ,protorosaurus1 found in rocks of this age both in ,england and ,germany1 were highly-organised lizards1 having socketed teeth like those of crocodiles1 and well-developed limbs1 with long tails1 perhaps adapted for swimming4 ,they have1 however1 biconcave vertebr like the lizard-like animals of the coal already mentioned1 which1 indeed1 in their general form and appearance1 they must have very closely resembled4 ,the ,protorosaurs were not of great size2 but they must have been creatures of more stately gait then their ,carboniferous predecessors1 and they serve to connect them with the new and greater reptiles of the next period4 ,another interesting feature of the ,permian is its flora1 which1 in so far as known1 is closely related to that of the coal period1 though the species are regarded as different2 some of the forms1 however1 being so similar as to be possibly identical4 ,in a picture of the ,permian flora we should perhaps place in the foreground the tree-ferns1 which seem to have been very abundant1 and furnished with dense clusters of arial roots to enable them to withstand the storms of this boisterous age4 ,the tree-ferns1 now so plentiful in the southern hemisphere1 should be regarded as one of the permanent vegetable institutions of our world--those of the far-back ,lower ,devonian1 and of all intervening ages up to the present day1 having been very much alike4 ,the great reed-like ,calamites have had a different fate4 ,in their grander forms they make their last appearance in the ,permian1 where they culminate in great ribbed stems1 sometimes nearly a foot in diameter1 and probably of immense height4 ,the brakes of these huge mares'-tails which overspread the lower levels of the ,permian in ,europe1 would have been to us what the hayfields of ,brobdingnag were to ,gulliver4 ,the ,lepidodendra also swarmed1 though in diminished force2 but the great ,sigillari of the coal are absent1 or only doubtfully present4 ,another feature of the ,permian woods was the presence of many pine-trees different in aspect from those of the coal period4 ,some of these are remarkable for their slender and delicate branches and foliage4,x ,others have more dense and scaly leaves1 and thick short cones4,y ,both of these styles of pines are regarded as distinct1 on the one hand1 from those of the coal formation1 and on the other from those of the succeeding ,trias4 ,i have shown1 however1 many years ago1 that in the upper coal formation of ,america there are branches of pine-trees very similar to ,walchia1 and1 on the other hand1 the ,permian pines are not very remote in form and structure from some of their modern relations4 ,the pines of the first of the above-mentioned types 7,walchia7 may indeed be regarded as allies of the modern ,araucarian pines of the southern hemisphere1 and of the old conifers of the ,carboniferous4 ,those of the second type 7,ulmannia7 may be referred to the same group with the magnificent ,sequoias or ,redwoods of ,california4 ,x ,walchia4 ,y ,ulmannia4 ,it is a curious indication of the doubts which sometimes rest on fossil botany1 that some of the branches of these ,permian pines1 when imperfectly preserved1 have been described as sea-weeds1 while others have been regarded as club-mosses4 ,it is true1 however1 that the resemblance of some of them to the latter class of plants is very great2 and were there no older pines1 we might be pardoned for imagining in the ,permian a transition from club-mosses to pines4 ,unfortunately1 however1 we have pines nearly as far back in geological time as we have club-mosses2 and1 in so far as we know1 no more like the latter then are the pines of the ,permian1 so that this connection fails us4 ,in all probability the ,permian forests are much less perfectly known to us then those of the coal period1 so that we can scarcely make comparisons4 ,it appears certain1 however1 that the ,permian plants are much more closely related to the coal plants then to those of the next succeeding epoch1 and that they are not so much a transition from the one to the other as the finishing of the older period to make way for the newer4 ,but we must reserve some space for a few remarks on the progress and termination of the ,palozoic as a whole1 and on the place which it occupies in the world's history4 ,these remarks we may group around the central question1 ,what is the meaning or value of an age or period in the history of the earth1 as these terms are understood by geologists8 ,in most geological books terms referring to time are employed very loosely4 ,period1 epoch1 age1 system1 series1 formation1 and similar terms1 are used or abused in a manner which only the indefiniteness of our conceptions can excuse4 ,a great ,american geologist,z has made an attempt to remedy this by attaching definite values to such words as those above mentioned4 ,in his system the greater divisions of the history were ,times3 thus the ,eozoic was a time and the ,palozoic was a time4 ,the larger divisions of the times are ,ages3 thus the ,lower and ,upper ,silurian1 the ,devonian1 and the ,carboniferous are ages1 which are equivalent in the main to what ,english geologists call ,systems of ,formations4 ,ages1 again1 may be divided into ,periods3 thus1 in the ,upper ,silurian1 the ,ludlow of ,england1 or ,lower ,helderberg of ,america1 would constitute a period4 ,these periods may again be divided into ,epochs1 which are equivalent to what ,english geologists call ,formations1 a term referring not directly to the time elapsed1 but to the work done in it4 ,now this mode of regarding geological time introduces many thoughts as to the nature of our chronology and matters relating to it4 ,a time in geology is an extremely long time1 and the ,palozoic was perhaps the longest of the whole4 ,by the close of the ,palozoic nine-tenths of all the rocks we know in the earth's crust were formed4 ,at least this is the case if we reckon mere thickness4 ,for aught that we know1 the ,eozoic time may have accumulated as much rock as the ,palozoic2 but leaving this out of the question1 the rocks of the ,palozoic are vastly thicker then those of the ,mesozoic and ,cainozoic united4 ,thus the earth's history seems to have dragged slowly in its earlier stages1 or to have become accelerated in its latter times4 ,to place it in another point of view1 life changes were greater relatively to merely physical changes in the later then in the earlier times4 ,z ,dana4 ,the same law seems to have obtained within the ,palozoic time itself4 ,its older periods1 as the ,cambrian and ,lower ,silurian1 present immense thicknesses of rock with little changes in life4 ,its later periods1 the ,carboniferous and ,permian1 have greater life-revolution relatively to less thickness of deposits4 ,this again was evidently related to the growing complexity and variety of geographical conditions1 which went on increasing all the way up to the ,permian1 when they attained their maximum for the ,palozoic time4 ,again1 each age was signalized1 over the two great continental plateaus1 by a like series of elevations and depressions4 ,we may regard the ,siluro-,cambrian1 the ,silurian1 the ,devonian1 the ,carboniferous1 and ,permian1 as each of them a distinct age4 ,each of these began with physical disturbances and coarse shallow-water deposits4 ,in each this was succeeded by subsidence and by a sea area tenanted by corals and shell-fishes4 ,in each case this was followed by a re-elevation1 leading to a second but slow and partial subsidence1 to be followed by the great re-elevation preparatory to the next period4 ,thus we have throughout the ,palozoic a series of cycles of physical change which we may liken to gigantic pulsations of the thick hide of mother earth4 ,the final catastrophe of the ,permian collapse was quite different in kind from these pulsations as well as much greater in degree4 ,the ,cambrian or ,primordial does not apparently present a perfect cycle of this kind1 perhaps because in that early period the continental plateaus were not yet definitely formed1 and thus its beds are rather portions of the general oceanic deposit4 ,in this respect it is analogous in geological relations to the chalk formation of a later age1 though very different in material4 ,the ,cambrian may1 however1 yet vindicate its claim to be regarded as a definite cycle3 and the recent discoveries of ,hicks in ,north ,wales1 have proved the existence of a rich marine fauna far down in the lower part of this system4 ,it is also to be observed that the peculiar character of the ,cambrian1 as an oceanic bottom rather then a continental plateau1 has formed an important element in the difficulties in establishing it as a distinct group2 just as a similar difficulty in the case of the chalk has led to a recent controversy about the continuance of the conditions of that period into modern times4 ,but in each of the great successive heaves or pulsations of the ,palozoic earth1 there was a growing balance in favour of the land as compared with the water4 ,in each successive movement more and more elevated land was thrown up1 until the ,permian flexures finally fixed the forms of our continents4 ,this may be made evident to the eye in a series of curves1 as in the following diagram1 in which ,i have endeavoured to show the recurrence of similar conditions in each of the great periods of the ,palozoic1 and thus their equivalency to each other as cycles of the earth's history4 ,there is thus in these great continental changes a law of recurrence and a law of progress2 but as to the efficient causes of the phenomena we have as yet little information4 ,it seems that original fractures and shrinkages of the crust were concerned in forming the continental areas at first4 ,once formed1 unequal burdening of the earth's still plastic mass by deposits of sediment in the waters1 and unequal expansion by the heating and crystallization of immense thicknesses of the sediment1 may have done the rest2 but the results are surprisingly regular to be produced by such causes4 ,we shall also find that similar cycles can be observed in the geological ages which succeeded the ,palozoic4 ,geologists have hitherto for the most part been content to assign these movements to causes purely terrestrial2 but it is difficult to avoid the suspicion that the succession of geological cycles must have depended on some recurring astronomical force tending to cause the weaker parts of the earth's crust alternately to rise and subside at regular intervals of time4 ,herschel1 ,adhmar1 and more recently ,croll1 have directed attention to astronomical cycles supposed to have important influences on the temperature of the earth4 ,whether these or other changes may have acted on the equilibrium of its crust is a question well worthy of attention1 as its solution might give us an astronomical measure of geological time4 ,this question1 however1 the geologist must refer to the astronomer4 ,illustration3 ,,curves ,,showing ,,the ,,successive ,,elevations ,,and ,,depressions ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,continent1 ,,in ,,several ,,cycles ,,of ,,the ,,pal,,ozoic ,,time4 ,there are two notes of caution which must here be given to the reader4 ,first1 it is not intended to apply the doctrine of continental oscillations to the great oceanic areas4 ,whether they became shallower or deeper1 their conditions would be different from those which occurred in the great shallow plateaus1 and these conditions are little known to us4 ,further1 throughout the ,palozoic period1 the oscillations do not seem to have been sufficient to reverse the positions of the oceans and continents4 ,secondly1 it is not meant to affirm that the great ,permian plications were so widespread in their effects as to produce a universal destruction of life4 ,on the contrary1 after they had occurred1 remnants of the ,carboniferous fauna still flourished even on the surfaces of the continents1 and possibly the inhabitants of the deep ocean were little affected by these great movements4 ,true it is that the life of the ,palozoic terminates with the ,permian1 but not by a great and cataclysmic overthrow4 ,we know something at least of the general laws of continental oscillations during the ,palozoic4 ,do we know anything of law in the case of life8 ,the question raises so many and diverse considerations that it seems vain to treat it in the end of a chapter2 still we must try to outline it with at least a few touches4 ,first1 then1 the life of the ,palozoic was remarkable1 as compared with that of the present world1 in presenting a great prevalence of animals and plants of synthetic types1 as they are called by ,agassiz that is1 of creatures comprehending in one the properties of several groups which were to exist as distinct in the future4 ,such types are also sometimes called embryonic1 because the young of animals and plants often show these comprehensive features4 ,such types were the old corals1 presenting points of alliance with two distinct groups now widely separated2 the old ,trilobites1 half king-crabs and half ,isopods2 the ,amphibians of the coal1 part fish1 part newt1 and part crocodile2 the ,sigillari1 part club-mosses and part pines2 the ,orthoceratites1 half nautili and half cuttle-fishes4 ,i proposed1 in the illustration in a former article1 to give a restoration of one of the curious creatures last mentioned1 the ,orthoceratites2 but on attempting this1 with the idea that1 as usually supposed1 they were straight ,nautili1 it appeared that the narrow aperture1 the small outer chamber1 the thin outer wall1 often apparently only membranous1 and the large siphuncle1 would scarcely admit of this2 and ,i finished by representing it as something like a modern squid2 perhaps wrongly1 but it was evidently somewhere between them and the ,nautili4 ,secondly1 these synthetic types often belonged to the upper part of a lower group1 or to the lower part of an upper group4 ,hence in one point of view they may be regarded as of high grade1 in another as of low grade1 and they are often large in size or in vegetative development4,,aa ,from this law have arisen many controversies about the grade and classification of the ,palozoic animals and plants4 ,,aa ,it seems1 indeed1 as if the new synthetic forms intermediate between great groups were often large in size1 while the new special types came in as small species4 ,there are some remarkable cases of this in the plant world2 though here we have such examples as the pines and tree-ferns continuing almost unchanged from an early ,palozoic period until now4 ,thirdly1 extinctions of species occur in every great oscillation of the continental areas1 but some species reappear after such oscillations1 and the same genus often recurs under new specific forms4 ,families and orders1 such as those of the ,trilobites and ,orthoceratites1 appear to have a grand and gradual culmination and decadence extending over several successive periods1 or even over the whole stretch of the ,palozoic time4 ,toward the close of the ,palozoic1 while all the species disappear1 some whole families and orders are altogether dropped1 and1 being chiefly synthetic groups1 are replaced by more specialised types1 some of which1 however1 make small beginnings alongside of the more general types which are passing away4 ,our diagram 7page #ahc7 illustrates these points4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,showing ,,the ,,advance1 ,,culmination1 ,,and ,,decadence ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,leading ,,types ,,of ,,pal,,ozoic ,,life4 ,fourthly1 the progress in animal life in the ,palozoic related chiefly to the lower or invertebrate tribes1 and to the two lower classes of the vertebrates4 ,the oldest animal known to us is not only a creature of the simplest structure1 but also a representative of that great and on the whole low type of animal life1 in which the parts are arranged around a central axis1 and not on that plan of bilateral symmetry which constitutes one great leading distinction of the higher animals4 ,with the ,cambrian1 bilateral animals abound and belong to two very distinct lines of progress--the one1 the ,mollusks1 showing the nutritive organs more fully developed--the other1 the ,articulates1 having the organs of sense and of locomotion more fully organized4 ,these three great types shared the world among them throughout the earlier ,palozoic time1 and only in its later ages began to be dominated by the higher types of fishes and reptiles4 ,in so far as we know1 it remained for the ,mesozoic to introduce the birds and mammals4 ,in plant life the changes were less marked1 though here also there is progress--land plants appear to begin1 not with the lowest forms1 but with the highest types of the lower of the two great series into which the vegetable kingdom is divided4 ,from this they rapidly rise to a full development of the lowest type of the flowering plants1 the pines and their allies1 and there the progress ceases2 for the known representatives of the higher plants are extremely few and apparently of little importance4 ,fifthly1 in general the history tells of a continued series of alternate victories and defeats of the species that had their birth on the land and in the shallow waters1 and those which were born in the ocean depths1 ,the former spread themselves widely after every upheaval1 and then by every subsidence were driven back to their mountain fastnesses4 ,the latter perished from the continental plateaus at every upheaval1 but climbed again in new hordes and reoccupied the ground after every subsidence4 ,but just as in human history every victory or defeat urges on the progress of events1 and develops the great plan of ,god's providence in the elevation of man2 so here every succeeding change brings in new and higher actors on the stage1 and the scheme of creation moves on in a grand and steady progress towards the more varied and elevated life of the ,modern ,world4 ,but1 after all1 how little do we know of these laws1 which are only beginning to dawn on the minds of naturalists2 and which the imperfections of our classification and nomenclature1 and the defects in our knowledge of fossil species1 render very dim and uncertain4 ,all that appears settled is the existence of a definite plan1 working over long ages1 and connected with the most remarkable correlation of physical and organic change3 going on with regular march throughout the ,palozoic1 and then brought to a close to make room for another great succession4 ,this following ,mesozoic time must next engage our attention4 ,we may close for the present with presenting to the eye in tabular form the periods over which we have passed4 ,the table on page #ahg1 and the diagram 7page #agi71 mutually illustrate each other2 and it will be seen that each age constitutes cycle1 similar in its leading features to the other cycles1 while each is distinguished by some important fact in relation to the introduction of living beings4 ,in this table ,i have1 with ,mr4 ,hull1,,ab for simplicity1 arranged the formations of each age under three periods--an older1 middle1 and newer4 ,of these1 however1 the last or newest is in each case so important and varied as to merit division into two1 in the manner which ,i have suggested in previous publications for the ,palozoic rocks of ,north ,america4,,ac ,under each period ,i have endeavoured to give some characteristic example from ,europe and ,america1 except where1 as in the case of the coal formation1 the same names are used on both continents4 ,such a table as this1 it must be observed1 is only tentative1 and may admit of important modifications4 ,the ,laurentian more especially may admit of division into several ages2 and a separate age may be found to intervene between it and the ,cambrian4 ,the reader will please observe that this table refers to the changes on the continental plateaus2 and that on both of these each age was introduced with shallow water and usually coarse deposits1 succeeded by deeper water and finer beds1 usually limestones1 and these by a mixed formation returning to the shallow water and coarse deposits of the older period of the age4 ,this last kind of deposition culminates in the great swamps of the coal formation4 ,,ab ,quarterly ,journal of ,science1 ,july1 #ahfi4 ,,ac ,acadian ,geology1 p4 #acg4 ,,condensed ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,ages ,,and ,,periods ,,of ,,the ,,pal,,ozoic ,,and ,,eozoic4 ,key to ,symbols ,tabulate and ,rugose ,corals1 abundant4 999999 ,age of ,alg4 ,age of ,acrogens and ,gymnosperms4 ,and ,god said1 ,let the waters bring forth abundantly the swarming living creatures4 --- ,and ,god created great reptiles4 ,,times4 ,,ages4 ,,periods4 ,,animals ,,and ,,plants4 ,,pal,,ozoic ,newer4 ,red ,sandstones1 ,rauchwacke1 etc4 ,beginning - ,permian ,middle4 ,zechstein1 or of ,age - ,magnesian ,limestone4 of ,reptiles4 - ,older4 ,conglomerates1 etc41 - ,rotheliegendes4 - - ,n4 ,coal ,formation4 - ,carboniferous ,m4 ,carboniferous ,limestone4 ,age of - ,o4 ,lower ,coal ,measures and ,batrachians4 ,conglomerates4 ,n4 ,upper ,old ,red1 ,chemung4 ,devonian ,m4 ,eifel and ,corniferous ,limestones4 ,age of ,fishes4 or ,erian ,o4 ,lower ,old ,red1 ,oriskany ,sandstone4 ,n4 ,ludlow1 ,lower ,helderberg4 ,upper ,silurian ,m4 ,wenlock and ,niagara ,limestones4 ,age of ,o4 ,mayhill1 etc41 ,oneida ,mollusks4 ,conglomerates4 ,n4 ,caradoc1 ,hudson ,r4 ,lower ,silurian ,m4 ,bala and ,trenton or ,limestones4 99 ,siluro-,cambrian ,o4 ,llandielo1 etc41 ,chazy4 99 99 ,n4 ,lingula ,flags1 etc41 99 ,potsdam ,sandstone4 99 ,acadian1 etc48 ,age of 99 ,cambrian ,m4 7,uncertain7 ,crustaceans4 99 ,menevian8 99 ,o4 ,longmynd1 ,huronian8 ,,eozoic ,n4 ,anorthosite ,gneiss1 etc4 ,laurentian ,m4 ,eozoon ,limestones1 etc4 ,age of ,o4 ,lower ,gneiss4 ,protozoa4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,mesozoic ,,ages4 ,physically1 the transition from the ,permian to the ,trias is easy4 ,in the domain of life a great gulf lies between2 and the geologist whose mind is filled with the forms of the ,palozoic period1 on rising into the next succeeding beds1 feels himself a sort of ,rip ,van ,winkle1 who has slept a hundred years and awakes in a new world4 ,the geography of our continents seems indeed to have changed little from the time of the ,permian to that next succeeding group which all geologists recognise as the beginning of the ,mesozoic or ,middle ,age of the world's history1 the ,triassic period4 ,where best developed1 as in ,germany1 it gives us the usual threefold series1 conglomerates and sandstones below1 a shelly limestone in the middle1 and sandstones and marls above4 ,curiously enough1 the ,germans1 recognising this tripartite character here more distinctly then in their other formations1 named this the ,trias or triple group1 a name which it still retains1 though as we have seen it is by no means the earliest of the triple groups of strata4 ,in ,england1 where the middle limestone is absent1 it is a ,new ,red ,sandstone1 and the same name may be appropriately extended to ,eastern ,america1 where bright red sandstones are a characteristic feature4 ,in the ,trias1 as in the ,permian1 the continents of the northern hemisphere presented large land areas1 and there were lagoons and landlocked seas in which gypsum1 magnesian limestones1 and rock salt were thrown down1 a very eminent example of which is afforded by the great salt deposits of ,cheshire4 ,there were also tremendous outbursts of igneous activity along the margins of the continents1 more especially in ,eastern ,america4 ,but with all this there was a rich land flora and a wonderful exuberance of new animal life on the land2 and in places there were even swamps in which pure and valuable beds of coal1 comparable with those of the old coal formation1 were deposited4 ,the triple division of the ,trias as a cycle of the earth's history1 and its local imperfection1 are well seen in the ,european development of the group1 thus3-- ,german ,series4 ,french ,series4 ,english ,series4 ,keuper1 ,sandstone and ,marnes ,irises ,saliferous and gypseous ,shale ,shales and ,sandstones4 ,muschelkalk1 ,limestone ,calcaire ,coquillier ,wanting4 and ,dolomite ,bunter1 ,sandstone and ,grs bigarr ,sandstone and ,conglomerate ,conglomerate4 ,the ,trias is succeeded by a great and complex system of formations1 usually known as the ,jurassic1 from its admirable development and exposure in the range of the ,jura2 but which the ,english geologists often name the ,oolitic1 from the occurrence in it of beds of ,oolite or roe-stone4 ,this rock1 of which the beautiful cream-coloured limestone of ,bath is an illustration1 consists of an infinity of little spheres1 like seeds or the roe of a fish4 ,under the microscope these are seen to present concentric layers1 each with a radiating fibrous3 structure1 and often to have a minute grain of sand or fragment of shell in the centre4 ,they are1 in short1 miniature concretions1 produced by the aggregation of the calcareous matter around centres1 by a process of molecular attraction to which fine sediments1 and especially those containing much lime1 are very prone4 ,this style of limestone is very abundant in the ,jurassic system1 but it is not confined to it4 ,i have seen very perfect ,oolites in the ,silurian and the ,carboniferous4 ,the ,jurassic series1 as developed in ,england1 may be divided into three triplets or cycles of beds1 in the following way3 ,purbeck ,beds4 ,upper ,jurassic ,portland ,limestone4 ,portland ,sand4 ,kimmeridge ,clay1 etc4 ,middle ,jurassic ,coral ,rag1 ,limestone4 ,lower ,calcareous ,grit1 ,oxford ,clay1 etc4 ,cornbrash and ,forest ,marble4 ,lower ,jurassic,,ad ,great and inferior ,oolite1 ,limestone4 ,lias ,clays and ,limestones4 ,,ad ,this last group is very complex1 and might perhaps admit of sub division1 locally at least1 into subordinate cycles4 ,these rocks occupy a large space in ,england1 as the names above given will serve to show2 and they are also largely distributed over the continent of ,europe and ,asia which had evidently three great and long-continued dips under water1 indicated by the three great limestones4 ,in ,america the case was different4 ,the ,jurassic has not been distinctly recognised in any part of the eastern coast of that continent1 which then perhaps extended farther into the ,atlantic then it does at present2 so that no marine beds were formed on its eastern border4 ,but in the west1 along the base of the ,rocky ,mountains and also in the ,arctic area1 there were ,jurassic seas of large extent1 swarming with characteristic animals4 ,at the close of the ,jurassic period our continents seem to have been even more extensive then at present4 ,in ,england and the neighbouring parts of the continent of ,europe1 according to ,lyell1 the fresh-water and estuarine beds known as the ,wealden have been traced #cbj miles from west to east1 and #bjj miles from north-west to south-east1 and their thickness in one part of this area is estimated at no less then #b1jjj feet4 ,such a deposit is comparable in extent with the deltas of such great rivers as the ,niger or even the ,mississippi1 and implies the existence of a continent much more extensive and more uniform in drainage then ,europe as it at present exists4 ,lyell even speculates on the possible existence of an ,atlantic continent west of ,europe4 ,america also at this time had1 as already stated1 attained to even more then its present extension eastwards4 ,thus this later ,jurassic period was the culmination of the ,mesozoic1 the period of its most perfect continental development1 corresponding in this to the ,carboniferous in the ,palozoic4 ,the next or closing period of this great ,mesozoic time brought a wondrous change4 ,in the ,cretaceous period1 so called from the vast deposits of chalk by which it is characterized1 the continents sunk as they had never sunk before1 so that vast spaces of the great continental plateaus were brought down1 for the first time since the ,laurentian1 to the condition of abyssal depths1 tenanted by such creatures as live in the deepest recesses of our modern oceans4 ,this great depression affected ,europe more severely then ,america2 the depression of the latter being not only less1 but somewhat later in date4 ,in ,europe1 at the period of greatest submergence1 the hills of ,scandinavia and of ,britain1 and the ,urals1 perhaps alone stood out of the sea4 ,the ,alps and their related mountains1 and even the ,himalayas1 were not yet born1 for they have on their high summits deep-sea beds of the ,cretaceous and even of later date4 ,in ,america1 the ,appalachians and the old ,laurentian ranges remained above water2 but the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,andes were in great part submerged1 and a great ,cretaceous sea extended from the ,appalachians westward to the ,pacific1 and southward to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 opening probably to the ,north into the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,this great depression must have been of very long continuance1 since in ,western ,europe it sufficed for the production of nearly #a1jjj feet in thickness of chalk1 a rock which1 being composed almost entirely of microscopic shells1 is1 as we shall see in the sequel1 necessarily of extremely slow growth4 ,if we regard the ,cretaceous group as one of our great ages or cycles1 it seems to be incomplete4 ,the sandstones and clays known as the ,greensand and ,gault constitute its lower or shallow-water member4 ,the chalk is its middle or deep-sea member1 but the upper shallow-water member is missing1 or only very locally and imperfectly developed4 ,and the oldest of the succeeding ,tertiary deposits1 which indicate much less continuous marine conditions1 rest on the chalk1 as if the great and deep sea of the ,cretaceous age had been suddenly upheaved into land4 ,this abrupt termination of the last cycle of the ,mesozoic is obviously the reason of the otherwise inexplicable fact that the prevalent life of the period ceases at the top of the chalk1 and is exchanged immediately and without any transition for the very different fauna of the ,tertiary4 ,this further accords with the fact that the ,cretaceous subsidence ended in another great crumpling of the crust1 like that which distinguished the ,permian4 ,by this the ,mesozoic time was terminated and the ,cainozoic inaugurated2 while the ,rocky ,mountains1 the ,andes1 the ,alps1 and the ,himalayas1 rose to importance as great mountain ranges1 and the continents were again braced up to retain a condition of comparative equilibrium during that later period of the earth's chronology to which we ourselves belong4 ,illustration3 ,,life ,,on ,,land ,,in ,,the ,,mesozoic ,,period4 ,in the foreground are a ,pine1 ,cycads1 and a ,pandanus2 also small ,mammals1 an herbivorous ,dinosaur1 and a ,labyrinthodont4 ,in the distance are other ,dinosaurs and ,crocodiles4 ,in the air are birds 7,archopterux7 and ,pterodactyls4 ,was the length of the ,mesozoic time equal to that of the ,palozoic8 ,measured by recurring cycles it was4 ,in the latter period we find five great cycles1 from the ,lower ,silurian to the ,permian inclusive4 ,so in the ,mesozoic we have five also1 from the ,trias to the ,cretaceous inclusive4 ,we have a right to reckon these cycles as ages or great years of the earth2 and so reckoning them1 the ,mesozoic time may have been as long as the ,palozoic4 ,but if we take another criterion the result will be different4 ,the thickness of the deposits in the ,palozoic as compared with the ,mesozoic1 where these are severally best developed1 may be estimated as at least four or five to one2 so that if we suppose the beds to have been formed with equal rapidity in the two great periods1 then the older of the two was between four and five times as long as the latter1 which would indeed be only a little greater then one of the separate ages of the ,palozoic4 ,either1 therefore1 the deposits took place with greater rapidity in the ,palozoic1 or that period was by much the longer of the two4 ,this it will be observed1 is only another aspect of the great laws of geological sequence referred to in our last paper4 ,let us look into this question a little more minutely4 ,if the several pulsations of our continents depended upon any regularly recurring astronomical or terrestrial change1 then they must represent1 at least approximately1 equal portions of time1 and this1 if proved1 would settle the question in favour of an equal duration of these two great eras of the earth's history4 ,but as we cannot yet prove this1 we may consider what light we can derive from the nature of the rocks produced4 ,these may be roughly classified as of two kinds3 ,first1 the beds of sediment1 sand1 clay1 etc41 accumulated by the slow chemical decay of rocks and the mechanical agency of water4 ,secondly1 the beds formed by accumulation of the harder and less perishable parts of living beings1 of which the limestones are the chief4 ,with reference to the first of these kinds of deposit1 the action of the atmosphere and rains on rocks in the earlier times might have been somewhat more powerful if there was more carbonic acid in the atmosphere1 that substance being the most efficient agent in the chemical decay of rocks4 ,it might have been somewhat more powerful if there was a greater rainfall4 ,it must1 on the other hand1 have been lessened by the apparently more equable temperature which then prevailed4 ,these differences might perhaps nearly balance one another4 ,then the rocks of the older time were quite as intractable as those of the newer1 and they were probably neither so high nor so extensive4 ,further1 the dips and emergences of the great continental plateaus were equally numerous in the two great periods1 though they were probably1 with the exception of the latest one of each1 more complete in the older period4 ,in so far1 then1 as deposition of sediment is concerned1 these considerations would scarcely lead us to infer that it was more rapid in the ,palozoic4 ,but the ,palozoic sediments may be estimated in the aggregate at about #ej1jjj feet in thickness1 while those of the ,mesozoic scarcely reach #h1jjj4 ,we might1 therefore1 infer that the ,palozoic period was perhaps five or six times as long as the ,mesozoic4 ,if we take the second class of rocks1 the limestones1 and suppose these to have been accumulated by the slow growth of corals1 shells1 etc41 in the sea1 we might1 at first sight1 suppose that ,palozoic animals would not grow or accumulate limestone faster then their ,mesozoic successors4 ,we must1 however1 consider here the probability that the older oceans contained more lime in solution then those which now exist1 and that the equable temperature and extensive submerged plateaus gave very favourable conditions for the lower animals of the sea1 so that it would perhaps be fair to allow a somewhat more rapid rate of growth of limestone for the ,palozoic4 ,now the actual proportions of limestone may be roughly stated at #ac1jjj feet in the ,palozoic1 and #c1jjj feet in the ,mesozoic1 which would give a proportion of about four and a quarter to one2 and as a foot of limestone may be supposed on the average to require five times as long for its formation as a foot of sediment1 this would give an even greater absolute excess in favour of the ,palozoic on the evidence of the limestones an excess probably far too great to be accounted for by any more favourable conditions for the secretion of carbonate of lime by marine animals4 ,the data for such calculations are very uncertain1 and three elements of additional uncertainty closely related to each other must also be noticed4 ,the first is the unknown length of the intervals in which no deposition whatever may have been taking place over the areas open to our investigation4 ,the second is the varying amounts in which material once deposited may have been swept away by water4 ,the third is the amount of difference that may have resulted from the progressive change of the geographical features of our continents4 ,these uncertainties would all tend to diminish our estimate of the relative length of the ,mesozoic4 ,lastly1 the changes that have taken place in living beings1 though a good measure of the lapse of time1 cannot be taken as a criterion here1 since there is much reason to believe that more rapid changes of physical conditions act as an inducing cause of rapid changes of life4 ,on the whole1 then1 taking such facts as we have1 and making large deductions for the several causes tending to exaggerate our conception of ,palozoic time1 we can scarcely doubt that the ,palozoic may have been three times as long as the ,mesozoic4 ,if so1 the continental pulsations1 and the changes in animal and vegetable life1 must have gone on with accelerated rapidity in the later period1--a conclusion to which we shall again have occasion to refer when we arrive at the consideration of the ,tertiary or ,neozoic time1 and the age of man1 and the probable duration of the order of things under which we live4 ,i have given this preliminary sketch of the whole ,mesozoic time1 because we cannot here1 as in the ,palozoic1 take up each age separately2 and now we must try to picture to ourselves the life and action of these ages4 ,in doing so we may look at1 first1 the plant life of this period2 second1 animal life on the land2 and third1 animal life in the waters and in the ocean depths4 ,the ,mesozoic shores were clothed with an abundant flora1 which changed considerably in its form during the lapse of this long time2 but yet it has a character of its own distinct from that of the previous ,palozoic and the succeeding ,tertiary4 ,perhaps no feature of this period is more characteristic then the great abundance of those singular plants1 the cycads1 which in the modern flora are placed near to the pines1 but in their appearance and habit more resemble palms1 and which in the modern world are chiefly found in the tropical and warm temperate zones of ,asia and ,america4 ,no plants certainly of this order occur in the ,carboniferous1 where their nearest allies are perhaps some of the ,sigillari2 and in the modern time the cycads are not so abundant1 nor do they occur at all in climates where their predecessors appear to have abounded4 ,in the quarries of the island of ,portland1 we have a remarkable evidence of this in beds with numerous stems of cycads still in situ in the soil in which they grew1 and associated with stumps of pines which seem to have flourished along with them4 ,in further illustration of this point1 ,i may refer to the fact that ,carruthers1 in a recent paper1 catalogues twenty-five ,british species belonging to eight genera--a fact which markedly characterizes the ,british flora of the ,mesozoic period4 ,these plants will therefore occupy a prominent place in our restoration of the ,mesozoic landscape1 and we should give especial prominence to the beautiful species ,williamsonia gigas1 discovered by the eminent botanist whose name it bears1 and restored in his paper on the plant in the ,linnan ,transactions4 ,these plants1 with pines and gigantic equisetums1 prevailed greatly in the earlier ,mesozoic flora1 but as the time wore on1 various kinds of endogens1 resembling the palms and the screw-pines of the tropical islands1 were introduced1 and toward its close some representatives of the exogens very like our ordinary trees4 ,among these we find for the first time in our upward progress in the history of the earth1 species of our familiar oaks1 figs1 and walnut1 along with some trees now confined to ,australia and the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 as the banksias and silver-trees1 and their allies4 ,in ,america a large number of the genera of the modern trees are present1 and even some of those now peculiar to ,america1 as the tulip-trees and sweet-gums4 ,these forests of the later ,mesozoic must therefore have been as gay with flowers and as beautiful in foliage as those of the modern world1 and there is evidence that they swarmed with insect life4 ,further1 the ,mesozoic plants produced in some places beds of coal comparable in value and thickness to those of the old coal formation4 ,of this kind are the coal beds of ,brora in ,sutherlandshire1 those of ,richmond in ,virginia1 and ,deep ,river in ,n4 ,carolina1 those of ,vancouver's ,island1 and a large part of those of ,china4 ,to the same age have been referred some at least of the coal beds of ,australia and ,india4 ,so important are these beds in ,china1 that had geology originated in that country1 the ,mesozoic might have been our age of coal4 ,if the forests of the ,mesozoic present a great advance over those of the ,palozoic1 so do the animals of the land1 which now embrace all the great types of vertebrate life4 ,some of these creatures have left strange evidence of their existence in their footprints on the sand and clay1 now cemented into beds of hard rock excavated by the quarryman4 ,if we had landed on some wide muddy ,mesozoic shore1 we might have found it marked in all directions with animal footprints4 ,some of these are shaped much like a human hand4 ,the creature that made this mark was a gigantic successor of the crocodilian newts or labyrinthodonts of the ,carboniferous1 and this type seems to have attained its maximum in this period1 where one species1 ,labyrinthodon giganteus1 had great teeth three or four inches in length1 and presenting in their cross section the most complicated foldings of enamel imaginable4 ,but we may see on the shores still more remarkable footprints4 ,they indicate biped and three-toed animals of gigantic size1 with a stride perhaps six feet in length4 ,were they enormous birds8 ,if so1 the birds of this age must have been giants which would dwarf even our ostriches4 ,but as we walk along the shore we see many other impressions1 some of them much smaller and different in form4 ,some1 again1 very similar in other respects1 have four toes2 and1 more wonderful still1 in tracing up some of the tracks1 we find that here and there the creature has put down on the ground a sort of four-fingered hand1 while some of these animals seem to have trailed long tails behind them4 ,what were these portentous creatures--bird1 beast1 or reptile8 ,the answer has been given to us by their bones1 as studied by ,yon ,meyer and ,owen1 and more recently by ,huxley and ,cope4 ,we thus have brought before us the ,dinosaurs--the terrible ,saurians--of the ,mesozoic age1 the noblest of the ,tanninim of old4 ,these creatures constitute numerous genera and species1 some of gigantic size1 others comparatively small2--some harmless browsers on plants1 others terrible renders of living flesh2 but all remarkable for presenting a higher type of reptile organization then any now existing1 and approaching in some respects to the birds and in others to the mammalia4 ,let us take one example of each of the principal groups4 ,and first marches before us the ,iguanodon or his relation ,hadrosaurus--a gigantic biped1 twenty feet or more in height1 with enormous legs shaped like those of an ostrich1 but of elephantine thickness4 ,it strides along1 not by leaps like a kangaroo1 but with slow and stately tread1 occasionally resting1 and supporting itself on the tripod formed by its hind limbs and a huge tail1 like the inverted trunk of a tree4 ,the upper part of its body becomes small and slender1 and its head1 of diminutive size and mild aspect1 is furnished with teeth for munching the leaves and fruits of trees1 which it can easily reach with its small fore-limbs1 or hands1 as it walks through the woods4 ,the outward appearance of these creatures we do not certainly know4 ,it is not likely that they had bony plates like crocodiles1 but they may have shone resplendent in horny scale armour of varied hues4 ,but another and more dreadful form rises before us4 ,it is ,megalosaurus or perhaps ,llaps4 ,here we have a creature of equally gigantic size and biped habits2 but it is much more agile1 and runs with great swiftness or advances by huge leaps1 and its feet and hands are armed with strong curved claws2 while its mouth has a formidable armature of sharp-edged and pointed teeth4 ,it is a type of a group of biped bird-like lizards1 the most terrible and formidable of rapacious animals that the earth has ever seen4 ,some of these creatures1 in their short deep jaws and heads1 resembled the great carnivorous mammals of modern times1 while all in the structure of their limbs had a strange and grotesque resemblance to the birds4 ,nearly all naturalists regard them as reptiles2 but in their circulation and respiration they must have approached to the mammalia1 and their general habit of body recalls that of the kangaroos4 ,they were no doubt oviparous2 and this1 with their biped habit1 seems to explain the strong resemblance of their hind quarters to those of birds4 ,had we seen the eagle-clawed ,llaps rushing on his prey2 throwing his huge bulk perhaps thirty feet through the air1 and crushing to the earth under his gigantic talons some feebler ,hadrosaur1 we should have shudderingly preferred the companionship of modern wolves and tigers to that of those savage and gigantic monsters of the ,mesozoic4 ,we must not leave the great land-lizards of the reptilian age1 without some notice of that ,goliath of the race which1 by a singular misnomer1 has received the appellation of ,ceteosaurus or ,whale-,saurian4 ,it was first introduced to naturalists by the discovery of a few enormous vertebrae in the ,english ,oolite2 and as these in size and form seemed best to fit an aquatic creature1 it was named in accordance with this view4 ,but subsequent discoveries have shown that1 incredible though this at first appeared1 the animal had limbs fitted for walking on the land4 ,professor ,phillips has been most successful in collecting and restoring the remains of ,ceteosaurus1 and devotes to its history a long and interesting section of his ,geology of ,oxford4 ,the size of the animal may be estimated1 from the fact that its thigh-bone is sixty-four inches long1 and thick in proportion4 ,from this and other fragments of the skeleton1 we learn that this huge monster must have stood ten feet high when on all fours1 and that its length1 could not have been less then fifty feet2 perhaps much more4 ,from a single tooth1 which has been found1 it seems to have been herbivorous2 and it was probably a sort of reptilian ,hippopotamus1 living on the rich herbage by the sides of streams and marshes1 and perhaps sometimes taking to the water1 where the strokes of its powerful tail would enable it to move more rapidly then on the land4 ,in structure1 it seems to have been a composite creature1 resembling in many points the contemporary ,dinosaurs2 but in others1 approaching to the crocodiles and the lizards4 ,but the wonders of ,mesozoic reptiles are not yet exhausted4 ,while noticing numerous crocodiles and lizard3 like creatures1 and several kinds of tortoises1 we are startled by what seems a flight of great bats1 wheeling and screaming overhead1 pouncing on smaller creatures of their own kind1 as hawks seize sparrows and partridges1 and perhaps diving into the sea for fish4 ,these were the ,pterodactyles1 the reptile bats of the ,mesozoic4 ,they fly by means of a membrane stretched on a monstrously enlarged little finger1 while the other fingers of the fore limb are left free to be used as hands or feet4 ,to move these wings1 they had large breast-muscles like those of birds4 ,in their general structure1 they were lizards1 but no doubt of far higher organization then any animals of this order now living2 and in accordance with this1 the interior of their skull shows that they must have had a brain comparable with that of birds1 which1 they rivalled in energy and intelligence4 ,some of them were larger then the largest modern birds of prey1 others were like pigeons and snipes in size4 ,specimens in the ,cambridge ,museum indicate one species twenty feet in the expanse of its wings4 ,cope has recently described an equally gigantic species from the ,mesozoic of ,western ,america1 and fragments of much larger species are said to exist4,,ae ,imagine such a creature1 a flying dragon1 with vast skinny wings1 its body1 perhaps1 covered with scales1 both wings and feet armed with strong claws1 and with long jaws furnished with sharp teeth4 ,nothing can be conceived more strange and frightful4 ,some of them had the hind limbs long1 like wading birds4 ,some had short1 legs1 adapted perhaps for perching4 ,they could probably fold up their wings1 and walk on all fours4 ,their skeleton1 like that of birds1 was very light1 yet strong2 and the hollow bones have pores1 which show that1 as in birds1 air could be introduced into them from the lungs4 ,this proves a circulation resembling that of birds1 and warm blood4 ,indeed1 in many respects1 these creatures bridge over the space between the birds and the reptiles4 ,that they lived1 says ,seeley1 exclusively upon land or in the air is improbable1 considering the circumstances under which their remains are found4 ,it is likely that they haunted the sea-shores2 and while sometimes rowing themselves over the water with their powerful wings1 used the wing membrane1 as does the bat1 to encloses the prey and bring it to the mouth4 ,the large ,pterodactyles probably pursued a more substantial prey then dragon-flies4 ,their teeth were well suited for fish2 but probably fowl and small mammal1 and even fruits1 made a variety in their food4 ,as the lord of the cliff1 it may be supposed to have taken toll of all animals that could be conquered with tooth and nail4 ,from its brain1 it might be regarded as an intelligent animal4 ,the jaws present indications of having been sheathed with a horny covering1 and some species show a rugose anterior termination of the snout1 suggestive of fleshy lips like those of the bat1 and which may have been similarly used to stretch and clean the wing-membrane4 ,,ae ,seeley3 ,ornithosauria4 ,here1 however1 perched on the trees1 we see true birds4 ,at least they have beaks1 and are clothed with feathers4 ,but they have very strange wings1 the feathers all secondaries1 without any large quills1 and several fingers with claws at the angle of the wing1 so that though less useful as wings1 they served the double purpose of wing and hand4 ,more strange still1 the tail was long and flexible1 like that of a lizard1 with the feathers arranged in rows along its sides4 ,if the lizards of this strange and uncertain time had wings like bats1 the birds had tails and hands like lizards4 ,this was in short the special age of reptiles1 when animals of that class usurped the powers which rightfully belonged to creatures yet in their nonage1 the true birds and mammals of our modern days1 while the birds were compelled to assume some reptilian traits4 ,yet1 strange to say1 representatives of the higher creatures destined to inherit the earth at a later date actually existed4 ,toward the close of the ,mesozoic we find birds approaching to those of our own day1 and almost at the beginning of the time there were small mammals1 remains of which are found both in the earlier and later formations of the ,mesozoic1 but which never seem to have thriven2 at least so far as the introduction of large and important species is concerned4 ,traversing the ,mesozoic woods1 we might see here and there little hairy creatures1 which would strike a naturalist as allies of the modern bandicoots1 kangaroo rats1 and myrmecobius of ,australia2 and closer study would confirm this impression1 though showing differences of detail4 ,in their teeth1 their size1 and general form1 and probably in their pouched or marsupial reproduction1 these animals were early representatives of the smaller quadrupeds of the ,austral continent1 creatures which are not only small but of low organisation in their class4 ,one of these mammals1 known to us only by its teeth1 and well named ,microlestes1 the little thief sneaks into existence1 so to speak1 in the ,trias of ,europe1 while another very similar1 ,dromatherium1 appears in rocks of similar age in ,america2 and this is the small beginning of the great class ,mammalia1 destined in its quadrupedal forms to culminate in the elephants and their contemporaries in the ,tertiary period4 ,who that saw them trodden under foot lay the reptile aristocracy of the ,mesozoic could have divined their destiny8 ,but1 notwithstanding the struggle for existence1 the weakest does not always go to the wall4 ,the weak things of this world are often chosen to confound those that are mighty2 and the little quadrupeds of the ,mesozoic are an allegory4 ,they may typify the true1 the good1 and the hopeful1 mildly and humbly asserting themselves in the world that now is1 in the presence of the dragon monsters of pride and violence1 which in the days to come they will overthrow4 ,physically the ,mesozoic has passed away1 but still exists morally in an age of evil reptiles1 whose end is as certain as that of the great ,dinosaurs of the old world4 ,the ,mesozoic mammals are among the most interesting fossils known to us4 ,in a recent memoir by ,professor ,owen1 thirty-three species are indicated--all1 or nearly all1 ,marsupial--all small--all closely allied to modern ,australian animals2 some herbivorous1 some probably carnivorous4 ,owen informs us that these animals are not merely marsupials1 but marsupials of low grade1 a point in which1 however1 ,huxley differs somewhat in opinion4 ,they are at least not lower then some that still exist1 and not so low as those lowest of mammals in ,modern ,australia1 the duck-billed platypus and the echidna4 ,owen further supposes that they were possibly the first mammals1 and not only the predecessors but the progenitors of the modern marsupials4 ,if so1 we have the singular fact that they not only did not improve throughout the vast ,mesozoic time1 but that they have been in the progress of subsequent geological ages expelled out of the great eastern continent1 and1 with the exception of the ,american opossums1 banished1 like convicts1 to ,australia4 ,yet1 notwithstanding their multiplied travels and long experiences1 they have made little advance4 ,it thus seems that the ,mesozoic mammals were1 from the evolutionist point of view1 a decided failure1 and the work of introducing mammals had to be done over again in the ,tertiary2 and then1 as we shall find1 in a very different way4 ,if nothing more1 however1 the ,mesozoic mammals were a mute prophecy of a better time1 a protest that the age of reptiles was an imperfect age1 and that better things were in store for the world4 ,moses seems to have been more hopeful of them then ,owen or even ,huxley would have been4 ,he says that ,god created the great ,tanninim1 the ,dinosaurs and their allies1 but only made the mammals of the following creative day2 so that when ,microlestes and his companions quietly and unnoticed presented themselves in the ,mesozoic1 they would appear in some way to have obviated1 in the case of the tertiary mammals1 the necessity of a repetition of the greater intervention implied in the word create4 ,how that was effected none of us know2 but1 perhaps1 we may know hereafter4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,mesozoic ,,ages 7continued74 ,the waters of the ,mesozoic period present features quite as remarkable as the land4 ,in our survey of their teeming multitudes1 we indeed scarcely know where to begin or whither to turn4 ,let us look first at the higher or more noble inhabitants of the waters4 ,and here1 just as in the case of the greater animals of the land1 the ,mesozoic was emphatically an age of reptiles4 ,in the modern world the highest animals the sea are mammals1 and these belong to three great and somewhat diverse groups4 ,the first is that of the seals and their allies1 the walruses1 sea-lions1 etc4 ,the second is that of the whales and dolphins and porpoises4 ,the third is that of the manatees1 or dugongs4 ,all these creatures breathe air1 and bring forth their young alive1 and nourish them with milk4 ,yet they all live habitually or constantly in the water4 ,between these aquatic mammals and the fishes1 we have some aquatic reptiles as the turtles1 and a few sea-snakes and sea-lizards1 and crocodiles2 but the number of these is comparatively small1 and in the more temperate latitudes there are scarcely any of them4 ,all this was different in the ,mesozoic4 ,in so far as we know1 there were no representatives of the seals and whales and their allies1 but there were vast numbers of marine reptiles1 and many of these of gigantic size4 ,britain at present does not possess one large reptile1 and no marine reptile whatever4 ,in the ,mesozoic1 in addition to the great ,dinosaurs and ,pterodactyls of the land1 it had at least fifty or sixty species of aquatic reptiles1 besides many turtles4 ,some of these were comparable in size with our modern whales1 and armed with tremendous powers of destruction4 ,america is not relatively rich in remains of ,mesozoic ,saurians1 yet while the existing fauna of the temperate parts of ,north ,america is nearly destitute of aquatic reptiles1 with the exception of the turtles1 it can boast1 according to ,cope's lists1 about fifty ,mesozoic species1 many of them of gigantic size1 and the number of known species is increasing every year ,when it is taken in connection with these statistics1 that while we know all the modern species1 we know but a small percentage of the fossils1 the discrepancy becomes still more startling4 ,further1 from the number of specimens and fragments found1 it is obvious that these great aquatic saurians were by no means rare2 and that some of the species at least must have been very abundant4 ,could we have taken our post on the ,mesozoic shore1 or sailed over its waters1 we should have found ourselves in the midst of swarms of these strange1 often hideous1 and always grotesque creatures4 ,let us consider for a little some of the more conspicuous forms1 referring to our illustration for their portraits4 ,every text-book figures the well-known types of the genera ,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus2 we need scarcely1 therefore1 dwell on them1 except to state that the catalogues of ,british fossils include eleven species of the former genus and eighteen of the latter1 ,we may1 however1 notice some of the less familiar points of comparison of the two genera4 ,both were aquatic1 and probably marine4 ,both swam by means of paddles2 both were carnivorous1 and probably fed principally upon fishes2 both were proper reptiles1 and breathed air1 and had large and capacious lungs4 ,yet with these points in common1 no two animals could have been more different in detail4 ,the ,ichthyosaurus had an enormous head1 with powerful jaws1 furnished with numerous and strong teeth4 ,its great eyes1 strengthened by a circle of bony plates1 exceeded in dimensions1 and probably in power of vision under water1 those of any other animal1 recent or fossil4 ,its neck was short1 its trunk massive1 with paddles or swimming limbs of comparatively small size1 and a long tail1 probably furnished with a caudal fin or paddle for propulsion through the water4 ,the ,plesiosaur1 on the other hand1 had a small and delicate head1 with slender teeth and small eyes4 ,its neck1 of great length and with numerous joints1 resembled the body of a serpent4 ,its trunk1 short1 compact1 and inflexible1 was furnished with large and strong paddles1 and its tail was too short to be of any service except for steering4 ,compared with the ,ichthyosaur1 it was what the giraffe is to the rhinoceros1 or the swan to the porpoise4 ,two fishermen so variously and differently fitted for their work it would be difficult to imagine4 ,but these differences were obviously related to corresponding differences in food and habit4 ,the ,ichthyosaur was fitted to struggle with the waves of the stormy sea1 to roll therein like modern whales and grampuses1 to seize and devour great fishes1 and to dive for them into the depths2 and its great armour-plated eyes must have been well adapted for vision in the deeper waters4 ,the ,plesiosaur1 on the contrary1 was fitted for comparatively still and shallow waters2 swimming near the surface with its graceful neck curving aloft1 it could dart at the smaller fishes on the surface1 or stretch its long neck downward in search of those near the bottom4 ,the ,ichthyosaurs rolled like porpoises in the surf of the ,liassic coral reefs and the waves beyond2 the ,plesiosaurs careered gracefully in the quiet waters within4 ,both had their beginning at the same time in the earlier ,mesozoic1 and both found a common and final grave in its later sediments4 ,some of the species were of very moderate size1 but there were ,ichthyosaurs twenty five feet long1 and ,plesiosaurs at least eighteen feet in length4 ,another strange and monstrous group of creatures1 the ,elasmosaurs and their allies1 combined the long neck of ,plesiosaurs with the swimming tail of ,ichthyosaurs1 the latter enormously elongated1 so that these ,creatures were sometimes fifty feet in length1 and whale-like in the dimensions of their bodies4 ,it is curious that these composite creatures belong to a later period of the ,mesozoic then the typical ,ichthyosaurs and ,plesiosaurs1 as if the characters at one time separated in these genera had united in their successors4 ,one of the relatives of the ,plesiosaurs1 the ,pliosaur1 of which genus several species of great size are known perhaps realized in the highest degree possible the idea of a huge marine predaceous reptile4 ,the head in some of the species was eight feet in length1 armed with conical teeth a foot long4 ,the neck was not only long1 but massive and powerful1 the paddles1 four in number1 were six or seven feet in length and must have urged the vast bulk of the animal1 perhaps forty feet in extent1 through the water with prodigious speed4 ,the capacious chest and great ribs show a powerful heart and lungs4 ,imagine such a creature raising its huge head twelve feet or more out of water1 and rushing after its prey1 impelled with perhaps the most powerful oars ever possessed by any animal4 ,we may be thankful that such monsters1 more terrible then even the fabled sea-serpent1 are unknown in our days4 ,buckland1 ,i think1 at one time indulged in the jeu d'esprit of supposing an ,ichthyosaur lecturing on the human skull4 ,you will at once perceive1 said the lecturer1 that the skull before us belonged to one of the lower orders of animals4 ,the teeth are very insignificant1 the power of the jaws trifling1 and altogether it seems wonderful how the creature could have procured food4 ,we cannot retort on the ,ichthyosaur and his contemporaries1 for we can see that they were admirably fitted for the work they had in hand2 but we can see that had man been so unfortunate as to have lived in their days1 he might have been anything but the lord of creation4 ,but there were sea-serpents as well as other monsters in the ,mesozoic seas4 ,many years ago the ,lower ,cretaceous beds of ,st4 ,peter's ,mount1 near ,maestricht1 afforded a skull three feet in length1 of massive proportions1 and furnished with strong conical teeth1 to which the name ,mosasaurus ,camperi was given4 ,the skull and other parts of the skeleton found with it1 were held to indicate a large aquatic reptile1 but its precise position in its class was long a subject of dispute4 ,faujas held it to be a crocodile2 ,camper1 ,cuvier1 and ,owen regarded it as a gigantic lizard4 ,more recently1 additional specimens1 especially those found in the ,cretaceous formations of ,north ,america1 have thrown new light upon its structure1 and have shown it to present a singular combination of the character of serpents1 lizards1 and of the great sea saurians already referred to4 ,some parts of the head and the articulation of the jaws1 in important points resemble those of serpents1 while in other respects the head is that of a gigantic lizard4 ,the body and tail are greatly lengthened out1 having more then a hundred vertebral joints1 and in one of the larger species attaining the length of eighty feet4 ,the trunk itself is much elongated1 and with ribs like those of a snake4 ,there are no walking feet1 but a pair of fins or paddles like those of ,ichthyosaurus4 ,cope1 who has described these great creatures as they occur in the ,cretaceous of the ,united ,states1 thus sketches the ,mosasaur3 ,it was a long and slender reptile1 with a pair of powerful paddles in front1 a moderately long neck1 and flat pointed head4 ,the very long tail was flat and deep1 like that of a great eel1 forming a powerful propeller4 ,the arches of the vertebral column were more extensively interlocked then in any other reptiles except the snakes4 ,in the related genus ,clidastes this structure is as fully developed as in the serpents1 so that we can picture to ourselves its well-known consequences2 their rapid progress through the water by lateral undulations1 their lithe motions on the land1 the rapid stroke1 the ready coil1 or the elevation of the head and vertebral column1 literally a living pillar1 towering above the waves or the thickets of the shore swamps4 ,as in serpents1 the mouth was wide in its gape1 and the lower jaw capable of a certain separation from the skull to admit of swallowing large prey4 ,besides this the lower jaw had an additional peculiarity1 seen in some snakes1 namely1 a joint in the middle of the jaw enabling its sides to expand1 so that the food might be swallowed between the branches of the jaw4 ,perhaps no creatures more fully realize in their enormous length and terrible powers the great ,tanninim 7the stretched-out or extended reptiles7 of the fifth day of the ,mosaic record1 then the ,mosasaurus and ,elasmosaurus4 ,when ,mr4 ,cope showed me1 a few years ago1 a nearly complete skeleton of ,elasmosaurus1 which for want of space he had stretched on a gallery along two sides of a large room1 ,i could not help suggesting to him that the name of the creature should be ,teinosaurus,,af instead of that which he had given4 ,marsh has recently ascertained that the ,mosasaurs were covered in part at least with bony scales4 ,,af ,heb4 ,tanan2 ,gr4 ,teino1 ,tanuo2 ,sansc4 ,tanu2 ,lat4 ,tendo4--,ges4 ,lex4 ,illustration3 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,mesozoic ,,period4 ,aquatic ,reptiles and ,cephalopods4 ,reptiles4--,plesiosaur and ,osteopygis1 ,ichthyosaur1 ,teliosaur1 ,plesiosaur1 ,elasmosaur1 ,mosasaur 7in order of the heads from left to right74--,cephalopods4--,ammonite1 ,crioceras1 ,belemnites1 ,baculites1 and ,ammonites 7in order from left to right74 ,the ,reptiles after ,hawkins and ,cope's ,restorations4 ,these animals may serve as specimens of the reptilian giants of the ,mesozoic seas2 but before leaving them we must at least invite attention to the remarkable fact that they were contemporary with species which represent the more common aquatic reptiles of the modern world4 ,in other words1 the monsters which we have described existed over and above a far more abundant population of crocodiles and turtles then the modern waters can boast4 ,the crocodiles were represented both in ,europe and ,america by numerous and large species1 most of them with long snouts like the modern ,gavials1 a few with broad heads like those of the alligators4 ,the turtles again presented not only many species1 but most of the aquatic subdivisions of the group known in modern times1 as for instance the ,emydes or ordinary fresh-water forms1 the snapping turtles1 and the soft-shelled turtles4 ,cope says that the ,cretaceous of ,new ,jersey alone affords twenty species1 one of them a snapping turtle six feet in length4 ,owen records above a dozen large species from the ,upper ,mesozoic of ,england1 and dates the first appearance of the turtles in ,england about the time of the ,portland stone1 or in the upper half of the ,mesozoic2 but footprints supposed to be those of turtles are found as far back as the ,trias4 ,perhaps no type of modern reptiles is more curiously specialized then these animals1 yet we thus find them contemporaneous with many generalized types1 and entering into existence perhaps as soon as they4 ,the turtles did not culminate in the ,mesozoic1 but go on to be represented by more numerous and larger species in the ,tertiary and ,modern4 ,in the case of the crocodiles1 while they attained perhaps a maximum toward the end of the ,mesozoic1 it was in a peculiar form4 ,the crocodiles of this old time had vertebrae with a hollow at each end like the fishes1 or with a projection in the front4 ,at the end of the ,mesozoic this was changed1 and they assumed a better-knit back1 with joints having a ball behind and a socket in front4 ,in the ,cretaceous age1 species having these two kinds of backbone were contemporaneous4 ,perhaps this improvement in the crocodilian back had something to do with the persistence of this type after so many others of the sea-lizards of the ,mesozoic had passed away4 ,of the fishes of the ,mesozoic we need only say that they were very abundant1 and consisted of sharks and ganoids of various types1 until near the close of the period1 when the ordinary horny-scaled fishes1 such as abound in our present seas1 appear to have been introduced4 ,one curious point of difference is that the unequally lobed tail of the ,palozoic fishes is dropped in the case of the greater part of the ganoids1 and replaced by the squarely-cut tail prevalent in modern times4 ,in the sub-kingdom of the ,mollusca many important revolutions occurred4 ,among the lamp-shells a little ,leptaena1 no bigger then a pea1 is the last and depauperated representative of a great ,palozoic family4 ,another1 that of the ,spirifers1 still shows a few species in the ,lower ,mesozoic4 ,others1 like ,rhynchonella1 and ,terebratula1 continue through the period1 and extend into the ,modern4 ,passing over the ordinary bivalves and sea-snails1 which in the main conform to those of our own time1 we find perhaps the most wonderful changes among the relatives of the cuttle-fishes and ,nautili4 ,as far back as the ,silurian we find the giant ,orthoceratites contemporary with ,nautili1 very like those of the present ocean4 ,with the close of the ,palozoic1 however1 the ,orthoceratites and their allies disappear1 while the ,nautili continue1 and are reinforced by multitudes of new forms of spiral chambered shells1 some of them more wonderful and beautiful then any of those which either preceded or followed them4 ,supreme among these is the great group of the ,ammonites1--beautifully spiral shells1 thin and pearly like the ,nautilus1 and chambered like it1 so as to serve as a float1 but far more elaborately constructed1 inasmuch as the chambers were not simply curved1 but crimped and convoluted1 so as to give the outer wall much more effectual support4 ,this outer wall1 too1 was worked into ornamental ribs and bands1 which not only gave it exquisite beauty1 but contributed to combine strength to resist pressure with the lightness necessary to a float4 ,in some of these points it is true the ,gyroceras and ,goniatites of the ,palozoic partially anticipated them1 but much less perfectly4 ,the animals which inhabited these shells must have been similar to that of ,nautilus1 but somewhat different in the proportion of parts4 ,they must have had the same power of rising and sinking in the water1 but the mechanical construction of their shells was so much more perfect relatively to this end1 that they were probably more active and locomotive then the ,nautili4 ,they must have swarmed in the ,mesozoic seas1 some beds of limestone and shale being filled with them2 and as many as eight hundred species of this family are believed to be known1 including1 however1 such forms as the ,baculites or straight ,ammonites1 bearing to them perhaps a relation similar to that of ,orthoceras to ,nautilus4 ,further1 some of the ,ammonites are of gigantic size1 one species being three feet in diameter1 while others are very minute4 ,the whole family of ,ammonitids1 which begins to be in force in the ,trias1 disappears at the end of the ,mesozoic1 so that this may be called the special age of ,ammonites as well as of reptiles4 ,further1 this time was likewise distinguished by the introduction of true cuttle-fishes1 the most remarkable of which were those furnished with the internal supports or bones1 known as ,belemnites1 from a fancied resemblance to javelins or thunder-bolts1 a comparison at least as baseless as that often made in ,england of the ,ammonites to fossil snakes4 ,the shell of the ,belemnite is a most curious structure4 ,its usual general shape is a pointed cylinder or elongated cone4 ,at top it has a deep cavity for the reception of certain of the viscera of the animal4 ,below this is a conical series of chambers1 the ,phragmacone2 and the lower half of the shell is composed of a solid shelly mass or guard1 which1 in its structure of radiating fibres and concentric layers1 resembles a stalactite1 or a petrified piece of exogenous wood4 ,this structure was an internal shell or support like those of the modern cuttle-fishes2 but it is difficult to account for its peculiarities1 so much more complex then in any existing species4 ,the most rational supposition seems to be that it was intended to serve the triple purpose of a support1 a float1 and a sinker4 ,unlike the shell of a ,nautilus1 if thrown into the water it would no doubt have1 sunk1 and with the pointed end first4 ,consequently1 it was not a float simply1 but a float and sinker combined1 and its effect must have been to keep the animal at the bottom1 with its head upward4 ,the ,belemnite was therefore an exceptional cuttle-fish1 intended to stand erect on the sea-bottom and probably to dart upward in search of its prey2 for the suckers and hooks with which its arms were furnished show that1 like other cuttle-fishes1 it was carnivorous and predaceous4 ,the guard may have been less ponderous when recent then in the fossil specimens1 and in some species it was of small size or slender1 and in others it was hollow4 ,possibly1 also1 the soft tissues of the animal were not dense1 and it may have had swimming fins at the sides4 ,in any case they must have been active creatures1 and no doubt could dart backward by expelling water from their gill chamber1 while we know that they had ink-bags1 provided with that wonderfully divided pigment1 inimitable by art1 with which the modern ,sepia darkens the water to shelter itself from its enemies4 ,the ,belemnites must have swarmed in the ,mesozoic seas2 and as squids and cuttles now afford choice morsels to the larger fishes1 so did the ,belemnites in their day4 ,there is evidence that even the great sea-lizards did not disdain to feed on them4 ,we can imagine a great shoal of these creatures darting up and down1 seizing with their ten hooked arms their finny or crustacean prey4 ,in an instant a great fish or saurian darts down among them2 they blacken the water with a thick cloud of inky secretion and disperse on all sides1 while their enemy1 blindly seizing a few mouthfuls1 returns sullenly to the surface4 ,a great number of species of ,belemnites and allied animals have been described2 but it is probable that in naming them too little regard has been paid to distinctions of age and sex4 ,the ,belemnites were for the most part small creatures2 but there is evidence that there existed with them some larger and more formidable cuttles2 and it is worthy of note that1 in several of these1 the arms1 as in the ,belemnites1 were furnished with hooks as well as suckers1 an exceptional arrangement in their modern allies4 ,it is probable that while the four-gilled or shell-bearing cuttles culminated in size and perfection in the ,ammonitids of the ,mesozoic1 the modern cuttles of the two-gilled and shell-less type are grander in dimensions then their ,mesozoic predecessors4 ,it is1 however1 not a little singular that a group so peculiar and apparently so well provided with means1 both of offence and defence1 as the ,belemnites1 should come in and go out with the ,mesozoic1 and that the ,nautiloid group1 after attaining to the magnitude and complexity of the great ,ammonites1 should retreat to a few species of diminutive and simply-constructed ,nautili2 and in doing so should return to one of the old types dating as far back as the older ,palozoic1 and continuing unchanged through all the intervening time4 ,the ,crustaceans of the ,mesozoic had lost all the antique peculiarities of the older time1 and had so much of the aspect of those of the present day1 that an ordinary observer1 if he could be shown a quantity of ,jurassic or ,cretaceous crabs1 lobsters1 and shrimps1 would not readily recognise the difference1 which did not exceed what occurs in distant geographical regions in the present day4 ,the same remark may be made as to the corals of the ,mesozoic2 and with some limitations1 as to the star-fishes and sea-urchins1 which latter are especially numerous and varied in the ,cretaceous age4 ,in short1 all the invertebrate forms of life1 and the fishes and reptiles among the vertebrates1 had already attained their maximum elevation in the ,mesozoic2 and some of them have subsequently sunk considerably in absolute as well as relative importance4 ,in the course of the ,mesozoic1 as indicated in the last chapter1 there had been several great depressions and re-elevations of the ,continental ,areas4 ,but these had been of the same quiet and partial character with those of the ,palozoic1 and it was not until the close of the ,mesozoic time1 in the ,cretaceous age1 that a great and exceptional subsidence involved for a long period the areas of our present continents in a submergence wider and deeper then any that had previously occurred since the dry land first rose out of the waters4 ,every one knows the great chalk beds which appear in the south of ,england1 and which have given its name to the latest age of the ,mesozoic4 ,this great deposit of light-coloured and usually soft calcareous matter attains in some places to the enormous thickness of #a1jjj feet4 ,nor is it limited in extent4 ,according to ,lyell1 its ,european distribution is from ,ireland to the ,crimea1 a distance of #a1adj geographical miles2 and from the south of ,france to ,sweden1 a distance of #hdj geographical miles4 ,similar rocks1 though not in all cases of the precise nature of chalk1 occur extensively in ,asia and in ,africa1 and also in ,north and ,south ,america4 ,but what is chalk8 ,it was1 though one of the most familiar1 one of the most inscrutable of rocks1 until the microscope revealed its structure4 ,the softer varieties1 gently grated or kneaded down in water1 or the harder varieties cut in thin slices1 show a congeries of microscopic chambered shells belonging to the humble and simple group of ,protozoa4 ,these shells and their fragments constitute the material of the ordinary chalk4 ,with these are numerous spicules of sponges and silicious cell-walls of the minute one-celled plants called ,diatoms4 ,further1 the flinty matter of these organisms has by the law of molecular attraction been collected into concretions1 which are the flints of the chalk4 ,such a rock is necessarily oceanic2 but more then this1 it is abyssal4 ,laborious dredging has shown that similar matter is now being formed only in the deep bed of the ocean1 whither no sand or mud is drifted from the land1 and where the countless hosts of microscopic shell-bearing protozoa continually drop their little skeletons on the bottom1 slowly accumulating a chalky mud or slime4 that such a rock should occur over vast areas of the continental plateaus1 that both in ,europe and ,america it should be found to cover the tops of hills several thousand feet high1 and that its thickness should amount to several hundreds of feet1 are facts which evidence a revolution more stupendous perhaps then that at the close of the ,palozoic4 ,for the first time since the ,laurentian1 the great continental plateaus changed places with the abysses of the ocean1 and the successors of the ,laurentian ,eozoon again reigned on surfaces which through the whole lapse of ,palozoic and ,mesozoic time had been separated more or less from that deep ocean out of which they rose at first4 ,this great ,cretaceous subsidence was different from the disturbances of the ,permian age4 ,there was at first no crumpling of the crust1 but merely a slow and long-continued sinking of the land areas1 followed1 however1 by crumpling of the most stupendous character1 which led at the close of the ,cretaceous and in the earlier ,tertiary to the formation of what are now the greatest mountain chains in the world4 ,as examples may be mentioned the ,himalaya1 the ,andes1 and the ,alps1 on all which the deep-sea beds of the ,cretaceous are seen at great elevations4 ,in ,europe this depression was almost universal1 only very limited areas remaining out of water4 ,in ,america a large tract remained above water in the region of the ,appalachians4 ,this gives us some clue to the phenomena4 ,the great ,permian collapse led to the crumpling-up of the ,appalachians and the ,urals1 and the older hills of ,western ,europe4 ,the ,cretaceous collapse led to the crumpling of the great ,n4,w4 and ,s4,e4 chain of the ,rocky ,mountains and ,andes1 and to that of the east and west chains of the south of ,asia and ,europe4 ,the cause was probably in both cases the same2 but the crust gave way in a different part1 and owing to this there was a greater amount of submergence of our familiar continental plateaus in the ,cretaceous then in the ,permian4 ,another remarkable indication of the nature of the ,cretaceous subsidence1 is the occurrence of beds filled with grains of the mineral ,glauconite or green-sand4 ,these grains are not properly sand1 but little concretions1 which form in the bottom of the deep sea1 often filling and taking casts of the interior and fine tubes of ,foraminiferal shells4 ,now this ,glauconite1 a hydrous silicate of iron and potash1 is akin to similar materials found filling the pores of fossils in ,silurian beds4 ,it is also akin to the ,serpentine filling the pores of ,eozoon in the ,laurentian4 ,such materials are formed only in the deeper parts of the ocean1 and apparently most abundantly where currents of warm water are flowing at the surface1 as in the area of the ,gulf ,stream4 ,thus1 not only in the prevalence of ,foraminifera1 but in the formation of hydrous silicates1 does the ,cretaceous recall the ,laurentian4 ,such materials had no doubt been forming1 and such animals living in the ocean depths1 all through the intervening ages1 but with the exception of a few and merely local instances1 we know nothing of them1 till the great subsidence and re-elevation of the ,cretaceous again allows them to ascend to the continental plateaus1 and again introduces us to this branch of the world-making process4 ,the attention recently drawn to these facts by the researches of ,dr4 ,carpenter and others1 and especially the similarity in mineral character and organic remains of some of the deposits now forming in the ,atlantic and those of the chalk1 have caused it to be affirmed that in the bed of the ,atlantic these conditions of life and deposit have continued from the ,cretaceous up to the present time1 or as it has been expressed1 that we are still living in the ,cretaceous epoch4 ,now1 this is true or false just as we apply the statement4 ,we have seen that the distinction between abyssal areas1 continental oceanic plateaus1 and land surfaces has extended through the whole lapse of geological time4 ,in this broad sense we may be said to be still living in the ,laurentian epoch4 ,in other words1 the whole plan of the earth's development is one and the same1 and each class of general condition once introduced is permanent somewhere4 ,but in another important sense we are not living in the ,cretaceous epoch2 otherwise the present site of ,london would be a thousand fathoms deep in the ocean2 the ,ichthyosaurs and ,ammonites would be disporting themselves in the water1 and the huge ,dinosaurs and strange ,pterodactyls living on the land4 ,the ,italian peasant is still in many important points living in the period of the old ,roman ,empire4 ,the ,arab of the desert remains in the ,patriarchal period1 and there are some tribes not yet beyond the primitive age of stone4 ,but the world moves1 nevertheless1 and the era of ,victoria is not that of the ,plantagenets or of ,julius ,csar4 ,so while we may admit that certain of the conditions of the ,cretaceous seas still prevail in the bed of the present ocean1 we must maintain that nearly all else is changed1 and that the very existence of the partial similarity is of itself the most conclusive proof of the general want of resemblance1 and of the thorough character of the changes which have occurred4 ,the duration of the ,cretaceous subsidence must have been very great4 ,we do not know the rate at which the ,foraminifera accumulate calcareous mud4 ,in some places1 where currents heap up their shells1 they may be gathered rapidly2 but on the average of the ocean bed1 afoot of such material must indicate the lapse of ages very long when compared with those of modern history4 ,we need not wonder1 therefore1 that while some forms of deep-sea ,cretaceous life1 especially of the lower grades1 seem to have continued to our time1 the inhabitants of the shallow waters and the land have perished2 and that the ,neozoic or ,tertiary period introduces us to a new world of living beings4 ,i say we need not wonder2 yet there is no reason why we should expect this as a necessary consequence4 ,as the ,cretaceous deluge rose over the continents of the ,mesozoic1 the great sea saurians might have followed4 ,those of the land might have retreated to the tracts still remaining out of water1 and when the dry land again appeared in the earlier ,tertiary1 they might again have replenished the earth1 and we might thus have truly been living in the ,reptilian age up to this day4 ,but it was not so4 ,the old world again perished1 and the dawn of the ,tertiary shows to us at once the dynasties of the ,mammalian age1 which was to culminate in the introduction of man4 ,with the great ,cretaceous subsidence the curtain falls upon the age of reptiles1 and when it rises again1 after the vast interval occupied in the deposition of the green-sand and chalk1 the scene has entirely changed4 ,there are new mountains and new plains1 forests of different type1 and animals such as no previous age had seen4 ,how strange and inexplicable is this perishing of types in the geological ages6 ,some we could well spare4 ,we would not wish to have our coasts infested by terrible sea saurians1 or our forests by carnivorous ,dinosaurs4 ,yet why should these tyrants of creation so utterly disappear without waiting for us to make war on them8 ,other types we mourn4 ,how glorious would the hundreds of species of ,ammonites have shone in the cases of our museums1 had they still lived6 ,what images of beauty would they have afforded to the poets who have made so much of the comparatively humble ,nautilus6 ,how perfectly1 too1 were they furnished with all those mechanical appliances for their ocean life1 which are bestowed only with a niggardly hand on their successors6 ,nature gives us no explanation of the mystery4 ,from scarped cliff and quarried stone1 ,she cries--',a thousand types are gone4' ,but why or how one was taken and another left she is silent1 and ,i believe must continue to be so1 because the causes1 whether efficient or final1 are beyond her sphere4 ,if we wish for a full explanation1 we must leave ,nature1 and ascend to the higher domain of the ,spiritual4 ,,condensed ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,ages ,,and ,,periods ,,of ,,the ,,mesozoic4 ,key to ,symbols ,duration of ,ammonites and ,belemnites4 ,ages of ,cycads and ,pines4 --- ,beginning of ,age of ,angiospermous ,exogens4 ,and ,god created great reptiles1 and every living moving thing which the waters brought forth abundantly1 and every flying creature after its kind4 ,time4 ,ages4 ,periods4 ,animals and ,plants4 ,,mesozoic4 ,cretaceous ,newer4,maestricht beds2 ,fox ,hill - and ,pierre ,groups of - ,western ,america2 ,greensand - of ,new ,jersey4 - - ,middle4,chalk2 ,benton and ,dakota ,close of - ,groups of ,western ,america4 ,reptilian - ,ages4 - ,older4,lower ,greensand and ,gault2 - ,lower ,clays of ,new ,jersey and ,alabama4 ,upper ,n4 ,purbeck ,beds4 ,jurassic ,culmination ,jurassic ,m4 ,portland ,limestone4 ,beds of of ,o4 ,portland ,sandstone4 ,nebraska ,reptilian and ,ages4 ,middle ,n4 ,kimmeridge ,clay1 etc4,colorado4 ,jurassic ,m4 ,coralline ,limestone4 ,o4 ,calcareous ,grit ,oxford ,clay4 ,lower ,n4 ,cornbrash ,forest ,lower ,jurassic ,marble4 ,jurassic ,m4 ,great ,inferior of ,oolites41 etc4 ,utah1 ,o4 ,lias ,clay and ,nevada1 ,limestone4 etc4 ,n4 ,keuper ,upper ,triassic ,appearance of ,sandstone1 ,sandstones of ,mammals etc4 ,prince ,edward ,i41 and ,m4 ,muschelkalk4,connecticut1 etc4 ,birds4 ,triassic ,o4 ,bunter ,lower ,triassic ,beginning of ,sandstone4 ,sandstones of ,reptilian ,prince ,edward ,i41 ,ages4 ,connecticut1 etc4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,neozoic ,,ages4 ,between the ,mesozoic and the next succeeding time which may be known as the ,neozoic or ,tertiary1,,ag there is in the arrangements of most geologists a great break in the succession of life2 and undoubtedly the widespread and deep subsidence of the ,cretaceous1 followed by the elevation of land on a great scale at the beginning of the next period1 is a physical cause sufficient to account for vast life changes4 ,yet we must not forget to consider that even in the ,cretaceous itself there were new features beginning to appear4 ,let us note in this way1 in the first place1 the introduction of the familiar generic forms of exogenous trees4 ,next we may mention the decided prevalence of the modern types of coral animals and of a great number of modern generic forms of mollusks4 ,then we have the establishment of the modern tribes of lobsters and crabs1 and the appearance of nearly all the orders of insects4 ,among vertebrates1 the ordinary fishes are now introduced4 ,modern orders of reptiles1 as the crocodiles and chelonians1 had already appeared1 and the first mammals4 ,henceforth the progress of organic nature lies chiefly in the dropping of many ,mesozoic forms and in the introduction of the higher tribes of mammals and of man4 ,,ag ,the former name is related to ,palozoic and ,mesozoic1 the latter to the older terms ,primary and ,secondary4 ,for the sake of euphony we shall use both4 ,the term ,neozoic was proposed by ,edward ,forbes for the ,mesozoic and ,cainozoic combined2 but ,i use it here as a more euphonious and accurate term for the ,cainozoic alone4 ,it is further to be observed that the new things introduced in the later ,mesozoic came in little by little in the progress of the period1 and anticipated the great physical changes occurring at its close4 ,on the other hand1 while many family and even generic types pass over from the ,mesozoic to the earlier ,tertiary1 very few species do so4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 as if changes of species were more strictly subordinate to physical revolutions then were changes of genera and orders--these last overriding under different specific forms many minor vicissitudes1 and only in part being overwhelmed in the grander revolutions of the earth4 ,both in ,europe and ,america there is evidence of great changes of level at the beginning of the ,tertiary4 ,in the west of ,europe beds often of shallow-water or even fresh-water origin fill the hollows in the bent ,cretaceous strata4 ,this is manifestly the case with the formations of the ,london and ,paris basins1 contemporaneous but detached deposits of the ,tertiary age1 lying in depressions of the chalk4 ,still this does not imply much want of conformity1 and according to the best explorers of those ,alpine regions in which both the ,mesozoic and ,tertiary beds have been thrown up to great elevations1 they are in the main conformable to one another4 ,something of the same kind occurs in ,america4 ,on the ,atlantic coast the marine beds of the ,older ,tertiary cover the ,cretaceous1 and little elevation seems to have occurred ,farther west the elevation increases1 and in the upper part of the valley of the ,mississippi it amounts to #agjj feet4 ,still farther west1 in the region of the ,rocky ,mountains1 there is evidence of elevation to the extent of as much as #gjjj feet4 ,throughout all these regions scarcely any disturbance of the old ,cretaceous sea-bottom seems to have occurred until after the deposition of the older ,tertiary1 so that there was first a slow and general elevation of the ,cretaceous ocean bottom1 succeeded by gigantic folds and fractures1 and extensive extravasations of the bowels of the earth in molten rocks1 in the course of the succeeding ,tertiary age4 ,these great physical changes inaugurated the new and higher life of the ,tertiary1 just as the similar changes in the ,permian did that of the ,mesozoic4 ,the beginning of these movements consisted of a great and gradual elevation of the northern parts of both the ,old and ,new ,continents out of the sea1 whereby a much greater land surface was produced1 and such changes of depth and direction of currents in the ocean as must have very much modified the conditions of marine life4 ,the effect of all these changes in the aggregate was to cause a more varied and variable climate1 and to convert vast areas previously tenanted by marine animals into the abodes of animals and plants of the land1 and of estuaries1 lakes1 and shallow waters4 ,still1 however1 very large areas now continental were under the sea4 ,as the ,tertiary period advanced1 these latter areas were elevated1 and in many cases were folded up into high mountains4 ,this produced further changes of climate and habitat of animals1 and finally brought our continents into all the variety of surface which they now present1 and which fits them so well for the habitation of the higher animals and of man4 ,the thoughtful reader will observe that it follows from the above statements that the partial distribution and diversity in different localities which apply to the deposits of such ages as the ,permian and the ,trias apply also to the earlier ,tertiary2 and as the continents1 notwithstanding some dips under water1 have retained their present forms since the beginning of the ,tertiary1 it follows that these beds are more definitely related to existing geographical conditions then are those of the older periods1 and that the more extensive marine deposits of the ,tertiary are1 to a great extent1 unknown to us4 ,this has naturally led to some difficulty in the classification of ,neozoic deposits--those of some of the ,tertiary ages being very patchy and irregular1 while others spread very widely4 ,in consequence of this1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 to whom we owe very much of our definite knowledge of this period1 has proposed a subdivision based on the percentage of recent and fossil animals4 ,in other words1 he takes it for granted that a deposit which contains more numerous species of animals still living then another1 may be judged on that account to be more recent4 ,such a mode of estimation is1 no doubt1 to some extent arbitrary2 but in the main1 when it can be tested by the superposition of deposits1 it has proved itself reliable4 ,further1 it brings before us this remarkable fact1 that while in the older periods all the animals whose remains we find are extinct as species1 so soon as we enter on the ,neozoic we find some which still continue to our time--at first only a very few1 but in later and later beds in gradually increasing percentage1 till the fossil and extinct wholly disappear in the recent and living4 ,the ,lyellian classification of the ,tertiary will therefore stand as in the following table1 bearing in mind that the percentage of fossils is taken from marine forms1 and mainly from mollusks1 and that the system has in some cases been modified by stratigraphical evidence3-- ,post-pliocene1 including that which immediately precedes the ,modern4 ,in this the shells1 etc41 are recent1 the ,mammalia in part extinct4 ,pliocene1 or more recent age4 ,in this the majority of shells found are recent in the ,tertiary1 or upper beds4 ,in the lower beds the extinct ,neozoic ,time4 become predominant4 ,miocene1 or less recent4 ,in this the large majority of shells found are extinct4 ,eocene1 the dawn of the recent4 ,in this only a few recent shells occur4 ,if we attempt to divide the ,tertiary time into ages corresponding to those of the older times1 we are met by the difficulty that as the continents have retained their present forms and characters to a great extent throughout this time1 we fail to find those evidences of long-continued submergences of the whole continental plateaus1 or very large portions of them1 which we have found so very valuable in the ,palozoic and ,mesozoic4 ,in the ,eocene1 however1 we shall discover one very instructive case in the great ,nummulitic ,limestone4 ,in the ,miocene and ,pliocene the oscillations seem to have been slight and partial4 ,in the ,post-pliocene we have the great subsidence of the glacial drift2 but that seems to have been a comparatively rapid dip1 though of long duration when measured by human history2 not allowing time for the formation of great limestones1 but only of fossiliferous sands and clays1 which require comparatively short time for their deposition ,if then we ask as to the duration of the ,neozoic1 ,i answer that we have not a definite measure of its ages1 if it had any2 and that it is possible that the ,neozoic may have as yet had but one age1 which closed with the great drift period1 and that we are now only in the beginning of its second age4 ,some geologists1 impressed with this comparative shortness of the ,tertiary1 connect it with ,mesozoic1 grouping both together4 ,this1 however1 is obviously unnatural4 ,the ,mesozoic time certainly terminated with the ,cretaceous1 and what follows belongs to a distinct aeon4 ,but we must now try to paint the character of this new and peculiar time2 and this may perhaps be best done in the following sketches3 #a4 ,the seas of the ,eocene4 #b4 ,mammals from the ,eocene to the ,modern4 #c4 ,tertiary floras4 #d4 ,the ,glacial period4 #e4 ,the ,advent of ,man4 ,the great elevation of the continents which closed the ,cretaceous was followed by a partial and unequal subsidence1 affecting principally the more southern parts of the land of the northern hemisphere4 ,thus1 a wide sea area stretched across all the south of ,europe and ,asia1 and separated the northern part of ,north ,america from what of land existed in the southern hemisphere4 ,this is the age of the great ,nummulitic ,limestones of ,europe1 ,africa1 and ,asia1 and the ,orbitoidal ,limestones of ,north ,america4 ,the names are derived from the prevalence of certain forms of those humble shell-bearing protozoa which we first met with in the ,laurentian1 and which we have found to be instrumental in building up the chalk1 the ,foraminifera of zoologists4 7,fig4 p4 #bdc47 ,but in the ,eocene the species of the chalk were replaced by certain broad flat forms1 the appearance of which is expressed by the term nummulite1 or money-stone2 the rock appearing to be made up of fossils1 somewhat resembling shillings1 sixpences1 or three-penny pieces1 according to the size of the shells1 each of which includes a vast number of small concentric chambers1 which during life were filled with the soft jelly of the animal4 ,the nummulite limestone was undoubtedly oceanic1 and the other shells contained in it are marine species4 ,after what we have already seen we do not need this limestone to convince us of the continent-building powers of the oceanic protozoa2 but the distribution of these limestones1 and the elevation which they attain1 furnish the most striking proofs that we can imagine of the changes which the earth's crust has undergone in times geologically modern1 and also of the extreme newness of man and his works4 ,large portions of those countries which constitute the earliest seats of man in ,southern ,europe1 ,northern ,africa1 and ,western and ,southern ,asia1 are built upon the old nummulitic sea-bottom4 ,the ,egyptians and many other ancient nations quarried it for their oldest buildings4 ,in some of these regions it attains a thickness of several thousand feet1 evidencing a lapse of time in its accumulation equal to that implied in the chalk itself4 ,in the ,swiss ,alps it reaches a height above the sea of #aj1jjj feet1 and it enters largely into the structure of the ,carpathians and ,pyrenees4 ,in ,thibet it has been observed at an elevation of #af1ejj feet above the sea4 ,thus we learn that at a time no more geologically remote then the ,eocene ,tertiary1 lands now of this great elevation were in the bottom of the deep sea2 and this not merely for a little time1 but during a time sufficient for the slow accumulation of hundreds of feet of rock1 made up of the shells of successive generations of animals4 ,if geology presented to us no other revelation then this one fact1 it would alone constitute one of the most stupendous pictures in physical geography which could be presented to the imagination4 ,i beg leave here to present to the reader a little illustration of the limestone-making ,foraminifera of the ,cretaceous and ,eocene seas4 ,in the middle above is a nummulite of the natural size4 ,below is another1 sliced to show its internal chambers4 ,at one side is a magnified section of the common building stone of ,paris1 the milioline limestone of the ,eocene1 so called from its immense abundance of microscopic shells of the genus ,miliolina4 ,at the other side is a magnified section of one of the harder varieties of chalk1 ground so thin as to become transparent1,,ah and mounted in ,canada balsam4 ,it shows many microscopic chambered shells of ,foraminifera4 ,these may serve as illustrations of the functions of these humble inhabitants of the sea as accumulators of calcareous matter4 ,it is further interesting to remark that some of the beds of nummulitic limestone are so completely filled with these shells1 that we might from detached specimens suppose that they belonged to sea-bottoms whereon no other form of life was present4 ,yet some beds of this age are remarkably rich in other fossils4 ,lyell states that as many as six hundred species of shells have been found in the principal limestone of the ,paris basin alone2 and the lower ,eocene beds afford remains of fishes1 of reptiles1 of birds1 and of mammals4 ,among the latter are the bones of gigantic whales1 of which one of the most remarkable is the ,zeuglodon of ,alabama1 a creature sometimes seventy feet in length1 and which replaces in the ,tertiary the great ,elasmosaurs and ,ichthyosaurs of the ,mesozoic1 marking the advent1 even in the sea1 of the age of ,mammals as distinguished from the age of ,reptiles4 ,,ah ,as for instance that of the ,giant's ,causeway1 ,antrim4 ,illustration3 ,,foraminiferal ,,rock-,,builders4 ,a4 ,nummulites lvigata--,eocene4 ,b4 ,the same1 showing chambered interior4 ,c4 ,milioline limestone1 magnified--,eocene1 ,paris4 ,d4 ,hard ,chalk1 section magnified--,cretaceous4 ,this fact leads us naturally to consider in the second place the mammalia1 and other land animals of the ,tertiary4 ,at the beginning of the period we meet with that higher group of mammals1 not pouched1 which now prevails4 ,among the oldest of these ,tertiary beasts are ,coryphodon1 an animal related to the ,modern ,tapirs1 and ,arctocyon1 a creature related to the bears and racoons4 ,these animals represent respectively the ,pachyderms1 or thick-skinned mammals1 and the ordinary ,carnivora4 ,contemporary with or shortly succeeding these1 were species representing the ,rodents1 or gnawing animals1 and many other creatures of the group ,pachydermata1 allied to the ,modern ,tapirs and ,hogs1 as well as several additional carnivorous quadrupeds4 ,thus at the very beginning of the ,tertiary period we enter on the age of mammals1 ,it may be well1 however1 to take these animals somewhat in chronological order4 ,if the old ,egyptian1 by quarrying the nummulite limestone1 bore unconscious testimony to the recent origin of man 7whose remains are wholly absent from the ,tertiary deposits71 so did the ancient ,britons and ,gauls1 when they laid the first rude foundations of future capitals on the banks of the themes and of the ,seine4 ,both cities lie in basins of ,eocene ,tertiary1 occupying hollows in the chalk4 ,under ,london there is principally a thick bed of clay1 the ,london clay attaining a thickness of five hundred feet4 ,this bed is obviously marine1 containing numerous species of sea shells2 but it must have been deposited near land1 as it also holds many fossil fruits and other remains of plants to which we shall refer in the sequel1 and the bones of several species of large animals4 ,among these the old reptiles of the ,mesozoic are represented by the vertebrae of a supposed sea snake 7,palophis7 thirteen feet long1 and species of crocodile allied both to the alligators and the gavials4 ,but besides these there are bones of several animals allied to the hog and tapir1 and also a species of opossum1 ,these remains must be drift carcases from neighbouring shores1 and they show first the elevation of the old deep-sea bottom represented by the chalk1 so that part of it became dry land2 next1 the peopling of that land by tribes of animals and plants unknown to the ,mesozoic2 and lastly1 that a warm climate must have existed1 enabling ,england at this time to support many types of animals and plants now proper to intertropical regions4 ,as ,lyell well remarks1 it is most interesting to observe that these beds belong to the beginning of the ,tertiary1 that they are older then those great nummulite limestones to which we have referred1 and that they are older then the principal mountain chains of ,europe and ,asia4 ,they show that no sooner was the ,cretaceous sea dried from off the new land1 then there were abundance of animals and plants ready to occupy it1 and these not the survivors of the flora and fauna of the ,wealden1 but a new creation4 ,the mention of the deposit last named places this in a striking light4 ,we have seen that the ,wealden beds1 under the chalk1 represent a ,mesozoic estuary1 and in it we have the remains of the animals and plants of the land that then was4 ,the great ,cretaceous subsidence intervened1 and in the ,london clay we have an estuary of the ,eocene4 ,but if we pass through the galleries of a museum where these formations are represented1 though we know that both existed in the same locality under a warm climate1 we see that they belong to two different worlds1 the one to that of the ,dinosaurs1 the ,ammonites1 the ,cycads1 and the minute ,marsupials of the ,mesozoic1 the other to that of the ,pachyderms1 the ,palms1 and the ,nautili of the ,tertiary4 ,the ,london clay is lower ,eocene2 but in the beds of the ,isle of ,wight and neighbouring parts of the ,south of ,england1 we have the middle and upper members of the series4 ,they are not1 however1 so largely developed as in the ,paris basin1 where1 resting on the equivalent of the ,london clay1 we have a thick marine limestone1 the ,calcaire ,grossier1 abounding in marine remains1 and in some beds composed of shells of foraminifera4 ,the sea in which this limestone was deposited1 a portion no doubt of the great ,atlantic area of the period1 became shallow1 so that beds of sand succeeded those of limestone1 and finally it was dried up into lake basins1 in which gypsum1 magnesian sediments1 and siliceous limestone were deposited4 ,these lakes or ponds must at some period have resembled the ,american salt-licks1 and were no doubt resorted to by animals from all the surrounding country in search of the saline mud and water which they afforded4 ,hence in some marly beds intervening between the layers of gypsum1 numerous footprints occur1 exactly like those already noticed in the ,trias4 ,had there been a ,nimrod in those days to watch with bow or boomerang by the muddy shore1 he would have seen herds of heavy short-legged and three-hoofed monsters 7,palotherium71 with large heads and long snouts1 probably scantily covered with sleek hair1 and closely resembling the ,modern ,tapirs of ,south ,america and ,india1 laboriously wading through the mud1 and grunting with indolent delight as they rolled themselves in the cool saline slime4 ,others more light and graceful1 combining some features of the antelope with those of the ,tapir 7,anoplotherium7 ran in herds over the drier ridges1 or sometimes timidly approached the treacherous clay1 tempted by the saline waters4 ,other creatures representing the ,modern ,damans or ,conies--feeble folk which1 with the aspect of hares1 have the structure of ,pachyderms--were also present4 ,creatures of these types constituted the great majority of the animals of the ,parisian ,eocene lakes2 but there were also ,carnivorous animals allied to the hyna1 the wolf1 and the opossum1 which prowled along the shores by night to seize unwary wanderers1 or to prey on the carcases of animals mired in the sloughs4 ,wading birds equal in size to the ostrich also stalked through the shallows1 and tortoises crawled over the mud4 ,lyell mentions the discovery of some bones of one of these gigantic birds 7,gastornis7 in a bed of the rolled chalk flints which form the base of the ,paris series1 resting immediately on the chalk2 one of the first inhabitants perhaps to people some island of chalk just emerged from the waters1 and under which lay the bones of the mighty ,dinosaurs1 and in which were embedded those of sea birds that had ranged1 like the albatross and petrel1 over the wide expanse of the ,cretaceous ocean4 ,these waders1 however1 like the tortoises and crocodiles and small marsupial mammals1 form a link of connection in type at least between the ,eocene and the ,cretaceous1 for bones of wading birds have been found in the ,greensands indicating their existence before the close of the ,mesozoic4 ,the researches of ,baron ,cuvier in the bones collected in the quarries of ,montmartre were regarded as an astonishing triumph of comparative anatomy2 and familiar as we now are with similar and yet more difficult achievements1 we can yet afford to regard with admiration the work of the great ,french naturalist as it is recorded in its collected form in his ,recherches sur les ,ossemens ,fossiles1 published in #ahab4 ,his clear and philosophical views as to the plan perceptible in nature1 his admirable powers of classification1 his acute perception of the correlation of parts in animals1 his nice discrimination of the resemblances and differences of fossil and recent structures1 and of the uses of these1--all mark him as one of the greatest minds ever devoted to the study of natural science4 ,it is obvious1 that had his intellect been occupied by the evolutionist metaphysics which pass for natural science with too many in our day1 he would have effected comparatively little2 and instead of the magnificent museum in the ,rgne ,animal and the ,ossemens ,fossiles1 we might have had wearisome speculations on the derivation of species4 ,it is reason for profound thankfulness that it was not so2 and also that so many great observers and thinkers of our day1 like ,sedgwick1 ,murchison1 ,lyell1 ,owen1 ,dana1 and ,agassiz1 have been allowed to work out their researches almost to completion before the advent of those poisoned streams and mephitic vapours which threaten the intellectual obscuration of those who should be their successors4 ,if we pass from the ,eocene to the ,miocene1 still confining ourselves mainly to mammalian life1 we find three remarkable points of difference--7#a7 ,whereas the ,eocene mammals are remarkable for adherence to one general type1 viz41 that group of pachyderms most regular and complete in its dentition1 we now find a great number of more specialised and peculiar forms2 7#b7 ,we find in the latter period a far greater proportion of large carnivorous animals2 7#c7 ,we find much greater variety of mammals then either in the ,eocene or the ,modern1 and a remarkable abundance of species of gigantic size4 ,the ,miocene is thus apparently the culminating age of the mammalia1 in so far as physical development is concerned2 and this1 as we shall find1 accords with its remarkably genial climate and exuberant vegetation4 ,in ,europe1 the beds of this age present1 for the first time1 examples of the monkeys1 represented by two generic types1 both of them apparently related to the modern long-armed species1 or ,gibbons4 ,among carnivorous animals we have cat-like creatures1 one of which is the terrible ,machairodus1 distinguished from all modern animals of its group by the long sabre-shaped canines of its upper jaw1 fitting it to pull down and destroy those large pachyderms which could have easily shaken off a lion or a tiger4 ,here also we have the elephants1 represented by several species now extinct2 the mastodon1 a great1 coarsely-built1 hog-like elephant1 some species of which had tusks both in the upper and lower jaw2 the rhinoceros1 the hippopotamus1 and the horse1 all of extinct species4 ,we have also giraffes1 stags1 and antelopes1 the first ruminants known to us1 and a great variety of smaller and less noteworthy creatures4 ,here also1 for the first time1 we find the curious and exceptional group of ,edentates1 represented by a large ant-eater4 ,of all the animals of the ,european ,miocene1 the most wonderful and unlike any modern beast1 is the ,dinotherium1 found in the ,miocene of ,epplesheim in ,germany2 and described by ,kaup4 ,some doubt rests on the form and affinities of the animal2 but we may reasonably take it1 as restored by its describer1 and currently reproduced in popular books1 to have been a quadruped of somewhat elephantine form4 ,some years ago1 however1 a huge haunch bone1 supposed to belong to this creature1 was discovered in the ,south of ,france2 and from this it was inferred that the ,dinothere may have been a marsupial or pouched animal1 perhaps allied in form and habits to the kangaroos4 ,the skull is three feet four inches in length2 and when provided with its soft parts1 including a snout or trunk in front1 it must have been at least five or six feet long4 ,such a head1 if it belonged to a quadruped of ordinary proportions1 must represent an animal as large in proportion to our elephant as an elephant to an ox4 ,but its size is not its most remarkable feature4 ,it has two large tusks firmly implanted in strong bony sockets2 but they are attached to the end of the lower jaw and point downward at right angles to it1 so that the lower jaw forms a sort of double-pointed pickaxe of great size and strength4 ,this might have been used as a weapon2 or1 if the creature was aquatic1 as a grappling iron to hold by the bank1 or by floating timber2 but more probably it was a grubbing-hoe for digging up roots or loosening the bases of trees which the animal might afterward pull down to devour them4 ,however this may be1 the creature laboured under the mechanical disadvantage of having to lift an immense weight in the process of mastication1 and of being unable to bring its mouth to the ground1 or to bite or grasp anything with the front of its jaws4 ,to make up for this1 it had muscles of enormous power on the sides of the head attached to great projecting processes2 and it had a thick but flexible proboscis1 to place in its mouth the food grubbed up by its tusks4 ,taken altogether1 the ,dinothere is perhaps the most remarkable of mammals1 fossil or recent2 and if the rest of its frame were as extraordinary as its skull1 we have probably as yet but a faint conception of its peculiarities4 ,we may apply to it1 with added force1 the admiring ejaculation of ,job1 when he describes the strength of the hippopotamus1 ,he is the chief of the ways of ,god4 ,he who made him1 gave him his sword4 ,illustration3 ,,miocene ,,mammals ,,of ,,the ,,eastern ,,continent4 ,in the foreground ,elephas1 ,ganesa1 ,hydracotherium1 ,dinotherium1 ,machairodus1 ,mastodon longirostris4 ,in the middle distance1 ,apes1 two ,anoplotheres1 ,palotherium1 ,xiphodon1 and ,sivatherium4 ,sequoias and ,fan ,palm in the background4 ,in ,asia1 the ,siwalik hills afforded to ,falconer and ,cautley one of the most remarkable exhibitions of ,miocene animals in the world4 ,these hills form a ridge subordinate to the ,himalayan chain2 and rise to a height of #b1jjj to #c1jjj feet4 ,in the ,miocene period1 they were sandy and pebbly shores and banks lying at the foot of the then infant ,himalayas1 which1 with the table-lands to the north1 probably formed a somewhat narrow east and west continental mass or large island4 ,as a mere example of the marvellous fauna which inhabited this ,miocene land1 it has afforded remains of seven species of elephants1 mastodons1 and allied animals2 one of them1 the ,e4 ,ganesa1 with tusks ten feet and a half long1 and twenty-six inches in circumference at the base4 ,besides these there are five species of rhinoceros1 three of horse and allied animals1 four or more of hippopotamus1 and species of camel1 giraffe1 antelope1 sheep1 ox1 and many other genera1 as well as numerous large and formidable beasts of prey4 ,there is also an ostrich2 and1 among other reptiles1 a tortoise having a shell twelve feet in length1 and this huge roof must have covered an animal eighteen feet long and seven feet high4 ,among the more remarkable of the ,siwalik animals is the ,sivatherium1 a gigantic four-horned antelope or deer1 supposed to have been of elephantine size1 and of great power and swiftness2 and to have presented features connecting the ruminants and pachyderms4 ,our restoration of this creature is to some extent conjectural2 and a remarkably artistic1 and probably more accurate1 restoration of the animal has recently been published by ,dr4 ,murie1 in the ,geological ,magazine4 ,we justly regard the ,mammalian fauna of modern ,india as one of the noblest in the world2 but it is paltry in comparison with that of the much more limited ,miocene ,india2 even if we suppose1 contrary to all probability1 that we know most of the animals of the latter4 ,but if we consider the likelihood that we do not yet know a tenth of the ,miocene animals1 the contrast becomes vastly greater4 ,miocene ,america is scarcely behind the ,old ,world in the development of its land animals4 ,from one locality in ,nebraska1 ,leidy described in #aheb fifteen species of large quadrupeds2 and the number has since been considerably increased4 ,among these are species of ,rhinoceros1 ,palotherium1 and ,machairodus2 and one animal1 the ,titanotherium1 allied to the ,european ,anoplothere1 is said to have attained a length of eighteen feet and a height of nine1 its jaws alone being five feet long4 ,in the illustration1 ,i have grouped some of the characteristic ,mammalian forms of the ,miocene1 as we can restore them from their scattered bones1 more or less conjecturally2 but could we have seen them march before us in all their majesty1 like the ,edenic animals before ,adam1 ,i feel persuaded that our impressions of this wonderful age would have far exceeded anything that we can derive either from words or illustrations4 ,i insist on this the more that the ,miocene happens to be very slenderly represented in ,britain2 and scarcely at all in north-eastern ,america2 and hence has not impressed the imagination of the ,english race so strongly as its importance justifies4 ,the next succeeding period1 that of the ,pliocene1 continues the conditions of the last1 but with signs of decadence4 ,many of the old gigantic pachyderms have disappeared2 and in their stead some familiar modern genera were introduced4 ,the ,pliocene was terminated by the cold or glacial period1 in which a remarkable lowering of temperature occurred over all the northern hemisphere1 accompanied1 at least in a portion of the time1 by a very general and great subsidence1 which laid all the lower parts of our continents under water4 ,this terminated much of the life of the ,pliocene1 and replaced it with boreal and ,arctic forms1 some of them1 like the great hairy ,siberian mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros1 fit successors of the gigantic ,miocene fauna4 ,how it happened that such creatures were continued during the ,post-pliocene cold1 we cannot understand till we have the ,tertiary vegetation before us4 ,it must suffice now to say1 that as the temperature was modified1 and the land rose1 and the ,modern period was inaugurated1 these animals passed away1 and those of the present time remained4 ,perhaps the most remarkable fact connected with this change1 is that stated by ,pictet1 that all the modern ,european mammals are direct descendants of ,post-pliocene species2 but that in the ,post-pliocene they were associated with many other species2 and these1 often of great dimensions1 now extinct4 ,in other words1 the time from the ,pliocene to the ,modern1 has been a time of diminution of species1 while that from the ,eocene to the ,miocene was a time of rapid introduction of new species4 ,thus the ,tertiary fauna culminated in the ,miocene4 ,yet1 strange though this may appear1 ,man himself1 the latest and noblest of all1 would seem to have been a product of the later stages of the time of decadence4 ,i propose1 however1 to return to the animals immediately preceding man and his contemporaries1 after we have noticed the ,tertiary flora and the ,glacial period4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,neozoic ,,ages 7continued74 ,plant-life in the ,tertiary approaches very nearly to that of the ,modern ,world1 in so far as its leading types are concerned2 but in its distribution geographically it was wonderfully different from that with which we are at present familiar4 ,for example1 in the ,isle of ,sheppey1 at the mouth of the themes1 are beds of ,london clay1 fall of fossil nuts2 and these1 instead of being hazel nuts and acorns1 belong to palms allied to species now found in the ,philippine ,islands and ,bengal1 while with them are numerous cone-like fruits belonging to the ,proteace 7banksias1 silver-trees1 wagenbooms1 etc471 a group of trees now confined to ,australia and ,south ,africa1 but which in the ,northern ,hemisphere had already1 as stated in a previous paper1 made their appearance in the ,cretaceous1 and were abundant in the ,eocene4 ,the state of preservation of these fruits shows that they were not drifted far2 and in some beds in ,hampshire1 also of ,eocene age1 the leaves of similar plants occur along with species of fig1 cinnamon1 and other forms equally ,australian or ,indian4 ,in ,america1 especially in the west1 there are thick and widely-distributed beds of lignite or imperfect coal of the ,eocene period2 but the plants found in the ,american ,eocene are more like those of the ,european ,miocene or the ,modern ,american flora1 a fact to which we must revert immediately4 ,in ,europe1 while the ,eocene plants resemble those of ,australia1 when we ascend into the ,miocene they resemble those of ,america1 though still retaining some of the ,australian forms4 ,in the leaf-beds of the ,isle of ,mull1--where beds of vegetable mould and leaves were covered up with the erupted matter of a volcano belonging to a great series of such eruptions which produced the basaltic cliffs of ,antrim and of ,staffa1--and at ,bovey1 in ,devonshire1 where ,miocene plants have accumulated in many thick beds of lignite1 the prevailing plants are sequoias or red-woods1 vines1 figs1 cinnamons1 etc4 ,in the sandstones at the base of the ,alps similar plants and also palms of ,american types occur4 ,in the ,upper ,miocene beds of ,oeningen in the ,rhine valley1 nearly five hundred species of plants have been found1 and include such familiar forms as the maples1 plane-trees1 cypress1 elm1 and sweet-gum1 more ,american1 however1 then ,european in their aspect4 ,it thus appears that the ,miocene flora of ,europe resembles that of ,america at pre sent1 while the ,eocene flora of ,europe resembles that of ,australia1 and the ,eocene flora of ,america1 as well as the modern1 resembles the ,miocene of ,europe4 ,in other words1 the changes of the flora have been more rapid in ,europe then in ,america and probably slowest of all in ,australia4 ,the ,eastern ,continent has thus taken the lead in rapidity of change in the ,tertiary period1 and it has done so in animals as well as in plants4 ,the following description of the flora of ,bovey is given1 with slight alteration1 in the words of ,dr4 ,heer1 in his memoir on that district4 ,the woods that covered the slopes consisted mainly of a huge pine-tree 7sequoia71 whose figure resembled in all probability its highly-admired cousin1 the giant ,wellingtonia of ,california4 ,the leafy trees of most frequent occurrence were the cinnamon and an evergreen oak like those now seen in ,mexico4 ,the evergreen figs1 the custard apples1 and allies of the ,cape jasmine1 were rarer4 ,the trees were festooned with vines1 beside which the prickly rotang palm twined its snake-like form4 ,in the shade of the forest throve numerous ferns1 one species of which formed trees of imposing grandeur1 and there were masses of under-wood belonging to various species of ,nyssa1 like the tupelos and sour-gums of ,north ,america4 ,this is a true picture1 based on actual facts1 of the vegetation of ,england in the ,miocene age4 ,but all the other wonders of the ,miocene flora are thrown into the shade by the discoveries of plants of this age which have recently been made in ,greenland1 a region now bound up in what we poetically call eternal ice1 but which in the ,miocene was a fair and verdant land1 rejoicing in a mild climate and rich vegetation4 ,the beds containing these specimens occur in various places in ,north ,greenland2 and the principal locality1 ,atane-,kerdluk1 is in lat4 #gj ,n4 and at an elevation of more then a thousand feet above the sea4 ,the plants occur abundantly in sandstone and clay beds1 and the manner in which delicate leaves and fruits are preserved shows that they have not been far water-borne1 a conclusion which is confirmed by the occurrence of beds of lignite of considerable thickness1 and which are evidently peaty accumulations containing trunks of trees4 ,the collections made have enabled ,heer to catalogue #acg species1 all of them of forms proper to temperate1 or even warm regions1 and mostly ,american in character4 ,as many as forty-six of the species already referred to as occurring at ,bovey ,tracey and ,oeningen occur also in the ,greenland beds4 ,among the plants are many species of pines1 some of them of large size2 and the beeches1 oaks1 planes1 poplars1 maples1 walnuts1 limes1 magnolias1 and vines are apparently as well represented as in the warm temperate zone of ,america at the present day4 ,this wonderful flora was not a merely local phenomenon1 for similar plants are found in ,spitzbergen in lat4 #gh #ef'4 ,it is to be further observed1 that while the general characters of these ancient ,arctic plants imply a large amount of summer heat and light1 the evergreens equally imply a mild winter4 ,further1 though animal remains are not found with these plants1 it is probable that so rich a supply of vegetable food was not unutilised1 and that we shall some time find that there was an ,arctic fauna corresponding to the ,arctic flora4 ,how such a climate could exist in ,greenland and ,spitzbergen is still a mystery4 ,it has1 however1 been suggested that this effect might result from the concurrence of such astronomical conditions in connection with the eccentricity of the earth's orbit as would give the greatest amount of warmth in the ,northern ,hemisphere with such distribution of land and water as would give the least amount of cold northern land and the most favourable arrangement of the warm surface currents of the ocean4,,ai ,,ai ,croll and ,lyell4 ,before leaving these ,miocene plants1 ,i must refer to a paragraph which ,dr4 ,heer has thought it necessary to insert in his memoir on the ,greenland flora1 and which curiously illustrates the feebleness of what with some men passes for science4 ,he says3 ,in conclusion1 ,i beg to offer a few remarks on the amount of certainty in identification which the determination of fossil plants is able to afford us4 ,we know that the flowers1 fruits1 and seeds are more important as characteristics then the leaves4 ,there are many genera of which the leaves are variable1 and consequently would be likely to lead us astray if we trusted in them alone4 ,however1 many characters of the form and venation of leaves are well-known to be characteristic of certain genera1 and can therefore afford us characters of great value for their recognition4 ,in a similar apologetic style he proceeds through several sentences to plead the cause of his ,greenland leaves4 that he should have to do so is strange1 unless indeed the botany known to those for whom he writes is no more then that which a school-girl learns in her few lessons in dissecting a buttercup or daisy4 ,it is easy for scientific triflers to exhibit collections of plants in which species of different genera and families are so similar in their leaves that a careless observer would mistake one for the other1 or to get up composite leaves in part of one species and in part of another1 and yet seeming the same1 and in this way to underrate the labours of painstaking observers like ,heer4 ,but it is nevertheless true that in any of these leaves1 not only are there good characters by which they can be recognised1 but that a single breathing pore1 or a single hair1 or a few cells1 or a bit of epidermis not larger then a pin's head1 should enable any one who understands his business to see as great differences as a merely superficial botanist would see between the flower of a ranunculus and that of a strawberry4 ,heer himself1 and the same applies to all other competent students of fossil plants1 has almost invariably found his determinations from mere fragments of leaves confirmed when more characteristic parts were afterwards discovered4 ,it is high time1 in the interests of geology1 that botanists should learn that constancy and correlation of parts are laws in the plant as well as in the animal2 and this they can learn only by working more diligently with the microscope4 ,i would1 however1 go further then this1 and maintain that1 in regard to some of the most important geological conclusions to be derived from fossils1 even the leaves of plants are vastly more valuable then the hard parts of animals4 ,for instance1 the bones of elephants and rhinoceroses found in ,greenland would not prove a warm climate2 because the creatures might have been protected from cold with hair like that of the musk-sheep1 and they might have had facilities for annual migrations like the bisons4 ,the occurrence of bones of reindeer in ,france does not prove that its climate was like that of ,lapland2 but only that it was wooded1 and that the animals could rove at will to the hills and to the coast4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the remains of an evergreen oak in ,greenland constitute absolute proof of a warm and equable climate2 and the occurrence of leaves of the dwarf birch in ,france constitutes a proof of a cool climate1 worth more then that which can be derived from the bones of millions of reindeer and musk-sheep4 ,still further1 in all those greater and more difficult questions of geology which relate to the emergence and submergence of land areas1 and to the geographical conditions of past geological periods1 the evidence of plants1 especially when rooted in place1 is of far more value then that of animals1 though it has yet been very little used4 ,this digression prepares the way for the question3 ,was the ,miocene period on the whole a better age of the world then that in which we live8 ,in some respects it was4 ,obviously there was in the ,northern ,hemisphere a vast surface of land under a mild and equable climate1 and clothed with a rich and varied vegetation4 ,had we lived in the ,miocene1 we might have sat under our vine and fig-tree equally in ,greenland and ,spitzbergen and in those more southern climes to which this privilege is now restricted4 ,we might have enjoyed a great variety of rich and nutritive fruits1 and1 if sufficiently muscular1 and able to cope with the gigantic mammals of the period1 we might have engaged in either the life of the hunter or that of the agriculturist under advantages which we do not now possess4 ,on the whole1 the ,miocene presents to us in these respects the perfection of the ,neozoic time1 and its culmination in so far as the nobler forms of brute animals and of plants are concerned4 ,had men existed in those days1 however1 they should have been1 in order to suit the conditions surrounding them1 a race of giants2 and they would probably have felt the want of many of those more modern species belonging to the flora and fauna of ,europe and ,western ,asia on which man has so much depended for his civilization4 ,some reasons have been adduced for the belief that in the ,miocene and ,eocene there were intervals of cold climate2 but the evidence of this may be merely local and exceptional1 and does not interfere with the broad characteristics of the age as sketched above4 ,the warm climate and rich vegetation of the ,miocene extended far into the ,pliocene1 with characters very similar to those already stated2 but as the ,pliocene age went on1 cold and frost settled down upon the ,northern ,hemisphere1 and a remarkable change took place in its vegetable productions4 ,for example1 in the somewhat celebrated forest bed of ,cromer1 in ,norfolk1 which is regarded as ,newer ,pliocene1 we have lost all the foreign and warm-climate plants of the ,miocene1 and find the familiar ,scotch firs and other plants of the ,modern ,british flora4 ,the animals1 however1 retain their former types2 for two species of elephant1 a hippopotamus1 and a rhinoceros are found in connection with these plants4 ,this is another evidence1 in addition to those above referred to1 that plants are better thermometers to indicate geological and climatal change then animals4 ,this ,pliocene refrigeration appears to have gone on increasing into the next or ,post-pliocene age1 and attained its maximum in the ,glacial period1 when1 as many geologists think1 our continents were1 even in the temperate latitudes1 covered with a sheet of ice like that which now clothes ,greenland4 ,then occurred a very general subsidence1 in which they were submerged under the waters of a cold icy sea1 tenanted by marine animals now belonging to boreal and arctic regions4 ,after this last great plunge-bath they rose to constitute the dry land of man and his contemporaries4 ,let us close this part of the subject with one striking illustration from ,heer's memoir on ,bovey ,tracey4 ,at this place1 above the great series of clays and lignites containing the ,miocene plants already described1 is a thick covering of clay1 gravel1 and stones1 evidently of much later date4 ,this also contains some plants2 but instead of the figs1 and cinnamons1 and evergreen oaks1 they are the petty dwarf birch of ,scandinavia and the ,highland hills1 and three willows1 one of them the little ,arctic and ,alpine creeping willow4 ,thus we have in the south of ,england a transition in the course of the ,pliocene period1 from a climate much milder then that of ,modern ,england to one almost ,arctic in its character4 ,our next topic for consideration is one of the most vexed questions among geologists1 the ,glacial period which immediately preceded the ,advent of ,man4 ,in treating of this it will be safest first to sketch the actual appearances which present themselves1 and then to draw such pictures as we can of the conditions which they represent4 ,the most recent and superficial covering of the earth's crust is usually composed of rock material more or less ground up and weathered4 ,this may1 with reference to its geological character and origin1 be considered as of three kinds4 ,it may be merely the rock weathered and decomposed to a certain extent in situ2 or it may be alluvial matter carried or deposited by existing streams or tides1 or by the rains2 or1 lastly1 it may be material evidencing the operation of causes not now in action4 ,this last constitutes what has been called drift or diluvial detritus1 and is that with which we have now to do4 ,such drift1 then1 is very widely distributed on our continents in the higher latitudes4 ,in the ,northern ,hemisphere it extends from the ,arctic regions to about #ej of north latitude in ,europe1 and as low as #dj in ,north ,america2 and it occurs south of similar parallels in the ,southern ,hemisphere4 ,farther towards the equator then the latitudes indicated1 we do not find the proper drift deposits1 but merely weathered rocks or alluvia1 or old sea bottoms raised up4 ,this limitation of the drift1 at the very outset gives it the character of a deposit in some way connected with the ,polar cold4 ,besides this1 the general transport of stones and other material in the northern regions has been to the south2 hence in the ,northern ,hemisphere this deposit may be called the ,northern ,drift4 ,if now we take a typical locality of this formation1 such1 for instance1 as we may find in ,scotland1 or ,scandinavia1 or ,canada1 we shall find it to consist of three members1 as follows3-- #c4 ,superficial ,sands or ,gravels4 #b4 ,stratified ,clays4 #a4 ,till or ,boulder ,clay4 ,this arrangement may locally be more complicated1 or it may be deficient in one of its members4 ,the boulder clay may1 for example1 be underlaid by stratified sand or gravel1 or even by peaty deposits2 it may be intermixed with layers of clay or sand2 the stratified clay or the boulder clay may be absent1 or may be uncovered by any upper member4 ,still we may take the typical series as above stated1 and inquire as to its characters and teaching4 ,the lower member1 or boulder clay1 is a very remarkable kind of deposit1 consisting of a paste which may graduate from tough clay to loose sand1 and which holds large angular and rounded stones or boulders confusedly intermixed2 these stones may be either from the rocks found in the immediate vicinity of their present position1 or at great distances4 ,this mass is usually destitute of any lamination or subordinate stratification1 whence it is often called ,unstratified ,drift1 and is of very variable thickness1 often occurring in very thick beds in valleys1 and being comparatively thin or absent on intervening hills4 ,further1 if we examine the stones contained in the boulder clay1 we shall find that they are often scratched or striated and grooved2 and when we remove the clay from the rock surfaces on which it rests1 we find these in like manner striated1 grooved and polished4 ,these phenomena1 viz41 of polished and striated rocks and stones1 are similar to those produced by those great sliding masses of ice1 the glaciers of ,alpine regions1 which in a small way and in narrow and elevated valleys1 act on the rocks and stones in this manner1 though they cannot form deposits precisely analogous to the boulder clay1 owing to the wasting away of much of the finer material by the torrents1 and the heaping of the coarser detritus in ridges and piles4 ,further1 we have in ,greenland a continental mass1 with all its valleys thus filled with slowly-moving ice1 and from this there drift off immense ice-islands1 which continue at least the mud-and-stone-depositing process1 and possibly also the grinding process1 over the sea bottom4 ,so far all geologists are agreed2 but here they diverge into two schools4 ,one of these1 then of the ,glacier theorists1 holds that the boulder clay is the product of land-ice2 and this requires the supposition that at the time when it was deposited the whole of our continents north of #dj or #ej was in the condition of ,greenland at present4 ,this is1 however1 a hypothesis so inconvenient1 not to say improbable1 that many hesitate to accept it1 and prefer to believe that in the so-called ,glacial period the land was submerged1 and that icebergs then as now drifted from the north in obedience to the ,arctic currents1 and produced the effects observed4 ,it would be tedious to go into all the arguments of the advocates of glaciers and icebergs1 and ,i shall not attempt this1 more especially as the only way to decide the question is to observe carefully the facts in every particular locality1 and inquire as to the conclusions fairly deducible4 ,with the view of aiding such a solution1 however1 ,i may state a few general principles applicable to the appearances observed4 ,we may then suppose that boulder clay may be formed in three ways4 7#a7 ,it may be deposited on land1 as what is called the bottom moraine of a land glacier4 7#b7 ,it may be deposited in the sea when such a glacier ends on the coast4 7#c7 ,it may be deposited by the melting or grounding on muddy bottoms of the iceberg masses floated off from the end of such a glacier4 ,it is altogether likely1 from the observations recently made in ,greenland1 that in that country such a deposit is being formed in all these ways4 ,in like manner1 the ancient boulder clay may have been formed in one or more of these ways in any given locality where it occurs1 though it may be difficult in many instances to indicate the precise mode4 ,there are1 however1 certain criteria which may be applied to the determination of its origin1 and ,i may state a few of these1 which are the results of my own experience4 7#a7 ,where the boulder clay contains marine shells1 or rounded stones which if exposed to the air would have been cracked to pieces1 decomposed1 or oxidized1 it must have been formed under water4 ,where the conditions are the reverse of these1 it may have been formed on land4 7#b7 ,when the striations and transport of materials do not conform to the levels of the country1 and take that direction1 usually ,n4,e4 and ,s4,w41 which the ,arctic current would take if the country were submerged1 the probability is that it was deposited in the sea4 ,where1 however1 the striation and transport take the course of existing valleys1 more especially in hilly regions1 the contrary may be inferred4 7#c7 ,where most of the material1 more especially the large stones1 has been carried to great distances from its original site1 especially over plains or up slopes1 it has probably been sea-borne4 ,where it is mostly local1 local ice-action may be inferred4 ,other criteria may be stated1 but these are sufficient for our present purpose4 ,their application in every special case ,i do not presume to make2 but ,i am convinced that when applied to those regions in ,eastern ,america with which ,i am familiar1 they necessitate the conclusion that in the period of extreme refrigeration1 the greater part of the land was under water1 and such hills and mountains as remained were little ,greenlands1 covered with ice and sending down glaciers to the sea4 ,in hilly and broken regions1 therefore1 and especially at considerable elevations1 we find indications of glacier action2 on the great plains1 on the contrary1 the indications are those of marine glaciation and transport4 ,this last statement1 ,i believe1 applies to the mountains and plains of ,europe and ,asia as well as of ,america4 ,this view requires not only the supposition of great refrigeration1 but of a great subsidence of the land in the temperate latitudes1 with large residual islands and hills in the ,arctic regions4 ,that such subsidence actually took place is proved1 not only by the frequent occurrence of marine shells in the boulder clay itself1 but also by the occurrence of stratified marine clays filled with shells1 often of deep-water species1 immediately over that deposit4 ,further1 the shells1 and also occasional land plants found in these beds1 indicate a cold climate and much cold fresh water pouring into the sea from melting ice and snow4 ,in ,canada these marine clays have been traced up to elevations of #fjj feet1 and in ,great ,britain deposits of this kind occur on one of the mountains of ,wales at the height of #acjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,nor is it to be supposed that this level marks the extreme height of the ,post-pliocene waters1 for drift material not explicable by glaciers1 and evidences of marine erosion1 occur at still higher levels1 and it is natural that on high and exposed points fewer remains of fossiliferous beds should be left then in plains and valleys4 ,at the present day the coasts of ,britain and other parts of ,western ,europe enjoy an exceptionally warm temperature1 owing to the warm currents of the ,atlantic being thrown on them1 and the warm and moist ,atlantic air flowing over them1 under the influence of the prevailing westerly winds4 ,these advantages are not possessed by the eastern coast of ,north ,america1 nor by some deep channels in the sea1 along which the cold northern currents flow under the warmer water4 ,hence these last-mentioned localities are inhabited by boreal shells much farther south then such species extend on the coasts and banks of ,great ,britain4 ,in the ,glacial period this exceptional advantage was lost1 and while the ,american seas1 as judged by their marine animals1 were somewhat colder then at present1 the ,british seas were proportionally much more cooled down4 ,no doubt1 however1 there were warmer and colder areas1 determined by depth and prevailing currents1 and as these changed their position in elevation and subsidence of the land1 alternations and even mixtures of the inhabitants of cold and warm water resulted1 which have often been very puzzling to geologists4 ,i have taken the series of drift deposits seen in ,britain and in ,canada as typical1 and the previous discussion has had reference to them4 ,but it would be unfair not to inform the reader that this succession of deposits after all belongs to the margins of our continents rather then to their great central areas4 ,this is the case at least in ,north ,america1 where in the region of the great lakes the oldest glaciated surfaces are overlaid by thick beds of stratified clay1 without marine fossils1 and often without either stones or boulders1 though these sometimes occur1 especially toward the north4 ,the clay1 however1 contains drifted fragments of coniferous trees4 ,above this clay are sand and gravel1 and the principal deposit of travelled stones and boulders rests on these4 ,i cannot affirm that a similar succession occurs on the great inland plains of ,europe and ,asia3 but ,i think it probable that to some extent it does4 ,the explanation of this inland drift by the advocates of a great continental glacier is as follows3 7#a7 ,in the ,pliocene period the continents were higher then at present1 and many deep valleys1 since filled up1 were cut in them4 7#b7 ,in the ,post-pliocene these elevated continents became covered with ice1 by the movement of which the valleys were deepened and the surfaces striated4 7#c7 ,this ice-period was followed by a depression and submergence1 in which the clays were deposited1 filling up old channels1 and much changing the levels of the land4 ,lastly1 as the land rose again from this submergence1 sand and gravel were deposited1 and boulders scattered over the surface by floating ice4 ,the advocates of floating ice as distinguished from a continental glacier1 merely dispense with the latter1 and affirm that the striation under the clay1 as well as that connected with the later boulders1 is the effect of floating bergs4 ,the occurrence of so much drift wood in the clay favours their view1 as it is more likely that there would be islands clothed with trees in the sea1 then that these should exist immediately after the country had been mantled in ice4 ,the want of marine shells is a difficulty in either view1 but may be accounted for by the rapid deposition of the clay and the slow spreading of marine animals over a submerged continent under unfavourable conditions of climate4 ,in any case the reader will please observe that theorists must account for both the interior and marginal forms of these deposits4 ,let us tabulate the facts and the modes of accounting for them4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,facts ,,observed4 ,,theoretical ,,views4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,inland ,plains4 ,marginal ,areas4,glacial ,theories4 ,floating ,ice ,theories4 ,terraces4 ,terraces and ,emergence of ,modern ,land4,,aj ,raised ,beaches4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,travelled ,boulders ,sand and ,gravel1 and ,glaciated with ,sea ,shells ,stones and ,rocks and ,boulders4 ,shallow ,sea and ,floating ,ice4 ,stratified ,sand and ,gravel4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,stratified ,clay ,stratified ,clay ,deep ,sea and ,floating ,ice4 with ,drift ,wood1 with ,sea ,shells4-------------------------------- --- and a few ,stones4 ,boulder ,clay ,submergence of ,much floating ,ice and ,boulders4 with or without the land4 ,great and local ,glaciers4 ,striated ,rocks4 ,sea ,shells4 continental ,submergence of ,striated ,rocks4 mantle of ,ice4 ,pliocene ,land4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,old channels1 ,old channels1 ,erosion by ,erosion by indicating a higheretc41 indicatingcontinental atmospheric level of the land4 previous dry ,glacier4 agencies and land4 accumulation of decomposed rock4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,aj ,the phenomena of this period1 with reference to rainfall1 melting snows1 and valley deposits1 must be noticed in the next chapter4 ,this table will suffice at least to reduce the great glacier controversy to its narrowest limits1 when we have added the one further consideration that glaciers are the parents of icebergs1 and that the question is not of one or the other exclusively1 but of the relative predominance of the one or the other in certain given times and places4 ,both theories admit a great ,post-pliocene subsidence4 ,the abettors of glaciers can urge the elevation of the surface1 the supposed powers of glaciers as eroding agents1 and the transport of boulders4 ,those whose theoretical views lean to floating ice1 believe that they can equally account for these phenomena1 and can urge in support of their theory the occurrence of drift wood in the inland clay and boulder clay1 and of sea-shells in the marginal clay and boulder clay1 and the atmospheric decomposition of rock in the ,pliocene period1 as a source of the material of the clays1 while to similar causes they can attribute the erosion of the deep valleys piled with the ,post-pliocene deposits4 ,they can also maintain that the general direction of striation and drift implies the action of sea currents1 while they appeal to local glaciers to account for special cases of glaciated rocks at the higher levels4 ,how long our continental plateaus remained under the icy seas of the ,glacial period we do not know4 ,relatively to human chronology1 it was no doubt a long time2 but short in comparison with those older subsidences in which the great ,palozoic limestones were produced4 ,at length1 however1 the change came4 ,slowly and gradually1 or by intermittent lifts1 the land rose3 and as it did so1 shallow-water sands and gravels were deposited on the surface of the deep-sea clays1 and the sides of the hills were cut into inland cliffs and terraces1 marking the stages of recession of the waters4 ,at length1 when the process was complete1 our present continents stood forth in their existing proportions ready for the occupancy of man4 ,the picture which these changes present to the imagination is one of the most extraordinary in all geological history4 ,we have been familiar with the idea of worlds drowned in water1 and the primeval incandescent earth shows us the possibility of our globe being melted with fervent heat2 but here we have a world apparently frozen out destroyed by cold1 or doubly destroyed by ice and water4 ,let us endeavour to realise this revolution1 as it may have occurred in any of the temperate regions of the ,northern ,hemisphere1 thickly peopled with the magnificent animals that had come down from the grand old ,miocene time4 ,gradually the warm and equable temperature gives place to cold winters and chilly wet summers4 ,the more tender animals die out1 and the less hardy plants begin to be winter-killed1 or to fail to perfect their fruits4 ,as the forests are thus decimated1 other and hardier species replace those which disappear4 ,the animals which have had to confine themselves to sheltered spots1 or which have perished through cold or want of food1 are replaced by others migrating from the mountains1 or from colder regions4 ,some1 perhaps1 in the course of generations1 become dwarfed in stature1 and covered with more shaggy fur4 ,permanent snow at length appears upon the hill-tops1 and glaciers plough their way downward1 devastating the forests1 encroaching on the fertile plains1 and at length reaching the heads of the bays and fiords4 ,while snow and ice are thus encroaching from above1 the land is subsiding1 and the sea is advancing upon it1 while great icebergs drifting on the coasts still further reduce the temperature4 ,torrents and avalanches from the hills carry mud and gravel over the plains4 ,peat bogs accumulate in the hollows4 ,glaciers heap up confused masses of moraine1 and the advancing sea piles up stones and shingle to be imbedded in mud on its further advance1 while boreal marine animals invade the now submerged plains4 ,at length the ice and water meet everywhere1 or leave only a few green strips where hardy ,arctic plants still survive1 and a few well-clad animals manage to protract their existence4 ,perhaps even these are overwhelmed1 and the curtain of the ,glacial winter falls over the fair scenery of the ,pliocene4 ,in every locality thus invaded by an apparently perpetual winter1 some species of laud animals must have perished4 ,others may have migrated to more genial climes1 others under depauperated and hardy varietal forms may have continued successfully to struggle for existence4 ,the general result must have been greatly to diminish the nobler forms of life1 and to encourage only those fitted for the most rigorous climates and least productive soils4 ,could we have visited the world in this dreary period1 and have witnessed the decadence and death of that brilliant and magnificent flora and fauna which we have traced upward from the ,eocene1 we might well have despaired of the earth's destinies1 and have fancied it the sport of some malignant demon2 or have supposed that in the contest between the powers of destruction and those of renovation the former had finally gained the victory4 ,we must observe1 however1 that the suffering in such a process is less then we might suppose4 ,so long as animals could exist1 they would continue to enjoy life4 ,the conditions unfavourable to them would be equally or more so to their natural enemies4 ,only the last survivors would meet with what might be regarded as a tragical end4 ,as one description of animal became extinct1 another was prepared to occupy its room4 ,if elephants and rhinoceroses perished from the land1 countless herds of walruses and seals took their places4 ,if gay insects died and disappeared1 shell-fishes and sea-stars were their successors4 ,thus in nature there is life even in death1 and constant enjoyment even when old systems are passing away4 ,but could we have survived the ,glacial period1 we should have seen a reason for its apparently wholesale destruction4 ,out of that chaos came at length an ,eden2 and just as the ,permian prepared the way for the ,mesozoic1 so the glaciers and icebergs of the ,post-pliocene were the ploughshare of ,god preparing the earth for the time when1 with a flora and fauna more beautiful and useful1 if less magnificent then that of the ,tertiary1 it became as the garden of the ,lord1 fitted for the reception of ,his image and likeness1 immortal and intelligent ,man4 ,we need not1 however1 with one modern school of philosophy1 regard man himself as but a descendant of ,miocene apes1 scourged into reason and humanity by the struggle for existence in the ,glacial period4 ,we may be content to consider him as a son of ,god1 and to study in the succeeding chapters that renewal of the ,post-pliocene world which preceded and heralded his advent4 ,in the meantime1 our illustration1,,ak borrowed in part from the magnificent representation of the ,post-pliocene fauna of ,england1 by the great restorer of extinct animals1 ,mr4 ,waterhouse ,hawkins1 may serve to give some idea of the grand and massive forms of animal life which1 even in the higher latitudes1 survived the ,post-pliocene cold1 and only decayed and disappeared under that amelioration of physical conditions which marks the introduction of the human period4 ,,ak ,page #cja4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,post-,,pliocene1 ,,and ,,advent ,,of ,,man4 ,in closing these sketches it may seem unsatisfactory not to link the geological ages with the modern period in which we live2 yet1 perhaps1 nothing is more complicated or encompassed with greater difficulties or uncertainties4 ,the geologist1 emerging from the study of the older monuments of the earth's history1 and working with the methods of physical science1 here meets face to face the archologist and historian1 who have been tracing back in the opposite direction1 and with very different appliances1 the stream of human history and tradition4 ,in such circumstances conflicts may occur1 or at least the two paths of inquiry may refuse to connect themselves without concessions unpleasant to the pursuers of one or both4 ,further1 it is just at this meeting-place that the dim candle of traditional lore is almost burnt out in the hand of the antiquary1 and that the geologist finds his monumental evidence becoming more scanty and less distinct4 ,we cannot hope as yet to dispel all the shadows that haunt this obscure domain1 but can at least point out some of the paths which traverse it4 ,in attempting this1 we may first classify the time involved as follows3 7#a7 ,the earlier ,post-pliocene period of geology may be called the ,glacial era4 ,it is that of a cold climate1 accompanied by glaciation and boulder deposits4 7#b7 ,the later ,post-pliocene may be called the ,post-glacial era4 ,it is that of re-elevation of the continents and restoration of a mild temperature4 ,it connects itself with the pre-historic period of the archologist1 inasmuch as remains of man and his works are apparently included in the same deposits which hold the bones of ,post-glacial animals4 7#c7 ,the ,modern era is that of secular human history4 ,it may be stated with certainty that the ,pliocene period of geology affords no trace of human remains or implements2 and the same may ,i think be affirmed of the period of glaciation and subsidence which constitutes the earlier ,post-pliocene4 ,with the rise of the land out of the ,glacial sea indications of man are believed to appear1 along with remains of several mammalian species now his contemporaries4 ,archology and geology thus meet somewhere in the pre-historic period of the former1 and in the ,post-glacial of the latter4 ,wherever1 therefore1 human history extends farthest back1 and geological formations of the most modern periods exist and have been explored1 we may expect best to define their junctions4 ,unfortunately it happens that our information on these points is still very incomplete and locally limited4 ,in many extensive regions1 like ,america and ,australia1 while the geological record is somewhat complete1 the historic record extends back at most a few centuries1 and the pre-historic monuments are of uncertain date4 ,in other countries1 as in ,western ,asia and ,egypt1 where the historic record extends very far back1 the geology is less perfectly known4 ,at the present moment1 therefore1 the main battle-field of these controversies is in ,western ,europe1 where1 though history scarce extends farther back then the time of the ,roman ,republic1 the geologic record is very complete1 and has been explored with some thoroughness4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that we thus have to face the question at a point where the pre-historic gap is necessarily very wide4 ,taking ,england as an example1 all before the ,roman invasion is pre-historic1 and with regard to this pre-historic period the evidence that we can obtain is chiefly of a geological character4 ,the pre-historic men are essentially fossils4 ,we know of them merely what can be learned from their bones and implements embedded in the soil or in the earth of the caverns in which some of them sheltered themselves4 ,for the origin and date of these deposits the antiquary must go to the geologist1 and he imitates the geologist in arranging his human fossils under such names as the ,paleolithic1 or period of rude stone implements2 the ,neolithic or period of polished stone implements2 the ,bronze ,period1 and the ,iron ,period2 though inasmuch as higher and lower states of the arts seem always to have coexisted1 and the time involved is comparatively short1 these periods are of far less value then those of geology4 ,in ,britain the age of iron is in the main historic4 ,that of bronze goes back to the times of early ,phoenician trade with the south of ,england4 ,that of stone1 while locally extending far into the succeeding ages1 reaches back into an unknown antiquity1 and is1 as we shall see in the sequel1 probably divided into two by a great physical change1 though not in the abrupt and arbitrary way sometimes assumed by those who base their classification solely on the rude or polished character of stone implements4 ,we must not forget1 however1 that in ,western ,asia the ages of bronze and iron may have begun two thousand years at least earlier then in ,britain1 and that in some parts of ,america the ,palaeolithic age of chipped stone implements still continues4 ,we must also bear in mind that when the archologist appeals to the geologist for aid1 he thereby leaves that kind of investigation in which dates are settled by years1 for that in which they are marked merely by successive physical and organic changes4 ,turning1 then1 to our familiar geological methods1 and confining ourselves mainly to the ,northern ,hemisphere and to ,western ,europe1 two pictures present themselves to us3 767 ,the physical changes preceding the advent of man2 7#b7 ,the decadence of the land animals of the ,post-pliocene age1 and the appearance of those of the modern4 ,in the last chapter ,i had to introduce the reader to a great and terrible revolution1 whereby the old ,pliocene continents1 with all their wealth of animals and plants1 became sealed up in a mantle of ,greenland ice1 or1 slowly sinking beneath the level of the sea1 were transformed into an ocean-bottom over which icebergs bore their freight of clay and boulders4 ,we also saw that as the ,post-pliocene age advanced1 the latter condition prevailed1 until the waters stood more then a thousand feet deep over the plains of ,europe4 ,in this great glacial submergence1 which closed the earlier ,post-pliocene period1 and over vast areas of the ,northern ,hemisphere1 terminated the existence of many of the noblest forms of life1 it is believed that man had no share4 ,we have1 at least as yet1 no record of his presence4 ,out of these waters the land again rose slowly and intermittently1 so that the receding waves worked even out of hard rocks ranges of coast cliff which the further elevation converted into inland terraces1 and that the clay and stones deposited by the ,glacial waters were in many places worked over and rearranged by the tides and waves of the shallowing sea before they were permanently raised up to undergo the action of the rains and streams1 while long banks of sand and gravel were stretched across plains and the mouths of valleys1 constituting kames1 or eskers1 only to be distinguished from moraines of glaciers by the stratified arrangement of their materials4 ,further1 as the land rose1 its surface was greatly and rapidly modified by rains and streams4 ,there is the amplest evidence1 both in ,europe and ,america1 that at this time the erosion by these means was enormous in comparison with anything we now experience4 ,the rainfall must have been excessive1 the volume of water in the streams very great2 and the facilities for cutting channels in the old ,pliocene valleys1 filled to the brim with mud and boulder-clay1 were unprecedented4 ,while the area of the land was still limited1 much of it would be high and broken1 and it would have all the dampness of an insular climate4 ,as it rose in height1 plains which had1 while under the sea1 been loaded with the dbris swept from the land1 would be raised up to experience river erosion4 ,it was the spring-time of the ,glacial era1 a spring eminent for its melting snows1 its rains1 and its river floods4,,al ,to an observer living at this time it would have seemed as if the slow process of moulding the continents was being pushed forward with unexampled rapidity4 ,the valleys were ploughed out and cleansed1 the plains levelled and overspread with beds of alluvium1 giving new features of beauty and utility to the land1 and preparing the way for the life of the ,modern period1 as if to make up for the time which had been lost in the dreary ,glacial age4 ,it will readily be understood how puzzling these deposits have been to geologists1 especially to those who fail to present to their minds the true conditions of the period2 and how difficult it is to separate the river alluvia of this age from the deposits in the seas and estuaries1 and these again from the older ,glacial beds4 ,further1 in not a few instances the animals of a cold climate must have lived in close proximity to those which belonged to ameliorated conditions1 and the fossils of the older ,post-pliocene must often1 in the process of sorting by water1 have been mixed with those of the newer4 ,,al ,mr4 ,tylor has well designated this period as the ,pluvial age4 ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 #ahgj4 ,many years ago the brilliant and penetrating intellect of ,edward ,forbes was directed to the question of the maximum extent of the later ,post-pliocene or ,post-glacial land2 and his investigations into the distribution of the ,european flora1 in connection with the phenomena of submerged terrestrial surfaces1 led to the belief that the land had risen until it was both higher and more extensive then at present4 ,at the time of greatest elevation1 ,england was joined to the continent of ,europe by a level plain1 and a similar plain connected ,ireland with its sister islands4 ,over these plains the plants constituting the ,germanic flora spread themselves into the area of the ,british ,islands1 and herds of mammoth1 rhinoceros1 and ,irish elk wandered and extended their range from east to west4 ,the deductions of ,forbes have been confirmed and extended by others2 and it can scarcely be doubted that in the ,post-glacial era1 the land regained fully the extent which it had possessed in the time of the ,pliocene4 ,in these circumstances the loftier hills might still reach the limits of perpetual snow1 but their glaciers would no longer descend to the sea4 ,what are now the beds of shallow seas would be vast wooded plains1 drained by magnificent rivers1 whose main courses are now submerged1 and only their branches remain as separate and distinct streams1 ,the cold but equable climate of the ,post-pliocene would now be exchanged for warm summers1 alternating with sharp winters1 whose severity would be mitigated by the dense forest covering1 which would also contribute to the due supply of moisture1 preventing the surface from being burnt into arid plains4 ,it seems not improbable that it was when the continents had attained to their greatest extension and when animal and vegetable life had again over-spread the new land to its utmost limits1 that man was introduced on the eastern continent1 and with him several mammalian species1 not known in the ,pliocene period1 and some of which1 as the sheep1 the goat1 the ox1 and the dog1 have ever since been his companions and humble allies4 ,these1 at least in the west of ,europe1 were the ,palaeolithic men1 the makers of the oldest flint implements2 and armed with these1 they had to assert the mastery of man over broader lands then we now possess1 and over many species of great animals now extinct4 ,in thus writing1 ,i assume the accuracy of the inferences from the occurrence of worked stones with the bones of post-glacial animals1 which must have lived during the condition of our continents above referred to4 ,if these inferences are well founded1 not only did man exist at this time1 but man not even varietally distinct from modern ,european races4 ,but if man really appeared in ,europe in the ,post-glacial era1 he was destined to be exposed to one great natural vicissitude before his permanent establishment in the world4 ,the land had reached its maximum elevation1 but its foundations1 standing in the water and out of the water1 were not yet securely settled1 and it had to take one more plunge-bath before attaining its modern fixity4 ,this seems to have been a comparatively rapid subsidence and re-elevation1 leaving but slender traces of its occurrence1 but changing to some extent the levels of the continents1 and failing to restore them fully to their former elevation1 so that large areas of the lower grounds still remained under the sea4 ,if1 as the greater number of geologists now believe1 man was then on the earth1 it is not impossible that this constituted the deluge recorded in that remarkable log book of ,noah preserved to us in ,genesis1 and of which the memory remains in the traditions of most ancient nations4 ,this is at least the geological deluge which separates the ,post-glacial period from the ,modern1 and the earlier from the later pre-historic period of the archologists4,,am ,,am ,i have long thought that the narrative in ,gen4 vii4 and viii4 can be understood only on the supposition that it is a contemporary journal or log of an eye-witness incorporated by the author of ,genesis in his work4 ,the dates of the rising and fall of the water1 the note of soundings over the hill-tops when the maximum was attained1 and many other details1 as well as the whole tone of the narrative1 seem to require this supposition1 which also removes all the difficulties of interpretation which have been so much felt4 ,very important questions of time are involved in this idea of ,post-glacial man1 and much will depend1 in the solution of these1 on the views which we adopt as to the rate of subsidence and elevation of the land4 ,if1 with the majority of ,british geologists1 we hold that it is to be measured by those slow movements now in progress1 the time required will be long4 ,if1 with most ,continental and some ,american geologists1 we believe in paroxysmal movements of elevation and depression1 it may be much reduced4 ,we have seen in the progress of our inquiries that the movements of the continents seem to have occurred with accelerated rapidity in the more modern periods4 ,we have also seen that these movements might depend on the slow contraction of the earth's crust due to cooling1 but that the effects of this contraction might manifest themselves only at intervals4 ,we have further seen that the gradual retardation of the rotation of the earth furnishes a cause capable of producing elevation and subsidence of the land1 and that this also might be manifested at longer or shorter intervals1 according to the strength and resisting power of the crust4 ,under the influence of this retardation1 so long as the crust of the earth did not give way1 the waters would be driven toward the poles1 and the northern land would be submerged2 but so soon as the tension became so great as to rupture the solid shell1 the equatorial regions would collapse1 and the northern land would again be raised4 ,the subsidence would be gradual1 the elevation paroxysmal1 and perhaps intermittent4 ,let us suppose that this was what occurred in the ,glacial period1 and that the land had attained to its maximum elevation4 ,this might not prove to be permanent2 the new balance of the crust might be liable to local or general disturbance in a minor degree1 leading to subsidence and partial re-elevation1 following the great ,post-glacial elevation4 ,there is1 therefore1 nothing unreasonable in that view which makes the subsidence and re-elevation at the close of the ,post-glacial period somewhat abrupt1 at least when compared with some more ancient movements4 ,but what is the evidence of the deposits formed at this period8 ,here we meet with results most diverse and contradictory1 but ,i think there can be little doubt that on this kind of evidence the time required for the ,post-glacial period has been greatly exaggerated1 especially by those geologists who refuse to receive such views as to subsidence and elevation as those above stated4 ,the calculations of long time based on the gravels of the ,somme1 on the cone of the ,tinire1 on the peat bogs of ,france and ,denmark1 on certain cavern deposits1 have all been shown to be more or less at fault2 and possibly none of these reach further back then the six or seven thousand years which1 according to ,dr4 ,andrews1 have elapsed since the close of the boulder-clay deposits in ,america4,,an ,i am aware that such a statement will be regarded with surprise by many in ,england1 where even the popular literature has been penetrated with the idea of a duration of the human period immensely long in comparison with what used to be the popular belief2 but ,i feel convinced that the scientific pendulum must swing backward in this direction nearer to its old position4 ,let us look at a few of the facts4 ,much use has been made of the cone or delta of the ,tinire on the eastern side of the ,lake of ,geneva1 as an illustration of the duration of the ,modern period4 ,this little stream has deposited at its mouth a mass of dbris carried down from the hills4 ,this being cut through by a railway1 is found to contain ,roman remains to a depth of four feet1 bronze implements to a depth of ten feet1 stone implements at a depth of nineteen feet4 ,the deposit ceased about three hundred years ago1 and calculating #acjj to #aejj years for the ,roman period1 we should have #gjjj to #aj1jjj years as the age of the cone4 ,but before the formation of the present cone1 another had been formed twelve times as large4 ,thus for the two cones together1 a duration of more then #ij1jjj years is claimed4 ,it appears1 however1 that this calculation has been made irrespective of two essential elements in the question4 ,no allowance has been made for the fact that the inner layers of a cone are necessarily smaller then the outer2 nor for the further fact that the older cone belongs to a distinct time 7the pluvial age already referred to71 when the rainfall was much larger1 and the transporting power of the torrent great in proportion4 ,making allowance for these conditions1 the age of the newer cone1 that holding human remains1 falls between #djjj and #ejjj years4 ,the peat bed of ,abbeville1 in the north of ,france1 has grown at the rate of one and a half to two inches in a century4 ,being twenty-six feet in thickness1 the time occupied in its growth must have amounted to #bj1jjj years2 and yet it is probably newer then some of the gravels on the same river containing flint implements4 ,but the composition of the ,abbeville peat shows that it's a forest peat1 and the erect stems preserved in it prove that in the first instance it must have grown at the rate of about three feet in a century1 and after the destruction of the forest its rate of increase down to the present time diminished rapidly almost to nothing4 ,its age is thus reduced to perhaps less then #djjj years4 ,in #ahfe ,i had an opportunity to examine the now celebrated gravels of ,st4 ,acheul1 on the ,somme1 by some supposed to go back to a very ancient period4 ,with the papers of ,prestwich and other able observers in my hand1 ,i could conclude merely that the undisturbed gravels were older then the ,roman period1 but how much older only detailed topographical surveys could prove2 and that taking into account the probabilities of a different level of the land1 a wooded condition of the country1 a greater rainfall1 and a glacial filling of the ,somme valley with clay and stones subsequently cut out by running water the gravels could scarcely be older then the ,abbeville peat4 ,to have published such views in ,england would have been simply to have delivered myself into the hands of the ,philistines4 ,i therefore contented myself with recording my opinion in ,canada4 ,tylor,,ao and ,andrews,,ap have1 however1 ,i think1 subsequently shown that my impressions were correct4 ,in like manner1 ,i fail to perceive1 and ,i think all ,american geologists acquainted with the pre-historic monuments of the western continent must agree with me1 any evidence of great antiquity in the caves of ,belgium and ,england1 the kitchen-middens of ,denmark1 the rock-shelters of ,france1 the lake habitations of ,switzerland4 ,at the same time1 ,i would disclaim all attempt to resolve their dates into precise terms of years4 ,i may merely add1 that the elaborate and careful observations of ,dr4 ,andrews on the raised beaches of ,lake ,michigan1 observations of a much more precise character then any which1 in so far as ,i know1 have been made of such deposits in ,europe1 enable him to calculate the time which has elapsed since ,north ,america rose out of the waters of the ,glacial period as between #eejj and #gejj years4 ,this fixes at least the possible duration of the human period in ,north ,america1 though ,i believe there are other lines of evidence which1 would reduce the residence of man in ,america to a much shorter time4 ,longer periods have1 it is true1 been deduced from the delta of the ,mississippi and the gorge of ,niagara2 but the deposits of the former have been found by ,hilgard to be in great part marine1 and the excavation of the latter began at a period probably long ,anterior to the advent of man4 ,,an ,transactions1 ,chicago ,academy1 #ahga4 ,,ao ,journal of ,geological ,society1 vol4 xxv4 ,,ap ,silliman's ,journal1 #ahfh4 ,but another question remains4 ,from the similarities existing in the animals and plants of regions in the southern hemisphere now widely separated by the ocean1 it has been inferred that ,post-pliocene land of great extent existed there2 and that on this land men may have lived before the continents of the northern hemisphere were ready for them4 ,it has even been supposed that1 inasmuch as the flora and fauna of ,australia have an aspect like that of the ,eocene ,tertiary1 and very low forms of man exist in that part of the world1 these low races are the oldest of all1 and may date from ,tertiary times4 ,positive evidence of this1 however1 there is none4 ,these races have no monuments2 nor1 so far as known1 have they left their remains in ,post-pliocene deposits4 ,it depends on the assumptions that the ruder races of men are the oldest2 and that man has no greater migratory powers then other animals4 ,the first is probably false1 as being contrary to history2 and also to the testimony of palaeontology with reference to the laws of creation4 ,the second is certainly false2 for we know that man has managed to associate himself with every existing fauna and flora1 even in modern times2 and that the most modern races have pitched their tents amid tree-ferns and ,proteace1 and have hunted kangaroos and emus4 ,further1 when we consider that the productions of the southern hemisphere are not only more antique then those of the northern1 but1 on the whole1 less suited for the comfortable subsistence of man and the animals most useful to him2 and that the ,post-pliocene animals of the southern hemisphere were of similar types with their modern successors1 we are the less inclined to believe that these regions would be selected as the cradle of the human race4 ,,condensed ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,ages ,,and ,,periods ,,of ,,the ,,neozoic4 ,key to ,symbols ,recent species of ,aquatic ,invertebrates4 ,teleostian ,fishes and ,squaloid sharks prevail4 --- ,ages of ,angiosperms and ,plants4 ,and ,god said--let the land bring forth herbivorous beasts and carnivorous beasts1 after their kinds2 and it was so4 ,and ,god created man in ,his own image4 ,time4 ,ages4 ,periods4 ,animals and ,plants4 ,,neozoic ,,or ,,cainozoic4 ,newer4 ,still future 787 ,age of ,modern ,middle4 ,historic4 ,man ,older4 ,pre-historic4 ,n4 ,post-,glacial gravels and cave deposits4 ,saxicava sand and ,post- terraces 7,america74 ,pliocene ,m4 ,marine ,clays4 ,leda clays4 ,erie - clay 7,america74 - ,o4 ,glacial ,drift4 ,boulder clay - 7,america74 - - ,n4 ,norwich crag2 ,sicilian and - ,val d',arno beds4 - ,pliocene ,m4 ,sumter group 7,america74 - ,o4 ,red and ,coralline crag2 ,sub-appenine - beds4 - - ,n4 ,faluns of ,loraine2 ,upper ,molasse2 - ,siwalik beds2 ,oeningen plant beds4 - ,york-town beds 7,america74 - ,miocene ,m4 - ,o4 ,upper ,paris beds2 ,hempstead and ,bovey - beds2 ,lower ,molasse4 ,nebraska beds - 7,west ,america74 ,mammals4 - - ,n4 ,gypseous series1 ,paris4 ,vicksburg - group 7,america74 ,eocene ,m4 ,calcaire ,grossier1 ,bagshot and ,alum ,bay beds4 ,jackson group 7,america74 ,o4 ,argile ,plastique2 ,london clay4 ,claiborne group 7,america74 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,post-,,pliocene1 ,,and ,,advent ,,of ,,man4 7,continued47 ,turning from these difficult questions of time1 we may now look at the assemblage of land-animals presented by the ,post-glacial period4 ,here1 for the first time in the great series of continental elevations and depressions1 we find the newly-emerging land peopled with familiar forms4 ,nearly all the modern ,european animals have left their bones in the clays1 gravels1 and cavern deposits which belong to this period2 but with them are others either not now found within the limits of temperate ,europe1 or altogether extinct4 ,thus the remarkable fact comes out1 that the uprising land was peopled at first with a more abundant fauna then that which it now sustains1 and that many species1 and among these some of the largest and most powerful1 have been weeded out1 either before the advent of man or in the changes which immediately succeeded that event4 ,that in the ,post-glacial period so many noble animal species should have been overthrown in the struggle for existence1 without leaving any successors1 at least in ,europe1 is one of the most remarkable phenomena in the history of life on our planet4 ,according to4 ,pictet1,,aq the ,post-glacial beds of ,europe afford ninety-eight species of mammals1 of which fifty-seven still live there1 the remainder being either locally or wholly extinct4 ,according to ,mr4 ,boyd ,dawkins1,,ar in ,great ,britain about twelve ,pliocene species survived the ,glacial period1 and reappeared in the ,british ,islands in the ,post-glacial4 ,to these were added forty-one species making in all fifty-three1 whose remains are found in the gravels and caves of the latter period4 ,of these1 in the ,modern period twenty-eight1 or rather more then one-half1 survive1 fourteen are wholly extinct1 and eleven are locally extinct4 ,,aq ,palontologie4 ,,ar ,journal of ,geological ,society1 and ,palontographical ,society's publications4 ,illustration3 ,,britain ,,in ,,the ,,post-,,pliocene ,,age4 ,musk-sheep1 ,hippopotamus1 ,machairodus1 ,mammoth1 ,wooly ,rhinoceros1 ,long-fronted ,ox1 and ,irish stag4 ,the animals are taken from ,mr4 ,waterhouse ,hawkins's picture1 ,struggles of ,life among ,british ,animals of the ,antediluvian ,times4 ,london3 #ahec4 ,the landscape is that of the later part of the cold ,post-pliocene period4 ,among the extinct beasts1 were some of very remarkable character4 ,there were two or more species of elephant1 which seem in this age to have overspread1 in vast herds1 all the plains of ,northern ,europe and ,asia2 and one of which we know1 from the perfect specimen found embedded in the frozen soil of ,siberia1 lived till a very modern period2 and was clothed with long hair and fur1 fitting it for a cold climate4 ,there were also three or four species of rhinoceros1 one of which at least 7the ,r4 ,tichorhinus7 was clad with wool like the great ,siberian mammoth4 ,with these was a huge hippopotamus 7,h4 major71 whose head-quarters would1 however1 seem to have been farther south then ,england1 or which perhaps inhabited chiefly the swamps along the large rivers running through areas now under the sea4 ,the occurrence of such an animal shows an abundant vegetation1 and a climate so mild1 that the rivers were not covered with heavy ice in winter2 for the supposition that this old hippopotamus was a migratory animal seems very unlikely4 ,another animal of this time1 was the magnificent deer1 known as the ,irish elk2 and which perhaps had its principal abode on the great plain which is now the ,irish ,sea4 ,the terrible machairodus1 or cymetar-toothed tiger1 was continued from the ,pliocene2 and in addition to species of bear still living1 there was a species of gigantic size1 probably now extinct1 the cave bear4 ,evidences are accumulating1 to show that all or nearly all these survived until the human period4 ,if we turn now to those animals which are only locally extinct1 we meet with some strange1 and at first sight puzzling anomalies4 ,some of these are creatures now limited to climates much colder then that of ,britain4 ,others now belong to warmer climates4 ,conspicuous among the former are the musk-sheep1 the elk1 the reindeer1 the glutton1 and the lemming4 ,among the latter1 we see the panther1 the lion1 and the ,cape hyena4 ,that animals now so widely separated as the musk-sheep of ,arctic ,america and the hyena of ,south ,africa1 could ever have inhabited the same forests1 seems a dream of the wildest fancy4 ,yet it is not difficult to find a probable solution of the mystery4 ,in ,north ,america1 at the present day1 the puma1 or ,american lion1 comes up to the same latitudes with the caribou1 or reindeer1 and moose2 and in ,asia1 the tiger extends its migrations into the abodes of boreal animals in the plains of ,siberia4 ,even in ,europe1 within the historic period1 the reindeer inhabited the forests of ,germany2 and the lion extended its range nearly as far northward4 ,the explanation lies in the co-existence of a densely wooded country with a temperate climate2 the forests affording to southern animals shelter from the cold or winter2 and equally to the northern animals protection from the heat of summer4 ,hence our wonder at this association of animals of diverse habitudes as to climate1 is merely a prejudice arising from the present exceptional condition of ,europe4 ,still it is possible that changes unfavourable to some of these animals1 were in progress before the arrival of man1 with his clearings and forest fires and other disturbing agencies4 ,even in ,america1 the megalonyx1 or gigantic sloth1 the mammoth1 the mastodon1 the fossil horse1 and many other creatures1 disappeared before the ,modern period2 and on both continents the great ,post-glacial subsidence or deluge may have swept away some of the species4 ,such a supposition seems necessary to account for the phenomena of the gravel and cave deposits of ,england1 and ,cope has recently suggested it in explanation of similar storehouses of fossil animals in ,america4,,as ,,as ,proceedings of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 ,april #ahga4 ,among the many pictures which this fertile subject calls up1 perhaps none is more curious then that presented by the ,post-glacial cavern deposits4 ,we may close our survey of this period with the exploration of one of these strange repositories2 and may select ,kent's ,hole at ,torquay1 so carefully excavated and illumined with the magnesium light of scientific inquiry by ,mr4 ,pengelly and a committee of the ,british ,association4 ,the somewhat extensive and ramifying cavern of ,kent's ,hole is an irregular excavation1 evidently due partly to fissures in limestone rock1 and partly to the erosive action of water enlarging such fissures into chambers and galleries4 ,at what time it was originally cut we do not know1 but it must have existed as a cavern at the close of the ,pliocene or beginning of the ,post-pliocene period1 since which time it has been receiving a series of deposits which have quite filled up some of its smaller branches4 ,first and lowest1 according to ,mr4 ,pengelly1 is a breccia or mass of broken and rounded stones1 with hardened red clay filling the interstices4 ,most of the stones are of the rock which forms the roof and walls of the cave1 but many1 especially the rounded ones1 are from more distant parts of the surrounding country4 ,in this mass1 the depth of which is unknown1 are numerous bones1 all of one kind of animal1 the cave bear1 a creature which seems to have lived in ,western ,europe from the close of the ,pliocene down to the modern period4 ,it must have been one of the earliest and most permanent tenants of ,kent's ,hole at a time when its lower chambers were still filled with water4 ,next above the breccia is a floor of stalagmite or stony carbonate of lime1 deposited from the drippings of the roof1 and in some places three feet thick4 ,this also contains bones of the cave bear1 deposited when there was less access of water to the cavern4 ,mr4 ,pengelly infers the existence of man at this time from a single flint flake and a single flint chip found in these beds2 but mere flakes and chips of flint are too often natural to warrant such a conclusion4 ,after the old stalagmite floor above mentioned was formed1 the cave again received deposits of muddy water and stones2 but now a change occurs in the remains embedded4 ,this stony clay1 or cave earth has yielded an immense quantity of teeth and bones1 including those of the elephant1 rhinoceros1 horse1 hyena1 cave bear1 reindeer1 and ,irish elk4 ,with these were found weapons of chipped flint1 and harpoons1 needles1 and bodkins of bone1 precisely similar to those of the ,north ,american ,indians and other rude races4 ,the cave earth is four feet or more in thickness1 ,it is not stratified1 and contains many fallen fragments of rock1 rounded stones1 and broken pieces of stalagmite4 ,it also has patches of the excrement of hyenas1 which the explorers suppose to indicate the temporary residence of these animals2 and in one spot1 near the top1 is a limited layer of burnt wood1 with remains which indicate the cooking and eating of repasts of animal food by man4 ,it is clear that when this bed was formed the cavern was liable to be inundated with muddy water1 carrying stones and other heavy objects1 and breaking up in places the old stalagmite floor4 ,one of the most puzzling features1 especially to those who take an exclusively uniformitarian view1 is1 that the entrance of water-borne mud and stones implies a level of the bottom of the water in the neighbouring valleys of about #ajj feet above its present height4 ,the cave earth is covered by a second crust of stalagmite1 less dense and thick then that below1 and containing only a few bones1 which are of the same general character with those below1 but include a fragment of a human jaw with teeth4 ,evidently1 when this stalagmite was formed1 the influx of water-borne materials had ceased1 or nearly so2 but whether the animals previously occupying the country still continued in it1 or only accidental bones1 etc41 were introduced into the cave or lifted from the bed below1 does not appear4 ,the next bed marks a new change4 ,it is a layer of black mould from three to ten inches thick4 ,its microscopic structure does not seem to have been examined2 but it is probably a forest soil1 introduced by growth1 by water1 by wind1 and by ingress of animals1 at a time when the cave was nearly in its present state1 and the surrounding country densely wooded4 ,this bed contains bones of animals1 all of them modern1 and works of art ranging from the old ,british times before the ,roman invasion up to the porter-bottles and dropped halfpence of modern visitors4 ,lastly1 in and upon the black mould are many fallen blocks from the roof of the cave4 ,there can be no doubt that this cave and the neighbouring one of ,brixham have done very much to impress the minds of ,british geologists with ideas of the great antiquity of man1 and they have1 more then any other ,post-glacial monuments1 shown the persistence of some animals now extinct up to the human age4 ,of precise data for determining time1 they have1 however1 given nothing4 ,the only measures which seed to have been applied1 namely1 the rate of growth of stalagmite and the rate of erosion of the neighbouring valleys1 are1 from the very sequence of the deposits1 obviously worthless2 and the only apparently available constant measure1 namely1 the fall of blocks from the roof1 seems not yet to have been applied4 ,we are therefore quite uncertain as to the number of centuries involved in the filling of this cave1 and must remain so until a surer system of calculation is adopted4 ,we may1 however1 attempt to sketch the series of events which it indicates4 ,the animals found in ,kent's ,hole are all ,post-glacial4 ,they therefore inhabited the country after it rose from the great ,glacial submergence4 ,perhaps the first colonists of the coasts of ,devonshire in this period were the cave bears1 migrating on floating ice1 and subsisting1 like the ,arctic bear1 and the black bears of ,anticosti1 on fish1 and on the garbage cast up by the sea4 ,they found ,kent's ,hole a sea-side cavern1 with perhaps some of its galleries still full of water1 and filling with1 breccia1 with which the bones of dead bears became mixed4 ,as the land rose1 these creatures for the most part betook themselves to lower levels1 and in process of time the cavern stood upon a hill-side1 perhaps several hundreds of feet above the sea2 and the mountain torrents1 their beds not yet emptied of glacial detritus1 washed into it stones and mud and carcases of animals of many species which had now swarmed across the plains elevated out of the sea1 and multiplied in the land4 ,this was the time of the cave earth2 and before its deposit was completed1 though how long before1 a confused and often-disturbed bed of this kind cannot tell1 man himself seems to have been added to the inhabitants of the ,british land4 ,in pursuit of game he sometimes ascended the valleys beyond the cavern1 or even penetrated into its outer chambers2 or perhaps there were even in those days rude and savage hill-men1 inhabiting the forests and warring with the more cultivated denizens of plains below1 which are now deep under the waters4 ,their weapons1 lost in hunting1 or buried in the flesh of wounded animals which crept to the streams to assuage their thirst1 are those found in the cave earth4 ,the absence of human bones may merely show that the mighty hunters of those days were too hardy1 athletic1 and intelligent1 often to perish from accidental causes1 and that they did not use this cavern for a place of burial4 ,but the land again subsided4 ,the valley of that now nameless river1 of which the ,rhine the themes1 and the ,severn may have alike been tributaries1 disappeared under the sea2 and some tribe1 driven from the lower lands1 took refuge in this cave1 now again near the encroaching waves1 and left there the remains of their last repasts ere they were driven farther inland or engulfed in the waters4 ,for a time the cavern may have been wholly submerged1 and the charcoal of the extinguished fires became covered with its thin coating of clay4 ,but ere long it re-emerged to form part of an island1 long barren and desolate2 and the valleys having been cut deeper by the receding waters1 it no longer received muddy deposits1 and the crust formed by drippings from its roof contained only bones and pebbles washed by rains or occasional land floods from its own clay deposits4 ,finally1 the modern forests overspread the land1 and were tenanted by the modern animals4 ,man returned to use the cavern again as a place of refuge or habitation1 and to leave there the relics contained in the black earth4 ,this seems at present the only intelligible history of this curious cave and others resembling it2 though1 when we consider the imperfection of the results obtained even by a large amount of labour1 and the difficult and confused character of the deposits in this and similar caves1 too much value should not be attached to such histories1 which may at any time be contradicted or modified by new facts or different explanations of those already known4 ,the time involved depends very much1 as already stated1 on the question whether we regard the ,post-glacial subsidence and re-elevation as somewhat sudden1 or as occupying long ages at the slow rate at which some parts of our continents are now rising or sinking4,,at ,,at ,another element in this is also the question raised by ,dawkins1 ,geikie1 and others as to subdivisions of the ,post-glacial period and intermissions of the ,glacial cold4 ,after careful consideration of these views1 however1 ,i cannot consider them as of much importance4 ,such are the glimpses1 obscure though stimulating to the imagination1 which geology can give of the circumstances attending the appearance of man in ,western ,europe4 ,how far we are from being able to account for his origin1 or to give its circumstances and relative dates for the whole world1 the reader will readily understand4 ,still it is something to know that there is an intelligible meeting-place of the later geological ages and the age of man1 and that it is one inviting to many and hopeful researches4 ,it is curious also to find that the few monuments disinterred by geology1 the antediluvian record of ,holy ,scripture1 and the golden age of heathen tradition1 seem alike to point to similar physical conditions1 and to that simple state of the arts of life in which gold and wampum and flint stones,,au constituted the chief material treasures of the earliest tribes of men4 ,they also point to the immeasurable elevation1 then as now1 of man over his brute rivals for the dominion of the earth4 ,to the naturalist this subject opens up most inviting yet most difficult paths of research1 to be entered on with caution and reverence1 rather then in the bold and dashing spirit of many modern attempts4 ,the ,christian1 on his part1 may feel satisfied that the scattered monumental relics of the caves and gravels will tell no story very different from that which he has long believed on other evidence1 nor anything inconsistent with those views of man's heavenly origin and destiny which have been the most precious inheritance of the greatest and best minds of every age1 from that early pre-historic period when men1 palaeolithic men1 no doubt1 began to invoke the name of ,jehovah1 the coming ,saviour1 down to those times when life and immortality are brought to light1 for all who will see1 by the ,saviour already come4 ,,au ,so ,i read the gold1 bedolah1 and shoham of the description of ,eden in ,genesis ii4--the oldest literary record of the stone age4 ,in completing this series of pictures1 ,i wish emphatically to insist on the imperfection of the sketches which ,i have been able to present1 and which are less1 in comparison with the grand march of the creative work1 even as now imperfectly known to science1 then the roughest pencilling of a child when compared with a finished picture4 ,if they have any popular value1 it will be in presenting such a broad general view of a great subject as may induce further study to fill up the details4 ,if they have any scientific value1 it will be in removing the minds of ,british students for a little from the too exclusive study of their own limited marginal area1 which has been to them too much the celestial empire around which all other countries must be arranged1 and in divesting the subject of the special colouring given to it by certain prominent cliques and parties4 ,geology as a science is at present in a peculiar and somewhat exceptional state4 ,under the influence of a few men of commanding genius belonging to the generation now passing away1 it has made so gigantic conquests that its armies have broken up into bands of specialists1 little better then scientific banditti1 liable to be beaten in detail1 and prone to commit outrages on common sense and good taste1 which bring their otherwise good cause into disrepute4 ,the leaders of these bands are1 many of them1 good soldiers1 but few of them fitted to be general officers1 and none of them able to reunite our scattered detachments4 ,we need larger minds1 of broader culture and wider sympathies1 to organise and rule the lands which we have subdued1 and to lead on to further conquests4 ,in the present state of natural science in ,britain1 this evil is perhaps to be remedied only by providing a wider and deeper culture for our young men4 ,few of our present workers have enjoyed that thorough training in mental as well as physical science1 which is necessary to enable men even of great powers to take large and lofty views of the scheme of nature4 ,hence we often find men who are fair workers in limited departments1 reasoning most illogically1 taking narrow and local views1 elevating the exception into the rule1 led away by baseless metaphysical subtleties1 quarrelling with men who look at their specialties from a different point of view1 and even striving and plotting for the advancement of their own hobbies4 ,such defects certainly mar much of the scientific work now being done4 ,in the more advanced walks of scientific research1 they are to some extent neutralised by that free discussion which true science always fosters2 though even here they sometimes vexatiously arrest the progress of truth1 or open floodgates of error which it may require much labour to close4 ,but in public lectures and popular publications they run riot1 and are stimulated by the mistaken opposition of narrow-minded good men1 by the love of the new and sensational1 and by the rivalry of men struggling for place and position4 ,to launch a clever and startling fallacy which will float for a week and stir up a hard fight1 seems almost as great a triumph as the discovery of an important fact or law2 and the honest student is distracted with the multitude of doctrines1 and hustled aside by the crowd of ambitious groundlings4 ,the only remedy in the case is a higher and more general scientific education2 and yet ,i do not wonder that many good men object to this1 simply because of the difficulty of finding honest and competent teachers1 themselves well grounded in their subjects1 and free from that too common insanity of specialists and half-educated men1 which impels them to run amuck at everything that does not depend on their own methods of research4 ,this is a difficulty which can be met in our time only by the general good sense and right feeling of the community taking a firm hold of the matter1 and insisting on the organization and extension of the higher scientific education1 as well as that of a more elementary character1 under the management of able and sane men4 ,yet even if not so counteracted1 present follies will pass away1 and a new and better state of natural science will arise in the future1 by its own internal development4 ,science cannot long successfully isolate itself from ,god4 ,its life lies in the fact that it is the exponent of the plans and works of the great ,creative ,will4 ,it must1 in spite of itself1 serve ,his purposes1 by dispelling blighting ignorance and superstition1 by lighting the way to successive triumphs of human skill over the powers of nature1 and by guarding men from the evils that flow from infringement of natural laws4 ,and it cannot fail1 as it approaches nearer to the boundaries of that which may be known by finite minds1 to be humbled by the contemplation of the infinite1 and to recognise therein that intelligence of which the human mind is but the image and shadow4 ,it may be that theologians also are needed who shall be fit to take the place of ,moses to our generation1 in teaching it again the very elements of natural theology2 but let them not look upon science as a cold and godless demon1 holding forth to the world a poisoned cup cunningly compounded of truth and falsehood2 but rather as the natural ally and associate of the gospel of salvation4 ,the matter is so put in one of those visions which close the canon of revelation1 when the prophet sees a mighty angel having the everlasting gospel to preach2 but he begins his proclamation by calling on men to worship ,him that made heaven and earth and the sea and the fountains of waters4 ,men must know ,god as the ,creator even before they seek ,him as a benefactor and redeemer4 ,thus religion must go hand in hand with all true and honest science4 ,in this way only may we look forward to a time when a more exact and large-minded science shall be in perfect accord with a more pure and spiritual ,christianity1 when the natural and the spiritual shall be seen to be the necessary complements of each other1 and when we shall hear no more of reconciliations between science and theology1 because there will be no quarrels to reconcile4 ,already1 even in the present chaos of scientific and religious opinion1 indications can be seen by the observant1 that the ,divine ,spirit of order is breathing on the mass1 and will evolve from it new and beautiful worlds of mental and spiritual existence4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,primitive ,,man4 ,,considered ,,with ,,reference ,,to ,,modern ,,theories ,,as ,,to ,,his ,,origin4 ,the geological record1 as we have been reading it1 introduces us to primitive man1 but gives us no distinct information as to his origin4 ,tradition and revelation have1 it is true1 their solutions of the mystery1 but there are1 and always have been1 many who will not take these on trust1 but must grope for themselves with the taper of science or philosophy into the dark caverns whence issue the springs of humanity4 ,in former times it was philosophic speculation alone which lent its dim and uncertain light to these bold inquirers2 but in our day the new and startling discoveries in physics1 chemistry1 and biology have flashed up with an unexpected brilliancy1 and have at least served to dazzle the eyes and encourage the hopes of the curious1 and to lead to explorations more bold and systematic then any previously undertaken4 ,thus has been born amongst us1 or rather renewed1 for it is a very old thing1 that evolutionist philosophy1 which has been well characterised as the baldest of all the philosophies which have sprung up in our world1 and which solves the question of human origin by the assumption that human nature exists potentially in mere inorganic matter1 and that a chain of spontaneous derivation connects incandescent molecules or star-dust with the world1 and with man himself4 ,this evolutionist doctrine is itself one of the strangest phenomena of humanity4 ,it existed1 and most naturally1 in the oldest philosophy and poetry1 in connection with the crudest and most uncritical1 attempts of the human mind to grasp the system of nature2 but that in our day a system destitute of any shadow of proof1 and supported merely by vague analogies and figures of speech1 and by the arbitrary and artificial coherence of its own parts1 should be accepted as a philosophy1 and should find able adherents to string upon its thread of hypotheses our vast and weighty stores of knowledge1 is surpassingly strange4 ,it seems to indicate that the accumulated facts of our age have gone altogether beyond its capacity for generalisation2 and but for the vigour which one sees everywhere1 it might be taken as an indication that the human mind has fallen into a state of senility1 and in its dotage mistakes for science the imaginations which were the dreams of its youth4 ,in many respects these speculations are important and worthy of the attention of thinking men4 ,they seek to revolutionise the religious beliefs of the world1 and if accepted would destroy most of the existing theology and philosophy4 ,they indicate tendencies among scientific thinkers1 which1 though probably temporary1 must1 before they disappear1 descend to lower strata1 and reproduce themselves in grosser forms1 and with most serious effects on the whole structure of society4 ,with one class of minds they constitute a sort of religion1 which so far satisfies the craving for truths higher then those which relate to immediate wants and pleasures4 ,with another and perhaps larger class1 they are accepted as affording a welcome deliverance from all scruples of conscience and fears of a hereafter4 ,in the domain of science evolutionism has like tendencies4 ,it reduces the position of man1 who becomes a descendant of inferior animals1 and a mere term in a series whose end is unknown4 ,it removes from the study of nature the ideas of final cause and purpose2 and the evolutionist1 instead of regarding the world as a work of consummate plan1 skill1 and adjustment1 approaches nature as he would a chaos of fallen rocks1 which may present forms of castles and grotesque profiles of men and animals1 but they are all fortuitous and without significance4 ,it obliterates the fine perception of differences from the mind of the naturalist1 and resolves all the complicated relations of living things into some simple idea of descent with modification4 ,it thus destroys the possibility of a philosophical classification1 reducing all things to a mere series1 and leads to a rapid decay in systematic zoology and botany1 which is already very manifest among the disciples of ,spencer and ,darwin in ,england4 ,the effect of this will be1 if it proceeds further1 in a great degree to destroy the educational value and popular interest attaching to these sciences1 and to throw them down at the feet of a system of debased metaphysics4 ,as redeeming features in all this1 are the careful study of varietal forms1 and the inquiries as to the limits of species1 which have sprung from these discussions1 and the harvest of which will be reaped by the true naturalists of the future4 ,thus these theories as to the origin of men and animals and plants are full of present significance1 and may be studied with profit by all2 and in no part of their applications more usefully then in that which relates to man4 ,let us then inquire1--#a4 ,what is implied in the idea of evolution as applied to man8 #b4 ,what is implied in the idea of creation8 #c4 ,how these several views accord with what we actually know as the result of scientific investigation8 ,the first and second of these questions may well occupy the whole of this chapter1 and we shall be able merely to glance at their leading aspects4 ,in doing so1 it may be well first to place before us in general terms the several alternatives which evolutionists offer1 as to the mode in which the honour of an origin from apes or ape-like animals can be granted to us1 along with the opposite view as to the independent origin of man which have been maintained either on scientific or scriptural grounds4 ,all the evolutionist theories of the origin of man depend primarily on the possibility of his having been produced from some of the animals more closely allied to him1 by the causes now in operation which lead to varietal forms1 or by similar causes which have been in operation2 and some attach more and others less weight to certain of these causes1 or gratuitously suppose others not actually known4 ,of such causes of change some are internal and others external to the organism4 ,with respect to the former1 one school assumes an innate tendency in every species to change in the course of time4,,av ,another believes in exceptional births1 either in the course of ordinary generation or by the mode of parthenogenesis4,,aw ,another refers to the known facts of reproductive accelleration or retardation observed in some humble creatures4,,ax ,new forms arising in any of these ways or fortuitously1 may1 it is supposed1 be perpetuated and increased and further improved by favouring external circumstances and the effort of the organism to avail itself of these1,,ay or by the struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest4,,az ,,av ,parsons1 ,owen4 ,,aw ,mivart1 ,ferris4 ,,ax ,hyatt and ,cope4 ,,ay ,lamarck1 etc4 ,,az ,darwin1 etc4 ,on the other hand1 those who believe in the independent origin of man admit the above causes as adequate only to produce mere varieties1 liable to return into the original stock4 ,they may either hold that man has appeared as a product of special and miraculous creation1 or that he has been created mediately by the operation of forces also concerned in the production of other animals1 but the precise nature of which is still unknown to us2 or lastly1 they may hold what seems to be the view favoured by the book of ,genesis1 that his bodily form is a product of mediate creation and his spiritual nature a direct emanation from his ,creator4 ,the discussion of all these rival theories would occupy volumes1 and to follow them into details would require investigations which have already bewildered many minds of some scientific culture4 ,further1 it is the belief of the writer that this plunging into multitudes of details has been fruitful of error1 and that it will be a better course to endeavour to reach the root of the matter by looking at the foundations of the general doctrine of evolution itself1 and then contrasting it with its rival4 ,taking1 then1 this broad view of the subject1 two great leading alternatives are presented to us4 ,either man is an independent product of the will of a ,higher ,intelligence1 acting directly or through the laws and materials of his own institution and production1 or he has been produced by an unconscious evolution from lower things4 ,it is true that many evolutionists1 either unwilling to offend1 or not perceiving the logical consequences of their own hypothesis1 endeavour to steer a middle course1 and to maintain that the ,creator has proceeded by way of evolution4 ,but the bare1 hard logic of ,spencer1 the greatest ,english authority on evolution1 leaves no place for this compromise1 and shows that the theory1 carried out to its legitimate consequences1 excludes the knowledge of a ,creator and the possibility of ,his work4 ,we have1 therefore1 to choose between evolution and creation2 bearing in mind1 however1 that there may be a place in nature for evolution1 properly limited1 as well as for other things1 and that the idea of creation by no means excludes law and second causes4 ,limiting ourselves in the first place to theories of evolution1 and to these as explaining the origin of species of living beings1 and especially of man1 we naturally first inquire as to the basis on which they are founded4 ,now no one pretends that they rest on facts actually observed1 for no one has ever observed the production of even one species4 ,nor do they even rest1 like the deductions of theoretical geology1 on the extension into past time of causes of change now seen to be in action4 ,their probability depends entirely on their capacity to account hypothetically for certain relations of living creatures to each other1 and to the world without2 and the strongest point of the arguments of their advocates is the accumulation of cases of such relations supposed to be accounted for4 ,such being the kind of argument with which we have to deal1 we may first inquire what we are required to believe as conditions of the action of evolution1 and secondly1 to what extent it actually does explain the phenomena4 ,in the first place1 as evolutionists1 we are required to assume certain forces1 or materials1 or both1 with which evolution shall begin4 ,darwin1 in his ,origin of ,species1 went so far as to assume the existence of a few of the simpler types of animals2 but this view1 of course1 was only a temporary resting-place for his theory4 ,others assume a primitive protoplasm1 or physical basis of life1 and arbitrarily assigning to this substance properties now divided between organised and unorganised1 and between dead and living matter1 find no difficulty in deducing all plants and animals from it4 ,still1 even this cannot have been the ultimate material4 ,it must have been evolved from something4 ,we are thus brought back to certain molecules of star-dust1 or certain conflicting forces1 which must have had self-existence1 and must have potentially included all subsequent creatures4 ,otherwise1 if with ,spencer we hold that ,god is unknowable and creation unthinkable1 we are left suspended on nothing over a bottomless void1 and must adopt as the initial proposition of our philosophy1 that all things were made out of nothing1 and by nothing2 unless we prefer to doubt whether anything exists1 and to push the doctrine of relativity to the unscientific extreme of believing that we can study the relations of things non-existent or unknown4 ,so we must allow the evolutionist some small capital to start with2 observing1 however1 that self-existent matter in a state of endless evolution is something of which we cannot possibly have any definite conception4 ,being granted thus much1 the evolutionist next proceeds to demand that we shall also believe in the indefinite variability of material things1 and shall set aside all idea that there is any difference in kind between the different substances which we know4 ,they must all be mutually convertible1 or at least derivable from some primitive material4 ,it is true that this is contrary to experience4 ,the chemist holds that matter is of different kinds1 that one element cannot be converted into another2 and he would probably smile if told that1 even in the lapse of enormous periods of time1 limestone could be evolved out of silica4 ,he may think that this is very different from the idea that a snail can be evolved from an oyster1 or a bird from a reptile4 ,but the zoologist will inform him that species of animals are only variable within certain limits1 and are not transmutable1 in so far as experience and experiment are concerned4 ,they have their allotropic forms1 but cannot be changed into one another4 ,but if we grant this second demand1 the evolutionist has a third in store for us4 ,we must also admit that by some inevitable necessity the changes of things must in the main take place in one direction1 from the more simple to the more complex1 from the lower to the higher4 ,at first sight this seems not only to follow from the previous assumptions1 but to accord with observation4 ,do not all living things rise from a simpler to a more complex state8 has not the history of the earth displayed a gradually increasing elevation and complexity8 ,but1 on the other hand1 the complex organism becoming mature1 resolves itself again into the simple germ1 and finally is dissolved into its constituent elements4 ,the complex returns into the simple1 and what we see is not an evolution1 but a revolution4 ,in like manner1 in geological time1 the tendency seems to be ever to disintegration and decay4 ,this we see everywhere1 and find that elevation occurs only by the introduction of new species in a way which is not obvious1 and which may rather imply the intervention of a cause from without2 so that here also we are required to admit as a general principle what is contrary to experience4 ,if1 however1 we grant the evolutionist these postulates1 we must next allow him to take the facts of botany and zoology out of their ordinary connection1 and thread them like a string of beads1 as ,herbert ,spencer has done in his ,biology1 on the threefold cord thus fashioned4 ,this done1 we next find1 as might have been expected1 certain gaps or breaks which require to be cunningly filled with artificial material1 in order to give an appearance of continuity to the whole4 ,the first of these gaps which we notice is that between dead and living matter4 ,it is easy to fill this with such a term as protoplasm1 which includes matter both dead and living1 and so to ignore this distinction2 but practically we do not yet know as a possible thing the elevation of matter1 without the agency of a previous living organism1 from that plane in which it is subject merely to physical force1 and is unorganised1 to that where it becomes organised1 and lives4 ,under that strange hypothesis of the origin of life from meteors1 with which ,sir ,william ,thomson closed his address at a late meeting of the ,british ,association1 there was concealed a cutting sarcasm which the evolutionists felt4 ,it reminded them that the men who evolve all things from physical forces do not yet know how these forces can produce the phenomena of life even in its humblest forms4 ,it is true that the scientific world has been again and again startled by the announcement of the production of some of the lowest forms of life1 either from dead organic matter1 or from merely mineral substances2 but in every case heretofore the effort has proved as vain as the analogies attempted to be set up between the formation of crystals and that of organized tissues are fallacious4 ,a second gap is that which separates vegetable and animal life4 ,these are necessarily the converse of each other1 the one deoxidizes and accumulates1 the other oxidizes and expends4 ,only in reproduction or decay does the plant simulate the action of the animal1 and the animal never in its simplest forms assumes the functions of the plant4 ,those obscure cases in the humbler spheres of animal and vegetable life which have been supposed to show a union of the two kingdoms1 disappear on investigation4 ,this gap can1 ,i believe1 be filled up only by an appeal to our ignorance4 ,there may be1 or may have been1 some simple creature unknown to us1 on the extreme verge of the plant kingdom1 that was capable of passing the limit and becoming an animal4 ,but no proof of this exists4 ,it is true that the primitive germs of many kinds of humble plants and animals are so much alike1 that much confusion has arisen in tracing their development4 ,it is also true that some of these creatures can subsist under very dissimilar conditions1 and in very diverse states1 and that under the specious name of ,biology1,,ba we sometimes find a mass of these confusions1 inaccurate observations and varietal differences made to do duty for scientific facts4 ,but all this does not invalidate the grand primary distinction between the animal and the plant1 which should be thoroughly taught and illustrated to all young naturalists1 as one of the best antidotes to the fallacies of the evolutionist school4 ,,ba ,it is doubtful whether men who deny the existence of vital force have a right to call their science ,biology1 any more then atheists have to call their doctrine ,theology2 and it is certain that the assumption of a science of ,biology as distinct from ,phytology and ,zoology1 or including both1 is of the nature of a pious fraud on the part of the more enlightened evolutionists4 ,the objections stated in the text1 to what have been called ,archebiosis and ,heterogenesis seem perfectly applicable1 in so far as ,i can judge from a friendly review by ,wallace1 to the mass of heterogeneous material accumulated by ,dr4 ,bastian in his recent volumes4 ,the conclusions of this writer1 would also1 if established1 involve evolution in a fatal embarras des richesses1 by the hourly production during all geological time1 of millions of new forms all capable of indefinite development4 ,a third is that between any species of animal or plant and any other species4 ,it was this gap1 and this only1 which ,darwin undertook to fill up by his great work on the origin of species1 but1 notwithstanding the immense amount of material thus expended1 it yawns as wide as ever1 since it must be admitted that no case has been ascertained in which an individual of one species has transgressed the limits between it and other species4 ,however extensive the varieties produced by artificial breeding1 the essential characters of the species remain1 and even its minor characters may be reproduced1 while the barriers established in nature between species by the laws of their reproduction1 seem to be absolute4 ,with regard to species1 however1 it must be observed that naturalists are not agreed as to what constitutes a species4 ,many so-called species are probably races1 or varieties1 and one benefit of these inquiries has been to direct attention to the proper discrimination of species from varieties among animals and plants4 ,the loose discrimination of species1 and the tendency to multiply names1 have done much to promote evolutionist views2 but the researches of the evolutionists themselves have shown that we must abandon transmutation of true species as a thing of the present2 and if we imagine it to have occurred1 must refer it to the past4 ,another gap is that between the nature of the animal and the self-conscious1 reasoning1 moral nature of man4 ,we not only have no proof that any animal can1 by any force in itself1 or by any merely physical influences from without1 rise to such a condition2 but the thing is in the highest degree improbable4 ,it is easy to affirm1 with the grosser materialists1 that thought is a secretion of brain1 as bile is of the liver2 but a moment's thought shows that no real analogy obtains between the cases4 ,we may vaguely suppose1 with ,darwin1 that the continual exercise of such powers as animals possess1 may have developed those of man4 ,but our experience of animals shows that their intelligence differs essentially from that of man1 being a closed circle ever returning into itself1 while that of man is progressive1 inventive1 and accumulative1 and can no more be correlated with that of the animal then the vital phenomena of the animal with those of the plant4 ,nor can the gap between the higher religious and moral sentiments of man1 and the instinctive affections of the brutes1 be filled up with that miserable ape imagined by ,lubbock1 which1 crossed in love1 or pining with cold and hunger1 conceived1 for the first time in its poor addled pate1 the dread of evil to come1 and so became the father of theology4 ,this conception1 which ,darwin gravely adopts1 would be most ludicrous1 but for the frightful picture which it gives of the aspect in which religion appears to the mind of the evolutionist4 ,the reader will now readily perceive that the simplicity and completeness of the evolutionist theory entirely disappear when we consider the unproved assumptions on which it is based1 and its failure to connect with each other some of the most important facts in nature3 that1 in short1 it is not in any true sense a philosophy1 but merely an arbitrary arrangement of facts in accordance with a number of unproved hypotheses4 ,such philosophies1 falsely so called1 have existed ever since man began to reason on nature1 and this last of them is one of the weakest and most pernicious of the whole4 ,let the reader take up either of ,darwin's great books1 or ,spencer's ,biology1 and merely ask himself as he reads each paragraph1 ,what is assumed here and what is proved8 and he will find the whole fabric melt away like a vision4 ,he will find1 however1 one difference between these writers4 ,darwin always states facts carefully and accurately1 and when he comes to a difficulty tries to meet it fairly4 ,spencer often exaggerates or extenuates with reference to his facts1 and uses the arts of the dialectician where argument fails4 ,many naturalists who should know better are puzzled with the great array of facts presented by evolutionists2 and while their better judgment causes them to doubt as to the possibility of the structures which they study being produced by such blind and material processes1 are forced to admit that there must surely be something in a theory so confidently asserted1 supported by so great names1 and by such an imposing array of relations which it can explain4 ,they would be relieved from their weak concessions were they to study carefully a few of the instances adduced1 and to consider how easy it is by a little ingenuity to group undoubted facts around a false theory4 ,i could wish to present here illustrations of this1 which abound in every part of the works ,i have referred to1 but space will not permit4 ,one or two must suffice4 ,the first may be taken from one of the strong points often dwelt on by ,spencer in his ,biology4,,bb ,,bb ,principles of ,biology1 #aah4 ,but the experiences which most clearly illustrate to us the process of general evolution are our experiences of special evolution1 repeated in every plant and animal4 ,each organism exhibits1 within a short space of time1 a series of changes which1 when supposed to occupy a period indefinitely great and to go on in various ways instead of one1 may give us a tolerably clear conception of organic evolution in general4 ,in an individual development we have compressed into a comparatively infinitesimal space a series of metamorphoses equally vast with those which the hypothesis of evolution assumes to have taken place during those unmeasurable epochs that the earth's crust tells us of4 ,a tree differs from a seed immeasurably in every respect--in bulk1 in structure1 in colour1 in form1 in specific gravity1 in chemical composition3 differs so greatly that no visible resemblance of any kind can be pointed out between them4 ,yet is the one changed in the course of a few years into the other2 changed so gradually that at no moment can it be said1 ',now the seed ceases to be and the tree exists4' ,what can be more widely contrasted then a newly-born child and the small gelatinous spherule constituting the human ovum8 ,the infant is so complex in structure that a cyclopdia is needed to describe its constituent parts4 ,the germinal vesicle is so simple that it may be defined in a line4444 ,if a single cell under appropriate conditions becomes a man in the space of a few years1 there can surely be no difficulty in understanding how1 under appropriate conditions1 a cell may in the course of untold millions of years give origin to the human race4 ,it is true that many minds are so unfurnished with those experiences of nature1 out of which this conception is built1 that they find difficulty in forming it4444 ,to such the hypothesis that by any series of changes a protozoan should ever give origin to a mammal seems grotesque--as grotesque as did ,galileo's assertion of the earth's movement seem to the ,aristoteleans2 or as grotesque as the assertion of the earth's sphericity seems now to the ,new ,zealanders4 ,i quote the above as a specimen of evolutionist reasoning from the hand of a master1 and as referring to one of the corner-stones of this strange philosophy4 ,i may remark with respect to it1 in the first place1 that it assumes those conditions of evolution to which ,i have already referred4 ,in the second place1 it is full of inaccurate statements of fact1 all in a direction tending to favour the hypothesis4 ,for example1 a tree does not differ immeasurably from a seed1 especially if the seed is of the same species of tree1 for the principal parts of the tree and its principal chemical constituents already exist and can be detected in the seed1 and unless it were so1 the development of the tree from the seed could not take place4 ,besides1 the seed itself is not a thing self-existent or fortuitous4 ,the production of a seed without a previous tree of the same kind is quite as difficult to suppose as the production of a tree without a previous seed containing its living embryo4 ,in the third place1 the whole argument is one of analogy4 ,the germ becomes a mature animal1 passing through many intermediate stages1 therefore the animal may have descended from some creature which when mature was as simple as the germ4 ,the value of such an analogy depends altogether on the similarity of the conditions which1 in such a case1 are really the efficient causes at work4 ,the germ of a mammal becomes developed by the nourishment supplied from the system of a parent1 which itself produced the germ1 and into whose likeness the young animal is destined to grow4 ,these are the appropriate conditions of its development4 ,but when our author assumes from this other appropriate conditions1 by which an organism1 which on the hypothesis is not a germ but a mature animal1 shall be developed into the likeness1 of something different from its parent1 he oversteps the bounds of legitimate analogy4 ,further1 the reproduction of the animal1 as observed1 is a closed series1 beginning at the embryo and returning thither again2 the evolution attempted to be established is a progressive series going on from one stage to another4 ,a reproductive circle once established obeys certain definite laws1 but its origin1 or how it can leave its orbit and revolve in some other1 we cannot explain without the introduction of some new efficient cause4 ,the one term of the analogy is a revolution1 and the other is an evolution4 ,the revolution within the circle of the reproduction of the species gives no evidence that at some point the body will fly off at a tangent1 and does not even inform us whether it is making progress in space4 ,even if it is so making progress1 its orbit of revolution may remain the same4 ,but it may be said the reproduction of the species is not in a circle but in a spiral4 ,within the limit of experience it is not so1 since1 however it may undulate1 it always returns into itself4 ,but supposing it to be a spiral1 it may ascend or descend1 or expand and contract2 but this does not connect it with other similar spirals1 the separate origin of which is to be separately accounted for4 ,i have quoted the latter part of the passage because it is characteristic of evolutionists to decry the intelligence of those who differ from them4 ,now it is fair to admit that it requires some intelligence and some knowledge of nature to produce or even to understand such analogies as those of ,mr4 ,spencer and his followers1 but it is no less true that a deeper insight into the study of nature may not only enable us to understand these analogies1 but to detect their fallacies4 ,i am sorry to say1 however1 that at present the hypothesis of evolution is giving so strong a colouring to much of popular and even academic teaching1 more especially in the easy and flippant conversion of the facts of embryology into instances of evolution on the plan of the above extract1 that the ,spencerians may not long have to complain of want of faith and appreciation on the part of the improved apes whom they are kind enough to instruct as to their lowly origin4 ,the mention of appropriate conditions in the above extract reminds me of another fatal objection to evolution which its advocates continually overlook4 ,an animal or plant advancing from maturity to the adult state is in every stage of its progress a complete and symmetrical organism1 correlated in all its parts and adapted to surrounding conditions4 ,suppose it to become modified in any way1 to ever so small an extent1 the whole of these relations are disturbed4 ,if the modification is internal and spontaneous1 there is no guarantee that it will suit the vastly numerous external agencies to which the creature is subjected4 ,if it is produced by agencies from without1 there is no guarantee that it will accord with the internal relations of the parts modified4 ,the probabilities are incalculably great against the occurrence of many such disturbances without the breaking up altogether of the nice adjustment of parts and conditions4 ,this is no doubt one reason of the extinction of so many species in geological time1 and also of the strong tendency of every species to spring back to its normal condition when in any way artificially caused to vary4 ,it is also connected with the otherwise mysterious law of the constant transmission of all the characters of the parent4 ,spencer and ,darwin occasionally see this difficulty1 though they habitually neglect it in their reasonings4 ,spencer even tries to turn one part of it to account as follows3-- ,suppose the head of a mammal to become very much more weighty--what must be the indirect results8 ,the muscles of the neck are put to greater exertions2 and the vertebr have to bear additional tensions and pressures caused both by the increased weight of the head and the stronger contraction of muscles that support and move the head4 ,he goes on to say that the processes of the vertebrae will have augmented strains put upon them1 the thoracic region and fore limbs will have to be enlarged1 and even the hind limbs may require modification to facilitate locomotion4 ,he concludes3 ,any one who compares the outline of the bison with that of its congener1 the ox1 will clearly see how profoundly a heavier head affects the entire osseous and muscular system4 ,we need not stop to mention the usual inaccuracies as to facts in this paragraph1 as1 for example1 the support of the head being attributed to muscles alone1 without reference to the strong elastic ligament of the neck4 ,we may first notice the assumption that an animal can acquire a head very much more weighty then that which it had before1 a very improbable supposition1 whether as a monstrous birth ,dr as an effect of external conditions after birth4 ,but suppose this to have occurred1 and what is even less likely1 that the very much heavier head is an advantage in some way1 what guarantee can evolution give us that the number of other modifications required would take place simultaneously with this acquisition6 ,it would be easy to show that this would depend on the concurrence of hundreds of other conditions within and without the animal1 all of which must co-operate to produce the desired effect1 if indeed they could produce this effect even by their conjoint action1 a power which the writer1 it will be observed1 quietly assumes1 as well as the probability of the initial change in the head4 ,finally1 the naivete with which it is assumed that the bison and the ox are examples of such an evolution1 would be refreshing in these artificial days1 if instances of it did not occur in almost every page of the writings of evolutionists4 ,it would only weary the reader to follow evolution any further into details1 especially as my object in this chapter is to show that generally1 and as a theory of nature and of man1 it has no good foundation2 but we should not leave the subject without noting precisely the derivation of man according to this theory2 and for this purpose ,i may quote ,darwin's summary of his conclusions on the subject4,,bc ,,bc ,descent of ,man1 part ii41 ch4 #ba4 ,man1 says ,mr4 ,darwin1 is descended from a hairy quadruped1 furnished with a tail and pointed ears1 probably arboreal in its habits1 and an inhabitant of the ,old ,world4 ,this creature1 if its whole structure had been examined by a naturalist1 would have been classed amongst the quadrumana1 as surely as would the common1 and still more ancient1 progenitor of the ,old and ,new ,world monkeys4 ,the quadrumana and all the higher mammals are probably derived from an ancient marsupial animal2 and this1 through a long line of diversified forms1 either from some reptile-like or some amphibian-like creature1 and this again from some fish-like animal4 ,in the dim obscurity of the past we can see that the early progenitor of all the vertebrata must have been an aquatic animal1 provided with branchi1 with the two sexes united in the same individual1 and with the most important organs of the body 7such as the brain and heart7 imperfectly developed4 ,this animal seems to have been more like the larv of our existing marine ,ascidians then any other form known4 ,the author of this passage1 in condescension to our weakness of faith1 takes us no further back then to an ,ascidian1 or sea-squirt1 the resemblance1 however1 of which to a vertebrate animal is merely analogical1 and1 though a very curious case of analogy1 altogether temporary and belonging to the young state of the creature1 without affecting its adult state or its real affinities with other mollusks4 ,in order1 however1 to get the ,ascidian itself1 he must assume all the conditions already referred to in the previous part of this article1 and fill most of the gaps4 ,he has1 however1 in the ,origin of ,species and ,descent of ,man1 attempted merely to fill one of the breaks in the evolutionary series1 that between distinct species1 leaving us to receive all the rest on mere faith4 ,even in respect to the question of species1 in all the long chain between the ,ascidian and the man1 he has not certainly established one link2 and in the very last change1 that from the ape-like ancestor1 he equally fails to satisfy us as to matters so trivial as the loss of the hair1 which1 on the hypothesis1 clothed the pre-human back1 and on matters so weighty as the dawn of human reason and conscience4 ,we thus see that evolution as an hypothesis has no basis in experience or in scientific fact1 and that its imagined series of transmutations has breaks which cannot be filled4 ,we have now to consider how it stands with the belief that man has been created by a higher power4 ,against this supposition the evolutionists try to create a prejudice in two ways4 ,first1 they maintain with ,herbert ,spencer that the hypothesis of creation is inconceivable1 or1 as they say1 unthinkable2 an assertion which1 when examined1 proves to mean only that we do not know perfectly the details of such an operation1 an objection equally fatal to the origin either of matter or life1 on the hypothesis of evolution4 ,secondly1 they always refer to creation as if it must be a special miracle1 in the sense of a contravention of or departure from ordinary natural laws2 but this is an assumption utterly without proof1 since creation may be as much according to law as evolution1 though in either case the precise laws involved may be very imperfectly known4 ,how absurd1 they say1 to imagine an animal created at once1 fully formed1 by a special miracle1 instead of supposing it to be slowly elaborated through1 countless ages of evolution4 ,to ,darwin the doctrine of creation is but a curious illustration of the blindness of preconceived opinion4 ,these authors1 he says1 seem no more startled at a miraculous act of creation then at an ordinary birth2 but do they really believe that at innumerable periods in the earth's history1 certain elemental atoms have been commanded suddenly to flash into living tissues8 ,darwin1 with all his philosophic fairness1 sometimes becomes almost ,spencerian in his looseness of expression2 and in the above extract1 the terms miraculous1 innumerable1 elemental atoms1 suddenly1 and flash1 all express ideas in no respect necessary to the work of creation4 ,those who have no faith in evolution as a cause of the production of species1 may well ask in return how the evolutionist can prove that creation must be instantaneous1 that it must follow no law1 that it must produce an animal fully formed1 that it must be miraculous4 ,in short1 it is a portion of the policy of evolutionists to endeavour to tie down their opponents to a purely gratuitous and ignorant view of creation1 and then to attack them in that position4 ,what1 then1 is the actual statement of the theory of creation as it may be held by a modern man of science8 ,simply this2 that all things have been produced by the ,supreme ,creative ,will1 acting either directly or through the agency of the forces and materials of ,his own production4 ,this theory does not necessarily affirm that creation is miraculous1 in the sense of being contrary to or subversive of law2 law and order are as applicable to creation as to any other process4 ,it does not contradict the idea of successive creations4 ,there is no necessity that the process should be instantaneous and without progression4 ,it does not imply that all kinds of creation are alike4 ,there may be higher and lower kinds4 ,it does not exclude the idea of similarity or dissimilarity of plan and function as to the products of creation4 ,distinct products of creation may be either similar to each other in different degrees1 or dissimilar4 ,it does not even exclude evolution or derivation to a certain extent3 anything once created may1 if sufficiently flexible and elastic1 be evolved or involved in various ways4 ,indeed1 creation and derivation may1 rightly understood1 be complementary to each other4 ,created things1 unless absolutely unchangeable1 must be more or less modified by influences from within and from without1 and derivation or evolution may account for certain subordinate changes of things already made4 ,man1 for example1 may be a product of creation1 yet his creation may have been in perfect harmony with those laws of procedure which the ,creator has set for ,his own operations4 ,he may have been preceded by other creations of things more or less similar or dissimilar4 ,he may have been created by the same processes with some or all of these1 or by different means4 ,his body may have been created in one way1 his soul in another4 ,he may1 nay1 in all probability would be1 part of a plan of which some parts would approach very near to him in structure or functions4 ,after his creation1 spontaneous culture and outward circumstances may have moulded him into varieties1 and given him many different kinds of speech and of habits4 ,these points are so obvious to common sense that it would be quite unnecessary to insist on them1 were they not habitually overlooked or misstated by evolutionists4 ,the creation hypothesis is also free from some of the difficulties of evolution4 ,it avoids the absurdity of an eternal progression from the less to the more complex4 ,it provides in will1 the only source of power actually known to us by ordinary experience1 an intelligible origin of nature4 ,it does not require us to contradict experience by supposing that there are no differences of kind or essence in things4 ,it does not require us to assume1 contrary to experience1 an invariable tendency to differentiate and improve4 ,it does not exact the bridging over of all gaps which may be found between the several grades of beings which exist or have existed4 ,why1 then1 are so many men of science disposed to ignore altogether this view of the matter8 ,mainly1 ,i believe1 because1 from the training of many of them1 they are absolutely ignorant of the subject1 and from their habits of thought have come to regard physical force and the laws regulating it as the one power in nature1 and to relegate all spiritual powers or forces1 or1 as they have been taught to regard them1 supernatural things1 to the domain of the unknowable4 ,perhaps some portion of the difficulty may be got over by abandoning altogether the word supernatural1 which has been much misused1 and by holding nature to represent the whole cosmos1 and to include both the physical and the spiritual1 both of them in the fullest sense subject to law1 but each to the law of its own special nature4 ,i have read somewhere a story of some ignorant orientals who were induced to keep a steam-engine supplied with water by the fiction that it contained a terrible djin1 or demon1 who1 if allowed to become thirsty1 would break out and destroy them all4 ,had they been enabled to discard this superstition1 and to understand the force of steam1 we can readily imagine that they would now suppose they knew the whole truth1 and might believe that any one who taught them that the engine was a product of intelligent design1 was only taking them back to the old doctrine of the thirsty demon of the boiler4 ,this is1 ,i think1 at present1 the mental condition of many scientists with reference to creation4 ,here we come to the first demand which the doctrine of creation makes on us by way of premises4 ,in order that there may be creation there must be a primary ,self-existent ,spirit1 whose will is supreme4 ,the evolutionist cannot refuse to admit this on as good ground as that on which we hesitate to receive the postulates of his faith4 ,it is no real objection to say that a ,god can be known to us only partially1 and1 with reference to ,his real essence1 not at all2 since1 even if we admit this1 it is no more then can be said of matter and force4 ,i am not about here to repeat any of the ordinary arguments for the existence of a spiritual ,first ,cause1 and ,creator of all things1 but it may be proper to show that this assumption is not inconsistent with experience1 or with the facts and principles of modern science4 ,the statement which ,i would make on this point shall be in the words of a very old writer1 not so well known as he should be to many who talk volubly enough about antagonisms between science and ,christianity3 that which is known of ,god is manifest in them 7in men71 for ,god manifested it unto them4 ,for since the creation of the world ,his invisible things1 even ,his eternal power and divinity are plainly seen1 being perceived by means of things that are made4,,bd ,the statement here is very precise4 ,certain things relating to ,god are manifest within men's minds1 and are proved by the evidence of ,his works2 these properties of ,god thus manifested being specially ,his power or control of all forces1 and ,his divinity or possession of a nature higher then ours4 ,the argument of the writer is that all heathens know this2 and1 as a matter of fact1 ,i believe it must be admitted even by those most sceptical on such points1 that some notion of a divinity has been derived from nature by men of all nations and tribes1 if we except1 perhaps1 a few enlightened positivists of this nineteenth century whom excess of light has made blind4 ,if the light that is in man be darkness1 how great is that darkness4 ,but then this notion of a ,god is a very old and primitive one1 and ,spencer takes care to inform us that first thoughts are either wholly out of harmony with things1 or in very incomplete harmony with them1 and consequently that old beliefs and generally diffused notions are presumably wrong4 ,,bd ,paul's ,epistle to the ,romans1 chap i4 ,is it true1 however1 that the modern knowledge of nature tends to rob it of a spiritual ,first ,cause8 ,one can conceive such a tendency1 if all our advances in knowledge had tended more and more to identify force with matter in its grosser forms1 and to remove more and more from our mental view those powers which are not material2 but the very reverse of this is the case4 ,modern discovery has tended more and more to attach importance to certain universally diffused media which do not seem to be subject to the laws of ordinary matter1 and to prove at once the ,protean character and indestructibility of forces1 the aggregate of which1 as acting in the universe1 gives us our nearest approach to the conception of physical omnipotence4 ,this is what so many of our evolutionists mean when they indignantly disclaim materialism4 ,they know that there is a boundless energy beyond mere matter1 and of which matter seems the sport and toy4 ,could they conceive of this energy as the expression of a personal will1 they would become theists4 ,man himself presents a microcosm of matter and force1 raised to a higher plane then that of the merely chemical and physical4 ,in him we find not merely that brain and nerve force which is common to him and lower animals1 and which exhibits one of the most marvellous energies in nature1 but we have the higher force of will and intellect1 enabling him to read the secrets of nature1 to seize and combine and utilize its laws like a god1 and like a god to attain to the higher discernment of good and evil4 ,nay1 more1 this power which resides within man rules with omnipotent energy the material organism1 driving its nerve forces until cells and fibres are worn out and destroyed1 taxing muscles and tendons till they break1 impelling its slave the body even to that which will bring injury and death itself4 ,surely1 what we thus see in man must be the image and likeness of the ,great ,spirit4 ,we can escape from this conclusion only by one or other of two assumptions1 either of which is rather to be called a play upon words then a scientific theory4 ,we may1 with a certain class of physicists and physiologists1 confine our attention wholly to the fire and the steam1 and overlook the engineer4 ,we may assume that with protoplasm and animal electricity1 for example1 we can dispense with life1 and not only with life but with spirit also4 ,yet he who regards vitality as an unmeaning word2 and yet speaks of living protoplasm1 and dead protoplasm1 and affirms that between these two states1 so different in their phenomena1 no chemical or physical difference exists1 is surely either laughing at us1 or committing himself to what the ,duke of ,argyll calls a philosophical bull2 and he who shows us that electrical discharges are concerned in muscular contraction1 has just as much proved that there is no need of life or spirit1 as the electrician who has explained the mysteries of the telegraph has shown that there can be no need of an operator4 ,or we may1 turning to the opposite extreme1 trust to the metaphysical fallacy of those who affirm that neither matter1 nor force1 nor spirit1 need concern them1 for that all are merely states of consciousness in ourselves4 ,but what of the conscious self this self which thinks1 and which is in relation with surroundings which it did not create1 and which presumably did not create it8 and what is the unknown third term which must have been the means of setting up these relations8 ,here again our blind guides involve us in an absolute self-contradiction4 ,thus we are thrown back on the grand old truth that man1 heathen and savage1 or ,christian and scientific1 opens his eyes on nature and reads therein both the physical and the spiritual1 and in connection with both of these the power and divinity of an ,almighty ,creator4 ,he may at first have many wrong views both of ,god and of ,his works1 but as he penetrates further into the laws of matter and mind1 he attains more just conceptions of their relations to the ,great ,centre and ,source of all1 and instead of being able to dispense with creation1 he hopes to be able at length to understand its laws and methods4 ,if unhappily he abandons this high ambition1 and contents himself with mere matter and physical force1 he cannot rise to the highest development either of science or philosophy4 ,it may1 however1 be said that evolution may admit all this1 and still be held as a scientific doctrine in connection with a modified belief in creation4 ,the work of actual creation may have been limited to a few elementary types1 and evolution may have done the rest4 ,evolutionists may still be theists4 ,we have already seen that the doctrine1 as carried out to its logical consequences1 excludes creation and theism4 ,it may1 however1 be shown that even in its more modified forms1 and when held by men who maintain that they are not atheists1 it is practically atheistic1 because excluding the idea of plan and design1 and resolving all things into the action of unintelligent forces4 ,it is necessary to observe this1 because it is the half-way evolutionism which professes to have a ,creator somewhere behind it1 that is most popular2 though it is1 if possible1 more unphilosophical then that which professes to set out from absolute and eternal nonentity1 or from self-existent star-dust containing all the possibilities of the universe4 ,absolute atheists recognise in ,darwinism1 for example1 a philosophy which reduces all things to a gradual summation of innumerable minute and accidental material operations1 and in this they are more logical then those who seek to reconcile evolution with design4 ,huxley1 in his lay sermons1 referring to ,paley's argument for design founded on the structure of a watch1 says that if the watch could be conceived to be a product of a less perfect structure improved by natural selection1 it would then appear to be the result of a method of trial and error worked by unintelligent agents1 as likely as of the direct application of the means appropriate to that end1 by an intelligent agent4 ,this is a bold and true assertion of the actual relation of even this modified evolution to rational and practical theism1 which requires not merely this ,god afar off1 who has set the stone of nature rolling and then turned ,his back upon it1 but a present ,god1 whose will is the law of nature1 now as in times past4 ,the evolutionist is really in a position of absolute antagonism to the idea of creation1 even when held with all due allowance for the variations of created things within certain limits4 ,perhaps ,paley's old illustration of the watch1 as applied by ,huxley1 may serve to show this as well as any other4 ,if the imperfect watch1 useless as a time-keeper1 is the work of the contriver1 and the perfection of it is the result of unintelligent agents working fortuitously1 then it is clear that creation and design have a small and evanescent share in the construction of the fabric of nature4 ,but is it really so8 ,can we attribute the perfection of the watch to accidental material operations any more then the first effort to produce such an instrument8 ,paley himself long ago met this view of the case1 but his argument may be extended by the admissions and pleas of the evolutionists themselves4 ,for example1 the watch is altogether a mechanical thing1 and this fact by no means implies that it could not be made by an intelligent and spiritual designer1 yet this assumption that physical laws exclude creation and design turns up in almost every page of the evolutionists4 ,paley has well shown that if the watch contained within itself machinery for making other watches1 this would not militate against his argument4 ,it would be so if it could be proved that a piece of metal had spontaneously produced an imperfect watch1 and this a more perfect one1 and so on2 but this is precisely what evolutionists still require to prove with respect both to the watch and to man4 ,on the other hand it is no argument for the evolution of the watch that there may be different kinds of watches1 some more and others less perfect1 and that ruder forms may have preceded the more perfect4 ,this is perfectly compatible with creation and design4 ,evolutionists1 however1 generally fail to make this distinction4 ,nor would it be any proof of the evolution of the watch to find that1 as ,spencer would say1 it was in perfect harmony with its environment1 as1 for instance1 that it kept time with the revolution of the earth1 and contained contrivances to regulate its motion under different temperatures1 unless it could be shown that the earth's motion and the changes of temperature had been efficient causes of the motion and the adjustments of the watch2 otherwise the argument would look altogether in the direction of design4 ,nor would it be fair to shut up the argument of design to the idea that the watch must have suddenly flashed into existence fully formed and in motion4 ,it would be quite as much a creation if slowly and laboriously made by the hand of the artificer1 or if more rapidly struck off by machinery2 and if the latter1 it would not follow that the machine which produced the watch was at all like the watch itself4 ,it might have been something very different4 ,finally1 when ,spencer tries to cut at the root of the whole of this argument1 by affirming that man has no more right to reason from himself with regard to his ,maker then a watch would have to reason from its own mechanical structure and affirm the like of its maker1 he signally fails4 ,if the watch had such power of reasoning1 it would be more then mechanical1 and would be intelligent like its maker2 and in any case1 if thus reasoning it came to the conclusion that it was a result of accidental material operations1 it would be altogether mistaken4 ,nor would it be nearer the truth if it held that it was a product of spontaneous evolution from an imperfect and comparatively useless watch that had been made millions of years before4 ,we have taken this illustration of the watch merely as given to us by ,huxley1 and without in the least seeking to overlook the distinction between a dead machine and a living organism2 but the argument for creation and design is quite as strong in the case of the latter1 so long as it cannot be proved by actual facts to be a product of derivation from a distinct species4 ,this has not been proved either in the care of man or any other species2 and so long as it has not1 the theory of creation and design is infinitely more rational and scientific then that of evolution in any of its forms4 ,but all this does not relieve us from the question1 ,how can species be created8--the same question put to ,paul by the sceptics of the first century with reference to the resurrection--,how are the dead raised1 and with what bodies do they come8 ,i do not wish to evade this question1 whether applied to man or to a microscopic animalcule1 and ,i would answer it with the following statements3-- #a4 ,the advocate of creation is in this matter in no worse position then the evolutionist4 ,this we have already shown1 and ,i may refer here to the fact that ,darwin himself assumes at least one primitive form of animal and plant life1 and he is confessedly just as little able to imagine this one act of creation as any other that may be demanded of him4 #b4 ,we are not bound to believe that all groups of individual animals1 which naturalists may call species1 have been separate products of creation4 ,man himself has by some naturalists been divided into several species2 but we may well be content to believe the creation of one primitive form1 and the production of existing races by variation4 ,every zoologist and botanist who has studied any group of animals or plants with care1 knows that there are numerous related forms passing into each other1 which some naturalists might consider to be distinct species1 but which it is certainly not necessary to regard as distinct products of creation4 ,every species is more or less variable1 and this variability may be developed by different causes4 ,individuals exposed to unfavourable conditions will be stunted and depauperated2 those in more favourable circumstances may be improved and enlarged4 ,important changes may thus take place without transgressing the limits of the species1 or preventing a return to its typical forms2 and the practice of confounding these more limited changes with the wider structural and physiological differences which separate true species is much to be deprecated4 ,animals which pass through metamorphoses1 or which1 are developed through the instrumentality of intermediate forms or nurses,,be are not only liable to be separated by mistake into distinct species1 but they may1 tinder certain circumstances1 attain to a premature maturity1 or may be fixed for a time or permanently in an immature condition4 ,further1 species1 like individuals1 probably have their infancy1 maturity1 and decay in geological time1 and may present differences in these several stages4 ,it is the remainder of true specific types left after all these sources of error are removed1 that creation has to account for2 and to arrive at this remainder1 and to ascertain its nature and amount1 will require a vast expenditure of skilful and conscientious labour4 ,,be ,mr4 ,mungo ,ponton1 in his book ,the ,beginning1 has based a theory of derivation on this peculiarity4 #c4 ,since animals and plants have been introduced upon our earth in long succession throughout geologic time1 and this in a somewhat regular manner1 we have a right to assume that their introduction has been in accordance with a law or plan of creation1 and that this may have included the co-operation of many efficient causes1 and may have differed in its application to different cases4 ,this is a very old doctrine of theology1 for it appears in the early chapters of ,genesis4 ,there the first aquatic animals1 and man1 are said to have been created2 plants are said to have been brought forth by the land2 the mammalia are said to have been made4 ,in the more detailed account of the introduction of man in the second chapter of the same book1 he is said to have been formed of the dust of the ground2 and in regard to his higher spiritual life1 to have had this breathed into him by ,god4 ,these are very simple expressions1 but they are very precise and definite in the original1 and they imply a diversity in the creative work4 ,further1 this is in accordance with the analogy of modern science4 ,how diverse are the modes of production and development of animals and plants1 though all under one general law2 and is it not likely that the modes of their first introduction on the earth were equally diverse8 #d4 ,our knowledge of the conditions of the origination of species1 is so imperfect that we may possibly appear for some time to recede from1 rather then to approach to1 a solution of the question4 ,in the infancy of chemistry1 it was thought that chemical elements could be transmuted into each other4 ,the progress of knowledge removed this explanation of their origin1 and has as yet failed to substitute any other in its place4 ,it may be the same with organic species4 ,the attempt to account for them by derivation may prove fallacious1 yet it may be some time before we turn the corner1 should this be possible1 and enter the path which actually leads up to their origin4 ,lastly1 in these circumstances our wisest course is to take individual species1 and to inquire as to their history in time1 and the probable conditions of their introduction4 ,such investigations are now being made by many quiet workers1 whose labours are comparatively little known1 and many of whom are scarcely aware of the importance of what they are doing toward a knowledge of1 at least1 the conditions of creation1 which is perhaps all that we can at present hope to reach4 ,in the next chapter we shall try to sum up what is known as to man himself1 in the conditions of his first appearance on our earth1 as made known to us by scientific investigation1 and explained on the theory of creation as opposed to evolution4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,primitive ,,man4 ,,considered ,,with ,,reference ,,to ,,modern ,,theories ,,as ,,to ,,his ,,origin 7continued74 ,in the previous chapter we have seen that1 on general grounds1 evolution as applied to man is untenable2 and that the theory of creation is more rational and less liable to objection4 ,we may now consider how the geological and zoological conditions of man's advent on the earth accord with evolution2 and ,i think we shall find1 as might be expected1 that they oppose great if not fatal difficulties to this hypothesis4 ,one of the first and most important facts with reference to the appearance of man1 is that he is a very recent animal1 dating no farther back in geological time then the ,post-glacial period1 at the close of the ,tertiary and beginning of the ,modern era of geology4 ,further1 inasmuch as the oldest known remains of man occur along with those of animals which still exist1 and the majority of which are probably not of older date1 there is but slender probability that any much older human remains will ever be found4 ,now this has a bearing on the question of the derivation of man1 which1 though it has not altogether escaped the attention of the evolutionists1 has not met with sufficient consideration4 ,perhaps the oldest2 known human skull is that which has been termed the ,engis skull1 from the cave of ,engis1 in ,belgium4 ,with reference to this skull1 ,professor ,huxley has candidly admitted that it may have belonged to an individual of one of the existing faces of men4 ,i have a cast of it on the same shelf with the skulls of some ,algonquin ,indians1 from the aboriginal ,hochelaga1 which preceded ,montreal2 and any one acquainted with cranial characters would readily admit that the ancient ,belgian may very well have been an ,american ,indian2 while on the other hand his head is not very dissimilar from that of some modern ,european races4 ,this ,belgian man is believed to have lived before the mammoth and the cave bear had passed away1 yet he does not belong to an extinct species or even variety of man4 ,further1 as stated in a previous chapter1 ,pictet catalogues ninety-eight species of mammals which inhabited ,europe in the ,post-glacial period4 ,of these fifty-seven still exist unchanged1 and the remainder have disappeared4 ,not one can be shown to have been modified into a new form1 though some of them have been obliged1 by changes of temperature and other conditions1 to remove into distant and now widely separated regions4 ,further1 it would seem that all the existing ,european mammals extended back in geological time at least as far as man1 so that since the ,post-glacial period no new species have been introduced in any way4 ,here we have a series of facts of the most profound significance4 ,fifty-seven parallel lines of descent nave in ,europe run on along with man1 from the ,post-glacial period1 without change or material modification of any kind4 ,some of them extend without change even farther back4 ,thus man and his companion-mammals present a series of lines1 not converging as if they pointed to some common progenitor1 but strictly parallel to each other4 ,in other words1 if they are derived forms1 their point of derivation from a common type is pushed back infinitely in geological time4 ,the absolute duration of the human species does not affect this argument4 ,if man has existed only six or seven thousand years1 still at the beginning of his existence he was as distinct from lower animals as he is now1 and shows no signs of gradation into other forms4 ,if he has really endured since the great ,glacial period1 and is to be regarded as a species of a hundred thousand years' continuance1 still the fact is the same1 and is1 if possible1 less favourable to derivation4 ,similar facts meet us in other directions4 ,i have for many years occupied a little of my leisure in collecting the numerous species of molluscs and other marine animals existing in a sub-fossil state in the ,post-pliocene clays of ,canada1 and comparing them with their modern successors4 ,i do not know how long these animals have lived4 ,some of them certainly go far back into the ,tertiary2 and recent computations would place even the ,glacial age at a distance from us of more then a thousand centuries4 ,yet after carefully studying about two hundred species1 and1 of some of these1 many hundreds of specimens1 ,i have arrived at the conclusion that they are absolutely unchanged4 ,some of them1 it is true1 are variable shells1 presenting as many and great varieties as the human race itself2 yet ,i find that in the ,post-pliocene even the varieties of each species were the same as now1 though the great changes of temperature and elevation which have occurred1 have removed many of them to distant places1 and have made them become locally extinct in regions over which they once spread4 ,here again we have an absolute refusal1 on the part of all these animals1 to admit that they are derived1 or have tended to sport into new species4 ,this is also1 it is to be observed1 altogether independent of that imperfection of the geological record of which so much is made2 since we have abundance of these shells in the ,post-pliocene beds1 and in the modern seas1 and no one doubts their continued descent4 ,to what does this point8 ,evidently to the conclusion that all these species show no indication of derivation1 or tendency to improve1 but move back in parallel lines to some unknown creative origin4 ,if it be objected to this conclusion that absence of derivation in the ,post-pliocene and ,modern does not prove that it may not previously have occurred1 the answer is1 that if the evolutionist admits that for a very long period 7and this the only one of which we have any certain knowledge1 and the only one which concerns man7 derivation has been suspended1 he in effect abandons his position4 ,it may1 however1 be objected that what ,i have above affirmed of species may be affirmed of varieties1 which are admitted to be derived4 ,for example1 it may be said that the negro variety of man has existed unchanged from the earliest historic times4 ,it is carious that those who so often urge this argument as an evidence of the great antiquity of man1 and the slow development of races1 do not see that it proves too much4 ,if the negro has been the same identical negro as far back as we can trace him1 then his origin must have been independent1 and of the nature of a creation1 or else his duration as a negro must have been indefinite4 ,what it does prove is a fact equally obvious from the study of ,post-pliocene molluscs and other fossils1 namely1 that new species tend rapidly to vary to the utmost extent of their possible limits1 and then to remain stationary for an indefinite time4 ,whether this results from an innate yet limited power of expansion in the species1 or from the relations between it and external influences1 it is a fact inconsistent with the gradual evolution of new species4 ,hence we conclude that the recent origin of man1 as revealed by geology1 is1 in connection with the above facts1 an absolute bar to the doctrine of derivation4 ,a second datum furnished to this discussion by geology and zoology is the negative one that no link of connection is known between man and any preceding animal4 ,if we gather his bones and his implements from the ancient gravel-beds and cave-earths1 we do not find them associated with any creature near of kin1 nor do we find any such creature in those rich ,tertiary beds which have yielded so great harvests of mammalian bones4 ,in the modern world we find nothing nearer to him then such anthropoid apes as the orangs and gorillas4 ,but the apes1 however nearly allied1 cannot be the ancestors of man4 ,if at all related to him by descent1 they are his brethren or cousins1 not his parents2 for they must1 on the evolutionist hypothesis1 be themselves the terminal ends of distinct lines of derivation from previous forms4 ,this difficulty is not removed by an appeal to the imperfection of the geological record4 ,so many animals contemporary with man are known1 both at the beginning of his geological history and in the present world1 that it would be more then marvellous if no very near relative had ere this time been discovered at one extreme or the other1 or at some portion of the intervening ages4 ,further1 all the animals contemporary with man in the ,post-glacial period1 so far as is known1 are in the same case4 ,discoveries of this kind may1 however1 still be made1 and we may give the evolutionist the benefit of the possibility4 ,we may affirm1 however1 that in order to gain a substratum of fact for his doctrine1 he must find somewhere in the later ,tertiary period animals much nearer to man then are the present anthropoid apes4 ,this demand ,i make advisedly--first1 because the animals in question must precede man in geological time2 and secondly1 because the apes1 even if they preceded man1 instead of being contemporary with him1 are not near enough to fulfil the required conditions4 ,what is the actual fact with regard to these animals1 so confidently affirmed to resemble some not very remote ancestors of ours8 ,zoologically they are not varieties of the same species with man they are not species of the same genus1 nor do they belong to genera of the same family1 or even to families of the same order4 ,these animals are at least ordinally distinct from us in those grades of groups in which naturalists arrange animals4 ,i am well aware that an attempt has been made to group man1 apes1 and lemurs in one order of ,primates1 and thus to reduce their difference to the grade of the family2 but as pat by its latest and perhaps most able advocate1 the attempt is a decided failure4 ,one has only to read the concluding chapter of ,huxley's new book on the anatomy of the vertebrates to be persuaded of this1 more especially if we can take into consideration1 in addition to the many differences indicated1 others which exist but are not mentioned by the author4 ,ordinal distinctions among animals are mainly dependent on grade or rank1 and are not to be broken down by obscure resemblances of internal anatomy1 having no relation to this point1 but to physiological features of very secondary importance4 ,man must1 on all grounds1 rank much higher above the apes then they can do above any other order of mammals4 ,even if we refuse to recognise all higher grounds of classification1 and condescend1 with some great zoologists of our time1 to regard nature with the eyes of mere anatomists1 or in the same way that a brick-layer's apprentice may be supposed to regard distinctions of architectural styles1 we can arrive at no other conclusion4 ,let us imagine an anatomist1 himself neither a man nor a monkey1 but a being of some other grade1 and altogether ignorant of the higher ends and powers of our species1 to contemplate merely the skeleton of a man and that of an ape4 ,he must necessarily deduce therefrom an ordinal distinction1 even on the one ground of the correlations and modifications of structure implied in the erect position4 ,it would indeed be sufficient for this purpose to consider merely the balancing of the skull on the neck1 or the structure of the foot1 and the consequences fairly deducible from either of them4 ,nay1 were such imaginary anatomist a derivationist1 and ignorant of the geological date of his specimens1 and as careless of the differences in respect to brain as some of his human confrres1 he might1 referring to the loss specialised condition of man's teeth and foot1 conclude1 not that man is an improved ape1 but that the ape is a specialised and improved man4 ,he would be obliged1 however1 even on this hypothesis1 to admit that there must be a host of missing links4 ,nor would these be supplied by the study of the living races of men1 because these want even specific distinctness1 and differ from the apes essentially in those points on which an ordinal distinction can be fairly based4 ,this isolated position of man throughout the whole period of his history1 grows in importance the more that it is studied1 and can scarcely be the result of any accident of defective preservation of intermediate forms4 ,in the meantime1 when taken in connection with1 the fact previously stated1 that man is equally isolated when he first appears on the stage1 it deprives evolution1 as applied to our species1 of any precise scientific basis1 whether zoological or geological4 ,i do not attach any importance whatever1 in this connection1 to the likeness in type or plan between man and other mammals4 ,evolutionists are in the habit of taking for granted that this implies derivation1 and of reasoning as if the fact that the human skeleton is constructed on the same principles as that of an ape or a dog1 must have some connection with a common ancestry of these animals4 ,this is1 however1 as is usual with them1 begging the question4 ,creation1 as well as evolution1 admits of similarity of plan4 ,when ,stephenson constructed a locomotive1 he availed himself of the principles and of many of the contrivances of previous engines2 but this does not imply that he took a mine-engine1 or a marine-engine1 and converted it into a railroad-engine4 ,type or plan1 whether in nature or art1 may imply merely a mental evolution of ideas in the maker1 not a derivation of one object from another4 ,but while man is related in his type of structure to the higher animals1 his contemporaries1 it is undeniable that there are certain points in which he constitutes a new type2 and if this consideration were properly weighed1 ,i believe it would induce zoologists1 notwithstanding the proverbial humility of the true man of science1 to consider themselves much more widely separated from the brutes then even by the ordinal distinction above referred to4 ,i would state this view of the matter thus3--,it is in the lower animals a law that the bodily frame is provided with all necessary means of defence and attack1 and with all necessary protection against external influences and assailants4 ,in a very few cases1 we have partial exceptions to this4 ,a hermit-crab1 for instance1 has the hinder part of its body unprotected2 and has1 instead of armour1 the instinct of using the cast-off shells of molluscs2 yet even this animal has the usual strong claws of a crustacean1 for defence in front4 ,there are only a very few animals in which instinct thus takes the place of physical contrivances for defence or attack1 and in these we find merely the usual unvarying instincts of the irrational animal4 ,but in man1 that which is the rare exception in all other animals1 becomes the rule4 ,he has no means of escape from danger1 compared with those enjoyed by other animals no defensive armour1 no natural protection from cold or heat1 no effective weapons for attacking other animals4 ,these disabilities would make him the most helpless of creatures1 especially when taken in connection with his slow growth and long immaturity4 ,his safety and his dominion over other animals1 are secured by entirely new means1 constituting a new departure in creation4 ,contrivance and inventive power1 enabling him to utilise the objects and forces of nature1 replace in him the material powers bestowed on lower animals4 ,obviously the structure of the human being is related to this1 and so related to it as to place man in a different category altogether from any other animal4 ,this consideration makes the derivation of man from brutes difficult to imagine4 ,none of these latter appear even able to conceive or understand the modes of life and action of man4 ,they do not need to attempt to emulate his powers1 for they are themselves provided for in a different manner4 ,they have no progressive nature like that of man4 ,their relations to things without are altogether limited to their structures and instincts4 ,man's relations are limited only by his powers of knowing and understanding4 ,how then is it possible to conceive of an animal which is1 so to speak1 a mere living machine1 parting with the physical contrivances necessary to its existence1 and assuming the new role of intelligence and free action8 ,this becomes still more striking if we adopt the view usually taken by evolutionists1 that primitive man was a ferocious and carnivorous creature1 warring with and overcoming the powerful animals of the ,post-glacial period1 and contending with the rigours of a severe climate4 ,this could certainly not be inferred from his structure1 interpreted by that of the lower animals1 which would inevitably lead to the conclusion that he must ,lave been a harmless and frugivorous creature1 fitted to subsist only in the mildest climates1 and where exempt from the attacks of the more powerful carnivorous animals4 ,no one reasoning on the purely physical constitution of man1 could infer that he might be a creature more powerful and ferocious then the lion or the tiger4 ,it is also worthy of mention that the existence of primitive man as a savage hunter is1 in another point of view1 absolutely opposed to the ,darwinian idea of his origin from a frugivorous ape4 ,these creatures1 while comparatively inoffensive1 conform to the general law of lower animals in having strong jaws and powerful canines for defence1 hand-like feet to aid them in securing food1 and escaping from their enemies1 and hairy clothing to protect them from cold and heat4 ,on the hypothesis of evolution we might conceive that if these creatures were placed in some ,eden of genial warmth1 peace1 and plenty1 which rendered those appliances unnecessary1 they might gradually lose these now valuable structures1 from want of necessity1 to use them4 ,but1 on the contrary1 if such creatures were obliged to contend against powerful enemies1 and to feed on flesh1 all analogy would lead us to believe that they would become in their structures more like carnivorous beasts then men4 ,on the other hand1 the anthropoid apes1 in the circumstances in which we find them1 are not only as unprogressive as other animals1 but little fitted to extend their range1 and less gifted with the power of adapting themselves to new conditions then many other mammals less resembling man in external form4 ,on the ,darwinian theory1 such primitive men as geology reveals to us would be more likely to have originated from bears then apes1 and we would be tempted to wish that man should become extinct1 and that the chance should be given to the mild chimpanzee or orang to produce by natural selection an improved and less ferocious humanity for the future4 ,the only rational hypothesis of human origin in the present state of our knowledge of this subject is1 that man must have been produced under some circumstances in which animal food was not necessary to him1 in which he was exempt from the attacks of the more formidable animals1 and in less need of protection from the inclemency of the weather then is the case with any modern apes2 and that his life as a hunter and warrior began after he had by his knowledge and skill secured to himself the means of subduing nature by force and cunning4 ,this implies that man was from the first a rational being1 capable of understanding nature1 and it accords much more nearly with the old story of ,eden in the book of ,genesis1 then with any modern theories of evolution4 ,it is due to ,mr4 ,wallace--who1 next to ,darwin1 has been a leader among ,english derivationists--to state that he perceives this difficulty4 ,as a believer in natural selection1 however1 it presents itself to his mind in a peculiar form4 ,he perceives that so soon as1 by the process of evolution1 man became a rational creature1 and acquired his social sympathies1 physical evolution must cease1 and must be replaced by invention1 contrivance1 and social organisation4 ,this is at once obvious and undeniable1 and it follows that the natural selection applicable to man1 as man1 must relate purely to his mental and moral improvement4 ,wallace1 however1 fails to comprehend the full significance of this feature of the case4 ,given1 a man destitute of clothing1 he may never acquire such clothing by natural selection1 because he will provide an artificial substitute4 ,he will evolve not into a hairy animal1 but into a weaver and a tailor4 ,given1 a man destitute of claws and fangs1 he will not acquire these1 but will manufacture weapons4 ,but then1 on the hypothesis of derivation1 this is not what is given us as the raw material of man1 but instead of this a hairy ape4 ,admitting the power of natural selection1 we might understand how this ape could become more hairy1 or acquire more formidable weapons1 as it became more exposed to cold1 or more under the necessity of using animal food2 but that it should of itself leave this natural line of development and enter on the entirely different line of mental progress is not conceivable1 except as a result of creative intervention4 ,absolute materialists may make light of this difficulty1 and may hold that this would imply merely a change of brain2 but even if we admit this1 they fail to show of what use such better brain would be to a creature retaining the bodily form and instincts of the ape1 or how such better brain could be acquired4 ,but evolutionists are not necessarily absolute materialists1 and ,darwin himself labours to show that the reasoning self-conscious mind1 and even the moral sentiments of man1 might be evolved from rudiments of such powers1 perceptible in the lower animals4 ,here1 however1 he leaves the court of natural science1 properly so called1 and summons us to appear before the judgment-seat of philosophy2 and as naturalists are often bad mental philosophers1 and philosophers have often small knowledge of nature1 some advantage results1 in the first instance1 to the doubtful cause of evolution4 ,since1 however1 mental science makes much more of the distinctions between the mind of man and the instinct of animals then naturalists1 accustomed to deal merely with the external organism1 can be expected to do1 the derivationist1 when his plea is fairly understood1 is quite as certain to lose his cause as when tried by geology and zoology4 ,he might indeed be left to be dealt with by mental science on its own ground2 and as our province is to look at the matter from the standpoint of natural history1 we might here close our inquiry4 ,it may1 however1 be proper to give some slight notion of the width of the gulf to be passed when we suppose the mechanical1 unconscious1 repetitive nature of the animal to pass over into the condition of an intellectual and moral being4 ,if we take1 as the most favourable case for the evolutionist1 the most sagacious of the lower animals--the dog1--for example and compare it with the least elevated condition of the human mind1 as observed in the child or the savage1 we shall find that even here there is something more then that immense difference in degree which ,darwin himself admits4 ,making every allowance for similarities in external sense1 in certain instinctive powers and appetites2 and even in the power of comparison1 and in certain passions and affections2 and admitting1 though we cannot be quite certain of this1 that in these man differs from animals only in degree2 there remain other and more important differences1 amounting to the possession1 on the part of man1 of powers not existing at all in animals4 ,of this kind are--first1 the faculty of reaching abstract and general truth1 ind consequently of reasoning1 in the proper sense of the term2 secondly1 in connection with this1 the power of indefinite increase in knowledge1 and in deductions therefrom leading to practical results2 thirdly1 the power of expressing thought in speech2 fourthly1 the power of arriving at ideas of right and wrong1 and thus becoming a responsible and free agent4 ,lastly1 we have the conception of higher spiritual intelligence1 of supreme power and divinity1 and the consequent feeling of religious obligation4 ,these powers are evidently different in kind1 rather then in degree1 from those of the brute1 and cannot be conceived to have arisen from the latter1 more especially as one of the distinctive characters of these is their purely cyclical1 repetitive1 and unprogressive nature4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock has1 by a great accumulation of facts1 or supposed facts1 bearing on the low mental condition of savages1 endeavoured to bridge over this chasm4 ,it is obvious1 however1 from his own data1 that the rudest savages are enabled to subsist only by the exercise of intellectual gifts far higher then those of animals2 and that if these gifts were removed from them1 they would inevitably perish4 ,it is equally clear that even the lowest savages are moral agents2 and that not merely in their religious beliefs and conceptions of good and evil1 but also in their moral degradation1 they show capacities not possessed by the brutes4 ,it is also true that most of these savages are quite as little likely to be specimens of primitive man as are the higher races2 and that many of them have fallen to so low a level as to be scarcely capable1 of themselves1 of rising to a condition of culture and civilisation4 ,thus they are more likely to be degraded races1 in the eddy and backwater of humanity then examples of the sources from whence it flowed4 ,and here it must not be lost sight of1 that a being like man has capacities for degradation commensurate with his capacities for improvement2 and that at any point of his history we may have to seek the analogues of primeval man1 rather in the average1 then the extremes of the race4 ,before leaving this subject1 it may be well to consider the fact1 that the occurrence of such a being as man in the last stages of the world's history is1 in itself1 an argument for the existence of a ,supreme ,creator4 ,man is himself an image and likeness of ,god2 and the fact that he can establish relations with nature around him1 so as to understand and control its powers1 implies either that he has been evolved as a soul of nature1 by its own blind development1 or that he has originated in the action of a higher being related to man4 ,the former supposition has been above shown to be altogether improbable2 so that we are necessarily thrown back upon the latter4 ,we must thus regard man himself as the highest known work of a spiritual creator1 and must infer that he rightly uses his reason when he infers from nature the power and divinity of ,god4 ,the last point that ,i think necessary to bring forward here1 is the information which geology gives as to the locality of the introduction of man4 ,there can be no hesitation in affirming that to the temperate regions of the old continent belongs the honour of being the cradle of humanity4 ,in these regions are the oldest historical monuments of our race2 here geology finds the most ancient remains of human beings2 here also seems to be the birthplace of the fauna and flora most useful and congenial to man2 and here he attains to his highest pitch of mental and physical development4 ,this1 it is true1 by no means accords with the methods of the derivationists4 ,on their theory we should search for the origin of man rather in those regions where he is most depauperated and degraded1 and where his struggles for existence are most severe4 ,but it is surely absurd to affirm of any species of animal or plant that it must have originated at the limits of its range1 where it can scarcely exist at all4 ,on the contrary1 common sense as well as science requires us to believe that species must have originated in those central parts of their distribution where they enjoy the most favourable circumstances1 and must have extended themselves thence as far as external conditions would permit4 ,one of the most wretched varieties of the human race1 and as near as any to the brutes1 is that which inhabits ,tierra del ,fuego1 a country which scarcely affords any of the means for the comfortable sustenance of man4 ,would it not be absolutely impossible that man should have originated in such a country8 ,is it not certain1 en the contrary1 that the ,fuegian is merely a degraded variety of the aboriginal ,american race8 ,precisely the same argument applies to the ,austral negro and the ,hottentot4 ,they are all naturally the most aberrant varieties of man1 as being at the extreme range of his possible extension1 and placed in conditions unfavourable1 either because of unsuitable climatal or organic associations4 ,it is true that the regions most favourable to the anthropoid apes1 and in which they may be presumed to have originated1 are by no means the most favourable to man2 but this only makes it the less likely that man could have been derived from such a parentage4 ,while1 therefore1 the geological date of the appearance of man1 the want of any link of connection between him and any preceding animal1 and his dissimilar bodily and mental constitution from any creatures contemporary with him1 render his derivation from apes or other inferior animals in the highest degree improbable1 the locality of his probable origin confirms this conclusion in the strongest manner4 ,it also shows that man and the higher apes are not likely to have originated in the same regions1 or under the same conditions1 and that the conditions of human origin are rather the coincidence of suitable climatal and organic surroundings then the occurrence of animals closely related in structure to man4 ,changes of conditions in geological time will not meet this difficulty4 ,they might lead to migrations1 as they have done in the case of both plants and animals1 but not to anything further4 ,the hyena1 whose bones are found in the ,english caves1 has been driven by geological changes to ,south ,africa1 but he is still the same hyena4 ,the reindeer which once roamed in ,france is still the reindeer in ,lapland2 and though under different geological conditions we might imagine the creature to have originated in the south of ,europe1 a country not now suitable to it1 this would neither give reason to believe that any animal now living in the south of ,europe was its progenitor1 nor to doubt that it still remains unchanged in its new habitat4 ,indeed1 the absence of anything more then merely varietal change in man and his companion-animals1 in consequence of the geological changes and migrations of the ,modern period1 furnishes1 as already stated1 a strong if not conclusive argument against derivation2 which here1 as elsewhere1 only increases our actual difficulties1 while professing to extricate us from them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the arguments in the preceding pages cover only a small portion of the extensive field opened up by this subject4 ,they relate1 however1 to some of the prominent and important points1 and ,i trust are sufficient to show that1 as applied to man1 the theory of derivation merely trifles with the great question of his origin1 without approaching to its solution4 ,i may now1 in conclusion1 sketch the leading features of primitive man1 as he appears to us through the mist of the intervening ages1 and compare the picture with that presented by the oldest historical records of our race4 ,two pictures of primeval man are in our time before the world4 ,one represents him as the pure and happy inhabitant of an ,eden1 free from all the ills that have afflicted his descendants1 and revelling in the bliss of a golden age4 ,this is the representation of ,holy ,scripture1 and it is also the dream of all the poetry and myth of the earlier ages of the world4 ,it is a beautiful picture1 whether we regard it as founded on historical fact1 or derived from ,god ,himself1 or from the yearnings of the higher spiritual nature of man4 ,the other picture is a joint product of modern philosophy and of antiquarian research4 ,it presents to us a coarse and filthy savage1 repulsive in feature1 gross in habits1 warring with his fellow-savages1 and warring yet more remorselessly with every living thing he could destroy1 tearing half-cooked flesh1 and cracking marrow-bones with stone hammers1 sheltering himself in damp and smoky caves1 with no eye heavenward1 and with only the first rude beginnings of the most important arts of life4 ,both pictures may contain elements of truth1 for man is a many-sided monster1 made up of things apparently incongruous1 and presenting here and there features out of which either picture may be composed4 ,evolutionists1 and especially those who believe in the struggle for existence and natural selection1 ignore altogether the evidence of the golden age of humanity1 and refer us to the rudest of modern savages as the types of primitive man4 ,those who believe in a ,divine origin for our race1 perhaps dwell too much on the higher spiritual features of the ,edenic state1 to the exclusion of its more practical aspects1 and its relations to the condition of the more barbarous races4 ,let us examine more closely both representations2 and first1 that of creation4 ,the ,glacial period1 with its snows and ice1 had passed away1 and the world rejoiced in a spring-time of renewed verdure and beauty4 ,many great and formidable beasts of the ,tertiary time had disappeared in the revolutions which had occurred1 and the existing fauna of the northern hemisphere had been established on the land4 ,then it was that man was introduced by an act of creative power4 ,in the preceding changes a region of ,western ,asia had been prepared for his residence4 ,it was a table-land at the head waters of the rivers that flow into the ,euxine1 the ,caspian1 and the ,persian ,gulf4 ,its climate was healthy and bracing1 with enough of variety to secure vigour1 and not so inclement as to exact any artificial provision for clothing or shelter4 ,its flora afforded abundance of edible fruits1 and was rich in all the more beautiful forms of plant life2 while its clear streams1 alluvial soil1 and undulating surface1 afforded every variety of station and all that is beautiful in scenery4 ,it was not infested with the more powerful and predacious quadrupeds1 and its geographical relations were such as to render this exemption permanent4 ,in this paradise man found ample supplies of wholesome and nutritious food4 ,his requirements as to shelter were met by the leafy bowers he could weave4 ,the streams of ,eden afforded gold which he could fashion for use and ornament1 pearly shells for vessels1 and agate for his few and simple cutting instruments4 ,he required no clothing1 and knew of no use for it4 ,his body was the perfection and archetype of the vertebrate form1 full of grace1 vigour1 and agility4 ,his hands enabled him to avail himself of all the products of nature for use and pleasure1 and to modify and adapt them according to his inclination4 ,his intelligence1 along with his manual powers1 allowed him to ascertain the properties of things1 to plan1 invent1 and apply in a manner impossible to any other creature4 ,his gift of speech enabled him to imitate and reduce to systematic language the sounds of nature1 and to connect them with the thoughts arising in his own mind1 and thus to express their relations and significance4 ,above all1 his ,maker had breathed into him a spiritual nature akin to ,his own1 whereby he became different from all other animals1 and the very shadow and likeness of ,god2 capable of rising to abstractions and general conceptions of truth and goodness1 and of holding communion with his ,creator4 ,this was man ,edenic1 the man of the golden age1 as sketched in the two short narratives of the earlier part of ,genesis1 which not only conform to the general traditions of our race on the subject1 but bear to any naturalist who will read them in their original dress1 internal evidence of being contemporary1 or very nearly so1 with the state of things to which they relate4 ,and ,god said1 ',let us make man in our image1 after our likeness2 and let them rule over the fish of the sea1 and over the birds of the air1 and over the herbivora1 and over all the land4' ,and ,god blessed them1 and said unto them1 ',be fruitful and multiply1 and fill the earth and subdue it4' ,and the ,lord ,god formed the man of the dust of the ground1 and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life1 and man became a living being4 ,and the ,lord ,god planted a garden1 eastward in ,eden1 and there ,he placed the man whom ,he had formed4 ,and out of the ground made the ,lord ,god to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food4 ,and a river went out of ,eden to water the garden1 and parted from thence1 becoming four heads 7of great rivers74 ,the name of the first is ,pison1 compassing the whole land of ,chavila1 where there is gold1 and the gold of that land is good2 there is 7also7 pearl and agate4444 ,and the ,lord ,god took the man1 and put him into the garden of ,eden1 to cultivate it and to take care of it4 ,before leaving this most ancient and most beautiful history1 we may say that it implies several things of much importance to our conceptions of primeval man4 ,it implies a centre of creation for man1 and a group of companion animals and plants1 and an intention to dispense in his case with any struggle for existence4 ,it implies1 also1 that man was not to be a lazy savage1 but a care-taker and utiliser1 by his mind and his bodily labour1 of the things given to him2 and it also implies an intelligent submission on his part to his ,maker1 and spiritual appreciation of ,his plans and intentions4 ,it further implies that man was1 in process of time1 from ,eden1 to colonise the earth1 and subdue its wildness1 so as to extend the conditions of ,eden widely over its surface4 ,lastly1 a part of the record not quoted above1 but necessary to the consistency of the story1 implies that1 in virtue of his spiritual nature1 and on certain conditions1 man1 though in bodily frame of the earth earthy1 like the other animals1 was to be exempted from the common law of mortality which had all along prevailed1 and which continued to prevail1 even among the animals of ,eden4 ,further1 if man fell from this condition into that of the savage of the age of stone1 it must have been by the obscuration of his spiritual nature under that which is merely animal2 in other words1 by his ceasing to be spiritual and in communion with ,god1 and becoming practically a sensual materialist4 that this actually happened is asserted by the ,scriptural story1 but its details would take us too far from our present subject4 ,let us now turn to the other picture--that presented by the theory of struggle for existence and derivation from lower animals4 ,it introduces us first to an ape1 akin perhaps to the modern orang or gorilla1 but unknown to us as yet by any actual remains4 ,this creature1 after living for an indefinite time in the rich forests of the ,miocene and earlier ,pliocene periods1 was at length subjected to the gradually increasing rigours of the ,glacial age4 ,its vegetable food and its leafy shelter failed it1 and it learned to nestle among such litter as it could collect in dens and caves1 and to seize and devour such weaker animals as it could overtake and master4 ,at the same time1 its lower extremities1 no longer used for climbing trees1 but for walking on the ground1 gained in strength and size2 its arms diminished2 and its development to maturity being delayed by the intensity of the struggle for existence1 its brain enlarged1 it became more cunning and sagacious1 and even learned to use weapons of wood or stone to destroy its victims4 ,so it gradually grew into a fierce and terrible creature1 neither beast nor human1 combining the habits of a bear and the agility of a monkey with some glimmerings of the cunning and resources of a savage4 ,when the ,glacial period passed away1 our nameless simian man1 or manlike ape1 might naturally be supposed to revert to its original condition1 and to establish itself as of old in the new forests of the ,modern period4 ,for some unknown reason1 however1 perhaps because it had gone too far in the path of improvement to be able to turn back1 this reversion did not take place4 ,on the contrary1 the ameliorated circumstances and wider range of the new continents enabled it still further to improve4 ,ease and abundance perfected what struggle and privation had begun2 it added to the rude arts of the ,glacial time2 it parted with the shaggy hair now unnecessary2 its features became softer2 and it returned in part to vegetable food4 ,language sprang up from the attempt to articulate natural sounds4 ,fire-making was invented and new arts arose4 ,at length the spiritual nature1 potentially present in the creature1 was awakened by some access of fear1 or some grand and terrible physical phenomenon2 the idea of a higher intelligence was struck out1 and the descendant of apes became a superstitious and idolatrous savage4 ,how much trouble and discussion would have been saved1 had he been aware of his humble origin1 and never entertained the vain imagination that he was a child of ,god1 rather then a mere product of physical evolution6 ,it is1 indeed1 curious1 that at this point evolutionism1 like theism1 has its fall of man2 for surely the awakening of the religious sense1 and of the knowledge of good and evil1 must on that theory be so designated1 since it subverted in the case of man the previous regular operation of natural selection1 and introduced all that debasing superstition1 priestly domination1 and religious controversy which have been among the chief curses of our race1 and which are doubly accursed if1 as the evolutionist believes1 they are not the ruins of something nobler and holier1 but the mere gratuitous1 vain1 and useless imaginings of a creature who should have been content to eat and drink and die1 without hope or fear1 like the brutes from which he sprang4 ,these are at present our alternative sketches3 the genesis of theism1 and the genesis of evolution4 ,after the argument in previous pages1 it is unnecessary here to discuss their relative degrees of probability4 ,if we believe in a personal spiritual ,creator1 the first becomes easy and natural1 as it is also that which best accords with history and tradition4 ,if1 on the contrary1 we reject all these1 and accept as natural laws the postulates of the evolutionists which we have already discussed1 we may become believers in the latter4 ,the only remaining point is to inquire as to which explains best the actual facts of humanity as we find them4 ,this is a view of which much has been made by evolutionists1 and it therefore merits consideration4 ,but it is too extensive to be fully treated of here1 and ,i must content myself with a few illustrations of the failure of the theory of derivation to explain some of the most important features presented by even the ruder races of men4 ,one of these is the belief in a future state of existence beyond this life4 ,this belongs purely to the spiritual nature of man4 ,it is not taught by physical nature1 yet its existence is probably universal1 and it lies near the foundation of all religious beliefs4 ,lartet has described to us the sepulchral cave of ,aurignac1 in which human skeletons1 believed to be of ,post-glacial date1 were associated with remains of funeral feasts1 and with indications of careful burial1 and with provisions laid up for the use of the dead4 ,lyell well remarks on this1 ,if we have here before us1 at the northern base of the ,pyrenees1 a sepulchral vault with skeletons of human beings1 consigned by friends and relatives to their last resting-place if we have also at the portal of the tomb the relics of funeral feasts1 and within it indications of viands destined for the use of the departed on their way to a land of spirits2 while among the funeral gifts are weapons wherewith in other fields to chase the gigantic deer1 the cave-lion1 the cave bear1 and woolly rhinoceros--we have at last succeeded in tracing back the sacred rites of burial1 and more interesting still1 a belief in a future state1 to times long anterior to those of history and tradition4 ,rude and superstitious as may have been the savage of that remote era1 he still deserved1 by cherishing hopes of a hereafter1 the epithet of 'noble1' which ,dryden gave to what he seems to have pictured to himself as the primitive condition of our race4,,bf ,,bf ,antiquity of ,man1 p4 #aib ,in like manner1 in the vast ,american continent1 all its long isolated and widely separated tribes1 many of them in a state of lowest barbarism1 and without any external ritual of religious worship1 believed in happy hunting-grounds in the spirit-land beyond the grave1 and the dead warrior was buried with his most useful weapons and precious ornaments4 ,bring here the last gifts2 and with them ,the last lament be said4 ,let all that pleased and yet may please1 ,be buried with the dead was no unmeaning funeral song1 but involved the sacrifice of the most precious and prized objects1 that the loved one might enter the new and untried state provided for its needs4 ,even the babe1 whose life is usually accounted of so small value by savage tribes1 was buried by the careful mother with precious strings of wampum1 that had cost more months of patient labour then the days of its short life1 that it might purchase the fostering care of the inhabitants of that unknown yet surely believed-in region of immortality4 ,this --wish that of the living whole ,no life may fail beyond the grave1 ,derives it not from what we have ,the likest ,god within the soul8 ,is it likely to have germinated in the brain of an ape8 and if so1 of what possible use would it be in the struggle of a merely physical existence8 ,is it not rather the remnant of a better spiritual life--a remembrance of the tree of life that grew in the paradise of ,god1 a link of connection of the spiritual nature in man with1 a higher ,divine ,spirit above8 ,life and immortality1 it is true1 were brought to light by ,jesus ,christ1 but they existed as beliefs more or less obscure from the first1 and formed the basis for good and evil of the religions of the world4 ,around this idea were gathered multitudes of collateral beliefs and religious observances2 feasts and festivals for the dead2 worship of dead heroes and ancestors2 priestly intercessions and sacrifices for the dead2 costly rites of sepulture4 ,vain and without foundation many of these have no doubt been1 but they have formed a universal and costly testimony to an instinct of immortality1 dimly glimmering even in the breast of the savage1 and glowing with higher brightness in the soul of the ,christian1 but separated by an impassable gulf from anything derivable from a brute ancestry4 ,the theistic picture of primeval man is in harmony with the fact that men1 as a whole1 are1 and always have been1 believers in ,god4 ,the evolutionist picture is not4 ,if man had from the first not merely a physical and intellectual nature1 but a spiritual nature as well1 we can understand how he came into relation with ,god1 and how through all his vagaries and corruptions he clings to this relation in one form or another2 but evolution affords no link of connection of this kind4 ,it holds ,god to be unknowable even to the cultivated intellect of philosophy1 and perceives no use in ideas with relation to ,him which1 according to it must necessarily be fallacious1 ,it leaves the theistic notions of mankind without explanation1 and it will not serve its purpose to assert that some few and exceptional families of men have no notion of a ,god4 ,even admitting this1 and it is at best very doubtful1 it can form but a trifling exception to a general truth4 ,it appears to me that this view of the case is very clearly put in the ,bible1 and it is curiously illustrated by a recent critique of ,mr4 ,darwin's ,critics1 by ,professor ,huxley in the ,contemporary ,review4 ,mr4 ,mivart1 himself a derivationist1 but differing in some points from ,darwin1 had affirmed1 in the spirit rather of a ,romish theologian then of a ,biblical student or philosopher1 that acts unaccompanied by mental acts of conscious will are absolutely destitute of the most incipient degree of goodness4 ,huxley well replies1 ,it is to my understanding extremely hard to reconcile ,mr4 ,mivart's dictum with that noble summary of the whole duty of man1 ',thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart1 and with all thy soul1 and with all thy strength2 and thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself4' ,according to ,mr4 ,mivart's definition1 the man who loves ,god and his neighbour1 and1 out of sheer love and affection for both1 does all he can to please them1 is nevertheless destitute of a particle of real goodness4 ,huxley's reply deserves to be pondered by certain moralists and theologians whose doctrine savours of the leaven of the ,pharisees1 but neither ,huxley nor his opponent see the higher truth that in the love of ,god we have a principle far nobler and more ,god-like and less animal then that of mere duty4 ,man primeval1 according to the doctrine of ,genesis1 was1 by simple love and communion with his ,god1 placed in the position of a spiritual being1 a member of a higher family then that of the animal4 ,the knowledge of good and evil which he acquired later1 and on which is based the law of conscious duty1 was a less happy attainment1 which placed him on a lower level then that of the unconscious love and goodness of primal innocence4 ,no doubt man's sense of right and wrong is something above the attainment of animals1 and which could never have sprung from them2 but still more is this the case with his direct spiritual relation to ,god1 which1 whether it rises to the inspiration of the prophet or the piety of the ,christian1 or sinks to the rude superstition of the savage1 can be no part of the ,adam of the dust but only of the breath of life breathed into him from above4 ,that man should love his fellow-man may not seem strange4 ,certain social and gregarious and family instincts exist among the lower animals1 and ,darwin very ably adduces these as akin to the similar affections of man2 yet even in the law of love of our neighbour1 as enforced by ,christ's teaching1 it is easy to see that we have something beyond animal nature4 ,but this becomes still more distinct in the love of ,god4 ,man was the shadow and likeness of ,god1 says the old record in ,genesis--the shadow that clings to the substance and is inseparable from it1 the likeness that represents it visibly to the eyes of men1 and of the animals that man rules over4 ,primeval man could hear in the evening breeze the voice of ,god1 walking to and fro in the garden4 ,what mere animal ever had or could attain to such an experience8 ,but if we turn from the ,edenic picture of man in harmony with ,heaven--owning a father1 when he owned a ,god--to man as the slave of superstition2 even in this terrible darkness of mistaken faith1 of which it may be said1 ,fear mates her devils1 and weak faith her gods1 ,gods partial1 changeful1 passionate1 unjust1 ,whose attributes are rage1 revenge1 or lust1 we see the ruins1 at least1 of that sublime love of ,god4 ,the animal clings to its young with a natural affection1 as great as that of a human mother for her child1 but what animal ever thought of throwing its progeny into the ,ganges1 or into the fires of ,moloch's altar1 for the saving of its soul1 or to obtain the favour or avoid the wrath of ,god8 ,no less in the vagaries of fetichism1 ritualism1 and idolatry1 and in the horrors of asceticism and human sacrifice1 then in the ,edenic communion with and hearing of ,god1 or in the joy of ,christian love1 do we see1 in however ruined or degraded condition1 the higher spiritual nature of man4 ,this point leads to another distinction which1 when properly viewed1 widens the gap between man and the animals1 or at least destroys one of the frail bridges of the evolutionists4 ,lubbock and others affect to believe that the lowest savages of the modern world must be nearest to the type of primeval man4 ,i have already attempted to show the fallacy of this4 ,i may add here that in so holding they overlook a fundamental distinction1 well pointed out by the ,duke of ,argyll1 between the capacity of acquiring knowledge and knowledge actually acquired1 and between the possession of a higher rational nature and the exercise of that nature in the pursuit of mechanical arts4 ,in other words1 primeval man must not be held to have been utterly barbarous because he was ignorant of mining or navigation1 or of sculpture and painting4 ,he had in him the power to attain to these things1 but so long as he was not under necessity to exercise it1 his mind may have expended its powers in other and happier channels4 ,as well might it be affirmed that a delicately nurtured lady is an utter barbarian because she cannot build her own house1 or make her own shoes4 ,no doubt in such work she would be far more helpless then the wife of the rudest savage1 yet she is not on that account to be held as an inferior being1 or nearer to the animals4 ,our conception of an angelic nature implies the absence of all our social institutions and mechanical arts2 but does this necessitate our regarding an angel as an utter barbarian8 ,in short1 the whole notion of civilisation held by ,lubbock and those who think with him1 is not only low and degrading1 but utterly and absurdly wrong2 and of course it vitiates all their conceptions of primeval man as well as of man's future destiny4 ,further1 the theistic idea implies that man was1 without exhausting toil1 to regulate and control nature1 to rule over the animals1 to cultivate the earth1 to extend himself over it and subdue it2 and all this as compatible with moral innocence1 and at the same time with high intellectual and spiritual activity4 ,there is1 however1 a still nicer and more beautiful distinction involved in this1 and included in the wonderful narrative in ,genesis1 so simple yet so much more profound then our philosophies2 and which crops out in the same discussion of the critics of ,darwin1 to which ,i have already referred4 ,a writer in the ,quarterly ,review had attempted to distinguish human reason from the intelligence of animals1 as involving self-consciousness and reflection in our sensations and perceptions4 ,huxley objects to this1 instancing the mental action of a greyhound when it sees and pursues a hare1 as similar to that of the gamekeeper when he lets slip the hound4,,bg ,,bg ,contemporary ,review1 ,november1 #ahga1 p4 #dfa4 ,as it is very necessary to keep up a clear distinction between these two processes1 let the one be called neurosis and the other psychosis4 ,when the gamekeeper was first trained to his work1 every step in the process of neurosis was accompanied by a corresponding step in that of psychosis1 or nearly so4 ,he was conscious of seeing something1 conscious of making sure it was a hare1 conscious of desiring to catch it1 and therefore to loose the greyhound at the right time1 conscious of the acts by which he let the dog out of the leash4 ,but with practice1 though the various steps of the neurosis remain--for otherwise the impression on the retina would not result in the loosing of the dog--the great majority of the steps of the psychosis vanish1 and the loosing of the dog follows unconsciously1 or1 as we say1 without thinking about1 upon the sight of the hare4 ,no one will deny that the series of acts which originally intervened between the sensation and the letting go of the dog were1 in the strictest sense1 intellectual and rational operations4 ,do they cease to be so when the man ceases to be conscious of them8 that depends upon what is the essence and what the accident of these operations1 which taken together constitute ratiocination4 ,now1 ratiocination is resolvable into predication1 and predication consists in marking1 in some way1 the existence1 the co-existence1 the succession1 the likeness and unlikeness1 of things or their ideas4 ,whatever does this1 reasons2 and if a machine produces the effects of reason1 ,i see no more ground for denying to it the reasoning power because it is unconscious1 then ,i see for refusing to ,mr4 ,babbage's engine the title of a calculating machine on the same grounds4 ,here we have in the first place1 the fact that an action1 in the first instance rational and complex1 becomes by repetition simple and instinctive4 ,does the man then sink to the level of the hound1 or1 what is more to the purpose1 does this in the least approach to showing that the hound can rise to the level of the man8 ,certainly not2 for the man is the conscious planner and originator of a course of action in which the instincts of the brute are made to take part1 and in which the readiness that he attains by habit only enables him to dispense with certain processes of thought which were absolutely necessary at first4 ,the man and the beast co-operate1 but they meet each other from entirely different planes2 the former from that of the rational consideration of nature1 the latter from that of the blind pursuit of a mere physical instinct4 ,the one1 to use ,mr4 ,huxley's simile1 is the conscious inventor of the calculating machine1 the other is the machine itself1 and1 though the machine can calculate1 this fact is the farthest possible from giving it the power of growing into or producing its own inventor4 ,but ,moses1 or the more ancient authority from whom he quotes in ,genesis1 knew this better then either of these modern combatants4 ,his special distinctive mark of the superiority of man is that he was to have dominion over the earth and its animal inhabitants2 and he represents this dominion as inaugurated by man's examining and naming the animals of ,eden1 and finding among them no help meet for him4,,bh ,man was to find in them helps1 but helps under his control1 and that not the control of brute force1 but of higher skill and of thought and even of love--a control still seen in some degree in the relation of man to his faithful companion1 the dog4 ,these old words of ,genesis1 simple though they are1 place the rational superiority of man on a stable basis1 and imply a distinction between him and the lower animals which cannot be shaken by the sophistries of the evolutionists4 ,,bh ,literally1 ,corresponding1 or ,similar1 to him4 ,the theistic picture further accords with the fact that the geological time immediately preceding man's appearance was a time of decadence of many of the grander forms of animal life1 especially in that area of the old continent where man was to appear4 ,whatever may be said of the imperfection of the geological record1 there can be no question of the fact that the ,miocene and earlier ,pliocene were distinguished by the prevalence of grand and gigantic forms of mammalian life1 some of which disappeared in or before the ,glacial period1 while others failed after that period in the subsidence of the ,post-glacial1 or in connection with its amelioration of climate4 ,the ,modern animals are also1 as explained above1 a selection from the grander fauna of the ,post-glacial period4 ,to speak for the moment in ,darwinian language1 there was for the time an evident tendency to promote the survival of the fittest1 not in mere physical development1 but in intelligence and sagacity4 ,a similar tendency existed even in the vegetable world1 replacing the flora of ,american aspect which had existed in the ,pliocene1 with the richer and more useful flora of ,europe and ,western ,asia4 ,this not obscurely indicates the preparing of a place for man1 and the removal out of his way of obstacles and hindrances4 ,that these changes had a relation to the advent of man1 neither theist nor evolutionist can doubt1 and it may be that we shall some day find that this relation implies the existence of a creative law intelligible by us2 but while we fail to perceive any link of direct causation between the changes in the lower world1 and the introduction of our race1 we cannot help seeing that correlation which implies a far-reaching plan1 and an intelligent design4 ,finally1 the evolutionist picture wants some of the fairest lineaments of humanity1 and cheats us with a semblance of man without the reality4 ,shave and paint your ape as you may1 clothe him and set him up upon his feet1 still he fails greatly of the human form divine2 and so it is with him morally and spiritually as well4 ,we have seen that he wants the instinct of immortality1 the love of ,god1 the mental and spiritual power of exercising dominion over the earth4 ,the very agency by which he is evolved is of itself subversive of all these higher properties4 ,the struggle for existence is essentially selfish1 and therefore degrading4 ,even in the lower animals1 it is a false assumption that its tendency is to elevate2 for animals when driven to the utmost verge of struggle for life1 become depauperated and degraded4 ,the dog which spends its life in snarling contention with its fellow-curs for insufficient food1 will not be a noble specimen of its race4 ,god does not so treat ,his creatures4 ,there is far more truth to nature in the doctrine which represents him as listening to the young ravens when they cry for food4 ,but as applied to man1 the theory of the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest1 though the most popular phase of evolutionism at present1 is nothing less then the basest and most horrible of superstitions4 ,it makes man not merely carnal1 but devilish4 ,it takes his lowest appetites and propensities1 and makes them his ,god and creator4 ,his higher sentiments and aspirations1 his self-denying philanthropy1 his enthusiasm for the good and true1 all the struggles and sufferings of heroes and martyrs1 not to speak of that self-sacrifice which is the foundation of ,christianity1 are in the view of the evolutionist mere loss and waste1 failure in the struggle of life4 ,what does he give us in exchange8 ,an endless pedigree of bestial ancestors1 without one gleam of high or holy tradition to enliven the procession2 and for the future1 the prospect that the poor mass of protoplasm which constitutes the sum of our being1 and which is the sole gain of an indefinite struggle in the past1 must soon be resolved again into inferior animals or dead matter4 ,that men of thought and culture should advocate such a philosophy1 argues either a strange mental hallucination1 or that the higher spiritual nature has been wholly quenched within them4 ,it is one of the saddest of many sad spectacles that our age presents4 ,still these men deserve credit for their bold pursuit of truth1 or what seems to them to be truth2 and they are1 after all1 nobler sinners then those who would practically lower us to the level of beasts by their negation even of intellectual life1 or who would reduce us to apes1 by making us the mere performers of rites and ceremonies1 as a substitute for religion1 or who would advise us to hand over reason and conscience to the despotic authority of fallible men dressed in strange garbs1 and called by sacred names4 ,the world needs a philosophy and a ,christianity of more robust mould1 which shall recognise1 as the ,bible does1 at once body and soul and spirit1 at once the sovereignty of ,god and the liberty of man2 and which shall bring out into practical operation the great truth that ,god is a ,spirit1 and they that worship ,him must worship ,him in spirit and in truth4 ,such a religion might walk in the sunlight of truth and free discussion1 hand in hand with science1 education1 liberty1 and material civilisation1 and would speedily consign evolution to the tomb which has already received so many superstitions and false philosophies4 ,,index4 ,a ,abbeville1 ,peat of1 #bid4 ,acadian ,group1 #ch4 ,advent of ,man1 #bhf4 ,agassiz on ,synthetic ,types1 #aha4 ,ammonitid1 #bba4 ,amphibians of the ,coal ,period1 #add4 ,andrews on the ,post-pliocene1 #bic4 ,anthracosaurus1 #ade4 ,anticosti ,formation1 #fa4 ,antiquity of ,man1 #bib4 ,archocyathus1 #dg4 ,archebiosis1 #cbg4 ,arenicolites1 #df4 ,asterolepis1 #ih4 ,b ,baculites1 #bbb4 ,bala ,limestone1 #ei4 ,baphetes1 #ade4 ,barrande on ,primordial1 #di4 ,bastian on ,lower forms of ,life1 #cbg4 ,beatricea1 #fe4 ,belemnites1 #bbc4 ,bigsby on ,silurian ,fauna1 #ge2 on ,primordial ,life1 #eb4 ,billings on ,archocyathus1 #df2 on ,feet of ,trilobites1 #dd4 ,binney on ,stigmaria1 #abg4 ,biology as a term1 #cbg4 ,boulder ,clay1 #bfh4 ,brachiopods1 or ,lamp-shells1 #hi4 ,breccia of ,caverns1 #cjd4 ,brown1 ,mr4 ,k41 on ,stigmaria1 #abg4 ,c ,calamites1 #ajd1 #abi1 #agc4 ,calcaire ,grossier1 #bdg4 ,cambrian ,age1 #cf2 name defined1 #di4 ,caradoc ,rocks1 #fj4 ,carbonic ,acid in ,atmosphere1 #abc4 ,carboniferous ,age1 #aji2 ,land ,snails of the1 #ach2 ,crustaceans of the1 #aed2 ,insects of the1 #ace2 ,corals of the1 #aec2 ,plants of the1 #abj2 ,fishes of the1 #aeg2 ,footprints in the1 #adc2 ,geography of the1 #aaj2 ,reptiles of the1 #adc4 ,carpenter on ,cretaceous ,sea1 #bcj4 ,carruthers on ,graptolites1 #gb4 ,cave ,earth1 #cje4 ,cavern ,deposits1 #cjd4 ,cephalaspis1 #ig4 ,cephalopods of ,silurian1 #fi4 ,ceteosaurus1 #bjd2 ,foraminifera in the1 #bbg4 ,chalk1 ,nature of1 #bbg4 ,chaos1 #b4 ,climactichnites1 #de4 ,coal1 ,origin of1 #aaf2 of the ,mesozoic1 #bja4 ,colours of ,rocks1 #aaj4 ,continental ,plateaus1 #eg4 ,continents1 their ,origin1 #ac4 ,conulus ,prisons1 #aci4 ,cope on ,dinosaurs1 #bjb2 on ,pterodactyl1 #bjf2 on ,mososaurus1 #bag2 on ,caverns1 #cjc4 ,corals of the ,silurian1 #fc2 agency of1 in forming ,limestone1 #fc1 #hi2 of the ,devonian1 #hi2 of the ,carboniferous1 #aec4 ,corniferous ,limestone1 #if4 ,coryphodon1 #bdd4 ,creation1 ,unity of1 #cc2 not by ,evolution1 #cc2 laws of1 #gh1 #aej2 statement of as a theory1 #cdj2 requirements of1 #cdc2 how treated by ,evolutionists1 #cci2 definition and explanation of1 #cdj2 its probable conditions1 #ceb4 ,creator1 evidence of a personal1 #cdd1 ,cretaceous ,period1 #aib1 #bca2 ,sea of the1 #bcj4 ,crinoids of the ,silurian1 #fh4 ,croll on the ,post-pliocene1 #bfb4 ,crusiana1 #de4 ,crustaceans of the ,primordial1 #db2 of the ,silurian1 #ga2 of the ,mesozoic1 #bbe4 ,crust of the ,earth1 #e2 ,folding of1 #afe4 ,cuvier on ,tertiary ,mammals1 #bdi4 ,cystideans1 #fi4 ,d ,dana on ,geological ,periods1 #age4 ,darwin1 ,nature of his ,theory1 #cbg2 his account of the ,origin of ,man1 #ccg2 his statement of ,descent of ,man1 #ccg4 ,davidson on ,brachiopods1 #afi4 ,dawkins on ,post-glacial ,mammals1 #cjj4 ,delaunay on ,solidity of the ,earth1 #f4 ,deluge1 the1 #bij4 ,devonian1 or ,brian ,age1 #ha2 ,physical ,condition of1 #hb2 ,tabular ,view of1 #he2 ,corals of the1 #hi2 ,fishes of the1 #if2 ,plants of the1 #ajb2 ,geography of the1 #hb2 ,insects of the1 #ajg4 ,dinichthys1 #ii4 ,dinosaurs1 #bjb4 ,dromatherium1 #bjh4 ,dudley1 ,fossils of1 #fi4 ,e ,earth1 its earliest state1 #i2 ,crust of the1 #e2 folding of1 #afe2 gaseous state of1 #i4 ,edenic state of ,man1 #caj1 #cgf4 ,edwards1 ,milne1 on ,devonian ,corals1 #hi4 ,elasmosaurus1 #bad4 ,elephants1 ,fossil1 #bed1 #cjj4 ,elevation and ,subsidence1 #ac1 #bi1 #hc1 #afe4 ,enaliosaurs1 #bac4 ,engis ,skull1 its characters1 #ceg4 ,eocene ,seas1 #bda2 ,foraminifera of the1 #bda2 ,mammals of the1 #bdg2 ,plants of the1 #bch2 ,footprints in the1 #bii4 ,eophyton1 #db4 ,eosaurus1 #ade1 ,eozoic ,period1 #ag4 ,eozoon ,bavaricum1 #ch4 ,eozoon ,canadense1 #bj1 #bd4 ,erian1 or ,devonian1 #ha2 ,reason of the ,name1 #hd2 ,table of ,erian ,formations1 #he2 ,corals of the1 #hi2 ,fishes of the1 #if2 ,plants of the1 #ajb4 ,eskers or ,kames1 #bhf4 ,etheridge on ,devonian1 #he4 ,eurypterus1 #ga1 #aae4 ,evolution as applied to ,eozoon1 #cc2 ,primordial ,animals1 #ee2 ,silurian ,animals1 #gg2 ,trilobites1 #id1 #aee2 ,reptiles1 #aej2 ,man1 #cai2 ,its ,character as a ,theory1 #cbj2 ,its ,difficulties1 #cbb2 ,its ,fall of ,man1 #chb1 ,f ,falconer on ,indian ,miocene1 #beb4 ,favosites1 #ia4 ,ferns of the ,devonian1 #if2 of the ,carboniferous1 #abj4 ,fishes1 ,ganoid1 #ii2 of the ,silurian1 #gd2 of the ,devonian1 #if2 of the ,carboniferous1 #aeg4 ,flora of the ,silurian1 #gf2 of the ,devonian1 #ajb2 of the ,carboniferous1 #abj2 of the ,permian1 #agb2 of the ,mesozoic1 #aii2 of the ,eocene1 #bch2 of the ,miocene1 #bei4 ,footprints in the ,carboniferous1 #adc2 in the ,trias1 #bjc2 in the ,eocene1 #big4 ,foraminifera1 ,nature of1 #bd2 ,laurentian1 #be2 of the ,chalk1 #bbg2 of the ,tertiary1 #bda4 ,forbes on ,post-glacial ,land1 #bhh4 ,forests of the ,devonian1 #ajb2 of the ,carboniferous1 #abj4 ,g ,ganoid ,fishes1 #if1 #ii4 ,gaseous state of the ,earth1 #i4 ,genesis1 ,book of1 its account of ,chaos1 #b2 of ,creation of ,land1 #ac2 of ,palozoic ,animals1 #ahg2 of ,creation of ,reptiles1 #aej2 of ,creation of ,mammals1 #bcd1 #bih2 of the ,deluge1 #bij2 of ,creation of ,man1 #cgi2 of ,eden1 #cgi4 ,genesis of the ,earth1 #a4 ,geography of the ,silurian1 #eg2 of the ,devonian1 #hb2 of the ,carboniferous1 #aaj2 of the ,permian1 #afc4 ,geological ,periods1 #age1 #aie4 ,glacial ,period1 #bfg1 #bgh4 ,glauconite1 #bbi4 ,glyptoerinus1 #hh4 ,graptolites1 #gb4 ,greenland1 ,miocene ,flora of1 #bfj4 ,greensand1 #bbi4 ,gmbel on ,bavarian ,eozoon1 #cg4 ,h ,hadrosaurus1 #bjb4 ,hall on ,graptolites1 #gb2 ,harlech ,beds1 #ch4 ,heer on ,tertiary ,plants1 #bfa4 ,helderberg ,rocks1 #fb4 ,hercynian ,schists1 #cg4 ,heterogenesis1 #cbg4 ,hicks on ,primordial ,fossils1 #ch4 ,hilgard on ,mississippi ,delta1 #bif4 ,hippopotamus1 ,fossil1 #cjj4 ,histioderma1 #df4 ,hopkins on ,solidity of the ,earth1 #f4 ,hudson ,river ,group1 #fj4 ,hull on ,geological ,periods1 #ahf4 ,hunt1 ,dr4 ,t4 ,s41 on ,volcanic ,action1 #g2 on ,chemistry of ,primeval ,earth1 #aa2 on ,lingul1 #da4 ,huronian ,formation1 #cf4 ,huxley on ,coal1 #acb2 on ,carboniferous ,reptiles1 #ade2 on ,dinosaurs1 #bjb2 on ,paley's ,argument from ,design1 #cdh2 on ,good and ,evil1 #cdi2 on ,intuitive and ,rational ,actions1 #cia2 on tendency of ,evolutionist views1 #cdh4 ,hylonomus1 #adh4 ,i ,ice-action in ,permian1 #afh2 in ,post-pliocene1 #bgj4 ,ichthyosaurus1 #bac4 ,iguanodon1 #bjb4 ,insects1 ,devonian1 #ajg2 ,carboniferous1 #ace4 ,intelligence of ,animals1 ,nature of1 #cbh4 ,j ,jurassic1 subdivisions of1 #aij4 ,k ,kames1 #bhf4 ,kaup on ,dinotherium1 #bea4 ,kent's ,cavern1 #cjd4 ,king-crabs of ,carboniferous1 #aed4 ,king on ,carboniferous ,reptiles1 #adc4 ,l ,labyrinthodon1 #bja1 ,llaps1 #bjc4 ,lamp-shells1 #dj4 ,land-snails of ,carboniferous1 #ach4 ,la ,place's ,nebular ,theory1 #g4 ,laurentian ,rocks1 #ah2 ,life in the1 #bc2 ,plants of the1 #cb4 ,lepidodendron1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #abg4 ,leptophleum1 #ajd4 ,limestone ,corniferous1 #if2 ,nummulitic1 #bda2 ,milioline1 #bdc2 ,silurian1 #fd2 ,origin of1 #bg1 #fc1 #hi4 ,limulus1 #aed4 ,lingul1 #ci4 ,lingula ,flags1 #ch4 ,logan1 ,sir ,w41 on ,laurentian ,rocks1 #ah2 on ,reptilian ,footprints1 #adc4 ,london ,clay1 #bdg4 ,longmynd ,rocks1 #ch1 #dg4 ,lower ,helderberg ,group1 #fb4 ,ludlow ,group1 #fb4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,c41 on ,devonian ,limestone1 #hi2 on ,wealden1 #aia2 on ,classification of the ,tertiary1 #bch4 ,m ,machairodus1 #bej4 ,magnesian ,limestones1 #aff4 ,mammals of the ,mesozoic1 #bjh2 of the ,eocene1 #bdg2 of the ,miocene1 #bej2 of the ,pliocene1 #bef2 of the ,post-glacial1 #cjj4 ,man1 ,advent of1 #bhf4 ,man1 ,antiquity of1 #bib2 ,history of1 according to ,theory of ,creation1 #cgg2 according to ,evolution1 #cha2 widely different from ,apes1 #cfj2 a new type1 #cfe2 ,primitive1 not a ,savage1 #cfg2 his ,spiritual ,nature1 #chd1 #cgj1 #chg2 ,locality of his ,origin1 #cgc2 ,primeval1 according to ,creation1 #cgg2 according to ,evolution1 #cha4 ,mayhill ,sandstone1 #fj4 ,medina ,sandstone1 #fj4 ,megalosaurus1 #bjc4 ,menevian ,formation1 #ch4 ,mesozoic ,ages1 #ahh2 subdivisions of1 #ahi2 ,flora of1 #aii2 ,coal of1 #bja2 ,crustaceans of the1 #bbe2 ,reptiles of the1 #bja1 #bab4 ,metalliferous ,rocks1 #afg4 ,metamorphism1 #ba4 ,microlestes1 #bjh4 ,milioline ,limestones1 #bdc4 ,miller on ,old ,bed ,sandstone1 #hf4 ,millipedes1 ,fossil1 #acf4 ,miocene ,plants1 #bfj2 ,climate1 #bfd2 ,mammals of1 #bej4 ,mississippi1 ,delta of the1 #bif4 ,modern ,period1 #bhc4 ,mosasaurus1 #bjf4 ,morse on ,lingula1 #ci4 ,murchison on the ,silurian1 #ef4 ,n ,nebular ,theory1 #g4 ,neolithic ,age1 #bhd4 ,neozoic ,ages1 #bcf2 divisions of1 #bci4 ,newberry on ,dinichthys1 #ii4 ,nicholson on ,graptolites1 #gb1 ,nummulitic ,limestones1 #bda4 ,o ,oldhamia1 #de4 ,old ,bed ,sandstone1 #hf4 ,oneida ,conglomerate4 #fi4 ,orthoceratites1 #fi1 #aed4 ,oscillations of ,continents1 #agi4 ,owen on ,dinosaurs1 #bjb2 on ,marsupials1 #bji4 ,p ,palolithic ,age1 #bhd1 #bhi4 ,palophis1 #bde4 ,palozoic ,life1 #aha2 diagram of1 #ahf4 ,paley on ,design in ,nature2 his illustration of the watch1 #cdi4 ,peat of ,abbeville1 #bid4 ,pengelly on ,kent's ,hole1 #cjd4 ,pentremites1 #aec4 ,periods1 ,geological1 #aie1 #age4 ,permian ,age1 #afj2 ,geography of the1 #afc2 ,ice-action in the1 #afh2 ,plants of the1 #agb2 ,reptiles of the1 #agb4 ,phillips on ,dawn of ,life1 #cj2 on ,ceteosaurus1 #bjd4 ,pictet on ,post-pliocene ,mammals1 #bef2 on ,post-glacial ,animals1 #ceg4 ,pictures of ,primeval ,man1 #cgf4 ,pierce on ,diminution of ,earth's ,rotation1 #afe4 ,pines of the ,devonian1 #aje2 of the ,carboniferous1 #aca2 of the ,permian1 #agc4 ,placoid ,fishes1 #if4 ,plants of the ,laurentian1 #cb2 of the ,silurian1 #gf2 of the ,devonian1 #ajb2 of the ,carboniferous1 #abd2 of the ,permian1 #agb2 of the ,mesozoic1 #aii2 of the ,tertiary #beh2 classification of1 #abb4 ,plateaus1 ,continental1 #eg4 ,plesiosaurus1 #bae4 ,pliocene1 ,climate of1 #bff2 ,mammals of1 #bef4 ,pliosaurus1 #bae4 ,pluvial ,period1 #bhg4 ,post-glacial ,age1 #bhc1 #bib4 ,post-pliocene ,period1 #bgd2 cold1 #bgh2 ,ice-action in the1 #bgj2 ,subsidence1 #bgi2 ,elevation1 #bhd2 ,shells1 evidence of1 against ,derivation1 #ceh2 ,mammals1 evidence of1 against ,derivation1 #ceg4 ,potsdam ,sandstone1 #ch4 ,prestwich on ,st4 ,acheul1 #bid4 ,primordial ,age1 #cf2 ,crustacean of the1 #db4 ,protichnites1 #de4 ,protorosaurus1 #agb4 ,prototaxites1 #gf4 ,psilophyton1 #gf1 #ajc4 ,pteraspis1 #gf4 ,pterichthys1 #ih4 ,pterodactyls1 #bjf4 ,pterygotus1 #ic4 ,pupa vetusta1 #aci4 ,q ,quebec ,group1 #fj4 ,r ,rain-marks1 #dg4 ,ramsay on ,permian1 #afh4 ,red ,sandstones1 their ,origin1 #aaj1 #aff4 ,reptiles of the ,carboniferous1 #adc2 of the ,permian1 #agb2 of the ,mesozoic1 #bja1 #bab4 ,rhinoceros1 ,fossil1 #cjj4 ,rocks1 ,colours of1 #aaj4 ,rotation of the ,earth1 its ,gradual ,diminution1 #afe4 ,s ,salter on ,fossil ,crustacea1 #aee4 ,sedgwick on ,cambrian1 #ef1 #ge4 ,seeley on ,pterodactyls1 #bjf4 ,shrinkage-cracks1 #dg4 ,sigillaria1 #ajd1 #abd4 ,silurian ,ages1 #ef2 ,cephalopoda of the1 #fi2 ,corals of the1 #fc2 ,crinoids of the #fh2 ,crustaceans of the1 #ga2 ,fishes of the1 #gd2 ,plants of the1 #gf4 ,siluro-,cambrian1 use of the term1 #ef4 ,slaty ,structure1 #dh4 ,solidity of the ,earth1 #f4 ,somme1 ,r41 ,gravels of1 #bib4 ,species1 ,nature of the1 #cbg2 how ,created1 #ceb4 ,spencer1 his ,exposition of ,evolution1 #cba1 #cca4 ,spiritual ,nature of ,man1 #chd1 #cgj1 #chg4 ,spore-cases in ,coals and ,shales1 #ajf4 ,stalagmite of ,caves1 #cje4 ,striated ,rock-surfaces1 #bfi4 ,stumps1 ,fossil of ,carboniferous1 #adj4 ,synthetic ,types1 #aha4 ,t ,table of ,devonian ,rocks1 #he2 of ,palozoic ,ages1 #ahg2 of ,mesozoic ,ages1 #bcd2 of ,neozoic ,ages1 #bih2 of ,post-pliocene1 #bgf4 ,temperature of ,interior of the ,earth1 #d4 ,tertiary ,period1 #bcf2 ,mammals of1 #bdg1 #bej1 #bef2 classification of its ,rocks1 #bch4 ,thomson1 ,sir ,w41 on ,solidity of the ,earth1 #f4 ,time1 ,geological ,divisions of1 #age4 ,tinire1 ,cone of1 #bic4 ,trenton ,limestone1 #ei1 #fc4 ,trias1 ,divisions of1 #ahi2 ,footprints in the1 #bjc4 ,trilobites1 #dc1 #id1 #aed2 ,feet of1 #dc4 ,turtles of ,mesozoic1 #bah4 ,tylor on ,pluvial ,period1 #bhg4 ,tyndall on ,carbonic ,acid in ,atmosphere1 #abc4 ,u ,uniformitarianism in ,geology1 #h4 ,utica ,shale1 #fj4 ,v ,volcanic ,action1 #g2 of ,cambrian ,age1 #cf2 of ,silurian ,age1 #fb2 of ,devonian ,age1 #ha1 #hc4 ,von ,dechen on ,reptiles of ,carboniferous1 #adc1 #ade4 ,von ,meyer on ,dinosaurs1 #bjb4 ,w ,walchia1 #agc4 ,wallace1 his views on ,inapplicability of ,natural ,selection to ,man1 #cfh4 ,wealden1 #aia4 ,wenlock ,group1 #fb4 ,williamsonia gigas1 #bjj4 ,williamson on ,calamites1 #aha4 ,woodward on ,pterygotus1 #ic4 ,z ,zaphrentis #ib4 ,,valuable ,,and ,,interesting ,,works ,,for ,,public ,,private ,,libraries1 ,,published ,,by ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,new ,,york4 ,illustration3 pointing finger ,for a full ,list of ,books suitable for ,libraries published by ,,harper ,,brothers1 see ,,harper',s ,,catalogue1 which may be had gratuitously on application to the publishers personally1 or by letter enclosing ,nine ,cents in ,postage stamps4 ,illustration3 pointing finger ,,harper ,,brothers will send their publications by mail1 postage pre-paid1 on receipt of the price4 ,,macaulay',s ,,england4 ,the ,history of ,england from the ,accession of ,james ,,ii4 ,by ,thomas ,babington ,macaulay4 ,new ,edition1 from new ,electrotype ,plates4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #e vols4 in a ,box1 #aj #jj per set4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,cheap ,edition1 #e vols4 in a ,box1 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej2 ,sheep1 #c #ge4 ,,macaulay',s ,,miscellaneous ,,works4 ,the ,miscellaneous ,works1 of ,lord ,macaulay4 ,from ,new ,electrotype ,plates4 ,in ,five ,volumes4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 in a ,box1 #aj #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,,hume',s ,,england4 ,the ,history of ,england1 from the ,invasion of ,julius ,csar to the ,abdication of ,james ,,ii41 #afhh4 ,by ,david ,hume4 ,new and ,elegant ,library ,edition1 from new ,electrotype ,plates4 #f vols4 in a ,box1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #ab #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,popular ,edition1 #f vols4 in a ,box1 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj2 ,sheep1 #d #ej4 ,,gibbon',s ,,rome4 ,the ,history of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire4 ,by ,edward ,gibbon4 ,with ,notes by ,dean ,milman1 ,m4 ,,guizot1 and ,dr4 ,william ,smith4 ,new ,edition1 from new ,electrotype ,plates4 #f vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #ab #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,popular ,edition1 #f vols4 in a ,box1 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj2 ,sheep1 #d #ej4 ,,geddes',s ,,history ,,of ,,john ,,de ,,witt4 ,history of the ,administration of ,john ,de ,witt1 ,grand ,pensionary of ,holland4 ,by ,james ,geddes4 ,vol4 ,i4--#afbc-afed4 ,with a ,portrait4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,,hildreth',s ,,united ,,states4 ,history of the ,united ,states4 ,first ,series3 ,from the ,discovery of the ,continent to the ,organization of the ,government under the ,federal ,constitution4 ,second ,series3 ,from the ,adoption of the ,federal ,constitution to the ,end of the ,sixteenth ,congress4 ,by ,richard ,hildreth4 ,popular ,edition1 #f vols4 in a ,box1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #ab #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,,motley',s ,,dutch ,,republic4 ,the ,rise of the ,dutch ,republic4 ,a ,history4 ,by ,john ,lothrop ,motley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with a ,portrait of ,william of ,orange4 ,cheap ,edition1 #c vols4 in a ,box1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #f #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,original ,library ,edition1 #c vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #aj #ej2 ,sheep1 #ab #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #agbe4 ,,motley',s ,,united ,,netherlands4 ,history of the ,united ,netherlands3 from the ,death of ,william the ,silent to the ,twelve ,years' ,truce--#aehd-afji4 ,with a full ,view of the ,english-,dutch ,struggle against ,spain1 and of the ,origin and ,destruction of the ,spanish ,armada4 ,by ,john ,lothrop ,motley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,portraits4 ,cheap ,edition1 #d vols4 in a ,box1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #h #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,original ,library ,edition1 #d vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #ad #jj2 ,sheep1 #af #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #bc #jj4 ,,motley',s ,,life ,,and ,,death ,,of ,,john ,,of ,,barneveld4 ,the ,life and ,death of ,john of ,barneveld1 ,advocate of ,holland3 with a ,view of the ,primary ,causes and ,movements of ,the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,by ,john ,lothrop ,motley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,illustrated4 ,cheap ,edition1 #b vols4 in a ,box1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #d #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,original ,library ,edition1 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #g #jj2 ,sheep1 #h #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #aa #ej4 ,,sketches ,,and ,,studies ,,in ,,southern ,,europe4 ,by ,john ,addington ,symonds4 ,in ,two ,volumes4 ,post #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,symonds',s ,,greek ,,poets4 ,studies of the ,greek ,poets4 ,by ,john ,addington ,symonds4 #b vols41 ,square #afmo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,hudson',s ,,history ,,of ,,journalism4 ,journalism in the ,united ,states1 from #afij to #ahgb4 ,by ,frederic ,hudson4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,,trevelyan',s ,,life ,,of ,,macaulay4 ,the ,life and ,letters of ,lord ,macaulay4 ,by his ,nephew1 ,g4 ,otto ,trevelyan1 ,m4,p4 ,with ,portrait on ,steel4 ,complete in #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #f #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #i #ej4 ,popular ,edition1 two vols4 in one1 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,,trevelyan',s ,,life ,,of ,,fox4 ,the ,early ,history of ,charles ,james ,fox4 ,by ,george ,otto ,trevelyan4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #b #ej2 #dto1 ,paper1 #bj cents4 ,,benjamin',s ,,contemporary ,,art4 ,contemporary ,art in ,europe4 ,by ,s4 ,g4 ,w4 ,benjamin4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,benjamin',s ,,art ,,in ,,america4 ,art in ,america4 ,by ,s4 ,g4 ,w4 ,benjamin4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,kinglake',s ,,crimean ,,war4 ,the ,invasion of the ,crimea3 its ,origin1 and an ,account of its ,progress down to the ,death of ,lord ,raglan4 ,by ,alexander ,william ,kinglake4 ,with ,maps and ,plans4 ,four ,volumes now ready4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj per vol4 ,,lamb',s ,,complete ,,works4 ,the ,works of ,charles ,lamb4 ,comprising his ,letters1 ,poems1 ,essays of ,elia1 ,essays upon ,shakspeare1 ,hogarth1 etc41 and a ,sketch of his ,life1 with the ,final ,memorials1 by ,t4 ,noon ,talfourd4 ,with ,portrait4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,lossing',s ,,field-,,book ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4 ,pictorial ,field-,book of the ,revolution2 or1 ,illustrations by ,pen and ,pencil of the ,history1 ,biography1 ,scenery1 ,relics1 and ,traditions of the ,war for ,independence4 ,by ,benson ,j4 ,lossing4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #ad #jj2 ,sheep or ,roan1 #ae #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #ah #jj4 ,,lossing',s ,,field-,,book ,,of ,,the ,,war ,,of #ahab4 ,pictorial ,field-,book of the ,war of #ahab2 or1 ,illustrations by ,pen and ,pencil of the ,history1 ,biography1 ,scenery1 ,relics1 and ,traditions of the last ,war for ,american ,independence4 ,by ,benson ,j4 ,lossing4 ,with several hundred ,engravings on ,wood by ,lossing and ,barritt1 chiefly from ,original ,sketches by the ,author4 #ajhh pages1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #g #jj2 ,sheep1 #h #ej2 ,roan1 #i #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #ajjj4 ,,forster',s ,,life ,,of ,,dean ,,swift4 ,the ,early ,life of ,jonathan ,swift 7#affg-agaa74 ,by ,john ,forster4 ,with ,portrait4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #b #ej4 ,,lawrence',s ,,historical ,,studies4 ,historical ,studies4 ,by ,eugene ,lawrence4 ,containing the following ,essays3 ,the ,bishops of ,rome4--,leo and ,luther4--,loyola and the ,jesuits4--,ecumenical ,councils4--,the ,vaudois4--,the ,huguenots4--,the ,church of ,jerusalem4--,dominic and the ,inquisition4--,the ,conquest of ,ireland4--,the ,greek ,church4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #c #jj4 ,,green',s ,,english ,,people4 ,history of the ,english ,people4 ,by ,john ,richard ,green1 ,m4,a4 ,four ,volumes4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej per volume4 ,,short',s ,,north ,,americans ,,of ,,antiquity4 ,the ,north ,americans of ,antiquity4 ,their ,origin1 ,migrations1 and ,type of ,civilization ,considered4 ,by ,,john ,t4 ,,short4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,squier',s ,,peru4 ,peru3 ,incidents of ,travel and ,exploration in the ,land of the ,incas4 ,by ,e4 ,george ,squier1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a41 late ,u4 ,s4 ,commissioner to ,peru4 ,with ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,blaikie',s ,,life ,,of ,,david ,,livingstone4 ,dr4 ,livingstone3 ,memoir of his ,personal ,life1 from his ,unpublished ,journals and ,correspondence4 ,by ,w4 ,g4 ,blaikie1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,with ,portrait and ,map4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,maury',s ,,physical ,,geography ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,the ,physical ,geography of the ,sea1 and its ,meteorology4 ,by ,m4 ,f4 ,maury1 ,,ll4,d4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,schweinfurth',s ,,heart ,,of ,,africa4 ,the ,heart of ,africa4 ,three ,years' ,travels and ,adventures in the ,unexplored ,regions of the ,centre of ,africa--from #ahfh to #ahga4 ,by ,dr4 ,georg ,schweinfurth4 ,translated by ,ellen ,e4 ,frewer4 ,with an ,introduction by ,w4 ,winwood ,reade4 ,illustrated4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #h #jj4 ,m',,clintock ,,strong',s ,,cyclop,,dia4 ,cyclopedia of ,biblical1 ,theological1 and ,ecclesiastical ,literature4 ,prepared by the ,rev4 ,john ,m',clintock1 ,d4,d41 and ,james ,strong1 ,s4,t4,d4 #i vols4 now ready4 ,royal #hvo4 ,price per vol41 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #f #jj2 ,half ,morocco1 #h #jj4 ,,shakspeare4 ,the ,dramatic ,works of ,william ,shakspeare4 ,with ,corrections and ,notes4 ,engravings4 #f vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #i #jj4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #jj4 ,in one vol41 #hvo1 ,sheep1 #d #jj4 ,,mohammed ,,and ,,mohammedanism3 ,lectures ,delivered at the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain in ,february and ,march1 #ahgd4 ,by ,r4 ,bosworth ,smith1 ,m4 ,a4 ,with an ,appendix containing ,emanuel ,deutsch's ,article on ,islam4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ej4 ,,livingstone',s ,,south ,,africa4 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,south ,africa3 including a ,sketch of ,sixteen ,years' ,residence in the ,interior of ,africa1 and a ,journey from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to ,loanda on the ,west ,coast2 thence across the ,continent1 down the ,river ,zambesi1 to the ,eastern ,ocean4 ,by ,david ,livingstone1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with ,portrait1 ,maps1 and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #ej2 ,sheep1 #e #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #f #ge4 ,,livingstone',s ,,zambesi4 ,narrative of an ,expedition to the ,zambesi and its ,tributaries1 and of the ,discovery of the ,lakes ,shirwa and ,nyassa1 #aheh-ahfd4 ,by ,david and ,charles ,livingstone4 ,map and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #ej2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,,livingstone',s ,,last ,,journals4 ,the ,last ,journals of ,david ,livingstone1 in ,central ,africa1 from #ahfe to his ,death4 ,continued by a ,narrative of his ,last ,moments and ,sufferings1 obtained from his ,faithful ,servants ,chuma and ,susi4 ,by ,horace ,waller1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,rector of ,twywell1 ,northampton4 ,with ,portrait1 ,maps1 and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #ej2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,cheap ,popular ,edition1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,map and ,illustrations1 #b #ej4 ,,nordhoff',s ,,communistic ,,societies ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,the ,communistic ,societies of the ,united ,states1 from ,personal ,visit and ,observation2 including ,detailed ,accounts of the ,economists1 ,zoarites1 ,shakers1 the ,amana1 ,oneida1 ,bethel1 ,aurora1 ,icarian1 and other existing ,societies4 ,with ,particulars of their ,religious ,creeds and ,practices1 their ,social ,theories and ,life1 ,numbers1 ,industries1 and ,present ,condition4 ,by ,charles ,nordhoff4 ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,nordhoff',s ,,california4 ,california3 for ,health1 ,pleasure1 and ,residence4 ,a ,book for ,travellers and ,settlers4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,,nordhoff',s ,,northern ,,california ,,and ,,the ,,sandwich ,,islands4 ,northern ,california1 ,oregon1 and the ,sandwich ,islands4 ,by ,charles ,nordhoff4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,,mosheim',s ,,ecclesiastical ,,history1 ,ancient and ,modern2 in which the ,rise1 ,progress1 and ,variation of ,church ,power are considered in their ,connection with the ,state of ,learning and ,philosophy1 and the ,political ,history of ,europe during that ,period4 ,translated1 with ,notes1 etc41 by ,a4 ,maclaine1 ,d4,d4 ,continued to #ahbf1 by ,c4 ,coote1 ,,ll4,d4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #jj4 ,,harper',s ,,new ,,classical ,,library4 ,literal ,translations4 ,the following volumes are now ready4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #jj each4 ,csar4--,virgil4--,sallust4--,horace4--, cicero's ,orations4--,cicero's ,offices1 ,etc4--,cicero ,on ,oratory ,and ,orators4--,tacitus 7#b vols474--,terence4--,sophocles4--,juvena l4--,xenophon4--,homer's ,iliad4--,homer's ,odyssey4--,herodotus4--,demosthenes 7#b ,vols474--,thucydides4--schylus4--,eurip ides 7#b vols474--,livy 7#b vols474--,plato ,select ,dialogues4 ,,vincent',s ,,land ,,of ,,the ,,white ,,elephant4 ,the ,land of the ,white ,elephant3 ,sights and ,scenes in ,southeastern ,asia4 ,a ,personal ,narrative of ,travel and ,adventure in ,farther ,india1 embracing the ,countries of ,burma1 ,siam1 ,cambodia1 and ,cochin-,china 7#ahga-b74 ,by ,frank ,vincent1 ,jr4 ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,grote',s ,,history ,,of ,,greece4 #ab vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ah #jj2 ,sheep1 #bb #hj2 ,half ,calf1 #ci #jj4 ,,reclus',s ,,earth4 ,the ,earth3 a ,descriptive ,history of the ,phenomena of the ,life of the ,globe4 ,by lise ,reclus4 ,with #bcd ,maps and ,illustrations1 and #bc ,page ,maps printed in ,colors4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,reclus',s ,,ocean4 ,the ,ocean1 ,atmosphere1 and ,life4 ,being the ,second ,series of a ,descriptive ,history of the ,life of the ,globe4 ,by lise ,reclus4 ,profusely ,illustrated with #bej ,maps or ,figures1 and #bg ,maps printed in ,colors4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj4 ,,griffis',s ,,japan4 ,the ,mikado's ,empire3 ,book ,i4 ,history of ,japan1 from #ffj ,b4,c4 to #ahgb ,a4,d4 ,book ,,ii4 ,personal ,experiences1 ,observations1 and ,studies in ,japan1 #ahgj-ahgd4 ,by ,william ,elliot ,griffis1 ,a4,m41 late of the ,imperial ,university of ,tokio1 ,japan4 ,copiously ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #f #be4 ,,baker',s ,,ismail,a4 ,ismaila3 a ,narrative of the ,expedition to ,central ,africa for the ,suppression of the ,slave-trade1 organized by ,ismail1 ,khedive of ,egypt4 ,by ,sir ,samuel ,white ,baker1 ,pasha1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with ,maps1 ,portraits1 and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,,smiles',s ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,huguenots4 ,the ,huguenots3 their ,settlements1 ,churches1 and ,industries in ,england and ,ireland4 ,by ,samuel ,smiles4 ,with an ,appendix relating to the ,huguenots in ,america4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,,smiles',s ,,huguenots ,,after ,,the ,,revocation4 ,the ,huguenots in ,france after the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes2 with a ,visit to the ,country of the ,vaudois4 ,by ,samuel ,smiles4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,,smiles',s ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,stephensons4 ,the ,life of ,george ,stephenson1 and of his ,son1 ,robert ,stephenson2 comprising1 also1 a ,history of the ,invention and ,introduction of the ,railway ,locomotive4 ,by ,samuel ,smiles4 ,with ,steel ,portraits and numerous ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,norton',s ,,studies ,,of ,,church-,,building4 ,historical ,studies of ,church-,building in the ,middle ,ages4 ,venice1 ,siena1 ,florence4 ,by ,charles ,eliot ,norton4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #cjj4 ,,alison',s ,,history ,,of ,,europe4 ,first ,series3 ,from the ,commencement of the ,french ,revolution1 in #aghi1 to the ,restoration of the ,bourbons in #ahae4 ,in addition to the ,notes on ,chapter ,,lxxvi41 which correct the errors of the original work concerning the ,united ,states1 a copious ,analytical ,index has been appended to this ,american ,edition4 ,second ,series3 ,from the ,fall of ,napoleon1 in #ahae1 to the ,accession of ,louis ,napoleon1 in #aheb4 #h vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #af #jj2 ,sheep1 #bj #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #cd #jj4 ,,samuel ,,johnson3 ,,his ,,words ,,and ,,his ,,ways2 what he ,said1 what he ,did1 and what ,men ,thought and ,spoke concerning him4 ,edited by ,e4 ,t4 ,mason4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ej4 ,,johnson',s ,,complete ,,works4 ,the ,works of ,samuel ,johnson1 ,,ll4,d4 ,with an ,essay on his ,life and ,genius1 by ,a4 ,murphy4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #hej4 ,,schliemann',s ,,ilios4 ,ilios1 the ,city and ,country of the ,trojans4 ,a ,narrative of the ,most ,recent ,discoveries and ,researches made on the ,plain of ,troy4 ,with ,illustrations representing nearly #bjjj ,types of the ,objects found in the ,excavations of the ,seven ,cities on the ,site of ,ilios4 ,by ,dr4 ,henry ,schliemann4 ,maps1 ,plans1 and ,illustrations4 ,imperial #hvo1 ,illuminated ,cloth1 #ab #jj4 ,,boswell',s ,,johnson4 ,the ,life of ,samuel ,johnson1 ,,ll4,d41 including a ,journal of a ,tour to the ,hebrides4 ,by ,james ,boswell4 ,edited by ,j4 ,w4 ,croker1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,k4,s4 ,with a ,portrait of ,boswell4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #h #ej4 ,,addison',s ,,complete ,,works4 ,the ,works of ,joseph ,addison1 embracing the whole of the ,spectator4 #c vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj2 ,sheep1 #g #ej2 ,half ,calf1 #ab #ge4 ,,bourne',s ,,locke4 ,the ,life of ,john ,locke4 ,by ,h4 ,r4 ,fox ,bourne4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #e #jj4 ,,english ,,correspondence4 ,four ,centuries of ,english ,letters4 ,selections from the ,correspondence of ,one ,hundred and ,fifty ,writers from the ,period of the ,paston ,letters to the ,present ,day4 ,edited by ,w4 ,baptiste ,scoones4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,,the ,,student',s ,,series4 ,maps and ,illustrations4 #abmo1 ,cloth4 ,france4--,gibbon4--,greece4--,rome 7,by ,liddell74--,old ,testament ,history4--,new ,testament ,history4--,strickland's ,queens ,of ,england 7,abridged74--,ancient ,history ,of ,the ,east4--,hallam's ,middle ,ages4--,hallam's ,constitutional ,history of ,england4--,lyell's ,elements of ,geology4--,merivale's ,general ,history of ,rome4--,cox's ,general ,history of ,greece4--,classical ,dictionary4 #a #be per volume4 ,lewis's ,history of ,germany4--,ecclesiastical ,history4--,hume's ,england4 #a #ej per volume4 ,,cameron',s ,,across ,,africa4 ,across ,africa4 ,by ,verney ,lovett ,cameron4 ,map and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,bulwer',s ,,miscellaneous ,,prose ,,works4 ,the ,miscellaneous ,prose ,works of ,lord ,lytton4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,also1 in uniform style1 ,caxtoniana4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,,carlyle',s ,,frederick ,,the ,,great4 ,history of ,friedrich ,,ii41 called ,frederick the ,great4 ,by ,thomas ,carlyle4 ,portraits1 ,maps1 ,plans1 etc4 #f vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ab #jj2 ,sheep1 #ad #dj2 ,half ,calf1 #bb #ej4 ,,carlyle',s ,,french ,,revolution4 ,the ,french ,revolution3 a ,history4 ,by ,thomas ,carlyle4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej2 ,sheep1 #d #cj2 ,half ,calf1 #g #jj4 ,,carlyle',s ,,oliver ,,cromwell4 ,oliver ,cromwell's ,letters and ,speeches1 including the ,supplement to the ,first ,edition4 ,with ,elucidations4 ,by ,thomas ,carlyle4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej2 ,sheep1 #d #cj2 ,half ,calf1 #g #jj4 ,,abbott',s ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,revolution4 ,the ,french ,revolution of #aghi1 as viewed in the ,light of ,republican ,institutions4 ,by ,john ,s4 ,c4 ,abbott4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #ej2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,,abbott',s ,,napoleon4 ,the ,history of ,napoleon ,bonaparte4 ,by ,john ,s4 ,c4 ,abbott4 ,maps1 ,illustrations1 and ,portraits4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #aj #jj2 ,sheep1 #aa #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #ad #ej4 ,,abbott',s ,,napoleon ,,at ,,st4 ,,helena4 ,napoleon at ,st4 ,helena2 or1 ,anecdotes and ,conversations of the ,emperor during the ,years of his ,captivity4 ,collected from the ,memorials of ,las ,casas1 ,o',meara1 ,montholon1 ,antommarchi1 and others4 ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,abbott4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #ej2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,,abbott',s ,,frederick ,,the ,,great4 ,the ,history of ,frederick the ,second1 called ,frederick the ,great4 ,by ,john ,s4 ,c4 ,abbott4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,,draper',s ,,civil ,,war4 ,history of the ,american ,civil ,war4 ,by ,john ,w4 ,draper1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 #c vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,bevelled ,edges1 #aj #ej2 ,sheep1 #ab #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #ag #be4 ,,draper',s ,,intellectual ,,development ,,of ,,europe4 ,a ,history of the ,intellectual ,development of ,europe4 ,by ,john ,w4 ,draper1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,edition1 ,revised4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #f #ej4 ,,draper',s ,,american ,,civil ,,policy4 ,thoughts on the ,future ,civil ,policy of ,america4 ,by ,john ,w4 ,draper1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj2 ,half ,morocco1 #c #ge4 ,mc,c,a,r,t,h,y',s ,,history ,,of ,,england4 ,a ,history of ,our ,own ,times1 from the ,accession of ,queen ,victoria to the ,general ,election of #ahhj4 ,by ,justin ,mc,carthy4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,,perry',s ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,england4 ,a ,history of the ,english ,church1 from the ,accession of ,henry ,,viii4 to the ,silencing of ,convocation4 ,by ,g4 ,g4 ,perry1 ,m4,a4 ,with a ,sketch of the ,history of the ,protestant ,episcopal ,church in the ,united ,states1 by ,j4 ,a4 ,spencer1 ,s4,t4,d4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,,abbott',s ,,dictionary ,,of ,,religious ,,knowledge4 ,a ,dictionary of ,religious ,knowledge1 for ,popular and ,professional ,use2 comprising full ,information on ,biblical1 ,theological1 and ,ecclesiastical ,subjects4 ,with nearly #ajjj ,maps and ,illustrations4 ,edited by ,lyman ,abbott1 with the ,co-operation of ,t4 ,j4 ,conant1 ,d4,d4 ,royal #hvo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj2 ,sheep1 #g #jj2 ,half ,morocco1 #h #ej4 ,,parton',s ,,caricature4 ,caricature and ,other ,comic ,art1 in ,all ,times and ,many ,lands4 ,by ,james ,parton4 #bjc ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #e #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,,mahaffy',s ,,greek ,,literature4 ,a ,history of ,classical ,greek ,literature4 ,by ,j4 ,p4 ,mahaffy4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,du ,,chaillu',s ,,equatorial ,,africa4 ,explorations and ,adventures in ,equatorial ,africa3 with ,accounts of the ,manners and ,customs of the ,people1 and of the ,chase of the ,gorilla1 ,crocodile1 ,leopard1 ,elephant1 ,hippopotamus1 and other ,animals4 ,by ,p4 ,b4 ,du ,chaillu4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #ej2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,,du ,,chaillu',s ,,ashango ,,land4 ,a ,journey to ,ashango ,land1 and ,further ,penetration into ,equatorial ,africa4 ,by ,p4 ,b4 ,du ,chaillu4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #ej2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,,dexter',s ,,congregationalism4 ,the ,congregationalism of the ,last ,three ,hundred ,years1 as seen in its ,literature3 with ,special ,reference to certain ,recondite1 ,neglected1 or ,disputed ,passages4 ,with a ,bibliographical ,appendix4 ,by ,h4 ,m4 ,dexter4 ,large #hvo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj4 ,,trollope',s ,,cicero4 ,life of ,cicero4 ,by ,anthony ,trollope4 #abmo1 ,cloth4 ,,bayne',s ,,lessons ,,from ,,my ,,masters4 ,lessons from ,my ,masters3 ,carlyle1 ,tennyson1 and ,ruskin4 ,by ,peter ,bayne1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,,stanley',s ,,through ,,the ,,dark ,,continent4 ,through the ,dark ,continent2 or1 ,the ,sources of the ,nile1 ,around the ,great ,lakes of ,equatorial ,africa1 and ,down the ,livingstone ,river to the ,atlantic ,ocean4 #adi ,illustrations and #aj ,maps4 ,by ,h4 ,m4 ,stanley4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #aj #jj2 ,sheep1 #ab #jj2 ,half ,morocco1 #ae #jj4 ,,english ,,men ,,of ,,letters4 ,edited by ,john ,morley4 ,the following volumes are now ready4 ,others will follow4 ,johnson4 ,by ,l4 ,stephen4--,gibbon4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,morison4--,scott4 ,by ,r4 ,h4 ,hutton4--,shelley4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds4--,goldsmith4 ,by ,w4 ,black4--,hume4 ,by ,professor ,huxley4--,defoe4 ,by ,w4 ,minto4--,burns4 ,by ,principal ,shairp4--,spenser4 ,by ,r4 ,w4 ,church4--,thackeray4 ,by ,a4 ,trollope4--,burke4 ,by ,j4 ,morley4--,milton4 ,by ,m4 ,pattison4 ,southey4 ,by ,e4 ,dowden4--,chaucer4 ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,ward4--,bunyan4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,froude4--,cowper4 ,by ,g4 ,smith4--,pope4 ,by ,l4 ,stephen4--,byron4 ,by ,j4 ,nichols4--,locke4 ,by ,t4 ,fowler4 ,wordsworth4 ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,h4 ,myers4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ge cents per volume4 ,hawthorne4 ,by ,henry ,james1 ,jr4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #jj4 ,,strickland',s 7,miss7 ,,queens ,,of ,,scotland4 ,lives of the ,queens of ,scotland and ,english ,princesses connected with the ,regal ,succession of ,great ,britain4 ,by ,agnes ,strickland4 #h vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ab #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #bf #jj4 ,,bartlett',s ,,from ,,egypt ,,to ,,palestine4 ,from ,egypt to ,palestine3 ,through ,sinai1 the ,wilderness1 and the ,south ,country4 ,observations of a ,journey made with ,special ,reference to the ,history of the ,israelites4 ,by ,s4 ,c4 ,bartlett1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,with ,maps and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,cesnola',s ,,cyprus4 ,cyprus3 its ,ancient ,cities1 ,tombs1 and ,temples4 ,a ,narrative of ,researches and ,excavations during ,ten ,years' ,residence in that ,island4 ,by ,l4 ,p4 di ,cesnola4 ,with ,portrait1 ,maps1 and #djj ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,extra1 ,gilt ,tops and ,uncut ,edges1 #g #ej4 ,,tennyson',s ,,complete ,,poems4 ,the ,poetical ,works of ,alfred ,tennyson4 ,with numerous ,illustrations by ,eminent ,artists1 and ,three ,characteristic ,portraits4 #hvo1 ,paper1 #a #jj2 ,cloth1 #a #ej4 ,,newcomb',s ,,astronomy4 ,popular ,astronomy4 ,by ,simon ,newcomb1 ,,ll4,d4 ,with ,one ,hundred and ,twelve ,engravings1 and five ,maps of the ,stars4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj3 ,school ,edition1 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #cj4 ,,van-,,lennep',s ,,bible ,,lands4 ,bible ,lands3 their ,modern ,customs and ,manners ,illustrative of ,scripture4 ,by ,henry ,j4 ,van-,lennep1 ,d4,d4 #cej ,engravings and #b ,colored ,maps4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #f #jj2 ,half ,morocco or ,half ,calf1 #hjj4 ,,hallam',s ,,literature4 ,introduction to the ,literature of ,europe during the ,fifteenth1 ,sixteenth1 and ,seventeenth ,centuries4 ,by ,henry ,hallam4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #jj4 ,,hallam',s ,,middle ,,ages4 ,view of the ,state of ,europe during the ,middle ,ages4 ,by ,h4 ,hallam4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj2 ,sheep1 #b #ej4 ,,hallam',s ,,constitutional ,,history ,,of ,,england4 ,the ,constitutional ,history of ,england1 from the ,accession of ,henry ,,vii4 to the ,death of ,george ,,ii4 ,by ,henry ,hallam4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj2 ,sheep1 #b #ej4 ,,flammarion',s ,,atmosphere4 ,the ,atmosphere4 ,translated from the ,french of ,camille ,flammarion4 ,with #aj ,chromo-,lithographs and #hf ,woodcuts4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #h #be4 ,,annual ,,record ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,industry4 ,the ,annual ,record of ,science and ,industry4 ,edited by ,professor ,spencer ,f4 ,baird1 with the ,assistance of ,eminent ,men of ,science4 ,the ,volumes for #ahga1 #ahgb1 #ahgc1 #ahgd1 #ahge1 #ahgf1 #ahgg1 #ahgh are ready4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj per vol42 #ae #jj per set4 ,,prime',s ,,pottery ,,and ,,porcelain4 ,pottery and ,porcelain of ,all ,times and ,nations4 ,with ,tables of ,factory and ,artists' ,marks1 for the ,use of ,collectors4 ,by ,william ,c4 ,prime4 ,,ll4,d4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #g #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #i #be4 7,in a ,box47 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes ,all obvious typographical errors were corrected4 ,on page #aba1 there is an opening quote2 but no closing one follows4 ,based on the text 7,returning from this digression4447 on page #abd1 it was assumed that the closing quote should have been at the end of the preceding paragraph4 ,hyphenation and accents were standardized4 ,however1 some hyphenated and separate word usage 7for example1 sea bottom7s7 and sea-bottom7s77 were retained due to their grammatic usage4