,transcriber's ,note3 ,inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have been preserved4 ,obvious typographical errors have been corrected4 ,italic text is denoted by underscores and spaced text by equal signs4 ,in the ads1 an sign denotes bold text4 ,on page #dca1 #ahed should possibly be #ahde4 ,on page #ecc1 the page number referenced is missing on the first ,chapter ,,xxxv citation4 ,on page #edd1 the pages listed as pp #bbf-bbc are possibly a typo4 ,theta represents the greek letter named in the brackets4 ,,hs represents the characters ,,hs with a bar over the top4 99 represents the ,roman ,denarius sign4 ,e represents the ,roman symbol for #b oz41 two stacked cs4 ,m represents the ,roman numeral #ajjj4 ,c represents a backwards ,c4 ,b and ,f represent ,,vb and ,,vf ligatures4 ,in ,figure #ed and the subsequent text1 letters indicated by ,a represent small capital letters4 ,,pompeii ,,its ,,life ,,and ,,art ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4--,,view ,,of ,,the ,,forum1 ,,looking ,,toward ,,vesuvius ,,pompeii ,,its ,,life ,,and ,,art ,,by ,,august ,,mau ,,german ,,archaeological ,,institute ,,in ,,rome ,translated into ,english ,,by ,,francis ,w4 ,,kelsey ,,university ,,of ,,michigan ,,with ,,numerous ,,illustrations ,,from ,,original ,,drawings ,,and ,,photographs ,,new ,,edition1 ,,revised ,,and ,,corrected ,new ,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,london3 ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,ltd4 #aijb ,all rights reserved ,,copyright1 #ahii1 #aijb1 ,,by ,,francis ,w4 ,,kelsey4 ,first ,edition1 ,october1 #ahii4 ,new ,revised ,edition1 with additions1 ,november1 #aijb4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,norwood ,mass4 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition ,for twenty-five years ,professor ,mau has devoted himself to the study of ,pompeii1 spending his summers among the ruins and his winters in ,rome1 working up the new material4 ,he holds a unique place among the scholars who have given attention to ,pompeian antiquities1 and his contributions to the literature of the subject have been numerous in both ,german and ,italian4 ,the present volume1 however1 is not a translation of one previously issued1 but a new work first published in ,english1 the liberality of the publishers having made it possible to secure assistance for the preparation of certain restorations and other drawings which ,professor ,mau desired to have made as illustrating his interpretation of the ruins4 ,in one respect there is an essential difference between the remains of ,pompeii and those of the large and famous cities of antiquity1 as ,rome or ,athens1 which have associated with them the familiar names of historical characters4 ,mars' ,hill is clothed with human interest1 if for no other reason1 because of its relation to the work of the ,apostle ,paul2 while the ,roman ,forum and the ,palatine1 barren as they seem to-day1 teem with life as there rise before the mind's eye the scenes presented in the pages of classical writers4 ,but the ,campanian city played an unimportant part in contemporary history2 the name of not a single great ,pompeian is recorded4 ,the ruins1 deprived of the interest arising from historical associations1 must be interpreted with little help from literary sources1 and repeopled with aggregate rather than individual life4 ,a few ,pompeians1 whose features have survived in herms or statues and whose names are known from the inscriptions1 seem near to us1--such are ,caecilius ,jucundus and the generous priestess ,eumachia2 but the characters most commonly associated with the city are those of fiction4 ,here1 in a greater degree than in most places1 the work of reconstruction involves the handling of countless bits of evidence1 which1 when viewed by themselves1 often seem too minute to be of importance2 the blending of these into a complete and faithful picture is a task of infinite painstaking1 the difficulty of which will best be appreciated by one who has worked in this field4 ,it was at first proposed to place at the end of the book a series of bibliographical notes on the different chapters1 giving references to the more important treatises and articles dealing with the matters presented4 ,but on fuller consideration it seemed unnecessary thus to add to the bulk of the volume2 those who are interested in the study of a particular building or aspect of ,pompeian culture will naturally turn to the ,pompeianarum antiquitatum historia1 the reports in the ,notizie degli ,scavi1 the reports and articles by ,professor ,mau in the ,roman ,mittheilungen of the ,german ,archaeological ,institute1 the ,overbeck-,mau ,pompeji1 the ,studies by ,mau and by ,nissen1 the commemorative volume issued in #ahgi under the title ,pompei e la regione sotterrata dal ,vesuvio1 the catalogues of the paintings by ,helbig and ,sogliano1 together with ,mau's ,geschichte der decorativen ,wandmalerei in ,pompeji1 ,h4 von ,rohden's ,terracotten von ,pompeji1 and the older illustrated works1 as well as the beautiful volume1 ,pompeji vor der ,zerstoerung1 published in #ahig by ,weichardt4 ,the titles of more than five hundred books and pamphlets relating to ,pompeii are given in ,furchheim's ,bibliografia di ,pompei 7second edition1 ,naples1 #ahia74 ,to this list should be added an elaborate work on the temple of ,isis1 ,aedis ,isidis ,pompeiana1 which is soon to appear4 ,the copperplates for the engravings were prepared at the expense of the old ,accademia ercolanese1 but only the first section of the work was published2 the plates1 fortunately1 have been preserved without injury1 and the publication has at last been undertaken by ,professor ,sogliano4 ,professor ,mau wishes to make grateful acknowledgment of obligation to ,messrs4 ,c4 ,bazzani1 ,r4 ,koldewey1 ,g4 ,randanini1 and ,g4 ,tognetti for kind assistance in making ready for the engraver the drawings presenting restorations of buildings2 to the authorities of the ,german ,archaeological ,institute for freely granting the use of a number of drawings in its collection2 and to the photographer1 ,giacomo ,brogi of ,florence1 for placing his collection of photographs at the author's disposal and making special prints for the use of the engraver4 ,in addition to the photographs obtained from ,brogi1 a small number were furnished for the volume by the translator1 and a few were derived from other sources4 ,the restorations are not fanciful4 ,they were made with the help of careful measurements and of computations based upon the existing remains2 occasionally also evidence derived from reliefs and wall paintings was utilized4 ,uncertain details are generally omitted4 ,it is due to ,professor ,mau to say that in preparing his manuscript for ,english readers ,i have1 with his permission1 made some changes4 ,the order of presentation has occasionally been altered4 ,in several chapters the ,german manuscript has been abridged1 while in others1 containing points in regard to which ,english readers might desire a somewhat fuller statement1 ,i have made slight additions4 ,the preparation of the ,english form of the volume1 undertaken for reasons of friendship1 has been less a task than a pleasure4 ,,francis ,w4 ,,kelsey4 ,,ann ,,arbor1 ,,michigan1 ,october #be1 #ahii4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition ,the author and the translator unite in expressing their deep appreciation of the kind reception accorded to the first edition of this book4 ,the second edition has been revised on the spot4 ,besides minor additions1 it has been enlarged by a chapter on the recently discovered temple of ,venus ,pompeiana1 and a ,bibliographical ,appendix2 prepared in response to requests from various quarters4 ,among the new illustrations in the text are a restoration of the temple of ,vespasian and a reproduction of the bronze youth found in #aijj1 besides the ,alexandria patera and one of the skeleton cups from the ,boscoreale treasure2 in ,plate ,,viii are presented two additional paintings from the house of the ,vettii4 ,the translator is alone responsible for ,chapter ,,lix1 which was prepared for the first edition at ,professor ,mau's request1 at a time when he was pressed with other work2 for the paragraphs in regard to the treasure of ,boscoreale1 and for one-half of the references in the ,bibliographical ,appendix4 ,,august ,,mau ,,francis ,w4 ,,kelsey ,,albergo ,,del ,,sole1 ,,pompei ,august #b1 #aija ,,contents ,,introduction ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,situation ,,of ,,pompeii #a ,,ii4 ,,before #gi #h ,,iii4 ,,the ,,city ,,overwhelmed #ai ,,iv4 ,,the ,,unearthing ,,of ,,the ,,city #be ,v4 ,a ,,bird',s-,,eye ,,view #ca ,,vi4 ,,building ,,materials1 ,,construction1 ,,and ,,architectural ,,periods #ce ,,part ,i ,,public ,,places ,,and ,,buildings ,,vii4 ,,the ,,forum #de ,,viii4 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,buildings ,,about ,,the ,,forum4--,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,jupiter #fa ,,ix4 ,,the ,,basilica #gj ,x4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,apollo #hj ,,xi4 ,,the ,,buildings ,,at ,,the ,,northwest ,,corner ,,of ,,the ,,forum1 ,,and ,,the ,,table ,,of ,,standard ,,measures #ia ,,xii4 ,,the ,,macellum #id ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,sanctuary ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,lares #ajb ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,vespasian #ajf ,,xv4 ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,eumachia #aaj ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,comitium #aai ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,municipal ,,buildings #aba ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,venus ,,pompeiana #abd ,,xix4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,fortuna ,,augusta #acj ,,xx4 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,public ,,buildings ,,near ,,the ,,stabian ,,gate4--,,the ,,forum ,,triangulare ,,and ,,the ,,doric ,,temple #acc ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,large ,,theatre #ada ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,small ,,theatre #aec ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,theatre ,,colonnade ,,used ,,as ,,barracks ,,for ,,gladiators #aeg ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,palaestra #afe ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,isis #afh ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,zeus ,,milichius #ahc ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,baths ,,at ,,pompeii4--,,the ,,stabian ,,baths #ahf ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,baths ,,near ,,the ,,forum #bjb ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,central ,,baths #bjh ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,amphitheatre #bab ,,xxxi4 ,,streets1 ,,water ,,system1 ,,and ,,wayside ,,shrines #bbg ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,defences ,,of ,,the ,,city #bcg ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,houses ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,pompeian ,,house #bde ,i4 ,vestibule1 ,fauces1 and ,front ,door #bdh ,,ii4 ,the ,atrium #bej ,,iii4 ,the ,tablinum #bee ,,iv4 ,the ,alae #beh ,v4 ,the ,rooms about the ,atrium4 ,the ,andron #bei ,,vi4 ,garden1 ,peristyle1 and ,rooms about the ,peristyle #bfj ,,vii4 ,sleeping ,rooms #bfa ,,viii4 ,dining ,rooms #bfb ,,ix4 ,the ,kitchen1 the ,bath1 and the ,storerooms #bff ,x4 ,the ,shrine of the ,household ,gods #bfh ,,xi4 ,second ,story ,rooms #bgc ,,xii4 ,the ,shops #bgf ,,xiii4 ,walls1 ,floors1 and ,windows #bgh ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,surgeon #bhj ,,xxxv4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,sallust #bhc ,,xxxvi4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,faun #bhh ,,xxxvii4 ,a ,,house ,,near ,,the ,,porta ,,marina #bih ,,xxxviii4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,silver ,,wedding #cja ,,xxxix4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,epidius ,,rufus #cji ,,xl4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,tragic ,,poet #cac ,,xli4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,vettii #cba ,,xlii4 ,,three ,,houses ,,of ,,unusual ,,plan #cda ,i4 ,the ,house of ,acceptus and ,euhodia #cda ,,ii4 ,a ,house without a ,compluvium #cdc ,,iii4 ,the ,house of the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii #cdd ,,xliii4 ,,other ,,noteworthy ,,houses #cdh ,,xliv4 ,,roman ,,villas4--,,the ,,villa ,,of ,,diomedes #cee ,,xlv4 ,,the ,,villa ,,rustica ,,at ,,boscoreale #cfa ,,xlvi4 ,,household ,,furniture #cfg ,,part ,,iii ,,trades ,,and ,,occupations ,,xlvii4 ,,the ,,trades ,,at ,,pompeii4--,,the ,,bakers #chc ,,xlviii4 ,,the ,,fullers ,,and ,,the ,,tanners #cic ,,xlix4 ,,inns ,,and ,,wineshops #djj ,,part ,,iv ,,the ,,tombs ,l4 ,,pompeian ,,burial ,,places4--,,the ,,street ,,of ,,tombs #dje ,,li4 ,,burial ,,places ,,near ,,the ,,nola1 ,,stabian1 ,,and ,,nocera ,,gates #dbi ,,part ,v ,,pompeian ,,art ,,lii4 ,,architecture #dcg ,,liii4 ,,sculpture #dde ,,liv4 ,,painting4--,,wall ,,decoration #def ,,lv4 ,,the ,,paintings #dga ,,part ,,vi ,,the ,,inscriptions ,,of ,,pompeii ,,lvi4 ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,inscriptions4--,,monumental ,,inscriptions ,,and ,,public ,,notices #dhe ,,lvii4 ,,the ,,graffiti #dia ,,lviii4 ,,inscriptions ,,relating ,,to ,,business ,,affairs #dii ,,conclusion ,,lix4 ,,the ,,significance ,,of ,,the ,,pompeian ,,culture #eji ,,bibliographical ,,appendix #eab ,,index #eea ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,plan ,,of ,,pompeii #eei ,,illustrations ,,plates ,,plate ,i4 ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,forum1 ,,looking ,,toward ,,vesuvius4 ,from a photograph ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page ,,ii4 ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,apollo4 ,from a photograph #hh ,,iii4 ,,the ,,greek ,,temple ,,and ,,the ,,forum ,,triangulare1 ,,seen ,,from ,,the ,,south4 ,restoration 7,weichardt1 ,pompeji vor der ,zerstoerung1 ,tafel ,,ii7 #acd ,,iv4 ,,the ,,barracks ,,of ,,the ,,gladiators4 ,from a photograph #afj ,v4 ,,stabian ,,baths3 ,,men',s ,,apodyterium1 ,,with ,,the ,,anteroom ,,leading ,,from ,,the ,,palaestra4 ,from a photograph #ahh ,,vi4 ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,amphitheatre1 ,,looking ,,northwest4 ,from a photograph #baf ,,vii4 ,,interior ,,of ,a ,,house 7,,ix4 v4 #aa71 ,,looking ,,from ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the ,,atrium ,,into ,,the ,,peristyle4 ,from a photograph #bfj ,,viii4 ,,two ,,wall ,,paintings ,,in ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,vettii --,,apollo ,,after ,,the ,,slaying ,,of ,,the ,,dragon1 ,,and ,,agamemnon ,,in ,,the ,,sanctuary ,,of ,,artemis4 ,from photographs #cbh ,,ix4 ,a ,,dining ,,room ,,in ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,vettii4 ,from a photograph #cch ,x4 ,,the ,,street ,,of ,,tombs1 ,,looking ,,toward ,,the ,,herculaneum ,,gate4 ,from a photograph #dbj ,,xi4 ,,artemis4 ,copy of an ,archaic ,work4 ,from a photograph #ddd ,,xii4 ,,specimen ,,of ,,wall ,,decoration4 ,second or ,architectural ,style 7,mau1 ,geschichte der decorativen ,wandmalerei in ,pompeji1 ,tafel ,v7 #dfb ,,xiii4 ,,specimen ,,of ,,wall ,,decoration1 ,,in ,,the ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,stabian ,,baths4 ,fourth or ,intricate ,style4 ,from a drawing in the ,naples ,museum #dgj ,,plans ,,plan ,i4 ,,outline ,,plan ,,of ,,pompeii preceding ,chap4 ,v ,,ii4 ,,the ,,forum1 ,,with ,,adjoining ,,buildings ,,vii ,,iii4 ,,the ,,forum ,,triangulare1 ,,with ,,adjacent ,,buildings ,,xx ,,iv4 ,,the ,,villa ,,rustica ,,near ,,boscoreale ,,xlv ,v4 ,,the ,,street ,,of ,,tombs ,l ,,vi4 ,,the ,,excavated ,,portion ,,of ,,pompeii following the ,index ,,illustrations ,,in ,,the ,,text ,,figure ,,page #a4 ,map of ,ancient ,campania #b #b4 ,vesuvius as seen from ,naples4 ,from a photograph #c #c4 ,view from ,pompeii1 looking south4 ,from a photograph 7,a4 ,m47 #e #d4 ,venus ,pompeiana4 ,wall painting4 ,house of ,castor and ,pollux4 ,after ,monumenti dell' ,instituto1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pl4 vi4 b #ab #e4 ,an amphora from ,boscoreale4 ,collection of ,classical ,antiquities1 ,university of ,michigan4 ,from a drawing #ae #f4 ,the ,judgment of ,solomon4 ,wall painting4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #ag #g4 ,cast of a man4 ,museum at ,pompeii4 ,from a photograph #bb #h4 ,an ,excavation4 ,atrium of the house of the ,silver ,wedding4 ,from a photograph #bh #i4 ,wall with limestone framework 7,ins4 ,,vii4 iii4 #ac74 ,from a photograph 7,f4 ,w4 ,k47 #cg #aj4 ,facade of ,sarno limestone1 house of the ,surgeon4 ,from a photograph #ci #aa4 ,quasi-reticulate facing1 with brick corner1 at the entrance of the ,small ,theatre4 ,from a photograph #db #ab4 ,reticulate facing1 with corners of brick-shaped stone 7,i4 iii4 #bi74 ,from a photograph 7,f4 ,w4 ,k47 #dc #ac4 ,north end of the ,forum1 with the temple of ,jupiter1 restored4 ,from an original drawing#a #di #ad4 ,remnant of the colonnade of ,popidius1 at the south end of the ,forum4 ,from a photograph 7,a4 ,m47 #ea #ae4 ,part of the new colonnade1 near the southwest corner of the ,forum4 ,from a photograph 7,a4 ,m47 #ec #af4 ,scene in the ,forum--a dealer in utensils1 and a shoemaker4 ,wall painting4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,pitture di ,ercolano1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pl4 #db #ee #ag4 ,scene in the ,forum--citizens reading a public notice4 ,wall painting4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,pitture di ,ercolano1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pl4 #dc #ef #ah4 ,plan of the temple of ,jupiter #fc #ai4 ,ruins of the temple of ,jupiter4 ,from a photograph #fd #bj4 ,section of wall decoration in the cella of the temple of ,jupiter4 ,after ,mazois1 ,les ,ruines de ,pompei1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pl4 #cf 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,pompeji1 ,fig4 #df7 #fe #ba4 ,bust of ,zeus found at ,otricoli4 ,vatican ,museum4 ,after ,tafel #acj of the ,brunn-,bruckmann ,denkmaeler #fh #bb4 ,bust of ,jupiter found at ,pompeii4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #fi #bc4 ,plan of the ,basilica #ga #bd4 ,view of the ,basilica1 looking toward the tribunal4 ,from a photograph #gc #be4 ,exterior of the ,basilica1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #ge #bf4 ,interior of the ,basilica1 looking toward the tribunal1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #gf #bg4 ,front of the tribunal of the ,basilica4 ,plan and elevation4 ,from an original drawing #gg #bh4 ,corner of mosaic floor1 cella of the temple of ,apollo4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #bc 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #ej7 #hj #bi4 ,plan of the temple of ,apollo #ha #cj4 ,view of the temple of ,apollo1 looking toward ,vesuvius4 ,from a photograph #hc #ca4 ,section of the entablature of the temple of ,apollo1 showing the original form and the restoration after the earthquake of #fc4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #ba 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bfd7 #hd #cb4 ,temple of ,apollo1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #hf #cc4 ,plan of the buildings at the northwest corner of the ,forum #ia #cd4 ,table of ,standard ,measures4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pl4 #dj 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bc7 #ic #ce4 ,plan of the ,macellum #id #cf4 ,view of the ,macellum4 ,from a photograph #ie #cg4 ,the ,macellum1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #ig #ch4 ,statue of ,octavia1 sister of ,augustus1 found in the chapel of the ,macellum4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #ih #ci4 ,statue of ,marcellus1 son of ,octavia1 found in the chapel of the ,macellum4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #aja #dj4 ,plan of the sanctuary of the ,city ,lares #ajb #da4 ,sanctuary of the ,city ,lares1 looking toward the rear1 restored4 ,from an original drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahif1 p4 #bhh7 #ajc #db4 ,north side of the sanctuary of the ,city ,lares1 restored4 ,from an original drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahif1 p4 #bhi7 #ajd #dc4 ,plan of the temple of ,vespasian #ajf #dd4 ,front of the altar in the court of the temple of ,vespasian4 ,from a photograph #ajg #de4 ,view of the temple of ,vespasian4 ,from a photograph #ajh #df4 ,the temple of ,vespasian1 restored4 ,from an original drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #aijj1 p4 #acc7 #aji #dg4 ,plan of the building of ,eumachia #aaj #dh4 ,building of ,eumachia--front of the court1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #aad #di4 ,building of ,eumachia--rear of the court1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #aaf #ej4 ,fountain of ,concordia ,augusta4 ,from a photograph 7,f4 ,w4 ,k47 #aag #ea4 ,plan of the ,comitium #aai #eb4 ,plan of the ,municipal ,buildings #aba #ec4 ,view of the south end of the ,forum4 ,from a photograph 7,a4 ,m47 #abb #ed4 ,plan of the ruins of the temple of ,venus ,pompeiana99 #abe #ee4 ,view of the ruins of the temple of ,venus ,pompeiana4 ,from a photograph #abf #ef4 ,plan of the temple of ,venus ,pompeiana1 restored99 #abh #eg4 ,plan of the temple of ,fortuna ,augusta99 #acj #eh4 ,temple of ,fortuna ,augusta1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #aca #ei4 ,temple of ,fortuna ,augusta--rear of the cella with the statue of the goddess1 restored4 ,from an original drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahif1 p4 #bhj7 #acb #fj4 ,portico at the entrance of the ,forum ,triangulare4 ,from a photograph #ace #fa4 ,view of the ,forum ,triangulare1 looking toward ,vesuvius4 ,from a photograph #acf #fb4 ,plan of the ,doric temple in the ,forum ,triangulare #acg #fc4 ,the ,doric temple1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #ach #fd4 ,plan of the ,large ,theatre #adc #fe4 ,view of the ,large ,theatre4 ,from a photograph #ade #ff4 ,plan of the ,small ,theatre #aec #fg4 ,view of the ,small ,theatre4 ,from a photograph #aed #fh4 ,section of a seat in the ,small ,theatre4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #bi 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #aja7 #aee #fi4 ,a terminal ,atlas from the ,small ,theatre4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #bi 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #ajj7 #aef #gj4 ,ornament at the ends of the parapet in the ,small ,theatre--lion's foot4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #bi 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #ii7 #aef #ga4 ,plan of the ,theatre ,colonnade1 showing its relation to the two theatres #aeg #gb4 ,a gladiator's greave4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #afb #gc4 ,a gladiator's helmet4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #afc #gd4 ,remains of stocks found in the guard-room of the barracks4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #afc #ge4 ,plan of the ,palaestra #afe #gf4 ,view of the ,palaestra1 with the pedestal1 table1 and steps4 ,from a photograph #aff #gg4 ,doryphorus4 ,statue found in the ,palaestra4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #afg #gh4 ,plan of the temple of ,isis #agj #gi4 ,view of the temple of ,isis4 ,from a photograph #agb #hj4 ,the temple of ,isis1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #agc #ha4 ,scene from the worship of ,isis--the adoration of the holy water4 ,wall painting from ,herculaneum4 ,naples ,museum4 ,drawing1 after a photograph #agg #hb4 ,temple of ,isis4 ,part of the facade of the ,purgatorium4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #aa1 and ,piranesi1 ,antiquites de ,pompei ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #fe #agi #hc4 ,decoration of the east side of the ,purgatorium--,perseus and ,andromeda1 floating ,cupids4 ,stucco reliefs4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #aj #ahj #hd4 ,plan of the temple of ,zeus ,milichius #ahc #he4 ,capital of a pilaster of the temple1 with the face of ,zeus ,milichius4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #f 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #fb7 #ahd #hf4 ,plan of the ,stabian ,baths #aij #hg4 ,stabian ,baths--interior of ,frigidarium4 ,drawing1 with indebtedness to ,niccolini1 ,le ,case ed i ,monumenti di ,pompei1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,terme presso la porta stabiana1 pl4 #g #aia #hh4 ,bath basin in the women's caldarium--longitudinal and transverse sections1 showing arrangements for heating4 ,drawing1 with indebtedness to von ,duhn und ,jacobi1 ,der griechische ,tempel in ,pompeji1 pl4 ,,ix #aid #hi4 ,colonnade of the ,stabian ,baths--capital with section of entablature4 ,drawing #aih #ij4 ,southwest corner of the palaestra of the ,stabian ,baths1 showing part of the colonnade and wall decorated with stucco reliefs4 ,from a photograph #aii #ia4 ,plan of the ,baths near the ,forum #bjb #ib4 ,baths near the ,forum--,interior of men's tepidarium4 ,from a photograph #bjd #ic4 ,baths near the ,forum--,longitudinal section of the men's caldarium4 ,drawing1 after ,gell1 ,pompeiana1 edit4 of #ahcg1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #cc1 facing p4 #ia #bje #id4 ,plan of the ,central ,baths #bji #ie4 ,view of the ,central ,baths1 looking from the ,palaestra into the tepidarium4 ,from a photograph 7,f4 ,w4 ,k47 #baj #if4 ,the ,amphitheatre1 seen from the west side4 ,from a photograph #bac #ig4 ,preparations for the combat4 ,wall painting 7no longer visible7 in the ,amphitheatre4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #dh 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #ajg7 #bad #ih4 ,plan of the ,amphitheatre #bae #ii4 ,transverse section of the ,amphitheatre4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #df 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #ajd7 #bag #ajj4 ,plan of the gallery of the ,amphitheatre #bah #aja4 ,conflict between the ,pompeians and the ,nucerians4 ,wall painting4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #c #bba #ajb4 ,view of ,abbondanza ,street1 looking east4 ,from a photograph #bbg #ajc4 ,fountain1 water tower1 and street shrine1 corner of ,stabian and ,nola streets4 ,from a photograph 7,f4 ,w4 ,k47 #bca #ajd4 ,plan of the reservoir west of the ,baths near the ,forum #bcb #aje4 ,ancient altar in new wall--southeast corner of the ,central ,baths4 ,from a photograph 7,f4 ,w4 ,k47 #bcd #ajf4 ,plan of a chapel of the ,lares ,compitales 7,,viii4 iv4 #bd7 #bce #ajg4 ,large street altar 7,,viii4 ii4 #be74 ,from a photograph 7,f4 ,w4 ,k47 #bcf #ajh4 ,plan of a section of the city wall1 with a tower and with stairs leading to the top4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,i4 pl4 #ab 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #g7 #bch #aji4 ,view of the city wall1 inside4 ,from a photograph #bci #aaj4 ,tower of the city wall1 restored4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,i1 pl4 #ac 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #h7 #bda #aaa4 ,plan of the ,stabian ,gate #bdb #aab4 ,plan of the ,herculaneum ,gate #bdc #aac4 ,view of the ,herculaneum ,gate1 looking down the ,street of ,tombs4 ,from a photograph #bdd #aad4 ,early ,pompeian house1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #bdf #aae4 ,plan of a ,pompeian house #bdg #aaf4 ,plan and section of the vestibule1 threshold1 and fauces of the house of ,pansa4 ,after ,ivanoff1 ,mon4 dell' ,inst41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pl4 #bh1 #c 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #acf7 #bdi #aag4 ,a ,tuscan atrium--plan of the roof4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #c 7,overbeck ,mau1 ,fig4 #aci7 #bea #aah4 ,a ,tuscan atrium--section4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #c 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #adj7 #beb #aai4 ,corner of a compluvium with waterspouts and antefixes1 reconstructed4 7,reconstruction1 ,ins4 ,,vii4 iv4 #af47 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #adc #bec #abj4 ,a ,pompeian's strong box1 arca4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from photograph #bee #aba4 ,atrium of the house of ,cornelius ,rufus1 looking through the tablinum and andron into the peristyle4 ,from a photograph #bef #abb4 ,end of a bedroom in the house of the ,centaur1 decorated in the first style4 ,from an original drawing #bfb #abc4 ,plan of a dining room with three couches #bfc #abd4 ,plan of a dining room with an anteroom containing an altar for libations 7,,viii4 v4-vi4 #af7 #bfd #abe4 ,hearth of the kitchen in the house of the ,vettii4 ,from a drawing #bfg #abf4 ,niche for the images of the household gods1 in a corner of the kitchen in the house of ,apollo4 ,from a photograph 7,f4 ,w4 ,k47 #bfi #abg4 ,shrine in the house of the ,vettii4 ,from a photograph #bga #abh4 ,interior of a house 7,,vii4 xv4 #h7 with a second story dining room opening on the atrium1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #bgd #abi4 ,longitudinal section of the house with a second story dining room 7,,vii4 xv4 #h7 restored4 ,from an original drawing #bge #acj4 ,plan of a ,pompeian shop4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #h 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #ahb7 #bgf #aca4 ,a shop for the sale of edibles1 restored4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #h 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #ahc7 #bgg #acb4 ,plan of the house of the ,surgeon #bhj #acc4 ,a young woman painting a herm4 ,wall painting from the house of the ,surgeon4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,pitture di ,ercolano1 ,vol4 ,v1 pl4 #a #bhb #acd4 ,plan of the house of ,sallust4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #ce 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #afe7 #bhd #ace4 ,atrium of the house of ,sallust1 looking through the tablinum and colonnade at the rear into the garden1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #bhf #acf4 ,longitudinal section of the house of ,sallust1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #bhg #acg4 ,plan of the house of the ,faun #bhh #ach4 ,part of the cornice over the large front door of the house of the ,faun4 ,from an original drawing #bhi #aci4 ,facade of the house of the ,faun1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #bij #adj4 ,border of mosaic with tragic masks1 fruits1 flowers1 and garlands1 at the inner end of the fauces1 house of the ,faun4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #ad 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #cae7 #bij #ada4 ,longitudinal section of the house of the ,faun1 showing the large atrium1 the first peristyle1 and a corner of the second peristyle1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #bib #adb4 ,detail from the mosaic representing the battle between ,alexander and ,darius4 ,from a photograph #bid #adc4 ,transverse section of the house of the ,faun1 showing the two atriums with adjoining rooms1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #bif #add4 ,plan of a house near the ,porta ,marina 7,,vi4 ,,ins4 ,,occid4 #ac7 #bih #ade4 ,longitudinal section of the house near the ,porta ,marina1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #bii #adf4 ,plan of the house of the ,silver ,wedding #cjb #adg4 ,longitudinal section of the house of the ,silver ,wedding1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #cjd #adh4 ,transverse section of the house of the ,silver ,wedding1 as it was before #fc4 ,from an original drawing #cjg #adi4 ,plan of the house of ,epidius ,rufus #caj #aej4 ,facade of the house of ,epidius ,rufus1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #caa #aea4 ,transverse section of the house of ,epidius ,rufus4 ,from an original drawing #cab #aeb4 ,plan of the house of the ,tragic ,poet #cac #aec4 ,view of the house of the ,tragic ,poet1 looking from the middle of the atrium toward the rear4 ,from a photograph #cad #aed4 ,longitudinal section of the house of the ,tragic ,poet1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #caf #aee4 ,the delivery of ,briseis to the messenger of ,agamemnon4 ,wall painting from the house of the ,tragic ,poet4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #eh 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #caa7 #cag #aef4 ,the sacrifice of ,iphigenia4 ,wall painting from the house of the ,tragic ,poet4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #cai #aeg4 ,exterior of the house of the ,vettii1 restored4 ,from an original drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahif1 p4 #d7 #cba #aeh4 ,plan of the house of the ,vettii99 #cbb #aei4 ,longitudinal section of the house of the ,vettii1 restored4 ,from an original drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahif1 pl4 #a7 #cbd #afj4 ,transverse section of the house of ,vettii1 restored4 ,from an original drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahif1 pl4 #b7 #cbd #afa4 ,base1 capital1 and section of entablature from the colonnade of the peristyle in the house of the ,vettii4 ,from a drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahif1 p4 #ca7 #cbf #afb4 ,view of the peristyle of the house of the ,vettii1 looking toward the south end4 ,from a photograph #cbg #afc4 ,system of wall division in the large room opening on the peristyle of the house of the ,vettii #cbi #afd4 ,psyches gathering flowers4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,from a photograph #ccj #afe4 ,cupids as makers and sellers of oil4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,from a photograph #ccb #aff4 ,press for olives4 ,from a wall painting found at ,herculaneum4 ,naples ,museum4 ,drawing after ,pitture di ,ercolano1 ,vol4 ,i1 pl4 #ce #ccc #afg4 ,cupids as goldsmiths4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,from a photograph #ccd #afh4 ,cupids gathering and pressing grapes4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,from a drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahif1 p4 #ha7 #ccf #afi4 ,cupids as wine dealers4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,from a photograph #ccg #agj4 ,cupids celebrating the festival of ,vesta4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,from a drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahif1 p4 #hj7 #cch #aga4 ,the punishment of ,ixion4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,from a photograph #cdj #agb4 ,plan of the house of ,acceptus and ,euhodia 7,,viii4 v4-vi4 #ci7 #cda #agc4 ,longitudinal section of the house of ,acceptus and ,euhodia1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #cdb #agd4 ,plan of a house without a compluvium99 7,v4 v4 #b7 #cdc #age4 ,transverse section of the house without a compluvium1 restored4 ,from an original drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahie1 p4 #adh7 #cdd #agf4 ,plan of the house of the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii 7,,viii4 ii4 #ci7 #cde #agg4 ,bake room of the house of the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii1 at the time of excavation4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #cd 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #d7 #cdf #agh4 ,capital of a pilaster at the entrance of the house of the ,sculptured ,capitals 7,,vii4 iv4 #eg74 ,from a photograph #cdi #agi4 ,plan of the house of ,pansa 7,,vi4 vi4 #a7 #cej #ahj4 ,section showing a part of the peristyle of the house of the ,anchor 7,,vi4 x4 #g71 restored4 ,from an original drawing #cea #aha4 ,plan of the house of the ,citharist 7,i4 iv4 #e7 #ceb #ahb4 ,orestes and ,pylades before ,thoas4 ,wall painting from the house of the ,citharist4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #cec #ahc4 ,plan of the villa of ,diomedes #cef #ahd4 ,longitudinal section of the villa of ,diomedes1 restored4 ,from an original drawing1 in part based on ,ivanoff1 ,architektonische ,studien1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #e1 #f #ceh #ahe4 ,hot-water tank and reservoir for supplying the bath in the ,villa ,rustica at ,boscoreale4 ,museo de ,prisco1 ,pompeii4 ,from a drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahid1 p4 #cec7 #cfb #ahf4 ,olive crusher found in the ,villa ,rustica at ,boscoreale4 ,museo de ,prisco4 ,from a photograph #cfe #ahg4 ,silver patera1 with a representation of the city of ,alexandria4 ,boscoreale treasure1 ,louvre4 ,after ,h4 de ,villefosse4 ,le tresor de ,boscoreale1 pl4 #a #cff #ahh4 ,dining couch with bronze mountings1 the wooden frame being restored4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bbh #cfg #ahi4 ,round marble table4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #ef 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bbi7 #cfh #aij4 ,carved table leg1 found in the second peristyle of the house of the ,faun4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,ix1 pl4 #dc 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bbi7 #cfh #aia4 ,bronze stand with an ornamental rim around the top4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #cfi #aib4 ,lamps of the simplest form1 with one nozzle4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bca #cgj #aic4 ,lamps with two nozzles4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bca #cgj #aid4 ,lamps with more than two nozzles4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bca #cgj #aie4 ,bronze lamps with ornamental covers attached to a chain4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bca #cga #aif4 ,bronze lamps with covers ornamented with figures4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bca #cga #aig4 ,three hanging lamps4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bca #cgb #aih4 ,a nursing-bottle1 biberon4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bca #cgb #aii4 ,lamp standard of bronze4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #eg 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bcd7 #cgc #bjj4 ,lamp holder for a hand lamp4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bcc #cgd #bja4 ,lamp holder for hanging lamps4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #ac 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bcc7 #cgd #bjb4 ,lamp holder in the form of a tree trunk4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bcc #cgd #bjc4 ,lamp stand4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #cgd #bjd4 ,bronze utensils4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bda1 and ,museo ,borb4 #cge #bje4 ,mixing bowl1 of bronze1 in part inlaid with silver4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #cb 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bdh7 #cgf #bjf4 ,water heater for the table1 view and section4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pl4 #fc 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bdj7 #cgf #bjg4 ,water heater in the form of a brazier4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #df 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bch7 #cgg #bjh4 ,water heater in the form of a brazier1 representing a diminutive fortress4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #df 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bch7 #cgg #bji4 ,appliances for the bath4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,vii1 pl4 #af 7,overbeck ,mau1 ,fig4 #bea7 #cgg #baj4 ,combs4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,ix1 pl4 #ae 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #beb7 #cgg #baa4 ,hairpins1 with two small ivory toilet boxes4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,ix1 pls4 #ad1 #ae 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #beb7 #cgh #bab4 ,glass box for cosmetics4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,ix1 pl4 #ae 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #beb7 #cgh #bac4 ,hand mirrors4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,ix1 pl4 #ad 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #beb7 #cgh #bad4 ,group of toilet articles4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,ix1 pl4 #ae 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #beb7 #cgh #bae4 ,gold arm band4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,vii1 pl4 #df 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #cah7 #cgi #baf a-d4 ,silver cups4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,xi1 pl4 #de2 ,vol4 ,,xiii1 pl4 #di2 ,overbeck-,mau1 pl4 facing p4 #fbd #cgi #baf e4 ,detail of cup with centaurs #chj #bag4 ,silver cup4 ,boscoreale treasure1 ,louvre4 ,after ,h4 de ,villefosse1 ,le tresor de ,boscoreale1 pl4 #h #chb #bah4 ,ruins of a bakery1 with millstones 7,,vii4 ii4 #bb74 ,from a photograph #chf #bai4 ,plan of a bakery 7,,vi4 iii4 #c7 #chh #bbj4 ,a ,pompeian mill1 without the framework #chi #bba4 ,section of a mill1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #chi #bbb4 ,a mill in operation4 ,relief in the ,vatican ,museum4 ,after ,ber4 der ,saechs4 ,gesellschaft1 #ahfa1 pl4 xii4 #b #cij #bbc4 ,section of a bake oven 7,,vi4 iii4 #c74 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #ah 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #aib7 #cia #bbd4 ,kneading machine1 restored 7,,vi4 xiv4 #ce74 ,from an original drawing #cia #bbe4 ,scene in a fullery--treading vats4 ,wall painting4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #di 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #aie7 #cid #bbf4 ,scene in a fullery--inspection of cloth1 carding1 bleaching frame4 ,wall painting4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #di 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #aid7 #cid #bbg4 ,a fuller's press4 ,wall painting4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #ej 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #aif7 #cie #bbh4 ,plan of a fullery 7,,vi4 xiv4 #bb7 #cif #bbi4 ,plan of the vat room of the tannery 7,i4 v4 #b7 #cih #bcj4 ,mosaic top of the table in the garden of the tannery4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #cii #bca4 ,plan of an inn 7,,vii4 xii4 #ce7 #dja #bcb4 ,plan of the inn of ,hermes 7,i4 i4 #h7 #djb #bcc4 ,plan of a wineshop 7,,vi4 x4 #a7 #djb #bcd4 ,scene in a wineshop4 ,wall painting 7,,vi4 x4 #a74 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 ,a #djc #bce4 ,delivery of wine4 ,wall painting 7,,vi4 x4 #a74 ,after ,museo ,borb41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 ,a #djc #bcf4 ,sepulchral benches of ,veius and ,mamia2 tombs of ,porcius and the ,istacidii4 ,from a photograph 7,a4 ,m47 #dji #bcg4 ,the tomb of the ,istacidii1 restored4 ,from an original drawing #daa #bch4 ,view of the ,street of ,tombs4 ,from a photograph #dad #bci4 ,glass vase1 with vintage scene1 found in the tomb of the ,blue ,glass ,vase4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #daf #bdj4 ,bust stone of ,tyche1 slave of ,julia ,augusta4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ca 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bbc71 with the correction in the spelling of the name ,,tyche #dah #bda4 ,relief1 symbolic of grief for the dead4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,i1 pl4 #bi 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bba7 #dba #bdb4 ,front of the tomb of ,calventius ,quietus1 with bisellium4 ,from a photograph #dbb #bdc4 ,end of the tomb of ,naevoleia ,tyche1 with relief representing a ship entering port4 ,from a photograph #dbc #bdd4 ,cinerary urn in a lead case4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,i4 pl4 #bb 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bac7 #dbd #bde4 ,sepulchral enclosure1 with triclinium funebre4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,i1 pl4 #bj 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #baj7 #dbe #bdf4 ,plan of the tombs east of the ,amphitheatre99 #dca #bdg4 ,view of two tombs east of the ,amphitheatre4 ,from a photograph 7,f4 ,w4 ,k47 #dcb #bdh4 ,view of other tombs east of the ,amphitheatre4 ,from a photograph 7,f4 ,w4 ,k47 #dcd #bdi4 ,four-faced ,ionic capital4 ,portico of the ,forum ,triangulare4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bgb #dci #bej4 ,capital of pilaster4 ,casa del duca d',aumale4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bgd #dci #bea4 ,altar in the court of the temple of ,zeus ,milichius4 ,after ,mazois1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pl4 #f 7,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #fc7 #ddj #beb4 ,capitals of columns1 showing variations from typical forms4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bgd #ddb #bec4 ,capital of pilaster1 modified ,corinthian type4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bgd #ddc #bed4 ,capitals of pilasters1 showing free adaptation of the ,corinthian type4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 ,fig4 #bgd #ddc #bee4 ,statue of the priestess ,eumachia4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #ddf #bef4 ,portrait herm of ,caecilius ,jucundus4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #ddg #beg4 ,double bust1 ,bacchus and a bacchante4 ,garden of the house of the ,vettii4 ,from a photograph #ddh #beh4 ,dancing ,satyr4 ,bronze statuette found in the house of the ,faun4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #dea #bei4 ,listening ,dionysus1 wrongly identified as ,narcissus4 ,bronze statuette in the ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #deb #bfj4 ,bronze youth1 found in ,november1 #aijj4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #ded #bfa4 ,wall decoration in the atrium of the house of ,sallust4 ,first or ,incrustation ,style4 ,after ,tafel ,,ii of ,mau's ,geschichte der decorativen ,wandmalerei in ,pompeji #dfj #bfb4 ,distribution of colors in the section of wall represented in ,fig4 #bfa #dfa #bfc4 ,specimen of wall decoration in the house of ,spurius ,mesor 7,,vii4 iii4 #bi74 ,third or ,ornate style4 ,after ,tafel ,,xii of ,mau's ,wandmalerei #dff #bfd4 ,detail of wall decoration4 ,fourth style4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,pitture di ,ercolano1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 pl4 #eg #dfh #bfe4 ,specimen of wall decoration4 ,fourth style4 ,from a copy in the ,naples ,museum 7showing decoration that has disappeared7 #dfi #bff4 ,a fruit piece1 ,xenion4 ,wall painting4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,pitture di ,ercolano1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #eh #dgd #bfg4 ,a landscape4 ,wall painting4 ,naples ,museum4 ,after ,pitture di ,ercolano1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #adi #dge #bfh4 ,a group of women1 one of whom is sounding two-stringed instruments4 ,wall painting4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #dgf #bfi4 ,paquius ,proculus and his wife4 ,wall painting4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #dgg #bgj4 ,the grief of ,hecuba4 ,fragment of a wall painting4 ,house of ,caecilius ,jucundus4 ,after ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgg1 ,tafel ,p #dgi #bga4 ,athena's pipes and the fate of ,marsyas4 ,wall painting 7,v4 ii4 #aj74 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahij1 p4 #bfg7 #dhb #bgb4 ,the fall of ,icarus4 ,wall painting 7,v4 ii4 #aj74 ,from a drawing499 7,cf4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 #ahij1 p4 #bfd7 #dhc #bgc4 ,zeus and ,hera on ,mt4 ,ida4 ,wall painting from the house of the ,tragic ,poet4 ,naples ,museum4 ,from a photograph #dhd #bgd4 ,tablet with three leaves1 opened so as to show the receipt and part of the memorandum1 restored4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 pl4 facing p4 #dhi #ejj #bge4 ,tablet restored1 with the two leaves containing the receipt tied and sealed4 ,after ,overbeck-,mau1 pl4 facing p4 #dhi #eja ,,footnote3 #a ,the original drawings are based upon sketches by ,professor ,mau4 ,the drawings marked with an asterisk are in the collection of the ,german ,archaeological ,institute in ,rome4 ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,situation ,,of ,,pompeii ,from ,gaeta1 where the south end of the ,volscian range borders abruptly upon the sea1 to the peninsula of ,sorrento1 a broad gulf stretched in remote ages1 cutting its way far into the land4 ,its waves dashed upon the base of the mountains which now1 rising with steep slope1 mark the eastern boundary of the ,campanian ,plain--,mt4 ,tifata above ,capua1 ,mt4 ,taburno back of ,nola1 and lying across the southeast corner1 the huge mass of ,monte ,sant' ,angelo1 whose sharply defined line of elevation is continued in the heights of ,sorrento4 ,this gulf was transformed by volcanic agencies into a fertile plain4 ,here two fissures in the earth's crust cross each other1 each marked by a series of extinct or active volcanoes4 ,one fissure runs in the direction of the ,italian ,peninsula2 along it lie ,monti ,berici near ,vicenza1 ,mt4 ,amiata below ,chiusi1 the lakes of ,bolsena and ,bracciano filling extinct craters1 the ,alban ,mountains1 and finally ,stromboli and ,aetna4 ,the other runs from east to west2 its direction is indicated by ,mt4 ,vulture near ,venosa1 ,mt4 ,epomeo on the island of ,ischia1 and the ,ponza ,islands4 ,at three places in the old sea basin the subterranean fires burst forth4 ,near the north shore rose the great volcano of ,rocca ,monfina1 which added itself to the ,volscian ,mountains1 and heaping the products of its eruptions upon ,mons ,massicus1--once an island1--formed with this the northern boundary of the plain4 ,toward the middle the numerous small vents of the ,phlegraean ,fields threw up the low heights1 to which the north shore of the ,bay of ,naples--,posilipo1 ,baiae1 ,misenum--is indebted for its incomparable beauty of landscape4 ,finally1 near the south shore1 at the intersection of the fissures1 the massive cone of ,vesuvius rose1 in complete isolation--the only volcano on the continent of ,europe still remaining active4 ,its base on the southwest is washed by the sea1 while on the other sides a stretch of level country separates it from the mountains that hem in the plain4 ,on the side opposite from the sea1 however1 ,vesuvius comes so near to the mountains that we may well say that it divides the ,campanian plain into two parts1 of which the larger1 on the northwest side1 is drained by the ,volturno2 the small southeast section is the plain of the ,sarno4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,map of ,ancient ,campania4 ,the ,sarno1 like the ,umbrian ,clitumnus1 has no upper course4 ,at the foot of ,mt4 ,taburno1 bounding the plain on the northeast1 are five copious springs that soon unite to form a stream4 ,since #ahdc the river has been drawn off for purposes of irrigation into three channels1 which are graded at different levels2 the distribution of water thus assured makes this part of ,campania one of the most fertile districts in ,italy4 ,in antiquity the ,sarno must have been confined to a single channel2 according to ,strabo it was navigable for ships4 ,in ,roman times three cities shared in the possession of the ,sarno plain4 ,furthest inland1 facing the pass in the mountains that opens toward the ,gulf of ,salerno1 lay ,nuceria1 now ,nocera4 ,on the seashore1 where the coast road to ,sorrento branches off toward the southwest1 was ,stabiae1 now ,castellammare4 ,north of ,stabiae1 at the foot of ,vesuvius1 ,pompeii stood1 on an elevation overlooking the ,sarno1 formed by the end of a stream of lava that in some past age had flowed from ,vesuvius down toward the sea4 ,pompeii thus united the advantages of an easily fortified hill town with those of a maritime city4 ,it lies1 says ,strabo1 on the ,sarnus1 which accommodates a traffic in both imports and exports2 it is the seaport of ,nola1 ,nuceria1 and ,acerrae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,vesuvius as seen from ,naples4 ,a glance at the map will show how conveniently situated ,pompeii was to serve as a seaport for ,nola and ,nuceria2 but it seems hardly credible that the inhabitants of ,acerrae1 which lay much nearer ,naples1 should have preferred for their marine traffic the circuitous route around ,vesuvius to the ,sarno4 ,however that may have been1 ,pompeii was beyond doubt the most important town in the ,sarno plain4 ,pompeii formerly lay nearer the sea and nearer the river than at present4 ,in the course of the centuries alluvial deposits have pushed the shore line further and further away4 ,it is now about a mile and a quarter from the nearest point of the city to the sea2 in antiquity it was less than a third of a mile4 ,the line of the ancient coast can still be traced by means of a clearly marked depression1 beyond which the stratification of the volcanic deposits thrown out in #gi does not reach4 ,the ,sarno1 too1 now flows nearly two thirds of a mile from ,pompeii2 in antiquity1 according to all indications1 it was not more than half so far away4 ,in point of climate and outlook1 a fairer site for a city could scarcely have been chosen4 ,the ,pompeian1 living in clear air1 could look down upon the fogs which in the wet season frequently rose from the river and spread over the plain4 ,and while in winter ,stabiae1 lying on the northwest side of ,monte ,sant' ,angelo1 enjoyed the sun for only a few hours1 the elevation on which ,pompeii stood1 sloping gently toward the east and south1 more sharply toward the west1 was bathed in sunlight during the entire day4 ,winter at ,pompeii is mild and short2 spring and autumn are long4 ,the heat of summer1 moreover1 is not extreme4 ,in the early morning1 it is true1 the heat is at times oppressive4 ,no breath of air stirs2 and we look longingly off upon the expanse of sea where1 far away on the horizon1 in the direction of ,capri1 a dark line of rippling waves becomes visible4 ,nearer it comes1 and nearer4 ,about ten o'clock it reaches the shore4 ,the leaves begin to rustle1 and in a few moments the sea breeze sweeps over the city1 strong1 cool1 and invigorating4 ,the wind blows till just before sunset4 ,the early hours of the evening are still2 the pavements and the walls of the houses give out the heat which they have absorbed during the day4 ,but soon--perhaps by nine o'clock--the tree tops again begin to murmur1 and all night long1 from the mountains of the interior1 a gentle1 refreshing stream of air flows down through the gardens1 the roomy atriums and colonnades of the houses1 the silent streets1 and the buildings about the ,forum1 with an effect indescribably soothing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,view from ,pompeii1 looking south4 ,how shall ,i undertake to convey to the reader who has not visited ,pompeii1 an impression of the beauty of its situation8 ,words are weak when confronted with the reality4 ,sea1 mountains1 and plain1--strong and pleasing background1--great masses and brilliant yet harmonious colors1 splendid foreground effects and hazy vistas1 undisturbed nature and the handiwork of man1 all are blended into a landscape of the grand style1 the like of which ,i should not know where else to look for4 ,if we turn toward the south1 we have at our feet the level plain of the ,sarno1 in antiquity as now--we may suppose--not checkered with villages but dotted here and there with groups of farm buildings1 surrounded with stately trees4 ,beyond the plain rises the lofty barrier of ,monte ,sant' ,angelo1 thickly wooded in places1 its summit standing out against the sky in a long1 beautiful profile1 which1 toward the right1 breaks up into bold1 rugged notches2 the side of the mountain below is richly diversified with deep valleys1 projecting ridges1 and terraces that in the distance seem like steps1 where among vineyards and olive orchards stand two villages fair to look on1 ,gragnano and ,lettere1 so near that individual houses can be clearly distinguished4 ,further west the plain before us opens out upon the sea1 while the mountains are continued in the precipitous coast of the peninsula of ,sorrento4 ,height crowds upon height1 with villages wreathed in olive orchards lying between4 ,here the hills descend in terraces to the sea1 covered with vegetation to the water's edge2 there the covering of soil has been cast off from the steep slopes1 exposing the naked rock1 which shines in the afternoon sun with a reddish hue that wonderfully accords with the dark shades of the foliage and the brilliant blue of the sea4 ,further on the tints become duller1 and the sight is blurred2 only with effort can we distinguish ,sorrento1 resting on cliffs that rise almost perpendicularly from the line of the shore4 ,further still the outline of the peninsula sinks into the sea and gives place to ,capri1 island of fantastic shape1 whose crags rising sheer from the water stand out sharply in the bright sunlight4 ,but we look toward the north1 and the splendid variety of form and color vanishes2 there stands only the vast1 sombre mass of the great destroyer1 ,vesuvius1 towering above the city and the plain4 ,the sun as it nears the horizon veils the bare ashen cone with a mantle of deep violet1 while the cloud of smoke that rises from the summit shines with a golden glow4 ,far above the base the sides are covered with vineyards1 among which small groups of white houses can here and there be seen4 ,west of us the outline of the mountain descends in a strong1 simple curve to the sea4 ,just before it blends with the shore there rise behind it distant heights wrapped in blue haze1 the first of moderate elevation1 then others more prominent and further to the left4 ,they are the heights along the north shore of the ,bay of ,naples--,gaurus crowned with the monastery of ,camaldoli1 famous for its magnificent view2 the cliffs of ,baiae1 the promontory of ,misenum1 and the lofty cone of ,epomeo on the island of ,ischia4 ,so the eye traverses the whole expanse of the ,bay2 ,naples itself1 hidden from our view1 lies between those distant heights and the base of ,vesuvius4 ,but meanwhile the sun has set behind ,misenum2 its last rays are lighting up the cloud of smoke above ,vesuvius and the summit of ,monte ,sant' ,angelo4 ,the brilliancy of coloring has faded2 the weary eye finds rest in the soft afterglow4 ,we also may take leave of these beautiful surroundings1 and inquire into the beginnings of the city which was founded here4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,before #gi ,when ,pompeii was founded we do not know4 ,it is more than likely that a site so well adapted for a city was occupied at an early date4 ,the oldest building1 the ,doric temple in the ,forum ,triangulare1 is of the style of the sixth century ,b4,c42 we are safe in assuming that the city was then already in existence4#b ,the founders were ,oscans4 ,they belonged to a widely scattered branch of the ,italic stock1 whose language1 closely related with the ,latin1 has been imperfectly recovered from a considerable number of inscriptions1 so imperfectly that in each of the longer inscriptions there still remain words the meaning of which is obscure or doubtful4 ,from this language the name of the city came2 for pompe in ,oscan meant 'five4' ,the word does not1 however1 appear in its simple form2 we have only the adjective derived from it1 pompaiians1 ',pompeian4' ,if we are right in assuming that the name appeared in ,oscan1 as it does in ,latin1 in the plural form1 it was probably applied first to a gens1 or clan1 and thence to the city2 the ,latin equivalent of ,pompeii would be ,quintii4 ,pompeii was thus the city of the clan of the ,pompeys1 as ,tarquinii was the city of the ,tarquins1 and ,veii the city of the ,veian clan4 ,the name ,pompeius was common in ,pompeii down to the destruction of the city1 and in other ,campanian towns1 notably ,puteoli1 to much later times4 ,in order to follow the course of events at ,pompeii1 it will be necessary to pass briefly in review the main points in the history of ,campania4 ,the ,campanian ,oscans1 sprung from a rude and hardy race1 became civilized from contact with the ,greeks1 who at an early period had settled in ,cumae1 in ,dicaearchia1 afterward ,puteoli1 and in ,parthenope1 later ,naples2 and the coast climate had an enervating effect upon them4 ,when toward the end of the fifth century ,b4,c4 the ,samnites1 kinsmen of the ,oscans1 left their rugged mountain homes in the interior and pressed down toward the coast1 the ,oscans were unable to cope with them4 ,in #dbd ,b4,c4 the ,samnites stormed and took ,capua1 in #dbj1 ,cumae2 and ,pompeii likewise fell into their hands4 ,but they were no more successful than the ,oscans had been in resisting the influence of ,greek culture4 ,how strong this influence was may be seen in the remains at ,pompeii4 ,the architecture of the period was ,greek2 ,greek divinities were honored1 as ,apollo and ,zeus ,milichius2 and the standard measures of the mensa ponderaria were inscribed with ,greek names4 ,in less than a hundred years new strifes arose between the more cultured ,samnites of the plain and their rough and warlike kinsmen in the mountains4 ,but ,rome took a part in the struggle1 and in the ,samnite ,wars 7#cdc-bij ,b4,c47 brought both the men of the mountains and the men of the plain under her dominion4 ,although the sovereignty of ,rome took the form of a perpetual alliance1 the cities in reality lost their independence4 ,the complete subjugation and ,romanizing of ,campania1 however1 did not come till the time of the ,social ,war 7#ij-hh ,b4,c47 and the supremacy of ,sulla2 the ,samnites staked all on the success of the popular party1 and lost4 ,in the narrative of these events ,pompeii is not often mentioned4 ,at the time of the ,second ,samnite ,war1 in the year #caj ,b4,c41 we read that a ,roman fleet under ,publius ,cornelius landed at the mouth of the ,sarno1 and that a pillaging expedition followed the course of the river as far as ,nuceria2 but the country folk fell on the marauders as they were returning1 and forced them to give up their booty4 ,we have no definite information regarding the attitude of the ,pompeians after the battle of ,cannae 7#baf ,b4,c472 probably they joined the side of ,hannibal1 who1 however1 was defeated by ,marcus ,marcellus near ,nola in the following year1 and was obliged to leave ,campania to the ,romans4 ,in the ,social ,war1 when1 in the summer of #ij ,b4,c41 the ,samnite army marched into ,campania1 ,pompeii allied itself with the insurgents2 as a consequence1 in #hi1 it was besieged by ,sulla1 but without success4 ,two years later1 ,sulla went to ,asia to conduct the war against ,mithridates4 ,returning victorious in the spring of #hc ,b4,c41 he led his army into ,campania1 where he spent the winter of #hc-hb2 his soldiers1 grown brutal in the ,asiatic war and accustomed to every kind of license1 may have proved unwelcome guests for the ,pompeians4 ,the sequel came in the year #hj1 when a colony of ,roman veterans was settled in ,pompeii under the leadership of ,publius ,sulla1 a nephew of the ,dictator4 ,cicero later made a speech in behalf of this ,sulla1 defending him against the charge that he had taken part in the conspiracy of ,catiline and had tried to induce the old residents of ,pompeii to join in the plot4 ,from this speech we learn that ,sulla's reorganization of the city was accomplished with so great regard for the interests of the ,pompeians1 that they ever after held him in grateful remembrance4 ,we learn1 also1 that soon after the founding of the colony disputes arose between the old residents and the colonists1 about the public walks 7ambulationes7 and matters connected with the voting2 the arrangements for voting had probably been so made as to throw the decision always into the hands of the colonists4 ,the controversy was referred to the patrons of the colony1 and settled by them4 ,from this time on1 the life of ,pompeii seems not to have differed from that of the other small cities of ,italy4 ,as the harbor of ,pompeii was on the ,sarno1 which flowed at some distance from the city1 there must have been a small settlement at the landing place4 ,to this probably belonged a group of buildings1 partly excavated in #ahhj-ha1 lying just across the ,sarno canal 7canale del ,bottaro71 about a third of a mile from the ,stabian ,gate4 ,here were found many skeletons1 and with them a quantity of gold jewellery1 which was afterward placed in the ,museum at ,naples4 ,the most reasonable explanation of the discovery is1 that the harbor was here1 and that these persons1 gathering up their valuables1 fled from ,pompeii at the time of the eruption either in order to escape by sea or to take refuge in ,stabiae4 ,flight in either case was cut off4 ,if ships were in the harbor1 they must soon have been filled with the volcanic deposits2 if there was a bridge across the river it was probably thrown down by the earthquake4 ,a second suburb sprang up near the sea1 in connection with the salt works 7salinae7 of the city4 ,our knowledge of the inhabitants1 the ,salinenses1 is derived from several inscriptions painted upon walls1 in which they recommend candidates for the municipal offices1 and from an inscription scratched upon the plaster of a column in which a fuller by the name of ,crescens sends them a greeting3 ,crescens fullo ,salinensibus salutem4 ,from another inscription we learn that they had an assembly1 conventus1 possibly judicial in its functions2 for in connection with a date1 it speaks of a fine of twenty sesterces1 which would amount to about #ca_/b shillings1 or #he cents3 ,,vii ,k4 dec4 ,salinis in conventu multa ,,hs ,,xx1 ',fine of twenty sesterces2 assembly at ,salinae1 ,november #be4' ,still another inscription speaks of attending such a meeting on ,november #ai3 ,,xiii ,k4 dec4 in conventu veni4 ,the suburb most frequently mentioned was at first called ,pagus ,felix ,suburbanus1 but after the time of ,augustus1 ,pagus ,augustus ,felix ,suburbanus4 ,its location is unknown4 ,as it evidently took the name of ,felix from the ,dictator ,sulla1 who used this epithet as a surname1 we may assume that its origin dates from the establishment of the ,roman colony2 it may have been founded to provide a place for those inhabitants of ,pompeii who had been forced to leave their homes in order to make room for the colonists4 ,the existence of a fourth suburb is inferred from two painted inscriptions in which candidates for office are recommended by the ,campanienses2 this name would naturally be applied to the inhabitants of a ,pagus ,campanus1 who1 perhaps1 had originally come from ,capua4 ,of the government of ,pompeii in the earliest times1 before the ,samnite conquest1 nothing is known4 ,the names of various magistrates in the ,samnite period1 however1 particularly the period of alliance with ,rome 7#bij-ij ,b4,c471 are learned from inscriptions4 ,mention is made of a chief administrative officer 7mediss1 mediss tovtiks72 of quaestors1 who1 probably1 like the quaestors in ,rome1 were charged with the financial administration and let the contracts for public buildings2 and of aediles1 to whom1 no doubt1 was intrusted the care of streets and buildings1 together with the policing of the markets4 ,the ,latin names of the last two officials suggest that their offices were introduced after #bij4 ,there was also an assembly called kombenniom1 with which we may compare the ,latin conventus2 but whether it was an assembly of the people or a city council cannot now be determined4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,venus ,pompeiana4 ,from a wall painting4 ,after the establishment of the ,roman colony1 ,pompeii was named ,colonia ,cornelia ,veneria ,pompeianorum1 from the gentile name of the ,dictator ,sulla 7,lucius ,cornelius ,sulla ,felix7 and from the goddess to whom he paid special honor1 who now1 as ,venus ,pompeiana1 became the tutelary divinity of the city4 ,this goddess is represented in wall paintings4 ,in that from which our illustration is taken 7,fig4 #d71 she appears in a blue mantle studded with golden stars1 and wears a crown set with green stones4 ,her left hand1 which holds a sceptre1 rests upon a rudder2 in her right is a twig of olive4 ,a ,cupid stands upon a pedestal beside her1 holding up a mirror4 ,from this time the highest official body1 as in ,roman colonies everywhere1 was the city council1 composed of decurions4 ,the administration was placed in the hands of two pairs of officials1 the duumvirs with judiciary authority1 duumviri iuri dicundo1 and two aediles1 who were responsible for the care of buildings and streets and the oversight of the markets4 ,when the duumvirs and the aediles joined in official acts they were known as the ,board of ,four1 quattuorviri4 ,down to the time of the ,empire it appears that the aediles were not designated officially by that name1 but by a title known to us only in an abbreviated form1 duumviri v4 a4 sacr4 p4 proc4 ,this probably stands for duumviri viis1 aedibus1 sacris publicis procurandis1 'duumvirs in charge of the streets1 the temples1 and the public religious festivals4' ,the title of aedile seems to have been avoided because it had been in use in the days of autonomy1 and the authorities thought it prudent to suppress everything that would suggest the former state of independence4 ,nevertheless1 the word retained its place in ordinary speech1 as is shown by its use in the inscriptions painted on walls recommending candidates for office2 thence it finally forced its way back into the official language4 ,the duumvirs of every fifth year were called quinquennial duumvirs1 duumviri quinquennales1 and assumed functions corresponding with those of the censors at ,rome2 they gave attention to matters of finance1 and revised the lists of decurions and of citizens4 ,all these officials were elected annually by popular vote4 ,the candidates offered themselves beforehand4 ,if none came forward1 or there were too few1--for the city officials not only received no salary1 but were under obligation to make generous contributions for public purposes1 as theatrical representations1 games1 and buildings1--the magistrate who presided at the election named candidates for the vacancies2 but each candidate so named had the right to nominate a second for the same vacancy1 the second in turn a third4 ,the voting was by ballot2 each voter threw his voting tablet into the urn of his precinct4 ,no information has come down to us regarding the precincts 7curiae7 into which the city must have been divided for electoral purposes4 ,the election of a candidate was valid only in case he received the vote of an absolute majority of the precincts4 ,if the result was indecisive for all or a part of the offices1 the city council chose an extraordinary official who bore the title of prefect with judiciary authority1 praefectus iuri dicundo4 ,this prefect took the place of the duumvirs1 not only when an election was indecisive1 but also when vacancies arose in some other way1 or when peculiar conditions seemed to make it desirable to have an officer of unusual powers1 a kind of dictator2 or finally1 when the emperor had received the vote2 in the last two cases1 the prefect was undoubtedly appointed by the emperor4 ,thus1 in the years #cd and #dj ,a4,d41 the ,emperor ,caligula was duumvir of ,pompeii2 but the duties of the office were discharged by a prefect4 ,a law passed in ,rome toward the end of the ,republic on the motion of a certain ,petronius contained provisions regarding the appointment of prefects2 one chosen in accordance with them was called praefectus ex lege ,petronia1 'prefect according to the law of ,petronius4' ,there were also in ,pompeii priests supported by the city1 but only a few of them are mentioned in the inscriptions4 ,references are found to augurs and pontifices1 to a priest of ,mars1 and to priests 7flamen1 sacerdos7 of ,augustus while he was still living2 ,nero had a priest even before he ascended the throne4 ,mention is made of priestesses1 too1 a priestess of ,ceres and ,venus1 priestesses of ,ceres1 and others1 the divinities of whom are not named4 ,the suburbs could scarcely have had a separate administration2 they remained within the jurisdiction of the magistrates of the city4 ,in the case of the ,pagus ,augustus ,felix mention is made of a magister1 'director1' ministri1 'attendants1' and pagani1 'pagus officials'2 but apparently these were all appointed for religious functions only1 in connection with the worship of the emperor4 ,the magister and the pagani1 in part at least1 were freedmen2 the four ministri1 first appointed in #g ,b4,c41 were slaves4 ,apart from commerce1 an important source of income for the ,pompeians lay in the fertility of the soil4 ,in antiquity1 as now1 grapes were cultivated extensively on the ridge projecting from the foot of ,vesuvius toward the south4 ,the evidence afforded by the great number of wine jars1 amphorae 7,fig4 #e71 that have been brought to light would warrant this conclusion2 and lately wine presses also have been discovered near ,boscoreale1 above ,pompeii4 ,pliny makes mention of the ,pompeian wine1 but remarks that indulgence in it brings a headache that will last till noon of the following day4 ,the olive too was cultivated1 but only to a limited extent2 this we infer from the small capacity of the press and other appliances for making oil found in the same villa in which the wine presses were discovered4 ,at the present time the making of oil is not carried on about ,pompeii4 ,in the plain below the city vegetables were raised1 as at the present day2 the cabbage and onions of ,pompeii were highly prized4 ,the working up of the products of the fisheries formed an important industry4 ,the fish sauces which so tickled the palate of ancient epicures1 garum1 liquamen1 and muria1 were produced here of the finest quality4 ,the making of them seems to have been practically a monopoly in the hands of a certain ,umbricius ,scaurus2 a great number of earthen jars have been found with the mark of his ownership 7p4 #ejf74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,an amphora from ,boscoreale4 ,the ,pompeians turned to account1 also1 the volcanic products of ,vesuvius4 ,pumice stone was an article of export4 ,from the lava millstones were made for both grain mills and oil mills1 which were apparently already in extensive use in the time of ,cato the ,elder2 he twice mentions the oil mills of ,pompeii4 ,in ,pompeii itself the millstones of the oldest period are of lava from ,vesuvius2 later it was found that the lava of ,rocca ,monfina was better adapted for the purpose1 and millstones of that material were preferred4 ,small hand-mills of the lava from ,vesuvius were in use at ,pompeii down to #gi2 but the larger millstones of this material found in the bakeries had been put one side4 ,in shape and finish the mills of local make were superior to the more carelessly worked stones from ,rocca ,monfina2 the preference for the latter was due to the fact that they contained numerous crystals of leucite1 which broke off as the mill wore away1 and so kept the grinding surfaces always rough4 ,millstones from ,rocca ,monfina may be seen at different places in ,rome1 as in the ,museum of the ,baths of ,diocletian4 ,to the sources of revenue which contributed to the prosperity of ,pompeii we may add the presence of wealthy ,romans1 who1 attracted by the delightful climate1 built country seats in the vicinity4 ,among them was ,cicero1 who often speaks of his ,pompeian villa 7,pompeianum74 ,that the imperial family also had a villa here is inferred from a curious accident4 ,we read that ,drusus1 the young son of the ,emperor ,claudius1 a few days after his betrothal to the daughter of ,sejanus1 was choked to death at ,pompeii by a pear which he had thrown up into the air and caught in his mouth4 ,these country seats1 no doubt1 lay on the high ground back of ,pompeii1 toward ,vesuvius2 they probably faced the sea4 ,but the identification of a villa excavated in the last century1 and then filled up again1 as the villa of ,cicero1 is wholly without foundation4 ,salve lucrum1 ',welcome1 ,gain6' ,such is the inscription which a ,pompeian placed in the mosaic floor of his house4 ,lucrum gaudium1 ',gain is pure joy1' we read on the threshold of another house4 ,a thrifty ,pompeian certainly did not lack opportunity to acquire wealth4 ,how large a population ,pompeii possessed at the time of the destruction of the city it is impossible to determine4 ,a painstaking examination of all the houses excavated would afford data for an approximate estimate2 but the results thus far obtained by those who have given attention to the subject are unsatisfactory4 ,fiorelli assigned to ,pompeii twelve thousand inhabitants1 ,nissen twenty thousand4 ,undoubtedly the second estimate is nearer the truth than the first2 according to all indication the population may very likely have exceeded twenty thousand4 ,this population was by no means homogeneous4 ,the original ,oscan stock had not yet lost its identity2 inscriptions in the ,oscan dialect are found scratched on the plaster of walls decorated in the style prevalent after the earthquake of the year #fc4 ,from the time when the ,roman colony was founded no doubt additions continued to be made to the population from various parts of ,italy4 ,the ,greek element was particularly strong4 ,this is proved by the number of ,greek names in the accounts of ,caecilius ,jucundus1 for example1 and by the ,greek inscriptions that have been found on walls and on amphorae4 ,the ,greeks may have come from the neighboring towns2 most of them were probably freedmen4 ,in a seaport we should expect to find also ,greeks from trans-marine cities2 and1 in fact1 an ,alexandrian appears in one of the receipts of ,jucundus4 ,there were ,orientals1 too1 as we shall see when we come to the temple of ,isis4 ,thus far there has come to hand no trustworthy evidence for the presence of ,christians at ,pompeii2 but traces of ,jewish influence are not lacking4 ,the words ,sodoma1 ,gomora1 are scratched in large letters on the wall of a house in ,region ,,ix 7,,ix4 i4 #bf74 ,they must have been written by a ,jew1 or possibly a ,christian2 they seem like a prophecy of the fate of the city4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,the ,judgment of ,solomon4 ,wall painting4 ,another interesting bit of evidence is a wall painting1 which appears to have as its subject the ,judgment of ,solomon 7,fig4 #f74 ,on a tribunal at the right sits the king with two advisers2 the pavilion is well guarded with soldiers4 ,in front of the tribunal a soldier is about to cut a child in two with a cleaver4 ,two women are represented1 one of whom stands at the block and is already taking hold of the half of the child assigned to her1 while the other casts herself on her knees as a suppliant before the judges4 ,it is not certain that the reference here is to ,solomon2 such tales pass from one country to another1 and a somewhat similar story is told of the ,egyptian king ,bocchoris4 ,the balance of probability is in favor of the view that we have here the ,jewish version of the story1 because this is consistent with other facts that point to the existence of a ,jewish colony at ,pompeii4 ,the names ,maria and ,martha appear in wall inscriptions4 ,the assertion that ,maria here is not the ,hebrew name1 but the feminine form of the ,roman name ,marius1 is far astray4 ,it appears in a list of female slaves who were working in a weaver's establishment1 ,vitalis1 ,florentina1 ,amaryllis1 ,januaria1 ,heracla1 ,maria1 ,lalage1 ,damalis1 ,doris4 ,the ,marian family was represented at ,pompeii1 but the ,roman name ,maria could not have been given to a slave4 ,that we have here a ,jewish name seems certain since the discovery of the name ,martha4 ,in inscriptions upon wine jars we find mention of a certain ,m4 ,valerius ,abinnerichus1 a name which is certainly ,jewish or ,syrian2 but whether ,abinnerich was a dealer1 or the owner of the estate on which the wine was produced1 cannot be determined4 ,in this connection it is worth while to note that vessels have been found with the inscribed labels1 garum castum or castimoniale1 and muria casta4 ,as we learn from ,pliny 7,n4 ,h4 ,,xxxi4 viii4 #ie71 these fish sauces1 prepared for fast days1 were used especially by the ,jews4 ,some have thought that the word ,christianos can be read in an inscription written with charcoal1 and have fancied that they found a reference to the persecution of the ,christians under ,nero4 ,but charcoal inscriptions1 which will last for centuries when covered with earth1 soon become illegible if exposed to the air2 such an inscription1 traced on a wall at the time of the persecutions under ,nero1 must have disappeared long before the destruction of the city4 ,the inscription in question was indistinct when discovered1 and has since entirely faded2 the reading is quite uncertain4 ,if it were proved that the word ,christians appeared in it1 we should be warranted only in the inference that ,christians were known at ,pompeii1 not that they lived and worshipped there4 ,according to ,tertullian 7,apol4 #dj7 there were no ,christians in ,campania before #gi4 ,,footnote3 #b ,it seems strange that traces of other buildings of the same period have not been discovered2 but1 on the other hand1 it is far from probable that the temple was first erected1 and that the city afterward grew up around it1 for in that case the temple must have been placed further west1 on the highest point of the elevation1 overlooking the sea4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,city ,,overwhelmed ,previous to the terrible eruption of #gi1 ,vesuvius was considered an extinct volcano4 ,above these places1 says ,strabo1 writing in the time of ,augustus1 lies ,vesuvius1 the sides of which are well cultivated1 even to the summit4 ,this is level1 but quite unproductive4 ,it has a cindery appearance2 for the rock is porous and of a sooty color1 the appearance suggesting that the whole summit may once have been on fire and have contained craters1 the fires of which died out when there was no longer anything left to burn4 ,earthquakes1 however1 were of common occurrence in ,campania4 ,an especially violent shock on the fifth of ,february1 #fc ,a4,d41 gave warning of the reawakening of ,vesuvius4 ,great damage was done throughout the region lying between ,naples and ,nuceria1 but the shock was most severe at ,pompeii1 a large part of the buildings of the city being thrown down4 ,the prosperous and enterprising inhabitants at once set about rebuilding4 ,when the final catastrophe came1 on the twenty-fourth of ,august1 #gi ,a4,d41 most of the houses were in a good state of repair1 and the rebuilding of at least two temples1 those of ,apollo and of ,isis1 had been completed4 ,this renewing of the city1 caused by the earthquake1 may be looked upon as a fortunate circumstance for our studies4 ,our chief source of information for the events of ,august #bd-bf1 #gi1 is a couple of letters of the ,younger ,pliny to ,tacitus1 who purposed to make use of them in writing his history4 ,pliny was staying at ,misenum with his uncle1 the ,elder ,pliny1 who was in command of the ,roman fleet4 ,in the first letter he tells of his uncle's fate4 ,on the afternoon of the twenty-fourth1 the admiral ,pliny set out with ships to rescue from impending danger the people at the foot of ,vesuvius1 particularly in the vicinity of ,herculaneum4 ,he came too late2 it was no longer possible to effect a landing4 ,so he directed his course to ,stabiae1 where he spent the night2 and there on the following morning he died1 suffocated by the fumes that were exhaled from the earth4 ,the second letter gives an account of the writer's own experiences at ,misenum4 ,to this testimony little is added by the narrative of ,dion ,cassius1 which was written a century and a half later and is known to us only in abstract2 ,dion dwells at greater length on the powerful impression which the terrible convulsion of nature left upon those who were living at that time4 ,with the help of the letters of ,pliny1 in connection with the facts established by the excavations1 it is possible to picture to ourselves the progress of the eruption with a fair degree of clearness4 ,the subterranean fires of ,vesuvius pressed upward to find an outlet4 ,the accumulations of volcanic dust and pumice stone that had been heaped up on the mountain by former eruptions were again hurled to a great height1 and came down upon the surrounding country4 ,on the west side of ,vesuvius they mingled with torrents of rain1 and flowed as a vast stream of mud down over ,herculaneum4 ,on the south side1 driven by a northwest wind as they descended from the upper air1 they spread out into a thick cloud1 which covered ,pompeii and the plain of the ,sarno4 ,out of this cloud first broken fragments of pumice stone--the average size not larger than a walnut--rained down to the depth of eight to ten feet2 then followed volcanic dust1 wet as it fell by a downpour of water1 to the depth of six or seven feet4 ,with the storm of dust came successive shocks of earthquake4 ,such was1 in outline1 the course of the eruption4 ,it must have begun early in the morning of the twenty-fourth1 and the stream of mud must have commenced immediately to move in the direction of ,herculaneum2 for shortly after one o'clock on that day the admiral ,pliny at ,misenum received letters from the region threatened1 saying that the danger was imminent1 and that escape was possible only by sea4 ,even then the ,younger ,pliny saw1 high above ,vesuvius1 the cloud1 shaped like an umbrella pine1 which was to rain down destruction on ,pompeii4 ,toward evening1 the ships off ,herculaneum ran into the hail of pumice stone1 which1 during the night1 reached ,stabiae and so increased in violence that the admiral ,pliny was obliged to leave his sleeping room from fear that the door would be blocked up by the falling masses4 ,early in the morning of the twenty-fifth there was a severe shock of earthquake1 which was felt as far as ,misenum4 ,then the dust began to fall1 and a cloud of fearful blackness1 pierced through and through with flashes of lightning1 settled down over land and sea4 ,at ,misenum1 even1 it became dark2 not1 says ,pliny1 as on a cloudy night when there is no moon1 but as in a room which has been completely closed4 ,how long the fall of dust lasted we can only infer from this1 that when it ceased the sun had not yet set4 ,in ,misenum1 which the shower of pumice stone had not reached1 everything was covered with a thick layer of dust4 ,although the earthquake shocks continued1 the inhabitants went back into their houses4 ,but ,pompeii and ,stabiae had been covered so deep that only the roofs of the houses1 where these had not fallen in1 projected above the surface2 and ,herculaneum had wholly disappeared4 ,all the plain of the ,sarno was buried1 as were also the slopes of the mountains on the south4 ,stabiae1 as we have seen1 lay at the foot of the mountains1 on the coast4 ,it had been destroyed by ,sulla in the ,social ,war2 its inhabitants1 forced to scatter1 settled in the surrounding country4 ,in the years #agdi-hb numerous buildings were excavated in the vicinity1 in part luxurious country seats1 in part plain farm buildings2 but the excavations were afterward filled up again4 ,the covering of ,stabiae was like that of ,pompeii1 only not so deep4 ,herculaneum was covered with the same materials2 they were not1 however1 deposited in regular strata1 but were mixed together1 and being drenched with water1 hardened into a kind of tufa which in places reaches a depth of sixty-five feet4 ,excavating at ,herculaneum is in consequence extremely difficult2 and the difficulty is further increased by the fact that a modern city1 ,resina1 extends over the greater part of the ancient site4 ,the excavations thus far attempted have in most cases been conducted by means of underground passageways4 ,the statement that ,herculaneum was overflowed by a stream of lava1 though frequently repeated1 is erroneous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,cast of a man4 ,the woodwork of buildings in ,pompeii has in many cases been preserved1 but in a completely charred condition4 ,frequently where walls were painted with yellow ochre it has turned red1 especially when brought immediately into contact with the stratum of dust--a change which this color undergoes when it is exposed to heat4 ,nevertheless1 the inference would be unwarranted that the products of the eruption fell upon the city red-hot and caused a general conflagration4 ,the fragments of pumice stone could scarcely have retained a great degree of heat after having been so long in the air2 it is evident from ,pliny's narrative that they were not hot4 ,with the dust a copious rain must have fallen2 for the bodies of those who perished in the storm of dust left perfect moulds1 into a number of which soft plaster of ,paris has been poured1 making those casts of human figures which lend a melancholy interest to the collections in the little ,museum at ,pompeii 7,fig4 #g74 ,the extraordinary freshness of these figures1 without any suggestion of the wasting away after death1 is explicable only on the supposition that the enveloping dust was damp1 and so commenced immediately to harden into a permanent shape4 ,if the dust had been dry and had packed down and hardened afterwards1 we should be able to trace at least the beginnings of decay4 ,neither the pumice stone nor the dust1 then1 could have set wood on fire4 ,the woodwork must have become charred gradually from the effect of moisture1 as in the case of coal1 and the change in the color of the yellow ochre must be due to some other cause than the presence of heat4 ,this is all the more evident from the fact that vestiges of local conflagrations1 confined within narrow limits1 can here and there be traced1 kindled by the masses of glowing slag which fell at the same time with the pumice stone1 or by the fires left burning in the houses4 ,from the number of skeletons discovered in the past few decades1 since an accurate record has been kept1 it has been estimated that in ,pompeii itself1 about two thousand persons perished4 ,as the city contained a population of twenty thousand or more1 it is evident that the majority of the inhabitants fled2 since the eruption commenced in the morning1 while the hail of pumice stone did not begin till afternoon1 those who appreciated the greatness of the danger had time to escape4 ,it is1 however1 impossible to say how many fled when it was already too late1 and lost their lives outside the city4 ,mention has already been made of some who perished at the harbor2 others who went out earlier to the ,sarno may have made good their escape4 ,of those who remained in the city part were buried in the houses--so with twenty persons whose skeletons were found in the cellar of the villa of ,diomedes2 others1 as the hail of pumice stone ceased1 ventured out into the streets1 where they soon succumbed to the shower of dust that immediately followed4 ,as the bodies wasted away little except the bones was left in the hollows formed by the dust that hardened around them1 and the casts already referred to1 which have been made from time to time since #ahfc1 give in some cases a remarkably clear and sharp representation of the victims4 ,the ,emperor ,titus sent a commission of senators into ,campania to report in what way help could best be rendered4 ,a plan was formed to rebuild the cities that had been destroyed1 and the property of those who died without heirs was set aside for this purpose4 ,nothing came of it1 however1 so far as our knowledge goes4 ,pompeii is indeed mentioned in the ,peutinger ,table1 a map for travellers made in the third century1 but the name was apparently given to a post station in memory of the former city4 ,conclusive evidence against the existence of a new city is the absence of any inscriptions referring to it4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,unearthing ,,of ,,the ,,city ,the first excavations at ,pompeii were undertaken by the survivors shortly after the destruction of the city4 ,as the upper parts of the houses that had not fallen in projected above the surface1 it was possible to locate the places under which objects of value were buried4 ,men dug down from the surface at certain points and tunnelled from room to room underneath1 breaking through the intervening walls4 ,this work was facilitated by the stratification of the volcanic deposit2 the loose bits of pumice stone in the lower stratum were easily removed1 while the stratum of dust above was compact enough to furnish a fairly safe roof for narrow passageways4 ,only infrequently is a house discovered that was left undisturbed2 from this we understand why comparatively little household furniture of value has been found4 ,not only were rich house furnishings in demand1--the excavators carried away valuable building materials as well4 ,so eagerly were these sought after that large buildings1 as those about the ,forum1 were almost completely stripped of their marble4 ,in the ,middle ,ages ,pompeii was quite forgotten4 ,possibly some remains of the ancient buildings were yet to be seen2 at any rate it seems to have been believed that a city once existed there1 for the site was called ,la ,civita4 ,in the years #aeid-afjj ,domenico ,fontana was bringing water from one of the springs of the ,sarno to ,torre ,annunziata1 and in the course of the work cut an underground channel through the site of ,pompeii and discovered two inscriptions2 but no further investigations were made4 ,the indifference of ,fontana may be explained by the fact that the water channel was not dug out from above1 like a railway cutting1 and then covered over1 but was carried as a tunnel through the hill on which the city stood1 so that the workmen came to the ancient surface at only a few points4 ,in the part now excavated1 the original level was disturbed in but one place1 near the temple of ,zeus ,milichius2 here the inscriptions were probably found4 ,the excavation of the buried ,campanian towns began1 not at ,pompeii1 but at ,herculaneum1 where in #agji the workmen of the ,austrian general1 ,count ,elbeuf1 sunk a shaft1 reaching the ancient level at the rear of the stage of the theatre4 ,the current statement that ,elbeuf discovered the site of ,herculaneum by accident1 his workmen being engaged in digging a well1 is erroneous4 ,the location of the city was already known1 and ,elbeuf was searching for antiquities4 ,the error probably originated in a misunderstanding of the ,italian word pozzo1 which has a double meaning1 shaft1 and well4 ,at first little was accomplished1 but after #agch excavations were carried on by ,king ,charles ,,iii in a more systematic manner4 ,the director of these excavations1 ,rocco ,gioacchino de ,alcubierre1 in ,march1 #agdh1 had occasion to inspect the water channel mentioned above1 and learned that at the place called ,la ,civita--which he thought was ,stabiae--objects of antiquity were often found4 ,he came to the conclusion that this site was more promising than that of ,herculaneum1 where the excavations just then were yielding little of value2 the result of his recommendation was that on the thirtieth of the same month excavations were commenced at ,pompeii1 with twelve workmen4 ,the first digging was done north of ,nola ,street1 near the ,casa del ,torello2 then the men were set at work on the ,street of ,tombs1 near the ,herculaneum ,gate2 and a part of the ,amphitheatre also was cleared4 ,in #agej the work was stopped1 because the results were thought to be unimportant4 ,attention was again directed to ,pompeii in #aged1 when workmen engaged in constructing the highway that runs just south of the city discovered a number of tombs4 ,about the same time1 west of the ,amphitheatre1 the extensive establishment of ,julia ,felix1 arranged like a villa1 and some buildings lying north of it1 were excavated2 but they were all covered up again1 as was also the so-called villa of ,cicero1 which was uncovered in #agfc4 ,the parts excavated were not left clear until after #agfc1 when the discovery of the inscription of ,suedius ,clemens1 on the ,street of ,tombs1 had established the fact that the site was that of ,pompeii4 ,important discoveries were made soon after4 ,in the years immediately following #agfd the theatres1 with the adjacent buildings1 and the ,street of ,tombs1 together with the villa of ,diomedes1 were laid bare4 ,the excavations were conducted slowly and without system1 yet with scientific interest fostered by the ,herculaneum ,academy 7,accademia ercolanese71 which had been founded in #agee4 ,under ,joseph ,bonaparte and ,murat1 #ahjf-ae1 the work received larger appropriations1 and was prosecuted with greater energy1 particularly in the quarter lying between the ,herculaneum ,gate and the ,forum4 ,in the same period the ,forum was approached from the south side also4 ,in #agii1 at the time of the ,parthenopean ,republic1 the ,french general ,championnet had excavated1 south of the ,basilica1 the two houses which are still called by his name4 ,from these1 in #ahac1 the excavators made their way into the ,basilica1 whence1 in ,november of the same year1 they pushed forward into the ,forum4 ,however1 the excavation of the ,forum itself with the surrounding buildings1 prosecuted less vigorously and with limited means in the period of the ,restoration1 was not completed till #ahbe2 by this time the temple of ,fortuna and the ,baths north of the ,forum had also been uncovered4 ,the following years1 to #ahcb1 brought to light the beautiful houses on the north side of ,nola ,street--the houses of ,pansa1 of the ,tragic ,poet1 and of the ,faun--and those on ,mercury ,street2 later came excavations south of ,nola ,street and in various parts of the city4 ,the disturbances of the period of ,revolution caused a cessation of work for two years1 from ,july #c1 #ahdh1 to ,september #bg1 #ahej4 ,during the next nine years effort was expended chiefly in clearing ,stabian ,street and the ,stabian ,baths4 ,the fall of the ,bourbon dynasty and the passing over of ,naples to the ,kingdom of ,italy caused another interruption1 which lasted a year1 from ,december #e1 #ahei1 to ,december #bj1 #ahfj4 ,on the last date the excavations were resumed under the direction of ,giuseppe ,fiorelli1 a man of marked individuality1 who left a permanent impress upon every part of the work4 ,to him is due the present admirable system1 excellent alike from the technical and from the administrative point of view4 ,we owe it to him1 that better provision is made now than formerly for the preservation and care of excavated buildings and objects discovered2 the earlier efforts in this direction naturally left room for improvement1 and the painstaking of the present administration is especially worthy of commendation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,an excavation4 ,atrium of the house of the ,silver ,wedding1 cleared in the autumn of #ahib4 ,fiorelli put an end to haphazard digging1 to excavating here and there wherever the site seemed most promising4 ,he first set about clearing the undisturbed places lying between the excavated portions2 and when in this way the west part of the city had been laid bare1 he commenced to work systematically from the excavated part toward the east4 ,since #ahfj only one public building has been excavated--the baths at the corner of ,stabian and ,nola streets2 but many private houses have been uncovered1 some of which are of much interest4 ,fiorelli remained in charge of the excavations until #ahge1 when he was called to ,rome to become ,general ,director of ,museums and ,excavations2 he died in #ahif1 at the age of seventy-two4 ,his successors1 first ,michele ,ruggiero1 then ,giulio de ,petra1 have worked according to his plans1 and in full sympathy with his ideals4 ,up to the present time about three-fifths of ,pompeii have been excavated4 ,in #ahgb ,fiorelli made the calculation that if the excavations should continue at the rate then followed the whole city would be laid bare in #gd years4 ,since that time the work has progressed more slowly1 partly in consequence of the greater care taken for the preservation of the remains4 ,at the present rate of progress we may believe that the twentieth century will hardly witness the completion of the excavations4 ,articles of furniture and objects of art that can easily be moved1 as the statuettes often found in the gardens1 are ordinarily taken to the ,museum in ,naples2 a few things have been placed in the little ,museum at ,pompeii4 ,now and then small sculptures have been left in a house exactly as they were found2 but the necessity of keeping such houses locked and of guarding them with especial care prevents the general adoption of this method of preservation4 ,in respect to the preservation of paintings the practice has varied at different periods4 ,generally1 however1 the best pictures have been cut from the walls and transferred to the ,museum1 while the decorative framework has been left undisturbed4 ,it is keenly to be regretted that in this way the effect of the decorative system as a whole has been destroyed1 for the picture forms the centre of a carefully elaborated scheme of decoration which needs to be viewed as an artistic whole in order to be fully appreciated2 and the removal of a painting can hardly be accomplished without some damage to the parts of the wall immediately in contact with it4 ,a far better method would be to leave intact all walls containing paintings or decorative work of interest1 providing such means of protection against the weather as may be necessary4 ,a good beginning in this respect has been made in the case of the house of the ,vettii1 the beautiful and well preserved paintings of which have been left on the walls and are preserved with the greatest care4 ,the treatment of a mosaic floor is an altogether different problem4 ,while the floor as a whole1 with its ornamental designs1 is left in place1 fine mosaics representing paintings1 which are delicate and easily destroyed1 are wisely taken up and placed in the ,museum4 ,,notes ,,to ,,plan ,i ,the ,regions are given as they were laid out by ,fiorelli 7p4 #cd71 the boundaries being marked by broken lines4 ,the ,insulae are designated by ,arabic numerals4 ,stabian ,street1 between ,stabian and ,vesuvius gates1 separating ,regions ,,viii1 ,,vii1 and ,,vi1 from ,i1 ,,ix1 and ,v1 is often called ,cardo1 from analogy with the cardo maximus 7the north and south line7 of a ,roman camp4 ,nola ,street1 leading from the ,nola ,gate1 with its continuations 7,strada della ,fortuna1 south of ,insulae #aj1 #ab1 #ac1 and #ad of ,region ,,vi1 and ,strada della ,terme1 south of ,,vi1 #d1 #f1 #h71 was for similar reasons designated as the ,greater ,decuman1 ,decumanus ,maior2 while the street running from the ,water ,gate to the ,sarno ,gate 7,via ,marina1 ,abbondanza ,street1 ,strada dei ,diadumeni7 is called the ,lesser ,decuman1 ,decumanus ,minor4 ,the only ,regions wholly excavated are ,,vii and ,,viii2 but only a small portion of ,region ,,vi remains covered4 ,the towers of the city wall are designated by numbers1 as they are supposed to have been at the time of the siege of ,sulla1 in #hi ,b4,c4 7p4 #bdj74 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,i4--,,outline ,,plan ,,of ,,pompeii4 ,,chapter ,v ,a ,,bird',s-,,eye ,,view ,the outline of ,pompeii1 with its network of streets1 may be traced on the accompanying plan4 ,the city took its shape from the end of the old lava stream on which it lay1 which ran southeast from ,vesuvius4 ,it formed an irregular oval a little less than four fifths of a mile 7#abjj metres7 long and a little more than two fifths of a mile 7#gbj metres7 wide in its greatest dimensions4 ,on three sides1 west1 south1 and east1 the wall of the city ran along the edge of the hill2 on the northwest side1 between the ,herculaneum and ,capua gates1 it passed directly across the ridge formed by the lava4 ,the eight gates are known by the modern names given on our plan4 ,two of them1 the ,herculaneum and ,capua gates1 lie at the points where the wall comes to the edge of the lava bed on either side2 the streets that led from them descended to the plain4 ,at the ,herculaneum ,gate the much travelled highway from ,naples1 passing through ,herculaneum1 entered the city2 the ,capua ,gate does not seem to have been built to accommodate a large traffic4 ,between these two lay the ,vesuvius ,gate1 through which the ,pompeians passed out upon the ridge toward ,vesuvius4 ,from the ,herculaneum ,gate nearly to the ,stabian ,gate1 on the south side1 ran a bluff1 with a sharp descent4 ,nevertheless1 as a gate was needed on the side nearest the sea1 the ,water ,gate1 ,porta ,marina1 was placed here2 through it a steep road led to the ,forum1 so steep that it could not have been much used by vehicles2 but that may have mattered little to the fishermen bringing their catches to the market4 ,the ,stabian ,gate lay in a depression at the end of the lava bed and afforded a more convenient means of access to the city2 thence a road ran to the harbor on the ,sarno1 and to ,stabiae4 ,at the left another road apparently branched off from this in the direction of ,nuceria1 which could be reached also from the conveniently located ,nocera ,gate further east2 here also the slope of the hill was less pronounced4 ,two gates1 finally1 gave access to the city on the somewhat steeper east and northeast sides1 the ,sarno ,gate1 which takes its name1 not from the river1 but from the modern town of ,sarno1 and the ,nola ,gate2 it is at least probable that the road passing through the latter led to ,nola4 ,a glance at the plan will make it plain that the streets of ,pompeii must have been laid out according to a definite system2 an arrangement on the whole so regular and symmetrical would scarcely be found in a city that had developed gradually from a small beginning1 in which the location of streets had been the result of accident4 ,two wide streets that cross the city very nearly at right angles give the direction for the other streets running approximately north and south and east and west1 ,mercury ,street with its continuations1 and ,nola ,street4 ,the former probably served as a base line in laying out the city2 this we infer from the fact that while it is exceptionally broad1 and the ,forum lies on it1 there is no gate at either end1 and it could have been little used for traffic4 ,nola ,street has a gate only at the east end2 the west end opens into the ,strada ,consolare1 which follows the line of the city wall and leads to the ,herculaneum ,gate at the northwest corner4 ,that the other streets must have taken their direction from these two is clearly seen in the case of those in the northwest part of the city2 on close examination it will be found that the arrangement of the rest also is in accordance with the same system1 a fact which would perhaps be still more obvious if the unexcavated eastern portion of the city were laid bare4 ,in two instances1 however1 there is a deviation from this system4 ,one is in the quarter near the ,forum4 ,for reasons which have not been satisfactorily explained1 the ,porta ,marina was not placed on the prolongation of the street coming from the ,sarno ,gate1 but further north4 ,in order to reach this gate the street1 as shown on the plan1 makes a bend to the north which is reproduced in the other east and west streets lying south of ,nola ,street2 west of the ,forum1 again1 the streets converge in order to give access to this gate4 ,the other deviation1 which affects ,stabian ,street1 can be explained on grounds of convenience4 ,this street1 which runs from the ,stabian to the ,vesuvius ,gate1 abandoned the line of the north and south streets west of it in order to take advantage of a natural depression in the hill1 by following which an easy grade could be established to the higher parts of the city2 that the blocks along this important thoroughfare might not be too irregular in shape1 the nearest parallel streets on the east were laid out in such a way as to follow the direction of ,stabian ,street4 ,the street running south from the ,capua ,gate resumes1 with slight variation1 the north and south line of ,mercury ,street4 ,the public buildings of the city form two extensive groups4 ,one group lies about the ,forum 7,plan ,,ii72 with this we may reckon the ,baths in the first block north1 and the temples of ,fortuna ,augusta and ,venus ,pompeiana4 ,the nucleus of the other is formed by the two theatres and the large quadrangular colonnade which1 designed originally to afford protection for theatre-goers against the rain1 was later turned into barracks for the gladiators 7,plan ,,iii74 ,there are in addition only four public buildings that need to be mentioned4 ,two are bathing establishments1 the ,stabian ,baths1 and those at the corner of ,stabian and ,nola streets4 ,the third is a small building near the ,herculaneum ,gate1 consisting of a hall opening on the street1 with a base for a statue near the rear wall2 this on insufficient grounds has been called a custom-house4 ,the fourth1 the ,amphitheatre1 lies in the southern corner of the city4 ,as the public buildings were thus located in clearly defined groups1 it is not probable that many yet remain in the portion of the city which has not been excavated4 ,we may expect to find only bathing establishments1 and perhaps one or two temples4 ,there were priestesses of ,ceres and of ,venus1 but the sanctuary of ,ceres has not been discovered4 ,mention is made also of a priest of ,mars2 but the temple of ,mars1 according to the precept of ,vitruvius 7,i4 vii4 #a7 would be outside the city4 ,a word should be added regarding the modern division of ,pompeii into ,regions1 or wards1 and ,insulae4 ,by an ,insula is meant--in accordance with ancient usage--a block of houses surrounded on all sides by streets4 ,the division into ,regions was introduced by ,fiorelli1 and rests upon a misconception which has been corrected by more recent excavations4 ,fiorelli thought that the ,capua ,gate and the ,nocera ,gate were connected by a street1 and that the city was thus divided by four streets 7the assumed street1 ,stabian ,street1 ,nola ,street1 and ,abbondanza ,street with its continuations7 into nine ,regions1 marked on our plan with the numerals ,i-,,ix4 ,in each ,region every block1 or ,insula1 has its number1 and in the ,insula a separate number is given to every door opening on a street4 ,this arrangement is convenient because each house can be accurately designated by means of three numbers4 ,on the plans the ,insulae are designated by ,arabic numerals1 but in the text small ,roman numerals are used for the sake of clearness2 thus1 ,ins4 ,,ix4 i4 #bf1 means the first ,insula of ,region ,,ix1 ,no4 #bf4 ,the names of several of the more important streets1 as of the better known houses1 are given in the text in the ,english form4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,building ,,materials1 ,,construction1 ,,and ,,architectural ,,periods ,six centuries lie between the dates of the earliest and the latest buildings at ,pompeii2 and in order to understand any structure rightly we must first of all ascertain to what period it belongs4 ,it is indeed rarely possible to fix dates with exactness for the earlier time2 but certain periods are so clearly differentiated from one another1 that in most cases there is no room for doubt to which of them a building is to be assigned4 ,before undertaking to characterize these periods1 however1 it will be necessary briefly to notice what building materials were used1 and how they were turned to account in construction4 ,exclusive of wood1 which was more freely used in ,pompeii than in ,campanian towns to-day1 the principal building materials were ,sarno limestone1 two kinds of tufa 7gray and yellow71 lava1 a whitish limestone often called travertine wrongly1 marble1 and brick4 ,the ,sarno limestone 7pietra di ,sarno7 is a deposit from the water of the ,sarno1 and is found in beds along the course of the river4 ,it contains many impressions of the leaves and stems of plants1 and varies greatly in compactness2 it closely resembles the ,roman travertine1 except that it has a more decided yellowish tint4 ,gray tufa is a volcanic dust which has been hardened by the presence of water into rock4 ,it has a fine grain1 and is easily worked2 it was quarried in the vicinity of ,nocera4 ,the volcanic dust which formed the yellow tufa was thrown out in an earlier period1 when the ,sarno plain was still a part of the sea1 and so hardened in salt water2 it is more friable than the gray tufa1 and not so durable4 ,the lava1 which came originally from ,vesuvius1 was quarried at ,pompeii4 ,three varieties may be distinguished1 differing in density according as they were taken from the lower or the upper strata3 solid lava1 or basalt1 which1 being heavy and extremely hard1 was extensively used for pavements and thresholds2 slag1 like the scoriae found on the sides of ,vesuvius to-day2 and cruma1 the foam of the lava stream1 which is light and porous1 but on account of its hardness has good resisting qualities4 ,the whitish limestone has a fine texture1 without impressions of leaves1 and is of an even color2 it was to some extent employed as a substitute for marble4 ,it was not quarried at ,pompeii1 and was not extensively used2 the most important example of its use is in the later colonnade about the ,forum4 ,the white ,carrara marble 7marmor lunense7 was preferred for columns1 pilasters1 and architraves2 but colored marbles of many varieties1 cut into thin slabs and blocks1 were used as a veneering for walls and in the mosaic floors4 ,bricks were used only for the corners of buildings1 for doorposts1 and in a few instances1 as in the ,basilica and the house of the ,labyrinth1 for columns2 brick walls are not found in ,pompeii4 ,the bricks seen in corners and doorposts 7,figs4 #aa1 #ie7 are simply a facing for rubble work4 ,they are ordinarily less than an inch thick2 they have the shape of a right-angled triangle1 and are so laid that the side representing the hypothenuse--about six inches long--appears in the surface of the wall4 ,sometimes fragments of roof tiles1 more or less irregular in shape1 were used instead4 ,the bricks of the earlier time contain sea sand and have a granular surface1 with a less uniform color2 the later bricks are smooth and even in appearance4 ,the flat oblong roof tiles 7tegulae71 measuring ordinarily #bd by #ai or #bj inches1 had flanges at the sides2 over the joints where the flanges came together1 joint tiles in the form of a half-cylinder 7imbrices7 were laid1 like those in use at the present day 7,figs4 #aad1 #aag74 ,the styles of masonry are characteristic and interesting4 ,we may distinguish them as masonry with limestone framework1 rubble work1 reticulate work1 quasi-reticulate work1 ashlar work1 and1 in the case of columns and entablatures1 massive construction4 ,the masonry with limestone framework dates from the earliest period4 ,the walls were built without mortar1 clay being used instead4 ,since this served only as a filling1 without strength as a binding material1 it was necessary to arrange the stones themselves in such a way that the wall would stand firm4 ,this result was accomplished by using large1 oblong blocks1 not only for corners and doorposts1 but also for a framework in the body of the wall2 as shown in our illustration1 alternate vertical and horizontal blocks were built up into pillars which would hold in place the courses of smaller stones that filled the intervening spaces4 ,the material of the larger1 hewn blocks1 as well as of the smaller fragments1 was ,sarno limestone1 with occasional pieces of cruma or slag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,wall with limestone framework4 ,the rubble work1 opus incertum1 consists of fragments irregular in shape1 of the size of the fist and larger1 laid in mortar4 ,the material used in the earlier times was ordinarily lava2 later1 ,sarno limestone4 ,corners and doorposts at first were built of hewn blocks2 afterwards bricks and blocks of stone cut in the form of bricks were used for this purpose1 and in the latest period frequently brick and stone combined1 opus mixtum or opus compositum--a course of stone alternating with every two or three courses of brick4 ,an example of the opus mixtum is seen in the entrances of the ,herculaneum ,gate 7,fig4 #aac74 ,rubble work is the prevailing masonry at ,pompeii2 in comparison the other kinds described may be considered exceptional4 ,the reticulate work1 opus reticulatum1 formed the outer surface of a wall1 the inner part of which was built up with rubble4 ,it was composed of small four-sided pyramidal blocks1 of which only the base1 cut square and smooth1 showed on the surface2 the tapering part served as a key to bind the block into the wall4 ,these blocks1 which measured from three to four inches square at the base1 were laid on their corners1 so that the edges ran diagonally to the horizontal and vertical lines of the wall2 the pattern thus formed had the appearance of a net1 hence the name4 ,the material was in most cases gray1 occasionally yellow1 tufa4 ,the corners and doorposts were at first made of the same kind of stone cut in the shape of bricks2 later of bricks4 ,this style of masonry was in vogue at ,rome1 and apparently also at ,pompeii1 in the time of ,augustus 7,fig4 #ab2 see also the pedestal in the foreground of ,plate ,i74 ,the quasi-reticulate work belongs to the early years of the ,roman colony4 ,in appearance it lies between rubble and reticulate work1 differing from the latter in that the small blocks are less carefully finished and are laid with less regularity4 ,the material is generally lava1 but tufa and limestone are also found4 ,the corners and doorposts are of brick1 or of brick-shaped blocks of tufa or limestone 7,fig4 #aa74 ,ashlar work1 of carefully hewn oblong blocks laid in courses1 is found in the older portions of the city wall 7,fig4 #aji7 and in the walls of the ,greek temple in the ,forum ,triangulare2 it was used otherwise only for the fronts of houses 7,fig4 #aj74 ,the material in the earliest times was ,sarno limestone1 later gray tufa4 ,with the coming of the ,roman colony ashlar work went out of use1 even for the corners of houses and doorposts4 ,in the construction of columns and many architraves large blocks were used4 ,previous to the time of the ,roman colony these were of gray tufa1 or1 in rare instances1 of limestone2 a coating of white stucco was laid on the surface4 ,from the advent of the colony to the time of the ,early ,empire1 the whitish limestone was used2 after that1 ,carrara marble4 ,bearing in mind the styles of construction just described1 we may now turn to the architectural history of ,pompeii1 which1 as we shall see1 falls naturally into six periods4 ,the first period is that to which the ,doric temple in the ,forum ,triangulare and the city walls belong4 ,from the style of the temple1 we may safely conclude that it was built in the sixth century ,b4,c42 the evidence is too scanty to enable us definitely to fix the date of the walls4 ,the building materials used were the ,sarno limestone and gray tufa4 ,the second period may be designated as the ,period of the ,limestone ,atriums1 so characterized from the peculiar construction of a number of houses found in different parts of the city4 ,on the side facing the street these houses have walls of ashlar work of ,sarno limestone 7,fig4 #aj71 but the inner walls are of limestone framework 7,fig4 #i74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,facade of ,sarno limestone1 house of the ,surgeon4 ,almost no ornamental forms belonging to this period have come down to us2 so far only a single column has been found1 built into the wall of a house4 ,it is of the ,doric style1 and once formed part of a portico that ran along the west side of the small open space at the northwest corner of ,stabian and ,nola streets2 it is thus the sole remnant of a public building4 ,in the only complete house that has survived from this period1 the house of the ,surgeon1 there was a portico in front of the garden1 but the roof was supported by square pillars1 not by columns4 ,there is no trace of wall painting4 ,characteristic as the construction of the limestone atriums is1 it is difficult to determine to what age they belong4 ,the beginning of the period cannot be determined even approximately4 ,the end1 however1 is fixed by the earlier limit of the next period1 the ,second ,punic ,war4 ,we may1 therefore1 assign the houses with the limestone atriums to a period just preceding this war2 reckoning in round numbers1 they were built before #bjj ,b4,c4 ,in the third1 or ,tufa ,period1 came the climax of the development of ,pompeian architecture prior to the ,roman domination4 ,the favorite building material was the gray tufa4 ,with the exception of the ,greek temple mentioned above1 all the public buildings of ,pompeii that do not belong to the time of the ,roman colony have a homogeneous character2 a list of them would include the colonnade about the ,forum1 the ,basilica1 the temples of ,apollo and of ,jupiter1 the ,large ,theatre with the colonnades of the ,forum ,triangulare and the ,barracks of the ,gladiators1 the ,stabian ,baths1 the ,palaestra1 and the outer part of the ,porta ,marina with the inner parts of the other gates4 ,closely associated with these public edifices is a large number of private houses2 as a specially characteristic example1 we may mention the house of the ,faun4 ,all these buildings are similar in style and construction2 they evidently date from a period of great building activity4 ,it must also have been a period of peace and prosperity2 for the whole city1 from the artistic and monumental point of view1 underwent a transformation4 ,certain ,oscan inscriptions1 an early ,latin monumental inscription1 and a few words1 dating from #gh ,b4,c41 scratched upon the plaster of the ,basilica1 oblige us to place the ,tufa ,period before the time of the ,roman colony2 yet not long before1 for the next oldest buildings date from the first years of the colony4 ,the time of peace that furnished the background for the period can only have been that between the ,second ,punic ,war and the ,social ,war1 about #bjj to #ij ,b4,c42 the ,tufa ,period was approximately the second century before ,christ4 ,in marked contrast with the ,period of the ,limestone ,atriums1 the ,tufa ,period has a pronounced artistic character4 ,it is preeminently a period of monumental construction4 ,buildings and public places are adorned with colonnades of the ,doric1 ,ionic1 and ,corinthian orders4 ,the simple and beautiful forms of the ,greek architecture are used1 sparingly indeed1 but without petty detail and with evident fear of excessive ornamentation4 ,columns and architraves are white1 with only slight suggestion of the earlier ,greek polychrome decoration4 ,a variety of color1 however1 is laid on the walls1 and with this period the history of ,pompeian wall decoration begins4 ,the ,tufa ,period coincides throughout with the time of the first style of decoration4 ,this1 known as the ,incrustation ,style1 aimed to imitate in stucco the appearance of a wall veneered with colored marbles4 ,wall paintings are wholly lacking1 but pictures1 often of rare beauty1 are found in the mosaics of the floors4 ,in this period1 we may truly say that ,pompeian architecture was at its best4 ,with it the pure ,greek tradition dies out2 all the buildings of later times bear the ,roman stamp4 ,the buildings of the ,tufa ,period are easily recognized by the unobtrusiveness of the materials used in their construction4 ,the rubble work is mostly of lava2 but gray tufa was used exclusively1 not only for ashlar work in facades1 but also for columns and entablatures4 ,the surface of the tufa was coated with a layer of fine white stucco1 which gave it the appearance of marble4 ,the use of marble for building purposes1 however1 is foreign to this period2 and it speaks well for the culture of the ,oscan ,pompeians that they had pleasure in beauty of form above richness of material4 ,the fourth period covers the earlier decades of the ,roman colony1 from #hj ,b4,c4 to near the end of the ,republic4 ,according to inscriptions which are still extant1 soon after the year #hj a wealthy colonist1 ,gaius ,quinctius ,valgus1 when duumvir with ,marcus ,porcius as colleague1 built the ,small ,theatre1 and afterwards1 when quinquennial duumvir with the same colleague1 the ,amphitheatre also4 ,both structures have the quasi-reticulate facing 7,fig4 #aa72 and several other buildings in which the same style of masonry is found without doubt belong to the same period--the ,baths near the ,forum1 the temple of ,zeus ,milichius1 a building just inside the ,porta ,marina1 and apparently the hall at the southeast corner of the ,forum1 which we shall identify as the ,comitium2 with these should be included also the original temple of ,isis1 which was destroyed by the earthquake of #fc ,a4,d4 ,few houses dating from this period have been discovered2 the provision made by the preceding period in this respect had been so generous that new houses were not needed4 ,from the aesthetic point of view the fourth period falls far below that just preceding2 the exhaustion of resources and the decline of taste due to the long and terrible war are unmistakable4 ,theatre1 ,amphitheatre1 and ,baths were alike built for immediate use1 with crude and scanty ornamentation2 and where richer ornament was applied1 as in the case of the temple of ,isis1 it could not for a moment be compared with that of the ,tufa ,period in beauty and finish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,quasi-reticulate facing1 with brick corner1 at the entrance of the ,small ,theatre4 ,the wall decoration of the fourth period is of the second ,pompeian style1 which came into vogue just after the founding of the colony1 and which we shall call the ,architectural ,style2 for in part1 as the first style1 it imitated a veneering of marble1 not however with the help of slabs or panels modelled in stucco1 but by the use of color only1 laid on walls finished to a plane surface2 in part it made use of architectural designs which were painted either correctly or with at least some regard for proper proportions4 ,the fifth period extends from the last decades of the ,republic to the earthquake of the year #fc ,a4,d4 ,in the entire period1 covering more than a century1 we are unable to distinguish a series of buildings which may be classed together in style and construction as constituting a homogeneous1 representative group4 ,here and there we can point out a piece of masonry which1 from its similarity to that of the fourth period1 may be assigned to the end of the ,republic2 again1 walls with reticulate facing of tufa and corners of brick-shaped blocks of the same stone belong to the time of ,augustus 7,fig4 #ab71 while reticulate work with corners of brick 7,fig4 #ie7 is of later date2 but there is a total lack of those distinguishing characteristics which would serve to set off by themselves all the buildings belonging to a particular time4 ,consequently in the case of each structure it is necessary to take into account all the circumstances1 and then to form an independent judgment regarding its style and date4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,reticulate facing1 with corners of brick-shaped stone4 ,the filled arch is probably to bear the weight of the wall over a sewer4 ,the difficulty is further enhanced by the fact that three styles of wall decoration fall within the limits of the same period4 ,the ,architectural ,style1 already mentioned1 remained in vogue to the time of ,augustus2 it then gave place to the third or ,ornate ,style1 which is characterized by a freer use of ornament and the introduction of designs and scenes suggestive of an ,egyptian origin4 ,the fourth or ,intricate ,style came in about the year #ej ,a4,d41 and represents1 with its involved and fantastic designs1 the last stage in the development of ,pompeian wall decoration4 ,in the fifth period marble began to be employed as a building material2 the earliest dated example of its use is the temple of ,fortuna ,augusta1 erected about #c ,b4,c4 ,the sixteen years between the earthquake of #fc ,a4,d4 and the destruction of the city form the sixth period in the architectural history of ,pompeii4 ,the buildings belonging to it can be easily recognized1 not only from their similarity in style and ornament1 but also from certain external characteristics1 as newness of appearance1 unfinished condition1 and the joining of new to broken walls4 ,the only important building wholly new is the large bathing establishment1 the ,central ,baths1 at the corner of ,stabian and ,nola streets4 ,for the rest1 effort seems to have been directed toward restoring the ruined buildings as nearly as possible to their original condition4 ,the wall decoration throughout is of the ,intricate ,style4 ,the measurements of buildings in the ,roman ,period conform to the scale of the ,roman foot1 while the dimensions of structures antedating the ,roman colony in most cases reduce to the scale of the ,oscan or old ,italic foot4 ,the ,roman foot 7#bif mm47 may be roughly reckoned at #j4ig of the ,english foot 7#cjd4h mm472 the ,oscan foot 7#bge mm47 is considerably shorter4 ,as the ,roman standard is of ,greek origin1 we may perhaps find a structure conforming to it that was designed by a ,greek architect before the ,roman ,period4 ,,key ,,to ,,plan ,,ii ,a4 ,,the ,,forum4 #a4 ,pedestal of the statue of ,augustus4 #b4 ,pedestal of the statue of ,claudius4 #c4 ,pedestal of the statue of ,agrippina4 #d4 ,pedestal of the statue of ,nero4 #e4 ,pedestal of the statue of ,caligula4 #f4 ,pedestals of equestrian statues4 #g4 ,pedestals of standing figures4 #h4 ,pedestal for three equestrian statues4 #i4 ,speaker's platform 7p4 #dh74 #aj4 ,table of standard measures 7p4 #ib74 #aa4 ,room of the supervisor of measures4 ,b4 ,,the ,,basilica4 a4 ,entrance court4 #a4 ,corridor4 #b4 ,main room4 #c4 ,tribunal4 #d-d4 ,rooms at the ends of the tribunal4 ,c4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,apollo4 #a4 ,colonnade4 #b4 ,podium4 #c4 ,cella4 #d4 ,altar4 #e4 ,sundial4 #f4 ,sacristan's room4 #g-g4 ,rooms made from earlier colonnade4 ,d4 ,d'4 ,,market ,,buildings4 ,e4 ,,latrina4 ,f4 ,f4 ,,city ,,treasury4 ,g4 ,,commemorative ,,arch4 ,h4 ,,temple ,,of ,,jupiter4 ,i4 ,,arch ,,of ,,tiberius4 ,k4 ,,the ,,provision ,,market--,,macellum4 #a4 ,portico4 #b4 ,colonnade4 #c-c4 ,market stalls4 #d4 ,market for meat and fish4 #e4 ,chapel of the imperial family4 #f4 ,banquet room4 #g4 ,round structure with water basin--,tholus4 #h4 ,pen4 ,l4 ,,sanctuary ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,lares4 #a4 ,main room1 unroofed1 with an altar in the centre4 #b4 ,apse1 with shrine4 #c4 ,recesses with pedestals4 #d4 ,niche opening on the ,forum4 ,m4 ,,temple ,,of ,,vespasian4 #a4 ,colonnade4 #b4 ,altar4 #c4 ,cella4 #d4 ,portico4 ,n4 ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,eumachia4 ,see plan on p4 #aaj4 ,o4 ,,the ,,voting ,,place--,,comitium4 #a4 ,recess opening on the main room4 #b4 ,recess opening on the ,forum4 ,p-,r4 ,,municipal ,,buildings4 ,p4 ,office of the duumvirs4 ,q4 ,hall of the city council4 ,r4 ,office of the aediles4 ,s4 ,,fountain4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,ii4--,,the ,,forum ,,with ,,the ,,adjoining ,,buildings4 ,,part ,i ,,public ,,places ,,and ,,buildings ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,forum ,the ,forum is usually approached from the west side by the short1 steep street leading from the ,porta ,marina4 ,entering1 we find ourselves near the lower end of an oblong open space 7,plate ,i71 at the upper end of which1 toward ,vesuvius1 stands a high platform of masonry with the ruins of a temple--the temple of ,jupiter2 the remains of a colonnade are seen on each of the other three sides4 ,including the colonnade the ,forum measures approximately #dig feet in length by #aef in breadth2 without it the dimensions are #dfg and #abf feet4 ,the north side1 at the left of the temple1 is enclosed by a wall in which there are two openings1 one at the end of the colonnade1 the other between this and the temple2 at the right the wall bounding the open space has been replaced by a stately commemorative arch1 while the end of the colonnade is closed by a wall with a passageway4 ,another arch1 of much simpler construction1 stands at the left of the temple1 in line with the facade2 it cuts off the area between the temple and the colonnade from the rest of the ,forum4 ,a third arch once stood in a corresponding position at the right4 ,the colonnade is nowhere intersected by a street passable for vehicles4 ,even the entrances on the north side form no exception4 ,at the left you descend to the area by several steps1 at the right by one only2 yet here the exclusion of carts and wagons was made doubly sure by placing three upright stones in the passageway4 ,only pedestrians could enter the ,forum1 and they1 too1 could easily be shut out by means of gates in the entrances2 the places where the gates swung can still be seen in the pavement1 and one of them is shown in a painting 7,fig4 #af74 ,no private houses opened on this area2 it was wholly given up to the public life of the city and was surrounded by temples1 markets1 and buildings devoted to the civic administration4 ,the colonnade was not uniform in character upon all the three sides4 ,as will be seen from our plan 7,plan ,,ii71 on the south side1 and on the adjoining portion of the east side as far as ,abbondanza ,street1 it was constructed with two rows of columns and had a double depth4 ,on the east side1 north of this street1 the porticos in front of four successive buildings 7,k1 ,l1 ,m1 ,n7 took its place4 ,for the greater part of its extent the colonnade was built in two stories1 the lower of the ,doric1 the upper of the ,ionic order4 ,the upper gallery was made accessible by three stairways1 at the southeast and southwest corners of the ,forum and at the middle of the west side2 on the east side it did not extend beyond ,abbondanza ,street4 ,the portico in front of the first of the four buildings referred to1 that of ,eumachia1 contained a double series of columns1 one above the other1 corresponding in style and dimensions with those of the colonnade2 but there was no upper floor running back from the intervening entablature4 ,the arrangement in front of the fourth building1 the ,macellum1 was similar2 as the remains of the porticos in front of the two intervening buildings have wholly disappeared1 it is impossible to determine their character4 ,the area of the ,forum was paved with rectangular flags of whitish limestone4 ,in front of the colonnade1 the pavement of which was about twenty inches above that of the open space1 a broad step or ledge projected1 covering a gutter for rain water2 the water found its way into the gutter through semicircular openings in the outer edge of the step4 ,of the many statues that once adorned the ,forum not one has been found4 ,as may be seen from the pedestals still in place1 they were of three kinds1 and varied greatly in size4 ,first1 statues of citizens who had rendered distinguished services were placed in front of the colonnade on the ledge over the gutter4 ,four pedestals that once supported statues of this sort may be seen on the west side4 ,then equestrian statues of life size were set up in front of the ledge1 these also in honor of dignitaries of the city 7,fig4 #ag74 ,on one of the pedestals the veneering of colored marble is still preserved1 with an inscription showing that the person represented was ,quintus ,sallustius1 ,duumvir1 ,quinquennial ,duumvir1 ,patron of the ,colony4 ,finally1 on the south side1 the life size equestrian statues1 which seem at the outset to have been arranged symmetrically1 were almost all removed in order to make room for four much larger statues1 the pedestals of which still remain 7,fig4 #ec1 p4 #abb74 ,these must have represented emperors1 or members of the imperial families4 ,the pedestal in the middle1 which is in the form of an arch almost square at the base1 is much the oldest4 ,upon it was probably placed a colossal statue of ,augustus4 ,it is incredible that during the long and successful reign of the first emperor no statue in his honor should have been erected in ,pompeii2 and this is the most suitable place4 ,the other three pedestals are similar in construction1 and clearly belong together4 ,the one at the right 7#b on the plan7 supported a colossal equestrian statue2 that at the left 7#c7 a colossal standing figure2 on the third1 further forward 7#d71 was a smaller equestrian statue4 ,here stood1 then1 emperor1 empress1 and crown prince--,claudius1 ,agrippina1 ,nero4 ,a fifth pedestal1 for an equestrian statue of the same size as that of ,nero1 is seen further to the north1 in front of the temple of ,jupiter 7#e74 ,while unquestionably later than the time of ,augustus1 it must on the other hand be older than the pedestals of members of the ,claudian family2 for aside from himself1 no one belonging to ,nero's time can be taken into consideration1 and after his death the ,forum lay in ruins in consequence of the earthquake of the year #fc4 ,who stood here1 however1 can scarcely be even conjectured4 ,not necessarily an emperor2 the younger ,drusus1 for instance1 ,tiberius's son1 or ,germanicus might have been thus honored if they had in any way come into relation with the ,pompeians4 ,but if an emperor1 it must have been ,caligula2 another place was provided for the statue of ,tiberius4 ,in the south side of the arch at the northeast corner of the ,forum are two niches4 ,it is highly probable that statues of the two oldest sons of ,germanicus1 ,nero and ,drusus1 were placed in them2 a fragment of an inscription referring to the former was found near by4 ,these became presumptive heirs to the throne after the death of ,tiberius's son ,drusus1 in #bc ,a4,d42 but both afterwards fell victims to the morbid suspicions of the emperor and the plots of ,sejanus1 ,nero in #bi ,a4,d41 ,drusus four years later4 ,on the top of the arch an equestrian statue of ,tiberius probably stood4 ,that such a statue was placed here seems clear from analogy4 ,north of this arch was another1 almost in line with it1 at the end of ,mercury ,street where it opens into ,nola ,street2 and here the excavators found fragments of a bronze equestrian statue which were put together and set up in the ,naples ,museum4 ,whether this statue represented ,caligula or ,nero has been a matter of dispute1 but the former is really excluded from consideration by the short1 heavy figure1 which is better suited to ,nero4 ,there is no decided resemblance to ,nero either2 but it is quite possible that1 although as crown prince he had been honored with a statue in the ,forum1 the ,pompeians thought it best to erect for him as emperor a more imposing monument4 ,before leaving the area we may raise the question whether it contained a speakers' platform1 like the ,rostra in the ,roman ,forum4 ,if we have reference to a special structure1 probably not2 no trace of a separate tribunal has been discovered4 ,the orator who wished to address the people1 however1 could mount the broad platform in front of the temple of ,jupiter1 on which once an altar stood2 before him the audience could gather in the open1 on the only side of the ,forum free from the colonnade4 ,this place well suited the convenience of both speaker and hearers4 ,it is possible that we should also identify as a tribune the platform in a recess at the southeast corner 7p4 #abj74 ,on even a cursory inspection the ,forum is seen to lack unity in the details of its plan and in its architecture2 the fact soon becomes apparent that it reached its final form only as the result of a long period of development4 ,it will be worth while briefly to trace this development1 and to note at least the more important changes which followed one another in the course of the centuries4 ,in the earliest times the ,forum was merely an open square bounded by four streets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,north end of the ,forum1 with the ,temple of ,jupiter1 restored4 ,the proof that this was the original form is in part based upon the orientation of the temple of ,apollo4 ,the sides of this temple have the same direction as the north and south streets in the northern part of the city1 and must have been laid out parallel with a street that once ran between it and the ,forum4 ,the temple is1 therefore1 older than the colonnade of the ,forum1 which shows a marked deviation from the line of its axis2 the divergence1 as may be seen on our plan1 was in part concealed by making a difference in the thickness of the pillars between the court of the temple and the ,forum4 ,it is obvious that the colonnade on the west side takes the place of an older street2 the south side was probably defined by the prolongation of ,abbondanza ,street toward the southwest4 ,near the southeast corner an inscription was found3 ,vibius ,popidius ,epidii filius quaestor porticus faciendas coeravit1 ',vibius ,popidius1 the son of ,epidius1 when quaestor caused this colonnade to be erected4' ,no clew to the date is given1 but it must have been before the coming of the ,roman colony1 for after that time there was no office of quaestor in ,pompeii4 ,it must also have been before the ,social ,war2 in those years of tumult an extensive colonnade would not have been built1 and when the national spirit was so vehemently asserting itself1 we should expect to find inscriptions upon public works in the ,oscan language1 certainly not in ,latin4 ,but the use of ,latin may very well date from the latter part of the period of alliance with ,rome2 we may then with much probability assign the inscription to the second half of the second century ,b4,c4 ,remains of the colonnade of ,popidius are still to be seen on the south side1 and on the adjoining part of the east side1 extending just across ,abbondanza ,street2 traces of it are found also on the west side1 where it was afterward replaced by a new structure4 ,on the east side north of ,abbondanza ,street no traces remain2 the appearance of this part of the ,forum was entirely changed when the four buildings 7,k1 ,l1 ,m1 ,n7 with their porticos were erected1 but we can hardly doubt that the original colonnade extended here also4 ,our illustration 7,fig4 #ad7 shows the arrangement of the ,doric columns in the lower story2 of the ,ionic columns above only scanty fragments have been recovered4 ,the appearance of the whole may be suggested by our restoration 7,fig4 #ac74 ,in style and construction this colonnade belongs to the ,tufa ,period 7p4 #dj74 ,while the forms are not those of the classical period1 they nevertheless manifest ,greek feeling4 ,the low ratio in the proportions of the ,doric columns1 of which the height is equal to five diameters1 well accords with their use as a support for an upper gallery2 elsewhere in pre-,roman ,pompeii more slender proportions are preferred1 even for the ,doric style4 ,the shaft is well shaped1 with a moderate swelling 7entasis74 ,only the upper part is fluted2 as the sharp edges of the flutings near the bottom might easily be marred1 the divisions of the surface on the lower third of the shaft were left flat4 ,the architrave is relatively low1 the result of an interesting peculiarity in the method of construction4 ,blocks of tufa long enough to span the intercolumniations were too weak to sustain the weight of the rest of the entablature4 ,to meet this difficulty a line of thick planks was placed in old ,italic fashion above the capitals of the columns1 and on these were laid short tufa blocks4 ,thus in our illustration 7,fig4 #ad71 while the upper of the two bands of the architrave is seen to be of stone1 the lower shows the modern timber supplied in the place of the ancient4 ,that the planks were in reality no thicker than has been assumed in the reconstruction is proved beyond question by the later colonnade on the west side1 which1 although entirely of stone1 corresponds throughout in its proportions with the older one2 the architrave is equally narrow1 and is likewise divided into two parts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,remnant of the colonnade of ,popidius1 at the south end of the ,forum4 ,this explanation is curiously confirmed by an architectural painting on the garden wall of one of the finest houses of the ,tufa ,period1 the house of the ,faun4 ,here we find pilasters and entablature1 except the architrave1 painted white2 but the architrave is painted in two bands1 of which the lower is yellow1 as if to represent wood4 ,nothing would have been easier than to leave the architrave1 moulded in stucco1 of one color as if it were all of one material2 but special effort was made apparently to indicate the appearance of a lower division of timber4 ,from this we may infer that in actual construction no pains was taken to conceal the lack of uniformity in structural materials by laying a coat of white or colored stucco over wood and stone alike2 on the contrary1 the difference was not only recognized in the decoration1 but even accentuated1 as the timber1 whether retaining its original color or painted with a suitable tint1 presented a marked contrast with the stone the surface of which was covered with white stucco4 ,if the strip of timber in the architrave had been perceptibly thicker than that of stone above it1 the effect would not have been good2 as the earlier ,greek polychrome decoration was now no longer in vogue1 the stripe of color above the capitals made a pleasing variation from the prevailing whiteness of the structure4 ,the ,basilica at the southwest corner and the temple of ,jupiter both conform to the same variation from the direction of the early north and south street that we have noticed in the case of the colonnade of ,popidius2 they belong1 therefore1 to the same remodelling of the ,forum4 ,it is quite possible that the erection of the temple1 by limiting the area of the ,forum on the north side1 caused its extension toward the south beyond the earlier boundary4 ,originally the temple was isolated1 the north end of the ,forum on either side being left open2 later1 but still in the time of the ,republic1 a high boundary wall with passageways was built on both sides of it4 ,later still the two arches were erected in a line with its facade2 afterwards1 in the time of ,tiberius1 the wall at the right of the temple was replaced by the commemorative arch 7,i71 and the smaller arch near the facade at the right was removed in order that there might be an unimpeded view of the great arch from the area4 ,the colonnade of ,popidius may have stood for more than a century2 the necessity of making thoroughgoing repairs no doubt became urgent4 ,in the meantime1 however1 the taste of the ,pompeians had undergone a change1 and instead of repairing the old colonnade they began to replace it by a new one1 a part of which is shown in ,fig4 #ae4 ,better material1 the whitish limestone1 was used1 and the construction was more substantial2 the blocks of the entablature were fitted together so as to form a flat arch4 ,though the new colonnade followed closely the proportions of the old1 effective details1 such as the fluting of the columns1 and the triglyphs with the guttae underneath1 were omitted4 ,the refined sense of form characteristic of the earlier time was no longer manifest2 all is coarse and inartistic1 the swelling on the shafts of the columns1 for example1 being carried too high4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,part of the new colonnade1 near the southwest corner of the ,forum4 ,the new colonnade had a second story of the ,ionic order1 of the columns of which 7though not of the entablature7 considerable fragments have been found4 ,the stylobate on which the columns rested was renewed in limestone1 and about the same time the ,forum was paved and the ledge over the gutter was laid with flags of the same material4 ,this second remodelling of the ,forum commenced in the early years of the ,empire1 the pavement having been laid before the pedestal of the monument to ,augustus was built4 ,it was never carried to completion4 ,on the west side the new colonnade was almost finished when the earthquake of the year #fc threw it nearly all down4 ,at the time of the eruption only the columns at the south end of this side1 which had safely passed through the earthquake1 were still standing with their entablature2 they are shown in ,fig4 #ae4 ,the area was then strewn with blocks1 which the stonecutters were engaged in making ready for the rebuilding4 ,the ,forum of ,pompeii1 as of other ancient cities1 was first of all a market place4 ,early in the morning the country folk gathered here with the products of the farm2 here all day long tradespeople of every sort exhibited their wares4 ,in later times the pressure of business led to the erection of separate buildings around the ,forum to relieve the congestion2 such were the ,macellum1 used as a provision market2 the ,eumachia building1 erected to accommodate the clothing trade2 the ,basilica and the market house west of the temple of ,jupiter1 devoted to other branches of trade4 ,yet in a literal sense the ,forum always remained the business centre of the city4 ,it served1 too1 as the favorite promenade and lounging place1 where men met to discuss matters of mutual interest1 or to indulge in gossip4 ,here idlers loitered and plied busier men with questions regarding public affairs1 makers and dealers came together to talk over and settle points of difference1 and young people pursued their romantic adventures4 ,he can best form an idea of this bustling1 ceaseless1 varied activity who knows what the piazza means in the life of a modern ,italian city1 and stops to consider how much has been taken from the life of the piazza by the cafes and similar places of resort2 modern squares1 moreover1 are usually not provided1 as were the ancient1 with inviting colonnades1 affording protection against both sun and rain4 ,the life of the ,forum seemed so interesting to one of the citizens of ,pompeii that he devoted to the portrayal of it a series of paintings on the walls of a room4 ,the pictures are light and sketchy1 but they give a vivid representation of ancient life in a small city4 ,first1 in front of the equestrian statues near the colonnade we see dealers of every kind and description4 ,there sits a seller of copper vessels and iron utensils 7,fig4 #af71 so lost in thought that a friend is calling his attention to a possible purchaser who is just coming up4 ,next come two shoemakers1 one waiting on women1 another on men2 then two cloth dealers4 ,further on a man is selling portions of warm food from a kettle2 then we see a woman with fruit and vegetables1 and a man selling bread4 ,another dealer in utensils is engaged in eager bargaining1 while his son1 squatting on the ground1 mends a pot4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,scene in the ,forum4 ,in the foreground1 at the left1 dealer in utensils2 at the right1 shoemaker waiting on four ladies4 ,wall painting4 ,the scenes now change4 ,a man sitting with a writing tablet and stylus listens closely to the words of another who stands near by2 he reminds us of the scribes who1 under the portico of the theatre of ,san ,carlo1 at ,naples1 write letters for those that have been denied the privilege of an education4 ,then come men wearing tunics1 engaged in some transaction1 in the course of which they seem to pass judgment on the contents of bottles which they hold in their hands2 their business perhaps involves the testing of wine4 ,beyond these1 some men are taking a walk2 a woman is giving alms to a beggar2 and two children play hide and seek around a column4 ,the following scene is not easy to understand1 but apparently has reference to some legal process2 a woman leads a little girl with a small tablet before her breast into the presence of two seated men who wear the toga4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,scene in the ,forum4 ,citizens reading a public notice4 ,wall painting4 ,in the next scene 7,fig4 #ag7 four men are reading a notice posted on a long board1 which is fastened to the pedestals of three equestrian statues4 ,the sketchy character of the painting is especially obvious in the representations of the horses1 which are nevertheless lifelike4 ,it is also interesting to note that the heads of the men in these scenes are uncovered2 in stormy weather pointed hoods 7shown in a tavern scene1 ,fig4 #bcd7 were sometimes worn4 ,the festoons suggest a trimming of the colonnade for some festal occasion4 ,the last scene is from school life4 ,a pupil is to receive a flogging4 ,he is mounted on the back of one of his schoolmates1 while another holds him by the legs2 a slave is about to lay on the lash1 and the teacher stands near by with an air of composure4 ,it would not be safe to infer from this1 however1 that there was a school in the ,forum2 the columns in this scene are different from those in the others and are further apart4 ,possibly a part of the small portico north of the court of the temple of ,apollo was at one time let to a schoolmaster4 ,the most important religious festivals were celebrated in the ,forum4 ,here naturally festal honors were paid to the highest of the gods--the whole area enclosed by the colonnade was the court of his temple2 but we learn from an inscription1 mentioned below1 that celebrations were held here in honor of ,apollo also1 whose temple adjoined the ,forum1 and was at first even more closely connected with it than in later times4 ,vitruvius informs us that in ,greek towns the market place1 agora1 was laid out in the form of a square 7a statement which is not confirmed by modern excavations71 but that in the cities of ,italy1 on account of the gladiatorial combats1 the ,forum should have an oblong shape1 the breadth being two thirds of the length4 ,the purpose in giving a lengthened form to the ,forum1 as also to the ,amphitheatre1 was no doubt to secure1 at the middle of the sides1 a greater number of good seats1 from which a spectacle could be witnessed4 ,in the ,pompeian ,forum1 as may be seen from the dimensions given at the beginning of this chapter1 the breadth is less than one third of the length4 ,however1 there can be little doubt that gladiatorial exhibitions were frequently held there before the building of the ,amphitheatre1 which dates from the earlier years of the ,roman colony4 ,after this time the ,forum was still used for games and contests of a less dangerous character4 ,the epitaph of a certain ,a4 ,clodius ,flaccus1 which is now lost1 but was copied by a scholar in the seventeenth century1 tells us at length how in his first1 and again in his second1 duumvirate 7he was duumvir for the third time in #c ,b4,c471 in connection with the festival of ,apollo1 he not only gave gladiatorial exhibitions in the ,amphitheatre1 but also provided bullfights and other spectacles1 as well as musical entertainments and pantomimes1 in the ,forum4 ,speaking of the ,forum as a place for gladiatorial combats1 ,vitruvius adds that the spaces between the columns should be wide1--that the view of spectators might be as little as possible impeded1--and that the upper story of the colonnade should be arranged with reference to the collection of an admission fee4 ,the latter suggestion is of special interest4 ,as we know from other sources1 at public games certain places were reserved for the officials and for the friends of him who gave the spectacle2 others were free to the public1 while for still others an admission fee was charged4 ,if the exhibition was held in a market place1 with lower and upper colonnades1 the former would be open to the people2 the latter in part reserved1 in part accessible on payment of the price of admission4 ,it would be interesting to know whether on such occasions at ,pompeii the gates of the ,forum itself were shut1 so that admission even to the free space could be regulated2 perhaps they were in earlier times when1 as at ,rome1 slaves were forbidden to witness the games4 ,however1 ,cicero speaks of this time-honored regulation as in his day already a thing of the past2 and so in ,roman ,pompeii the gates of the ,forum may have remained open even on the days of the games4 ,their most important use was probably in connection with the voting4 ,the ,forum had a part also in spectacles which were not presented there4 ,we are safe in assuming that1 at least in the earlier times1 whenever a gladiatorial combat was given in the ,amphitheatre1 or a play in the ,theatre1 the city officials1 including especially the official providing the entertainment1 formed in procession with their retinue and proceeded in festal attire to the place of amusement4 ,these processions could scarcely have formed anywhere else than in the ,forum1 and thence they must have started out4 ,the fact that the ,forum was not accessible for vehicles suggests a significant point of difference between the festal processions of the colony and those of the capital4 ,in the latter1 vehicles had a prominent place4 ,thus at ,rome the official who gave the games in the ,circus entered the edifice with his retinue in chariots in the imposing circus parade1 pompa circensis1 and a similar usage prevailed in the case of other processions2 priests1 too1 and priestesses were on many occasions allowed to ride4 ,but even in ,rome carriages were always considered a matter of luxury2 and the municipal regulations promulgated by ,caesar prohibited the use of vehicles1 except those required for religious and civic processions1 on the streets of the city from sunrise till the tenth hour1 that is1 till four o'clock in the afternoon4 ,in ,pompeii1 and without doubt also in other cities of ,italy and the provinces1 the closing of the ,forum to vehicles made it necessary that religious and other processions should proceed on foot4 ,we have no evidence of any exception to this rule4 ,we ought perhaps to recognize in it one of those devices by means of which ,rome maintained a position of dignified superiority over the provincial towns2 to her processions was allowed an element of display which to theirs was denied4 ,it was not permitted to name the two chief executive officers of a municipality consuls1 though their functions1 within limits1 corresponded with those of the consuls at ,rome2 nor could the city council be called a senate1 though the ,roman writers did not hesitate to apply this term to corresponding bodies in states and cities outside of ,rome's jurisdiction4 ,for like reasons1 it would seem that on public occasions officials and priests of a provincial town were not permitted1 as were those in ,rome1 to ride4 ,was this humiliating restriction laid upon the ,pompeians when the ,roman colony came1 or previously when the city was in name the ally of ,rome1 but in reality already subject8 ,the evidence is almost conclusive for the latter alternative2 for the colonnade of ,popidius1 which as we have seen was erected in the period of autonomy1 left no entrance for vehicles1 though in other ways it added greatly to the attractiveness and convenience of the ,forum as a place for civic and religious celebrations4 ,no record of events has survived to help us form a picture of the ,forum as the seat of deliberative and judicial functions1 the centre of the city's political life2 yet stirring scenes present themselves to the imagination as we recall the critical periods in the history of the city4 ,in the ,forum1 about #djj ,b4,c41 the valiant ,samnite mountaineers1 having taken the city by storm1 assembled and established their civic organization2 here1 in later times1 without doubt amid conflicts similar to those at ,rome1 the polity was put to the test and underwent transformation4 ,fierce enough the strifes may have been during the ,samnite wars1 and again in the time of ,hannibal1--after the battle of ,cannae1--when the aristocrats who favored ,rome contended with the national party for the mastery4 ,here1 on the platform in front of the temple of ,jupiter1 the leaders of the national party stood in #ij ,b4,c41 and with flaming words roused the people to revolt1 to join the movement which1 starting in ,asculum1 had spread like wildfire over ,southern ,italy4 ,then ten years of bloody war1--siege1 campaigns1 surrender1--and again the scene changes4 ,roman soldiers stand thick in serried ranks upon the area4 ,they are the veterans of ,sulla4 ,an officer bearing a civil commission1 the nephew of the ,dictator1 appears before them4 ,standing in front of the temple of ,jupiter1 he makes a proclamation regarding the founding and administration of the colony4 ,the citizens crowd back timidly into the colonnade4 ,many of the best of the ,pompeians have fallen in battle2 of the rest1 a part at least will be dispossessed of house and home to make room for the intruders1 whose arrogance they will be compelled submissively to endure4 ,this is the last tragic act in the ,pompeian ,forum4 ,after this time1 there will be disputes regarding the rights of the old residents and the colonists1 public questions of many kinds will call for settlement2 the elections will come each year1 and the ardent southern temperament may assert itself in violent scenes4 ,yet all these disturbances will be only as the ripples on the surface2 the depths will remain undisturbed4 ,the life of ,pompeii has become an integral part of the life of the ,roman world4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,buildings ,,about ,,the ,,forum--,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,jupiter ,the ,forum was to the ancient city what the atrium was to the early ,italic house2 it was used for every purpose for which a special place was not provided elsewhere4 ,and as sleeping rooms1 dining rooms1 and storerooms were grouped about the atrium and opened into it1 so around the ,forum lay the edifices which served the requirements of the public life1--the most important temples1 the municipal buildings1 and market houses or exchanges for different branches of business4 ,three temples adjoined the ,forum at ,pompeii4 ,in addition1 there was a sanctuary of the ,city ,lares2 and the temples of ,venus ,pompeiana and ,fortuna ,augusta were but a short distance away4 ,these religious edifices are representative of the different periods in the history of the city4 ,in very early times the ,oscans of ,pompeii received from the ,greeks who had settled on the coast the cult of ,apollo1 and built for the ,hellenic god a large1 fine temple 7,c1 in ,plan ,,ii7 adjoining the ,forum on the west side4 ,several centuries later1 the divinities of the ,capitol--,jupiter1 ,juno1 and ,minerva--were enthroned in the temple that on the north side towered above the area 7,h74 ,on the east or right side followed1 in ,roman times1 the edifices erected for the worship of the emperors4 ,the oldest is the unroofed building1 with a broad1 open front1 dedicated to the ,lares of the ,city and to the ,genius of ,augustus 7,l74 ,further north1 in the first block at the right beyond the ,forum1 is the temple of ,fortuna ,augusta1 the goddess who guarded the fortunes of ,augustus1 erected in #c ,b4,c4 ,a chapel for the worship of ,claudius and his family was placed in the ,macellum 7,k1 #e72 this seems to have sufficed also for the worship of ,nero4 ,after ,nero's death and after the brief ,civil ,war1 a temple 7,m7 was built close to the shrine of the ,lares in honor of ,vespasian1 the restorer of peace1 the new ,augustus4 ,this was the last temple erected in ,pompeii2 it was not entirely finished at the time of the eruption4 ,three buildings at the south end of the ,forum were used for city offices 7,p-,r74 ,they were much alike1 each containing a single large hall4 ,they were seemingly built in the early years of the ,empire1 and repaired after the earthquake of the year #fc4 ,there is also a structure at the southeast corner1 south of ,abbondanza ,street1 which we may identify as the voting place1 the ,comitium 7,o74 ,at the northwest corner was apparently the city treasury1 built in the latest years of ,pompeii1 perhaps on the site of an earlier structure of the same kind 7,f74 ,at a comparatively early period the area was found to be too small for the increasing volume of business2 and the demand for roofed space made itself felt4 ,in the second century ,b4,c4 the large and splendid ,basilica 7,b71 serving the double purpose of a court and an exchange1 was built at the southwest corner4 ,diagonally opposite1 near the temple of ,jupiter1 a provision market1 the ,macellum 7,k71 was constructed2 this also at an early date4 ,it was entirely rebuilt in the time of the ,empire1 perhaps in the reign of ,claudius4 ,previous to this rebuilding1 the priestess ,eumachia had erected an exchange for the fullers on the same side of the ,forum1 further south 7,n74 ,on the west side1 from pre-,roman times1 stood a small colonnade in two stories1 with its rear against the rear of the colonnade on the north side of the court of the temple of ,apollo2 only the first story1 of the ,doric order1 has been preserved4 ,probably this structure and the small open space in front were at first used as a market2 later1 in the imperial period1 shops 7,d'7 were built upon the open space1 and the colonnade was made over into closed rooms1 the purpose of which1 except in the case of one1 is unknown 7#f1 #g1 #g74 ,in the last years of the city1 a large market building 7,d7 was erected between this small place and the ,forum4 ,it was connected both with the city treasury and with a latrina4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the temple of ,jupiter dominates the ,forum1 and more than any other structure gives it character4 ,as we have seen1 its orientation accords with that of the colonnade of ,popidius4 ,it probably dates from the pre-,roman period1 the columns being of tufa covered with white stucco4 ,the earthquake of the year #fc left the temple in ruins1 and at the time of the eruption the work of rebuilding had not yet commenced4 ,in the meantime1 it was used as a workshop for stonecutters4 ,the journal of the excavations reports the finding here of the torso of a colossal statue out of which a smaller statue was being carved4 ,a place for the worship of the divinities of the temple must temporarily have been provided elsewhere4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,plan of the temple of ,jupiter4 #a4 ,speaker's platform4 #b4 ,portico4 #c4 ,cella4 ,the temple stands on a podium #aj ,roman feet high1 and including the steps1 #abe ,roman feet long 7,fig4 #ah74 ,very nearly a half of the whole length is given to the cella2 of the other half1 a little more than two thirds is occupied by the portico1 leaving about a third 7#bj ,roman feet7 for the steps4 ,the pediment was sustained by six ,corinthian columns about #bh feet high4 ,this arrangement--a deep portico in front of the cella--is ,etruscan1 though the canon of ,vitruvius1 that in ,etruscan temples the depth of the portico should equal that of the cella1 is violated4 ,the high podium also1 with steps in front1 is characteristic of ,etruscan1 or at least of early ,italic religious architecture4 ,on the other hand1 the architectural forms of the superstructure are ,greek1 and these in turn have had their influence upon the plan2 the intercolumniations are not wide1 as in the ,tuscan style with its wooden architrave1 but narrower1 as in the ,greek orders4 ,vitruvius speaks of temples such as this1 in which ,greek and ,etruscan elements are united1 at the end of his directions for the building of temples2 they are a development of ,roman architecture4 ,the arrangement of the steps is peculiar4 ,above is a series of long steps reaching nearly across the front 7,fig4 #ai72 below are two narrow flights near the sides1 and between them is the projecting front of the podium1 used as a tribune1 which has already been mentioned 7p4 #dh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,ruins of the temple of ,jupiter4 ,that an altar stood at the middle of this platform is proved by a relief with a representation of the north side of the ,forum1 found on the base of a chapel of the ,lares in the house of the wealthy ,pompeian1 ,l4 ,caecilius ,jucundus4 ,at the left we see the arch near the facade and a strip of wall connecting it with the temple2 next a corner of the platform with an equestrian statue2 then a flight of steps1 and the front of the platform with an altar at the middle2 finally the other flight of steps and another equestrian statue in a position corresponding with that of the first4 ,the columns shown in the relief do not agree in number or style with those of the facade of the temple1 but such inaccuracies are common in ancient representations of buildings1 and there can be no doubt that the temple of ,jupiter is represented2 the relief has1 in fact1 been used in making our restoration of the arch at the left 7,fig4 #ac74 ,both the portico and the cella no doubt had a coffered ceiling4 ,just in front of the doorway1 which was fifteen ,roman feet wide1 are the large stones with holes for the pivots on which the massive double doors swung 7indicated in ,fig4 #ah72 the doors here were not placed in the doorway1 but in front of it1 and were besides somewhat larger1 so that the effect was rendered more imposing when they were shut4 ,the ornamentation of the cella was especially rich4 ,a row of ,ionic columns1 about fifteen feet high1 stood in front of each of the longer sides2 the entablature above them probably served as a base for a similar row of ,corinthian columns1 the entablature of which in turn supported the ceiling4 ,on the intermediate entablature1 between the columns of the upper series1 statues and votive offerings were doubtless placed4 ,the floor about the sides was covered with white mosaic1 of which scanty remains have been found2 the marble pavement of the centre 7inside of the dotted line1 ,fig4 #ah7 has wholly disappeared4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,section of the wall decoration in the cella of the temple of ,jupiter4 ,a section of the wall decoration1 in the second ,pompeian style1 is shown in ,fig4 #bj4 ,we notice here the characteristic elements--imitation of marble veneering1 with large red central panels and a cornice above4 ,the base with its simple dividing lines upon a black ground was painted over in the third style2 originally it must have been more suggestive of real construction1 with a narrow painted border along the upper edge4 ,against the rear wall of the cella stands a large pedestal1 three times as long as it is broad4 ,it was originally divided by four pilasters--two at the corners and two on the front between them--into three parts4 ,later the pilasters and the entablature over them were removed1 and the whole was covered with marble veneering4 ,inside were three small rooms1 entered by separate doors from the cella4 ,the pedestal was thus built for three images2 three divinities were worshipped here1 and in the little chambers underneath were perhaps kept the trappings with which on festal occasions the images were decked4 ,a head of ,jupiter1 of which we shall speak later1 was found in the cella1 as was also an inscription of the year #cg ,a4,d41 containing a dedication to ,jupiter ,optimus ,maximus1 the ruling deity of the ,capitol at ,rome4 ,it is thus proved beyond question that the ,capitoline ,jupiter was worshipped here2 and it will not be difficult to ascertain what other divinities shared with him the honors of the temple4 ,as the ,roman colonies strove in all things to be ,rome in miniature1 each thought it necessary to have a ,capitolium--a temple for the worship of the gods of the ,roman ,capitol1 ,jupiter1 ,juno1 and ,minerva2 and this naturally became the most important temple in the city4 ,that the worship of the three divinities was established at ,pompeii is evident from the discovery of three images representing them1 in the little temple conjecturally assigned to ,zeus ,milichius4 ,these are poor images of terra cotta1 and the temple itself was altogether unworthy to be a place of worship for the great gods that shaped the destinies of ,rome4 ,we are warranted in the conclusion that the temple of ,zeus ,milichius was used temporarily for the worship of the three divinities of the large temple till the latter could be rebuilt2 and that ,juno and ,minerva stood on the great pedestal beside the king of the gods4 ,it seems strange that the ,pompeians should have erected a temple to the gods of the ,capitol in the pre-,roman period4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that the worship of the three divinities was by no means limited to ,rome and her colonies4 ,the ,etruscans1 as ,servius informs us in his commentary on ,virgil1 thought that a city was not properly founded unless it contained sanctuaries of ,jupiter1 ,juno1 and ,minerva4 ,vitruvius1 also1 in his directions for laying out a city1 makes the general statement that the most prominent site should be set aside for the temples of the same divinities4 ,if we consider further that the opposition of the ,italians to ,rome found expression only in the ,social ,war1 and that previously they had looked upon the attainment of ,roman citizenship as the highest object of ambition1 the gradual adoption of ,roman customs at ,pompeii and the erection of a temple to the ,capitoline divinities are seen to be less remarkable4 ,the building of such a temple was a natural expression of political aspirations2 it was in complete harmony with the use of ,latin in the inscription of ,popidius 7p4 #ej74 ,there is1 however1 another possibility that may be stated4 ,the remodelling of the ,forum was certainly commenced in the pre-,roman period2 but it is not impossible that the work was interrupted by the breaking out of the ,social ,war and that the colonists completed it1 dedicating the temple to the gods of the ,capitol4 ,the use of several brick-shaped blocks of stone1--such blocks are not found in other buildings of the pre-,roman time1--the lack of any trace of the wall decoration of the first style1 the form of the egg-and-dart moulding on the capitals of the ,ionic columns in the cella1 and the correspondence of certain dimensions with the ,roman scale of measurements may be alleged in favor of this hypothesis4 ,the evidence at present does not warrant a positive decision against it4 ,the fact that we have here a ,capitolium may explain the special prominence of the altar in front1 which might just as well have been placed in the area of the ,forum at the foot of the steps4 ,in ,rome the ,capitol lay upon a summit of a hill2 perhaps the aim in this case was to place not only the temple but also the altar upon an elevation so that here1 as there1 the priest should go up to offer sacrifice4 ,the podium of the temple contains vaulted rooms which can be entered from the ,forum through a narrow door on the east side4 ,their use is unknown4 ,we are reminded of the temple of ,saturn in the ,forum at ,rome1 the podium of which served as a treasury1 aerarium4 ,the vaults1 favissae1 may have been used as a place of safe keeping for treasure1 or for furniture of the temple1 or for discarded votive offerings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the beautiful head of ,jupiter found in the cella deserves more than a passing mention4 ,in order to appreciate its character we may view it in contrast with the ,otricoli ,zeus1 with which it is closely related4 ,in both heads we feel the lack of that majestic simplicity1 that ineffable and godlike calm1 which rested on the features of the ,zeus of ,phidias4 ,here man has much more obviously made ,god in his own image2 the face shows less of the ideal1 with more of human energy and passion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,bust of ,zeus from ,otricoli1 now in the ,vatican ,museum4 ,after ,tafel #acj of the ,brunn-,bruckmann ,denkmaeler4 ,it is not for us to decide whether the ,otricoli mask is from the school of ,praxiteles1 or shows more of the influence of ,lysippus2 it is sufficient here to notice that the type was developed in the second half of the fourth century ,b4,c41 the century after ,phidias4 ,the similarity between these two examples of the type is apparent at first glance4 ,the shape of the two heads is1 in general1 the same1 and there is the same profusion of hair and beard1 symbolic of power2 but the differences in detail are striking4 ,in the ,otricoli ,zeus the peculiar shape of the forehead--prominent in the middle up to the roots of the hair and retreating at the sides--seems to suggest1 not so much the power of a world-encompassing and lofty intellect1 as absorption in great1 unfathomable thoughts4 ,in the lines of the massive face irresistible force of will is revealed1 and the capability of fierce passion lurks beneath the projecting lower part of the forehead and uneven eyebrows1 threatening like a thundercloud4 ,but for the moment all is deep repose1 and the lids seem partly closed over eyes that look downwards1 as if not concerned with seeing4 ,the sculptor has conceived of ,zeus as the occult power of nature1 alike the origin and law of all things1 or as the personification of the heavens veiled by impenetrable mists4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,bust of ,jupiter found at ,pompeii4 ,naples ,museum4 ,great force of will is seen also in the face of the ,pompeian god2 but it is will dominated by alert and all-embracing mind4 ,the forehead expands in a broad arch2 the eyes1 wide open1 look out with full vision under sharply cut brows4 ,here we have no secret brooding2 a powerful yet clearly defined and comprehensible personality is stamped upon features carved in bold1 free lines4 ,and this personality is not lost in mystical self-contemplation2 the god is following with closest attention the course of events in some far distant place1 affairs that in the next moment may require his intervention2 excitement and expectancy are seen in the raised upper lip4 ,the ideal of this artist was the wise and powerful king1 whose watchful and all-protecting eye sees to the furthest limits of his kingdom4 ,surely this variation of the ,otricoli type must have been conceived in a monarchical period1 the period when the ,greek world was ruled by the successors of ,alexander4 ,the ,pompeian god is more a sovereign2 the ,zeus of ,otricoli is more poetic1 more divine4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,basilica ,the ,basilica1 at the southwest corner of the ,forum1 was the most magnificent and architecturally the most interesting building at ,pompeii4 ,its construction and decoration point to the pre-,roman time2 and there is also an inscription scratched on the stucco of the wall1 dating from almost the beginning of the ,roman colony3 ,c4 ,pumidius ,dipilus heic fuit a4 d4 v4 nonas ,octobreis ,m4 ,lepid4 ,q4 ,catul4 cos41--',c4 ,pumidius ,dipilus was here on the fifth day before the nones of ,october in the consulship of ,marcus ,lepidus and ,quintus ,catulus1' that is ,october #c1 #gh ,b4,c4 ,the purpose of the building is clearly indicated not only by its plan and the details of its arrangement but also by the word ,bassilica scratched a number of times by idlers on the stucco of the outer wall at the right of the south entrance4 ,this sure identification lends to the edifice a special significance2 it is without doubt the oldest example that we have of an important architectural type whose origin is lost in obscurity1 but of which the derivative forms may still be recognized in the architecture of to-day4 ,what the temple developed by the ,greeks was to pagan antiquity1 that the basilica became to the ,christian ,church--a type dominating a system of religious architecture4 ,pagan worship was individual1--a narrow chamber sufficed for the image of the god and the requirements of religious service2 but ,christian worship was social1 and its functions demanded a larger room1 in which a congregation could be assembled4 ,the religious architecture of the ,church therefore broke with the religious architecture of pagan antiquity1 and turned for its model to the basilica4 ,our knowledge of the history of the basilica begins with the erection of the ,basilica ,porcia in ,rome by ,cato the ,elder1 in #ahd ,b4,c42 other basilicas followed1 and in ,caesar's day a number stood about the ,forum4 ,regarding its development prior to the time of ,cato only conjectures can be offered4 ,the name basilica 7basilike stoa1 'the royal hall'7 points to a ,greek origin2 we should naturally look for the prototype of the ,roman as well as the ,pompeian structure in the capitals of the ,alexandrian period and in the ,greek colonies of ,italy4 ,but no ruin1 no reference in literature comes to our aid4 ,the supposition that the ,king's ,hall 7basileios stoa7 in ,athens1 the official residence of the ,king ,archon1 was the prototype of all basilicas1 has little to support it2 our information in regard to the form of this building is quite inadequate1 and the name alone warrants no positive conclusion4 ,it is more probable that both the name and the architectural type came from the 'royal hall' of one of the successors of ,alexander4 ,a basilica was a spacious hall which served as an extension of a market place1 and was itself in a certain sense a covered market4 ,it was not limited to a specific purpose2 in general1 whatever took place on the market square might take place in the basilica1 the roof of which afforded protection against the weather4 ,it was chiefly devoted1 however1 to business transactions and to the administration of justice4 ,the form is known partly from the remains of the basilicas in ,rome--,basilica ,julia1 ,basilica ,ulpia1 the ,basilica of ,constantine--and in ,africa1 but more fully from the treatise of ,vitruvius and the description of a basilica which he himself erected at ,fano4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,plan of the ,basilica4 a4 ,entrance court4 #a4 ,corridor4 #b4 ,main room4 #c4 ,tribunal4 #d4 ,rooms at the ends of the tribunal4 ,according to these sources the plan of a typical basilica is essentially that of the building before us 7,fig4 #bc74 ,an oblong space is divided by columns into a broad central hall and a corridor which runs around the four sides4 ,the height of the columns1 in the typical basilica1 is equal to the width of the corridor1 which is covered by a flat roof2 the inner edge of this roof is carried by the entablature above the columns4 ,the main room is higher than the corridor4 ,above the entablature is a low wall on which there is a second row of columns2 these carry the main roof and form a clerestory1 the light being admitted through the intercolumniations4 ,the main hall and the corridor were devoted to trade2 the dealers perhaps occupied the former1 while in the latter the throng of purchasers and idlers moved freely about4 ,the place set aside for the administration of justice1 the tribunal1 was ordinarily an apse projecting from the rear end4 ,in our ,basilica1 however1--and in some others as well1--it was a small oblong elevated room back of the central hall1 toward which it opened in its whole length4 ,this ideal plan would answer very well for that of the early ,christian basilicas1 excepting in one respect2 instead of a corridor on all four sides they have only aisles parallel with the nave1 an arrangement which had already been adopted in some basilicas designed for markets4 ,the ,christian basilicas would give us a still truer idea of the arrangement and lighting of the pagan prototype if in most cases a part of the numerous windows had not been walled up1 thus producing a dimness in keeping with a religious but not a secular edifice4 ,in pagan structures the ideal plan was by no means strictly followed4 ,vitruvius himself at ,fano1 and the architects of other basilicas the remains of which have been discovered1 did not hesitate to depart from it4 ,so the ,basilica at ,pompeii1 as we shall see1 presents a modification of the general plan in an important particular1 the admission of light2 and this deviation was carried out with finer artistic feeling than was displayed by ,vitruvius in his building4 ,our ,basilica is undoubtedly of later date than the ,basilica ,porcia1 but the ,pompeians1 who at the time when it was built were pupils of the ,greeks in matters of art1 found their model not in ,rome but in a ,greek city1 perhaps ,naples4 ,five entrances1 separated by tufa pillars1 lead from the colonnade of the ,forum into the east end of the basilica4 ,first comes a narrow entrance court 7a71 extending across the entire building and open to the sky4 ,on the walls1 as also on the outside of the building1 are remains of a simple stucco decoration2 below1 a yellow base with a projecting red border along the upper edge2 above1 a plain white surface4 ,at the left outside the entrance court is a cistern for rain water collected from the roof2 the stairway close by 7shown on the plan7 had nothing to do with the ,basilica1 but was connected with the upper gallery of the colonnade about the ,forum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,view of the ,basilica1 looking toward the tribunal4 ,mounting four steps of basalt we pass from the narrow court into the building4 ,the five entrances here are separated by four columns4 ,those next to the two sides on the right and on the left were closed by a wall in which was a wide doorway2 the three at the middle were left as open intercolumniations4 ,the enclosed space before us measures #ahj-a_/c ,english feet 7#bjj ,oscan feet7 in length1 #gh-c_/d feet in breadth4 ,twenty-eight massive brick columns1 #d ,oscan feet in diameter1 separate the great central hall from the broad corridor running about it2 only the lower part of the columns1 built of small bricks evidently made specially for this purpose1 is preserved 7,fig4 #bd74 ,attached half-columns1 with a diameter a little more than three fourths that of the others1 project from the walls2 the wall decoration1 which imitates in stucco a veneering of colored marbles1 is of the first style 7p4 #da74 ,the columns of the entrance and those at the rear have the same diameter as the half-columns2 part of the ,ionic capitals belonging to them have been found1 but the capitals of the large columns have wholly disappeared4 ,there are only scanty remains of the floor1 which consisted of bits of brick and tile mixed with fine mortar and pounded down 7opus ,signinum72 it extended in a single level over the whole enclosed space1 and from this level our estimates of height are reckoned4 ,on three sides of the main hall near the base of the columns under the floor is a square water channel1 indicated on our plan2 eight rectangular basins lie along its course1 but the purpose of it is not clear4 ,the tribunal projects from the rear wall1 its floor being six ,oscan feet above that of the rest of the building4 ,the large columns about the main hall1 with a diameter of more than #ca_/b feet1 must have been at least #cb or #cc feet high2 the attached half-columns with the columns at the entrance and at the rear1 including the ,ionic capitals1 were probably not more than #bj feet high4 ,but assuming that the roof of the corridor was flat1 the walls must have been as high as the entablature of the large columns1 and so must have extended above the entablature of the half-columns2 considerable portions of this upper division of the walls remain4 ,along the walls on the ground are to be seen a number of capitals1 fragments of shafts and bases belonging to a series of smaller columns with a diameter of #a4gd feet1 all found in the course of the excavations4 ,they are of tufa1 coated with white stucco2 they can belong only here1 and by the study of their forms--columns1 half-columns1 and peculiarly shaped three-quarter-columns--the upper division of the walls can be restored with some degree of certainty4 ,not to go into technical details1 in the upper part of the side walls a section of wall containing a window alternated with a short series of columns in which the columns1 for the sake of greater solidity1 were set twice as close as the half-columns in the lower division of the wall1 the intercolumniations being left entirely open 7,fig4 #be72 over the entrances at the front the wall was continuous but was divided into sections by half-columns corresponding with the columns below1 a window being placed between every two half-columns in order to conceal the difference in width between the sections of wall at the front and those at the sides4 ,the arrangement was similar at the rear1 on either side of the tribunal1 as may be seen from the section 7,fig4 #bg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--;,exterior of the ,basilica1 restored4 ,with this restoration of the outer walls completed we are able to form a clear idea of the appearance of the main hall4 ,whether or not the rafters could be seen from below is uncertain1 but the probability is that1 as assumed in our restoration 7,fig4 #bf71 they were hidden by a coffered ceiling4 ,the simple and beautiful interior abounded in fine spatial effects4 ,the corridor and main room were almost as high as the main room was wide1 that is between #ce and #dj feet4 ,the light streaming in through the openings in the upper portion of the walls was evenly distributed throughout the hall2 we may assume that when the sun became too hot on the south side it could be shut out by curtains4 ,in our ,basilica1 then1 we notice a wide divergence from the ideal or normal plan4 ,instead of a clerestory above the main hall a proportionally greater height is given to the corridor4 ,the normal height of a basilica corridor is represented by the lower division of the walls with the attached half-columns and their entablature2 this1 however1 is here treated simply as a lower member1 and upon it1 rather than upon the entablature of the columns about the main hall1 was placed an upper division of wall admitting light and air through intercolumniations and windows4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,interior of the ,basilica1 looking toward the tribunal1 restored4 ,the tribunal at the rear is the most prominent and architecturally the most effective portion of the building4 ,the base is treated in a bold1 simple manner2 upon it1 at the front1 stands a row of columns the lower portions of which show traces of latticework4 ,the decoration of the walls1 like that of the rest of the interior1 imitates a veneering of colored marbles4 ,the shape and comparatively narrow dimensions of the elevated room indicate that we have here a tribunal in the strict sense1 a raised platform for the judge and his assistants2 in the basilicas provided with apses the latter were large enough to make room both for the judicial body and for the litigants4 ,here the litigants stood on the floor in front of the tribunal1 and when court was in session the general public must have been excluded from this part of the corridor4 ,the arrangement in this respect was far from convenient1 but seemingly convenience was sacrificed to aesthetic considerations2 the builders wished to treat the projecting front of the tribunal as an ornament to the building4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,front of the tribunal--plan and elevation4 ,under the tribunal was a vaulted chamber half below the level of the ground2 two round holes1 indicated on the plan1 opened into it from above4 ,it could hardly have been designed as a place for the confinement of prisoners2 escape would have been easy by means of two windows in the rear1 especially when help was rendered from the outside4 ,more likely it was used1 in connection with the business of the court1 as a storeroom1 in which writing materials and the like1 or even documents1 might be kept2 they could easily have been passed up through the holes when needed4 ,the second story of the tribunal was not as completely open to the main hall as the first4 ,its front1 the remains of which have for the most part been recovered1 was divided off by half-columns corresponding in number and arrangement with the columns of the first story1 but each half-column was flanked by narrow pilasters1 while a parapet of moderate height occupied the intervening spaces4 ,it was built apparently with a view to architectural effect rather than practical use 7,fig4 #bg74 ,at the right and the left of the tribunal are places for stairways4 ,each of these contains a landing on the same level with the floor of the tribunal1 from which it was cut off by a door2 the steps connecting with these landings1 being of wood1 have disappeared4 ,in both stair rooms1 however1 flights of stone steps lead down to the vaulted chamber below1 so that this could not have been accessible if there were wooden steps on both sides connecting the tribunal with the floor of the ,basilica4 ,probably on one side the wooden steps led from the tribunal down to the floor1 but on the other ascended from the corresponding landing to the second story1 thus leaving the stairway to the lower room unobstructed on that side4 ,at some later time the door at the left between the tribunal and the landing was walled up1 perhaps because the gallery was no longer used2 if still in use it could to all appearances have been reached only by a ladder4 ,the two open rooms at the rear on either side of the tribunal agree in their decoration with the entrance court except that the base with its border is higher1 and the white surface above is moulded in stucco so as to give the appearance of slabs of white marble4 ,they were no higher than the first division of the wall2 the windows seen in ,fig4 #bg above the broad entrances opened into the outer air4 ,perhaps they were used as waiting rooms for litigants4 ,opposite the north entrance between two columns stood a curb like those over the mouths of cisterns2 only the foundation stone with a circular opening is preserved4 ,the remains of a lead pipe1 which brought the water to it1 show that it must have been connected with an aqueduct4 ,at the further end of the main hall was an equestrian statue of which no trace has been found4 ,the arrangement of the roof is a problem of much difficulty4 ,without wearying the reader by presenting various possibilities1 it will be sufficient for our purposes to suggest the explanation which1 on the whole1 has the most in its favor4 ,as assumed in our restoration1 the roof of the main hall was carried by the entablature of the twenty-eight large columns4 ,thus in general the arrangement corresponded fairly well with that of other basilicas except that1 owing to the lack of a clerestory1 the roof of the main hall was not much if any higher than that of the corridor4 ,from the flat roof of the corridor1 at least on the south side1 the rain water flowed into the cistern near the front part of the building4 ,the five entrances opening from the ,forum into the narrow court could be closed by latticed doors4 ,similar doors hung also on the wooden jambs of the north and south entrances4 ,with such doors a complete safeguarding could not have been contemplated4 ,tradespeople using the ,basilica must either have removed their wares at the close of business hours or have made the stalls sufficiently secure for protection4 ,we can hardly doubt that ordinarily a night watchman was on duty about the building4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,apollo ,in some respects the study of the large temple on the west side of the ,forum is especially satisfactory4 ,the building had been completely restored after the earthquake of #fc1 and was in good order at the time of its destruction4 ,though ancient excavators removed many objects of value1 including the statue of the divinity of the temple1 much was left undisturbed1 as the interesting series of statues in the court2 in addition1 a number of inscriptions have been recovered4 ,on the whole1 more complete information is at hand regarding this sanctuary than in reference to any other in ,pompeii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,corner of mosaic floor1 cella of the temple of ,apollo4 ,the identification of this as the temple of ,apollo is certain4 ,the accompanying illustration shows a corner of the floor laid over the greater part of the cella 7#c on the plan72 the parts along the inner walls were of white mosaic4 ,this floor was composed of small1 lozenge-shaped pieces of green and white marble and slate2 of the two narrow stripes between the lozenge pattern and the bright mosaic fret along the border one is of slate1 the other of red marble4 ,in the slate stripe was an inscription4 ,the letters were outlined by means of small holes filled with metal1 every seven holes forming a vertical line1 every four a horizontal4 ,the inscription1 which was in ,oscan1 stated that the quaestor ,oppius ,campanius1 by order of the council and with money belonging to ,apollo1 had caused something to be made2#c what this was cannot be determined1 as the important word is missing1 but apparently it was the floor4 ,in the cella1 moreover1 stands a block of tufa1 having the shape of half an egg2 this is the ,omphalos1 the familiar symbol of ,apollo4 ,in the court on the first pilaster at the right as you enter a tripod is painted1 too large for mere decoration1 and explicable only as a symbol of the god4 ,lastly1 in the design of the stucco ornamentation with which the entablature of the peristyle was adorned after the earthquake1 the principal figures are griffins4 ,the griffin was sacred to ,apollo1 and though it was often used as a purely decorative theme1 in this case a reference to the divinity of the temple is unmistakable 7,fig4 #ca74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--,plan of the temple of ,apollo4 #a4 ,colonnade4 #b4 ,podium4 #c4 ,cella4 #d4 ,altar4 #e4 ,sundial4 #f4 ,sacristan's room4 ,as previously stated 7p4 #di71 the deviation of the axis of this building from that of the ,forum is undoubtedly due to the fact that it followed the direction of a street which bordered it on the east side before the colonnade of ,popidius was built2 this is therefore an evidence of the antiquity of the temple4 ,the style of architecture1 however1 is in no essential particular different from that of the colonnade and of other buildings of the ,tufa ,period1 and gives no indication of great age4 ,the most probable explanation is that the temple was rebuilt in the ,tufa ,period on the site of an earlier structure1 the orientation of which was preserved4 ,the difference in direction is concealed by the increasing thickness1 from south to north1 of the pillars between the ,forum and the court of the temple4 ,the spaces between the pillars were originally left open4 ,later1 at what time it is impossible to determine1 they were all walled up except the three opposite the side of the temple2 since the temple was excavated these also have been closed4 ,in comparison with the entrances from the ,forum1 at first ten in number1 the one on the south side1 opening on the street leading from the ,porta ,marina1 must have been considered unimportant4 ,otherwise pains would have been taken to give to the colonnade on that side an even number of columns1 so that the door of the temple should face an intercolumniation2 as it is the number is uneven and the entrance to the court had to be put a little to one side that it might not open upon a column4 ,the court is of oblong shape4 ,the continuous colonnade about the sides1 the peristyle1 was originally in two stories4 ,at the rear of the peristyle on the north side stood the small colonnade of the ,doric order already mentioned 7p4 #fb72 one of the rooms into which in later times this was divided 7#f7 was connected with the court of the temple1 and was probably occupied by the sacristan 7aedituus74 ,the temple stood upon a high podium1 in front of which is a broad flight of steps4 ,the small cella was evidently intended for but one statue4 ,the columns at the sides of the deep portico1 which in other respects follows the ,etruscan plan 7p4 #fc71 are continued in a colonnade which is carried completely around the cella4 ,in ,plate ,,ii and ,fig4 #cj we give a view of the ruins as they are to-day2 in ,fig4 #cb a view of the temple as it appeared before the earthquake of #fc4 ,the height and diameter of the ,corinthian columns seen in the restoration can be calculated with approximate correctness2 of the entablature and parts above nothing has been found except a large waterspout of terra cotta in the form of a lion's head4 ,the colonnade about the court was built of tufa1 and coated with white stucco4 ,it presents an odd mixture of styles1 of which other examples also are found at ,pompeii2 a ,doric entablature with triglyphs was placed upon ,ionic columns having the four-sided capital known as ,roman ,ionic4 ,here1 as in the earlier colonnade about the ,forum1 the stone blocks of the entablature were set upon beams2 and in the blocks now in place we may see the sockets made to receive the ends of the joists of the second story floor4 ,evidently with the purpose of supporting this second story1 which was probably of the ,corinthian order1 the ,ionic columns below were made relatively short4 ,no remains of an upper gallery1 however1 have been found2 and it is quite possible that when the colonnade was restored1 after the earthquake1 the second story was omitted4 ,the upper floor could be reached from the second story of the small colonnade north of the court1 which was accessible by means of a stairway leading from the ,forum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--,view of the temple of ,apollo1 looking toward ,vesuvius4 ,at the left of the steps1 the column on which was the sundial2 in front of the steps1 the altar4 ,when the restoration of the temple and its colonnade was undertaken1 the feeling for the pure and simple forms of the ,greek architecture was no longer present2 the prevailing taste demanded gay and fantastic designs1 with the use of brilliant colors4 ,the ,pompeians improved the opportunity afforded by the rebuilding to make the temple and its colonnade conform to the taste of the times4 ,first the projecting portions of the ,ionic and ,corinthian capitals were cut off2 then shaft and capital alike were covered with a thick layer of stucco4 ,new capitals were moulded in the stucco1 of a shape in general resembling the ,corinthian1 and were painted in red1 blue1 and yellow2 the lower part of the shaft1 unfluted1 was also painted yellow4 ,the entablature1 at least in the case of the colonnade1 was in like manner covered with stucco and ornamented with reliefs in the same colors4 ,all this gaudy stucco has now fallen off2 and our illustration 7,fig4 #ca7 is taken from ,mazois1 who made the drawing soon after the court was excavated4 ,the later capitals and stucco ornamentation of the temple itself had wholly disappeared before the excavations were made4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--,section of the entablature of the temple of ,apollo1 showing the original form and the restoration after the earthquake4 ,the wall decoration of both the temple and the colonnade was originally in the first style2 a remnant of it may still be seen in the cella4 ,after #fc it was modernized4 ,the walls of the temple both within and without were done over in stucco1 so as to resemble ashlar work of white marble2 apparently it was the intention to give the appearance of real marble4 ,the walls of the colonnade were painted in the latest ,pompeian style1 in bright colors1 on a white ground4 ,the decorative designs1 to judge from the remains and from sketches1 were not of special interest4 ,there was a series of pictures representing scenes from the ,trojan ,war1--the quarrel between ,achilles and ,agamemnon1 the embassy of the ,greeks to ,achilles1 the battle between ,achilles and ,hector 7the subject of this1 however1 is doubtful71 the dragging of ,hector's body about the walls of ,troy1 ,priam making entreaty for the body of ,hector1 and the rape of the ,palladium1--but they have long since perished and are known only from unsatisfactory drawings4 ,long before this modernizing of the temple the west side of the court had undergone a complete transformation4 ,the peculiar bend in the street at the northwest corner 7shown in ,plan ,,ii71 the diagonal line with which the small colonnade north of the court ends1 and the narrow1 quite inaccessible space between the west wall of the court and the houses lying near it1 cannot easily be explained as a part of an original plan1 but must rather be the result of later changes4 ,the north and south street which now ends abruptly at the northwest corner must originally have been continued through the west colonnade1 the ends of which were left open2 this colonnade was then a public thoroughfare1 on which the windows of houses opened1 and perhaps also doors4 ,we learn from an inscription that about the year #aj ,b4,c4 the city purchased from the residents whose property adjoined the colonnade1 for the sum of #cjjj sesterces 7about #aee71 the right to build a wall in front of their windows2 this explains how the narrow space between the wall on the north side of the court and the houses came to be cut off4 ,the inscription reads3 ,m4 ,holconius ,rufus duum vir iuri dicundo tertium1 ,c4 ,egnatius ,postumus d4 v4 i4 d4 iterum ex decurionum decreto ius luminum opstruendorum ,,hs ,m ,m ,m redemerunt1 parietemque privatum ,coloniae ,veneriae ,corneliae usque ad tegulas faciundum coerarunt1--',marcus ,holconius ,rufus1 duumvir with judiciary authority for the third time1 and ,gaius ,egnatius ,postumus1 duumvir with judiciary authority for the second time1 in accordance with a decree of the city council purchased for #cjjj sesterces the right to shut off light 7from adjoining buildings7 and caused to be constructed a wall belonging to the colony of ,pompeii to the height of the tiles1' that is1 as high as the roofs of the houses4 ,the wall referred to was no doubt that on the west side of the court of the temple2 when it was built the ends of the colonnade on that side must have been closed1 so that this ceased to be a thoroughfare4 ,marcus ,holconius was duumvir for the fourth time in the year #c-b ,b4,c42 as an interval of at least five years must intervene between two duumvirates1 his third duumvirate must have been not far from #aj ,b4,c4 ,the pedestal in the cella1 on which the statue of ,apollo stood1 still remains1 but no trace of the statue itself has been found4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--,temple of ,apollo1 restored4 ,near the foot of the steps in front is a large altar of travertine1 having the same inscription on both sides3 ,m4 ,porcius ,m4 f41 ,l4 ,sextilius ,l4 f41 ,cn4 ,cornelius ,cn4 f41 ,a4 ,cornelius ,a4 f4 ,,iiii viri de decurionum sententia faciundum locarunt1--',marcus ,porcius the son of ,marcus1 ,lucius ,sextilius the son of ,lucius1 ,gnaeus ,cornelius the son of ,gnaeus1 and ,aulus ,cornelius the son of ,aulus1 the ,board of ,four1 in accordance with the vote of the city council let the contract 7for building this altar74' ,the names of the four officials who erected the altar1 the two duumvirs and two aediles 7for the title see p4 #ab71 appear without surnames2 this points to a relatively early time1 at the latest the age of ,augustus4 ,at the left of the steps is an ,ionic column with the inscription3 ,l4 ,sepunius ,l4 f4 ,sandilianus1 ,m4 ,herennius ,a4 f4 ,epidianus duoviri iuri dicundo de sua pecunia faciundum curarunt1--',lucius ,sepunius ,sandilianus the son of ,lucius1 and ,marcus ,herennius ,epidianus the son of ,aulus1 duumvirs with judiciary authority1 caused 7this7 to be erected at their own expense4' ,old sketches1 made soon after the court was excavated1 represent the column with a sundial on the top4 ,the probability that a sundial belonging to the column was actually found is increased by the fact that these same men placed one on the circular bench in the ,forum ,triangulare4 ,here1 in front of the temple of the ,sun-god1 such a dial would certainly have been in place4 ,at the right of the steps are some blocks of lava containing holes1 in which1 undoubtedly1 the supports of a votive offering were once set1 but the holes give no clew to the size or character of the offering4 ,other divinities besides ,apollo were honored in this sanctuary1 which in the earlier time was evidently the most important in the city2 statues and altars for their worship were placed in the court4 ,the pedestals of the statues still remain where they were originally placed1 on the step in front of the stylobate of the colonnade2 the statues themselves1 with one exception1 have been taken to ,naples4 ,there were in all six of them1 grouped in three related pairs4 ,in front of the third column at the left of the entrance1 stood ,venus1 at the right was a hermaphrodite--both marble figures of about one half life size4 ,they belong to the pre-,roman period and were originally of good workmanship1 but even in antiquity they had been repeatedly restored and worked over4 ,as a work of art1 the hermaphrodite is the more important4 ,an altar stands before the statue of ,venus4 ,in pre-,roman times this may have been the only shrine in the city at which worship was offered to ,herentas2 for by that name the goddess of love was known in the native speech4 ,venus as goddess of the ,roman colony 7,fig4 #d71 was represented in an altogether different guise1 and had a special place of worship elsewhere 7see pp4 #abd-abi74 ,though the statues of ,venus and of the hermaphrodite here form a pair1 both artistically and in respect to arrangement1 the latter belongs not to the cycle of ,venus but to that of ,bacchus2 and in order to make this the more evident1 the ears of a satyr were given to the figure4 ,we may1 perhaps1 infer that the god of wine also was worshipped in this sanctuary4 ,in the sacristan's room 7#f on the plan7 we find a painting in which ,bacchus is represented as leaning upon ,silenus who is playing the lyre1 meanwhile allowing the panther to drink out of his cup4 ,this seems strange enough in a temple of ,apollo2 still it cannot be considered conclusive evidence that ,bacchus actually received worship here4 ,without doubt the ,wine-god was honored in ,pompeii1 the region about which was rich in vines4 ,he appears countless times in wall paintings1 but no shrine dedicated to him has yet been found4 ,on the right side of the court1 in front of the third column1 was a statue of ,apollo2 on the left directly opposite stood ,artemis1 both life size figures in bronze4 ,an altar stood before the statue of ,artemis2 the altar of ,apollo was before the temple4 ,both statues were armed with the bow1 and it is evident that they were not designed to stand facing each other1 but side by side1 or one behind the other2 both may originally have belonged to a ,niobe group4 ,as works of art1 they are not of high merit4 ,we recognize a certain elegance and nicety of finish1 but these qualities cannot compensate for superficiality in the treatment of the figure1 want of expression in the faces1 and lack of energy in the movement4 ,we have no other evidence of the worship of ,artemis in ,pompeii4 ,further on1 in front of the fifth column on either side1 was a marble herm4 ,that on the right is still in place and is seen in ,plate ,,ii4 ,it is of fine workmanship1 and clearly belongs to the pre-,roman period2 it represents ,hermes1 or ,mercury4 ,the god appears as a youth standing with his mantle drawn over the back of his head2 the face1 with a placid1 serious1 mild expression1 is inclined a little forward4 ,in this form ,mercury was honored as the presiding divinity of the palaestra1 the god of gymnastic exercises2 we shall find him in the same guise later in the court of the ,stabian ,baths 7p4 #bjj74 ,how this type of ,hermes came to be chosen for the place of honor in athletic courts is by no means clear2 it was certainly designed originally to represent him as a god of death1 the ,psychopompus1 conductor of souls to the ,underworld4 ,the worship of ,mercury here as a god of gymnastic exercises would not be in harmony with the surroundings2 we should rather believe that the ,pompeians1 having placed him in such close relation with ,apollo1 god of the death-dealing shaft1 and the earth goddess1 ,maia1 associated more serious ideas with his image4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4--,,court ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,apollo ,the herm on the opposite side of the court probably represented ,maia4 ,no trace of it has been found2 the female herm in the ,naples ,museum formerly assigned to this place is now known to have been brought from ,rome4 ,in ,greek mythology1 the mother of ,hermes was ,maia1 the daughter of ,atlas2 and this relationship1 by a common confusion1 was transferred to the ,italian ,maia1 who was originally goddess of the spring1 and gave her name to the month of ,may4 ,the assignment of the herm opposite ,mercury to ,maia is based upon a number of inscriptions which establish the existence of a cult of ,mercury and ,maia in ,pompeii4 ,from the same source we learn that with the worship of these two that of ,augustus was intimately associated2 there are few better illustrations of the development of emperor worship in the ,early ,empire4 ,these inscriptions were found in different places1 none of them in their original location4 ,they are dedications once attached to votive offerings1 of which one was set up each year by a college of priests1 consisting of slaves and freedmen1 under the general direction of the city authorities4 ,the official title of this college at first1 certainly to #ad ,b4,c41 was ,ministri ,mercurii ,maiae1 ',servants of ,mercury and ,maia'2 the word minister indicates a low order of priesthood4 ,the worship of the emperor was then added1 and the priests were called ',servants of ,augustus1 ,mercury1 and ,maia4' ,still later1 at least as early as #b ,b4,c41 the names of the two divinities were dropped1 and the priests were designated simply as ',servants of ,augustus4' ,the extant inscriptions of this series come down to the year #dj ,a4,d4 ,as an example1 we give that of #b ,b4,c41 in which the ministri ,augusti first appear3 ,n4 ,veius ,phylax1 ,n4 ,popidius ,moschus1 ,t4 ,mescinius ,amphio1 ,primus ,arrunti ,m4 s41 min4 ,aug41 ex d4 d4 iussu ,m4 ,holconii ,rufi ,,iv1 ,a4 ,clodi ,flacci ,,iii d4 v4 i4 d41 ,p4 ,caeseti ,postumi1 ,n4 ,tintiri ,rufi d4 v4 v4 a4 s4 p4 p4 ,imp4 ,caesare ,,xiii1 ,m4 ,plautio ,silvano cos1--',numerius ,veius ,phylax1 ,numerius ,popidius ,moschus1 ,titus ,mescinius ,amphio and ,primus the slave of ,marcus ,arruntius1 ,servants of ,augustus 7set this up71 in accordance with a decree of the city council1 on the order of ,marcus ,holconius ,rufus1 duumvir with judiciary authority for the fourth time1 ,aulus ,clodius ,flaccus1 duumvir for the third time1 and of ,publius ,caesetius ,postumus and ,numerius ,tintirius ,rufus1 duumvirs in charge of the streets1 buildings1 and public religious festivals 7the official title of the aediles1 p4 #ac7 in the thirteenth consulship of the ,emperor ,caesar 7,augustus71 the other consul being ,marcus ,plautius ,silvanus4' ,it is not difficult to understand how the worship of ,augustus came to have a place in this sanctuary4 ,the divinities here honored stood in close relation to him4 ,apollo was his tutelary divinity1 to whom he thought that he owed the victory at ,actium1 and in whose honor he built the magnificent temple on the ,palatine4 ,venus1 moreover1 was revered as the ancestress of the ,julian family2 and finally ,mercury was said to be incarnate in ,augustus himself4 ,this last conception found expression in one of the finest of the odes of ,horace1 written in #bh ,b4,c4 ,fearful portents1 the poet says1 are threatening ,rome2 ,jupiter with flaming right hand has even struck his own temple on the ,capitoline4 ,to what god shall we turn for help--to ,apollo1 to ,venus1 or to ,mars8 or rather to thee1 winged god1 ,maia's son1 that even now doest walk the earth in the form of a youth1 the avenger of ,caesar3-- ,sive mutata iuvenem figura ,ales in terris imitaris almae ,filius ,maiae1 patiens vocari ,caesaris ultor4 ,it is interesting to note that evidence of the worship of ,augustus as ,mercury has come to light also in ,egypt4 ,in an inscription from ,denderah we find ,helmis ,kaisar1 'beloved of ,ptah and of ,isis'2 ,helmis ,kaisar is apparently ',hermes ,caesar1' and in ,egyptian inscriptions ,augustus is elsewhere referred to as 'the beloved of ,ptah and of ,isis4' ,,footnote3 #c ,o 4 ,,kampaniis 444 kva,,isstur 4 ,,kombennieis tanginud 4 ,,apelluneis ,,eitiuvad 444 ops,,annu 4 ,,aamanaff,,ed4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,buildings ,,at ,,the ,,northwest ,,corner ,,of ,,the ,,forum1 ,,and ,,the ,,table ,,of ,,standard ,,measures ,the large building at the northwest corner of the ,forum 7,fig4 #cc1 #a1 #b1 #c7 was erected after the earthquake of the year #fc4 ,we do not know whether at the time of the eruption it had yet been roofed2 the inside at least was in an unfinished state4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--,plan of the buildings at the northwest corner of the ,forum4 #a4 ,city treasury4 #b4 ,latrina4 #c1 #d4 ,market buildings4 ,this building is divided into three parts1 one of which1 that furthest north1 at the corner1 contains both lower and upper rooms4 ,below1 at the level of the ,forum1 are two dark vaulted chambers1 one at the rear of the other4 ,the front chamber is dimly lighted by a slit in the ceiling and was entered from the ,forum by a narrow door2 there are traces of a strong iron grating in the doorway4 ,it has been supposed1 not without probability1 that these were the vaults of the city treasury1 the aerarium2 if they had been built for prison cells1 they would naturally have had separate entrances4 ,above these chambers are two rooms which open not on the ,forum1 but on the street that runs past them on the north 7#a1 #a74 ,they resemble shops and would be classed as such without further question but for the fact that the level of the floor is nearly five feet above the sidewalk1 so that they could have been reached only by means of steps4 ,if the identification of the chambers below as the vaults of the city treasury is correct1 these rooms must have been occupied by the treasury officials1 who could here transact business with the public without admitting the latter to their offices4 ,the middle room 7#b7 was a public closet1 with a small anteroom4 ,as the doors to and from the anteroom were not placed opposite each other1 the interior was not visible from the street4 ,the room was not entirely finished2 nevertheless1 we can see the water channel running along three sides1 and above it the stones on which the woodwork was to be placed2 the inlet pipe was in position1 as well as the outlet for carrying the water off into a sewer at the rear4 ,the last of the three parts of the building 7#c7 is by far the largest4 ,it was a high and spacious hall1 with numerous entrances from the ,forum4 ,it was divided into two rooms by two short sections of wall projecting from the sides1 and was evidently a market house1 perhaps for vegetables and farm products4 ,the rooms formed by enclosing the small colonnade at the rear of the court of ,apollo have already been mentioned 7p4 #fb74 ,at the left of the stairway leading to the second story 7shown in ,plan ,,ii7 is a small room which opens in its entire breadth upon the ,forum 7#aa74 ,close by is a recess 7#aj71 also open toward the ,forum1 in the side of the first of the thick pillars which separate the ,forum from the court of the temple4 ,in this recess stood the table of standard measures1 mensa ponderaria 7,fig4 #cd71 which is now in the ,naples ,museum1 unfortunately not entire2 a part of it has disappeared4 ,the part remaining consists of a large slab of limestone 7a little over #h feet long and #a4h1 or #b ,oscan feet1 wide71 in which are nine bowl-shaped cavities with holes at the bottom through which the contents could be drawn off2 this slab rested on two stone supports1 and similar supports above it carried another slab1 which is now lost1 with three cavities4 ,the table thus contained twelve standards of capacity for liquid and dry measure1 but only ten are shown in the illustration1 as two are too far back4 ,it is evident that the table has come down from the pre-,roman period4 ,the names of the measures were originally written in ,oscan1 beside the five largest cavities1 and though the letters were later erased1 they are still in part legible4 ,only one word1 however1 can be made out with certainty1 beside the next to the smallest cavity2 that is ,kuiniks1 plainly the same as the ,greek ,choinix4 ,we naturally infer that in the pre-,roman time the ,pompeians used ,greek measures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,table of standard measures1 mensa ponderaria4 ,in the time of ,augustus1 about #bj ,b4,c41 the cavities were enlarged and made to conform to the ,roman standard1 but the new names were not put beside them4 ,the inscription on the front of the larger slab has reference to these changes3 ',aulus ,clodius ,flaccus1 the son of ,aulus1 and ,numerius ,arcaeus ,arellianus ,caledus1 the son of ,numerius1 duumvirs with judiciary authority1 in accordance with a decree of the city council1 caused the measures to be made equal' to the ,roman measures4 ,a similar adjustment of measures to the ,roman standard is indicated by the use of the phrase metra exaequare on a table found at ,minturnae4 ,the adoption of a uniform standard was made a subject of imperial regulation by ,augustus1 who1 by this means1 sought to promote the unification of the ,empire4 ,similar tables of measures have been found in various parts of the ,roman world1 as at ,selinunto in ,sicily1 in the ,greek islands1 and at ,bregenz on the ,lake of ,constance4 ,it is probable that an official charged with the oversight of the measures had his office in the small room next to the stairway 7#aa74 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,macellum ,the large building at the northeast corner of the ,forum was a provision market1 of the sort called ,macellum4 ,the name ,pantheon1 once applied to it1 is now abandoned1 and there is no longer the slightest doubt regarding its purpose1 which is indicated by its general plan1 the remains found in the course of the excavations1 and the paintings upon the walls4 ,such markets1 where provisions1 especially of the finer and more expensive kinds1 were sold and in which a cook also might be secured1 without doubt existed in the ,greek cities after the time of ,alexander2 from the ,greeks1 as in the case of the basilica1 the ,romans took both the name and the architectural type4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--,plan of the ,macellum4 #a4 ,portico4 #b4 ,colonnade4 #c1 #c1 #c4 ,rows of market stalls4 #d4 ,market room for meat and fish4 #e4 ,chapel4 #f4 ,banquet room4 #g4 ,tholus4 #h4 ,pen4 ,the first macellum in ,rome was built in #agi ,b4,c4 in connection with the enlargement of a fish market4 ,in later times1 as we learn from inscriptions1 others were constructed in ,rome and in various cities of ,italy and the provinces4 ,a macellum built by ,nero is shown on one of the coins of this emperor4 ,it agrees in essential points with our building1 having stalls or shops of more than one story in height1 and at the middle of the court a structure with a dome-like roof4 ,the central structure1 the tholus1 is mentioned by ,varro as an essential part of a macellum1 but its use is known to us only from the remains found at ,pompeii4 ,the plan of our building is simple4 ,a court in the shape of a rectangle1 slightly longer than it is broad1 is surrounded by a deep colonnade on the four sides4 ,in the middle twelve bases1 arranged so as to form a dodecagon1 supported an equal number of columns on which a roof rested2 underneath was a rectangular basin in the pavement1 from which a covered drain led toward the southeast corner4 ,under this roof the fish that had been sold were scaled1 the scales being thrown into the basin1 where they were found in great quantity4 ,behind the colonnade on the south side1 and opening into it1 was a row of market stalls or small shops 7#c on the plan74 ,above these were upper rooms1 in front of which was a wooden gallery1 but there was no stairway1 and apparently the shopkeeper who wished to use his second story had to provide himself with a ladder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,view of the ,macellum4 ,in the foreground1 part of the stylobate4 ,in the middle ground1 remains of the tholus4 ,in the background1 at the middle1 walls and pedestal of the imperial chapel2 at the right1 market room2 at the left1 banquet room4 ,there were shops also on the north side1 but they opened upon the street bounding the ,macellum on the north2 a southern exposure for the shop fronts seems to have been avoided on account of the damage that the heat in summer might cause to the stock4 ,in the shops on this street--whether in those belonging to the building or those on the opposite side is not stated--the excavators found charred figs1 chestnuts1 plums1 grapes1 fruit in glass vessels1 lentils1 grain1 loaves of bread1 and cakes4 ,a few shops behind the portico in front faced toward the ,forum4 ,a large market room 7#d7 opened on the colonnade at the southeast corner1 the entrance being divided by two columns4 ,along three sides runs a counter for meat and fish1 the surface of which slopes toward the middle of the room4 ,that fish were sold on the left side is plain from the special arrangement made to carry off the water2 the floor behind the counter here was raised and sloped toward the rear1 where a gutter connecting with it1 and passing across the room1 led under the counter on the south side into the street4 ,in the little room or pen at the northeast corner of the colonnade 7#h7 remains of skeletons of sheep were found4 ,such animals1 then1 were sold here alive2 instead of buying the flesh of slaughtered animals1 many purchasers no doubt preferred to obtain a victim which could be sacrificed as an offering to the household gods before it was used for food4 ,the paintings on the walls of the colonnade are among the best examples of the latest ,pompeian style4 ,above the base are large black panels with a broad red border2 between them1 in the vertical spaces separating the border of one panel from that of the next1 are light and fantastic architectural designs in yellow on a white ground1 the parts designed to appear furthest from the eye being in green and red4 ,in this way a rich development of architectural forms is united1 in a consistent and effective decorative scheme1 with large panels suitable for paintings4 ,along the edges of the black panels run conventional plant designs2 in the middle are paintings symmetrically arranged in a series in which a pair of floating figures alternates with a mythological scene enclosed in a painted frame4 ,among the mythological pictures are ,ulysses before ,penelope1 who does not recognize him1 ,io guarded by ,argus1 and ,medea plotting the murder of her children4 ,the whole arrangement is in excellent taste1 while the execution is careful and delicate4 ,the treatment of the upper part of the wall is especially worthy of note4 ,generally in walls of the fourth style the portion above the large panels is filled with airy architectural designs upon a white or at least a bright ground4 ,in this instance the fantastic architectural forms in the spaces between the black panels are continued upwards to the ceiling1 and in the midst of each group a standing figure is painted on a blue ground--a girl with utensils for sacrifice1 a satyr playing the flute2 but the spaces above the panels are completely filled with representations of the things exposed for sale4 ,unfortunately only a few of these pictures remain4 ,one contains birds1 some alive1 some killed and dressed2 in another1 different kinds of fish are seen2 and a third presents a variety of vessels in which wine and other liquids could be kept4 ,this departure from the usual style of decoration1 strikingly suggestive1 can be explained only as having a direct reference to the purpose of the building4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,the ,macellum1 restored4 ,in two small pictures in the black panels of the north entrance ,cupids took the place of men4 ,the ,pompeians were very fond of the representation of ,cupids as engaged in human occupations2 it gave opportunity for the poetic treatment of everyday life1 which was thus carried over into fairyland4 ,so in one picture sprightly1 winged little figures are celebrating the festival of ,vesta1 the tutelary divinity of millers and bakers1 who on this day1 just as appears in the painting1 wreathed with garlands their mills and much belabored asses that once a year were thus admitted to a share in the festal celebrations of their masters2 the reference to trade in bread and flour is obvious4 ,in the other picture the ,cupids are plaiting and selling wreaths2 in view of the extensive use of garlands at banquets and on gala days the inference is warranted that they1 too1 were sold in this market4 ,in the market room for meat and fish there is another interesting picture representing the local divinities of ,pompeii--personifications of the ,sarno1 of the coast1 and of the country round about1 suggesting that here the products of the sea1 the river1 and the land might be obtained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,statue of ,octavia1 sister of ,augustus1 found in the chapel of the ,macellum4 ,she is represented in an attitude of worship1 with a libation saucer in her right hand1 and a box of incense in her left4 ,besides the rooms thus far considered1 which served a practical end1 we find in the ,macellum two other rooms which gave to the building a religious character and placed it under the special protection of the imperial house4 ,one1 at the middle of the east end 7#e71 is a chapel consecrated to the worship of the emperors4 ,the floor is raised above that of the rest of the building1 and the entrance is reached by five steps leading up from the rear of the colonnade4 ,on a pedestal against the rear wall1 and in four niches at the sides1 were statues1 of which only the two in the niches at the right have been found2 these represent ,octavia1 the sister of ,augustus 7,fig4 #ch71 and ,marcellus 7,fig4 #ci71 the hope of ,augustus and of ,rome1 whose untimely death was lamented by ,virgil in those touching verses in the sixth book of the ,aeneid4 ,an arm with a globe was also found1 doubtless belonging to the statue of an emperor that stood on the pedestal at the rear4 ,the chapel contains no altar2 sacrifice was probably offered on a portable bronze coal pan in the form of a tripod4 ,several beautiful examples of these movable altars have been found1 and there are numerous representations of them in reliefs and in wall paintings4 ,the ,macellum in its present form was at the time of the eruption by no means an ancient building4 ,while finished and no doubt in use at the time of the earthquake of #fc1 it had been built not many years before1 in the reign of ,claudius or of ,nero1 in the place of an older structure which dated from the pre-,roman period4 ,the earlier ,macellum1 of which scanty but indubitable traces remain1 could not have contained a chapel for the worship of the emperors2 this was probably introduced into the plan of the structure at the time of the rebuilding4 ,the most reasonable supposition is that the chapel was built in honor of ,claudius1 and that his statue with the globe as a symbol of world sovereignty stood on the pedestal at the rear1 while in the niches at the left were his wife ,agrippina and adopted son ,nero4 ,we can hardly doubt that ,claudius was worshipped in ,pompeii during his lifetime2 it is known from inscriptions that even before the death of ,claudius ,nero was honored with the services of a special priest4 ,that ,octavia and ,marcellus1 another mother with a son who was heir to the throne1 should be placed opposite ,agrippina and ,nero1 was quite natural4 ,claudius1 who through his mother ,antonia was the grandson of ,octavia1 had great pride in this relationship1 through which alone he was connected with the family of ,augustus2 and from ,octavia1 ,agrippina and ,nero also were descended1 the former as a daughter of ,germanicus1 ,claudius's brother1 and the latter through his father ,gnaeus ,domitius1 who was a son of the older daughter of ,octavia1 also called ,antonia4 ,this thought was suggested by the grouping of ,octavia and ,marcellus with ,agrippina and ,nero3 ,octavia's descendants are now on the throne1 as ,augustus intended that they should be2 and ,nero is the pride and hope of the emperor and the ,roman people1 as once ,marcellus was4 ,the room at the left of the imperial chapel1 with a wide entrance divided by two columns 7#f71 was also consecrated to the worship of the emperors4 ,it contains a low altar 7shown on the plan7 of peculiar shape4 ,a slab of black stone rests on two marble steps2 it has a raised rim about the edge with a hole in one corner4 ,evidently this is an altar for drink offerings2 in this room sacrificial meals were partaken of1 at which the long estrade at the right1 like a counter1 nearly three feet high1 was perhaps used as a serving table4 ,such meals had an important place among the functions of the ,roman colleges of priests1 and some priesthood connected with the worship of the emperors apparently had its place of meeting here2 but whether this was the college of the ,seviri ,augustales1 composed of freedmen1 or a more aristocratic priesthood modelled after the ,sodales ,augustales at ,rome1 cannot be determined4 ,the purpose of the niche in the corner1 with the platform in front of it approached by steps1 is unknown4 ,in this room1 also1 there were two pictures containing ,cupids4 ,in one they were represented as drinking wine and playing the lyre2 in the other1 as engaged in acts of worship--both appropriate decorative subjects for a room intended for sacrificial banquets4 ,the ,macellum was entered from three sides4 ,at the front1 facing the ,forum1 was a portico consisting of two orders of white marble columns1 one above the other1 supporting a roof4 ,fragments of the ,ionic or ,corinthian columns belonging to the lower order1 and of the well proportioned intermediate entablature1 have been preserved4 ,statues stood at the foot of the columns1 as also at the ends of the party walls between the shops at the rear of the portico1 and beside the two columns of the little vestibule at the entrance2 between the two doors was a small shrine1 and here1 too1 was a statue4 ,the difference in direction between the front of the ,macellum and the side of the ,forum is concealed by increasing the depth of the shops from south to north1 so that the depth of the portico remained the same4 ,the room at the extreme right1 being so shallow that it could not be used as a shop1 was made into a shrine2 the image or images set up in it must have been very small4 ,what divinities were worshipped here1 unless the ,street ,lares1 cannot be conjectured4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,statue of ,marcellus1 son of ,octavia1 found in the chapel of the ,macellum4 ,there is another entrance on the north side1 and a third near the southeast corner4 ,in the latter are steps1 and at the left as you come in is a small niche under which two serpents were painted4 ,this humble shrine was probably dedicated to the presiding divinity of the building1 the ,genius ,macelli4 ,the colonnade of the ,macellum was thrown down by the earthquake of #fc4 ,at the time of the eruption the stylobate on which the columns rested1 and the gutter in front of it1 had been renewed2 but only the columns on the north side and a part of those on the west side had been set up again4 ,both the columns and the entablature have entirely disappeared1 in consequence of excavations made in ancient times4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,sanctuary ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,lares ,in earlier times a street opened into the ,forum south of the ,macellum4 ,later1 apparently in the time of ,augustus1 it was closed1 and the end1 together with adjoining space at the south1 was occupied by a building which measures approximately sixty by seventy ,roman feet4 ,in richness of material and architectural detail this was among the finest edifices at ,pompeii4 ,its walls and floors were completely covered with marble4 ,now we see only rough masonry1 stripped of its veneering1 but enough vestiges remain to enable us to reconstruct the whole2 in ,figs4 #da and #db both rear and side views of the interior are given4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,plan of the sanctuary of the ,city ,lares4 #a4 ,main room1 unroofed1 with an altar in the centre4 #b4 ,apse1 with shrine4 #c4 ,recesses--alae4 #d4 ,niche facing the ,forum4 ,opening into the main room at the rear is a large apse 7,fig4 #dj1 #b71 which gives to the building a peculiar character4 ,in the inner part of the apse is a broad foundation about six feet high1 on which stood a shrine 7aedicula71 containing a pedestal for three statues of not more than life size2 the foundation projects in front of the pedestal1 forming a table for offerings4 ,a base of the same height as the foundation of the shrine runs along the walls of the apse2 it supported two columns and two attached half-columns on the right1 and the same number on the left4 ,on either side of the main room is a recess1 ala1 containing a pedestal for a statue of more than life size4 ,the two entrances were flanked by pilasters nearly two ,roman feet square1 while each entrance was divided into three parts by two columns4 ,there were three niches about six feet above the floor in each of the side walls of the main room1 and two more at the rear2 all were originally flanked by small pilasters which rested on a projecting base4 ,the remains of an altar may still be seen in the middle of the room4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--,sanctuary of the ,city ,lares1 looking toward the rear1 restored4 ,the height of both side and rear walls can be approximately computed from the existing remains1 the basis of computation for the side walls being the thickness of the pilasters at the entrance4 ,the rear part of the building was certainly not less than #de feet high1 exclusive of the gable1 while the sides could not have been more than #cj or at most #ce4 ,this difference in height1 taken with other indications1 obliges us to conclude that the central room was treated as a paved court open to the sky2 only the apse and the wings were roofed4 ,it is evident that we have here a place of worship1 yet not1 properly speaking1 a temple4 ,the shrine in the apse1 with its broad pedestal for several relatively small images1 presents a striking analogy to the shrines of the ,lares found in so many private houses4 ,cities1 as well as households1 had their guardian spirits4 ,the worship of these tutelary divinities was reorganized by ,augustus1 who ordered that1 just as the ,genius of the master of the house was worshipped at the family shrine1 so his ,genius should receive honor together with the ,lares of the different cities2 thus in each city the emperor was to be looked upon as a father1 the head of the common household4 ,as the house had its shrine for the ,lares1 so also had the city2 that in ,rome was near the spot on which the arch of ,titus was afterwards erected4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--,north side of the sanctuary of the ,city ,lares1 restored4 ,undoubtedly we should recognize in this edifice the sanctuary of the ,lares of the city1 ,lararium publicum4 ,on the pedestal of the shrine in the apse the ,genius of ,augustus probably stood1 represented by a statue of the emperor himself1 with his toga drawn over the back of his head1 offering a libation2 on his right and on his left were the two ,lares1 like those represented in paintings 7p4 #bga7 and in the little bronze images so often found in house shrines4 ,in connection with the ,lares the members of a family honored other gods1 ,penates1 to whose special protection the head of the household had committed himself and his interests4 ,as we shall see later1 in house shrines diminutive bronze figures representing ,hercules1 ,mercury1 ,fortuna1 and other divinities are often found together with those of the ,lares4 ,it is quite possible that other gods were likewise associated with the ,lares of the city2 and perhaps here in the two chapels at the sides of the main room images of ,ceres and of ,bacchus were placed4 ,regarding the statues that stood in the eight niches it is better to refrain from conjecture4 ,on the outside of the building1 under the portico of the ,macellum1 was a small platform 7#d71 the raised floor of which was reached by steps4 ,at the edge of the ,forum in front of the building are eight square blocks of basalt1 which still have traces of the iron clamps by which marble veneering was fastened on4 ,these supported the columns of a portico which was joined with the porticos of the ,macellum and the temple of ,vespasian and took the place of the ,forum colonnade4 ,as the main room of the building was open to the sky1 the portico also must have been without a roof2 there is no trace of any support for the ends of the rafters at the rear4 ,the columns in front1 probably of two orders one above the other1 were merely for ornament4 ,possibly awnings were at times stretched over the area of the portico as a protection against sun and rain4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,vespasian ,south of the sanctuary of the ,city ,lares is another religious edifice of an entirely different character4 ,passing from the ,forum across the open space once occupied by the portico--of which no remains have been found--we enter a wide doorway and find ourselves in a four-sided court somewhat irregular in shape 7,fig4 #dc74 ,the front part is occupied by a colonnade 7#a74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,plan of the temple of ,vespasian4 #a4 ,colonnade4 #b4 ,altar4 #c4 ,temple4 #d4 ,portico1 forming part of the colonnade of the ,forum4 ,at the rear a small temple 7#c7 stands upon a high podium which projects in front of the cella and reached by two flights of steps4 ,the pedestal for the image of the divinity is built against the rear wall4 ,in the middle of the court is an altar faced with marble and adorned on all four sides with reliefs of moderately good workmanship4 ,the sacrificial scene shown in the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #dd7 is on the front side1 facing the entrance to the court4 ,a priest with a toga drawn over his head in the manner prescribed for those offering sacrifice1 pours a libation from a shallow bowl1 patera1 upon an altar having the form of a tripod4 ,with him at the left are two lictors with their bundles of rods1 a fluteplayer1 two boys1 camilli1 carrying the utensils for the sacrifice1 and an attendant2 at the right a bull intended for sacrifice is being brought to the altar by the slayer1 victimarius1 and an assistant4 ,in the background is a tetrastyle temple1 doubtless the temple before us2 the scene represents the dedicatory exercises4 ,the middle intercolumniation of the portico1 as indicated by the relief and shown in the plan1 is wider than the other two4 ,on the sides of the altar some of the utensils and ceremonial objects used in sacrificing are represented3 at the left the napkin 7mantele71 the augural staff 7lituus71 and the box in which the incense was kept 7acerra72 at the right the libation bowl 7patera71 a ladle 7simpulum71 and a pitcher4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--;,front of the altar in the court of the temple of ,vespasian4 ,the reliefs on the back of the altar1 which consist simply of a wreath of oak leaves with a conventional laurel on either side1 are of special significance and give a clew to the purpose of the edifice4 ,on the thirteenth of ,january1 #bg ,b4,c41 the ,senate voted that a civic crown--that is1 one made of oak leaves1 of the kind awarded to a soldier who had saved the life of a ,roman citizen--should be placed above the door of the house in which ,augustus lived1 and that the doorposts should be wreathed with laurel4 ,from that time the civic crown and the laurel were recognized as attributes denoting imperial rank4 ,this temple1 therefore1 was built in honor of an emperor4 ,from the inscriptions of the ,arval ,brethren1 we learn that in the case of a living emperor a bull was the suitable victim1 but that an ox was sacrificed to an emperor who had been deified after death4 ,as the victim on our altar is a bull1 the temple must have been dedicated to an emperor during his lifetime4 ,with these facts in mind it will not be difficult to ascertain to whose worship the building was consecrated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,view of the temple of ,vespasian4 ,the coins of ,augustus have both the civic crown and the laurel1 but those of his immediate successors have only the former4 ,in the year #gd the laurel again appears with the crown on the coins of ,vespasian and ,titus1 and we may suppose that the distinction formerly conferred on ,augustus was about this time revived in honor of ,vespasian4 ,it was indeed quite natural that men should think of ,vespasian and ,augustus together4 ,both restored peace and order after disastrous civil wars2 both adopted severe repressive measures against luxury and immorality1 and both adorned ,rome with great public buildings4 ,the temple of ,jupiter on the ,capitoline1 which ,augustus had repaired and made more magnificent1 ,vespasian rebuilt from the foundation after it was burned in #fi4 ,the ,senate1 which had suffered so seriously at the hands of ,nero1 had reason to be deeply grateful to ,vespasian1 who treated it with marked respect1 in this also following the example of ,augustus4 ,if the annals of the reigns of the ,flavian emperors were not so meagre1 we should very likely find a decree of the ,senate honoring ,vespasian with the civic crown and the laurel4 ,such a decree might well have suggested the founding of a temple1 and the placing of these symbols of peace and victory upon its altar4 ,the temple itself was built1 together with the court1 after the earthquake of #fc1 and at the time of the eruption the work was not entirely completed4 ,the walls of the cella and of the entrance from the ,forum had received their veneering of marble and were in a finished state2 but those of the court1 divided off into a series of deep panels above which small pediments alternated with arches 7,fig4 #de71 had received only a rough coat of stucco and were still awaiting completion4 ,the temple must have been built in the time of ,vespasian1 who reigned from #fh to #gi ,a4,d42 and as this emperor possessed too great simplicity of character to allow men to worship him as a god while he was still alive1 it was probably dedicated to his ,genius4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--,the temple of ,vespasian1 restored4 ,the rooms at the rear of the temple 7shown on the plan7 were entered by a door at the right4 ,they may have served as a habitation for the sacristan1 or as a place of storage for the sacrificial utensils4 ,the north room was also connected with rooms belonging to the sanctuary of the ,lares1 the purpose of which is unknown4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,eumachia ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,plan of the building of ,eumachia4 #a4 ,portico1 forming part of the colonnade of the ,forum4 #b1 #c4 ,small niches for statues4 #d1 #d4 ,apsidal niches4 #e1 #e4 ,large niches1 accessible by means of steps4 #f4 ,entrance4 #g4 ,passage room to stairway4 #h4 ,porter's room4 #i1 #i4 ,colonnade4 #aj4 ,pedestal of the statue of ,concordia ,augusta4 #aa1 #aa4 ,light courts4 #ab1 #ab4 ,corridor4 #ac4 ,broad niche with the statue of ,eumachia4 #ad4 ,passage leading from ,abbondanza ,street1 with a door opening into the corridor4 #ae4 ,stone with ring4 #ag1 #ag4 ,rectangular elevations4 #ah1 #ah4 ,remains of masonry4 ,the plan of the large building on the east side of the ,forum1 between the temple of ,vespasian and ,abbondanza ,street1 is simple and regular4 ,in front is a deep portico 7#a71 facing the ,forum4 ,the interior consists of a large oblong court with three apses at the rear and a colonnade about the four sides 7#i72 on three sides there is a corridor behind the colonnade1 with numerous windows opening upon it 7#ab74 ,the corridor could be entered by three doors1 two at the front end of the court1 connecting with the colonnade1 and a third at the rear1 entered from the end of a passage leading up from ,abbondanza ,street 7#ad71 the grade of which at this point is considerably below the pavement of the building 7,fig4 #ej74 ,an inscription appears in large letters on the entablature of the portico1 and again on a marble tablet over the side entrance in ,abbondanza ,street3 ,eumachia ,l4 f41 sacerdos publica1 nomine suo et ,m4 ,numistri ,frontonis fili chalcidicum1 cryptam1 porticus ,concordiae ,augustae ,pietati sua pequnia fecit eademque dedicavit1--',eumachia1 daughter of ,lucius ,eumachius1 a city priestess1 in her own name and that of her son1 ,marcus ,numistrius ,fronto1 built at her own expense the portico1 the corridor 7cryptam1 covered passage71 and the colonnade1 dedicating them to ,concordia ,augusta and ,pietas4' ,the word pietas1 in such connections1 has no ,english equivalent1 and is difficult to translate4 ,it sums up in a single concept the qualities of filial affection1 conscientious devotion1 and obedience to duty which in the ,roman view characterized the proper conduct of children toward their parents and grandparents4 ,here mother and son united in dedicating the building to personifications1 or deifications1 of the perfect harmony and the regard for elders that prevailed in the imperial family4 ,the reference of the dedication can only be to the relation between the ,emperor ,tiberius and his mother ,livia2 it cannot apply to ,nero and ,agrippina1 for the reason that the walls of the building were decorated in the third ,pompeian style1 which in ,nero's time was no longer in vogue4 ,in #bb ,a4,d41 when ,livia was very ill1 the ,senate voted to erect an altar to ,pietas ,augusta4 ,in the following year ,drusus1 the son of ,tiberius1 gave expression to his regard for his grandmother by placing her likeness upon his coins1 with the word ,pietas4 ,on the coins of colonies also--of ,saragossa and another the name of which is not known--the ,pietas ,augusta appears1 apparently about the same time4 ,not long afterwards the harmonious relations between ,tiberius and his mother gave place to mutual suspicion and hostility2 the dedication therefore points to the earlier part of the reign of ,tiberius1 and in this period the building was no doubt erected4 ,the statue of ,concordia ,augusta1 a female figure with a gilded cornucopia1 was found in the building2 the head1 which has not been preserved1 probably bore the features of ,livia4 ,by this dedication the building of ,eumachia1 as the ,macellum later1 was placed under the protection of the imperial house4 ,while the parts are enumerated in the dedicatory inscription1 neither the name of the building as a whole1 nor the purpose1 is mentioned4 ,a hint of the latter1 however1 is found in another inscription4 ,a broad niche 7#ac7 opens into the corridor at the rear1 directly behind the largest apse4 ,here stood a marble statue of a beautiful woman 7,fig4 #bee71 now replaced by a cast2 the original is in ,naples4 ,upon the pedestal we read3 ,eumachiae ,l4 f41 sacerdoti publicae1 fullones1--',dedicated to ,eumachia1 daughter of ,lucius ,eumachius1 a city priestess1 by the fullers4' ,this building1 in which the fullers had set up1 in a specially prominent place1 a statue of the person who had erected it1 must in some way have served the purposes of their trade4 ,clearly enough it was not a fullery2 on the other hand1 it was well adapted for a clothier's exchange1 a bazaar for the sale of cloth and articles of clothing4 ,tables and other furniture for the convenience of dealers could be placed in the colonnade and the corridor2 in the corridor1 especially1 goods exposed for sale in front of the open windows could be conveniently inspected by prospective buyers1--not only by those in the corridor itself1 but also by those looking in from the colonnade4 ,the small doors between the corridor and the colonnade could be securely closed1 and the entrance from ,abbondanza ,street could be easily guarded2 there was only a narrow door at the end of the passage opening into the corridor1 and at the street entrance was a porter's room connected by doors both with the passage and with the street4 ,this evidence of unusual precaution suggests that possibly the side entrance1 from its close connection with the corridor1 was intended especially for the conveyance of goods to and from the building1 in order that the front entrance might be left for the exclusive use of purchasers and dealers4 ,on the assumption that the building was a cloth market1 it is clear that the colonnade would naturally be open at all times1 the corridor only during business hours2 after business hours the corridor would be closed for the protection of the goods left there over night4 ,the windows may have been closed with shutters as in the ,oriental bazaars4 ,other peculiarities of arrangement also are cleared up by this explanation1 but we cannot present them in detail4 ,it is not possible1 however1 to make out what the purpose was of certain remains of masonry found on the south side of the court 7#ah7 which have now disappeared1 or of two rectangular elevations at the rear 7#ag71 or1 finally1 of a large stone in the middle of the court in which a movable iron ring is fastened 7#ae74 ,our information is so scanty that we are unable to determine in all particulars what the requirements of a fuller's exchange might have been4 ,at the time of the eruption men were still engaged in rebuilding the parts of the edifice that had suffered in the earthquake of #fc4 ,the front wall at the rear of the portico was finished and had received its veneering of marble2 as shown by the existing remains1 it conformed to the plan of the earlier structure4 ,the columns and entablature of the portico had not yet been set in place2 considerable portions of them were found in the area of the ,forum4 ,the wall at the rear of the court1 with the three apses1 had been rebuilt1 and the workmen had begun to add the marble covering4 ,the other walls had remained standing at the time of the earthquake2 but the colonnade had been thrown down and was now in process of erection4 ,the remains of the colonnade were removed in ancient times1 probably soon after the destruction of the city2 yet from the parts that remain1 both of the old building and of the restorations1 we can determine the architectural character with certainty4 ,we give two reconstructions of the interior1 one showing the front 7,fig4 #dh71 the other the rear 7,fig4 #di74 ,the colonnade and the portico were characterized by the same peculiarity of construction3 they were in two stories1 one above the other1 but there was no upper floor corresponding with the intermediate entablature4 ,in the case of the portico this is certain from the treatment of the wall at the rear1 the ornamentation of which is carried without interruption high above the level of the entablature4 ,if the appearance of this building alone had been taken into account1 it would have been simpler and more effective to place at the front of the portico a single order of large columns the height of which should correspond with that of the facade2 but as the colonnade about the ,forum was in two stories1 the front of the portico was made to conform to it4 ,the columns below were of the ,doric1 those above of the ,ionic1 order4 ,the material--whitish limestone--was the same as that used in the new colonnade of the ,forum4 ,nevertheless1 by the skilful handling of details a certain individuality was given to the columns2 while in general appearance they harmonized with those about the ,forum1 the portico as a whole stood out by itself as something distinct and characteristic4 ,the columns of the portico were left unfluted1 as were those of the new ,forum colonnade1 and were of the same height2 but their proportions were more slender1 their ornamental forms were slightly different1 and they were set closer together4 ,the pains and skill manifested in harmonizing the particular with the general architectural effect reflect much credit upon the ,pompeian board of public works4 ,under the portico at the foot of each column was a statue1 facing the front of the building2 the pedestals1 which still remain1 assist in determining the places of the columns1 of which only one was found in position4 ,the spaces between the columns could be closed by latticed gates1 as may be seen from traces of them remaining in the marble pavement at the south end of the portico2 the pavement elsewhere has disappeared4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,the building of ,eumachia3 front of the court1 restored4 ,the wall at the rear of the portico1 facing the ,forum1 was richly ornamented4 ,the broad entrance in the middle 7#f7 was bridged at the top by a lintel4 ,at the ends are two large niches more than four feet above the pavement 7#e71 both reached by flights of steps4 ,between each of these and the doorway is a large apsidal arched niche 7#d7 extending down to the pavement4 ,lastly in the projecting portions of the wall are four smaller niches for statues4 ,the whole facade was overlaid with various kinds of colored marbles4 ,none of the statues have been found1 but the inscriptions belonging to the two that stood in the small niches at the left are extant and of special interest2 the names of the persons represented1 ,aeneas and ,romulus1 are given1 together with a short enumeration of their heroic deeds4 ,these statues were evidently copies2 the originals formed a part of a famous series in ,rome4 ,augustus set up in his ,forum the statues of renowned ,roman generals with inscriptions setting forth their services to the ,state2 in this way1 he said1 the people might obtain a standard of comparison for himself and his successors4 ,at the beginning of the series were ,aeneas1 the kings of ,alba ,longa1 and ,romulus4 ,not one of these statues has been preserved1 but some of the inscriptions have been found in ,rome1 while others are known from copies discovered in ,arezzo1 where without doubt1 as at ,pompeii1 they were set up with copies of the statues--a forcible illustration of the striving of the smaller cities to be like ,rome4 ,two other statues1 perhaps representing ,julius ,caesar and ,augustus1 stood in the niches at the right corresponding with those of ,aeneas and ,romulus2 it is not probable that the rest of the series in ,rome was duplicated here1 because the remaining pedestals in the portico were all designed for figures of larger size4 ,the colonnade about the court was of marble4 ,the front part1 as one entered from the portico1 was higher than that on the sides and rear 7,fig4 #dh72 it must have presented a fine architectural effect4 ,the two series of ,corinthian columns1 one above the other1 reached the height of #cj feet2 the wall behind was diversified with niches and completely covered with marble4 ,at the right and at the left one could pass down the sides under the colonnade1 or through small doors into the corridor4 ,the walls between the colonnade and the corridor1 pierced with large windows1 were decorated below with a dado of colored marbles and above with painting upon stucco1 in the third style4 ,the two smaller apsidal niches at the rear were no higher than the colonnade1 but the central apse projected above and terminated in a marble pediment 7,fig4 #di71 fragments of which are still to be seen in the building4 ,it was entered through three arched doorways1 above which apparently there were windows4 ,the image of ,concordia ,augusta1 with the features of ,livia1 probably stood on the pedestal at the rear of the apse1 while the statues of ,tiberius and ,drusus may have adorned the niches at the sides4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,rear of the court of the building of ,eumachia1 restored4 ,we can readily see why the colonnade was made so high1 and in two stories1 when a lower structure would have afforded better protection against sun and rain4 ,had it been limited to the usual height the corridor behind it would have been too dark2 and if instead of a double series of small columns1 one above the other1 there had been a single series of large columns of the usual proportions1 the thickness of the latter would have shut out much light and have made the colonnade seem less roomy4 ,the arrangement adopted had the further advantage that it harmonized the aspect of the colonnade with that of the portico1 the character of which1 as we have seen1 was determined by that of the colonnade about the ,forum4 ,the small rooms of irregular shape at the sides of the apse 7#aa7 were light courts1 left open to the sky in order to furnish light to the corridor at the rear1 which was shut off from the colonnade4 ,the corridor was about fourteen feet in height2 its walls still have remains of decoration in the third style4 ,at the right of the broad niche 7#ac71 in which the statue of ,eumachia was found1 a door opened into the passage leading from ,abbondanza ,street2 in the corresponding position at the left1 where there was no entrance1 a door was painted upon the wall4 ,this is a folding door in three parts1 of a kind quite common at ,pompeii2 the middle part is hung by means of hinges1 like those on doors of the present day1 fastened to one of the leaves at the sides1 while these are represented as swinging on pivots at the top and the bottom4 ,a stairway at the southeast corner of the corridor1 over the entrance from ,abbondanza ,street1 led to an upper room4 ,a similar stairway was placed in the last of the little rooms between the court and the portico1 at the left of the front entrance4 ,the upper rooms1 difficult to reach1 could hardly have been intended for salesrooms4 ,they must have been low1 probably no higher than the difference between the height of the colonnade and that of the corridor4 ,they were most likely used as temporary storerooms for the goods of the dealers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--;,fountain of ,concordia ,augusta4 ,in the background1 steps in the side entrance of the ,eumachia building4 ,in front of the entrance from ,abbondanza ,street1 is a fountain of the ordinary ,pompeian form2 as the material is limestone it is probably of later date than the other fountains1 which are generally of basalt4 ,as may be seen in our illustration 7,fig4 #ej71 the inlet pipe was carried by a broad standard projecting above the edge of the basin1 on the front of which a bust of a female figure with a cornucopia is carved in relief4 ,the right side of the face has been worn away by eager drinkers pressing their mouths against the mouth of the figure1 whence the jet issued2 it reminds one of the attenuated right foot of the famous bronze ,st4 ,peter in ,rome4 ,hands also have worn deep1 polished hollows in the stone on either side of the standard4 ,the figure represents ,concordia ,augusta1 but the name ,abundantia1 given to it when first discovered1 still lingers in the ,italian name for the street1 which might more appropriately have been called ,strada della ,concordia4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,comitium ,the last building on the east side of the ,forum1 south of ,abbondanza ,street1 had undergone a complete transformation a short time before the destruction of the city4 ,before the rebuilding1 a row of pillars separated the interior of the structure from the ,forum and from the street4 ,at the edge of the sidewalk along the latter are square holes opposite the pillars 7shown on the plan1 ,fig4 #ea71 evidently designed for the insertion of posts1 so that a temporary barrier of some sort could be set up4 ,the end of the space within the barrier where this came to the ,forum1 and of the rest of the street as well1 could be shut off by latticed gates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,plan of the ,comitium4 #a4 ,recess opening on the main room4 #b4 ,recess opening on the ,forum4 ,if the barrier were set up1 and the latticed gate at the ,forum end left open1 the building and the space within the barrier would be shut off from ,abbondanza ,street1 but closely connected with the ,forum by the numerous entrances4 ,after the rebuilding only two entrances from the ,forum were left1 and one from ,abbondanza ,street4 ,it is altogether unlikely that so large a building1 of irregular shape and with pillars on two sides1 was provided with a roof2 we have here an open space rather1 serving as an extension of the ,forum4 ,the walls were covered with marble and adorned with niches1 in which1 without doubt1 statues were placed4 ,on the south side is a large recess the floor of which1 reached by a flight of steps1 forms a kind of platform or tribune about four feet above the pavement of the enclosure 7#a74 ,a small door at the right leads into a narrow room containing a similar platform opening on the colonnade of the ,forum 7#b71 and to all appearances once accessible from it by steps2 afterwards both the steps and the tribune were walled up4 ,the purpose of these tribunes1 and of the building as a whole1 is far from clear4 ,an analogy1 however1 suggests itself4 ,on one side of the ,roman ,forum near the upper end was a small rectangular open space called the ,comitium1 used in early times as a voting place4 ,between the ,forum and the ,comitium was originally a speaker's platform1 the ,rostra1 so placed that orators by turning toward one side could address an audience in the ,comitium and facing about could harangue the ,forum4 ,though the later changes have obscured the original form of our building1 yet it is plain that at one time there must have been two connected tribunes1 one facing the ,forum1 the other the enclosed open space2 we may at least hazard the conjecture that the colonists of ,sulla1 taking the arrangements of the capital as their pattern in all things1 designed this place as their ,comitium4 ,the enclosure was too small to admit of its use for voting according to the ancient fashion1 but general elections in the ,comitium had long been a thing of the past2 only the unimportant curiate elections were held there1 at which each curia was represented by a lictor1 and at other times the place was used for judicial proceedings4 ,so our building was probably used1 if not for elections1 for formalities preliminary to the elections and for business connected with the courts4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,municipal ,,buildings ,at the south end of the ,forum were three buildings similar in plan and closely connected4 ,in front they presented a common facade1 the narrow spaces between them being entered by low doors4 ,the building at the right 7,fig4 #eb1 #c7 was at the corner of the ,forum1 while the space separating the other two lay on a line dividing the ,forum into two equal parts2 east of the last building is the ,strada delle ,scuole4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,plan of the ,municipal ,buildings4 #a4 ,office of the duumvirs4 #b4 ,hall of the city council4 #c4 ,office of the aediles4 ,the three buildings were erected after the earthquake of #fc1 on the site of older buildings of the same character4 ,in the walls of that furthest east 7#a71 considerable remains of the earlier walls are embodied2 in that near the corner the original pavement is preserved1 and in the middle building there are traces of the original pavement4 ,previous to this rebuilding the inner series of columns belonging to the colonnade about the ,forum had in part been removed and a barrier set up1 by which the space in front of the middle building and that at the left could be shut off 7indicated on the plan by broken lines74 ,at the time of the eruption only the building at the left 7#a7 was entirely finished4 ,the others still lacked their decoration on both inner and outer walls4 ,these three spacious halls must have served the purposes of the city administration4 ,the two at the right and the left are alike in having at the end opposite the entrance an apse large enough to accommodate one or more magistrates with their attendants2 they were the official quarters of the aediles and the duumvirs1 while the middle hall was the council chamber1 curia1 where the decurions met4 ,the middle room was obviously intended to be the most richly ornamented of the three1 and was further distinguished from the others by the elevation of its floor1 which was more than two feet above the pavement of the colonnade4 ,in front of the entrance is a platform reached at either end by an approach hardly wide enough for two persons1 thus suited for a select rather than a large attendance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,view of the south end of the ,forum4 ,in the background1 the ruins of the municipal buildings2 in front of these1 the remains of the colonnade4 ,in the middle ground the pedestals of the statues of the imperial family4 ,along the sides within runs a ledge a little more than five feet above the floor1 on which rested a double series of columns1 one above the other1 serving both as ornament and as a support for a ceiling like that of the temple of ,jupiter4 ,if we picture to ourselves the columns in place1 the walls covered with marble1 and a rich coffered ceiling above1 we are led to form a favorable idea of the recuperative powers of the city which set about the construction of such costly and splendid buildings so soon after the terrible earthquake4 ,the recess at the rear was designed for a large shrine patterned after the small shrines of the ,lares and ,penates in private houses4 ,the ,penates of the city were above all the emperor and his family4 ,if this shrine had been finished1 figures representing ,vespasian1 ,titus1 and ,domitian would probably have been placed in it1 facing the three ,capitoline divinities in the temple of ,jupiter at the other end of the ,forum4 ,the office of the aediles1 situated at the corner of the colonnade and close to the ,basilica1 and with no barrier to prevent ready access1 was particularly convenient for magistrates who1 among other duties1 were charged with the maintenance of order and the enforcement of regulations in the markets4 ,one or perhaps both aediles sat in the apse2 while the rear and middle parts of the room were reserved for those who had business with them4 ,the front part1 lower than the rest by two steps 7shown on the plan71 may have served as a waiting room4 ,at the rear of the apse and in the walls at the sides were niches for the statues of members of the imperial family and of those who had rendered important services to the city4 ,as the duumvirs not only sat as judges but also had in their hands the financial administration of the city1 we can see why the hall set aside for their use was the first to be rebuilt after the earthquake4 ,the magistrates1 of course1 sat in the apse1 along the wall of which was a ledge for statues4 ,the strong front doors were fastened with iron bolts1 and there was also a latticed gate on the step in front of the threshold2 probably the archives of the duumviral office were kept within4 ,the small side door at the right made it possible to enter and leave the building after business hours or at other times when the large doors were closed4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,venus ,,pompeiana ,for some years it had been known that a temple once stood in the rectangular block south of the strada della ,marina2 and in #ahih workmen excavating here began to uncover the massive foundations4 ,when the volcanic deposits had been removed it was seen that the court of the temple1 with the surrounding colonnade1 occupied the whole area between the ,basilica and the west wall of the long room now used as a ,museum4 ,on the podium 7,fig4 #ee7 was found a part of a statuette of ,venus1 of the familiar type which represents the goddess as preparing to enter the bath2 it was probably a votive offering set up by some worshipper4 ,in the subterranean passageway entered near the southeast corner 7,fig4 #ed1 ,,iv7 the excavators found another votive offering1 a bronze steering paddle of the kind shown in paintings as an attribute of ,venus ,pompeiana2 an example may be seen in ,fig4 #d 7p4 #ab74 ,from these indications1 as well as from the size of the temple and its location1 near the ,forum and on an elevation commanding a wide view of the sea1 we are safe in assigning the sanctuary to ,venus ,pompeiana1 the patron divinity of ,roman ,pompeii4 ,prior to the founding of the ,roman colony the site of the temple had been occupied by houses1 built in several stories on the edge of the hill1 which here slopes sharply toward the southwest2 remains of the houses1 which must have resembled those farther east 7an example is the house of the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii1 p4 #cdd71 have been brought to light in the course of the excavations4 ,in less than a century and a half the temple was twice built1 twice destroyed2 a third building was in progress at the time of the eruption4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,plan of the temple of ,venus ,pompeiana4 ,i1 ,,ii4 ,remains of podium of first and second temples4 ,,iii4 ,altar4 ,,iv4 ,entrance to underground passage4 ,v1 ,,vi4 ,pedestals4 ,a-,b1 ,c-,d-,e4 ,foundations of walls of court of first temple4 ,f-,g-,g'1 ,g-,h-,i4 ,foundation of stylobate of colonnade of first temple1 with gutter4 ,a'-,b'4 ,foundation of rear wall of rooms opening on colonnade of first temple4 a-b-c-d4 ,walls of court of second temple4 e-f-g-h1 e'-f'1 g'-h'4 ,foundations of colonnade of second temple--two rows of columns on each side1 a single row at the rear4 ,k4 ,main entrance of court of second temple4 ,l4 ,smaller entrance of court of second temple4 x1 y1 z4 ,old foundation walls having nothing to do with the temple4 ,a-,b-,c-,c'-,b'4 ,enlargement of podium for third temple4 ,the first temple was erected in the early years of the ,roman colony4 ,an area approximately #ahe ,roman feet square was prepared for it by levelling off and filling up1 terrace walls being built to hold in place the earth and rubbish used for filling4 ,the foundations of the walls about the court 7,a-,b1 ,c-,d-,e7 can still be traced except on the south side1 where1 perhaps in consequence of the earthquake at the time of the eruption1 every vestige has disappeared1 and at the southwest corner1 where excavations for building materials in modern times have been carried below the ,roman level1 a part of the foundation of the temple itself having been removed4 ,these walls conformed to the direction of the walls of the ,basilica1 the corners1 as those of the ,basilica1 showing a noticeable divergence from a right angle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,ruins of the temple of ,venus ,pompeiana1 viewed from the southeast4 ,at the right1 foundation of the front row of columns of the latest 7unfinished7 colonnade2 then foundation of stylobate of earlier colonnade1 with gutter4 ,in foreground1 entrance to subterranean passage4 ,on the podium of the temple at the farther end is seen the pedestal of the statue of the divinity4 ,the wall at the rear of the court is on the south side of the strada della ,marina4 ,the front of the earlier colonnade is outlined by the gutter 7,f-,g-,g'1 ,g-,h-,i71 constructed of blocks of tufa1 which show signs of long use1 and the foundation of the stylobate behind the gutter1 which is plainly seen 7,fig4 #ee72 in places 7as indicated in the plan71 the layer of mortar spread over this foundation shows the impressions made by the blocks of the stylobate which rested on it4 ,at the middle of the north side 7,g'-,g7 both the gutter and the wall under the stylobate were removed when the foundations of the third temple were extended in that direction4 ,along the gutter were basins for water used in cleaning the floor of the court1 which was made of fine concrete4 ,the entrance to the court was at the northeast corner4 ,on the east side of the court were six rooms1 the rear of which was formed by the wall ,a',b'4 ,two of these opened on the colonnade in their whole breadth1 and four with narrow doors1 the thresholds of which1 of whitish limestone1 are still in place4 ,their purpose cannot be determined4 ,the cross walls shown in the plan on the west side 7x1 y1 z7 belonged to an earlier building1 and have nothing to do with the temple4 ,in front of the temple are remains of a large altar of whitish limestone 7,,iii74 ,on the east side of the court is the base of an equestrian statue 7,v71 of the same material1 which was afterwards veneered with marble2 near it is a pedestal of a standing figure 7,,vi71 of masonry covered with stucco1 and behind this is the small base of a fountain figure4 ,near the southeast corner is the entrance 7,,iv7 to a subterranean passageway which runs toward the south2 it probably led to rooms of earlier houses which were preserved1 when the area was filled up1 for the use of the attendants of the temple4 ,the temple itself1 as the other edifices1 religious and secular1 of the first years of the ,roman colony1 must have been built of common materials and coated with stucco4 ,of the existing remains only the inner part of the podium 7,i1 ,,ii on the ,plan7 can be assigned to it2 a series of small blocks of tufa at the rear end is perhaps a remnant of the cornice which was carried around the upper edge of the podium4 ,to the ,pompeians of the ,empire the modest structure of ,republican days seemed unworthy of the tutelary divinity of their city4 ,on the same podium they built a temple of marble4 ,of this are preserved the foundations of the door posts of the cella 7,fig4 #ef a7 and the core of the pedestal 7,d7 on which stood the statue of the divinity1 besides some bits of the cella floor1 which consisted of a border of white mosaic 7b71 a broad strip of pavement of small flags of colored marble 7c71 and an ornamental centre 7a7 now entirely destroyed4 ,the only remains of the superstructure that can be identified are in a storeroom north of the temple of ,apollo4 ,they consist of fragments of large marble columns1 nearly thirty-two inches in diameter1 and of an entablature of corresponding dimensions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,plan of the second temple1 restored4 ,a4 ,steps4 ,b4 ,portico4 ,c4 ,cella4 ,d4 ,pedestal of the statue of the divinity4 a4 ,door of cella4 b4 ,floor border of white mosaic4 c4 ,pavement of colored marbles4 d4 ,ornamental centre4 ,after the completion of the temple the ,pompeians set about rebuilding the colonnade1 on a scale of equal magnificence4 ,first of all they enlarged the court by removing the old walls to the foundations1 and constructed new outside walls 7a-b-c-d71 the corners of which form right angles4 ,the wall on the north side1 of reticulate work1 can be distinguished in ,fig4 #ee4 ,that on the east side is also well preserved1 but of that on the south side no trace remains4 ,the deep foundation of the wall on the west side forms the farther wall of the present ,museum1 the roof of which very nearly represents the level of the floor of the ancient court4 ,the colonnade was to be single on the north1 double on the east and west sides4 ,the principal entrance was at the northeast corner 7,k71 with a smaller entrance 7,l7 at the end of the narrow street south of the ,basilica4 ,how far the work had progressed before the earthquake of the year #fc it is not easy to determine4 ,the new gutter along the front of the colonnade had not yet been laid1 but the foundations of the rows of columns 7e-f-g-h1 e'f'1 g'h'7 were for the most part ready4 ,from the ,corinthian capital and fragments of shafts and entablature lying about the court it is clear that these members were fitted and in place when they were thrown down4 ,part of the colonnade was therefore finished4 ,it was in two stories1 probably without an intervening floor1 like the porticoes in front of the ,macellum and the building of ,eumachia4 ,not less than three hundred marble columns must have been required to complete the work2 undoubtedly the wall back of the colonnade was divided off by pilasters below and half columns above1 the intervening spaces being filled with marble4 ,in point of size1 the temple with its court formed the largest sanctuary1 in richness of materials the most splendid edifice of the entire city4 ,the great earthquake felled to the ground alike the finished temple and the unfinished colonnade4 ,but the ,pompeians1 in their time of trouble least of all disposed1 we may assume1 to forsake their patron goddess1 soon commenced the work of rebuilding4 ,postponing the renewal and completion of the colonnade as of secondary importance1 they cleared away the debris of the temple1 and on the podium where the cella had stood constructed a temporary place of worship1 a small wooden building strengthened at the bottom by a low wall around the outside4 ,then they proceeded to enlarge the podium2 the third temple was to be even more imposing than its predecessor4 ,the old steps were removed from the front4 ,the existing podium was cut back five ,roman feet on each side1 and four inches at the rear1 to form the core of the new podium2 on all sides of this a massive foundation wall was commenced1 five and a half ,roman feet thick1 made of large blocks of basalt carefully worked and fitted4 ,a similar wall was carried through the old podium 7,b-,b'71 to serve as the foundation for the front wall of the cella4 ,the relative size of the component parts of the new temple is thus clearly indicated4 ,the cella was to extend over the space ,b-,c-,c'-,b'1 the portico over that marked ,a-,b-,b'2 how far the steps were to project in front is uncertain4 ,at the time of the eruption five courses of basalt had been laid1 reaching a height of more than four feet1 the space between the core of the old podium and the outer wall being filled with concrete as the work progressed4 ,on the north side of the court are still to be seen a number of blocks of basalt not yet trimmed and fitted1 just as they were abandoned by the workmen when the work was stopped forever4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,fortuna ,,augusta ,passing out from the ,forum under the arch at the northeast corner1 we enter the broadest street in ,pompeii4 ,on the right a colonnade over the sidewalk runs along the front of the first block1 at the further corner of which1 where ,forum ,street opens into ,nola ,street1 stands the small temple of ,fortuna ,augusta4 ,the front of the temple is in a line with the colonnade1 which seems to have been designed as a continuation of the colonnade about the ,forum2 the builders apparently wished to have it appear that the temple was located on an extension of the ,forum rather than on a street4 ,the colonnade is certainly not older than the earlier years of the ,empire1 and the temple dates from the time of ,augustus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,plan of the temple of ,fortuna ,augusta4 ,a4 ,altar4 ,b4 ,portico4 ,c4 ,cella4 ,d4 ,shrine for the statue of the divinity4 #a-d4 ,niches for statues4 ,the divinity of the temple and the name of its builder are both known to us from an inscription on the architrave of the shrine at the rear of the cella3 ,m4 ,tullius ,m4 f41 d4 v4 i4 d4 ter41 quinquennalis1 augur1 tribunus militum a populo1 aedem ,fortunae ,augustae solo et pequnia sua1--',marcus ,tullius the son of ,marcus1 duumvir with judiciary authority for the third time1 quinquennial duumvir1 augur1 and military tribune by the choice of the people1 7erected this7 temple to ,fortuna ,augusta on his own ground and at his own expense4' ,such inscriptions were ordinarily placed on the entablature of the portico4 ,the portico of this temple1 however1 had been thrown down by the earthquake of #fc1 and had not yet been rebuilt4 ,the cella may have been damaged also1 but in order that the worship might not be interrupted the shrine was restored2 the inscription was temporarily placed over it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--,temple of ,fortuna ,augusta1 restored4 ,the remains of the walls1 columns1 and entablature make it possible to reconstruct the edifice with certainty 7,fig4 #eh74 ,the plan 7,fig4 #eg7 in several respects closely resembles that of the temple of ,jupiter1 from which the architect copied the projecting platform in front of the podium1 with its altar and double series of steps4 ,the eight columns sustaining the portico had ,corinthian capitals4 ,the walls of the cella were veneered with marble4 ,in the shrine at the rear stood1 without doubt1 the image of ,fortuna as guardian of the fortunes of ,augustus and protectress of the imperial family 7,fig4 #ei74 ,there were also in the walls of the cella four niches for statues1 of which two have been found4 ,the face of one1 a female figure1 had been sawed off in order to replace it with another1 which has not come to light2 the features of the other statue were said in the reports of the excavations to resemble those of ,cicero1 but the resemblance is purely fanciful1 suggested by the name ,marcus ,tullius in the dedicatory inscription4 ,both statues were of persons connected with the priesthood1 not of members of the imperial family4 ,probably statues of the latter were set up elsewhere1 so that the cella was left free for less important personages4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--,rear of the cella in the temple of ,fortuna ,augusta1 with the statue of the goddess1 restored4 ,the worship of ,fortuna ,augusta was in charge of a college of priests1 consisting of four slaves and freedmen1 who were called ,ministri ,fortunae ,augustae1--',servants of ,fortuna ,augusta4' ,our information in regard to them is derived from five inscriptions1 of which two were found in the temple1 the others in different places2 but none of them where they originally belonged4 ,these all relate to the small statues1 signa1 of which one was set up by the college every year4 ,one inscription1 of the year #c ,b4,c41 speaks of the 'first servants 7ministri primi7 of ,fortuna ,augusta4' ,the priesthood was therefore established in that year1 and the temple was probably built only a short time before4 ,in donating the land for the temple ,tullius retained the ownership of a narrow strip of irregular shape at the right4 ,here a rough block of basalt was set up with the inscription3 ,m4 ,tulli ,m4 f4 area privata1--',private property belonging to ,marcus ,tullius1 son of ,marcus4' ,,key ,,to ,,plan ,,iii ,a4 ,,portico ,,at ,,the ,,entrance ,,of ,,the ,,forum ,,triangulare4 ,b4 ,,forum ,,triangulare4 #a1 #a4 ,colonnade4 #b4 ,promenade4 #c4 ,doric temple4 #d4 ,semicircular bench1 with sundial4 #e4 ,sepulchral enclosure4 #f4 ,altars4 #g4 ,well house4 #h4 ,pedestal of the statue of ,marcellus4 ,c4 ,,open-,,air ,,gymnasium--,,palaestra4 #a4 ,colonnade4 #b4 ,pedestal with steps behind it4 #c1 #c4 ,dressing rooms4 ,d4 ,,tank ,,for ,,saffron ,,water4 ,e4 ,,large ,,theatre4 #a4 ,dressing room4 #b4 ,stage4 #c4 ,orchestra4 #d4 ,ima cavea4 #e4 ,media cavea4 #f4 ,summa cavea1 over a corridor4 #g1 #g4 ,tribunals4 ,f4 ,,small ,,theatre4 #a4 ,dressing room4 #b4 ,stage4 #c1 #c4 ,tribunalia4 ,g4 ,,theatre ,,colonnade1 ,,used ,,as ,,barracks ,,for ,,gladiators4 #a4 ,passage leading from ,stabian ,street4 #b4 ,entrance4 #c4 ,doorkeeper's room4 #d4 ,passage to the ,large ,theatre1 walled up4 #e4 ,stairway leading down from the ,forum ,triangulare4 #f4 ,athletes' waiting room--,exedra4 #g4 ,room with remains of weapons and cloth4 #h4 ,guard room4 #i4 ,stairs leading to overseer's rooms4 #aj4 ,kitchen4 #aa4 ,mess room4 ,h4 ,,temple ,,of ,,zeus ,,milichius4 #a4 ,colonnade4 #b4 ,altar4 #c4 ,cella4 #d4 ,sacristan's room4 ,i4 ,,temple ,,of ,,isis4 #a4 ,colonnade4 #b4 ,cella4 #c4 ,shrine of ,harpocrates4 #d4 ,purgatorium4 #e4 ,hall of initiation4 #f4 ,hall of the ,mysteries4 #g4 ,priest's residence4 ,k4 ,,city ,,wall4 ,l4 ,,foundations ,,of ,,steps4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,iii4--,,the ,,forum ,,triangulare ,,with ,,adjacent ,,buildings4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,public ,,buildings ,,near ,,the ,,stabian ,,gate--,,the ,,forum ,,triangulare ,,and ,,the ,,doric ,,temple ,the end of the old lava stream on which ,pompeii lay runs off into two points2 in the depression between them1 as we have seen1 was the ,stabian ,gate4 ,on the edge of the spur at the left a temple of the ,doric style was built in very early times4 ,the descent here1 toward the southwest1 is so sharp and the height so great that it was not necessary to add a wall at the top as a means of defence4 ,the sides of the temple followed in general the direction of the edge of the cliff4 ,raised upon a high foundation1 it not only dominated the plain below but was visible also from the greater part of the city2 glistening in the sun1 it became a landmark for mariners far out at sea1 who from a distance could offer greetings to the gods there enshrined4 ,in the second century ,b4,c4 the northwest corner of the depression back of the ,stabian ,gate was selected as the site for a large theatre 7,e on ,plan ,,iii72 previously1 we may suppose1 temporary wooden structures had answered the purpose4 ,this location was chosen1 in accordance with the ,greek custom1 because the places for the greater part of the seats for the spectators could be easily cut in the natural slope1 which here had the shape of half a shallow saucer2 a superstructure was necessary only for the upper rows of seats4 ,the architect1 if not a ,greek1 was certainly of ,greek training4 ,south of the theatre an extensive colonnade 7,g7 was erected4 ,it was intended as a shelter for theatre-goers1 but was afterwards turned into barracks for gladiators4 ,with a similar purpose1 a colonnade of the ,doric order was built along two sides of the triangular level space about the ,greek temple 7#a74 ,in front of the north end1 where the two arms of the colonnade meet1 a high portico of the ,ionic order was erected 7,a7 facing the street1 thus forming a monumental entrance to the ,theatre4 ,the southwest side of the area was left unobstructed1 and the place1 by reason of its shape1 is called the ,forum ,triangulare1 ',three-cornered ,forum4' ,in connection with the building of the ,theatre land had been expropriated and cleared as far north as the first east and west street4 ,here1 near the entrance of the ,forum ,triangulare1 a ,palaestra for gymnastic exercises 7,c7 was built1 with funds left for public purposes by a benevolent citizen4 ,later1 probably not before the time of the ,roman colony1 a temple of ,isis 7,i7 was erected1 adjoining the ,theatre on the northeast4 ,early in the ,roman ,period1 not long after #hj ,b4,c41 a small roofed theatre 7,f7 was constructed east of the stage of the ,large ,theatre and of the area at the rear4 ,stabian ,street north and south of the ,small ,theatre was lined with private houses4 ,at the northeast corner of the block was a temple of ,zeus ,milichius 7,h71 seemingly of early date1 but entirely rebuilt about the time that the ,small ,theatre was erected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,part of the columns and entablature belonging to the beautiful portico at the entrance of the ,forum ,triangulare have been set up again and are seen in our illustration 7,fig4 #fj74 ,the brackets projecting from the rear wall were probably designed for statuettes or vases4 ,when the wall was rebuilt1 after the earthquake of #fc1 a change was made in at least one particular4 ,the small doorway at the middle1 now at right angles with the wall1 formerly passed obliquely through it1 opening toward the end of the promenade which was laid out in front of the colonnade at the left4 ,this promenade 7#b on ,plan ,,iii7 was separated from the area of the ,forum by a low wall2 on sunny winter days it must have been the most frequented walk in the city4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4--,,the ,,greek ,,temple ,,and ,,the ,,forum ,,triangulare1 ,,seen ,,from ,,the ,,south4 ,,restoration ,,by ,,weichardt ,besides the small doorway1 which was closed by a latticed gate hung from a wooden jamb1 there was at the left a massive double door with strong bolts1 inside of which was still a second door4 ,it seems odd that one entrance should be so securely closed1 while the fastenings of the other were so light4 ,ordinarily1 the large doors must have been kept shut1 while the small entrance was left open for everyday use2 but when there was to be a play in the ,theatre1 and the magistrate who gave the entertainment proceeded from the ,forum with a retinue in festal attire1 then the great doors were swung back in honor of the occasion1 and the opening of them formed part of an impressive ceremony4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--,portico at the entrance of the ,forum ,triangulare4 ,the colonnade within contained ninety-five ,doric columns4 ,it was only one story in height1 and the columns for this reason are more slender than those of the same order in the ,forum4 ,the entablature varies from the ,doric type only in respect to the architrave1 which consists of two bands4 ,the continuation of the colonnade along the southwest side was prevented by the nearness of the temple to the edge of the cliff4 ,here the magnificent view over the plain to the mountains and across the ,bay was unimpeded2 for the enjoyment of it1 two duumvirs in the early years of the ,empire built near the west corner of the temple a semicircular stone seat1 schola 7#d on ,plan ,,iii71 like those found in connection with tombs4 ,on the back they placed a sundial with the inscription3 ,l4 ,sepunius ,l4 f4 ,sandilianus1 ,m4 ,herennius ,a4 f4 ,epidianus duo viri i4 d4 scolam et horologium d4 s4 p4 f4 c4 7for de sua pecunia faciundum curarunt71--',lucius ,sepunius ,sandilianus the son of ,lucius1 and ,marcus ,herennius ,epidianus the son of ,aulus1 duumvirs with judiciary authority1 caused the seat and the sundial to be made at their own expense4' ,the same duumvirs1 as we have seen1 set up a sundial in the court of the temple of ,apollo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,view of the ,forum ,triangulare1 looking toward ,vesuvius4 ,at the left1 remains of the ,doric temple and of the altars and well house in front of it2 at the right1 exterior of the large theatre4 ,at the foot of the middle column at the north end of the colonnade is a broad basin of ,carrara marble resting on a finely proportioned1 fluted standard2 a jet of water fell into it from the end of a pipe which passed through the column above4 ,a little further forward is a pedestal 7#h7 veneered with marble on which is the inscription3 ,m4 ,claudio ,c4 f4 ,marcello patrono1--',to ,marcus ,claudius ,marcellus1 the son of ,gaius1 patron4' ,here stood a statue of ,marcellus1 the nephew of ,augustus1 a portrait statue of whom we have already found in the imperial chapel of the ,macellum4 ,the reason why he was honored with more than one statue is clear from the inscription before us3 he was patron of the colony4 ,the surface of the ,forum ,triangulare was considerably higher than the top of the city wall 7,k7 south of the barracks of the ,gladiators4 ,it seems likely that a flight of steps led down to the wall between the barracks and the long colonnade1 as seen in ,weichardt's restoration 7,plate ,,iii74 ,this explanation accounts for the existence of certain remains of walls 7,l on the plan71 the purpose of which is otherwise obscure4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of the ancient ,doric temple but little remains3 only the foundation1 which was high for a ,greek temple1 with a flight of steps in front2 two stumps of columns and traces of a third2 four capitals1 and portions of the right wall of the cella4 ,the plan of the cella1 however1 has been traced by means of excavations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,plan of the ,doric temple in the ,forum ,triangulare4 #a4 ,colonnade4 #b4 ,outer chamber of cella4 #c4 ,inner chamber of cella4 #d4 ,semicircular bench1 with sundial4 #e4 ,sepulchral enclosure4 #f4 ,altars4 #g4 ,well house4 ,the foundation1 unlike the podiums of the other temples at ,pompeii1 was built up in a series of broad1 high steps4 ,the number of the columns1 eleven on the sides and seven in front1 as in the temple of ,zeus at ,agrigentum1 has been calculated from the distances between the stumps4 ,of those in front two were opposite the corners of the cella1 where the edges of the flight of steps come to the stylobate 7,fig4 #fb74 ,only a narrow space was needed between the walls of the cella and the surrounding columns1 but in order to make the outward appearance more imposing the columns were set as far out as they would have been if a second series had been placed within1 between them and the cella2 according to the classification of ,vitruvius the temple was a pseudodipteral4 ,on account of the interval thus afforded between the entrance of the cella and the columns in front 7a little over sixteen feet71 it was thought proper to leave the number of columns uneven1 so that one stood over against the middle of the doorway4 ,the temple was of mixed construction1 part stone and part wood4 ,the entablature must have been of stone1 otherwise the intercolumniations would not have been so narrow4 ,the space between the entablature and the cella1 however1 could only have been bridged by means of timbers4 ,the stone used was the gray tufa1 but the capitals were of the more durable ,sarno limestone4 ,the surface was coated with stucco1 which in part at least was painted in bright colors4 ,the projecting edge of the eaves trough1 also covered with stucco1 was painted red1 yellow1 and black1 and ornamented with waterspouts in the shape of lions' heads alternating with rosettes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,the ,doric temple1 restored4 ,the proportions of the columns 7lower diameter #f4jg feet1 upper diameter #c4ab feet7 with their flaring capitals1 and the narrow intercolumniations 7,fig4 #fc71 point to an early period2 the archaic character of the capitals will be more fully appreciated if they are compared with those of the colonnade of the ,forum ,triangulare4 ,in respect to age this temple ranks with the oldest of those at ,selinunto2 it must have been built in the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,the cella1 as our plan shows1 was divided into two chambers4 ,in the inner chamber 7#c7 a large rectangular flag is embedded in the floor at one side so that a second 7indicated on the plan by dotted lines7 must have been near it2 the supports of a stone table in front of the image of the divinity perhaps rested on them4 ,on the long pedestal at the right of the cella stood a deer of terra cotta1 above life size1 of which some fragments have been found4 ,directly in front of the temple1 at the foot of the steps1 we find a monument of an altogether unusual character4 ,the respect with which it was regarded is evidenced by its location in the place ordinarily occupied by the principal altar4 ,it consists of a small enclosure of peculiar shape1 fenced in by an outer wall and a low inner wall4 ,to judge from its form1 it must have been a place of burial2 we shall find a tomb later the plan of which is quite similar 7,plan ,v1 right side1 #b71 and it is said that human bones were found here4 ,these walls are not earlier than the imperial period1 but they must have taken the place of an older structure2 for the altars were evidently put over near the east corner of the temple 7#f on the plan71 because the place which they would naturally have had was already occupied4 ,for a time--how long it would be idle to conjecture--this was beyond doubt the most important temple of the city2 the placing of the tomb in the most sacred spot in front of it suggests that the founder or founders of the city may have been buried here1 and afterwards revered as heroes4 ,instead of a single altar in front of the temple there are three1 all made of blocks of tufa1 two of them resting on a single foundation2 the third is built on the ground without a foundation1 and is of later date4 ,one altar is larger than the other two1 and its surface is divided into three parts4 ,not far from the altars are the remains of a small round structure 7#g on the plan1 shown in ,fig4 #fa7 about twelve feet in diameter4 ,the roof1 supported by eight ,doric columns1 was over the mouth of a well1 which had been driven down through the old lava bed till living water was found for cleaning the temple and for religious rites4 ,according to the ,oscan inscription on the architrave the well house was built by ,n4 ,trebius1 chief administrative officer 7meddix tuticus7 of the city4 ,it is impossible to determine what divinities were worshipped here4 ,the placing of two altars together1 one being divided into three parts1 and the addition of a third1 seem to imply that three divinities received worship in common1 and that besides these two other gods were honored in this sanctuary4 ,the terra cotta deer furnishes a clew1 but is not decisive evidence2 deer were sacred to several divinities1 among others to ,apollo and ,artemis4 ,a marble torso of about half life size1 found on the declivity south of the temple1 has been identified with some degree of probability as belonging to a statue of ,apollo4 ,perhaps originally ,apollo and ,artemis were honored here1 and with them ,leto2 but in an ,oscan inscription discovered in #ahig the temple seems to be designated as belonging to ,minerva 7p4 #bdj71 who was perhaps also worshipped with them4 ,at the time of the eruption the temple was in ruins4 ,it may have been in this condition only since the earthquake of #fc1 or for a longer time4 ,that the worship might not be abandoned a poor shrine was built among the ruins1 smaller than the old cella and a little further to the right2 a drum of a column1 set up on the flag in the floor of the cella1 served as a pedestal for the image of the divinity4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,large ,,theatre ,performances upon the stage were first given in ,rome in the year #cfd ,b4,c42 a pestilence was raging1 and the ,romans thought to appease the gods by a new kind of celebration in their honor4 ,the performers were brought from ,etruria1 and the exercises were limited to dancing1 with an accompaniment on the flute4 ,there was as yet no ,latin drama4 ,the first regular play was presented more than a century later1 in #bdj ,b4,c41 and the playwright was not a ,roman but a ,greek from ,tarentum1 ,livius ,andronicus1 who translated both tragedies and comedies from his native tongue4 ,the next dramatist was a ,campanian1 ,gnaeus ,naevius4 ,the building of a theatre was not yet thought of2 a temporary wooden platform was erected for the actors1 and the spectators spread themselves out on the green slope of a hillside facing it4 ,when the censor ,cassius ,longinus in #aed ,b4,c4 commenced the erection of a theatre on the ,palatine hill near the temple of ,cybele1 at whose festivals plays were given1 the ex-consul ,scipio ,nasica rose in the ,senate and in a speech full of feeling warned the ,romans not to countenance this foreign amusement1 on the ground that it would sap the foundations of the national character4 ,his words produced so deep an impression that the ,senate not only voted to pull down the part of the building already erected1 and to refuse permission for the erection of similar buildings in the future1 but even prohibited altogether the renting of seats at theatrical representations2 ,romans who wished to see a play must remain standing during a performance1 or sit on the ground4 ,naturally so stringent measures could not long remain in force4 ,nine years later ,mummius1 the destroyer of ,corinth1 presented dramas in connection with his triumph1 and put up wooden seats for the spectators4 ,the first stone theatre in ,rome was built by ,pompey1 the rival of ,caesar1 in #ee ,b4,c4 ,in ,pompeii1 on the contrary1 a permanent theatre had been erected at least a hundred years earlier4 ,the ,oscan culture was so completely merged in that of ,rome that our knowledge of it as an independent development is extremely slight2 and no information has come down to us regarding the history of the native drama4 ,from literary sources we know only of a crude form of popular comedy in which1 as in the ,italian ,commedia dell' arte1 there were stock characters distinguished by their masks1--,maccus a buffoon1 ,bucco a voracious1 talkative lout1 ,pappus an old man who is always cheated1 and ,dossennus a knave4 ,the scene of these exhibitions was always ,atella1 the ,gotham of ,campania1 whence they were called ,atellan farces4 ,the ,theatre at ,pompeii1 however1 is a proof that as early as the second century ,b4,c41 in at least one ,campanian city1 dramatic representations of a high order were given4 ,here1 perhaps1 as at ,athens1 they were associated with the worship of ,dionysus2 for the satyrs were companions of the ,wine-god1 and the head of a satyr1 carved in tufa1 still projects from the keystone of the arch at the outer end of one of the vaulted passages leading to the orchestra4 ,greek verse1 and native verse modelled after the ,greek1 must have gained a hearing at ,pompeii1 and the works of ,oscan poets--not a line of which has come down to us--must have stirred the hearts of the people long before ,livius ,andronicus1 and ,naevius1 who brought inspiration from his ,campanian home1 produced their dramas at ,rome4 ,in describing the ,theatre it will be best to take up in order the three main divisions common to ,greek and ,roman buildings of this class3 the cavea1 the large outer part shaped somewhat like half a funnel1 containing seats for spectators2 the orchestra1 the small semicircular portion enclosed by the cavea1 with an entrance1 parodos1 on either side2 and the stage1 facing the orchestra and the cavea4 ,the accompanying illustrations give a plan 7,fig4 #fd71 and a view of the ruins in their present condition 7,fig4 #fe72 the exterior as seen from the south is shown in ,fig4 #fa4 ,the cavea afforded seats for about five thousand persons4 ,the greater part of it1 from the orchestra to the vaulted corridor under the summa cavea 7,fig4 #fd1 #f71 lies on the slope of the hill2 the floor of the corridor is on a level with the ,forum ,triangulare4 ,the seats are arranged in three semicircular sections4 ,the lowest1 ima cavea 7#d71 next to the orchestra1 contains four broad ledges on which1 as well as in the orchestra itself1 the members of the city council1 the decurions1 could place their chairs1 the 'seats of double width4' ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,plan of the ,large ,theatre4 #a4 ,dressing room4 #b4 ,stage4 #c4 ,orchestra4 #d4 ,ima cavea4 #e4 ,media cavea4 #f4 ,summa cavea4 #g4 ,tribunalia4 #h4 ,tank for saffron water4 ,the middle section1 media cavea 7#e71 was much deeper1 extending from the ima cavea to the vaulted corridor4 ,it contained twenty rows of marble seats arranged like steps1 of which only a small portion is preserved4 ,on a part of one of these1 individual places1 a little less than #af inches wide1 are marked off by vertical lines in front1 and numbered2 they probably belonged to some corporation which found it necessary1 in order to avoid confusion1 to assign places to its members by number4 ,in ,rome the fourteen rows nearest the bottom were reserved for the knights4 ,whether a similar arrangement prevailed in the municipalities and the colonies is not known1 but if so the number reserved here must have been smaller4 ,the upper section1 summa cavea 7#f71 supported by the vault over the corridor1 was too narrow to have contained more than four rows of seats4 ,the ima cavea was entered from the orchestra4 ,the media cavea could be entered on the lower side from the passage 7diazoma1 praecinctio7 between it and the ima cavea1 which at the ends was connected by short flights of steps with the parodoi leading outside2 on the upper side six doors opened into the media cavea from the corridor1 from which flights of steps descended dividing the seats into five wedgelike blocks1 cunei1 with a small oblong block in addition on either side near the end of the stage4 ,the corridor was accessible by four doors1 one from the ,forum ,triangulare1 another from the open space between this and the rounded exterior of the ,theatre1 a third at the end of an alley east of the temple of ,isis1 and a fourth opening from a steep passage leading up from ,stabian ,street4 ,the summa cavea1 which for convenience we may call the gallery1 was entered by several doors 7the exact number is uncertain7 from a narrow vaulted passage along the outside4 ,this passage1 however1 did not extend the whole length of the gallery1 but stopped where the outer wall of the ,theatre joined that of the ,forum ,triangulare4 ,here a stairway led to it2 there was a second stairway at the rear of the ,palaestra1 and a third leading from the alley east of the temple of ,isis2 the three are shown on ,plan ,,iii4 ,at the edge of the ,forum ,triangulare1 a narrow stairway1 built in the thick wall1 led directly to the gallery 7,fig4 #fd74 ,the outer wall back of the gallery rose to a considerable height above the last row of seats4 ,on the inside near the top were projecting blocks of basalt 7seen in ,fig4 #fe71 containing round holes in which strong wooden masts were set2 from these the great awning1 velum1 was stretched over the cavea and orchestra to the roof of the stage1 protecting the spectators from the sun4 ,this sort of covering for the theatre was a ,campanian invention1 and here1 where the cavea opened toward the south1 was especially necessary4 ,in the ,coliseum1 and the well preserved theatre at ,orange1 the arrangements for fastening the masts are on the outside of the wall4 ,the upper part of the wall of our ,theatre has been rebuilt in modern times1 and it has been doubted whether the blocks of basalt and the pieces of cornice above with corresponding incisions are ancient2 the latter surely are not modern1 and their slightly wedged shape shows that from the beginning they must have been on the inside of the wall4 ,near the front of the orchestra at the right and the left were small rectangular platforms2 one is shown in ,fig4 #fe4 ,they were supported by the vaults over the entrances 7#g1 #g71 and were reached by small stairways near the ends of the stage4 ,they were called tribunals1 and here1 as in ,rome1 were no doubt reserved for the seats of those to whom special honor was paid4 ,one was set aside for the use of the magistrate who gave the play2 in ,rome the vestal virgins1 in accordance with a decree of ,augustus1 occupied the other1 and in ,pompeii their place was very likely taken by the city priestesses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--,view of the ,large ,theatre4 ,the shape of the orchestra is that of a semicircle enlarged in the direction of tangents at right angles with the diameter2 a complete circle could be inscribed in the space4 ,it was probably never used for a chorus1 but was occupied by the seats of prominent spectators1 particularly the city officials and their friends4 ,it was entered by means of the vaulted passages under the tribunals4 ,the steps leading from the orchestra upon the stage 7,fig4 #fe7 can be explained only on the supposition that even in the ,roman period1 to which the steps in their present form belong1 actors who took the part of persons arriving from distant places came upon the stage through the orchestra4 ,in the niches in front of the stage1 as we learn from a wall painting1 sat those charged with the maintenance of order in the ,theatre1 two perhaps in the rectangular niches1 or one in the semicircular niche in the middle4 ,the stage is long and narrow1 measuring #abj by #bd ,oscan feet2 the floor is a little more than three feet above the level of the orchestra4 ,the rear wall1 as in ancient theatres generally1 was built to represent the front of a palace1 entered by three doors1 and adorned with columns and niches for statues4 ,in each of the short sections of wall at the ends of the stage is a broad doorway1 extending across almost the entire space4 ,the long narrow room behind the stage1 used as a dressing room 7postscaenium71 was entered by a door at the rear1 which was reached by an inclined approach4 ,no trace of the roof of the stage remains1 but from the better preserved theatres at ,orange1 in the south of ,france1 and at ,aspendus1 in ,asia ,minor1 we infer that it sloped back toward the rear wall4 ,the floor was of wood4 ,the room underneath the stage was divided into several parts4 ,between the front wall and that just back of it 7seen in ,fig4 #fe7 was the place for the curtain1 which1 as in ,roman theatres1 was let down at the beginning of the play1 and raised at the end4 ,the space between the parallel walls must have been covered1 leaving only a narrow slit for the curtain2 otherwise it would not have been easy to go upon the stage from the steps in the orchestra4 ,underneath the place for the curtain is a low passage1 in the vaulted roof of which are two rows of holes1 a little more than a foot square1 cut in blocks of basalt1 and evidently designed to hold upright timbers4 ,this passage has in recent years been entirely cleared4 ,in the floor1 directly under the openings in the vaulted roof and corresponding with them1 were square holes4 ,in those nearer the front of the stage were remains of timbers and of square pieces of iron fitted to the ends of these1 a larger and a smaller piece for each hole4 ,it seems likely that1 as ,mazois suggested1 hollow upright beams were set in the holes1 and in them smaller hollow beams were placed1 in which were still smaller poles or iron rods2 by the sliding of these up and down1 the long horizontal pole on which the curtain was hung could be raised or lowered4 ,the use of the inner row of holes has not been satisfactorily explained4 ,the room under the right of the stage is so low1 about three feet1 that it could not have been available for any purpose1 but that at the left is higher1 and was used for theatrical machinery1 the scanty remains of which arouse our curiosity without satisfying it4 ,in the floor are set two oblong blocks of limestone1 about four feet in length4 ,each has in its upper surface a round hole1 between two and three inches deep1 with an iron socket1 in which there are still remains of an iron cap once fitted to the lower end of a vertical wooden shaft that turned in it2 the upper end of the shaft--assuming that the blocks are in their original position--must have revolved in a socket fixed in one of the joists of the stage floor4 ,there is besides on the upper surface of each block a rectangular depression1 and on either side a shallow incision2 the purpose is altogether obscure4 ,a third stone1 similar to these two1 is set in the north wall of the same room1 and opposite it was fitted another2 here1 then1 a horizontal shaft turned2 there was a similar pair of stones at the left end of the place for the curtain4 ,these arrangements suggest the crane-like machine by which floating figures were brought upon the stage1 as ,medea in the play of ,euripides riding in a chariot drawn by dragons1 and the familiar deus ex machina2 such machinery1 according to ,pollux 7,onomast4 ,,iv4 #abh71 was placed on the left side of the stage4 ,when plays were presented1 the front of the palace at the back of the stage was concealed by painted scenery4 ,as several pieces might be produced one after the other1 it was necessary to arrange for the shifting of scenes4 ,this was accomplished by drawing one set of decorations off to the sides1 thus bringing the next set into view 7scaena ductilis72 the ends were changed by turning the periactoi1 huge three-sided prisms1 each side of which was suited to a different scene 7scaena versilis74 ,in spite of the clumsiness of the arrangements1 as contrasted with those of the best modern theatres1 the mounting of plays was artistic and impressive1 and compares favorably with that of ,shakespeare's time4 ,the only allusions to matters connected with theatrical representations at ,pompeii are in inscriptions relating to actors1 as ,sorex 7p4 #agf74 ,a number of graffiti scratched on walls in various parts of the city mention an ,actius ,anicetus1 whose name is given in full in an inscription found at ,puteoli1 ,c4 ,ummidius ,actius ,anicetus4 ,he seems to have been a very popular actor of pantomime1 at the head of a troupe4 ,one of the inscriptions reads3 ,acti1 amor populi1 cito redi1--',actius1 darling of the people1 come back quickly6' ,the theatre in antiquity was by no means reserved for scenic representations alone4 ,it was a convenient place for bringing the people together1 and was used for public gatherings of the most varied character4 ,in the theatre at ,tarentum the memorable assembly met which heaped insults upon the ,roman ambassadors and precipitated war with ,rome4 ,at ,pergamos ,king ,mithridates was to be crowned in the theatre by a descending ,victory1 but by some mishap the wreath fell to the floor1 an omen of evil4 ,when the ,ephesians1 stirred up by ,demetrius the silversmith1 wished to take measures against ,paul and his companions1 ,they rushed with one accord into the theatre4 ,on such occasions we may suppose that the front of the palace at the rear of the stage served as a background without other decoration4 ,this use of the theatre for general purposes was a ,greek rather than a ,roman custom1 but the theatre itself in ,italy was an importation from ,greece2 and we may suppose that the theatre at ,pompeii was on more than one occasion the scene of notable demonstrations4 ,our ,theatre1 as is evident from the character of the construction1 in its original form belonged to the ,tufa ,period1 but was rebuilt in ,roman times4 ,some particulars in regard to the rebuilding are given in an inscription3 ,m4 ,m4 ,holconii ,rufus et ,celer cryptam1 tribunalia1 theatrum1--',marcus ,holconius ,rufus and ,marcus ,holconius ,celer 7built7 the crypt1 the tribunals1 and the part designed for spectators1' that is1 the vaulted corridor under the gallery1 the platforms over the entrances to the orchestra1 and the cavea4 ,the two ,holconii lived in the time of ,augustus4 ,the elder1 ,rufus1 was duumvir for the fourth term in #c-b ,b4,c4 ,the work on the ,theatre was probably done about that time2 for soon afterwards1 before his fifth duumvirate1 a statue in his honor was erected in the ,theatre1 as we learn from an inscription4 ,later1 in #ac-ad ,a4,d41 the younger ,holconius also1 when he had been chosen quinquennial duumvir1 was honored with a statue4 ,the masonry of the corridor and of the exterior arches supporting it1 as well as of the tribunals1 well agrees with that in vogue in the ,augustan ,age2 we find brick-shaped blocks of tufa and reticulate work4 ,the marble seats in the cavea may be assigned to the same period2 in the original structure the benches must have been of tufa4 ,about the same time the present wall at the back of the stage was built1 in the place of an older and much simpler facade1 but not by the ,holconii2 if this also had been rebuilt by them1 it would have been mentioned in the inscription4 ,possibly the tribunals were an addition due to the ,holconii4 ,the corridor under the gallery1 however1 must have been built in the place of an earlier corridor1 for the piers on the outside rest on foundations similar in character to the oldest parts of the building4 ,as these piers served no other purpose than to sustain the passage opening into the section of seats above the corridor1 this must have formed a part of the original plan4 ,the statues of both the ,holconii probably stood in niches in the wall at the back of the stage4 ,holconius ,rufus was further honored with a monument of some sort in the cavea4 ,the lowest seat of the media cavea had at the middle1 directly opposite the stage1 a double width for a distance of about five feet1 gained by removing a portion of the next seat above4 ,here was an inscription in bronze letters3 ,m4 ,holconio ,m4 f4 ,rufo1 ,,ii4 v4 i4 d4 quinquiens1 iterum quinquennali1 tribuno militum a populo1 flamini ,augusti1 patrono coloniae1 decurionum decreto1--',dedicated in accordance with a decree of the city council to ,marcus ,holconius ,rufus the son of ,marcus1 five times duumvir with judiciary authority1 twice quinquennial duumvir1 military tribune by the choice of the people1 priest of ,augustus1 and patron of the colony4' ,the object placed here was of bronze1 and was made secure by fastenings set in twelve holes2 what it was is altogether uncertain4 ,the ancients had the custom of conferring lasting honor upon a deserving man after death by placing in the theatre a seat inscribed with his name4 ,we should be glad to believe that a 'seat of double width1' bisellium1 the use of which was allowed to members of the city council1 was placed here1 but the arrangement of the twelve holes is difficult to reconcile with this explanation4 ,the architect employed by the ,holconii1 a freedman1 was not honored with a statue1 but his name was transmitted to posterity in an inscription placed in the outer wall near the east entrance to the orchestra3 ,m4 ,artorius ,m4 libertus ,primus1 architectus1--',marcus ,artorius ,primus1 freedman of ,marcus1 architect4' ,the plan of the ,theatre could not have been taken from a ,roman model2 it conforms1 as we should have expected1 to the ,greek type4 ,in the ,roman theatre the orchestra was in the form of a semicircle1 of which the diameter was represented by the stage4 ,in ,greek theatres1 on the contrary1 the stage according to ,vitruvius was laid out on one side of a square inscribed in the circle of the orchestra2 the orchestra1 as shown by existing remains1 in most cases was either a complete circle or was so extended by tangents at the sides that a circle could be inscribed in it4 ,the latter is the case in our ,theatre1 of which the orchestra has essentially the same form as that of the theatre of ,dionysus at ,athens4 ,the stage falls under the limit of height1--five feet1--allowed by ,vitruvius for the stage of the ,roman theatre1 not to mention the height of ten to twelve feet specified for that of the ,greek type4 ,the reason assigned for the moderate elevation of the ,roman stage is that the orchestra was occupied by the seats of senators1 whose view would be obstructed if more than a moderate elevation should be given to the front of the stage4 ,the orchestra of our ,theatre was apparently from the beginning intended for the use of spectators1 not for a chorus4 ,the conclusions reached by ,dr4 ,william ,doerpfeld in regard to the stage of the ,greek theatre1 if borne out by the facts1 would necessitate a complete abandonment of previous views on the subject4 ,his theory1 in brief1 is1 that not only the chorus but also the actors went through their parts not on the stage but in the orchestra1 which had the form of a circle1 and that what we are accustomed to consider the front wall of the stage was rather the rear wall of the platform in the orchestra on which the actors and chorus stood1 this wall being laid out on a tangent of the circle and having a height of twelve feet1 as we may understand from ,vitruvius and from the remains of the theatre at ,epidaurus4 ,the main reasons advanced in support of this theory are that the platform currently regarded as the stage1 which according to ,vitruvius and the existing remains was hardly more than ten feet wide1 must have been too narrow to allow free movement on the part of the actors1 and that the height above the orchestra was too great to admit of the close relation between the actors and the chorus1 of which there is abundant evidence in the extant dramas4 ,according to ,dr4 ,doerpfeld1 the stage came into existence in ,italy first1 and in the ,roman period1 when there was no longer any chorus2 a platform five feet high was built for the actors1 extending to the middle of the orchestra1 so that this now took the form of a semicircle and could be used for the seats of spectators4 ,to undertake the examination of ,dr4 ,doerpfeld's theory in detail would not be pertinent here2 yet we cannot bring our description of the ,theatre at ,pompeii to a close without inquiring whether this structure1 which is perhaps a century older than the oldest ,roman theatre1 shows any trace of the arrangement which the theory assumes4 ,unfortunately1 the evidence is not conclusive for either a negative or an affirmative answer4 ,just as this second edition goes to press a joint investigation of the whole matter has been undertaken by the author and ,dr4 ,doerpfeld1 whose work is being facilitated by excavations4 ,it is yet too early to anticipate the conclusions to which the evidence thus gained will lead2 we may hazard a tentative statement in regard to only one or two points4 ,it now appears probable that the present stage was not constructed at the same time with the other parts of the ,theatre1 but that it is a later addition4 ,there is no trace of an earlier stage1 and there is nothing to indicate that this was built against the part of the structure designed for the spectators4 ,we might assume that this earlier stage was placed at a slight distance from the other parts of the building1 and that the entrances of the orchestra1 the parodoi1 lay between1 were it not for the fact that the outer doorways of the present parodoi--notably that on the west side with the head of a satyr on the keystone--unquestionably belong to the original structure2 and we should not be warranted in assuming two entrances to the orchestra on each side4 ,at the same time it is evident that the construction of the tribunalia must have involved a rebuilding of this part of the ,theatre1 and it is possible that originally passages led from the outer doors of the present parodoi1 not to the orchestra1 but to the ranges of seats4 ,in that case1 assuming that the stage was slightly removed from the rest of the structure1 we may freely grant that the acting may have gone on in front of it rather than upon it1 and that this may have been a ,greek theatre according to ,dr4 ,doerpfeld's view4 ,but we are here dealing only with possibilities2 it is to be hoped that further investigation will bring to light data for a final solution of the problem4 ,in the open space between the ,theatre1 the ,forum ,triangulare1 and the ,palaestra there is a deep reservoir for water 7,d71 square on the outside and round within4 ,it was evidently used for the sprinklings1 sparsiones1 with saffron-colored water1 by which on summer days the heat of the ,theatre was mollified4 ,that such sprinklings were in vogue in ,pompeii is known from announcements of gladiatorial combats1 painted on walls1 in which they are advertised together with an awning as part of the attraction1--sparsiones1 vela erunt4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,small ,,theatre ,the names of the builders of the ,small ,theatre are known from an inscription which is found in duplicate in different parts of the building3 ,c4 ,quinctius ,c4 f4 ,valgus1 ,m4 ,porcius ,m4 f4 duoviri decurionum decreto theatrum tectum faciundum locarunt eidemque probarunt1--',gaius ,quinctius ,valgus the son of ,gaius and ,marcus ,porcius the son of ,marcus1 duumvirs1 in accordance with a decree of the city council let the contract for building the covered theatre1 and approved the work4' ,later the same officials1 when1 after the customary interval1 they had been elected quinquennial duumvirs1 built the ,amphitheatre 'at their own expense' 7p4 #bab74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--,plan of the ,small ,theatre4 #a4 ,dressing room4 #b4 ,stage4 #c1 #c4 ,tribunals4 ,when two magistrates set up an inscription in duplicate1 ordinarily the name of one appears first in one copy1 while that of the second is put first in the other4 ,in all four inscriptions1 however1 two at the ,small ,theatre and two at the ,amphitheatre1 ,valgus has the first place4 ,the reason in the case of the ,amphitheatre is not far to seek3 ,valgus was the man of means1 who furnished the money for the building1 but allowed his colleague and friend to share in the honor4 ,we may also believe that1 while the ,small ,theatre was erected 'in accordance with a decree of the city council1' and hence presumably at public expense1 a part of the funds was contributed by ,valgus1 who on this account received honor above his less opulent colleague4 ,the son-in-law of this ,valgus1 ,publius ,servilius ,rullus1 has been undeservedly immortalized by a speech of ,cicero in opposition to a bill brought forward by him in regard to the division of the public lands4 ,from the same oration we learn that ,valgus1 a man without scruples1 had taken advantage of the reign of terror instituted by ,sulla to acquire vast wealth1 particularly in the way of landed property4 ,among his estates was one in the country of the ,hirpini1 near the city of ,aeclanum 7south of ,beneventum71 which made him its patron and for which1 as shown by an inscription1 he repaired the walls destroyed in the ,civil ,war4 ,he was undoubtedly one of the leading men in the colony founded by ,sulla at ,pompeii1 and very likely sought by large public benefactions to cast his former life into oblivion4 ,the ,small ,theatre must have been built in the early years of the ,roman colony1 not long after #hj ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--,view of the ,small ,theatre4 ,a covered auditorium in the immediate vicinity of a large unroofed theatre was not uncommon4 ,about the time of the destruction of ,pompeii the poet ,statius1 praising the magnificence of his native city ,naples1 speaks of 'twin theatres in a single structure1 one open and one roofed1'--geminam molem nudi tectique theatri4 ,our only clew to the special use of such a building1 however1 is derived from the one erected at ,athens by ,herodes ,atticus1 in the reign of ,hadrian4 ,this was called an ,odeum1 that is1 according to the derivation of the word1 a room for singing2 musical entertainments were held there1 especially1 we may assume1 those musical contests which had so important a place in ancient festivals4 ,the purpose of the roof was doubtless to add to the acoustic effect4 ,the plan of the ,large ,theatre has been discussed at so great length that a few words will suffice in relation to that of the smaller structure 7,fig4 #ff74 ,that it might be possible to cover the enclosed space with a roof1 the upper rows of seats were reduced in length1 and the whole building--cavea1 orchestra1 and stage--was brought into an oblong shape2 only the orchestra and the lower rows of seats in the cavea form a complete semicircle4 ,the pyramidal roof was supported by a wall on all four sides2 in the upper part of the wall1 between the roof and the highest row of seats1 there were probably windows4 ,the seating capacity of the building was about fifteen hundred4 ,the lowest section of the cavea1 as in the ,large ,theatre1 consisted of four low1 broad ledges on which the chairs of the decurions could be placed4 ,above these is a parapet1 behind which is a passage accessible at either end by semicircular steps4 ,the broad range of seats above was divided into five wedge-shaped blocks by flights of steps2 only two of these1 however1 extended as far as the passage running along the upper side1 which could be reached from the alley at the rear of the building by means of stairways connecting with outside doors4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,section of a seat in the ,small ,theatre4 ,the seats were of masonry capped with slabs of tufa about seven inches thick4 ,they had depressions in the side and in the top1 as may be seen in the accompanying section 7,fig4 #fh74 ,they were thus made somewhat more comfortable1 the person in front being less subject to disturbance from the feet of one sitting on the next seat behind2 a saving of room was also effected--an important consideration in the construction of a small auditorium4 ,the tribunals 7#c1 #c7 differed from those in the ,large ,theatre in that they were shut off entirely from the seats of the cavea by a sharply inclined wall1 and were entered only from the stage1 by means of narrow stairways2 in this way the exclusive character of the seats was made still more prominent4 ,besides the platform itself1 measuring only about #aa by #i feet1 three seats above each tribunal were set off with it by the same division wall and were available for the occupants4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4--;,an ,atlas4 ,the sloping wall between the tribunal and the cavea on each side ends with a kneeling ,atlas 7,fig4 #fi72 large vases probably stood on the two brackets supported by these figures4 ,the end of the parapet on either side is embellished with a lion's foot of tufa 7,fig4 #gj74 ,these rather coarse sculptures illustrate the character of the art that was brought to ,pompeii by the ,roman colony4 ,the workmanship is by no means fine1 yet the muscles of the figures are well rendered1 and the effect is pleasing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--,ornament at the ends of the parapet4 ,the pavement of the orchestra 7seen in ,fig4 #fg7 consists of small flags of colored marble4 ,an inscription in bronze letters informs us that it was laid by the duumvir ,marcus ,oculatius ,verus pro ludis1 that is instead of the games which he would otherwise have been expected to provide4 ,at the ends of the stage1 as in the case of the ,large ,theatre1 there were two broad entrances4 ,the wall at the rear1 which was veneered with marble1 had the customary three doors1 and in addition two small doors1 one near each end4 ,the long dressing room behind the stage had likewise two broad entrances at the ends1 besides four at the rear4 ,apparently the two narrow doors near the ends of the wall at the rear of the stage1 and the two doors corresponding with them at the back of the dressing room1 were for the use of those who had seats on the tribunals2 they could thus enter and leave their places even when the large side doors of both stage and dressing room had been shut--as undoubtedly happened immediately after the procession 7pompa7 had passed across the stage4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,the ,,theatre ,,colonnade1 ,,used ,,as ,,barracks ,,for ,,gladiators ',behind the stage1' says ,vitruvius 7,v4 ix471 speaking of the arrangements of the theatre1 'colonnades should be built1 that shelter may be afforded to spectators in case of rain and a place provided for making preparations for the stage4' ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--,plan of the ,theatre ,colonnade1 showing its relation to the two theatres4 #a4 ,passage leading from ,stabian ,street4 #b4 ,entrance4 #c4 ,doorkeeper's room4 #d4 ,passage to ,large ,theatre1 walled up4 #e4 ,stairway from the ,forum ,triangulare4 #f4 ,exedra--athletes' waiting room4 #g4 ,room with remains of costumes4 #h4 ,guard room4 #i4 ,stairway to overseer's rooms4 #aj4 ,kitchen8 #aa4 ,mess room4 ,this maxim of ancient architects was applied at ,pompeii in a generous way2 in connection with the theatres there was an extensive system of colonnades4 ,to understand their use it will be necessary first to view them as they were in the earlier time1 and then to take account of later changes4 ,in the ,oscan ,period1 and afterwards to the end of the ,republic1 when a performance in the ,large ,theatre was interrupted by a shower1 the spectators in the upper seats could take refuge under the colonnade of the ,forum ,triangulare2 those below found shelter under the rectangular colonnade at the rear1 which was obviously built for the purpose1 and may be called1 by way of distinction1 the ,theatre ,colonnade 7,fig4 #ga74 ,it contained seventy-four ,doric columns1 and enclosed a large open area4 ,the main entrance 7#b7 was near the northeast corner4 ,the entrance hall on the side of the colonnade was supported by three ,ionic columns4 ,it was connected at the north end with a short colonnade on the east side of the area back of the stage of the ,theatre2 this led to the large door at the east end of the stage and the corresponding parodos of the orchestra2 the wall at #d on our plan is a later addition4 ,the ,theatre ,colonnade must have been used also as a promenade on days when there was no performance2 it was connected by a broad passage 7#a7 with ,stabian ,street4 ,this colonnade seems too far away to have served as a place for making preparations for the stage2 another was erected for that purpose4 ,at the northwest corner a broad stairway leads down from the ,forum ,triangulare 7#e2 cf4 ,fig4 #fe72 from the foot a small and inconvenient flight of steps leads into the area at the rear of the stage4 ,in a line with the stairway is a series of small rooms opening toward the south4 ,these do not belong to the original structure4 ,in their place there was once a colonnade1 which faced the north and connected the large stairway with the short colonnade1 the remains of which are still to be seen on the east side of the area2 the back of it was at the same time the back of the north division of the ,theatre ,colonnade4 ,there was thus a covered passage extending from the foot of the stairway along two sides of the area to the east entrance of the stage and of the orchestra1 which would answer very well to the second part of ,vitruvius's dictum2 but it had also another important use4 ,the portico of the ,forum ,triangulare1 as we have seen1 was at the same time the monumental entrance of the ,theatre1 and the large doorway at the left was used only for the ceremonious admission of the city officials1 who with their retinue formed a procession in the ,forum and wended their way hither in festal attire in order to open the performance--a formality that may be compared with the parade with which the ,roman games were opened at ,rome4 ,the route of such a procession1 after entering the ,forum ,triangulare1 is now clear4 ,it passed along under the colonnade adjoining the ,theatre1 beyond the entrances to the upper portion of the cavea2 turned and descended the broad stairway 7#e71 proceeded under the colonnade along the south and east sides of the area behind the stage1 and finally came upon the stage through the wide doorway at the east end4 ,it was indeed possible to pass beyond the stage entrance and proceed through the parodos directly to the seats of the orchestra and the lowest section of the cavea2 but it is more in accordance with the fondness of the ancients for display to suppose that the procession moved across the stage1 receiving as it passed the plaudits of the great audience1 and emerged from the entrance opposite that by which it came in1 disbanding in the court1 whence the members could go to their respective seats4 ,we need not here raise the question whether the procession passed upon the stage behind the triangular side screens 7periactoi71 or whether these were set in place only after it had already passed4 ,when the colonnade on the south side of the court had been replaced by rooms1 and the ,theatre ,colonnade itself had been transformed into barracks1 this route of the processions was blocked4 ,they could still pass down the street in front of the temple of ,isis1 turn into ,stabian ,street1 and reach the stage through the passage at the rear of the ,small ,theatre2 but it does not seem probable that they followed this course1 for the reason that there are three large stepping stones in the street before one comes to the entrance of the passage2 these would have proved a serious obstruction1 and would undoubtedly have been removed had the processions gone this way4 ,we may rather believe that before the usual route was closed the processions themselves had been given up4 ,they were still in vogue1 however1 when the ,small ,theatre was built2 otherwise the purpose of the wide entrances at the ends of the stage and of the room back of it is not clear4 ,moreover the sidewalk in front of the ,small ,theatre1 on ,stabian ,street1 is of an altogether unusual width1 and was apparently covered by a portico4 ,we infer that the procession to this theatre entered at the west end of the stage1 and passed out at the east end2 since it could not disperse on the street1 it would turn where the sidewalk was broadest1 go back through the room at the rear of the stage into the court1 and there disband4 ,the discontinuance of the processions must then be assigned to the period between the building of the ,small ,theatre and the changing over of the ,theatre ,colonnade into barracks1 which1 to judge from the masonry and the remains of the decoration1 did not take place before the time of ,nero4 ,the processions were abandoned either in the troubled period of the ,civil ,wars1 or in the early years of the ,empire2 if in the latter period1 their discontinuance may have been due to legislation connected with the reorganization of the ,empire under ,augustus1 or to the overshadowing of them by more imposing ceremonies introduced in connection with the religious festivals4 ,our information in regard to the later use of the ,theatre ,colonnade is indeed meagre2 not a single inscription bearing upon it has been found4 ,yet when we take into account the changes that were made in it1 and the objects found there1 the supposition that it was turned into barracks for gladiators in the time of the ,early ,empire1 and so used till the destruction of the city1 is seen to harmonize with almost all the facts4 ,first1 rooms were built on all sides behind the colonnade2 on the north side they took the place of the south arm of the colonnade in the area back of the stage4 ,they were in two series1 one above the other2 the upper rooms were entered from a low wooden gallery accessible by three stairways4 ,they could not have been intended for shops2 they were too small1 measuring on the average hardly more than twelve feet square1 and the doors were too narrow4 ,there were no doors opening from one room into the other4 ,both lower and upper rooms1 we may conclude1 were used for men's quarters4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4--,,the ,,barracks ,,of ,,the ,,gladiators1 ,,looking ,,south ,in the middle of the south side a large room was left1 with the front open toward the area1 an exedra 7#f74 ,on the east side was a still larger room the front of which is divided off by pillars2 other rooms open from it1 and among them is one 7#aj7 with several hearths1 evidently intended for a mess kitchen1 if the hearths are ancient2 they may be modern4 ,over these rooms was a second story1 reached by a broad stairway 7#i74 ,the immediate connection of the colonnade with the area behind the stage was now cut off by a wall 7#d72 there was left only a small door in the corner1 which could be readily fastened4 ,the entrance from the passage leading to ,stabian ,street 7#b7 was provided with doors and placed under the control of a guard1 for whom a special room was built at one side 7#c74 ,there was a third entrance1 narrow and easily closed1 at the northwest corner1 where a flight of steps connected the foot of the broad stairway 7#e7 with the landing of the stairs leading to the wooden gallery4 ,thus a complete transformation was effected4 ,the promenade for theatre-goers had become barracks1 with a great number of cell-like rooms1 a mess kitchen1 and narrow1 guarded entrances4 ,soldiers1 however1 could not have been kept here2 in the period to which the rebuilding belongs1 garrisons were not stationed in the cities of ,italy except the ,capital4 ,on the other hand1 gladiatorial combats in ,pompeii were so frequent1 and on so large a scale1 that a special building for the housing and guarding of gladiators would seem to have been a necessity2 such a building would naturally have been erected by the city and placed at the disposal of those who gave the games4 ,as early as the time of ,augustus1 ,aulus ,clodius ,flaccus brought forward forty pairs of gladiators in a single day1 and on various occasions afterwards as many as thirty pairs were engaged4 ,how well the colonnade was now suited for gladiators' quarters may be seen from a glance at the plan4 ,the area would serve as a practice court1 the exedra on the south side 7#f71 protected from the sun1 as the station for the trainers and lounging room for men awaiting their turn2 the mess room would be the large apartment adjoining the kitchen 7#aa71 while the quarters of the chief trainer1 lanista1 and his assistants1 would be in the second story1 reached by the broad stairway 7#i74 ,the small rooms were poorly decorated1 in the fourth style4 ,there were better paintings only in the exedra4 ,on the rear wall of this room was the oft repeated group of ,mars and ,venus2 on the side walls1 gladiatorial weapons were represented1 piled up in heaps1 after the manner of trophies1 about eight feet high4 ,the reference to the purpose of the building1 as in the case of the paintings in the ,macellum1 is obvious4 ,the columns about the area were originally white2 after the rebuilding the unfluted lower part was painted red1 the upper part yellow4 ,four columns1 however1 two at the middle of the east side1 and the two opposite them on the west side1 were painted blue1 probably to serve as bounds in marking off the area for athletic exercises4 ,the objects found in the barracks are recorded in the journal of the excavations4 ,they indicate that at the time of the eruption the rooms were occupied4 ,everything of value was removed from those on the north side by the survivors1 but the south half was apparently left undisturbed1 and has yielded a rich harvest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4--;,a gladiator's greave4 ,in ten rooms the excavators found a great quantity of weapons of the kinds used by gladiators1 including fifteen helmets1 a shield1 greaves 7,fig4 #gb71 several broad belts trimmed with metal1 and a couple of armlets2 there were more than a hundred scales of horn belonging to a coat of mail1 and a half dozen shoulder protectors1 galeri1 which the net fighter1 retiarius1 who carried no shield and was armed only with a net and a trident1 wore on his left shoulder4 ,the weapons were mostly for defence1 but remains of a few offensive weapons were found1 as the head of a lance1 a sword1 and a couple of daggers4 ,in the same room with the daggers and the sword 7perhaps #g7 were the remains of two wooden chests containing cloth with gold thread2 this may have been used in gladiators' costumes4 ,the helmets are characteristic 7,fig4 #gc74 ,they are furnished with a visor1 and part of them have a broad rim1 richly ornamented with reliefs2 their shape corresponds exactly with that of the helmets seen in paintings and reliefs representing gladiatorial combats4 ,the shield1 which is round and only about sixteen inches in diameter1 would have been quite useless in military service4 ,in a room under the stairs the skeleton of a horse was found1 with remains of trappings richly mounted with bronze2 one class of gladiators1 the equites1 fought on horseback4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4--;,a gladiator's helmet4 ,one of the small rooms on the west side 7#h7 was used as a guard room4 ,here were the stocks1 the remains of which are shown in ,fig4 #gd2 they were fastened to a board4 ,at one end of the under piece was a lock1 by which the bar passed through the rings could be made secure4 ,the men confined had the choice of lying down or sitting in an uncomfortable position4 ,the four persons whose skeletons were found in this room1 however1 were not in the stocks at the time of the eruption4 ,that such means of discipline should be employed in controlling gladiators is entirely consistent with ancient methods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--,remains of stocks found in the guard room of the barracks4 ,besides these finds1 there were others not so easily explained4 ,in the two rooms in which the spearhead and the other offensive weapons were found1 there were eighteen skeletons1 among them that of a woman richly adorned with gold jewelry2 she had a necklace with emeralds1 earrings1 and two armbands1 besides rings and other ornaments1 and in a casket a cameo1 the elaborate setting of which is in part preserved4 ,in a room near the southwest corner the bones of a new-born infant were found in an earthen jar4 ,a number of weights also were discovered1 and vessels of terra cotta and glass2 in three rooms there were more than six dozen small saucers4 ,were the barracks wholly given up to gladiators at the time of the eruption1 or were some other persons allowed to have quarters here1 perhaps some of those whose houses had been destroyed by the earthquake of #fc and had not been rebuilt8 ,a certain conclusion cannot be reached4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,palaestra ,the oblong court north of the ,large ,theatre1 between the entrance of the ,forum ,triangulare and the temple of ,isis1 is the ,palaestra4 ,originally1 the enclosed area was entirely surrounded by a colonnade1 with ten columns on the sides and five at each end2 but at a comparatively late period1 probably after the earthquake of #fc1 the columns at the east end were removed and the space thus gained was added to the temple of ,isis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,plan of the ,palaestra4 #a4 ,colonnade4 #b4 ,pedestal4 #c4 ,dressing rooms4 ,a number of the columns on the other three sides are still standing4 ,they are ,doric but of slender proportions1 the height1 #aja_/b feet1 being equal to eight diameters1 while the intercolumniations measure about nine feet4 ,it is doubtful whether the columns carried a complete entablature2 more likely the roof rested directly on a wooden architrave4 ,the building clearly dates from the pre-,roman period4 ,the columns are of tufa coated with stucco1 the dimensions of the colonnade 7#ij by #cf ,oscan feet7 reduce to the early standard of measurement2 and an ,oscan inscription was found here which says that the building was erected by the ,quaestor ,vibius ,vinicius1 with money which ,vibius ,adiranus had left by will to the ,pompeian youth4 ,the translation of the word vereiiai1 'to the youth1' otherwise doubtful1 is confirmed by various facts which indicate that the building was intended as a small palaestra or open-air gymnasium for boys4 ,while the ,palaestra had its original length1 the entrance1 which is now nearer the east end1 was at the middle of the north side4 ,opposite it1 near the colonnade on the south side1 is a pedestal of tufa1 before which stands a small table of the same stone 7,fig4 #gf74 ,the pedestal is reached by narrow steps4 ,here stood a statue of the patron divinity of the ,palaestra4 ,when an athletic contest was held1 the wreath intended for the victor was laid on the stone table before the god2 after the award had been made1 the successful contestant took up the wreath and dedicated it to the divinity by mounting the steps and placing it on the head of the statue4 ,it is evident from the height of the steps that the contestants were boys1 not men4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--,view of the ,palaestra1 with the pedestal1 table1 and steps4 ,on the pedestal was undoubtedly a statue of ,hermes1 but not of the type which we have already met with in the court of the temple of ,apollo 7p4 #hh71 and shall find later in the palaestra of the ,stabian ,baths 7p4 #bjj72 a base of this sort can hardly have been intended for a herm4 ,no trace of the missing statue has been discovered4 ,another statue stood at the foot of one of the columns on the south side4 ,it is a copy of the doryphorus of ,polyclitus1 and is now in the ,naples ,museum 7,fig4 #gg74 ,though it has been restored1 there seems no good reason to believe that the restoration is incorrect1 and that the figure is really a ,hermes1 having originally carried on the left shoulder a herald's staff with entwined snakes1 caduceus1 instead of a spear4 ,for the adornment of a place devoted to athletic exercises nothing could have been more appropriate than a copy of the doryphorus as an ideal of youthful strength1 of harmonious physical development2 and the ,elder ,pliny bears witness 7,n4 ,h4 ,,xxxiv4 v4 #ah71 that it was customary to set up such statues in a palaestra4 ,this figure had no pedestal2 it stood on the ground1 a man among men4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--;,doryphorus4 ,statue found in the ,palaestra4 ,at the west end of the court were dressing rooms where the boys1 before exercising1 could anoint themselves and afterwards could remove the oil and dirt with the strigil2 such a dressing room in connection with a bath was called a destrictarium4 ,water was brought into the court by a lead pipe1 which passed through one of the columns at the right of the entrance and threw a jet either into a basin standing below or into the gutter in front of the colonnade4 ,it would be of interest to know what athletic exercises were practised in the ,palaestra2 but apart from the pedestal with its steps and table no characteristic remains were found here4 ,the exercises in the ,roman period undoubtedly differed somewhat from those practised at the time when the building was erected1 when the ,greek system was everywhere in vogue4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,isis ,the loftiest and purest religious conceptions of the ancient ,egyptians were embodied in the myth of ,isis and ,osiris1 which in the third millennium ,b4,c4 had already become the basis of a firmly established cult4 ,these conceptions approached the monotheistic idea of an omnipresent god1 and with them was associated a belief in a blessed immortality4 ,isis was the goddess of heaven1 and ,osiris was the ,sun-god1 her brother and husband1 who is slain at evening by his brother ,set1--the ,greek ,typhon1--ruler of darkness4 ,their child ,horus1 also called ,harpocrates1 born after the father's death1 is the fresh sun of the new day1 the successor and avenger of his father1 the conqueror of ,set2 he becomes a new ,osiris1 while the father1 ever blessed1 rules in the realm of the dead1 the kingdom of the ,west4 ,man1 the followers of ,isis taught1 is an incarnation of deity1 whose destiny is also his4 ,he is himself an ,osiris1 and will enter upon a better state of existence beyond the grave if a favorable judgment is passed upon him in the trial given to the dead4 ,the worship of ,isis1 associated with ,mysteries from an early period1 was reorganized by the first ,ptolemy with the help of ,manetho1 an ,egyptian priest1 and ,timotheus1 a ,greek skilled in the ,eleusinian ,mysteries4 ,the purpose of the king was to unite his ,egyptian and ,greek subjects in one faith1 and the effort was more successful than might have been anticipated4 ,in its new ,alexandrian form the worship of ,isis and ,osiris1 or ,serapis1 as the latter divinity was now called1 spread1 not only over all ,egypt1 but also over the other countries in the ,east into which ,greek culture had penetrated1 and soon made its way to ,italy and the ,west4 ,various causes contributed to the rapid extension of the cult4 ,it had the charm of something foreign and full of mystery4 ,its doctrine1 supported by the prestige of immemorial antiquity1 successfully opposed the mutually destructive opinions of the philosophers1 while at the same time its conception of deity was by no means inconsistent with philosophic thought2 and it brought to the initiated that expectation of a future life to which the ,eleusinian ,mysteries owed their attractive power4 ,the ascetic side of the worship1 too1 with its fastings and abstinence from the pleasures of sense1 that the soul might lose itself in the mystical contemplation of deity1 had a fascination for natures that were religiously susceptible2 and the celebration of the ,mysteries1 the representation of the myth of ,isis in pantomime with a musical accompaniment1 appealed powerfully to the imagination4 ,the cult also possessed elements that brought it nearer to the needs of the multitude4 ,the activities of the ,egyptian divinities were not confined to the other world2 their help might be sought in the concerns of this life4 ,thus the chief priest could say to ,apuleius that ,isis summoned her elect to consecrate themselves to her service only when the term of life allotted to them had really expired1 and that she lengthened their tale of years1 so that all of life remaining was a direct gift from the hands of the goddess4 ,the priests of ,isis were looked upon as experts in astrology1 the interpretation of dreams1 and the conjuring of spirits4 ,a college of the ,servants of ,isis1 ,pastophori1 was founded in ,rome in the time of ,sulla1 about #hj ,b4,c4 ,in vain the authorities tried to drive out the worship of the ,egyptian gods4 ,three times their temple1 in the midst of the city1 was destroyed by order of the consuls1 in #eh1 #ej1 and #dh ,b4,c4 ,but after ,caesar's death1 in #dd ,b4,c41 the triumvirs built a temple in honor of ,isis and ,osiris2 and a few decades later1 perhaps in the reign of ,caligula1 their festival was recognized in the public ,calendar4 ,in ,campania the ,alexandrian cult gained a foothold earlier than in ,rome4 ,an inscription of the year #aje ,b4,c41 found at ,puteoli1 proves that a temple of ,serapis was then standing in that enterprising city1 which had close commercial relations with ,egypt and the ,east4 ,soon after this date the earlier temple of ,isis at ,pompeii must have been built4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4--,plan of the temple of ,isis4 #a4 ,portico4 #b4 ,cella4 #c4 ,shrine of ,harpocrates4 #d4 ,purgatorium4 #e4 ,hall of initiation4 #f4 ,hall of the ,mysteries4 #g1 #h1 #i4 ,dwelling of priest4 a4 ,colonnade4 b4 ,pit for the refuse of sacrifices4 c4 ,niche for statue of ,bacchus4 d1 d4 ,niches at the sides of the cella4 e4 ,large altar4 ,the entrance to the court of the temple 7,fig4 #gh7 is from the north4 ,above the door is an inscription which informs us that after an earthquake 7that of the year #fc7 ,numerius ,popidius ,celsinus1 at his own expense1 rebuilt the temple of ,isis from the foundation1 and that in recognition of his generosity1 though he was only six years of age1 the members of the city council1 the decurions1 admitted him without cost to their rank3 ,numerius ,popidius ,numerii filius ,celsinus aedem ,isidis terrae motu conlapsam a fundamento pecunia sua restituit2 hunc decuriones ob liberalitatem1 cum esset annorum sexs1 ordini suo gratis adlegerunt4 ,the temple evidently belonged to the city2 and the places for statues in the court1 as the inscriptions show1 were assigned by vote of the city council4 ,other inscriptions give information in regard to the family of the child ,celsinus4 ,his father was ,numerius ,popidius ,ampliatus1 his mother ,corelia ,celsa2 a brother bore the same name as the father4 ,the real rebuilders were of course the parents2 by associating their munificence with the name of their son1 they opened the way for him to the city offices1 for which the father1 a freedman1 was not eligible4 ,ampliatus perpetuated his own name by setting up a statue of ,bacchus in a niche in the outside of the rear wall of the temple 7at c on the plan71 with the inscription3 ,n4 ,popidius ,ampliatus pater p4 s41 ',numerius ,popidius ,ampliatus the father 7set up this statue7 at his own expense4' ,the names of the two sons appear with that of their mother in the mosaic floor of the large room 7#f7 behind the colonnade at the rear4 ,though the rebuilding of ,celsinus was 'from the foundation1' remains of the old temple were utilized1 as shafts of columns and ,corinthian capitals coated with white stucco2 and the plan of the new building was very nearly the same as that of the old4 ,the stylobate of the colonnade belongs to the earlier structure1 but the columns originally stood nearer together1 eight instead of seven at the ends1 and ten on the sides4 ,the architectural forms and the workmanship of these remains point to a time just after the founding of the ,roman colony2 nevertheless the dimensions of the colonnade1 approximately fifty by sixty ,oscan feet1 reduce to the pre-,roman standard of measurement1 and the building may have been commenced earlier4 ,in later times the increasing number of the worshippers of ,isis made necessary an enlargement of the sanctuary4 ,the two rooms at the west end 7#e and #f7 were added at the expense of the ,palaestra1 probably at the time of the rebuilding4 ,in the middle of the court1 which is surrounded by the colonnade1 is the temple1 consisting of an oblong cella 7#b71 the east side of which is treated as a front1 with a portico borne by six columns 7#a74 ,a pit for the refuse of sacrifices1 enclosed by a wall 7b7 stands in the corner of the court near the entrance from the street2 in the opposite corner there is a larger enclosure having the appearance of a small temple 7#d74 ,near this are two altars2 a third altar stood close to the temple1 and there are five others1 somewhat smaller1 between the columns4 ,on the south side1 between the colonnade and the ,theatre1 is a small area of irregular shape1 east of which is a dwelling containing five rooms 7#g1 #h1 #i74 ,the accompanying illustrations show the temple as it is to-day 7,fig4 #gi7 and as it was before the eruption 7,fig4 #hj74 ,it has architecturally nothing suggestive of the ,egyptian style4 ,yet the plan presents a marked deviation from ordinary types1 as if the builders1 erecting an edifice for the worship of foreign gods1 strove with set purpose to produce a bizarre effect2 at the right and the left of the front of the cella is a large niche1 projecting beyond the sides of the portico1 and inorganically connected with the main part of the temple by a pilaster4 ,in the ornamentation of this temple1 as in that of the temple of ,apollo1 the simple and chaste forms of the ,greek architecture were replaced by gaudy stucco ornaments more in harmony with the prevailing taste4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4--,view of the temple of ,isis4 ,besides the broad flight of steps in front1 a narrow stairway at the left of the temple led to a side door opening into the cella4 ,a base of masonry about six feet high extends across the rear of the cella1 on which were two pedestals of tufa1 about sixteen inches square1 for the statues of ,isis and ,osiris4 ,in the two large niches outside other divinities stood1 perhaps ,anubis and ,harpocrates4 ,the latter was apparently worshipped also at the shrine in the wall on the east side of the court 7#c71 facing the doorway of the cella4 ,a painting from this shrine1 now in the ,naples ,museum1 represents a statue of ,harpocrates of the familiar type--a boy with his finger in his mouth holding a cornucopia1 with a lotus blossom resting on his forehead2 before him stands a priest in a long white robe1 holding a candlestick in each hand1 while in the background is a temple surrounded by a colonnade1 evidently intended for a free representation of the temple before us4 ,in front of the shrine were the charred remains of a wooden bench4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4--,the temple of ,isis1 restored4 ,in the background1 the ,large ,theatre4 ,no statue was found in the cella or in the two niches in front4 ,we may suppose that the images of the four divinities1 being of relatively small size1 were carried off by the priests at the time of the eruption2 had they been removed afterwards1 the excavators would have taken also the other objects in the cella used in the services of the temple4 ,among these were two skulls1 probably made use of in the ceremonies attending initiation into the ,mysteries1 and a marble hand1 about four inches long1 but whether a right or a left hand1 the journal of the excavations does not say4 ,a left hand was carried in the procession in honor of ,isis1 described by ,apuleius2 as the weaker of the two1 and so less ready to do evil1 it symbolized the even justice 7aequitas7 with which the deity governs the world4 ,there were also two wooden caskets1 one of which contained a diminutive gold cup1 measuring less than an inch across the top1 a glass vessel a trifle over an inch and a half in height1 and a statuette of a god about half as high2 in the other were two bronze candlesticks about ten inches high1 the use of which may be inferred from the painting described above1 and a bronze lamp with places for two wicks4 ,the walls of the colonnade were painted in bright colors on a deep red ground4 ,the lower part of the columns was red1 but above they were white2 the temple also was white1 the purpose obviously being to give the appearance of marble4 ,nevertheless the same decorative framework appears both in the white stucco of the temple and the painted decoration of the colonnade3 a division of the body of the wall into large panels1 with a continuous garland of conventional plant forms above4 ,in the colonnade there was a yellow base1 treated as a projecting architectural member2 above it large red panels alternated with light1 fantastic architectural designs in yellow on a red ground4 ,the frieze was black1 with garlands in strong contrast--green1 blue1 and yellow--enlivened with all sorts of animal forms4 ,in the middle of each of the large panels was a priest of ,isis2 in the lower part of the intervening architectural designs were marine pictures1--galleys maneuvering1 and seafights4 ,similar pictures are found in other buildings1 as the ,macellum1 but marine views were especially appropriate here1 because ,isis was a patron divinity of seamen4 ,apuleius gives an interesting description of the spring festival1 by which the navigation of the opening season was committed to her guardian care4 ,opposite the entrance of the temple the colonnade presents an interesting peculiarity of construction1 which is found also in other buildings at ,pompeii1 as the ,stabian ,baths4 ,the place of the three middle columns on that side is taken by two large pillars1 higher than the rest of the colonnade1 each of which is backed by an attached half-column4 ,this arrangement made the approach to the temple more imposing1 and also furnished an appropriate setting for the shrine of ,harpocrates against the wall4 ,the principal altar1 on which sacrifice was offered to the divinities worshipped in the temple1 is that near the foot of the steps in front 7e74 ,the officiating priest stood on a block of stone at the side of it1 with the temple at his right2 on this altar were found ashes and fragments of calcined bones4 ,the two smaller altars near by were probably consecrated to the gods whose images were placed in the exterior niches4 ,two rectangular pits were used as receptacles for the refuse of sacrifices4 ,one was quite small1 and no trace of it can now be found2 it was near the large altar1 and contained remains of burnt figs1 pine kernels and cones1 nuts1 and dates1 with fragments of two statuettes representing divinities4 ,the wall about the other 7b71 when excavated1 was built up at each end in the form of a gable1 and evidently once supported a wooden roof2 in this pit also were charred remains of fruits4 ,what divinities were worshipped at the altars between the columns1 it is impossible to determine4 ,the small base standing against the corner column near the entrance 7seen in ,fig4 #gi7 was probably a pedestal1 not an altar4 ,at the left of the steps leading up to the temple1 and facing the large altar1 is a small pillar of masonry fifteen inches square and nearly two and a half feet high4 ,a similar pillar1 which formerly stood at the right1 had thin slabs of stone on three sides4 ,one of these1 that on the front of the pillar 7now in the ,naples ,museum71 was covered with hieroglyphics4 ,it is a memorial tablet1 which ,hat1 'the writer of the divine word1' hierogrammateus1 set up in honor of his parents and grandparents2 it contains symbolic representations in three divisions1 one above the other4 ,in the upper division ,hat1 his brother and colleague ,meran1 their father and grandfather1 are praying to ,osiris1 ',lord of the ,kingdom of the ,dead'2 below1 ,hat is bringing to his parents and grandparents offerings for the dead1 while in the lower division ,meran and two sisters unite with him in prayer to ,osiris4 ,the tablet could hardly have been designed for a temple1 but still1 by reason of its contents1 it was considered appropriate for this place4 ,it was doubtless intended that a similar tablet should be affixed to the pillar at the left1 but perhaps none happened to be available2 statuettes of divinities were probably placed on the pillars4 ,the presence of a statue of ,bacchus in the niche in the rear wall of the cella is easily explained2 this divinity was identified with ,osiris4 ,two ears are moulded in the stucco beside the niche1 symbolic of the listening of the god to the prayers of his worshippers4 ,against the west wall of the colonnade1 near the corners1 were two pedestals1 with statues of female divinities about one half life size4 ,at the right was ,isis1 in archaic ,greek costume1 with the inscription3 ,l4 ,caecilius ,phoebus posuit loco dato decurionum decreto1 ',set up by ,lucius ,caecilius ,phoebus1 in a place granted by a decree of the city council'2 the name indicates that the donor was a freedman4 ,the other statue1 at the left1 represents ,venus drying her hair after the bath2 it is of a common type and possesses small value as a work of art1 yet is of interest because of the well preserved painting and gilding4 ,venus1 as many other goddesses1 was identified with ,isis4 ,in the same corner with the statue of ,venus1 against the south wall1 stood the herm of ,gaius ,norbanus ,sorex1 a marble pillar with a bronze head4 ,according to the inscription1 he was an actor who played the second part 7secundarum1 sc4 partium71 and was also magister of the suburb ,pagus ,augustus ,felix4 ,he was probably a generous supporter of the temple4 ,a duplicate of the herm is found in the ,eumachia building1 to which also he may have made a contribution4 ,the low social standing of the various benefactors of the temple is noteworthy2 it indicates in what circles the worship of the ,egyptian divinities found its adherents4 ,as yet this was by no means an aristocratic cult1 although it became such later1 especially after the time of ,hadrian4 ,while the ,greek and ,roman gods were honored chiefly at their festivals1 the ,egyptian divinities demanded worship every day1 indeed several times a day4 ,the early service1 the 'opening of the temple1' is described by ,apuleius1 who was probably admitted to the college of the ,servants of ,isis in ,rome in the time of the ,antonines1 and wrote about #afj ,a4,d4 ,before daybreak the priest went into the temple by the side entrance and threw back the great doors1 which were fastened on the inside4 ,white linen curtains were hung across the doorway1 shielding the interior from view4 ,now the street gate of the court was opened2 the thronging multitude of the devout streamed in and took their places in front of the temple4 ,the curtains were drawn aside and the image of the goddess was presented to the gaze of her worshippers1 who greeted her with prayers and shaking of the sistrum1 a musical rattle1 the use of which was characteristic of the worship of the ,egyptian gods4 ,for a time they remained sitting1 engaged in prayer and in the contemplation of the divinity2 an hour after daybreak the service was closed with an invocation to the newly risen sun4 ,this description throws light on the purpose of the bench in front of the shrine of ,harpocrates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4--,scene from the worship of ,isis--the adoration of the holy water4 ,wall painting from ,herculaneum4 ,the second service was held at two o'clock in the afternoon1 but we do not possess exact information in regard to it4 ,it is1 perhaps1 depicted in a fresco painting from ,herculaneum 7,fig4 #ha71 the subject of which is a solemn act in the worship of ,isis1 the adoration of the holy water4 ,in the portico of the temple1 above the steps1 two priests and a priestess are standing4 ,the priest in the middle holds in front of him1 in the folds of his robe1 a vessel containing the holy water1 which was supposed to be from the ,nile2 his two associates are shaking the sistrum4 ,there is an altar at the foot of the steps2 a priest is fanning the fire into flame4 ,on the right and the left of the altar are the worshippers1 with other priests1 part of whom are shaking the sistrum1 while a fluteplayer sits in the foreground at the right4 ,another painting1 the counterpart of that just described1 seems to portray the celebration of a festival2 the surroundings correspond fairly well with those of our temple4 ,the doors are thrown back2 a dark-visaged man1 wearing a wreath1 is dancing in the doorway4 ,behind him1 within the temple1 are the musicians1 among whom can be distinguished a girl striking the cymbals and a woman with a tambourine4 ,about the steps are priests and other worshippers1 shaking the sistrum and offering prayer2 in front stands a burning altar4 ,an important festival of ,isis occurred in ,november4 ,it commenced with an impassioned lamentation over the death of ,osiris and the search for his body4 ,on the third day1 ,november #ab1 the finding of the body by ,isis was celebrated with great rejoicing4 ,so1 perhaps1 in this painting the dance is a manifestation of the joy with which the festival ended1 the whole picture being a scene from the observance of the ,egyptian ,easter4 ,in such celebrations use would be made of the small brazier of bronze found in the court in front of our temple1 on which incense could be burned4 ,the ablutions1 which played so important a part in ,egyptian rites1 were performed in the rear of the court1 where stood a cylindrical leaden vessel1 adorned with ,egyptian figures in relief2 a jet fell into it from a lead pipe connected with the city aqueduct4 ,the small building at the southeast corner of the court1 which is known as the ,purgatorium1 was open to the sky4 ,it was made to look like a roofed structure by the addition of gables at the ends4 ,on the inside1 at the rear1 a flight of steps leads down toward the right to a vaulted underground chamber1 about five feet wide and six and a half feet long4 ,the inner part of the chamber1 divided off by a low wall1 was evidently intended for a tank4 ,in one of the corners in the front part is a low base1 on which a jar could be set while it was being filled4 ,here the holy ,nile water--more or less genuine--was kept for use in the sacred rites4 ,the purpose of the tank is suggested by certain of the stucco reliefs on the outside of the enclosing wall4 ,in the gable1 above the entrance1 is a vase1 standing out from a blue ground1 with a kneeling figure on either side4 ,the frieze contains ,egyptian priests and priestesses1 also on a blue ground1 with their faces turned toward the vessel 7,fig4 #hb74 ,the figures are all worshipping the sacred water in the vase4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4--,part of the facade of the ,purgatorium4 ,of the other figures in relief1 only the two goddesses in the panels at the sides of the entrance have an ,egyptian character4 ,under each of them was a small altar of tufa1 attached to the wall2 the figure at the left 7,fig4 #hb7 is plainly ,isis4 ,the side walls are decorated with reliefs in ,greco-,roman style4 ,they are divided into a large middle panel1 containing two figures1 and two side panels1 each with a ,cupid4 ,in the middle panel1 on the right side1 ,mars and ,venus are represented2 in that at the left1 ,perseus rescuing ,andromeda 7,fig4 #hc74 ,the dwelling back of the colonnade1 on the south side1 consists of a kitchen 7#h71 a dining room 7#g71 a sleeping apartment 7#i71 and two small rooms at the rear1 under the stairway leading to the highest seats of the ,large ,theatre4 ,the ritual of the ,egyptian gods was so exacting1 and the services of worship were so numerous1 that it was necessary for one or more priests to reside within the precincts of the temple4 ,these rooms were the habitation of a priest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--;,decoration of the east side of the ,purgatorium--,perseus rescuing ,andromeda4 ,at the right and the left floating ,cupids1 the one at the left bearing a box of incense4 ,one of the rooms on the west side 7#f7 is oblong in shape1 with five broad1 arched entrances opening from the colonnade4 ,the walls were richly decorated in the last ,pompeian style4 ,there were seven large paintings1 five of which were landscapes with shrines1 part being ,egyptian landscapes2 the other two represent ,io watched by ,argus1 with ,hermes coming to rescue her1 and ,io in ,egypt1 received by ,isis4 ,against the rear wall was a pedestal1 on which probably stood the female figure1 above life size1 the remains of which were found in one of the entrances4 ,only the head1 the hands1 and the front parts of the feet were of marble2 the rest was of wood1 no doubt concealed by drapery4 ,the priests seemingly had started to carry the statue with them when they fled1 but abandoned the attempt at the doorway4 ,in the same room a marble table1 a sistrum1 two pots of terra cotta1 three small glass bottles1 and a glass cup were found4 ,we may safely conclude that here the common meals were served1 of which1 as we learn from ,apuleius1 the devotees of the cult partook4 ,and when1 in connection with the great festivals1 the ,mysteries were celebrated with a presentation of the myth of ,isis and ,osiris in pantomime1 this large room was well adapted for the sacred exhibitions4 ,the adjoining room1 at the southwest corner of the colonnade 7#e71 is irregular in shape and of an entirely different character4 ,it seems to have been regarded as a sacred place1 and to have been used for secret ceremonies4 ,it was entered from the colonnade by a narrow door1 which could be securely fastened4 ,large1 sketchy pictures of gods were painted on the walls on a white ground1--,isis1 ,osiris1 ,typhon1--with sacred animals and symbols relating to the myth which to us are unintelligible4 ,the excavators found here the remains of four wooden statues with marble heads1 hands1 and feet1 one of a male figure1 the other three female2 there were besides a statuette of an ,egyptian god made of green stone1 on which were hieroglyphics2 a statuette of white clay1 covered with a green glaze2 a sphinx of terra cotta1 fragments of terra cotta statuettes of ,egyptian figures1 different kinds of vessels of clay1 glass1 and lead1 and a bronze knife1 evidently intended for use in sacrifices4 ,at the left near the entrance is a small reservoir1 reached by three steps4 ,on the north side is a niche that apparently formed part of a small shrine4 ,a kind of alcove opens off from the southeast corner of this room1 the entrance to which could be closed by a curtain4 ,from this a few steps and a door led into a storeroom1 in which were found about three dozen vessels of various shapes1 an iron tripod1 and no less than fifty-eight earthen lamps4 ,the lamps were in part provided with iron rings1 so that they could be suspended2 there were also iron rods1 which the excavators supposed to be lamp holders4 ,a rear door connected the storeroom with the small area of irregular shape between the ,palaestra and the ,theatre4 ,these arrangements suggest the celebration of secret rites by night2 we may well believe that novices were here initiated into the order of the ,servants of ,isis4 ,obscure hints in regard to the ceremonies connected with the consecration to the service of the goddess are thrown out by ,apuleius4 ',the initiation1' said the priest to him1 'is conducted under the image of a voluntary death1 with the renewing of life as a gift from the deity4' ,of his own experience he says merely3 ',i came to the borders of death1 ,i trod the threshold of ,proserpina1 then came back through all the stages to life4 ,in the middle of the night ,i saw the sun shine brightly2 ,i entered into the immediate presence of the gods above and the gods below1 and worshipped them face to face4' ,renunciation of past life1 and a second birth to a new and purified existence1 were the main ideas underlying the ceremonies1 which as presented here must have been far less splendid and impressive than in ,rome1 where they were witnessed by ,apuleius4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,zeus ,,milichius ,the small temple near the northeast corner of the block containing the theatres is entered from ,stabian ,street4 ,the court 7,fig4 #hd1 #b71 like that of the temple of ,vespasian1 has a colonnade across the front2 only the foundation and a ,doric capital of lava are preserved4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4--,plan of the temple of ,zeus ,milichius4 #a4 ,colonnade4 #b4 ,court1 with large altar4 #c4 ,cella4 #d4 ,sacristan's room4 ,at the end of the colonnade on the right is the room of the sacristan 7#d74 ,the large altar 7,fig4 #bea7 stands close to the foot of the steps leading up to the temple4 ,it is built of blocks of tufa1 with a frieze of triglyphs and panels like those found on walls in the first style of decoration4 ,the steps extend across the front of the temple1 the unusual elevation of which is explained by the inequality of the ground4 ,of the six columns in the tetrastyle portico no remains have been found1 but three capitals of pilasters are preserved1 two belonging to those at the corners of the cella1 and one1 considerably smaller1 to a doorpost2 they are of tufa1 and were once covered with white stucco4 ,the excellent proportions and fine workmanship of the capitals point to the period of the first style of decoration2 there was formerly a remnant of that style on the north wall of the cella1 copied before #ahcg4 ,nevertheless the quasi-reticulate masonry of the cella1 closely resembling that of the ,small ,theatre1 dates from the early years of the ,roman colony4 ,in this period the temple in its present form was built1 perhaps with the help of native ,pompeian masons4 ,attached to the rear wall of the cella was an oblong pedestal on which were placed two statues1 representing ,jupiter and ,juno1 together with a bust of ,minerva1 all of terra cotta and of poor workmanship4 ,the suggestion at once presents itself that this was the ,capitolium1 erected by the ,roman colonists soon after they settled in ,pompeii4 ,it is incredible1 however1 that colonists who had the means to erect monumental buildings1 such as the ,amphitheatre and the ,small ,theatre1 should have housed the great gods of the ,capitol in so modest a temple1 in so inconspicuous a spot1 and should not have provided more costly images4 ,all the evidence is in favor of the explanation1 already proposed 7p4 #ff71 that after the earthquake the worship of the gods of the ,capitol was transferred hither temporarily from the temple in the ,forum1 until that should be rebuilt4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4--;,capital of pilaster with the face of ,zeus ,milichius4 ,what divinity thus became the host of the ,roman gods8 ,it would be impossible to say but for the fortunate recovery of an ,oscan inscription1 which was set up in the passage of the ,stabian ,gate4 ,this commemorates the work of two aediles1 ,m4 ,sittius and ,n4 ,pontius1 who improved the street leading out from the ,stabian ,gate 'as far as the ,stabian ,bridge1 and the ,via ,pompeiana as far as the temple of ,zeus ,milichius2 these streets1 as well as the ,via ,jovia 7and another1 the name of which cannot be made out7 they placed in perfect repair4' ,it is natural to suppose that the ,via ,pompeiana1 mentioned in immediate connection with the road leading to ,stabiae1 was the continuation of the latter within the city1 or ,stabian ,street4 ,this1 then1 led to the temple named in the inscription1 and as there is no other temple on the street1 the small sanctuary in which the images of the ,capitoline divinities were placed was the temple of ,zeus ,milichius4 ,this building1 however1 is not old enough to have been mentioned in an ,oscan inscription4 ,it probably stands in the place of a much earlier edifice4 ,the masonry of the wall on the south side of the court is different from that of the other walls1 and older2 as it shows no trace of a cross wall1 it must always have stood at the side of an open space1 such as that of the present court4 ,to the earlier building the capitals belong1 the style of which1 as remarked above1 is pre-,roman4 ,in view of this explanation1 we should probably recognize in the head carved on the smallest of the pilaster capitals 7,fig4 #he7 a representation of ,zeus ,milichius1 a divinity honored in many parts of ,greece1 especially by the farmers2 ,zeus the ,gracious1 the patron of tillers of the soil4 ,the serious1 kindly face1 bearded and with long locks1 was more than a mere ornament2 it was the god himself looking down upon the worshipper who entered his sanctuary4 ,as a representation of ,zeus it probably exemplifies an ancient type4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,the ,,baths ,,at ,,pompeii4--,,the ,,stabian ,,baths ,in comparison with the great bathing establishments of ,rome1 the baths at ,pompeii are of moderate size4 ,they have1 however1 a special interest1 due in part to their excellent preservation1 in part to the certainty with which the purpose of the various rooms can be determined2 and their remains enable us to trace the development of the public bath in a single city during a period of almost two hundred years4 ,from this source1 moreover1 most of our knowledge of the arrangements of the ancient bath is derived1 without which the imposing but barren remains of ,rome itself would be for the most part unintelligible4 ,it is not easy for one living under present conditions to understand how important a place the baths occupied in the life of antiquity1 particularly of the ,romans under the ,empire2 they offered1 within a single enclosure1 opportunities for physical care and comfort and leisurely intercourse with others1 not unlike those afforded in the cities of modern ,europe by the club1 the cafe1 and the promenade4 ,though the ,roman baths differed greatly in size and in details of arrangement1 the essential parts were everywhere the same4 ,first there was a court1 palaestra1 surrounded by a colonnade4 ,this was devoted to gymnastic exercises1 and connected with it in most cases was an open-air swimming tank4 ,the dressing room1 apodyterium1 was usually entered from the court through a passageway or anteroom4 ,a basin for cold baths was sometimes placed in the dressing room2 in large establishments a separate apartment was set aside for this purpose1 the frigidarium4 ,to avoid too sudden a change of temperature for the bathers1 a room moderately heated1 tepidarium1 was placed between the dressing room and the caldarium1 in which hot baths were given4 ,at one end of the caldarium was a bath basin of masonry1 alveus2 at the other was ordinarily a semicircular niche1 schola1 in which stood the labrum1 a large1 shallow1 circular vessel resting upon a support of masonry1 and supplied with lukewarm water by a pipe leading from a tank back of the furnace4 ,the more extensive establishments1 as the ,central ,baths at ,pompeii1 contained also a round room1 called ,laconicum from its ,spartan origin1 for sweating baths in dry air4 ,in describing baths it is more convenient to use the ancient names4 ,in earlier times the rooms were heated by means of braziers1 and in one of the ,pompeian baths the tepidarium was warmed in this way to the last4 ,a more satisfactory method was devised near the beginning of the first century ,b4,c4 by ,sergius ,orata1 a famous epicure1 whose surname is said to have been given to him because of his fondness for golden trout 7auratae74 ,he was the first to plant artificial oyster beds in the ,lucrine ,lake1 and the experiment was so successful that he derived a large income from them2 we may assume that he turned an honest penny also by his invention of the 'hanging baths1' balneae pensiles1 with which his name has ever since been associated4 ,these were built with a hollow space under the floor1 the space being secured by making the floor of tiles1 two feet square1 supported at the corners by small brick pillars 7,fig4 #hh72 into this space hot air was introduced from the furnace1 and as the floor became warm1 the temperature of the room above was evenly modified4 ,this improved method of heating was not long restricted to the floors4 ,as early as the ,republican period1 the hollow space was extended to the walls by means of small quadrangular flues and by the use of nipple tiles1 tegulae mammatae1 large rectangular tiles with conical projections1 about two inches high1 at each corner2 these were laid on their edges1 with the projections pressed against the wall1 thus leaving an air space on the inside4 ,in bathing establishments designed for both men and women1 the two caldariums were placed near together4 ,there was a single furnace1 hypocausis1 where the water for the baths was warmed2 from this also hot air was conveyed through broad flues under the floors of both caldariums1 thence circulating through the walls4 ,through similar flues underneath1 the warm air1 already considerably cooled1 was conveyed from the hollow spaces of the caldariums into those of the tepidariums4 ,in order to maintain a draft strong enough to draw the hot air from the furnace under the floors1 the air spaces of the walls had vents above1 remains of which may still be seen in some baths4 ,these vents were no doubt sufficient to keep up the draft after the rooms had once been heated2 but in order to warm them at the outset a draft fire was needed1--that is1 a small fire under the floor at some point a considerable distance from the furnace and near the vents1 through which it would cause the escape of warm air1 and so start a hot current from the furnace4 ,the place of the draft fire has been found under two rooms of the ,pompeian baths2 and a similar arrangement has been noted in the case of ,roman baths excavated in ,germany4 ,the use of the baths varied according to individual taste and medical advice4 ,in general1 however1 bathers availed themselves of one of three methods4 ,the most common form of the bath was that taken after exercise in the palaestra1--ball playing was a favorite means of exercise1--use being made of all the rooms4 ,the bather undressed in the apodyterium1 or perhaps in the tepidarium1 where he was rubbed with unguents2 then he took a sweat in the caldarium1 following it with a warm bath4 ,returning to the apodyterium1 he gave himself a cold bath either in this room or in the frigidarium2 he then passed into the ,laconicum1 or1 if there was no ,laconicum1 went back into the caldarium for a second sweat2 lastly1 before going out1 he was thoroughly rubbed with unguents1 as a safeguard against taking cold4 ,some bathers omitted the warm bath4 ,they passed through the tepidarium directly into the ,laconicum or caldarium1 where they had a sweat2 they then took a cold bath1 or had cold water poured over them1 and were rubbed with unguents4 ,in the simplest form of the bath the main rooms were not used at all4 ,the bathers heated themselves with exercise in the palaestra1 then removed the dirt and oil with scrapers1 strigiles1 and bathed in the swimming tank4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4--,,apodyterium ,,of ,,the ,,stabian ,,baths1 ,,with ,,the ,,anteroom ,,leading ,,from ,,the ,,palaestra ,up to the present time three public baths have been excavated in ,pompeii1 two for both men and women1 one for men only4 ,besides these there are two private establishments in the eighth ,region 7,,viii4 ii4 #ag and #bc71 one perhaps for men1 the other for women2 and another1 apparently for men1 was discovered in the eighteenth century near the ,amphitheatre and covered up again1 being a part of the villa of ,julia ,felix4 ,it is quite possible that two or three more bathing establishments yet await excavation2 one at least1 connected with a warm spring1 is known to us from an inscription--that of ,m4 ,crassus ,frugi4 ,about a dozen houses also contain complete baths for private use4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the largest and oldest bathing establishment at ,pompeii is that to which the name ,stabian ,baths has been given1 from its location on ,stabian ,street4 ,it was built in the second century ,b4,c41 but was remodelled in the early days of the ,roman colony1 and afterwards underwent extensive repairs4 ,it is of irregular shape1 and occupies a large part of a block1 having streets on three sides2 on the north side it is bounded by the house of ,siricus4 ,opening upon two of the streets are shops1 which have nothing to do with the baths and are not numbered on the plan 7,fig4 #hf74 ,entering from the south through the broad doorway at ,a1 we find ourselves in the palaestra1 ,c1 which has a colonnade on three sides4 ,on the west side the place of the colonnade is taken by a strip of smooth pavement with a raised margin2 two heavy stone balls were found here1 which were obviously used in a game resembling the modern ninepins2 at the further end is the room for the players1 ,k4 ,close to the bowling course1 at the middle of the west side1 is the swimming tank1 ,f1 with rooms 7,e1 ,g7 adjoining it at either end4 ,at the corner near the further room1 ,g1 is a side entrance1 ,l2 ,j is the office of the director or superintendent in charge of the building4 ,on the east side of the court are the men's baths1 rooms ,i-,,viii2 north of these are the women's baths1 rooms #a-f1 with the furnace room1 ,,ix1 between them4 ,in the northwest corner of the building were small rooms 7e-e7 intended for private baths4 ,they had not been provided with the improved heating arrangements1 and were not in use at the time of the catastrophe4 ,the larger room adjoining 7k7 was a closet4 ,the anteroom of the men's baths 7,,iv71 opens at one end into the dressing room or apodyterium 7,,vi71 as seen in ,plate ,v4 ,it has a vaulted ceiling1 richly decorated4 ,a door at the left leads into the frigidarium 7,v71 and another at the right into a servants' waiting room 7,i71 which is accessible from the court4 ,this room was formerly entered also from the street1 through a passage 7,,iii71 which was later closed2 on one side of it is a bench of masonry for the slaves in attendance upon their masters4 ,similar benches are found in the waiting room at the other end of the apodyterium 7,x74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4--,plan of the ,stabian ,baths4 ,a4 ,main ,entrance4 ,b4 ,colonnade4 ,c4 ,palaestra4 ,f4 ,swimming tank4 ,i-,,viii4 ,men's ,baths4 ,,iv4 ,anteroom4 ,v4 ,frigidarium4 ,,vi4 ,apodyterium4 ,,vii4 ,tepidarium4 ,,viii4 ,caldarium4 ,,ix4 ,furnace room4 #a-f4 ,women's baths4 #a1 #e4 ,entrances4 #b4 ,apodyterium4 #c4 ,tepidarium4 #d4 ,caldarium4 ,the apodyterium also was provided with benches of the same sort1 as indicated on the plan2 they are shown in ,plate ,v4 ,along the walls at the sides1 just under the edge of the vaulted ceiling1 was a row of small niches1 the use of which corresponded with that of the lockers in a modern gymnasium4 ,these niches are about #e-c_/d feet above the floor1 while those in the other dressing room 7#b7 are a little less than five feet2 from this difference in height it has been rightly inferred that the smaller and simpler division of the baths was set aside for women4 ,the floor is paved with rectangular flags of gray marble1 with blocks of basalt next to the walls4 ,while the walls were left simply white1 with a red base1 the ceiling was elaborately decorated with stucco reliefs in the style prevalent shortly before the destruction of the city2 there are vestiges of similar decoration in the tepidarium4 ,in octagonal1 hexagonal1 and quadrangular panels are rosettes1 ,cupids1 trophies1 and bacchic figures4 ,the lunettes are adorned with fantastic architectural designs1 in which we see bacchic figures standing on pedestals1 and ,cupids riding on dolphins2 the sides of the two arches supporting the ceiling 7one of them is seen in ,plate ,v7 are decorated with female figures mounted on dolphins1 which run out into arabesques4 ,the frequent suggestion of water in these motives is in harmony with the purpose of the room4 ,even more effective is the decoration of the small round frigidarium4 ,light is admitted1 as in the ,pantheon at ,rome1 through a round hole in the apex of the domed ceiling4 ,at the edge of the circular bath basin1 lined with white marble1 was a narrow strip of marble floor1 which is extended into the four semicircular niches4 ,wall and niches alike are painted to represent a beautiful garden1 with a blue sky above 7,fig4 #hg74 ,the eye wanders among trees and shrubs1 catching glimpses of birds overhead1 of statues and vases here and there in the midst of the green foliage1 and of jets of water falling into circular basins4 ,the blue dome is studded with stars4 ,the bather could scarcely feel the narrowness of a room1 the decoration of which was so suggestive of expanse and open air4 ,a jet of water fell into the basin from a small niche in the upper part of the wall2 and the place of the overflow pipe may be easily recognized4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4--,stabian ,baths3 interior of the frigidarium1 restored4 ,the tepidarium 7,,vii7 and caldarium 7,,viii7 were heated by means of hollow floors and walls4 ,the former is much the smaller1 as we should have expected from its use as an intermediate room1 in which the bathers would ordinarily not tarry so long as in the caldarium4 ,the large bath basin at the east end 7indicated on the plan7 is unusual2 it was seemingly a later addition1 and was probably made to accommodate those who in the winter shrank from using the frigidarium1 but wished nevertheless to take a moderately cold bath4 ,near the bottom of the wall back of this basin1 a hole had been made so that underneath a fire could be kindled from the outside 7in ,x71 not in order to heat the basin1 which could be supplied with warm water by means of a pipe1 but to start the circulation of hot air from the furnace2 at the top of the wall above were two vents opening from the warm air chamber4 ,there was a place for another draft fire under the women's caldarium4 ,one of the fragments of stucco relief still remaining in the tepidarium presents the figure of a man reading from a roll of manuscript4 ,it suggests the standing complaint of the ancients in regard to the trials of bathers1 who could not escape the ever-present poet declaiming his latest production4 ,at one end of the caldarium we find the bath basin1 alveus2 at the other is the support of the labrum1 which has disappeared4 ,in the niche above the latter are two vents for the draft1 and above the niche was a round window4 ,this room1 as most of the others1 was dimly lighted4 ,the little round window of the anteroom is shown in our plate4 ,there were two similar windows in the lunette of the apodyterium1 above the roof of the anteroom2 they are not seen in our plate1 having at one time been entirely covered up by the construction of a wall to support the roof4 ,a similar window was very likely placed at the end of the tepidarium1 over the roof of the frigidarium2 and perhaps these were supplemented by holes in the crown of the arched ceilings1 as in the women's apodyterium4 ,the women's baths are entered from the court through a long anteroom 7#f72 the dressing room is connected also with the two side streets by means of corridors 7#a1 #e74 ,originally there was no communication between the women's baths and the palaestra4 ,the apodyterium 7#b7 is the best preserved room of the entire building1 and also the most ancient4 ,it shows almost no traces of the catastrophe4 ,the vaulted ceiling is intact4 ,the smooth1 white stucco on the walls and the simple cornice at the base of the lunettes date from the time of the first builders4 ,now1 as then1 light is admitted only through two small openings in the crown of the vault and a window in the west lunette4 ,to a modern visitor the interior seems gloomy4 ,the pavement1 of lozenge-shaped1 reddish glazed tiles1 belongs to the same early period4 ,there is a strip of basaltic flags connecting the door of one of the corridors 7#a7 with that of the tepidarium4 ,this much travelled path seems to indicate that many ladies--particularly1 we may assume1 in the winter--went at once into the more comfortable tepidarium without stopping in the dressing room4 ,along the walls were benches1 and above them niches1 as in the men's apodyterium4 ,in the time of the ,empire the fronts of the niches1 finely carved in tufa1 were overlaid with a thick coating of stucco1 the upper part being ornamented with designs in relief4 ,the women had no frigidarium4 ,a large basin for cold baths was built at the west end of the dressing room1 but this also is a later addition2 before it was made1 those who wished for cold baths must have contented themselves with portable bath tubs4 ,the tepidarium 7#c7 and caldarium 7#d7 are in a better state of preservation than those of the men's baths1 which they so closely resemble in all their arrangements that a detailed description is unnecessary4 ,in their present form they are not so ancient as the apodyterium1 and the decoration is less elaborate than that of the corresponding rooms on the other side4 ,the labrum is intact1 a round1 shallow basin of white marble resting on a support of masonry2 it has here no separate niche4 ,the bath basin in the caldarium also retains its veneering of white marble1 with an overflow pipe of bronze at the upper edge2 it is about two feet deep4 ,in such basins the bathers leaned against the sloping back1 which for this reason was called a cushion 7pulvinus7 by ,vitruvius4 ,this alveus would accommodate eight bathers1 that in the men's caldarium perhaps ten4 ,places were probably assigned in numerical order1 each bather awaiting his turn4 ,those who did not wish to wait1 or preferred to bathe by themselves1 might use individual bath tubs of bronze4 ,remains of such a tub1 as well as of bronze benches1 were found in this room4 ,near the bottom of the alveus in front is an opening1 through which the water could be let out2 when it was emptied1 the water ran over the white mosaic floor1 which was thus cleaned4 ,in the time of the ,early ,empire it became the fashion to bathe with very warm water4 ',people want to be parboiled1' ,seneca exclaims4 ,the construction of the alveus1 however1 was not well adapted to conserve the heat1 and an ingenious contrivance was devised to remedy the difficulty1 which may best be explained with the help of our illustration1 showing the arrangement of the bath basin in room #d 7,fig4 #hh74 ,a large hot air flue1 ,d1 led directly from the furnace to the hollow space1 ,c1 under the alveus1 ,a4 ,above this flue was a long bronze heater1 ,b1 in the form of a half cylinder1 with one end opening into the end of the alveus4 ,as the bottom of the heater was six inches lower than that of the alveus1 the cooler water from the basin would flow down into it and be heated again1 a circulation being thus maintained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4--,the bath basin in the women's caldarium--longitudinal and transverse sections1 showing the arrangement for heating the water4 ,a4 ,bath basin1 alveus4 ,b4 ,bronze heater4 ,c4 ,hot air chamber under the floor4 ,d4 ,hot air flue4 ,a similar arrangement 7called testudo alvei by ,vitruvius7 probably existed for the alveus in the caldarium on the other side2 but that part of the men's baths has been destroyed4 ,only one other heater of this kind has been found1--and that much smaller1--in a villa near ,boscoreale1 recently excavated2 but the semicircular opening made for the heater above the hot air flue may be seen in the ,central ,baths1 in a private establishment at ,pompeii1 and generally in the remains of ,roman baths4 ,in the furnace room 7praefurnium1 ,,ix7 between the two caldariums1 stood three large cylindrical tanks4 ,they have disappeared1 but their outlines can still be seen in the masonry of the foundations1 and are shown in our plan4 ,the one furthest east was for hot water4 ,it was directly over the fire1 and connected with the bath basins of the two caldariums4 ,the next1 for lukewarm water1 stood over a hollow space opening into the furnace4 ,a lead pipe leading from it to the labrum of the women's caldarium is still to be seen2 the water bubbled up in the middle of the labrum4 ,the third and largest reservoir1 for cold water1 was placed on a foundation of solid masonry4 ,the more important alterations made in the baths during the two centuries that they were in use had to do with the arrangements for heating1 and may briefly be considered here before we proceed to another part of the building4 ,it will be best not to weary the reader with details1 but to present a brief summary of conclusions1 which will perhaps be found of interest1 not only as casting light on the gradual development of these baths1 but also as illustrating that adjustment of public buildings to the needs and tastes of successive generations1 which was as characteristic of ancient as it is of modern life4 ,for the extensive changes made in the earlier part of the first century ,b4,c4 we have the evidence of an inscription1 which had been cast aside and was found in one of the smaller rooms4 ,it reads1 ,c4 ,uulius ,c4 f41 ,p4 ,aninius ,c4 f41 ,,ii v4 i4 d41 ,laconicum et destrictarium faciund4 et porticus et palaestram reficiunda locarunt ex decurionum decreto ex ea pequnia quod eos e lege in ludos aut in monumento consumere oportuit faciunda coerarunt eidemque probarunt4 ,the form of the letters and the spelling point to the time of ,sulla as the period in which the inscription was cut4 ,the syntax is confused1 but the meaning is clear3 a ,laconicum and destrictarium were built1 the colonnade and palaestra repaired1 by the duumvirs ,gaius ,ulius and ,publius ,aninius1 in accordance with a vote of the city council2 and they furnished the means for this work in fulfilment of their obligation1 incurred by the acceptance of the duumviral office1 to spend a certain sum upon either games or buildings4 ,the destrictarium--a room for removing dirt and oil with the strigil after gymnastic exercises--is easily identified 7,d71 as are also the palaestra and colonnade2 but in our survey of the baths1 we have found no separate chamber to which the term ,laconicum could properly be applied4 ,in order to arrive at a solution of the difficulty1 we must note the successive steps by which1 as shown by an examination of the remains of the masonry1 the heating arrangements were extended and improved4 ,at first1 in the ,baths as originally constructed1 there were neither hollow walls nor hollow floors4 ,the heating was done by means of braziers2 and there were niches or lockers in the walls of the caldariums and tepidariums similar to those now found in the dressing rooms1 but in double rows1 the upper niches being larger1 the lower smaller4 ,later1 a hollow floor was built in the men's caldarium4 ,later still1 this room was provided with hollow walls1 which were extended to the crown of the ceilings and the lunettes1 the tepidarium being still heated with braziers4 ,finally1 a hollow floor and hollow walls were constructed at the same time in the men's tepidarium1 but the hot air chamber was not carried up into the ceiling or the lunettes4 ,a similar transformation was gradually accomplished in the women's apartments2 but owing1 it would seem1 to a desire for greater warmth in the tepidarium1 the hot air chamber here1 as in the caldarium1 was extended to the lunettes and the ceiling4 ,since the method of heating by means of hollow floors only came into vogue about #ajj ,b4,c41 and since the duumvirate of ,ulius and ,aninius must have occurred soon after #hj ,b4,c41 we are probably safe in supposing that they built the hollow floors of the two caldariums1 and that the new heating arrangement was loosely called a ,laconicum4 ,at least a partial warrant for this interpretation is found in a passage of ,dion ,cassius 7,,liii4 xxvii4 #a71 in which he says that ,agrippa built the ',spartan sweating bath1' ,greek3 to pyriaterion to ,lakonikon4 ,agrippa1 however1 built1 not a ,laconicum in the narrow sense1 but a complete bathing establishment1 and ,dion1 doubtless following some earlier writer1 uses the word as generally applicable to a system of warm baths4 ,in default of a better explanation1 we must accept a meaning equally loose for our inscription4 ,it is not possible to date1 even approximately1 the other changes by which the baths were conformed to the increasing desire for warmth and comfort2 but the decoration of the greater part of the building1 with its complicated designs and stucco reliefs1 was clearly applied to the walls not many decades before the destruction of the city4 ,the unroofed swimming tank1 ,f1 was separated from the court by a barrier of masonry about two feet high1 which was extended also in front of the rooms at the ends1 ,e and ,g4 ,on either side was a step1 both the steps and the barrier being veneered with white marble4 ,the tank was supplied by a pipe entering from the northeast2 the overflow pipe1 at the southeast corner1 is indicated on the plan4 ,the rooms ,e and ,g1 opening both on the swimming tank and on the court with high arched doorways1 were roofed shallow basins where the athletes could give themselves a preliminary cleaning before going into the tank4 ,the walls are veneered with marble to a height of #fa_/b feet2 above are painted plants1 birds1 statues1 and nymphs1 one of whom holds a shell to catch a jet of water2 over these the blue sky4 ,here1 as in the frigidarium1 the artist strove to convey the impression of being in the open air1 in a beautiful garden1 adorned with sculptures4 ,a jet of water spurted from the rear wall just above the marble dado2 above it is a large oblong niche1 apparently for a statue4 ,after a time the basin in ,g was filled up1 and covered with a mosaic floor of the same height as the threshold2 when one cleaning room was found to be adequate1 that was retained which had a separate dressing room1 ,d4 ,on the white walls of the dressing room are traces of the wooden wardrobes that once stood against them4 ,in this room1 the destrictarium1 the athletes disrobed1 and rubbed themselves with oil before engaging in gymnastic exercises1 and to it they returned from the palaestra1 in order to scrape themselves 7se destringere72 then they washed themselves in the next room1 ,e1 and finally plunged into the tank4 ,the room of the official in charge of the baths1 ,j1 had windows opening on the court and into the bowlers' room1 ,k4 ,a large bronze brazier was found here1 presented1 according to an inscription on it1 by ,marcus ,nigidius ,vaccula1 who1 as a symbol of his name1 had the figure of a cow 7vacca7 stamped in relief on the brazier4 ,we find a similar brazier1 together with benches1 in the tepidarium of the baths near the ,forum1 which had no other means of heating2 we naturally infer that the furniture here was intended for one of the tepidariums1 and used there before the improved method of heating was introduced4 ,a ,nasennius ,nigidius ,vaccula1 who died before #ed ,a4,d41 is known to us from the receipts of ,caecilius ,jucundus4 ,if he was the donor1 and made the gift when he was a young man1 the change of the system of heating in the tepidarium may have been made as early as #bj ,a4,d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4--;,colonnade of the ,stabian ,baths3 capital with section of entablature1 restored4 ,the colonnade was originally uniform on all the three sides4 ,the ,doric columns were of tufa1 coated with fine white stucco4 ,they were of slender proportions1 the height being a trifle over nine feet1 with a diameter of only sixteen inches4 ,they were edged1 not fluted1 and doubtless carried an entablature with triglyphs1 of which no trace remains4 ,in the time of the ,empire1 apparently before the earthquake of #fc1 the colonnade was remodelled in accordance with the prevailing taste4 ,the columns received a thick coating of stucco1 with flutings indicated by incised lines2 the lower third of the shaft was painted red1 the upper portion being left white4 ,over the capitals1 moulded in stucco1 was an entablature resting on thick planks1 and ornamented with light-colored stucco reliefs4 ,the general effect may be seen from our illustration 7,fig4 #hi74 ,in this reconstruction the sameness of the earlier colonnade was varied with pleasing irregularities4 ,thus in front of the main entrance 7,a71 and in a corresponding position on the opposite side of the court1 the place of four columns was taken by two broad pillars flanked by half-columns1 and carrying a roof more than five feet higher than that of the rest of the colonnade4 ,a similar arrangement has already been noted in the colonnade of the temple of ,isis 7p4 #agd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4--,stabian ,baths3 southwest corner of the palaestra1 showing part of the colonnade and wall decorated with stucco reliefs4 ,the wall decoration of the court has been particularly well preserved on the outer wall of ,d and ,e 7,fig4 #ij2 cf4 ,pl4 ,,xiii74 ,the surface is diversified by fantastic architectural designs in two stories1 made up of slender columns with their entablatures1 open doorways with steps leading up to them1 and glimpses of interiors4 ,in the panels thus outlined1 figures of all kinds stand out in white relief on a bright red or blue ground4 ,above the arched doorway ,jupiter sits1 resting his right hand on his sceptre2 near by1 on a pillar1 is the eagle4 ,further to the left a satyr offers ,hercules a drinking horn4 ,another relief1 not so well preserved1 has a motive suggestive of the purpose of the building--,hylas at the spring seized by the nymphs4 ,with this we may associate two designs having reference to the exercises of the palaestra3 a boxer1 at the left of the doorway of ,e1 and at the right a man scraping himself with a strigil4 ,on the outer wall of ,g is ,daedalus1 making wings for himself and ,icarus4 ,under the colonnade at the rear1 a herm stands close to the wall1 having the features of a youth with a garment drawn over his head and covering the upper part of the body4 ,for the explanation of it we are indebted to ,pausanias4 ',in the gymnasium at ,phigalia1 in ,arcadia1' says this writer1 'is an image of ,hermes4 ,it has the appearance of a man wrapped in a cloak1 and terminates below in a square pillar in the place of feet4' ,this is ,hermes1 the god of the ,palaestra1 here1 as in ,phigalia1 in a guise suggestive of his function of ,psychopompus1 the conductor of departed souls4 ,we have already met with an example of the same type in the court of the temple of ,apollo4 ,a sundial stood on the roof of the frigidarium and men's caldarium1 supported by a foundation of masonry still visible4 ,it bore an ,oscan inscription1 from which we learn that it was set up by the ,quaestor ,maras ,atinius1 in accordance with a decree of the council1 the money for the expenditure being derived from fines4 ,the fines were very likely collected here1 by the official in charge of the building4 ,sundials were erected also in the other baths at ,pompeii4 ,they were a necessity1 for all such establishments were conducted on a schedule of hours4 ,hadrian ordered that the baths in ,rome should be open from the eighth hour1 that is1 after two o'clock in the afternoon2 and a regulation in regard to the time of opening1 if not of closing1 was probably in force at ,pompeii4 ,a motley and tumultuous life once filled the barren court1 the rooms now ruined and deserted4 ,the scene is well pictured by ,seneca 7,ep4 #ef73 ',quiet is by no means so necessary for study as men commonly believe1' the philosopher gravely argues4 ',i am living near a bath3 sounds are heard on all sides4 ,just imagine for yourself every conceivable kind of noise that can offend the ear4 ,the men of more sturdy muscle go through their exercises1 and swing their hands heavily weighted with lead3 ,i hear their groans when they strain themselves1 or the whistling of labored breath when they breathe out after having held in4 ,if one is rather lazy1 and merely has himself rubbed with unguents1 ,i hear the blows of the hand slapping his shoulders1 the sound varying according as the massagist strikes with flat or hollow palm4 ,if a ballplayer begins to play and to count his throws1 it's all up for the time being4 ,meanwhile there is a sudden brawl1 or a thief is caught1 or there is some one in the bath who loves to hear the sound of his own voice2 and the bathers plunge into the swimming tank with loud splashing4 ,these noises1 however1 are not without some semblance of excuse2 but the hair plucker from time to time raises his thin1 shrill voice in order to attract attention1 and is only still himself when he is forcing cries of pain from some one else1 from whose armpits he plucks the hairs4 ,and above the din you hear the shouts of those who are selling cakes1 sausages1 and sweetmeats1 besides all the hawkers of stuff from the cookshops1 each with a different and characteristic cry4' ,such were the distractions of a ,roman bath4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,the ,,baths ,,near ,,the ,,forum ,the bathing establishment in the block north of the ,forum is smaller and simpler in its arrangements than that described in the last chapter1 but the parts are essentially the same4 ,here also we find a court1 with a colonnade on three sides2 a system of baths for men1 comprising a dressing room 7,i7 with a small round frigidarium 7,,ii7 opening off from it1 a tepidarium 7,,iii71 and a caldarium 7,,iv72 a similar system for women1 the place of the frigidarium being taken by a tank for cold baths 7#b7 in the dressing room2 and a long narrow furnace room between the two baths 7,v74 ,on three sides of the establishment are shops1 in connection with which are several inns4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4--,plan of the baths near the ,forum4 ,a1 ,a'4 ,street entrances to court4 ,b4 ,colonnade4 ,i-,,iv4 ,men's baths4 ,i4 ,apodyterium4 ,,ii4 ,frigidarium4 ,,iii4 ,tepidarium4 ,,iv4 ,caldarium4 ,v4 ,furnace room4 ,c4 ,area4 ,d4 ,court back of women's baths4 #a-d4 ,women's baths4 #a4 ,apodyterium4 #b4 ,basin for cold baths4 #c4 ,tepidarium4 #d4 ,caldarium4 d4 ,sundial4 ,these baths were built shortly after #hj ,b4,c41 about the time that ,ulius and ,aninius repaired the ,stabian ,baths2 the characteristic masonry1 with quasi-reticulate facing1 is similar to that of the ,small ,theatre and the ,amphitheatre4 ,the names of the builders are known from an inscription found in duplicate3 ,l4 ,caesius ,c4 f4 duum vir iuri dicundo1 ,c4 ,occius ,m4 f41 ,l4 ,niraemius ,a4 f4 ,,ii viri de decurionum sententia ex pequnia publica faciundum curarunt probarunt que4 ,thus we see that the contract for the building was let and the work approved by ,lucius ,caesius1 duumvir with judiciary authority1--his colleague had probably died since election and the vacancy had not yet been filled1--and the two aediles1 ,occius and ,niraemius1 who are here styled 'duumvirs1' for reasons already explained 7p4 #ab72 the cost was defrayed by an appropriation from the public treasury4 ,though these ,baths are of later construction than the ,stabian ,baths1 they seem more ancient because fewer changes were made in them4 ,the court here was not a palaestra2 it was small for gymnastic exercises1 and was not provided with a swimming tank and dressing rooms4 ,the open space was occupied by a garden4 ,the colonnade on the north and west sides of the court had slender columns standing far apart1 with a low and simple entablature2 on the east side the columns were replaced by pillars carrying low arches1 which served as a support for a gallery affording a pleasant view of the garden4 ,this gallery was accessible from the upper rooms of several inns along the street leading north from the ,forum1 whose guests no doubt found diversion in watching what was going on below--an advantage that may have been taken into account by the city officials in fixing the rent4 ,there are benches on the north side of the court1 and at the middle a deep recess1 or exedra 7b71 making a pleasant retreat for quiet conversation4 ,the entrance from the frequented street at the left 7,a7 is so arranged that passers-by could not look in2 near the entrance from the street on the opposite side 7,a'7 is a closet 7c74 ,the decoration of the court was extremely simple4 ,columns and walls were unpainted2 on the lower parts1 stucco with bits of brick in it2 above1 white plaster4 ,from the court a corridor 7a7 led into the men's apodyterium1 which could be entered also on the north side from the ,strada delle ,terme4 ,this room contained benches1 as shown on the plan2 but there were no niches1 as in the dressing rooms of the ,stabian ,baths1 and wooden shelves or lockers may have been used instead4 ,the small dark chamber at the north end 7f7 may have been used as a storeroom for unguents1 such as the ,greeks called elaeothesium4 ,it seems to have been thought necessary here to connect the dressing room with the furnace room 7,v7 by a separate passage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4--;,baths near the ,forum3 interior of the men's tepidarium4 ,light was admitted to the dressing room through a window in the lunette at the south end1 closed by a pane of glass half an inch thick1 set in a bronze frame that turned on two pivots4 ,on either side of the window are huge ,tritons in stucco relief1 with vases on their shoulders1 surrounded by dolphins2 underneath is a mask of ,oceanus1 and in the same wall is a niche for a lamp1 similar to that seen in ,fig4 #ib1 blackened by the soot4 ,the frigidarium is well preserved4 ,in all its arrangements it is almost an exact counterpart of the one in the ,stabian ,baths1 but the scheme of decoration1 suggestive of a garden1 is less realistically carried out1 the ground being yellow2 and the round window at the apex of the domed ceiling has a rectangular extension toward the south in order to admit as much sunlight as possible4 ,the tepidarium1 as will be seen from our illustration 7,fig4 #ib71 is in the condition of the tepidariums of the ,stabian ,baths before the improved arrangements for heating were introduced4 ,there were no warm air chambers in the walls or the floor4 ,at one end we see the remains of the large bronze brazier and benches 7the iron grating is modern7 presented by ,vaccula1 to which reference has already been made 7p4 #aig74 ,the feet of the benches are modelled to represent hoofs1 each with a cow's head above4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4--,longitudinal section of the men's caldarium4 ,there are niches in the walls1 as formerly in the tepidariums of the ,stabian ,baths1 but several of them for some reason have been walled up4 ,wild-visaged1 muscular ,atlantes stand out in bold projection on the front of the partitions between the niches1 sustaining a cornice upon their uplifted hands4 ,the window1 seen in the illustration above the lamp niche1 was closed1 as that in the dressing room1 by a pane of glass in a bronze frame4 ,the decoration of the ceiling1 unfortunately only in part preserved1 is well designed4 ,along the lower edge are arabesques1 interwoven in a scroll pattern1 in white stucco on a white background4 ,above these are panels of different sizes1 in which raised white ornaments and figures appear on a white1 blue1 or violet ground2 among the motives are ,cupid leaning on his bow1 ,apollo riding on a griffin1 ,ganymede with the eagle1 and ,cupids on sea horses4 ,the caldarium is well preserved2 only a part of the vaulted ceiling has been destroyed4 ,the hollow space for hot air in the floor and walls is indicated in our section 7,fig4 #ic74 ,here we see at the right1 the bath basin1 lined with white marble1 with its sloping back affording a comfortable support for the bathers2 at the other end is the apsidal niche 7schola7 with the labrum4 ,the direction of ,vitruvius1 that the labrum should be placed under a window in such a way that the shadows of those standing around should not fall on it1 is here literally observed4 ,there were three other small windows at the same end of the room1 and a niche for a lamp4 ,we learn from an inscription on the labrum1 in bronze letters1 that it was made under the direction of ,gnaeus ,melissaeus ,aper and ,marcus ,staius ,rufus1 who were duumvirs in #c-d ,a4,d41 at a cost of #ebej sesterces1 not far from #bgj4 ,this room seems to have received its final form before the new method of heating the water in the alveus came into vogue2 there is no trace of a bronze heater1 such as that found in connection with the bath basin of the women's caldarium at the ,stabian ,baths4 ,the simple decoration is in marked contrast with the usual ornamentation of the later styles4 ,above a low marble base are yellow walls divided by dark red pilasters1 shown in ,fig4 #ic4 ,these support a projecting flat cornice of dark red1 whose surface is richly ornamented with stucco reliefs4 ,the ceiling is moulded in flutings running up to the crown of the vault2 only in the ceiling of the schola do we find raised figures4 ,the rooms of the women's baths are small1 their arrangement being determined in part by the irregular shape of the corner of the building in which they are placed2 but the system of heating is more complete than in the men's baths1 for both the tepidarium 7#c7 and the caldarium 7#d7 were provided with hollow floors and hot air spaces in the walls extending to the lunettes and the ceiling4 ,the vaulted ceilings of both of these rooms1 as well as of the apodyterium1 are preserved2 but the caldarium has lost its hollow floor and walls1 together with the bath basin1 which was placed in a large niche at the right as one entered2 only the base of the labrum remains4 ,the condition of this room may be due to the earthquake of the year #fc1 the necessary repairs not having been made before the eruption4 ,there was no connection between the women's baths and the court at the rear 7,d71 which had a separate entrance from the street4 ,at the women's entrance there was a narrow waiting room for attendants1 separated from the street by a thin wall and protected by a roof4 ,the furnace room could be entered at one end from the street4 ,the three cylindrical tanks for hot1 lukewarm1 and cold water were arranged as in the ,stabian ,baths4 ,beyond the tanks is a cistern 7g71 which was supplied in part by rain water from the roof1 in part by a feed pipe connected with the water system of the city4 ,the raised walk 7h7 on the right side of the furnace room is continued to the small court 7,d7 in the corner of which is a stairway leading to the flat roof of the men's caldarium4 ,from this point of vantage1 the view over the landscape and the sea must have been beautiful in antiquity1 as it is to-day4 ,a sundial doubtless stood on the larger of the two pillars in the court 7d71 which is about seventeen feet high and nearly five feet thick at the base2 on the smaller pillar was perhaps a statue or other ornamental object of the sort frequently seen in wall paintings4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,the ,,central ,,baths ,seneca in an entertaining letter 7,ep4 #hf7 gives an account of a visit about #fj ,a4,d4 to the villa at ,liternum in which the ,elder ,scipio had lived in the years immediately preceding his death1 in #ahc ,b4,c4 ,the philosopher was particularly struck with the bath1 the simplicity of which he contrasts forcibly with the luxurious appointments of his own time4 ,we cannot follow him through the extended disquisition--he speaks of various refinements of luxury of which we find no traces at ,pompeii2 but he mentions as the most striking difference the lack of light in the old bath1 with its small apertures more like chinks than windows1 while in his day the baths were provided with large windows protected by glass1 and people 'wanted to be parboiled in full daylight1' besides having the enjoyment meanwhile of a beautiful view4 ,some such feeling as this we have in turning from the two older baths at ,pompeii--one of pre-,roman origin1 the other dating from the time of ,sulla--to the ,central ,baths1 which were in process of construction at the time of the eruption1 and had been designed in accordance with the prevailing mode of life4 ,this extensive establishment1 at the corner of ,stabian and ,nola streets1 occupied the whole of a block2 but a large part of the frontage on the two streets mentioned was utilized for shops4 ,notwithstanding the size of the building1 it had only a single series of apartments1 which were laid out on a correspondingly large scale4 ,it was doubtless built for men1 although the use of it at certain hours by women may possibly have been contemplated1 in case the women's baths at the two other establishments should be overcrowded4 ,entrances from three streets lead to the ample palaestra1 from which the remains of the houses demolished to make room for it had not yet been entirely removed4 ,on the northeast side is the excavation for a large swimming tank 7h71 and for a water channel leading to the closet 7e74 ,in order to have water at hand for building purposes1 the masons had built a low wall around an old impluvium on the south side 7shown on the plan1 ,fig4 #id7 into which a feed pipe ran4 ,for a short distance on the north side the stylobate had been made ready for the building of the colonnade2 elsewhere only the preliminary work had been done4 ,the rooms at the southeast corner 7f1 g7 were no doubt intended for dressing rooms for the palaestra and the plunge bath4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4--,plan of the ,central ,baths4 d4 ,palaestra4 h4 ,swimming tank4 i1 l4 ,stores p4 ,apodyterium4 q4 ,tepidarium4 r4 ,laconicum4 s4 ,caldarium4 x1 y4 ,furnaces4 ,two small rooms 7b1 c7 open upon the north entrance of the palaestra2 one of them1 perhaps1 was to be a ticket office1 for the adjustment of matters relating to admission1 the other a cloak room1 in which the capsarius would guard the valuables of the bathers4 ,two doors admit the visitor from the palaestra to the series of bath rooms1 one of them opening from the north end of the colonnade4 ,the first room 7i1 l7 was designed to answer the purpose of a store1 with four booths 7k1 m1 n1 o7 opening into it for the sale of edibles and bathers' conveniences4 ,the apodyterium 7p71 tepidarium 7q71 and caldarium 7s7 had each three large windows opening on the palaestra2 two of those belonging to the tepidarium are seen in ,fig4 #ie4 ,none of the rooms were finished1 though a hollow floor and hollow walls had been built in the tepidarium1 caldarium1 and ,laconicum4 ,the bath basins yet lacked their marble linings1 and the two furnaces 7at x and y7 had not been built4 ,five smaller windows on the southeast side of the caldarium looked out on a narrow garden1 about which the workmen had commenced to build a wall to cut off the sight of the firemen passing to and fro between the two furnaces4 ,the caldarium was so placed as to receive the greatest possible amount of sunlight1 particularly in the afternoon hours1 when it would be used2 this was in accordance with a recommendation of ,vitruvius1 who says that the windows of baths ought1 whenever possible1 to face the southwest1 otherwise the south4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4--,view of the ,central ,baths1 looking from the palaestra into the tepidarium4 ,the contrast is indeed marked between the numerous large windows here1 with their attractive outlook1 and the small apertures1 high in the walls and ceiling1 through which light was admitted in the older baths4 ,in the ,central ,baths there was no frigidarium2 but a large basin for cold baths1 nearly five feet deep1 was placed in the dressing room opposite the windows4 ,supply pipes were so laid that jets would spring into the basin from three small niches1 one in each wall2 the overflow was conducted by pipes under the floor to a catch basin 7w71 and thence to the street4 ,the tepidarium 7q7--here1 as usual1 relatively small--is connected with the apodyterium by two doors1 and similarly with the caldarium4 ,the latter room has a bath basin at each end1 thus affording accommodations for twenty-six or twenty-eight bathers at once2 at the middle of the southeast side was a smaller basin that took the place of the labrum4 ,the hot air flues leading from the furnaces under the bath basins were already built1 and above them openings were left for semi-cylindrical heaters like that in the women's caldarium of the ,stabian ,baths4 ,the round sweating room1 ,laconicum1 was made more ample by means of four semicircular niches1 and lighted by three small round windows just above the cornice of the domed ceiling4 ,there was probably another round opening at the apex1 designed for a bronze shutter1 which could be opened or closed from below by means of a chain1 so as to regulate the temperature4 ,doors led into the ,laconicum from both the tepidarium and the caldarium4 ,the oblong court between the bath rooms and the street on the northeast side was apparently to be laid out as a garden4 ,at the north end the workmen had begun to build pillars for a short colonnade4 ,a large square foundation for a sundial stands near the opposite corner4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,the ,,amphitheatre ,in the southeast corner of the city1 at a distance from the other excavations1 lies the ,amphitheatre1 the scene of gladiatorial combats4 ,the ,pompeians called it 'the show1' spectacula1 as in the inscription1 preserved in two copies1 that gives us the names of the builders3 ,c4 ,quinctius ,c4 f4 ,valgus1 ,m4 ,porcius ,m4 filius duo viri quinquennales coloniai honoris caussa spectacula de sua pequnia faciunda coerarunt et coloneis locum in perpetuom dederunt4 ,according to this1 the ,amphitheatre was built by the same men1 ,valgus and ,porcius1 who are already known to us as the builders of the ,small ,theatre 7p4 #aec72 and they presented it to the city in recognition of the honor conferred upon them by their reelection as duumvirs4 ,the ,amphitheatre may thus have been finished half a decade later than the ,theatre1 but in any case it belongs to the earliest years of the ,roman colony1--as might be inferred1 in default of other evidence1 from the archaic spelling of the inscription1 and the character of the masonry1 which is like that of the ,small ,theatre and the baths north of the ,forum 7p4 #da74 ,the colonists1 however1 did not receive from ,rome their impulse to erect such a building4 ,the passion for gladiatorial combats was developed in ,campania earlier1 and manifested itself more strongly1 than in ,latium4 ,strabo's statement that gladiators were brought forward at ,campanian banquets1 in larger or smaller numbers according to the rank of the guests1 has reference to the period before the ,second ,punic ,war2 but it was considered a noteworthy event in ,rome when1 in #bfd ,b4,c41 gladiators engaged in combat in the ,forum ,boarium in celebration of funeral rites1 as also when1 on a similar occasion in #baf ,b4,c41 twenty-two pairs fought in the ,forum4 ,buildings were erected for gladiatorial shows in ,campanian towns earlier than at the ,capital4 ,as late as the year #df ,b4,c4 the spectators who witnessed the games given by ,julius ,caesar sat on wooden seats supported by temporary staging2 and the first stone amphitheatre in ,rome was built by ,statilius ,taurus in #bi ,b4,c41 almost half a century after the quinquennial duumvirate of ,valgus and ,porcius4 ,the ,amphitheatre at ,pompeii is the oldest known to us from either literary or monumental sources4 ,in comparison with later and more imposing structures1 our ,amphitheatre seems indeed unpretentious4 ,its exterior elevation is relatively low 7,fig4 #if72 as our section shows 7,fig4 #ii71 the arena and the lower ranges of seats are in a great hollow excavated for the purpose below the level of the ground4 ,the dimensions 7length #dfj feet1 breadth #cde7 are small when compared with those of the ,coliseum 7#fae and #eaj feet1 respectively7 or even the amphitheatres at ,capua or ,pozzuoli2 and the lack of artistic form is noteworthy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4--,the ,amphitheatre1 seen from the west side4 ,the exhibitions held here must also have been on a modest scale4 ,there were no underground chambers1 below the arena1 with devices by means of which wild beasts could be lifted up into view and the sand suddenly covered with new combatants4 ,the limited means of this small city were not adequate to make provision for the elaborate equipment and costly decoration found in the amphitheatres of larger towns4 ,the arena1 a view of which is given in ,plate ,,vi1 is surrounded by a wall about #fa_/b feet high4 ,this wall was covered with frescoes which1 still fresh at the time of excavation1 are now known to us only from copies in the ,naples ,museum4 ,they consisted of alternate broad and narrow panels1 the latter containing each a herm between two columns1 while the larger spaces presented alternately a conventional pattern and a scene connected with the games4 ,one of the scenes gives an interesting glimpse of the preparations for the combat 7,fig4 #ig74 ,in the middle we see the overseer marking out with a long staff the ring within which the combatants must fight4 ,at the right a gladiator stands1 partly armed2 two attendants are bringing him a helmet and a sword4 ,a hornblower1 also partly armed1 stands at the left2 and behind him two companions1 squatting on the ground1 make ready his helmet and shield4 ,at either end of the scene1 in the background1 is an image of a ,winged ,victory with a wreath and palm4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4--,preparations for the combat4 ,wall painting1 from the ,amphitheatre4 ,the limestone coping of the wall about the arena shows traces of iron in the joints between the blocks1 apparently remains of a grating designed to protect the spectators from attacks by the infuriated wild beasts4 ,the traces are not visible all the way around1 but this may be accounted for on the supposition that repairs were in progress at the time of the eruption4 ,two broad corridors 7#c1 #c;,a7 connect the ends of the arena with the outside of the building4 ,the one at the north end1 toward ,vesuvius1 follows a straight line2 the other bends sharply to the right in order to avoid the city wall1 which bounds the structure on the south and east sides4 ,by these corridors the gladiators entered the arena1 first in festal array1 passing in stately procession across the sand from one entrance to the other1 then coming forth in pairs as they were summoned to mortal combat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4--,plan of the ,amphitheatre at different levels showing1 above1 the arrangement of the seats2 below1 the arrangement of the vaulted passages under the seats4 #a4 ,podium4 #b4 ,gallery4 #c1 #c;,a4 ,entrances to arena4 #d1 #d4 ,vaulted corridor4 #e4 ,passage to death gate4 #f4 ,ima cavea4 #g4 ,media cavea4 #h4 ,summa cavea4 #i4 ,stairs of balcony4 #aj4 ,terrace4 #aa1 #aa4 ,outer double stairways to terrace4 #ab1 #ab4 ,single stairways to terrace4 #ac4 ,tower of city wall4 #ad4 ,city wall4 a4 ,first praecinctio4 b4 ,second praecinctio4 c1 d4 ,side entrances4 e4 ,death ,gate4 f1 f1 f4 ,dens4 ,at the middle of the west side there is a third passage1 narrow and low 7e72 this is the grewsome corridor through which the bodies of the dead were dragged by means of hooks1 its entrance being the ,porta ,libitinensis1 ',death ,gate4' ,near the inner end of each of the three corridors is a small1 dark chamber 7f7 the purpose of which is unknown4 ,it has been suggested that wild animals may have been confined here1 but larger and more easily accessible rooms would have been required for this purpose4 ,they may have been storerooms for appliances of various kinds required for the exhibitions4 ,the seats1 of which there are thirty-five rows1 have the same form as those in the ,small ,theatre1 and are of the same material1 gray tufa4 ,they are arranged in three divisions1--the lowest1 ima cavea1 having five rows2 the middle division1 media cavea1 twelve2 and the highest1 summa cavea1 eighteen 7,figs4 #ih1 #ii74 ,in the middle section of the ima cavea on each side the place of the seats is taken by four low1 broad ledges1 set aside for members of the city council1 who could place upon them the seats of honor1 bisellia1 to the use of which they were entitled4 ,at the middle of the east side the second ledge is interrupted for a distance of ten feet 7the break is shown in ,plate ,,vi71 a double width being thus given to the lowest4 ,this place was designed for seats of special honor1 and was1 no doubt1 reserved for the official who provided the games1 and his associates4 ,on the same side the ledges are extended into the next section on the south1 the continuity of the seats being interrupted by a low barrier4 ,this supplementary section was1 perhaps1 intended for certain freedmen1 as the ,augustales 7p4 #ajj71 who had the right to use bisellia1 but who nevertheless could not become members of the city council1 and were not ranked on a social equality with the occupants of the middle section4 ,the seats of the ima cavea and media cavea were reached through a vaulted passage 7#d71 which1 in accordance with ancient usage1 we may call a crypt4 ,it ran under the first seats of the second range1 and stairs led from it to both divisions4 ,it might be entered either from the two broad corridors leading to the arena1 or directly from the west side by means of two separate passages 7c1 d1 on the plan74 ,it is1 however1 interrupted at the middle on each side of the ,amphitheatre4 ,on the west side the prolongation of the crypt would have interfered with the use of the corridor leading to the ,death ,gate2 but as no such reason existed for blocking the east branch1 it is probable that the designers of the ,amphitheatre interrupted both branches of the crypt in order to force the spectators who had seats in the lower and middle divisions of the south half of the structure to enter and leave by the somewhat inconvenient south entrances1 which are situated in an angle of the city wall4 ,had the crypt been carried completely around1 the crowd would always have pressed into the building through the north entrances1 which opened toward the city1 thus causing confusion1 if not danger1 on occasions of special interest4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4--,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,amphitheatre1 ,,looking ,,northwest ,in the corridor leading from the north entrance1 as may be seen on the plan1 a row of stones with square holes in them were placed in the pavement near the left wall4 ,in these stakes could be set and connected by ropes1 thus making a narrow passageway along the side4 ,the purpose of the arrangement is not difficult to understand4 ,through the north corridor the gladiators entered and left the building1 and the wild beasts were brought in2 so provision had to be made to give them a passage separate from that used by the spectators4 ,before the commencement of an exhibition the whole entrance was accessible to the populace1 which eagerly crowded forward to secure seats in good season4 ,when they had for the most part found their places1 the barrier was set up1 and only a narrow alley was left along the east wall for belated spectators who wished to pass into the crypt on that side2 the rest of the passage was reserved for the gladiators1 and the spectators whose seats were reached from the opposite branches of the crypt were obliged to use the side entrance 7c74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4--,transverse section of the ,amphitheatre4 ,the middle division was separated from the summa cavea 7#h7 by a low parapet with a narrow passage 7praecinctio1 b7 on the upper side4 ,the seats of the summa cavea could be reached in two ways1 by passing through the crypt and up the long flights of stairs that led through the middle division to the top 7best seen in ,fig4 #ii71 or by mounting the stairs on the outside of the building to the terrace 7#aj71 which has the same level as the highest rows of seats2 it is also of the same height as the city wall1 with which it is merged on the south and east sides4 ,the terrace was no doubt the principal means of access2 ample provision was made for the crowd by building two large double stairways 7#aa71 with smaller single flights at the corners where the terrace joined the city wall 7#ab74 ,between the terrace and the seats of the summa cavea was an elevated gallery1 divided up into small boxes1 about four feet square2 under the row of boxes were vaulted vomitoria1 making the seats of the summa cavea accessible from the terrace4 ,a passage ran along the outside of the boxes1 with steps leading from the terrace2 only every third box was connected with this passage1 however1 the other two of the group being entered from a narrow ramp along the front 7,fig4 #ajj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--,plan of the gallery4 #a4 ,steps4 #b4 ,boxes4 ,the ,amphitheatre had a seating capacity of about twenty thousand persons4 ,we have no information in regard to the distribution of seats1 but it may safely be assumed1 from the arrangements known to have existed elsewhere1 that the lowest division was reserved for the city officials with their friends and other prominent people2 that an admission fee was charged for the seats of the middle division2 and that the seats of the upper division were free4 ,the gallery was doubtless set aside for women1 who were permitted by a regulation promulgated in the reign of ,augustus to have a place only in the upper portion of the ,amphitheatre4 ,besides the inscription giving the names of the builders 7p4 #bab7 there are several others of interest in connection with the building4 ,four of them1 cut in large letters in the travertine coping of the wall about the arena1 commemorate the construction of seats4 ,one reads3 ,l4 ,saginius ,,ii vir i4 d4 pro ludis luminibus ex decurionum decreto cuneum1--',lucius ,saginius1 duumvir with judiciary authority1 in accordance with a resolution of the city council 7constructed7 a section of seats in the place of the games and illumination1' that otherwise he would have been required to provide4 ,another of the series is even more abbreviated1 but the meaning is clear3 ,,mag 4 ,,pag 4 ,,aug 4 ,f 4 ,s 4 ,,pro 4 ,,lud 4 ,,ex 4 ,d 4 ,d1 that is1 ,magistri ,pagi ,augusti ,felicis ,suburbani pro ludis ex decurionum decreto1--',the officials of the suburb ,pagus ,augustus ,felix by authority of a resolution of the city council 7constructed a section of seats7 in the place of providing games4' ,from an inscription in the ,stabian ,baths1 to which reference has already been made 7p4 #aie71 it is clear that some freedom of choice was permitted to the city officials regarding the disposition of the sum which they were required to contribute for public purposes in recognition of the honor conferred upon them by their election4 ,the ,amphitheatre was not provided with seats at the beginning1 and one wedge-shaped section 7cuneus7 after another was added until the divisions were complete2 meanwhile the spectators made themselves as comfortable as they could on the sloping ground4 ,as the organization of the ,pagus ,augustus ,felix did not take place till #g ,b4,c41 the construction of the seats could not at that time have been completed2 but they were all finished before the overwhelming of the city4 ,the north entrance to the arena was adorned with two portrait statues of ,gaius ,cuspius ,pansa1 father and son1 placed in niches in the walls facing each other4 ,the statues have disappeared1 but the inscriptions underneath are still in place4 ,what services the ,pansas had rendered in connection with the ,amphitheatre to merit this distinction1 we do not know2 but the father1 as the inscription indicates1 was 'prefect in accordance with the law of ,petronius' 7p4 #ad72 that is1 he was appointed by the city council to exercise the functions of the two duumvirs when no valid election occurred4 ,bulwer ,lytton1 by a natural error1 makes ,pansa a commissioner to secure the execution of an altogether different ,lex ,petronia1 which forbade the giving of slaves to wild beasts unless judicial sentence had been previously passed upon them4 ,the attraction of the gladiatorial exhibitions1 together with the ample seating capacity of the building1 stimulated attendance from neighboring cities1 and on one occasion unfortunate results followed4 ,in the year #ei ,a4,d4 a ,roman senator1 ,livineius ,regulus1 who had been expelled from the ,senate1 and had apparently taken up his residence at ,pompeii1 gave an exhibition that attracted a great concourse4 ,among those who came to witness the combats were many inhabitants of ,nuceria4 ,the people of the two towns may not have been on the best of terms previously2 whatever the cause1 the ,pompeians and ,nucerians commenced with mutual bantering and recriminations1 then resorted to stone-throwing1 and finally engaged in a free fight with weapons4 ,the ,nucerians1 as can easily be understood1 fared the worse1 having many killed and wounded4 ,they carried the matter to ,rome1 lodging a complaint with ,nero2 the emperor referred the case to the ,senate1 which decreed that ,regulus and the leaders of the disturbance should be sent into exile1 that the ,pompeians should not be permitted to hold any gladiatorial exhibitions for the space of ten years1 and that the illegal societies at ,pompeii--in regard to which1 unfortunately1 we have no further information--should be dissolved4 ,from the receipts of ,caecilius ,jucundus we learn1 further1 that the duumvirs of the year #ei were removed from office1 and that with the new duumvirs1 elected in their places1 a magistrate with extraordinary powers1 praefectus iuri dicundo1 was associated--measures that indicate how serious the disturbance of public order must have been4 ,reminiscences of this bloody fray are found in several inscriptions scratched on walls2 and a lively idea of it is given by a wall painting found in #ahfi in a house near the theatres1 now in the ,naples ,museum 7,fig4 #aja74 ,the picture is of special interest as throwing light on the surroundings of the ,amphitheatre and some of its arrangements4 ,the open space with the trees in the foreground1 among which are various booths1 remind one of a park2 at the right is a single house4 ,it is clear from the painting that the women's boxes1 in the gallery1 were arched in front2 and we see how the great awning1 velum1 was stretched over the south end to protect the audience from the sun4 ,it was carried by the two towers of the city wall 7one of them is indicated on the plan1 #ac7 and by masts that stood in the passage behind the women's boxes1 where several of the perforated stones in which they were set may still be seen4 ,that the sports of the ,amphitheatre had at all times the keenest interest for the ,pompeians is evident1 not only from the number of notices having to do with the games1 which we see painted in red on walls along the streets or on tombs by the roadside1 but also from the countless graffiti in both houses and public places having reference to combats and favorite gladiators4 ,the limits of space do not permit us to describe the gladiatorial exhibitions as they took place at ,pompeii and other ,roman cities2 but the inscriptions bring so near to us the scenes and excitement of those days that it seems worth while to quote and interpret a few typical examples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4--;,conflict between the ,pompeians and the ,nucerians4 ,wall painting4 ,on a tomb near the ,nuceria ,gate1 excavated in #ahhf1 is the following notice1 painted in red letters3 ,gladiatorum paria ,,xx ,q4 ,monni ,rufi pugnabunt ,nola ,kalendis ,mais1 ,,vi4 ,v4 ,nonas ,maias1 et venatio erit1--',twenty pairs of gladiators1 furnished by ,quintus ,monnius ,rufus1 will fight at ,nola ,may #a1 #b1 and #c1 and there will be a hunt4' ,the forms of the letters and the numerous ligatures point to a comparatively early period1 perhaps antedating the reign of ,augustus4 ,the 'hunt1' venatio1 was an exhibition of wild beasts1 which sometimes were pitted against one another1 sometimes fought with men4 ,another tomb close by bears a notice of a gladiatorial combat to take place at ,nuceria4 ,a still larger number of gladiators is announced in this notice3 ,cn4 ,allei ,nigidi ,mai quinquennalis gladiatorum paria ,,xxx et eorum suppositicii pugnabunt ,pompeis ,,viii ,,vii ,,vi ,kalendas ,decembres4 ,venatio erit4 ,maio quinquennali feliciter4 ,paris vale1--',thirty pairs of gladiators furnished by ,cn4 ,alleius ,nigidius ,maius1 quinquennial duumvir1 together with their substitutes1 will fight at ,pompeii ,november #bd1 #be1 #bf4 ,there will be a hunt4 ,hurrah for ,maius the quinquennial6 ,bravo1 ,paris6' ,the substitutes were to take the place of the killed or wounded1 that the sport might not suffer interruption4 ,nigidius ,maius appears to have been a rich ,pompeian of the time of ,claudius4 ,in another painted inscription1 he advertises a considerable property for rent 7p4 #dhi74 ,his daughter1 as we know from an inscription belonging to a statue erected in her honor1 was a priestess of ,venus and ,ceres4 ,paris was probably a popular gladiator4 ,other officials besides duumvirs provided exhibitions4 ,thus an aedile3 ,a4 ,suetti ,certi aedilis familia gladiatoria pugnabit ,pompeis pridie ,kalendas ,iunias2 venatio et vela erunt1--',the gladiatorial troop of the aedile ,aulus ,suettius ,certus will fight at ,pompeii ,may #ca2 there will be a hunt1 and awnings will be provided4' ,the following notice can be dated1 approximately3 ,d4 ,lucreti ,satri ,valentis flaminis ,neronis ,caesaris ,augusti fili perpetui gladiatorum paria ,,xx1 et ,d4 ,lucreti ,valentis fili gladiatorum paria ,x pugnabunt ,pompeis ,,vi ,v ,,iv ,,iii pridie ,idus ,apriles4 ,venatio legitima et vela erunt4 ,scripsit ,aemilius ,celer singulus ad lunam1--',twenty pairs of gladiators furnished by ,decimus ,lucretius ,satrius ,valens1 permanent priest of ,nero1 son of the emperor1 and ten pairs of gladiators furnished by ,decimus ,lucretius ,valens his son1 will fight at ,pompeii ,april #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 and #ab4 ,there will be a big hunt1 and awnings4 ,aemilius ,celer wrote this1 all alone by the light of the moon4' ,the reference to ,nero as the son of the emperor1 shows that the inscription was written after he was adopted by ,claudius1 in #ej ,a4,d41 and before ,claudius's death1 in #ed4 ,celer was an enterprising painter of notices1 whose name appears elsewhere in a similar connection4 ,besides the general announcement of a gladiatorial exhibition1 a detailed programme1 libellus1 was prepared in advance1 of which copies were sold4 ,no such copy has come down to us1 but the character of the contents of a programme may be inferred from the order of events which a ,pompeian with waste time on his hands scratched on a wall2 the memorandum covers two exhibitions1 which came near together in the early part of ,may1 the result of each combat being carefully noted4 ,unfortunately the letters have now become almost illegible2 but we give the superscription and three of the nine pairs of combatants mentioned in the second programme1 which is the better preserved of the two1 adding in a separate column the full forms of the abbreviated words2 the figures indicate the number of combats in which the different gladiators had taken part3-- ,,munus4,n 444 ,,iv4,,iii ,munus ,n 444 ,,iv4 ,,iii4 ,,prid4,,idus4,,idi,,bus4,,mai,s pridie ,idus1 ,idibus ,mais ,t ,m ,threx1 ,myrmillo v4 ,,pugnax4,,ner4,,iii vicit4 ,pugnax1 ,neronianus1 ,,iii p4 ,,murranus4,,ner4,,iii periit4 ,murranus1 ,neronianus1 ,,iii ,o ,t ,hoplomachus1 ,threx v4 ,,cycnus4,,iul4,,viiii vicit4 ,cycnus1 ,iulianus1 ,,viiii m4 ,,atticus4,,iul4,,xiv missus est4 ,atticus1 ,iulianus1 ,,xiv ,,ess ,essedarii m4 ,p4,,ostorius4,,li missus est4 ,publius ,ostorius1 ,,li4 v4 ,,scylax4,,iul4,,xxvi vicit4 ,scylax1 ,iulianus1 ,,xxvi ,the name of the official who gave the exhibition 7munus7 is obliterated4 ,the contests extended over four days1 ,may #ab-ae4 ,in the first pair of gladiators ,pugnax1 equipped with ,thracian weapons--a small1 round shield and short1 curved sword or dagger--was matched with the ,myrmillo ,murranus1 who bore arms of the ,gallic fashion1 with the image of a fish on his helmet4 ,both were ,neroniani2 that is1 from the training school for gladiators founded by ,nero1 apparently at ,capua4 ,pugnax and ,murranus had both been through three contests previously4 ,the name of a gladiator entering a combat for the first time was not followed by a number1 but by the letter ,t1 standing for tiro1 'novice4' ,at the left we see the record added to the programme by the writer in order to give the result of the combat4 ,pugnax was the victor1 ,murranus was killed4 ,in the second pair ,cycnus1 in heavy armor1 was pitted against ,atticus1 who had the ,thracian arms4 ,both were from the training school founded by ,julius ,caesar1 probably at ,capua1 and hence are called ,iuliani4 ,cycnus won1 but the audience had compassion on ,atticus1 and his life was spared4 ,the same term was applied to a defeated gladiator permitted to leave the arena as to a soldier having an honorable discharge--missus1 'let go4' ,the third pair fought in chariots1 being dressed in ,british costume4 ,scylax was from the ,julian school4 ,such establishments let out gladiators to those who gave exhibitions1 and obtained in this way a considerable income4 ,but ,publius ,ostorius1 as his name implies1 was a freeman2 presumably he was a gladiator1 who1 having served a full term1 had secured his freedom1 and was now fighting on his own account4 ,though beaten1 he was permitted to live1 perhaps on account of his creditable record2 he had engaged in fifty-one combats4 ,the combatants from the schools of ,caesar and ,nero were especially popular1 and were generally victorious2 but gladiators belonging to other proprietors are mentioned1 as in the inscriptions of a house on ,nola ,street1 which will be mentioned again presently4 ,here we find gladiators who were evidently freemen named with others who were slaves of different masters4 ,in only one of these inscriptions1 however1 do we find the name of an owner that is known to us3 ,essedarius ,auriolus ,sisennae4 ,the chariot fighter ,auriolus belonged to a ,sisenna1 seemingly either the ,sisenna ,statilius ,taurus1 who was consul in #af ,a4,d41 or his son of the same name4 ,as we have seen1 it was a ,statilius ,taurus who built the first permanent amphitheatre in ,rome1 in #bi ,b4,c4 ,the control of this building remained in the hands of the family4 ,in the columbarium in which the ashes of their slaves and freedmen were placed1 we find inscriptions of a 'guard of the amphitheatre1' and of a 'doorkeeper'--custos de amphitheatro1 ostiarius ab amphitheatro4 ,it is highly probable that the family--the first in ,rome after the imperial house--possessed a training school1 and derived an income from furnishing gladiators to those who gave exhibitions4 ,in view of these facts1 we must suppose that the 'troop' 7familia gladiatoria7 of ,suettius ,certus1 for example1 was simply a band of gladiators brought together for a particular engagement1 not a permanent organization4 ,the giver of an exhibition would make a contract for the gladiators that he might need4 ,at the close of the combats the dead would be counted1 the surviving freemen paid off and dismissed1 and the surviving slaves returned to their masters1 'the troop' thus going out of existence4 ,occasionally the individual who provided the combats would erect a monument to the fallen1 by way of perpetuating the memory of his munificence4 ,a familiar example is the memorial set up by ,gaius ,salvius ,capito at ,venosa1 of which the inscription is extant4 ,the names are given of the gladiators who were killed1 together with the number of their previous combats and victories4 ,they were slaves of different masters1 only one of them1 ,optatus1 being owned by ,capito himself4 ,optatus was a tiro1 who fell thus in his first contest4 ,possibly his master had obliged him1 on account of some misdemeanor1 to enter the arena with little previous training4 ,besides the classes of inscriptions of which examples have been presented1 all sorts of scratches upon the plastered walls bear witness to the general enthusiasm for gladiatorial sports4 ,sometimes there is simply the name of a gladiator1 with his school and the number of combats1 as ,auctus1 ,iulianus1 ,,xxxxx2 sometimes we find a rough outline of a figure with a boastful legend1 as ,hermaiscus invictus hac1 ',here's the unconquered ,hermaiscus4' ,there are also memoranda in regard to particular combats1 illustrated by rude sketches4 ,thus on a wall in the house of the ,centenary we find a drawing of a gladiator in flight1 pursued by another1 with the note3 ,officiosus fugit ,,viii ,idus ,novembres ,druso ,caesare ,m4 ,iunio ,silano cos41--',officiosus fled on ,november #f1 in the year #ae ,a4,d4' ,a similar sketch has been found in another house1 with these words written beside the fleeing gladiator1 ,q4 ,petronius ,octavus ,,xxxiii1 missus2 beside the pursuer1 ,severus libertus1 ,,xxxxxv1 vicit4 ,severus was thus a gladiator who had been a slave1 and had gained his freedom3 he had fought fifty-five combats4 ,petronius ,octavus may have been a freeman1 who had fought on his own account from the beginning4 ,in taverns a painting of a gladiator with an inscription like the record of a programme was a favorite subject of decoration4 ,athletes in all ages have won the admiration of the gentler sex2 and it would be surprising if among so many gladiatorial graffiti there were not some containing references to female admirers4 ,in the peristyle of a house on ,nola ,street 7,v4 v4 #c7 the names of about thirty gladiators are found2 the kinds of weapons and the owners are designated1 and the number of previous combats given1 as in the programmes1 while records of the results of the combats are entirely lacking4 ,terms of endearment are lavished upon two1 ,celadus1 ,threx1 and ,crescens1 net fighter2 ,celadus is suspirium puellarum1 'maidens' sigh1' and puellarum decus1 'glory of girls'2 while ,crescens is puparum dominus1 'lord o' lassies1' and puparum medicus1 'the darlings' doctor4' ,another graffito informs us that at one time--before the year #fc--;a gladiator lived in this house3 ,samus _/ ,c _/ murmillo1 idem eques1 hic habitat1--',samus1 who has fought once1 and once conquered 7,c is for corona1 'crown'71 ,myrmillo1 and at the same time fighter on horseback1 lives here4' ,other gladiators1 no doubt1 shared the dwelling with him2 and the amatory graffiti may have been written by one and another miles gloriosus1 referring to conquests outside the arena1 or by companions in bitter scorn4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,streets1 ,,water ,,system1 ,,and ,,wayside ,,shrines ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--,view of ,abbondanza ,street1 looking east4 ,at the left1 fountain of ,concordia ,augusta1 and side entrance of the ,eumachia building4 ,in the pavement1 three stepping stones4 ,the streets of ,pompeii vary greatly in width4 ,the widest is ,mercury ,street1 the continuation of which near the ,forum has a breadth of nearly #cb feet4 ,next come ,abbondanza and ,nola streets1 the greatest width of which is about #bh feet2 the other streets and thoroughfares vary from #aj to #bj feet4 ,with unimportant exceptions1 broad and narrow streets alike are paved with polygonal blocks of basalt1 which in laying were fitted to one another with great care2 on both sides are raised sidewalks1 with basalt or tufa curbing4 ,the sidewalks in some places are paved with small stones1 elsewhere are laid with concrete1 or left with a surface of beaten earth4 ,as there is no uniformity1 the sidewalk varying in front of adjoining houses1 it is clear that the choice of materials was left to individual owners of abutting property4 ,the limits of ownership are often designated by boundary stones1 laid in the surface of the walk4 ,broad ruts1 worn by wheels1 are seen in the pavement1 shallower in places where the basalt flags1 cut from the lowest stratum of the stream of lava1 are particularly hard2 deeper wherever there are blocks quarried nearer the surface4 ,only the principal streets were wide enough to allow wagons to meet and pass2 elsewhere drivers must have waited at a corner for a coming team to go by4 ,it seems likely that driving on the streets of the city was forbidden1 wheeled vehicles being used only for traffic2 people who wished to ride availed themselves of litters4 ,at various places along the thoroughfares1 but particularly at the corners1 large oblong stepping stones with rounded corners were set in the pavement at convenient distances for those wishing to cross1 the surface being on a level with the sidewalk4 ,the number varied according to the width of the pavement2 in the broadest streets as many as five were used4 ,they were arranged always in such a way as to leave places for the wagon wheels4 ,it is not difficult to understand how ,pompeian drivers guided their teams past them2 draft animals were attached to the wagon by means of a yoke fastened to the end of the pole1 and1 as there were no tugs or whippletrees1 they had a greater freedom of movement than is allowed to modern teams4 ,it is not to be supposed that so complete a system of paving existed from the beginning of the city4 ,some light is thrown on the period of its laying by two inscriptions1--one1 ,,ex 4 ,k 4 ,,qui1 cut in the edge of the sidewalk west of ,insula ,,ix4 iv42 the other1 ,k 4 ,q1 in the pavement between the second and fourth ,insulae of ,region ,,vii4 ,both are evidently dates1 and in full would read ex ,kalendis ,quinctilibus1 'from the first day of ,july1' and ,kalendis ,quinctilibus1 ',july #a4' ,apparently they relate to the laying of the pavement2 this was in place1 even in the unimportant side street of ,region ,,vii1 when the inscriptions were cut1 and so must go back to the time before the name of the month ,quinctilis was changed to ,iulius1 our ,july4 ,pompeii was paved1 therefore1 before #dd ,b4,c4 ,the stepping stones were particularly useful when there was a heavy rain2 for the water then flowed in torrents down the streets1 as it does to-day in ,catania1 where the inhabitants have light bridges which they throw over the crossings after a storm4 ,there were covered conduits to carry off the surface drainage of the ,forum1 one of which runs under the ,strada delle ,scuole to the south1 the other under the ,via ,marina to the west4 ,elsewhere the water rushed down the streets till it came near the city walls1 where it was collected and carried off by large storm sewers4 ,these are still in successful operation1 as are also the conduits at the ,forum4 ,one is at the west end of the ,vico dei ,soprastanti1 another at the west end of ,nola ,street2 and a third leads from ,abbondanza ,street1 where it is crossed by ,stabian ,street1 toward the south4 ,there were other sewers in the city1 but they were of small dimensions and have not been fully investigated4 ,they seem generally to have been under sidewalks4 ,they were not designed to receive surface water1 but the drainage of houses4 ,they cannot have served this purpose fully1 however1 for most of the closets were connected1 not with the sewers1 but with cesspools4 ,after the lapse of more than eighteen centuries1 the visitor at ,pompeii will distinguish at a glance the business streets from those less frequented4 ,the sides of the former are lined with shops2 along the latter are blank walls1 broken only by house doors1 with now and then a small window high above the pavement4 ,the greatest volume of business was transacted on the two main thoroughfares1 ,stabian and ,nola streets2 next in importance were ,abbondanza ,street1 leading from the ,forum toward the ,sarno ,gate1 and the continuation of ,augustales ,street from the north end of the ,forum toward the east4 ,first in the list of quiet thoroughfares is the broad ,mercury ,street1 along which were many homes of wealth2 the north end of it is closed by the city wall4 ,there were many fountains along the streets of ,pompeii1 most of them at the corners4 ,they were fed by pipes connecting with the water system of the city4 ,the construction is simple4 ,a deep basin was made by placing on their edges four large slabs of basalt1 held together at the corners by iron clamps4 ,above one of the longer sides1 usually near the middle1 is a short1 thick standard1 of the same stone1 pierced for the lead feed pipe1 which threw a jet of water forward into the basin below2 on the opposite side is a depression through which the superfluous water ran off into the street4 ,most of these standards are ornamented with reliefs1 roughly carved but effective1--an eagle with a hare in its beak1 a calf's head1 a bust of ,mercury1 a head of ,medusa1 a drunken ,silenus 7,fig4 #ajc71 or some other suitable design1 arranged so that the water would spurt from the mouth of the figure or from an amphora4 ,occasionally we find a fountain of finer material4 ,that of ,concordia ,augusta1 of limestone1 has already been mentioned 7p4 #aag74 ,in the neighborhood of the ,porta ,marina there is a fountain of white marble with a relief showing a cock that has tipped over a jar1 from the mouth of which the water flowed4 ,both these more costly fountains were probably the gift of private individuals1 one presented to the city by ,eumachia1 the other by the owner of the nearest house1 at ,,vii4 xv4 #a-b4 ,all the fountains bear witness to long use by the depressions worn in the stone by the hands of those leaning forward to drink4 ,water towers stand at the sides of the streets1 small pillars of masonry preserved ordinarily to the height of #bj feet4 ,usually on one side there is a deep perpendicular groove 7shown in ,fig4 #ajc7 in which ran the pipe that carried the water to the top of the tower1 where it was received by a small open reservoir1 presumably of metal1 and distributed through numerous small pipes leading to the fountains and to private houses4 ,the sides of the towers are often covered with incrustations of lime deposited from the water1 in which the impressions of the lead pipes are still to be seen2 in the case of one tower1 at the northeast corner of ,insula ,,vi4 xiii1 a number of the pipes have been preserved4 ,a reservoir was placed also on the top of the commemorative arch at the lower end of ,mercury ,street1 on which stood the bronze statue of ,nero or ,caligula 7p4 #dh72 the traces of the pipes leading from it are clearly seen on the surface of the arch4 ,similar water towers are in use now in ,constantinople and ,palermo1 having been introduced into the latter city1 it would seem1 by the ,saracens1 who very likely took their water system from that of the ,turkish capital4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--;,fountain1 water tower1 and street shrine1 corner of ,stabian and ,nola streets4 ,in consequence of these arrangements1 ,pompeii was well supplied with water4 ,there were flowing jets in all houses except the poorest1 and in some the amount used must have been large4 ,in the house of the ,vettii there were no less than sixteen jets1 in the house of the ,silver ,wedding1 seven2 and an equally generous distribution is found in many other of the more extensive private establishments4 ,large quantities of water were used also in the public baths4 ,the water pipes were made of sheet lead folded together1 a transverse section showing the shape of a pear4 ,they were of all sizes1 according to the pressure2 the flow of water was regulated by means of stopcocks1 much like those in use to-day4 ,across the street from the ,baths near the ,forum1 on the west1 is a deep reservoir1 of which we give the plan 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,it is built partly below the level of the sidewalk1 and measures about #ej feet in length and #ac in width1 being covered by a vault4 ,in the south end is a window 7c71 reached from one of the stairways2 when the reservoir was filled to the bottom of the window1 it contained not far from ninety-five thousand gallons4 ,there were two outlets4 ,one was at the level of the floor1 closed by means of a bronze slide2 the grooves in which the slide worked are preserved4 ,this must have been used only when the reservoir was cleaned4 ,the other outlet was placed about three feet above the floor1 so that the water could be drawn off without disturbing the bottom4 ,on the flat roof were rooms the arrangement of which cannot be determined4 ,similar reservoirs are found in ,constantinople1 designed to furnish a supply of water in case of siege4 ,such may have been the purpose of our structure1 which seems to have been built in the early years of the ,roman colony4 ,the residents1 remembering the hardships of the siege of ,sulla1 may have thought it necessary to make provision against a similar strait in the future4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--,plan of reservoir1 west of the ,baths near the ,forum4 a1 b1 c4 ,windows4 d1 e4 ,stairs4 ,the source from which the city received its water supply has not been discovered4 ,evidently it did not draw upon the sources of the ,sarno2 the water channel constructed by ,fontana 7p4 #be7 runs through the city at a height of less than sixty feet above the level of the sea1 while the ancient aqueduct that supplied ,pompeii had so great a head that in the highest parts of the city1 more than #acj feet above the sea1 it forced the water to the top of the water towers1 at least twenty feet more4 ,copious springs can never have existed on the sides of ,vesuvius2 water must have been brought to the city from the more distant mountains bounding the ,campanian plain on the east4 ,we can hardly believe that the construction of a water channel for so great a distance lay within the resources of so small a town4 ,we find1 however1 the remains of a great aqueduct which1 starting near ,avellino1 a dozen miles east of ,nola1 skirted the base of ,vesuvius on the north and extended westward1 furnishing water not only to ,naples but also to ,puteoli1 ,baiae1 and ,misenum4 ,this ancient structure drew from the same springs1 and followed substantially the same route1 as the new aqueduct which since #ahhe has been bringing water to ,naples4 ,no inscription in regard to it has been found1 and there is no reference to it in ancient books4 ,the remains--of which the longest section1 known as ,ponti ,rossi1 ',red ,bridges1' may be seen near ,naples--seem to indicate two styles of construction1 extensive repairs having been made after the aqueduct had been partly destroyed2 but up to the present time it has not been possible to determine the period to which they belong4 ,the water system of ,pompeii goes back to the time before the founding of the ,roman colony4 ,this is evident1 not only from the arrangements of the older baths1 which contemplated a freer use of water than could well have been provided by cisterns1 but also from the existence of three marble supports for fountain basins1 which1 as shown by their style of workmanship1 the use of ,oscan letters as mason's marks1 and their location in pre-,roman buildings--the temple of ,apollo1 the ,forum ,triangulare1 and the house of the ,faun--belonged to the earlier period4 ,if we may ascribe the building of the great aqueduct to the time of peace and prosperity in ,campania between the ,second ,punic ,war and the ,social ,war1 and suppose that ,pompeii1 joining with other towns in its construction1 was supplied by a branch from it1 we have a simple and highly probable solution of the problem4 ,nothing in the character of the masonry requires us to assign the aqueduct to a later date4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the shrines along the streets1 with few exceptions1 were dedicated to the guardian deities presiding over thoroughfares1 particularly the gods of street crossings1 ,lares ,compitales4 ,the worship of these divinities in ,rome was reorganized by ,augustus and placed in charge of the precinct wardens1 vicorum magistri1 who were to see that the worship of his guardian spirit1 ,genius1 was associated with that of the ,lares at each shrine4 ,the arrangements at the ,capital were naturally followed by the colonies and other cities under ,roman rule4 ,at ,pompeii the shrines of the street gods differ greatly in size and character4 ,sometimes there is a small altar against the side of a building1 with two large serpents1 personifications of the ,genius of the place1 painted on the wall near it2 one of the serpents1 with a conspicuous crest1 represents a male1 the other1 a female4 ,frequently the place of the altar is taken by a niche1 in which the passer-by could deposit his offering4 ,in our illustration 7,fig4 #aje7 we see an ancient street altar which was carefully preserved when the ,central ,baths were built1 a niche being made over it in the new wall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4--;,ancient altar in new wall1 southeast corner of the ,central ,baths4 ,sometimes a large altar is found1 and the ,lares1 with their offerings1 are painted on a wall above it4 ,such a shrine may be seen at the northwest corner of ,stabian and ,nola streets1 between the fountain and the water tower 7,fig4 #ajc74 ,back of the altar is a wall terminating in a gable 7the tiles are modern7 on which was a painted altar with four worshippers clad in togas1 and a fluteplayer1 the inseparable accompaniment of a ,roman sacrificial scene2 at the sides were the two ,lares1 represented as youths1 in loose tunics confined by a girdle1 holding in one hand1 high uplifted1 a drinking horn 7rhyton71 from which a jet of wine flows into a small pail 7situla7 in the other hand4 ,it is remarkable that we do not find in this or similar paintings at ,pompeii1 any figure representing the ,genius of the emperor1 while in private houses the ,genius of the proprietor often has a place with the ,lares1 and sometimes the ,genius of the emperor also2 in theory at least1 as already remarked 7p4 #ajd71 the emperor stood to all men in the relation that the master of a house bore to the household4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--,plan of a chapel of the ,lares ,compitales4 ,there is also a small chapel for the worship of the street gods on the west side of ,stabian ,street1 near ,abbondanza ,street4 ,as may be seen from the accompanying plan 7,fig4 #ajf71 at the left as you enter is a bench of masonry 7#a71 at the rear a long altar 7#b74 ,in the wall at the right is a niche for the bronze or terra cotta figures of the ,lares and the ,genius1 while the surface of the altar is divided into two parts1 for the separate worship of the same divinities4 ,a similar chapel is situated on the west side of ,mercury ,street 7,,vi4 viii4 #ad74 ,here also we find a bench of masonry1 with two niches above it2 in the middle was a block of limestone which may have been used as an altar4 ,at the rear is a door leading into a small back room4 ,this chapel was formerly thought to be a barber shop4 ,it has been customary to assign to the street gods all of the shrines at the side of the street4 ,occasionally1 however1 other divinities were thus honored2 and the only street altar found with an inscription is consecrated to a different deity4 ,this altar is near ,nola ,street1 on the east side of ,insula ,,ix4 vii4 ,on the wall above two cornucopias are painted the words ,salutei sacrum1 ',sacred to ,salus'2 the goddess of health was worshipped here4 ,near the upper end of the ,forum1 on the north side of ,insula ,,vii4 vii1 is another altar1 above which is a stucco relief representing a sacrifice2 at the sides of the relief are pilasters1 and over it a gable1 in which an eagle is seen4 ,this indicates that the shrine was dedicated to ,jupiter4 ,the largest of the street altars1 of tufa1 stands free in a vaulted niche on the north side of ,insula ,,viii4 ii1 but no traces of painting are to be seen near it 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,various divinities are painted on the outside of houses4 ,the largest picture of this kind is at the corner of ,abbondanza ,street1 on the east side of ,insula ,,viii4 iii4 ,it contains figures of the twelve gods1 distinguished by their attributes--,vesta1 ,diana1 ,apollo1 ,ceres1 ,minerva1 ,jupiter1 ,juno1 ,vulcan1 ,venus ,pompeiana1 ,mars1 ,neptune1 and ,mercury4 ,underneath are the two serpents1 facing each other1 on either side of a painted altar2 near the altar are other figures that cannot be plainly distinguished1 probably of men offering sacrifice4 ,this is not a shrine--there is no place for the offerings4 ,the owner of the property 7house of the ,boar71 desired to place his household under the protection of these gods1 perhaps also to preserve the corner from defilement4 ,we often find roughly sketched figures of single gods1 to the guardian care of whom the master of a house wished to commit his interests--most frequently ,mercury1 the patron divinity of traders1 and ,bacchus2 but also ,jupiter1 ,minerva1 and ,hercules4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--,large street altar4 ,sometimes merely a pair of serpents are painted on a wall1 in order to give a religious association to the place1 as a means of protection4 ,in one case 7east side of ,insula ,,vii4 xi4 #ab7 an explicit warning was painted on the plaster beside them3 ,otiosis locus hic non est2 discede1 morator1--',no place for loafers here2 move along6' ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,the ,,defences ,,of ,,the ,,city ,from the military point of view1 ,pompeii at the time of the eruption did not possess a system of defences4 ,for many years previously the city wall had been kept in repair only as a convenience in matters of civil administration1 and the gates had long since lost all appearance of preparedness to resist attack4 ,the fortifications are not1 however1 without interest4 ,they form a massive and conspicuous portion of the ruins1 and as a survival from an earlier period they have recorded many evidences of the successive changes through which the city passed4 ,the relation of the wall to the configuration of the height on which ,pompeii stood was pointed out in connection with our general survey of the city 7p4 #ca74 ,along the southwest side1 at the time of the eruption1 it had almost completely disappeared4 ,here1 where the slope was steepest and the city best defended by nature1 the wall had been removed1 and its place occupied by houses1 at a comparatively early date1 probably in the second century ,b4,c42 enough fragments remain1 however1 to enable us to determine its location with certainty4 ,elsewhere the greater part of the wall is in a fair state of preservation4 ,the towers did not belong to the original structure1 and one of the gates in its present form is of still more recent origin4 ,the construction of the wall will be readily understood with the help of the accompanying illustrations4 ,first1 two parallel stone walls were built1 about #ae feet apart and #bh inches thick2 both walls were strengthened on the side toward the city by numerous buttresses1 the inner wall being further supported by massive abutments projecting into the space between 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,this space was filled with earth4 ,when the desired height1 #bf or #bh feet1 was reached1 a breastwork of parapets was constructed on the outer wall2 the inner wall was carried up about #af feet above the broad passageway on the top 7,fig4 #aaj7 as a shield against the weapons of the enemy1 preventing the missiles from going over into the town and causing them to fall where the garrison could easily pick them up to hurl back again4 ,rain water falling on the top flowed toward the outside1 and was carried beyond the face of the masonry by stone waterspouts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4--,plan of a section of the city wall4 ,a4 ,inner wall with buttresses and abutments4 ,b4 ,outer wall4 ,c4 ,filling of earth between the stone walls4 ,d4 ,tower4 ,e4 ,stairs leading to the top of the wall4 ,for additional strength there was heaped against the inner wall an embankment of earth1 which still remains on the north side1 between the tenth and twelfth towers4 ,at the right of the ,herculaneum ,gate the place of the embankment and of the inner wall was taken by a massive stairway 7,e in ,fig4 #ajh7 leading to the top4 ,originally1 the stairs extended east about #bgj feet1 but afterwards they were demolished for the greater part of the distance1 and houses were built close to the wall4 ,there is a smaller stairway of the same kind east of the ,stabian ,gate 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,in the original structure both outer and inner walls were built of hewn blocks of tufa and limestone2 but we find portions of the outer wall1 and all the towers1 of lava rubble1 the surface of which was covered with stucco4 ,the towers were already standing1 as shown by inscriptions1 at the time of the ,social ,war4 ,we are therefore safe in believing that in the period of peace following the ,second ,punic ,war the walls were not kept in repair1 some parts of the outer wall being utilized as a quarry for building stone2 that with the advent of the ,social ,war they were hastily repaired on the north1 east1 and south sides1 and strengthened by towers1 but that no attempt was made to renew the fortifications on the steep southwest side1 between the ,herculaneum ,gate and the ,forum ,triangulare1 where the line of the old wall was covered with buildings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4--,view of the city wall1 inside1 where the embankment has been removed4 ,the door in the tower at the left marks the height of the embankment4 ,when the towers were added--probably not long before #ij ,b4,c4--they were not distributed evenly along the wall1 but were placed where they seemed to be most needed4 ,the western portion of the ridge between the ,herculaneum and ,capua ,gates was particularly favorable for the approach of an enemy2 hence three towers were built near together here1 numbered #aj1 #aa1 and #ab on ,plan ,i4 ,another part of the wall especially exposed was on the southeast side1 where the height covered by the city slopes gradually down to the plain2 and we find five towers within a comparatively short distance1 two east of the ,amphitheatre1 the other three further south4 ,on the north side1 between the ,capua and ,sarno gates1 the slope is steeper and two towers were thought to be sufficient4 ,that there were once two additional towers1 besides the ten that have been enumerated1 is evident from several ,oscan inscriptions1 painted in red letters on the street walls of houses4 ,one of them1 near the southwest corner of the house of the ,faun1 reads thus3 ',this way leads between ,towers #aj and #aa1 where ,titus ,fisanius is in command4' ,the street referred to runs between the tenth and twelfth ,insulae of ,region ,,vi1 direct to the city wall4 ,two others refer to a ',tower #ab' near the ,herculaneum ,gate1 this part of the fortifications being in charge of ,maras ,adirius4 ,in a fourth inscription we read3 ',this way leads between the houses of ,maras ,castricius and of ,maras ,spurnius1 where ,vibius ,seximbrius is in command4' ,in #ahig1 a fifth inscription became visible on the north side of ,insula ,,viii4 v-vi1 where it had been concealed by a coat of plaster3 ',this way leads to the city building 7and7 to ,minerva4' ,the street referred to is seemingly the blind alley which formerly ran through the insula 7,plan ,i74 ,if this is correct1 the sanctuary of ,minerva is the ,doric temple in the ,forum ,triangulare2 but the 'city building' cannot be identified4 ,the five inscriptions evidently date from the siege of ,sulla2 they were intended for the information of the soldiers1 belonging to the army of the ,allies1 who were quartered in the city to assist in its defence4 ,at this time there must have been twelve towers1 that near the ,herculaneum ,gate being reckoned last in the enumeration1 as in ,plan ,i2 but the location of the two that have disappeared has not been determined4 ,another suggestive reminder of the same siege is the name ,l 4 ,,svla1 scratched by a soldier in the stucco on the inside of ,tower #aj1 near a loophole4 ,the towers1 which measure approximately #ca by #be feet1 were built in two stories1 with strong vaulted ceilings4 ,the floor of the second story was on a level with the top of the wall1 and over this story was a terrace with battlements1 as shown in ,fig4 #aaj2 the roof seen on the two towers in ,fig4 #aja was a later addition1 made when the city walls were no longer needed as a means of defence4 ,stairways on the inside gave ready access to the lower part of the towers1 which could be entered from the city by a door 7,fig4 #aji7 opening on the embankment4 ,on the outside were loopholes4 ,below1 at the right1 was a sally port1 placed thus in order that the soldiers when rushing forth might present their shields to the enemy1 leaving the right hand free to use with offensive weapons2 when returning to the wall they would1 if possible1 cut their way to the sally port in the next tower to the right1 so as to avoid the danger of exposing their right sides to the enemy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--,tower of the city wall1 restored4 ,four of the gates have been excavated1 the ,porta ,marina and the ,stabian1 ,nola and ,herculaneum gates2 two others1 the ,vesuvius and ,sarno gates1 have been partly exposed to view4 ,the remaining two are still completely covered4 ,all bear evidence of extensive repairs1 and one of them1 the ,herculaneum ,gate1 was entirely rebuilt at a comparatively late period2 with this exception1 however1 they seem to have assumed their present form in the ,tufa ,period4 ,three of them still retain traces of decoration of the first style on the inner parts4 ,the different gateways enter the walls at various angles4 ,the ,stabian ,gate may be taken as typical4 ,entering from the outside1 at ,a1 one came through a vaulted passage1 ,b1 about twelve feet wide1 to a broad middle passage1 or vantage court1 open to the sky1 into which missiles and boiling pitch could be hurled from above upon the heads of an enemy attempting to force the gates2 then followed a second vaulted passage1 a little wider than the other1 in which were hung the heavy double doors1 opening outward4 ,the projecting posts of the doors are preserved1 as are also the stones on which they rested when they were swung back against the wall2 the vaulting has been restored4 ,the gateway was paved throughout1 with a raised walk on the right side4 ,on one side of the inner entrance is a well 7a71 the ,gorgon's head upon the curb reminding one of the protectress of the gate2 on the other1 the flight of steps already mentioned 7b7 leads to the top of the wall4 ,just beyond the steps are the remains of a small building1 perhaps the lodge of the gate keeper 7c74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--,plan of the ,stabian ,gate4 ,b4 ,outer passage4 ,c4 ,vantage court4 ,d4 ,doors4 a4 ,well4 b4 ,steps leading to the top of the wall4 c4 ,gatekeeper's lodge4 d4 ,oscan inscription4 e4 ,latin inscription4 ,the patron divinity of city gates1 ,minerva1 was probably honored with a small statue in the niche still to be seen in the wall of the vantage court4 ,two inscriptions commemorate the making of repairs on the thoroughfare passing under the gateway4 ,one of them 7at d7 is the ,oscan inscription recording the work of the aediles ,sittius and ,pontius1 to which reference has already been made 7p4 #ahd74 ,the other 7at e7 is in ,latin1 and of much later date4 ,it informs us that the duumvirs ,l4 ,avianius ,flaccus and ,q4 ,spedius ,firmus at their own expense paved the road 'from the milestone1' which must have been near the gate1 'to the station of the gig drivers 7cisiarios71 at the limits of the territory of the ,pompeians4' ,the ,roman gigs1 cisia1 were very light1 and adapted for rapid travelling2 they were drawn by horses or mules1 and were kept for hire at stations along the highways4 ,the site of the station between ,pompeii and ,stabiae is not known4 ,the ,nola ,gate1 and the partially excavated ,vesuvius and ,sarno gates1 follow the plan just described in all essential particulars4 ,the inner keystone of the ,nola ,gate1 facing the city1 is ornamented with a helmeted head of ,minerva1 in high relief1 which being of tufa has suffered from exposure to the weather4 ,there was once an ,oscan inscription near by1 which stated that the chief executive officer of the city1 ,vibius ,popidius1 let the contract for building this gate1 and accepted the structure from the contractor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4--,plan of the ,herculaneum ,gate4 ,a4 ,steps leading to the top of the city wall4 ,b4 ,room belonging to the house at the left of the ,gate4 ,the front of the ,porta ,marina has the appearance of a tower projecting from the wall4 ,the gateway consists simply of two vaulted entrances1 of unequal width2 one for vehicles1 the other1 at the left1 for pedestrians4 ,both were closed by doors4 ,in the niche at the right of the wider passage the lower part of a terra cotta statue of ,minerva was found4 ,there was no vantage court1 no inner passage2 but in the early years of the ,roman colony the steep lower end of the ,via ,marina for a distance of #gj feet was covered with a vaulted roof1 which still remains4 ,opening into this corridor on the right is a long narrow room1 which formed a part of the foundations of the court of the temple of ,venus ,pompeiana1 and is now used as a ,museum4 ,this gate in its present form could hardly have been intended for defence2 it was adapted rather for administrative purposes1 and must have been built--probably in the place of an earlier structure--in a period when the possibility of war seemed remote4 ,such a time1 as previously remarked1 was the second century ,b4,c41 particularly the latter half1 after the destruction of ,carthage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4--;,herculaneum ,gate1 looking down the ,street of ,tombs4 ,the corners of the entrances are opus mixtum1 a course of brick-shaped blocks of stone alternating with three courses of bricks4 ,a still more peaceful aspect is presented by the ,herculaneum ,gate4 ,the style of masonry--rubble work with opus mixtum at the corners--points to the end of the ,republic1 rather than to the ,empire1 as the period of construction4 ,here we find three vaulted passages1 the middle one for vehicles1 those on either side for pedestrians4 ,the vaulting over the middle part of the gate has disappeared2 but according to appearances a vantage court was left here1 in the middle passage1 if not in those at the sides2 at the inner end of this court the gates were placed4 ,the greater part of the structure served no purpose of utility2 it was obviously designed as a monumental entrance to the city4 ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,houses ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,the ,,pompeian ,,house ,our chief sources of information regarding the domestic architecture of ancient ,italy are two1--the treatise of ,vitruvius1 and the remains found at ,pompeii4 ,the ,pompeian houses present many variations from the plan described by the ,roman architect2 yet in essential particulars there is no disagreement1 and it is not difficult to form a clear conception of their arrangements4 ,the houses of ,greco-,roman antiquity differed from those of modern times in several respects4 ,they took their light and air from the inside1 the apartments being grouped about a court or about a large central room which ordinarily had an opening in the ceiling2 the distribution of space being thus made on a different principle1 the large rooms were often larger1 the small rooms smaller and more numerous than in modern dwellings of corresponding size2 and in the better houses the decoration of both walls and floors was more permanent than is usual in our day4 ,the ancient houses were relatively low1 in most cases1 if we except the crowded tenements of imperial ,rome1 not exceeding two stories4 ,the windows in the outside walls were generally few and small1 and the external appearance was not unlike that of ,oriental houses of the present time4 ,in the city house the large front entrance was frequently ornamented with carved posts and lintel4 ,the development of the ,italic house can be traced at ,pompeii over a period of almost four hundred years4 ,the earlier form consisted of a single series of apartments1--a central room1 atrium1 with smaller rooms opening into it1 and a garden at the rear2 an example is the house of the ,surgeon 7p4 #bhj74 ,a restoration of such a house with its high atrium1 wide front door1 and garden is shown in ,fig4 #aad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4--;,early ,pompeian house1 restored4 ,later1 under ,greek influence1 a court with a colonnade and surrounding rooms was added4 ,this was called peristylium1 'peristyle'2 it is simply the more elaborate inner part of the ,greek house1 andronitis1 joined to the dwelling of ,italic origin4 ,we find the union of atrium and peristyle with their respective groups of apartments fully accomplished in the second century ,b4,c41 the ,tufa ,period2 the type of dwelling thus developed remained in vogue during ,roman times and is often called the ,roman house4 ,the double origin is clearly indicated by the names of the rooms4 ,those of the front part are designated by ,latin words1--atrium1 fauces1 ala1 tablinum2 but the apartments at the rear bear ,greek names1--peristylium1 triclinium1 oecus1 exedra4 ,in large houses both atrium and peristyle were sometimes duplicated4 ,the houses of ,pompeii impress the visitor as having been designed primarily for summer use4 ,the arrangements contemplate the spending of much time in the open air1 and pains was taken to furnish protection from the heat1 not from the cold4 ,the greater part of the area is taken up by colonnades1 gardens1 and courts2 from this point of view the atrium may be classed as a court4 ,the living rooms had high ceilings4 ,in summer they were cool and airy1 in winter difficult to heat2 they were dark and close when the door was shut1 cold when it was open4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4--,plan of a ,pompeian house4 ,with a single exception the arrangements for heating so often met with in the remains of houses discovered in northern countries are found at ,pompeii only in connection with bath-rooms2 the cold was ineffectively combated by means of braziers4 ,we are led to believe that the ,pompeians were extremely sensitive to heat1 but endured cold with great patience4 ,one who makes himself familiar with the arrangements of ,italian houses to-day will receive a similar impression1 although the peculiarity is perhaps less obvious than in the case of the ancient dwellings4 ,in describing the ,pompeian houses it is more convenient to designate the principal rooms by the ancient names4 ,in ,fig4 #aae we present an ideal plan2 in it the names are given to the parts of the house1 the relative location of which is subject to comparatively little variation4 ,these parts will first be discussed2 then those will be taken up which present a greater diversity in their arrangements4 ,i4 ,,vestibule1 ,,fauces1 ,,and ,,front ,,door ,the vestibulum was the space between the front door and the street4 ,the derivation of the word 7ve- the root of stare1 'to stand aside'7 suggests the purpose2 the vestibule was a place where one could step aside from the bustle and confusion of the street4 ,in many houses there was no vestibule1 the front door opening directly on the sidewalk2 and where vestibules did exist at ,pompeii1 they were much more modest than those belonging to the houses of wealthy ,romans1 to which reference is so frequently made in classical writers4 ,roman vestibules were often supported by columns of costly marbles1 and adorned with statues and other works of art4 ,only one vestibule at ,pompeii was treated as a portico1 that of the house of the ,vestals near the ,herculaneum ,gate4 ,this was once as wide as the atrium1 the roof being carried by four columns2 but before the destruction of the city two partitions were built parallel with the sides dividing it into three parts1 a narrow vestibule of the ordinary type1 with a shop at the right and at the left4 ,the passage inside the front door was called fauces1 or prothyron4 ,according to ,vitruvius the width of it in the case of large atriums should be half1 in smaller atriums two thirds1 that of the tablinum2 at ,pompeii the width is generally less than half4 ,in the houses of the ,tufa ,period the corners of the fauces where it opens into the atrium were ornamented with pilasters connected at the top by an entablature4 ,the vestibule and fauces were ordinarily of the same width1 and were separated by projecting doorposts with a slightly raised threshold 7,fig4 #aaf7 and heavy double doors4 ,sometimes1 as in the house of ,epidius ,rufus1 there was in addition a small door at the side of the vestibule opening into a narrow passage connecting with the fauces 7,fig4 #adi74 ,in such cases the folding doors1 which on account of their size and the method of hanging must always have been hard to open1 were generally kept shut4 ,they would be thrown back early in the morning for the reception of clients1 and on special occasions2 at other times the more convenient small door would be used4 ,in several instances the volcanic dust so hardened about the lower part of a front door that it has been possible to make a cast by pouring soft plaster of ,paris into the cavity left by the crumbling away of the wood2 there are several of these casts in the little ,museum at ,pompeii4 ,with their help1 and with the well preserved stone thresholds before us1 it is possible to picture to ourselves the appearance of the doorway4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4--,plan and section of the vestibule1 threshold1 and fauces of the house of ,pansa4 ,the doorposts were protected by wooden casings1 antepagmenta1 which were made fast at the bottom by means of holes in the threshold 7alpha1 alpha in ,fig4 #aaf74 ,the folding doors swung on pivots1 which were fitted into sockets in the threshold 7beta1 beta7 and in the lintel4 ,the pivots were of wood1 but were provided--at least the lower ones--with a cylindrical cap of iron or bronze1 and the socket had a protective lining of the same metal4 ,both caps and sockets1 especially those of bronze1 are found in the thresholds in a good state of preservation4 ,it seems strange that ancient builders did not use smaller pivots of solid metal1 on which the doors would have turned much more easily2 but a conservative tradition in this regard prevailed against innovation4 ,the fastenings were elaborate4 ,near the inner edge of each door was a vertical bolt1 which shot into a hole in the threshold 7gamma1 gamma72 there was probably a corresponding bolt at the top1 as in the case of large modern doors4 ,sometimes there was a heavy iron lock1 turned with a key1 and also an iron bar which was fastened across the crack in such a way as to tie the two folds together4 ,in many houses there are holes in the walls of the fauces1 just back of the door1 in which at night a strong wooden bar1 sera1 was placed2 hardly less often we find a hole in the floor a few feet back1 in which one end of a slanting prop was set1 the other end being braced against the middle of the door4 ,these arrangements bring to mind ,juvenal's vivid picture of the disturbances and dangers of the streets of ,rome at night4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,atrium ,an atrium completely covered by a roof was extremely rare4 ,with few exceptions1 there was a large rectangular opening over the middle1 compluvium1 toward which the roof sloped from all sides 7,figs4 #aad1 #aah74 ,in the floor1 directly under the compluvium1 was a shallow basin1 impluvium1 into which the rain water fell 7h in ,fig4 #aah74 ,the impluvium had two outlets4 ,one was connected with the cistern2 a round cistern mouth1 puteal1 ornamented with carving1 often stood near the edge of the basin1 as in the house of the ,tragic ,poet 7,fig4 #aec74 ,the other outlet led under the floor to the street in front1 carrying off the overflow when the cistern was full1 and also the water used in cleaning the floor4 ,in the better houses a fountain was often placed in the middle of the impluvium4 ,vitruvius 7,,vi4 iii4 #a et seq47 mentions five kinds of atriums1 the basis of classification being the construction of the roof--,tuscan1 tetrastyle1 ,corinthian1 displuviate1 and tortoise atriums4 ,the first three are well illustrated at ,pompeii4 ,the ,tuscan atrium1 supposed by the ,romans to have been derived from the ,etruscans1 was apparently the native ,italic form4 ,two heavy girders were placed across the room1 above the ends of the impluvium 7,fig4 #aag1 b74 ,on these1 two shorter crossbeams were laid 7c71 over the sides of the impluvium4 ,the corners of the rectangular frame thus made were connected with the walls at the corners of the atrium by four strong slanting beams 7,figs4 #aag1 #aah1 e74 ,on these and on the frame were placed the lower ends of the sloping rafters 7,fig4 #aag1 f71 carrying the tiles1 the arrangement of which can be seen in ,figs4 #aad1 #aag1 and #aah4 ,this was the most common arrangement of the roof at ,pompeii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4--;,a ,tuscan atrium3 plan of the roof4 a1 a4 ,side walls4 b4 ,one of the two girders supporting the roof4 c4 ,crossbeam1 resting on the two girders4 d4 ,short beam of the thickness of c4 e4 ,corner beam4 f4 ,rafters1 sloping toward the inside4 g4 ,compluvium4 #a4 ,flat tiles1 tegulae4 #b4 ,semicylindrical tiles for covering the joints1 imbrices4 #c4 ,gutter tiles4 ,the edge of the compluvium was frequently ornamented with terra cotta waterspouts1 representing the heads of animals4 ,in a house near the ,porta ,marina the projecting foreparts of dogs and lions were used in place of the heads2 the remains of a part of the compluvium have been put together again1 and are seen in ,fig4 #aai4 ,the lions were placed over the larger spouts at the four corners2 the under side of the spouts surmounted by the dogs and lions was ornamented with acanthus leaves in relief4 ,the same illustration presents an example of the antefixes sometimes found4 ,the tetrastyle atrium differed from the ,tuscan in only one respect3 there were four columns supporting the roof1 one at each corner of the impluvium4 ,in most cases these supports1 which interfered with the view of the interior1 can hardly have been intended primarily for ornament2 they simplified the construction1 making the ceiling and roof firm without the use of the heavy and expensive girders4 ,the ,corinthian atrium had a larger compluvium than the other kinds1 the roof being supported by a number of columns4 ,there are three examples at ,pompeii1 the houses of ,epidius ,rufus with sixteen columns 7p4 #caj71 of ,castor and ,pollux with twelve1 and of the ,fullonica with six4 ,the roof of the displuviate atrium sloped from the middle toward the sides1 the water being carried off by lead pipes4 ,the aperture for the admission of light and air was relatively much higher above the floor than in the kinds previously described4 ,no example of this type has been found at ,pompeii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4--;,a ,tuscan atrium3 section4 b4 ,girder4 e4 ,corner rafter4 h4 ,impluvium4 #a4 ,flat tiles4 #b4 ,semicylindrical tiles4 ,the tortoise atrium1 atrium testudinatum1 was small and without a compluvium4 ,the roof had a pyramidal shape4 ,there were possibly a few examples at ,pompeii1 as we may infer from the occasional absence of an impluvium2 in the only instance1 however1 in which it is possible to determine the form of the roof 7,v4 v4 #a-b71 this must have been very different from that referred to by the ,roman writer 7p4 #cdc74 ,vitruvius says further that the atrium should have an oblong shape1 the width being three fifths or two thirds of the length1 or measured on the side of a square1 the hypothenuse of which is taken for the length4 ,the design was obviously to bring the sides nearer together1 thus lessening the strain on the two girders which in the commonest form were used to sustain the roof4 ,the height1 to the frame of the compluvium1 should be three fourths of the width4 ,in the case of the tetrastyle and ,corinthian atriums at ,pompeii the height is indicated by that of the columns1 but there are rarely adequate data for determining the height of the others with exactness4 ,in regard to length and breadth the proportions harmonize fairly well with those recommended by ,vitruvius2 but the height1 in the cases in which it can be ascertained1 is often greater than that contemplated by the rules of the architect4 ,looking at the ,pompeian atriums in their present condition 7,plate ,,vii1 ,figs4 #aba1 #aec7 one might easily receive the impression that they were primarily courts rather than rooms4 ,in this respect the restorations of ,roman houses in the older books are often at fault1 the atrium being generally represented as too low in comparison with the rooms around it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4--;,corner of a compluvium with waterspouts and antefixes1 reconstructed4 ,the references in the ancient writers uniformly point to this as the principal room of the house4 ,in the earliest times the hearth stood here2 a hole in the roof served as a chimney4 ,the accumulation of soot on the ceiling and the walls suggested the characteristic name 'black room'2 for atrium comes from ater1 'black4' ,here the household gathered at mealtime2 here they worked1 or rested from their labors4 ,in the atrium ,lucretia sat with her maids spinning late at night when her husband entered unexpectedly with his friends4 ,such the atrium remained in farmhouses to the latest times4 ,the name meanwhile was transferred to the corresponding apartment of elegant city homes1 while in the country it went out of use1 being replaced by culina1 'kitchen1' on account of the presence of the hearth4 ,in such a room in his ,sabine villa ,horace loved to dine1 conversing on topics grave or gay with his rustic neighbors1 and partaking of the simple fare with relish2 while his slaves1 freed from the restraints of city life1 were permitted to eat at the same time1 sitting at a separate table4 ,the remains of an atrium of this kind1 with its hearth and niche for the images of the household gods1 may be seen in the villa recently excavated near ,boscoreale 7p4 #cfa74 ,without doubt some houses of the ancient type might be found in cities1 even in ,rome1 as late as the end of the ,republic4 ,we read of one in ,cicero's time in the atrium of which spinning was done4 ,but at ,pompeii the hearth had been banished from the atrium at a comparatively early date1 in the ,tufa ,period if not before2 and the room was made uncomfortable to sit in1 for a considerable part of the year1 by the broad opening of the compluvium4 ,from the architectural point of view1 however1 the atrium never lost its significance as the central apartment4 ,in all its dimensions1 but particularly in height1 it presents so great a contrast with the rooms around it as to remind us of the relation of a ,roman ,catholic church to the chapels at the sides4 ,the impression of spaciousness was perhaps deepened when the atrium was provided with a ceiling4 ,few traces of such ceilings are found at ,pompeii1 and in the smaller houses the inside of the roof seems generally to have been visible4 ,the atrium of the ,corinthian type most nearly resembled a court1 on account of the size of the opening to the sky and the use of many columns4 ,a suggestion of the un-,italic character of this type appears in the name2 for one can scarcely suppose that atriums in the strict sense existed at ,corinth4 ,although the ,pompeian atriums show no traces of a hearth1 there is possibly a reminiscence of the ancient arrangement in the gartibulum1 a table which we frequently find at the rear of the impluvium4 ,varro says that since his boyhood these tables1 on which vessels of bronze were placed1 had gone out of use2 at ,pompeii they remained in fashion much longer4 ,the gartibulum with its bronze vases may symbolize the ancient hearth with the cooking utensils4 ,possibly1 however1 it represents the kitchen table near the hearth on which the dishes were washed2 that it may have served a similar purpose in later times is evident from the fact that in front of it a marble pedestal was often placed for a statuette which threw a jet of water into a marble basin at the edge of the impluvium4 ,this group of table1 fountain figure1 and basin appears in many ,pompeian atriums4 ,in ,plate ,,vii we see the gartibulum and the supports of the marble-basin1 but the base of the fountain figure has disappeared4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4--;,a ,pompeian's strong box1 arca4 ,the strong box of the master of the house1 arca1 often stood in the atrium1 usually against one of the side walls4 ,it was sometimes adorned with reliefs1 as the one shown in ,fig4 #abj1 which is now in the ,naples ,museum4 ,it stood on a heavy block of stone1 or low foundation of masonry1 to which it was attached by an iron rod passing down through the bottom4 ,a wealthy ,pompeian sometimes had more than one of these chests4 ,in three atriums the herm of the proprietor stands at the rear4 ,one1 with the portrait of ,cornelius ,rufus1 is shown in ,fig4 #aba4 ,when there were two atriums in a house1 the larger was more elaborately furnished than the other1 and was set aside for the public or official life of the proprietor2 the smaller one was used for domestic purposes4 ,typical examples are found in the houses of the ,faun and of the ,labyrinth4 ,in the former the principal atrium is of the ,tuscan type1 the other tetrastyle2 in the latter the large atrium is tetrastyle1 the smaller ,tuscan4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,tablinum ,the tablinum was a large room at the rear of the atrium1 opening into the latter with its whole width2 the connection of the two rooms is clearly shown in ,plate ,,vii and ,fig4 #aba4 ,according to ,vitruvius1 when the atrium was #cj to #dj feet in width--as in the larger ,pompeian houses--the tablinum should be half as wide2 when the atrium was smaller1 the width of the tablinum should be two thirds that of the atrium1 while the height at the entrance should be nine eighths1 and inside four thirds of the width4 ,these proportions will not hold good for ,pompeii1 where the tablinum is generally narrower and higher 7,vitr4 ,,vi4 iv4 #e1 #f74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4--;,atrium of the house of ,cornelius ,rufus1 looking through the tablinum and andron into the peristyle4 ,in the foreground1 the impluvium1 with the carved supports of a marble table2 at the left1 between the entrances to the andron and the tablinum1 the herm of ,rufus4 ,the posts at the entrance were usually treated as pilasters1 joined above by a cornice2 architecturally the front of this room formed the most impressive feature of the atrium4 ,between the pilasters hung portieres1 which might be drawn back and fastened at the sides4 ,in the house of the ,silver ,wedding the fastenings were found in place1--bronze disks from which a ship's beak projected1 attached to the pilasters4 ,in early times the tablinum ordinarily had an opening at the rear also1 but this was not so high as that in front1 and could be closed by broad folding doors4 ,in winter the doors were probably kept shut4 ,in summer they were left open and the room1 cool and airy1 served as a dining room1 a use which harmonizes well with a passage of ,varro explaining the derivation of the name4 ,in the olden time1 says this writer1 people used to take their meals in the winter by the hearth2 in summer they ate out of doors1 country folk in the court1 city people in the tabulinum1 which we understand to have been a summer house built of boards4 ,the derivation of tabulinum1 of which tablinum is a shortened form1 from tabula1 'a board1' is obvious4 ,the period to which ,varro refers antedates that of the oldest houses at ,pompeii4 ,the room which we call tablinum was then a deep recess at the rear of the atrium1 open at the front1 as now1 but enclosed by a wall at the rear2 against this wall was a veranda opening into the garden1 toward which the board roof sloped4 ,people took their meals in the veranda in summer1 and to it the name tablinum was naturally applied4 ,in the recess at the rear of the atrium1 corresponding to the later tablinum1 was the bed of the master of the house1 called lectus adversus because 'facing' one who entered the front door4 ,as late as the reign of ,augustus1 long after it became the custom to set aside a closed apartment for the family room1 a reminiscence of the ancient arrangement still remained in the couch which stood at the rear of the atrium or in the tablinum1 which was called lectus adversus1 or even lectus genialis4 ,the removal of the hearth and the bed from the atrium must have taken place when the small hole in the roof was replaced by the compluvium4 ,a broad opening was made in the rear wall1 and the place where the bed had been was turned into a light1 airy room2 this was now used as a summer room instead of the veranda1 the name of which was in consequence transferred to it4 ,even in later times1 when the houses were extended by the addition1 at the rear1 of a peristyle with its group of apartments1 the tablinum may often have been used as a summer dining room2 but the tendency now was to withdraw the family life into the more secluded rooms about the peristyle4 ,the tablinum1 lying between the front and the rear of the house1 was used as a reception room for guests who were not admitted into the privacy of the home2 and here undoubtedly the master of the house received his clients4 ,in the house of the ,vettii the tablinum is omitted on account of the abundance of room2 but at the rear of the atrium there are wide openings into the peristyle 7,fig4 #aeh74 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,alae ,the alae1 the 'wings' of the atrium1 were two deep recesses in the sides 7,fig4 #aae74 ,they were ordinarily at the rear1 but were sometimes placed at the middle1 as in the house of ,epidius ,rufus 7,fig4 #adi74 ,vitruvius 7,,vi4 iv4 #d7 says that where the atrium is from #cj to #dj feet long1 one third of the length should be taken for the breadth of the alae2 in the case of larger atriums the breadth of these rooms should be proportionally less1 being fixed at one fifth of the length for atriums from #hj to #ajj feet long2 the height at the entrance should be equal to the breadth4 ,at ,pompeii the alae1 as the tablinum1 are narrower and higher than required by these proportions4 ,in the ,tufa ,period the entrances were ornamented with pilasters1 and treated like the broad entrance of the tablinum4 ,with reference to the purpose and uses of these rooms we have no information beyond a remark of ,vitruvius in regard to placing the images of ancestors in them4 ,this throws no light upon their origin2 for only a few noble families could have possessed a sufficiently large number of ancestral busts or masks to make it necessary to provide a special place for these1 while the alae form an essential and characteristic part of the ,pompeian house4 ,now and then an ala was used as a dining room2 more frequently1 perhaps1 one was utilized for a wardrobe1 as may be seen from the traces of the woodwork4 ,a careful study of the remains only deepens the impression that at ,pompeii the alae served no definite purpose1 but were a survival from a previous period1 in which they responded to different conditions of life4 ,an interesting parallel presents itself in the arrangements of a type of peasants' house found in ,lower ,saxony4 ,the main entrance1 as in the early ,italic house1 leads into a large and high central room2 at the sides of this and of the main entrance are the living rooms and stalls4 ,at the back the central room is widened by two recesses corresponding with the alae2 the hearth stands against the rear wall4 ,in the side walls1 at the rear of each recess1 are a window and a door4 ,the two windows admit light to the part of the central room furthest from the entrance2 the doors open into the farmyard and the garden4 ,the ,italic house in the beginning was not a city residence shut in by party walls1 but the isolated habitation of a countryman4 ,the design of the alae1 as of the recesses in the ,low ,saxon farmhouse1 was to furnish light to the atrium1 which1 as we have seen1 was completely covered by a roof1 there being only a small hole to let out the smoke4 ,the large windows in the rear of the alae of the house of ,sallust may be looked upon as a survival2 but in city houses generally light could not be taken in this way from the sides4 ,after the compluvium had come into general use1 a conservative tradition still retained the alae whenever possible1 though they no longer answered their original purpose4 ,v4 ,,the ,,rooms ,,about ,,the ,,atrium4 ,,the ,,andron ,in front there were rooms at either side of the entrance1 ordinarily fitted up as shops and opening on the street1 but sometimes used as dining rooms or sleeping rooms1 or for other domestic purposes4 ,on each side of the atrium were two or three small sleeping rooms2 in narrow houses these1 as well as one or both of the alae1 were occasionally omitted4 ,at the rear were one or two rooms of the same depth as the tablinum1 used in most cases as dining rooms4 ,they frequently had a single broad entrance on the side of the peristyle or the garden 7,fig4 #acd1 #bb71 but were sometimes entered by a door from the atrium or from one of the alae 7,figs4 #aae1 #aba74 ,the door on the side of the atrium seems generally to have been made when the house was built2 if the owner did not wish to use it1 it was walled up and treated as a blind door1 an ornament of the atrium4 ,the rooms about the atrium in the pre-,roman period were made high1 those in front and at the sides often measuring fifteen feet to the edge of the ceiling1 which had the form of a groined vault4 ,the rear rooms were still higher1 the crown of the vaults being as far above the floor as the flat ceiling of the tablinum4 ,a corresponding height was given to the doors2 those in the house of the ,faun measure nearly fourteen feet4 ,the upper part of the doorway was doubtless pierced for the admission of light in the manner indicated by wall paintings1 and shown in our restoration of one side of the atrium in the house of ,sallust 7,figs4 #bfa1 #bfb74 ,the andron was a passage at the right or the left of the tablinum1 connecting the atrium with the peristyle 7,figs4 #aae1 #aba74 ,the name was used originally to designate an apartment in the ,greek house1 but was applied by the ,romans to a corridor4 ,in modern times the passage has often been erroneously called fauces4 ,the andron is lacking only in small houses1 or in those in which a different connection is made between the front and rear portions by means of a second atrium1 or other rooms4 ,,vi4 ,,garden1 ,,peristyle1 ,,and ,,rooms ,,about ,,the ,,peristyle ,a few ,pompeian houses1 like those of the olden time1 are without a peristyle1 having a garden at the rear4 ,in such cases there is a colonnade at the back of the house1 facing the garden2 this is the arrangement in the houses of the ,surgeon1 of ,sallust1 and of ,epidius ,rufus4 ,in the large house of ,pansa 7,fig4 #agi71 we find both a peristyle and a garden1 the latter being at the rear of the peristyle2 and in many houses a small garden was placed wherever available space could be found4 ,the peristyle is a garden enclosed by a colonnade1 or having a colonnade on two or three sides4 ,when this was higher on the north side than on the other three1 as in the house of the ,silver ,wedding1 the peristyle was called ,rhodian4 ,in the ,tufa ,period the colonnade was frequently in two stories1 on all four sides or on the front alone4 ,fragments of columns belonging to the second story have been found in many houses1 but in only one instance1 that of the house of the ,centenary1 are they of such a character as to enable us to make an accurate restoration2 here the double series of columns extended only across the front4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4--,,interior ,,of ,a ,,house1 ,,looking ,,from ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the ,,atrium ,,toward ,,the ,,rear ,a separate entrance1 posticum 7,fig4 #aae71 usually connected the peristyle with a side street4 ,at the rear there was often a broad1 deep recess1 exedra1 corresponding with the tablinum4 ,the location of the other rooms in this part of the house is determined by so many conditions1 and manifests so great a diversity that it may be spoken of more conveniently in connection with their use4 ,,vii4 ,,sleeping ,,rooms ,the small1 high rooms about the atrium were in the earlier times used as bedrooms2 and such they remained in some houses1 as that of the ,faun1 down to the destruction of the city4 ,the sleeping rooms about the peristyle were much lower1 and the front opened by means of a broad door in its whole1 or almost its whole1 width upon the colonnade4 ,these rooms could frequently be entered also through a small side door from a dining room1 or a narrow recess opening on the peristyle 7,fig4 #adf1 x74 ,the design of the arrangement is obvious4 ,in summer the inconvenient large door could be left open day and night1 a curtain being stretched across the space2 in winter it would be opened only for airing and cleaning1 the small door being used at other times4 ,the place for the bed was sometimes indicated in the plan of the room4 ,in a bedroom of the house of the ,centaur1 of which an end view is given in ,fig4 #abb1 a narrow alcove was made for the bed at the left side2 the floor of the alcove is slightly raised1 and the ceiling1 as often1 is in the form of a vault1 while the ceiling of the room is higher and only slightly arched4 ,a similar arrangement is found in several other rooms decorated in the first style4 ,in several houses1 as in the house of ,apollo1 there is a sleeping room with alcoves for two beds4 ,in bedrooms with a mosaic floor the place for the bed is ordinarily white1 being separated from the rest of the room by a stripe suggestive of a threshold4 ,a similar division is often indicated in the wall decoration1 particularly that of the second style2 the part designated for the bed is set off by pilasters on the end walls1 and differently treated both in respect to the decorative design and in the arrangement of colors4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4--;,end of a bedroom in the house of the ,centaur1 decorated in the first style4 ,at the left1 alcove for the bed2 above1 two windows4 ,,viii4 ,,dining ,,rooms ,as long as it was customary to sit at meals any fair-sized apartment could be used as a dining room4 ,when the early ,italic house was extended by the addition of a peristyle1 and the ,greek custom of reclining at table was introduced1 it became necessary to provide a special apartment1 and the ,greek name for such a room with the three couches1 triclinium1 came into use4 ,for convenience in serving1 the length of a dining room1 according to ,vitruvius1 should be twice the width4 ,at ,pompeii1 however1 the dimensions are less generous2 with an average width of #ab or #ac feet the length rarely exceeds #bj feet4 ,in many cases one end of the room opened on the peristyle1 but could be closed by means of broad doors or shutters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4--,plan of a dining room with three couches4 ,a4 ,upper couch1 lectus summus4 ,b4 ,middle couch1 lectus medius4 ,c4 ,lower couch1 lectus imus4 ,d4 ,table1 mensa4 ,the plan of a typical dining room is given in ,fig4 #abc4 ,the couch at the right of the table was called the upper couch2 that at the left1 the lower2 and that between1 the middle couch4 ,with few exceptions each couch was made to accommodate three persons2 the diner rested on his left arm on a cushion at the side nearer the table1 and stretched his feet out toward the right4 ,hence1 the first on the upper couch had what was called 'the highest place4' ,the one next was said to recline 'below' him1 because lying on the side toward which the first person extended his feet2 the man at the outer end of the lower couch was said to be 'at the foot1' imus4 ,when in the ,gospel of ,john we read of a disciple lying on ,jesus' breast1 the meaning is easily explained by reference to ,roman usage2 ,john was reclining in the place next below the ,master4 ,this arrangement makes clear to us the reason why the couches were so placed that the lower one projected further beyond the table than the upper one2 the feet of those on the lower couch were extended toward the end furthest from the table4 ,to the couches grouped in the manner indicated the same name was applied as to the dining room1 triclinium4 ,of those in the dining rooms only scanty remains are found4 ,in summer the ,pompeians1 as the ,italians of to-day1 were fond of dining in the open air4 ,in order to save the trouble of moving heavy furniture couches of masonry were not infrequently constructed in the garden1 and have been preserved2 such a triclinium is that in the garden of the tannery 7p4 #cih74 ,the arrangement is in most cases precisely that indicated in ,fig4 #abc1 the outer end of the lower couch projecting beyond the corresponding end of the upper one4 ,in the middle stands the base of the table1 also of masonry2 the top is rarely preserved4 ,near by is a little altar for the offerings made in connection with each meal4 ,the appearance of such a triclinium may be inferred from that of the triclinium funebre shown in ,fig4 #bde1 which has a square table and round altar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4--,plan of a dining room with an anteroom containing an altar for libations4 ,a4 ,room for the table and couches4 ,b4 ,anteroom with altar4 ,in many gardens we find about the triclinium the remains of four or six columns4 ,these supported a frame of timber or lattice-work1 upon which vines were trained1 making a shady bower1 as in the garden of the tavern in the first ,region1 referred to below 7p4 #djd74 ,the couches were ordinarily not provided with backs1 but the outer ends of the upper and lower couches sometimes had a frame to hold the cushions1 as indicated in ,fig4 #abc and shown more clearly in our restoration1 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,in the dining rooms small movable altars must have been used for the offerings1 such as those of terra cotta or bronze not infrequently met with in the course of excavation4 ,a fixed altar has been found in only one instance1 in a small dining room in the eighth ,region 7,,viii4 v-vi4 #af74 ,here1 as our plan 7,fig4 #abd7 shows1 the front of the apartment is set off as an anteroom1 and in this was placed an altar of tufa4 ,in accordance with an ancient custom the children1 even those of the imperial family1 sat on low stools at a table of their own on the open side of the large table4 ,in an open-air triclinium in the ninth ,region 7,,ix4 v4 #aa7 the children's seat is preserved1 a low bench of masonry about forty inches long connected with the projecting arm of the lower couch 7,plate ,,vii474 ,the inner part of the dining room1 designed for the table and couches1 was often distinguished from the free space in the same way that the place for the bed was indicated in bedrooms1 sometimes by a difference in the design of the mosaic floor1 more frequently by the division of the wall decoration and the arrangement of the ceiling4 ,in the third and fourth decorative styles the division is less plainly marked than in the second2 but often the side walls back of the couches and the inner end of the room have each a single large panel with a small panel at the right and left1 while on each side wall in front are only two panels1 of the same size4 ,in one respect the ordinary dining room was far from convenient2 those who had the inner places could not leave the table or return to it in the course of a meal without disturbing one or more of those reclining nearer the outside4 ,large rooms1 in which an open space was left between the couches and the wall1 or in which several tables with their sets of couches could be placed1 were unknown in pre-,roman ,pompeii4 ,in the time of the ,empire a few of these large dining rooms were built in older houses4 ,there is one measuring about #be by #cc feet in the house of ,pansa2 another1 of which the dimensions are #bc by #cj feet1 in the house of ,castor and ,pollux2 and a third1 #cf feet long1 in the house of the ,citharist4 ,in a number of houses we find a large1 fine apartment--designated by the ,greek word oecus--which seems often to have been used for a dining room1 especially on notable occasions4 ,a particularly elegant form was the ,corinthian oecus1 which had a row of columns about the sides a short distance from the walls1 the room being thus divided into a main part with a vaulted ceiling and a corridor with a flat ceiling4 ,the couches would be placed in the main part2 the guests could pass to their places along the corridor1 behind the columns4 ,the remains of such an oecus may be seen in the houses of ,meleager and of the ,labyrinth4 ,a specially interesting example--unfortunately not yet wholly excavated--is in the house of the ,silver ,wedding4 ,in this case only the inner part1 designed for the couches1 is set off by columns4 ,we may assume that there was a vaulted ceiling over the middle1 resting on the entablature of the columns2 that the ceiling of the corridor between the columns and the wall was flat1 and of the same height as the entablature2 and that the front part of the room had a flat or slightly arched ceiling of the same height as the crown of the vault over the middle4 ,in the more pretentious ,roman houses there was sometimes a dining room for each season of the year2 when ,trimalchio in ,petronius's novel boasts that he has four dining rooms1 we are to understand that he had one each for winter1 summer1 autumn1 and spring4 ,in the case of the ,pompeian houses we are warranted in assuming that dining rooms opening toward the south were for winter use1 those toward the north for use in summer4 ,other airy apartments1 with a large window in addition to the wide door1 may well have been intended for summer triclinia4 ,further than this it is hardly possible to classify ,pompeian dining rooms according to the seasons4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,kitchen1 ,,the ,,bath1 ,,and ,,the ,,storerooms ,in the ,pompeian house the kitchen had no fixed location4 ,it was generally a small room1 and was placed wherever it would least interfere with the arrangement of the rest of the house4 ,the most important part of the kitchen was the hearth4 ,this was built of masonry1 against one of the walls4 ,it was oblong1 and the fire was made on the top4 ,the cooking utensils sometimes rested on rectangular projections of masonry1 as in the kitchen of the house of ,pansa1 sometimes on small iron tripods1 as in the house of the ,vettii 7,fig4 #abe74 ,the hearth of the latter house was found undisturbed1 with a vessel in place ready to be heated4 ,in one house the place of an iron tripod was taken by three pointed ends of amphorae set upright on the hearth4 ,underneath there was often a hollow place1 like that shown in our illustration1 in which fuel was kept1 as in similar openings under the hearths of ,campanian kitchens to-day4 ,sometimes we find near the hearth a bake oven1 not large enough to have been used for bread1 and evidently intended for pastry2 bread must ordinarily have been obtained from the bakers4 ,in one of the cellars of the house of the ,centenary there is a larger oven1 which may have been used to bake coarse bread for the slaves2 the heat was utilized in warming a bath above4 ,over the hearth was a small window to carry off the smoke4 ,as the kitchen was ordinarily high there may have been a hole in the roof also1 but the upper parts have been destroyed1 and their arrangement cannot be determined4 ,from the small size of the kitchens and of the hearths in even the largest and finest houses1 we may infer that the luxury of the table prevalent in the ,early ,empire had made only slight progress at ,pompeii4 ,close by the kitchen1 frequently forming a part of it and next to the hearth1 was the closet2 a separate closet of good size is found in the houses of the ,faun and of ,castor and ,pollux4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4--;,hearth of the kitchen in the house of the ,vettii4 ,the arched place underneath is for the storage of fuel4 ,in many large houses there is a bath1 generally too small to have been used by more than one person at a time4 ,these baths ordinarily include only a tepidarium and a caldarium1 but occasionally there is an apodyterium1 less frequently still a small frigidarium2 in most cases a basin in the apodyterium or tepidarium must have been used for the cold bath4 ,the heating arrangements are similar to those found in the public baths1 and more or less complete according to the period in which the bath was fitted up1 and the taste of the proprietor2 a progressive refinement in the appointments of the private baths can be traced similar to that which we have already noted in the case of the ,stabian ,baths4 ,the close relation generally existing between the bath-rooms and the kitchen is well illustrated in the houses of the ,faun and of the ,silver ,wedding4 ,in connection with this group of rooms we may mention the storerooms1 which are found in various parts of the houses and may be identified by the traces of the shelves that were fastened to the walls4 ,comparatively few houses were provided with cellars4 ,in the house of the ,centenary1 however1 there are two4 ,one1 entered from the atrium by a stairway1 extends under the tablinum and the front colonnade of the peristyle2 the other is accessible from a side atrium and is divided into several rooms1 in one of which is the oven mentioned above4 ,the cellar belonging to the house of ,caecilius ,jucundus is under the garden2 that of the villa of ,diomedes will be described later4 ,x4 ,,the ,,shrine ,,of ,,the ,,household ,,gods ,in ancient ,italy each household worshipped its guardian spirits and tutelary divinities1 which formed a triple group1 the ,lares1 the ,penates1 and the ,genius4 ,in ,pompeii the remains associated with domestic worship are numerous and important4 ,many ,pompeians painted representations of the household gods upon an inner wall1 often upon a wall of the kitchen1 near the hearth4 ,there was usually a painted altar underneath1 with a serpent on either side coming to partake of the offerings4 ,in a large number of houses a small niche was made in the wall1 in which were placed little images of the gods1 the ,lares and the ,genius being also painted on the back of the cavity or on the wall at the sides or below4 ,such a niche may be seen in a corner of the kitchen in the house of ,apollo 7,fig4 #abf72 the pictures of the gods are almost obliterated1 but that of the serpent--in this case there is but one--and of the altar can be clearly seen4 ,in front is a small altar of masonry2 the ferns and grasses with which the floor is carpeted make this kitchen in summer an attractive nook4 ,sometimes the niches were ornamented with diminutive half-columns or pilasters at the sides and a pediment above4 ,frequently a more elaborate shrine was provided1 a diminutive temple raised on a foundation1 placed against a wall of the atrium or of the garden4 ,an example is the one at the rear of the peristyle in the house of the ,tragic ,poet 7,fig4 #aec74 ,in rare instances a small1 separate chapel was devoted to the domestic worship1 as in the house of the ,centenary4 ,in a house of the ninth ,region 7,,ix4 viii4 #g7 there is such a chapel in the garden1 a niche for the images being placed in the wall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4--,niche for the images of the household gods1 in a corner of the kitchen in the house of ,apollo4 ,underneath1 a painted serpent represented as about to take offerings from a round altar4 ,in front is a square altar for the domestic worship4 ,the ,lares are the guardian spirits of the household4 ,originally but one was worshipped in each house2 they began to be honored in plurality after the time of ,cicero1 and at ,pompeii we invariably find them in pairs4 ,they are represented as youths clad in a short tunic confined by a girdle 7,fig4 #abg71 stepping lightly or dancing1 with one hand high uplifted in which a drinking horn1 rhyton1 is seen2 from the end of the horn a jet of wine spurts in a graceful curve1 falling into a small pail1 situla1 or into a libation saucer1 patera1 held in the other hand4 ,simple offerings were made to these beneficent spirits1--fruits1 sacrificial cakes1 garlands1 and incense1--and at every meal a portion was set aside for them in little dishes4 ,when a sacrifice was offered to the ,lares1 the victim was a pig4 ,with the worship of the ,lares was associated that of the ,genius1 the tutelary divinity of the master of the house4 ,he is represented as a standing figure1 the face being a portrait of the master4 ,the toga is drawn over his head1 after the manner of one sacrificing2 in the left hand there is usually a cornucopia1 sometimes a box of incense1 acerra2 with the right hand he pours a drink offering from a patera4 ,very rarely we find a representation of the ,genius of the mistress of the house4 ,in one painting she appears with the attributes of ,juno2 the ,genius of a woman was often called ,juno1 as in the inscription on the bust stone of ,tyche1 the slave of ,julia ,augusta 7p4 #dah74 ,as a man might swear in the name of his ,genius1 so a woman's oath might be ',by my ,juno4' ,the ,lares and the ,genius are often found together both in the hearth paintings1 and in the groups of little bronze images frequently placed in the shrines4 ,they are associated also in an inscription on the shrine in the house of ,epidius ,rufus3 ,genio ,marci nostri et ,laribus duo ,diadumeni liberti1--',to the ,genius of our ,marcus and the ,lares2 7dedicated by7 his two freedmen with the name of ,diadumenus4' ,marcus was the first name of the head of the household4 ,in a few cases the ,genius of the emperor seems to have been revered at a house shrine4 ,horace 7,od4 ,,iv4 v4 #cd7 speaks distinctly of the worship of the tutelary divinity of ,augustus in connection with that of the ,lares1--et ,laribus tuum ,miscet numen4 ,on the rear wall of a little chapel in a garden is a painted altar at the right of which stands ,jupiter1 at the left a ,genius1 each pouring a libation4 ,we can scarcely believe that the ,genius of an ordinary man would thus be placed as it were on an equality with the ruler of heaven2 more likely the ,genius of an emperor is represented1 perhaps that of ,claudius4 ,the face is not unlike the face of ,claudius1 and the painting is on a wall decorated in the third style 7,ins4 ,,vii4 xi4 #d74 ,in another house 7,,ix4 viii4 #ac7 two ,genii are painted1 and under one of them is scratched in large letters ,,ex ,,sc1 undoubtedly for ex senatus consulto1--'in accordance with a decree of the ,senate4' ,we are probably safe in assuming that the decree referred to is that of the reign of ,augustus1 by which the worship of the ,lares was regulated 7,dio ,cass4 ,,li4 xix4 #g72 if so1 the figure is intended to represent the ,genius of that emperor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4--,shrine in the house of ,vettii4 ,in the middle the ,genius1 with libation saucer and box of incense2 at the sides1 the two ,lares1 each with a drinking horn and pail2 below1 a crested serpent about to partake of the offerings4 ,the face of the ,genius in the house of the ,vettii 7,fig4 #abg7 bears a decided resemblance to that of ,nero4 ,here the shrine was placed in the rear wall of the smaller atrium4 ,it consists of a broad1 shallow niche1 the front of which is elaborately ornamented to give the appearance of a little temple1 while on the back are painted the household divinities4 ,the ,genius stands with veiled head between the two ,lares1 holding in his left hand a box of incense and pouring a libation with the right4 ,in the original painting the features were unusually distinct4 ,the ,penates were the protecting divinities of the provisions or stores1 penus1 and the storerooms of the house2 under this name were included various gods to whom the master and the household offered special worship4 ,at ,pompeii the ,penates1 as the ,lares and the ,genius1 appear in paintings1 and are also represented by bronze images placed in the shrines4 ,in the shrine of the house of ,lucretius were diminutive bronze figures of the ,genius and of ,jupiter1 ,hercules1 ,fortuna1 and another divinity that has not been identified4 ,statuettes of ,apollo1 ,aesculapius1 ,hercules1 and ,mercury were found1 together with those of the two ,lares1 in another house2 in a third1 ,fortuna alone with the ,lares4 ,jupiter and ,fortuna are frequently met with in shrine paintings1 as well as ,venus ,pompeiana 7,fig4 #d71 ,hercules1 ,mars1 and ,vulcan as a personification of the hearth fire2 ,vesta1 the patron goddess of bakers1 usually appears in the hearth paintings of bake shops4 ,underneath the representations of the ,lares and ,penates ordinarily are painted two serpents1 one on either side of an altar1 which they are approaching in order to partake of the offerings2 these consist of fruits1 in the midst of which an egg or a pine cone can usually be distinguished4 ,as early as the beginning of the ,empire the significance of the serpent in the ,roman worship had ceased to be clearly understood2 ,virgil represents ,aeneas as in doubt whether the serpent which came out from the tomb of ,anchises was the attendant of his father or the ,genius of the place 7,aen4 ,v4 #ie74 ,in the ,pompeian paintings1 when a pair of serpents occurs1 one may usually be recognized as a male by the prominent crest4 ,they were undoubtedly looked upon as personifications of the ,genii of the master and mistress of the house4 ,when a single crested serpent appears1 as in the shrine paintings of both the house of the ,vettii 7,fig4 #abg7 and the house of ,apollo 7,fig4 #abf71 we are to understand that the head of the household was unmarried4 ,,xi4 ,,second ,,story ,,rooms ,with few exceptions the houses of pre-,roman ,pompeii were built in only one story2 where the peristyle was in two stories1 there must have been rooms opening upon the upper colonnade4 ,in ,roman times1 as the population of the city increased and more space was needed1 it became a common practice to make the rooms about the atrium lower and build chambers over them4 ,a complete second story was rare2 small rooms were added here and there1 frequently at different levels and reached by different stairways4 ,sometimes the second story on the front side projected a few feet over the street2 an example may be seen in a house in the seventh ,region 7casa del ,balcone ,pensile71 the front of which1 with the part projecting over the sidewalk1 has been carefully rebuilt by replacing the charred remains of the ancient beams with new timbers4 ,houses with three stories were quite exceptional1 and the rooms of the third floor must have been unimportant4 ,along the steep slope of the hill1 on the west and southwest sides of the city1 a number of houses are found that present the appearance of several stories2 they are not properly classed with those just mentioned1 however1 for the reason that the floors are on terraces1 the highest at the level of the street1 the others lower down and further back1 being adjusted to the descent of the ground4 ,from the time of ,plautus1 second story rooms were designated as 'dining rooms1' cenacula4 ,varro says that after it became customary to dine upstairs1 all upper rooms were called cenacula4 ,this explanation is not altogether satisfactory1 because other literary evidence for the prevalence of such a custom is lacking4 ,perhaps in early times1 when1 on account of the introduction of the compluvium and impluvium1 the atrium ceased to be convenient and comfortable for the serving of meals1 a dining room was frequently constructed on an upper floor1 and1 being the principal second story apartment1 gave its name to the rest4 ,in some places the ancient custom may still have lingered in the time of the ,early ,empire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4--;,interior of a house with a second story dining room opening on the atrium1 restored4 ,the upper parts of the ,pompeian houses in most cases have been completely destroyed2 in a few1 however1 there are traces of a second story apartment that was probably used as a dining room4 ,one of these houses is in ,insula ,,xv of ,region ,,vii1 near the temple of ,apollo4 ,it is painted in the second style1 and dates apparently from the end of the ,republic4 ,at the rear of the atrium are two rooms and a passageway leading to the back of the house4 ,over these was a single large apartment1 closed at the sides and rear1 but opening on the atrium in its entire length2 along the front1 as seen in our restoration 7,fig4 #abh71 ran a balustrade connecting the pilasters--ornamented with half-columns--which supported the roof4 ,in a corner of the atrium at the rear a narrow stairway led to the second floor4 ,at the right1 as our section shows 7,fig4 #abi71 was a narrow gallery resting on brackets1 which connected the upper room at the rear with one in the front of the house4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4--,longitudinal section of the house with a second story dining room4 ,at the right1 vestibule1 door1 and fauces1 with front room above2 then the atrium1 with the gallery connecting the front room with the dining room2 lastly1 the apartments at the rear of the house4 ,in this house there was no peristyle4 ,the large upper room was so well fitted for a dining room1 especially in summer1 that we can hardly resist the conclusion that it was designed for this purpose4 ,there is no trace of a kitchen on the ground floor2 and for greater convenience this also was probably placed in the second story1 behind the dining room4 ,in the fifth ,region there was a small dwelling1 which afterwards became a part of the house of the ,silver ,wedding2 the arrangement of the two stories at the rear of the atrium was similar to that just described1 except that columns were used in place of the pilasters1 and there was only the one upper room in the back part of the house4 ,in such cases as this 'dining room' and 'upper story' might easily have come to be used as synonymous terms4 ,where there was a large upper room at the rear of the atrium1 no place was left for the high tablinum2 in a house in the seventh ,region 7casa dell' ,amore ,punito1 ,,vii4 ii4 #bc7 the cenaculum was in front4 ,on the front wall of the atrium one may still see part of the carefully hewn stones on which the columns of the second story rested1 and fragments of these columns were found on the floor below4 ,,xii4 ,,the ,,shops ,the outer parts of the houses fronting on the principal thoroughfares were utilized as shops4 ,on the more retired side streets there were fewer shops1 and we often find a facade of masonry unbroken except for the front door and an occasional window4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4--,plan of a ,pompeian shop4 #a4 ,entrance4 #b4 ,counter4 #c4 ,place for a fire4 #d4 ,stairway to upper floor4 #e1 #e4 ,back rooms4 ,the shop fronts were open to the street4 ,the counter1 frequently of masonry1 has in most cases the shape indicated on our plan 7,fig4 #acj1 #b71 being so arranged that customers could make their purchases1 if they wished1 without going inside the shop4 ,large jars were often set in it1 to serve as receptacles for the wares and edibles exposed for sale4 ,sometimes on the end next to the wall there are little steps1 on which1 as seen in our restoration 7,fig4 #aca71 measuring cups and other small vessels were placed4 ,at the inner end we see now and then a depression 7#c7 over which a vessel could be heated1 a fire being kindled underneath as on a hearth4 ,in the wineshops a separate hearth is sometimes found1 and occasionally a leaden vessel for heating water4 ,in the houses of the ,tufa ,period the shops1 as the front doors and the rooms about the atrium1 were relatively high4 ,those of the house of ,caecilius ,jucundus measured nearly #af feet2 those of the house of the ,faun1 #ai feet2 the appearance of the latter may be suggested by our restoration 7,fig4 #aci74 ,the height was divided by an upper floor1 pergula1 #aj or #ab feet above the ground1 along the open front of which was a balustrade2 the stairs leading to it were inside the shop4 ,on such a pergula ,apelles1 according to ,pliny 7,n4 ,h4 xxxv4 #hd71 was accustomed to display his paintings2 and in the ,digest reference is more than once made to cases in which a person passing along the street was injured by an object falling upon him from the second story of a shop4 ',shops with their upper floors' are advertised for rent in one of the painted inscriptions found at ,pompeii 7p4 #dhi74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4--;,a shop for the sale of edibles1 restored4 ,in ,roman times the shops1 as the inner rooms of the house1 were built lower1 and over them small closed rooms were made1 which were called by the same name as the open floor1 pergula4 ,these rooms were frequently accessible from the street by a stairway1 and in such cases could be rented separately4 ,in colloquial language1 a man whose early life had been passed amid unfavorable surroundings was said to have been 'born in a room over a shop1'--natus in pergula4 ,shops were entered by means of small doors2 the front was closed with shutters4 ,these consisted of overlapping boards set upright in narrow grooves at the top and the bottom4 ,a separate set of shutters was provided for the open pergula4 ,,xiii4 ,,walls1 ,,floors1 ,,and ,,windows ,the walls were covered with a thick layer of plaster and painted2 the preparation of the stucco1 the processes employed in painting1 and the styles of decoration are reserved for discussion in a later chapter4 ,the floors were frequently made of an inexpensive concrete1 consisting of bits of lava or other stone pounded down into common mortar4 ,a much better floor was the ,signia pavement1 opus ,signinum1 so named from a town in ,latium4 ,this was composed of very small fragments of brick or tile pounded into fine mortar4 ,the surface was carefully finished1 and was sometimes ornamented with geometrical or other patterns traced in outline by means of small bits of white stone4 ,in the ,tufa ,period a floor was often made by fitting together small pieces of stone or marble1 and bedding them well in mortar4 ,the colors are white and black1--slate is used in the floor of the atrium in the house of the ,faun2 sometimes also violet1 yellow1 green1 and red appear with white and black4 ,pavements of square or lozenge-shaped and triangular pieces of colored marble and slate1 like that in the cella of the temple of ,apollo 7,fig4 #bh71 are occasionally found in houses4 ,in the time of the ,early ,empire floors paved with larger slabs were not uncommon4 ,the mosaics of the ,pompeian floors--using the term mosaic in a restricted sense--may be divided into two classes1 coarse and fine4 ,in the former the cubes1 tesserae1 are on the average a little less than half an inch square4 ,the patterns are sometimes shown in black on a white surface1 sometimes worked in colors4 ,the finer variety1 in which the pictures appear1 is not often extended over a whole room1 but is usually confined to a rectangular section in the middle1 coarse mosaic being used for the rest of the floor4 ,the windows at the front of the house1 as we have seen1 were ordinarily few and small4 ,from the ,tufa ,period1 however1 large windows were often made in the rooms around the peristyle2 in the house of the ,faun they range in width from #aj to #bc feet1 and are so low that one sitting inside could look out through them4 ,upper rooms1 also1 were provided with windows of good size1 sometimes measuring #ba_/b by #d feet2 but the remains are scanty4 ,in later times occasionally a lower window opening on the street was made almost as large1 and was protected by an iron grating4 ,windows were ordinarily closed by means of wooden shutters4 ,small panes of glass were found in the openings of the ,baths near the ,forum2 had the ,central ,baths been finished1 glass would undoubtedly have been used for the windows of the caldarium4 ,the window of the tepidarium in the villa of ,diomedes was closed by four glass panes set in a wooden frame 7p4 #ceg72 in the other houses a narrow pane is occasionally found1 but invariably set in masonry4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,surgeon ,the house of the ,surgeon 7casa del ,chirurgo7 is the oldest of the ,pompeian houses that retained to the last1 with but slight modifications1 its original plan and appearance4 ,it lies at the right of the ,strada ,consolare 7,,vi4 i4 #aj71 about fifty paces inside the ,herculaneum ,gate4 ,the name was suggested by the discovery of several surgical instruments in one of the rooms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4--,plan of the house of the ,surgeon4 #a4 ,fauces4 #e4 ,atrium4 #g4 ,tablinum4 #h1 #h4 ,alae4 #i1 #aj4 ,dining rooms4 #ac4 ,kitchen1 with hearth 7a74 #ad4 ,posticum4 #af4 ,colonnade4 #ah4 ,stairway to rooms over the rear of the house4 #ai4 ,room with window opening on the garden4 #bj4 ,garden4 ,this house was undoubtedly built before #bjj ,b4,c4 ,the facade 7,fig4 #aj7 and the walls of the atrium are of large hewn blocks of ,sarno limestone2 other inner walls are of limestone framework 7p4 #cg74 ,the plan conforms to the simple ,italic type1 before the addition of the peristyle2 yet it does not illustrate the oldest form of the native house1 for the tablinum 7,fig4 #acb1 #g7 has already displaced the recess for the bed opposite the front door4 ,the measurements of the rooms are according to the ,oscan standard 7p4 #dd71 the atrium being about #cj by #ce ,oscan feet4 ,we pass directly from the street through the fauces 7#a7 into the ,tuscan atrium 7#e7 at the sides of which are sleeping rooms 7#f7 and the two alae 7#h74 ,back of the tablinum is a colonnade 7#af7 opening on the garden 7#bj71 which originally had a greater length2 the room at the right 7#ai7 is a later addition1 as also the smaller room at the other end 7#ba74 ,the roof of the colonnade was carried by square limestone pillars1 one of which has been preserved in its original form4 ,the oblong room at the right of the tablinum 7#aj7 was once square1 as 7#i74 ,both were well adapted for winter dining rooms2 in summer1 meals were undoubtedly served in the tablinum4 ,the room at the left of the entrance 7#b7 was a shop1 at least in later times4 ,the corresponding room on the other side 7#f'7 was retained for domestic use4 ,the shop at the right 7#c7 and the back room 7#d71 as well as the kitchen with the adjoining rooms at the rear1 used as store closets and quarters for slaves1 were a later addition2 #bb is a light court1 to which the rain water was conducted from different parts of the roof4 ,over these rooms was a second story reached by stairs leading from the colonnade 7#ah74 ,it may be that this part of the house took the place of a garden in which previously there was an outside kitchen2 that the ground belonged to the house from the beginning is clear from the existence of a door between the rooms #f' and #c1 afterwards walled up1 and the appearance of the unbroken party wall on this side4 ,the rooms about the atrium had no upper floor1 and were relatively high2 the doors measured nearly twelve feet in height1 and the ceiling of the tablinum was not far from twenty feet above the floor4 ,in respect to height1 this house was not unlike those of the next period4 ,in the later years of the city1 but before #fc1 the decoration was renewed in the fourth style4 ,there are paintings of interest1 however1 only in the room at the rear 7#ai71 which had a large window opening on the garden4 ,in one of the panels here we see a man sitting with a writing tablet in his hand2 opposite him are two girls1 one sitting1 the other standing2 the latter holds a roll of papyrus4 ,this kind of genre picture is not uncommon2 the type is spoken of elsewhere 7p4 #dgg74 ,in another panel1 which was transferred to the ,naples ,museum1 a young woman is represented as painting a herm of ,dionysus 7,fig4 #acc72 a ,cupid is holding the unfinished picture while she mixes colors on her palette4 ,two other maidens are watching the artist with unfeigned interest4 ,upon the pillar behind the herm hangs a small painting2 in the vista another herm is seen1 together with a vase standing on a pillar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4--;,a young woman painting a herm4 ,wall painting from the house of the ,surgeon4 ,the room contained a third picture which is now almost obliterated4 ,perhaps this pleasant apartment was once the boudoir of a favorite daughter1 who busied herself with painting and verse4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,sallust ,the house of ,sallust 7,,vi4 ii4 #d7 received its name from an election notice1 painted on the outside1 in which ,gaius ,sallustius was recommended for a municipal office4 ,it has no peristyle1 and its original plan closely resembled that of the house of the ,surgeon4 ,it was built in the second century ,b4,c42 the architecture is that of the ,tufa ,period1 and the well preserved decoration of the atrium1 tablinum1 alae1 and the dining room at the left of the tablinum 7,fig4 #acd1 #bb7 is of the first style4 ,the pilasters at the entrances of the alae and the tablinum are also unusually well preserved2 the house is among the most important for our knowledge of the period to which it belongs4 ,the rooms on the left side 7#f-i7 were used as a bakery4 ,those in front 7#b-e7 were shops2 two of them 7#b1 #c71 at the time of the destruction of the city1 opened into the fauces 7#a7 and another 7#e7 had two rear rooms1 one of which was entered from a side street4 ,the rooms at the right 7#ca-cf7 were private apartments added later and connected with the rest of the house only by means of the corridor 7#bi71 which with the cell designed for the porter 7#cj7 was made over from one of the side rooms of the atrium4 ,if we leave these groups of rooms out of consideration1 it is easy to see that the ,tuscan atrium and the apartments connected with it--the tablinum 7#ai71 the alae 7#ag71 and the rooms at the sides--once formed a symmetrical whole4 ,at the rear was a garden on two sides 7#bd1 #bd'71 with a colonnade4 ,a broad window in the rear of the left ala opened into this colonnade 7p4 #bei71 a part of which was afterwards enclosed1 making two small rooms 7#bc1 #ah74 ,at the end of the latter room a stairway was built leading to chambers2 in the beginning the house had no second floor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4--,plan of the house of ,sallust4 #a4 ,fauces4 #b1 #c4 ,shops opening on the fauces4 #d1 #e4 ,shops4 #f-i4 ,bakery 7#f4 ,millroom with three mills 7a71 and stairway to upper floor4 #g4 ,oven4 #h4 ,kneading room47 #i4 ,kitchen4 #aj4 ,tuscan atrium1 with impluvium 7#aa74 #ab4 ,anteroom leading to dining room 7#ac74 #ag1 #ag4 ,alae4 #ai4 ,tablinum4 #bj4 ,andron1 with doors at both ends4 #ba4 ,colonnade opening on the garden 7#bd1 #bd'74 #be4 ,garden triclinium4 #bi-cf4 ,private apartments1 added in ,roman times to the older dwelling 7#ca4 ,colonnade4 #cb4 ,garden4 #cc1 #cd4 ,sleeping rooms4 #ce4 ,dining room4 #cf4 ,kitchen47 ,the andron 7#bj71 the wardrobe 7#ag'7 at the side of the right ala1 and the small room back of it 7#bh7 were made out of a square room corresponding in dimensions with that at the other end of the tablinum 7#bb74 ,the latter was originally entered from the atrium by a door at e1 which was closed when the wide door was made at the rear opening upon the colonnade4 ,at the rear of the tablinum is a broad window4 ,in the corner of the garden is an open air triclinium 7#be71 over which vines could be trained2 there was a small altar 7l7 near by4 ,at n a jet of water spurted from an opening in the wall upon a small platform of masonry2 the water was perhaps conducted into the rectangular basin 7k7 opposite1 the inside of which was painted blue4 ,only the edges of this portion of the garden1 which is higher than the floor of the colonnade1 were planted2 steps led up to it at f and g4 ,a hearth 7p7 was placed in the colonnade at the left1 for the preparation of the viands served in the triclinium4 ,the room at the other end of the garden 7#bg7 was connected with the street at the rear by a posticum2 back of it was an open space 7#bf7 with remains of masonry 7m71 the purpose of which is not clear4 ,the large dining room 7#ac7 may once have belonged to the bakery2 the anteroom 7#ab7 leading to it was made from one of the side rooms of the atrium4 ,the arrangement recalls that of the dining room of which the plan is given in ,fig4 #abd4 ,the appearance of the atrium in its original form may be suggested by our restoration 7,fig4 #ace74 ,the proportions are monumental4 ,the treatment of the entrances to the tablinum and the alae1 with pilasters joined by projecting entablatures1 the severe and simple decoration 7illustrated in ,fig4 #bfa71 and the admission of light through the compluvium increased the apparent height of the room and gave it an aspect of dignity and reserve4 ,at the rear we catch glimpses of the vines and shrubs at the edge of the garden2 painted trees and bushes were also seen upon the garden wall4 ,the series of apartments entered through the room at the right of the atrium 7#bi7 present a marked contrast with the rest of the house4 ,they are low1 the eight-sided1 dark-red columns of the colonnade 7#ca71 with their white capitals1 being less than ten feet high2 and the dark shades of the decoration1 which is in the fourth style upon a black ground1 give a gloomy impression to one coming from the atrium with its masses of brilliant color4 ,there was a small fountain in the middle of the little garden 7#cb71 the rear wall of which is covered by a painting representing the fate of ,actaeon1 torn to pieces by his own hounds as a penalty for having seen ,diana at the bath4 ,at first the colonnade had a flat roof1 with an open walk above on the three sides2 but when the large dining room 7#ce7 was constructed1 the flat roof and promenade on this side were replaced by a sloping roof over the broad entrance to the dining room4 ,on the outer walls of the two sleeping rooms 7#cc1 #cd7 were two paintings of similar design1 ,europa with the bull1 ,phrixus and ,helle with the ram4 ,the rear inner wall of #cd contained two pairs of lovers1 ,paris and ,helen in the house of ,menelaus1 and ,ares and ,aphrodite4 ,the room at the corner of the colonnade 7#cf7 is the kitchen2 the stairway in it led to the flat roof of the colonnade4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4--;,atrium of the house of ,sallust1 looking through the tablinum and colonnade at the rear into the garden1 restored4 ,this portion of the house probably dates from the latter part of the ,republic2 it underwent minor changes in the course of the century during which it was used4 ,previously there was in all probability a garden on this side1 into which opened a large window in the rear wall of the right ala1 afterwards closed4 ,the changes made in the stately house of the pre-,roman time are most easily explained on the supposition that near the beginning of the ,empire it was turned into a hotel and restaurant4 ,the shop at the left of the entrance 7#c7 opens upon the atrium as well as on the street2 the principal counter is on the side of the fauces1 and near the inner end is a place for heating a vessel over the fire4 ,large jars were set in the counter1 and there was a stone table in the middle of the room4 ,here edibles and hot drinks were sold to those inside the house as well as to passers-by4 ,the shop at the right of the entrance was connected with the fauces1 the atrium1 and a side room 7#af74 ,the number of sleeping rooms had been increased by changes in several of the earlier apartments1 and by the addition of a second floor reached by the stairway in room #ah4 ,the private apartments were for the use of the proprietor1 and were guarded against the intrusion of the guests of the inn by the porter stationed at the entrance 7in #cj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4--,longitudinal section of the house of ,sallust1 restored4 ,at the left1 the fauces with the counter of the shop2 then the north side of the atrium with the entrance of the left ala1 the north side of the tablinum1 with one of the pilasters at the entrance from the atrium2 lastly1 the colonnade at the back and the vine-covered triclinium in the corner of the garden4 ,this explanation is confirmed by the close connection of the bakery with the house2 and the use of the open-air triclinium is entirely consistent with it 7p4 #djd74 ,the arrangement of the house after it had become an inn may be seen in our section 7,fig4 #acf74 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,faun ,the house of the ,faun1 so named from the statue of a dancing satyr found in it 7,fig4 #beh71 was among the largest and most elegant in ,pompeii4 ,it illustrates for us the type of dwelling that wealthy men of cultivated tastes living in the third or second century ,b4,c4 built and adorned for themselves4 ,the mosaic pictures found on the floors 7now in the ,naples ,museum7 are the most beautiful that have survived to modern times4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4--,plan of the house of the ,faun4 ,a4 ,fauces of ,tuscan atrium4 ,b4 ,tuscan atrium4 ,c1 ,c'4 ,alae4 ,d4 ,tablinum4 ,e1 ,f4 ,dining rooms4 ,g4 ,first peristyle4 ,h4 ,exedra with mosaic of the battle of ,alexander4 ,i1 ,j4 ,dining rooms4 ,k4 ,second peristyle4 ,l4 ,large room used a wine-cellar4 ,m4 ,kitchen4 ,n4 ,bedroom4 a4 ,vestibule4 b4 ,tetrastyle atrium4 c1 c'4 ,alae of tetrastyle atrium4 e4 ,storeroom4 f1 f'4 ,sleeping rooms4 o1 o'4 ,bath4 q4 ,gardener's room4 r4 ,doorkeeper's room4 v4 ,broad niche for three statues4 #a-d4 ,shops4 ,the wall decoration1 which is of the first style1 in the more important rooms was left unaltered to the last1 and is well preserved4 ,this decoration1 however1 does not date from the building of the house4 ,in order to protect the painted surfaces against moisture1 the walls in the beginning were carefully covered with sheets of lead before they were plastered4 ,later two doorways were walled up1 and the plastering over the apertures1 which was applied directly to the wall surface without the use of lead sheathing1 forms with its decoration an inseparable part of that found on either side4 ,when the original decoration was replaced by that which we see on the walls to-day it is impossible to determine1 but the change must have been made before the first century ,b4,c4 ,a few unimportant rooms are painted in the second and fourth styles4 ,an entire block 7,,vi4 xii471 measuring approximately #cae by #aae feet1 is given to the house2 there are no shops except the four in front 7,fig4 #acg74 ,the apartments are arranged in four groups3 a large ,tuscan atrium1 ,b1 with living rooms on three sides2 a small tetrastyle atrium1 b1 with rooms for domestic service around it and extending on the right side toward the rear of the house2 a peristyle1 ,g1 the depth of which equals the width of the large and half that of the small atrium2 and a second peristyle1 ,k1 occupying more than a third of the block4 ,at the rear of the second peristyle is a series of small rooms 7q-u7 the depth of which varies according to the deviation of the street at the north end of the insula4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4--,part of the cornice over the large front door4 ,in front of the main entrance we read the word ,,have 7more commonly written ave71 ',welcome6' spelled in the sidewalk with bits of green1 yellow1 red1 and white marble4 ,the street door here1 quite exceptionally1 was at the outer end of the vestibule4 ,it consisted of three leaves 7seen in ,fig4 #aci7 and opened toward the inside1 while the double door between the vestibule and the fauces 7,a on the plan7 opened toward the outside2 the closed vestibule was not unlike those of many modern houses4 ,fragments of the lintel over the outer door1 with its projecting dentil cornice1 are preserved in one of the shops 7,fig4 #ach74 ,the shops with their upper floors1 pergulae1 were nineteen feet high4 ,when the shutters were up they presented a monotonous appearance 7,fig4 #aci71 but on sunny days1 when the articles offered for sale were attractively displayed1 and buyers and idlers were loitering in front or leisurely passing from one to the other1 shops and street alike were full of color and animation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4--;,facade of the house of the ,faun1 restored4 ,at the left1 the front of a shop 7#a on the plan7 with its upper floor2 then the large front door1 two shops1 the entrance of the smaller atrium and the fourth shop1 which1 like the second1 is completely closed by shutters4 ,the floor of the fauces1 as of many of the other rooms1 is rich in color4 ,it is made of small triangular pieces of marble and slate--red1 yellow1 green1 white1 and black4 ,at the inner end it was marked off from the floor of the atrium by a stripe of finely executed mosaic1 suggestive of a threshold 7,fig4 #adj71 now in the ,naples ,museum4 ,two tragic masks are realistically outlined1 appearing in the midst of fruits1 flowers1 and garlands1 the details of which are worked out with much skill4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4--;,border of mosaic with tragic masks1 fruits1 flowers1 and garlands1 at the inner end of the fauces4 ,the walls of the fauces are ornamented in an unusual manner4 ,the ordinary decoration of the first style is carried to the height of eight feet4 ,above this on either side projects a tufa shelf about sixteen inches wide1 on which is placed the facade of a diminutive temple2 that on the left is seen in ,fig4 #ada4 ,the front of the cella1 with closed doors1 is presented in relief1 but the four columns of the portico stand free4 ,the shelf is supported underneath by a cornice which rested originally on stucco brackets in the shape of dogs2 the underside is carved to represent a richly ornamented coffered ceiling4 ,the atrium was a room of imposing dimensions4 ,the length is approximately #ec feet1 the breadth #cc2 the height1 as indicated by the remains of the walls and the pilasters1 was certainly not less than #bh feet4 ,above was a coffered ceiling4 ,the sombre shade of the floor1 paved with small pieces of dark slate1 formed an effective contrast with the white limestone edge and brilliant inner surface of the shallow impluvium1 covered with pieces of colored marbles similar to those in the fauces4 ,still more marked was the contrast in the strong colors of the walls4 ,below was a broad surface of black2 then a projecting white dentil cornice1 and above this1 masses of dark red1 bluish green1 and yellow4 ,the decoration1 as usual in the first style1 was not carried to the ceiling1 but stopped just above the side doors2 the upper part of the wall was left in the white4 ,as one stepped across the mosaic border at the end of the fauces1 a beautiful vista opened up before the eyes4 ,from the aperture of the compluvium a diffused light was spread through the atrium brilliant with its rich coloring4 ,at the rear the lofty entrance of the tablinum attracted the visitor by its stately dignity4 ,now the portieres are drawn aside1 and beyond the large window of the tablinum the columns of the first peristyle are seen 7,fig4 #ada74 ,the shrubs and flowers of the garden are bright with sunshine1 and fragrant odors are wafted through the house2 in the midst a slender fountain jet rises in the air and falls with a murmur pleasant to the ear4 ,if the vegetation was not too luxuriant1 one might look into the exedra1 on the further side of the colonnade1 and even catch glimpses of the trees and bushes in the garden of the second peristyle4 ,of the rooms at the side of the atrium1 one 7f'7 was apparently the family sleeping room2 places for two beds were set off by slight elevations in the floor4 ,this room had been carefully redecorated in the second style2 the room opposite1 the decoration of which was inferior to that of the rest1 was perhaps used by the porter 7atriensis74 ,the tablinum 7,d71 like that of the house of ,sallust1 had a broad window opening on the colonnade of the peristyle4 ,in the middle of this room is a rectangular section paved with lozenge-shaped pieces of black1 white1 and green stone2 the rest of the floor is of white mosaic4 ,the floor of each ala was ornamented with a mosaic picture4 ,in that at the left 7,c7 are doves pulling a necklace out of a casket--a work of slight merit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4--,longitudinal section of the house of the ,faun1 showing the large atrium1 the first peristyle1 and a corner of the second peristyle1 restored4 ,vestibule ,door ,fauces ,tuscan atrium with compluvium and impluvium 7,b7 ,ala 7,c7 ,tablinum 7,d7 ,first peristyle with colonnade and fountain basin 7,g7 ,exedra 7,h7 ,corner of the second peristyle 7,k7 ,the mosaic picture found in the right ala is characterized by delicacy of execution and harmonious coloring4 ,it is divided into two parts2 above is a cat with a partridge2 below1 ducks1 fishes1 and shellfish4 ,a large window in the rear wall of this ala opens into the small atrium1 not for the admission of light1 but for ventilation2 in summer there would be a circulation of air between the two atriums4 ,two doors1 at the right and the left of the tablinum 7seen in ,fig4 #adc71 opened into large dining rooms1 one 7,e7 nearly square1 the other 7,f7 oblong4 ,both had large windows on the side of the peristyle1 and the one at the left also a door opening upon the colonnade4 ,the mosaic pictures in the floors harmonized well with the purpose of the rooms4 ,in one were fishes of various kinds1 and sea monsters2 in the other was the picture--often reproduced--in which the ,genius of the autumn is represented as a vine-crowned boy sitting on a panther and drinking out of a deep golden bowl4 ,the colonnade of the first peristyle was of one story 7,fig4 #ada74 ,the entablature of the well proportioned ,ionic columns presented a mixture of styles often met with in ,pompeii1 a ,doric frieze with a dentil cornice4 ,the wall surfaces were divided by pilasters and decorated in the first style4 ,in the middle of the garden the delicately carved standard of a marble fountain basin may still be seen4 ,the open front of the broad exedra 7,h7 was adorned with two columns1 and at the rear was a window extending almost from side to side1 opening upon the second peristyle4 ,between the columns of the entrance were mosaic pictures of the creatures of the ,nile1--hippopotamus1 crocodile1 ichneumon1 and ibis2 and in the room1 filling almost the entire floor1 was the most famous of ancient mosaic pictures1 the battle between ,alexander and ,darius4 ,this great composition has so often been reproduced that we need not present it here2 as illustrating the style and treatment1 however1 we give a small section1 in which the face of ,alexander appears 7,fig4 #adb74 ,the mosaic is a reproduction of a painting made either in the lifetime of ,alexander1 or soon after his death4 ,the battle is perhaps that of ,issus4 ,the left side of the picture is unfortunately only in part preserved4 ,at the head of the ,greek horsemen rides ,alexander1 fearless1 unhelmeted1 leading a charge against the picked guard of ,darius4 ,the long spear of the terrible ,macedonian is piercing the side of a ,persian noble1 whose horse sinks under him4 ,the driver of ,darius's chariot is putting the lash to the horses1 but the fleeing king turns with an expression of anguish and terror to witness the death of his courtier1 the mounted noblemen about him being panic-stricken at the resistless onset of the ,greeks4 ,the grouping of the combatants1 the characterization of the individual figures1 the skill with which the expressions upon the faces are rendered1 and the delicacy of coloring give this picture a high rank among ancient works of art4 ,the colors in the mosaic are necessarily more subdued than in the original painting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4--;,detail from the mosaic picture representing a battle between ,alexander and ,darius4 ,alexander1 having thrown aside his helmet1 is leading the charge upon the guard of ,darius1 who is already in flight4 ,a corridor 7p71 both ends of which could be closed1 led from the first to the second peristyle4 ,the columns here1 of the ,doric order1 were of brick1 with tufa capitals1 the shafts being edged1 not fluted4 ,the entablature rested on a line of timbers1 as often in the buildings of the ,tufa ,period4 ,in our restoration 7,fig4 #ada7 an upper colonnade of the ,ionic order is assumed1 extending about the four sides4 ,the restoration is here possibly at fault2 the colonnade may have been in two stories only on the south side1 with twice as many columns above as below4 ,on either side of the exedra were two dining rooms 7,i1 ,j71 one open in its entire breadth upon the second peristyle1 the other having a narrow door with two windows4 ,the fine mosaic picture in ,i was found in so damaged a condition that the subject--a lion standing over a prostrate tiger--could not be made out1 until a duplicate was discovered in #ahhe4 ,in the sleeping room on the other side of the corridor 7,n71 which had been redecorated in the second style1 remains of two beds were found4 ,the room next to it 7,l7 was the largest in this part of the house2 at the time of the eruption it was without decoration and was used as a wine cellar4 ,a great number of amphorae were found in it1 as also in both peristyles4 ,one of the small rooms at the rear 7q7 was perhaps occupied by the gardener2 the one next to it 7r7 was the doorkeeper's room4 ,at v is a long1 shallow niche1 designed for statues4 ,nearer the corner were two smaller niches1 each of which was ornamented in front with pilasters and a gable4 ,these were the shrines of the household gods2 in front of them were found two bronze tripods1 two bronze lamp stands1 two pairs of iron tongs1 a couple of common lamps1 and the remains of a branch of laurel with the bones and eggs of a dove that had nested in it4 ,a bronze statuette of a ,genius was found seemingly in one of the niches4 ,the domestic apartments were entered by a front door between the two shops at the right 7,fig4 #aci74 ,the vestibule1 unlike that of the other entrance1 is open to the street1 the fauces being narrower and deeper4 ,the relation of the tetrastyle to the ,tuscan atrium is indicated in our transverse section 7,fig4 #adc74 ,the alae 7c1 c'7 are here at the middle of the sides2 the one at the left served as a passageway between the two atriums4 ,the four tufa ,corinthian columns1 nearly twenty feet high1 are well preserved1 as well as the pilasters at the entrances of the alae4 ,a tablinum was not needed in this part of the house1 and the space which it might have occupied was given to the andron 7k7 and a sleeping room opening on the first peristyle 7l74 ,this part of the house was much damaged by the earthquake of #fc1 and there are many traces of repairs1 particularly in the upper rooms4 ,the walls were simply painted in the fourth style4 ,two money chests stood on large flat stones in the rear corners of this atrium4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4--,transverse section of the house of the ,faun1 showing the two atriums with adjoining rooms4 ,sleeping room 7f7 ,tuscan atrium 7,b7 with entrance of tablinum 7,d7 ,left ala 7c7 of tetrastyle atrium ,tetrastyle atrium 7b7 ,right ala 7c'7 ,in one of the rooms at the front 7e7 there are traces of shelves2 stairs at one side led to the upper rooms at the left of the atrium1 the shape and size of which are indicated in ,fig4 #adc4 ,on the right1 also1 there were small chambers over g1 h1 and h'1 on the same level as the second floor of the shop in front 7#d71 and accessible only by means of the stairway in this shop2 there were no other stairs in this corner of the house1 and these rooms could not have been connected with chambers over other parts of the atrium1 because there were no upper rooms over the fauces and the right ala 7c'74 ,another stairway in d1 partly of wood1 led to chambers over i1 d'1 n'1 n1 o1 o'1 and part of the kitchen1 ,m4 ,bronze vessels and remains of ivory feet belonging to a bedstead were found in the double room h1 h'2 but it is more likely that this was used as a storeroom for discarded furniture than that members of the family slept here4 ,a long corridor at the end of the first peristyle 7m7 connected the rooms at the right of the small atrium with the closet 7n71 the bath 7o1 o'71 the kitchen 7,m71 and the large bedroom 7,n7 opening on the second peristyle4 ,the two rooms of the bath1 tepidarium and caldarium1 were provided with hollow floors and walls1 and were heated from the kitchen1 into which the draft vents 7p4 #ahh7 opened2 in order to make the smoke less objectionable1 the kitchen was built very high1 with several windows4 ,the kitchen is of unusual size4 ,a niche for the images of the household gods was placed in the wall at the left1 so high up that it could only have been reached by means of a ladder4 ,the front is shaped to resemble the facade of a small temple1 and in it is a small altar of terra cotta for the burning of incense4 ,the first room at the right of the corridor 7n'7 was completely excavated in #aijj1 and found to be a stall4 ,in it were brought to light the skeletons of two cows and of four human beings1 an adult and three children4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii ,a ,,house ,,near ,,the ,,porta ,,marina ,the height of the important rooms can be accurately determined in so few houses of the ,tufa ,period1 that special importance attaches to a house on the edge of the city north of the ,porta ,marina 7,no4 #ac71 in which not merely the three-quarter columns at the entrance of the tablinum1 but also the pilasters at the corners of the fauces and alae and part of the ,ionic columns of the peristyle are seen in their full height4 ,the atrium is the best preserved of any in the large pre-,roman houses1 and the height of the ceiling in several of the adjoining rooms is clearly indicated4 ,the house lies about seventy paces north of the ,strada della ,marina1 on the last street leading to the right4 ,it is without a name and is seldom visited4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4--,plan of the house near the ,porta ,marina4 ,neither the decoration1 renewed in the second style and without paintings1 nor the arrangement of the rooms 7,fig4 #add7 requires extended comment4 ,there are two atriums1 the smaller with the domestic apartments being at the left and entered directly from the street4 ,the fauces of the other are of unusual width1 being about two fifths of the width of the atrium4 ,the alae are at the middle of the sides1 as in the house of ,epidius ,rufus and the smaller atrium of the house of the ,faun4 ,at the sides of the tablinum are large windows opening into two dining rooms1 which are entered from the peristyle4 ,more than a third of the plot enclosed by the peristyle is taken up by a deep rectangular basin for fish4 ,at the rear are apparently other rooms1 adjusted to the slope of the ground1 which1 however1 have not yet been excavated4 ,it will1 perhaps1 be easier to appreciate the stately character of the pre-,roman atriums if we give a few of the dimensions which were used in making our restoration 7,fig4 #ade74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4--,longitudinal section of the house near the ,porta ,marina4 ,vestibule ,fauces ,ala ,atrium ,tablinum ,peristyle ,fish pond ,the atrium is #da by #bi feet4 ,the tablinum measures #ac feet #i inches between the three-quarter columns which stand1 in place of the usual pilasters1 at the entrance2 it is thus half as wide as the atrium4 ,the height of the tablinum at the entrance is #ah feet #f inches2 according to the proportions given by ,vitruvius it should be #ae feet #d inches4 ,the alae and fauces also exceed the dimensions presented by the ,roman architect1 the former being #ab-b_/c feet wide and #af-a_/d feet high1 while the height of the broad fauces1 #ag-a_/b feet1 is only a trifle less than that of the tablinum4 ,the height of the walls of the atrium is easily determined with the help of the data before us2 and the arrangement of the roof over the fauces1 atrium1 tablinum1 and colonnade of the peristyle must have been very similar to that shown in our restoration4 ,the entablature seen over the entrance of the left ala is restored in accordance with the architectural forms commonly used in the period when the house was built4 ,both the three-quarter columns and the pilasters present a peculiarity of construction found also in other houses1 but not easy to explain4 ,the former appear as half-columns on the side of the tablinum1 but present fully three fourths of their breadth on the side of the atrium4 ,the pilasters at the entrances of the alae and fauces have1 on the inside1 a good proportion1 the breadth being about one eighth of the height2 but on the outside1 toward the atrium1 they are much more slender4 ,a well designed scroll pattern appears in the black and white mosaic floor of the fauces1 which1 as often in ,pompeian houses1 slopes gently toward the street4 ,the floor of the atrium is made of black mosaic with pieces of colored marble arranged in rows1 and white stripes at the edges4 ,the base of a shrine for the household gods stands against the right wall4 ,in the first room at the right was an alcove for a bed opposite the door2 the ceiling of the alcove1 in the form of a vault1 was lower than that of the rest of the room4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,silver ,,wedding ,among the more interesting of the large houses excavated in the last decade is the house of the ,silver ,wedding1 which marks the limit of excavation in the fifth ,region 7,v4 ii4 a on ,plan ,,vi74 ,the main part was cleared in #ahib 7,fig4 #h72 and in ,april1 #ahic1 in connection with the festivities with which the ,silver ,wedding of the ,king and ,queen of ,italy was celebrated1 a special excavation was made in one of the rooms1 in the presence of their ,majesties and of their imperial guests1 the ,emperor and ,empress of ,germany4 ,portions of the house are still covered1 the facade1 the inner end of the oecus1 and the greater part of an extensive garden on the left side4 ,notwithstanding the extent of the house--the greatest length is not far from #aej feet1 the breadth of the excavated portion #acj--;and the number of apartments1 the plan is simple 7,fig4 #adf74 ,from the fauces 7a7 we pass into a tetrastyle atrium 7d71 the largest of its kind yet discovered1 with alae on either side and a high tablinum 7o74 ,back of this is a ,rhodian peristyle1 at the rear of which is an exedra 7y7 with sleeping rooms at the right and the left 7x1 z74 ,opening into the rear of the peristyle on one side is the oecus 7#d71 on the other a long dining room 7w74 ,another series of apartments lay between the peristyle and the garden at the right 7#b71 a kitchen 7s71 and a bath 7t-v74 ,in front of the garden and extending to the street is a small house 7alpha-iota7 which had been joined to the larger establishment2 it was connected with this by a small door under the stairs in the corner of the atrium 7beta71 which opened into a side room 7e7 of the large atrium4 ,the essential parts of the house date from the ,tufa ,period4 ,alterations were made from time to time in the course of the two centuries during which it was occupied1 but they were not so extensive as to obscure the original plan4 ,the most obvious changes were those affecting the wall decoration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4--,plan of the house of the ,silver ,wedding4 a4 ,fauces4 d4 ,tetrastyle atrium4 n4 ,dining room4 o4 ,tablinum4 p4 ,andron4 r4 ,peristyle4 s4 ,kitchen4 t-v4 ,bath4 7v4 ,apodyterium4 u4 ,tepidarium4 t4 ,caldarium47 w4 ,summer dining room4 x1 z4 ,sleeping rooms4 y4 ,exedra4 #a4 ,open-air swimming tank1 in a small garden 7#b74 #c4 ,corridor leading to another house and to a side street4 #d4 ,oecus4 #f4 ,garden1 partially excavated4 #g4 ,open-air triclinium4 alpha-iota4 ,fauces1 atrium1 and other rooms of separate dwelling connected with the larger house4 ,in the small rooms at the right of the atrium are traces of the decoration of the first style1 which was in vogue when the house was built4 ,toward the end of the ,republic almost the whole interior was redecorated in the second style1 but without paintings4 ,brilliant blocks and panels dating from this renovation may still be seen upon the upper part of the walls of the atrium and on those of the oecus1 the exedra1 the two bedrooms next to the exedra1 and the front part of the long apodyterium4 ,afterwards a few rooms were done over in the third style1 of which scanty remains are found4 ,lastly1 after the fourth style had come into vogue1 but before #fj ,a4,d4--as shown by an inscription on a column of the peristyle--a large part of the house was redecorated in the fourth style1 including the tablinum1 the andron and the room at the right 7q71 the peristyle1 the long dining room 7w71 and the inner portion of the apodyterium4 ,the lower part of the walls of the atrium were also painted over1 but with designs and coloring that harmonized well with the decoration of the second style above4 ,in this house the history of ,pompeian wall decoration can be followed from the century after the ,second ,punic ,war to the middle of the first century of our era1 from the time of ,cato the ,elder to that of ,claudius and ,nero4 ,there are few paintings1 however1 and they are not of special interest4 ,in marked contrast with the atriums in the house of the ,faun and the other houses which we have examined1 the atrium here had a relatively large compluvium 7,fig4 #adg72 all parts of the room must have been brilliantly lighted4 ,in summer some kind of protection against the sun was a necessity4 ,it was probably afforded by hanging curtains between the columns2 on the side of each column1 facing the corner of the atrium1 is a bronze ring through which a cord might have been passed to use in drawing the curtains back and forth4 ,the large compluvium with its supporting columns suggests the arrangement of the ,corinthian atrium4 ,the dimensions of the atrium are monumental4 ,the length is approximately #ed feet1 the breadth #dj2 and the ,corinthian columns of tufa coated with stucco1 are #bb-c_/d feet high4 ,at the rear of the impluvium is a fluted cistern curb of white marble 7seen in ,fig4 #h74 ,in the impluvium near the edge is the square pedestal of a fountain figure1 which threw a jet into a round marble basin in front4 ,the doors of the rooms at the sides of the atrium were originally more than thirteen feet high2 those which we now see are comparatively low4 ,the height was reduced because a second floor was placed in the rooms1 thus making low chambers1 which were reached by three stairways1 one 7g7 at the right of the atrium1 the other two 7k and m7 on the opposite side4 ,the upper rooms were lighted by small windows1 part of which opened into the atrium1 others upon the garden on the left side of the house4 ,these changes were completed before the atrium received its decoration in the second style4 ,there was no second story over the alae1 the tablinum1 or the rooms about the peristyle4 ,in the left ala was once a large window opening on the garden1 but it was afterwards walled up 7p4 #bei74 ,the curtain fastenings on the pilasters at the front of the tablinum have been referred to in another connection 7p4 #bef74 ,the arrangement of the rooms at the sides is not unlike that in the house of ,sallust2 one1 n1 retained its original form2 the other was divided up into an andron 7p71 with a bedroom 7q7 at one side4 ,the peristyle is remarkably well preserved4 ,we find not only the columns in their full height1 but also1 except on the north side1 large portions of the entablature1 with its stucco ornamentation intact1 supported on a line of planks placed upon the columns at the time of excavation2 and the decoration of the walls retains much of its brilliancy of coloring4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4--,longitudinal section of the house of the ,silver ,wedding4 ,fauces ,tetrastyle atrium ,ala ,tablinum ,rhodian peristyle ,entrance to oecus ,exedra ,the colonnade of this peristyle has been mentioned elsewhere as illustrating the ,rhodian form 7p4 #bfj74 ,the difference in height between the colonnade in front and on the other three sides was accentuated in the decoration4 ,on the walls in front are large red panels separated by architectural designs on a yellow background2 the walls under the lower part of the colonnade were painted with black panels1 the designs of the narrow intermediate sections being on a white background4 ,the lower third of the columns in front was yellow2 at the sides and rear1 dark red1 like that on the lower part of the high columns in the atrium4 ,thus a pleasing contrast was made between the portions of the colonnade designed to receive the sunshine1 particularly in winter1 and the shadier parts2 and the higher front served as an intermediate member between the lofty atrium with its stately tablinum and the lower rear division of the house4 ,the ornamentation of the architrave retains no trace of the decorative forms in vogue at the time when it was constructed4 ,the surface1 moulded in stucco1 is divided into sections1 corresponding with the capitals and intercolumniations1 as in the colonnade of the ,stabian ,baths 7,fig4 #hi72 in these sections are small figures of birds and animals and other suitable designs1 the effect being heightened by the use of color4 ,that the decoration of the peristyle received its present form before the earthquake is evident from an inscription scratched upon the plaster of one of the columns on the north side3 ,nerone ,caesare ,augusto ,cosso ,lentulo ,cossi filio consulibus ,,viii ,idus ,februarias ,dies ,solis1 ,luna ,,xiiiix1 nundinae ,cumis1 ,v nun4 ,pompeis1-- ',in the consulship of ,nero and of ,cossus ,lentulus the son of ,cossus1' that is #fj ,a4,d4 ,the dates given in the rest of the inscription are difficult to explain1 and the reading of the number after ,luna is uncertain4 ,the memorandum seems to indicate that the eighth day before the ,ides of ,february in this year was the market day at ,cumae1 being ,sunday and the sixteenth day after the ,new ,moon2 and that the market day at ,pompeii came three days later4 ,the inscription is the earliest yet found in which a day of the week is named in connection with a date4 ,the garden plot enclosed by the peristyle was watered by means of two jets at the front corners1 fed by pipes under the floor4 ,in the middle was a slight elevation on which were found two crocodiles1 a huge toad1 and a frog of a whitish glazed earthenware1 apparently made in ,egypt4 ,the figures are about sixteen inches long4 ,each of the bedrooms at the rear had an alcove for a bed1 the ceiling being vaulted over the alcove1 flat between this and the door2 a distinction between the two parts of the room was made also in the wall decoration and in the floor1 of black and white mosaic4 ,the frescoing on the walls of the sleeping rooms presents a brilliant variety of colors2 the decoration of the exedra is in yellow4 ,one of the bedrooms has a small side door 7p4 #bfa74 ,in the large dining room at the right 7w7 the place for the table is indicated by an ornamental design in the mosaic floor2 in the oecus 7#d7 the part of the room designed for the table and couches is distinguished from the rest by a difference in the decoration both of the floor and of the wall4 ,in the oecus1 the excavation was made from which the house received its name4 ,the peristyle had already been cleared1 and the volcanic debris had been1 for the most part1 removed from the front part of the oecus1 leaving a layer at the bottom about two feet deep4 ,the ,king and ,queen of ,italy1 with the ,emperor and ,empress of ,germany and a small suite1 stationed themselves in the corner of the peristyle opposite the opening of the oecus2 when all was ready a line of workmen proceeded to draw back the loose fragments of pumice stone1 exposing the floor to view4 ,here nothing was found except the bronze fastenings of the large doors2 but a more fruitful outcome followed a similar search in a room of a small house adjoining the oecus on the south1 in which several vessels of bronze were brought to light4 ,the bath is unusually complete for a private house1 comprising a long1 narrow apodyterium 7v71 an open-air swimming tank in the garden 7#a71 a tepidarium 7u71 and a caldarium 7t74 ,steps led down into the swimming tank at the corner nearest the door of the apodyterium1 and also on the side furthest from the house2 on the same side a jet fell into it from a marble standard adorned with a lion's head4 ,if we imagine a thick growth of shrubs and flowers about the tank1 we have the setting which explains the tasteful decoration of the frigidarium in the ,stabian ,baths 7p4 #aia7 and in the ,baths near the ,forum4 ,the pavement of the apodyterium is especially effective1 being composed of small bits of black1 white1 dark red1 green1 and yellow marble and stone2 near the rear wall a place for a couch is left white4 ,the caldarium and the side of the tepidarium next to it were provided with hollow walls2 a hollow floor extended under both rooms4 ,in the left wall of the tepidarium is the bronze mouth of a water pipe2 perhaps in winter a cold bath was taken here rather than in the swimming tank4 ,in the caldarium the niche for the labrum remains2 the bath basin probably stood opposite the entrance1 where it could be easily heated from the kitchen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4--,transverse section of the house of the ,silver ,wedding1 as it was before #fc4 ,garden with colonnade ,tetrastyle atrium ,small atrium ,above the broad hearth of the kitchen 7s71 which stands against the wall adjoining the garden1 are the vestiges of a painting of the two ,lares2 near them a serpent is seen coiled around an altar1 on which is a large pine cone4 ,at the end next the caldarium is a depression in the floor1 for convenience in building a fire to heat the bath rooms4 ,in the corner is a foundation of masonry to support the vessel1 of lead1 in which water was kept for the bath4 ,the colonnade at the left of the house 7#f on the ,plan2 see ,fig4 #adh71 with its slender eight-sided columns1 seems to have been thrown down by the earthquake of #fc1 and removed4 ,in the place of four of the columns an open-air triclinium was made1 like that in the house of ,sallust4 ,it is well preserved1 and shows an interesting peculiarity of construction4 ,when the table was not in use1 a jet of water would spring from the foundation of masonry supporting the round top4 ,the water was conveyed by a lead pipe1 and at the rear of the colonnade one may still see the stopcock by which the flow was regulated4 ,the stairway at the left of the small atrium 7beta7 led to rooms over the front of the house4 ,over the rooms at the rear1 a bedroom 7gamma71 a central room 7delta7 taking the place of the tablinum1 and a corridor 7epsilon71 was a dining room1 the front of which was supported by columns 7p4 #bge71 the stairway being in the corridor2 fragments of the tufa columns are lying on the floor4 ,at the back of the house was originally only the small sleeping room 7zeta7 with a simple decoration in the first style1 and a colonnade 7eta7 with ,doric columns opening on the garden 7kappa74 ,later the colonnade was turned into an apartment1 and two rooms were built at the left1 a dining room 7theta7 and a bedroom 7iota74 ,in the front of one of the rooms 7lambda7 is an unusually well preserved niche for the images of the household gods1 ornamented with stucco reliefs and painted in the last style4 ,on the rear wall stands ,hercules1 with the lion's skin hanging from his left arm1 his club on the left shoulder4 ,in his right hand he holds a large bowl above a round altar2 at the left is a hog ready to be offered as a victim4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,epidius ,,rufus ,the house of ,epidius ,rufus1 built1 like those previously described1 in the pre-,roman time1 presents a pleasing example of a ,corinthian atrium4 ,in one respect it resembles the oldest ,pompeian houses1 such as that of the ,surgeon2 in the place of the peristyle is a garden extending back from a colonnade at the rear of the tablinum4 ,in a period when large peristyles were the fashion1 a ,pompeian of wealth and taste1 whose building lot was ample enough to admit of an extension of his house toward the rear1 contented himself with a single group of rooms arranged about one central apartment4 ,the arrangement of rooms is seen at a glance 7,fig4 #adi74 ,the vestibule1 like that of the principal entrance in the house of the ,faun1 had a triple door at the end toward the street 7shown in ,fig4 #aej71 which was no doubt left open in the daytime4 ,entering1 one would pass into the fauces ordinarily through the small door at the right 7p4 #bdh71 the large double doors between the vestibule and the fauces only being opened for the reception of clients or on special occasions4 ,the front of each ala 7#g1 #ac7 is adorned with two ,ionic columns4 ,at the corners of the entrances are pilasters1 the ,corinthian capitals of which have a striking ornament1 a female head1 moulded in stucco1 looking out from the midst of the acanthus leaves4 ,the eyes and hair are painted1 and in one instance the features of a bacchante can be recognized4 ,in the right ala is an elaborate house shrine1 built like a temple with a facade supported by columns1 raised on a podium five feet high 7,fig4 #aea74 ,on the front of the podium is a dedicatory inscription to the ,genius of the master 7p4 #bgj74 ,the tablinum originally opened on the atrium in its full width1 the entrance being set off by pilasters at the corners4 ,it was then higher2 when the entrance was changed the height was reduced to about twelve feet4 ,the sixteen ,doric columns about the impluvium1 well preserved for the most part1 are only a trifle over fourteen feet high4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4--,plan of the house of ,epidius ,rufus4 #a4 ,raised sidewalk4 #b4 ,vestibule1 with side door4 #g1 #ac4 ,alae3 in one 7#g7 a house shrine4 #ae4 ,stairway to rooms over #ag1 #ba4 #ag4 ,sleeping room1 with alcove4 #ah4 ,andron4 #ai4 ,tablinum4 #bj4 ,dining room4 #ba4 ,kitchen4 #ba b4 ,hearth4 #bb4 ,colonnade4 #bc4 ,gardener's room4 #bd4 ,vegetable garden4 #be4 ,flower garden4 ,the contrast between this atrium and the lofty halls of the houses of ,sallust and the ,faun was indeed marked4 ,here the atrium had become more like a court than a hall2 yet the impluvium1 paved with tufa1 was retained1 and we find the same arrangement for the flow of water as in many houses with ,tuscan and tetrastyle atriums4 ,on the edge of the impluvium at the rear is the pedestal of a fountain figure which threw a jet into a basin resting on two rectangular standards2 the places of these1 as well as the course of the feed pipe1 are indicated on the plan4 ,behind the pedestal is a round cistern curb2 another jet rose in the middle of the impluvium4 ,the apartment at the right of the tablinum 7#bj7 was a dining room4 ,of the smaller rooms about the atrium1 three 7#f1 #h1 and #ab7 were sleeping rooms for members of the family2 some of the others were so poorly decorated as to prompt the suggestion that they were intended for slaves4 ,that next the stairs 7#ad7 was a storeroom2 the traces of the shelving are easily distinguished4 ,under the stairs was a low room 7#af71 perhaps used for a similar purpose2 the small double room 7#ag7 was also low1 and used as a sleeping room4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4--;,facade of the house of ,epidius ,rufus1 restored4 ,the domestic apartments were reached by the andron 7#ah74 ,in the kitchen 7#ba7 is a broad hearth 7b72 a dim light was furnished by narrow windows4 ,the little room at the entrance of the kitchen 7a7 was perhaps a storeroom2 the closet1 as often1 was in the corner of the kitchen4 ,at the opposite end of the colonnade is the gardener's room 7#bc74 ,the main part of the garden 7#bd71 as indicated by the arrangement of the ground1 was used for vegetables2 the small flower garden at the rear 7#be7 was on a higher level4 ,in the house originally there was no second floor4 ,in the ,roman period1 apparently near the end of the ,republic1 a large upper room--probably a dining room--was built over the kitchen2 and there may have been one or two small storerooms at the head of the stairway which was built in one of the side rooms of the atrium4 ,traces of the first and third decorative styles are found in the atrium2 but the most interesting remains are those of the last style4 ,the alae and several rooms were redecorated shortly before the destruction of the city4 ,the dining room 7#bj7 contains a series of paintings illustrating the contest between ,apollo and ,marsyas2 they are skilfully displayed in a light architectural framework on a white ground4 ,on the wall at the left 7at a7 ,apollo is seen with left foot advanced1 striking with his right hand a large cithara which rests against his left shoulder4 ,opposite him 7at b7 is ,marsyas1 playing the double flute2 on the intervening panels 7d1 e7 are the ,muses1 who are acting as judges in the contest of skill4 ,the painting at c seems to relate to ,apollo1 but the subject has not been explained4 ,the choice of subjects such as these may have been influenced by the cult of the early divinity of the city2 but it probably implies a taste for poetry and music on the part of the proprietor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4--,transverse section of the house of ,epidius ,rufus1 restored4 ,ala ,door of ,andron ,front of ,tablinum ,door of ,dining room ,ala with ,shrine ,there were no shops in the front of this house1 but in one respect our restoration of the facade 7,fig4 #aej7 can not be taken as indicating the appearance of such houses in general4 ,here the front line was set back several feet from that of the adjoining houses on either side1 and the space thus gained was given to a terrace or ramp about four feet high1 mounted by steps at either end4 ,the elevation of the front entrance above the sidewalk and the placing of the approaches at the ends of the ramp gave the house an appearance of seclusion4 ,,chapter ,,xl ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,tragic ,,poet ,in the ,last ,days of ,pompeii the house of the ,tragic ,poet is presented to us as the home of ,glaucus4 ,though not large1 it was among the most attractive in the city4 ,it received its present form and decoration not many years before the eruption1 apparently after the earthquake of #fc1 and well illustrates the arrangements of the ,pompeian house of the last years4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4--,plan of the house of the ,tragic ,poet4 #a4 ,fauces4 #b1 #b4 ,shops4 #c4 ,atrium4 #d1 #d4 ,stairways to upper floor4 #e4 ,porter's room4 #f1 #f4 ,sleeping rooms4 #f'4 ,storeroom4 #g4 ,ala4 #h4 ,tablinum4 #i4 ,andron4 #aj4 ,peristyle4 #aa4 ,house shrine4 #ab1 #ad4 ,sleeping rooms4 #ac4 ,kitchen4 #ae4 ,dining room4 #af4 ,posticum4 ,the house received its name at the time of excavation1 in consequence of a curious misinterpretation of a painting--now in the ,naples ,museum--which was found in the tablinum4 ,the subject is the delivery to ,admetus of the oracle which declared that he must die unless some one should voluntarily meet death in his place4 ,on one side sits ,admetus1 with his devoted queen ,alcestis2 opposite them is the messenger who is reading the oracle from a roll of papyrus4 ,the excavators thought that the scene represented a poet reciting his verses2 and since they found1 in the floor of the tablinum1 a mosaic picture in which an actor is seen making preparations for the stage1 they concluded that the figure with the papyrus in the wall painting must be a tragic poet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec4--,view of the house of the ,tragic ,poet1 looking from the middle of the atrium through the tablinum toward the shrine at the end of the peristyle4 ,at the right1 the andron4 ,in the foreground1 a cistern curb1 at the rear of the impluvium4 ,the plan 7,fig4 #aeb7 presents slight irregularities2 yet in essential points the arrangement of rooms does not differ materially from that which we have found in the houses of the pre-,roman time4 ,as our section 7,fig4 #aed7 shows1 all the parts of the house are comparatively low2 the ceiling of the atrium and of the large dining room at the rear 7#ae7 were only a few feet higher than the colonnade of the peristyle4 ,the entrances of the ala--here there is but one--and of the tablinum are not adorned with pilasters2 plain wooden casings were used instead4 ,the second story rooms are not an afterthought but a part of the architect's design2 the stairways 7#d7 leading to them are symmetrically placed at the sides of the atrium4 ,there was no upper floor1 however1 over the fauces1 the atrium1 or the tablinum4 ,to a modern visitor this dwelling would have seemed more homelike and comfortable than the monumental houses of the earlier time4 ,the large shops 7#b7 are both connected with the house by doors opening into the fauces 7#a74 ,they were doubtless the proprietor's place of business4 ,in one of them gold ornaments were found1 but we should scarcely be warranted in assuming from this fact that the master of the house was a goldsmith4 ,in the floor of the fauces1 immediately behind the double front door1 is a dog1 attached to a chain1 outlined in black and white mosaic1 with the inscription1 cave canem1 ',beware of the dog6' ,the picture was for many years in the ,naples ,museum4 ,the black and white mosaic is well preserved in the atrium1 the tablinum 7,fig4 #aec71 and the dining room opening on the peristyle1 as well as in the fauces4 ,the purpose of the various rooms is in most cases easy to determine4 ,the first at the left of the atrium 7#e7 was the room of the porter1 atriensis4 ,the three rooms marked #f were sleeping rooms1 as were also #ab and #ad opening on the peristyle2 #f' was a storeroom1 #ac the kitchen4 ,there was a colonnade on three sides of the peristyle2 against the wall at the rear stands the shrine of the household gods 7seen in ,fig4 #aec7 in which was found a marble statuette of a satyr carrying fruits in the fold of a skin hanging in front of him4 ,the decoration of the large dining room 7#ae7 is especially effective4 ,in the front of the room is a broad door opening into the colonnade of the peristyle2 each of the three sides contains three panels1 in the midst of a light but carefully finished architectural framework4 ,in the central panels are large paintings3 at r1 a young couple looking at a nest of ,cupids2 at q1 ,theseus going on board ship1 leaving behind him the beautiful ,ariadne2 and at p a composition in which ,artemis is the principal figure4 ,in four of the smaller panels are the ,seasons1 represented as graceful female figures hovering in the air2 the others present youthful warriors with helmet1 shield1 sword1 and spear1 all well conceived and executed with much delicacy4 ,the atrium1 unlike most of those at ,pompeii1 was rich in wall paintings4 ,six panels1 more than four feet high1 presented a series of scenes from the story of the ,trojan war1 as told in the ,iliad4 ,these were united with the decorative framework in such a way as to make a harmonious and pleasing whole2 the main divisions of the right wall of the atrium1 as well as of the fauces and tablinum1 are indicated in ,fig4 #aed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4--,longitudinal section of the house of the ,tragic ,poet1 restored4 ,large dining room ,peristyle ,kitchen ,tablinum ,ala ,atrium ,impluvium ,stairs ,fauces ,in arranging the pictures1 the decorators had little regard for the order of events4 ,the subjects were the ,nuptials of ,zeus and ,hera 7at a on the plan72 the judgment of ,paris 7b7--though this is doubtful1 as the picture is now entirely obliterated2 the delivery of ,briseis to the messenger of ,agamemnon 7c72 the departure of ,chryseis 7d71 and seemingly ,thetis bringing arms across the sea to ,achilles 7f74 ,of the painting at e only a fragment remained1 too small to make it possible to recognize the subject4 ,the fragment at f1 in which were seen a ,triton1 two figures riding on a sea horse1 and a ,cupid on a dolphin1 is now entirely faded4 ,half of the painting in which ,chryseis appears was already ruined at the time of excavation2 the other half was transferred to the ,naples ,museum1 together with the paintings that were best preserved1 the ,nuptials of ,zeus and ,hera1 and the sending away of ,briseis4 ,the two pictures last mentioned are among the best known of the ,pompeian paintings1 and have often been reproduced4 ,in one 7,fig4 #bgc7 we see ,zeus sitting at the right1 while ,hypnos presents to him ,hera1 whose left wrist he gently grasps in his right hand as if to draw her to him4 ,hera seems half reluctant1 and her face1 which the artist1 in order to enhance the effect1 has directed toward the beholder rather than toward ,zeus1 is queenly in its majesty and power4 ,the scene is located on ,mt4 ,ida4 ,in the background stands a pillar1 on which are three small figures of lions2 below at the side are two pipes1 cymbals1 and a tambourine1 all sacred to the potent divinity of ,mt4 ,ida1 ,cybele4 ,three youths1 crowned with garlands1 appear in the lower right hand corner of the picture2 they are perhaps the ,dactyli1 demons skilled in the working of metals who followed in the train of ,cybele4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4--,the sending away of ,briseis4 ,wall painting from the house of the ,tragic ,poet4 ,a higher degree of dramatic interest is manifested in the other painting1 which we present in outline 7,fig4 #aee74 ,in the foreground at the right1 ,patroclus leads forward the weeping ,briseis4 ,in the middle ,achilles1 seated1 looks toward ,patroclus with an expression of anger1 and with an impatient gesture of the right hand directs him to deliver up the beautiful captive to the messenger of ,agamemnon1 who stands at the left waiting to receive her4 ,behind ,achilles is ,phoenix1 his faithful companion1 who tries to soften his anger with comforting words4 ,further back the helmeted heads of warriors are seen1 and at the rear the tent of ,achilles4 ,the scene is well conceived4 ,yet in both this picture and the one previously described1 the composition seems to lack depth and perspective4 ,the artist is remarkably skilful in portraying facial expression1 and foreground details2 his limitations are apparent in the handling of groups4 ,we have the feeling that the first designs were not made freely with brush or pencil1 but that the artist was here translating into painting designs which he found already worked out in reliefs4 ,the original paintings1 of which these are copies1 very likely go back to the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,another painting worthy of more than passing mention was found on a wall of the peristyle 7at o71 and removed to the ,naples ,museum4 ,the subject is the sacrifice of ,iphigenia1 who was to be offered up to ,artemis that a favorable departure from ,aulis might be granted to the ,greek fleet assembled for the expedition against ,troy 7,fig4 #aef74 ,at the right stands ,calchas1 deeply troubled1 his sheath in his left hand1 his unsheathed sword in his right1 his finger upon his lips4 ,the hapless maid with arms outstretched in supplication is held by two men1 one of whom is perhaps ,ulysses4 ,at the left is ,agamemnon1 with face averted and veiled head1 overcome with grief4 ,beside him leans his sceptre1 and on a pillar near by we see an archaic statue of ,artemis with a torch in each hand1 a dog on either side4 ,just as the girl is to be slain1 ,artemis appears in the sky at the right1 and from the clouds opposite a nymph emerges bringing a deer1 which the goddess accepts as a substitute4 ,in this painting1 also1 though the style is entirely different from that of the others1 we perceive the limitations of the artist in the treatment of the background4 ,nevertheless the boldness of the conception1 and the skill manifested in the handling of several of the figures1 seem to point to an original of more than ordinary merit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4--,the sacrifice of ,iphigenia4 ,wall painting4 ,not far from #djj ,b4,c4 the sacrifice of ,iphigenia was made the subject of a painting by ,timanthes1 in which the maiden was represented as standing beside the altar4 ,we are told that the artist painted ,calchas sorrowful1 ,ulysses more sorrowful1 ,ajax lamenting1 and ,menelaus in sorrow so deep that deeper sorrow could not be expressed2 finding it impossible to portray the grief of the father1 ,agamemnon1 ,timanthes represented him with veiled head4 ,the veiled ,agamemnon appears in our painting1 and the figure of ,calchas perhaps reflects the conception of ,timanthes4 ,for the rest1 it is difficult to establish a relation between the two pictures2 even if we did not know that ,iphigenia1 in the painting of ,timanthes1 stood beside an altar1 we could scarcely believe that a great painter would have represented her thus awkwardly carried4 ,undoubtedly the ,pompeian painting1 or its original1 is indebted to the masterpiece of the ,greek artist2 but the decorative painter has adapted this to suit his purpose1 omitting the figures1 the facial expression of which was most difficult to reproduce1 and at the same time attempting to heighten the effect by making more prominent the helplessness and terror of the victim4 ,,chapter ,,xli ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,vettii ,the house of the ,vettii1 excavated in the years #ahid-ahie1 bears the same relation to the other houses built in the ,roman period that the house of the ,faun does to those of the earlier time2 it is the most important representative of its class4 ,it was situated in a quiet part of the city1 and was not conspicuous by reason of its size2 its interest for us lies chiefly in its paintings and in the adornment of the well preserved peristyle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4--;,exterior of the house of the ,vettii1 restored4 ,the relationship between the two owners1 ,aulus ,vettius ,restitutus and ,aulus ,vettius ,conviva 7p4 #ejh7 is not known4 ,they were perhaps freedmen1 manumitted by the same master2 ,conviva1 as we learn from a painted inscription1 was a member of the ,brotherhood of ,augustus1--,vetti ,conviva1 ,augustalis4 ,the exterior of the house 7,fig4 #aeg7 was unpretentious4 ,the main entrance was on the east side1 and there was a side door near the southeast corner2 elsewhere the street walls were unbroken except by small1 square windows1 part of which were in low second story rooms4 ,the vestibule 7,fig4 #aeh1 a71 as in the house of ,epidius ,rufus 7p4 #bdh71 was connected with the fauces 7b7 by a large double door and also by a small door at the right4 ,the atrium 7c7 is without a tablinum2 at the rear it opens directly on the peristyle4 ,one of the alae 7h7 at the time of the eruption was used as a wardrobe4 ,at the sides of the atrium were two money chests2 the one at the right is seen in ,fig4 #aei4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--,plan of the house of the ,vettii4 a4 ,vestibule4 b4 ,fauces4 c4 ,atrium4 h1 i4 ,alae4 l4 ,colonnade of the peristyle4 m4 ,garden4 n1 p4 ,dining rooms4 q4 ,room with the ,cupids and ,psyches4 s4 ,small peristyle4 t4 ,dining room4 u4 ,bedroom4 v4 ,side atrium4 w4 ,kitchen4 x'4 ,cook's room4 gamma4 ,corridor leading to side 7beta1 delta7 and posticum4 ,opening on the peristyle are three large apartments 7n1 p1 q71 and two smaller rooms 7o1 r74 ,a door at the right leads into a small side peristyle 7s1 shown in ,fig4 #afj71 with a quiet dining room 7t7 and bedroom 7u74 ,the domestic apartments were near the front of the house4 ,at the right of the principal atrium is a small side atrium 7v7 without a separate street entrance4 ,grouped about it were rooms for the slaves and the kitchen 7w7 with a large hearth 7,fig4 #abe74 ,beyond the kitchen is a room for the cook 7x'74 ,at the rear of the small atrium is the niche for the household gods 7,fig4 #abg74 ,the corridor at the left of the principal atrium 7gamma7 led to an unimportant room 7beta7 with a door opening on a side street4 ,in this corridor there was a stairway to the second story1 which extended over this corner of the house 7above e1 f1 h1 n1 o1 beta1 delta74 ,along the front also were low chambers1 over the fauces and the small rooms on either side 7d1 k71 and over the rooms adjoining the small atrium 7x1 y1 z74 ,in the accompanying sections two restorations of the interior are given4 ,in the first 7,fig4 #aei7 we are looking toward the right side of the atrium and the inner end of the peristyle2 the depth of the peristyle more than equals that of the atrium1 together with the vestibule and fauces4 ,the difference in height between the atrium and the peristyle1 as in the house of the ,tragic ,poet1 is much less than in the houses built in the pre-,roman period2 and the corners of the alae were protected by simple wooden casings1 altogether unlike the stately pilasters of the olden time4 ,the transverse section 7,fig4 #afj7 presents the long side of the peristyle next to the atrium1 with the side of the small peristyle at the north end4 ,the extent of the house is greater measured across the two peristyles 7along the line ,c-,d on the plan7 than from front to rear4 ,of the three entrances from the atrium into the peristyle1 that in the middle is broader and higher than the other two1 which are not much wider than ordinary doors2 the arrangement of the openings is similar to that in houses having a tablinum open toward the peristyle with an andron on one side1 and on the other a room with a door corresponding with the door of the andron4 ,the columns of the peristyle are well preserved 7,fig4 #afa74 ,they are white1 with ornate capitals moulded in stucco and painted with a variety of colors4 ,part of the entablature also remains2 the architrave is ornamented with an acanthus arabesque in white stucco relief on a yellow background4 ,the roof of the greater part of the colonnade has been restored1 and the garden has been planted with shrubs in accordance with the arrangement indicated by the appearance of the ground at the time of excavation4 ,nowhere else in ,pompeii will the visitor so easily gain an impression of the aspect presented by a peristyle in ancient times4 ,the main part of the house was searched for objects of value after the eruption1 but the garden was left undisturbed1 and we see in it to-day the fountain basins1 statuettes1 and other sculptures placed there by the proprietor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4--,longitudinal section of the house of the ,vettii1 restored4 ,colonnade 7l7 ,large ,room 7q7 ,garden with fountains and sculptures 7m7 ,peristyle ,colonnade 7l7 ,ala 7i7 ,impluvium ,atrium ,money chest ,door of side atrium ,fauces 7b7 ,vestibule 7a7 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4--,transverse section of the house of the ,vettii1 restored1 showing the two peristyles4 ,small peristyle 7s7 ,end of small dining room ,end of dining room 7p7 ,colonnade ,window in right ala 7i7 ,openings into the atrium ,large peristyle ,end of dining room 7n7 ,door of room 7o7 ,colonnade ,in each corner of the colonnade is a round fountain basin 7indicated on the plan71 at each side an oblong basin1 all of marble4 ,jets fell into them from statuettes standing on pedestals beside the columns2 there were two figures for each side basin1 one each for those at the corners4 ,the two statuettes at the inner end of the colonnade 7,fig4 #afb7 are of bronze2 they represent a boy with a duck1 from the bill of which the water spurted4 ,the rest are of marble1 and not of special interest4 ,among them are a ,bacchus and two satyrs4 ,the water pipes were so well preserved that it has been found possible to place them in repair1 and they are now ready for use4 ,there were also two fountains in the garden4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4--;,base1 capital1 and section of the entablature from the colonnade of the peristyle4 ,near the middle of the garden is a round1 marble table4 ,three others stand under the colonnade1 one of which1 at the right near the inner end1 is particularly elegant4 ,the three feet are carved to represent lions' claws2 the heads above are well executed1 and there are traces of yellow color on the manes4 ,on two pillars in the garden are double busts1 the subjects of which are taken from the bacchic cycle4 ,one represents ,bacchus and a bacchante 7,fig4 #beg71 the other ,bacchus and ,ariadne2 there are traces of painting on the hair1 beard1 and eyes4 ,the wall paintings of this house are the most remarkable yet discovered at ,pompeii4 ,although the decoration of which they form a part is throughout of the fourth style1 they fall into two groups1 an earlier and a later1 distinguished by differences in composition and handling that are easily perceived4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4--,peristyle of the house of the ,vettii1 looking south from the colonnade at the north end4 ,the earlier paintings are found in the atrium 7c71 the alae 7h1 i71 and the large room at the end of the peristyle 7q74 ,at the time when they were painted the left ala 7h7 was connected with the room behind it 7n7 by a door1 and had a large window opening on the peristyle like that in the other ala 7seen in ,fig4 #afj74 ,afterwards both window and door were walled up and the ala was turned into a wardrobe4 ,after this change had been made1 as the remains of the masonry show1 the earthquake of #fc threw down a part of the wall between the ala and the peristyle4 ,the earlier paintings1 then1 must have been placed upon the walls before the year #fc1 in the reign of ,claudius or the earlier part of the reign of ,nero4 ,the later pictures are on the walls of the fauces 7b71 the large apartment at the left of the atrium 7e71 the colonnade of the peristyle 7l71 the two dining rooms opening on the peristyle 7n1 p71 and the small peristyle 7s7 with the adjoining rooms 7t1 u72 to the same class belongs also the painting of the ,genius with the ,lares in the side atrium 7v71 which1 aside from this1 contains no pictures4 ,the remaining rooms present nothing of interest4 ,the paintings of the first group are characterized by refinement in the choice of subjects1 fertility in the composition1 firmness of touch in the drawing1 and exquisite finish in even the smallest details4 ,the colors used are simple and harmonious1 violent contrasts being avoided4 ,a number of these pictures show the hand of a true artist1 whose work has been found in no other house1 and the system of decoration is the most effective of its kind in ,pompeii4 ,the decoration of the walls painted after the earthquake is not unlike that found in other houses upon walls of the fourth style4 ,the designs are sketchy and without painstaking in the handling of details2 the lines are coarse1 the colors sometimes crude4 ,the pictures in the panels are by different painters1 some of whom were not without skill1 yet none far above the average4 ,one of the decorators had a fondness for representing mythological death scenes1 manifesting a taste little short of barbarous4 ,the contrast between the earlier and the later decoration is so marked that it seems impossible to explain except on the assumption of a change of owners4 ,we may well believe that about the middle of the first century this was the home of a family of culture and standing1 who secured for the decoration of it the best artist that could be obtained1 bringing him perhaps from ,rome or from a ,greek city4 ,but within a score of years afterwards the house passed into the hands of the ,vettii1 freedmen1 perhaps1 whose taste in matters of art was far inferior to that of the former occupants1 and a number of rooms were redecorated4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4--,,two ,,wall ,,paintings ,,in ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,vettii ,,apollo ,,after ,,the ,,slaying ,,of ,,the ,,dragon ,,agamemnon ,,in ,,the ,,shrine ,,of ,,artemis ,the excellent preservation of a large part of both the earlier and the later decoration gives the house the appearance of an art gallery4 ,to describe fully and interpret all the paintings would require a small volume4 ,the limitations of space make it possible to present here only the more important2 we commence with those in the large room at the right of the peristyle1 which are the most interesting of the entire series4 ,this apartment 7q7 may have been used either as a dining room or as a sitting room4 ,the scheme of decoration is indicated in ,fig4 #afc1 which presents the division of the end wall2 the side walls had five large panels instead of three4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4--,scheme of wall division in the large room opening on the peristyle4 ,the ground of the base is black4 ,the stripe separating the base from the main part of the wall is red1 except the small sections 7#d1 #d71 which have a black ground2 the vertical stripes between the panels are black1 and the same color forms the background of the border above4 ,the ground of the panels is cinnabar red4 ,the painting in the central panel 7#a7 has not been preserved2 in those at the sides 7#b7 are floating figures4 ,the upper division of the wall 7#f7 is filled with an architectural framework upon a white background1 against which many figures1 skilfully disposed1 stand out with unusual distinctness4 ,the floating figures in the side panels differ from those found elsewhere in the choice of subjects4 ,here instead of satyrs and bacchantes we find gods and heroes4 ,in one panel is ,poseidon with a female figure1 perhaps ,amymone2 in another1 ,apollo with ,daphne4 ,bacchus and ,ariadne also appear1 and ,perseus with ,andromeda4 ,the figures in the upper part of the wall at the end of the room belong to the bacchic cycle1--,silenus1 satyrs1 and bacchantes4 ,of those at the sides1 one1 near the right-hand corner1 represents a poet with a roll of papyrus against his chin1 the open manuscript case1 scrinium1 at his feet2 opposite him sits a maiden clothed in white1 drinking in his words4 ,a comic mask on the left wall seems to suggest a writer of comedy1 and the scene reminds one of the letter of ,glycera to ,menander1 in ,alciphron3 ,what is ,athens without ,menander1 what ,menander without ,glycera8 ,without me1 who make ready your masks1 who lay out your costume1 and then stand behind the scenes pressing my finger tips into the palms of my hands till the applause breaks forth4 ,then all a-trembling ,i breathe again1 and enfold you1 godlike poet1 in my arms4 ,the figures in which we are specially interested1 however1 are not those in the upper or middle division of the wall1 but those in the black stripes 7#c71 nine and ten inches wide1 under the panels1 in the narrow sections 7#d7 and in the corresponding sections of the base4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4--,psyches gathering flowers4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,in each of the sections at the bottom is a standing figure4 ,in those of the end wall 7#e7 are a satyr and a bacchante2 in the two nearest the middle of each side wall are ,amazons1 in the rest female figures with implements of sacrifice4 ,the ,amazons1 armed with battle-axe and shield1 are full of life2 they are distinguished by the colors of their mantles and their ,phrygian caps4 ,in the narrow sections on the end walls 7#d71 and all but four of the others1 were ,psyches gathering flowers4 ,only a part of the scenes are preserved2 in each are three figures1 grouped with a pleasing variety and rendered with singular delicacy of touch4 ,in one1 the ,psyches are sprightly children 7,fig4 #afd72 in another1 young girls2 and in a third we see a lady sitting at ease and plucking the flowers close at hand1 while two maids gather the blossoms beyond her reach4 ,the two narrow sections nearest the middle panel of each side wall contained mythological scenes1 of which three are preserved4 ,the subjects are taken from the cycle of myths relating to ,apollo and ,artemis4 ,in one of the pictures both the divinities appear4 ,apollo has just slain the ,python1 which lies coiled about the ,omphalos1 the sacred symbol of the god as the giver of oracles at ,delphi4 ,his bow and quiver are hanging upon a column in the background1 and he moves forward with vigorous step singing the ,paean with an accompaniment upon the cithara4 ,at the right1 ,artemis1 with a quiver and long hunting spear1 leans upon a pillar looking at her brother4 ,nearer the ,omphalos are a priest and a female attendant1 with a bull intended for sacrifice2 the relation of these to the rest of the scene is not clear 7,plate ,,viii474 ,the companion picture takes us to a sanctuary dedicated to ,artemis4 ,at the left a gilt bronze image of the goddess1 in hunting costume1 stands upon a pillar1 to the side of which a bow1 quiver1 and boar's head are fastened4 ,on one side of the round altar in the middle is a white hind1 sacred to the goddess2 on the other1 moving toward it with a sword in the uplifted right hand1 is a kingly figure1 the face turned with a wild and threatening look toward a frightened attendant2 another attendant1 back of the hind1 seems not yet to have noticed the sacrilegious intruder4 ,the composition is full of dramatic power2 the subject can be none other than the slaying of the hind of ,artemis by the impious ,agamemnon 7,plate ,,viii474 ,the third of these small paintings presents a scene not infrequently met with on ,pompeian walls1 ,orestes and ,pylades at ,tauris in the presence of ,king ,thoas1 and of ,iphigenia1 who is now a priestess of ,artemis4 ,the conception is akin to that of the painting in the house of the ,citharist 7,fig4 #ahb71 but the picture is partially obliterated4 ,the long stripe below the panels is preserved in more than half its length1 on the end wall 7#c71 on that at the right1 and on the short sections of the front wall2 there is also a fragment on the left side4 ,it contains a series of charming pictures representing ,cupids and ,psyches4 ,some of the little creatures are engaged in sports1 others are celebrating a festival1 while others still are busying themselves with the manifold work of everyday life4 ,the execution is less careful than in the small mythological pictures2 yet the figures are so full of life1 their movements are so purposeful1 and their bearing so suggestive that we seem to catch the expression of the tiny faces4 ,the ,cupids and ,psyches1 whether playing the part of children or of men and women in elegant attire1 whether garland makers or vinedressers or smiths1 are always ,cupids and ,psyches still2 we instinctively recognize them as such1 not by reason of outward attributes so much as by their bearing4 ,prosaic daily toil has nowhere been more happily idealized4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4--;,cupids making and selling oil4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,the ,cupids at the left of the entrance are playing with a duck4 ,one holds the duck under his arm ready to let it go2 the other stretches out his hands to catch it as it tries to escape4 ,the group on the other side are throwing at a wooden mark4 ,one is setting up the target4 ,two are making ready to throw1 one of them being mounted on the back of a companion2 the successful contestant in such games was called the king1 the loser1 the ass1 because he had to carry the others upon his back4 ,a fifth stands ruefully beside the target1 awaiting his turn to carry the victor4 ,among the most attractive groups are those of the flower dealers1 at the end of the right wall near the entrance4 ,first we see the gardener leading to market a goat laden with roses2 his little son trudges along behind the animal1 carrying a basket of roses suspended from a stick on the left shoulder4 ,next is the dealer1 who stands behind a broad marble table covered with garlands2 he is handing two to a youth who already has several1 while a ,psyche near by is placing the garlands in a basket4 ,beyond these1 workmen are making garlands1 which hang in profusion from a wooden frame4 ,at the extreme left is a lady asking the price4 ,one of the workmen holds up two fingers1 signifying two asses4 ,the price of a wreath is given in a graffito as three asses 7p4 #dig74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4--,oil press4 ,from a wall painting found at ,herculaneum4 ,in the following scene ,cupids appear as makers and sellers of oil 7,fig4 #afe74 ,at the right is the oil press4 ,it stands upon a square stone1 the upper surface of which contains a semicircular incision to catch the oil and carry it to a round vessel standing in front4 ,the two sides1 each with a broad vertical opening1 are securely fastened by a crosspiece at the top4 ,the ends of four horizontal boards are fitted to the openings1 in which they move up and down4 ,the olives are placed under the lowest board2 in the spaces between the others1 and between the upper board and the crosspiece1 thick wooden wedges are driven4 ,as the workmen drive in the wedges with heavy mallets1 the pressure upon the olives is increased1 and the oil is forced out4 ,the arrangement may be more plainly seen in ,fig4 #aff1 from a wall painting at ,herculaneum1 in which a similar press appears4 ,at the left of the press is a large kettle resting on a tripod4 ,the oil is being stirred as it is heated2 a similar kettle appears in the scene in a shop presented in the other part of the picture4 ,further on are two figures beside a deep vessel1 but the process represented is not clear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4--;,cupids as goldsmiths4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,the rest of the picture relates to the selling of oil4 ,in the background is a cupboard1 with a statuette--possibly an ,aphrodite--on the upper shelf4 ,in front is an open chest resting on four legs4 ,both the cupboard and the box contain bottles and jars of various shapes and sizes for holding oil2 a ,cupid has just taken one up4 ,on the top of the chest is a roll of papyrus with a pair of scales2 oil was sold by weight4 ,a memorandum on the wall of an adjoining house reads3 ,,xiii4 ,k4 ,fe4 oli4 p4 ,,dcccxxxx1--',january #bj1 #hdj pounds of oil4' ,the central figure of the group at the left is the lady who has come to make a purchase4 ,a cushioned seat has been placed for her1 with a footstool2 the maid stands motionless behind1 a large fan resting on the right shoulder4 ,the proprietor holds in his right hand a spoon containing a sample which he has just taken from the jar under his arm2 the lady seems to be testing the quality on the back of her wrist4 ,the article sold is doubtless the fine perfumed oil1 not the common variety4 ,hardly less animated are the scenes in which ,cupids take the place of goldsmiths 7,fig4 #afg74 ,at the right is the furnace1 adorned with the head of ,hephaestus1 the patron divinity of workers in metals4 ,in front is a ,cupid with a blowpipe and pincers4 ,behind it another is working with a graver's tool upon a large gold vessel4 ,the pose1 suggesting at the same time exertion and perfect steadiness1 is rendered with remarkable skill4 ,next is a figure at a small anvil2 then the counter for the sale of jewellery1 which is displayed in three open drawers4 ,behind the case containing the drawers a large and a smaller pair of scales are seen4 ,the first two figures in the other half of the picture represent a lady purchaser1 seated1 and the proprietor1 who weighs out an object with a small pair of scales4 ,the left hands of both point to the balance2 they are deeply interested in the weighing4 ,lastly1 we see two figures at an anvil4 ,nothing could be more natural than the pose of the one at the left1 holding the metal upon the anvil for his companion to strike1 yet drawing back as far as possible in order to avoid the sparks4 ,the processes of the fullery also are illustrated1--treading the clothes in vats1 carding1 inspection of the cloth to see if the work is properly done1 and folding the finished garments for delivery to the owners4 ,three of the pictures--two on the end wall and one on the left side--relate to wine4 ,the first is a vintage scene 7,fig4 #afh71 of which only a part is distinct4 ,at the left is a ,cupid gathering grapes1 from vines trained to run from tree to tree4 ,the press is worked on a different principle from the one shown in ,fig4 #afe4 ,here two ,cupids are turning a windlass by means of long levers4 ,the windlass is connected by a pulley with a press beam above2 as the end of this is gradually lowered1 the pressure upon the grapes underneath is increased4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4--,vintage scene3 ,cupids gathering and pressing grapes4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,the triumph of ,bacchus is presented in another picture1 which is fortunately in a better state of preservation4 ,at the head of the procession is a bacchante1 riding on a panther4 ,bacchus sits in a four-wheeled chariot drawn by goats2 the coachman is a satyr4 ,behind the triumphal car is ,pan1 dancing and playing the double flute2 last comes a vine-crowned ,cupid1 dancing1 with a large mixing bowl upon his shoulder4 ,the skill shown in the pose of the dancing figures is especially noteworthy2 they stand lightly erect1 seeming not to feel their weight or the exertion of rapid movement4 ,in the last of this series1 upon the left wall1 ,cupids appear as wine dealers2 the part of the picture that has been preserved is shown in ,fig4 #afi4 ,the rustic bearing of the seller1 at the left1 is in pleasing contrast with the free and graceful carriage of the well-bred buyer1 to whom he is handing a sample of the wine in a cup4 ,at the right two servants are drawing another sample from an amphora2 one tips the amphora so cautiously that the other1 who is holding the bowl1 presses the neck gently with his left hand in order to make the slender stream flow faster4 ,rapidity of movement reaches a climax in the middle picture of the right wall1 which represents the games of the ,circus4 ,the scene is laid in the country2 each goal is marked by three trees4 ,antelopes take the place of horses1 and the groups are conceived with wonderful realism4 ,the tiny1 fluttering garments of the drivers display the colors of the four parties1--green1 red1 white1 and blue4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4 ,cupids as dealers in wine4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,two of the pictures on the end wall are so damaged that it is not easy to make out the details4 ,one of them1 like that just described1 presents a purely ,roman subject--the festival of ,vesta 7,fig4 #agj74 ,cupids and ,psyches are reclining at ease about a serving table in the shape of a deep platter with two handles1 on which drinking vessels are seen2 in the background are two asses1 sacred to ,vesta 7p4 #ih74 ,some1 at least1 of the ,cupid pictures could not have been taken from ,greek originals4 ,in the atrium also there was a black stripe containing ,cupids similar to those already described1 but the figures are not so well preserved4 ,the most interesting scene represents a sacrifice to ,fortuna4 ,cupids appear also riding and driving4 ,some are mounted on goats and engaged in a contest4 ,one stands on a crab1 guiding the ungainly creature with reins and plying the whip2 another is similarly mounted on a lobster4 ,a few are in chariots1 the chariot in one case being drawn by two dolphins4 ,in each division of the wall of the atrium near the bottom is the half-length figure of a child1 painted on a dark red ground4 ,the children are busied with vessels of all kinds1 apparently intended for sacrifice4 ,the seriousness of their task1 the importance which they attach to their helpfulness1 is finely expressed in the faces1 which are individualized in the manner of a true artist4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4--;,cupids celebrating the festival of ,vesta4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,we may dismiss the later paintings of the house with few words4 ,in the fauces 7b7 are small monochrome panels containing a pair of deer1 a cock fight1 vases1 and a wallet with a herald's staff1 attributes of ,mercury1 who perhaps had a place among the ,penates of the house4 ,in the room at the left of the atrium 7e7 is a painting of ,cyparissus1 the youth beloved of ,apollo1 with his wounded deer on the ground near him2 in another part of the room is the wrestling match between ,pan and ,eros4 ,among the figures seen in the architectural framework of the upper division of the wall is ,zeus1 sitting on his throne1 represented as a youth1 unbearded2 ,leda with the swan also appears1 and ,danae holding out her robe to catch the golden rain4 ,the direction of the owner's tastes is perhaps indicated by a painting in the peristyle1 at the middle of the wall under the colonnade at the left4 ,it contains a portrait1 probably of an author2 near by is a manuscript case with rolls of papyrus4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix4--,a ,,dining ,,room ,,in ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,vettii ,the paintings in the two dining rooms opening on the peristyle1 n and p1 are in a better state of preservation than those of any other part of the house4 ,in the first room1 n1 the simple and restful decoration surrounding the large pictures is in striking contrast with the pictures themselves1 one of which is placed at the middle of each of the three walls4 ,here we see the infant ,hercules strangling the serpents1 there ,pentheus and the ,maenads about to tear him in pieces2 the subject of the third painting is the punishment of ,dirce1 the treatment being not unlike that of the sculptured ,farnese group in the ,naples ,museum4 ,the decorative effect of the other room1 p1 is more harmonious4 ,the divisions of the wall space1 the relation of the three principal paintings to the decorative design1 and the distribution of ornament are indicated in our illustration 7,plate ,,ix72 but no reproduction can do justice to the richness of the coloring4 ,the painting in the middle panel at the right brings before us ,bacchus with his train as they come upon the sleeping ,ariadne4 ,on the left wall opposite is ,daedalus1 pointing out the wooden cow that he has made to ,pasiphae1 who hands to him a golden arm band4 ,the subject of the third picture is here met with for the first time at ,pompeii--the punishment of ,ixion4 ,the tragedy of the scene 7,fig4 #aga7 is plainly suggested1 but not forced upon the beholder2 we see1 at the left1 only half of the ever revolving wheel to which the wretched victim is bound4 ,the other figures are more prominent and1 with one exception1 convey no suggestion of pain or sympathy in either pose or expression of face4 ,nearest the wheel is ,hephaestus1 who has just fastened ,ixion upon it2 his pincers1 hammer1 and anvil are lying upon the ground in the corner4 ,in front of him is ,hermes1 who1 in obedience to the command of ,zeus1 brought the offender to the place of punishment4 ,a sad-faced female figure with veiled head sits in the foreground--a personification of the spirit of one who has died1 a shade introduced to indicate that the place of punishment is the ,underworld4 ,the left hand is involuntarily raised with the shock that the thought of the victim's suffering brings2 the face has been thought by some to resemble that often given to the ,madonna4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4--,the punishment of ,ixion4 ,wall painting in the house of the ,vettii4 ,the two figures at the right of the picture are of the upper world1 not directly connected with the main action1 yet well conceived and skilfully introduced4 ,nearer the foreground ,hera sits enthroned1 her sceptre in her left hand2 behind her stands ,iris1 faithful messenger1 who points out to her the well deserved fate of him who dared to offer an affront to the queen of heaven4 ,,chapter ,,xlii ,,three ,,houses ,,of ,,unusual ,,plan ,in the houses described in the preceding chapters the distribution of the rooms is characterized by a certain regularity1 which makes it possible to indicate the arrangements by reference to an ideal or normal plan4 ,a wide departure1 however1 is occasionally noted2 and by way of illustration three houses of unusual plan will be briefly presented here1 first a house without an atrium1 then one having an atrium but no compluvium1 and1 lastly1 a large establishment built on terraces at different levels4 ,i4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,acceptus ,,and ,,euhodia ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4--,the ,house of ,acceptus and ,euhodia4 a4 ,colonnade4 b4 ,garden4 c4 ,kitchen4 d4 ,bedroom4 f4 ,dining room4 g4 ,garden4 i4 ,bedroom with places for two beds4 ,sometimes a few rooms of a large house were cut off from the atrium and used as a separate dwelling2 the original plan in such cases is easily determined4 ,the number of houses built without an atrium in the beginning is exceedingly small4 ,among the pleasantest was the modest dwelling of ,acceptus and ,euhodia1 on the south side of the double ,insula in the eighth ,region 7,,viii4 v4-vi4 #ci72 the names are taken from a couple of election notices painted on the front1 in which they appear together4 ,from the street one passed directly under a colonnade 7,fig4 #agb1 a7 in two stories1 facing a small garden 7b71 from which it was separated by a low wall4 ,at one end of the garden was an open-air triclinium 7k71 which still remains4 ,the rest of the plot1 used as a flower garden1 was profusely ornamented2 five heads of herms1 a frog and other objects of marble were found in it1 besides a couple of alabaster basins and five statuettes of ,egyptian divinities made of glazed pottery4 ,in the corner of the colonnade1 between the garden and the entrance1 is a small hearth1 conveniently placed for serving the open-air triclinium2 in the opposite corner at the left the excavators found the remains of a cupboard1 together with vessels of bronze1 glass1 and clay4 ,at the further end of the colonnade one passed into another small garden 7g74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4--,longitudinal section of the house of ,acceptus and ,euhodia1 restored4 ,a bedroom 7d7 opened on the colonnade near the entrance4 ,a corridor 7e7 led to the kitchen 7c7 behind it4 ,beyond the corridor is the dining room 7f74 ,another sleeping room 7i7 with places for two beds is entered through a kind of anteroom 7h7 at the rear of the house4 ,the rooms of the second story corresponded closely with those underneath1 and were entered from the second story of the colonnade2 the stairs1 partly of wood1 started in the kitchen4 ,the appearance of the house as one looked from the garden at the right toward the colonnade may be inferred from our restoration1 which gives a longitudinal section 7,fig4 #agc72 the letters under the section refer to the rooms as they are indicated in the plan4 ,the house was decorated in the fourth style4 ,on the south wall of the kitchen there is a painting of ,fortuna1 with the usual attributes1 a cornucopia and a rudder resting on a ball4 ,the ,genius and the ,lares nowhere appear1 and as a lotus blossom is painted on the forehead of the goddess1 who is thus conceived of as a form of ,isis1 we may suppose that ,acceptus and his wife were adherents of the ,egyptian cult4 ,besides the statuettes of ,egyptian divinities there was found in the garden the foot of a marble table with a ,greek inscription of ,serapion1 an ,egyptian name4 ,acceptus and ,euhodia may have come from ,alexandria and thence have introduced into ,pompeii this type of house1 so unlike the native form4 ,the ,latin name of ,acceptus does not stand in the way of this explanation1 for he was probably a freedman1 who in ,egypt may have had a ,roman master4 ,,ii4 ,a ,,house ,,without ,a ,,compluvium ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4--,plan of a house without a compluvium 7,v4 v4 #b74 a4 ,shop4 b4 ,fauces4 e4 ,atrium4 f4 ,light court4 k4 ,dining room4 #a4 ,hearth4 #b4 ,cistern curb4 ,the accompanying plan 7,fig4 #agd7 shows the arrangement of a small house on the north side of ,nola ,street in the fifth ,region 7,v4 v4 #b74 ,the problem of lighting the atrium 7e71 the roof of which sloped toward the back1 was met in a simple way4 ,at the rear a light court 7f7 was constructed1 which furnished light and air by means of broad windows1 not only to the atrium1 but also to the adjoining room g and indirectly to the dining room k1 which had a window opening on g4 ,this arrangement1 however1 is in part the result of later changes4 ,originally the room marked g belonged to the court1 f1 and the house consisted of two parts1 separated by a narrow area4 ,the kitchen was then in the low room 7i7 above which was a correspondingly low chamber1 the height of the two rooms being only equal to that of the dining room 7k74 ,in later times1 however1 the hearth was moved to the corner of the atrium 7#a71 the smoke being let out through a small window in the wall4 ,a stairway1 partly of wood1 led to the upper rooms at the front of the house4 ,along the street ran a stone bench1 protected by a roof projecting over it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4--,transverse section of the house without a compluvium4 ,at the left1 light court 7f71 with stairs 7h7 leading to an upper room over i4 ,at the right1 room g1 with the window opening into the dining room k4 ,the water from the roofs fell into the light court f1 and was collected in a cistern4 ,we give a transverse section across f and g 7,fig4 #age71 showing the arrangement of the roofs1 doors1 and window at the rear4 ,on the wall of g is scratched the inscription1 ,fures foras1 frugi intro1--',let thieves keep out1 let honest folk come in6' ,,iii4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,emperor ,,joseph ,,ii ,a good example of a house extended over terraces at different levels may be seen on the edge of the hill west of the ,forum ,triangulare 7,,viii4 ii4 #ci71 that of the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii1 casa dell' ,imperatore ,giuseppe ,,ii4 ,the name was given in commemoration of a visit of this emperor to ,pompeii1 in #agfi1 when a special excavation in his honor was made in a part of the house4 ,the uppermost of the three terraces on which the house is built 7,fig4 #agf1 #a7 is at the level of the street 7,vico della ,regina1 ,plan ,,vi71 the lowest 7#c7 in part occupies the place of the old city wall2 the middle terrace is adjusted to the intervening slope4 ,the arrangement of the stairways between the terraces and the distribution of the rooms may be more easily understood from an inspection of the plan in connection with the key below than from description4 ,there was a second story over a part of the rooms on the upper terrace1 as indicated by the stairways at e and n and in the corner of u1 but the extent of it is not easy to determine4 ,the traces of the upper rooms of the middle terrace1 however1 are clearly seen1 and their arrangement is indicated on the plan 7#d72 the height of theta and kappa1 which were in one story1 was equal to that of the smaller rooms with the chambers above4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4--,plan of the house of the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii4 #a4 ,upper terrace at the level of the street4 a4 ,fauces4 b4 ,atrium4 c4 ,house chapel4 g1 h4 ,alae1 with a wardrobe 7i7 at the rear of h4 u4 ,room with two stairways1 leading up to second floor and down to middle terrace4 w4 ,middle room opening on a colonnade 7y7 which faces the rear of the terrace 7z74 x1 v4 ,dining rooms1 opening on the colonnade4 #b4 ,middle terrace4 alpha4 ,corridor1 entered from stairway in u above4 beta4 ,corridor4 gamma1 delta4 ,low vaulted rooms4 epsilon4 ,stairway leading to lower terrace4 eta4 ,middle room4 theta4 ,dining room1 with a window opening on the terrace at the rear4 kappa4 ,small dining room4 iota1 lambda1 zeta4 ,sleeping rooms4 #c4 ,lower terrace4 #a4 ,corridor leading down from the foot of the stairway in epsilon4 #c1 #d4 ,bakery4 #f-h4 ,bath4 7#f4 ,tepidarium4 #g4 ,caldarium4 #h4 ,frigidarium47 #d4 ,upper rooms of the middle terrace4 ,i4 ,excavated room used as a cellar4 ,,ii1 ,,iii4 ,rooms over iota1 lambda4 ,,vi4 ,room over zeta1 connected with ,v 7over gamma1 delta7 by a gallery over the stairway epsilon1 and with eta by a ladder or stairway4 ,the front of the house1 the large ,tuscan atrium with the adjoining rooms1 dates from the ,tufa ,period2 the atrium was originally one of the most richly decorated at ,pompeii4 ,the rooms back of the atrium opening toward the rear1 and those of the middle and lower terraces1 are a later addition1 built after the city wall at this point had been removed1 perhaps not long before the end of the ,republic2 traces of the second style of decoration are found in one of the lowest rooms1 the tepidarium of the bath4 ,remains of the first style are found in the fauces1 but the greater part of the house is decorated in the last style4 ,one of the small rooms 7c7 opening on the atrium1 originally a bedroom1 was in later times turned into a house chapel4 ,in the right wall is a small niche1 on the back of which a ,genius of the ordinary type is painted4 ,near him and also offering a libation is a female figure with the attributes of ,juno1 a diadem1 and a sceptre4 ,the two figures represent the ,genii of the master and mistress of the house 7p4 #bgj74 ,under the niche1 and at the sides are iron nails1 driven into the plaster to hold wreaths and garlands4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4--;,corner of bake room in the lowest story of the house of the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii1 at the time of excavation4 ,on either side of the broad middle room 7w7 is a dining room 7v1 x71 connected with it by two large windows4 ,all three rooms open upon the colonnade 7y71 and this again opens out upon a terrace 7z74 ,the principal room of the middle story 7#b4 eta1 under z7 takes the place of an atrium2 it is lighted by a door and two windows opening upon a terrace 7mu74 ,connected with it are two dining rooms 7theta1 kappa71 considerably higher than the other apartments of this story1 and three sleeping rooms 7iota1 lambda1 zeta74 ,a dark corridor 7beta7 separated these rooms from the solid earth at the rear1 and furnished access1 by means of ladders1 to two low upper rooms 7over iota and lambda2 see #d4 ,,ii1 ,,iii71 perhaps used as storerooms4 ,from beta one could also reach1 in the same way1 an oblong chamber excavated in the earth 7,i71 designed originally as a cistern1 but used as a cellar at the time of the eruption4 ,of the remaining upper rooms one 7,,iv7 was built on the solid ground at the side of the stairway leading from the upper floor 7alpha72 the other two 7,v1 over gamma1 delta and ,,vi1 over zeta7 were connected by a gallery or bridge over the stairway leading to the lower floor 7epsilon72 this gallery could be reached also by a ladder or wooden stairway in the large middle room 7eta74 ,the outermost room 7,,vi7 was perhaps a washroom2 there is a rectangular basin in one corner4 ,the lower floor was given up to a bath 7frigidarium1 #h2 tepidarium1 #f2 caldarium1 #g7 and to a bakery 7#c1 #d74 ,in the vaulted ceiling of the frigidarium 7#h7 and one of the rooms of the bakery 7#c7 is a round hole for ventilation1 opening upon the terrace above through a kind of chimney4 ,the hollow walls of the caldarium 7#g7 are carried to the crown of the vault1 at the middle of which is a similar opening for the vent4 ,the places of the three openings in the floor of the terrace are seen in the plan 7#b1 mu74 ,at one end of the larger room of the bakery 7#c7 is the oven2 at the other two rectangular basins of masonry4 ,in the corner near the basins was found the skeleton of a man who at the time of the eruption had taken refuge in this room and probably died of hunger4 ,the appearance of the room at the time of excavation is shown in a sketch published by ,mazois 7,fig4 #agg74 ,the door near the corner1 seen in the illustration1 led outside the city4 ,the proprietor of the house perhaps had a special permit enabling him to leave or enter the city at any time without surveillance2 none of the other houses along the edge of the city have a private entrance of this kind4 ,,chapter ,,xliii ,,other ,,noteworthy ,,houses ,the houses accorded a detailed description in the previous chapters are few in comparison with the number of those worthy of special study4 ,he alone who has wandered day after day among the ruins1 returning again and again to explore the parts of the city which are rarely seen by the hasty visitor1 can realize what a wealth of interesting material lies behind the barren walls lining the streets on either side4 ,the location of the houses mentioned incidentally is given in ,plan ,,vi1 at the end of the volume4 ,such are1 the house of ,caecilius ,jucundus1 on ,stabian ,street 7,v4 i4 #bf71 the tablinum of which contains one of the most beautiful specimens of wall decoration yet discovered1 in the third style2 the house of ,lucretius1 on the same street 7,,ix4 iii4 #e71 with a little garden behind the tablinum adorned with quaint sculptures2 the house of the ,hunt on ,nola ,street 7,,vii4 iv4 #dh71 so named from the large hunting scene on the wall at the rear of the garden2 and further down on ,nola ,street 7,,ix4 vii4 #f7 the extensive house with three atriums and a large peristyle1 excavated in #ahgi1 eighteen centuries after the destruction of the city1 and hence called the house of the ,centenary1 casa del ,centenario4 ,in the same block with the house of the ,hunt1 opposite that of the ,faun1 is the house of the ,sculptured ,capitals1 casa dei ,capitelli ,figurati 7,,vii4 iv4 #eg74 ,it received its name from the figures carved in the tufa capitals of the pilasters at the entrance1 one of which is shown in ,fig4 #agh2 the stucco with which the surface was coated has now fallen off4 ,such figures are not infrequently met with in pilaster capitals of the ,tufa ,period1 the subjects being always taken1 as here1 from the bacchic cycle2 the satyr at the left is well rendered4 ,the plan of the house is simple1 like that of other houses of moderate size dating from the pre-,roman time4 ,near the west end of ,nola ,street is the house of ,pansa1 which occupies the whole of the sixth ,insula of ,region ,,vi4 ,although of approximately the same size as the house of the ,faun1 and built in the same period1 it contained fewer large rooms2 its proportions were less impressive1 its finish less elegant4 ,the walls present many evidences of repairs and alterations1 but of the wall decoration nothing remains4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4--;,capital of pilaster at the entrance of the house of the ,sculptured ,capitals4 ,the plan 7,fig4 #agi7 is of interest on account of its regularity4 ,it well illustrates the extent to which1 at ,pompeii1 rooms not required for household purposes were utilized as shops and small separate dwellings1 which were rented to tenants1 and doubtless formed an important source of income4 ,the vestibule and fauces have been mentioned previously 7p4 #bdi74 ,the living rooms are grouped about a single atrium 7#b7 and a large peristyle 7#i74 ,a colonnade at the rear of the house faces the garden1 which1 as indicated by the appearance of the ground at the time of excavation1 was used for vegetables4 ,opening on the colonnade is the gardener's room 7a74 ,in the front were shops1 one of which 7#ce7 was connected with the house and served as the proprietor's place of business2 another 7#cc7 was used as a salesroom for the bakery1 which occupied the rooms numbered #bh-cd4 ,on the same side of the house were three small two-story dwellings1 one of which 7#bb-bc7 contained windows opening into an adjoining room 7#ab7 of the house and into the peristyle2 it was doubtless occupied by some one connected with the household4 ,the dwellings on the other street 7,a1 ,b1 ,c7 were larger4 ,fiorelli thought that this ,insula belonged to ,alleius ,nigidius ,maius 7p4 #dhi72 the name of ,pansa was given to it from an election notice painted on the front4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4--,plan of the house of ,pansa4 #a4 ,fauces4 #b4 ,atrium4 #d1 #d4 ,alae4 #e4 ,tablinum4 #f4 ,andron4 #i4 ,peristyle4 #aj4 ,passage leading to posticum4 #ac4 ,dining room4 #ae4 ,oecus4 #ai4 ,kitchen4 #bj4 ,room for a wagon4 #ba4 ,colonnade opening on the garden4 #bb-bc4 ,small dwelling with second story1 connected with the house4 #bd-be1 #bf-bg4 ,two small separate dwellings4 #bh-cd4 ,bakery4 7#bi4 ,mill room1 #cj4 ,oven47 #ce1 #cg-dj4 ,shops4 #da4 ,shop with back rooms4 #db4 ,room with bake oven4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c4 ,separate dwellings4 ,there is a remarkable group of houses near the north end of ,mercury ,street4 ,the first in importance is the house of ,castor and ,pollux 7,,vi4 ix4 #f71 which is so named from the figures of the ,dioscuri1 holding their horses by the bridle1 painted on the walls of the principal fauces4 ,between the two atriums1 one of which is of the ,corinthian type1 lies a large peristyle2 and behind the ,corinthian atrium is a garden with a colonnade in front4 ,the decoration of the house is especially effective2 that of the larger tablinum was by one of the best artists who worked at ,pompeii4 ,the paintings in the two central panels of this room are often mentioned2 on the right wall1 the recognition of ,achilles among the daughters of ,lycomedes2 on the left1 the quarrel between ,achilles and ,agamemnon4 ,the representation of ,venus ,pompeiana shown in ,fig4 #d is from the peristyle4 ,beyond the house of ,castor and ,pollux is that of the ,centaur 7,,vi4 ix4 #c71 which received its name from a painting in which ,hercules1 ,deianira1 and ,nessus appear2 the end of a bedroom in this house is shown in ,fig4 #abb4 ,the rest of the insula belongs to the large house of ,meleager1 named from a picture representing ,meleager and ,atalanta4 ,the walls contained numerous mythological pictures1 part of which were transferred to the ,naples ,museum2 those left on the walls have suffered from exposure to the weather4 ,the house of ,apollo also 7,,vi4 vii4 #bc71 on the opposite side of the street1 is noteworthy on account of its decoration1 in the last style2 the god appears in a series of paintings4 ,two houses in the next insula1 on the south1 have in their gardens fountain niches veneered with bright mosaics1 the casa della ,fontana ,grande 7,,vi4 viii4 #bb7 and the casa della ,fontana ,piccola 7,,vi4 viii4 #bc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4--,section showing a part of the peristyle of the house of the ,anchor1 restored4 ,at the middle of the tenth ,insula1 in the same ,region1 is the house of the ,anchor 7,,vi4 x4 #g71 so called from an anchor outlined in the black and white mosaic of the fauces4 ,the peristyle here presents an interesting peculiarity of construction4 ,the level of the street at the rear of the house was below that of ,mercury ,street4 ,instead of filling up the lot so as to raise the garden to the height of the front part1 the builder constructed a kind of basement under the colonnade of the peristyle1 the floor of which was thus adjusted to the level of the floors in the front rooms2 the garden and the floor of the basement were on the same level as the street at the rear4 ,the colonnade was higher on the north than on the other three sides 7,fig4 #ahj74 ,the effect of the whole was far from unpleasing4 ,whether the projections seen in the niches below1 at the level of the garden1 are pedestals or small altars cannot be determined4 ,the niches at the front end were made larger1 and were three in number4 ,in the middle niche was a diminutive temple2 the other two had the form of an apse1 and contained fountain figures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4--,plan of the house of the ,citharist4 #f4 ,west atrium with connecting rooms1 entered from ,stabian ,street4 #ag1 #cb4 ,peristyles belonging with the west atrium4 #dj1 #da4 ,bath--tepidarium and caldarium4 #db4 ,kitchen4 #dg4 ,north atrium1 entered from the continuation of ,abbondanza ,street4 #ef4 ,peristyle belonging with the north atrium4 ,houses were sometimes enlarged at the expense of neighboring dwellings1 which1 in some cases1 were destroyed to the foundations1 in others remodelled or incorporated with slight change4 ,an example is the house of the ,citharist1 which fills the greater part of the fourth ,insula in ,region ,i1 on the east side of ,stabian ,street4 ,a bronze statue of ,apollo playing the cithara1 found in the middle peristyle 7,fig4 #aha1 #ag71 gave its name to the house4 ,it is apparently a faithful copy of a ,greek masterpiece at ,sparta1 and is now in the ,naples ,museum4 ,the house is sometimes referred to as that of ,popidius ,secundus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4--,orestes and ,pylades before ,king ,thoas4 ,wall painting from the house of the ,citharist4 ,there are two atriums 7#f1 #dg7 and three peristyles 7#ag1 #cb1 #ef74 ,a large part of the house1 the west atrium 7#f71 with the connecting rooms and the two peristyles1 #ag and #cb1 was built in the ,tufa ,period1 in the place of several older houses4 ,the rooms east of the two peristyles1 and the north atrium 7#dg7 and peristyle 7#ef71 with the adjoining rooms1 were added in ,roman times1 probably near the end of the ,republic2 the house was afterwards decorated in the second style4 ,remains of the third and fourth styles also are found in some parts of the house4 ,the better apartments are grouped about the peristyles2 the rooms about the atriums were turned over to the slaves or used for domestic purposes4 ,in the large room 7#ce7 opening on the south peristyle were two paintings of unusual merit1 both of which were transferred to the ,naples ,museum4 ,the subject of one was the finding of the deserted ,ariadne by ,bacchus2 in the other ,orestes and ,pylades appear as captives before ,thoas1 the king of ,tauris 7,fig4 #ahb74 ,at the right of the picture sits ,thoas1 looking at the captives1 his sword lying across his knees1 his hands resting upon the end of his sceptre4 ,behind him stands a guard with a long spear in the right hand4 ,another guard with two spears stands behind ,orestes and ,pylades1 whose hands are bound4 ,orestes1 upon whose head is a wreath of laurel1 looks downward1 an expression of sadness and resignation upon his finely chiselled features4 ,pylades is not without anxiety1 but is alert and hopeful4 ,between the two groups is an altar on which incense is burning4 ,in the background ,iphigenia is seen moving slowly forward2 the head is entirely obliterated4 ,it is unfortunate that the painting is so badly preserved4 ,the faces of the two youths are individualized with remarkable skill1 and the picture here used as the centre of a decorative framework of the fourth style is evidently a copy of a masterpiece4 ,on the south side of ,abbondanza ,street1 opposite the ,stabian ,baths1 is the house of ,cornelius ,rufus 7,,viii4 iv4 #ae71 a view of the interior of which has already been given4 ,the name of the proprietor is known from the dedication on the herm 7seen in ,fig4 #aba71 ,c4 ,cornelio ,rufo2 the carved table supports behind the impluvium are among the finest yet discovered4 ,in the same block is the house of ,marcus ,holconius 7,,viii4 iv4 #d71 a good example of a house completely restored and decorated after the earthquake of #fc4 ,the right ala was fitted up with shelves1 on which at the time of the eruption were kitchen vessels of bronze1 iron1 and terra cotta4 ,the colonnade about the peristyle was in two stories4 ,from the columns at the front six jets of water1 at a height of about four feet1 fell forward into the gutter2 and there was an equal number at the rear4 ,there was also a little fountain in the exedra at the rear of the peristyle4 ,,chapter ,,xliv ,,roman ,,villas4--,,the ,,villa ,,of ,,diomedes ,two classes of villas were distinguished by the ,romans1--the country seat1 villa pseudourbana1 and the farmhouse1 villa rustica4 ,the former was a city house1 adapted to rural conditions2 the arrangements of the latter were determined by the requirements of farm life4 ,the country seats manifested a greater diversity of plan than the city residences4 ,they were relatively larger1 containing spacious colonnades and gardens2 as the proprietor was unrestricted in regard to space1 not being confined to the limits of a lot1 fuller opportunity was afforded for the display of individual taste in the arrangement of rooms4 ,we can understand from the letters of ,pliny the ,younger1 describing his two villas at ,laurentum and ,tifernum ,tiberinum 7now ,citta di ,castello71 and from the remains of the villa of ,hadrian at ,tivoli1 how far individuality might assert itself in the planning and building of a country home4 ,the main entrance of a country seat1 according to ,vitruvius1 should lead directly to a peristyle2 one or more atriums might be placed further back4 ,the living rooms would be grouped about the central spaces in the way that would best suit the configuration of the ground and meet the wishes of the owner4 ,in farmhouses there would naturally be a court near the entrance2 and the hearth1 as we have seen1 down to the latest times1 was placed in the room that corresponded with the atrium of the city house4 ,in most parts of ,italy a large farmhouse would contain appliances for making wine and oil4 ,the arrangement of the two types of country house in the vicinity of ,pompeii may be briefly illustrated by reference to an example of each1 the villa of ,diomedes and the farmhouse recently excavated at ,boscoreale4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4--,plan of the villa of ,diomedes4 #a4 ,steps4 #c4 ,peristyle4 #h4 ,tablinum4 #aj4 ,exedra4 #ab4 ,dining room4 #ad4 ,sleeping room1 with anteroom 7#ac74 #ae4 ,passage leading to a garden at the level of the street4 #ag4 ,small court1 with hearth 7epsilon7 and swimming tank 7zeta74 #ah4 ,storeroom4 #ai-ba4 ,bath4 7#ai4 ,apodyterium4 #bj4 ,tepidarium4 #ba4 ,caldarium47 #bb4 ,kitchen4 #bf4 ,colonnade1 facing a terrace 7#bh7 over the front rooms of the lower part4 e1 f1 g1 h4 ,colonnade enclosing a large garden4 i1 k1 l1 m4 ,rooms4 r4 ,fish pond4 s4 ,arbor4 ,the location of the villa of ,diomedes1 beyond the last group of tombs at the left of the road leading from the ,herculaneum ,gate1 is indicated in ,plan ,v4 ,an extensive establishment similar in character1 the so-called villa of ,cicero1 lies nearer the ,gate on the same side of the road2 on the right there is a third villa1 of which only a small part has been uncovered4 ,the three seem to have belonged to a series of country seats situated on the ridge that extends back from ,pompeii in the direction of ,vesuvius4 ,the villa of ,diomedes1 excavated in #agga-gd1 received its name from the tomb of ,marcus ,arrius ,diomedes1 facing the entrance1 on the opposite side of the ,street of ,tombs 7,plan ,v1 #db74 ,the front of the villa forms a sharp angle with the street4 ,the orientation of the building was determined by an abrupt descent in the ground1 which runs across the middle and divides it into two parts4 ,the front part1 the rooms of which are numbered on the plan 7,fig4 #ahc71 is a few feet above the level of the street at the entrance4 ,the rear portion1 as may be seen from our section 7,fig4 #ahd71 is considerably lower2 on the plan the rooms of this portion are designated by letters4 ,from traces of the second style of decoration found in two of the rooms1 and from the character of the masonry1 we infer that the villa was built in ,roman times1 but before the reign of ,augustus4 ,in front of the door was a narrow porch 7,fig4 #ahd74 ,the door opened directly into the peristyle 7#c on the plan71 in the middle of which was a garden4 ,at the left is a small triangular court 7#ag7 containing a swimming tank 7zeta7 and a hearth 7epsilon7 on which a kettle and several pots were found2 the ,romans partook of warm refreshments after a bath4 ,the wall back of the swimming tank was in part decorated with a garden scene1 not unlike those in the frigidariums of the two older public baths4 ,over the tank was a roof supported by two columns1 and on the other two sides of the court there was a low but well proportioned colonnade4 ,the arrangements of the bath were unusually complete1 comprising an apodyterium 7#ai71 a tepidarium 7#bj71 and a caldarium 7#ba71 from which the tepidarium was warmed by means of an opening in the wall2 the caldarium had a hollow floor and walls1 and was heated from the kitchen 7#bb74 ,in the tepidarium were found four panes of glass about #aja_/b inches square1 together with the remains of the wooden frame in which they were set4 ,the caldarium1 like those of the public baths1 had a bath basin and a semicircular niche for the labrum4 ,a small oven stands on one end of the hearth in the kitchen1 and a stone table is built against the wall on the long side4 ,the room in the corner 7#bc7 was used as a reservoir for water1 which was brought into it by means of a feed pipe and thence distributed through smaller pipes leading to the bath rooms and other parts of the house4 ,at the left of the peristyle is a passage 7#ae7 leading to a garden which has not yet been excavated4 ,the only apartment of special interest in this portion of the house is the semicircular sleeping room 7#ad7 built out into the garden4 ,it faced the south1 and had three large windows2 it was separated from the rest of the house by an anteroom1 procoeton 7#ac71 at one end of which is a small division 7beta7 designed for the bed of an attendant4 ,in the semicircular room are an alcove for a bed 7gamma7 and a stationary wash bowl of masonry 7delta74 ,the plan is similar to that of a bedroom in ,pliny's villa at ,laurentum4 ,another sleeping room 7#i7 was provided with both a large and a small door 7p4 #bfa74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4--,longitudinal section of the villa of ,diomedes1 restored4 ,promenade on the roof of the colonnade ,terrace ,colonnade facing the terrace ,right arm of colonnade 7g1 h7 ,front of colonnade 7d7 ,room under the terrace 7i7 ,tablinum ,peristyle ,entrance ,the large room 7#h7 at the rear of the peristyle may be loosely called a tablinum2 it could be closed at the rear4 ,back of the tablinum was originally a colonnade 7#bf71 which was later turned into a corridor1 with rooms at either end2 the original form is assumed in our restoration4 ,beyond the colonnade was a broad terrace 7#bh7 extending to the edge of the garden4 ,it commanded a magnificent view of ,stabiae1 the coast in the direction of ,sorrento1 and the ,bay4 ,connected with it was an unroofed promenade over the colonnade 7e1 f1 g1 h7 surrounding the large garden below4 ,a rectangular room 7#bg1 indicated on the plan but not in the restoration7 was afterwards built on the terrace4 ,members of the family could pass into the lower portion of the villa by means of a stairway1 at b2 the slaves could use a long corridor 7a71 which was more directly connected with the domestic apartments4 ,the flat roof of the quadrangular colonnade 7e1 f1 g1 h7 was carried on the outside by a wall1 on the inside by square pillars 7,fig4 #ahd74 ,the rooms 7i1 k7 opening into the front of the colonnade were vaulted1 and the decoration1 in the last style1 is well preserved2 the ceiling of the corner rooms 7l1 m7 is flat1 and the decoration of one of them 7l7 is noteworthy2 green and red stars are painted on a white ground4 ,in the narrow space between i and c a cistern was built1 from which water could be drawn by means of a faucet in front4 ,at the opposite corners of the colonnade were two airy garden rooms 7n1 o74 ,outside of the left arm 7e1 f7 was a broad walk 7u71 at the upper end of which were steps leading to the garden above4 ,the garden enclosed by the colonnade was planted with trees1 charred remains of which were found at the time of excavation4 ,in the middle was a fish pond 7r71 in which was a fountain4 ,back of it was a platform1 over which vines were trained on a framework supported by six columns1 making a pleasant arbor in which meals were doubtless often served4 ,the door at the rear of the garden led into the fields4 ,near it were found the skeletons of two men4 ,one of them had a large key1 doubtless the key of this door2 he wore a gold ring on his finger1 and was carrying a considerable sum of money--ten gold and eighty-eight silver coins4 ,he was probably the master of the house who had started out1 accompanied by a single slave1 in order to find means of escape4 ,the floor of the three sides of the colonnade was a few feet higher than that of the front4 ,underneath was a wine cellar1 lighted by small windows in the wall on the side of the garden2 it contained a large number of amphorae4 ,at the time of the eruption many members of the family took refuge in the cellar4 ,here were found the skeletons of eighteen adults and two children3 at the time of excavation the impressions of their bodies1 and in some instances traces of the clothing1 could be seen in the hardened ashes4 ,among the women was one adorned with two necklaces and two arm bands1 besides four gold rings and two of silver4 ,the victims were suffocated by the damp ashes that drifted in through the small windows4 ,according to the report of the excavations1 fourteen skeletons of men were found in other parts of the house1 together with the skeletons of a dog and a goat4 ,,key ,,to ,,plan ,,iv ,a4 ,,court4 #a1 #e4 ,cistern curbs4 #b4 ,wash basin of masonry4 #c4 ,lead reservoir from which water was conducted to the reservoir in the kitchen supplying the bath4 #d4 ,steps leading to the reservoir4 ,b4 ,,kitchen4 #a4 ,hearth4 #b4 ,reservoir containing water for the bath4 #c4 ,stairway to rooms over the bath4 #d4 ,entrance to cellar under the inner end of the first wine press1 in which were the fastenings of the standard of the press beam4 ,c-,f4 ,,bath4 ,c4 ,furnace room4 ,d4 ,apodyterium4 ,e4 ,tepidarium4 ,f4 ,caldarium4 ,h4 ,,stable4 ,j4 ,,tool ,,room4 ,k1 ,l4 ,,sleeping ,,rooms4 ,n4 ,,dining ,,room4 ,m4 ,,anteroom4 ,o4 ,,bakery4 #a4 ,mill4 #b4 ,oven4 ,p4 ,,room ,,with ,,two ,,wine ,,presses4 #a1 #a4 ,foundations of the presses4 #b1 #b1 #b4 ,receptacles for the grape juice1 dolia4 #c4 ,cistern for the product of the second pressing1 lacus4 #d4 ,holes for the standards of the press beams4 #e1 #e4 ,holes for the posts at the ends of the two windlasses used in raising and lowering the press beams4 #f4 ,pit affording access to the framework by which the windlass posts were tied down4 ,q4 ,,corridor4 #a4 ,round vats1 dolia4 ,r4 ,,court ,,for ,,the ,,fermentation ,,of ,,wine4 #a4 ,channel for the fresh grape juice coming from ,p4 #b4 ,fermentation vats1 dolia4 #c4 ,lead kettle over a fireplace4 #d4 ,cistern curb4 ,s4 ,,barn1 nubilarium 7874 ,t4 ,,threshing ,,floor1 area4 ,u4 ,,open ,,cistern ,,for ,,the ,,water ,,falling ,,on ,,the ,,threshing ,,floor4 ,v-,v4 ,,sleeping ,,rooms4 ,w4 ,,entrance ,,to ,,cellar ,,under ,,the ,,inner ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,wine ,,press2 see ,b4 #d4 ,x4 ,,room ,,with ,,hand ,,mill4 ,y4 ,,room ,,with ,,oil ,,press4 #a4 ,foundation of the press4 #b4 ,hole for the standard of the press beam4 #c4 ,entrance to cellar with appliances for securing the press beam4 #d4 ,holes for the windlass posts4 #e4 ,hole affording access to the fastenings of the windlass posts4 #f4 ,receptacle for the oil1 gemellar4 ,z4 ,,room ,,containing ,,the ,,olive ,,crusher4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,iv4--,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,villa ,,rustica ,,at ,,boscoreale ,,chapter ,,xlv ,,the ,,villa ,,rustica ,,at ,,boscoreale ,less than two miles north of ,pompeii1 near the village of ,boscoreale1 a farmhouse was excavated in #ahic-id on the property of ,vincenzo de ,prisco4 ,in the last century similar buildings were brought to light in the vicinity of ,castellammare1 but they were covered up again4 ,especial importance attaches to this villa rustica1 both on account of the extreme rarity of examples of the type and because of the character of the remains1 which makes it possible to determine the arrangements with certainty4 ,the living rooms1 the stable1 and the rooms used for the making of wine and oil were all under one roof4 ,the size of the building is not so great as might have been assumed from the variety of purposes which it served2 the enclosed area1 exclusive of the threshing floor1 measures about #acj by #hb feet4 ,the plan 7,plan ,,iv7 is regular1 the principal entrance being near the middle of the southwest side4 ,the entrance was wide enough for carts and wagons1 which were kept in the court 7,a74 ,along three sides of the court ran a colonnade1 over which at the front were upper rooms2 the roof on the left side and the rear rested on columns connected by a parapet4 ,under the colonnade at the further corner is a cistern curb 7#a71 on one side of which is a large wash basin of masonry 7#b72 on the other is a pillar supporting a small reservoir of lead 7#c74 ,the reservoir1 reached by means of steps 7#d71 was filled from the cistern4 ,in a ,roman farmhouse the kitchen was the large1 central room 7p4 #bec74 ,vitruvius recommends that it be placed on the warmest side of the court2 and in our villa rustica it lies at the north corner 7,b7 where1 in winter1 it would receive the full benefit of the sunshine4 ,the hearth 7#a71 on which remains of fire were found1 stands in the middle of the room2 in the wall at the rear is a niche1 ornamented to resemble the facade of a diminutive temple1 in which were placed the images of the household gods4 ,a large door in the right wall of the kitchen opened into the stable 7,h74 ,near it was a stairway 7#c7 leading to upper rooms2 in the corner was a pit 7#d7 affording access to a small cellar in which the standard of the press beam in the adjoining room 7,p1 #d7 was made fast4 ,in the opposite corner was a reservoir of lead 7#b7 standing on a foundation of masonry2 it received water from the reservoir in the court 7,a1 #c7 and supplied the bath4 ,on the same side of the room is the entrance to the bath and to the closet 7,g74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4--;,hot water tank and reservoir for supplying the bath in the villa rustica at ,boscoreale4 ,the arrangements of this bath are in a better state of preservation than those of any other ,roman bath yet discovered2 the tank and reservoir with the connecting pipes may now be seen at ,pompeii in the little ,museum near the ,forum fitted up for the exhibition of the objects found in this villa4 ,the bath rooms comprised an apodyterium 7,d71 a tepidarium 7,e71 and a caldarium 7,f7 with a bath basin at one end and a labrum in a semicircular recess at the other4 ,the bath was heated from a small furnace room 7,c74 ,over the hot air flue leading from the furnace into the hollow space under the floor of the caldarium was a water heater in the form of a half cylinder similar to the one found in the ,stabian ,baths 7p4 #aid74 ,the tepidarium1 as well as the caldarium1 had a hollow floor and walls4 ,over the furnace stood a round lead tank1 the lower part of which was encased in masonry2 the pipes connecting it with the reservoir in the corner of the kitchen and with the bath rooms were found in place1 and are shown in ,fig4 #ahe4 ,the middle pipe supplied the tank with cold water2 the flow could be regulated by means of a stopcock4 ,the lower pipe started from the reservoir1 but before reaching the tank was divided1 the left arm leading into the tank1 the other into the bath basin4 ,as there were stopcocks in the main pipe and in the arm entering the tank1 by adjusting these the bath basin could be supplied with either hot or cold water through a single pipe4 ,the upper pipe was divided in the same way1 one arm leading to the labrum4 ,in the public baths there was a separate tank for lukewarm water2 here a moderate temperature was obtained by mixing hot and cold water4 ,at the bottom of the tank 7seen at the right7 is a short bibcock used when the water was drawn off4 ,on the side of the reservoir we see the end of the feed pipe leading from the reservoir in the court2 at the right is a supply pipe which conducted to the stable 7,h7 water not needed for the bath4 ,on the same side of the court is a tool room 7,j71 in which were found remains of tools2 several sickles were hanging on the walls4 ,next are two sleeping rooms 7,k1 ,l72 a passage between them leads to the bakery1 with a single mill 7#a7 and oven 7#b74 ,in the corner is a dining room 7,n7 in which the remains of three couches were found2 it was separated from the court by an anteroom 7,m74 ,over the colonnade on the front side of the court was a sleeping room with a large room adjoining1 perhaps the bedroom of the overseer1 villicus1 which1 according to ,varro should be near the entrance4 ,the oblong room at the northeast side of the court contained appliances for making wine4 ,at each end was a large press with a raised floor 7forum1 #a74 ,the presses were operated on the same principle as that previously described 7p4 #ccf1 ,fig4 #afh74 ,at the rear of each press was a strong standard 7arbor1 #d71 to which the inner end of the press beam 7prelum7 was attached4 ,in front stood two posts 7stipites1 #e-e71 to which were fitted the ends of a horizontal windlass4 ,by means of a pulley and a rope passed around the windlass1 the outer end of the press beam could be raised or lowered4 ,when it was lowered in order to increase the pressure on the grapes1 both standard and windlass posts would be pulled out of the ground unless firmly braced4 ,under the rear of each press was a small cellar1 in which was placed a framework for holding the standard in place4 ,one was entered from a pit in the corner of the kitchen 7,b1 #d71 the other from a similar depression in a small separate room 7,w72 at #f was a pit for fastening the windlass posts4 ,the grape juice ran into round vats 7#b1 #b7 sunk in the ground4 ,in front of the first press are two1 in front of the second only one2 a cistern of which the curb 7#c7 is indicated on the plan1 here takes the place of the other vat4 ,the cistern could be filled also from the first press by means of a lead pipe under the floor4 ,the round vats were for the pure juice of the first pressing4 ,into the other was conducted the product of the second pressing2 the remains of the grapes1 after the juice had ceased to flow1 were drenched with water and again subjected to pressure4 ,in ,pliny's ,natural ,history 7,,xiv4 xxi4 #acf7 we read that in ,campania the best wine underwent fermentation in the open air1 exposed to sun1 rain1 and wind4 ,this villa supplies an interesting confirmation of the statement2 the round fermentation vats fill a large court 7,r71 the walls of which are pierced with openings in order to give readier access to the wind4 ,along one side runs a channel of masonry about three feet above the ground 7#a71 protected by a narrow roof2 thence the grape juice was distributed through lead pipes to the vats4 ,during the vintage season1 the inner end of the channel was connected with the press room by means of a temporary pipe or channel entering the wall above the cistern 7,p1 #c74 ,the surface of this court is higher than that of the rest of the building2 instead of excavating in order to set the large earthen vats in the ground1 the proprietor filled in with earth around them4 ,in one corner is a lead kettle 7#c7 with a place for building a fire underneath2 perhaps wine was heated in it4 ,the vats in the court seem not to have been used exclusively for wine4 ,in one were found remains of wheat1 in another of millet4 ,other vats stood in the passageway on the side of the court 7,q1 #a74 ,three of the small rooms toward the rear were sleeping rooms 7,v-,v74 ,in another 7,x7 was found a hand mill4 ,at the end of the passageway was a double room containing the appliances for making oil1 a press 7in ,y7 and a crusher 7in ,z74 ,the press was like the wine press described above1 only much smaller1 with a raised floor 7#a71 a standard for the press beam 7#b71 a pit for bracing the standard of the press beam 7#c71 two posts at the ends of the windlass 7#d1 #d71 a pit from which a crosspiece connecting these posts could be reached1 and a vat 7#f7 at one side for receiving the oil4 ,this vat1 for some reason not understood1 was divided into two parts by a partition in the middle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--,olive crusher4 ,the olive crusher1 trapetum1 now in the ,museum at ,pompeii mentioned above1 is shown in the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #ahf74 ,it was designed to separate the pulp of the olives from the stones1 which were thought to impair the flavor of the oil4 ,it consists of a deep circular basin of lava1 so hollowed out as to leave in the centre a strong standard of the stone1 miliarium4 ,in the top of this standard was set an iron pin1 on which was fitted a revolving wooden crosspiece 7shown in ,fig4 #ahf1 restored74 ,this carried two wheels of lava1 having the shape of half a lens1 which travelled in the basin4 ,the wheels were carefully balanced so that they would not press against the side of the basin and crush the stones of the olives4 ,in the long room ,s remains of bean straw and parts of a wagon were found4 ,south of it is the threshing floor 7,t71 the surface of which is raised above the ground and covered with ,signia pavement4 ,the water that fell upon the threshing floor was conducted to a small open cistern 7,u74 ,for at least a part of the year the proprietor of the villa probably lived in it4 ,so elaborate a bath would not have been built for the use of slaves2 and in the second story was a modest but comfortable series of apartments 7over ,v1 ,w1 ,x1 and part of ,q71 apparently designed for the master's use1 as was also the dining room 7,n7 with ,k and ,l4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4--,silver patera with a representation of the city of ,alexandria in high relief4 ,from the ,boscoreale treasure4 ,in a place where such a find would least have been anticipated--the cistern in the room of the wine presses--was made a remarkable discovery of treasure4 ,here a man had taken refuge1 and with his skeleton were found about a thousand gold coins1 four gold bracelets1 ear-rings1 a gold chain1 and the beautiful collection of silver ware 7p4 #chj7 afterwards presented by ,baron ,rothschild to the ,louvre4 ,,chapter ,,xlvi ,,household ,,furniture ,much less large furniture has been found at ,pompeii than is ordinarily supposed4 ,in not a single sleeping room has a bed been preserved2 and in only one of all the dining rooms have sufficient remains of the dining couches been found to make it possible to reconstruct them4 ,beds1 couches1 chairs1 and tables were ordinarily of wood1 which crumbled away1 leaving slight traces4 ,reference has been made elsewhere to the marble tables standing in the atrium1 and occasionally in other parts of the house4 ,tables of bronze are infrequently met with1 while bronze chairs are almost as rare as bronze couches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--;,dining couch with bronze mountings1 the wooden frame being restored4 ,wood was not a suitable material for many classes of smaller articles1 and these1 made of bronze1 clay1 glass1 or stone1 are found in great numbers4 ,such are the lamps1 the bronze lamp stands1 the kitchen utensils1 the table furnishings1 and the toilet articles of bronze1 ivory1 or bone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4--,round marble table4 ,the wooden frame and end board of one of the dining couches just mentioned was completely charred1 but the form was clearly indicated1 and the woodwork has been restored 7,fig4 #ahh74 ,the couch is now in the ,naples ,museum1 as are also the other articles of furniture illustrated in this chapter4 ,the half figures on the front of the end board1 shown more plainly in the detail at the left of the illustration1 were cast2 the rest of the mounting was repousse work4 ,the bronze on the side toward the table was inlaid with silver4 ,the end boards were placed at the head of the upper couch and the foot of the lower one 7p4 #bfc72 the middle couch did not have a raised end4 ,the mattress rested on straps stretched across the frame4 ,the dining room in which the couches were found adjoins the tablinum of a house in the seventh ,region 7,,vii4 ii4 #ah74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4--;,carved table leg1 found in the second peristyle of the house of the ,faun4 ,the carved marble supports of a gartibulum are shown in ,fig4 #aba2 a complete table of a plainer type is seen in ,plate ,,vii4 ,an example of a round marble table1 found in #ahbg in a house near the ,forum1 is presented in ,fig4 #ahi4 ,the three legs are carved to represent those of lions1 a lion's head being placed at the top of each4 ,a table of similar design was found in the peristyle of the house of the ,vettii1 with traces of yellow color on the manes of the lions 7p4 #cbf74 ,among the best examples of ornamental carving is the marble table leg in the form of a sphinx1 found in the second peristyle of the house of the ,faun 7,fig4 #aij74 ,effective also is the bold carving of the gartibulum in the north atrium of the house of ,siricus 7,,vii4 i4 #be74 ,small tables or stands of bronze supported by three slender legs were called tripods4 ,the top was flat1 but not infrequently surrounded by a deep rim1 making a convenient receptacle for light objects4 ,the rim of the example shown in ,fig4 #aia is ornamented with festoons and bucrania1 while the upper parts of the legs are modelled to represent winged sphinxes4 ,this stand was not found in the temple of ,isis1 as is often stated1 but probably in ,herculaneum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4--;,bronze stand with an ornamented rim around the top4 ,the bisellium1 the 'seat of double width1' was a chair of simple design without a back1 used in the ,theatre and ,amphitheatre by members of the city council and others upon whom the honor of the bisellium had been conferred4 ,the remains of one with bronze mountings have been restored4 ,the restoration1 however1 does not seem to be correct in all particulars1 and instead of presenting it we may refer the reader to the somewhat conventional bisellium carved on the tomb of ,calventius ,quietus 7,fig4 #bdb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4--,lamps of the simplest form1 with one nozzle4 ,the lamps are found in a great variety of forms4 ,the essential parts are the body1 containing the oil1 which was poured in through an opening in the top1 and the nozzle with a hole for the wick 7,fig4 #aib74 ,hand lamps were usually provided with a handle1 hanging lamps with projections containing holes through which the chains could be passed4 ,the opening for the admission of oil was often closed by an ornamental cover 7,figs4 #aie1 #aif74 ,in front of it1 near the base of the nozzle1 was frequently a much smaller orifice through which a large needle could be inserted to pick up the wick when it had burned out and sunk back into the oil1 and air could be admitted when the cover was closed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4--,lamps with two nozzles4 ,at the left1 a hanging lamp2 at the right1 a hand lamp4 ,the material of the lamps was clay or bronze4 ,the bronze lamps were more costly and ordinarily more freely ornamented4 ,those of clay were left unglazed1 or covered with a red glazing like that of the ,arretian ware2 lamps with a greenish glaze are occasionally found4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4--,lamps with more than two nozzles4 ,the light furnished by the wicks was dim and smoky4 ,a more brilliant light was obtained by increasing the number of nozzles4 ,lamps with two nozzles are often found4 ,these were sometimes placed at one end1 the handle being at the other2 sometimes in the case of hanging lamps1 at opposite ends1 as in the example shown in ,fig4 #aic4 ,lamps with several nozzles are not infrequently met with4 ,the shape is often circular1 as in two of the examples presented in ,fig4 #aid1 one of which had six wicks1 the other twelve4 ,sometimes a more ornamental form was adopted4 ,lamps having the shape of a boat are not uncommon2 the one represented in ,fig4 #aid was provided with nozzles for fourteen wicks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4--;,bronze lamps with ornamental covers attached to a chain4 ,the hanging lamps were sometimes made with a single nozzle1 as the curious one having the shape of a mask shown in ,fig4 #aig1 at the left2 sometimes with two nozzles 7,fig4 #aic74 ,bronze hanging lamps with three arms1 each of which contained a place for a wick1 are occasionally found2 an example is given in ,fig4 #aig1 at the right4 ,still more elaborate are those with a large number of nozzles1 as the one represented in the same illustration1 which had nine wicks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4--;,bronze lamps with covers ornamented with figures4 ,the name of the maker is often stamped upon the bottom of the lamp1 sometimes in the nominative case1 as ,,pulcher1 in the example given in ,fig4 #aib1 more often in the genitive and in an abbreviated form4 ,the variety displayed in the ornamentation of lamps was as great as that manifested in the forms4 ,ornament was applied to all parts1--the body1 the handle1 the cover1 and even the nozzle4 ,the covers of the two bronze lamps shown in ,fig4 #aif are adorned with figures4 ,on one is a ,cupid struggling with a goose4 ,the chain attached to the right hand of the figure on the other is fastened to a hooked needle for pulling out the wick4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4--,three hanging lamps4 ,the one at the left and the middle one are presented in two views4 ,the object of which we give a representation in ,fig4 #aih1 often erroneously classed as a lamp1 is a nursing bottle1 biberon4 ,the material is clay1 and the figure of a gladiator is stamped on it1 symbolizing the hope that the infant will develop strength and vigor4 ,on some bottles of this kind the figure of a thriving child is seen1 on others a mother suckling a child4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4--;,a nursing bottle4 ,three kinds of supports for lamps may be distinguished according to their size3 lamp standards1 which stood on the floor and ranged in height from #ba_/b to #e feet2 lamp holders1 not far from #bj inches high1 which were placed on tables2 and small lamp stands1 also used on the table4 ,the general term candelabrum was originally applied to candle holders containing several candles 7candelae74 ,such candle holders have been found in ,etruscan graves1 but the candelabra met with at ,pompeii were all designed to carry lamps4 ,the lamp standards1 of bronze1 are often of graceful proportions and ornamented in good taste4 ,the feet are modelled to represent the claws 7,fig4 #aii7 or hoofs of animals4 ,the slender shaft rises sometimes directly from the union of the three legs at the centre1 sometimes from a round1 ornamented disk resting on the legs4 ,above the shaft is usually an ornamental form1 a sphinx1 as in our illustration1 a head1 or a vase-like capital sustaining the round flat top on which the lamp rested4 ,occasionally the shaft is replaced by a conventional plant form4 ,adjustable standards also occur2 the upper part slides up and down in the hollow shaft of the lower part1 so that the height can be changed at will4 ,the bronze lamp holders were sometimes designed to support a single lamp 7,fig4 #bjj74 ,frequently the main part divides into two branches1 each of which sustains a small round disk for a lamp2 often the arms or branches were designed to carry hanging lamps4 ,the example shown in ,fig4 #bja is from the villa of ,diomedes4 ,in the lamp holders conventional plant forms are more frequently met with than in the standards4 ,the trunk of a tree with spreading branches is especially common 7,fig4 #bjb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4--,lamp standard1 of bronze4 ,the lamp stands1 which resemble diminutive bronze tables1 are found in a pleasing variety of form and ornament4 ,the top is sometimes a round disk resting on a single leg supported by three feet2 sometimes1 as in the example presented in ,fig4 #bjc1 the legs are carried to the top1 and the intervening spaces are utilized for ornamentation4 ,the lamp seen in this illustration is the same as that shown more clearly in ,fig4 #aif1 at the right4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4--,lamp holder for a hand lamp4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4--,lamp holder for hanging lamps4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4--,lamp holder in the form of a tree trunk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4--,lamp stand1 of bronze4 ,kitchen utensils of bronze and red earthenware have been found in great quantity2 table furnishings more rarely4 ,a group of typical examples is presented in ,fig4 #bjd4 ,the forms are so similar to those of the utensils found in modern households that few words of explanation are needed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4--;,bronze utensils4 a4 ,kettle mounted on a tripod ready to be placed on the fire4 b1 g1 h1 l4 ,cooking pots4 c1 d4 ,pails4 e4 ,ladle4 f4 ,dipper4 i1 t4 ,baking pans for small cakes4 k4 ,pitcher4 m4 ,kitchen spoon4 n1 v4 ,table spoons4 o1 p4 ,frying pans4 s4 ,pastry mould4 q1 u4 ,wine ladles4 r4 ,two-handled pan4 ,the pastry mould 7s7 is of good size and neatly finished1 and must have left a clear impression4 ,besides the two types of table spoons illustrated here 7n1 v7 a third is represented by examples found at ,pompeii1 the cochlear1 which had a bowl at one end and ran out into a point at the other4 ,the point was used in picking shellfish out of their shells1 the bowl in eating eggs4 ,the two long ladles were used in dipping wine out of the mixing bowl into the cups4 ,the ancients ordinarily drank their wine mingled with water2 for mixing the liquids they used a large bowl of earthenware or metal1 which was often richly ornamented4 ,the mixing bowl presented in ,fig4 #bje was found in a house on ,abbondanza ,street1 near the entrance of the building of ,eumachia4 ,it is in part inlaid with silver1 and nearly twenty-two inches high4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bje4--,mixing bowl1 of bronze in part inlaid with silver4 ,hot water was often preferred for mixing with wine1 and small heaters of ornamental design were sometimes used upon the table4 ,the ancient name for these utensils is authepsa1 'self-cooker'2 the appropriateness of it is apparent from an example found at ,pompeii1 in which the coals of fire were entirely concealed from view4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4--,water heater for the table1 view and section4 ,this heater 7,fig4 #bjf7 has the form of an urn4 ,in the middle is a tube1 the bottom of which is closed by a diminutive grate2 the arrangement is shown in the section at the right4 ,in this tube the coals were placed1 and when the water in the urn was hot1 it could be drawn off by means of a faucet at the side4 ,back of the faucet is a small vertical vent tube4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4--,water heater in the form of a brazier4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4--,water heater in the form of a brazier representing a diminutive fortress4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4--;,combs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4--;,appliances for the bath4 ,in some cases the appearance of a heater was more suggestive of its purpose4 ,one 7,fig4 #bjg7 has the form of an ordinary brazier1 the water being heated in the hollow space about the fire pan4 ,in another instance 7,fig4 #bjh7 the brazier is ornamented with towers and battlements like those of a diminutive fortress2 the faucet can be seen in our illustration1 on the left side4 ,an interesting group of toilet appliances for the bath was found in the ,baths north of the ,forum 7,fig4 #bji74 ,hanging from a ring were an unguent flask1 four scrapers 7strigiles71 and a shallow saucer with a handle in which the unguent was poured out when it was to be applied4 ,one of the scrapers is repeated in a side view at the right1 and both side and front views of the unguent saucer are given4 ,small articles of toilet are discovered in a good state of preservation4 ,the forms in most cases do not differ greatly from those to which we are accustomed4 ,the fine comb seen in ,fig4 #baj a is of bone2 the two coarse combs 7,fig4 #baj b and ,fig4 #bad d7 are of bronze4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa4--;,hairpins4 ,underneath1 two small ivory toilet boxes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4--;,glass box for cosmetics4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4--;,hand mirrors4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4--;,group of toilet articles4 a4 ,standing mirror4 b4 ,ear cleaner4 c4 ,ivory box for cosmetics4 d4 ,bronze comb4 ,the ends of the hairpins were often ornamented with figures4 ,the specimens shown in ,fig4 #baa are of ivory4 ,the designs in which female figures appear are in keeping with the use1 but the ornamentation for the most part seems excessive4 ,the toilet boxes1 of glass or ivory1 were used for a variety of purposes4 ,of those presented in our illustrations1 one 7,fig4 #baa1 at the right7 probably contained perfumed oil4 ,the round glass box 7,fig4 #bab7 was used for cosmetics1 as was also the ivory box seen in ,fig4 #bad1 the outside of which is carved in low relief4 ,the mirrors were of metal1 highly polished4 ,the one seen in ,fig4 #bad was designed to stand upon a dressing case2 the other three 7,fig4 #bac7 are hand mirrors4 ,the frame of the rectangular mirror is modern2 whether or not this had a handle is not clear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4--;,gold arm band4 ,jewellery of gold and silver and other small objects wrought in the precious metals have now and then been found4 ,a characteristic example of the jewellery is the large gold arm band in the form of a serpent1 with eyes of rubies1 found in the house of the ,faun 7,fig4 #bae74 ,it weighs twenty-two ounces2 to judge from the size1 it must have been intended for the upper arm4 ,much more important1 from the aesthetic point of view1 are the cups and other articles of silver designed for table use4 ,as these do not differ essentially from objects of the same class found elsewhere1 we should not be warranted in entering upon an extended discussion of them here2 a few examples must suffice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4--,silver cups4 ,of the three cups with repousse reliefs shown in ,fig4 #baf1 one 7a7 has a simple but effective decoration of leaves4 ,another 7c7 presents the apotheosis of ,homer2 the bard is being carried to heaven by an eagle1 while on either side 7detail in b7 sits an allegorical figure--the ,iliad with helmet1 shield1 and spear1 and the ,odyssey with a sailor's cap and a steering paddle4 ,on the third 7d1 detail in ,fig4 #baf e7 we see a male and a female ,centaur1 with ,bacchic emblems1 conversing with ,cupids posed gracefully on their backs4 ,this last is one of a pair found in #ahce4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4--;,detail of cup with ,centaurs4 ,the ,boscoreale treasure contained a hundred and three specimens of silver ware1 undoubtedly the collection of an amateur4 ,of the purely decorative pieces the finest is the shallow bowl 7phiala1 patera7 #h-g_/h inches in diameter1 with an allegorical representation of the city of ,alexandria1 in high relief 7,fig4 #ahg74 ,the city is personified as a female divinity--alert1 powerful1 majestic4 ,upon her head are the spoils of an elephant2 the trunk and tusks project above1 while the huge ears1 hanging down behind1 are skilfully adjusted to the outline of the goddess's neck4 ,in the fold of her chiton1 held by the right hand1 and in the cornucopia resting on the left arm1 are fruits of ,egypt1 among which grapes and pomegranates are easily distinguished4 ,a representation of ,helios appears in low relief upon the upper part of the cornucopia2 below is the eagle1 emblem of the ,ptolemies4 ,a lion is mounted on the right shoulder of the goddess2 in her right hand she holds an asp1 sacred to ,isis1 with head uplifted as in the representation described by ,apuleius 7,met4 ,,xi4 #d72 facing the asp is a female panther4 ,around the group in low relief are the attributes 7not all distinguishable in our illustration7 of various divinities--the bow and quiver of ,artemis1 the club of ,hercules1 the sistrum of ,isis1 the forceps of ,vulcan1 the serpent of ,aesculapius entwined around a staff1 the sword of ,mars in a scabbard1 and the lyre of ,apollo4 ,a dolphin in the midst of waves 7under the right hand7 symbolizes the maritime relations of the city4 ,the central medallion 7emblema7 was made separately and attached to the bottom of the patera4 ,between it and the outer edge of the bowl is a band of pleasing ornament1 composed of sprays of myrtle and laurel4 ,the surface of the medallion was all gilded except the undraped portions of the goddess4 ,the ears of the goddess were pierced for ear-rings1 which were not found4 ,the date of the patera can not be determined2 it is perhaps as old as the reign of ,augustus4 ,among the cups1 sixteen in number1 two are especially noteworthy4 ,they are four inches high1 and form a pair2 they are ornamented with skeletons in high relief1 so grouped that each cup presents four scenes satirizing human life and its interpretation in poetry and philosophy4 ,two scenes from one of the cups are shown in ,fig4 #bag4 ,at the left the ,stoic ,zeno appears1 standing stiffly with his philosopher's staff in his left hand1 his wallet hanging from his neck2 with right hand extended he points the index finger in indignation and scorn at ,epicurus1 who1 paying no heed to him1 is taking a piece of a huge cake lying on the top of a small round table4 ,beside ,epicurus an eager pig with snout and left foreleg uplifted is demanding a share4 ,over the cake is the inscription3 ,greek3 to telos hedone1 'the end of life is pleasure4' ,the letters of the inscription1 as of the names of the philosophers1 are too small to be shown distinctly in our illustration4 ,no names are given with the figures in the other scene2 a kind of genre picture is presented4 ,the skeleton in the middle is placing a wreath of flowers upon his head4 ,the one at the right holds in one hand a skull which he examines contemplatively--we are reminded of ,hamlet in the scene with the gravedigger2 in the other hand 7not seen in the illustration7 is a wreath of flowers4 ,the third of the principal figures holds in his right hand a bag exceedingly heavy1 as indicated by the adjustment of the bones of the right arm and leg2 over the bag is the word ,greek3 phthonoi1 'envyings4' ,the object in the left hand is so light that its weight is not felt2 it is a butterfly1 held by the wings1 and above it is inscribed ,greek3 psychion1 a diminutive of ,greek3 psyche1 'soul'2 we shall later find another instance of the representation of a disembodied soul as a butterfly 7p4 #cih74 ,it was perhaps the design of the artist to represent the figure as holding the bag behind him while presenting the butterfly to the one who is putting on the wreath4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4--,silver cup with skeleton groups4 ,from the ,boscoreale treasure4 ,on either side of the middle figure are two others less than half as large4 ,one1 under the butterfly1 is playing the lyre2 over his head is the word ,greek3 terpsis1 'pleasure4' ,the second is clapping his hands1 and above him is a ,greek inscription which gives the thought of the whole design3 ',so long as you live take your full share' of life1 'for the morrow is uncertain4' ,both cups had evidently long been in use2 there are still some traces of gilding1 which1 however1 seems not to have been applied to the skeletons4 ,while the explanatory inscriptions are in ,greek1 a ,latin name1 ,gavia1 is inscribed on the under side of the second cup1 in the same kind of letters as the record of weight 7p4 #ejh74 ,the ,gavii were a family of some prominence at ,pompeii2 we are perhaps warranted in concluding that the cups were made by a ,greek for this ,pompeian lady1 and that afterward they came into the possession of another lady1 ,maxima1 who formed the collection4 ,,part ,,iii ,,trades ,,and ,,occupations ,,chapter ,,xlvii ,,the ,,trades ,,at ,,pompeii4--,,the ,,bakers ,in antiquity there was no such distinction between trades and professions as exists to-day4 ,in the ,early ,empire all activity outside the field of public service1 civil and military1 or the management of estates1 was considered beneath the dignity of a ,roman2 the practice of law1 which had received its impulse largely from the obligation of patrons to protect their clients1 was included among public duties4 ,the ordinary work of life was left mainly to slaves and freedmen4 ,not only the trades1 as we understand the term1 but architecture and engineering1--in antiquity two branches of one occupation1--the practice of medicine1 and teaching1 were looked upon as menial4 ,a ,roman of literary or practical bent might manifest an interest in such vocations1 but it was considered hardly respectable actively to engage in them4 ,this attitude of mind1 especially toward the higher occupations1 is only explicable in the light of the social conditions then existing4 ,men who kept slaves of every degree of intelligence and training1 and were at all times accustomed to command1 were not disposed to hold themselves in readiness to do another's bidding1 excepting in the service of the ,state alone2 and work committed to slaves and freedmen naturally came to be considered unworthy the employment of a gentleman4 ,the freemen of the same craft were often united in guilds or corporations1 for the administration of certain matters of mutual interest2 but nothing is known in regard to the activities of such organizations at ,pompeii4 ,in a city as large as ,pompeii1 all the occupations corresponding to the needs of daily life must have been represented4 ,the remains of the appliances and products of labor are of the most varied character1 sometimes far from satisfactory1 raising more difficulties than they solve2 yet often revealing at a glance the ancient methods of work1 and casting light upon the economic background of ,greek and ,roman culture4 ,the excavations have brought before us three sources of information1 inscriptions1 paintings1 and the remains of buildings or rooms used as workshops4 ,the inscriptions refer to more than a score of occupations2 from farming to innkeeping1 and from hairdressing to goldworking4 ,most of them are election notices1 in which the members of a craft unite1 or are exhorted to unite1 in recommending a certain candidate for a municipal office4 ,these are painted in red letters on the walls along the streets1 and are much alike1 though some are fuller than others4 ,the simplest form contains only three words1 as ,trebium aed4 tonsores1--',the barbers recommend ,trebius for the office of aedile4' ,the more elaborate recommendations may be illustrated by the following3 ,verum aed4 o4 v4 f4 7for aedilem1 oro vos1 facite71 unguentari1 facite1 rogo1--',do make ,verus aedile1 perfumers1 elect him1 ,i beg of you4' ,the whole craft of goldsmiths favored the election of ,pansa3 ,c4 ,cuspium ,pansam aed4 aurifices universi rogant1--',all the goldsmiths recommend ,gaius ,cuspius ,pansa for the aedileship4' ,the recommendations of the fruit sellers are particularly conspicuous4 ,on one occasion they joined with a prominent individual in the support of a ticket3 ,m4 ,holconium ,priscum ,,ii vir4 i4 d4 pomari universi cum ,helvio ,vestale rog41--',all the fruit sellers1 together with ,helvius ,vestalis1 urge the election of ,m4 ,holconius ,priscus as duumvir with judiciary authority4' ,there may have been some special reason why the fruiterers wished to keep in favor with the city authorities1 and so took an active part in the elections2 the dealers in garlic 7aliari7 also had a candidate4 ,among the representatives of other employments that joined in the support of candidates were the dyers 7offectores71 cloak-cutters 7sagarii71 pack-carriers 7saccarii71 mule-drivers 7muliones71 and fishermen 7piscicapi74 ,the inscription in which reference is made to the gig-drivers is mentioned elsewhere 7p4 #bdc74 ,the paintings in which we see work going on are numerous4 ,by far the most pleasing are those in which the workmen are ,cupids1 busying themselves with the affairs of men4 ,several pictures of this kind have already been described 7pp4 #ig1 #ccb-ccg72 but we ought to add to those mentioned two scenes from ,herculaneum1 often reproduced1 in which ,cupids are represented as carpenters and as shoemakers4 ,among the more important paintings in which the figures of men appear are those which picture the life of an inn and those that present the processes of cleaning cloth2 both groups are reserved for later discussion4 ,in a house in the ninth ,region 7,,ix4 v4 #i7 a stuccoer is pictured at work putting the finishing touches on a wall with a smoothing tool1 and in the house of the ,surgeon an artist is seen painting a herm 7,fig4 #acc74 ,in only a few instances are the remains of workshops sufficiently characteristic to indicate their purpose4 ,among the most impressive1 to the visitor at ,pompeii1 are the ruins of the bakeries1 with their large millstones 7,fig4 #bah74 ,equally important1 also1 are the remains of the fulleries1 and of a large tannery1 which1 as well as those of the inns and winerooms1 will be discussed in separate chapters4 ,a few out of the hundreds of shops opening on the streets contain remains of the articles exposed for sale4 ,the discovery of charred nuts1 fruits1 and loaves of bread in the market stalls north of the ,macellum has already been noted 7p4 #if74 ,we know the use of other shops from the remains of paints found in them4 ,the arrangements of such places of business were discussed in connection with those of the ,pompeian house4 ,several establishments which contain large lead kettles set in masonry1 with a place for a fire underneath1 have been identified as dyehouses4 ,in the case of one on ,stabian ,street 7,,vii4 ii4 #aa71 the identification seems complete4 ,nine such kettles stood in the peristyle1 which has a direct connection with the street2 in a closet were numerous bottles1 part of which contained coloring materials4 ,there was formerly a painting on the wall of the entrance1 representing a man carrying on a pole an object which had the appearance of a garment fresh from the dye4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4--,ruins of a bakery1 with millstones4 ,on the opposite side of the street is the election notice3 ,postumium ,proculum aed4 offectores rogant1--',the dyers request the election of ,postumius ,proculus as aedile4' ,the house on which this inscription is painted 7,,ix4 iii4 #b7 contained three kettles similar to those already mentioned2 the dyers of both establishments may have united in supporting the candidacy of ,proculus4 ,a potter's workshop1 with two ovens1 is located outside the ,herculaneum ,gate1 where the streets divide opposite the villa of ,diomedes 7,plan ,v1 #bi-cj74 ,the ovens1 which are not large1 have an upper division1 in which were placed the vessels to be baked1 and a firebox underneath1 the floor above being pierced with holes to let the heat through4 ,the vault of one of the ovens was constructed of parallel rows of jars fitted into one another4 ,there was a shoemaker's shop on the northwest corner of ,insula ,,vii4 i opening upon two streets4 ,it is connected with the entrance hall of the adjoining house 7,no4 #dj71 and near the middle is a small stone table4 ,the identification rests upon the discovery here of certain tools1 particularly leather-cutters' knives with a crescent-shaped blade2 there was also an inscription on the wall1 making record of some repairing done ',july #ad1 with a sharp-cornered knife 7scalpro angulato7 and an awl4' ,apparently the porter of the house 7ostiarius7 was at the same time a cobbler1 as frequently in ,italy to-day4 ,on the same wall is another scribbling3 ,m4 ,nonius ,campanus mil4 coh4 ,,viiii pr4 ,caesi1--',marcus ,nonius ,campanus1 a soldier of the ninth praetorian cohort1 of the century led by ,caesius4' ,the name of the centurion1 ,m4 ,caesius ,blandus1 is scratched twice on the columns of the peristyle in the same house4 ,captain and private may have come from ,rome in the escort of an emperor4 ,perhaps the centurion was quartered in this house2 the soldier1 waiting to have his shoes mended1 scratched his name upon the wall4 ,the better houses were so freely adorned with statuettes and other ornaments of marble that there must have been marble-workers in the city4 ,the workshop of one was found1 in #agih1 on ,stabian ,street1 near the ,large ,theatre4 ,it contained various pieces of carving1 as herms1 table feet1 and table tops2 there was also an unfinished mortar1 together with a slab of marble partly sawed1 the saw being left in the cut4 ,signs of shops are not often seen in ,pompeii1 but two or three may be mentioned4 ,in the wall of a shop-front in the block containing the ,baths north of the ,forum1 there is a terra cotta plaque with a goat in relief1 to indicate the place of a milk dealer2 and not far away we find a sign of a wineshop1 a tufa relief of two men carrying between them an amphora hung from a pole supported on their shoulders4 ,not all such reliefs1 however1 are signs of shops4 ,near the ,porta ,marina 7at the northwest corner of ,insula ,,vii4 xv71 a tufa block may be seen near the top of the wall1 showing a mason's tools in relief2 above it is the inscription1 ,diogenes structor1 ',diogenes the mason4' ,this is not a sign--the inscription can hardly be read from below2 it is1 moreover1 on the outside of a garden wall1 with no house or shop entrance near it4 ,it is rather a workman's signature2 ,diogenes had built the wall1 and wished to leave a record of his skill4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in antiquity the miller and the baker were one person4 ,we rarely find in ,pompeii--and then only in private houses--an oven without mills under the same roof4 ,there were many bakeries in the city4 ,the portion already excavated contains more than twenty1 each of them with three or four mills2 bread was furnished1 therefore1 by a number of small bakeries rather than by a few large establishments4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4--,plan of a bakery4 #h4 ,atrium4 #ae4 ,mill room4 #af4 ,stable4 #ag4 ,oven4 #ah4 ,kneading room4 #ai4 ,storeroom4 ,the appearance of a bakery to-day1 with its mills and its large oven1 may be seen in ,fig4 #bah4 ,the arrangements can more easily be explained1 however1 from the plan of another establishment1 one of the largest1 in the third ,insula of ,region ,,vi4 7,fig4 #bai74 ,entering from the street through the fauces1 we find ourselves in an atrium of simple form 7#h7 with rooms on either side2 the tablinum 7#ad7 is here merely an entrance to the mill room 7#ae74 ,in the corner of the atrium is a stairway leading to a second story1 which was particularly needed here1 because the living rooms at the rear were required for the bakery2 the floor of the second story was supported by brick pillars at the corners of the impluvium1 joined by flat arches4 ,the four mills 7b71 were turned by animals2 the floor around them is paved with basalt flags like those used for the streets4 ,in the same room1 at d1 were the remains of a low table2 at c there is a cistern curb1 with a large earthen vessel for holding water on either side1 while the wall above was ornamented with a painting representing ,vesta1 the patron goddess of bakers1 between the two ,lares4 ,on one side of the oven 7#ag7 is the kneading room 7#ah71 on the other the storeroom 7#ai74 ,the room at the left 7#af7 is the stall for the donkeys that turned the mills4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4--;,a ,pompeian mill1 without its framework4 ,the mills of ,pompeii1 with slight variations1 are all of one type2 if there were watermills on the ,sarno1 no trace of them has been found4 ,the millstones are of lava 7p4 #ae74 ,the lower stone1 meta1 has the shape of a cone resting on the end of a cylinder1 but the cylindrical part is in most cases partially concealed by a thick hoop of masonry1 the top of which was formed into a trough to receive the flour1 and was covered with sheet lead 7,fig4 #bbj74 ,a square hole1 five or six inches across1 was cut in the top of the cone1 in which was inserted a wooden standard2 this supported a vertical iron pivot on which the frame of the upper millstone turned4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4--,section of a mill1 restored4 ,the shape of the upper millstone1 catillus1 may best be seen in ,fig4 #bba4 ,it was like a double funnel1 the lower cavity being fitted to the cone of the lower millstone1 while that in the upper part answered the purpose of a hopper4 ,the two cavities were connected at the centre by an opening similar to that of an hourglass1 which left room for the standard and allowed the grain to run down slowly1 when the catillus was turned1 to be ground between the two stones4 ,the flour ran out at the base of the cone and fell into the trough1 ready to be sifted and made into bread4 ,the upper millstone was nicely balanced over the lower1 the surface of which it touched but lightly2 it could not have rested on the under stone with full weight1 for in that case the strength of a draft animal would not have sufficed to move it4 ,the stones could be set for finer or coarser grinding by changing the length of the standard4 ,the arrangement for turning the mill was simple4 ,in shaping the upper millstone1 strong shoulders were left in the narrowest part 7,fig4 #bbj71 on opposite sides4 ,in these square sockets were cut1 in which the ends of shafts were inserted and firmly fastened by round bolts passing through the shoulders 7,fig4 #bba74 ,the shafts were tied to the ends of the crossbeam above by curved vertical pieces of wood1 or by straps of iron1 which were let into grooves in the stone and so made firm4 ,the crosspiece above1 which turned on the pivot in the end of the standard1 was sometimes of iron1 sometimes of wood with an iron socket fitting the pivot4 ,the framework must necessarily have been exceedingly strong4 ,one of the mills at ,pompeii 7,,ix4 iii4 #aj7 has lately been set up with new woodwork1 and grinds very well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4--;,a mill in operation4 ,relief in the ,vatican ,museum4 ,the smaller mills were turned by slaves1 the larger by draft animals4 ,men pushed on the projecting shafts1 but animals wore a collar which was attached by a chain or rope to the end of the crosspiece at the top4 ,the links of the chain running to the crossbeam are distinctly shown in a relief in the ,vatican ,museum 7,fig4 #bbb71 in which a horse is represented turning a mill4 ,blinders are over the eyes of the horse1 which seems also to be checked up in order to prevent eating4 ,a square hopper rests on the crossbeam1 and the miller is bringing a measure of wheat to pour into it4 ,on a shelf in the corner of the room is a lamp4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4--,section of bake oven4 ,the ovens were not unlike those still in use in many parts of ,europe4 ,they were shaped like a low beehive1 generally with some kind of a flue in front to make the fire burn inside while they were being heated4 ,the oven in the bakery described above1 however1 has a special device for saving as much heat as possible 7,fig4 #bbc72 it is entirely enclosed in a smoke chamber 7b71 with two openings above 7d7 for the draft4 ,fires were kindled in such ovens with wood or charcoal2 the latter was probably used here4 ,when the proper temperature for baking had been reached1 the ashes were raked out 7in ,fig4 #bbc1 e is an ashpit71 the loaves of bread shoved in1 and the mouth closed to retain the heat4 ,a receptacle for water stands in front of our oven 7f71 a convenience for moistening the surface of the loaves while baking4 ,the front of the oven 7at c7 was connected with the rooms on either side1 as may be more clearly seen by referring to ,fig4 #bai4 ,in the kneading room 7#ah71 where were found remains of a large table and shelves1 the loaves were made ready1 and could be passed through one opening to the front of the oven2 the hot loaves could be conveniently passed through the other opening into the storeroom 7#ai74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4--,kneading machine1 plan and section4 ,in many establishments a machine was used for kneading2 the best example is in a bakery on the north side of ,insula xiv in ,region ,,vi4 ,such kneading machines are seen also in ancient representations of the baker's trade1 as in the reliefs of the tomb of ,eurysaces1 near the ,porta ,maggiore at ,rome4 ,the dough was placed in a round pan of lava a foot and a half or two feet in diameter4 ,in this a vertical shaft revolved1 to the lower part of which two or three wooden arms were attached 7three in ,fig4 #bbd72 the one at the bottom was strengthened by an iron crosspiece on the under side1 the projecting centre of which turned in a socket below4 ,the side of the pan was pierced in two or three places for the insertion of wooden teeth1 so placed as not to interfere with the revolution of the arms4 ,as the shaft was turned1 the dough was pushed forward by the arms and held back by the teeth1 being thus thoroughly kneaded4 ,modern kneading machines are constructed on the same principle1 but have two sets of teeth on horizontal cylinders revolving toward each other4 ,,chapter ,,xlviii ,,the ,,fullers ,,and ,,the ,,tanners ,the work of the ancient fuller was twofold1 to make ready for use the cloth fresh from the loom1 and to cleanse garments that had been worn4 ,as the garments used by the ,romans were mainly of wool1 and needed skilful manipulation to retain their size and shape1 they were ordinarily sent out of the house to be cleansed2 in consequence the trade of the fuller was relatively important4 ,in the part of ,pompeii thus far excavated we find two large fulleries and one smaller establishment that can be identified with certainty2 and there were doubtless many laundries1 with less ample facilities1 the purpose of which is not clearly indicated by the remains4 ,the following account of the processes employed relates exclusively to woollen fabrics4 ,at the time of the destruction of ,pompeii1 soap1 a ,gallic invention1 was only beginning to come into use2 the commonest substitute was fuller's earth1 creta fullonia1 a kind of alkaline marl4 ,for raising the nap1 teasel does not seem to have been used1 as with us1 but a species of thorn 7spina fullonia7 the spines of which were mounted in a carding tool resembling a brush 7aena72 the skin of a hedgehog also was sometimes utilized for this purpose4 ,the fulling of new cloth involved seven or eight distinct processes1--washing with fuller's earth1 or other cleansing agents1 to remove the oily matter2 beating and stretching1 to make the surface even2 washing and drying a second time1 for cleaning and shrinking2 combing with a carding tool to raise the nap1 brushing in order to make it ready for clipping1 and shearing to reduce the nap to proper length2 then1 particularly in the case of the white woollens so commonly used1 bleaching with sulphur fumes2 and finally1 smoothing in a large press4 ,the process of cleaning soiled garments was more simple4 ,a series of paintings in the largest of the fulleries1 on the west side of ,mercury ,street1 picture several of these processes with great clearness4 ,they were on a large pillar at the front end of the peristyle1 from which they were removed to the ,museum at ,naples2 they supplement admirably the scenes of the ,cupids' fullery in the house of the ,vettii1 mentioned in a previous chapter 7p4 #cce74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4--,scene in a fullery3 treading vats4 ,in the first picture 7,fig4 #bbe71 the clothes are being washed4 ,they are in four round treading vats1 which stand in niches formed by a low wall4 ,one of the workmen is still treading his allotment1 steadying himself by resting his arms on the walls of the niche at both sides2 the other three have finished treading and are standing on the bottom of their tubs1 rinsing the garments before wringing them out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4--,scene in a fullery3 inspection of cloth2 carding2 bleaching frame4 ,the next scene 7,fig4 #bbf7 is threefold4 ,in the foreground at the left sits a richly dressed lady1 to whom a girl brings a garment that has been cleaned2 that the woman is not one of those employed in the fullery is evident from her elaborate headdress1 necklace1 and bracelets4 ,in the background a workman dressed in a tunic is carding a large piece of cloth4 ,near by another workman carries on his shoulders a bleaching frame1 over which garments were spread to receive the fumes of the sulphur2 he holds in his left hand the pot in which the brimstone was burned4 ,an owl1 symbol of ,minerva1 who was worshipped by fullers as their patron divinity1 sits upon the frame2 and the man underneath has on his head a wreath of leaves from the olive tree1 which was sacred to the same goddess4 ,in the third picture a young man hands a garment to a girl2 at the right a woman is cleaning a carding tool4 ,the fourth 7,fig4 #bbg7 gives an excellent representation of a fuller's press1 worked by two upright screws2 it is so much like our modern presses as to need no explanation4 ,the festoons with which it is adorned are of olive leaves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg4--;,a fuller's press4 ,with these pictures before us1 it will be easy to understand the plan of the fullery on the west side of ,stabian ,street1 opposite the house of ,caecilius ,jucundus 7,fig4 #bbh74 ,it was excavated in #ahge4 ,the building was not originally designed for a fuller's establishment1 but for a private house1 and part of the rooms were retained for domestic use1 as the well preserved kitchen 7d71 and some of the other rooms opening off from the atrium 7b74 ,the furniture of the atrium--a table in front of the impluvium1 with a pedestal for a fountain figure1 and a marble basin to receive the jet--is like that of the house the interior of which is shown in ,plate ,,vii4 ,the fuller's appliances are found in the shop next to the entrance 7#ba71 and in the peristyle 7q74 ,in the former are the foundations of three treading vats1 and on the opposite side an oblong depression in which the press was placed4 ,the peristyle contains three large basins of masonry for soaking and rinsing the clothes4 ,a jet of water fell into the one next the rear wall 7#c71 from which it ran into the other two through holes in the sides4 ,along the wall is a raised walk 7#d7 on a level with the top of the basins1 into which the workmen descended by means of steps4 ,at the ends of this walk are places for seven treading vats1 five in one group1 two in the other4 ,the wall above is decorated with a long sketchy painting1 in which the fullers are seen engaged in the celebration of a festival1--doubtless the ,quinquatrus1 the feast of ,minerva2 the celebration is followed by a scene before a magistrate1 resulting from a fight engaged in by the celebrants4 ,a mass of fuller's earth was found in the passage at m4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4--,plan of a fullery4 ,from the receipts found in the house of ,caecilius ,jucundus1 it appears that this thrifty ,pompeian1 in the years #ef-fj ,a4,d41 rented a fullery belonging to the city4 ,in view of the nearness of this establishment to his house1 it seems likely that he was in charge of the business here4 ,at the time of the eruption1 however1 the enterprise was in the hands of ,marcus ,vesonius ,primus1 who lived in the house next door 7,no4 #bj71 where a portrait herm1 dedicated to him by his cashier 7arcarius71 stands in the atrium2 the house is often called the house of ,orpheus1 from the large painting on the rear wall of the garden4 ,to judge from the election notices painted on the front of the fullery and on the houses at either side1 ,primus must have taken an active interest in local politics4 ,he was an ardent partisan1 as witness this inscription3 ,cn4 ,helvium aed4 d4 r4 p4 7for aedilem1 dignum re publica7 ,vesonius ,primus rogat1--',vesonius ,primus urges the election of ,gnaeus ,helvius as aedile1 a man worthy of public office4' ,the endorsement of ,gavius ,rufus is even stronger3 ,c4 ,gavium ,rufum ,,ii vir4 o4 v4 f4 utilem r4 p4 7duumvirum1 oro vos1 facite1 utilem rei publicae7 ,vesonius ,primus rogat1--',vesonius ,primus requests the election of ,gaius ,gavius ,rufus as duumvir1 a man serviceable to public interests2 do elect him1 ,i beg of you4' ,in one of the shorter recommendations1 ,primus names his occupation3 ,l4 ,ceium ,secundum ,,ii v4 i4 d4 ,primus fullo rogat1--',primus the fuller asks the election of ,lucius ,ceius ,secundus as duumvir with judiciary authority4' ,on one occasion he united with his employees in favoring a candidate for the aedileship3 ,cn4 ,helvium ,sabinum aed4 ,primus cum suis facit1--',primus and his household are working for the election of ,gnaeus ,helvius ,sabinus as aedile4' ,the fullery on ,mercury ,street1 like that just described1 had been made over from a private house1 built in the pre-,roman period4 ,among other changes1 the columns of the large peristyle were replaced by massive pillars of masonry supporting a gallery above for the drying of clothes4 ,at the rear are four square basins1 the two larger of which are more than seven feet across2 the water passed from one to the other as in the basins of ,primus's fullery4 ,in the corner near the last basin are six rectangular niches for treading vats1 separated by a low wall1 the purpose of which is clear from ,fig4 #bbe4 ,there is a vaulted room at the right of the peristyle1 with a cistern curb1 a large basin of masonry1 and a stone table4 ,here a substance was found which the excavators supposed to be soap1 but which was doubtless fuller's earth1 like that found in the establishment on ,stabian ,street4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there were naturally fewer tanners than fullers2 and so far only one tannery has been discovered4 ,that is a large establishment1 however1 filling almost an entire block near the ,stabian ,gate 7,ins4 ,i4 v71 excavated in #ahgc4 ,like the two larger fulleries1 it occupied a building designed for a house4 ,the appliances of the craft are found in only a small part of the structure2 they relate to two processes1--the preparation of the fluids used for tanning1 and the manipulation of the hides4 ,the mixture for the tan vats was prepared in a tank under a colonnade opening on the garden4 ,it could be drawn off through two holes in the side into a smaller basin below1 or conducted by means of a gutter running along the wall to three large earthen vessels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4--,plan of the vat room of the tannery4 ,the vats1 fifteen in number1 are in a room formerly used as an atrium 7,fig4 #bbi74 ,they are about #e feet in diameter1 and from #d to about #ea_/b feet deep2 they were built of masonry1 and plastered2 two holes were made in the side of each to serve as a convenience in climbing in and out4 ,between adjacent pairs of pits was an oblong basin about twenty inches deep1 lined with wood4 ,on either side of this was a large earthen jar1 sunk in the earth2 a small1 round hole between the basin and each jar seems to mark the place of a pipe tile1 connected with the former at the bottom4 ,the large pits were for ordinary tanning2 the oblong basins were probably used in making fine leather 7aluta71 a process in which alum was the principal agent1 the chemicals being placed in the jars on either side1 and supplied to the basins through the pipe tiles4 ,in the same building four tools were found1 similar to those used by tanners at the present time4 ,one was a knife1 of bronze1 with a charred wooden handle on the back of the blade2 two were scraping irons1 with a handle on each end2 and there was another iron tool with a crescent-shaped blade4 ,the garden on which the colonnade opened contains an open-air triclinium4 ,the table was ornamented with a mosaic top1 now in the ,naples ,museum1 with a characteristic design 7,fig4 #bcj74 ,the principal motive is a skull2 below is a butterfly on the rim of a wheel1 symbols of the fluttering of the disembodied soul and of the flight of time4 ,on the right and on the left are the spoils that short-lived man leaves behind him1--here a wanderer's staff1 a wallet1 and a beggar's tattered robe2 there1 a sceptre1 with a mantle of royal purple4 ,over all is a level1 with the plumb line hanging straight1 symbolic of ,fate1 that sooner or later equalizes the lots of all mankind4 ,the thought of the tanner1 or of the earlier proprietor of the house1 is easy to divine3 ,mors aurem vellens1 ,vivite1 ait1 venio1 ',death plucks my ear1 and says1 ,live6 for ,i come4' ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4--,mosaic top of the table in the garden of the tannery4 ,,chapter ,,xlix ,,inns ,,and ,,wineshops ,wineshops1 cauponae1 were numerous in ,pompeii1 and the remains are easily identified4 ,like the ,italian osterie1 they were at the same time eating houses1 but the arrangements for drinking were the more conspicuous1 and give character to the ruins4 ,the ,roman inn1 hospitium1 or simply caupona1 was a wineshop with accommodations for the night1 provision being also made in most cases for the care of animals4 ,keepers of inns1 caupones1 are frequently mentioned in ,pompeian inscriptions1 sometimes in election notices1 more often in graffiti4 ,several inns have been identified from signs and from scribblings on the walls within4 ,at the entrance of one 7west side of ,ins4 ,,ix4 vii7 is painted ,hospitium ,hygini ,firmi1 ',inn of ,hyginius ,firmus4' ,the front of the ',elephant ,inn' 7west side of ,ins4 ,,vii4 i7 was ornamented with the painting of an elephant in the coils of a serpent1 defended by a pygmy4 ,the name of the proprietor is perhaps given at the side3 ,sittius restituit elephantum1 ',sittius restored the elephant1' referring no doubt to the repainting of the sign4 ,evidently the owner1 whether ,sittius or some one else1 was anxious to rent the premises2 below the elephant is the painted notice3 ,hospitium hic locatur--triclinium cum tribus lectis1--',inn to let4 ,triclinium with three couches4' ,the rest of the inscription is illegible4 ,the plan of another inn in the same region 7west side of ,,vii4 xii7 well illustrates the arrangements of these hostelries 7,fig4 #bca74 ,the main room 7a71 which probably served as a dining room1 is entered directly from the street4 ,at one side is the kitchen 7h72 six sleeping rooms 7b-g7 open upon the other sides4 ,but the landlord did not provide merely for the entertainment of guests from out of town2 he endeavored to attract local patronage also1 by means of a wineshop 7n71 which opened upon the street and had a separate dining room 7o74 ,a short passage 7i7 led from the main room to the stalls 7k71 in front of which was a watering trough4 ,the vehicles were probably crowded into the recess at m1 or the front of a4 ,the two side rooms 7l and p7 were closets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca4--,plan of an inn4 ,the walls of several of the rooms contain records of the sojourn of guests4 ,c4 ,valerius ,venustus1 'a pretorian of the first cohort1 enrolled in the century of ,rufus1' scratched his name on the wall of c1 to which also an affectionate husband confided his loneliness3 ',here slept ,vibius ,restitutus all by himself1 his heart filled with longings for his ,urbana4' ,four players1 one of them a ,martial1 passed a night together in the same apartment4 ,in the next room 7d7 a patriotic citizen of ,puteoli left a greeting for his native town3 ',well be it ever with ,puteoli1 colony of ,nero1 of the ,claudian line2 ,c4 ,julius ,speratus wrote this4' ,this city1 as we learn from ,tacitus1 received permission from ,nero to call itself ,colonia ,claudia ,neronensis4 ,lucifer and ,primigenius1 two friends1 spent a night in room f1 ,lucceius ,albanus of ,abellinum 7,avellino7 in g4 ,the arrangement of rooms here is so unlike that of an ordinary house that the building must have been designed at the beginning for a tavern4 ,sometimes a dwelling was turned into an inn1 as in the case of the house of ,sallust1 which1 as we have seen1 in the last years of the city must in part at least have been used as a hostelry4 ,inns near the gates had a paved entrance for wagons1 interrupting the sidewalk4 ,a good example is the inn of ,hermes1 in the first block on the right as one came into the city by the ,stabian ,gate 7,fig4 #bcb74 ,on either side of the broad entrance 7a71 are winerooms 7b1 d74 ,behind the stairway at the right1 which leads from the street to the second story1 is a hearth with a water heater4 ,on the wall at the left was formerly a painting with the two ,lares and the ,genius offering sacrifice2 below was the figure of a man pouring wine from an amphora into an earthen hogshead 7dolium71 and beside it was written ,hermes1 apparently the name of the proprietor4 ,the wagons stood in the large room at the rear 7f71 with which the narrow stable 7k7 is connected2 in one corner is a watering trough of masonry4 ,on the ground floor were only three sleeping rooms 7e1 g1 and h71 but there were upper rooms at the rear1 reached by a flight of stairs in f2 these were probably not connected with the upper rooms of the front part1 which 7over a1 b1 c1 d1 e71 having a street entrance1 may have been rented separately4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4--,plan of the inn of ,hermes4 ,the ,pompeian inns were doubtless fair representatives of their class in the different ,roman cities4 ,those of ,rome must have been numerous1 but are rarely mentioned1 and innkeepers are generally referred to in terms of disrespect4 ,the ordinary charges seem to have been low1 and the accommodations were of a corresponding character4 ,owing to the universal custom of furnishing private entertainment to all with whom there existed any ground of hospitality1 places of public entertainment tended to become the resorts of the vicious4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4--,plan of a wineshop4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the wineshop of which the plan is here given 7,fig4 #bcc7 is on the east side of ,mercury ,street1 at the northwest corner of ,ins4 ,,vi4 x4 ,it was designed not only for the accommodation of guests who would go inside to partake of refreshments1 but also for the sale of drinks over the counter to those who might stop a moment in passing4 ,this is evident from the arrangement of the main room 7a71 which has a long counter in front1 with a series of small marble shelves arranged like stairs on one end of it1 for the display of cups and glasses2 on the other is a place for heating a vessel over a fire4 ,large jars are set in the counter1 in which liquids and eatables could be kept4 ,in the corner of the room1 at the right as one enters1 a hearth is placed4 ,in view of the provision for heating water1 we are safe in calling this a thermopolium1 a wineshop which made a specialty of furnishing hot drinks4 ,the passage at the rear of the hearth 7c7 is connected with a small room 7d7 and also with the adjoining house1 which may have been the residence of the proprietor1 or may have been used for lodgings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4--,scene in a wineshop4 ,wall painting4 ,the long room with an entrance from the side street 7b1 now walled up7 was intended for the use of those who preferred to eat and drink at their leisure4 ,the walls are decorated with a series of paintings presenting realistic scenes from the life of such places4 ,we see the guests eating1 drinking1 and playing with dice4 ,some are standing1 others sitting on stools2 it is the kind of public house that ,martial calls a 'stool-ridden cookshop1' in which couches were not provided1 but only seats without backs 7,mart4 ,ep4 ,v4 lxx4 #c74 ,in one of the scenes 7,fig4 #bcd7 four men are drinking1 about a round table1 while a boy waits on them2 two of the figures have pointed hoods like those seen to-day in ,sicily and some parts of ,italy4 ,strings of sausage1 hams1 and other eatables hang from a pole suspended under the ceiling4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4--;,delivery of wine4 ,wall painting4 ,some of the figures in the pictures are accompanied by inscriptions4 ,thus by the side of a guest for whom a waiter is pouring out a glass of wine is written3 ,da fridam pusillum1 ',add cold water--just a little4' ,in a similar connection we read1 ,adde calicem ,setinum1 ',another cup of ,setian6' ,the ,setian wine came from a town in ,latium at the foot of the hills bordering the ,pontine ,marshes1 now ,sezze2 we infer that our wineshop sold not merely the products of neighboring vineyards1 but choice brands from other regions as well4 ,wines from the locality were probably brought to town in amphorae2 the delivery of a consignment from a distance is shown in a separate scene 7,fig4 #bce71 in which amphorae are being filled from a large skin on a wagon2 the team of mules is meanwhile resting1 unharnessed1 the yoke hanging on the end of the pole4 ,the pictures present the life of a tavern from the point of view of the landlord2 but occasionally we have a suggestion of the other side1 as in the following couplet1 the faulty spelling of which we can forgive on account of its pithiness3 ,talia te fallant utinam mendacia1 copo1 ,tu vendes acuam et bibes ipse merum1-- ',landlord1 may your lies malign ,bring destruction on your head6 ,you yourself drink unmixed wine1 ,water sell your guests instead4' ,the wineshop in which this graffito is found 7,i4 ii4 #bd7 is larger than that on ,mercury ,street1 and has several dining rooms4 ,connected with it is a garden with a triclinium1 once shaded by vines1 which calls to mind the invitation of the barmaid in the ,copa3-- ',here a garden you will find1 ,cool retreat1 with cups and roses1 ,lute and pipe1 for mirth designed1 ,bower that mask of reeds encloses4 ',come1 weary traveller1 lie and rest ',neath the shade of vines o'er-spreading4 ,wreath of roses freshly pressed ,on your head its fragrance shedding4' ,all the pictures found in ,pompeian wineshops bear out the inference1 based upon numerous allusions in classical writers1 that such places everywhere were in the main frequented by the lower classes2 among the adjectives applied to taverns by the poets are 'dirty1' 'smoky1' and 'black4' ,they were haunted by gamblers and criminals1 and the life was notoriously immoral4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,v4--,,the ,,street ,,of ,,tombs4 ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,left ,,side #bd4 ,,villa ,,of ,,diomedes4 #af-bc4 ,,tombs--,,group ,,iii4 #af4 ,unfinished tomb4 #ag4 ,tomb of ,umbricius ,scaurus4 #ah4 ,round tomb4 #ai4 ,sepulchral enclosure4 #bj4 ,tomb of ,calventius ,quietus4 #ba4 ,sepulchral enclosure of ,istacidius ,helenus4 #bb4 ,tomb of ,naevoleia ,tyche4 #bc4 ,triclinium ,funebre4 #e-ae4 ,,so-,,called ,,villa ,,of ,,cicero4 #a-d a4 ,,tombs--,,group ,i4 #a4 ,sepulchral niche of ,cerrinius ,restitutus4 #b4 ,sepulchral bench of ,a4 ,veius4 #c4 ,tomb of ,m4 ,porcius4 #d4 ,sepulchral bench of ,mamia4 #d a4 ,tomb of the ,istacidii4 ,a4 ,,herculaneum ,,gate4 ,c4 ,,bay ,,road4 ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,right ,,side #cc-dc4 ,,tombs--,,group ,,iv4 #cc4 ,unfinished tomb4 #cd4 ,tomb with the marble door4 #ce4 ,unfinished tomb4 #cf4 ,sepulchral enclosure with small pyramids4 #cg4 ,tomb of ,luccius ,libella4 #ch4 ,tomb of ,ceius ,labeo4 #ci4 ,tomb without a name4 #dj4 ,sepulchral niche of ,salvius4 #da4 ,sepulchral niche of ,velasius ,gratus4 #db4 ,tomb of ,m4 ,arrius ,diomedes4 #dc4 ,tomb of ,arria4 #ca-cb4 ,,samnite ,,graves4 #aj-cj4 ,,villa4 #aj1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad4 ,shops4 #ab4 ,garden belonging to ,tombs #h and #i4 #ae4 ,street entrance of ,inn4 #af-bh4 ,rooms belonging to the ,inn4 #bi-cj4 ,potter's establishment4 #a-i4 ,,tombs--,,group ,,ii4 #a4 ,tomb without a name4 #b4 ,sepulchral enclosure of ,terentius ,felix4 #c1 #d4 ,tombs without names4 #e4 ,sepulchral enclosure4 #f4 ,garland tomb4 #g4 ,sepulchral enclosure4 #h4 ,tomb of the ,blue ,glass ,vase4 #i4 ,sepulchral niche4 ,a4 ,,herculaneum ,,gate4 ,b4 ,,city ,,wall4 ,d4 ,,road ,,along ,,city ,,wall4 ,e-,e4 ,,vesuvius ,,road4 ,,part ,,iv ,,the ,,tombs ,,chapter ,l ,,pompeian ,,burial ,,places4--,,the ,,street ,,of ,,tombs ,the tombs of ,pompeii1 like those of ,rome1 were placed in close array along the sides of the roads that led from the city gates4 ,only a few have been uncovered2 how many still lie concealed under the mantle of volcanic debris that rests upon the plain1 no one has yet ventured to conjecture4 ,the tombstone of a magistrate of one of the suburbs was found at ,scafati1 a mile and a half east of the ancient town2 and others have been brought to light on the east1 south1 and west sides4 ,the most interesting and best known tombs are those of the ,street of ,tombs1 in front of the ,herculaneum ,gate2 but important remains have been found also near the ,stabian and ,nocera gates1 and burial places of a humbler sort lie along the city wall near the ,nola ,gate4 ,most of the tombs thus far excavated belong to the ,early ,empire1 having been built between the reign of ,augustus and #gi ,a4,d4 ,two or three date from the end of the ,republic2 and a small corner of an ,oscan cemetery has been uncovered on the northwest side of the city4 ,remains of skeletons were found only in the ,oscan graves2 the ,roman burial places were all arranged with reference to the practice of cremation1 the ashes being deposited in urns4 ,the tombs present so great a variety of form and construction that it is impossible to classify them in a summary way1 or to dismiss them with the presentation of two or three typical examples4 ,the character of the monument varied not merely according to the taste and means1 but also according to the point of view or religious feeling of the builder4 ,some deemed it more fitting that the ashes of the dead should be covered over with earth2 others preferred to place them in a conspicuous tomb that would please the eye and impress the imagination of the beholder4 ,to many the matter of paramount importance seemed to be the provision for the worship of the dead1 the arrangement of the tomb so that offerings could easily be made to the ashes4 ,others still desired to have the sepulchre convenient for the living1 who at times would gather there1 and tarry near the resting place of the departed4 ,and there were not a few who attempted1 in the construction of a monument1 to accomplish at the same time several of these ends4 ,the architectural designs were suggested by the form of an altar1 a temple1 a niche1 a commemorative arch1 or a semicircular bench1 schola4 ,on account of this diversity of aim and of type1 it will be most convenient to study the tombs in topographical groups1 commencing with those at the northwest corner of the city4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the highway that passes under the ,herculaneum ,gate runs almost directly west1 descending with a gentle grade4 ,above it on the north side is the ridge formed by the stream of lava on the end of which the city lay2 here1 before the eruption1 were sightly villas4 ,below1 to the south1 was the sea1 not so far away as now1 over the shimmering surface of which the traveller1 as he rode along1 could catch charming glimpses of the heights above ,sorrento and of ,capri4 ,a short distance from the gate on the left1 a branch road1 which for convenience we may call the ,bay ,road1 led directly to the sea4 ,another branch1 on the right1 followed the direction of the city wall2 further from the gate on the same side1 a third1 which may be designated as the ,vesuvius ,road1 ran off from the highway in the direction of the mountain4 ,the highway itself1 so far as excavated1 has been named the ,street of ,tombs4 ,the tombs that have been uncovered here are distributed in four groups4 ,the first1 on the left side1 extends from the gate to the ,bay ,road2 it comprises ,nos4 #a-d;a on ,plan ,v4 ,the second1 on the right 7,nos4 #a-i71 includes the tombs between the gate and the beginning of the ,vesuvius ,road4 ,the third group1 on the left1 lies between the ruins of the villa to which the name of ,cicero has been attached and the villa of ,diomedes2 the tombs are numbered on the plan #af-bc4 ,the monuments of the fourth group occupy the tongue of ground at the right between the highway and the ,vesuvius ,road 7#cc-dc74 ,the outer parts of the two villas by which the continuity of the series of tombs on both sides is interrupted1 appear to have been used as inns2 along the street in front of each there was a colonnade supported by pillars1 behind which were small rooms opening toward the street4 ,at the further end of the villa on the right 7#aj-bi7 is the potter's workshop 7#bi-cj71 mentioned in a previous chapter 7p4 #chf74 ,beyond this are the ,oscan graves 7#ca-cb71 several of which have been explored4 ,in them were found rough stone coffins1 made of slabs and fragments of limestone1 containing remains of skeletons together with small painted vases1 of the sort manufactured in ,campania in the third and second centuries ,b4,c4 ,two coins were found1 in separate graves1 with ,oscan legends that have not yet been deciphered2 apparently they were from ,nola4 ,the burial places lie close together1 and evidently belong to a cemetery for people of humble station2 there are no headstones to mark the graves4 ,this is the only place at ,pompeii in which painted vases have been found4 ,a narrow strip of land on each side of the road belonged to the city1 and burial lots therein were granted by the municipal council to citizens who had rendered public service4 ,others1 however1 might obtain lots by purchase2 private ownership may be assumed unless the gift of the city is indicated in the inscription4 ,the location of several tombs--#a1 #c1 #d1 #f on the right1 #c on the left--shows that the direction of the street near the gate was changed after sepulchral monuments had begun to be erected4 ,an interesting inscription referring to the municipal ownership of land was found at the further corner of the ,bay ,road3 ,ex auctoritate imp4 ,caesaris ,vespasiani ,aug4 loca publica a privatis possessa ,t4 ,suedius ,clemens tribunus causis cognitis et mensuris factis rei publicae ,pompeianorum restituit1--',by virtue of authority conferred upon him by the ,emperor ,vespasian ,caesar ,augustus1 ,titus ,suedius ,clemens1 tribune1 having investigated the facts and taken measurements1 restored to the city of ,pompeii plots of ground belonging to it which were in the possession of private individuals4' ,to judge from the location of the inscription1 the land which the military tribune sent as commissioner by ,vespasian gave back to the city1 must have been at the sides of the ,bay ,road4 ,a marble statue of a man dressed in a toga and holding a scroll in his hand1 was found near by4 ,it was probably a portrait of ,suedius ,clemens1 and may have stood in a niche in the villa of ,cicero4 ,there is an implied reference to the ,bay ,road also in another inscription which was found out of its proper place1 in the court of the adjoining inn3 ,,thermae 4 ,m 4 ,,crassi 4 ,,frvgi 4 ,,aqva 4 ,,marina 4 ,,et 4 ,,baln 4 ,,aqva 4 ,,dvlci 4 ,,ianvarivs 4 ,l--',bathing establishment of ,marcus ,crassus ,frugi4 ,warm sea baths and freshwater baths4 7,superintendent7 the freedman ,januarius4' ,we learn from ,pliny the ,elder that ,m4 ,licinius ,crassus ,frugi1 who was consul in #fd ,a4,d41 and was afterwards 7in #fh7 put to death by ,nero1 owned a hot spring which gushed up out of the sea4 ,this spring1 then1 was at ,pompeii1 and was utilized for baths4 ,the inscription is at the same time an advertisement and a sign directing people down the ,bay ,road to the bath house4 ,a general view of the ,street of ,tombs is given in ,plate ,x4 ,it is taken from the high ground beyond the fourth group1 as one looks toward the ,herculaneum ,gate4 ,the rugged mass of ,monte ,sant' ,angelo looms up in the distance2 at the right the trees skirting the edge of the excavations form an effective background4 ,the beauty of the surroundings1 especially on a summer morning1 the associations of the street1 its deserted appearance1 and the unbroken1 oppressive stillness give rise to mingled feelings of pleasure and sadness in the visitor4 ,we commence our survey with the first group of tombs at the left as one passes out from the ,herculaneum ,gate4 ,close by the gate is the tomb of ,cerrinius ,restitutus 7#a on the plan1 left side74 ,it is simply a low vaulted niche1 having seats at the sides4 ,against the rear wall stood a marble tombstone1 with a place for a carved portrait2 in front of it was a small altar under which doubtless was placed the urn containing the ashes4 ,both altar and tombstone 7now in the ,naples ,museum7 have the inscription3 ,m4 ,cerrinius ,restitutus1 ,augustalis1 loc4 d4 d4 d4 7for locus datus decurionum decreto71--',marcus ,cerrinius ,restitutus1 member of the brotherhood of ,augustus4 ,place of burial granted by vote of the city council4' ,the tomb here was designed as a structure to which relatives might repair on anniversary days in order to make offerings to the dead4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4--,sepulchral benches of ,veius and ,mamia2 tombs of ,porcius and the ,istacidii4 ,the remains of the other tombs in the first group are shown in the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #bcf74 ,we notice first two large semicircular benches4 ,that at the left 7#b on the plan7 marks the resting-place of ,veius4 ,it is of tufa1 and nearly twenty feet wide at the front4 ,the ends are modelled to represent winged lion's paws1 the carving of which is full of vigor and may be compared with that of the lion's paws in the ,small ,theatre 7,fig4 #gj74 ,the statue that once stood at the rear1 on a high pedestal1 has disappeared1 but the inscription remains3 ,a4 ,veio ,m4 f4 ,,ii vir4 i4 d4 iter4 quinq4 trib4 milit4 ab populo ex d4 d41--',to the memory of ,aulus ,veius1 son of ,marcus1 twice duumvir with judiciary authority1 quinquennial duumvir1 military tribune by the choice of the people4 7,erected7 by order of the city council4' ,the city not only gave a burial place1 but built the tomb as well4 ,the cinerary urn was probably placed in the earth in the narrow unwalled space behind the bench4 ,this monument was intended at the same time to do honor to the dead and render service to the living4 ,here1 on feast days of the dead1 relatives could gather and partake of a commemorative meal2 but at all times the inviting seat and conspicuous statue served to maintain that friendly relation with the living1 the desire for which so often finds expression in ,roman epitaphs4 ,the portrait and inscription made it seem as if ,veius himself offered a friendly greeting to those that passed by1 and was greeted by them in turn as they looked upon his face and read his name4 ,the other bench 7#d7 was evidently built by the heirs of a priestess1 ,mamia1 upon a lot given by the city4 ,the inscription appears in large letters on the back of the seat3 ,mamiae ,p4 f4 sacerdoti publicae2 locus sepulturae datus decurionum decreto1--',to the memory of ,mamia1 daughter of ,publius ,mamius1 priestess of the city4 ,place of burial granted by order of the municipal council4' ,in this instance1 also1 the cinerary urn was probably buried in the earth behind the bench4 ,a certain delicacy in the modelling of the lion's paws seems to indicate for this monument a somewhat later date than that of the monument to ,veius1--possibly the end of the reign of ,augustus1 or the reign of ,tiberius4 ,the date of erection is not given in the case of any ,pompeian tomb4 ,between the two benches we see a lava base and the core of a superstructure2 they belong to the tomb of ,marcus ,porcius4 ,the name is known from a boundary inscription which appears on two small blocks of lava at the corners of the lot in front3 ,m4 ,porci ,m4 f4 ex dec4 decret4 in frontem ped4 xxv1 in agrum ped4 xxv1--'7,lot7 of ,marcus ,porcius son of ,marcus1 granted by order of the city council2 twenty-five feet front1 twenty-five feet deep4' ,this ,porcius may have been one of the builders of the ,small ,theatre and the ,amphitheatre1 or a son of that ,porcius1 whose name appears on the altar of the temple of ,apollo4 ,the tomb was in the form of an altar2 the terminal volutes at the top1 of travertine1 have been preserved4 ,the sides were of tufa blocks1 which may have been carried off for building purposes after the tomb was damaged by the earthquake of #fc4 ,the interior was made hollow to save expense2 there was no sepulchral chamber1 the ashes being placed in the earth under the monument4 ,this tomb is the oldest of the group4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4--,the tomb of the ,istacidii1 restored4 ,the conspicuous monument of the 7#d;a7 stands behind the tombs of ,mamia and ,porcius1 at the left of the ,bay ,road4 ,it is raised upon a narrow terrace1 enclosed by a balustrade of masonry1 and has the appearance of a temple1 with half-columns at the sides4 ,the remains of the lower story alone are seen in ,fig4 #bcf2 above this was a circular structure formed by columns supporting a roof1 under which were placed statues of members of the family 7,fig4 #bcg74 ,the lower story contains a sepulchral chamber1 entered by a door at the rear2 in the middle of the chamber is a massive pillar reaching to the vaulted ceiling4 ,the decoration of the room is simple1 of the third style4 ,on one side is a large niche1 for two urns1 those of the head of the family and his wife2 the other three sides contain ten smaller niches4 ,the principal inscription of the tomb has not been found1 but a number of names are preserved on the commemorative stones set up in the plot of ground about it4 ,these stones are of a peculiar type1 met with elsewhere only at ,capua and ,sorrento2 we shall call them bust stones4 ,the outline resembles that of a human head and neck terminating below in a pillar1 but the front was left smooth1 and an inscription was cut or painted on the bust4 ,difference of sex was indicated by the treatment of the hair2 an example maybe seen in ,fig4 #bdj4 ,the bust stones of men are generally larger than those of women2 those of children are still smaller1 the size perhaps varying with the age4 ,the bust stones here may refer to those whose ashes were deposited in urns in the tomb1 or to others whose urns were buried in the plot of ground in which it stands4 ,from them we learn that the head of the family was ,numerius ,istacidius1 and that he had a daughter1 ,istacidia ,rufilla1 who was a priestess4 ,representatives of two other families1 the ,melissaei and the ,buccii1 are named on similar stones found in a plot connected with that of the ,istacidii at the rear4 ,the three families were perhaps closely connected by intermarriage4 ,the bust stone of one of the ,melissaei1 ,gnaeus ,melissaeus ,aper1 duumvir in #c-d ,a4,d41 stood in the same enclosure with those of the ,istacidii4 ,only one of the nine tombs in the second group 7#b7 bears a name4 ,in the case of two 7#c and #d7 the superstructure has completely disappeared1 leaving only the lava bases in place4 ,another 7#e7 has not been excavated2 the front of the burial lot has been cleared1 but the monument1 lying further back1 is still covered4 ,the first tomb lies in the angle between the highway and the branch road along the wall1 which was evidently laid out after the monument was erected4 ,it has the form of an altar1 and must have resembled in appearance the tomb of ,porcius on the opposite side of the street4 ,here1 however1 there is a sepulchral chamber in the base1 entered by a low1 narrow passage1 which was closed until #ahhg by a block of stone4 ,in corners of this chamber two cinerary urns1 in lead cases1 were found covered with earth and with the remains of a funeral pyre--bits of wood and iron nails used in building the pyre1 together with pieces of a richly carved ivory casket and broken perfume vials of terra cotta4 ,among the fragments of bone in each urn was a coin of ,augustus4 ,though the ashes of the dead were here placed in a burial vault1 it was nevertheless considered important to cover them with earth4 ,it was not thought necessary1 however1 to leave the vault accessible for the performance of sacred rites in honor of the dead2 the entrance1 securely closed1 was only to be unsealed for the admission of new urns4 ,the next tomb 7#b7 is of an entirely different type from any of those previously described4 ,it is an unroofed enclosure1 entered by a door at one end4 ,as we learn from the inscription1 it was built in honor of ,terentius ,felix by his widow1 the city furnishing the burial lot and a contribution of two thousand sesterces 7about #ij7 toward the expense3 ,t4 ,terentio ,t4 f4 ,men4 ,felici maiori aedili2 huic publice locus datus et ,,hs ,m ,m4 ,fabia ,probi f4 ,sabina uxor1--',to the memory of ,titus ,terentius ,felix the ,elder1 son of ,titus1 of the tribe ,menenia1 aedile4 ,the place of burial was given by the city1 with two thousand sesterces4 ,his wife1 ,fabia ,sabina1 daughter of ,fabius ,probus 7built this monument74' ,pompeians who were ,roman citizens were enrolled in the tribe ,menenia4 ,the cinerary urn of ,felix was of glass4 ,it was protected by a lead case and placed in an earthen jar1 which was buried in the earth under a small altar or table of masonry against the wall on the left as one enters4 ,here also was a tombstone1 with the inscription1 ',to the elder ,terentius'2 he probably left a son with the same name4 ,in the urn1 or near it1 were found two coins1 one of ,augustus1 the other of ,claudius1 deposited to pay the fare of ,charon4 ,the right side of the enclosure was set off by a low wall2 here several urns belonging to other members of the household were buried4 ,shells of oysters and other shellfish were found in the main room1 remains of a banquet in honor of the dead2 the libations were poured upon the earth above the urns4 ,the plan of this tomb closely resembles that of the enclosure in front of the ,doric temple in the ,forum ,triangulare 7p4 #aci74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4--,view of the ,street of ,tombs4 ,at the left1 the ,bay ,road and remains of the so-called villa of ,cicero2 at the right1 ,garland tomb1 foundation of the tomb of the ,blue ,glass ,vase1 and semicircular niche4 ,of the remaining tombs of the second group1 two are prominent1 and may readily be distinguished in the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #bch71 the so-called ,garland tomb 7#f on the plan71 and the roofed semicircular niche at the end 7#i74 ,the ,garland tomb has the shape of a temple1 with pilasters instead of columns1 between which hang festoons of leaves and flowers4 ,it is solid2 the cinerary urn was probably placed underneath4 ,the form of the second story cannot be determined4 ,the material is tufa1 coated with white stucco1 and the monument is one of the oldest in the series1 dating from the end of the ,republic4 ,adjoining the ,garland tomb is a simple sepulchral enclosure 7#g7 with an entrance from the street4 ,between this and the roofed niche we see in ,fig4 #bch the limestone base of a tomb1 like those seen in ,plate ,x1 at the right2 the altar-shaped superstructure has disappeared 7#h74 ,this is called the tomb of the ,blue ,glass ,vase4 ,the base contains a sepulchral chamber1 entered by a door at the rear4 ,here three urns1 two of glass and one of terra cotta1 were found1 standing in niches4 ,on the floor were several statuettes1 a couple of small figures of animals1 and a mask with a ,phrygian cap1--all of terra cotta4 ,in beauty of material1 harmony of design1 and skill of workmanship1 one of the glass urns1 which gave the name to the tomb and is now preserved in the ,naples ,museum1 ranks with the finest examples of its class in the world4 ,among specimens of ancient glass it stands second only to the famous ,portland vase in the ,british ,museum1 which was found in a tomb near ,rome4 ,the urn has the form of an amphora2 the support seen at the bottom 7,fig4 #bci7 is modern4 ,it is decorated with reliefs cut in a layer of pure white on a background of dark blue4 ,near the bottom is a narrow band1 showing goats and sheep in pasture4 ,resting on this are two bacchic masks1 on opposite sides of the vase2 vines laden with clusters rise in graceful arabesques above the masks1 dividing the body of the vase into two fields1 which present scenes from the vintage4 ,one of these scenes is reproduced in ,fig4 #bci4 ,the vintage is interpreted as a festival of ,bacchus4 ,above is a festoon of fruits and flowers4 ,at the sides are two boys on elevated seats1 one playing the double flute1 the other holding a ,pan's pipe in his hands1 ready to take his turn2 the grapes are gathered and pressed to an accompaniment of ,bacchic airs1 the two players following each other with alternate strains4 ,a third boy1 treading the grapes in a round vat1 shakes the thyrsus in honor of the ,wine-god1 while a companion empties in fresh bunches4 ,the scene is full of action2 no reproduction can do justice to the delicacy and finish of the original4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4--;,glass vase with vintage scene1 found in the tomb of the ,blue ,glass ,vase4 ,a bench of masonry runs along the inner wall of the semicircular niche 7#i71 which is covered by a roof in the form of a half dome and opens upon the street as do the large unroofed monuments of ,veius and ,mamia4 ,a blank marble tablet was placed in the gable2 the builder of the monument1 who was doubtless living at the time of the eruption1 preferred to leave it to his heirs to add the memorial inscription1 but the disaster interfered with the fulfilment of his wishes4 ,it was probably intended to bury the cinerary urn either in the floor of the niche or in the ground at the rear4 ,the effect of the double series of pilasters at the corners1 placed one upon the other without an intervening entablature1 and of the fantastic stucco decoration of the gable1 is not unpleasing1 although the designs are far from classical2 the tiles shown in the illustration are modern4 ,the inner wall is painted in red and black panels2 the vaulted ceiling1 from which the stucco has now fallen1 was moulded to represent a shell4 ,both the niche and the tomb of the ,blue ,glass ,vase seem to have belonged to the adjoining villa4 ,the stucco decoration of the villa in its main features is identical with that of the niche2 and the plot of ground behind the tombs is connected by a gateway with a garden of the villa 7#ab on the plan71 which was too richly adorned to have been intended for the use of the occupants of the inn4 ,in the middle of the garden was a pavilion supported by four mosaic columns 7now in the ,naples ,museum71 similar to that in the garden of the villa of ,diomedes1 and to others belonging to city houses4 ,a mosaic fountain niche was made in the rear wall facing the entrance from the street1 and in two corners were short columns on which were placed small figures1--on one a boy with a hare1 in marble1 on the other a frog of glazed terra cotta4 ,nevertheless1 the garden seems to possess a distinctly sepulchral character4 ,besides the entrances from the tombs and from the street1 there was a third1 which led into a court of the villa1 with which the peristyle and living rooms were connected by a passageway2 in the corner of the court nearest the garden1 and facing the entrance from the street 7#ae71 was an elaborate domestic shrine1 dedicated1 as shown by the symbolical decoration1 to ,apollo1 ,bacchus1 ,hercules1 and ,mercury4 ,the relation of the garden with the living rooms of the villa was only indirect2 and we conclude that it was intended for gatherings and sacred rites in honor of the dead4 ,relatives could partake of the sepulchral banquet under the pavilion4 ,the tombs of the third group1 as may be seen from ,plate ,x1 form a stately series4 ,the prevailing type is that which was in vogue at the time of the destruction of the city--a high base1 with marble steps at the top leading up to a massive superstructure in the form of an altar1 faced with marble4 ,the burial plot was enclosed by a low wall4 ,in the base of the tomb was a sepulchral chamber1 entered by a door in the rear or at one side2 it was now the custom for relatives to enter the burial vault when they wished to pour libations on the ashes4 ,the first of the series 7#af on the plan1 seen in ,plate ,x next to the cypress7 was unfinished at the time of the eruption4 ,part of the marble veneering had not yet been added1 the walls of the sepulchral chamber were in the rough1 and there were no urns in the five niches designed for their reception4 ,in the burial plot surrounding the tomb1 however1 a marble bust stone was found 7,fig4 #bdj7 with the inscription1 ,iunoni ,tyches ,iuliae ,augustae ,veneriae1--',to the ,genius of ,tyche1 slave of ,julia ,augusta1--of the cult of ,venus4' ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdj4--;,bust ,stone of ,tyche1 slave of ,julia ,augusta4 ,the reference is plainly to a female slave of ,livia1 the wife of ,augustus2 how her ashes came to be deposited here it is not worth while1 in default of information1 to conjecture4 ,in sepulchral inscriptions of women ,iunoni sometimes takes the place of genio in men's epitaphs4 ,tyche was seemingly a member of a sisterhood for the worship of ,venus1 to which1 as to the organization of the ',servants of ,mercury and ,maia1' and of the ',servants of ,fortuna ,augusta1' slaves were admitted4 ,the tomb of ,umbricius ,scaurus 7#ag7 is conspicuous by reason of its size and noteworthy on account of its decoration4 ,the inscription on the front of the altar-shaped superstructure gives interesting details in regard to the man the memory of whom is here perpetuated3 ,a4 ,umbricio ,a4 f4 ,men4 ,scauro1 ,,ii vir i4 d42 huic decuriones locum monumento et ,,hs ,m ,m in funere et statuam equestrem in foro ponendam censuerunt4 ,scaurus pater filio1--',to the memory of ,aulus ,umbricius ,scaurus son of ,aulus1 of the tribe ,menenia1 duumvir with judiciary authority4 ,the city council voted the place for a monument to this man and two thousand sesterces toward the cost of the funeral2 they voted also that an equestrian statue in his honor should be set up in the ,forum4 ,scaurus the father to the memory of his son4' ,why these honors were conferred upon ,scaurus1 who probably became a duumvir early in life and died soon after his term of office1 is not clear4 ,the upper part of the base of the tomb in front was adorned with stucco reliefs--now for the most part gone--in which gladiatorial combats and a venatio were depicted2 but a painted inscription along the edge of one of the scenes indicates that the show thus commemorated was given by another man1 ,n4 ,fistius ,ampliatus2 ,munere ,n4 ,fisti ,ampliati die summo4 ,perhaps the last two words mean that 'on the last day' the younger ,scaurus1 a relative or friend of ,ampliatus1 shared the cost of the exhibition under some such arrangement as that between ,lucretius ,valens and his son 7p4 #bbb74 ,if this be the correct explanation1 it is evident that ,scaurus could have given no shows in the ,amphitheatre during his duumvirate1 else the father would have taken pains to mention the fact in the inscription4 ,his term of office may have come after the year #ei1 when such exhibitions were prohibited at ,pompeii for ten years 7p4 #bbj74 ,the gladiatorial scenes1 if space permitted1 would merit a detailed presentation--they are so full of human interest4 ,two gladiators are fighting on horseback1 the rest on foot4 ,the vanquished with uplifted thumbs are mutely begging for mercy4 ,the plea of some of them is heeded by the populace2 in other groups we see the victor preparing to give the death thrust4 ,beside each gladiator was painted his name1 school1 and number of previous combats1 as in a programme2 and letters were added to give the result of this fight4 ,one combatant1 who was beaten and yet by the vote of the audience permitted to live1 died on the sand from his wounds4 ,we see him resting on one knee1 faint from loss of blood2 the letter ,m beside his name1 for missus1 is followed by the death sign ,theta1 the first letter of the ,greek word for death1 ,greek3 ,,thanatos4 ,the animals shown in the venatio are mainly wild boars and bears1 but we recognize also a lion and a bull4 ,lions were doubtless much more rarely seen in such exhibitions at ,pompeii than at ,rome4 ,as more attention came to be given to the outward appearance of tombs1 less was bestowed upon the adornment of the sepulchral chamber4 ,so in the tomb of ,scaurus the burial vault is low1 cramped1 and with plain white walls4 ,a massive pillar1 as in the tomb of the ,istacidii1 supports the vaulted ceiling4 ,it is pierced by two openings1 forming four niches1 two on each side4 ,three of these1 when the tomb was opened1 were closed by panes of glass1 and there were traces of a curtain that hung over the one opposite the entrance4 ,there were fourteen other niches in the walls at the sides4 ,no name is associated with the third tomb 7#ah on the plan7 which1 as shown by ,plate ,x1 is simply a large cylinder of masonry1 the top of which probably had the shape of a truncated cone2 the material is brick1 with a facing of white stucco lined off to give the appearance of blocks of marble4 ,the base is square2 the enclosing wall is adorned with miniature towers4 ,the structure illustrates in its simplest form the type of the massive tomb1 or mausoleum1 found at ,rome2 we are at once reminded of the imposing monument of ,caecilia ,metella on the ,appian ,way1 and of ,hadrian's ,mausoleum in the city4 ,a blank tablet was placed by the builder on the front of the enclosing wall to receive an inscription after his death4 ,the heirs1 however1 preferred to put the memorial on the tomb itself1 where the place of an inscription is plainly seen1 the slab itself having disappeared4 ,the sepulchral chamber is in the superstructure2 it was decorated with simple designs in the fourth style on a white ground4 ,there were only three niches1 perhaps for father1 mother1 and child2 the urns were let into the bottoms of the niches1 as often in the ,roman columbaria4 ,one of the miniature towers on the enclosing wall is ornamented with a relief presenting a singular design2 a woman in mourning habit is laying a fillet on a skeleton reclining on a heap of stones 7,fig4 #bda74 ,the scene may be interpreted as symbolizing the grief of a mother for a dead son4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x4--,,the ,,street ,,of ,,tombs1 ,,looking ,,toward ,,the ,,herculaneum ,,gate ,there is only a simple bust stone in the burial lot 7#ai7 beyond the round monument4 ,next comes the beautiful tomb of ,calventius ,quietus 7#bj71 which may be seen in ,plate ,x1 as well as the tomb of ,naevoleia ,tyche 7#bb2 further to the right74 ,between these two is a walled enclosure 7#ba7 without a door1 in which are three bust stones4 ,the largest stone bears the name ,n4 ,istacidius ,helenus2 in front of one of the others a small jar was set to receive offerings for the dead4 ,on the front of the enclosing wall is a tablet on which the names of ,n4 ,istacidius ,januarius and of ,mesonia ,satulla appear with that of ,helenus2 they were all freedmen of the ,istacidii 7p4 #dab74 ,the monuments of ,quietus and of ,tyche are the finest examples of the altar type at ,pompeii4 ,both are ornamented in good taste1 but the carvings of the former are more delicate1 while the motives of the latter are more elaborate4 ,quietus was a man of some prominence1 as we see from the epitaph3 ,c4 ,calventio ,quieto ,augustali2 huic ob munificentiam decurionum decreto et populi consensu bisellii honor datus est1--',to the memory of ,gaius ,calventius ,quietus1 member of the ,brotherhood of ,augustus4 ,on account of his generosity the honor of a seat of double width was conferred upon him by the vote of the city council and the approval of the people4' ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bda4--,relief1 symbolic of grief for the dead4 ,at the ,theatre and the ,amphitheatre1 ,quietus had the privilege of sitting on a bisellium1 as if he were a member of the city council4 ,below the inscription is a representation of the 'seat of double width1' shown in ,fig4 #bdb4 ,the square footstool at the middle implies that the seat was intended for a single person4 ,the ends of the tomb were ornamented with finely carved reliefs of the civic crown1 which was made of oak leaves and awarded to those who had saved the life of a ,roman citizen 7,fig4 #bdc74 ,as the inscription does not record any deed of valor1 it may be that the crown is used here merely as a decorative device4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4--;,front of the tomb of ,calventius ,quietus1 with bisellium4 ,though the monument of ,quietus was built in the last years of the city1 when such structures were generally provided with sepulchral chambers1 it has no burial vault1 and the enclosing wall is without a door4 ,it is perhaps a cenotaph1 a monument erected in honor of a man whose remains were interred elsewhere2 it is also possible that ,quietus had no relatives who wished to have an accessible sepulchral chamber in order to make libations to his ashes1 and that for this reason the monument was made solid1 the urn being buried in the earth underneath4 ,the small turrets on the enclosing wall were adorned with reliefs2 among them ,oedipus solving the riddle of the ,sphinx1 and ,theseus after the slaughter of the ,minotaur4 ,the suggestion is obvious3 he who is commemorated here had solved the riddle of existence1 had found an exit from the labyrinth of life4 ,around the front and sides of the tomb of ,naevoleia ,tyche runs a border of acanthus arabesques1 forming panels in which reliefs are placed4 ,the border in front is interrupted at the middle of the upper side by the portrait of ,tyche2 the lower half of the panel is devoted to a ceremonial scene in which offerings appear to be made to the dead1 while in the upper half1 under the portrait1 we read the inscription3 ,naevoleia ,l4 liberta ,tyche sibi et ,c4 ,munatio ,fausto ,augustali et pagano1 cui decuriones consensu populi bisellium ob merita eius decreverunt4 ,hoc monimentum ,naevoleia ,tyche libertis suis libertabusque et ,c4 ,munati ,fausti viva fecit1--',naevoleia ,tyche1 freedwoman of ,lucius ,naevoleius1 for herself and for ,gaius ,munatius ,faustus1 member of the ,brotherhood of ,augustus and suburban official1 to whom on account of his distinguished services the city council1 with the approval of the people1 granted a seat of double width4 ,this monument ,naevoleia ,tyche built in her lifetime also for the freedmen and freedwomen of herself and of ,gaius ,munatius ,faustus1' who was seemingly her husband4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdc4--;,end of the tomb of ,naevoleia ,tyche1 with relief of a ship entering port2 beyond1 end of the tomb of ,calventius ,quietus1 with the civic crown4 ,the bisellium of ,faustus is shown in one of the end panels2 in the other we see a ship sailing into port 7,fig4 #bdc74 ,the carving of the relief is bold1 though crude2 we see the sailors furling the sail1 as the vessel glides into still water4 ,the scene is symbolical of death1--the entrance of the soul after the storms of life into a haven of rest4 ,the thought is expressed by ,cicero with deep feeling in his essay on ,old ,age3 ',as for myself1 ,i find the ripening of life truly agreeable2 the nearer ,i come to the time of death1 the more ,i feel like one who begins to see land and knows that sometime he will enter the harbor after the long voyage4' ,the sepulchral chamber of this tomb has a large niche opposite the entrance2 the urn standing in it apparently contained the cinerary remains of two persons1 ,tyche and ,faustus4 ,other urns were found in the smaller niches in the walls and on the bench of masonry along the sides4 ,three were of glass1 protected by lead cases2 one of them is shown in ,fig4 #bdd4 ,they contained ashes and fragments of bone1 with remains of a liquid mixture1 which was shown by chemical analysis to have consisted of water1 wine1 and oil4 ,lamps were found on the bench1 one for each urn1 and there were others in a corner2 they were used on anniversary days to light the chamber4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdd4--;,cinerary urn in lead case4 ,the last monument consists of a walled enclosure1 with a table and couches of masonry like those often found in the gardens of private houses 7,fig4 #bde74 ,in front of the table is a small round altar for libations4 ,this was a place for banquets in honor of the dead1 triclinium funebre2 a tomb designed to serve the convenience of the living1 like the niche of ,cerrinius ,restitutus and the benches of ,veius and ,mamia4 ,the walls were painted in the last style4 ,over the entrance in front we read3 ,cn4 ,vibrio ,q4 f4 ,fal4 ,saturnino ,callistus lib41--',to the memory of ,gnaeus ,vibrius ,saturninus son of ,quintus1 of the tribe ,falerna2 erected by his freedman ,callistus4' ,as ,saturninus did not belong to the tribe ,menenia1 he was very likely not a native of ,pompeii4 ,his ashes were probably placed in an urn and buried in the earth between the altar and the entrance4 ,there is every reason to suppose that the series of tombs on the south side of the highway is continued beyond the villa of ,diomedes2 but it has not yet been found possible to carry the excavations further in that direction4 ,the tombs of the fourth group present no new types of design or construction4 ,several of them are of interest1 however1 on account of peculiarities of arrangement4 ,at the time of the eruption two of the monuments 7#cc1 #ce7 were in process of building2 it is impossible to tell what form they were to have4 ,a third 7#cf7 had been commenced on a large scale1 but apparently the money of the heirs gave out1 and little pyramids were set up at the corners of the walled enclosure1 the urns being buried in the earth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4--,sepulchral enclosure with triclinium funebre4 ,two of the monuments were erected for children 7#dj1 #da74 ,they stand near together on the high ground in the angle formed by the ,vesuvius ,road4 ,they are small vaulted niches1 ornamented with reliefs in white stucco1 most of which has fallen off4 ,the urn in each was placed in the earth under the bottom of the niche1 with a small pipe tile leading to the surface1 through which libations could be poured down upon it4 ,a tablet is set in the sustaining wall at the side of the street below the larger niche 7#da71 with the simple inscription1 ,n4 ,velasio ,grato1 vixit ann4 ,,xii1--',to the memory of ,numerius ,velasius ,gratus1 who lived twelve years4' ,the inscription belonging to the other niche was even more simple1 giving no first name3 ,salvius puer vixit annis ,,vi1--',the boy ,salvius lived six years4' ,one tomb 7#cd7 is noteworthy on account of its door4 ,this has the appearance of a double door1 but it is made of a single slab of marble1 and swings1 like an ordinary ,roman door1 by means of pivots which are fitted into sockets in the threshold and lintel4 ,it was also provided with a lock4 ,the exterior of the tomb was unfinished2 the reticulate masonry still lacked its facing of more costly material4 ,the sepulchral chamber1 however1 contained several cinerary urns2 one of them1 of alabaster1 was in a large niche facing the entrance1 and a gold seal ring1 with the figure of a deer in an intaglio1 was found in it among the ashes and fragments of bone4 ,there were also several lamps1 a small altar of terra cotta1 and a few glass perfume vials4 ,two amphorae1 of the sort used for wine1 stood against the sides of the chamber2 such were sometimes utilized as repositories for ashes4 ,one of the volutes of the well preserved limestone tomb of ,m4 ,alleius ,luccius ,libella 7#cg7 is seen in ,plate ,x4 ,the monument has the shape of an altar1 and is apparently solid4 ,it was erected by the widow1 ,alleia ,decimilla1 priestess of ,ceres1 in memory of her husband1 who was duumvir in #bf ,a4,d41 and of a son of the same name1 who was a member of the city council and died in his eighteenth year4 ,the burial plot was given by the city4 ,as no opening was left in the monument1 ,decimilla evidently planned to have her ashes deposited in another tomb1 perhaps that of her father's family4 ,the remaining four tombs are of the same type2 the idea is that of a temple1 the columnar construction being suggested not by projecting half-columns1 as in the tomb of the ,istacidii1 but by more or less prominent pilasters at the corners and on the sides4 ,two of the tombs 7#ch and #ci7 stand where the tongue of land between the highway and the ,vesuvius ,road begins to descend to the level of the pavement4 ,the remains of the tomb of ,ceius ,labeo 7#ch7 are shown in ,plate ,x 7in the foreground1 at the left74 ,the appearance of this monument was somewhat like that of the ,istacidii2 there was a second story1 the roof of which was supported entirely by columns2 between these1 statues of members of the family were placed1 of both men and women1 some of marble1 others of tufa coated with stucco4 ,the base was ornamented with stucco reliefs1 which have almost entirely disappeared2 above1 in front1 were two portrait medallions4 ,the large sepulchral chamber can be seen in the plate4 ,the floor was more than six feet below the surface of the ground4 ,a vaulted niche in the rear wall was connected with the outside by means of a small opening at the top1 through which libations could be poured or offerings dropped upon the urn below4 ,in the vicinity of the monument was found the inscription3 ,l4 ,ceio ,l4 f4 ,men4 ,labeoni iterum d4 v4 i4 d4 quinquennali ,menomachus libertus1--',to the memory of ,lucius ,ceius ,labeo son of ,lucius1 of the tribe ,menenia1 twice duumvir with judiciary authority1 also quinquennial duumvir2 erected by his freedman1 ,menomachus4' ,there were bust stones in the plot belonging to this monument1 and also about the adjoining tomb 7#ci72 the names of those whose ashes were deposited under the stones1 in part1 at least1 seem to have been painted upon the base of ,labeo's tomb1 but they were illegible at the time of excavation4 ,the adjoining tomb 7#ci7 is without a name1 but was built after that erected in honor of ,labeo4 ,the tombs at the end of the fourth group 7#db1 #dc7 belong to one household4 ,in the sustaining wall along the highway a sepulchral tablet of tufa is seen with the inscription3 ,arriae ,m4 f4 ,diomedes libertus sibi suis1--',diomedes1 a freedman1 for ,arria1 daughter of ,marcus ,arrius1 for himself and for his family4' ,on the elevation directly above is his tomb1 the end of which is seen in ,plate ,x 7in the foreground74 ,it bears the inscription3 ,m4 ,arrius ,c4 l4 ,diomedes sibi suis memoriae1 magister pagi ,augusti ,felicis suburbani1--',marcus ,arrius ,diomedes1 freedman of ,arria1 magistrate of the suburb ,pagus ,augustus ,felix1 in memory of himself and his family4' ,the abbreviation ,c4 l4 takes the place of ,gaiae libertus1 'freedman of ,gaia1' the letter ,c1 which stands for ,gaius1 being reversed2 ,gaia is used1 as in legal formulas1 to show that the person referred to is a woman4 ,the slave ,diomedes1 after receiving his freedom1 was entitled to the use of the family name1 and was known as ,marcus ,arrius ,diomedes4 ,his mistress1 as ,roman ladies generally1 was called not by a first name1 but by the feminine form of the family name1 ,arria1 which was as plainly suggested to a ,roman reading the name ,arrius followed by the symbol as if it had been written in full4 ,on the front of the tomb we observe in stucco relief two bundles of rods1 fasces1 with axes1 having reference to the official position of ,diomedes as a magistrate of a suburb4 ,the axes are quite out of place4 ,suburban officers did not have the 'power of life and death'2 the lictors of such magistrates carried bundles of rods without axes4 ,the vain display of authority reminds one of the pompous petty official held up to ridicule by ,horace in his ,journey to ,brundisium2 it suggests also the rods and axes painted on the posts at the entrance of the dining room of ,trimalchio1 in ,petronius's novel4 ,the tomb was constructed without a burial vault1 but there were two bust stones near by with names of freedmen of ,diomedes4 ,the monument to ,arria 7#dc7 lies further back2 it fronts on the ,vesuvius ,road4 ,diomedes found a way to reconcile happily his own love of display with his duty to his former mistress2 he built a larger monument for her1 but chose for his own the more conspicuous position4 ,the small sepulchral chamber of ,arria's tomb contained nothing of interest and is now walled up4 ,,chapter ,,li ,,burial ,,places ,,near ,,the ,,nola1 ,,stabian1 ,,and ,,nocera ,,gates ,no part of the highway leading from the ,nola ,gate has yet been excavated4 ,in the year #ahed1 however1 excavations were made for a short distance along the city wall near this gate1 and thirty-six cinerary urns were found buried in the earth4 ,in or near them were perfume vials of terra cotta with a few of glass4 ,here in the pomerium1 the strip of land along the outside of the walls1 which was left vacant for religious as well as practical reasons1 the poor were permitted to bury the ashes of their dead without cost4 ,in some cases the place of the urn was indicated by a bust stone2 often the spot was kept in memory merely by cutting upon the outside of the city wall the name of the person whose ashes rested here4 ,there was another cemetery of the poor a short distance southwest of the ,amphitheatre1 south of the modern highway4 ,it lay along a road which branched off from the highway leading to ,stabiae and ran east in the direction of ,nocera4 ,sepulchral remains were found here in #agee-eg1 and again in #ahic-id1 when further explorations were made4 ,they consist of cinerary urns1 buried in the earth1 with small glass perfume vials in or near them1 and a bust stone to mark the spot4 ,a few of the stones are of marble and bear a name2 the great majority are roughly carved out of blocks of lava1 and if a name was painted on the front it has disappeared4 ,of special significance1 in connection with these burial places1 is the arrangement for making offerings to the dead4 ,in order that libations might be poured directly upon the cinerary urns1 these were connected with the surface of the ground by means of tubes4 ,in one instance a lead pipe ran from above into an opening made for it in the top of the lead case inclosing an urn4 ,more often the connection was made by means of round tiles2 in the case of one urn1 three tiles were joined together1 making a tube five feet long4 ,the upper end of the libation tube did not project from the ground1 but was placed just below the surface and covered with a flat stone2 over this was a thin layer of earth1 which the relatives would remove on the feast days of the dead4 ,pagan antiquity was never able to dissociate the spirit of the dead from the place of interment2 the worship of ancestors was in no small degree the product of local associations4 ,in the vicinity of these remains is a sepulchral monument of modest dimensions1 which1 as we learn from the tablet over the entrance1 was erected by ,marcus ,petasius ,dasius in memory of his two sons1 ,severus and ,communis1 and of a freedwoman named ,vitalis4 ,there was no floor in the burial chamber2 the urns were placed in the earth and marked by bust stones1 among which was one set up for ,dasius himself1 with the initials ,m4 ,p4 ,d4 ,the ,stabian ,road has been excavated for but a short distance near the gate4 ,the only monuments completely cleared are two large1 semicircular benches1 like those of ,veius and ,mamia 7p4 #dji74 ,at the rear of each is a small sepulchral enclosure in which the urns were buried4 ,the memorial tablet belonging to the monument nearest the gate has disappeared1 but two boundary stones at the corners of the lot bear the inscription3 ,m4 ,tullio ,m4 f4 ex decurionum decreto1--',to ,marcus ,tullius son of ,marcus1 in accordance with a vote of the city council4' ,the ,tullius named was perhaps the builder of the temple of ,fortuna ,augusta 7p4 #acb74 ,the inscription of the second bench1 like that of ,mamia1 is cut in large letters on the back of the seat3 ,m4 ,alleio ,q4 f4 ,men4 ,minio1 ,,ii v4 i4 d42 locus sepulturae publice datus ex d4 d41--',to the memory of ,marcus ,alleius ,minius son of ,marcus1 of the tribe ,menenia1 duumvir with judiciary authority4 ,the place of burial was given in the name of the city by vote of the municipal council4' ,a third bench1 close to the second1 lies under a modern house and has not been uncovered4 ,further from the gate a rectangular seat1 probably belonging to the same series of monuments1 was discovered in #ahed1 it was built in memory of a certain ,clovatius1 duumvir1 as shown by a fragment of an inscription that came to light at the same time4 ,from still another tomb are reliefs with gladiatorial combats1 now in the ,naples ,museum4 ,with the exception of those near the ,herculaneum ,gate1 the most important tombs yet discovered at ,pompeii are in a group beyond the ,amphitheatre1 excavated in #ahhf-hg4 ,they are six in number1 and lie close together on both sides of a road which ran east from the ,nocera ,gate1 bending slightly to the north 7,fig4 #bdf74 ,this road was not in use in the last years of the city2 the stones of the pavement and sidewalk had been removed4 ,the monuments1 however1 were large and stately1 erected by people of means1 and the ruins are characteristic and impressive4 ,the tombs were built of common materials1 stucco being used on exposed surfaces instead of marble4 ,the simplicity of construction1 and the shapes of the letters in the election notices and other inscriptions painted on them1 suggest a relatively early date1 which is confirmed by the age of the coins found in the urns2 the monuments belong to the early decades of the ,empire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdf4--,plan of the tombs east of the ,amphitheatre4 ,the first tomb at the right 7,no4 #a on the plan7 was built in the form of a commemorative arch1 with pilasters at the corners4 ,above was a low cylinder surmounted by a truncated cone1 on which stood a terminal member in the shape of a pine cone1 found near by4 ,the cinerary urn was buried in the earth below an opening in the floor of the passage under the arch 7shown in the plan74 ,no name appears in connection with this monument4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdg4--,view of two tombs east of the ,amphitheatre4 ,that at the left is ,no4 #c on the plan2 the next is ,no4 #d4 ,another monument of the arch type1 that of ,mancius ,diogenes1 is seen on the opposite side of the street 7#e2 ,fig4 #bdh74 ,the structure is shallow1 the vaulted opening low4 ,on the top of the arch were three niches1 in which stood three travertine statues2 two of these1 both of women1 have been preserved1 and are of indifferent workmanship4 ,a marble tablet was placed in front1 over the vault1 with the inscription1 ,p4 ,mancio ,p4 liberto ,diogeni ex testamento arbitratu ,manciae ,p4 libertae ,dorinis1--',to the memory of ,publius ,mancius ,diogenes1 freedman of ,publius ,mancius2 7the monument was erected7 in accordance with the terms of his will1 under the direction of ,mancia ,doris1 freedwoman of ,publius ,mancius4' ,there is a curious ambiguity in this inscription2 we cannot tell whether ,doris1 seemingly the wife of ,diogenes1 was manumitted by the ,publius ,mancius who gave him his freedom1 or by ,diogenes himself after he had gained his freedom and was entitled to use the name ,publius ,mancius4 ,four bust stones stood in front of the tomb and two at the rear1 arranged as indicated on the plan2 those in front are seen in our illustration4 ,the tomb at the left of that just described 7#d2 ,fig4 #bdg7 is of interest as showing the result of an attempt to blend the arch type with that of the temple4 ,a passage roofed with a flat vault runs through the middle of the first story4 ,the second story had the appearance of a diminutive temple with four ,corinthian columns in front4 ,the niche representing the cella was of the full width of the tomb1 and occupied two thirds of the depth2 the other third was given to the portico4 ,four statues of tufa coated with stucco that were found here probably stood under the portico or in the intercolumniations1 where they would best be seen from below2 three were statues of men1 the fourth of a woman4 ,the arrangement of the five bust stones in the vaulted passage is indicated on the plan4 ,the three nearest the street entrance bear the name of a freedman1 ,l4 ,caesius ,l4 l4 ,logus1--',lucius ,caesius ,logus1 freedman of ,lucius ,caesius1' and of ,titia ,vesbina and ,titia ,optata1 both evidently freedwomen manumitted by a lady named ,titia4 ,we are probably safe in assuming that the two inmost stones1 without names1 are those of ,caesius and ,titia1 husband and wife1 who gave ,logus1 ,vesbina1 and ,optata their freedom1 and built the monument4 ,it was not necessary to place the names of the builders upon the commemorative stones1 because they were doubtless given in the memorial tablet in front1 which has disappeared4 ,coins of ,augustus and ,tiberius were found in the urns4 ,one tomb 7#b7 has the form of a niche1 resembling those of the two children near the end of the ,street of ,tombs 7p4 #dbe71 but larger and more costly than they4 ,the corners are embellished with three-quarter columns1 which have ,doric flutings and composite capitals4 ,on the walls at the entrance we see1 modelled in stucco1 doorposts with double doors swung back4 ,two marble bust stones1 the places of which are indicated on the plan1 show where the urns of the two most important members of the family1 ,apuleius and his wife ,veia1 were buried2 their names doubtless appeared in an inscription on the front of the monument4 ,in one of the urns was found a coin of ,tiberius of the year #aj ,a4,d4 ,the other was enclosed in a lead case1 and a lead libation tube was extended from the ashes through both covers to the surface4 ,the names of ,apuleius and ,veia are obtained from two other bust stones1 in front of the niche4 ,one reads1 ,festae ,apulei filiae vixit annos ,,xvii1--',to the memory of ,festa1 daughter of ,apuleius1 who lived seventeen years4' ,the other has simply ,conviva ,veiaes vix4 an4 ,,xx1--',conviva1 slave of ,veia1 lived twenty years4' ,an as of the time of the ,republic was found in the urn of ,conviva2 and a square tile1 the upper end of which was closed by a piece of marble1 served as a libation tube for the urn of ,festa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdh4--,two other tombs east of the ,amphitheatre4 ,nos4 #e1 #f on the plan4 ,the two remaining tombs are of the temple type1 one 7#c2 ,fig4 #bdg7 having pilasters at the corners1 the other half-columns at the corners and on the sides 7#f74 ,the first has a vaulted sepulchral chamber1 entered from the rear4 ,on the inside of the wall next the street are three low niches1 the top of which is nearly on a level with the sidewalk2 each of them contained an urn4 ,directly over the inner niches1 in the outside of the wall and opening toward the street1 are three other niches1 shown in the illustration1 in the bottom of which were libation tubes leading to the urns below4 ,relatives could thus pour their offerings of wine or oil upon the urns without entering the sepulchral chamber4 ,lava bust stones were placed against the back of the outer niches4 ,the hair on one of them is treated in a manner to indicate that a woman is represented4 ,the entrance of the tomb was closed by a large block of lava4 ,on account of the arrangement for offering libations from the outside1 it was not necessary to make the burial vault easy of access4 ,the entrance to the other tomb 7#f2 ,fig4 #bdh7 was in front1 and closed by a door of limestone4 ,it led1 not to a sepulchral chamber1 but to a stairway by which one ascended to the second story4 ,here statues were placed1 but the exact form of the upper part cannot be determined4 ,the finding of five tufa capitals suggests that the second story may have been a columnar structure1 like that of the tomb of the ,istacidii2 when the excavations are carried further east enough other fragments will perhaps be found to make a complete restoration possible4 ,one of the statues is of a man holding a roll of papyrus in his hand1 with a round manuscript case1 scrinium1 at his feet4 ,among the inscriptions painted on these tombs were two1 relating to gladiatorial combats1 which have already been mentioned 7p4 #bba74 ,one of the election notices1 oddly enough1 refers to a candidate for an office in ,nuceria3 ,l4 ,munatium ,caeserninum ,nuceriae ,,ii vir4 quinq4 v4 b4 o4 v4 f4 7for duumvirum quinquennalem1 virum bonum1 oro vos1 facite71--',make ,lucius ,caeserninus quinquennial duumvir of ,nuceria1 ,i beg of you1 he's a good man4' ,as long as the relations of the ,pompeians and ,nucerians were friendly1 the highway between the two towns was doubtless much travelled by the citizens of both places4 ,if the visitor pauses to think of the religious feeling which the ancients manifested generally in relation to their burial places1 it gives somewhat of a shock to see notices even of a semi-public character painted in bright red letters upon tombs4 ,all such inscriptions1 however1 are surpassed in ludicrous incongruity with the purpose of the monument by the following advertisement regarding a stray horse3 ,equa siquei aberavit cum semuncis honerata a4 d4 ,,vii ,kal4 ,septembres 7corrected into ,decembres71 convenito ,q4 ,decium ,q4 l4 ,hilarum 444 ,l4 l4 444 chionem1 citra pontem ,sarni fundo ,mamiano1--',if anybody lost a mare with a small pack-saddle1 ,november #be1 let him come and see ,quintus ,decius ,hilarus1 freedman of ,quintus ,decius1 or 444 7the name is illegible71 freedman of ,lucius1 on the estate of the ,mamii1 this side of the bridge over the ,sarno4' ,the two freedmen were very likely in partnership1 working a farm belonging to the family1 one representative of which we have already met1 ,mamia the priestess 7p4 #daj74 ,a more serious desecration of burial places1 after offerings to the dead ceased to be made by relatives1 or a family became extinct1 was probably not uncommon4 ,different families had different gods1 and those of one household were quite independent of those of another4 ,ordinarily a man had no reason to fear or respect the gods of his neighbor2 notwithstanding the associations of worship connected with tombs1 the general feeling toward them was very different from that manifested toward temples1 where local divinities or the great gods were worshipped4 ,the most stringent regulations of the emperors could not prevent the ransacking of the tombs about ,rome for objects of value1 and the removal of their materials of construction for building purposes4 ,the superstructure of two of the monuments near the ,herculaneum ,gate had disappeared apparently before the destruction of the city1 and of the tomb of ,porcius only the core remained4 ,,part ,v ,,pompeian ,,art ,,chapter ,,lii ,,architecture ,in the preceding pages the principal buildings of ,pompeii have been described1 and reference has been made to many works of art4 ,we shall now offer a few observations of a more general nature in regard to the remains of architecture1 sculpture1 and painting4 ,the different periods in the architectural history of the city have been defined in a previous chapter4 ,the most significant of these1 from every point of view1 is that which we have called the ,tufa ,period1 which corresponds roughly with the second century ,b4,c4 ,its importance is chiefly due to the fact that it records for us a phase of architectural development1 a style1 of which only slight traces are found elsewhere1--in the ,east4 ,it is the last offshoot of untrammelled ,hellenistic art in the field of construction2 the architecture of the following period was still derived from ,hellenistic sources1 but was dominated by ,roman conceptions1 and received from ,rome the impulse that determined the direction of its development4 ,the remains of the ,tufa ,period at ,pompeii furnish materials for a missing chapter in the history of architecture4 ,as we have seen1 the stone preferred in this period for all purposes was the gray tufa4 ,where used for columns1 pilasters1 and entablatures1 it was covered with stucco2 in plain walls it appeared in its natural color4 ,unfortunately1 the covering of stucco is preserved in only a few cases2 the best example is presented by an ,ionic capital in the first peristyle of the house of the ,faun4 ,the stucco was generally white1 but color was sometimes employed1 as in the ,corinthian columns and pilasters of the exedra in the same house1 which are painted a deep wine red4 ,no other period of ,pompeian art shows in an equal degree the impress of a single characteristic and self-consistent style1 alike in public buildings1 temples1 and private houses1 in the interior decoration as well as in the treatment of exteriors4 ,the wall decoration of the first style is simply the adaptation of tufa construction to decorative use4 ,the motives are identical4 ,the forms are the same1 but these naturally appear in a freer handling upon interior walls1 the effect being heightened by the use or imitation of slabs of marble of various colors4 ,this style throughout gives the impression of roominess and largeness4 ,it is monumental1 especially when viewed in contrast with the later architecture of ,pompeii4 ,no building erected after the city became a ,roman colony can be compared1 for ample dimensions and spatial effects1 with the ,basilica4 ,in the same class are the temples of ,jupiter and ,apollo1 with the impressive two-storied colonnades enclosing the areas on which they stand2 the contrast with the later temples1 as those of ,fortuna ,augusta and ,vespasian1 is striking4 ,all the more important houses of this period are monumental in design and proportions1 with imposing entrances1 large and lofty atriums1 and high doors opening upon the atrium2 the shops in front also were high1 and in two stories4 ,in point of detail1 the architecture of the ,tufa ,period reveals less of strength and symmetry than its stately proportions and modest material would lead us to expect4 ,the ornamentation is a debased descendant of the ,greek4 ,it is characterized by superficial elegance1 together with an apparent striving after simplicity and an ill-concealed poverty of form and color4 ,though the ornamental forms still manifest fine ,greek feeling1 they lack delicacy of modelling and vigor of expression4 ,they are taken from ,greek religious architecture1 but all appreciation of the three orders as distinct types1 each suited for a different environment1 has disappeared4 ,in consequence1 we often find a mixture of the orders1 a blending of ,doric1 ,ionic1 and ,corinthian elements2 and still more frequently do we meet with a marked departure from the original proportions4 ,thus in the court of the temple of ,apollo and in the first peristyle of the house of the ,faun we see ,ionic columns supporting a ,doric entablature2 in the house of the ,black ,wall1 ,doric columns with an ,ionic entablature4 ,the ,doric architrave1 contrary to rule1 appears divided into two stripes1 not only in the colonnade of the ,forum1 where the stripes represent a difference of material1 but also in the house of the ,faun1 where the architrave is represented as composed of single blocks reaching from column to column 7p4 #ea74 ,in the ,palaestra 7p4 #afe71 and in many private houses1 the ,doric column was lengthened1 in a way quite out of harmony with the original conception1 in order to make it conform to the prevailing desire for height and slender proportions4 ,the shaft nowhere appears with the pronounced entasis and strong diminution characteristic of the type1 and the capital has lost the breadth and graceful outline of the ,greek ,doric4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdi4--;,four-faced ,ionic capital4 ,portico of the ,forum ,triangulare4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bej4--;,capital of pilaster4 ,casa del duca d',aumale4 ,the ,ionic columns in the cella of the temple of ,jupiter 7p4 #fe7 are of the ,greek type1 with volutes on two sides2 elsewhere we find only the so-called ,roman ,ionic1 with four volutes1 a type that appears in several well defined and pleasing examples4 ,one of these1 a capital from the portico at the entrance of the ,forum ,triangulare1 is shown in ,fig4 #bdi4 ,the deep incisions of the egg-and-dart pattern1 which give the egg almost the appearance of a little ball1 is characteristic2 it is found only at ,pompeii1 and there not after the ,tufa ,period4 ,a still freer handling of the ,ionic is seen in the capital of a pilaster in the casa del duca d',aumale 7,fig4 #bej74 ,the ,corinthian capital appears in the usual forms1 but the projecting parts are shallow1 on account of the lack of resisting qualities in the stone4 ,the best examples are the capitals of the columns and pilasters of the exedra in the house of the ,faun4 ,the workmanship here is fine1 the realistic treatment of the acanthus leaves being especially noteworthy4 ,an interesting series of variations from the normal type is seen in the capitals of the pilasters at house entrances2 we have already met with a striking example of this series1 ornamented with projecting busts of human figures 7,fig4 #agh74 ,the design is often so fantastic that the essential character of the ,corinthian capital seems entirely lost sight of4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bea4--;,altar in the court of the temple of ,zeus ,milichius4 ,the entablatures of the temples built in the ,tufa ,period1 as of those erected in later times1 have all perished4 ,the entablatures of the colonnades1 however1 are at least in part well preserved in a number of instances1 and are of two types1 the ,doric1 characterized by the use of triglyphs1 and the ,ionic1 distinguished by the dentils of the cornice4 ,both types are found also in the wall decoration1 the first rarely1 the second very frequently4 ,on the altar of the temple of ,zeus ,milichius1 which is of tufa coated with stucco1 the ,doric entablature appears in association with the characteristic decoration of the first style1 the imitation of large blocks of marble2 on the top are terminal volutes of ,ionic origin1 as generally upon ,roman altars and altar-shaped tombs 7,fig4 #bea74 ,on walls decorated in the first style1 however1 only ,ionic entablatures are seen1--sometimes even twice upon the same wall1 as in the example shown in ,fig4 #abb4 ,from this we infer that in the temple construction of the ,tufa ,period1 the simple and elegant ,ionic entablature was the prevailing type4 ,notwithstanding its free adaption of ,greek forms1 the ,tufa ,period availed itself very sparingly of polychrome decoration for architectural members4 ,the stucco of the ,ionic capital in the house of the ,faun is white2 white likewise are most of the capitals of pilasters found in the houses1 and also the numerous ,ionic cornices on the walls4 ,there are1 nevertheless1 scanty traces of the application of color4 ,in the wall decoration of the house of ,sallust we find a ,doric frieze with the metopes painted red4 ,the frieze under the ,ionic cornices on the walls also is usually made prominent with color1--red1 yellow1 or blue2 and a red frieze is seen in the peristyle of the house of the ,black ,wall1 above the pilasters of the garden wall4 ,the lower stripe of the painted architrave in the house of the ,faun1 already referred to1 is yellow4 ,it seems probable that in some cases color was applied to the projecting figures of the peculiar capitals used in houses2 at the time of excavation1 traces of coloring were distinctly seen upon those belonging to the alae of the house of ,epidius ,rufus 7p4 #cji74 ,the exposed capitals at the entrances 7,fig4 #agh71 if originally painted1 would naturally have lost all traces of the coloring before the destruction of the city1 unless it were from time to time renewed4 ,notwithstanding these exceptions1 we must conclude that the stucco coating upon public buildings and temples was generally white1 in the case of capitals and cornices as well as of the shafts of columns and outside walls2 colors were used to a limited extent1 upon friezes and perhaps other parts of entablatures4 ,the architectural remains of the half century immediately succeeding the ,tufa ,period1 between the founding of the ,roman colony at ,pompeii and the establishment of the ,empire1 present nothing specially characteristic outside of the peculiarities of construction mentioned in ,chap4 #f4 ,in the earlier years of the ,empire1 the ,pompeians1 as ,roman subjects everywhere1 commenced to build temples and colonnades of marble4 ,the style1 which was distinctively ,roman1 can be studied to better advantage elsewhere2 the remains at ,pompeii are relatively unimportant1 and the chief points of interest have been mentioned in connection with our study of individual buildings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beb4--;,capitals of columns1 showing variations from typical forms4 ,a4 ,ornate ,doric1 from the house of ,sallust4 ,b4 ,modified ,corinthian4 ,c4 ,fantastic ,corinthian4 ,the stylistic development of ,roman architecture in the next period1--the gradual transition from the simplicity of the ,augustan ,age to the more elaborate ornamentation of the ,flavian ,era1--is marked by two opposing tendencies1 one conservative1 holding to the traditions of marble construction1 the other reactionary4 ,the latter tendency manifests itself so strongly at ,pompeii that it merits special comment4 ,first in the ,east1 it appears1 men wearied of seeing the ornamental forms of the ,greek religious architecture repeated over and over again in every kind of building1 and attempted to break away from them entirely4 ,the reaction reached ,italy in the earlier years of the ,empire1 and began to exert an influence upon ornamental forms1 especially of domestic architecture1 at the time when the third style of wall decoration was coming into vogue4 ,at ,pompeii1 this revolt from tradition affected not only the ornamentation of private houses1 but also that of public buildings1 as the ,stabian ,baths1 and even of temples1 as those of ,apollo and ,isis1 rebuilt after the earthquake of the year #fc4 ,greek forms were replaced by fantastic designs of every sort1 worked in stucco4 ,the capitals of columns and pilasters retained a semblance of ,doric and ,corinthian types1 but were adorned with motives from many sources2 the variety of form and treatment can best be appreciated by inspecting the examples shown in our illustrations 7,figs4 #bdb1 #bec1 #bed74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bec4--;,capital of pilaster1 modified ,corinthian type4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bed4--;,capitals of pilasters1 showing free adaptations of the ,corinthian type4 ,the entablatures no longer retained the ancient division of architrave1 frieze1 and cornice1 but were made to represent a single broad stripe1 sometimes1 however1 with a projecting cornice2 this stripe was ornamented with stucco reliefs1 and was frequently painted in bright colors4 ,sometimes the decorative theme is taken from a vine1 as in the entablature of the portico in front of the temple of ,isis 7,fig4 #hj7 and that of the peristyle of the house of the ,vettii 7,fig4 #afa74 ,in some cases the stripe is divided into vertical sections2 the broad sections correspond with the intercolumniations1 the narrow ones with the spaces above the columns2 and the ornamental design is varied accordingly1 as in the palaestra of the ,stabian ,baths 7p4 #aih71 the court of the temple of ,apollo 7,fig4 #ca71 and the peristyle of the house of the ,silver ,wedding4 ,in many instances the background is white1 frequently part of the details of ornament as well2 but colors were freely used1 particularly red1 blue1 and yellow1 in all parts of the entablature4 ,the lower third of the columns also was painted a bright red or yellow--a treatment that would have been abhorrent to the taste of the ,tufa ,period4 ,the desire for variety and brilliancy of color increased1 and was more pronounced in the years immediately preceding the eruption than at any previous time4 ,consistently with this change in the standard of taste in regard to details1 the ,pompeians no longer had pleasure in the ample dimensions of the olden time4 ,houses were not now built with high rooms1 great doorways1 and lofty columns as in the ,tufa ,period4 ,the rooms were smaller and lower1 and also1 we may add1 more homelike4 ,but curiously enough1 the columns were often made thick as well as short1 doubtless in order to afford more space for the display of color on the capitals and the lower part of the shaft4 ,roman public and religious architecture in most cities still adhered to the forms of marble construction1 a suggestion of which we find in the white walls of the temple of ,isis2 but the lower third of the columns in the colonnade about this temple was painted red1 and the entablature was no doubt ornamented with colored designs1 as was that of the temple of ,apollo4 ,the best preserved example of this last phase of ,pompeian architectural ornamentation is in the semicircular vaulted niche at the right of the ,street of ,tombs4 ,thus we see accomplished at ,pompeii1 in less than two centuries1 a complete revolution in matters of taste1 so far as relates to architecture4 ,an entirely new feeling has been developed4 ,the beauty of contour and of symmetrical proportion found in the ,greek architecture had no charm for the ,pompeian of the later time2 its place had been usurped by a different form of beauty1 that produced by the use of a variety of brilliant colors in association with forms that were intricate1 and often grotesque4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi4--,,artemis4 ,,copy ,,of ,,an ,,archaic ,,work ,,chapter ,,liii ,,sculpture ,the open squares and public buildings of ,pompeii were peopled with statues4 ,the visitor who walked about the ,forum in the years immediately preceding the eruption1 saw on all sides the forms of the men of past generations who had rendered service to the city1 as well as those of men of his own time4 ,besides the five colossal images of emperors and members of the imperial families1 places were provided in the ,forum for between seventy and eighty life size equestrian statues2 and behind each of these was room for a standing figure4 ,whether all the places were occupied cannot now be determined1 but from the sepulchral inscription of ,umbricius ,scaurus 7p4 #dah7 it is clear that as late as the time of ,claudius or ,nero1 there was yet room for another equestrian figure4 ,statues were placed also in the ,forum ,triangulare and occasionally at the sides of the streets4 ,in the portico of the ,macellum were twenty-five statues2 the sanctuary of the ,city ,lares contained eight1 while the portico of the ,eumachia building furnished places for twenty-one4 ,but only one of the hundreds of statues erected in honor of worthy citizens has been preserved1 that of ,holconius ,rufus1 the rebuilder of the ,large ,theatre2 the figure was dressed in the uniform of a military tribune1 and stood on ,abbondanza ,street near the ,stabian ,baths4 ,with this should be classed the portrait statues in the temple of ,fortuna 7p4 #aca71 and those of ,octavia 7,fig4 #ch71 ,marcellus 7,fig4 #ci71 and ,eumachia4 ,the statue of ,eumachia is an interesting example of the ordinary portrait sculpture of the ,early ,empire 7,fig4 #bee74 ,the pose is by no means ungraceful1 the treatment of the drapery is modest and effective4 ,the tranquil and thoughtful face is somewhat idealized1 and without offensive emphasis of details4 ,the statue is not a masterpiece2 nevertheless1 it gives us a pleasant impression of the lady whose generosity placed the fullers under obligation1 and affords an insight into the artistic resources of the city4 ,a number of portrait statues belonging to sepulchral monuments were found when the tombs east of the ,amphitheatre were excavated 7,chap4 #ea74 ,most of them are of tufa covered with stucco2 the rest are of fine-grained limestone4 ,from the aesthetic point of view they are valueless4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bee4--,statue of the priestess ,eumachia4 ,sculptured portraits of a different type were set up in private houses4 ,relatives1 freedmen1 and even slaves sometimes placed at the rear of the atrium1 near the entrance of the tablinum1 a herm of the master of the house4 ,at each side of the square pillar supporting the bust1 there was usually an arm-like projection 7seen on the herm of ,cornelius ,rufus1 ,fig4 #aba71 on which garlands were hung upon birthdays and other anniversary occasions4 ,both the herm of ,rufus and that of ,vesonius ,primus previously mentioned 7p4 #cif7 are of marble2 the head belonging to the herm of ,sorex 7p4 #agf7 is of bronze4 ,the most striking of the portrait herms is that of ,lucius ,caecilius ,jucundus 7,fig4 #bef71 which was set up in duplicate1 for the sake of symmetrical arrangement1 in the atrium of his house on ,stabian ,street4 ,the pillar is of marble2 the dedication reads ,genio ,lucii nostri ,felix libertus1--',felix1 freedman1 to the ,genius of our ,lucius4' ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bef4--,portrait herm of ,caecilius ,jucundus4 ,the bust1 of bronze1 is modelled with realistic vigor4 ,there is no attempt to soften the prominent and almost repulsive features by idealization4 ,we see the ,pompeian auctioneer just as he was1 a shrewd1 alert1 energetic man1 with somewhat of a taste for art1 and more for the good things of life1--a man who would bear watching in a financial transaction4 ,houses were adorned also with heads and busts of famous men of the past1--poets1 philosophers1 and statesmen4 ,an extensive collection of historical portraits was discovered at ,herculaneum1 but ,pompeii thus far has not yielded many examples4 ,in a room in one of the houses was found a group of three marble heads1 about one half life size1 representing ,epicurus1 ,demosthenes1 and apparently the ,alexandrian poet ,callimachus1 whose works were particularly valued in the time of the ,early ,empire4 ,the identification of the third head is not certain1 but whether ,callimachus or some other poet is intended1 the group reveals the direction of the owner's literary tastes2 he was interested in philosophy1 oratory1 and poetry4 ,two portrait busts of distinguished men1 which evidently belong together1 were found in another house1 laid one side4 ,in the ,naples ,museum they bore the names of the ,younger ,brutus and ,pompey1 but both identifications are erroneous2 the features in neither case agree with the representations upon coins4 ,the faces1 as shown by the physiognomy and the treatment of the hair1 are those of ,romans of the end of the ,republic or the beginning of the ,empire4 ,recently a new identification has been proposed which has much in its favor4 ,it rests chiefly upon the resemblance of one of the busts to the mosaic portrait of ,virgil1 discovered in #ahif at ,susa1 in ,africa4 ,the full1 round face of the other agrees very well with what we know of the appearance of ,horace4 ,it may be that we have here a pair of poets1 the two most prominent of the ,augustan ,age4 ,frequently the gardens of the peristyles1 as those of the houses of the ,vettii and of ,lucretius1 were profusely adorned with sculptures of all kinds4 ,we find in them statuettes1 herms1 small figures of animals1 and diminutive groups4 ,figures derived from the myths of the bacchic cycle1 ,bacchus1 ,silenus1 satyrs1 and bacchantes1 are particularly common4 ,the artistic value is slight2 among the best examples is the double bust1 with ,bacchus on one side and a bacchante on the other1 found in the garden of the house of the ,vettii 7,fig4 #beg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beg4--;,double bust1 ,bacchus and bacchante4 ,garden of the house of the ,vettii4 ,characteristic among these sculptures are the figures designed for the adornment of fountains2 a number of them are exhibited in the ,museum at ,naples4 ,bacchic figures are met with most frequently4 ,a good example is the marble ,silenus in the garden of the house of ,lucretius2 the water spurts from the opening in the wineskin which the old man carries4 ,the design of the small bronze satyr in the peristyle of the house of the ,centenary is more pleasing2 an opening in the wineskin1 held under the left arm1 cast a jet against the outstretched right hand in such a way that the water was thrown back upon the satyr's body4 ,fountains were adorned also with genre groups and animal forms4 ,we have already noticed the two bronze groups in the peristyle of the house of the ,vettii1 each representing a boy holding a duck1 from the bill of which sprang a jet of water 7,fig4 #afb74 ,the largest collection of animal forms was about the basin in the middle peristyle of the house of the ,citharist2 it comprised two dogs1 a boar1 a lion1 a deer1 and a snake1 each throwing a jet into the basin below4 ,the fountain jets1 however1 were not in all cases so closely related to the ornamental pieces4 ,a number of those in the house of the ,vettii sprang from lead pipes near the figures4 ,the familiar bronze statue of the seated fisherman1 in the ,naples ,museum1 belonged to a fountain1 in which the jet was thrown forward1 not from the figure1 but from the mouth of a mask projecting from the stump on which the fisherman sits4 ,of the statues of divinities set up for worship in the temples1 there are unfortunately but few remains4 ,the most important fragment is the head of ,jupiter1 discussed in a previous chapter 7,fig4 #bb74 ,three wretched terra cotta statues of the gods of the ,capitol were found1 as we have seen1 in the temple of ,zeus ,milichius2 and mention has been made also of the herms and other specimens of sculpture in the courts of the temples of ,apollo and ,isis1 and in the palaestra4 ,more numerous than any other class of sculptures1 however1 are the small bronze images of tutelary divinities preserved in the domestic shrines4 ,these are of interest rather from the light which they shed on the practices of domestic worship than from their excellence as works of art1 and it seems unnecessary to add anything here to what has already been said in regard to them in the chapter dealing with the arrangements of the ,pompeian house4 ,but occasionally there were large domestic shrines1 in which statues of merit were placed2 among these are two worthy of mention4 ,in the corner of a garden belonging to a house in the first ,region 7,i4 ii4 #ag7 is a shrine faced with white marble1 in which was a small marble statue of ,aphrodite1 partly supported by a figure commonly identified as ,hope1 ,spes4 ,the carving is in no way remarkable1 but the statue is of interest on account of the well preserved coloring applied to the eyes1 hair1 and dress4 ,the group is now in the ,naples ,museum4 ,a more important example1 from the aesthetic point of view1 is the statue of ,artemis1 of one half life size1 shown in ,plate ,,xi4 ,it was found in a house near the ,amphitheatre which was excavated in #agfj and covered up again4 ,it is a careful copy1 made in the time of ,augustus1 of a ,greek masterpiece produced in the period of the ,persian ,wars4 ,the original was probably the ,artemis ,laphria mentioned by ,pausanias4 ,this was a work of ,menaechmus and ,soedas1 two sculptors of ,naupactus4 ,previous to the battle of ,actium it stood in a sanctuary in ,calydon1 whence it was removed by ,augustus1 who presented it to the colony founded by him at ,patras4 ,the goddess appears in this statue as a huntress1 moving forward with a firm but light step2 the bow in the left hand has disappeared4 ,the copyist was remarkably successful in impressing upon his work the gracious and pleasing character of the original2 the later archaic ,greek art1 in spite of its conventions1 is full of human feeling4 ,the copy preserved also the coloring of the model2 but the tinting of the ,roman colorist was probably less delicate than that of the ,greek limner who added the polychrome decoration to the marble original4 ,the hair was yellow4 ,the pupils of the eyes were brown1 the eyelashes and eyebrows black4 ,the rosettes of the diadem were yellow1 and the border of the outer garment was richly variegated in tints of yellow1 rose color1 and white4 ,traces of rose-colored stripes are visible also about the openings of the sleeves1 on the edge of the mantle at the neck1 and on the border of the chiton4 ,besides the bronze statues of ,apollo and ,artemis already mentioned 7pp4 #hh1 #ceb71 four others of those found at ,pompeii are worthy of more than passing notice1--the dancing satyr from which the house of the ,faun received its name1 the small ,silenus used as a standard for a vase1 the so-called ,narcissus and the ,ephebus found in #aijj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beh4--;,dancing ,faun4 ,bronze statuette1 now in the ,naples ,museum4 ,the dancing satyr is shown in ,fig4 #beh4 ,it was found lying on the floor of the atrium in the house of the ,faun1 but the pedestal could not be identified4 ,the figure is instinct with rhythmic motion4 ,every muscle of the satyr's sinewy frame is in tension as he moves forward in the dance1 snapping his fingers to keep time2 the pose is a marvel of skill4 ,the unhuman character of the half-brute is indicated by the horns projecting from the forehead1 and the pointed ears4 ,the face1 marked by low cunning1 offers no suggestion of lofty thought or moral sense4 ,we have here the personification of unalloyed physical enjoyment4 ,the satyr1 unvexed by any care or qualm of conscience1 is intoxicated with the joy of free movement1 and dances on and on1 unwearied1 with perfect ease and grace4 ,muscular tension is skilfully indicated in the ,silenus1 who stands holding above his head with his left hand a round frame1 in which1 as shown by the fragments1 a vase of colored glass was standing at the time of the eruption4 ,the head1 crowned with ivy1 leans forward and to the right1 and the right hand is moved away from the body in the effort to balance the weight supported by the left4 ,the frame is awkwardly designed to represent a snake4 ,the thick-set figure of ,silenus is about sixteen inches high4 ,this bronze was discovered in #ahfd1 in the house of ,popidius ,priscus 7,,vii4 ii4 #bj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bei4--,listening ,dionysus1 wrongly identified as ,narcissus4 ,bronze statuette in the ,naples ,museum4 ,the third of the bronzes mentioned is also a statuette1 about two feet high 7,fig4 #bei74 ,it was found in #ahfc in a house of the seventh ,region 7,,vii4 xii4 #ba74 ,the figure is that of a youth of remarkable beauty4 ,the face wears an expression of childlike innocence and pleasure4 ,the head leans forward in the attitude of listening2 the index finger of the right hand is extended1 and the graceful pose is that of one who catches the almost inaudible sound of a distant voice4 ,the name ,narcissus1 given to the figure by ,fiorelli immediately upon its discovery1 is surely wrong2 that unhappy youth did not reciprocate the love of the nymph ,echo1 and could not have been imagined with so cheerful a face4 ,the figure has also been called ,pan1 from a myth in which ,pan and ,echo appear together2 but the characteristic attributes are lacking1 and the rough god of the shepherds would not have been represented in so lithe and graceful a form4 ,this beautiful youth1 with an ivy crown upon his head and elaborate coverings for the feet1 and with the skin of a doe hanging over his shoulder1 is none other than ,dionysus himself4 ,the mirthful god of the vine is not playing with his panther--the base is too small to have been designed for two figures1 and the attitude of listening is not consistent with this interpretation4 ,the youthful divinity has fixed his attention upon some distant sound1--the cries of the bacchantes upon some mountain height1 or the laughter of naiads in a shady glen4 ,of unusual interest is the bronze statue of an ephebus1 discovered in ,november1 #aijj1 outside the city on the north side1 about a hundred paces from the ,vesuvius ,gate2 it was laid away in an upper room of a house presenting nothing else worthy of note4 ,it is apparently a ,greek original1 and is of three-quarters life size 7,fig4 #bfj74 ,the statue represents a youth about fourteen years of age1 of slender but well-developed form1 and finely chiselled features4 ,advancing with firm but graceful step1 he rests the right foot1 and is bringing the left foot forward4 ,in his right hand1 extended1 he carried some object--a branch1 it may be1 or a crown1 which was to be laid upon an altar2 the eye naturally follows the movement of the hand4 ,especially effective is the rhythmic movement of the body4 ,the right thigh1 sustained by the resting foot1 is carried slightly forward2 the chest on the left side swings back1 while in consequence of the extension of the right hand the shoulders remain horizontal4 ,notwithstanding the felicity of the pose1 it must be confessed that the modelling as a whole is somewhat lacking in vigor1 the treatment of details being superficial4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfj4--;,bronze youth4 ,naples ,museum4 ,in ,greece1 before it was carried off to ,italy1 the figure may have been set up as a votive offering in some sanctuary1 or have stood in a gymnasium4 ,from indications on the under side of the feet it is clear that the statue1 after the manner in vogue in ,greece1 was mounted on a stone pedestal1 being joined to the pedestal with melted lead2 the round bronze base found with it is of ,italian origin4 ,probably when it was being transported from ,greece the eyes1 of marble1 became loose in their sockets and fell down into the hollow interior of the statue2 they were replaced by glass eyes4 ,the breaking of the right arm1 which was severed when found1 made possible the recovery of the original eyes1 which have now again been set in place4 ,insensible to the charm of the figure when seen as the sculptor designed it1 the ,pompeian owner1 deciding to turn it to practical use1 converted it into a lampholder4 ,in the right hand was placed a short bar of bronze1 to either end of which was fastened a small ornament with a projecting arm1 for a hanging lamp2 the whole statue was then coated with silver4 ,however barbarous the taste that prompted the transformation1 the decorative effect of the silvered statue with its lighted lamps must have been far from unpleasant4 ,regarding the place of the statue in relation to the development of ,greek sculpture1 it is yet too early to speak4 ,had the ruins of ,pompeii not been systematically searched1 after the disaster1 for works of art and other objects of value1 they would have yielded a far richer store of sculptures4 ,but while the specimens recovered add little to our knowledge of types1 they give a new insight into the application of the sculptor's art in antiquity to the beautifying of the surroundings of everyday life4 ,,chapter ,,liv ,,painting4--,,wall ,,decoration ,the inner walls of houses and public buildings at ,pompeii were plastered1 and usually decorated with colors2 only storerooms1 kitchens1 and apartments designed for the use of slaves were left in the white4 ,outer walls were as a rule plastered1 except when built of hewn stone1 a kind of construction not employed after the ,tufa ,period4 ,stucco was occasionally used on facades of ashlar work where special ornamentation seemed to be needed1 as at the entrance of the house of the ,faun2 and in later times1 now and then1 a front with reticulate or brick facing was left unplastered4 ,previous to the time of ,augustus the stucco coating of outer walls ordinarily remained uncolored4 ,afterwards color was employed1 but only to a limited extent1 as in the addition of a dark base to a wall the rest of which remained white4 ,the painting upon ,pompeian walls1 as shown by the painstaking investigations of ,otto ,donner1 was fresco1 that is1 executed in water colors upon the moist stucco of a freshly plastered surface4 ,the method of preparing the wall was less elaborate than that recommended by ,vitruvius1 who advises the use of seven coats of plaster1 first a rough coat1 then three of sand mortar and three of stucco made with powdered marble1 each coat being finer than the one preceding4 ,in the better rooms1 however1 we find upon the walls at least one1 often several1 layers of sand mortar1 and one or more coats of marble stucco2 the entire thickness of the plastering varies from two to three inches4 ,in unfinished or neglected rooms walls are sometimes found with a single coat of sand mortar4 ,occasionally powdered brick was used in the stucco as a substitute for marble dust4 ,plastering so thick as that ordinarily used must have remained moist for a considerable length of time1 much longer than the plastering of our day2 yet it could not have retained its moisture long enough to complete the painting of an entire wall as one piece4 ,walls which are elaborately decorated sometimes show traces of a seam1 where a moist section was laid on next to one that had already become partially dry4 ,when the decorative design included pictures1 usually the divisions and borders and other decorative elements were finished rapidly while the surface was moist2 then a square or round hole was cut where a picture was to be inserted1 and filled with fresh stucco1 on which the picture was painted4 ,in this way a carefully executed painting could be set in a wall already dry4 ,in the last years of the city pictures were sometimes painted on the dry surface of a wall that had previously received its decorative framework2 some of the figures seen in the middle of the large panels furnish examples of this method of work4 ,a size of some kind must have been used in such cases1 but chemical analysis thus far has failed to determine its nature4 ,the distemper painting was much less durable than the fresco1 the colors of which became fixed with the hardening of the wall4 ,sometimes1 as in the house of ,lucretius1 the place of paintings upon stucco was taken by paintings upon wood1 the wooden panels being let into the wall4 ,as these panels were thin and lacked durability1 we may perhaps believe that the paintings which they contained were of inferior quality4 ,the artistic value of ,pompeian painting varies from the routine work of indifferent decorators to pictures of genuine merit1 such as those found in the house of the ,tragic ,poet1 the house of the ,vettii1 and the house of ,castor and ,pollux4 ,viewed as a whole1 the wall decoration has a peculiar interest for us2 it not only richly illustrates the application of painting by the ancients to decorative uses1 but also affords a striking example of the evolution of decorative designs from simple architectural motives to intricate patterns1 in which the scheme of coloring is hardly less complicated than that of the ornamental forms4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the four styles of wall decoration were briefly characterized in the ,introduction1 in connection with our survey of the periods of construction4 ,it now remains to illustrate these by typical examples and to trace their inner connection4 ,we are here concerned only with the decorative designs1 or ornamental framework of the walls2 the paintings1 which formed the centre of interest in the later styles1 are reserved for consideration in a separate chapter4 ,the development of ancient wall decoration came comparatively late1 after the art of painting1 in the hands of the ,greek masters1 had reached and passed its climax4 ,yet we know almost nothing in regard to the earlier stages4 ,apparently the system which we find at ,pompeii originated in the period following the death of ,alexander the ,great1 and received its impulse of development from the contact of ,greece with the ,orient4 ,but whatever the origin1 from the time to which the earliest specimens at ,pompeii belong--the second century ,b4,c4--to the destruction of the city1 we can trace an uninterrupted development1 which1 nevertheless1 comes to an end in the latter part of the first century ,a4,d4 ,the decline is characterized by increasing poverty of design1 with feeble imitation of past styles4 ,just as it is setting in1 however1 extant examples become rare4 ,some specimens of the wall decoration of later times1 as of the period of the ,antonines and the reign of ,septimius ,severus1 are preserved1 but they are isolated and not sufficient in number to enable us to follow the stages of the decline4 ,thus it happens that the only period in the history of ancient wall decoration in regard to which we have the materials for a full and satisfactory study1 is the period exemplified in the remains at ,pompeii1 the chronological sequence of which extends over two centuries4 ,the oldest houses1 those belonging to the ,period of the ,limestone ,atriums 7p4 #ci71 have preserved no traces of wall decoration beyond the limited application of white stucco4 ,the remains of the decoration of the ,tufa ,period are fairly abundant1 and are well preserved on account of the excellent quality of the stucco to which the colors were applied4 ,they belong to the first or ,incrustation ,style4 ,a good example has already been given1 the end wall of a bedroom in the house of the ,centaur 7,fig4 #abb72 we present here1 for more detailed examination1 the left wall of the atrium in the house of ,sallust 7,fig4 #bfa74 ,notwithstanding the lack of color in our illustration1 the divisions of the wall are plainly seen--a dado1 painted yellow2 a relatively low middle division1 the upper edge of which is set off by a projecting cornice2 and an upper part reaching from the first cornice1 which appears in three sections on account of the doors1 to the second4 ,the surface of the main part of the wall is moulded in stucco to represent slabs or blocks with bevelled edges1 which are painted in imitation of different kinds of marble4 ,above the high double doors opening into rooms connected with the atrium1 frames of lattice-work for the admission of air and light have been assumed in our restoration4 ,the dado in the ,incrustation ,style is generally treated as a separate member2 in rare instances the imitation of marble blocks is extended to the floor4 ,it has a smooth surface and is painted a bright color1 usually yellow2 there is no suggestion of the practice of later times1 which gave a darker color to the base than to the rest of the wall4 ,this independent handling is undoubtedly to be explained as a survival from a previous decorative system1 in which the lower part of the wall1 as at ,tiryns1 was protected by a baseboard2 the conventional yellow color with which it is painted1 as in the case of the lower stripe of the ,doric architrave in the house of the ,faun 7p4 #ea71 is a reminiscence of the use of wood4 ,the upper edge of the dado was ordinarily distinguished by a smooth1 narrow projecting band or fillet4 ,the blocks moulded in slight relief upon the main part of the wall are of different sizes4 ,in our illustration we see first a series of three large slabs1 which are painted black4 ,above these are three narrow blocks of magenta4 ,the rest present a considerable variety of size and color1 until we reach those just under the cornice1 which again are all of the same shade1 magenta4 ,the cornice in this style is always of the ,ionic type1 with dentils4 ,in many cases1 as that of the bedroom in the house of the ,centaur1 it serves as an upper border for the decoration1 the wall above being unpainted4 ,sometimes1 however1 the imitation of marble is carried above the cornice1 the wall surface being divided to represent smoothly joined blocks without bevelled edges1 or painted in plain masses of color separated by a narrow white stripe1 as in the atrium of the house of ,sallust4 ,above these brilliant panels we see in ,fig4 #bfa a second cornice of simple design2 the wall between this cornice and the ceiling was left without decoration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfa4--,wall decoration in the atrium of the house of ,sallust4 ,first or ,incrustation ,style4 ,this system made no provision for paintings2 their place was taken in the general scheme of decoration by elaborate mosaic pictures upon the floor4 ,the taste of the age evidently preferred representations in mosaic2 otherwise the painting of pictures upon the walls1 which was brought to so high a degree of perfection by ,polygnotus and his contemporaries1 would not have been abandoned4 ,the ,incrustation ,style1 as exemplified at ,pompeii1 is in a secondary stage2 it must have been worked out originally in genuine materials1 at a time when walls were actually veneered1 to a certain height1 with slabs of various kinds of marble1 cut and arranged to represent ashlar work2 above the cornice marking the upper edge of the veneering1 the surface was left in the white4 ,the use of different varieties of marble points to an active commercial intercourse between the countries about the ,mediterranean ,sea1 such as first became possible after the conquests of ,alexander4 ,so characteristic a style1 requiring the use of costly materials1 could only have been developed in an important centre of wealth and culture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfb4--;,distribution of colors in the section of wall represented in ,fig4 #bfa4 ,in view of all the circumstances1 we are probably safe in concluding that the ,incrustation ,style originated in ,alexandria1 in the third century ,b4,c4 ,from ,alexandria it spread to other cities of the ,east and ,west1 stucco being used in imitation of marble1 where marble could not be procured2 scanty remains similar to those at ,pompeii1 and of approximately the same period--the second century ,b4,c4--have been found at ,pergamon1 on the island of ,delos1 and lately in ,priene4 ,this style represents for us the wall decoration of the ,hellenistic age4 ,it is characterized by the same poverty of form and obvious striving after simplicity which we have noticed in the architecture of the ,tufa ,period4 ,the projecting cornice above the body of the wall is always of the same type2 yet the second century ,b4,c4 enjoyed a rich heritage of architectural forms1 and lack of variety in this and other details of ornamentation was due1 not to dearth of materials1 but to the prevailing taste4 ,the earliest known example of the decoration of the second or ,architectural ,style1 is on the walls of the ,small ,theatre1 which was built soon after #hj ,b4,c4 ,the style remained in vogue till the middle of the reign of ,augustus2 it may be loosely characterized as the wall decoration of the first century ,b4,c4 ,it shows an interesting development from simpler to richer and more complex forms4 ,the more elaborate and finished designs are not so well exemplified at ,pompeii as in ,rome1 where two beautiful series have been found1 both dating from the earlier part of the reign of ,augustus4 ,one series is in the so-called house of ,livia or ,germanicus on the ,palatine4 ,the other was found in a house on the right bank of the ,tiber1 excavated in #ahgh2 the paintings were removed to the new ,museo delle ,terme4 ,the specimen shown in ,plate ,,xii1 however1 is from a ,pompeian wall2 the room in which it was found opens off from the peristyle of a house in the fifth ,region 7,v4 i4 #ah74 ,the oldest walls of the second style closely resemble those of the first1 with this characteristic difference3 the imitation of marble veneering is no longer produced with the aid of relief2 color alone is employed1 upon a plane surface1 as in the cella of the temple of ,jupiter 7,fig4 #bj74 ,the earlier division of the wall into three parts is retained1 but the painted cornice1 no longer restricted to the dentil type1 appears in a variety of forms4 ,the base also is treated with greater freedom4 ,frequently it is painted in strong projection1 as if the rest of the wall above it were further from the eye1 while upon the shelf thus formed are painted columns reaching to the ceiling and seemingly in front of the main part of the wall2 such columns and pillars1 with ,corinthian capitals1 are seen in ,plate ,,xii1 at the right and the left4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii4--,,specimen ,,of ,,wall ,,decoration4 ,,second ,,or ,,architectural ,,style4 ,thus the designs of this style at first comprised only simple elements1 a wall made up of painted blocks or panels with a dado painted in projection supporting columns that seemed to carry an architrave on which the ceiling rested2 there is an excellent example in the house of the ,labyrinth1 on the walls of a room at the rear of the garden4 ,but the designs gradually became more complex1 partly through the differentiation of the simple elements1 partly through the introduction of new motives1 until a complete architectural system was developed4 ,this system differs from that of the fourth style1 which is also architectural1 in that it adheres in the main to actual or possible structural forms1 while those of the fourth style are fantastic in their proportions and arrangement4 ,in this process of development two clearly defined tendencies become manifest1 one affecting the treatment of the upper division of the wall1 the other the elaboration of a characteristic motive which now first appears1 a framework for the principal painting2 for architectural designs are well adapted for the display of pictures1 and wall paintings now begin to have a prominent place in ,pompeian decoration4 ,the upper division tends more and more to be represented as an open space1 behind the plane of projection in which the main part appears4 ,thus in ,plate ,,xii we see on either side a silver vase with fruits and vine leaves1 standing on the cornice of the main wall1 in the open4 ,often the upper space is painted blue1 as if one caught a glimpse of the sky above the wall2 sometimes the outline of a wall further beyond is seen1 or columns in the rear connected with those in front by a decorative framework2 and not infrequently small architectural designs1 in perspective1 rest upon the cornice where the vases are shown in our plate4 ,but in all the designs of this style1 complex as well as simple1 the threefold division of the wall carried over from the first style is retained2 very often the distinction between the base1 main wall1 and upper portion is emphasized by painting them so that they seem to be in three planes of projection4 ,the ornamental framework for the painting1 consistently with the architectural character of the decoration as a whole1 is generally conceived as a pavilion projecting from the wall2 so in ,plate ,,xii1 where we see two columns sustaining a roof1 upon the front of which winged figures stand1 each with a hand extended upward to the entablature of the large pillars at the sides4 ,the design of the pavilion is suggested by that of a shrine1 such a shrine as the one in the apse of the sanctuary of the ,city ,lares 7,fig4 #da74 ,this conception is here borne out by the subject of the painting1 which represents a statue of ,dionysus resting1 ivy-crowned1 with a thyrsus in his left hand2 the right hand is thrown gracefully over the head1 and at the feet of the god the lifelike figure of a panther is seen4 ,the round high pedestal supporting the group is in the open1 and the background affords a charming vista among the trees4 ,this framing of the principal painting led further to the division of the body of the wall vertically into three sections1 a broad central section1 included within the outline of the pavilion1 and two panels1 one at each side4 ,the arrangement is well illustrated in our plate1 the side panels of which are adorned with painted statues of tastefully draped figures1 one of them holding a lyre4 ,the later styles of decoration retained this symmetrical division of the wall space1 which made prominent the picture of greatest interest without detracting from the finish of the decorative setting2 but in the fourth style it is often obscured by the intricacy of the designs4 ,the third style came into vogue during the reign of ,augustus1 and was prevalent until about #ej ,a4,d42 we shall call it the ,ornate ,style1 from its free use of ornament4 ,it was developed out of the second style in the same way that the second style was developed out of the first2 but the transition was not accomplished at ,pompeii1 which1 like the provincial cities of our day1 received its fashions from the great centres4 ,the characteristics of the ,ornate ,style1 as regards both the main design and the ornamentation1 may easily be perceived from the example presented in ,fig4 #bfc1 especially if this is viewed in contrast with the specimen of the preceding style shown in ,plate ,,xii4 ,the architectural design has now lost all semblance of real construction4 ,columns1 entablatures1 and other members are treated conventionally1 as subordinate parts of a decorative scheme2 they are1 with few exceptions1 reduced to narrow bands or stripes of color dividing the surface of the wall4 ,the elaborate border of the central painting suggests a pavilion1 yet the projecting base1 which in the second style gave this design its significance1 is lacking4 ,hardly less noteworthy is the treatment of the upper portion of the wall4 ,fanciful architectural forms and various ornaments stand out against a white background1 suggestive of the open sky2 yet in our example1 as often in this style1 there is no organic connection between the decoration of the main part of the wall and that of the ceiling4 ,every part of the framework of the third style is profusely ornamented4 ,the ornamental system is seen to have a certain affinity with that of ,egypt1 and ,egyptian figures occasionally appear2 whence we infer that it was developed in ,alexandria4 ,early in the reign of ,augustus1 in consequence of the relations with ,egypt following the battle of ,actium1 a new impulse may well have been given to the introduction into ,italy of ,alexandrian art4 ,the specimen of the third style shown in ,fig4 #bfc is from the beautiful decoration of the house of ,spurius ,mesor1 portions of which are well preserved4 ,the base of our specimen consists of two parts1 a lower border and a broad stripe of black divided into sections of different shapes and sizes by lines of light color4 ,in the small sections ornaments are seen painted in delicate shades1 two of them being faces4 ,the large painting presents a mythological scene1 but the subject is not clear4 ,the priestess seems to be performing a ceremony of expiation in order to free from the taint of some crime the young man who1 with a wreath on his head and a sword1 pointed downward1 in his right hand1 bends over the hind just slain as a sacrifice4 ,the colors are subdued and effective2 the painting from the technical point of view is among the best found at ,pompeii4 ,around the painting are narrow black stripes separated by white lines2 in the broader stripe underneath1 between the columns1 are two light blue birds upon a dull red ground4 ,the small squares in the flat cornice above are of many colors1 shades of green1 pink1 and brown predominating4 ,the broad panels on either side of the painting are of the color often called ,pompeian red2 they have an ornamented border1 and a small winged figure in the centre4 ,the stripe below these shows vases and other ornaments on an orange-yellow ground2 that above1 interrupted by the cornice over the painting1 is black1 with various ornaments1 as baskets of fruit1 sistrums1 and geese1 painted in neutral colors4 ,among the ornaments of the upper part of the wall1 festoons of leaves1 vines1 vases1 parrots1 and griffins can be distinguished1 painted in light shades of brown1 blue1 green1 and yellow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4--,specimen of wall decoration4 ,third or ,ornate ,style4 ,from the house of ,spurius ,mesor4 ,the effect of the ,ornate ,style1 with its symmetrical forms and variety of detail1 is pleasing2 but the free use of neutral tones gives the walls a somewhat cold and formal appearance when we bring into contrast the warm coloring of the next period4 ,the fourth or ,intricate ,style first appears about the middle of the first century ,a4,d4 ,it started1 as did the third1 with the symmetrical division of the wall developed in the second style2 it differs from the third in that it always retained a sense of architectural form4 ,the columns are often fluted1 as in a specimen in the ,naples ,museum 7,fig4 #bfd74 ,the entablatures and coffered ceilings1 light and airy as they often seem1 have nevertheless a suggestion of reality2 we know that architectural forms are presented1 and not mere stripes of color4 ,yet the difference between the fourth and the second style is no less apparent4 ,in the latter the architectural designs are not inconsistent with real construction2 in the former the imagination of the designer had free scope1 producing patterns so fantastic and intricate that the fundamental idea at the basis of the wall divisions seems entirely lost sight of at times4 ,the preference for architectural forms was carried so far that between the large panels of black1 red1 or yellow1 vertical sections of wall were left which were filled with airy structures on a white background2 the parts represented as nearest the beholder were painted yellow1 those further back were adorned with all the colors of the rainbow1 thus forming a kind of color perspective 7,fig4 #bfe74 ,the designs of the main part were extended into the upper division1 and frequently the whole wall appears as an intricate scaffolding1 partially concealed by the large panels2 these sometimes have the appearance of tapestries hanging suspended from the scaffolding1 and are so treated1 as in the case of the curtains shown in ,plate ,,xiii4 ,the fundamental conception of the decorative system is lost when the background of the upper part and of the airy scaffoldings is no longer left white1 but painted the same color as the rest of the wall1 so that the effect of distance and perspective is obscured4 ,occasionally1 also1 the architectural framework of the upper portion of the wall has no connection with that of the main part4 ,the ornaments of the fourth style were taken largely from the domain of plastic art4 ,groups of statuary as well as single figures appear either upon projecting portions of the architectural framework1 as in ,fig4 #bfd1 or in the background4 ,they are frequently painted yellow1 suggesting the gilding applied to ancient statues1 particularly those of bronze1 and present a striking contrast to the masses of strong color in the large panels and the brilliant shades of the architectural designs4 ,they are in harmony with the taste of the period1 which1 as we have seen1 manifested a fondness for ornamentation in stucco relief1 the effect of which was heightened by the free use of color4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd4--,specimen of wall decoration4 ,fourth style4 ,the large panels contained paintings of various sizes1 sometimes copies of masterpieces1 more often a simple floating figure or a ,cupid2 groups are also found1 as ,cupid and ,pysche1 or a satyr with a bacchante4 ,the appearance of a picture worked in tapestry is given by a border just inside the framework of the panel1 as often in the decoration of the fourth style4 ,the fourth style cannot have been derived from the third4 ,it is organically related with the second1 out of which it was developed by laying stress on precisely that element1 the architectural1 the suppression of which gave rise to the third style of decoration4 ,the most reasonable explanation of the relations of the four styles1 briefly stated1 is this3-- ,the ,incrustation ,style1 a direct offshoot of ,hellenistic art1 was prevalent in eastern cities1 where it was naturally followed by the ,architectural ,style2 this may have been developed at one centre or1 in different phases1 at different centres contemporaneously4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfe4--,specimen of wall decoration4 ,fourth style4 ,in the middle panel1 mythological scene in which ,hercules is the principal figure2 in each of the panels1 a satyr and a bacchante4 ,at some prominent centre1 probably ,alexandria1 the ,architectural ,style passed over into the ,ornate ,style1 which was introduced into ,italy in the reign of ,augustus and remained in vogue till the middle of the first century ,a4,d4 ,meanwhile1 at some other centre of culture1 possibly ,antioch1 the ,architectural ,style1 by an equally natural course of development1 had passed over into the ,intricate ,style1 which was first brought to ,pompeii about #ej ,a4,d4 and remained in fashion till the destruction of the city4 ,the earthquake of the year #fc threw down some buildings and made necessary the thorough-going repair of many others4 ,between that year and #gi1 more walls were freshly decorated1 probably1 than in any previous period of equal length in the history of the city4 ,for this reason1 examples of decoration in the ,intricate ,style are much more numerous than might have been expected from the length of time that it was in vogue2 they give the prevailing cast to the remains of painting in the ruins1 and this style is ordinarily thought of when ,pompeian wall decoration is referred to4 ,the complex designs and brilliant colors form a decorative scheme which is often most effective1 although the system of the third style reveals a finer and more correct taste4 ,if no remains of the two earlier styles had survived to modern times1 the antecedents and relations of the other two could not possibly be understood4 ,but with the first two in mind1 we are able to see clearly how the most complex forms of the later decoration may be reduced1 in last analysis1 to simple elements4 ,even in the example of the ,intricate ,style given in ,plate ,,xiii1 we find a suggestion of the threefold division of the wall into base1 main part1 and upper part1 which was so prominent in the ,incrustation ,style2 and also an elaborate structural form at the middle of the wall recalling the pavilion framework of the second style1 with a symmetrical arrangement of the architectural designs on either side1 suggesting the panels at the sides of the principal painting4 ,the slabs of colored marble in the ,incrustation ,style are represented by panels for pictures or ornamental forms of all shapes and sizes2 and the architectural designs1 so simple at the beginning1 have by almost imperceptible changes and additions become decorative patterns so varied and intricate that taken by themselves they give no hint of their origin4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii4--,,specimen ,,of ,,wall ,,decoration4 ,,fourth ,,or ,,intricate ,,style ,,chapter ,,lv ,,the ,,paintings ,the hanging of pictures upon the walls seems not to have been in vogue at ,pompeii during the period to which the remains belong4 ,the system of decoration left no room for framed paintings1 and no traces of any such have been discovered4 ,the paintings which have been preserved at ,pompeii1 not merely the small groups and single figures introduced to enliven the design1 but the large compositions as well1 all formed a part of the wall decoration4 ,the number is relatively large4 ,in the catalogue by ,helbig1 published in #ahfh1 there are nearly two thousand entries1 including a few paintings from ,herculaneum and other ,campanian sites4 ,the supplement compiled by ,sogliano in #ahgi records more than eight hundred pictures brought to light in the preceding decade4 ,we are probably safe in estimating the whole number of ,pompeian paintings still in existence1 or known from description1 as about thirty-five hundred4 ,in all this wealth of examples1 however1 it is not possible to find any evidence of a progressive development either in composition or in technique4 ,there are indeed slight differences1 mainly in regard to technical handling and color scheme1 which distinguish the paintings found in the decoration of the third style from those of the other two styles in which paintings appear2 but1 on the other hand1 the distinction between those of the second and those of the fourth style is much less marked4 ,the period from #hj ,b4,c4 to #gi ,a4,d4 was as little creative in the field of painting as in that of sculpture4 ,no new types appear1 no improvements are worked out2 the painter1 as the sculptor1 was an eclectic1 who drew upon the creations of the past as suited his fancy1 and contented himself with copying or imitating4 ,in the adaptation of paintings to decorative use the artist reproduced either entire compositions or single motives which seemed to answer his purpose4 ,the general preference was for paintings of the ,hellenistic age1 after the death of ,alexander2 yet examples of earlier styles are occasionally found1 as the ,sacrifice of ,iphigenia 7,fig4 #aef7 and the dramatic scene in which ,orestes and ,pylades appear before ,king ,thoas 7,fig4 #ahb74 ,new discoveries and the progress of research will sometime1 perhaps1 make it possible to present a general survey of the ,pompeian paintings from the historical and critical point of view4 ,no such comprehensive treatment is yet possible1 however1 and we must content ourselves with offering a few observations in regard to the distribution of the paintings among the different decorative styles and the classes of subjects represented4 ,the ,incrustation ,style1 as previously remarked1 left no place for paintings upon the walls4 ,nevertheless1 in isolated cases1 we find a simple pictorial representation upon the surface of one of the blocks painted in imitation of marble1 as if the veins of the stone had run into a shape suggestive of an object1 as a vase or a bird2 in one instance1 curiously enough1 a wrestling match is outlined1 between ,hercules and ,antaeus4 ,in the ,tufa ,period the desire for paintings was satisfied by the mosaic pictures upon the floor4 ,the earlier walls of the second style in this respect resemble those of the first2 the examples in the house of the ,labyrinth have no paintings4 ,the later walls1 however1 are rich in pictures1 but those of ,pompeii are not so abundantly adorned as those in ,rome 7p4 #dfb74 ,the elaborate painting shown in the pavilion frame in ,plate ,,xii is exceptional among the ,pompeian remains of this style4 ,the great majority of the paintings are found upon walls of the third and fourth styles4 ,on the older walls of the third style1 as we have seen1 the principal painting appears in a frame1 the design of which is taken from that of the conventional pavilion of the second style4 ,in later examples the close relation between the picture and the frame is no longer maintained2 the frame simply encloses a large panel of uniform color1 in the middle of which a relatively small picture is seen4 ,this arrangement was carried over into the fourth style1 but the conception of a pavilion frame is entirely lost sight of2 the painting is in the middle of a large panel of brilliant color1 around which the architectural framework is extended4 ,a ,pompeian room well decorated in either of the later styles contained four of these prominent paintings1 in case there was no door at the middle of one of the sides2 if a door interfered1 there were only three4 ,paintings were also placed in the divisions of the wall at the right and the left of the central panel4 ,in ,plate ,,xii we noticed a single figure on either side of the pavilion1 but such additions are rare in the second style4 ,in the third style the side panels are uniformly adorned with paintings4 ,in ,fig4 #bfc the small figure in the middle of the panel at the left is a ,cupid2 frequently a flying swan is seen1 or a landscape lightly sketched in monochrome on the ground of the panel4 ,sometimes the painting is set off by a separate frame2 if this is round1 a bust is usually represented4 ,groups of two figures were preferred for the side panels of the fourth style1 the favorite subject being a satyr and a bacchante1 as in ,fig4 #bfe2 these sometimes appear as busts1 but are more often represented as floating figures4 ,characteristic of the fourth style1 in respect to the distribution of paintings1 is the use of single figures and simple compositions to add life to the fantastic architectural designs in the upper part of the wall and in the divisions between the large panels4 ,here we may see satyrs and bacchantes1 young girls and solemn-visaged men with implements of sacrifice2 the figures appear in great variety of type and subject4 ,sometimes groups are broken up1 and the elements of a mythological scene1 as that of ,admetus and ,alcestis1 are distributed as single figures in the architectural framework4 ,at the time of the eruption the fondness for pictorial representations was increasing1 and they were being introduced into every part of the decoration1 including the frieze of the main part of the wall1 the use of which in this way commenced in the time of the third style 7,fig4 #bfc71 and the stripe below1 between the main part of the wall and the base 7,fig4 #bfe72 how elaborate this intermediate decoration might become we have already seen in the case of the house of the ,vettii4 ,frequently in the fourth style the lower part of the architectural framework separating two large panels appears to be closed1 as in ,plate ,,xiii1 by a narrow panel1 above which a painting is seen4 ,the pictures found in these places often represent still life4 ,seafights are also a favorite subject2 such may be seen in the temple of ,isis1 the ,macellum1 and one of the rooms in the house of the ,vettii4 ,generally on the walls of the fourth style1 wherever there is available space1 we find small pictures in great variety1 the most common being landscapes1 simply painted1 with the use of few colors4 ,it is by no means easy to make a satisfactory classification of ,pompeian paintings according to subject4 ,nevertheless1 with a few exceptions1 they may be roughly grouped in four general classes1 mythological paintings1 genre paintings1 landscapes1 and still life4 ,most of the large and important pictures belong to the first class4 ,the mythological paintings will therefore be discussed at somewhat greater length2 the other three classes will require only a brief characterization4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bff4--;,a fruit piece1 ,xenion4 ,the still-life paintings represent all kinds of meat1 fish1 fowl1 and fruits4 ,according to ,vitruvius1 this kind of picture was called ,xenion4 ,the reason given for the name recalls a curious custom of ancient ,greece4 ,when a guest1 xenos1 was received into a ,greek home1 says this writer1 he was invited to sit at the table for one day4 ,after that provisions were furnished to him uncooked1 and he prepared his own meals4 ,a portion of unprepared victuals thus came to be called xenion1 'the stranger's portion1' and the name was afterwards transferred to pictures in which such provisions appear4 ,a fruit piece1 now in the ,naples ,museum1 is shown in ,fig4 #bff4 ,landscapes are numerous and of all sizes4 ,occasionally a garden wall of the fourth style is covered with a single large painting1 in which villas1 gardens1 roads1 and harbors are realistically presented4 ,such pictures are of ,italian origin2 the name of the artist who first painted them is probably ,sextus ,tadius1 but the reading of the passage in which the name occurs 7,plin4 ,n4 ,h4 ,,xxxv4 x4 #aaf7 is uncertain4 ,common to the third and fourth styles are garden scenes1 in which1 behind a light barrier1 the plants of a garden appear1 with birds1 statues1 and fountains4 ,the finest extant example is in the villa of ,livia1 at ,prima ,porta1 near ,rome4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4--;,a landscape painting4 ,large landscapes sometimes have a place in the principal panels of the walls4 ,these are all of ,hellenistic origin1 and are found almost without exception in the decoration of the third style4 ,they generally represent a quiet nook of woodland1 with high cliffs2 in the foreground is a shrine--perhaps more than one--with figures of men sacrificing or coming to offer worship4 ,the great majority of the landscapes1 however1 are introduced into various parts of the decoration outside of the large panels1 and are quite small4 ,in them we see little shrines or villas by the seaside2 a river with a bridge on which a traveller appears crossing the stream2 or buildings on an island or peninsula in the edge of a body of water1 as in ,fig4 #bfg4 ,often they are simply light sketches2 now and then one of these small landscapes is painted in a peculiar tint1 as if the scene were represented by moonlight4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfh4--;,group of women1 one of whom is sounding two stringed instruments4 ,the genre paintings are of special importance on account of the light they shed on the life and customs of the ancients4 ,a number have already been described or illustrated in the chapter on the house of the ,vettii1 and in the part devoted to the trades and occupations4 ,to these we should add the picture of an artist in the house of the ,surgeon 7,fig4 #abh71 and the scenes from the life of the ,forum 7,figs4 #af1 #ag74 ,here belong also the groups in which figures are seen with a roll of papyrus or a writing tablet1 suggestive of literary pursuits1 and figures with musical instruments4 ,a group of musicians is shown in ,fig4 #bfh1 in which are four women1 one of whom is tuning a couple of stringed instruments to sound in unison4 ,in the same class are included two small painted busts not infrequently met with1 that of a girl with a writing tablet in her left hand holding the end of a stylus against her lips1 as if pondering what to write1 and that of a young man with one end of a roll of papyrus1 in which he has been reading1 under his chin4 ,a ,pompeian baker1 ,publius ,paquius ,proculus1 brought these two ideal busts into one painting1 substituting for the faces of the youth and maiden those of himself and his wife 7,fig4 #bfi74 ,the portraits are realistic1 but the faces are not unattractive2 that of ,proculus seems more kindly and ingenuous than the face of ,caecilius ,jucundus 7,fig4 #bef74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfi4--,paquius ,proculus and his wife4 ,two ideal painted busts have recently been found1 each of a youth with a roll of papyrus4 ,their chief interest lies in the fact that each roll is provided with a narrow tag or label1 of the sort that the ,romans called index1 on which the names ,plato and ,homerus can be plainly read4 ,the two types of face well correspond with the trend of taste suggested by the titles3 the delicate features and upturned gaze of the one indicate a poetic temperament2 the other has a high forehead and an air of meditation1 appropriate for a student of philosophy4 ,the mythological paintings rarely present rapid movement4 ,to the few exceptions belong the two familiar pictures placed opposite each other in the tablinum of the house of ,castor and ,pollux1 ,achilles among the daughters of ,lycomedes on the island of ,scyros1 and the quarrel between ,achilles and ,agamemnon4 ,only part of the latter painting is preserved1 but both are strong compositions1 and are repeated on other walls4 ,scenes of combat1 the interest of which lies in the display of physical force1 are still more infrequently met with1 and seem out of harmony with the prevailing taste4 ,two pictures from ,herculaneum represent ,hercules putting forth his strength2 in one he is struggling with the ,nemean lion1 in the other carrying the ,erymanthian boar4 ,the few paintings of this kind at ,pompeii are badly preserved4 ,in two of them ,meleager appears1 engaged in combat with the boar2 in another we see ,achilles before the walls of ,troy with drawn sword in one hand1 with the other grasping by the hair ,troilus1 an effeminate ,trojan youth1 attired in ,oriental fashion1 who mounted on his horse is vainly trying to escape2 a fourth represents a combat between a heavy-armed warrior and an ,amazon4 ,but such paintings are the more conspicuous by reason of their rarity1 and those that have thus far been discovered are all found upon walls of the third style4 ,a much larger number of mythological compositions represent a moment of dramatic interest1 the artist relying for his effect upon the bearing and facial expression of the persons appearing in the scene4 ,the interest is purely psychological1 and several of the pictures that have been preserved give us an exceedingly favorable idea of the ability of ancient painters to express emotion1 especially when we remember that these paintings are merely decorative copies of masterpieces the originals of which in most cases had probably never been seen by the workmen who painted the copies on the walls4 ,among the more familiar examples is the face of ,orestes in the painting found in the house of the ,citharist 7,fig4 #ahb71 and that of ,io1 watched by ,argus1 in the ,macellum4 ,emotion is expressed with even greater skill in the face of ,io in a painting of the temple of ,isis4 ,the goddess welcomes the wanderer to ,egypt after her long season of suffering2 the traces of the suffering are clearly seen1 yet are illumined by the ineffable and serene joy of final deliverance4 ,one of the most beautiful specimens of ancient painting is a fragment1 badly preserved1 in the tablinum of the house of ,caecilius ,jucundus4 ,the composition probably represented ,priam turning back toward ,troy with the body of ,hector1 which he had just ransomed4 ,in the fragment1 shown in ,fig4 #bgj1 we see the aged ,hecuba1 together with a daughter or maidservant1 looking with unutterable anguish from an upper window down upon the scene4 ,the gray-haired queen1 whose features still retain much of their youthful beauty1 gazes upon the dust-stained body of her son with grief too deep for tears4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4--;,hecuba with a younger companion looking from an upper window as ,priam brings back the body of ,hector4 ,in the majority of paintings the subjects of which are taken from myths the characters are represented either in a relation of rest1 not suggestive of intense emotion1 or in a lasting situation of dramatic interest1 which is devoid of momentary excitement and does not suggest the display of evanescent feeling4 ,the situation is sometimes cheerful1 sometimes calculated to arouse sympathy2 if the characters were not mythological1 the scenes might pass for those of everyday life4 ,thus we see ,narcissus looking at the reflection of his face in a clear spring in the forest2 ,polyphemus1 on the seashore1 receiving from the hands of a ,cupid a letter sent by ,galatea2 and ,apollo playing on the lyre for ,admetus1 while the herd grazes around him4 ,to the same series of cheerful or idyllic pictures belong the ,selene hovering over the sleeping ,endymion2 ,paris and ,oenone on ,mt4 ,ida1 ,paris cutting the name of his sweetheart in the bark of a tree2 and ,perseus with ,andromeda looking at the reflection of the head of ,medusa in a pool4 ,with these we may class also the representations of ,bacchus as he moves along with his rollicking band and suddenly comes upon the sleeping ,ariadne2 and ,hercules with ,omphale1 sometimes sitting in woman's attire beside her and spinning1 sometimes staggering in his cups or lying drunk upon the ground while she stands or sits near him4 ,examples of a pathetic situation are equally abundant4 ,we find ,aphrodite caring for the wounded ,adonis1 and ,cyparissus grieving over the dead stag4 ,the pathos of the scene1 however1 is not always so obviously suggested4 ,the familiar painting of ,europa represents the maiden playfully sitting upon the bull1 which one of her girlish companions is caressing4 ,the situation1 from one point of view1 is idyllic1 yet it brings to mind the unhappy fate of the girl1 borne far away from home over the sea to a distant land1 and the effect is heightened by giving her a wonderfully beautiful form4 ,not infrequently a similar result is produced by placing figures of incongruous type in sharp contrast2 so in the oft-repeated composition in which the beautiful ,thetis in elegant attire sits in the workshop of ,hephaestus1 looking at the shield which the rough and grimy smith is finishing for ,achilles4 ,in another composition ,pasiphae is seen in the shop of ,daedalus1 who points out the wooden cow2 and a similar idea of contrast must have been present in the mind of the artist who painted ,danae after she had been cast ashore in a chest on the island of ,seriphus1 sitting on the beach with little ,perseus in her lap1 while two fishermen standing near make inquiry concerning her strange fate4 ,the symmetrical arrangement of the paintings in a ,pompeian room can hardly have failed to influence the choice of compositions for the principal panels1 especially in cases in which mythological scenes were to be represented4 ,sometimes1 though not so frequently as might have been expected1 pictures were grouped according to subject4 ,we have already noticed the relation of two paintings1 in the house of ,castor and ,pollux1 in which ,achilles is the principal figure4 ,the first of these1 ,achilles among the daughters of ,lycomedes1 is found in a room of another house in a group of three2 one of the companion pieces represents ,thetis in the smithy of ,hephaestus looking at the weapons which are being made for ,achilles1 while in the other she is seen riding over the sea on a ,triton1 bringing them to her son4 ,there is another group of three pictures related by subject in a room in the house of the ,vettii2 they belong to the ,theban cycle1 and represent the infant ,hercules strangling the serpents1 the death of ,pentheus1 and the binding of ,dirce4 ,similarity of scene and of treatment influenced the selection of paintings for a room much more often than unity of subject4 ,a good illustration is the pair of pictures several times found together1 one of which represents ,polyphemus on the beach receiving from a ,cupid a letter written by ,galatea2 in the other ,aphrodite is seen on the seashore fishing1 with ,cupids all about her4 ,the suggestion of ,love is common to both paintings1 but the juxtaposition of the two as counterparts is due to the similarity of scene4 ,opposite the picture of ,europa referred to above1 is a ,pan playing on his pipe1 with nymphs around him2 the two pictures1 which appear in a room of the third style1 from the decorative point of view form an effective pair4 ,a sleeping room of the same style--though in respect to grouping no difference between the styles is apparent--offers an interesting example of a double group4 ,the four principal paintings form two pairs4 ,in one pair we see1 on one side1 ,hercules in the garden of the ,hesperides approaching an altar around which three maidens are standing2 on the other1 a shrine of ,artemis in a forest with three worshippers drawing near1 one of whom brings a garland4 ,the two pictures harmonize in the character of the scenery and in the arrangement of the figures4 ,the effectiveness of the other pair as a decorative counterpart can be seen in our illustrations2 the subject of one of the paintings is the fate of the pipes which ,athena cast aside 7,fig4 #bga71 and of the other the fall of ,icarus 7,fig4 #bgb74 ,in the first of the two pictures we have one of the few extant examples of a kind of painting associated with the name of ,philostratus1 in which different scenes representing the successive stages of an action are united in one composition4 ,in the foreground at the left sits ,athena1 with her shield on the ground beside her1 playing the double pipe2 a nymph in front rising from the surface of a stream holds up a mirror in which the goddess may see her face reflected as she plays4 ,the next two scenes lie just across the brook4 ,at the foot of the cliff sits the divinity of the country1 ,phrygia1 in which the story of ,marsyas is localized4 ,above1 at the left1 we see the satyr with a shepherd's crook in his left hand blowing a ,pan's pipe2 he has not yet espied the pipes thrown away by ,athena4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bga4--;,athena's pipes and the fate of ,marsyas4 ,at the right he appears again1 near the tree1 having found the pipes discarded by the goddess and picked them up4 ,lastly1 in the middle of the background1 we see him playing the pipes in the presence of the ,muses1 who are serving as judges in the contest of skill between the satyr and ,apollo4 ,the final scene with the flaying of ,marsyas1 which was sometimes represented in sculpture1 and appears also in several ,pompeian paintings1 is here omitted4 ,the inner connection of the other picture is not so clear4 ,it is perhaps a confused form of a composition in which ,icarus1 lying on the ground after his fall1 was the central figure2 the local divinities and natives of the region were looking upon the body of the hapless youth with pity2 while ,daedalus1 hovering in the air above1 was trying to find the spot where he had fallen4 ,our artist1 however1 thinking to heighten the effect1 represented ,icarus as plunging headlong through the air1 with the result shown in the illustration2 neither ,daedalus nor the figures in the foreground seem yet to have become aware of the catastrophe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgb4--,the fall of ,icarus4 ,we can in no way more appropriately bring to a close our brief survey of the ,pompeian paintings than by presenting a reproduction of the scene in which ,zeus and ,hera appear on ,mt4 ,ida 7,fig4 #bgc74 ,this painting has been sufficiently discussed in another connection 7pp4 #caf-cag72 though preserved in a damaged condition1 it clearly represents an original of no slight merit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgc4--,zeus and ,hera on ,mt4 ,ida4 ,wall painting from the house of the ,tragic ,poet4 ,,part ,,vi ,,the ,,inscriptions ,,of ,,pompeii ,,chapter ,,lvi ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,inscriptions4--,,monumental ,,inscriptions ,,and ,,public ,,notices ,the inscriptions discovered at ,pompeii number more than six thousand4 ,they cover a wide field1 ranging from commemorative tablets put up at public expense to the scribblings of idlers upon the plastered walls4 ,it would be an exaggeration to say that they contribute to our knowledge of antiquity much that is new2 their value lies rather in the insight which they give into the life of the city and its people4 ,in one respect the evidence derived from inscriptions1 though often of the most fragmentary character1 is especially satisfactory4 ,we feel that we are handling original documents1 without the intervention of that succession of copyists which stands between the author of a ,greek or ,roman masterpiece and the modern reader4 ,the shapes of the letters and the spelling are just as they were left by the stonecutter or the scribbler2 the various handwritings can still be as plainly distinguished on the charred tablets of ,caecilius ,jucundus as though the signatures were witnessed only yesterday4 ,through the inscriptions we are brought into contact with the personality of the ,pompeians as in no other way4 ,the inscriptions may be classified either according to the subject matter or according to the form in which they appear1 whether cut in stone1 or painted1 or scratched upon a smooth surface with a stylus4 ,no detailed classification need be given here2 it will be sufficient for our purposes to discuss the main divisions briefly under four heads1--monumental inscriptions and public notices1 graffiti1 and inscriptions relating to business affairs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,monumental inscriptions include those which are cut in hard material and are intended to be read by all who see them4 ,they are found at ,pompeii chiefly in or upon public buildings1 on pedestals of statues and on sepulchral monuments4 ,they are characterized by extreme brevity4 ,a few are in the ,oscan language1 the rest are in ,latin4 ,the more important examples have been presented in the preceding pages in connection with the monuments to which they belong4 ,a list of them is given in the ,index under ,inscriptions4 ,the public notices are painted upon the walls along the sides of the streets1 ordinarily in a bright red color2 a few are in black4 ,the most important are the election notices1 in which a candidate is recommended for a public office4 ,these are about sixteen hundred in number1 and the names of more than a hundred different candidates appear in them4 ,the election notices fall into two classes1 distinguished both by the style of writing and by the manner of expression1--earlier1 from the time of the ,republic1 and later1 belonging to the ,imperial period4 ,the shapes of the letters in those of the former class are irregular1 and bear the mark of an unpractised hand4 ,the later notices1 on the contrary1 have a more finished appearance2 they are executed in a kind of calligraphic style that suggests the employment of skilled clerks who made the painting of electoral recommendations a part of their business4 ,we have already met with the name of one painter of notices who signed his work1 ,aemilius ,celer 7p4 #bbc74 ,his house has been discovered1 near the northeast corner of the ninth ,region2 it was identified by means of an inscription painted on the outside3 ,aemilius ,celer hic habitat1--',aemilius ,celer lives here4' ,the language of the earlier recommendations is of the simplest4 ,we find the name of the candidate with no suggestion of praise excepting occasionally the letters v4 b41 for virum bonum1 'good man4' ,the name of the office is given in an abbreviated form1 but that of the person who makes the recommendation nowhere appears4 ,in one example the elements of the common formula o4 v4 f41 for oro vos1 facite1 are given almost in full3 ,m4 ,marium aed4 faci41 oro vos1--',make ,marcus ,marius aedile1 ,i beg of you4' ,the following notice appears on ,stabian ,street in letters nearly #h inches high3 ,p 4 ,,fvr 4 ,,ii 4 ,v 4 ,b 4 ,o 4 ,f1 that is ,publium ,furium duumvirum1 virum bonum1 oro vos1 facite1--',make ,publius ,furius duumvir1 ,i beg of you2 he's a good man4' ,some of the later election notices are almost equally brief1 presenting merely the name of the candidate1 the office for which he is recommended1 and the formula o4 v4 f41 as in this instance3 ,herennium ,celsum aedilem o4 v4 f41--',make ,herennius ,celsus aedile1 ,i beg of you4' ,occasionally even the formula is omitted1 and we have simply the name of the candidate and of the office1 both invariably in the accusative case1 as ,casellium aed41 which appears in several places1 and ,m4 ,holconium ,priscum ,,ii4 vir4 i4 d4 ,more frequently the recommendation includes a reference to the good qualities of the candidate4 ,sometimes he is simply styled 'a good man1' as in the earlier notices2 but the most common formula in this connection is d4 r4 p41 for dignum re publica1 'worthy of public office4' ,in some instances the characterization is more definite4 ,more than one candidate is affirmed to be 'an upright young man' 7iuvenem probum71 or 'a youth of singular modesty' 7verecundissimum iuvenem74 ,in regard to one aspirant for office we are informed that 'he will be the watch-dog of the treasury'--hic aerarium conservabit4 ,the names of those who make the recommendations often appear in the later notices4 ,now and then individuals assume the responsibility1 as ,vesonius ,primus 7p4 #cif71 and ,acceptus and ,euhodia 7p4 #cda71 who were undoubtedly owners of the property on which the notices appear4 ,thus the candidate's neighbors are sometimes represented as favoring his election1 as in the case of ,claudius ,verus3 ,ti4 ,claudium ,verum ,,ii4 vir4 vicini rogant1--',his neighbors request the election of ,tiberius ,claudius ,verus as duumvir4' ,electoral recommendations are painted on all sides of the house of ,verus--the extensive establishment in the ninth ,region known as the house of the ,centenary4 ,the class of election notices in which we find the members of a craft united in the support of a candidate has been sufficiently illustrated in another connection 7p4 #chd74 ,to these we may add a recommendation found on a wall facing the temple of ,isis3 ,cn4 ,helvium ,sabinum aed4 ,isiaci universi rogant1--',the worshippers of ,isis1 as a body1 request the election of ,gnaeus ,helvius ,sabinus as aedile4' ,a suburb also might have a candidate1 as in the following instance3 ,m4 ,epidium ,sabinum aed4 ,campanienses rog41--',the inhabitants of the ,pagus ,campanus ask for the election of ,marcus ,epidius ,sabinus as aedile4' ,sometimes all those who are engaged in an occupation are urged to support a candidate4 ',innkeepers1 make ,sallustius ,capito aedile1' we read in one notice4 ,in others1 various classes of citizens having a common bond1 as the ballplayers1 and the dealers in perfumes1 are exhorted to work for the election of a candidate presumably favorable to their interests4 ,in one instance there is a direct appeal to an individual1 involving a pledge of future support3 ,sabinum aedilem1 ,procule1 fac1 et ille te faciet1--',proculus1 make ,sabinus aedile1 and he will do as much for you4' ,in view of the deep interest in the municipal elections1 revealed by these notices1 it is not surprising to find that the support of a candidate by a man of unusual prominence was extensively advertised4 ,in three different parts of the city the attention of voters was directed to the fact that ,suedius ,clemens1 the commissioner sent by ,vespasian to decide the ownership of certain plots of ground 7p4 #djg71 favored the election of ,epidius ,sabinus as duumvir4 ,one of the notices reads3 ,m4 ,epidium ,sabinum ,,ii4 vir4 iur4 dic4 o4 v4 f41 dignum iuvenem1 ,suedius ,clemens sanctissimus iudex facit vicinis rogantibus1--',at the request of the neighbors1 ,suedius ,clemens1 most upright judge1 is working for the election of ,marcus ,epidius ,sabinus1 a worthy young man1 as duumvir with judiciary authority4 ,he begs of you to elect this candidate4' ,so public a method of pressing a candidacy put a formidable weapon into the hands of the candidate's enemies1 and the form of a recommendation was sometimes used against an office seeker with telling effect4 ,vatiam aed4 furunculi rog41--',the sneak thieves request the election of ,vatia as aedile1' we find conspicuously painted on a wall on ,augustales ,street4 ,according to other notices near by1 ',the whole company of late drinkers' 7seribibi universi7 and 'all the people who are asleep' 7dormientes universi7 favored the candidacy of the same unhappy ,vatia4 ,the last notice which we shall present in this connection may have been painted on the order of the girl who appears in it3 ,claudium ,,ii4 vir4 animula facit1--',his little sweetheart is working for the election of ,claudius as duumvir4' ,the reference is probably to the ,tiberius ,claudius ,verus mentioned above4 ,the other kinds of public notices are represented by relatively few examples4 ,of special interest are the announcements of gladiatorial combats1 which were discussed in a previous chapter 7p4 #bba74 ,next in importance are perhaps the advertisements of buildings to rent4 ,one of these1 relating to the ,elephant ,inn1 has already been mentioned 7p4 #djj74 ,we present here two others1 which have to do with large properties4 ,the first1 which has now disappeared1 was painted on a wall in the sixth ,region1 at the south end of the third ,insula4 ,it reads as follows3-- ,,insula ,,arriana ,,polliana ,,cn4 ,,allei ,,nigidi ,,mai ,,locantur ,,ex ,kalendis ,,iulis ,,primis ,,tabernae ,,cum ,,pergulis ,,suis ,,et ,,cenacula ,,equestria ,,et ,,domus4 ,,conductor ,,convenito ,,primum1 ,,cn4 ,,allei ,,nigidi ,,mai ,,servum4 ',to rent1 from the first day of next ,july1 shops with the floors over them1 fine upper chambers1 and a house1 in the ,arrius ,pollio block owned by ,gnaeus ,alleius ,nigidius ,maius4 ,prospective lessees may apply to ,primus1 slave of ,gnaeus ,alleius ,nigidius ,maius4' ,the word equestria1 translated 'fine1' is used colloquially with cenacula1 in the sense 'fit for a knight4' ,the ,insula named after ,arrius ,pollio was thought by ,fiorelli to be the so-called house of ,pansa1 across the street from the block on which the advertisement was found4 ,the identification may be correct1 but a notice painted in so prominent a place might refer to a block in any part of the city4 ,the following inscription was found in the last century near the ,amphitheatre1 on a wall of the extensive establishment named from it the villa of ,julia ,felix3-- ,,in ,,praedis ,,iuliae ,,sp4 ,f4 ,,felicis ,,locantur ,,balneum ,,venerium ,,et ,,nongentum1 ,,tabernae1 ,,pergulae1 ,,cenacula ,,ex ,,idibus ,,aug4 ,,primis ,,in ,,idus ,,aug4 ,,sextas1 ,,annos ,,continuos ,,quinque ,s4 ,q4 ,d4 ,l4 ,e4 ,n4 ,c4 ',to let1 for the space of five years1 from the thirteenth day of next ,august to the thirteenth day of the sixth ,august thereafter1 the ,venus bath1 fitted up for the best people1 shops1 rooms over shops1 and second story apartments in the property owned by ,julia ,felix1 daughter of ,spurius4' ,the bath may have received its name from ,venus ,pompeiana4 ,the word nongentum is difficult to understand4 ,the interpretation given is based upon a passage of ,pliny the ,elder1 from which we understand that in colloquial language the knights were known as 'the nine hundred4' ,a bath 'of the nine hundred' would then be one designed to attract the patronage of the best people4 ,the seven letters at the end of the inscription have not yet been satisfactorily explained4 ,advertisements of articles lost or found are also met with4 ,a notice in regard to a stray horse1 painted on one of the tombs east of the ,amphitheatre1 is given on p4 #dcf4 ,on the east side of ,insula ,,viii4 v4-vi4 we read3-- ,,vrna ,,aenia ,,pereit 4 ,,de 4 ,,taberna ,,seiqvis 4 ,,rettvlerit ,,dabvntvr ,,hs ,,lxv 4 ,,sei 4 ,,fvrem ,,dabit 4 ,,vnd 444 ',a copper pot has been taken from this shop4 ,whoever brings it back will receive #fe sesterces4 ,if any one shall hand over the thief' 444 7the rest of the inscription is illegible74 ,,chapter ,,lvii ,,the ,,graffiti ,the graffiti form the largest division of the ,pompeian inscriptions1 comprising about three thousand examples1 or one half of the entire number2 the name is ,italian1 being derived from a verb meaning 'to scratch4' ,writing upon walls was a prevalent habit in antiquity1 as shown by the remains of graffiti at ,rome and other places besides ,pompeii1 a habit which may be accounted for in part by the use of the sharp-pointed stylus with wax tablets2 the temptation to use such an instrument upon the polished stucco was much greater than in the case of pens and lead pencils upon the less carefully finished wall surfaces of our time4 ,pillars or sections of wall are covered with scratches of all kinds1--names1 catchwords of favorite lines from the poets1 amatory couplets1 and rough sketches1 such as a ship1 or the profile of a face4 ,the skit1 occasionally found on walls to-day1 ',fools' names1 like their faces1 ,are always seen in public places1' has its counterpart in the couplet preserved as a graffito both at ,pompeii and at ,rome3 ,admiror1 paries1 te non cecidisse ruinis1 ,qui tot scriptorum taedia sustineas1-- ',truly 'tis wonderful1 ,wall1 that you have not fallen in ruins1 ,forced without murmur to bear the taint of so many hands4' ,of a similar vein is a ,greek line scratched upon a wall on the ,palatine hill in ,rome3 ',many persons have here written many things2 ,i alone refrained from writing4' ,taken as a whole1 the graffiti are less fertile for our knowledge of ,pompeian life than might have been expected4 ,the people with whom we should most eagerly desire to come into direct contact1 the cultivated men and women of the ancient city1 were not accustomed to scratch their names upon stucco or to confide their reflections and experiences to the surface of a wall4 ,some of the graffiti1 to judge from the height at which we find them above the floor1 were undoubtedly made by the hands of boys and girls2 for the rest1 we may assume that the writers were as little representative of the best elements of society as are the tourists who scratch or carve their names upon ancient monuments to-day4 ,nevertheless1 we gain from these scribblings a lively idea of individual tastes1 passions1 and experiences4 ,a few graffiti have reference to events1 as the siege of ,sulla1 in #hi ,b4,c4 7p4 #bdj74 ,the most interesting historical examples are those which relate to the conflict between the ,pompeians and the ,nucerians1 in the year #ei ,a4,d4 7p4 #bbj74 ,an ardent ,pompeian wrote3 ,nucerinis infelicia1--',down with the ,nucerians6' ,from a scribbling by a partisan of the other side it appears that the inhabitants of ,puteoli sympathized with the ,nucerians1 while those of ,pithecusae--the island of ,ischia--favored the ,pompeians3 ,puteolanis feliciter1 omnibus ,nucherinis felicia1 et uncum ,pompeianis et ,pitecusanis1--',hurrah for the ,puteolaneans1 good luck to all ,nucerians2 a hook for the ,pompeians and ,pithecusans4' ,the hook referred to in this connection was that used by executioners and the attendants of the ,amphitheatre in dragging off the dead4 ,another ,pompeian wrote3 ,campani1 victoria una cum ,nucerinis peristis1--',campanians1 you were conquered by the same victory with the ,nucerians4' ,the ,campani were not the inhabitants of ,campania1 but of the suburb called ,pagus ,campanus4 ,two inscriptions1 attesting the presence of members of the ,praetorian ,guard in ,pompeii1 have been previously mentioned 7pp4 #chg1 #dja74 ,another praetorian left his name in a house of the eighth ,region 7,,viii4 iii4 #ba73 ,sex4 ,decimius ,rufus milis cohortis ,v praetorianae ,c ,martialis1--',sextus ,decimius ,rufus1 a soldier of the fifth praetorian cohort1 of the century led by ,martialis4' ,to the same division of the army probably belonged a centurion of the first rank1 ,q4 ,spurennius ,priscus1 whose name was found in a house of the first ,region 7,i4 iii4 #c74 ,the first1 fifth1 and ninth praetorian cohorts1 mentioned in the graffiti1 may have come to ,pompeii with different emperors1 or on different occasions with the same emperor2 it is unlikely that the three were united to form a single escort4 ,graffiti are sometimes useful for the identification of buildings2 so in the case of the ,basilica and of several inns4 ,the dated examples throw some light on the age of the stucco on which they are found4 ,they are for the most part late1 and afford little help in determining the time of commencement of the various decorative styles2 but in several cases they indicate a later limit clearly4 ,in this way we learn that the decoration of the ,basilica1 in the first style1 was finished before ,october #c1 #gh ,b4,c4--how long before we cannot tell2 and that in #cg ,b4,c4 the plastering of the ,small ,theatre was already on the walls1 decorated in the second style4 ,the gladiatorial graffito in the house of the ,centenary 7p4 #bbf7 proves that the decoration of the room in which it is found--a late example of the second style--was finished before ,november1 ,a4,d4 #ae4 ,a dated inscription of the reign of ,nero is given in the chapter on the house of the ,silver ,wedding 7p4 #cje74 ,several hundred graffiti present merely the name of the scribbler1 sometimes with the addition hic fuit1--'was here1' or simply hic2 as1 ,paris hic fuit1 ,sabinus hic4 ,a large number contain a greeting1 perhaps in some cases intended for the eye of the person mentioned1 as ,aemilius ,fortunato fratri salutem1--',aemilius greets his brother ,fortunatus4' ,in this as in other examples it is interesting to note that one brother is designated by the gens name1 the other by the cognomen4 ,sometimes the greeting is the reverse of cordial1 as in this instance3 ,samius ,cornelio1 suspendere1--',samius to ,cornelius3 go hang yourself4' ,hardly less naive is the message to a friend who has died3 ,pyrrhus ,chio conlegae salutem3 moleste fero1 quod audivi te mortuom2 itaque vale1--',pyrrhus to his chum ,chius3 ,i'm sorry to hear that you are dead2 and so1 ,good-by4' ,the most prominent theme of the graffiti is love1 which is constantly reappearing1 in prose scribblings and in snatches of verse4 ,the verse form is usually the elegiac distich4 ,some of the lines are taken from the poets2 others were made up for the occasion1 and not a few verses were finished in prose1 as if the would-be versifier found original composition more difficult than he had anticipated4 ,several distichs extol the power of love1 as the following1 which1 taken from some unknown poet1 is found in several places3 ,quisquis amat1 valeat1 pereat qui nescit amare2 ,bis tanto pereat quisquis amare vetat3-- ',good health be with you1 lovers all2 ,who knows not how to love1 be cursed2 ,but oh may double ruin fall ,on him who sets out love to worst6' ,a similar thought finds expression in a single line1 perhaps also a quotation3 ,nemo est bellus nisi qui amavit mulierem1--',he who has never been in love can be no gentleman4' ,not all the ,pompeians1 however1 viewed the matter so seriously4 ,to the first line of the couplet just quoted a scribbler of a cynical turn in one instance joined a parody1 to the effect that those who are in love may well avoid the use of hot baths1 on the principle that 'the burnt child dreads the fire1'--,nam nemo flammas ustus amare potest4 ,the uselessness of interference with the course of love is also made prominent4 ,in this distich1 apparently from some poet1 the scribbler seems to have made a slight change to meet a specific case1 substituting obiurgat for custodit or some similar word3 ,alliget hic auras1 si quis obiurgat amantes1 ,et vetat assiduas currere fontis aquas1-- ',whoever has a mind ,to hinder lovers' way1 ,let him go zephyrs bind ,or running waters stay4' ,ancient lovers nevertheless had their fears1 and the following couplet1 which is no doubt borrowed from a poet1 appears also1 in a slightly different form1 on a wall in ,rome3 ,si quis forte meam cupiet violare puellam1 ,illum in desertis montibus urat ,amor1-- ',if any man shall seek ,my girl from me to turn1 ,on far-off mountains bleak ,may ,love the scoundrel burn4' ,of extant elegiac poets ,ovid1 ,propertius1 and ,tibullus are quoted or paraphrased4 ,among the quotations is the familiar couplet of ,propertius3 ,nunc est ira recens1 nunc est discedere tempus2 ,si dolor afuerit1 crede1 redibit amor1-- ',now is it time to depart1 ,now anger freshly burns2 ,when one ceases to feel the smart1 ,believe me1 love returns4' ,if it was written by a lover after a quarrel1 reconciliation was not far off4 ,another discouraged suitor perhaps consoled himself by writing on the wall of the ,basilica this distich from ,ovid's ,art of ,love1 the form of which differs slightly from that given in the manuscripts3 ,quid pote tam durum saxso aut quid mollius unda8 ,dura tamen molli saxsa cavantur aqua1-- ',what is so hard as rock1 or what can be softer than water8 ,hard rocks nevertheless by water are worn away4' ,amatory inscriptions often have the form of a message or greeting to a loved one1 as in this example3 ,victoria1 vale1 et ubique es1 suaviter sternutes1--',health to you1 ,victoria1 and wherever you are may you sneeze sweetly1' that is1 may good luck follow you4 ,often the greeting is more ardent1 as that to ,cestilia3 ,cestilia1 regina ,pompeianorum1 anima dulcis1 vale1--',cestilia1 queen of the ,pompeians1 sweet soul1 greeting to you4' ,sometimes the lover avoided writing the lady's name3 ,pupa quae bella es1 tibi me misit qui tuus est2 vale1--',maiden who are so beautiful1 he who is yours sent me to you2 good-by4' ,now and then we find an inscription of this class that leaves an unfavorable impression4 ,the following is repeated several times on the outside of a house in the first ,region3 ,serenae sodales salutem1--',greeting to ,serena1 from her companions6' ,spurned lovers also confided their woes to graffiti1 sometimes adding an appeal to the obdurate one1 as in this wretched couplet1 which can scarcely have been taken from a poet2 the play upon words in the last clause was apparently intentional3 ,si quid amor valeat nostei1 sei te hominem scis1 ,commiseresce mihi1 da veniam ut veniam1-- ',if you a man would be1-- ,if you know what love can do1-- ,have pity1 and suffer me ,with welcome to come to you4' ,it was probably a lover in straits who scratched on the wall a line of the ,aeneid 7,,ix4 #djd7 as a prayer to ,venus3 ,tu1 dea1 tu praesens nostro succurre labori1-- ',thou1 goddess1 with thy present help ,our sore distress relieve4' ,another unsuccessful suitor found the lines of a single poet inadequate to express his feelings1 and joined together a couplet from ,ovid 7,am4 ,i4 viii4 #gg-gh7 and one from ,propertius 7,,iv4 v4 #dg-dh7 in order to voice his complaint against a miserly mistress who barred her door upon all except wealthy lovers4 ,but the climax is reached in four lines of irregular verse in which the rejected lover proposes to vent his anger on the goddess of love herself3 ',all lovers1 come6 ,i purpose to break the ribs of ,venus and to smash the small of her back with clubs2 if she can bore a hole in my tender breast1 why can ,i not break her head with a cudgel8' ,from the psychological point of view the complete identification of the goddess with a statue representing her is noteworthy4 ,occasionally a pair of lovers left on a wall a record of a meeting2 thus1 ,romula hic cum ,staphylo moratur1--',romula tarried here with ,staphylus4' ,staphylus1 however1 was apparently a flirt2 in the house of ,caecilius ,jucundus a similar meeting with another maiden is recorded on a column of the peristyle3 ,staphilus hic cum ,quieta4 ,but ,staphylus does not seem to have gained the confidence of the fair sex to the extent that another ,pompeian gallant did1 of whom we find it written3 ,restitutus multas decepit saepe puellas1--',restitutus has many times deceived many girls4' ,the names of husband and wife are sometimes joined together1 as in a room of a house in the ninth ,region3 ,l4 ,clodius ,varus1 ,pelagia coniunx2 there is a similar example in a house ruined by the earthquake of the year #fc1 ,balbus et ,fortunata1 duo coiuges4 ,we find a pleasing instance of marital affection in a graffito in which a lonely wife sends a greeting to an absent husband and other relatives3 ,hirtia ,psacas ,c4 ,hostilio ,conopi coniugi suo manuductori et clementi monitori et ,diodotae sorori et ,fortunato fratri et ,celeri suis salutem semper ubique plurimam1 et ,primigeniae suae salutem1--',hirtia ,psacas at all times and in all places sends heartiest greeting to ,gaius ,hostilius ,conops1 her husband and guide and gentle adviser1 and to her sister ,diodota1 her brother ,fortunatus and her ,celer2 and she sends a greeting to her ,primigenia1 too4' ,the names of both husband and wife are ,greek1 psacas signifying 'dewdrop1' and conops 'gnat4' ,many happenings are chronicled on the walls2 and there are memoranda of every description4 ,the programmes of gladiatorial combats have already been mentioned 7p4 #bbc74 ,one man records the result of a trip to ,nuceria1 where he won at the gaming table--without cheating1 he takes pains to add--a sum amounting to #acj3 ,vici ,nuceriae in alia 7for alea7 99 ,,dccclvs1 fide bona1--',at ,nuceria1 ,i won #hee4e denarii by gaming1 fair play4' ,another ,pompeian counted the steps as he walked up and down the colonnade at the side of his garden 7in the house ,,vii4 ii4 #da7 for exercise2 he recorded #fdj paces for ten turns back and forth4 ,in the peristyle of a house in the first ,region the advent of young pigs1 or of puppies1 is noted3 ,,xv ,kalendas ,novembres ,puteolana peperit masclos ,,iii1 femelas ,,ii1--',on ,october #ag ,puteolana had a litter consisting of #c males and #b females4' ,the inscriptions relating to business transactions are reserved for another chapter4 ,we may notice here1 however1 that memoranda of accounts were sometimes scratched on walls1 usually containing only the figures indicating measure or price1 as in the shops on the south side of the ,macellum4 ,the following is from a bakery in the first ,region 7,i4 iii4 #bg73 ,oleum1 libra1 assibus ,,iv2 palea a4 ,v2 faenum a4 ,,xvi2 diaria a4 ,v2 furfure a4 ,,vi2 viria ,i a4 ,,iii2 oleum a4 ,,vi1--',oil1 a pound1 #d asses2 straw1 #e asses2 hay1 #af asses2 a day's wages1 #e asses2 bran1 #f asses2 one wreath for the neck1 #c asses2 oil1 #f asses4' ,the value of the as varied2 in the ,early ,empire it was nearly equivalent to #aa_/b pence1 or #c cents4 ,children scratched upon walls the alphabet that they were learning4 ,the frequent quotations from ,virgil1 generally incomplete1 are likewise an echo of lessons at school1 where this author was carefully studied2 we find very often the beginnings of lines at the opening of a book1 as ,arma virumque cano1 or ,conticuere omnes4 ,the first word of the poem of ,lucretius1 ,aeneadum1 also occurs several times4 ,occasionally gnomic quotations are found1 in most cases1 perhaps1 from writers of comedy4 ,among them is the well-known maxim1 ,minimum malum fit contemnendo maxumum1--',the smallest evil1 if neglected1 will reach the greatest proportions4' ,a proverb more concrete in its form of statement is the following3 ,moram si quaeres1 sparge milium et collige1--',if you want to waste your time1 scatter millet and pick it up again4' ,,chapter ,,lviii ,,inscriptions ,,relating ,,to ,,business ,,affairs ,the most important inscriptions relating to business transactions are the receipts1 discovered in #ahge1 which formed a part of the private accounts of ,l4 ,caecilius ,jucundus 7p4 #ddg74 ,they were written on wax tablets1 which were carefully packed in a wooden box4 ,the box1 which was in the second story of the house1 crumbled to pieces when the volcanic dust about it was removed2 but many of the tablets1 #aed in number1 still retained their shape and were taken to the ,naples ,museum4 ,the wood of the tablets had turned to charcoal1 but the writing has been for the most part deciphered4 ,one receipt dates from #ae ,a4,d41 another from the year #bg2 the rest belong to the decade immediately preceding the earthquake1 #eb-fb ,a4,d4 ,the documents are of the greatest interest as casting light on the business methods of antiquity4 ,most of the tablets are triptychs4 ,the three leaves were tied at the back so as to open like the leaves of a book1 making six pages 7,fig4 #bgd74 ,the average height is about #e inches1 the width varies from #b to #d inches4 ,pages #a and #f served as covers1 being left smooth and without writing4 ,pages #b1 #c1 and #e were hollowed out1 leaving a polished surface with a raised rim around it4 ,on this surface a thin layer of wax was spread1 in which the letters were made with a stylus2 the writing could be easily read because the wood1 which was of a light color1 showed through wherever a scratch was made in the wax coating4 ,two pages facing each other1 #b and #c1 were devoted to the receipt4 ,page #d1 as shown in ,fig4 #bge1 was not hollowed out but was divided into two parts by a broad1 flat groove running across the middle4 ,when the document was ready to be sealed1 the first two leaves were brought together and tied by a thread which passed around the middle1 the ends meeting in the groove on page #d4 ,in this groove at convenient distances melted wax was then dropped1 on which the witnesses1 ordinarily seven in number1 impressed their seals4 ,the names of the witnesses were written with pen and ink in a line with the seals1 parallel with the sides of the page1 sometimes at the right1 as in ,fig4 #bge1 sometimes divided1 the first name and the gens name being at the left of the seal1 the cognomen at the right4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgd4--,tablet with three leaves1 opened so as to show the receipt and part of the memorandum on page #e1 restored4 ,this arrangement made it impossible to consult the receipt without cutting the thread or disturbing the seals of the witnesses4 ,to meet the difficulty a memorandum1 which was practically a duplicate receipt1 was placed on page #e2 this could be read at any time4 ,the difference in form between the receipt1 on pages #b and #c1 and the memorandum will be plain from the examples4 ,the receipt1 with few exceptions1 is simply a record of an oral acknowledgment in the presence of witnesses that a sum of money was received1 accepti latio4 ,in nearly all the tablets this acknowledgment and the names of the witnesses1 on page #d1 are in the same handwriting1 which must have been either that of ,jucundus himself or of his secretary4 ,it did not matter who wrote the receipt2 in case of a dispute the seals of the witnesses would alone be sufficient to prove its genuineness4 ,the memorandum1 however1 was ordinarily in a different hand1 either that of the person who gave the receipt1 or of some one authorized to write for him4 ,as it was not under the seals of witnesses1 the handwriting might become a matter of importance if any question should arise in regard to the document4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bge4--,tablet1 restored1 with the two leaves containing the receipt tied and sealed1 and with the signatures of the witnesses at the right of the seals4 ,the entire tablet1 with its receipt1 memorandum1 and names and seals of witnesses was called perscriptio1 'entry of account4' ,this word appears ordinarily on the edge of the tablet1 with the name of the person who gave the receipt in the genitive case4 ,nearly all the tablets record transactions connected with auction sales1 the person whose effects were thus disposed of giving ,jucundus a receipt in full for the proceeds of the sale less a commission1 mercede minus4 ,a few contain receipts for rent which ,jucundus paid for the use of property belonging to the city--a fullery 7p4 #cid71 the rent of which altogether amounted to #afeb sesterces1 about #ge2 a pasture1 for the use of which he paid #bfge sesterces1 about #acj2 and a piece of arable land1 fundus1 on which he paid #fjjj sesterces1 about #cjj1 in rents4 ,we present an example of both classes of receipts4 ,the first1 which we may call ,tablet ,a1 was given by a lady1 ,umbricia ,januaria1 for the proceeds of an auction sale2 it is dated ,december #ab1 ,a4,d4 #ef4 ,the other1 ,tablet ,b1 is the receipt for the rent of public pasture land and belongs to the year #ei ,a4,d4 ,,tablet ,a ,,title ,perscriptio ,umbriciae ,januariae1 ',entry of account of ,umbricia ,januaria4' ,,receipt4 ,pages #b and #c ,,hs n4 ,,cc,c,c ,m ,,xxxviiii1 quae pecunia in stipulatum ,l4 ,caecili ,iucundi venit ob auctionem ,umbriciae ,ianuariae mercede minus persoluta habere se dixit ,umbricia ,ianuaria ab ,l4 ,caecilio ,iucundo4 ,actum ,pompeis pridie idus ,decembres ,l4 ,duvio1 ,p4 ,clodio cos4 ',umbricia ,januaria declared that she had received from ,l4 ,caecilius ,jucundus #aa1jci sesterces1 which sum came into the hands of ,l4 ,caecilius ,jucundus by agreement as the proceeds of an auction sale for ,umbricia ,januaria1 the commission due him having been deducted4 ',done at ,pompeii on the twelfth day of ,december1 in the consulship of ,lucius ,duvius and ,publius ,clodius4' ,,names ,,of ,,the ,,witnesses4 ,page #d ,the seals of the witnesses1 nine in number1 appear in the groove at the middle of the page4 ,the names are in the genitive case1 as if dependent on sigillum1 'seal4' ,q4 ,appulei ,severi4 ,m4 ,lucreti ,leri4 ,ti4 ,iuli ,abascanti4 ,m4 ,iuli ,crescentis4 ,m4 ,terenti ,primi4 ,m4 ,epidi ,hymenaei4 ,q4 ,grani ,lesbi4 ,t4 ,vesoni ,le4444 ,d4 ,volci ,thalli4 ',seal of ,quintus ,appuleius ,severus1 ,marcus ,lucretius ,lerus1 ,tiberius ,julius ,abascantus1 ,m4 ,julius ,crescens1 ,m4 ,terentius ,primus1 ,m4 ,epidius ,hymenaeus1 ,q4 ,granius ,lesbus1 ,titus ,vesonius ,le4441 ,d4 ,volcius ,thallus4' ,,memorandum4 ,page #e ,l4 ,duvio ,avito1 ,p4 ,clodio ,thrasea cos41 pr4 id4 ,decembr4 ,d4 ,volcius ,thallus scripsi rogatu ,umbriciae ,ianuariae eam accepisse ab ,l4 ,caecilio ,iucundo ,,hs n4 ,,xi xxxix ex auctione eius mercede minus ex interrogatione facta tabellarum signatarum4 ,act4 ,pompeis4 ',on ,december #ab1 in the consulship of ,lucius ,duvius ,avitus and ,publius ,clodius ,thrasea1 ,i1 ,decimus ,volcius ,thallus1 having examined the tablets put under seal1 at the request of ,umbricia ,januaria declared in writing that she had received from ,l4 ,caecilius ,jucundus #aa1jci sesterces as the proceeds of an auction sale after deducting his commission4 ,done at ,pompeii4' ,tablet ,a gives the ordinary form of the receipt and the memorandum4 ,there are occasional variations4 ,a few tablets have only two leaves and four pages4 ,in such cases1 the leaves are tied and sealed in the same way as the first two of the triptych1 but only half of the fourth page is left for the signatures of the witnesses2 the memorandum is written on the other half with pen and ink1 and so appears on the outside of the tablet4 ,in two of the older tablets1 dated #bg and #ed ,a4,d41 the memorandum1 as the receipt1 is a record of an oral acknowledgment2 it may be that this was the proper legal form in use to the end of the reign of ,claudius4 ,in a few of the later examples1 as ,tablet ,b1 the receipt as well as the memorandum has the form of a voucher in the handwriting of the person who receives the money1 or his agent4 ,,tablet ,b ,,receipt4 ,pages #b and #c ,l4 ,veranio ,hupsaeo1 ,l4 ,albucio ,iusto duumviris iure dicundo ,,xiiii ,kalendas ,iulias ,privatus coloniae ,pompeianorum servus scripsi me accepisse ab ,l4 ,caecilio ,iucundo sestertios mille sescentos septuaginta quinque nummos1 et accepi ante hanc diem1 quae dies fuit ,,viii idus ,iunias1 sestertios mille nummos1 ob vectigal publicum pasqua for pasquorum4 ,actum ,pompeis ,cn4 ,fonteio ,c4 ,vipstano cos4 ',on ,june #ah1 in the duumvirate of ,l4 ,veranius ,hypsaeus and ,l4 ,albucius ,justus1 ,i1 ,privatus1 slave of the colony of ,pompeii1 declared in writing that ,i had received from ,l4 ,caecilius ,jucundus #afge sesterces1 and previous to this day1 on ,june #f1 ,i received #ajjj sesterces1 as rent for the public pasture4 ',done at ,pompeii in the consulship of ,gnaeus ,fonteius and ,gaius ,vipstanus4' ,,names ,,of ,,the ,,witnesses4 ,page #d ,in the groove in the middle of the page are four seals4 ,as the receipt was given for the city1 the witnesses were the two duumvirs and the slave ,privatus1 who received the money4 ,the name of ,privatus appears twice with seal1 under that of each duumvir4 ,in antiquity municipalities1 as well as individuals1 owned slaves4 ,l4 ,verani ,hypsaei ,privati1 c4 c4 ,v4 ,c4 ser4 7for colonorum coloniae ,veneriae ,corneliae servi7 ,l4 ,albuci ,iusti ,privati1 c4 c4 ,v4 ,c4 se4 ,chirographum ,privati c4 c4 ,v4 ,c4 ser4 ',seal of ,lucius ,veranius ,hypsaeus2 ,privatus1 slave of the citizens of the colony of ,pompeii2 ,l4 ,albucius ,iustus2 ,privatus1 slave of the citizens of the colony of ,pompeii4 ',autograph of ,privatus1 slave of the citizens of the colony of ,pompeii4' ,,memorandum4 ,page #e ,l4 ,veranio ,hupsaeo ,l4 ,albucio ,iusto duumviris iure dicundo ,,xiv ,k4 ,iul4 ,privatus c4 c4 ,v4 ,c4 ser4 scripsi me accepisse ab ,l4 ,caecilio ,iucundo ,,hs ,m ,,dclxxv et accepi ante hanc diem ,,viii idus ,iunias ,,hs ,m nummos ob vectigal publicum pasquorum4 ,act4 ,pom4 ,c4 ,fonteio ,c4 ,vips4 cos4 ,the language of the memorandum is so nearly identical with that of the receipt that it is unnecessary to add a translation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a considerable number of the amphorae found at ,pompeii bear inscriptions1 generally written with a pen in black ink1 but sometimes painted with a brush in red or white4 ,most of them contained wine4 ,the percentage of ,greek inscriptions is large1 an evidence of the strength of the ,greek population in the region about the city4 ,the wine underwent fermentation in large round vats of baked clay1 dolia1 which stood in the wine cellar of the villa1 cella vinaria1 or in a court 7p4 #cfd72 from these the amphorae were filled4 ,the vats containing the common wines were ordinarily emptied before the next vintage1 when they were needed for the new wine1 but the better sorts were allowed to remain in the dolia for a longer time4 ,the wine of one ,pompeian amphora was left in the vat till after the harvest of the second year3 ,c4 ,pomponio ,c4 ,anicio cos41 ex fundo ,badiano1 diffusum id4 ,aug41 bimum1--',consulship of ,gaius ,pomponius and ,gaius ,anicius4 ,from the ,badian estate4 ,poured 7into amphorae7 ,august #ac4 ,two years old4' ,in what year ,pomponius and ,anicius were consuls we do not know4 ,the earliest amphora of which the date is certain was filled in #be ,a4,d43 ,cosso ,lentulo ,m4 ,asinio cos4 fund4 ,the place from which it came1 however1 is not so easily determined1 since fund4 may refer to the town of ,fundi1 or stand for fundus1 'estate1' the name that followed having been obliterated4 ,the names of two such estates were lately recovered from amphorae in the house of the ,vettii1 fundus ,satrianus and fundus ,asinianus4 ,in addition to the product of ,italian vineyards the ,pompeians used also imported wines from the coast of ,asia ,minor and the islands near by4 ,one dealer1 ,m4 ,fabius ,euporus1 kept wine from ,cnidus1 ,cnidium4 ,wine from the island of ,cos is frequently mentioned1 as in this inscription3 ,coum vetus ,p4 ,appulei ,bassi1--',old ,coan of ,publius ,appuleius ,bassus4' ,different kinds of wine were sometimes designated by characteristic names4 ,a certain ,greek1 ,m4 ,pomponius ,teupon1 produced a brand which he called ',frenzy ,wine' 7,greek3 ,lyttios71 as if so strong that it would make the drinker frantic4 ,another ,greek1 ,timarchus1 named one of his wines ',white ,drink1' ,greek3 ,leukounarion4 ,an amphora in the house of the ,vettii was labelled ,gustaticium1 ',breakfast ,drink'2 it no doubt contained mulsum1 a kind of mead made by mixing honey with wine1 which the ancients drank with the first meal of the day4 ,the word mulsum occurs on another amphora discovered previously4 ,fruits and other edibles of all kinds were kept in amphorae4 ,on one was written3 ,oliva alba dulce 7for olivae albae dulces7 ,p4 ,c4 ,e41--',white sweet olives of ,p4 ,c4 ,e4'2 the name cannot be determined from the initials4 ,on other amphorae the words for bean meal 7lomentum71 honey1 and lentils appear1 the last being designated by the ,greek word4 ,a large number of small jars contained the fish sauces1--garum1 liquamen1 and muria1--of which the ancients were so fond2 reference has already been made to ,umbricius ,scaurus 7p4 #ae71 who seems to have had several establishments for the making of the sauces1 conducted by slaves1 freedmen1 and perhaps by members of his family4 ,the best quality of garum1 which was probably a thick preparation1 a kind of fish jelly1 was designated by the letters g4 f41 for garum--flos1 'garum blossom1' as in the following inscription3 garum--flos scombri ,scauri ab ,eutyche ,scauri1--',scaurus's tunny jelly1 blossom brand1 put up by ,eutyches1 slave of ,scaurus4' ,we frequently find liquamen optimum1 'best liquamen4' ,the muria was apparently a fish pickle1 certain parts of the fish1 or certain varieties1 being preserved in brine4 ,according to ,pliny the ,elder some fish sauces were prepared in a special way1 to be used by the ,jews on fast days2 two of these1 as already noted1 appear in the inscriptions upon ,pompeian jars1 garum castum and muria casta 7p4 #ah74 ,in these inscriptions upon jars of various sizes the name of the proprietor is sometimes given1 in the genitive case1 as ,m4 ,caesi ,celeris1--',of ,m4 ,caesius ,celer4' ,the name of the man to whom the consignment is made is put in the dative1 as ,albucio ,celso4 ,the name of the consignor sometimes follows that of the consignee1 as liquamen optimum ,a4 ,virnio ,modesto ab ,agathopode1--',best liquamen1 for ,aulus ,virnius ,modestus1 from ,agathopus4' ,an inscription similar to that just mentioned1 on an amphora found in the house of ,caecilius ,jucundus1 illustrates the extent to which family pride might assert itself in the naming of children3 ,caecilio ,iucundo ab ,sexsto ,metello1--',to ,caecilius ,jucundus from ,sextus ,metellus4' ,the sender and the recipient were both sons of ,lucius ,caecilius ,jucundus4 ,according to common usage1 one of the sons would have received the name ,lucius ,caecilius ,jucundus1 after the father2 while the other would have been called ,lucius ,caecilius1 with a cognomen derived perhaps from the name of the mother4 ,but the prosperous ,pompeian wished to suggest a relationship with the distinguished family of the ,caecilii ,metelli1 so he named one son ,sextus ,caecilius ,jucundus ,metellus1 and the other ,quintus ,caecilius ,jucundus1 the name ,quintus being common in the family of the ,caecilii ,metelli4 ,the names of the two sons are found together in an election notice3 ,q4 ,s4 ,caecili ,iucundi1--',quintus and ,sextus ,caecilius ,jucundus4' ,besides the names of the makers1 inscriptions relating to weight and ownership are found on the cups and other objects of the ,boscoreale treasure4 ,thus on the under side of the ,alexandria patera 7,fig4 #ahg1 and p4 #chj7 we find the following record1 the letters of which are outlined with points3 ,phiala et emblema pendentia pondo libras ,,ii1 uncias ,x1 scrupula ,,vi4 ,phiala pendens pondo libras ,,ii1 uncias ,,ii1 semunciam2 emblema pendens pondo uncias ,,vii1 semunciam1 ',the bowl and the relief medallion' together 'weigh #b pounds1 #aj ounces1 and #f scruples4 ,the bowl weighs #b pounds1 #ba_/b ounces2 the relief medallion weighs #ga_/b ounces4' ,in giving the items separately no account was taken of the scruples4 ,reckoning the ,roman pound as #cbg4dec grammes1 the weight of the patera with its relief was #icd4fjh grammes1 or #b4ejd ,troy pounds4 ,this differs from the present weight by less than a gramme4 ,occasionally a name in the genitive case is found with the record of weight1 written with the same kind of letters2 in such cases it is probably safe to assume that the name is that of the original owner4 ,on the under side of one of the pair of cups ornamented with skeletons 7,fig4 #bag7 is the inscription3 ,,gaviae ,p4,,ii4,s,e,,iiii2 a later hand1 writing with a fine point1 added ,,vas ,,ii in the space after ,,gaviae1 as if to supply an obvious omission1 so that the inscription in full would read1 ,gaviae4 ,vasa ,,ii pendentia pondo libras ,,ii1 uncias ,,viii1 scrupula ,,iv1 ',the property of ,gavia4 ,the two cups weigh #b pounds1 #h ounces1 and #d scruples' 7#b4cea ,troy pounds74 ,in some instances the name of a later owner has been scratched on the surface with a pointed tool4 ,the name of a woman1 ,maxima1 written in full or in abbreviation1 appears on forty-five of the pieces in the ,louvre4 ,we may safely accept the conclusion of ,de ,villefosse1 that she is probably the one who made the collection1 obtaining her specimens from different sources1 and that to her the ,boscoreale treasure belonged at the time of the eruption4 ,besides the seals which were used in signing documents the ,romans had stamps1 signacula1 which they impressed upon various articles as a means of identification or as an advertisement4 ,impressions of such stamps are found upon bricks and other objects of clay1 and in one or two instances upon loaves of bread4 ,several charred loaves in the ,naples ,museum have the stamp3 ,celeris ,q4 ,grani ,veri ser41--'7,made by7 ,celer1 slave of ,quintus ,granius ,verus4' ,the names upon stamps appear regularly in the genitive case1 as ,n4 ,popidi ,prisci1 spelled backward on the stamp1 so that the letters appear in the right order in the impression4 ,since the time of ,fiorelli many houses have been named from the stamps found in them2 in the house of the ,vettii1 for example1 two stamps were found with the names of ,aulus ,vettius ,restitutus and ,aulus ,vettius ,conviva4 ,,conclusion ,,chapter ,,lix ,,significance ,,of ,,the ,,pompeian ,,culture ,the ideals of a nation--the true index of its culture--find expression alike in its laws1 its literature1 its art1 and the environment of daily life4 ,they are a common heritage1 which one generation passes on to another with its own increment of change1 and their influence extends as far as that of the people whose spirit is manifested in them4 ,thus it happens that the conditions of culture found in a single city1 unless that city1 as ,athens1 had an independent development as a state1 are not isolated but are determined in the main by general movements and tendencies1 and are reproduced1 with local differences1 in all places having the same racial and political connections4 ,the local element was more pronounced and more characteristic in ancient than in modern cities2 yet1 unless the surroundings were exceptionably favorable1 we should not be warranted in expecting to find in a small city an isolated development of special significance in art or taste4 ,pompeii forms no exception to the rule4 ,the situation of ,pompeii was unfavorable to the growth of an indigenous culture4 ,founded by ,samnites1 a primitive folk1 it lay in the overlapping edges of two great zones of influence1 ,greek and ,roman4 ,it was a small town1 which never rose to the dignity even of a provincial capital4 ,it was a seaport1 which through marine traffic kept in touch with other cities1 especially those of the ,east1 from which fashions of art1 religion1 and life travelled easily westward4 ,the political institutions of the ,pompeians were at first those which they shared in common with the ,samnite and ,oscan cities of the mountains and the ,campanian plain1 later those imposed upon them by the forceful and levelling administration of ,rome4 ,the literature which they read1 as we learn from quotations scratched upon the walls1 consisted of the ,greek and ,roman writers of their own or previous periods2 not a single line of an ,oscan drama or poem has been found4 ,their art was a reproduction of designs and masterpieces produced elsewhere1--at first under ,hellenistic1 later under ,roman influence1--on a scale commensurate with the limited resources of the place4 ,finally the countless appliances of everyday life1 from the fixed furniture of the atrium to articles of toilet1 were not rare and costly objects such as were seen in the wealthy homes of ,rome or ,alexandria1 but those of the commoner sort everywhere in use4 ,any one of fifty cities might have been overwhelmed in the place of ,pompeii1 and the results1 so far as our knowledge of the ancient culture in its larger aspects is concerned1 would not have been essentially different4 ,the representative rather than exceptional character of the remains at ,pompeii makes them either of less or of greater value1 according as we look at them from different points of view4 ,if we are seeking for the most perfect examples of ancient art1 for masterpieces of the famous artists1 we do not find them4 ,many of the ,pompeian paintings appeal to modern taste2 yet it would be as unfair to judge of the merits of ancient painting from the specimens which are worked into the decorative designs of ,pompeian walls as it would be to base an estimate of the value of modern art upon chromos and wall papers4 ,for the noblest creations of ancient art in any field we must look not to provincial towns1 but to the great centres of population and of political administration1 where genius found encouragement1 inspiration1 and adequate means4 ,no large city1 fortunately for its inhabitants1 was visited by such a disaster as that which befell the ,campanian town2 and the wealth of artistic types at ,pompeii bears witness to the universality of art in the ,greco-,roman world4 ,since these remains are so broadly typical1 they are invaluable for the interpretation of the civilization of which they formed a part4 ,they shed light on countless passages of ,greek and ,roman writers4 ,literature1 however1 ordinarily records only that which is exceptional or striking1 while here we find the surroundings of life as a whole1 the humblest details being presented to the eye4 ,pompeii1 as no other source outside the pages of classical authors1 helps us to understand the ancient man4 ,,bibliographical ,,appendix#d ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,situation ,,of ,,pompeii ,physical geography of ,campania1 ,vesuvius3 ,,nissen1 ,italische ,landeskunde1 vol4 ,i 7,berlin1 #ahhc71 pp4 #bfc-bgb2 ,,phillips1 ,vesuvius 7,oxford1 #ahfi72 ,g4 ,,vom ,,rath1 ,der ,vesuv 7,berlin1 #ahgc72 ,,palmieri1 ,il ,vesuvio e la sua storia 7,milan1 #ahhj72 ,,judd1 ,volcanoes 7,international ,scientific ,series1 ,new ,york1 #ahca72 ,,lobley1 ,mount ,vesuvius--,a ,descriptive1 ,historical1 and ,geological ,account of the ,volcano and its ,surroundings 7,london1 #ahhi72 ,,ruggiero1 ,della eruzione del ,vesuvio nell' anno ,,lxxix1 in the commemorative volume published under the title ,pompei e la regione sotterrata dal ,vesuvio nell' anno ,,lxxix 7,naples1 #ahgi71 pp4 #ae-cb4 ,pompeii as a seaport p4 #c3 ,strab4 ,geog4 ,v4 ,,iv4 #h 7p4 #bdg74 ,the seacoast and the ,sarno in antiquity p4 #d3 ,,ruggiero1 op4 cit41 pp4 #e-ad2 ,,mau1 ,dell' antico lido del mare1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahhj1 pp4 #hi-ib2 ,f4 ,,von ,,duhn1 ,der ,hafen von ,pompei1 ,rhein4 ,mus41 vol4 #cf 7#ahha71 pp4 #abg-acj1 #fcb-fcd2 ,,mau1 ,der ,hafen von ,pompeji1 ,rhein4 ,mus41 vol4 #cf4 pp4 #cbf-cbh1 and vol4 #cg 7#ahhb71 pp4 #cai-cbj4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,pompeii ,,before ,,the ,,eruption ,the founding of ,pompeii p4 #h3 the question of the origin of the city is closely connected with that of the system of streets1 for which see references to ,chap4 ,v1 p4 #eag4 ,origin of the name p4 #h3 cf4 ,f4 ,,von ,,duhn1 ,verhandlung der #cdten ,philologen-,versammlung 7#ahhj71 p4 #aed2 for pompe quinque1 cf4 ,,buck1 ,der ,vocalismus der ,oskischen ,sprache 7,leipzig1 #ahib71 pp4 #aah-aai4 ,the derivation of ,pompeii from ,greek3 pompe 7,greek3 pempein7 is assumed by ,,nissen1 ,pompejanische ,studien 7,leipzig1 #ahgg71 p4 #ehj2 cf4 also ,,sogliano1 ,rendiconto della ,accademia di ,archeologia1 ,nuova ,serie1 ,naples1 vol4 #ae 7#aija71 p4 #aae4 ,the expedition of ,p4 ,cornelius p4 #i3 ,liv4 ,,ix4 ,,xxxviii4 #b-c4 ,the siege of ,sulla p4 #aj3 ,appian4 ,bel4 ,civ41 ,i4 ,v4 #ci1 ,,vi4 #ej2 ,oros4 ,v4 ,,xviii4 #bb2 ,vell4 ,pater4 ,,ii4 ,,xvi4 #b4 ,the ,pompeians and ,p4 ,sulla p4 #aj3 ,cic4 ,pro ,p4 ,sulla1 ,,xxi4 ,excavations near the ,sarno canal p4 #aj3 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahhj1 pp4 #did-dih2 #ahha1 pp4 #be-bi1 #fd-ff4 ,for other evidence relating to the suburbs1 see ,,nissen1 ,pompejanische ,studien1 p4 #cgi2 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #d 7#ahhi71 pp4 #bii-cjj1 #cdd4 ,inscriptions p4 #aa--referring to the ,salinenses3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #afaa2 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahhd1 p4 #ea4 ,referring to the ,campanienses3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #dgj1 #dhj1 #abaf1 #abic quoted p4 #dib1 #bcec p4 #bai4 ,venus ,pompeiana p4 #ab3 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #h1 pl4 #cd2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde der vom ,vesuv verschuetteten ,staedte ,campaniens 7,leipzig1 #ahfh71 no4 #bie2 ,,wissowa1 ,de ,veneris simulacris ,romanis 7,breslau1 #ahhb71 pp4 #ae-ba2 cf4 also ,,rossbach1 ,vier ,pompejanischen ,wandbilder1 ,jahrb4 des ,inst4 vol4 #h 7#ahic71 pp4 #eg-ei 7no4 #d74 ,name of the ,roman colony p4 #ab3 known from inscriptions1 as that of ,holconius ,rufus and ,egnatius ,postumus p4 #he1 and the tablets of ,caecilius ,jucundus1 as #ccdj1 ,,cxliii4 in ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #a2 with the latter we may compare the abbreviation after the name of ,privatus p4 #ejd4 ,civic administration p4 #ab3 ,,marquardt1 ,roemische ,staatsverwaltung1 vol4 #a 7,edit4 #b1 ,leipzig1 #ahha71 pp4 #acb-bae3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 pp4 #ij-ic1 ,,iv4 pp4 #bdi-bee2 ,,willems1 ,les elections municipales a ,pompei 7,paris1 #ahhf71 and review of this book by ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #d 7#ahhi71 pp4 #bih-cjb4 ,duumvirates of ,caligula p4 #ad3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #ija1 #ijb1 #ijd4 ,lex ,petronia p4 #ad3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #heh cf4 p4 #bai2 ,,marquardt1 op4 cit4 vol4 #a1 p4 #agj4 ,inscriptions referring to priests p4 #ad3 augurs1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hjf1 #hbj1 #hbb2 pontifices1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #ghh1 #ghi1 #gia1 #hea1 #hei2 of ,mars1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #hgi2 of ,ceres1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hab1 #ajcf1 #ajgd2 of ,ceres and ,venus1 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahij1 p4 #ia1 and ,ephem4 ,epigr4 ,,viii4 p4 #hf2 divinity not mentioned1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #haj-hac1 #haf1 #iej1 #iih-iii2 of ,augustus1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #gih1 #hcj1 #hcg-hdj1 #idc-idh1 ,,iv4 #aahj 7872 of ,julia ,augusta1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #ifa 7872 of ,fortuna ,augusta1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hbd-hbh2 of ,mercury and ,maia1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hhd-ibc2 of ,nero1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #aahe quoted on p4 #bbb4 ,officials of the ,pagus ,augustus ,felix p4 #ad3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #had1 #hec1 #ibd1 #idd1 #ajbg1 #ajbh1 #ajcj1 #ajdb1 #ajee1 #ajgd2 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #d 7#ahhi71 p4 #cdd4 ,pompeian wine p4 #ad3 ,plin4 ,n4 ,h4 ,,xiv4 ,,ii4 #ce1 ,,iii4 #ch1 ,,vi4 #gj2 ,columella1 ,de re rust4 ,,iii4 ,,ii4 #bg4 ,for the forms of the amphorae1 see the plate at the end of ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 following the map2 for the inscriptions1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 pp4 #aga-ahh and ,suppl4 #b4 ,pompeian cabbage and onions p4 #ae3 ,plin4 ,n4 ,h4 ,,xix4 ,,viii4 #adj2 ,columella1 ,de re rust4 ,x4 #ace1 ,,xii4 ,x4 #a4 ,volcanic products p4 #ae3 pumice stone1 ,vitr4 ,,ii4 ,,vi4 #b2 oil mills1 ,cato1 ,de agri cultura1 ,,xxii4 #c1 #d1 ,,cxxxv4 #b4 ,cicero's ,pompeianum p4 #af3 ,cic4 ,acad4 pr4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 #i1 ,,xxv4 #hj2 ad ,att4 ,i4 ,,xx4 #a1 ,v4 ,,ii4 #a1 ,x4 ,,xv4 #a1 ,,xvi4 #d1 ,,xiii4 ,,viii2 ad ,fam4 ,,vii4 ,,iii4 #a1 ,,iv1 ,,xii4 ,,xx2 ad ,quint4 fr4 ,,ii4 ,,xiv4 #a2 ,plut4 ,cic4 ,,viii4 ,see also ,,schmidt1 ,cicero's ,villen--,das ,pompeianum1 ,neue ,jahrbuecher fuer das ,klassische ,altertum1 vol4 #c 7#ahii71 pp4 #dhi-dig1 and the review by ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth4 vol4 #ae 7#aijj71 pp4 #abi-acj4 ,death of ,claudius's ,drusus at ,pompeii p4 #af3 ,suet4 ,div4 ,claud4 ,,xxvii4 ,inscriptions p4 #af3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hgd1 #hge2 for the ,greek inscriptions discovered at ,pompeii1 cf4 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv1 ,index1 p4 #bfd2 ,,kaibel1 ,inscriptiones ,graecae ,siciliae et ,italiae1 pp4 #ahh-ahi2 ,,dilthey1 ,dipinti ,pompeiani accompagnati d' epigrammi greci1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 vol4 #dh 7#ahgf71 pp4 #bid-cad4 ,population of ,pompeii p4 #af3 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli ,scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 ,app4 #c1 pp4 #ab-ad2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #cgd-cgi4 ,evidence regarding the existence of a ,jewish colony at ,pompeii pp4 #ag-ah--;inscriptions cited3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv1 #aejg1 #befi1 #bfji1 #bfaa1 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #digf1 #ebdd4 ,painting with the judgment of ,solomon3 ,,lumbroso1 ,sul dipinto pompeiano in cui si e ravvisato il giudizio di ,salomone1 ,memorie della ,acc4 dei ,lincei1 ,serie #c1 vol4 ,,ii 7#ahhc71 pp4 #cjc-cje2 ,,samter1 ,archaeologischer ,anzeiger1 ,beiblatt zum ,jahr4 des ,inst41 vol4 #ac 7#ahih71 pp4 #di-ej4 ,supposed ,christian inscription and the literature relating to it3 ,,de ,,rossi1 ,una memoria dei ,cristiani in ,pompei1 ,bulletino di ,archeologia ,cristiana1 vol4 #b 7#ahfd71 pp4 #fi-gb1 and ,dei ,giudei ,libertini e dei ,cristiani in ,pompei1 ibid4 pp4 #ib-ic2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #fgi1 and ,suppl4 p4 #dfa4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,pompeii ,the particulars of the eruption are treated at length in the works on ,vesuvius cited in the note to ,chap4 ,i4 ,vesuvius before the eruption p4 #ai3 ,strabo1 ,v4 ,,viii4 7p4 #bdg72 ,diod4 ,sic4 ,,iv4 ,,xxi4 #e2 ,vitr4 ,,ii4 ,,vi4 #b1 #c2 ,mart4 ,epigr4 ,,iv4 ,,xliv2 ,,palmieri1 ,del ,vesuvio dei tempi di ,spartaco e di ,strabone e del precipuo cangiamento avvenuto nell' anno #gi dell' era volgare1 ,pompei e la regione sotterrate dal ,vesuvio nell' anno ,,lxxix1 pp4 #ia-id2 see also ,,lobley1 ,mount ,vesuvius1 pp4 #ie-ih and pl4 #h4 ,representation of ,vesuvius in a ,pompeian wall painting 7discovered in #ahgi73 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahgi1 p4 #bhe2 reproduction1 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahhj1 pl4 ,,vii41 with a geological analysis by ,palmieri1 pp4 #bcc-bcd2 reproduced also by ,,de ,,marchi1 ,il culto privato di ,roma antica1 vol4 #a 7,milan1 #ahif71 pl4 #e 7p4 #ajj74 ,the earthquake of #fc ,a4,d4 p4 #ai3 ,tac4 ,ann4 ,,xv4 ,,xxii 7erroneously assigned to #fb72 ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ,,vi4 ,i4 #a-ae1 ,,xxvi4 #e1 ,,xxvii4 #a2 cf4 also the dedicatory inscription of the temple of ,isis p4 #agj4 ,date of the eruption p4 #ai3 ,,mau1 ,del mese e del giorno dell' eruzione1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahhj1 pp4 #ib-if2 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahhi1 pp4 #djg-daj2 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #e 7#ahij71 pp4 #bhb-bhc4 ,ancient sources of our knowledge of the eruption pp4 #ai-bj3 ,plin4 ,ep4 ,,vi4 ,,xvi1 ,,xx2 ,dio ,cass4 ,,lxvi4 ,,xxi-,,xxiii2 incidental references1 ,m4 ,aurel4 ,anton4 ,,iv4 ,,xlviii2 ,euseb4 ,chron4 ad an4 ,abr4 #bjie2 ,plut4 ,de sera numinis vindicta1 ,,xxii4 p4 #eff ,e1 ,de ,pythiae oraculis1 ,,ix4 p4 #cih ,e2 ,tertullian1 ,apologet4 ,,xl1 ,de pallio1 ,,ii4 ,covering of ,herculaneum p4 #ba2 ,,ruggiero1 ,della eruzione del ,vesuvio nell' anno ,,lxxix 7see note to ,chap4 ,i471 pp4 #ba-bb4 ,excavations at ,stabiae p4 #ba3 see note to ,chap4 ,,iv4 ,commission sent by ,titus p4 #bc3 ,suet4 ,div4 ,tit4 #h4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,unearthing ,excavations at ,pompeii3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pompeianarum antiquitatum historia 7#c vols41 ,naples1 #ahfj-ahfd72 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb 7,naples1 #ahgc72 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 pp4 #ic-id4 ,periodical reports of the excavations3 ,bullettino ,archeologico ,napolitano pubblicato da ,,avellino 7vols4 #a-f1 ,naples1 #ahdb-ahdh74 ,bullettino ,archeologico ,napolitano1 ,nuova ,serie1 edited by ,,garrucci and ,,minervini 7vols4 #a-h1 ,naples1 #ahec-ahfc72 ,bullettino ,archeologico ,italiano1 edited by ,,minervini 7#ahfa-ahfb72 ,giornale degli scavi di ,pompei pubblicato da ,,giuseppe ,,fiorelli 7,naples1 #ahfa-ahfe1 incomplete72 ,giornale degli scavi di ,pompei1 ,nuova ,serie1 pubblicata dagli alunni della ,scuola archeologica 7vols4 #a-d1 ,naples1 #ahfh-ahgi72 since #ahgf1 in the ,notizie degli scavi di antichita4 ,the reports on the excavations by ,professor ,mau were published in the ,bullettino dell' ,instituto from #ahgc to #ahhe2 since #ahhe they have appeared in the ,roemische ,mittheilungen4 ,excavations at ,herculaneum3 ,,ruggiero1 ,storia degli scavi di ,ercolano 7,naples1 #ahhe74 ,excavations at ,stabiae3 ,,ruggiero1 ,degli scavi di ,stabia dal ,,mdccxlix al ,,mdcclxxxii 7,naples1 #ahha74 ,inscriptions discovered by ,fontana p4 #be3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #ibh1 #ieb4 ,time required to complete the excavations p4 #bi3 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 ,app4 p4 #aj4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,a ,,bird',s-,,eye ,,view ,the system of streets p4 #cb3 ,,nissen1 ,das ,templum 7,berlin1 #ahfi71 pp4 #fc-ha2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #egb-eic2 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 ,app4 pp4 #aj-ab2 ,,von ,,bezold1 ,osservazioni sulla limitazione di ,pompei1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahhj1 pp4 #aea-aei2 ,,mau1 ,osservazioni sulla rete stradale di ,pompei1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahha1 pp4 #ajh-aab4 ,the regions and insulae p4 #cd3 ,,fiorelli1 ,sulle regioni ,pompeiane e della loro antica distribuzione 7,naples1 #aheh72 ,,fiorelli1 ,descrizione di ,pompei 7,naples1 #ahge71 pp4 #bd-be2 for the names given to houses1 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 ,app4 pp4 #ah-bj4 ,meaning of the word ,insula3 ,,richter1 ,insula1 ,hermes1 vol4 #bj 7#ahhe71 pp4 #ia-ajj4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,materials1 ,,construction1 ,,architectural ,,periods ,materials1 construction1 periods1 systems of measurement3 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #a-ig2 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 pp4 #gh-hf2 ,,ruggiero1 ,delia eruzione del ,vesuvio nell' anno ,,lxxix 7see note to ,chap4 ,i71 pp4 #e-h2 ,,mau1 ,pompejanische ,beitraege 7,berlin1 #ahgi71 pp4 #a-da1 and ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #d 7#ahhi71 pp4 #bid-bih4 ,mason's marks3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 pp4 #aff-afg2 ,,richter1 ,ueber antike ,steinmetz-zeichen 7,berlin1 #ahhc71 pp4 #ac-bb1 summarized by ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #d 7#ahii71 pp4 #bib-bid2 ,,mau1 ,segni di scarpellino di ,pompei1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aj 7#ahie71 pp4 #dg-ea4 ,,marriott1 ,facts about ,pompeii 7,london1 #ahie71 pp4 #fb-he1 reviewed by ,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aj 7#ahie71 pp4 #bbb-bbd4 ,a complete collection of mason's marks will appear in ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 suppl4 #b4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,forum ,excavation 7#ahac-ahah71 plan1 remains3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #c1 pp4 #ace-bab1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #a-ag2 ,,gell1 ,pompeiana 7,edit4 #b1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahcb71 vol4 #a1 pp4 #bg-ch2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei 7four parts1 cited as vols42 vols4 #a and #b1 #ahbd2 vols4 #c and #d1 continued by ,,gau1 #ahbh-ahbi2 ,paris71 vol4 #c1 pp4 #bh-cf1 plates #ac;bis1 #ad2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #cac-cai1 #cdd-cgd4 ,inscriptions relating to the ,forum or found in it3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #ghg-gid1 ,,iv4 pp4 #d1 #da1 #abe-abg2 inscription of ,a4 ,clodius ,flaccus p4 #eg1 ,x4 #ajgd4 ,statues of the ,forum pp4 #df-dh3 ,,mau1 ,die ,statuen des ,forums von ,pompeji1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 pp4 #aej-aef4 ,history of the colonnade p4 #ej3 ,,mau1 ,il portico del ,foro di ,pompei1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #f 7#ahia71 pp4 #afh-agf4 ,paintings illustrating the life of the ,forum p4 #ee3 ,le pitture antiche di ,ercolano e contorni 7#e vols41 ,naples1 #ageg-aggi71 pp4 #bac1 #bba1 #bbg2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #adhi-aejj2 particularly ,,jahn1 ,ueber ,darstellungen des ,handwerks und ,handelsverkehrs auf antiken ,wandgemaelden1 ,abhandlungen der saechsischen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften1 philologisch4-hist4 ,classe1 vol4 #e 7#ahgj71 pp4 #bfc-cah and pl4 #a-c2 reproduced also by ,,baumeister1 ,denkmaeler des klassischen ,altertums 7#c vols41 ,munich1 #ahhd-ahhh71 vol4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #afec2 ,,schreiber1 ,atlas of ,classical ,antiquities 7trans4 by ,anderson2 ,london1 #ahie71 pl4 #hg1 #hh1 #hi4 ,shape of a typical forum contrasted with that of the agora p4 #eg3 ,vitr4 ,v4 ,i4 #a-c4 ,admission fee1 p4 #eg3 ,,friedlaender in ,,marquardt1 ,roem4 ,staatsverwaltung 7,edit4 #b71 vol4 #c1 pp4 #dib-dic4 ,slaves not permitted to witness the games p4 #eh3 ,cic4 ,de harus4 resp4 ,,xii4 #bf4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,buildings ,,around ,,the ,,forum--,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,jupiter ,of the ,capitolium in ,roman colonies generally3 ,,kuhfeldt1 ,de capitoliis imperii ,romani 7,berlin1 #ahhb72 ,,castan1 ,les capitaux provinciaux du monde romain 7,besancon1 #ahhf72 ,,de ,,rossi and ,,gatti1 ,i campidogli nelle colonie e nelle altre citta del mondo romano1 ,bull4 com41 vol4 #ae 7#ahhg71 pp4 #ff-fh2 ,,wissowa1 ,capitolium 7#b71 ,pauly-,wissowa ,real-,encyclopaedie1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #aech-aedj4 ,the temple of ,jupiter 7excavated in #ahaf-ahah1 #ahbj73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #c1 pp4 #ahe-bjj1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #af-ag1 vol4 #c1 p4 #ac2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #dh-ej1 pl4 #cj-cf2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #cbj-cbg2 ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 pp4 #bjj-bji2 ,,weichardt1 ,pompeji vor der ,zerstoerung 7,leipzig1 #ahig71 pp4 #fa-gh4 ,variation of the plan from the ,etruscan1 union of ,greek and ,etruscan elements p4 #fc3 cf4 ,vitr4 ,,iv4 ,,vii4 #a1 ,,viii4 #e4 ,relief in the house of ,caecilius ,jucundus p4 #fd3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #ae 7#aijj71 pp4 #aae-aaf4 ,decoration of the cella p4 #fe3 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der decorativen ,wandmalerei in ,pompeji 7,berlin1 #ahhb71 pp4 #fa-fb1 #bdh4 ,inscriptions found in the cella p4 #ff3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #gif-gig4 ,the ,capitolium and the temple of ,zeus ,milichius p4 #ff3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 pp4 #ada-adi4 ,temples of ,jupiter1 ,juno1 and ,minerva in ,etruscan and ,roman cities p4 #ff3 ,serv4 ,com4 in ,verg4 ad ,aen4 ,i4 #dbb2 ,vitr4 ,i4 ,,vii4 #a4 ,capitals of the ,ionic columns of the cella1 and of the ,corinthian columns of the portico pp4 #fc-fg3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 pl4 #ce4 ,the shape of the acanthus leaves is not that characteristic of the pre-,roman period4 ,it is therefore most probable that the temple was built1 or at any rate was completed1 in the early years of the colony4 ,the vaults in the podium p4 #fg3 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #aijj1 pp4 #cda-cdd4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,basilica ,excavation 7#ahac-ahaf73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #b1 p4 #hf1 pt4 #c1 pp4 #aaa-agi passim2 vol4 #b1 p4 #ac4 ,inscriptions3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hje-hjg1 ,,iv4 pp4 #aac-abe4 ,decoration3 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #aa-ag4 ,reconstruction3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #c 7#ahhh71 pp4 #ad-df1 vol4 #f 7#ahia71 pp4 #fg-ga1 vol4 #h 7#ahic71 pp4 #aff-aga2 cf4 also ,,wolters1 ,das ,chalcidicum der ,pompejanischen ,basilica1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #c 7#ahhh71 pp4 #dg-fj4 ,equal height of main room and corridor was first assumed by ,,mazois 7,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 pls4 #ag1 #ah71 afterward by ,,mau 7,pomp4 ,beitraege1 pp4 #aef-aii74 ,a clerestory was added by ,,canina 7,architettura ,antica1 vol4 #c1 pl4 #ic71 and by ,,lange 7,haus und ,halle1 ,leipzig1 #ahhe1 pp4 #cea-cgb74 ,,schoene 7,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #aih-bja7 assumes an equal height for the large columns and the half-columns1 with a gallery above the corridor4 ,the ,basilica ,porcia p4 #gj3 ,,huelsen1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #h 7#ahic71 pp4 #hd1 #ia4 ,other references on the ,roman basilicas3 ,,huelsen1 ,nomenclator topographicus 7,,kiepert and ,,huelsen1 ,formae urbis ,romae antiquae1 ,berlin1 #ahif71 pp4 #ac-ad4 ,the ,basilica at ,fano p4 #ga3 ,vitr4 ,v4 ,i4 #f-aj2 ,,prestel1 ,des ,m4 ,vitruvius ,pollio1 ,basilica zu ,fanum ,fortunae 7,strassburg1 #aijj74 ,reconstruction3 ,,viollet-,,le-,,duc1 ,entretiens sur l'architecture 7#b vols4 ,paris1 #ahfc1 #ahgb71 vol4 #a1 pp4 #aej-aeg1 and ,atlas1 pl4 #h-aj2 translation of vol4 #a by ,,van ,,brunt 7under the title ,discourses on ,architecture1 ,boston1 #ahgc71 pp4 #add-adi and pls4 #h-aj4 ,literature relating to the origin of the ,christian basilica3 ,,dehio and ,,von ,,bezold1 ,die kirchliche ,baukunst des ,abendlandes1 vol4 #a 7,stuttgart1 #ahib71 pp4 #fb-fc1 and ,,lowrie1 ,monuments of the ,early ,church 7,new ,york1 #aija71 pp4 #dbj-dba2 cf4 also ,,holtzinger1 ,die altchristliche und byzantinische ,baukunst 7,stuttgart1 #ahii2 in ,durm's ,handbuch der ,architektur71 pp4 #ai-be2 ,,kraus1 ,realencyclopaedie der christl4 ,alterthuemer 7#b vols41 ,freiburg1 #ahhb-ahhf71 vol4 ,i4 under ,basilica2 ,,lange1 ,haus und ,halle 7,leipzig1 #ahhe71 pp4 #bgj-cbf2 ,f4 ,,witting1 ,die ,anfaenge christlicher ,architektur 7,strassburg1 #aijb74 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,apollo ,excavation 7#ahag-ahah71 remains1 restoration3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #c1 pp4 #aia1 #bjc-baj1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #i1 #fi1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #i-af2 ,,gell1 ,pompeiana 7,edit4 #c1 by ,,gell and ,,gandy1 ,london1 #aheb71 pl4 #ec-ed2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #d1 pls4 #af-bc2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #bac-bcb2 ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 pp4 #ic-aaf2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji 7,pompeji in seinen ,gebaeuden1 ,alterthuemern und ,kunstwerken dargestellt von ,,johannes ,,overbeck2 vierte im ,vereine mit ,,august ,,mau durchgearbeitete und vermehrte ,auflage1 ,leipzig1 #ahhd71 pp4 #if-ajd and #fcf-fcg 7,anm4 #da-de72 ,,ivanoff1 ,architektonische ,studien1 ,heft #b 7,berlin1 #ahie71 pl4 #a-c2 ,,weichardt1 ,pompeji vor der ,zerstoerung1 pp4 #ce-eb4 ,inscriptions relating to the temple--,oscan p4 #hj3 ,,mau1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst1 #ahhb1 pp4 #ahi-aij1 #bjc1 #bje-bjg2 ,,buecheler1 ,rhein4 ,mus41 vol4 #cg 7#ahhb71 p4 #fdc2 ,,zvetaieff1 ,inscriptiones ,italiae inferioris dialecticae 7,moscow1 #ahhf71 p4 #ee 7no4 #aef a72 ,,von ,,planta1 ,grammatik der ,oskisch-,umbrischen ,dialekte 7#b vols42 ,strassburg1 #ahib1 #ahig71 vol4 #b1 p4 #ejj2 ,,conway1 ,italic ,dialects 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahig71 vol4 #a4 p4 #fe4 ,latin pp4 #he-hf3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #ghg1 #hjj-hjd4 ,paintings pp4 #hd1 #hg3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #bff1 #cie1 #acjf1 #acbd1 #acbe1 #aedd1 and ,nachtraege1 pp4 #dfa-dfb4 ,statues found in the court p4 #hg--,venus3 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #ad1 pl4 #bc4 ,artemis and ,apollo3 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #h1 pl4 #ei1 #fj4 ,herm in the ,naples ,museum formerly thought to be ,maia3 ,,patroni1 ,la pretesa ,maia1 erma del ,museo ,nazionale di ,napoli1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #ae 7#aijj71 pp4 #aca-acb4 ,the cult of ,mercury and ,maia p4 #hi3 cf4 ,,samter1 ,altare di ,mercurio e ,maia1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #h 7#ahic71 pp4 #bbb-bbe4 ,augustus as ,mercury p4 #ij3 ,,kiessling1 ,zu ,hor4 ,od4 ,i4 #b1 in ,philologische ,untersuchungen 7herausgegeben von ,a4 ,,kiessling und ,u4 ,,von ,,wilamowitz-,,moellendorff1 ,berlin71 ,heft #b 7#ahha71 p4 #ib4 ,inscriptions referring to the cult of ,mercury and ,maia1 afterward of ,augustus1 at ,pompeii3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 pp4 #aji-aac4 ,dendereh inscription 7found with a wall painting showing the portrait of an emperor73 ,,duemichen1 ,baugeschichte des ,denderah ,tempels 7,berlin1 #ahgg71 p4 #af and pl4 #i2 ,,krall1 ,wiener ,studien1 vol4 #e 7#ahhc71 p4 #cae1 note4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,buildings ,,at ,,the ,,northwest ,,corner ,,of ,,the ,,forum--,,the ,,table ,,of ,,standard ,,measures ,the table of standard measures p4 #ib3 ,,mancini1 ,la mensa ponderaria di ,pompei esistente nel ,museo ,nazionale di ,napoli1 ,giornale degli scavi di ,pompei1 ,nuova ,serie1 vol4 #b 7#ahga71 pp4 #add-afa2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #ga-gd2 ,,conway1 ,the ,italic ,dialects1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #fg-fh1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #eba-ebc2 ,,zvetaieff1 ,sylloge inscriptionum ,oscarum1 pl4 #ac2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #gic4 ,measurements of the cavities by ,,mr4 ,,bidder3 ,the ,academy1 ,april #ae1 #ahie1 p4 #cai4 ,other tables of standard measures p4 #ic3 at ,minturnae1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #fjag2 at ,tivoli1 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahhc1 pp4 #he-hf1 #agb1 and ,,lanciani1 ,pagan and ,christian ,rome 7,boston1 #ahib71 pp4 #dj-da2 at ,selinus1 ,not4 d ,scavi4 #ahhd1 p4 #cba2 ,,bregenz1 ,mitth4 der ,oesterr4 ,centralcommission1 ,neue ,folge1 vol4 #h1 p4 #ii2 in ,greek lands1 ,,tarbell1 ,a ,mensa ,ponderaria from ,assos2 ,american ,journal of ,archaeology1 vol4 #g 7#ahia71 pp4 #ddj-ddc1 and n4 #a 7the ,assos table is now in the ,boston ,museum of ,fine ,arts72 ,,bacon1 ,investigations at ,assos1 ,pt4 #a 7#aijb71 pp4 #ga1 #gc4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,macellum ,excavation 7in #ahba-ahbb71 identification1 reconstruction3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #ch-ef1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #ca-cb2 ,,gell1 ,pompeiana 7,edit4 of #ahcb71 vol4 #a1 pp4 #df-fh2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #ei-fg1 pl4 #db-df2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #bge-bhf2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #abj-abh2 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahih1 pp4 #ccc-cci4 ,other macella p4 #id in ,rome3 ,,huelsen1 ,nomenclator top4 7see note to ,chap4 ,,ix71 p4 #dd4 ,at ,puteoli3 ,,gervasio1 ,sopra alcune iscrizioni riguardanti il ,macello nell' antica ,pozzuoli 7,naples1 #aheb72 published also in ,memorie della regale ,accademia ercolanese di archeologia1 vol4 #f 7#ahec71 pp4 #bfe-bhc4 ,the tholus p4 #id3 ,varro1 apud ,non41 p4 #ddh4 ,the coin of ,nero referred to is described by ,,eckhel1 ,doctrina numorum veterum 7,edit4 #b1 #h vols41 ,vienna1 #agib-ahbh71 vol4 #f1 p4 #bgc1 and figured by ,,cohen1 ,description historique des monnaies frappees sous l'empire romain1 vol4 #a 7,edit4 #b1 ,paris1 #ahhj71 p4 #bhh2 and ,,donaldson1 ,architectura ,numismatica1 no4 ,,lxxii4 ,paintings in the ,macellum at ,pompeii pp4 #if-ih3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 see ,topogr4 ,index1 p4 #dgf1 under ,pantheon4 ,cupids as bakers and as makers of wreaths p4 #ih3 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #d1 pl4 #dg1 and vol4 #f1 pl4 #ea2 ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei 7text by ,,barre2 #h vols41 ,paris1 #ahdj71 vol4 #b1 pl4 #hc1 #hd2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #ggg1 #hjj2 ,,jahn1 ,abhandlungen der ,koenigl4 saechsichen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften1 philolog-hist4 ,classe1 vol4 #e 7#ahgj71 pp4 #cae-cah and pl4 #f4 ,statues found in the imperial chapel p4 #ih3 ,,mau1 ,statua di ,marcello nipote di ,augusto1 ,atti della reale ,accademia di ,napoli1 vol4 #ae 7#ahia71 pp4 #acc-aea2 ,,helbig1 ,osservazioni sopra i ritratti di ,fulvia e di ,ottavia1 ,mon4 dei ,lincei1 vol4 #a 7#ahij71 pp4 #egc-eij4 ,both these articles are summarized by ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #f 7#ahia71 p4 #bfh1 and vol4 #g 7#ahib71 pp4 #afi-aga4 ,the statues were published with the names of ,livia and ,drusus1 son of ,tiberius1 in the ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #c1 pl4 #cg1 #ch2 the right hand of ,octavia is restored4 ,destruction wrought by the earthquake of #fc p4 #aja3 this matter will be discussed in an early number of the ,roemische ,mittheilungen4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,sanctuary ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,lares ,excavation 7#ahag71 remains3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #c1 p4 #aif2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #ej-ea1 pl4 #cg2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #cjc-cjf4 ,identification and restoration3 ,,mau1 ,der ,staedtische ,larentempel in ,pompeji1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 pp4 #bhe-cja4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,vespasian ,excavation 7in #ahag71 remains1 identification1 restoration3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #c1 p4 #aih2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #cc-cf1 pl4 #ab-ae2 ,,garrucci1 ,l',augusteum1 la curia degli ,augustales1 il ,chalcidicum1 l'aedes ,fortunae ,augustae1 ,bullettino archeologico ,napolitano1 ,nuova ,serie1 vol4 #b 7#ahed71 pp4 #d-f1 published also in his ,questioni ,pompeiane 7,naples1 #ahec71 pp4 #gd-gi2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #bgj-bge2 ,,mau1 ,osservazioni sul creduto tempio del ,genio di ,augusto in ,pompei1 ,atti della reale ,accademia di ,napoli1 vol4 #af 7#ahid71 pp4 #aha-ahh2 ,,weichardt1 ,pompeji vor der ,zerstoerung1 pp4 #ie-aja4 ,for the restoration given in ,fig4 #df1 see ,,mau1 ,der ,tempel des ,vespasian in ,pompeii1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #ae 7#aijj71 pp4 #acc-ach4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,eumachia ,excavation 7#ahad-ahah73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #c1 pp4 #aed-aeh1 #aie1 #aih1 #baj-bac1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #g-ai1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #f1 #ac1 #af1 #bc4 ,remains1 identification1 restoration3 ,,bechi1 ,del calcidico e della cripta di ,eumachia scavati nel ,foro di ,pompeji l'anno #ahbj 7,naples1 #ahbj72 ,,gell1 ,pompeiana 7,edit4 of #ahcb71 vol4 #a1 pp4 #ac-bf2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines di ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #db-dg1 pl4 #bb-bg2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #bhg-cjc4 ,for the restorations given in the text1 see ,,mau1 ,osservazioni sull' edifizio di ,eumachia in ,pompei1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #g 7#ahib71 pp4 #aac-adc4 ,inscriptions pp4 #aaa1 #aab3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hjh-hae4 ,decoration p4 #aaa3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #de-df1 pl4 #bf1 #bg2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #ccd-cce1 #daj1 and pl4 #aj2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 no4 #ajid c4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,comitium ,remains1 identification3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #eh-ei2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #ahe-aic2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #acf-ach4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,municipal ,,buildings ,excavation 7#ahad71 remains1 identification3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #c1 pp4 #aed-aei1 vol4 #b1 p4 #afj2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 p4 #eb1 pl4 #ch2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #cjf-caa2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #aci-adb4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,venus ,,pompeiana ,excavation1 remains1 identification3 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahii1 pp4 #ag-bc1 #aijj1 pp4 #bg-cj4 ,in these reports the temple is assigned to the worship of ,augustus1 the history of the building also being misunderstood4 ,for a justification of the interpretation of the remains given in the text1 see ,,mau1 ,der ,tempel der ,venus ,pompeiana4 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #ae 7#aijj71 pp4 #bgj-cjh and pl4 #g-h4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,fortuna ,,augusta ,excavation 7#ahbc-ahbd73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #hd-he1 #ia1 #ie-ih4 ,remains1 restoration3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #de-dh1 pl4 #bd-bf2 ,,gell1 ,pompeiana 7,edit4 of #ahcb71 vol4 #a1 pp4 #fi-hb2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #agh-ahd2 ,,mau1 ,der ,tempel der ,fortuna ,augusta in ,pompeji1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 pp4 #bfi-bhd2 ,,weichardt1 ,pompeji vor der ,zerstoerung1 pp4 #he-ic4 ,inscriptions pp4 #acj1 #acb3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hbj-hbh4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,forum ,,triangulare ,,and ,,the ,,greek ,,temple ,excavation of the ,forum and the temple 7#agfg-agig73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #baa1 #bgf1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #big1 #cjg1 #cjh1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #fc-fe4 ,remains of the temple1 restoration3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #ag-bb1 pl4 #h-aj4 ,especially attractive are the sketches and restorations given by ,,weichardt1 ,pompeji vor der ,zerstoerung1 pp4 #ag-cc1 pl4 #a1 #b 7reproduced in our pl4 #c71 and #c4 ,the best description of the remains of the temple is given by ,,koldewey and ,,puchstein1 ,die griechischen ,tempel in ,unteritalien und ,sicilien 7,berlin1 #ahii71 pp4 #de-di and pl4 #e2 their conclusions are criticised by ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #ae 7#aijj71 pp4 #abf-abh4 ,see also ,,von ,,duhn and ,,jacobi1 ,der griechische ,tempel in ,pompeji 7,heidelberg1 #ahij72 ,,sogliano1 ,il tempio nel ,foro triangolare di ,pompei1 ,mon4 dei ,lincei1 vol4 #a 7#ahij71 pp4 #ahi-bjj2 both these contributions are reviewed by ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #f 7#ahia71 pp4 #beh-bfg4 ,the colonnade contained ninety-five ,doric columns p4 #ace3 there were in addition two half-columns at the south end2 ,plan ,,iii in this respect is inexact4 ,the number of columns is often given as one hundred4 ,inscriptions of the sundial and the pedestal p4 #acf3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hca1 #hcb4 ,number of columns in the temple front uneven p4 #acg3 the steps are too broad for one intercolumniation1 and must have been designed for two1 as indicated in ,fig4 #fb4 ,human bones found in the enclosure p4 #aci3 ,,romanelli1 ,viaggio a ,pompei 7#ahaa71 p4 #ajd 7,edit4 #b1 #ahag1 p4 #ahb71 ,vi furono trovati molti avanzi di cadaveri sepolti4 ,excavations made here at the suggestion of ,professor ,mau brought to light few traces of bones4 ,oscan inscription p4 #aci3 ,,zvetaieff1 ,sylloge inscriptionum ,oscarum 7,leipzig1 #ahfh71 no4 #fi and pl4 #ac2 ,,von ,,planta1 ,grammatik der ,oskisch-,umbrischen ,inschriften1 vol4 #b1 p4 #eja2 ,,conway1 ,italic ,dialects1 vol4 #a1 p4 #fc4 ,oscan inscription p4 #adj3 see references below1 pp4 #ecj-eca4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,large ,,theatre ,excavation of the two theatres and the court behind the ,large ,theatre 7,july1 #agfd1 to ,march1 #agfe2 and ,december1 #agia1 to ,february1 #agif73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #aeh-afe1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #df-fc4 ,for the ,small ,theatre1 see also vol4 #a1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #fi1 #ge4 ,paintings at ,pompeii relating to the stage3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #adfd-adgf2 ,,sogliano1 ,le pitture murali ,campane1 nos4 #gdj-geb2 ,,maass1 ,affreschi scenici di ,pompeii1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #ec 7#ahha71 pp4 #aji-aei1 and ,mon4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #aa1 pl4 #cj-cb4 ,remains of the ,large ,theatre3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #ee-gj1 pl4 #bg-cd2 ,,fiorelli1 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 pp4 #ceb-ceg2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #bcb-bec2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #aec-agf4 ,the tribunals p4 #ade3 it is evident from the language of ,suetonius 7,div4 ,aug4 #dd1 solis virginibus ,vestalibus locum in theatro separatim et contra praetoris tribunal dedit7 that opposite the place set aside for the praetor1 which was called tribunal1 there was another likewise reserved4 ,in our theatre the two platforms mentioned correspond exactly with this arrangement1 and there is no other part of the structure to which the word tribunalia1 in the inscription of the ,holconii 7p4 #adh71 could properly be applied4 ,we are safe therefore in calling the platforms tribunals4 ,wall painting1 showing theatre police seated in niches in front of the stage p4 #adf3 found in the casa della fontana grande2 described by ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 no4 #adfh2 figured in ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #d1 pl4 #ah1 and in ,,wieseler1 ,theatergebaeude und ,denkmaeler des ,buehnenwesens bei den ,griechen und ,roemern 7,goettingen1 #ahea71 pl4 #aa1 #b4 ,a similar figure sitting in a shallow niche has been found on a wall in the eighth region 7,,viii4 ,,ii4 #bc72 see ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #c 7#ahhh71 p4 #bjb1 no4 #ab4 ,on the need of police to keep order in ,roman theatres1 see the references given by ,,marquardt1 ,roem4 ,staatsverwaltung1 vol4 #c 7,edit4 #b71 pp4 #eda-edb2 but cf4 ,k,oe,r,t,i,n,g1 ,geschichte des griechischen und roemischen ,theaters 7,paderborn1 #ahig71 p4 #cfg4 ,place of stage machinery p4 #adg3 ,pollux1 ,onomast4 ,,iv4 #abh4 ,inscriptions relating to ,actius ,anicetus p4 #adh3 inscription found at ,puteoli1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #aidf2 graffiti1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #baee1 and ,index1 p4 #bcc1 under ,actius and ,anicetus2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #ecie4 ,assemblies in the theatre p4 #adh3 at ,tarentum 7#bhb ,b4,c471 ,app4 ,de rebus ,samnit4 ,,vii4 ,,ii2 ,dio ,cass4 ,frag4 ,,xxix4 #e2 at ,pergamus1 ,plut4 ,sulla1 #aa4 ,cf4 ,muller1 ,buehnenalterthuemer1 pp4 #gc-ge4 ,inscriptions found in the theatre pp4 #adh-aej3 monumental1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hcc-hdc2 painted inscriptions and graffiti1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 pp4 #fc1 #aec-aeg4 ,the stage and the orchestra in the ,greek and the ,roman theatre p4 #aej3 ,vitr4 ,v4 ,,vi-,,viii4 ,the problem of the stage in the ,greek theatre p4 #aea3 ,,doerpfeld and ,,reisch1 ,das griechische ,theater1 ,beitraege zur ,geschichte des ,dionysos-,theaters in ,athen und anderer griechischer ,theater 7,athens and ,leipzig1 #ahif71 particularly pp4 #cda-cfe2 ,,doerpfeld1 ,das griechische ,theater ,vitruvs1 ,athen4 ,mitth41 vol4 #bb 7#ahig71 pp4 #dci-dfb2 vol4 #bc 7#ahih71 pp4 #cbf-cef4 ,a convenient summary of ,doerpfeld's conclusions and of the literature of the subject to #ahih is given by ,,frazer1 ,pausanias's ,description of ,greece1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #bed-bee1 and vol4 #e1 pp4 #ehb-ehd4 ,the stage of the ,large ,theatre at ,pompeii p4 #aeb3 ,,puchstein and ,,koldewey1 ,berliner ,philologische ,wochenschrift1 #ahif1 pp4 #dgg-dgh2 ,archaeologischer ,anzeiger1 ,beiblatt zum ,jahrb4 des ,inst41 #ahif1 pp4 #cj1 #dj2 ,,puchstein1 ,die griechische ,buehne 7,berlin1 #aija71 pp4 #ge-gg4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,small ,,theatre ,excavation1 remains3 see references to ,chap4 ,,xxi4 ,decoration 7second style73 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #bdh-bdi4 ,inscriptions3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hdd1 #hde4 ,theft of the bronze letters of the inscription of ,oculatius ,verus p4 #aef3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #c1 pp4 #bca1 #bgg2 ,,zangemeister1 ,sopra l' iscrizione del teatro piccolo di ,pompei1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahff1 pp4 #cj-ca4 ,gaius ,quinctius ,valgus p4 #aec3 ,cic4 ,de lege agraria1 ,,iii2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,ix4 #aadj1 ,x4 #ebhb 7cf4 ,,buecheler1 ,carmina ,latina epigraphica1 vol4 #a1 ,leipzig1 #ahie1 no4 #ab72 ,,dessau1 ,c4 ,quinctius ,valgus1 ,der ,erbauer des ,amphitheaters zu ,pompeii1 ,hermes1 vol4 #ah 7#ahhc71 pp4 #fbj-fbb4 ,the narrow doors at the rear of the stage designed to give access to the tribunalia p4 #aef3 ,,kelsey1 ,the ,stage ,entrances of the ,small ,theatre at ,pompeii1 ,american ,journal of ,archaeology1 series #b1 vol4 #d 7#aijj71 p4 #aej1 also vol4 #f 7#aijb74 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,theatre ,,colonnade ,excavation 7,october #be1 #agff1 to ,april #g1 #agfi1 and ,december #aj1 #agia1 to ,february #bj1 #agid73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #aie-bbh1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #df-dh1 #ea1 #eb1 #ed1 #aea-aec1 pt4 #c1 p4 #bgc4 ,remains1 identification1 restoration3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #ab-ae1 pl4 #b-f2 ,,gell1 ,pompeiana 7,edit4 of #aheb71 p4 #ahd2 ,,garrucci1 ,il ,ludus ,gladiatorius1 ovvero ,convitti dei ,gladiatori1 in his ,questioni ,pompeiane 7,naples1 #ahec71 pp4 #a-h2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #bec-bfb4 ,the suggestion has lately been made that the colonnade may have been designed as the ,gymnasium of pre-,roman ,pompeii 7,,petersen1 ,ueber die sogen4 ,gladiatorenkaserne in ,pompeji1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #ad 7#ahii71 pp4 #ajc-ajd74 ,graffiti3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 pp4 #aeg-aei4 ,exhibitions of gladiators p4 #afa3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #ajgd1 and references to ,chap4 ,,xxx4 ,paintings pp4 #afa-afb3 ,,helbig1 ,wandegemaelde1 nos4 #cbb1 #aeab4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,palaestra ,excavation 7,april #ac to ,august #ca1 #agig73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #ff-fh4 ,remains1 identification3 ,,mazois1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #be-bf1 pl4 #aa1 #ab2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #aeh-agj2 ,,mau1 ,der ,fundort des ,neapler ,doryphoros1 ,strena ,helbigiana 7,leipzig1 #aijj71 pp4 #ahd-ahg4 ,measurements1 showing conformity to the ,oscan standard p4 #afe3 ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 pp4 #ba-bc4 ,oscan inscription p4 #afe3 ,,zvetaieff1 ,sylloge inscriptionum ,oscarum1 no4 #fc1 pl4 #aa2 ,,von ,,planta1 ,grammatik der ,oskisch-,umbrischen ,dialekte1 vol4 #b1 p4 #dii2 ,,conway1 ,italic ,dialects1 vol4 #a1 no4 #db4 ,doryphorus p4 #aff3 reproduction on a larger scale1 ,,brunn and ,,bruckmann1 ,denkmaeler griechischer und roemischer ,sculptur1 no4 #bgc4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,isis ,the worship of ,isis outside of ,egypt3 ,,lafaye1 ,histoire du culte des divinites d',alexandrie1 ,serapis1 ,isis1 ,harpocrate et ,anubis1 hors de l',egypte1 depuis les origines jusqu'a la naissance de l'ecole neo-,platonicienne 7,paris1 #ahhc72 for the literature relating to the worship of ,isis in ,italy1 see ,,roscher1 ,ausfuehrliches ,lexikon der griechischen und roemischen ,mythologie1 vol4 #b1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #cih-dab4 ,excavation of the temple 7,december #bb1 #agfd1 to ,september #bg1 #agff73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #afd-aid4 ,inscriptions relating to the temple3 ,,piranesi 7see below71 pl4 #gj-gb2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hdf-hea4 ,inscription found at ,puteoli p4 #afi3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,i4 #egg1 ,x4 #agha2 ,,wiegand1 ,die puteolanische ,bauinschrift sachlich erlaeutert1 ,jahrbuecher fuer classische ,philologie1 ,supplementband #bj 7#ahid71 pp4 #fei-ggh4 ,an interesting graffito relating to the worship of ,isis was found in the house of the ,silver ,wedding in #ahib2 see ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #h 7#ahic71 p4 #eg1 no4 #g 7cf4 also ,,de ,,rossi1 ,roma sotterranea1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #ad-ae74 ,remains1 restoration3 ,,sogliano1 ,aedis ,isidis ,pompeiana1 not yet published see ,preface1 p4 vi42 ,,piranesi1 ,antiquites de ,pompei 7designs made about #aghh71 vol4 #b 7 vol4 #bf of ,opera1 in #bg vols471 pl4 #ei-gb2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #d1 p4 #bd1 pl4 #g-aa2 ,,niccolini1 ,le case ed i monumenti di ,pompei 7,naples1 #ahed-ahie71 vol4 #a1 pt4 #c1 end 7#ab pl472 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #agj-age1 #cdf-cdi2 ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 p4 #bc2 ,,weichardt1 ,pompeji vor der ,zerstoerung1 pp4 #ajc-aac4 ,statues--,bacchus p4 #agj3 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #i1 pl4 #aa3 ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei1 vol4 #f1 pl4 #ba4 ,isis p4 #agf3 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #ad1 pl4 #ce4 ,herm of ,sorex p4 #agf1 ,,piranesi1 ,antiquites de ,pompei1 vol4 #b4 pl4 #gb4 ,the statue of ,venus has disappeared3 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 note #bjh1 p4 #fdi4 ,paintings pp4 #agb et seq43 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #a-f1 #ace1 #ach1 #cia b1 #ifb1 #ajac1 #ajif-ii1 #aajc1 #abga1 #abib1 #aega1 #aegf-aegg4 ,paintings from ,herculaneum p4 #agh3 ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei1 vol4 #b1 pl4 #fh1 #fi2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #aaaa1 #aaab4 ,a left hand carried in procession in honor of ,isis p4 #agc3 ,apul4 ,metam4 ,,xi4 ,x4 ,service described by ,apuleius p4 #agf3 ,metam4 ,,xi4 ,,xx4 ,while the people were praying the priest made a circuit of the altars1 which were evidently1 as at ,pompeii1 distributed about the temple in the court4 ,perseus rescuing ,andromeda p4 #agi3 that the male figure is intended to represent ,perseus and not ,hermes is certain from the description of the figure when first excavated--alla cinta tiene una testa alata 7,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 p4 #aga74 ,all trace of the ,medusa head has now disappeared4 ,initiation into the mysteries of ,isis p4 #ahb3 ,apul4 ,metam4 ,,xi4 ,,xxi1 ,,xxiii4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,zeus ,,milichius ,excavation 7,september #bg to ,october #ah1 #agff2 ,march #ae-bb and ,june #ad1 #agih73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #aid-aie1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #gj-ga4 ,remains1 identification1 restoration3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #d1 p4 #bb1 pl4 #d-f2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #age-agg1 #ece-ecf2 ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 pp4 #ac-ae1 #bbg-bcb2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #fj-fa2 ,,mau1 ,das ,capitolium und der ,tempel des ,zeus ,meilichios in ,pompeji1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 pp4 #ada-adi4 ,an impossible restoration is given by ,,weichardt1 ,pompeji vor der ,zerstoerung1 pp4 #aaf-abc4 ,two statues and a bust of terra cotta p4 #ahd3 ,,von ,,rohden1 ,die ,terracotten von ,pompeji 7,stuttgart1 #ahhj71 pp4 #db-dc1 pl4 #bi4 ,oscan inscription p4 #ahd3 ,,zvetaieff1 ,sylloge inscriptionum ,oscarum1 no4 #fb1 pl4 #aj2 ,,von ,,planta1 ,grammatik der ,oskisch-,umbrischen ,dialekte1 vol4 #b1 p4 #dii2 ,,conway1 ,italic ,dialects1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #eh-ei2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #eca-ecf4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,stabian ,,baths ,roman baths in general3 ,,marquardt1 ,privatleben der ,roemer1 ,edit4 #b1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #bfi-big2 ,,mau1 article ,baeder in the ,pauly-,wissowa ,realencyclopaedie1 vol4 #b1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #bgdc-bgeh2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #aeb-aee4 ,baths in ,pompeii--in the second ,insula of ,region ,,viii3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #c 7#ahhh71 pp4 #aid-bje1 vol4 #e 7#ahij71 pp4 #acj-ada1 vol4 #aj 7#ahie71 pp4 #bah-bai4 ,in the so-called villa of ,julia ,felix3 ,,chambalu1 ,die wiederverschuettete ,besitzung der ,julia ,felix beim ,amphitheater in ,pompeji1 ,festschrift zur #dcten ,versammlung deutscher ,philologen und ,schulmaenner dargeboten von den hoeheren ,lehranstalten ,koelns 7,cologne1 #ahie71 and the review of this pamphlet by ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aj 7#ahie71 pp4 #bbe-bbg4 ,for the baths of ,m4 ,crassus ,frugi1 see above1 p4 #djh2 for the baths in private houses at ,pompeii1 ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 pp4 #adi-aea1 and above1 pp4 #bfg1 #cjf-cjg 7both in the house of the ,silver ,wedding71 #cdf1 #ceg1 #cfb-cfc4 ,excavation of the ,stabian ,baths 7#ahed-aheg2 the official reports are meagre73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #ehi-feh2 cf4 also ,,minervini1 ,notizie de' piu recenti scavi di ,pompei1 ,bull4 ,archeologico ,napolitano1 ,nuova ,serie1 vols4 #b-f 7#ahec-aheh74 ,remains3 ,,michaelis1 ,die neuen ,baeder in ,pompeji1 ,archaeologische ,zeitung1 vol4 #ag 7#ahei71 pp4 #ag-cb1 #cg-df2 ,,finati1 ,relazione degli scavi di ,pompei1 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #af 7#ae pp4 text and pl4 ,a-,b72 ,,niccolini1 ,le case ed i monumenti di ,pompei1 vol4 #a1 pt4 #c 7#ab pp41 #h pls472 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #adj-aeh2 ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 pp4 #aag-aea2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #bae-bcc2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 p4 #fj4 ,paintings3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #cj 7p4 #aa71 #dd1 #daf1 #dcb1 #ajaf1 #ajeg1 #abfj b1 #aede2 see below1 pl4 ,,xiii4 ,origin of the balneae pensiles p4 #ahg3 ,valer4 ,max4 ,,ix4 ,i4 #a2 ,plin4 ,n4 ,h4 ,,ix4 ,,liv4 #afh4 ,the anteroom of the men's baths p4 #aij3 in the front part of this was once a shallow basin1 undoubtedly for preliminary cleaning before one entered the frigidarium2 cf4 p4 #aig4 ,bath basin in the men's tepidarium p4 #aib3 cf4 ,,kuszinsky1 ,aquincum 7,budapest1 #ahhi71 p4 #fb4 ,the poet declaiming in the bath p4 #aib3 ,petr4 ,sat4 ,,xci42 ,hor4 ,sat4 ,i4 ,,iv4 #gd-gf2 and cf4 ,mayor's note to ,juvenal ,i41 #ag and ,,iii41 #i4 ,pulvinus p4 #aic1 testudo alvei p4 #aid3 ,vitr4 ,v4 ,x4 ,testudo alvei3 ,,mau1 ,fulcra lectorum--testudines alveorum1 ,nachrichten von der ,koenigl4 ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften zu ,goettingen1 #ahif1 pp4 #gf-hb2 ,,von ,,duhn and ,,jacobi1 ,der griechische ,tempel in ,pompeji1 pp4 #cc-ce and pl4 #i4 ,inscriptions--,vulius and ,aninius p4 #aie3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hbi4 ,vaccula p4 #aig3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #a1 no4 #ccdj1 ,,vi4 ,atinius p4 #bjj3 ,,zvetaieff1 ,sylloge inscriptionum ,oscarum1 no4 #ff1 pl4 #ac2 ,,von ,,planta1 ,grammatik der ,oskisch-,umbrischen ,dialekte1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ejj2 ,,conway1 ,italic ,dialects1 vol4 #a1 p4 #fa4 ,destrictarium p4 #aie3 all the rooms at the left of the palaestra are of later date than the inscription2 the present destrictarium probably takes the place of an earlier one4 ,improvement of the arrangements for heating p4 #aif3 the hollow walls of the caldarium are made with hollow tiles1 while in the tepidarium tegulae mammatae are used2 for a fuller discussion of the successive changes1 see ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 pp4 #aca-ada4 ,the brazier of ,vaccula p4 #aig3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #fdi-fej4 ,hermes in the gymnasium at ,phigalia p4 #bjj3 ,paus4 ,,viii4 ,,xxxix4 #d 7#f72 cf4 also ,,iv4 ,,xxxii4 #a4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,baths ,,near ,,the ,,forum ,excavation #ahbd-ahbe3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #ajf1 #ajg-aaf1 #aah1 #aba-abe1 #abh1 vol4 #c1 p4 #ae4 ,remains3 ,,bechi1 ,terme ,pompeiane1 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #b1 pl4 #di-eb 7text1 #ca pp472 ,,brulloff1 ,thermes di ,pompei 7,paris1 #ahbi71 #aj large pls42 ,,gell1 ,pompeiana 7,edit4 of #ahcb71 vol4 #a1 pp4 #hc-ada1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #hj-id2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #fg-gg1 pl4 #dg-ej2 ,,zahn1 ,neuentdeckte ,wandgemaelde in ,pompeji 7,stuttgart1 #ahbh71 pl4 #b-e2 ,,zahn1 ,die schoensten ,ornamente und merkwuerdigsten ,gemaelde aus ,pompeji1 ,herkulanum und ,stabiae1 nebst einigen ,grundrissen und ,ansichten 7#c parts1 here cited as volumes1 #cjb pls4 in #cj ,heften1 ,berlin1 #ahbg-ahei71 vol4 #a1 pl4 #aj1 #df1 #gf1 #id2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #abh-ace2 ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 pp4 #bah-bbg4 ,inscriptions of the builders p4 #bjc1 of ,vaccula p4 #bje1 of ,aper and ,rufus p4 #bjf3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hag-hai4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,central ,,baths ,excavation 7#ahgf-ahgh71 remains3 ,,mau1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgg1 pp4 #bad-bbc1 #ahgh1 pp4 #bea-bed4 ,laconicum3 ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 pp4 #add-ade4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,amphitheatre ,of amphitheatres in general1 and gladiatorial sports3 ,,friedlaender1 ,darstellungen aus der ,sittengeschichte ,roms in der ,zeit von ,august bis zum ,ausgang der ,antonine1 ,edit4 #f 7#c parts1 here cited as volumes1 ,leipzig1 #ahhh-ahij71 vol4 #b1 pp4 #ceh-dce1 ,edit4 #g1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #de-ff2 briefer statement by ,,friedlaender in ,marquardt's ,staatsverwaltung1 ,edit4 #b1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #eed-efe2 ,,meier1 ,de gladiatura ,romana quaestiones selectae 7,bonn1 #ahha74 ,gladiatorial combats in ,campania and in ,rome pp4 #bab-bac3 ,strabo1 ,v4 ,,iv4 #ab 7p4 #bej1 ,c72 ,valer4 ,max4 ,,ii4 ,,iv4 #g2 ,liv4 ,epit4 ,,xvi4 and ,,xxiii4 ,,xxx4 #ae4 ,for the games following ,caesar's triumph1 see ,suet4 ,div4 ,iul41 ,,xxxix4 ,app4 ,bel4 ,civ4 ,,ii4 ,,xv4 #ajb and ,dio4 ,cas4 ,,xliii4 #bb4 ,excavation of the ,amphitheatre 7#agdh1 #ahac-ahaf73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #e-f1 pt4 #c1 pp4 #aad et seq41 #ahe1 #ahi4 ,remains3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #gg-hf1 pl4 #dc-dg2 ,,fiorelli1 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 pp4 #fi-gd2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #ig-abg4 ,paintings pp4 #bac1 #bad1 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #aead1 #aeae1 #aeai2 cf4 also nos4 #aeab-aeac1 #aeaf-aeah1 and ,,sogliano1 ,le pitture murali ,campane1 nos4 #ffe-ffh4 ,inscriptions relating to the building1 or found on it pp4 #bab1 #bah1 #bai3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #heb-hei2 painted inscriptions and graffiti1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 pp4 #g1 #fd-ff1 #aei4 ,inscriptions relating to the games pp4 #bba et seq4--announcements3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #aagg-abjd1 ,suppl4 #chha-chhd4 ,programme p4 #bbc3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #bejh4 ,custos1 ostiarius ab amphitheatro p4 #bbe3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,vi4 #fbbf1 #fbbh4 ,inscription of ,salvius ,capito p4 #bbe3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,ix4 #dfe1 #dff 7cf4 also ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #dibj74 ,names of gladiators1 with their records pp4 #bbe-bbf3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv41 see ,index1 under gladiatores1 p4 #bee4 ,graffiti in the house on ,nola ,street p4 #bbf3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #dbgg-dcic2 and ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #e 7#ahij71 pp4 #be-ci1 #fd-fe1 vol4 #g 7#ahib71 p4 #bc4 ,combat between the ,pompeians and the ,nucerians pp4 #bbj1 #bba3 ,tac4 ,ann4 ,,xiv4 ,,xvii4 ,painting 7,fig4 #aja2 found ,ins4 ,i4 ,,iii4 #bc71 ,,de ,,petra1 ,l' ,anfiteatro pompeiano rappresentato in un antico dipinto1 giornale degli scavi di ,pompei1 ,nuova ,serie1 vol4 #a 7#ahfi71 pp4 #ahe-ahg1 pl4 #h2 ,,matz1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahfi1 pp4 #bdj-bda2 ,,sogliano1 ,le pitture murali ,campane1 no4 #fjd4 ,inscriptions see p4 #dib3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #abic 7with caricature1 figured ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #f1 pl4 ,c71 #acbi1 #bahc4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,streets1 ,,water ,,system1 ,,and ,,wayside ,,shrines ,the streets pp4 #bbg-bbi3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #be-bf1 pl4 #b1 #c1 #ad1 #ae1 #ce1 #cg1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #ce-ci1 pl4 #b-h2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #eaf-egb4 ,inscriptions on the pavement p4 #bbh1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hgj1 #hga4 ,the water system pp4 #bcj-bcc3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 p4 #bg1 pl4 #ac2 ,,murano1 ,pompei--donde venivano le acque potabili ai castelli acquarii 7,naples1 #ahid72 review of ,murano's treatise by ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aj 7#ahie71 pp4 #baf-bah4 ,age of the aqueduct supplying ,pompeii3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aj 7#ahie7 pp4 #di-ea4 ,recent investigation of the system of sewers3 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #aijj1 pp4 #ehg-eii4 ,water towers of ,constantinople p4 #bcb3 ,,von ,,hammer1 ,geschichte des ,osmanischen ,reichs 7#aj vols41 ,pest1 #ahbg-ahce71 vol4 #g1 pp4 #dbb1 #eih-eii2 cf4 also ,,pardoe1 ,beauties of the ,bosphorus 7,london1 #ahci71 pp4 #bd-be4 ,wayside shrines pp4 #bcc-bcf3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #b1 pl4 #f2 ,,gell1 ,pompeiana 7,edit4 of #aheb71 pp4 #ig-ih2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #bdb-bdd4 ,paintings of divinities on the outside of houses p4 #bcf3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #g-bh2 ,,sogliano1 ,le pitture murali ,campane1 nos4 #a-d2 serpents1 ,,helbig1 nos4 #bi1 #cj2 ,,sogliano1 nos4 #e-h4 ,painting of the twelve gods2 ,,gerhard1 ,intorno la pittura ,pompeiana rappresentante i dodici dei1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #bb 7#ahej71 pp4 #bjf-bad4 ,inscription p4 #bcf3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #hac2 cf4 ,pers4 ,sat4 ,i4 #aac4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,defences ,,of ,,the ,,city ,excavation of walls1 gates1 towers3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #aed1 #bcd-bcf1 pt4 #c1 pp4 #fd-fi1 #gf1 #hd-hh1 #if-ig1 #aaa-abd1 #aca1 #adc-aea1 #afj1 #afh-agj1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #a1 #eja-ejf1 #ecj1 #eic-eig4 ,remains3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #cc-cg1 #eb-ec1 pl4 #aj-ac1 #ce-cg2 ,,gell1 ,pompeiana 7,edit4 of #aheb71 pp4 #hg-if1 #ih2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #deg-eaf2 ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 pp4 #baa-bae1 #bce-beb2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #eg-ei4 ,oscan inscriptions p4 #bdj3 ,,zvetaieff1 ,sylloge inscriptionum ,oscarum1 nos4 #hj-hc1 pl4 #ad 7nos4 #g1 #h71 pl4 #ae1 pl4 #af 7no4 #d72 ,,von ,,planta1 ,grammatik der ,oskisch-,umbrischen ,dialekte1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ejc2 ,,conway1 ,italic ,dialects1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #fi-ga2 ,,degering1 ,ueber die militaerischen ,wegweiser in ,pompeji1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #ac 7#ahih71 pp4 #abd-adf2 ,,mau1 ,die ,oskischen ,wegweiserinschriften in ,pompeji1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #ad 7#ahii71 pp4 #aje-aac4 ,the ,stabian ,gate p4 #bdb3 ,,minervini1 ,strada e porta ,stabiana1 ,bull4 ,arch4 ,napolitano1 ,nuova ,serie1 vol4 #a 7#ahec71 pp4 #ahf-ahg and pl4 #h1 fig4 #aj2 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 pp4 #gh-gi1 pl4 #ad1 fig4 #b4 ,minerva as patron divinity of city gates p4 #bdb3 that is1 according to ,greek usage1 an indication of the strength of ,greek influence at ,pompeii4 ,among the ,romans the divinity of city gates was ,juno4 ,cf4 ,serv4 ,com4 in ,verg4 ad ,aen4 ,,ii1 #faj4 ,inscription of ,flaccus and ,firmus p4 #bdb3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #ajfd4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,pompeian ,,house ,of the ,pompeian and the ,roman house3 ,,mazois1 ,essai sur les habitations des anciens romains1 in ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #c-cd 7#c pls472 ,,mazois1 ,le palais de ,scaurus 7,paris1 #ahai2 ,edit4 #c1 revised by ,varcollier1 #ahfa72 ,,gell1 ,pompeiana 7,edit4 of #aheb71 pp4 #ii-ada2 ,,zumpt1 ,ueber die bauliche ,einrichtung des roemischen ,wohnhauses 7,berlin1 #ahdd2 ,edit4 #b1 #aheb72 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #eic-ffh2 ,,viollet-,,le-,,duc1 ,histoire de l'habitation humaine 7,paris1 #ahge71 and ,english translation under the title1 ,the ,habitations of ,man in all ,ages 7,boston1 #ahgf71 ,chap4 #ah2 ,,lange1 ,haus und ,halle1 ,studien zur ,geschichte des antiken ,wohnhauses und der ,basilica 7,leipzig1 #ahhe71 especially pp4 #ej-ei1 #bdd-bfi2 ,,guhl and ,,koner1 ,das ,leben der ,griechen und ,roemer 7,edit4 #f1 ,berlin1 #ahic71 pp4 #eeh-ehj1 and ,english translation from the third ,german edition1 ,life of the ,greeks and ,romans 7,london1 #ahgg71 ,secs4 #ge1 #gf2 ,,marquardt1 ,das ,privatleben der ,roemer 7,edit4 #b1 ,leipzig1 #ahhf71 pp4 #bac-bej2 ,,middleton1 article ,domus in ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities1 vol4 #a 7,edit4 #c1 ,london1 #ahij71 particularly pp4 #fhd-fhg2 ,,monceaux1 ,domus in ,daremberg and ,saglio's ,dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines1 vol4 #b1 pt4 #a1 especially pp4 #cdi-cfb4 ,for remains of houses and villas in ,britain1 cf41 e4g41 ,,wright1 ,the ,celt1 the ,roman1 and the ,saxon 7,edit4 #d1 ,london1 #ahhe71 passim2 ,,scarth1 ,roman ,britain 7,london1 #ahhc71 ,chap4 #ah2 and the special articles in ,archaeologia 7,london1 #aggj 74 ,inscriptions in ,pompeian houses1 including those in mosaic floors3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hfj-hfi1 #hgb-hge1 #hgg-hhb4 ,fauces1 or prothyron p4 #bdh3 ,vitr4 ,,vi4 ,,iv4 #f2 ,,greenough1 ,the ,fauces of the ,roman ,house1 ,harvard ,studies in ,classical ,philology1 vol4 #a 7#ahij71 pp4 #a-ab4 ,stone thresholds p4 #bdi3 ,,ivanoff1 ,varie specie di soglie in ,pompei ed indagine sul vero sito della fauce1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #ca 7#ahei71 pp4 #hb-ajh1 pl4 ,d-,f2 and ,mon4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #f1 pl4 #bh4 ,dangers of the streets of ,rome at night p4 #bej3 ,juv4 ,sat4 ,,iii4 #cje-cjh4 ,kinds of atriums p4 #bej1 dimensions p4 #beb3 ,vitr4 ,,vi4 ,,iii41 ,,iv4 ,waterspouts of the compluvium p4 #bea3 ,,von ,,rohden1 ,die ,terracotten von ,pompeji1 pl4 #a-i4 ,gartibulum p4 #bed3 ,var4 de ,ling4 ,lat4 ,v4 #abe2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 p4 #fda4 ,tablinum pp4 #bee-beh3 ,vitr4 ,,vi4 ,,iv 7,,iii71 #e-f2 ,var4 ap4 ,non4 p4 #hc2 ,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #fdc-fdd4 ,alae p4 #beh3 ,vitr4 ,,vi4 ,,iv 7,,iii71 #d1 #f4 ,peristyle p4 #bfj3 ,vitr4 ,,vi4 ,,iv 7,,iii71 #g2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #fde-ffh2 ,,bie1 ,zur ,geschichte des ,hausperistyls1 ,jahrb4 des4 ,inst41 vol4 #f 7#ahia71 pp4 #a-i4 ,triclinium p4 #bfb3 ,vitr4 ,,vi4 ,v4 ,i4 ,trimalchio's dining rooms 7cenationes73 ,petr4 ,sat4 ,,lxxvii4 ,lares1 ,genius1 and ,penates in house paintings p4 #bfh3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #ca-ie2 ,,sogliano1 ,le pitture murali ,campane1 nos4 #i-df1 #fc-ga4 ,serpents3 ibid41 nos4 #dg-fb2 see also ,,de ,,marchi1 ,il culto privato di ,roma antica1 vol4 #a 7,milan1 #ahif71 pp4 #bg-add2 ,,jordan1 ,de ,larum imaginibus atque cultu1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #cd 7#ahfb71 pp4 #cjj-cci2 ,,reifferscheid1 ,de larum picturis ,pompeianis1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #ce 7#ahfc71 pp4 #aba-acd2 ,,jordan1 ,de ,genii et ,eponae picturis ,pompeianis nuper detectis1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #dd 7#ahgb71 pp4 #ai-dg1 and pl4 ,b1 ,c2 ,,wissowa1 ,die ,ueberlieferung ueber die roemischen ,penaten1 ,hermes1 vol4 #bb 7#ahhg71 pp4 #bi-eg4 ,genius of a woman as ,juno p4 #bgj3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #b 7#ahhg71 p4 #aad4 ,jupiter and ,venus3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 no4 #fg4 ,two genii 7,ins4 ,,ix4 viii4 #ac73 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #e 7#ahij71 pp4 #bdd-bde4 ,shop fronts p4 #bgf3 cf4 ,,middleton1 ,remains of ,ancient ,rome 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahib71 vol4 #a1 pp4 #aib-aid4 ,pergula p4 #bgg3 ,,mau1 ,sul significato della parola pergula nell' architettura antica1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #b 7#ahhg71 pp4 #bad-bbj4 ,natus in pergula3 ,petr4 ,sat4 ,,lxxiv4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,surgeon ,excavation 7#aggj73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #bde-bdf1 #bdh1 #bec et seq4 7p4 #bed1 discovery of the instruments from which the house takes its name74 ,plan1 construction1 restoration3 ,,piranesi1 ,antiquites de ,pompei1 vol4 #a1 pl4 #ad-ba2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ea1 and pl4 #ac 7plan72 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 pp4 #gi1 #hc2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #djb-dab2 ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 #cg-da1 #di-ea 7proof that the measurements of the house conform to the ,oscan standard72 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #bgi-bha2 ,,greenough1 ,harvard ,studies in ,classical ,philology1 vol4 #a 7#ahij71 pp4 #aj-aa 7plan showing conformity of the chief measurements to the proportions recommended by ,vitruvius74 ,mural paintings3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #adbg b1 #addc1 #adei1 and pp4 ,,cviii-,,cix with note #d on p4 ,,cxxv2 cf4 also ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 p4 #ff4 ,for the woman painting1 see ,,jahn1 ,abhandlungen der ,koenigl4 saechsischen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften1 philologisch-hist4 ,classe1 vol4 #e1 pp4 #bih-cje1 and pl4 #e4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,sallust ,excavation 7#ahjf-ahji73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #b1 pp4 ,plan1 restoration3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #ge-gi1 pl4 #ce-ci2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #feb-fed2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #cjj-cjg4 ,decoration3 above1 pp4 #dei-dfj2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #ag-cc1 #aab-aad1 #daf-dag1 pl4 #b2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #ea1 #abd1 #bdi b1 #cai1 #cgc1 #dbi1 #dfe1 #dic1 #gdf1 #gea1 #ijj1 #ajee1 #abee1 #acaa 7cf4 ,topogr4 ,index1 p4 #dfg74 ,in the ,naples ,museum are good copies of the paintings that are in the garden and near the open-air triclinium4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,faun ,excavation 7#ahcj-ahcb73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #bdj-bee1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #aac-aah2 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #aijj1 p4 #ca4 ,plan1 construction3 ,,fiorelli1 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 pp4 #aeb-aei2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #fee-feh2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #cdf-cec4 ,wall decoration3 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #cc-eg1 #aaj-aaa1 #abb-abc1 #adj1 #afb1 #bfc-bfd1 pl4 #b2 ,,niccolini1 ,le case ed i monumenti di ,pompei1 vol4 #a4 ,mosaics3 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #g1 pl4 #fb1 vol4 #h1 pl4 #cf-de1 vol4 #i1 pl4 #ee1 vol4 #ad1 pl4 #ad2 ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei1 vol4 #e1 #fth series1 pl4 #bj-bi1 #cb2 ,,schreiber1 ,atlas of ,classical ,antiquities 7,eng4 trans41 ,london1 #ahie71 pl4 #fc 7fish mosaic1 with identification of species in the accompanying text72 ,,marx1 ,il cosidetto ,akratos nella casa del ,fauno1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #g 7#ahib71 pp4 #bf-ca4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,a ,,house ,,near ,,the ,,porta ,,marina ,decoration3 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #if1 #bha4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,silver ,,wedding ,excavation 7#ahib-ahic71 plan1 decoration3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #h 7#ahic71 pp4 #ad-fa2 cf4 also ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahib4 ,dated inscription p4 #cje3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,i4 7,edit4 #b71 p4 #cdb2 cf4 also ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #h1 pp4 #cj-ca4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,epidius ,,rufus ,excavation 7#ahff71 plan3 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 pp4 #fb-fc2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #big-cjj4 ,decoration1 paintings3 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #ih-ajj2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #ei b1 #bca1 #hfc b1 #hgj b1 #hgd b1 #hhe b1 #hib b1 #ifg b4 ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,tragic ,,poet ,excavation 7#ahbd-ahbe71 plan1 decoration3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #aaf-ace2 ,,gell1 ,pompeiana 7,edit4 of #ahcb71 vol4 #a1 pp4 #adb-agh2 ,,niccolini1 le case ed i monumenti di ,pompei1 vol4 #a2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #bhe-bhi4 ,paintings3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 see p4 ,,lxxxvi4 and ,topogr4 ,index under ,casa del poeta1 p4 #dga2 also ,,helbig1 ,le nozze di ,giove e di ,giunone1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #cf 7#ahfd71 pp4 #bgj-bhb4 ,the ,iphigenia of ,timanthes p4 #cai2 ,cic4 ,orator1 ,,xxii4 #gd2 ,plin4 ,n4 ,h4 ,,xxxv4 ,x4 #gc2 ,quint4 ,inst4 orat4 ,,ii4 ,,xiii4 #ab1 #ac2 ,valer4 ,max4 ,,viii4 ,,xi4 ext4 #f1 with the comment of ,,lessing in the ,laokoon1 chap4 #b1 and the references given by ,b,l,ue,m,n,e,r1 ,lessing's ,laokoon 7,berlin1 #ahgf71 pp4 #cf-cg2 cf4 also ,,baumeister1 ,denkmaeler des klassischen ,altertums 7#c vols41 ,munich1 #ahhd-ahhh71 vol4 #a1 pp4 #ged-geg1 and ,,jex-,,blake and ,,sellers1 ,the ,elder ,pliny's ,chapters on the ,history of ,art 7,london1 #ahif71 pp4 #aaf-aag1 note #b4 ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,vettii ,excavation 7#ahid-ahie71 plan1 restoration1 decoration1 paintings3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 pp4 #c-ig2 ,,sogliano1 ,mon4 dei ,lincei1 vol4 #h 7#ahih71 pp4 #bcc-daf2 ,,herrlich1 ,archaeologischer ,anzeiger1 #ahif1 pp4 #bjf-bjg2 ,,mau1 ,amoren als ,oelfabrikanten1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #ae 7#aijj71 pp4 #ach-ada2 ,,mau1 ,amoren als ,goldschmiede1 ,roem1 ,mitth41 vol4 #af 7#aija71 pp4 #aji-aaf4 ,,chapter ,,xlii4 ,,three ,,houses ,,of ,,unusual ,,plan ,house of ,acceptus and ,euhodia 7excavated in #ahhb7 p4 #cda3 ,,mau1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahhd1 pp4 #abf-acb4 ,house without a compluvium 7excavated between #ahij and #ahie7 p4 #cdc3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aj 7#ahie71 pp4 #adh-aee4 ,fures foras1 frugi intro p4 #cdf3 paraphrase of the saying1 ,petr4 ,sat4 ,,lii41 aquam foras1 vinum intro4 ,house of the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii4 7excavated in #agfg-agfi1 filled up1 and again excavated in #ahhe-ahhf7 p4 #cdd3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #bjh-baa1 #bbg-bcd2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #gc-gd1 pl4 #cb-cd2 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #b 7#ahhg71 pp4 #aaj-ach4 ,,chapter ,,xliii4 ,,other ,,noteworthy ,,houses ,house of ,caecilius ,jucundus 7excavated in #ahge73 ,,mau1 ,bull1 dell' ,inst41 #ahgf1 pp4 #adi-aea1 #afj-afh1 #bbc-bcd2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #fe1 #dad-dae1 #ddf1 #dej1 pl4 #ac1 #ad1 #ah2 ,,sogliano1 ,le pitture murali ,campane1 nos4 #acc1 #ach1 #aeh1 #agf1 #aib1 #bjg1 #bad1 #bcc1 #bcf1 #bea1 #bia1 #dac1 #ddh1 #ddi1 #dgg1 #ead1 #eca1 #efa1 #egi1 #ehb1 #ehc1 #ehi1 #eid1 #fjg1 #fdj1 #fea1 #fei1 #ffi1 #fgj1 #fgd1 #fge1 #fgf1 #fgg1 #fic1 #gjj1 #gjh1 #hji1 #hae1 #haf4 ,house of ,lucretius 7excavated in #ahdg73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #dec1 #dei-dgc2 ,,minervini1 in ,,niccolini1 ,le case ed i monumenti di ,pompei1 vol4 #a2 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #ad1 pl4 ,a1 ,b2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #cad-cbj2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 see ,topogr4 ,index1 p4 #dhb4 ,house of the ,hunt 7excavated in #ahcd73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #c1 pp4 #bhf-bhh2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #bgg-bgi2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 see ,topogr4 ,index1 p4 #dgc1 under ,casa della caccia antica2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 p4 #ded4 ,house of the ,centenary 7excavated in #ahgi-ahhj73 ,,mau1 ,bull1 dell' ,inst41 #ahha1 pp4 #aac-abh1 #afi-age1 #bba-bch2 #ahhb1 pp4 #bc-cb1 #dg-ec1 #hg-ia1 #ajd-aaf1 #acg-adh2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #cec-cei2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #bhg1 #cad1 #cba1 #cfh1 #chb-che1 #ddc-ddd1 #ddi1 #deb1 #dee2 ,,sogliano1 ,le pitture murali ,campane1 nos4 #ecj1 #ehe1 #eif1 #fbh4 ,house of the ,sculptured ,capitals 7excavated in #ahca-ahcc73 ,,avellino1 ,descrizione di una casa pompeiana con capitelli figurati all' ingresso1 dissotterrata negli anni #ahca1 #ahcb e #ahcc 7,naples1 #ahcg71 also in ,mem4 dell' ,acc4 ,ercolanese1 vol4 #f 7#ahcg72 ,,niccolini1 le case ed i monumenti di ,pompei1 vol4 #a2 ,,fiorelli1 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 pp4 #bbe-bbg2 ,,marquardt1 ,roem4 ,privatleben 7,edit4 #b71 pp4 #bbd ff42 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #id1 #cgd-cgi1 #chh1 #dcj-dca2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 see ,topogr4 ,index1 p4 #dgc4 ,house of ,pansa 7excavated in #ahac-ahbg73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #c1 pp4 #aaf-afa1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #aie-aig2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #b1 p4 #hb1 pl4 #db-de2 ,,fiorelli1 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 pp4 #ajb-ajf2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #cbe-cbi2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #feh-fei2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #gb-gc2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #ec1 #aae1 #ajad4 ,house of ,castor and ,pollux 7also known as house of the ,dioscuri1 and casa del ,questore2 excavated in #ahbh-ahbi73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #bje-bba2 ,,niccolini1 op4 cit41 vol4 #a2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #ccd-cdb2 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #e 7see ,relazione degli scavi di ,pompei1 at the end of the vol42 #bf pp4 text1 with plan2 cf4 also pl4 #cb1 #cc72 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #beh1 #cgb-cgc1 #djb1 #dbj-dba1 #ddf1 #dee2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 pp4 ,,lxxxv-,,lxxxvi and ,topogr4 ,index1 p4 #dfi4 ,house of the ,centaur 7excavated in #ahbh-ahbi73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #bag-bbd2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #ccj-ccd2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #ge-gh2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 see ,topogr4 ,index1 p4 #dfi1 under ,casa del ,centauro4 ,for the large mosaic found in this house1 known under the title ,force conquered by ,love1 see ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #g1 pl4 #fa2 ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei1 vol4 #e1 series #f1 pl4 #cj4 ,house of ,meleager 7excavated in #ahbi-ahcj73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #bbd-bdj2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #cjg-cad2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #dbf-dbg2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #gd1 #cgc-cgd1 #ddf1 #dec2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 pp4 ,,lxxxvii-,,lxxxviii and ,topogr4 ,index1 p4 #dfh4 ,house of ,apollo 7excavated in #ahbi-ahcj73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #bce-bcf2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #dbg-dbh2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 p4 #ded2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 see ,topogr4 ,index p4 #dfg4 ,houses with mosaic fountains 7excavated in #ahbf-ahbg73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #agd-bjb2 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 pp4 #abe-abf2 ,,niccolini1 op4 cit41 vol4 #a2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 p4 ,,lxxxviii and ,topogr4 ,index1 p4 #dgj1 ,x4 ,house of the ,anchor 7excavated in #ahcj73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #bcg-bci2 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 pp4 #adb-adc2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #gi-hj1 #beh-bei1 #cjb1 #cif-cig1 #cii1 #dbb2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #agd1 #ccd1 #die1 #efd1 #abbj4 ,house of the ,citharist 7excavation begun in #ahec1 completed in #ahfh73 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 pp4 #fe-fi2 ,,fiorelli1 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 pp4 #fa-fe2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #cei-cff2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #fd1 #bea-beb1 #cae1 #caf1 #cah1 #cbf1 #cce-ccf1 #cdc1 #cfg1 #chi1 #cig1 #daa-dac1 #ddf4 ,paintings3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 see ,topogr4 ,index1 pp4 #dhb-dhc2 ,orestes and ,pylades1 ,,helbig1 ,oreste e ,pilade in ,tauride su dipinto ,pompeiano1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #cg 7#ahfe71 pp4 #ccj-cdf1 and ,mon4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #h1 pl4 #bb4 ,statue of ,apollo p4 #ceb3 often reproduced1 as by ,,overbeck1 ,atlas der griechischen ,kunstmythologie1 pl4 #bj1 no4 #bf2 ,mon4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #h1 pl4 #ac2 ,,reinach1 ,repertoire de la statuaire grecque et romaine1 vol4 #b 7,paris1 #ahig71 p4 #ig1 no4 #h2 ,,brunn and ,,bruckmann1 ,denkmaeler griechischer und roemischer ,sculptur1 no4 #cjb4 ,see ,,kekule1 ,statua ,pompeiana di ,apolline1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #cg 7#ahfe71 pp4 #ee-ga2 ,,wolters1 ,eine ,spartanische ,apollostatue1 ,jahrb4 des ,inst41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 pp4 #a-aj2 ,,furtwaengler1 ,meisterwerke der griechischen ,plastik 7,leipzig1 #ahic71 pp4 #gi1 #hj1 and ,english translation by ,eugenie ,sellers1 ,masterpieces of ,greek ,sculpture 7,london1 #ahie71 p4 #eb2 ,,collignon1 ,histoire de la sculpture grecque1 vol4 #b 7,paris1 #ahig71 pp4 #ffe-fff4 ,house of ,cornelius ,rufus 7excavated in #ahfa73 ,,fiorelli1 ,giornale degli scavi1 vol4 #a 7#ahfa72 ,,fiorelli1 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 pp4 #cdj-cdb2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 p4 #ig2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #ecg-ech4 ,house of ,marcus ,holconius 7excavated in #ahfa73 ,bull4 ,arch4 ,italiano1 vol4 #a 7#ahfa-ahfb71 pp4 #ah-adc2 ,,fiorelli1 ,giornale degli scavi1 vol4 #a 7#ahfa71 pp4 #ac et seq42 ,,fiorelli1 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 pp4 #ccb-ccg2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #bij-big4 ,,chapter ,,xliv4 ,,roman ,,villas4 ,,the ,,villa ,,of ,,diomedes ,of ,roman villas in general3 ,,castell1 ,the ,villas of the ,ancients ,illustrated 7,london1 #agbh72 ,,friedlaender1 ,sittengeschichte ,roms1 ,edit4 #e1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #he-ic1 #agj-aic1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #hi-ajj1 ,edit4 #g1 pp4 #bja-baj2 ,,schmidt1 ,cicero's ,villen4 ,neue ,jahrbuecher fuer das klas4 ,altertum1 vol4 #c 7#ahii74 pp4 #cbh-cee1 #dff-dig1 particularly pp4 #cbh-ccc2 ,,winnefeld1 ,tusci und ,laurentum des juengeren ,plinius1 ,jahrb4 des ,inst41 vol4 #f 7#ahib71 pp4 #bja-bag2 ,,winnefeld1 ,die ,villa des ,hadrian bei ,tivoli 7,jahrb4 des ,inst41 ,ergaenzungsheft ,,iii1 ,berlin1 #ahie72 ,,winnefeld1 ,roemische ,villen der ,kaiserzeit1 ,preussische ,jahrbuecher1 vol4 #eg 7#ahih71 pp4 #deg et seq4 ,villas in the region about ,baiae3 ,,beloch1 ,campanien 7,edit4 #b1 ,berlin1 #ahhc71 pp4 #bja-bjb1 #bfi-bgd4 ,villas about ,rome3 ,,nibby1 ,dintorni di ,roma 7,edit4 #b1 #c vols41 ,rome1 #ahdh-ahdi71 vol4 #c1 pp4 #ca-da1 #bjc1 #fdg-gcg2 ,,de ,,rossi1 ,il ,tuscolo1 le ville ,tusculane e le loro antiche memorie cristiane1 ,bull4 di ,archeologia cristiana1 #ahgb1 especially pp4 #hg-aba2 ,,lanciani1 ,le ville ,tusculane 7with map1 tav4 #bj-ba71 ,bull4 com41 #ahhd1 pp4 #agb-bag2 ,,lanciani1 ,la villa ,castrimeniese di ,q4 ,voconio ,pollione1 ibid41 pp4 #ada-aga2 ,,grossi-,,gondi1 ,di una villa dei ,quintilii nel ,tusculano1 ,bull4 com41 #ahih1 pp4 #cac-cch2 ,,lanciani1 ,the ,destruction of ,ancient ,rome 7,new ,york1 #ahii71 pp4 #aja-aje2 ,,grossi-,,gondi1 ,la villa dei ,quintilii e la villa di ,mondragone 7,rome1 #aija74 ,villa of the ,laberii at ,uthina 7south of ,tunis73 ,,gauckler1 ,le domaine des ,laberii a ,uthina1 ,monuments et ,memoires publiees par l',academie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-lettres1 vol4 #c 7,fondation ,piot1 ,paris1 #ahig71 pp4 #agg-bbi2 ,,schulten1 review of ,gauckler's monograph1 ,goettingsche gelehrte ,anzeigen1 #ahih1 pp4 #dge-dha1 and briefer report 7with plan7 in ,archaeologischer ,anzeiger1 ,beiblatt zum ,jahrb4 des ,inst41 #ahih1 pp4 #aac-aae4 ,villas in ,britain3 ,references to ,chap4 ,,xxxiii1 and ,,morgan1 ,roman ,british ,mosaic ,pavements 7,london1 #ahhf74 ,the ,villa of ,diomedes 7excavated in #agga-aggd73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #bdi-bgh2 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 p4 #hi1 pl4 #dg-ec2 ,,ivanoff1 ,architektonische ,studien1 ,heft4 #b 7mit ,elaeuterungen von ,august ,mau1 ,berlin1 #ahie71 pl4 #d-f2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #cfi-cgf2 ,,mau1 ,pomp4 ,beitraege1 p4 #aea2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 see ,topogr4 ,index1 p4 #dhc4 ,bedroom in ,pliny's villa p4 #ceh3 ,plin4 ,ep4 ,,ii4 ,,xvii4 #bc4 ,,chapter ,,xlv4 ,,the ,,villa ,,rustica ,,at ,,boscoreale ,excavation1 plan1 remains3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #i 7#ahid71 pp4 #cdi-ceh1 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 pp4 #aca-adj2 ,,pasqui1 ,la villa pompeiana della ,pisanella presso ,boscoreale1 ,mon4 dei ,lincei1 vol4 #g 7#ahig71 pp4 #cig-eed4 ,for the collection of silverware1 see references on p4 #ech4 ,part of the objects of bronze found in the villa are in ,berlin2 see ,,pernice1 ,bronzen aus ,boscoreale1 ,archaeologischer ,anzeiger1 ,beiblatt zum ,jahrb4 des ,inst41 vol4 #ae 7#aijj71 pp4 #agg-aha4 ,others are in the ,field ,columbian ,museum1 ,chicago2 see ,,tarbell1 ,american ,journal of ,archaeology1 vol4 #c 7#ahii71 ,second ,series1 p4 #ehd4 ,sleeping room of the overseer near the entrance p4 #cfc3 ,varro1 ,r4,r4 ,i1 xiii1 #b4 ,small open cistern p4 #cff3 ,as the establishment was not connected with an aqueduct1 rain water was carefully saved4 ,the villa as a country residence p4 #cff3 ,in the farmhouses about ,rome and ,naples to-day rooms over the quarters of the tenant are reserved for the use of the owner4 ,,chapter ,,xlvi4 ,,household ,,furniture ,nearly all the articles of furniture and of the toilet referred to in this chapter are figured and described1 with many others1 in the ,real ,museo ,borbonico4 ,for detailed reference1 see the ,index1 near the end of vol4 #af 7pp4 #if-ig1 ,ori2 pp4 #ig-ih1 ,argenti2 pp4 #ii-aab1 ,suppellettile71 and our ,list of ,illustrations1 pp4 xxi-xxiii4 ,most of them are reproduced by ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei1 vol4 #g2 a number are figured by ,,piranesi in the volume1 ,oggetti di uso civile1 militare e religioso1 trovati a ,pompeia e ad ,ercolano 7 vol4 #bg of his ,opera74 ,see also the references on the ,pompeian and the ,roman house pp4 #eca-ecb1 and ,,becker1 ,gallus 7eighth ,english edition1 ,london1 #ahhf71 pp4 #bhe-cja2 ,,guhl and ,,koner1 ,life of the ,greeks and ,romans1 ,secs4 #hf-ic1 #ig2 ,,friedlaender1 ,sittengeschichte ,roms1 ,edit4 #e1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #ajj-aab1 ,edit4 #g1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #baj-bbj2 ,,marquardt1 ,roem4 ,privatleben 7,edit4 #b71 pp4 #fjg-gfh4 ,cf4 ,,mau1 ,fornelli antichi1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aj 7#ahih71 pp4 #ch-df4 ,silver cups found in the ,casa dell' ,argenteria p4 #cgi3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 p4 #cje4 ,the treasure of ,boscoreale p4 #chj3 ,,heron ,,de ,,villefosse1 ,le tresor de ,boscoreale1 ,monuments et ,memoires publies par l',academie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-lettres1 vol4 #e 7,fondation ,piot1 ,paris1 #ahii71 fasc4 #a and #b2 also ,,michaelis1 ,der ,silberschatz von ,boscoreale1 ,preussische ,jahrbuecher1 vol4 #he 7#ahif71 pp4 #ai-ef2 ,,winter1 ,der ,silberschatz von ,boscoreale1 ,archaeologischer ,anzeiger1 ,beiblatt zum ,jahrb4 des ,inst41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 pp4 #gd-hg2 cf4 also ,,collignon1 ,histoire de la sculpture grecque1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #fha-fhb4 ,shallow bowl with a representation of ,alexandria p4 #chj3 ,two similar bowls were ornamented with realistic portrait heads of a man and a woman1 which1 to judge from the manner of dressing the hair1 probably date from the reign of ,claudius or ,nero4 ,the bowl containing the portrait of the woman had been lost1 and the detached head is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,the other1 with the rest of the collection 7#ajb pieces7 is in the ,louvre4 ,beside ,epicurus an eager pig p4 #cha3 cf4 ,hor4 ,ep4 ,i4 iv4 #af1 ,epicuri de grege porcus4 ,greek inscription p4 #chb3 ,,heron ,,de ,,villefosse1 op4 cit41 p4 #ei4 ,,zon ,,meta zon meta- ,,labetogar labe1 to gar ,,aurionade aurion ade ,,lonesti lon esti ,,chapter ,,xlvii4 ,,the ,,trades ,,at ,,pompeii4 ,,the ,,bakers ,of the trades in general3 ,b,l,ue,m,n,e,r1 ,technologie und ,terminologie der ,gewerbe und ,kuenste bei ,griechen und ,roemern 7#d vols42 ,leipzig1 #ahge-ahhg72 ,,marquardt1 ,roem4 ,privatleben1 pt4 #b 7,edit4 #b2 ,leipzig1 #ahhf74 ,inscriptions relating to the trades at ,pompeii3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv41 see ,index1 p4 #bef1 under artes et officia privata4 ,signs of shops p4 #chg3 ,,jordan1 ,ueber roemische ,ausbaeugeschilder1 ,archaeologische ,zeitung1 vol4 #d 7#ahga71 pp4 #ge et seq4 ,inscription of ,diogenes3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hfh2 see the article1 ,aushaengeschilder1 by ,,mau1 in ,pauly-,wissowa1 ,realencyclopaedie1 vol4 #b4 pp4 #beeh-beei4 ,cupids as carpenters and shoemakers p4 #che3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #hjd1 #hje2 the two paintings are often reproduced1 as by ,,schreiber1 ,atlas of ,classical ,antiquities1 ,english translation by ,anderson 7,london1 #ahie71 pl4 #gb1 #a1 and #gc1 #ab4 ,stuccoer 7tector73 ,bull1 dell' ,inst41 #ahgi1 p4 #acd2 ,,sogliano1 ,le pitture murali ,campane1 no4 #fee2 ,b,l,ue,m,n,e,r1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #ec 7#ahha71 pp4 #ajg-ajh1 pl4 ,h4 ,bakers and bakeshops p4 #chh3 ,b,l,ue,m,n,e,r1 op4 cit41 vol4 #a1 pp4 #a-hh2 ,,marquardt1 op4 cit41 pp4 #dad-dbd2 ,,fulvio1 ,delle fornaci e dei forni pompeiani1 ,pompei e la regione sotterrata dal ,vesuvio nell' anno ,,lxxix4 pp4 #bgc-bia2 ,,de ,,rossi1 ,antichi mulini in ,roma e nel ,lazio1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #bi 7#aheg71 pp4 #bgd-bha2 ,,mau1 ,su certi apparecchi nei pistrini di ,pompei1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #a 7#ahhf71 pp4 #de-dh1 and pl4 #c4 ,processes of bread-making3 best illustrated in the reliefs of the monument of ,eurysaces1 ,rome1 shown in ,mon4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #b1 pl4 #eh2 cf4 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,i4 #ajac-ajae2 ,,jahn1 ,sepolcro di ,eurisace1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #aj 7#ahch71 particularly pp4 #bca-bdh4 ,loaves of bread represented in paintings3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #aeja1 #affa ff42 see1 e4g41 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #f1 pl4 #ch1 vol4 #h1 pl4 #eg4 ,remains of loaves found at ,pompeii3 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 p4 #agb4 ,,chapter ,,xlviii4 ,,the ,,fullers ,,and ,,the ,,tanners ,appliances and processes3 ,b,l,ue,m,n,e,r1 op4 cit41 vol4 #a1 pp4 #aee-agh1 #beg-bhg4 ,a fuller description of the tannery1 with illustrations showing the implements discovered1 is given by ,,mau1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgd1 pp4 #bga-bge1 #ahge1 pp4 #ah-be4 ,no soap in ,pompeii p4 #cic3 ,,hofmann1 ,ueber vermeintliche antike ,seife1 ,wiener ,studien1 vol4 #d 7#ahhb71 pp4 #bfc-bgj4 ,pictures illustrating the fullery pp4 #cid-cie3 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #d1 pl4 #di1 #ej2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 no4 #aejb2 ,,jahn1 ,abhandlungen der koenigl4 saechsischen ,gesellschaft des ,wissenschaften1 philologisch-hist4 ,classe1 vol4 #e 7#ahgj71 pp4 #cje-caa1 and pl4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,xlix4 ,,inns ,,and ,,wineshops ,roman inns3 ,,friedlaender1 ,sittengeschichte ,roms1 ,edit4 #e1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #cc-ci1 ,edit4 #g1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #caa-cbe4 ,inscriptions3 caupones1 copones1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv41 see ,index1 p4 #bef2 of ,sittius1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #hjf1 #hjg 7for the picture1 see ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 no4 #afja72 of the inn1 ,ins4 ,,vii1 ,,xii1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #badd-bafd4 ,pictures illustrating the life of the wineshop p4 #djc3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 p4 #bjd2 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #d1 pl4 ,a1 vol4 #e1 pl4 #dh2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #adhg1 #aejd4 ,selling of wine mixed with water p4 #djd3 a stock charge against ancient innkeepers2 ,trimalchio 7,petr4 ,sat4 ,,xxxix7 makes out that these were born under the sign ,aquarius1 'the waterer4' ,for the wineshop in which the graffito was found1 see ,,mau1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgd1 pp4 #beb-bef4 ,,chapter ,l4 ,,the ,,street ,,of ,,tombs ,of ,roman tombs and rites of burial3 ,,marquardt1 ,roem4 ,privatleben 7,edit4 #b71 pp4 #cdj-che2 ,,friedlaender1 ,sittengeschichte ,roms1 ,edit4 #e1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #aab-abc1 ,edit4 #g1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #bbj-bbh2 ,,guhl and ,,koner1 ,life of the ,greeks and ,romans1 ,secs4 #gg1 #gh1 #aaj2 ,,lanciani1 ,pagan and ,christian ,rome 7#ahib71 pp4 #afh-bjh1 #bec-cje2 ,,vollmer1 ,de funere publico ,romanorum1 ,jahrbuecher fuer classische ,philologie1 ,supplementband #ai 7#ahic71 pp4 #cai-cfd2 see the article ,bestattung1 by ,,mau1 in ,pauly-,wissowa1 ,realencyclopaedie1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #cdf-cei4 ,of the street of tombs as a whole3 ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #a2 ,,fiorelli1 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 pp4 #dja-dai2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #cha-cig2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #cih-dbb4 ,tombs near the ,herculaneum gate1 not including the ,garland tomb 7excavated #agfc-agfd1 #agfi-aggj73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #aej-aee1 #bcd-bda1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #aaj-aah 7journal of ,francesco la ,vega72 ,,piranesi1 ,antiquites de ,pompei1 vols4 #a1 #b1 pl4 #b-e1 #cd-dd4 ,sepulchral enclosure of ,terentius ,felix 7excavation finished ,december #ae1 #ahbh73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 p4 #bag2 ,,bonucci1 ,pompei decrite 7seconde traduction de la #c;e edition italienne1 ,naples1 #ahcj71 p4 #gc4 ,the tomb nearest the gate on the right3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #c 7#ahhh71 pp4 #adj-adb4 ,tombs farther from the gate1 to the limit of excavation 7excavated #ahjf-ahac73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #hg1 #agf-agg1 7,garland tomb71 pt4 #c1 pp4 #gd-abj1 #bbc-bbe1 #bdi2 ,,millin1 ,description des tombeaux qui ont ete decouverts a ,pompei dans l'annee #ahab 7,naples1 #ahac72 ,,clarac1 ,fouille faite a ,pompei en presence de ,s4 ,m4 la ,reine des ,deux ,siciles le #ah ,mars1 #ahac 7,naples1 #ahac74 ,tomb of the blue glass vase 7#ahcg73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #c1 p4 #acb2 ,,schulz1 in his ,scavi di ,pompei1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #aj 7#ahch71 pp4 #aid-aie4 ,tomb of ,diomedes 7excavated in #agge73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #bgi-bhj4 ,tomb of ,istacidius ,helenus 7#agge1 #ahbh73 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist1 vol4 #a1 pt4 #a4 pp4 #bgi-bhj1 vol4 #b1 p4 #bag4 ,the pre-,roman graves p4 #djg3 ,,mau and ,,von ,,duhn1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgd1 pp4 #aef-afg2 earlier finds of painted vases1 ,,bonucci1 ,pompei 7#ahcj71 p4 #fe2 and ,,de ,,iorio1 ,plan de ,pompei et remarques sur ses edifices 7,naples1 #ahbh71 p4 #cc4 ,t4 ,suedius ,clemens pp4 #djg-djh2 cf4 also p4 #dhh3 ,clemens was now evidently a supporter of ,vespasian2 previously he had been in the service of ,otho 7,tac4 ,hist4 ,i4 ,,lxxxvii1 ,,ii4 ,,xii74 ,blue glass vase p4 #dae3 ,,schultz1 ,anforina di vetro con bassirilievi rinvenuta in ,pompei1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #aa 7#ahci71 pp4 #hd-ajj4 ,gladiatorial scenes on the tomb of ,scaurus p4 #dai3 admirably engraved by ,,mazois 7op4 cit41 pl4 #cj1 #ca1 #cb71 and frequently reproduced1 as by ,,schreiber1 ,atlas of ,classical ,antiquities 7,eng4 trans41 #ahie71 pl4 #cj1 #b-i1 text1 with citation of literature1 p4 #ei2 ,,niccolini1 le case ed i monumenti di ,pompei1 vol4 #a4 ,inscriptions accompanying the figures3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #aahb2 the inscription of the tomb itself is given1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #ajbd4 ,in his interpretation of the reliefs ,mazois incorrectly assumed 7op4 cit41 pp4 #dg-dh7 that on account of the baiting of a bear by one of the figures with a cloth the tomb could not have been built before the time of ,claudius4 ,the passage cited by him 7,plin4 ,n4 ,h4 ,,viii4 ,,xvi4 #ed7 has no bearing on the date2 but the tomb of ,scaurus1 which belongs neither to the oldest nor to the most recent1 may well have been built in the time of ,claudius or of ,nero4 ,ship on the tomb of ,naevoleia ,tyche p4 #dbc3 ,,jordan1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #dd 7#ahgb71 pp4 #bj-bf2 ,,visconti1 ,fronte di ,sarcofago con ,tritoni e navi1 ,bull4 ,com41 vol4 #a 7#ahgb-ahgc71 pp4 #bee-bfi2 cf4 ,cic4 ,de ,sen4 ,,xix4 #ga4 ,petronius 7,sat4 ,,lxxi47 humorously represents ,trimalchio as ordering 'ships under full sail' among the carvings of his tomb4 ,inscription of ,salvius p4 #dbf3 found1 according to ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #ajcb1 beside the tomb of ,naevoleia ,tyche2 but we have the testimony of ,,bonucci 7,pompei1 #ahcj1 p4 #cg7 to the effect that it was found in the niche where it now is1 where it exactly fits the cavity4 ,the mistake in the ,corpus may have arisen from a misunderstanding of the report of the excavation1 which is now unfortunately lost4 ,m4 ,alleius ,luccius ,libella p4 #dbf3 the name was originally ,luccius ,libella1 with what praenomen is not clear2 but ,luccius ,libella married the daughter of ,m4 ,alleius 7,m4 ,alleius ,nigidius ,maius87 and was adopted by him1 assuming his praenomen and nomen1 so that the full name took the form given in the inscription4 ,the son dropped the original nomen ,luccius1 and was called simply ,m4 ,alleius ,libella4 ,in like manner the name of the son of ,d4 ,lucretius ,satrius ,valens became ,d4 ,lucretius ,valens p4 #bbb4 ,,chapter ,,li4 ,,burial ,,places ,,near ,,the ,,nola1 ,,stabian1 ,,and ,,nocera ,,gates ,burial places near the ,nola ,gate p4 #dbi3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #eid-eig2 ,,nissen1 ,pomp4 ,studien1 pp4 #dhj-dhc4 ,graves east of the ,stabian ,road p4 #dbi--;earlier finds3 ,,fiorelli1 ,pomp4 ant4 hist41 vol4 #a4 pt4 #a1 pp4 #aa-ab1 #ad1 #db1 #df-dh1 #ej1 #ea-eb2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #ajdg-ajfb2 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aj 7#ahie71 p4 #bbf1 #g4 ,later finds3 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahic1 pp4 #ccc-cce1 #ahid1 pp4 #ae-af1 #chb-che1 #ahig1 pp4 #bge-bgf2 ,,mau1 ,scavi fuori porta ,stabiana1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #i 7#ahid74 pp4 #fb-fe4 vol4 #aj 7#ahie71 pp4 #aef-aei4 ,tombs near the ,stabian ,gate p4 #dcj3 ,not4 d4 scavi4 #ahhi1 pp4 #bhj-bha1 #cfh-cfi1 #djf-daj1 #ahij1 pp4 #dd-de1 #afe2 ,,mau1 ,scavi fuori porta ,stabiana1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #e 7#ahij71 pp4 #bgg-bhd4 ,the inscriptions are given also in ,ephem4 ,epigr41 vol4 #h1 pp4 #hg-hh 7nos4 #cah1 #cbe1 #cbg1 #ccj74 ,tombs near the ,amphitheatre p4 #dca3 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahhf1 pp4 #ccd-ccg1 #ahhg1 pp4 #cc-dj1 #deb-deh2 ,,mau1 ,sepolcri della via ,nucerina1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #c 7#ahhh71 pp4 #abj-adi4 ,for the inscriptions1 see also ,ephem4 ,epigr41 vol4 #h1 pp4 #hh-ij 7#cbj1 #cba1 #cbd1 #cbf1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #ccb72 advertisement of the stray horse1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #c1 p4 #ade4 ,desecration of tombs near ,rome p4 #dcf3 ,,lanciani1 ,the ,destruction of ,ancient ,rome1 pp4 #hi-ih4 ,,chapter ,,lii4 ,,architecture ,doric frieze with red metopes p4 #dda3 there is a similar frieze in the house ,,vii4 ,,iii4 #ca2 see ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 p4 #ig4 ,,chapter ,,liii4 ,,sculpture ,of the sculptures found at ,pompeii3 ,very few of the sculptures unearthed at ,pompeii are treated or reproduced in the comprehensive works on ancient sculpture4 ,the more important statues and reliefs found prior to #ahfe1 as well as those discovered in ,herculaneum1 are published in the ,real ,museo ,borbonico1 with descriptive text2 see the ,index at the end of vol4 #af1 pp4 #h-cd4 ,they are reproduced also by ,,roux1 with descriptive text by ,barre1 ,herculanum et ,pompei1 vols4 #f and #g 7first part74 ,these engravings1 while in many cases faulty1 are often serviceable to students at a distance in the identification of photographs1 which are easily obtained through the ,naples dealers4 ,the better terra-cottas are published by ,,von ,,rohden1 ,die ,terracotten von ,pompeji 7,stuttgart1 #ahhj74 ,a somewhat fuller treatment of ,pompeian sculpture is given in ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #ecb-efc4 ,heads of ,epicurus1 ,demosthenes1 and ,callimachus p4 #ddg3 ,,mau1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgf1 pp4 #bdb-bdc2 ,,brizio1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #de 7#ahgc71 pp4 #ih-ajf2 ,,mommsen and ,,robert1 ,archaeologische ,zeitung1 #ahhj1 pp4 #cb-cf2 ,comparetti1 ,la ,villa ,ercolanese dei ,pisoni 7,torino1 #ahhc71 pp4 #cc-ec1 pl4 ,,iii1 nos4 #d1 #g1 #h2 ,,mau1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahhc1 pp4 #hi-if2 for other references1 see ,,helbig1 ,fuehrer durch die oeffentlichen ,sammlungen klassischer ,altertuemer in ,rom 7,edit4 #b1 #b vols41 ,leipzig1 #ahii71 vol4 #a1 p4 #cai1 no4 #dgf4 ,busts of ,virgil and ,horace p4 #ddh 7found in ,october1 #ahfh73 ,giornale degli scavi di ,pompei1 ,nuova ,serie1 vol4 #a 7#ahfh71 p4 #acc and pl4 #a2 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 p4 #afd2 ,,bernoulli1 ,roemische ,ikonographie1 vol4 #a 7,stuttgart1 #ahhb71 pp4 #abg1 #aib2 ,,helbig1 ,fuehrer durch die oeffentlichen ,sammlungen klassischer ,altertuemer in ,rom 7,edit4 #b71 vol4 #a1 pp4 #cee-cef4 ,a further reason why ,brutus cannot be represented in the ,naples bust is that the similar bust in the ,capitoline ,museum in ,rome 7,,helbig1 op4 cit41 no4 #ecf7 shows a person well on in years1 while the prominence of ,brutus lasted only for a brief period1 and it is not likely that there should be preserved to us portraits representing him at periods so entirely different4 ,susa mosaic3 ,comptes rendus de l',academie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-lettres1 serie #d1 vol4 #bd 7,paris1 #ahif71 pp4 #egh-eha and pl4 after p4 #ehj2 ,,gauckler1 ,les ,mosaiques virgiliennes de ,sousse1 ,monuments et ,memoires publiees par l',academie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-lettres1 vol4 #d 7,fondation ,piot1 #ahig71 pp4 #bcc-bcd2 ,,fowler1 ,portraits of ,virgil1 ,school ,review1 vol4 #f 7#ahih71 pp4 #eih-fje2 ,archaeologischer ,anzeiger1 ,beiblatt zum ,jahrb4 des ,inst41 vol4 #ac 7#ahih71 p4 #aad4 ,aphrodite and ,spes p4 #dej3 ,,mau1 ,bull1 dell' ,inst41 #ahgc1 pp4 #bcc-bce4 ,artemis p4 #dej3 often reproduced1 as ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #b1 pl4 #h2 ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei1 vol4 #f1 pl4 #gf1 #gg2 ,,brunn and ,,bruckmann1 ,denkmaeler griechischer und roemischer ,sculptur1 no4 #cef4 ,identification with ,artemis ,laphria 7,paus4 ,,vii4 ,,xviii4 #i73 ,,studniczka1 ,die archaische ,artemis-statuette aus ,pompeii1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #c 7#ahhh71 pp4 #bgg-cjb1 and pl4 #aj2 ,,collignon1 ,histoire de la sculpture grecque1 vol4 #b 7,paris1 #ahig71 pp4 #fef-feg4 ,dancing satyr p4 #dej3 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #i1 pl4 #db2 ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei1 vol4 #f1 pl4 #ei2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #edi-eea4 ,silenus carrying frame with glass vase p4 #dea3 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #af1 pl4 #bi2 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 p4 #aei2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 p4 #eeb4 ,listening ,dionysus p4 #deb3 ,giornale degli scavi di ,pompei1 #ahfb1 p4 #fj and pl4 #ad2 ,,fiorelli1 ,gli scavi di ,pompei dal #ahfa al #ahgb1 pp4 #aeh-aei2 ,,benndorf1 ,sulla statua ,pompeiana creduta di ,narcisso1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #ch 7#ahff71 pp4 #ajg-aac2 ,,overbeck-,,mau1 ,pompeji1 pp4 #eeb-eee2 ,,hauser1 ,narcisso1 ,jahrb4 des ,inst41 vol4 #d 7#ahhi71 pp4 #aac-aah2 ,,collignon1 ,histoire de la sculpture grecque1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #dea-dec2 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #af1 pl4 #bh2 ,,brunn and ,,bruckmann1 ,denkmaeler1 no4 #chd4 ,hauser in the article cited makes it appear probable that the figure had originally a somewhat different pose2 the right foot rested flat upon the base1 the left only on the heel1 so that the body1 instead of leaning forward1 was slightly bent back4 ,the present pose1 however1 was given to the figure in antiquity2 according to ,g4 ,patroni1 the wedge of lead under the right foot was in its present place when the statuette was discovered4 ,ephebus of #aijj p4 #dec3 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #aijj1 pp4 #ehd-ehg 7#g illustrations72 ,,sogliano1 ,l'efebo in bronzo rinvenuto in ,pompei1 ,mon4 dei ,lincei1 vol4 #aj 7#aija71 pp4 #fda-fed1 pl4 #af-bf4 ,this statue is assigned to the ,roman period by ,,waldstein1 ,the ,monthly ,review1 #aija1 pp4 #abe-abf1 and ,,petersen1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #af 7#aija71 p4 #if4 ,,chapter ,,liv4 ,,painting4 ,,wall ,,decoration ,technique of ,pompeian painting3 ,,donner1 ,die erhaltenen antiken ,wandmalereien in technischer ,beziehung1 printed as an introduction to ,helbig's ,wandgemaelde 7see ,chap4 ,,lv471 pp4 ,i--,,cxxvii2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der decorativen ,wandmalerei in ,pompeji 7,berlin1 #ahhb2 with atlas of #bj plates74 ,specimen illustrations3 ,many entire walls as well as single paintings are reproduced in color in the extensive works by ,,zahn1 ,die schoensten ,ornamente und merkwuerdigsten ,gemaelde aus ,pompeji1 ,herkulanum und ,stabiae1 nebst einigen ,grundrissen und ,ansichten 7,mit deutschem und franzoesischem ,text4 ,drei ,abtheilungen in #cj ,heften1 #cjb ,tafeln4 ,berlin1 #ahbg-ahei72 and ,,niccolini1 ,le case ed i monumenti di ,pompei designati e descritti 7,naples1 #ahed-aija74 ,both works are rarely found complete1 and the plates of the second in particular leave much to be desired in respect to drawing as well as coloring2 it has therefore been thought best not to encumber these notes with detailed references to them4 ,a number of walls are shown also by ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei 7#h vols41 ,paris1 #ahdj71 vol4 #a 7#ajh plates71 and by ,d',,amelio1 ,dipinti ,murali di ,pompei1 ,naples1 #ahhh4 ,professor ,mau has in preparation a new work on wall decoration which will be illustrated by colored plates similar to those in the atlas to his ,wandmalerei4 ,the sources of the illustrations in this and the following chapter are given in our ,list of ,illustrations1 p4 xxv4 ,preparation of the wall p4 #def3 ,vitr4 ,,vii4 ,,iii2 cf4 also ,,middleton1 ,the ,remains of ,ancient ,rome 7#b vols4 ,london1 #ahib71 vol4 #a1 pp4 #ia-ajc4 ,decoration of the house of ,lucretius p4 #deg3 see references on p4 #ebh4 ,the four styles of decoration p4 #deg3 suggestive critical comments by ,,wickhoff1 ,roman ,art 7,english trans4 by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,arthur ,strong1 ,london1 #aijj71 pp4 #aag ff42 but see the review of the ,german original by ,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aj 7#ahie71 pp4 #bbg-bce4 ,decoration of the second style in ,rome p4 #dfb--;house of ,germanicus on the ,palatine3 ,,mau1 ,due pareti d'una stanza sul ,palatino1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #eb 7#ahhj71 pp4 #acf-adi1 and ,mon4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #aa1 pl4 #bb-bc2 ,,mau1 ,geschichte der dec4 ,wandmalerei1 pp4 #aif-bje and pl4 #i4 ,house in the ,farnesina garden3 ,not4 d4 ,scavi1 #ahgi1 pp4 #ae1 #dj1 #fh1 #aad1 #ada1 #agi-ahj1 #bfg1 #cad1 #ccc1 #ahhj1 pp4 #cb1 #abg-abh1 #ach-adj1 and pl4 #d 7plan72 ,,mau1 ,parete dipinta della casa antica scoperta nel giardino della ,farnesina1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #ed 7#ahhb71 pp4 #cja-cjh2 ,h,ue,l,s,e,n1 ,fregio dipinta nella casa antica scoperta nel giardino della ,farnesina1 ibid41 pp4 #cji-cad2 ,,mau1 ,pitture della casa antica scoperta nella villa ,farnesina1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #ef 7#ahhd71 pp4 #cjg-cbb1 vol4 #eg 7#ahhe71 pp4 #cjb-cah2 ,mon4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #aa1 pl4 #dd-dh1 vol4 #ab1 pl4 #e1 #e a1 #g1 #g a1 #h1 #ag-cd2 ,supplemento 7#ahia71 pl4 #cb-cf2 especially ,,lessing and ,,mau1 ,wand- und ,deckenschmuck eines roemischen ,hauses aus der ,zeit des ,augustus 7,berlin1 #ahia2 with #af plates from the same blocks as those in the ,mon4 dell' ,inst472 ,,helbig1 ,fuehrer durch die ,sammlungen klassischer ,altertuemer in ,rom1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #bbf-bbc1 nos4 #aajg-aajh1 #aaai-aabb1 #aabd1 #aabi-aacf1 #aada-aadd1 #aadf-aadh1 #aaea4 ,,chapter ,,lv4 ,,the ,,paintings ,of the paintings in general3 the paintings discovered prior to #ahfh are described1 with references to the literature1 by ,w4 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde der vom ,vesuv verschuetteten ,staedte ,campaniens 7,nebst einer ,abhandlung ueber die antiken ,wandmalereien in ,technischer ,beziehung1 von ,otto ,donner1 ,leipzig1 #ahfh72 those discovered after the publication of ,helbig's work and before #ahhj1 by ,a4 ,,sogliano1 ,le pitture murali ,campane scoverte negli anni #ahfg-ahgi 7supplemento all' opera dell' ,helbig1 ,naples1 #ahgi4 ,published also in the volume1 ,pompei e la regione sotterrata dal ,vesuvio1 for which see p4 #eac72 those that have come to light since #ahgi are described by ,,mau in his reports 7see note to ,chap4 ,,iv7 and in the ,notizie degli scavi2 cf4 also ,,helbig1 ,untersuchungen ueber die campanische ,wandmalerei 7,leipzig1 #ahgc74 ,besides the reproductions of paintings by ,,zahn and ,,niccolini mentioned above 7p4 #edd71 the more important examples are published in the ,real ,museo ,borbonico 7see ,index at the end of vol4 #af1 pp4 #cg-eh72 ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei1 vols4 #a-e 7,paris1 #ahdj72 ,,rochette1 ,choix de peintures de ,pompei1 la plupart de sujet historique 7lithographiees en couleur par ,m4 ,roux1 et publiees 444 par ,m4 ,raoul-,rochette2 #g livraisons in fol41 ,paris1 #ahdd-ahec1 incomplete72 ,,presuhn1 ,pompeji1 ,die neuesten ,ausgrabungen von #ahgd bis #ahha 7,edit4 #b1 ,leipzig1 #ahhb2 #hj chromolithograph plates72 and in other works the titles of which are easily accessible in ,furchheim's ,bibliografia4 ,the colored plates presented by ,a4 ,,niccolini1 ,arte ,pompeiana ,monumenti scelti 7a selection of #ee plates from the larger work1 ,naples1 #ahhh71 give a false idea of the paintings reproduced4 ,no evidence of development in composition or technique p4 #dga3 cf4 ,,wickhoff1 ,roman ,art1 pp4 #aci ff4 ,hercules and ,antaeus p4 #dgb3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgf1 p4 #aja2 ,,sogliano1 ,le pitture murali ,campane1 no4 #die4 ,mosaic pictures on the floor p4 #dgb3 as in the house of the ,faun2 see references on p4 #ecc4 ,for the ,pompeian mosaics in general1 see ,gli ornati delle pareti ed i pavimenti delle stanze dell' antica ,pompei1 #c vols4 ,naples1 #agif-ahjh1 vols4 #a and #b2 ,museo ,borb41 ,index at the end of vol4 #af1 pp4 #ce-cg2 ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei1 vol4 #e 7latter part1 #cb plates74 ,group of ,admetus and ,alcestis in architectural framework p4 #dgc3 ,,sogliano1 op4 cit41 no4 #ejf4 ,seafights p4 #dgd3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #aegf-aehj 7those of the ,macellum are shown in a colored plate by ,,mazois1 ,les ruines de ,pompei1 vol4 #c1 pl4 #df72 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 p4 #ef1 nos4 #aac-aaf1 and ,,sogliano1 ,mon4 dei ,lincei1 vol4 #h 7#ahih71 p4 #caj1 fig4 #cc2 cf4 also ,,sogliano op4 cit41 nos4 #ffi-fgj4 ,xenia p4 #dgd3 ,vitr4 ,,vi4 ,,vii 7,x7 #d2 ,,helbig1 ,wandegemaelde1 nos4 #affa-agah4 ,for fig4 #bff cf4 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #f1 pl4 #ch2 ,,helbig1 no4 #afij4 ,landscapes p4 #dge3 ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei1 vol4 #c 7end2 #cj plates72 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 pp4 #che-cid2 ,,sogliano1 op4 cit41 pp4 #ada-add4 ,tadius1 ,ludius p4 #dge3 ,plin4 ,n4 ,h4 ,,xxxv4 ,x4 #aaf4 ,in ,mayhoff's text 7vol4 #e1 #ahig7 the name is given as ,studius4 ,cf4 ,,helbig1 ,beitraege zur ,erklaerung der campanischen ,wandbilder4 ,rhein4 ,mus41 vol4 #be 7#ahgj71 pp4 #cic-djg4 ,decoration of the villa at ,prima ,porta3 ,,brunn1 ,scavi di ,prima ,porta1 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahfc1 pp4 #ha-hf2 ,antike ,denkmaeler des ,kaiserlich deutschen ,archaeologischen ,instituts1 vol4 #a 7#ahij71 pl4 #aa1 #bd4 ,group of musicians p4 #dgf3 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #a1 pl4 #cj2 ,,helbig1 ,wandegemaelde1 no4 #addb4 ,paquius ,proculus and his wife p4 #dgg3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahfh1 p4 #bjd2 ,,sogliano1 op4 cit41 no4 #fgc4 ,busts of youths with the names of ,homer and ,plato pp4 #dgg-dgh3 found in #ahib in the tablinum of the small house joined to the house of the ,silver ,wedding fig4 #adf1 delta2 reproduced1 with fuller description1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #h 7#ahic71 pp4 #ai-bc4 ,paintings of ,achilles in the house of ,castor and ,pollux p4 #dgh3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #abig1 #acjg4 ,scenes of combat p4 #dgh--;,hercules1 from ,herculaneum3 ,pitture di ,ercolano1 vol4 #c1 pl4 #dg1 p4 #bdg2 ibid41 vol4 #d1 pl4 #e1 p4 #bg2 and ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #aa1 pl4 #i2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #aabd1 #aabe4 ,meleager and the boar3 ,,fiorelli1 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 pp4 #dj1 #chb2 ,,sogliano1 op4 cit41 nos4 #ejh1 #eji4 ,achilles and the fleeing ,troilus3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahfh1 p4 #cg2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 pp4 #dfj-dfa2 cf4 also ,,sogliano1 op4 cit41 no4 #edh4 ,combat between warrior and ,amazon3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahga1 p4 #bjd2 ,,sogliano1 op4 cit41 no4 #edg1 cf4 also no4 #edh4 ,io and ,argus1 ,io in ,egypt p4 #dgi3 ,museo ,borb41 vol4 #b1 pl4 #ab1 vol4 #aj1 pl4 #b2 ,,roux1 ,herculanum et ,pompei1 vol4 #b1 pl4 #ei2 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #aca1 #ach4 ,cf4 ,,braun1 ,elenco dei monumenti rappresentanti il mito di ,io1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #aj 7#ahch71 pp4 #cbh-ccj1 and ,mon4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #b1 pl4 #ei4 ,hecuba p4 #dgi3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgg1 p4 #ac2 ,,mau1 ,ettore riportato a ,troia1 pittura paretaria di ,pompei1 ,ann4 dell' ,inst41 vol4 #di 7#ahgg71 pp4 #bfh-bgi1 and pl4 ,o1 ,p 7colored1 at the end of the volume72 ,,sogliano1 op4 cit41 no4 #egi4 ,narcissus1 ,polyphemus1 ,apollo1 and ,admetus pp4 #dgi-dhj3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #acch-acfg1 ,,sogliano1 op4 cit41 nos4 #ehf-eib2 ,,helbig1 nos4 #bbj-bbb1 #ajdh4 ,idyllic pictures p4 #dhj--,selene and ,endymion3 ,,helbig1 ,wandgemaelde1 nos4 #iej-ifb2 ,,sogliano1 op4 cit41 nos4 #def-deg4 ,paris and ,oenone3 ,,helbig1 no4 #abhj4 ,perseus and ,andromeda3 ,,helbig1 nos4 #aaib-aaih4 ,bacchus and ,ariadne3 ,,helbig1 nos4 #abce-abdj2 ,,sogliano1 no4 #ech2 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 pp4 #eb-ec 7no4 #ih1 house of the ,vettii74 ,hercules and ,omphale3 ,,helbig1 nos4 #aacf-aadj2 cf4 ,,sogliano1 nos4 #dif1 #dig4 ,examples of a pathetic situation p4 #dhj--;,aphrodite and the wounded ,adonis3 ,,helbig1 nos4 #cce-cdj2 ,,sogliano1 no4 #adb4 ,cyparissus3 ,,sogliano1 nos4 #aji1 #aaj2 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 p4 #ai 7no4 #cf1 with illustration1 house of the ,vettii74 ,europa and the bull3 ,,sogliano1 no4 #gi2 cf4 ,,helbig1 nos4 #abc-acj4 ,groups with figures in contrast p4 #dhj--;,hephaestus and ,thetis3 ,,helbig1 nos4 #acaf-acah c4 ,daedalus and ,pasiphae3 ,,helbig1 nos4 #abje-abjh2 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa1 pp4 #di-ea 7with illustration1 house of the ,vettii74 ,danae cast away3 ,,helbig1 nos4 #aai-aba2 ,,sogliano1 nos4 #gf-gh4 ,paintings in groups p4 #dha3 ,,trendelenburg1 ,gegenstuecke in der ,wandmalerei1 ,archaeologische ,zeitung1 vol4 #i 7#ahgf71 pp4 #a-h1 #gi-ic4 ,group of three paintings1 ,achilles3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgi1 pp4 #ea-ed 7,ins4 ,,ix4 ,v4 #b72 ,,sogliano1 nos4 #egb1 #egf1 #egg4 ,group of two1 ,polyphemus1 ,aphrodite fishing3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgf1 pp4 #di-ej2 ,,sogliano1 nos4 #adf1 #dgb 7,ins4 ,,vi4 ,,xiv4 #bh72 ,,helbig1 nos4 #ced1 #ajdi 7house of ,lucretius74 ,group of two1 ,europa and ,pan3 ,,sogliano1 nos4 #gi1 #aif 7,ins4 ,,ix4 ,v4 #ah74 ,double group1 ,hercules and ,artemis1 ,athena and ,marsyas3 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #e 7#ahij71 pp4 #bfc-bfi 7with illustrations71 vol4 #f 7#ahia71 pp4 #ga-gb 7,ins4 ,v4 ,,ii4 #aj74 ,,chapter ,,lvi4 ,,monumental ,,inscriptions ,,and ,,public ,,notices ,publication3 in the notes to the preceding chapters references have been given to the place of publication of nearly all the monumental inscriptions1 both ,latin and ,oscan2 the ,latin inscriptions on stone are classified ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #ghg-ajgi1 with a supplementary collection1 ,ephem4 ,epigr41 vol4 #h1 pp4 #hf-ij 7nos4 #caa-ccb72 cf4 also ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahih1 pp4 #dbb-dbc4 ,the ,oscan inscriptions of all classes are published by ,,zvetaieff1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,oscarum 7with #ai plates of facsimiles2 ,st4 ,petersburg and ,leipzig1 #ahgh72 ,inscriptiones ,italiae inferioris mediae 7with #aa plates2 ,moscow and ,leipzig1 #ahhf72 ,,von ,,planta1 ,grammatik der ,oskisch-,umbrischen ,dialekte 7#b vols41 ,strassburg1 #ahib1 #ahig71 vol4 #b1 pp4 #dii-eaj 7nos4 #bh-aaf72 ,,conway1 ,the ,italic ,dialects 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahig71 vol4 #b1 pp4 #ed-ha 7nos4 #ci-hf74 ,the public notices are collected in ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 pp4 #a-ge 7nos4 #a-abjd71 pp4 ,,xvi-,,xvii 7nos4 #cbef-cbif71 and the ,supplement1 pt4 #b1 which is in press1 pp4 #dfg-dii 7nos4 #ccda-chhd74 ,house of ,aemilius ,celer p4 #dhf3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #d 7#ahhi71 pp4 #aah-aai4 ,election notices p4 #dhg--,m4 ,marius3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #c4 ,publius ,furius3 ibid41 #fg4 ,herennius ,celsus3 ibid41 #bii4 ,casellius3 ibid41 #bbc et al41 and ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 p4 #if4 ,holconius ,priscus3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #aeg4 hic aerarium conservabit3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #cgjb4 ,claudius ,verus3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #cfg1 ,suppl4 #ebbi1 and often between nos4 #cgjg and #chbh4 ,election notices pp4 #dhh-dhi--;,helvius ,sabinus3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #ghg4 ,m4 ,epidius ,sabinus3 ibid41 #dgj4 ,sabinus3 ibid41 #fce4 ,epidius ,sabinus3 ibid41 #ghg4 ,vatia3 ibid41 #ege1 #egf1 #eha4 ,,claudius3 ibid41 #dbe4 ,notices to rent--insula of ,nigidius ,maius p4 #dhi3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #ach4 ,property of ,julia ,felix p4 #dij3 ibid41 #aacf4 ,offer of reward p4 #dij3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #fd4 ,,chapter ,,lvii4 ,,the ,,graffiti ,publication3 the graffiti are collected1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 pp4 #gf-aff 7nos4 #abje-bedi c71 pp4 ,,xvii-,,xviii 7nos4 #cbig-ccci71 and ,suppl41 pt4 #b1 pp4 #dii-eii 7nos4 #chhe et seq474 ,cf4 ,,correra1 ,graffiti di ,roma1 ,bull4 com41 #ahic1 pp4 #bde-bfj1 #ahid1 pp4 #hi-ajj1 and pls4 ,,ii-,,vi1 #ahie1 pp4 #aic-baf4 ,admiror1 paries p4 #dia3 found in the ,large ,theatre1 the ,amphitheatre1 and the ,basilica2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #aijd1 #bdfa1 #bdhg2 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahfg1 pp4 #ej-ec2 ,bull4 com41 #ahid1 p4 #ii2 ,,buecheler1 ,carmina ,latina epigraphica1 no4 #ieg 7vol4 #a1 ,leipzig1 #ahie71 p4 #ddj4 ,references to writing on walls in ancient authors3 ,plin4 ,epist4 ,,viii4 ,,viii4 #g2 ,mart4 ,ep4 ,,xii4 ,,lxi4 #g-aj2 ,cic4 ,in ,verr4 ,,iii4 ,,xxxiii4 #gg4 ,metrical graffiti3 ,,buecheler1 ,die metrischen ,wandinschriften1 ,rhein4 ,mus41 vol4 #ab 7#aheg71 pp4 #bej-bfj4 ,graffiti relating to the conflict in the ,amphitheatre p4 #dib3 see references on pp4 #ebi-ecj4 ,praetorian guard p4 #dib3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #aiid4 ,names and greetings p4 #dic--,paris1 ,sabinus3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #abde1 #acje4 ,aemilius3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #ecej4 ,samius1 ,pyrrhus3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #ahfd1 #aheb4 ,love p4 #did--,quisquis amat3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgf1 p4 #bcc2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #djia2 cf4 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #aagc1 #caii3 ,,buecheler1 ,carm4 ,lat4 epigr41 nos4 #ide1 #idf4 ,nemo est bellus3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #ahhc2 ,,buecheler1 #bcc2 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #ac 7#ahih71 p4 #de4 ,nam nemo flammas3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #ahih2 ,,buecheler1 #idh4 ,alliget hic auras3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #afdi2 ,,buecheler1 #idd4 ,si quis forte meam3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #afde2 ,,buecheler1 #iec1 #ied4 ,quotations and paraphrases p4 #die3 ,propert4 ,,ii4 ,v4 #i2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #ddia2 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahge1 p4 #aia3 ,ovid1 ,ars ,am4 ,i4 #dge-dgf1 and ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #ahie4 ,lovers' messages p4 #die--,victoria3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #adgg4 ,cestilia3 ibid41 #bdac h4 ,pupa3 ibid41 #abcd2 ,,buecheler1 no4 #bcb4 ,serena3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgd1 p4 #bfi2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #cibh-cicj4 ,si quid amor3 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahhc1 p4 #ec2 ,,buecheler1 no4 #ice4 ,lovers' complaints p4 #dif3 ,tu1 dea3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #bcaj k4 ,quoted couplets joined3 ibid41 #ahic1 #ahid4 ,threat against ,venus3 ibid41 #ahbd2 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #h 7#ahic71 p4 #ei 7no4 #bi72 ,,buecheler1 no4 #idg4 ,records of tarrying p4 #dif--,romula3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #bjfj4 ,staphilus3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #djhg4 ,restitutus3 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #g 7#ahib71 p4 #be2 ,,buecheler1 #cee4 ,varus and ,pelagia3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #bcba4 ,balbus and ,fortunata3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahhc1 p4 #aie2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #dicc4 ,greeting of ,hirtia ,psacas p4 #dig4 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahid1 p4 #bja2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #cije4 ,memoranda p4 #dig--;gambling3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #baai4 ,paces3 ibid41 #agad4 ,advent of young3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgd1 p4 #bjb2 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #chij4 ,figures3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #aiif1 #bjjh1 #bjaa1 #bjbj1 etc4 ,oleum l4 a43 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #djjj2 ,,fiorelli1 ,descrizione di ,pompei1 p4 #ei4 ,catchwords1 quotations1 proverbs p4 #dih3 ,verg4 ,aen4 ,i4 #a3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #abhb1 #bcfa1 #caih4 ,aen4 ,,ii4 #a3 ibid41 #bbac1 and often2 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #h 7#ahic71 p4 #eg4e ,lucr4 ,i4 #a3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #cjgb4 ,minimum malum3 ibid41 #ahaa1 #ahgj4 ,moram si quaeres3 ibid41 #bjfi4 ,,chapter ,,lviii4 ,,inscriptions ,,relating ,,to ,,business ,,affairs ,tablets of ,caecilius ,jucundus p4 #dii et seq43 edited by ,,zangemeister1 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 fasc4 #a 7#ahih72 first published by ,,de ,,petra1 ,le tavolette cerate di ,pompei rinvenute a' #c e #e ,luglio1 #ahge 7,rome1 #ahgf71 also in ,atti della ,r4 ,accademia dei ,lincei1 ser4 #b1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #c1 #aej-bcj2 cf4 ,,mommsen1 ,die ,pompeianischen ,quittungstafeln des ,l4 ,caecilius ,iucundus1 ,hermes1 vol4 #ab 7#ahgi71 pp4 #hh-ada2 ,,mommsen1 ,pompeianische ,geschaeftsurkunden1 ,hermes1 vol4 #bc 7#ahhh71 pp4 #aeg-aei2 ,,bruns1 ,fontes iuris ,romani antiqui 7,edit4 #f1 #ahic71 pp4 #bia-bic1 #cad-cbj4 ,of interest in this connection are the remains of wax tablets found in the gold mines near ,verespatak 7ancient ,alburnus ,maior7 in ,transylvania 7,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iii4 pp4 #iba-ifj71 and the records of transactions found on papyri of the ,roman period in ,egypt 7cf41 e4g41 ,,schulten1 ,ein roemischer ,kaufvertrag auf ,papyrus aus dem ,jahre #aff n4 ,chr41 ,hermes1 vol4 #cb1 #ahig1 pp4 #bgc-bhi74 ,tablet ,a p4 #ejb3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #ccdj1 ,,xxv2 ,,de ,,petra1 no4 #ae4 ,tablet ,b p4 #ejd3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #ccdj1 ,,cxlvii2 ,,de ,,petra1 no4 #abd4 ,inscriptions on amphorae p4 #eje--;ex fundo ,badiano3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #beea4 ,estate uncertain3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #beeb 7names of the consuls incorrectly given74 fundus ,satrianus1 fundus ,asinianus3 ,,mau1 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 p4 #if2 ,not4 d4 scavi1 #ahie1 p4 #cc4 ,brands of wine pp4 #eje-ejf--;,cnidium3 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #ac 7#ahih71 p4 #dj4 ,coum3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #befe4 ,greek3 ,lyttios3 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #h 7#ahic71 p4 #fj4 ,greek3 ,leukounarion3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgd1 p4 #bfd4 ,gustaticium p4 #ejf3 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 p4 #if4 ,edibles p4 #ejf--,oliva alba dulce3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 #bfaj4 ,lomentum3 ibid41 #beig4 g4 f43 ibid41 #begf4 ,liquamen3 ibid41 see ,index1 p4 #bdc2 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #ac 7#ahih71 p4 #cj4 ,names of proprietor1 consignor1 consignee p4 #ejg--,m4 ,caesius ,celer3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 ,virnius ,modestus3 ,not4 d4 ,scavi1 #ahha1 p4 #aie4 ,caecilius ,jucundus3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst41 #ahgf1 p4 #bd4 ,caecili ,iucundi3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,iv4 ,suppl4 #cdcc4 ,inscriptions of the ,boscoreale treasure p4 #ejg3 published in facsimile by ,,heron ,,de ,,villefosse1 ,le tresor de ,boscoreale2 see pp4 #db et seq4 ,inscription of the ,alexandria patera p4 #ejg3 ,illustration ,stamps p4 #ejh3 for the stamped and other permanent inscriptions on tiles1 lamps1 amphorae1 and different kinds of terra-cotta vessels found at ,pompeii1 as well as the stamps and seals1 see the second part of ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x41 under ,instrumentum ,domesticum4 ,examples of stamps p4 #ejh--;bread3 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,x4 #hjeh1 #ah4 ,popidius ,priscus3 ibid41 #hjeh1 #gj4 ,vettii3 ,roem4 ,mitth41 vol4 #aa 7#ahif71 p4 #c4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,an extensive collection of titles relating to ,pompeii and ,vesuvius is given by ,f4 ,,furchheim1 ,bibliografia di ,pompei1 ,erculano e ,stabia 7,edit4 #b1 ,naples1 #ahia7 and ,bibliografia del ,vesuvio 7,naples1 #ahig74 ,in the ,bibliographical ,appendix figures in brackets refer to the pages of this book4 ,the following abbreviations are employed3-- ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 ,annali dell' ,instituto di corrispondenza archeologica 7#eg vols41 ,rome1 #ahbi-ahhe74 ,bull4 com4 ,bullettino della commissione archeologica communale di ,roma 7vols4 #a-ai1 ,rome1 #ahgb-aija74 ,bull1 dell' ,inst4 ,bullettino dell' ,instituto di corrispondenza archeologica 7,rome1 #ahbi-ahhe74 ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,corpus inscriptionum ,latinarum 7,berlin1 #ahfc ff474 ,ephem4 ,epigr4 ,ephemeris ,epigraphica1 corporis inscriptionum ,latinarum supplementum 7vols4 #a-h1 ,berlin1 #ahgb-ahii74 ,jahrb4 des ,inst4 ,jahrbuch des ,kaiserlich deutschen archaeologischen ,instituts 7vols4 #a-af1 ,berlin1 #ahhe-aija74 ,mon4 dei ,lincei ,monumenti ,antichi pubblicati per cura della ,reale ,accademia dei ,lincei 7,milano1 vols4 #a-aj1 #ahib-aija74 ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 ,monumenti inediti pubblicati dall' ,instituto di corrispondenza archeologica 7#ab vols4 and ,supplements1 ,rome and ,berlin1 #ahbi-ahia74 ,museo ,borb4 ,real ,museo ,borbonico 7#af vols41 ,naples1 #ahbd-aheg74 ,not4 d4 scavi ,notizie degli scavi di antichita 7,rome and ,milan1 #ahgf-aija74 ,pomp4 ant4 hist4 ,pompeianarum antiquitatum historia quam 444 collegit 444 ,ios4 ,fiorelli 7#c vols41 ,naples1 #ahfj1 #ahfb1 #ahfd74 ,rhein4 ,mus4 ,rheinisches ,museum fuer ,philologie 7vols4 #a-ef1 ,frankfurt1 #ahdb-aija74 ,roem4 ,mitth4 ,mittheilungen des ,kaiserlich deutschen archaeologischen ,instituts1 ,roemische ,abtheilung 7vols4 #a-af1 ,rome1 #ahhf-aija74 #e ,virgil's words1 ',then were all silent1' look strangely in a half-finished scrawl from a wall of ,pompeii's hushed and solitary homes4--,,myers1 ,essays ,classical 7,london1 #ahig71 p4 #adi4 ,,index ,abinnerich1 #ah4 ,acceptus and ,euhodia1 house of1 #cda-cdc4 accounts1 memoranda of1 on walls1 #ccd1 #die2 of ,caecilius ,jucundus1 #dif4 ,acerrae1 ,pompeii seaport of1 #c4 ,achilles1 in paintings3 among the daughters of ,lycomedes1 #cej1 #dgh1 #dha2 delivering up of ,briseis1 #cag2 quarrel with ,agamemnon1 #hd1 #cej1 #dgh2 ,thetis bringing arms to1 see ,thetis2 ,troilus seized by1 #dgh4 ,actius ,anicetus1 actor1 #adh4 ,admetus and ,alcestis1 painting1 #cac4 aediles1 office of1 #aba1 #abc2 title of1 #ab1 #ac4 ,aemilius ,celer1 writer of notices1 #bbc1 #dhf4 ,aeneas1 statue of1 #aae4 ,aesculapius1 worshipped at domestic shrine1 #bgb4 ,agamemnon1 in the sanctuary of ,artemis1 painting1 #cca2 quarrel with ,achilles1 painting1 #hd1 #cej1 #dgh4 ,agrippina1 mother of ,nero1 statues of1 #dg1 #ii4 alae1 sanctuary of the ,city ,lares1 #ajb2 of ,pompeian house1 #beh-bei4 ,alexander and ,darius1 battle of1 mosaic1 #bic-bid4 ,alexandria1 influence of1 in the development of decorative styles1 #deh1 #dfe4 ,alleia ,decimilla1 priestess of ,ceres1 #dbf4 ,m4 ,alleius ,luccius ,libella1 tomb of1 #dbf4 ,m4 ,alleius ,minius1 tomb of1 #dcj4 ,cn4 ,alleius ,nigidius ,maius1 #bbb1 #cdi1 #dhi4 altar in dining room1 #bfd4 altars1 in the courts of temples3 of ,apollo1 #hf2 of ,isis1 #agd2 of ,doric temple1 #aci2 temple of ,vespasian1 #ajg2 temple of ,zeus ,milichius1 #ahc1 #ddj2 on the sides of the streets1 #bcc-bcf4 ,amphitheatre1 #bf1 #bab-bbf4 amphorae1 use of1 #ad2 in the house of the ,faun1 #bie2 in the villa of ,diomedes1 #cfj2 inscriptions upon1 #eje-ejf4 ,anchor1 peristyle of the house of the1 #cea4 andron in ,pompeian houses1 #bfj4 ,p4 ,aninius1 #aie4 antefixes about compluvium1 #bea4 ,antioch1 #dfi4 ,apelles1 #bgg4 ,aphrodite1 statue of1 #dej4 ,apollo1 house of1 #bfb1 #bfh1 #bgc1 #cea2 represented in stucco relief and in paintings1 #bje1 #cab1 #cbi1 #cca1 #dhj2 statues of1 #hh1 #adj1 #bgb1 #ceb2 temple of1 #di1 #hj1 #ij4 ,apuleius and ,veia1 tomb of1 #dcd4 ,apuleius on the worship of ,isis1 #afi1 #agc1 #agd1 #agf1 #aha1 #ahb4 architectural periods at ,pompeii1 #ci-dd4 architecture1 ,pompeian1 #dcg-ddd4 architraves of timber and stone1 #ea4 ,ares and ,aphrodite1 painting1 #bhf4 ,ariadne1 in paintings4 ,see ,bacchus1 ,theseus4 arm band1 #cgi4 ,arria1 tomb of1 #dbh4 ,m4 ,arrius ,diomedes1 tomb of1 #cef1 #dbg4 ,artemis1 in paintings1 #cae2 ,agamemnon in sanctuary of1 #cca2 shrine of1 #dha2 statues of1 #hh1 #dej4 artist at work1 painting1 #bhb4 ,m4 ,artorius ,primus1 architect of the ,large ,theatre1 #aej4 ,atella1 ,atellan farces1 #adb4 ,athena and ,marsyas1 painting1 #dhb4 ,m4 ,atinius1 #bjj4 atrium of ,pompeian houses1 #bej-bee2 atrium without a compluvium1 #cdc-cdd4 ,atticus1 gladiator1 #bbc-bbd4 ,auctus1 gladiator1 #bbe4 ,augustales1 #ajj1 #baf1 #dji1 #dba1 #dbc4 ,augustus ,caesar1 ,brotherhood of4 ,see ,augustales2 regulation of standard measures1 #ic2 statues of1 #dg1 #aae2 worship of1 #ad1 #hi-ij1 #ajd4 ,auriolus1 gladiator1 #bbd4 autumn1 ,genius of1 mosaic1 #bic4 ,l4 ,avianius ,flaccus1 #bdc4 bacchantes1 #cbf1 #ccf1 #ddh1 #dfh1 #dgc4 bacchic figures in capitals of columns1 #cji1 #cdi2 in paintings1 #cbi4 ,bacchus1 reliefs of ,blue ,glass ,vase1 #dae2 triumph of1 #ccf2 in paintings1 #hh1 #ced2 as tutelary divinity1 #bcf1 #dag2 finds ,ariadne1 #cci1 #ced1 #dhj2 in sculptures1 #age1 #cbe1 #ddh4 bakery1 arrangements of1 #chf-cib4 ,basilica1 #eb1 #gj-gi4 bath1 toilet appliances of1 #cgg4 ,baths1 public1 #ahf-ahi2 ,stabian1 #ahi-bja2 ,baths near the ,forum1 #bjb-bjg2 ,central ,baths1 #bjh-baa2 ,baths1 private1 of ,m4 ,crassus ,frugi1 #djh2 in houses1 #bfg1 #big1 #cjf-cjg1 #cdf1 #ceg1 #cfb-cfc4 ,bay of ,naples1 #b1 #f1 #ceh4 bisellium1 #cfi1 #cgj1 #dba1 #dbc4 block4 ,see ,insula4 ,boccharis1 myth of1 #ag4 ,bonaparte1 ,joseph1 excavations under1 #bg4 ,boscoreale1 villa rustica at1 #ad1 #cfa-cff2 treasure of1 #cff1 #chj-chb1 #ejg-ejh4 bricks1 ,pompeian1 #cf4 ,briseis1 delivered to the messenger of ,agamemnon1 painting1 #caf-cah4 building materials1 #ce-cf4 bust stones1 #dab1 #dah1 #dba1 #dbh1 #dcb et seq4 ,l4 ,caecilius ,jucundus1 herm of1 #ddg1 #dgg2 house of1 height of shops1 #bgf2 cellar of1 #bfh2 decoration of tablinum1 #cdh1 #dgi2 meeting in house of1 #dif2 names of sons of1 #ejg2 receipts of1 #dii-eje2 relief in the house of1 #fd4 ,l4 ,caecilius ,phoebus1 #agf4 ,julius ,caesar1 place for statue of1 #aae4 ,p4 ,caesetius ,postumus1 #ij4 ,l4 ,caesius1 #bjc4 ,m4 ,caesius ,celer1 #ejg4 ,l4 ,caesius ,logus1 #dcc4 ,caligula1 elected duumvir of ,pompeii1 #ad2 statue of 7871 #dh4 ,callimachus1 marble head1 #ddg4 ,callistus1 #dbd4 ,c4 ,calventius ,quietus1 tomb of1 #dba4 ,campani1 ,campanienses1 suburb of ,pompeii1 #aa1 #dib4 ,campania1 events in the history of1 #h-aj4 ,campanian plain1 #a1 #b4 candelabra1 #cgb-cge4 capitals of columns1 #dcg1 #ddj-dda4 ,capri1 #f1 #djf4 casa dell' ,amore ,punito1 #bge4 casa del ,balcone ,pensile1 #bgc4 casa della ,fontana ,grande1 #cea4 casa della ,fontana ,piccola1 #cea4 ,casellius1 #dhg4 ,cassius ,longinus1 #ada4 ,castellammare4 ,see ,stabiae4 ,castor and ,pollux1 house of1 #cej2 ,corinthian atrium1 #beb2 paintings1 #dgf1 #dha4 casts made at ,pompeii1 human beings1 #bb2 doors1 #bdi4 ,cato the elder1 reference to millstones1 #ae4 ,ceius ,labeo1 tomb of1 #dbf4 ,l4 ,ceius ,secundus1 #cig4 ,celadus1 gladiator1 #bbf4 ,celer1 #dhf4 ,centaur1 house of1 #cej2 bedroom in house of1 #bfa4 ,centenary1 house of1 #bfa1 #bfh1 #cdh1 #dhg4 ,ceres1 priestesses of1 #ad1 #dbf4 ,m4 ,cerrinius ,restitutus1 tomb of1 #dji4 ,cestilia1 #die4 chairs1 #cfg1 #cfi4 chalcidicum1 #aaa4 ,championnet1 excavations of1 #bg4 ,chius1 #dic4 choinix1 ,greek measure1 #ic4 ,christians at ,pompeii1 #ah4 ,chryseis1 departure of1 painting1 #caf4 ,cicero1 ,marcus ,tullius1 #af1 #eh1 #dbc4 ,citharist1 house of1 #ceb-ced2 fountain figures in the house of1 #ddi4 city council1 constitution of1 #ab2 hall of1 #aba1 #abb4 ,city ,lares1 sanctuary of the1 #ajb-aje4 city wall1 construction of1 #bcg-bda2 course of1 #ca4 ,claudius1 statues of1 #dg1 #ii4 ,ti4 ,claudius ,verus1 #dhg1 #dhi4 ,clitumnus1 #b4 ,a4 ,clodius ,flaccus1 #eg1 #ij1 #afa4 ,l4 ,clodius ,varus1 #dif4 ,cnidian wine1 sold at ,pompeii1 #eje4 ,coan wine1 sold at ,pompeii1 #eje4 ,coliseum1 dimensions of1 #bac2 masts for awnings of1 #add4 combs1 #cgg-cgh4 ,comitium1 #aai-abj4 compluvium of the ,pompeian house1 #bej4 ,concordia ,augusta1 fountain of1 #aag2 statue of1 #aaf4 ,constantinople1 water system1 #bca1 #bcb4 construction1 ,pompeian1 #cf-ci4 ,conviva1 slave of ,veia1 #dcd4 ,corinthian atrium1 #beb1 #cji1 #cej4 ,cornelius1 #dic4 ,a4 ,cornelius1 #hf4 ,cn4 ,cornelius1 #hf4 ,p4 ,cornelius1 #i4 ,cornelius ,rufus1 herm of1 #bee1 #ddf2 house of1 #ced4 couches1 #beg1 #bfc1 #cfg1 #cfh4 country seats near ,pompeii1 #af4 ,see villa4 ,m4 ,crassus ,frugi1 baths of1 #djh4 ,crescens1 fuller1 #aa2 gladiator1 #bbf4 crypta1 #aaa1 #adh4 ,cumae1 #cje4 ,cupids1 in paintings and stucco reliefs1 #ig1 #bje1 #cae1 #cca-cch4 ,cycnus1 gladiator1 #bbc-bbd4 ,cyparissus1 paintings1 #cch1 #dhj4 ,daedalus1 and ,icarus1 paintings1 #bjj1 #dhc2 and ,pasiphae1 paintings1 #cci1 #dhj4 ,danae1 painting1 #cch4 ,sex4 ,decimius ,rufus1 #dib4 ,q4 ,decius ,hilarus1 #dcf4 decoration1 styles of1 #da et seq41 #def et seq4 decurions1 #ab4 ,delos1 remains of ,incrustation ,style on island of1 #dfa4 ,demosthenes1 marble head1 #ddg4 dining room in ,pompeian houses1 #bfb-bff1 #bgc-bgf4 ,diodota1 #dig4 ,diogenes1 mason1 #chg4 ,diomedes1 tomb of1 #dbg2 villa of1 #bc1 #cef-cfj4 ,dion ,cassius1 #bj1 #aif4 ,dionysus1 in painting1 #bhb1 #dfc2 statuette of1 #deb4 ,dirce1 punishment of1 painting1 #cci4 ,doerpfeld's theory of the stage of the ,greek theatre1 #aea-aeb4 dolia1 use of1 #eje2 in the villa at ,boscoreale1 key to ,plan ,,iv1 #cfd2 in a painting1 #djc4 doors1 of houses1 #bdi-bej2 of the temple of ,jupiter1 #fd4 ,doric temple in the ,forum ,triangulare1 #acg-adj4 duumvirs1 office of1 #aba-abc2 title of1 #ab4 earthquake of #fc ,a4,d41 #ai4 ,c4 ,egnatius ,postumus1 #he4 ,egyptian motives in wall decoration1 #dfe4 ,elbeuf1 ,count1 excavations of1 at ,herculaneum1 #bf4 election notices1 #chd1 #cif1 #cig1 #dhf-dhi4 ,epicurus1 marble head1 #ddg4 ,epidius ,rufus1 house of1 #bdh1 #beb1 #beh1 #bfj1 #cji-cab2 inscription upon shrine in the house of1 #bgj4 ,m4 ,epidius ,sabinus1 #dhh4 ,eumachia1 building of1 #aaj-aah2 statue of1 #aab1 #dde1 #ddf4 ,europa1 painting1 #bhf1 #dhj4 ,eurysaces1 kneading machine in reliefs of tomb of1 #cib4 ,eutyches1 slave of ,umbricius ,scaurus1 #ejf4 excavations1 at ,pompeii1 #be-cj2 in honor of the ,king and ,queen of ,italy and the ,emperor and ,empress of ,germany1 #cja1 #cjf2 in honor of the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii41 #cdd4 fasces1 on the tomb of ,diomedes1 #dbh4 fauces of ,pompeian house1 #bdh4 ,faun1 house of the1 #bg1 #ea1 #bfa1 #bgf1 #bhh-big4 festivals1 religious1 #eg1 #ih1 #ccg1 #cif4 ,fiorelli1 #bh-bi1 #cd1 #cdi4 fisheries1 products of1 #ae1 #ejf4 ,n4 ,fistius ,ampliatus1 #dai4 floors of ,pompeian houses1 #bgh4 ,fontana1 ,domenico1 tunnel of1 under ,pompeii1 #be4 ,fortuna1 worshipped at domestic shrines1 #ajd2 identified with ,isis1 #cdb4 ,fortuna ,augusta1 temple of1 #abd-abf4 ,fortunatus1 #dig4 ,forum1 #de-fj4 ,forum ,triangulare1 #acd-acg4 fountain of ,concordia ,augusta1 wrongly called of ,abundantia1 #aag4 fountains1 public1 #bcj-bcc2 veneered with mosaic1 #cea4 fullers erect a statue to ,eumachia1 #aab4 ,see ,crescens1 ,vesonius ,primus4 fullery1 plan of1 #cif-cig2 processes of1 #cce1 #cic-cie4 fundus ,asinianus1 fundus ,satrianus1 #eje4 ,p4 ,furius1 #dhg4 furniture of ,pompeian houses1 #cfg-cgi4 ,ganymede1 stucco relief1 #bje4 garden of ,pompeian houses1 #bei4 ,garland tomb1 #dad4 gartibulum1 #bed1 #cfh4 gates of ,pompeii1 #ca1 #bda et seq4 ,c4 ,gavius ,rufus1 #cig4 ,genii1 in the shrine of the house of ,joseph ,,ii1 #cdf4 ,genius1 worship of the1 #bfi-bgc2 of a woman1 #cdf2 of the autumn1 mosaic1 #bic4 genre paintings1 #dgf-dgh4 ,germanicus1 #dh1 #ii4 gladiators1 barracks of1 #afj-afd2 combats of1 in the ,forum1 #eg2 stucco reliefs on the tomb of ,umbricius ,scaurus1 #dai1 #dbj2 graffiti relating to1 #bbc-bbf2 notices of exhibitions of1 #bba-bbc4 ,glaucus1 house of1 #cac4 ,glycera1 letter to ,menander1 #cbi4 gods1 the twelve1 painting1 #bcf2 statues of1 at ,pompeii1 #ddi2 worshipped at domestic shrines1 #bfh-bgc4 ,see temples4 graffiti1 #dia-dih4 ,greeks at ,pompeii1 #af-ag1 #eje4 gustaticium1 #ejf4 ,hadrian1 villa at ,tivoli1 #cee4 ,hannibal1 #i4 ,harpocrates1 worship of1 #afh et seq4 hearth1 in ,pompeian kitchen1 #bff-bfg2 for open-air triclinia1 #bhe1 #cdb4 ,hecuba1 painting1 #dgi4 helmet found in gladiators' barracks1 #afc4 ,cn4 ,helvius1 #cif4 ,cn4 ,helvius ,sabinus1 #cig1 #dhh4 ,helvius ,vestalis1 #chd4 ,hephaestus1 in a painting1 #cci4 ,herculaneum1 burial of1 #ba2 excavations at1 #bf4 ,herculaneum ,gate1 #ca1 #bdd4 ,hercules1 in paintings1 #cci1 #dgh1 #dhj1 #dha2 worshipped at domestic shrines1 #ajd1 #bgb1 #cjh1 #dag4 ,herennius ,celsus1 #dhg4 ,m4 ,herennius ,epidianus1 #hf1 #acf4 herms4 ,see ,caecilius ,jucundus1 ,cornelius ,rufus1 ,sorex1 ,vesonius ,primus4 ,hermaiscus1 gladiator1 #bbe4 hermaphrodite1 statue of1 #hg4 ,hermes1 inn of1 #dja1 #djb4 ,hirtia ,psacas1 #dig4 ,holconii1 rebuilders of the ,large ,theatre1 #adh4 ,m4 ,holconius1 house of1 #ced4 ,m4 ,holconius ,celer1 #adh-adi4 ,m4 ,holconius ,priscus1 #chd1 #dhg4 ,m4 ,holconius ,rufus1 #he1 #ij1 #adh-adi1 #dde4 ,homer1 #dgh4 ,horace1 #ij1 #bgj1 #dbh4 ,c4 ,hostilius ,conops1 #dig4 household gods1 worship of1 #ajd1 #bfh-bgc1 #big1 #cjh1 #cae1 #cbc1 #cdb1 #cdf1 #cfb4 house1 ,pompeian1 #bde-bgi4 ,see ,acceptus and ,euhodia1 ,anchor1 ,apollo1 ,castor and ,pollux1 ,centaur1 ,centenary1 ,citharist1 ,epidius ,rufus1 ,faun1 ,hunt1 ,joseph ,,ii1 ,pansa1 ,porta ,marina1 ,sallust1 ,silver ,wedding1 ,surgeon1 ,tragic ,poet1 ,vettii1 ,villa4 ,see also casa4 ,hyginius ,firmus1 inn of1 #djj4 impluvium of ,pompeian house1 #bej4 inns1 #djj-djb4 inscriptions1 graffiti1 #aa1 #gj1 #adh1 #bbc-bbf1 #bgj1 #cje1 #che1 #dja1 #djd1 #dia-dih2 monumental inscriptions1 defined1 #dhf2 examples1 #ej1 #ha1 #he1 #hf1 #hi1 #aaa1 #aab1 #acj1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #aec1 #agj1 #aie1 #bjc1 #bab1 #bah1 #bbh1 #djg1 #dji1 #daj1 #dah1 #dai1 #dba1 #dbb1 #dbe1 #dbf1 #dbg1 #dcj1 #dcb1 #dcd2 public notices1 #bba-bbc1 #chb1 #chf1 #cif-cig1 #djj1 #dce-dcf1 #dhf1 #dhi2 relating to business affairs1 #dii-ejh4 ,insula1 defined1 #cc-cd4 ,io and ,argus1 painting1 #if1 #dgi4 ,iphigenia1 sacrifice of1 painting1 #cah-cbj1 #dgb4 ,isis1 temple and worship of1 #afh-ahd4 ,istacidia ,rufilla1 priestess1 #dab4 ,istacidii1 tomb of1 #daa4 ,italic foot1 #dd4 ,ixion1 punishment of1 painting1 #cci-cdj4 jewellery1 #cgi4 ,jews at ,pompeii1 #ag-ah4 ,joseph ,,ii1 house of1 #cdd-cdg4 ,julia ,felix1 villa of1 #bf1 #dij4 ,c4 ,julius ,speratus1 #dja4 ,juno1 ,genius of a woman1 #bgj1 #dah4 ,jupiter1 head1 #fg-fi2 temple of1 #fa-fg2 worshipped at domestic shrines1 #bgb2 at street shrine1 #bce4 kitchen in ,pompeian houses1 #bff-bfh4 kitchen utensils1 #cge4 kneading machine1 #cia-cib4 ,labyrinth1 oecus in the house of the1 #bfe4 lamps1 #cgj-cgb4 lamp standards1 #cgb et seq4 landscape paintings1 #dgc4 ,lares1 ,city1 #ajb-aje2 ,compitales1 #bcc-bce2 domestic1 #bfi4 ,see household gods4 lava1 kinds of1 #cf2 used for millstones1 #ae4 ,leda1 painting1 #cch4 limestone1 kinds used at ,pompeii1 #ce1 #cf4 limestone atriums1 period of1 #ci4 limestone framework1 #cg4 ,livius ,andronicus1 #ada4 ,livineius ,regulus1 #bai4 loss of life at time of eruption1 #bc4 ,lucretius1 house of1 #cdh1 #ddi1 #deg4 ,d4 ,lucretius ,satrius ,valens1 #bbb4 ,lytton1 ,bulwer1 #bai4 ,macellum1 #id-aja4 ,magister1 of the ,pagus ,augustus ,felix1 #ad4 ,maia1 herm of1 #hh1 #hi4 ,mamia1 tomb of1 #daj4 ,p4 ,mancius ,diogenes1 tomb of1 #dcb4 ,manetho1 #afh4 ,marcellus1 statues of1 #ih1 #acf4 ,m4 ,marcellus1 #i4 ,m4 ,marius1 #dhg4 market buildings1 #fb1 #ia-ic4 ,mars1 worshipped at domestic shrines1 #bgb4 ,mars and ,venus1 stucco reliefs1 #agi4 ,marsyas1 in paintings1 #cab1 #dhb4 masonry1 styles of1 #cf-ci4 maxims in graffiti1 #dih4 ,medea1 painting1 #if4 ,medusa1 relief on fountain standard1 #bcj4 ,meleager1 house of1 #bfe1 #cea2 in paintings1 #dgh4 ,cn4 ,melissaeus ,aper1 #dab4 ,mercury1 as tutelary divinity1 #bcf1 #djh2 herm of1 #hh2 relief of1 #bcj4 mills1 #chh-cij4 millstones1 #ae1 #chg-cij4 ,minerva1 #adj1 #bcf1 #bdj1 #bdc1 #cie4 ministri ,augusti1 #hi4 ministri ,fortunae ,augustae1 #acb4 ministri of the ,pagus ,augustus ,felix1 #ad4 mirrors1 #cgh4 ,misenum1 #g1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba4 mixing bowl1 #cgf4 ,q4 ,monnius ,rufus1 #bba4 mosaic pictures1 #bgh1 #bhh1 #bij1 #bib-bie1 #cih-cii4 ,mummius1 #ada4 ,l4 ,munatius ,caeserninus1 #dce4 ,c4 ,munatius ,faustus1 #dbb4 musicians1 painting1 #dgf1 #dgg4 ,naevoleia1 ,tyche1 tomb of1 #dbb-dbc4 ,narcissus1 statue wrongly identified as1 #dec4 ,nero1 #dh1 #id1 #ii1 #aaa1 #bbj1 #bbc4 ,nigidius ,vaccula1 #aig1 #aih4 ,nile1 creatures of the1 mosaic1 #bic2 worship of water of1 #agh1 #agi4 ,niraemius1 #bjc4 ,nocera4 ,see ,nuceria4 ,nola1 ,pompeii seaport of1 #c4 ,m4 ,nonius ,campanus1 #chg4 ,c4 ,norbanus ,sorex1 #agf4 ,nuceria1 ,pompeii seaport of1 #c4 ,nucerians1 conflict with ,pompeians1 #bbj1 #bba1 #dib4 nuptials of ,zeus and ,hera1 painting1 #caf-cag1 #dhc-dhd4 nursing bottle1 #cgb4 ,c4 ,occius1 #bjc4 ,octavia1 statue of1 #ih4 ,m4 ,oculatius ,verus1 #aef4 ,odeum of ,herodes ,atticus1 #aee4 oecus in ,pompeian houses1 #bfe4 ,oenone in paintings1 #dhj4 ,officiosus1 gladiator1 #bbf4 olive1 culture of1 about ,pompeii1 #ad2 crusher1 #cfe2 presses for making oil1 #ccc1 #cfe4 ,omphalos1 #ha1 #cca4 ,oppius ,campanius1 #hj4 opus compositum1 opus incertum1 opus mixtum1 #cg-ch2 opus reticulatum1 #ch1 #dc2 opus ,signinum1 #gd1 #bgh1 #cff4 ,orange1 masts of theatre at1 #add4 ,orestes and ,pylades before ,thoas1 painting1 #cec-cef1 #dgb1 #dgi4 ,orientals at ,pompeii1 #ag4 ,oscan foot1 #dd4 ,oscan graves1 #dje1 #djg4 ,oscan inscriptions1 #hj1 #aci1 #adj1 #afe1 #ahd1 #bdj1 #bdb1 #bdc4 ,oscans1 founders of ,pompeii1 #h2 conquered by the ,samnites1 #i4 ,osiris1 worship of1 #afh et seq4 oven1 of bakery1 #cia4 ,ovid1 quoted in graffiti1 #die1 #dif4 ,paganus1 #ad1 #dbb4 ,pagus ,augustus ,felix1 #ad1 #bah1 #dbg4 paintings1 number of1 #dga2 relation to decorative styles1 #dgb-dgd2 classes of1 #dge-dhd4 ,palaestra1 #afe-afg4 ,pansa1 house of1 #bg1 #bdi1 #bfj1 #bff1 #cdi-cej4 ,pansas1 father and son1 statues of1 #bai4 ,p4 ,paquius ,proculus1 #dgg4 ,paris1 #dic4 ,paris in paintings1 #bhf1 #dhj4 ,pausanius1 #bjj4 ,penates1 worship of1 #ajd1 #bgb4 ,pentheus and ,maenads1 painting1 #cci1 #dha4 peristyle of the ,pompeian house1 #bfj4 ,perseus with ,andromeda1 represented in stucco relief and paintings1 #agi1 #ahj1 #cbi1 #dhj4 ,st4 ,peter1 bronze statue of1 in ,rome1 #aah4 ,q4 ,petronius ,octavus1 gladiator1 #bbf4 ,phrixus and ,helle1 painting1 #bhf4 ,pietas ,augusta1 #aaa4 ,pithecusans1 #dib4 ,plato1 #dgh4 ,pliny the ,elder1 death of1 #ai-bj4 ,pliny the ,younger1 account of the eruption in #gi1 #ai-bb2 villa of1 #cee4 poet1 reciting1 #cbi4 polychrome decoration1 #dda4 ,polyclitus1 doryphorus of1 #afg4 ,polyphemus receiving a letter from ,galatea1 painting1 #dhj1 #dha4 ,pompeii1 before #gi1 #h et seq42 burial of1 #ai-bc2 excavation of1 #be-cj2 government1 #aa-ad2 resources1 #ad-af2 population1 #af-ah2 value of remains1 #eji-eaa4 ,n4 ,pontius1 #ahd1 #bdb4 ,n4 ,popidius ,ampliatus1 #agj4 ,n4 ,popidius ,celsinus1 #agj4 ,v4 ,popidius1 #ej4 ,m4 ,porcius1 #hf4 ,m4 ,porcius1 #aec1 #bab4 ,m4 ,porcius1 tomb of1 #daj4 portieres at entrance of tablinum1 #bef4 ,poseidon and ,amymone1 painting1 #cbi4 ,postumius ,proculus1 #chf4 potter's workshop1 #chf4 praefects at ,pompeii1 #ac1 #ad4 ,praetorian ,guard1 #dib4 ,priene1 remains of ,incrustation ,style at1 #dfa4 priests1 #ad1 #cc4 priestesses1 #ad1 #cc1 #daj1 #dab4 ,privatus1 slave1 #ejd4 procession to the theatres1 #aei4 ,proculus1 #dhh4 ,propertius1 quoted in graffito1 #die1 #dif4 ,psyches gathering flowers1 painting1 #ccj4 public buildings1 location of1 #cc1 #fa1 #acc4 public notices4 ,see inscriptions4 ,pugnax1 gladiator1 #bbc-bbd4 pumice stone1 #ae1 #bj4 ,puteolana1 #dig4 ,puteoli1 #afi1 #dja1 #dib4 ,pyrrhus1 #dic4 ,quasi-reticulate facing1 #ch1 #db4 ,c4 ,quinctius ,valgus1 #aec1 #bab4 ,regions of ,pompeii1 #cd4 rent1 notices of property for1 #dhi1 #dij4 ,restitutus1 #dif4 reticulate facing1 #ch1 #dc4 ,rhodian peristyle1 #bfj1 #cjd4 ,rocca ,monfina1 #a1 #ae4 ,roman foot1 #dd4 ,romula1 #dif4 ,romulus1 statue of1 #aae4 rostra1 #dh4 ,rothschild1 ,baron1 gift of ,boscoreale treasure to the ,louvre1 #cff4 rubble work1 #cg4 ,rullus1 #aec4 ,sabinus1 #dhh4 ,salinenses1 #aa4 ,sallust1 house of1 #bfj1 #bhc-bhg1 #dei-dfj4 ,q4 ,sallustius1 statue of1 #dg4 ,salus1 worshipped at street shrine1 #bce4 ,salvius1 tomb of1 #dbf4 ,samius1 #dic4 ,samnite wars1 #i4 ,samus1 gladiator1 #bbf4 ,sarno1 river1 #b-d1 #ih4 ,sarno limestone1 #ce1 #ci1 #bhj4 ,saturn1 treasure in temple of1 at ,rome1 #fg4 satyr1 ornament of capital1 #cdh2 fountain figure1 #ddi2 bronze statue1 #dea2 marble statuette1 #cae2 in wall decoration1 #dfi1 #dgc4 ,scipio ,africanus1 bath in villa of1 #bjh4 sculpture1 #dde-dec4 ,sculptured ,capitals1 house of1 #cdh4 seals of witnesses1 #ejj-eja4 ,seasons1 paintings1 #cae4 second story rooms in ,pompeian house1 #bgc-bgf4 ,seneca1 quoted1 #aid1 #bjh4 sepulchral monument in front of ,doric temple1 #aci4 ,see tombs4 ,l4 ,sepunius ,sandilianus1 #hf1 #acf4 ,serapis1 temple of1 at ,puteoli1 #afi4 ,serena1 #die4 ,p4 ,servilius ,rullus1 #aec4 ,setian wine1 #djc4 ,seviri ,augustales1 #ajj4 sewers1 #bbi4 ,l4 ,sextilius1 #hf4 shops1 appearance of1 #bhi2 relation to house1 #bgf-bgh1 #cdi2 signs1 #chg4 shrines1 at the sides of the streets1 #bcc-bcf2 domestic1 #bfh-bgc1 #big1 #cjh1 #cji1 #cae1 #cbc1 #cdb1 #cdf1 #cfb1 #dag1 #ddi et seq4 ,signia pavement1 #gd1 #bgh1 #cff4 ,silenus1 bronze statuette1 #dea-deb2 fountain figure1 #ddh4 ,silver ,wedding1 house of1 #bfe1 #cja-cjh4 ,m4 ,sittius1 #ahd1 #bdb4 sleeping rooms in ,pompeian house1 #bfa-bfb4 ,solomon1 ,judgment of1 painting1 #ag4 ,sorex1 herm of1 #agf1 #ddf4 ,sorrento1 #f1 #ceh1 #djf4 ,q4 ,spedius ,firmus1 #bdc4 spoons1 #cge4 ,q4 ,spurennius ,priscus1 #dib4 ,stabiae1 #c1 #d1 #ba1 #bf1 #ceh4 stamps1 #ejh4 standard measures1 table of1 #ib-ic4 ,staphylus1 #dif4 statues in public places1 #df1 #aae1 #ddg2 represented in wall decoration1 #dfh4 stepping stones1 #bbi4 stocks in the gladiators' barracks1 #afc4 streets of ,pompeii1 #cb-cc1 #bbg-bbi2 street shrines1 #bcc-bcf4 strigiles1 #ahh1 #cgg4 suburbs of ,pompeii1 #aj-aa1 #ad4 ,t4 ,suedius ,clemens1 #bg1 #djg1 #dhh4 ,a4 ,suettius ,certus1 #bbb4 ,sulla1 ,dictator1 #aj1 #bdj4 ,p4 ,sulla1 nephew of the ,dictator1 #aj4 sundials1 #hg1 #acf1 #bjj1 #bjg1 #baa4 ,surgeon1 house of1 #ci1 #bfj1 #bhj-bhb4 table of standard measures1 #ib-ic4 tables1 #bed1 #bfc-bfd1 #cbf1 #cfh-cfi4 tablinum in ,pompeian house1 #bee-beh4 ,tadius ,ludius1 #dge4 tannery1 #cie-cig4 temples1 #cc2 of ,apollo1 #hj-ij2 ,doric1 #acg-adj2 of ,fortuna ,augusta1 #acj-acb2 of ,isis1 #afh-ahb2 of ,jupiter1 #fa-fi2 of ,venus ,pompeiana1 #abd-abi2 of ,vespasian1 #ajf-aji2 of ,zeus ,milichius1 #ahc-ahe4 ,t4 ,terentius ,felix1 tomb of1 #dac4 tetrastyle atrium1 #bea-beb4 ,theatre ,colonnade1 #aeg-afd4 ,theatre1 ,large1 #ada-aeb2 ,small1 #aec-aef4 ,theseus and ,ariadne1 painting1 #cae4 ,thetis bringing arms to ,achilles1 #caf1 #dha2 in the smithy of ,hephaestus1 #dhj1 #dha4 ,tiberius1 #dh1 #aaa4 tiles1 #cf1 #bea4 ,timanthes1 #cai1 #cbj4 ,timotheus1 #afh4 ,n4 ,tintirius ,rufus1 #ij4 ,titia1 #dcc4 ,titus1 #bc4 toilet articles1 #cgg-cgi4 tombs1 #dje-djf2 along ,street of ,tombs1 #djf-dbh2 near the ,nola1 ,stabian1 and ,nocera gates1 #dbi-dcf4 towers of the city wall1 #bch-bda4 trades1 ancient view of1 #chc4 ,see bakery1 fullers1 tannery4 ,tragic ,poet1 house of1 #bej1 #bfh1 #cac-cbj4 ,travertine1 so-called1 #ce4 treasury of the city1 #ia4 ,trebius1 #chd4 triclinium funebre1 #dbd4 triclinium in garden1 house of ,acceptus and ,euhodia1 #cdb2 inn1 #djd2 house of ,sallust1 #bhe2 tannery1 #cih-cii4 ,see dining room4 ,trojan ,war1 groups of paintings1 #hd1 #caf4 tufa1 kinds of1 #ce4 ,tufa ,period1 #dj et seq41 #dcg et seq4 ,m4 ,tullius1 builder of the temple of ,fortuna ,augusta1 #acj1 #acb4 ,m4 ,tullius1 tomb of1 #dcj4 ,tuscan atrium1 #bea4 ,tyche1 slave of ,julia ,augusta1 #bgj1 #dah4 ,c4 ,ulius1 #aie1 #bjb4 ,ulysses and ,penelope1 painting1 #if4 ,umbricia ,januaria1 receipt of1 #ejb4 ,umbricius ,scaurus1 fish sauces of1 #ae1 #ejf4 ,a4 ,umbricius ,scaurus1 tomb of1 #dah-dai4 ,c4 ,valerius ,venustus1 #dja4 ,valgus and ,porcius1 builders of ,small ,theatre and ,amphitheatre1 #aec1 #bab4 ,varro1 #id1 #beg1 #cfc4 ,vatia1 #dhh-dhi4 ,veia1 #dcc4 ,a4 ,veius1 tomb of1 #dji4 ,n4 ,velasius ,gratus1 #dbe4 ,venus1 statue of1 #hg2 threatened by irate lover1 #dif4 ,venus ,pompeiana1 #ab1 #bgb1 #cej1 #dij4 ,verus1 #chd4 ,m4 ,vesonius ,primus1 #cif-cig1 #ddf4 ,vespasian1 #djh2 temple of1 #ajf-aji4 ,vesta1 festival of1 #ih1 #ccg2 in hearth paintings1 #bgb4 ,vestal virgins1 place at the theatre1 #ade4 ,vestals1 house of the1 vestibule1 #bdh4 vestibule of ,pompeian houses1 #bdh4 ,vesuvius1 #b1 #f1 #ai et seq4 ,vettii1 house of the1 #cba-cdj2 garden sculptures1 #ddi2 hearth1 #bff2 shrine1 #bgb4 ,a4 ,vettius ,conviva1 ,a4 ,vettius ,restitutus1 stamps of1 #ejh4 ,vibius ,adiranus1 #afe4 ,vibius ,popidius1 #bdc4 ,vibius ,popidius1 quaestor1 #ej4 ,vibius ,restitutus1 #dja4 ,cn4 ,vibius ,saturninus1 #dbd4 ,vibius ,vinicius1 #afe4 ,victoria1 #die4 villas1 ,roman1 #cee2 of ,diomedes1 #cef-cfb2 villa rustica at ,boscoreale1 #cfa-cff4 ,virgil1 #bgb1 #ddh1 #dif1 #dih4 ,a4 ,virnius ,modestus1 #ejg4 ,vitruvius1 #eg1 #fc1 #acg1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aeh1 #aic1 #baj1 #bdh1 #bej1 #bef1 #bfc1 #bii1 #cee1 #cfa4 ,d4 ,volcius ,thallus1 #ejc4 walls of the city1 construction of1 #bcg-bci2 course of1 #ca4 walls of houses1 plastering and decoration1 #def et seq4 ,see masonry4 ward4 ,see ,regions4 water heater1 for baths1 #aid4 water system of ,pompeii1 #bcj-bcc4 ,weichardt1 restoration of ,forum ,triangulare1 #acg4 well near ,doric temple1 #aci4 windows1 in houses1 #bgi2 of ,central ,baths1 #bjh1 #baj4 wine1 fermentation of1 #cfd1 #eje2 kinds of1 #ejf2 produced about ,pompeii1 #ad2 presses1 #ccf1 #cfc-cfd4 wineshops1 #djb-djd4 ,xenion1 #dgd4 yoke1 #bbh1 #djd4 ,zeus1 of ,otricoli1 #fg-fi2 in paintings1 #caf1 #cch4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,vi4--,,the ,,excavated ,,portion ,,of ,,pompeii4 ,,key ,,to ,,plan ,,vi ,the names of only the more important streets are given on ,plan ,,vi4 ,among the names omitted are those of the continuations of ,nola ,street1 which it is more convenient to regard as a single thoroughfare extending without change of name across the city4 ,the more important buildings of each ,region are given in the order of the ,insulae4 ,,region ,i ,,insula i4 #e4 ,inn4 #h4 ,inn of ,hermes4 ii4 #bd4 ,wineshop4 #bh4 ,house with a grating over the impluvium4 iv4 #e4 ,house of the ,citharist--casa del ,citarista4 v4 #b4 ,tannery4 ,,region ,v ,,insula i4 #g4 ,casa del ,torello di ,bronzo4 #ah4 ,casa degli ,epigrammi4 #bf4 ,house of ,l4 ,caecilius ,jucundus4 #bh4 ,house of ,m4 ,tofelanus ,valens4 ii4 #a4 ,casa della ,regina ,margherita4 #d4 ,casa del ,triclinio4 a4 ,house of the ,silver ,wedding--casa delle ,nozze d' ,argento4 v4 #b4 ,house with a covered atrium4 ,,region ,,vi ,,insula ,ins4 ,occidentalis1 #a4 ,inn4 i4 #g4 ,house of the ,vestals--casa delle ,vestali4 #aj4 ,house of the ,surgeon--casa del ,chirurgo4 #ac4 ,so-called custom-house4 ii4 #d4 ,house of ,sallust--casa di ,sallustio4 #f4 ,bakery4 #ad4 ,house of the ,amazons--casa delle ,amazoni4 iii4 #c4 ,bakery4 #g4 ,so-called ,academy of ,music--,accademia di ,musica4 #bj4 ,wineshop4 v4 #c4 ,house of ,neptune--casa di ,nettuno4 vi4 #a4 ,house of ,pansa--casa di ,pansa4 vii4 #ah4 ,house of ,adonis--casa di ,adone4 #bj4 ,casa dell' ,argenteria4 #bb4 ,inn4 #bc4 ,house of ,apollo4 #be4 ,casa del ,duca d',aumale4 viii4 #e4 ,house of the ,tragic ,poet--casa del ,poeta ,tragico4 #bj4 ,fullery4 #bb4 ,casa della ,fontana ,grande4 #bc4 ,casa della ,fontana ,piccola4 ix4 #b4 ,house of ,meleager--casa di ,meleagro4 #c4 ,house of the ,centaur--casa del ,centauro4 #f4 ,house of ,castor and ,pollux--casa di ,castore e ,polluce4 x4 #a4 ,wineshop4 #g4 ,house of the ,anchor--casa dell' ,ancora4 #aa4 ,casa del ,naviglio4 xi4 #aj4 ,house of the ,labyrinth--casa del ,laberinto4 xii4 ,house of the ,faun--casa del ,fauno4 xiii4 #f4 ,house of ,m4 ,terentius ,eudoxus4 xiv4 #bj4 ,house of ,m4 ,vesonius ,primus1 often called the house of ,orpheus--casa di ,orfeo4 #bb4 ,fullery4 #cj4 ,house of ,laocoon--casa di ,laocoonte4 #ce4 ,bakery with kneading machine4 #dc4 ,casa degli ,scienziati4 xv4 #a4 ,house of the ,vettii4 #i4 ,house with atrium in two stories4 ,,region ,,vii ,,insula i4 #h4 ,stabian ,baths4 #be4 ,house of ,siricus4 #dj4 ,house of ,caesius ,blandus4 #de4 ,elephant ,inn4 ii4 #aa4 ,dyehouse4 #af4 ,house of ,m4 ,gavius ,rufus4 #ah4 ,house of ,c4 ,vibius4 #bj4 ,house of ,popidius ,priscus4 #bb4 ,bakery4 #de4 ,house of the ,bear--casa dell' ,orso4 iii4 #bi4 ,house of ,m4 ,spurius ,mesor4 iv4 #a4 ,temple of ,fortuna ,augusta4 #dh4 ,house of the ,hunt--casa della ,caccia4 #ea4 ,house of the ,colored ,capitals--casa dei ,capitelli ,colorati1 also called the house of ,ariadna--casa d' ,arianna4 #ef4 ,casa del ,granduca di ,toscana4 #eg4 ,house of the ,sculptured ,capitals--casa dei ,capitelli ,figurati4 #ei4 ,house of the ,black ,wall--casa della ,parete ,nera4 v4 #b4 ,baths4 vi4 #ag4 ,water reservoir4 vii4 #e4 ,house of ,cissonius4 #bg4 ,city treasury4 #bh4 ,public closet4 #bi-cj4 ,market buildings4 #ca4 ,table of standard measures4 #cb4 ,temple of ,apollo4 viii4 ,forum4 a4 ,capitolium4 ix4 #a4 ,building of ,eumachia4 #b4 ,temple of ,vespasian4 #c4 ,sanctuary of the ,city ,lares4 #h4 ,macellum4 xii4 #bh4 ,house with projecting upper story--casa del ,balcone ,pensile4 #ce4 ,inn4 xiv4 #i4 ,house with skeleton4 xv4 #h4 ,house with second story dining room4 ,ins4 ,occidentalis4 #ac4 ,house near the ,porta ,marina4 ,,region ,,viii ,,insula i4 ,basilica4 ii4 #a1 #c4 ,casa di ,championnet4 #f4 ,office of the aediles4 #h4 ,hall of the city council4 #aj4 ,office of the duumvirs4 #ag-ba4 ,terrace house1 with bath4 #bc4 ,bath4 #ci4 ,house of the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii--casa dell' ,imperatore ,giuseppe ,,ii4 iii4 #a4 ,comitium4 #d4 ,house of the ,wild ,boar--casa di ,cinghiale4 iv4 #d4 ,house of ,marcus ,holconius4 #ae4 ,house of ,cornelius ,rufus4 v-vi4 #ci4 ,house of ,acceptus and ,euhodia4 viii4 ,the theatres and other public buildings4 ,,region ,,ix ,,insula i4 #bj4 ,house of ,epidius ,rufus4 #bb4 ,house of ,epidius ,sabinus4 ii4 #af4 ,house of ,balbus4 iii4 #b4 ,dyehouse4 #e4 ,house of ,m4 ,lucretius4 #aj4 ,bakery4 #be4 ,house of ,l4 ,clodius ,varus4 iv4 ,central ,baths4 v4 #aa4 ,house with triclinium of masonry and seat for the children4 vii4 #f4 ,house of the ,centenary--casa del ,centenario2 also known as the house of ,tiberius ,claudius ,verus4 a4 ,inn of ,hyginius ,firmus4 ,handbooks of ,archaeology and ,antiquities ,the ,destruction of ,ancient ,rome ,a ,sketch of the ,history of the ,monuments ,by ,,rodolfo ,,lanciani1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,oxford1 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,ancient ,topography in the ,university of ,rome1 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4ej net ,a ,handbook of ,greek ,sculpture ,by ,,ernest ,,arthur ,,gardner1 formerly ,director of the ,british ,school of ,archaeology at ,athens1 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #b4ej net ,the ,roman ,festivals of the ,period of the ,republic ,an ,introduction to the ,study of the ,religion of the ,romans ,by ,w4 ,,warde ,,fowler1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow and ,sub-,rector of ,lincoln ,college1 ,oxford1 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4be net ,a ,handbook of ,greek and ,roman ,coins ,by ,g4 ,f4 ,,hill1 ,m4,a41 of the ,department of ,coins and ,medals in the ,british ,museum4 ,with ,fifteen ,colortype ,plates1 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #b4be net ,a ,handbook of ,greek ,constitutional ,history ,by ,a4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,greenidge1 ,m4,a41 ,lecturer and late ,fellow at ,hertford ,college1 and ,lecturer in ,ancient ,history at ,brasenose ,college1 ,oxford1 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4be net ,roman ,public ,life ,by ,a4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,greenidge1 ,m4,a41 ,lecturer and late ,fellow at ,hertford ,college1 and ,lecturer in ,ancient ,history at ,brasenose ,college1 ,oxford1 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #b4ej net ,monuments of the ,early ,church ,by ,,walter ,,lowrie1 ,m4,a41 late ,fellow of the ,american ,school of ,classical ,studies at ,rome1 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4ge net ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,a ,,new ,,and ,,cheaper ,,edition ,,ave ,,roma ,,immortalis ,,studies ,,from ,,the ,,chronicles ,,of ,,rome ,by ,f4 ,,marion ,,crawford1 ,author of ,rulers of the ,south1 etc41 etc4 ,fully illustrated4 ,cloth1 ,crown #hvo1 #c4jj net4 ,,dr4 ,s4 ,,weir ,,mitchell writes3 ,i have not for a long while read a book which pleased me more than ,mr4 ,crawford's ',roma4' ,it is cast in a form so original and so available that it must surely take the place of all other books about ,rome which are needed to help one to understand its story and its archaeology4444 ,the book has for me a rare interest4 ,a ,,new ,,and ,,cheaper ,,edition ,,pompeii ,,its ,,life ,,and ,,art ,by ,,august ,,mau1 ,german ,archaeological ,institute in ,rome4 ,translated into ,english by ,,francis ,w4 ,,kelsey1 ,university of ,michigan4 ,profusely illustrated from photographs1 etc4 ,cloth1 ,gilt ,top1 ,crown #hvo1 #b4ej net4 ,f4 ,,marion ,,crawford says of this work3 ,professor ,mau has succeeded beyond all those who have preceded him on the same ground4 ,he reconstructs the ruins so that one believes in them1 and sees that they must have been as he describes them1 and the excellent drawings of these reconstructions stimulate the reader's belief4 ,he restores the decorations next1 and furnishes the vacant dwellings in a way that seems natural1 and even comfortable2 and1 lastly1 he populates the city he has so skilfully rebuilt1 not with the dull lay figures in togas or tunics so dear to scientific history1 but with human beings1 alive and moving4 ,,in ,,preparation ,,for ,,early ,,issue ,,ancient ,,athens ,by ,,ernest ,,arthur ,,gardner1 ,yates ,professor of ,archaeology in ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,formerly ,director of the ,british ,school at ,athens4 ,author of ,a ,handbook of ,greek ,sculpture1 etc41 etc4 ,cloth1 #hvo4 ,profusely illustrated4 ,this handsomely illustrated book is a companion volume in its make-up to ,mau's ,pompeii4 ,its object is to give an adequate and at the same time popular account of ,ancient ,athens1 from the earliest times down to the official introduction of ,christianity4 ,the book deals mainly with the topography of the city and ,acropolis1 the extant remains of ancient buildings1 and the sculpture that decorated them4 ,it includes the results of recent excavation and research2 but controversial matters have1 as far as possible1 been relegated to notes and appendices4 ,a full description is given of the ,parthenon1 the ,erechtheum1 ,theatre1 and other buildings1 and such questions as the water supply1 the walls of town and harbours1 the position of the ,agora1 and the route ,pausanias1 are duly considered4 ,the general aim of the author is to stimulate and assist the historical imagination by bringing ,ancient ,athens1 in various periods of its growth1 vividly before the eyes of the ordinary well-informed reader1 and to provide both those who have visited ,greece and those who have not with views and plans and illustrations to enable them to realize the present appearance of the town and its monuments4 ,for this purpose the book is very fully illustrated1 as far as possible1 by means of photography4 ,above all1 the author has avoided1 as far as possible1 compilation or quotation from various writers1 and has endeavored to give a direct record of the impressions derived from a familiarity with the sites and buildings described4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york