,the ,golden ,bough                     
,a ,study in ,magic and ,religion       
,by                   ,james ,george    
,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d4 
,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge
         ,professor of ,social          
,anthropology in the ,university of     
,liverpool                              
,vol4 ,,ix4 of ,,xii4                   
,part ,,vi3 ,the ,scapegoat4            
,new ,york and ,london                  
,mac,millan and ,co4                    
#aiac            ,,contents             
,preface4  ,chapter ,i4 ,the            
,transference of ,evil4      #a4 ,the   
,transference to ,inanimate ,objects4   
#b4 ,the ,transference to ,stones and   
,sticks4      #c4 ,the ,transference to 
,animals4      #d4 ,the ,transference to
 ,men4      #e4 ,the ,transference of   
,evil in ,europe4      #f4 ,the ,nailing
 of ,evils4  ,chapter ,,ii4 ,the        
,omnipresence of ,demons4  ,chapter     
,,iii4 ,the ,public ,expulsion of       
,evils4      #a4 ,the ,occasional       

,expulsion of ,evils4      #b4 ,the     
,periodic ,expulsion of ,evils4         
,chapter ,,iv4 ,public ,scapegoats4     
#a4 ,the ,expulsion of ,embodied ,evils4
      #b4 ,the ,occasional ,expulsion of
 ,evils in a ,material ,vehicle4        
#c4 ,the ,periodic ,expulsion of ,evils 
in a ,material ,vehicle4  ,chapter ,v4  
,on ,scapegoats in ,general4  ,chapter  
,,vi4 ,human ,scapegoats in ,classical  
,antiquity4      #a4 ,the ,human        
,scapegoat in ,ancient ,rome4      #b4  
,the ,human ,scapegoat in ,ancient      
,greece4  ,chapter ,,vii4 ,killing the  
,god in ,mexico4  ,chapter ,,viii4 ,the 
,saturnalia and ,kindred ,festivals4    
#a4 ,the ,roman ,saturnalia4      #b4   
,the ,king of the ,bean and the         
,festival of ,fools4      #c4 ,the      
,saturnalia and ,lent4      #d4         
,saturnalia in ,ancient ,greece4        
#e4 ,saturnalia in ,western ,asia4      
#f4 ,conclusion4  ,note4 ,the           
,crucifixion ,of ,christ4  ,index4      
,footnotes                              

,cover ,art    ,transcriber's ,note3    
,the above cover image was produced by  
the submitter  at ,distributed          
,proofreaders1 and is being placed into 
the public domain4            ,,preface4
      ,with ,the ,scapegoat our general 
discussion of the theory and practice of
  the ,dying ,god is brought to a       
conclusion4 ,the aspect of the subject  
with  which we are here chiefly         
concerned is the use of the ,dying ,god 
as a  scapegoat to free his worshippers 
from the troubles of all sorts with     
which life on earth is beset4 ,i have   
sought to trace this curious usage to   
its origin1 to decompose the idea of the
 ,divine ,scapegoat into the  elements  
out of which it appears to be           
compounded4 ,if ,i am right1 the idea   
resolves itself into a simple confusion 
between the material and the            
immaterial1 between the real possibility
 of transferring a physical load  to    
other shoulders and the supposed        
possibility of transferring our bodily  

and mental ailments to another who will 
bear them for us4 ,when we survey  the  
history of this pathetic fallacy from   
its crude inception in savagery  to its 
full development in the speculative     
theology of civilized nations1  we      
cannot but wonder at the singular power 
which the human mind possesses  of      
transmuting the leaden dross of         
superstition into a glittering          
semblance of gold4 ,certainly in nothing
 is this alchemy of thought more        
conspicuous than in the process which   
has refined the base and foolish  custom
 of the scapegoat into the sublime      
conception of a ,god who dies to  take  
away the sins of the world4    ,along   
with the discussion of the ,scapegoat ,i
 have included in this volume  an       
account of the remarkable religious     
ritual of the ,aztecs1 in which the     
theory of the ,dying ,god found its most
 systematic and most tragic  expression4
 ,there is nothing1 so far as ,i am     
aware1 to shew that the men  and women1 

who in ,mexico died cruel deaths in the 
character of gods and  goddesses1 were  
regarded as scapegoats by their         
worshippers and  executioners2 the      
intention of slaying them seems rather  
to have been to  reinforce by a river of
 human blood the tide of life which     
might else grow  stagnant and stale in  
the veins of the deities4 ,hence the    
,aztec ritual1  which prescribed the    
slaughter1 the roasting alive1 and the  
flaying of men  and women in order that 
the gods might remain for ever young and
 strong1  conforms to the general theory
 of deicide which ,i have offered in    
this  work4 ,on that theory death is a  
portal through which gods and men alike 
must pass to escape the decrepitude of  
age and to attain the vigour of  eternal
 youth4 ,the conception may be said to  
culminate in the ,brahmanical  doctrine 
that in the daily sacrifice the body of 
the ,creator is broken  anew for the    
salvation of the world4    ,j4 ,g4      
,frazer4    ,,cambridge1  #bast ,june1  

#aiac4            ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the   
,,transference ,,of ,,evil4             
#a4 ,the ,transference to ,inanimate    
,objects4      7,m#a7 ,in the preceding 
parts of this work we have traced the   
practice of  killing a god among peoples
 in the hunting1 pastoral1 and          
agricultural  stages of society2 and ,i 
have attempted to explain the motives   
which led  men to adopt so curious a    
custom4 ,one aspect of the custom still 
remains  to be noticed4 ,the accumulated
 misfortunes and sins of the whole      
people  are sometimes laid upon the     
dying god1 who is supposed to bear them 
away  for ever1 leaving the people      
innocent and happy4 ,the notion that we 
can  transfer our guilt and sufferings  
to some other being who will bear them  
for us is familiar to the savage mind4  
,it arises from a very obvious          
confusion between the physical and the  
mental1 between the material and  the   
immaterial4 ,because it is possible to  
shift a load of wood1 stones1 or  what  

not1 from our own back to the back of   
another1 the savage fancies  that it is 
equally possible to shift the burden of 
his pains and sorrows  to another1 who  
will suffer them in his stead4 ,upon    
this idea he acts1 and  the result is an
 endless number of very unamiable       
devices for palming off  upon some one  
else the trouble which a man shrinks    
from bearing himself4  ,in short1 the   
principle of vicarious suffering is     
commonly understood and  practised by   
races who stand on a low level of social
 and intellectual  culture4 ,in the     
following pages ,i shall illustrate the 
theory and the  practice as they are    
found among savages in all their naked  
simplicity1  undisguised by the         
refinements of metaphysics and the      
subtleties of  theology4    7,m#b7 ,the 
devices to which the cunning and selfish
 savage resorts for the  sake of easing 
himself at the expense of his neighbour 
are manifold2 only  a few typical       
examples out of a multitude can be      

cited4 ,at the outset it  is to be      
observed that the evil of which a man   
seeks to rid himself need  not be       
transferred to a person2 it may equally 
well be transferred to an  animal or a  
thing1 though in the last case the thing
 is often only a  vehicle to convey the 
trouble to the first person who touches 
it4 ,in some  of the ,east ,indian      
islands they think that epilepsy can be 
cured by  striking the patient on the   
face with the leaves of certain trees   
and then  throwing them away4 ,the      
disease is believed to have passed into 
the  leaves1 and to have been thrown    
away with them47#a7 ,in the ,warramunga 
and  ,tjingilli tribes of ,central      
,australia men who suffered from        
headache have  often been seen wearing  
women's head-rings4 8,this was connected
 with the  belief that the pain in the  
head would pass into the rings1 and that
 then  it could be thrown away with them
 into the bush1 and so got rid of       
effectually4 ,the natives have a very   

firm belief in the efficacy of this     
treatment4 ,in the same way when a man  
suffers from internal pain1 usually     
brought on by overeating1 his wife's    
head-rings are placed on his stomach2   
the evil magic which is causing all the 
trouble passes into them1 and they  are 
then thrown away into the bushes1 where 
the magic is supposed to leave  them4   
,after a time they are searched for by  
the woman1 who brings them  back1 and   
again wears them in the ordinary        
way407#b7 ,among the ,sihanaka of       
,madagascar1 when a man is very sick1   
his relatives are sometimes bidden by   
the diviner to cast out the evil by     
means of a variety of things1 such as  a
 stick of a particular sort of tree1 a  
rag1 a pinch of earth from an  ant's    
nest1 a little money1 or what not4      
,whatever they may be1 they are  brought
 to the patient's house and held by a   
man near the door1 while an  exorcist   
stands in the house and pronounces the  
formula necessary for  casting out the  

disease4 ,when he has done1 the things  
are thrown away in a  southward         
direction1 and all the people in the    
house1 including the sick  man1 if he   
has strength enough1 shake their loose  
robes and spit towards  the door in     
order to expedite the departure of the  
malady47#c7 ,when an  ,atkhan of the    
,aleutian ,islands had committed a grave
 sin and desired to  unburden himself of
 his guilt1 he proceeded as follows4    
,having chosen a  time when the sun was 
clear and unclouded1 he picked up       
certain weeds and  carried them about   
his person4 ,then he laid them down1 and
 calling the sun  to witness1 cast his  
sins upon them1 after which1 having     
eased his heart  of all that weighed    
upon it1 he threw the weeds into the    
fire1 and fancied  that thus he cleansed
 himself of his guilt47#d7 ,in ,vedic   
times a younger  brother who married    
before his elder brother was thought to 
have sinned in  so doing1 but there was 
a ceremony by which he could purge      

himself of his  sin4 ,fetters of        
reed-grass were laid on him in token of 
his guilt1 and  when they had been      
washed and sprinkled they were flung    
into a foaming  torrent1 which swept    
them away1 while the evil was bidden to 
vanish with  the foam of the stream47#e7
 ,the ,matse negroes of ,togoland think 
that the  river ,awo has power to carry 
away the sorrows of mankind4 ,so when   
one of  their friends has died1 and     
their hearts are heavy1 they go to the  
river  with leaves of the raphia palm   
tied round their necks and drums in     
their  hands4 ,standing on the bank they
 beat the drums and cast the leaves into
  the stream4 ,as the leaves float away 
out of sight to the sound of the        
rippling water and the roll of the      
drums1 they fancy that their sorrow too 
is lifted from them47#f7 ,similarly1 the
 ancient ,greeks imagined that the      
pangs of love might be healed by bathing
 in the river ,selemnus47#g7 ,the       
,indians of ,peru sought to purify      

themselves from their sins by plunging  
their heads in a river2 they said that  
the river washed their sins  away47#h7  
7,m#c7 ,an ,arab cure for melancholy or 
madness caused by love is to put a  dish
 of water on the sufferer's head1 drop  
melted lead into it1 and then  bury the 
lead in an open field2 thus the mischief
 that was in the man goes  away47#i7    
,amongst the ,miotse of ,china1 when the
 eldest son of the house  attains the   
age of seven years1 a ceremony called   
8driving away the devil0  takes place4  
,the father makes a kite of straw and   
lets it fly away in the  desert1 bearing
 away all evil with it47#aj7 ,when an   
,indian of ,santiago  ,tepehuacan is    
ill1 he will sometimes attempt to rid   
himself of the malady  by baking thrice 
seven cakes2 of these he places seven in
 the top of the  highest pine-tree of   
the forest1 seven he lays at the foot of
 the tree1  and seven he casts into a   
well1 with the water of which he then   
washes  himself4 ,by this means he      

transfers the sickness to the water of  
the well  and so is made whole47#aa7    
,the ,baganda believed that plague was  
caused by  the god ,kaumpuli1 who       
resided in a deep hole in his temple4   
,to prevent him  from escaping and      
devastating the country1 they battened  
him down in the  hole by covering the   
top with plantain-stems and piling      
wild-cat-skins  over them2 there was    
nothing like wild-cat-skins to keep him 
down1 so  hundreds of wild cats were    
hunted and killed every year to supply  
the  necessary skins4 ,however1         
sometimes in spite of these precautions 
the god  contrived to escape1 and then  
the people died4 ,when a garden or house
 was  plague-stricken1 the priests      
purified it by transferring the disease 
to a  plantain-tree and then carrying   
away the tree to a piece of waste land4 
,the way in which they effected the     
transference of the disease was this4   
,they first made a number of little     
shields and spears out of plantain      

fibre and reeds and placed them at      
intervals along the path leading from   
the garden to the main road4 ,a young   
plantain-tree1 about to bear fruit1  was
 then cut down1 the stem was laid in the
 path leading to one of the             
plague-stricken huts1 and it was speared
 with not less than twenty reed  spears1
 which were left sticking in it1 while  
some of the plantain-fibre  shields were
 also fastened to it4 ,this tree was    
then carried down the path  to the waste
 land and left there4 ,it went by the   
name of the ,scapegoat  7kyonzire74 ,to 
make quite sure that the plague1 after  
being thus  deposited in the wilderness1
 should not return by the way it went1  
the  priests raised an arch1 covered    
with barkcloth1 over the path at the    
point  where it diverged from the main  
road4 ,this arch was thought to         
interpose  an insurmountable barrier to 
the return of the plague47#ab7    7,m#d7
 ,dyak priestesses expel ill-luck from a
 house by hewing and slashing  the air  

in every corner of it with wooden       
swords1 which they afterwards  wash in  
the river1 to let the ill-luck float    
away down stream4 ,sometimes  they sweep
 misfortune out of the house with brooms
 made of the leaves of  certain plants  
and sprinkled with rice-water and blood4
 ,having swept it  clean out of every   
room and into a toy-house made of       
bamboo1 they set the  little house with 
its load of bad luck adrift on the      
river4 ,the current  carries it away out
 to sea1 where it shifts its baleful    
cargo to a certain  kettle-shaped ship1 
which floats in mid-ocean and receives  
in its  capacious hold all the ills that
 flesh is heir to4 ,well would it be    
with  mankind if the evils remained for 
ever tossing far away on the billows2   
but1 alas1 they are dispersed from the  
ship to the four winds1 and settle      
again1 and yet again1 on the weary ,dyak
 world4 ,on ,dyak rivers you may see    
many of the miniature houses1 laden with
 manifold misfortunes1 bobbing up  and  

down on the current1 or sticking fast in
 the thickets that line the  banks47#ac7
    7,m#e7 ,these examples illustrate   
the purely beneficent side of the       
transference of evil2 they shew how men 
seek to alleviate human sufferings  by  
diverting them to material objects1     
which are then thrown away or  otherwise
 disposed of so as to render them       
innocuous4 ,often1 however1 the         
transference of evil to a material      
object is only a step towards foisting  
it upon a living person4 ,this is the   
maleficent side of such  transferences4 
,it is exemplified in the following     
cases4 ,to cure toothache  some of the  
,australian blacks apply a heated       
spear-thrower to the cheek4  ,the       
spear-thrower is then cast away1 and the
 toothache goes with it in the  shape of
 a black stone called karriitch4 ,stones
 of this kind are found  in old mounds  
and sandhills4 ,they are carefully      
collected and thrown in  the direction  
of enemies in order to give them        

toothache47#ad7 ,in ,mirzapur  a mode of
 transferring disease is to fill a pot  
with flowers and rice and  bury it in a 
pathway covered up with a flat stone4   
,whoever touches this is  supposed to   
contract the disease4 ,the practice is  
called chalauwa1 or  8passing on0 the   
malady4 ,this sort of thing goes on     
daily in ,upper ,india4  ,often while   
walking of a morning in the bazaar you  
will see a little pile  of earth adorned
 with flowers in the middle of the road4
 ,such a pile  usually contains some    
scabs or scales from the body of a      
smallpox patient1  which are placed     
there in the hope that some one may     
touch them1 and by  catching the disease
 may relieve the sufferer47#ae7 ,the    
,bahima1 a pastoral  people of the      
,uganda ,protectorate1 often suffer from
 deep-seated  abscesses3 8their cure for
 this is to transfer the disease to some
 other  person by obtaining herbs from  
the medicine-man1 rubbing them over the 
place where the swelling is1 and burying

 them in the road where people          
continually pass2 the first person who  
steps over these buried herbs  contracts
 the disease1 and the original patient  
recovers407#af7 ,the  practice of the   
,wagogo of ,german ,east ,africa is     
similar4 ,when a man is  ill1 the native
 doctor will take him to a cross-road1  
where he prepares  his medicines1       
uttering at the same time the           
incantations which are  necessary to    
give the drugs their medical virtue4    
,part of the dose is then  administered 
to the patient1 and part is buried under
 a pot turned upside  down at the       
cross-road4 ,it is hoped that somebody  
will step over the pot1  and catching   
the disease1 which lurks in the pot1    
will thereby relieve the  original      
sufferer4 ,a variation of this cure is  
to plaster some of the  medicine1 or a  
little of the patient's blood1 on a     
wooden peg and to drive  the peg into a 
tree2 any one who passes the tree and is
 so imprudent as to  draw out the peg1  

will carry away with it the             
disease47#ag7    7,m#f7 ,sometimes in   
case of sickness the malady is          
transferred to an effigy  as a          
preliminary to passing it on to a human 
being4 ,thus among the ,baganda  the    
medicine-man would sometimes make a     
model of his patient in clay2 then  a   
relative of the sick man would rub the  
image over the sufferer's body  and     
either bury it in the road or hide it in
 the grass by the wayside4 ,the  first  
person who stepped over the image or    
passed by it would catch the  disease4  
,sometimes the effigy was made out of a 
plantain-flower tied up so  as to look  
like a person2 it was used in the same  
way as the clay figure4  ,but the use of
 images for this maleficent purpose was 
a capital crime2 any  person caught in  
the act of burying one of them in the   
public road would  surely have been put 
to death47#ah7 ,among the ,sena-speaking
 people to the  north of the ,zambesi1  
when any one is ill1 the doctor makes a 

little pig  of straw to which he        
transfers the sickness4 ,the little pig 
is then set on  the ground where two    
paths meet1 and any passer-by who       
chances to kick it  over is sure to     
absorb the illness and to draw it away  
from the  patient47#ai7 ,among the      
,korkus1 a forest tribe of the ,central 
,provinces in  ,india1 when a person    
wishes to transfer his sickness to      
another1 he  contrives to obtain the    
loin-cloth of his intended victim and   
paints two  figures on it in lamp black1
 one upright and the other upside down4 
,as  soon as the owner of the loin-cloth
 puts it on1 he falls a victim to the   
ailment which afflicted the artist who  
drew the figures47#bj7 ,every nine      
years a ,mongol celebrates a memorial   
festival of his birth for the purpose   
of ensuring the continuance of his life 
and welfare4 ,at this solemn  ceremony  
two lambskins1 one black and the other  
white1 are spread on the  floor of the  
hut1 which is further covered with a    

felt carpet1 and on the  carpet are made
 nine little ridges of earth brought    
from nine mountains1  the bottom of a   
river1 and a sepulchral mound4 ,the     
owner of the hut1 for  whose benefit the
 rite is performed1 next seats himself  
on the black  lambskin1 and opposite him
 is set an effigy of himself made of    
dough by a  lama4 ,the priest then      
throws a black stone at the effigy1     
praying that the  black arrow of death  
may pierce it1 after which he throws a  
white stone at  the master of the hut1  
praying that the bright beam of life may
 endow him  with wondrous strength4     
,after that the ,mongol gets up1 steps  
over one of  the ridges of earth and    
says1 8,i have overcome a mishap1 ,i    
have escaped a  death40 ,this ceremony  
he performs nine times1 stepping over   
all the  ridges1 one after the other4   
,then he sits down on the white         
lambskin1 and  the lama takes the dough 
effigy1 swings it thrice round the man  
whom it  represents1 spits on it thrice1

 and hands it to attendants who carry it
  away into the steppe4 ,a little holy  
water sprinkled over the ,mongol now    
completes his protection against perils 
and dangers47#ba7 ,this last is a  case 
of the beneficent transference of evil2 
for in it no attempt seems to  be made  
to shift the burden of misfortune to    
anybody else4           #b4 ,the        
,transference to ,stones and ,sticks4   
7,m#g7 ,in the western district of the  
island of ,timor1 when men or women are 
making long and tiring journeys1 they   
fan themselves with leafy branches1     
which they afterwards throw away on     
particular spots where their            
forefathers did the same before them4   
,the fatigue which they felt is thus    
supposed to have passed into the leaves 
and to be left behind4 ,others use      
stones instead of leaves47#bb7          
,similarly in the ,babar ,archipelago   
tired  people will strike themselves    
with stones1 believing that they thus   
transfer to the stones the weariness    

which they felt in their own bodies4    
,they then throw away the stones in     
places which are specially set apart    
for the purpose47#bc7 ,a like belief and
 practice in many distant parts of  the 
world have given rise to those cairns or
 heaps of sticks and leaves  which      
travellers often observe beside the     
path1 and to which every passing  native
 adds his contribution in the shape of a
 stone1 or stick1 or leaf4  ,thus in the
 ,solomon and ,banks' ,islands the      
natives are wont to throw  sticks1      
stones1 or leaves upon a heap at a place
 of steep descent1 or  where a difficult
 path begins1 saying1 8,there goes my   
fatigue40 ,the act is  not a religious  
rite1 for the thing thrown on the heap  
is not an offering  to spiritual powers1
 and the words which accompany the act  
are not a  prayer4 ,it is nothing but a 
magical ceremony for getting rid of     
fatigue1  which the simple savage       
fancies he can embody in a stick1 leaf1 
or stone1  and so cast it from him47#bd7

    7,m#h7 ,an early ,spanish missionary
 to ,nicaragua1 observing that along the
  paths there were heaps of stones on   
which the ,indians as they passed threw 
grass1 asked them why they did so4      
8,because we think10 was the answer1    
8that thereby we are kept from weariness
 and hunger1 or at least that we  suffer
 less from them407#be7 ,when the        
,peruvian ,indians were climbing steep  
mountains and felt weary1 they used to  
halt by the way at certain points  where
 there were heaps of stones1 which they 
called apachitas4 ,on these  heaps the  
weary men would place other stones1 and 
they said that when they  did so1 their 
weariness left them47#bf7 ,in the passes
 of the eastern ,andes1  on the borders 
of ,argentina and ,bolivia1 8large      
cairns are constantly  found1 and every 
,puna ,indian1 on passing1 adds a stone 
and a coca leaf1 so  that neither he nor
 his beast of burden may tire on the    
way407#bg7 ,in the  country of the      
,tarahumares and ,tepehuanes in ,mexico 

heaps of stones and  sticks may be      
observed on high points1 where the track
 leads over a ridge  between two or more
 valleys4 8,every ,indian who passes    
such a pile adds a  stone or a stick to 
it in order to gain strength for his    
journey4 ,among  the ,tarahumares only  
the old men observe this custom4        
,whenever the  ,tepehuanes carry a      
corpse1 they rest it for some fifteen   
minutes on such a  heap by the wayside  
that the deceased may not be fatigued   
but strong  enough to finish his long   
journey to the land of the dead4 ,one of
 my  ,huichol companions stopped on     
reaching this pile1 pulled up some grass
  from the ground and picked up a stone 
as big as his fist4 ,holding both       
together he spat on the grass and on the
 stone and then rubbed them  quickly    
over his knees4 ,he also made a couple  
of passes with them over his  chest and 
shoulders1 exclaiming #8,kenestquai6'   
7,may ,i not get tired67  and then put  
the grass on the heap and the stone on  

top of the grass407#bh7  ,in ,guatemala 
also piles of stones may be seen at the 
partings of ways and  on the tops of    
cliffs and mountains4 ,every passing    
,indian used to gather a  handful of    
grass1 rub his legs with it1 spit on it1
 and deposit it with a  small stone on  
the pile1 firmly persuaded that by so   
doing he would  restore their flagging  
vigour to his weary limbs47#bi7 ,here   
the rubbing of  the limbs with the      
grass1 like the ,babar custom of        
striking the body with  a stone1 was    
doubtless a mode of extracting the      
fatigue from them as a  preliminary to  
throwing it away4    7,m#i7 ,similarly  
on the plateau between ,lakes           
,tanganyika and ,nyassa the  native     
carriers1 before they ascend a steep    
hill with their loads1 will  pick up a  
stone1 spit on it1 rub the calves of    
their legs with it1 and  then deposit it
 on one of those small piles of stones  
which are commonly  to be found at such 
spots in this part of ,africa4 ,a recent

 ,english  traveller1 who noticed the   
custom1 was informed that the carriers  
practise  it 8to make their legs        
light107#cj7 in other words1 to extract 
the fatigue  from them4 ,on the banks of
 the ,kei river in ,southern ,africa    
another  ,english traveller noticed some
 heaps of stones4 ,on enquiring what    
they  meant1 he was told by his guides  
that when a ,caffre felt weary he had   
but  to add a stone to the heap to      
regain fresh vigour47#ca7 ,in some parts
 of  ,south ,africa1 particularly on the
 ,zambesi1 piles of sticks take the     
place  of cairns4 8,sometimes the       
natives will rub their leg with a stick1
 and  throw the stick on the heap1 #8to 
get rid of fatigue1' they avow4 ,others 
say that throwing a stone on the heap   
gives one fresh vigour for the          
journey407#cb7    7,m#aj7 ,from other   
accounts of the ,caffre custom we learn 
that these cairns  are generally on the 
sides or tops of mountains1 and that    
before a native  deposits his stone on  

the pile he spits on it47#cc7 ,the      
practice of  spitting on the stone which
 the weary wayfarer lays on the pile is 
probably a mode of transferring his     
fatigue the more effectually to the     
material vehicle which is to rid him of 
it4 ,we have seen that the practice     
prevails among the ,indians of          
,guatemala and the natives of the       
,tanganyika  plateau1 and it appears to 
be observed also under similar          
circumstances in  ,corea1 where the     
cairns are to be found especially on the
 tops of  passes47#cd7 ,from the        
primitive point of view nothing can be  
more natural  than that the cairns or   
the heaps of sticks and leaves to which 
the tired  traveller adds his           
contribution should stand at the top of 
passes and1 in  general1 on the highest 
points of the road4 ,the wayfarer who   
has toiled1  with aching limbs and      
throbbing temples1 up a long and steep  
ascent1 is  aware of a sudden           
alleviation as soon as he has reached   

the summit2 he  feels as if a weight had
 been lifted from him1 and to the       
savage1 with his  concrete mode of      
thought1 it seems natural and easy to   
cast the weight  from him in the shape  
of a stone or stick1 or a bunch of      
leaves or of  grass4 ,hence it is that  
the piles which represent the           
accumulated  weariness of many foot-sore
 and heavy-laden travellers are to be   
seen  wherever the road runs highest in 
the lofty regions of ,bolivia1 ,tibet1  
,bhootan1 and ,burma17#ce7 in the passes
 of the ,andes and the ,himalayas1 as   
well as in ,corea1 ,caffraria1          
,guatemala1 and ,melanesia4    7,m#aa7  
,while the mountaineer ,indians of      
,south ,america imagine that they can   
rid themselves of their fatigue in the  
shape of a stick or a stone1 other  or  
the same aborigines of that continent   
believe that they can let it out  with  
their blood4 ,a ,french explorer1 who   
had seen much of the ,south  ,american  
,indians1 tells us that 8they explain   

everything that they  experience by     
attributing it to sorcery1 to the       
influence of maleficent  beings4 ,thus  
an ,indian on the march1 when he feels  
weary1 never fails to  ascribe his      
weariness to the evil spirit2 and if he 
has no diviner at  hand1 he wounds      
himself in the knees1 the shoulders1 and
 on the arms in  order to let out the   
evil with the blood4 ,that is why many  
,indians1  especially the ,aucas        
,araucanians1 have always their arms    
covered with  scars4 ,this custom1      
differently applied1 is almost general  
in ,america2 for  ,i found it up to the 
foot of the ,andes1 in ,bolivia1 among  
the ,chiriguana  and ,yuracares         
nations407#cf7    7,m#ab7 ,but it is not
 mere bodily fatigue which the savage   
fancies he can  rid himself of by the   
simple expedient of throwing a stick or 
a stone4  ,unable clearly to distinguish
 the immaterial from the material1 the  
abstract from the concrete1 he is       
assailed by vague terrors1 he feels     

himself exposed to some ill-defined     
danger on the scene of any great crime  
or great misfortune4 ,the place to him  
seems haunted ground4 ,the thronging    
memories that crowd upon his mind1 if   
they are not mistaken by him for        
goblins and phantoms1 oppress his fancy 
with a leaden weight4 ,his impulse  is  
to flee from the dreadful spot1 to shake
 off the burden that seems to  cling to 
him like a nightmare4 ,this1 in his     
simple sensuous way1 he thinks  he can  
do by casting something at the horrid   
place and hurrying by4 ,for  will not   
the contagion of misfortune1 the horror 
that clutched at his  heart-strings1 be 
diverted from himself into the thing8   
will it not gather  up in itself all the
 evil influences that threatened him1   
and so leave him  to pursue his journey 
in safety and peace8 ,some such train of
 thought1 if  these gropings and        
fumblings of a mind in darkness deserve 
the name of  thought1 seems to explain  
the custom1 observed by wayfarers in    

many lands1  of throwing sticks or      
stones on places where something        
horrible has  happened or evil deeds    
have been done4 ,when ,sir ,francis     
,younghusband was  travelling across the
 great desert of ,gobi his caravan      
descended1 towards  dusk on a ,june     
evening1 into a long depression between 
the hills1 which  was notorious as a    
haunt of robbers4 ,his guide1 with a    
terror-stricken  face1 told how not long
 before nine men out of a single caravan
 had been  murdered1 and the rest left  
in a pitiable state to continue their   
journey  on foot across the awful       
desert4 ,a horseman1 too1 had just been 
seen  riding towards the hills4 8,we had
 accordingly to keep a sharp look-out1  
and when we reached the foot of the     
hills1 halted1 and1 taking the loads    
off the camels1 wrapped ourselves up in 
our sheepskins and watched through  the 
long hours of the night4 ,day broke at  
last1 and then we silently  advanced and
 entered the hills4 ,very weird and     

fantastic in their rugged  outline were 
they1 and here and there a cairn of     
stones marked where some  caravan had   
been attacked1 and as we passed these   
each man threw one more  stone on the   
heap407#cg7 ,in the ,norwegian district 
of ,tellemarken a cairn  is piled up    
wherever anything fearful has happened1 
and every passer-by  must throw another 
stone on it1 or some evil will befall   
him47#ch7 ,in  ,sweden and the          
,esthonian island of ,oesel the same    
custom is practised on  scenes of       
clandestine or illicit love1 with the   
strange addition in ,oesel  that when a 
man has lost his cattle he will go to   
such a spot1 and1 while  he flings a    
stick or stone on it1 will say1 8,i     
bring thee wood4 ,let me  soon find my  
lost cattle407#ci7 ,far from these      
northern lands1 the ,dyaks of  ,batang  
,lupar keep up an observance of the same
 sort in the forests of  ,borneo4       
,beside their paths may be seen heaps of
 sticks or stones which are  called     

8lying heaps40 ,each heap is in memory  
of some man who told a  stupendous lie  
or disgracefully failed in carrying out 
an engagement1 and  everybody who passes
 adds a stick or stone to the pile1     
saying as he does  so1 8,for            
,so-and-so's lying heap407#dj7 ,the     
,dyaks think it a sacred duty to  add to
 every such 8liar's mound0 7tugong bula7
 which they pass2 they  imagine that the
 omission of the duty would draw down on
 them a  supernatural punishment4       
,hence1 however pressed a ,dyak may be  
for time1 he  will always stop to throw 
on the pile some branches or twigs47#da7
 ,the  person to start such a heap is   
one of the men who has suffered by a    
malicious lie4 ,he takes a stick1 throws
 it down on some spot where people  are 
constantly passing1 and says1 8,let any 
one who does not add to this  liar's    
heap suffer from pains in the head40    
,others then do likewise1 and  every    
passer-by throws a stick on the spot    
lest he should suffer pains4 ,in  this  

way the heap often grows to a large     
size1 and the liar by whose name  it is 
known is greatly ashamed47#db7          
7,m#ac7 ,but it is on scenes of murder  
and sudden death that this rude method  
of averting evil is most commonly       
practised4 ,the custom that every       
passer-by must cast a stone or stick on 
the spot where some one has come  to a  
violent end1 whether by murder or       
otherwise1 has been observed in         
practically the same form in such many  
and diverse parts of the world as       
,ireland1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,sweden1     
,germany1 ,bohemia1 ,lesbos1 ,morocco1  
,armenia1 ,palestine1 ,arabia1 ,india1  
,north ,america1 ,venezuela1 ,bolivia1  
,celebes1 and ,new ,zealand47#dc7 ,in   
,fiji1 for example1 it was the practice 
for every passer-by to throw a leaf on  
the spot where a man had been  clubbed  
to death2 8this was considered as an    
offering of respect to him1  and1 if not
 performed1 they have a notion they will
 soon be killed  themselves407#dd7      

,sometimes the scene of the murder or   
death may also be  the grave of the     
victim1 but it need not always be so1   
and in ,europe1  where the dead are     
buried in consecrated ground1 the two   
places would  seldom coincide4 ,however1
 the custom of throwing stones or sticks
 on a  grave has undoubtedly been       
observed by passers-by in many parts of 
the  world1 and that1 too1 even when the
 graves are not those of persons who    
have come to a violent end4 ,thus we are
 told that the people of ,unalashka1    
one of the ,aleutian ,islands1 bury     
their dead on the summits of hills and  
raise a little hillock over the grave4  
8,in a walk into the country1 one of    
the natives1 who attended me1 pointed   
out several of these receptacles of  the
 dead4 ,there was one of them1 by the   
side of the road leading from the       
harbour to the village1 over which was  
raised a heap of stones4 ,it was        
observed1 that every one who passed it1 
added one to it407#de7 ,the  ,roumanians

 of ,transylvania think that a dying man
 should have a burning  candle in his   
hand1 and that any one who dies without 
a light has no right  to the ordinary   
funeral ceremonies4 ,the body of such an
 unfortunate is not  laid in holy       
ground1 but is buried wherever it may be
 found4 ,his grave is  marked only by a 
heap of dry branches1 to which each     
passer-by is expected  to add a handful 
of twigs or a thorny bough47#df7 ,the   
,hottentot god or hero  ,heitsi-eibib   
died several times and came to life     
again4 ,when the  ,hottentots pass one  
of his numerous graves they throw a     
stone1 a bush1 or  a fresh branch on it 
for good luck47#dg7 ,near the former    
mission-station of  ,blydeuitzigt in    
,cape ,colony there was a spot called   
,devil's ,neck where1 in  the opinion of
 the ,bushmen1 the devil was interred4  
,to hinder his  resurrection stones were
 piled in heaps about the place4 ,when a
 ,bushman1  travelling in the company of
 a missionary1 came in sight of the spot

 he  seized a stone and hurled it at the
 grave1 remarking that if he did not do 
so his neck would be twisted round so   
that he would have to look backwards    
for the term of his natural life47#dh7  
,stones are cast by passers-by on the   
graves of murderers in some parts of    
,senegambia47#di7 ,in ,syria deceased   
robbers are not buried like honest folk1
 but left to rot where they lie2  and a 
pile of stones is raised over the       
mouldering corpse4 ,every one who       
passes such a pile must fling a stone at
 it1 on pain of incurring ,god's        
malison47#ej7 ,between sixty and seventy
 years ago an ,englishman was           
travelling from ,sidon to ,tyre with a  
couple of ,musalmans4 ,when he drew     
near ,tyre his companions picked up some
 small stones1 armed him in the  same   
fashion1 and requested him to be so kind
 as to follow their example4  ,soon     
afterwards they came in sight of a      
conical heap of pebbles and stones      
standing in the road1 at which the two  

,musalmans hurled stones and curses     
with great vehemence and remarkable     
volubility4 ,when they had discharged   
this pious duty to their satisfaction1  
they explained that the missiles  and   
maledictions were directed at a         
celebrated robber and murderer1 who  had
 been knocked on the head and buried    
there some half a century  before47#ea7 
7,m#ad7 ,in these latter cases it may   
perhaps be thought that the sticks and  
stones serve no other purpose than to   
keep off the angry and dangerous  ghost 
who might be supposed to haunt either   
the place of death or the  grave4 ,this 
interpretation seems certainly to apply 
to some cases of the  custom4 ,for      
example1 in ,pomerania and ,west        
,prussia the ghosts of suicides  are    
much feared4 ,such persons are buried1  
not in the churchyard1 but at  the place
 where they took their lives1 and every 
passer-by must cast a  stone or a stick 
on the spot1 or the ghost of the suicide
 will haunt him  by night and give him  

no rest4 ,hence the piles of sticks or  
stones  accumulated on the graves of    
these poor wretches sometimes attain a  
considerable size47#eb7 ,similarly the  
,baganda of ,central ,africa used to    
stand in great fear of the ghosts of    
suicides and they took many  precautions
 to disarm or even destroy these        
dangerous spirits4 ,for this  purpose   
the bodies of suicides were removed to  
waste land or cross-roads  and burned   
there1 together with the wood of the    
house in which the deed  had been done  
or of the tree on which the person had  
hanged himself4 ,by  these means they   
imagined that they destroyed the ghost  
so that he could  not come and lure     
others to follow his bad example4 ,lest1
 however1 the  ghost should survive the 
destruction of his body by fire1 the    
,baganda1 in  passing any place where a 
suicide had been burnt1 always threw    
grass or  sticks on the spot to prevent 
the ghost from catching them4 ,and they 
did  the same1 for the same reason1     

whenever they passed the places on waste
  ground where persons accused of       
witchcraft and found guilty by the      
poison  ordeal had been burnt to death4 
,baganda women had a special reason for 
dreading all graves which were believed 
to be haunted by dangerous ghosts2  for1
 imagining that they could conceive     
children without intercourse with  the  
other sex1 they feared to be impregnated
 by the entrance into them of  the      
ghosts of suicides and other unfortunate
 or uncanny people1 such as  persons    
with a light complexion1 twins1 and     
particularly all who had the  mishap to 
be born feet foremost4 ,for that reason 
,baganda women were at  pains1 whenever 
they passed the graves of any such      
persons1 to throw  sticks or grass upon 
them2 8for by so doing they thought that
 they could  prevent the ghost of the   
dead from entering into them1 and being 
reborn40  ,hence the mounds which       
accumulated over these graves became in 
course of  time large enough to deflect 

the path and to attract the attention of
  travellers4 ,it was not merely matrons
 who thus took care not to become       
mothers unaware2 the same fears were    
entertained and the same precautions    
were adopted by all women1 whether old  
or young1 whether married or  single2   
since they thought that there was no    
woman1 whatever her age or  condition1  
who might not be impregnated by the     
entrance into her of a  spirit47#ec7 ,in
 these cases1 therefore1 the throwing of
 sticks or grass at  graves is a purely 
defensive measure2 the missiles are     
intended to ward  off the assaults of   
dangerous ghosts4 ,similarly we are told
 that in  ,madagascar solitary graves by
 the wayside have a sinister reputation1
 and  that passers-by1 without looking  
back1 will throw stones or clods at them
  8to prevent the evil spirits from     
following them407#ed7 ,the ,maraves of  
,south ,africa1 like the ,baganda1 used 
to burn witches alive and to throw      
stones on the places of execution       

whenever they passed them1 so that in   
time regular cairns gradually rose on   
these spots47#ee7 ,no doubt with these  
,maraves1 as with the ,baganda1 the     
motive for throwing missiles at such    
places is to protect themselves against 
the ghosts4 ,a protective motive is     
also assigned for a similar custom      
observed in ,chota ,nagpur1 a region of 
,india which is the home of many        
primitive tribes4 ,there heaps of stones
 or  of leaves and branches may often be
 seen beside the path2 they are         
supposed to mark the places where people
 have been killed by wild beasts1  and  
the natives think that any passer-by who
 failed to add a stone or a  stick to   
the pile would himself be seized and    
devoured by a wild  animal47#ef7 ,here1 
though the ghost is not explicitly      
mentioned1 we may  perhaps suppose that 
out of spite he is instrumental in      
causing others to  perish by the same   
untimely death by which he was himself  
carried off4 ,the  ,kayans of ,borneo   

imagine that they can put evil spirits  
to flight by  hurling sticks or stones  
at them2 so on a journey they will let  
fly  volleys of such missiles at the    
rocks and dens where demons are known to
  reside47#eg7 ,hence1 whenever the     
throwing of stones at a grave is        
regarded  as an insult to the dead1 we  
may suppose that the missiles are       
intended to  hit and hurt the ghost4    
,thus ,euripides represents the murderer
 ,aegisthus  as leaping on the tomb of  
his victim ,agamemnon and pelting it    
with  stones27#eh7 and ,propertius      
invites all lovers to discharge stones  
and  curses at the dishonoured grave of 
an old bawd47#ei7    7,m#ae7 ,but if    
this theory seems adequately to account 
for some cases of the  custom with which
 we are concerned1 it apparently fails  
to explain others4  ,the view that the  
sticks and stones hurled at certain     
places are weapons  turned against      
dangerous or malignant spirits is       
plausible in cases where  such spirits  

are believed to be in the neighbourhood2
 but in cases where  no such spirits are
 thought to be lurking1 we must1 it     
would seem1 cast  about for some other  
explanation4 ,for example1 we have seen 
that it has  been customary to throw    
sticks or stones on spots which have    
been defiled  by deeds of moral         
turpitude without any shedding of blood1
 and again on  spots where weary        
travellers stop to rest4 ,it is         
difficult to suppose that  in these     
latter cases the evil deeds or the      
sensations of fatigue are  conceived in 
the concrete shape of demons whom it is 
necessary to repel by  missiles1 though 
many ,south ,american ,indians1 as we   
saw1 do attribute  fatigue to a demon4  
,still more difficult is it to apply the
 purely  defensive theory to cases where
 beneficent spirits are imagined to be  
hovering somewhere near1 and where the  
throwing of the stones or sticks is     
apparently regarded by those who        
practise it as a token of respect rather

  than of hostility4 ,thus amongst the  
,masai1 when any one dies away from the 
kraal1 his body is left lying on the    
spot where he died1 and all persons     
present throw bunches of grass or leaves
 on the corpse4 ,afterwards every       
passer-by casts a stone or a handful of 
grass on the place1 and the more  the   
dead man was respected1 the longer is   
the usage observed47#fj7 ,it is         
especially the graves of ,masai         
medicine-men that are honoured in this  
way47#fa7 ,in the forest near ,avestad1 
in ,sweden1 the traveller1 ,clarke1     
observed 8several heaps made with sticks
 and stones2 upon which the  natives1 as
 they pass1 cast either a stone1 or a   
little earth1 or the  bough of a tree2  
deeming it an uncharitable act to omit  
this tribute1 in  their journeys to and 
fro4 ,as this custom appeared closely   
allied to the  pious practice in the    
,highlands of ,scotland1 of casting a   
stone upon the  cairn of a deceased     
person1 we1 of course1 concluded these  

heaps were  places of sepulture40 ,they 
were said to be the graves of a band of 
robbers1 who had plundered merchants on 
their passage through the forest1  but  
had afterwards been killed and buried   
where they fell47#fb7 ,however1 in  all 
these cases the practice of throwing    
stones on the grave1 though  interpreted
 as a mark of respect and charity1 may  
really be based on the  fear of the     
ghosts1 so that the motive for observing
 the custom may be  merely that of      
self-defence against a dangerous spirit4
 ,yet this  explanation can hardly apply
 to certain other cases4 ,thus in ,syria
 it is a  common practice with pious    
,moslems1 when they first come in sight 
of a  very sacred place1 such as ,hebron
 or the tomb of ,moses1 to make a little
  heap of stones or to add a stone to a 
heap which has been already made4       
,hence every here and there the         
traveller passes a whole series of such 
heaps by the side of the track47#fc7 ,in
 ,northern ,africa the usage is         

similar4 ,cairns are commonly erected on
 spots from which the devout  pilgrim   
first discerns the shrine of a saint    
afar off2 hence they are  generally to  
be seen on the top of passes4 ,for      
example1 in ,morocco1 at the  point of  
the road from ,casablanca to ,azemmour1 
where you first come in  sight of the   
white city of the saint gleaming in the 
distance1 there rises  an enormous cairn
 of stones shaped like a pyramid several
 hundreds of feet  high1 and beyond it  
on both sides of the road there is a    
sort of avalanche  of stones1 either    
standing singly or arranged in little   
pyramids4 ,every  pious ,mohammedan     
whose eyes are gladdened by the blessed 
sight of the  sacred town adds his stone
 to one of the piles or builds a little 
pile for  himself47#fd7    7,m#af7 ,such
 a custom can hardly be explained as a  
precaution adopted  against a dangerous 
influence supposed to emanate from the  
saint and to  communicate itself even to
 people at a distance4 ,on the contrary1

 it  points rather to a desire of       
communion with the holy man than to a   
wish to  keep him at bay4 ,the mode of  
communion adopted1 however strange it   
may  seem to us1 is apparently quite in 
harmony with the methods by which good  
,mohammedans in ,northern ,africa       
attempt to appropriate to themselves the
  blessed influence 7baraka7 which is   
supposed to radiate on all sides  from  
the person of a living saint4 8,it is   
impossible to imagine10 we are  told1   
8the extremity to which the belief in   
the blessed influence of  saints is     
carried in ,north ,africa4 ,to form an  
exact idea of it you must  see a great  
saint in the midst of the faithful4     
#8,the people fling  themselves down on 
his path to kiss the skirt of his robe1 
to kiss his  stirrup if he is on        
horseback1 to kiss even his footprint if
 he is on  foot4 ,those who are too far 
from him to be able to touch his hand   
touch  him with their staff1 or fling a 
stone at him which they have marked     

previously so as to be able to find it  
afterwards and to embrace it  devoutly4'
 07#fe7 ,thus through the channel of the
 stone or the stick1 which  has been in 
bodily contact with the living saint1   
his blessed influence  flows to the     
devotee who has wielded the stick or    
hurled the stone4 ,in  like manner we   
may perhaps suppose that the man who    
adds a stone to a  cairn in honour of a 
dead saint hopes to benefit by the      
saintly effluence  which distils in a   
mysterious fashion through the stone to 
him47#ff7    7,m#ag7 ,when we survey the
 many different cases in which passing  
travellers  are accustomed to add stones
 or sticks to existing piles1 it seems  
difficult1 if not impossible1 to explain
 them all on one principle2  different  
and even opposite motives appear1 at    
least at first sight1 to  have operated 
in different cases to produce customs   
superficially alike4  ,sometimes the    
motive for throwing the stone is to ward
 off a dangerous  spirit2 sometimes it  

is to cast away an evil2 sometimes it is
 to acquire a  good4 ,yet1 perhaps1 if  
we could trace them back to their origin
 in the  mind of primitive man1 we might
 find that they all resolve themselves  
more  or less exactly into the principle
 of the transference of evil4 ,for to   
rid  ourselves of an evil and to acquire
 a good are often merely opposite sides 
of one and the same operation2 for      
example1 a convalescent regains health  
in exactly the same proportion as he    
shakes off his malady4 ,and though the  
practice of throwing stones at dangerous
 spirits especially at mischievous  and 
malignant ghosts of the dead1 appears to
 spring from a different  motive1 yet it
 may be questioned whether the          
difference is really as great  to the   
savage as it seems to us4 ,to primitive 
man the idea of spiritual  and ghostly  
powers is still more indefinite than it 
is to his civilized  brother3 it fills  
him with a vague uneasiness and alarm2  
and this  sentiment of dread and horror 

he1 in accordance with his habitual     
modes of  thought1 conceives in a       
concrete form as something material     
which either  surrounds and oppresses   
him like a fog1 or has entered into and 
taken  temporary possession of his body4
 ,in either case he imagines that he can
  rid himself of the uncanny thing by   
stripping it from his skin or  wrenching
 it out of his body and transferring it 
to some material  substance1 whether a  
stick1 a stone1 or what not1 which he   
can cast from  him1 and so1 being eased 
of his burden1 can hasten away from the 
dreadful  spot with a lighter heart4    
,thus the throwing of the sticks or     
stones would  be a form of ceremonial   
purification1 which among primitive     
peoples is  commonly conceived as a sort
 of physical rather than moral          
purgation1 a  mode of sweeping or       
scouring away the morbid matter by which
 the polluted  person is supposed to be 
infected4 ,this notion perhaps explains 
the rite  of stone-throwing observed by 

pilgrims at ,mecca2 on the day of       
sacrifice  every pilgrim has to cast    
seven stones on a cairn1 and the rite is
  repeated thrice on the three following
 days4 ,the traditional explanation  of 
the custom is that ,mohammed here drove 
away the devil with a shower of         
stones27#fg7 but the original idea may  
perhaps have been that the pilgrims     
cleanse themselves by transferring their
 ceremonial impurity to the stones      
which they fling on the heap4    7,m#ah7
 ,the theory that the throwing of stones
 is practised in certain  circumstances 
as a mode of purification tallies very  
well with the  tradition as to the      
origin of those cairns which were to be 
seen by  wayside images of ,hermes in   
ancient ,greece1 and to which every     
passer-by  added a stone4 ,it was said  
that when ,hermes was tried by the gods 
for the  murder of ,argus all the gods  
flung stones at him as a means of       
freeing  themselves from the pollution  
contracted by bloodshed2 the stones thus

  thrown made a great heap1 and the     
custom of rearing such heaps at wayside 
images of ,hermes continued ever        
afterwards47#fh7 ,similarly ,plato      
recommended that if any man had murdered
 his father or mother1 his brother  or  
sister1 his son or daughter1 he should  
be put to death1 and that his  body     
should be cast forth naked at a         
cross-road outside of the city4 ,there  
the magistrates should assemble on      
behalf of the city1 each carrying in    
his hand a stone1 which he was to cast  
at the head of the corpse by way of     
purifying the city from the pollution it
 had contracted by the crime4  ,after   
that the corpse was to be carried away  
and flung outside the  boundaries47#fi7 
,in these cases it would seem that the  
pollution incurred  by the vicinity of a
 murderer is thought to be gathered up  
in the stones  as a material vehicle and
 to be thrown away with them4 ,a        
sacrificial  custom of the ,brahmans1   
prescribed in one of their sacred books1

 is  susceptible of a like              
interpretation4 ,at a certain stage of  
the ritual the  sacrificer is directed  
to put a stone into a water-pot and to  
throw it  away in a south-westerly      
direction1 because that is the region of
 ,nirriti1  the goddess of ,evil or     
,destruction4 ,with the stone and the   
pitcher he is  supposed to cast away his
 pain and evil2 and he can transfer the 
pain to  another by saying1 as he throws
 away the stone and the pitcher1 8,let  
thy  pain enter him whom we hate10 or   
8,let thy pain enter so-and-so10 naming 
his enemy2 but in order to ensure the   
transference of the pain to his  enemy  
he must take care that the stone or the 
pitcher is broken47#gj7    7,m#ai7 ,this
 mode of interpreting the custom of     
throwing sticks and stones  on piles    
appears preferable to the one which has 
generally found favour  with ,european  
travellers and writers4 ,imperfectly    
acquainted for the most  part with the  
notions which underlie primitive magic1 

but very familiar  with the religious   
conception of a deity who requires      
sacrifice of his  worshippers1 they are 
apt to interpret the missiles in        
question as cheap  and easy offerings   
presented by pious but frugal           
worshippers to ghosts or  spirits whose 
favour they desire to win47#ga7 ,whether
 a likely mode of  conciliating a ghost 
or spirit is to throw sticks and stones 
at him is a  question about which       
opinions might perhaps differ4 ,it is   
difficult to  speak with confidence     
about the tastes of spiritual beings1   
but as a rule  they bear a remarkable   
likeness to those of mere ordinary      
mortals1 and it  may be said without    
fear of contradiction that few of the   
latter would be  gratified by being set 
up as a common target to be aimed at    
with sticks  and stones by everybody who
 passed within range47#gb7 ,yet it is   
quite  possible that a ceremony1 which  
at first was purely magical1 may in time
  have a religious gloss or             

interpretation put on it even by those  
who  practise it2 and this seems in fact
 to have sometimes happened to the      
particular custom under consideration4  
,certainly some people accompany the    
throwing of the stone on the pile with  
the presentation of useful  articles1   
which can hardly serve any other purpose
 than that of  propitiating some local  
spirits4 ,thus travellers in ,sikhim and
 ,bhootan  offer flour and wine1 as well
 as stones1 at the cairns2 and they also
 burn  incense and recite incantations  
or prayers17#gc7 or they tear strips    
from  their garments1 tie them to twigs 
or stones1 and then lay them on the     
cairn1 calling out to the spirit of the 
mountain1 8,pray accept our  offering6  
,the spirits are victorious6 ,the devils
 are defeated607#gd7  ,indians of       
,guatemala offered1 according to their  
means1 a little cotton1  salt1 cacao1 or
 chili47#ge7 ,they now burn copal and   
sometimes dance on the  tops of the     
passes where the cairns are to be seen1 

but perhaps these  devotions may be paid
 to the crosses which at the present day
 are  generally set up in such          
situations47#gf7 ,the ,indian of        
,bolivia will squirt  out the juice of  
his coca-quid1 or throw the quid itself 
on the cairn1 to  which he adds a stone2
 occasionally he goes so far as to stick
 feathers or  a leathern sandal or two  
on the pile4 ,in passing the cairns he  
will  sometimes pull a hair or two out  
of his eyebrows or eyelashes and puff   
them away towards the sun47#gg7         
,peruvian ,indians used similarly to    
make  cheap offerings of chewed coca or 
maize1 old shoes1 and so forth1 on the  
cairns47#gh7 ,in ,sweden and ,corea a   
little money is sometimes thrown on a   
cairn instead of a stick or stone47#gi7 
,the shrine of the ,jungle ,mother in   
,northern ,india is usually a pile of   
stones and branches to which every      
passer-by contributes4 ,when she is     
displeased1 she lets a tiger or leopard 
kill her negligent votary4 ,she is the  

great goddess of the herdsmen and  other
 dwellers in the forest1 and they vow to
 her a cock and a goat1 or a  young pig1
 if she saves them and their cattle from
 beasts of prey47#hj7 ,in  the jungles  
of ,mirzapur the cairn which marks the  
spot where a man has  been killed by a  
tiger1 and to which each passer-by      
contributes a stone1  is commonly in    
charge of a ,baiga or aboriginal priest1
 who offers upon it  a cock1 a pig1 or  
some spirits1 and occasionally lights a 
little lamp at  the shrine47#ha7        
,amongst the ,baganda members of the    
,bean clan worshipped  the spirit of the
 river ,nakiza4 8,there was no temple1  
but they had two  large heaps of sticks 
and grass1 one on either side of the    
river by the  ford2 to these heaps the  
members went1 when they wished to make  
an  offering to the spirit1 or to seek  
his assistance4 ,the offerings were     
usually goats1 beer1 barkcloth1 and     
fowls4 ,when people crossed the river   
they threw a little grass or some sticks

 on to the heap before crossing1  and   
again a little more on to the second    
heap after crossing2 this was  their    
offering to the spirit for a safe       
crossing407#hb7 ,there is a ford on  the
 ,calabar river in ,west ,africa which  
has an ill repute1 for the stream  is   
broad1 the current rapid1 and there are 
crocodiles in the deep places4  ,beside 
the ford is a large oval-shaped stone   
which the ,ekoi regard as an  altar of  
,nimm1 a powerful goddess1 who dwells in
 the depth of the river  ,kwa and       
manifests herself in the likeness now of
 a crocodile and now of a  snake4 ,in   
order to ensure a safe passage through  
the river it is customary  to pluck a   
leaf1 rub it on the forehead over the   
pineal gland1 and throw  it on a heap of
 leaves in front of the stone4 ,as he   
rubs the leaf on his  forehead1 the     
person who is about to plunge into the  
river prays1 8,may ,i  be free from     
danger6 ,may ,i go through the water to 
the other side6 ,may ,i  see no evil60  

,and when he throws the leaf on the heap
 he prays again1  saying1 8,i am coming 
across the river1 may the crocodile lay 
down his  head607#hc7 ,here the leaves  
appear to be a propitiatory offering    
presented  to the dread goddess in the  
hope that she will suffer her worshipper
 to  pass the ford unmolested4 ,at      
another but smaller stream1 called the  
,river  of ,good ,fortune1 the ,ekoi    
similarly rub leaves on their foreheads1
 praying  for luck1 and throw them on a 
heap before they pass through the water4
  ,they think that he who complies with 
this custom will have good luck         
throughout the year4 ,again1 when the   
,ekoi kill a chameleon on the road1     
they do not throw the body away in the  
forest1 but lay it by the wayside1  and 
all who pass by pluck a few leaves and  
drop them on the dead animal1  saying1  
8,look6 ,here is your mat40 ,in this way
 heaps of leaves accumulate  over the   
carcases of chameleons4 ,the custom is  
intended to appease the  shade of the   

chameleon1 who1 if he were not pacified1
 would go to the  ,earth-god ,obassi    
,nsi and pray for vengeance on the race 
of those who had  caused his death47#hd7
 ,the ,washamba of ,german ,east ,africa
 believe that  certain stony and        
dangerous places in the paths are the   
abodes of spirits2  hence at any such   
spot a traveller who would have a       
prosperous journey  must dance a little 
and deposit a few small stones47#he7    
,the dance and the  stones are          
presumably intended to soften the heart 
of the spirits and  induce them to look 
favourably on the dancer4 ,in ,papa     
,westray1 one of the  ,orkney ,islands1 
there is a ruined chapel called ,st4    
,tredwels1 8at the door  of which there 
is a heap of stones2 which was the      
superstition of the  common people1 who 
have such a veneration for this chapel  
above any other1  that they never fail1 
at their coming to it1 to throw a stone 
as an  offering before the door3 and    
this they reckon an indispensable duty  

enjoined by their ancestors407#hf7      
7,m#bj7 ,prayers1 too1 as we have seen1 
are sometimes offered at these piles4   
,in ,laos heaps of stones may be seen   
beside the path1 on which the  passenger
 will deposit a pebble1 a branch1 or a  
leaf1 while he beseeches  the ,lord of  
the ,diamond to bestow on him good luck 
and long life47#hg7 ,in  the ,himalayan 
districts of the ,north-,western        
,provinces of ,india heaps of  stones   
and sticks are often to be seen on hills
 or at cross-roads4 ,they  are formed by
 the contributions of passing           
travellers1 each of whom in  adding his 
stone or stick to the pile prays1       
saying1 8,thou goddess whose  home is on
 the ridge1 eater of wood and stone1    
preserve me407#hh7 ,tibetan  travellers 
mutter a prayer at the cairns on the    
tops of passes to which  they add a few 
stones gathered by them on the          
ascent47#hi7 ,a native of               
,south-,eastern ,africa who places a    
small stone on a cairn is wont to say as

  he does so1 8,cairn1 grant me strength
 and prosperity407#ij7 ,in the same     
circumstances the ,hottentot prays for  
plenty of cattle17#ia7 and the ,caffre  
that his journey may be prosperous1 that
 he may have strength to  accomplish it1
 and that he may obtain an abundant     
supply of food by the  way47#ib7 ,it is 
said that sick ,bushmen used to go on   
pilgrimage to the  cairn called the     
,devil's ,neck1 and pray to the spirit  
of the place to heal  them1 while they  
rubbed the sick part of their body and  
cried1 8,woe6 woe60  ,on special        
occasions1 too1 they resorted thither   
and implored the spirit's  help47#ic7   
,such customs seem to indicate the      
gradual transformation of an  old       
magical ceremony into a religious rite  
with its characteristic  features of    
prayer and sacrifice4 ,yet behind these 
later accretions1 as we  may perhaps    
regard them1 it seems possible in many1 
if not in all1 cases  to discern the    
nucleus to which they have attached     

themselves1 the  original idea which    
they tend to conceal and in time to     
transmute4 ,that  idea is the           
transference of evil from man to a      
material substance which he  can cast   
from him like an outworn garment4       
#c4 ,the ,transference to ,animals4     
7,m#ba7 ,animals are often employed as a
 vehicle for carrying away or           
transferring the evil4 ,a ,guinea negro 
who happens to be unwell will  sometimes
 tie a live chicken round his neck1 so  
that it lies on his  breast4 ,when the  
bird flaps its wings or cheeps the man  
thinks it a good  sign1 supposing the   
chicken to be afflicted with the very   
pain from which  he hopes soon to be    
released1 or which he would otherwise   
have to  endure47#id7 ,when a ,moor has 
a headache he will sometimes take a lamb
 or a  goat and beat it till it falls   
down1 believing that the headache will  
thus  be transferred to the animal47#ie7
 ,in ,morocco most wealthy ,moors keep a
  wild boar in their stables1 in order  

that the jinn and evil spirits may be   
diverted from the horses and enter into 
the boar47#if7 ,in some parts of        
,algeria people think that typhoid fever
 can be cured by taking a tortoise1     
putting it on its back in the road1 and 
covering it over with a pot4 ,the       
patient recovers1 but whoever upsets the
 pot catches the fever4 ,in ,tlemcen  a 
pregnant woman is protected against jinn
 by means of a black fowl which  is kept
 in the house from the seventh month of 
her pregnancy till her  delivery4       
,finally1 the oldest woman in the house 
releases the fowl in the  ,jews'        
quarter2 the bird is supposed to carry  
the jinn away with it47#ig7  ,amongst   
the ,caffres of ,south ,africa1 when    
other remedies have failed1  8natives   
sometimes adopt the custom of taking a  
goat into the presence of  a sick man1  
and confess the sins of the kraal over  
the animal4 ,sometimes a  few drops of  
blood from the sick man are allowed to  
fall on the head of  the goat1 which is 

turned out into an uninhabited part of  
the veldt4 ,the  sickness is supposed to
 be transferred to the animal1 and to   
become lost  in the desert407#ih7 ,after
 an illness a ,bechuana king seated     
himself upon  an ox which lay stretched 
on the ground4 ,the native doctor next  
poured  water on the king's head till it
 ran down over his body4 ,then the head 
of  the ox was held in a vessel of water
 till the animal expired2 whereupon  the
 doctor declared1 and the people        
believed1 that the ox died of the       
king's disease1 which had been          
transferred from him to it47#ii7 ,the   
,baganda  of ,central ,africa also      
attempted to transfer illness from a    
person to an  animal4 8,the medicine-man
 would take the animal1 pass some herbs 
over the  sick man1 tie these to the    
animal1 and then drive it away to some  
waste  land1 where he would kill it1    
taking the meat as his perquisite4 ,the 
sick  man would be expected to          
recover407#ajj7 ,the ,akikuyu of ,east  

,africa think  that a man can transfer  
the guilt of incest by means of 8an     
ignoble  ceremony0 to a goat1 which is  
then killed2 this saves the life of the 
culprit1 who otherwise must die47#aja7  
,when disease breaks out among the      
cattle of the ,bahima1 a pastoral people
 of ,central ,africa1 the priest        
8collects herbs and other remedies to   
attract the disease from the cattle4    
,an animal is chosen from the herd in   
the evening1 which is to be the         
scapegoat for the herd2 the herbs1 etc41
 are tied round its neck1 with  certain 
fetiches to ensure the illness leaving  
the other animals2 the cow  is driven   
round the outside of the kraal several  
times1 and afterwards  placed inside    
with the herd for the night4 ,early the 
following morning the  animal is taken  
out and again driven round the kraal2   
the priest then  kills it in the        
gateway1 and some of the blood is       
sprinkled over the  people belonging to 
the kraal1 and also over the herd4 ,the 

people next  file out1 each one jumping 
over the carcase of the cow1 and all the
  animals are driven over it in the same
 way4 ,the disease is thus  transferred 
to the scapegoat and the herd is saved4 
,all the fetiches and  herbs1 which were
 upon the scapegoat1 are fastened upon  
the door-posts and  lintel of the kraal 
to prevent the disease from entering    
again407#ajb7    7,m#bb7 ,when the      
cattle of the ,huzuls1 a pastoral people
 of the ,carpathians1  are sick and the 
owner attributes the sickness to        
witchcraft1 he throws  glowing coals    
into a vessel of water and then pours   
the water on a black  dog2 thus the     
sickness passes into the dog and the    
cattle are made  whole47#ajc7 ,in       
,arabia1 when the plague is raging1 the 
people will  sometimes lead a camel     
through all the quarters of the town in 
order that  the animal may take the     
pestilence on itself4 ,then they        
strangle it in a  sacred place and      
imagine that they have rid themselves of

 the camel and of  the plague at one    
blow47#ajd7 ,in ,annam1 when sickness is
 caused by the  presence of a demon in  
the body of the sufferer1 a skilful     
exorcist will  decoy the unwary devil   
into a fowl and then1 quick as thought1 
decapitate  the bird and throw it out of
 the door4 ,but lest the fiend should   
survive  this severe operation1         
cabalistic figures are posted on the    
outside of the  door1 which preclude him
 from entering the premises and         
assaulting the  patient afresh47#aje7   
,it is said that when smallpox is raging
 the savages  of ,formosa will drive the
 demon of disease into a sow1 then cut  
off the  animal's ears and burn them or 
it1 believing that in this way they rid 
themselves of the plague47#ajf7 ,when a 
,kabyle child is pining for jealousy  of
 a younger brother or sister1 the       
parents imagine that they can cure it   
as follows4 ,they take fifteen grains of
 wheat1 wrap them up in a packet1  and  
leave the packet all night under the    

head of the jealous child4 ,then  in the
 morning they throw the grains into an  
ant-hill1 saying1 8,salutation  to you1 
oh beautiful beings clad in black2      
salutation to you who dig the  earth so 
well without the aid of any hoe by the  
help of ,god and the  angels6 ,may each 
of you take his share of the jealousy   
attached to these  grains607#ajg7       
7,m#bc7 ,amongst the ,malagasy the      
vehicle for carrying away evils is      
called a  faditra4 8,the faditra is     
anything selected by the sikidy divining
  board for the purpose of taking away  
any hurtful evils or diseases that      
might prove injurious to an individual's
 happiness1 peace1 or prosperity4  ,the 
faditra may be either ashes1 cut money1 
a sheep1 a pumpkin1 or  anything else   
the sikidy may choose to direct4 ,after 
the particular  article is appointed1   
the priest counts upon it all the evils 
that may  prove injurious to the person 
for whom it is made1 and which he then  
charges the faditra to take away for    

ever4 ,if the faditra be ashes1 it is   
blown1 to be carried away by the wind4  
,if it be cut money1 it is thrown to    
the bottom of deep water1 or where it   
can never be found4 ,if it be a  sheep1 
it is carried away to a distance on the 
shoulders of a man1 who  runs with all  
his might1 mumbling as he goes1 as if in
 the greatest rage  against the faditra1
 for the evils it is bearing away4 ,if  
it be a pumpkin1  it is carried on the  
shoulders to a little distance1 and     
there dashed upon  the ground with every
 appearance of fury and                 
indignation407#ajh7 ,a ,malagasy  was   
informed by a diviner that he was doomed
 to a bloody death1 but that  possibly  
he might avert his fate by performing a 
certain rite4 ,carrying a  small vessel 
full of blood upon his head1 he was to  
mount upon the back of  a bullock2 while
 thus mounted1 he was to spill the blood
 upon the  bullock's head1 and then send
 the animal away into the wilderness1   
whence  it might never return47#aji7    

7,m#bd7 ,among the ,toradjas of ,central
 ,celebes a chief's daughter1 who       
suffered from kleptomania1 was healed by
 a wise woman1 who placed a bag         
containing spiders and crabs on the     
patient's hands4 ,the physician         
calculated that the prehensile claws of 
these creatures1 so suggestive of  a    
thief's hands in the act of closing on  
his prey1 would lay hold of the  vicious
 propensity in the young woman's mind   
and extract it as neatly as a  pair of  
forceps nips out a thorn from the       
flesh47#aaj7 ,the ,battas of  ,sumatra  
have a ceremony which they call 8making 
the curse to fly away40  ,when a woman  
is childless1 a sacrifice is offered to 
the gods of three  grasshoppers1        
representing a head of cattle1 a        
buffalo1 and a horse4 ,then  a swallow  
is set free1 with a prayer that the     
curse may fall upon the bird  and fly   
away with it47#aaa7 8,the entrance into 
a house of an animal which  does not    
generally seek to share the abode of man

 is regarded by the  ,malays as ominous 
of misfortune4 ,if a wild bird flies    
into a house1 it  must be carefully     
caught and smeared with oil1 and must   
then be released  in the open air1 a    
formula being recited in which it is    
bidden to fly away  with all the        
ill-luck and misfortunes 7sial          
jambalang7 of the  occupier407#aab7 ,in 
antiquity ,greek women seem to have done
 the same with  swallows which they     
caught in the house3 they poured oil on 
them and let  them fly away1 apparently 
for the purpose of removing ill-luck    
from the  household47#aac7 ,the ,huzuls 
of the ,carpathians imagine that they   
can  transfer freckles to the first     
swallow they see in spring by washing   
their  face in flowing water and saying1
 8,swallow1 swallow1 take my freckles1  
and  give me rosy cheeks407#aad7 ,at the
 cleansing of a leper and of a house    
suspected of being tainted with leprosy 
among the ,hebrews the priest used  to  
let a living bird fly away into the open

 field17#aae7 no doubt in order  to     
carry away the leprosy with it4         
,similarly among the ancient ,arabs a   
widow was expected to live secluded in a
 small tent for a year after her        
husband's death2 then a bird or a sheep 
was brought to her1 she made the        
creature touch her person1 and let it   
go4 ,it was believed that the bird or   
the sheep would not live long           
thereafter2 doubtless it was supposed to
  suffer from the uncleanness or taint  
of death which the widow had            
transferred to it47#aaf7    7,m#be7     
,among the ,majhwar1 a ,dravidian race  
of ,south ,mirzapur1 if a man has  died 
of a contagious disease1 such as        
cholera1 the village priest walks in    
front of the funeral procession with a  
chicken in his hands1 which he lets     
loose in the direction of some other    
village as a scapegoat to carry the     
infection away4 ,none but another very  
experienced priest would afterwards     
dare to touch or eat such a             

chicken47#aag7 ,among the ,badagas of   
the  ,neilgherry ,hills in ,southern    
,india1 when a death has taken place1   
the sins  of the deceased are laid upon 
a buffalo calf4 ,for this purpose the   
people  gather round the corpse and     
carry it outside of the village4 ,there 
an  elder of the tribe1 standing at the 
head of the corpse1 recites or chants  a
 long list of sins such as any ,badaga  
may commit1 and the people repeat  the  
last words of each line after him4 ,the 
confession of sins is thrice  repeated4 
8,by a conventional mode of expression1 
the sum total of sins a  man may do is  
said to be thirteen hundred4 ,admitting 
that the deceased has  committed them   
all1 the performer cries aloud1 #8,stay 
not their flight to  ,god's pure feet4' 
,as he closes1 the whole assembly chants
 aloud #8,stay not  their flight4'      
,again the performer enters into        
details1 and cries1 #8,he  killed the   
crawling snake4 ,it is a sin4' ,in a    
moment the last word is  caught up1 and 

all the people cry #8,it is a sin4' ,as 
they shout1 the  performer lays his hand
 upon the calf4 ,the sin is transferred 
to the calf4  ,thus the whole catalogue 
is gone through in this impressive way4 
,but this  is not enough4 ,as the last  
shout #8,let all be well' dies away1 the
  performer gives place to another1 and 
again confession is made1 and all  the  
people shout #8,it is a sin4' ,a third  
time it is done4 ,then1 still in  solemn
 silence1 the calf is let loose4 ,like  
the ,jewish scapegoat1 it may  never be 
used for secular work40 ,at a ,badaga   
funeral witnessed by the ,rev4  ,a4 ,c4 
,clayton the buffalo calf was led thrice
 round the bier1 and the dead  man's    
hand was laid on its head4 8,by this    
act1 the calf was supposed to  receive  
all the sins of the deceased4 ,it was   
then driven away to a great  distance1  
that it might contaminate no one1 and it
 was said that it would  never be sold1 
but looked on as a dedicated sacred     
animal407#aah7 8,the idea  of this      

ceremony is1 that the sins of the       
deceased enter the calf1 or that  the   
task of his absolution is laid on it4   
,they say that the calf very soon       
disappears1 and that it is never after  
heard of407#aai7 ,some of the ,todas  of
 the ,neilgherry ,hills in like manner  
let loose a calf as a funeral  ceremony2
 the intention may be to transfer the   
sins of the deceased to the  animal4    
,perhaps the ,todas have borrowed the   
ceremony from the  ,badagas47#abj7 ,in  
,kumaon1 a district of ,north-,western  
,india1 the custom of  letting loose a  
bullock as a scapegoat at a funeral is  
occasionally  observed4 ,a bell is hung 
on the bullock's neck1 and bells are    
tied to its  feet1 and the animal is    
told that it is to be let go in order to
 save the  spirit of the deceased from  
the torments of hell4 ,sometimes the    
bullock's  right quarter is branded with
 a trident and the left with a          
discus47#aba7  ,perhaps the original    
intention of such customs was to banish 

the contagion  of death by means of the 
animal1 which carried it away and so    
ensured the  life of the survivors4 ,the
 idea of sin is not primitive4          
#d4 ,the ,transference to ,men4         
7,m#bf7 ,again1 men sometimes play the  
part of scapegoat by diverting to       
themselves the evils that threaten      
others4 ,an ancient ,hindoo ritual      
describes how the pangs of thirst may be
 transferred from a sick man to         
another4 ,the operator seats the pair on
 branches1 back to back1 the  sufferer  
with his face to the east1 and the whole
 man with his face to the  west4 ,then  
he stirs some gruel in a vessel placed  
on the patient's head  and hands the    
stir-about to the other man to drink4   
,in this way he  transfers the pangs of 
thirst from the thirsty soul to the     
other1 who  obligingly receives them in 
his stead47#abb7 ,there is a painful    
,telugu  remedy for a fever3 it is to   
embrace a bald-headed ,brahman widow at 
the  earliest streak of dawn4 ,by doing 

so you get rid of the fever1 and no     
doubt 7though this is not expressly     
affirmed7 you at the same time  transfer
 it to the bald-headed widow47#abc7     
,when a ,cinghalese is  dangerously ill1
 and the physicians can do nothing1 a   
devil-dancer is  called in1 who by      
making offerings to the devils1 and     
dancing in the masks  appropriate to    
them1 conjures these demons of disease1 
one after the  other1 out of the sick   
man's body and into his own4 ,having    
thus  successfully extracted the cause  
of the malady1 the artful dancer lies   
down on a bier1 and shamming death1 is  
carried to an open place outside  the   
village4 ,here1 being left to himself1  
he soon comes to life again1 and        
hastens back to claim his reward47#abd7 
,in #aeij a ,scotch witch of the name   
of ,agnes ,sampson was convicted of     
curing a certain ,robert ,kers of a     
disease 8laid upon him by a westland    
warlock when he was at ,dumfries1  whilk
 sickness she took upon herself1 and    

kept the same with great  groaning and  
torment till the morn1 at whilk time    
there was a great din  heard in the     
house40 ,the noise was made by the witch
 in her efforts to  shift the disease1  
by means of clothes1 from herself to a  
cat or dog4  ,unfortunately the attempt 
partly miscarried4 ,the disease missed  
the animal  and hit ,alexander ,douglas 
of ,dalkeith1 who dwined and died of it1
 while  the original patient1 ,robert   
,kers1 was made whole47#abe7 ,the ,dyaks
 believe  that certain men possess in   
themselves the power of neutralizing bad
  omens4 ,so1 when evil omens have      
alarmed a farmer for the safety of his  
crops1 he takes a small portion of his  
farm produce to one of these wise  men1 
who eats it raw for a small             
consideration1 8and thereby appropriates
  to himself the evil omen1 which in him
 becomes innocuous1 and thus  delivers  
the other from the ban of the pemali or 
taboo407#abf7    7,m#bg7 8,in one part  
of ,new ,zealand an expiation for sin   

was felt to be  necessary2 a service was
 performed over an individual1 by which 
all the  sins of the tribe were supposed
 to be transferred to him1 a fern stalk 
was  previously tied to his person1 with
 which he jumped into the river1 and    
there unbinding1 allowed it to float    
away to the sea1 bearing their sins     
with it407#abg7 ,in great emergencies   
the sins of the ,rajah of ,manipur used 
to be transferred to somebody else1     
usually to a criminal1 who earned his   
pardon by his vicarious sufferings4 ,to 
effect the transference the ,rajah  and 
his wife1 clad in fine robes1 bathed on 
a scaffold erected in the  bazaar1 while
 the criminal crouched beneath it4 ,with
 the water which  dripped from them on  
him their sins also were washed away and
 fell on the  human scapegoat4 ,to      
complete the transference the ,rajah and
 his wife made  over their fine robes to
 their substitute1 while they           
themselves1 clad in  new raiment1 mixed 
with the people till evening4 ,but at   

the close of the  day they entered into 
retreat and remained in seclusion for   
about a week1  during which they were   
esteemed sacred or tabooed47#abh7       
,further1 in  ,manipur 8they have a     
noteworthy system of keeping count of   
the years4 ,each  year is named after   
some man1 who--for a                    
consideration--undertakes to bear  the  
fortune good or bad of the year4 ,if the
 year be good1 if there be no           
pestilence and a good harvest1 he gets  
presents from all sorts of people1  and 
,i remember hearing that in #ahih1 when 
the cholera was at its worst1 a         
deputation came to the ,political ,agent
 and asked him to punish the            
name-giver1 as it was obvious that he   
was responsible for the epidemic4 ,in   
former times he would have got into     
trouble407#abi7 ,the nomination of the  
eponym1 or man who is to give his name  
to the year1 takes place at a  festival 
called ,chirouba1 which falls about the 
middle of ,april4 ,it is  the priests   

who nominate the eponym1 after comparing
 his horoscope with  that of the ,rajah 
and of the ,state generally4 ,the       
retiring official1 who  gave his name to
 the past year1 addresses his successor 
as follows3 8,my  friend1 ,i bore and   
took away all evil spirits and sins from
 the ,rajah and  his people during the  
last year4 ,do thou likewise from       
to-morrow until the  next ,chirouba40   
,then the incoming official1 who is to  
give his name to  the ,new ,year1       
addresses the ,rajah in these words3 8,o
 son of heaven1 ,ruler  of the ,kings1  
great and ancient ,lord1 ,incarnation of
 ,god1 the great ,lord  ,pakhangba1     
,master of the bright ,sun1 ,lord of the
 ,plain and ,despot of the  ,hills1     
whose kingdom is from the hills on the  
east to the mountains on the  west1 the 
old year perishes1 the new cometh4 ,new 
is the sun of the new  year1 and bright 
as the new sun shalt thou be1 and mild  
withal as the  moon4 ,may thy beauty and
 thy strength grow with the growth of   

the new  year4 ,from to-day will ,i bear
 on my head all thy sins1 diseases1     
misfortunes1 shame1 mischief1 all that  
is aimed in battle against thee1  all   
that threatens thee1 all that is bad and
 hurtful for thee and thy  kingdom40    
,for these important services the eponym
 or vicar receives from  the ,rajah a   
number of gifts1 including a basket of  
salt1 and his grateful  country rewards 
his self-sacrificing devotion by        
bestowing many privileges  on him47#acj7
 ,elsewhere1 perhaps1 if we knew more   
about the matter1 we  might find that   
eponymous magistrates who give their    
names to the year  have been similarly  
regarded as public scapegoats1 who bore 
on their  devoted heads the misfortunes1
 the sins1 and the sorrows of the whole 
people47#aca7    7,m#bh7 ,in the        
,jataka1 or collection of ,indian       
stories which narrate the  many         
transmigrations of the ,buddha1 there is
 an instructive tale1 which  sets forth 
how sins and misfortunes can be         

transferred by means of spittle  to a   
holy ascetic4 ,a lady of easy virtue1 we
 are told1 had lost the favour  of ,king
 ,dandaki and bethought herself how she 
could recover it4 ,as she  walked in the
 park revolving these things in her     
mind1 she spied a devout  ascetic named 
,kisavaccha4 ,a thought struck her4     
8,surely10 said she to  herself1 8this  
must be ,ill ,luck4 ,i will get rid of  
my sin on his person  and then go and   
bathe40 ,no sooner said than done4      
,chewing her toothpick1  she collected a
 large clot of spittle in her mouth with
 which she  beslavered the matted locks 
of the venerable man1 and having hurled 
her  toothpick at his head into the     
bargain she departed with a mind at     
peace  and bathed4 ,the stratagem was   
entirely successful2 for the king took  
her  into his good graces again4 ,not   
long after it chanced that the king     
deposed his domestic chaplain from his  
office4 ,naturally chagrined at this    
loss of royal favour1 the clergyman     

repaired to the king's light o' love    
and enquired how she had contrived to   
recapture the monarch's affection4  ,she
 told him frankly how she had got rid of
 her sin and emerged without a  stain on
 her character by simply spitting on the
 head of ,ill ,luck in the  royal park4 
,the chaplain took the hint1 and        
hastening to the park  bespattered in   
like manner the sacred locks of the holy
 man2 and in  consequence he was soon   
reinstated in office4 ,it would have    
been well if  the thing had stopped     
there1 but unfortunately it did not4 ,by
 and bye it  happened that there was a  
disturbance on the king's frontier1 and 
the king  put himself at the head of his
 army to go forth and fight4 ,an unhappy
 idea  occurred to his domestic         
chaplain4 ,elated by the success of the 
expedient  which had restored him to    
royal favour1 he asked the king1 8,sire1
 do you  wish for victory or defeat80   
8,why for victory1 of course10 replied  
the  king4 8,then you take my advice10  

said the chaplain2 8just go and spit on 
the head of ,ill ,luck1 who dwells in   
the royal park2 you will thus transfer  
all your sin to his person40 ,it seemed 
to the king a capital idea and he       
improved on it by proposing that the    
whole army should accompany him and  get
 rid of their sins in like manner4 ,they
 all did so1 beginning with the  king1  
and the state of the holy man's head    
when they had all done is  something    
frightful to contemplate4 ,but even this
 was not the worst4 ,for  after the king
 had gone1 up came the                  
commander-in-chief and seeing the sad   
plight of the pious ascetic1 he took    
pity on him and had his poor  bedabbled 
hair thoroughly washed4 ,the fatal      
consequences of this  kindly-meant but  
most injudicious shampoo may easily be  
anticipated4 ,the  sins which had been  
transferred with the saliva to the      
person of the  devotee were now restored
 to their respective owners2 and to     
punish them  for their guilt fire fell  

from heaven and destroyed the whole     
kingdom for  sixty leagues round        
about47#acb7    7,m#bi7 ,a less harmless
 way of relieving an army from guilt or 
misfortune  used in former times to be  
actually practised by the ,baganda4     
,when an army  had returned from war1   
and the gods warned the king by their   
oracles that  some evil had attached    
itself to the soldiers1 it was customary
 to pick  out a woman slave from the    
captives1 together with a cow1 a goat1 a
 fowl1  and a dog from the booty1 and to
 send them back under a strong guard to 
the borders of the country from which   
they had come4 ,there their limbs  were 
broken and they were left to die2 for   
they were too crippled to crawl  back to
 ,uganda4 ,in order to ensure the       
transference of the evil to these       
substitutes1 bunches of grass were      
rubbed over the people and cattle and   
then tied to the victims4 ,after that   
the army was pronounced clean and was   
allowed to return to the capital4 ,a    

similar mode of transferring evil to    
human and animal victims was practised  
by the ,baganda whenever the gods       
warned the king that his hereditary foes
 the ,banyoro were working magic        
against him and his people47#acc7       
7,m#cj7 ,in ,travancore1 when a rajah is
 near his end1 they seek out a holy     
,brahman1 who consents to take upon     
himself the sins of the dying man in    
consideration of the sum of ten thousand
 rupees4 ,thus prepared to immolate     
himself on the altar of duty as a       
vicarious sacrifice for sin1 the saint  
is introduced into the chamber of death1
 and closely embraces the dying  rajah1 
saying to him1 8,o ,king1 ,i undertake  
to bear all your sins and  diseases4    
,may your ,highness live long and reign 
happily40 ,having thus1  with a noble   
devotion1 taken to himself the sins of  
the sufferer1 and  likewise the rupees1 
he is sent away from the country and    
never more  allowed to return47#acd7    
,closely akin to this is the old ,welsh 

custom known  as 8sin-eating40          
,according to ,aubrey1 8,in the ,county 
of ,hereford was an  old ,custome at    
funeralls to hire poor people1 who were 
to take upon them  all the sinnes of the
 party deceased4 ,one of them ,i        
remember lived in a  cottage on         
,rosse-high way4 7,he was a long1 leane1
 ugly1 lamentable poor  raskal47 ,the   
manner was that when the ,corps was     
brought out of the house  and layd on   
the ,biere2 a ,loafe of bread was       
brought out1 and delivered to  the      
,sinne-eater over the corps1 as also a  
,mazar-bowle of maple 7,gossips  bowle7 
full of beer1 which he was to drinke up1
 and sixpence in money1 in              
consideration whereof he took upon him  
7ipso facto7 all the ,sinnes of the     
,defunct1 and freed him 7or her7 from   
walking after they were dead4444 ,this  
,custome 7though rarely used in our     
dayes7 yet by some people was observed  
even in the strictest time of ye        
,presbyterian government3 as at ,dynder1

  volens nolens the ,parson of ye       
,parish1 the kinred of a woman deceased 
there had this ceremonie punctually     
performed according to her ,will3 and   
also the like was donne at ye ,city of  
,hereford in these times1 when a  woman 
kept many yeares before her death a     
,mazard-bowle for the  ,sinne-eater2 and
 the like in other places in this       
,countie2 as also in  ,brecon1 e4g4 at  
,llangors1 where ,mr4 ,gwin the minister
 about #afdj could  no hinder ye        
performing of this ancient custome4 ,i  
believe this custom was  heretofore used
 over all ,wales4444 ,in ,north ,wales  
the ,sinne-eaters are  frequently made  
use of2 but there1 instead of a ,bowle  
of ,beere1 they have  a bowle of        
,milke407#ace7 ,according to a letter   
dated ,february #a1 #agad-ae1  8within  
the memory of our fathers1 in           
,shropshire1 in those villages          
adjoyning to ,wales1 when a person dyed1
 there was notice given to an old  sire 
7for so they called him71 who presently 

repaired to the place where  the        
deceased lay1 and stood before the door 
of the house1 when some of the  family  
came out and furnished him with a       
cricket1 on which he sat down  facing   
the door4 ,then they gave him a groat1  
which he put in his pocket2 a  crust of 
bread1 which he eat2 and a full bowle of
 ale1 which he drank off  at a draught4 
,after this he got up from the cricket  
and pronounced1 with a  composed        
gesture1 the ease and rest of the soul  
departed for which he  would pawn his   
own soul4 ,this ,i had from the         
ingenious ,john ,aubrey1  ,esq407#acf7  
,in modern times some doubt has been    
thrown on ,aubrey's account  of the     
custom47#acg7 ,the practice1 however1 is
 reported to have prevailed  in a valley
 not far from ,llandebie to a recent    
period4 ,an instance was  said to have  
occurred about sixty years ago47#ach7   
7,m#ca7 ,aubrey's statement is moreover 
supported by the analogy of similar     
customs in ,india4 ,when the ,rajah of  

,tanjore died in #ahja1 some of his     
bones and the bones of the two wives1   
who were burned with his corpse1  were  
ground to powder and eaten1 mixed with  
boiled rice1 by twelve  ,brahmans4 ,it  
was believed that the sins of the       
deceased passed into the  bodies of the 
,brahmans1 who were paid for the        
service47#aci7 ,a ,brahman1  resident in
 a village near ,raipur1 stated that he 
had eaten food 7rice and  milk7 out of  
the hand of the dead ,rajah of          
,bilaspur1 and that in  consequence he  
had been placed on the throne for the   
space of a year4 ,at  the end of the    
year he had been given presents and then
 turned out of the  territory and       
forbidden apparently to return4 ,he was 
an outcast among his  fellows for having
 eaten out of a dead man's hand47#adj7  
,a similar custom  is believed to obtain
 in the hill states about ,kangra1 and  
to have given  rise to a caste of       
8outcaste0 ,brahmans4 ,at the funeral of
 a ,rani of ,chamba  rice and ghee were 

eaten out of the hands of the corpse by 
a ,brahman paid  for the purpose4       
,afterwards a stranger1 who had been    
caught outside the  ,chamba territory1  
was given the costly wrappings of the   
corpse1 then told  to depart and never  
shew his face in the country            
again47#ada7 ,in ,oude when  an infant  
was killed it used to be buried in the  
room where it had been  born4 ,on the   
thirteenth day afterwards the priest had
 to cook and eat his  food in that room4
 ,by doing so he was supposed to take   
the whole sin upon  himself and to      
cleanse the family from it47#adb7 ,at   
,utch ,kurgan in  ,turkestan ,mr4       
,schuyler saw an old man who was said to
 get his living by  taking on himself   
the sins of the dead1 and thenceforth   
devoting his life  to prayer for their  
souls47#adc7    7,m#cb7 ,in ,tahiti1    
where the bodies of chiefs and persons  
of rank were  embalmed and preserved    
above ground in special sheds or houses 
erected for  them1 a priest was employed

 at the funeral rites who bore the title
 of the  8corpse-praying priest40 ,his  
office was singular4 ,when the house for
 the  dead had been prepared1 and the   
corpse placed on the platform or bier1  
the  priest ordered a hole to be made in
 the floor1 near the foot of the        
platform4 ,over this he prayed to the   
god by whom it was supposed that the    
soul of the deceased had been called    
away4 ,the purport of his prayer was    
that all the dead man's sins1 especially
 the one for which his soul had  been   
required of him1 might be deposited     
there1 that they might not attach  in   
any degree to the survivors1 and that   
the anger of the god might be  appeased4
 ,he next addressed the corpse1 usually 
saying1 8,with you let the  guilt now   
remain40 ,the pillar or post of the     
corpse1 as it was called1 was  then     
planted in the hole1 and the hole filled
 up4 ,as soon as the ceremony  of       
depositing the sins in the hole was     
over1 all who had touched the body  or  

the garments of the deceased1 which were
 buried or destroyed1 fled              
precipitately into the sea1 to cleanse  
themselves from the pollution which     
they had contracted by touching the     
corpse4 ,they also cast into the sea    
the garments they had worn while they   
were performing the last offices to  the
 dead4 ,having finished their ablutions1
 they gathered a few pieces of  coral   
from the bottom of the sea1 and         
returning with them to the house        
addressed the corpse1 saying1 8,with you
 may the pollution be40 ,so saying  they
 threw down the coral on the top of the 
hole which had been dug to  receive the 
sins and the defilement of the          
dead47#add7 ,in this instance the  sins 
of the departed1 as well as the         
pollution which the primitive mind      
commonly associates with death1 are not 
borne by a living person1 but  buried in
 a hole4 ,yet the fundamental idea--that
 of the transference of  sins--is the   
same in the ,tahitian as in the ,welsh  

and ,indian customs2  whether the       
vehicle or receptacle destined to catch 
and draw off the evil  be a person1 an  
animal1 or a thing1 is for the purpose  
in hand a matter of  little             
moment47#ade7           #e4 ,the        
,transference of ,evil in ,europe4      
7,m#cc7 ,the examples of the            
transference of evil hitherto adduced   
have been  mostly drawn from the customs
 of savage or barbarous peoples4 ,but   
similar  attempts to shift the burden of
 disease1 misfortune1 and sin from one's
  self to another person1 or to an      
animal or thing1 have been common also  
among the civilized nations of ,europe1 
both in ancient and modern times4 ,a    
,roman cure for fever was to pare the   
patient's nails1 and stick the  parings 
with wax on a neighbour's door before   
sunrise2 the fever then  passed from the
 sick man to his neighbour47#adf7       
,similar devices must have  been        
resorted to by the ,greeks2 for in      
laying down laws for his ideal  state1  

,plato thinks it too much to expect that
 men should not be alarmed  at finding  
certain wax figures adhering to their   
doors or to the  tombstones of their    
parents1 or lying at cross-roads47#adg7 
,among the ruins  of the great sanctuary
 of ,aesculapius1 which were excavated  
not very long  ago in an open valley    
among the mountains of ,epidaurus1      
inscriptions have  been found recording 
the miraculous cures which the god of   
healing  performed for his faithful     
worshippers4 ,one of them tells how a   
certain  ,pandarus1 a ,thessalian1 was  
freed from the letters which1 as a      
former  slave or prisoner of war1 he    
bore tattooed or branded on his brow4   
,he  slept in the sanctuary with a      
fillet round his head1 and in the       
morning he  discovered to his joy that  
the marks of shame--the blue or scarlet 
letters--had been transferred from his  
brow to the fillet4 ,by and by there    
came to the sanctuary a wicked man1 also
 with brands or tattoo marks on  his    

face1 who had been charged by ,pandarus 
to pay his debt of gratitude to  the    
god1 and had received the cash for the  
purpose4 ,but the cunning fellow        
thought to cheat the god and keep the   
money all to himself4 ,so when the  god 
appeared to him in a dream and asked    
anxiously after the money1 he  boldly   
denied that he had it1 and impudently   
prayed the god to remove the  ugly marks
 from his own brazen brow4 ,he was told 
to tie the fillet of  ,pandarus about   
his head1 then to take it off1 and look 
at his face in the  water of the sacred 
well4 ,he did so1 and sure enough he saw
 on his  forehead the marks of ,pandarus
 in addition to his own47#adh7 ,in the  
fourth  century of our era ,marcellus of
 ,bordeaux prescribed a cure for warts1 
which has still a great vogue among the 
superstitious in various parts of       
,europe4 ,doubtless it was an old       
traditional remedy in the fourth1 and   
will  long survive the expiry of the    
twentieth1 century4 ,you are to touch   

your  warts with as many little stones  
as you have warts2 then wrap the stones 
in an ivy leaf1 and throw them away in a
 thoroughfare4 ,whoever picks them  up  
will get the warts1 and you will be rid 
of them47#adi7 ,a similar cure  for     
warts1 with such trifling variations as 
the substitution of peas or  barley for 
pebbles1 and a rag or a piece of paper  
for an ivy leaf1 has  been prescribed in
 modern times in ,italy1 ,france1       
,austria1 ,england1 and                 
,scotland47#aej7 ,another favourite way 
of passing on your warts to somebody    
else is to make as many knots in a      
string as you have warts2 then throw    
the string away or place it under a     
stone4 ,whoever treads on the stone or  
picks up the thread will get the warts  
instead of you2 sometimes to  complete  
the transference it is thought necessary
 that he should undo the  knots47#aea7  
,or you need only place the knotted     
thread before sunrise in  the spout of a
 pump2 the next person who works the    

pump will be sure to  get your          
warts47#aeb7 ,equally effective methods 
are to rub the troublesome  excrescences
 with down or fat1 or to bleed them on a
 rag1 and then throw  away the down1 the
 fat1 or the bloody rag4 ,the person who
 picks up one or  other of these things 
will be sure to release you from your   
warts by  involuntarily transferring    
them to himself47#aec7 ,people in the   
,orkney  ,islands will sometimes wash a 
sick man1 and then throw the water down 
at a  gateway1 in the belief that the   
sickness will leave the patient and be  
transferred to the first person who     
passes through the gate47#aed7 ,a       
,bavarian cure for fever is to write    
upon a piece of paper1 8,fever1 stay    
away1 ,i am not at home10 and to put the
 paper in somebody's pocket4 ,the       
latter then catches the fever1 and the  
patient is rid of it47#aee7 ,or the     
sufferer may cure himself by sticking a 
twig of the elder-tree in the  ground   
without speaking4 ,the fever then       

adheres to the twig1 and whoever  pulls 
up the twig will catch the              
disease47#aef7 ,a ,bohemian prescription
 for  the same malady is this4 ,take an 
empty pot1 go with it to a cross-road1  
throw it down1 and run away4 ,the first 
person who kicks against the pot  will  
catch your fever1 and you will be       
cured47#aeg7 ,in ,oldenburg they say    
that when a person lies sweating with   
fever1 he should take a piece of  money 
to himself in bed4 ,the money is        
afterwards thrown away on the  street1  
and whoever picks it up will catch the  
fever1 but the original  patient will be
 rid of it47#aeh7    7,m#cd7 ,often in  
,europe1 as among savages1 an attempt is
 made to transfer a  pain or malady from
 a man to an animal4 ,grave writers of  
antiquity  recommended that1 if a man be
 stung by a scorpion1 he should sit upon
 an  ass with his face to the tail1 or  
whisper in the animal's ear1 8,a        
scorpion  has stung me02 in either case1
 they thought1 the pain would be        

transferred  from the man to the        
ass47#aei7 ,many cures of this sort are 
recorded by  ,marcellus4 ,for example1  
he tells us that the following is a     
remedy for  toothache4 ,standing booted 
under the open sky on the ground1 you   
catch a  frog by the head1 spit into its
 mouth1 ask it to carry away the ache1  
and  then let it go4 ,but the ceremony  
must be performed on a lucky day and at 
a  lucky hour47#afj7 ,in ,cheshire the  
ailment known as aphtha or thrush1 which
  affects the mouth or throat of        
infants1 is not uncommonly treated in   
much  the same manner4 ,a young frog is 
held for a few moments with its head    
inside the mouth of the sufferer1 whom  
it is supposed to relieve by taking  the
 malady to itself4 8,i assure you10 said
 an old woman who had often             
superintended such a cure1 8we used to  
hear the poor frog whooping and         
coughing1 mortal bad1 for days after2 it
 would have made your heart ache  to    
hear the poor creature coughing as it   

did about the garden407#afa7 ,again     
,marcellus tells us that if the foam    
from a mule's mouth1 mixed with warm    
water1 be drunk by an asthmatic patient1
 he will at once recover1 but the  mule 
will die47#afb7 ,an ancient cure for the
 gripes1 recorded both by ,pliny  and   
,marcellus1 was to put a live duck to   
the belly of the sufferer2 the  pains   
passed from the man into the bird1 to   
which they proved fatal47#afc7          
,according to the same writers a        
stomachic complaint of which the cause  
was  unknown might be cured by applying 
a blind puppy to the suffering part for 
three days4 ,the secret disorder thus   
passed into the puppy2 it died1 and a   
post-mortem examination of its little   
body revealed the cause of the  disease 
from which the man had suffered and of  
which the dog had  died47#afd7 ,once    
more1 ,marcellus advises that when a man
 was afflicted with  a disorder of the  
intestines the physician should catch a 
live hare1 take  the huckle-bone from   

one of its feet and the down from the   
belly1 then let  the hare go1           
pronouncing as he did so the words1     
8,run away1 run away1  little hare1 and 
take away with you the intestine pain40 
,further1 the  doctor was to fashion the
 down into thread1 with which he was to 
tie the  huckle-bone to the patient's   
body1 taking great care that the thread 
should not be touched by any            
woman47#afe7 ,a ,northamptonshire1      
,devonshire1  and ,welsh cure for a     
cough is to put a hair of the patient's 
head between  two slices of buttered    
bread and give the sandwich to a dog4   
,the animal  will thereupon catch the   
cough and the patient will lose         
it47#aff7  ,sometimes an ailment is     
transferred to an animal by sharing food
 with it4  ,thus in ,oldenburg1 if you  
are sick of a fever you set a bowl of   
sweet milk  before a dog and say1 8,good
 luck1 you hound6 may you be sick and ,i
 be  sound60 ,then when the dog has     
lapped some of the milk1 you take a swig

 at  the bowl2 and then the dog must lap
 again1 and then you must swig again2   
and when you and the dog have done it   
the third time1 he will have the  fever 
and you will be quit of it4 ,a peasant  
woman in ,abbehausen told her  pastor   
that she suffered from fever for a whole
 year and found no relief4  ,at last    
somebody advised her to give some of her
 food to a dog and a cat4  ,she did so  
and the fever passed from her into the  
animals4 ,but when she  saw the poor    
sick beasts always before her1 she      
wished it undone4 ,then the  fever left 
the cat and the dog and returned to     
her47#afg7    7,m#ce7 ,a ,bohemian cure 
for fever is to go out into the forest  
before the  sun is up and look for a    
snipe's nest4 ,when you have found it1  
take out  one of the young birds and    
keep it beside you for three days4 ,then
 go back  into the wood and set the     
snipe free4 ,the fever will leave you at
 once4  ,the snipe has taken it away4   
,so in ,vedic times the ,hindoos of old 

sent  consumption away with a blue jay4 
,they said1 8,o consumption1 fly away1  
fly  away with the blue jay6 ,with the  
wild rush of the storm and the          
whirlwind1  oh1 vanish away607#afh7 ,in 
,oldenburg they sometimes hang up a     
goldfinch or  a turtle-dove in the room 
of a consumptive patient1 hoping that   
the bird  may draw away the malady from 
the sufferer to itself47#afi7 ,a        
prescription  for a cough in ,sunderland
 is to shave the patient's head and hang
 the hair  on a bush4 ,when the birds   
carry the hair to their nests1 they will
 carry  the cough with it47#agj7 ,in the
 ,mark of ,brandenburg a cure for       
headache is  to tie a thread thrice     
round your head and then hang it in a   
loop from a  tree2 if a bird flies      
through the loop1 it will take your     
headache away  with it47#aga7 ,a ,saxon 
remedy for rupture in a child is to take
 a snail1  thrust it at sunset into a   
hollow tree1 and stop up the hole with  
clay4  ,then as the snail perishes the  

child recovers4 ,but this cure must be  
accompanied by the recitation of a      
proper form of words2 otherwise it has  
no effect47#agb7 ,a ,bohemian remedy for
 jaundice is as follows4 ,take a  living
 tench1 tie it to your bare back and    
carry it about with you for a  whole    
day4 ,the tench will turn quite yellow  
and die4 ,then throw it into  running   
water1 and your jaundice will depart    
with it47#agc7 ,in the village  of      
,llandegla in ,wales there is a church  
dedicated to the virgin martyr ,st4     
,tecla1 where the falling sickness is1  
or used to be1 cured by being           
transferred to a fowl4 ,the patient     
first washed his limbs in a sacred well 
hard by1 dropped fourpence into it as an
 offering1 walked thrice round the      
well1 and thrice repeated the ,lord's   
prayer4 ,then the fowl1 which was a     
cock or a hen according as the patient  
was a man or a woman1 was put into  a   
basket and carried round first the well 
and afterwards the church4 ,next  the   

sufferer entered the church and lay down
 under the communion table  till break  
of day4 ,after that he offered sixpence 
and departed1 leaving  the fowl in the  
church4 ,if the bird died1 the sickness 
was supposed to  have been transferred  
to it from the man or woman1 who was now
 rid of the  disorder4 ,as late as #ahee
 the old parish clerk of the village    
remembered  quite well to have seen the 
birds staggering about from the effects 
of the  fits which had been transferred 
to them47#agd7 ,in ,south ,glamorgan and
 ,west  ,pembrokeshire it is thought    
possible to get rid of warts by means of
 a  snail4 ,you take a snail with a     
black shell1 you rub it on each wart and
  say1          8,wart1 wart1 on the    
snail's shell black1      ,go away soon1
 and never come back40      ,then you   
put the snail on the branch of a tree or
 bramble and you nail it  down with as  
many thorns as you have warts4 ,when the
 snail has rotted away  on the bough1   
your warts will have vanished4 ,another 

,welsh cure for warts  is to impale a   
frog on a stick and then to rub the     
warts on the creature4  ,the warts      
disappear as the frog expires47#age7 ,in
 both these cases we may  assume that   
the warts are transferred from the human
 sufferer to the  suffering animal4     
7,m#cf7 ,often the sufferer seeks to    
shift his burden of sickness or ill-luck
  to some inanimate object4 ,in ,athens 
there is a little chapel of ,st4 ,john  
the ,baptist built against an ancient   
column4 ,fever patients resort  thither1
 and by attaching a waxed thread to the 
inner side of the column  believe that  
they transfer the fever from themselves 
to the pillar47#agf7  ,in the ,mark of  
,brandenburg they say that if you suffer
 from giddiness you  should strip       
yourself naked and run thrice round a   
flax-field after  sunset2 in that way   
the flax will get the giddiness and you 
will be rid of  it47#agg7 ,sometimes an 
attempt is made to transfer the         
mischief1 whatever  it may be1 to the   

moon4 ,in ,oldenburg a peasant related  
how he rid himself  of a bony           
excrescence by stroking it thrice       
crosswise in the name of the  ,trinity1 
and then making a gesture as if he were 
seizing the deformity and  hurling it   
towards the moon4 ,in the same part of  
,germany a cure for warts  is to stand  
in the light of a waxing moon so that   
you cannot see your own  shadow1 then   
hold the disfigured hand towards the    
moon1 and stroke it with  the other hand
 in the direction of the luminary4 ,some
 say that in doing  this you should     
pronounce these words1 8,moon1 free me  
from these  vermin407#agh7    7,m#cg7   
,but perhaps the thing most commonly    
employed in ,europe as a  receptacle for
 sickness and trouble of all sorts is a 
tree or bush4 ,the  modes of            
transferring the mischief to it are     
many4 ,for example1 the  ,esthonians say
 that you ought not to go out of the    
house on a spring  morning before you   
have eaten or drunk2 for if you do1 you 

may chance to  hear one of 8the sounds  
which are not heard in winter10 such as 
the song  of a bird1 and that would be  
unlucky4 ,they think that if you thus   
let  yourself be deceived or outwitted1 
as they call it1 by a bird1 you will be 
visited by all sorts of ill-luck during 
the year2 indeed it may very well       
happen that you will fall sick and die  
before another spring comes round4      
,however1 there is a way of averting the
 evil4 ,you have merely to embrace a    
tree or go thrice round it1 biting into 
the bark each time or tearing away  a   
strip of the bark with your teeth4 ,thus
 the bad luck passes from you to  the   
tree1 which accordingly withers         
away47#agi7 ,in ,sicily it is believed  
that all kinds of marvellous cures can  
be effected on the night which  precedes
 ,ascension ,day4 ,for example1 people  
who suffer from goitre bite  the bark of
 a peach-tree just at the moment when   
the clocks are striking  midnight4 ,thus
 the malady is transferred to the sap of

 the tree1 and its  leaves wither away  
in exact proportion as the patient      
recovers4 ,but in  order that the cure  
may be successful it is absolutely      
essential that the  bark should be      
bitten at midnight precisely2 a bite    
before or after that  witching hour is  
labour thrown away47#ahj7 ,on ,st4      
,george's ,day1 ,south  ,slavonian lads 
and lasses climb thrice up and down a   
cornel-tree1 saying1  8,my laziness and 
sleepiness to you1 cornel-tree1 but     
health and booty 787  to me40 ,then as  
they wend homewards they turn once more 
towards the tree  and call out1         
8,cornel-tree6 cornel-tree6 ,i leave you
 my laziness and  sleepiness407#aha7    
,the same people attempt to cure fever  
by transferring it  to a dwarf          
elder-bush4 ,having found such a bush   
with three shoots  springing from the   
root1 the patient grasps the points of  
the three shoots  in his hand1 bends    
them down to the ground1 and fastens    
them there with a  stone4 ,under the    

arch thus formed he creeps thrice2 then 
he cuts off or  digs up the three       
shoots1 saying1 8,in three shoots ,i cut
 three sicknesses  out4 ,when these     
three shoots grow young again1 may the  
fever come  back407#ahb7 ,a ,bulgarian  
cure for fever is to run thrice round a 
willow-tree at sunrise1 crying1 8,the   
fever shall shake thee1 and the sun     
shall warm me407#ahc7 ,in the ,greek    
island of ,karpathos the priest ties a  
red thread round the neck of a sick     
person4 ,next morning the friends of    
the patient remove the thread and go out
 to the hillside1 where they tie  the   
thread to a tree1 thinking that they    
thus transfer the sickness to the       
tree47#ahd7 ,italians attempt to cure   
fever in like manner by fastening it  to
 a tree4 ,the sufferer ties a thread    
round his left wrist at night1 and      
hangs the thread on a tree next morning4
 ,the fever is thus believed to be  tied
 up to the tree1 and the patient to be  
rid of it2 but he must be  careful not  

to pass by that tree again1 otherwise   
the fever would break  loose from its   
bonds and attack him afresh47#ahe7 ,an  
old ,french remedy for  fever was to    
bind the patient himself to a tree and  
leave him there for a  time2 some said  
that the ceremony should be performed   
fasting and early in  the morning1 that 
the cord or straw rope with which the   
person was bound  to the tree should be 
left there to rot1 and that the sufferer
 should bite  the bark of the tree      
before returning home47#ahf7 ,in        
,bohemia the friends of  a fever patient
 will sometimes carry him head foremost1
 by means of straw  ropes1 to a bush1 on
 which they dump him down4 ,then he must
 jump up and  run home4 ,the friends who
 carried him also flee1 leaving the     
straw ropes  and likewise the fever     
behind them on the bush47#ahg7          
7,m#ch7 ,sometimes the sickness is      
transferred to the tree by making a knot
  in one of its boughs4 ,thus in        
,mecklenburg a remedy for fever is to go

  before sunrise to a willow-tree and   
tie as many knots in one of its         
branches as the fever has lasted days2  
but going and coming you must be        
careful not to speak a word47#ahh7 ,a   
,flemish cure for the ague is to go     
early in the morning to an old willow1  
tie three knots in one of its  branches1
 say1 8,good-morrow1 ,old ,one1 ,i give 
thee the cold2 good-morrow1  ,old ,one10
 then turn and run away without looking 
round47#ahi7 ,in ,rhenish  ,bavaria the 
cure for gout is similar4 ,the patient  
recites a spell or  prayer while he     
stands at a willow-bush holding one of  
its boughs4 ,when  the mystic words have
 been spoken1 he ties a knot in the     
bough and departs  cured4 ,but all his  
life long he must never go near that    
willow-bush again1  or the gout will    
come back to him47#aij7 ,in ,sonnenberg1
 if you would rid  yourself of gout you 
should go to a young fir-tree and tie a 
knot in one  of its twigs1 saying1 8,god
 greet thee1 noble fir4 ,i bring thee my

 gout4  ,here will ,i tie a knot and    
bind my gout into it4 ,in the name10    
etc47#aia7  ,not far from ,marburg1 at a
 place called ,neuhof1 there is a wood  
of  birches4 ,thither on a morning      
before sunrise1 in the last quarter of  
the  moon1 bands of gouty people may    
often be seen hobbling in silence4 ,each
 of  them takes his stand before a      
separate tree and pronounces these      
solemn  words3 8,here stand ,i before   
the judgment bar of ,god and tie up all 
my  gout4 ,all the disease in my body   
shall remain tied up in this            
birch-tree40  ,meanwhile the good       
physician ties a knot in a birch-twig1  
repeating  thrice1 8,in the name of the 
,father10 etc47#aib7    7,m#ci7 ,another
 way of transferring gout from a man to 
a tree is this4 ,pare  the nails of the 
sufferer's fingers and clip some hairs  
from his legs4  ,bore a hole in an oak1 
stuff the nails and hair in the hole1   
stop up the  hole again1 and smear it   
with cow's dung4 ,if1 for three months  

thereafter1  the patient is free of     
gout1 you may be sure the oak has it in 
his  stead47#aic7 ,a ,german cure for   
toothache is to bore a hole in a tree   
and  cram some of the sufferer's hair   
into it47#aid7 ,in these cases1 though  
no  doubt the tree suffers the pangs of 
gout or toothache respectively1 it  does
 so with a sort of stoical equanimity1  
giving no outward and visible  sign of  
the pains that rack it inwardly4 ,it is 
not always so1 however4 ,the  tree      
cannot invariably suppress every symptom
 of its suffering4 ,it may  hide its    
toothache1 but it cannot so easily hide 
its warts4 ,in ,cheshire if  you would  
be rid of warts1 you have only to rub   
them with a piece of  bacon1 cut a slit 
in the bark of an ash-tree1 and slip the
 bacon under the  bark4 ,soon the warts 
will disappear from your hand1 only     
however to  reappear in the shape of    
rough excrescences or knobs on the bark 
of the  tree47#aie7 ,again in ,beauce   
and ,perche1 two provinces of ,france1  

fever may  be transferred to a young    
aspen by inserting the parings of the   
patient's  nails in the tree and then   
plastering up the hole to prevent the   
fever  from getting out4 ,but the       
operation must be performed by          
night47#aif7 ,how  subject an aspen is  
to fever must be obvious to the meanest 
capacity from  the trembling of its     
leaves in every breath of wind2 nothing 
therefore can  be easier or more natural
 than to transfer the malady1 with its  
fits of  shaking1 to the tree4 ,at      
,berkhampstead1 in ,hertfordshire1 there
 used to be  certain oak-trees which    
were long celebrated for the cure of    
ague4 ,the  transference of the malady  
to the tree was simple but painful4 ,a  
lock of  the sufferer's hair was pegged 
into an oak2 then by a sudden wrench he 
left his hair and his ague behind him in
 the tree47#aig7    7,m#dj7 ,it seems   
clear that1 though you may stow away    
your pain or sickness  in a tree1 there 
is a considerable risk of its coming out

 again4 ,to  obviate this danger common 
prudence suggests that you should plug  
or bung  up the hole as tight as you    
can4 ,and this1 as we should naturally  
expect1  is often done4 ,a ,german cure 
for toothache or headache is to wrap    
some of  the sufferer's cut hair and    
nails in paper1 make a hole in the tree1
 stuff  the parcel into it1 and stop up 
the hole with a plug made from a tree   
which has been struck by                
lightning47#aih7 ,in ,bohemia they say  
that1 if you  feel the fever coming on1 
you should pull out some of your hair1  
tear off  a strip of a garment you are  
wearing1 and bore a hole in a           
willow-tree4  ,having done so1 you put  
the hair and the rag in the hole and    
stop it up  with a wedge of hawthorn4   
,then go home without looking back1 and 
if a  voice calls to you1 be sure not to
 answer4 ,when you have complied with   
this prescription1 the fever will       
cease47#aii7 ,in ,oldenburg a common    
remedy  for fever is to bore a hole in a

 tree1 breathe thrice into the hole1 and
  then plug it up4 ,once a man who had  
thus shut up his fever in a tree was    
jeered at by a sceptical acquaintance   
for his credulity4 ,so he went  secretly
 to the tree and drew the stopper1 and  
out came that fever and  attacked the   
sceptic47#bjj7 ,sometimes they say that 
the tree into which you  thus breathe   
your fever or ague should be a hollow   
willow1 and that in  going to the tree  
you should be careful not to utter a    
word1 and not to  cross water47#bja7    
,again1 we read of a man who suffered   
acute pains in his  arm4 ,so 8they beat 
up red corals with oaken leaves1 and    
having kept them  on the part affected  
till suppuration1 they did in the       
morning put this  mixture into an hole  
bored with an auger in the root of an   
oak1 respecting  the east1 and stop up  
this hole with a peg made of the same   
tree2 from  thenceforth the pain did    
altogether cease1 and when they took out
 the  amulet immediately the torments   

returned sharper than before407#bjb7    
,these  facts seem to put it beyond the 
reach of reasonable doubt that the pain 
or  malady is actually in the tree and  
waiting to pop out1 if only it gets the 
chance4           #f4 ,the ,nailing of  
,evils4      7,m#da7 ,often the patient1
 without troubling to bore a hole in the
 tree1  merely knocks a wedge1 a peg1 or
 a nail into it1 believing that he thus 
pegs or nails the sickness or pain into 
the wood4 ,thus a ,bohemian cure for    
fever is to go to a tree and hammer a   
wedge into it with the words 8,there1   
,i knock you in1 that you may come no   
more out to me407#bjc7 ,a ,german way of
  getting rid of toothache is to go in  
silence before sunrise to a tree1       
especially a willow-tree1 make a slit in
 the bark on the north side of the      
tree1 or on the side that looks towards 
the sunrise1 cut out a splinter  from   
the place thus laid bare1 poke the      
splinter into the aching tooth  till    
blood comes1 then put back the splinter 

in the tree1 fold down the  bark over   
it1 and tie a string round the trunk1   
that the splinter may grow  into the    
trunk as before4 ,as it does so1 your   
pain will vanish2 but you  must be      
careful not to go near the tree         
afterwards1 or you will get the         
toothache again4 ,and any one who pulls 
the splinter out will also get the      
toothache4 ,he has in fact uncorked the 
toothache which was safely bottled  up  
in the tree1 and he must take the       
natural consequence of his rash         
act47#bjd7 ,a simpler plan1 practised in
 ,persia as well as in ,france and      
,germany1 is merely to scrape the aching
 tooth with a nail or a twig till  it   
bleeds1 and then hammer the nail or the 
twig into a tree4 ,in the  ,vosges1 in  
,voigtland1 and probably elsewhere1 it  
is believed that any  person who should 
draw out such a nail or twig would get  
the  toothache47#bje7 ,an old lime-tree 
at ,evessen1 in ,brunswick1 is studded  
with  nails of various shapes1 including

 screw-nails1 which have been driven    
into it by persons who suffered from    
aching teeth47#bjf7 ,in the ,mark of    
,brandenburg they say that the ceremony 
should be performed when the moon  is on
 the wane1 and that the bloody nail     
should be knocked1 without a word  being
 spoken1 into the north side of an      
oak-tree1 where the sun cannot  shine on
 it2 after that the person will have no 
more toothache so long as  the tree     
remains standing47#bjg7 ,here it is     
plainly implied that the  toothache is  
bottled up in the tree4 ,if further     
proof were needed that in  such cases   
the malady is actually transferred to   
the tree and stowed away  in its trunk1 
it would be afforded by the belief that 
if the tree is cut  down the toothache  
will return to the original             
sufferer47#bjh7 ,rupture as  well as    
toothache can be nailed to an oak4 ,for 
that purpose all that need  be done is  
to take a coffin-nail and touch with it 
the injured part of the  patient2 then  

set the sufferer barefoot before an     
oak-tree1 and knock the  nail into the  
trunk above his head4 ,that transfers   
the rupture to the  tree1 and that is   
why you may often see the boles of      
ancient oaks studded  with nails47#bji7 
7,m#db7 ,such remedies are not confined 
to ,europe4 ,at ,bilda in ,algeria1     
there  is a sacred old olive-tree1 in   
which pilgrims1 especially women1 knock 
nails for the purpose of ridding        
themselves of their ailments and        
troubles47#baj7 ,again1 the ,majhwars1 a
 ,dravidian tribe in the hill country   
of ,south ,mirzapur1 believe that all   
disease is due to ghosts1 but that      
ghosts1 when they become troublesome1   
can be shut up in a certain tree1  which
 grows on a little islet in a very deep 
pool of the ,sukandar1 a  tributary of  
the ,kanhar river4 ,accordingly1 when   
the country is infested  by ghosts1 in  
other words when disease is raging1 a   
skilful wizard seeks  for a piece of    
deer-horn in the jungle4 ,when he has   

found it1 he hammers  it with a stone   
into the tree and thus shuts up the     
ghost4 ,the tree is  covered with       
hundreds of such pieces of horn47#baa7  
,again1 when a new  settlement is being 
made in some parts of the               
,north-,western ,provinces of  ,india1  
it is deemed necessary to apprehend and 
lay by the heels the local  deities1 who
 might otherwise do a deal of mischief  
to the intruders on  their domain4 ,a   
sorcerer is called in to do the         
business4 ,for days he  marches about   
the place mustering the gods to the tuck
 of drum4 ,when they  are all assembled1
 two men known as the ,earthman and the 
,leafman1 who  represent the gods of the
 earth and of the trees respectively1   
become full  of the spirit1 being taken 
possession of bodily by the local       
deities4 ,in  this exalted state they   
shout and caper about in a fine frenzy1 
and their  seemingly disjointed         
ejaculations1 which are really the      
divine voice  speaking through them1 are

 interpreted by the sorcerer4 ,when the 
critical  moment has come1 the wizard   
rushes in between the two incarnations  
of  divinity1 clutches at the spirits   
which are hovering about them in the    
air1 and pours grains of sesame through 
their hands into a perforated  piece of 
the wood of the sacred fig-tree4 ,then  
without a moment's delay he  plasters up
 the hole with a mixture of clay and    
cow-dung1 and carefully  buries the     
piece of wood on the spot which is to be
 the shrine of the  local deities4      
,needless to say that the gods          
themselves are bunged up in  the wood   
and are quite incapable of doing further
 mischief1 provided  always that the    
usual offerings are made to them at the 
shrine where they  live in durance      
vile47#bab7 ,in this case the source of 
mischief is  imprisoned1 not in a tree1 
but in a piece of one2 but the principle
 is  clearly the same4 ,similarly in    
,corea an ,english lady observed at a   
cross-road a small log with several     

holes like those of a mouse-trap1 one   
of which was plugged up doubly with     
bungs of wood4 ,she was told that a     
demon1 whose ravages spread sickness in 
a family1 had been inveigled by a       
sorceress into that hole and securely   
bunged up4 ,it was thought proper for   
all passers-by to step over the         
incarcerated devil1 whether to express  
their scorn and abhorrence of him1 or   
more probably as a means of keeping  him
 forcibly down47#bac7 ,in ,cochinchina a
 troublesome ghost can be confined  to  
the grave by the simple process of      
knocking a nail or thrusting a bar  of  
iron into the earth at the point where  
the head of the corpse may be  presumed 
to repose47#bad7    7,m#dc7 ,from       
knocking the mischief into a tree or a  
log it is only a step to  knocking it   
into a stone1 a door-post1 a wall1 or   
such like4 ,at the head  of ,glen ,mor1 
near ,port ,charlotte1 in ,islay1 there 
may be seen a large  boulder1 and it is 
said that whoever drives a nail into    

this stone will  thereafter be secure   
from attacks of toothache4 ,a farmer in 
,islay told an  enquirer some years ago 
how a passing stranger once cured his   
grandmother  of toothache by driving a  
horse-nail into the lintel of the       
kitchen door1  warning her at the same  
time to keep the nail there1 and if it  
should come  loose just to tap it with a
 hammer till it had a grip again4 ,she  
had no  more toothache for the rest of  
her life47#bae7 ,in ,brunswick it is    
open to  any one to nail his toothache  
either into a wall or into a tree1 as he
  thinks fit2 the pain is cured quite as
 well in the one way as in the          
other47#baf7 ,so in ,beauce and ,perche 
a healer has been known to place a new  
nail on the aching tooth of a sufferer  
and then knock the nail into a  door1 a 
beam1 or a joist47#bag7 ,the procedure  
in ,north ,africa is similar4  ,you     
write certain ,arabic letters and       
numbers on the wall2 then1 while the    
patient puts a finger on the aching     

tooth1 you knock a nail1 with a light   
tap of a hammer1 into the first letter  
on the wall1 reciting a verse of  the   
,coran as you do so4 ,next you ask the  
sufferer whether the pain is now        
abated1 and if he says 8,yes0 you draw  
out the nail entirely4 ,but if he  says 
8,no10 you shift the nail to the next   
letter in the wall1 and so on1  till the
 pain goes away1 which it always does1  
sooner or later47#bah7 ,a  ,bohemian who
 fears he is about to have an attack of 
fever will snatch up  the first thing   
that comes to hand and nail it to the   
wall4 ,that keeps the  fever from       
him47#bai7    7,m#dd7 ,as in ,europe we 
nail toothache or fever to a wall1 so in
 ,morocco  they nail devils4 ,a house in
 ,mogador having been infested with     
devils1 who  threw stones about it in a 
way that made life a burden to the      
inmates1 a  holy man was called in to   
exorcise them1 which he did effectually 
by  pronouncing an incantation and      
driving a nail into the wall2 at every  

stroke of the hammer a hissing sound    
announced that another devil had        
received his quietus47#bbj7 ,among the  
modern ,arabs the soul of a murdered    
man must be nailed down4 ,thus if a man 
be murdered in ,egypt1 his ghost  will  
rise from the ground where his blood was
 shed3 but it can be  prevented from    
doing so by driving a new nail1 which   
has never been used1  into the earth at 
the spot where the murder was committed4
 ,in ,tripoli the  practice is similar4 
,some years ago a native was murdered   
close to the  door of a little ,italian 
inn4 ,immediately the ,arabs of the     
neighbourhood  thronged thither and     
effectually laid the ghost with hammer  
and nail4 ,when  the innkeeper rashly   
attempted to remove the nail1 he was    
warned that to  do so would be to set   
the ghost free47#bba7 ,in modern ,egypt 
numbers of  people afflicted with       
headache used to knock a nail into the  
great wooden  door of the old south gate
 of ,cairo1 for the purpose of charming 

away the  pain2 others who suffered from
 toothache used to extract a tooth and  
insert it in a crevice of the door1 or  
fix it in some other way1 in order  to  
be rid of toothache for the future4 ,a  
holy and miraculous personage1          
invisible to mortal eyes1 was supposed  
to have one of his stations at this     
gate47#bbb7 ,in ,mosul also a sheikh can
 cure headache by first laying his      
hands on the sufferer's head and then   
hammering a nail into a wall47#bbc7     
,not far from ,neuenkirchen1 in         
,oldenburg1 there is a farmhouse to     
which1  while the ,thirty ,years' ,war  
was raging1 the plague came lounging    
along  from the neighbouring town in the
 shape of a bluish vapour4 ,entering the
  house it popped into a hole in the    
door-post of one of the rooms4 ,the     
farmer saw his chance1 and quick as     
thought he seized a peg and hammered  it
 into the hole1 so that the plague could
 not possibly get out4 ,after a  time1  
however1 thinking the danger was past1  

he drew out the peg4 ,alas6  with the   
peg came creeping and curling out of the
 hole the blue vapour  once more4 ,the  
plague thus let loose seized on every   
member of the family  in that unhappy   
house and left not one of them          
alive47#bbd7 ,again1 the  great plague  
which devastated the ancient world in   
the reign of ,marcus  ,antoninus is said
 to have originated in the curiosity and
 greed of some  ,roman soldiers1 who1   
pillaging the city of ,seleucia1 came   
upon a narrow  hole in a temple and     
incautiously enlarged the opening in the
 expectation  of discovering treasure4  
,but that which came forth from the hole
 was not  treasure but the plague4 ,it  
had been pent up in a secret chamber by 
the  magic art of the ,chaldeans2 but   
now1 released from its prison by the    
rash  act of the spoilers1 it stalked   
abroad and spread death and destruction 
from the ,euphrates to the ,nile and the
 ,atlantic47#bbe7    7,m#de7 ,the simple
 ceremony1 in which to this day the     

superstition of  ,european peasants sees
 a sovereign remedy for plague and fever
 and  toothache1 has come down to us    
from a remote antiquity2 for in days    
when  as yet ,paris and ,london were    
not1 when ,france still revered the     
,druids as  the masters of all          
knowledge1 human and divine1 and when   
our own country  was still covered with 
virgin forests1 the home of savage      
beasts and  savage men1 the same        
ceremony was solemnly performed from    
time to time by  the highest magistrate 
at ,rome1 to stay the ravages of        
pestilence or  retrieve disaster that   
threatened the foundations of the       
national life4 ,in  the fourth century  
before our era the city of ,rome was    
desolated by a  great plague which raged
 for three years1 carrying off some of  
the highest  dignitaries and a great    
multitude of common folk4 ,the historian
 who  records the calamity informs us   
that when a banquet had been offered to 
the gods in vain1 and neither human     

counsels nor divine help availed to     
mitigate the violence of the disease1 it
 was resolved for the first time  in    
,roman history to institute dramatical  
performances as an appropriate  means of
 appeasing the wrath of the celestial   
powers4 ,accordingly actors  were       
fetched from ,etruria1 who danced       
certain simple and decorous dances  to  
the music of a flute4 ,but even this    
novel spectacle failed to amuse or      
touch1 to move to tears or laughter the 
sullen gods4 ,the plague still  raged1  
and at the very moment when the actors  
were playing their best in  the circus  
beside the ,tiber1 the yellow river rose
 in angry flood and  drove players and  
spectators1 wading and splashing through
 the  fast-deepening waters1 away from  
the show4 ,it was clear that the gods   
spurned plays as well as prayers and    
banquets2 and in the general            
consternation it was felt that some more
 effectual measure should be taken  to  
put an end to the scourge4 ,old men     

remembered that a plague had once  been 
stayed by the knocking of a nail into a 
wall2 and accordingly the  ,senate      
resolved that now in their extremity1   
when all other means had  failed1 a     
supreme magistrate should be appointed  
for the sole purpose of  performing this
 solemn ceremony4 ,the appointment was  
made1 the nail was  knocked1 and the    
plague ceased1 sooner or later47#bbf7   
,what better proof  could be given of   
the saving virtue of a nail8    7,m#df7 
,twice more within the same century the 
,roman people had recourse to  the same 
venerable ceremony as a cure for public 
calamities with which the  ordinary     
remedies1 civil and religious1 seemed   
unable to cope4 ,one of  these occasions
 was a pestilence27#bbg7 the other was a
 strange mortality  among the leading   
men1 which public opinion traced1       
rightly or wrongly1 to  a series of     
nefarious crimes perpetrated by noble   
matrons1 who took their  husbands off by
 poison4 ,the crimes1 real or imaginary1

 were set down to  frenzy1 and nothing  
could be thought of so likely to        
minister to minds  diseased as the      
knocking of a nail into a wall4 ,search 
among the annals of  the city proved    
that in a season of civil discord1 when 
the state had been  rent by party feud1 
the same time-honoured remedy1 the same 
soothing balm1  had been applied with   
the happiest results to the jarring     
interests and  heated passions of the   
disputants4 ,accordingly the old nostrum
 was tried  once more1 and again success
 appeared to justify the                
experiment47#bbh7    7,m#dg7 ,if the    
,romans in the fourth century before    
,christ thus deemed it  possible to rid 
themselves of pestilence1 frenzy1 and   
sedition by  hammering them into a wall1
 even as ,french and ,german peasants   
still rid  themselves of fever and      
toothache by knocking them into a tree1 
their  prudent ancestors appear to have 
determined that so salutary a measure   
should not be restricted in its scope to

 meeting special and urgent  emergencies
 as they arose1 but should regularly    
diffuse its benefits over  the community
 by anticipating and1 as it were1       
nipping in the bud evils  which1 left   
unchecked1 might grow to dangerous      
proportions4 ,this1 we may  conjecture1 
was the original intention of an ancient
 ,roman law which  ordained that the    
highest magistrate of the republic      
should knock in a  nail every year on   
the thirteenth day of ,september4 ,the  
law might be seen1  couched in          
old-fashioned language1 engraved on a   
tablet which was fastened  to a wall of 
the temple of ,capitoline ,jupiter2 and 
although the place  where the nails were
 driven in is nowhere definitely stated 
by classical  writers1 there are some   
grounds for thinking that it may have   
been the  same wall on which the law    
that sanctioned the custom was          
exhibited4 ,livy  tells us that the duty
 of affixing the nail1 at one time      
discharged by the  consuls1 was         

afterwards committed to dictators1 whose
 higher rank  consorted better with the 
dignity and importance of the function4 
,at a  later time the custom fell into  
abeyance1 and the ancient ceremony was  
revived only from time to time in       
seasons of grave peril or extraordinary 
calamity1 which seemed to attest the    
displeasure of the gods at modern  ways1
 and disposed men to bethink them of    
ancestral lore and to walk in  the old  
paths47#bbi7    7,m#dh7 ,in antiquity   
the annual practice of hammering a nail 
into a wall was  not confined to ,rome4 
,it was observed also at ,vulsinii1 in  
,etruria1 where  the nails thus fixed in
 the temple of the goddess ,nortia      
served as a  convenient means of        
recording and numbering the years47#bcj7
 ,to ,roman  antiquaries of a later     
period it seemed1 naturally enough1 that
 such a  practice had indeed no other   
object than that of marking the flight  
of  time in ages when writing was but   
little used47#bca7 ,yet a little        

reflection will probably convince us    
that this1 though it was doubtless a    
useful consequence of the custom1 can   
hardly have been its original           
intention4 ,for it will scarcely be     
disputed that the annual observance of  
the custom cannot be wholly dissociated 
from its occasional observance in       
seasons of great danger or calamity1 and
 that whatever explanation we give  of  
the one ought to apply to the other     
also4 ,now it is plain that if we  start
 from the annual observance and regard  
it as no more than a  timekeeper or mode
 of recording the years1 we shall never 
reach an  adequate explanation of the   
occasional observance4 ,if the nails    
were  merely ready reckoners of the     
years1 how could they come to be used as
  supreme remedies for pestilence1      
frenzy1 and sedition1 resorted to by the
  state in desperate emergencies when   
all the ordinary resources of policy    
and religion had failed8 ,on the other  
hand1 if we start from the  occasional  

observance and view it1 in accordance   
with modern analogies1 as  a rude       
attempt to dispose of intangible evils  
as if they were things that  could be   
handled and put away out of sight1 we   
can readily understand how  such an     
attempt1 from being made occasionally1  
might come to be repeated  annually for 
the sake of wiping out all the old      
troubles and misfortunes  of the past   
year and enabling the community to start
 afresh1 unencumbered  by a fardel of   
ills1 at the beginning of a new year4   
,fortunately we can  shew that the      
analogy which is thus assumed to exist  
between the ,roman  custom and modern   
superstition is not a merely fanciful   
one2 in other  words1 it can be proved  
that the ,romans1 like modern clowns1   
did believe  in the possibility of      
nailing down trouble1 in a literal and  
physical  sense1 into a material        
substance4 ,pliny tells us that an      
alleged cure for  epilepsy1 or the      
falling sickness1 was to drive an iron  

nail into the  ground on the spot which 
was first struck by the patient's head  
as he  fell47#bcb7 ,in the light of the 
modern instances which have come before 
us1  we can hardly doubt that the cure  
was supposed to consist in actually     
nailing the disease into the earth in   
such a way that it could not get up  and
 attack the sufferer again4 ,precisely  
parallel is a ,suffolk cure for  ague4  
,you must go by night alone to a        
cross-road1 and just as the clock       
strikes the midnight hour you must turn 
yourself about thrice and drive a       
tenpenny nail up to the head into the   
ground4 ,then walk away backwards  from 
the spot before the clock is done       
striking twelve1 and you will miss  the 
ague2 but the next person who passes    
over the nail will catch the  malady in 
your stead47#bcc7 ,here it is plainly   
assumed that the ague of  which the     
patient is relieved has been left by him
 nailed down into the  earth at the     
cross-road1 and we may fairly suppose   

that a similar  assumption underlay the 
,roman cure for epilepsy4 ,further1 we  
seem to be  now justified in holding    
that originally1 when a ,roman dictator 
sought to  stay a plague1 to restore    
concord1 or to terminate an epidemic of 
madness  by knocking a nail into a wall1
 he was doing for the commonwealth      
exactly  what any private man might do  
for an epileptic patient by knocking a  
nail  into the ground on the spot where 
his poor friend had collapsed4 ,in other
  words1 he was hammering the plague1   
the discord1 or the madness into a  hole
 from which it could not get out to     
afflict the community again47#bcd7      
7,m#di7 ,different in principle from the
 foregoing customs appears to be the    
,loango practice of sticking nails into 
wooden idols or fetishes4 ,the          
intention of knocking a nail into a     
worshipful image is said to be simply   
to attract the notice of the deity in a 
forcible manner to the request of  his  
worshipper2 it is like pinching a man or

 running a pin into his leg as  a hint  
that you desire to speak with him4      
,hence in order to be quite sure  of    
riveting the god's attention the nails  
are sometimes made red-hot47#bce7  ,even
 the most absent-minded deity could     
hardly overlook a petition urged  in so 
importunate a fashion4 ,the practice is 
resorted to in many  emergencies4 ,for  
example1 when a man has been robbed1 he 
will go and get a  priest to knock a    
nail into an idol4 ,the sharp pang      
naturally exasperates  the deity and he 
seeks to wreak his wrath on the thief1  
who is the real  occasion of his        
suffering4 ,so when the thief hears of  
what has been done1  he brings back the 
stolen goods in fear and trembling4     
,similarly a nail  may be knocked into  
an idol for the purpose of making       
somebody fall ill2  and if a sick man   
fancies that his illness is due to an   
enemy who has  played him this trick1 he
 will send to the priest of the idol and
 pay him  to remove the nail47#bcf7     

,this mode of refreshing the memory and 
stimulating the activity of a           
supernatural being is not confined to   
the  negroes of ,loango2 it is practised
 also by ,french ,catholics1 as we learn
  from ,sir ,john ,rhys4 8,some years   
ago10 he writes1 8when ,i was on a visit
 at  the late ,ernest ,renan's house at 
,rosmapamon1 near ,perros-,guirec on the
  north coast of ,brittany1 our genial  
host took his friends one day to see    
some of the sights of that              
neighbourhood4 ,among other things which
 he  showed us was a statue of ,st4     
,guirec standing at the head of an open 
creek4 ,it was of wood1 and altogether a
 very rude work of art1 if such it      
might be called2 but what attracted our 
attention most was the fact that  it had
 innumerable pins stuck into it4 ,we    
asked ,m4 ,renan what the pins  meant1  
and his explanation was exceedingly     
quaint4 ,he said that when any  young   
woman in the neighbourhood made up her  
mind that she should marry1  she came   

there and asked the saint to provide her
 with a husband1 and to  do so without  
undue delay4 ,she had every confidence  
in the willingness and  ability of the  
saint to oblige her1 but she was haunted
 by the fear that  he might be otherwise
 engaged and forget her request4 ,so she
 would stick  pins into him1 and thus   
goad him1 as she fancied1 to exert      
himself on her  behalf4 ,this is why the
 saint's statue was full of pins407#bcg7
 ,similarly  in ,japan sufferers from   
toothache sometimes stick needles into a
  willow-tree1 8believing that the pain 
caused to the tree-spirit will force  it
 to exercise its power to cure407#bch7  
7,m#ej7 ,thus it would seem that we must
 distinguish at least two uses of  nails
 or pins in their application to spirits
 and spiritual influences4 ,in  one set 
of cases the nails act as corks or bungs
 to bottle up and imprison  a           
troublesome spirit2 in the other set of 
cases they act as spurs or goads  to    
refresh his memory and stimulate his    

activity4 ,but so far as the  evidence  
which ,i have cited allows us to judge1 
the use of nails as  spiritual bungs    
appears to be commoner than their use as
 mental  refreshers4                    
,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,omnipresence    
,,of ,,demons4      7,m#ea7 ,in the     
foregoing chapter the primitive         
principle of the transference  of ills  
to another person1 animal1 or thing was 
explained and illustrated4  ,a          
consideration of the means taken1 in    
accordance with this principle1 to  rid 
individuals of their troubles and       
distresses led us to believe that at    
,rome similar means had been adopted to 
free the whole community1 at a  single  
blow of the hammer1 from diverse evils  
that afflicted it4 ,i now  propose to   
shew that such attempts to dismiss at   
once the accumulated  sorrows of a      
people are by no means rare or          
exceptional1 but that on the  contrary  
they have been made in many lands1 and  
that from being occasional  they tend to

 become periodic and annual4    7,m#eb7 
,it needs some effort on our part to    
realise the frame of mind which  prompts
 these attempts4 ,bred in a philosophy  
which strips nature of  personality and 
reduces it to the unknown cause of an   
orderly series of  impressions on our   
senses1 we find it hard to put ourselves
 in the place  of the savage1 to whom   
the same impressions appear in the guise
 of spirits  or the handiwork of        
spirits4 ,for ages the army of spirits1 
once so near1  has been receding further
 and further from us1 banished by the   
magic wand  of science from hearth and  
home1 from ruined cell and ivied tower1 
from  haunted glade and lonely mere1    
from the riven murky cloud that belches 
forth the lightning1 and from those     
fairer clouds that pillow the silver    
moon or fret with flakes of burning red 
the golden eve4 ,the spirits are  gone  
even from their last stronghold in the  
sky1 whose blue arch no longer  passes1 
except with children1 for the screen    

that hides from mortal eyes  the glories
 of the celestial world4 ,only in poets'
 dreams or impassioned  flights of      
oratory is it given to catch a glimpse  
of the last flutter of  the standards of
 the retreating host1 to hear the beat  
of their invisible  wings1 the sound of 
their mocking laughter1 or the swell of 
angel music  dying away in the distance4
 ,far otherwise is it with the savage4  
,to his  imagination the world still    
teems with those motley beings whom a   
more  sober philosophy has discarded4   
,fairies and goblins1 ghosts and demons1
  still hover about him both waking and 
sleeping4 ,they dog his footsteps1      
dazzle his senses1 enter into him1      
harass and deceive and torment him in a 
thousand freakish and mischievous ways4 
,the mishaps that befall him1 the       
losses he sustains1 the pains he has to 
endure1 he commonly sets down1 if  not  
to the magic of his enemies1 to the     
spite or anger or caprice of the        
spirits4 ,their constant presence       

wearies him1 their sleepless malignity  
exasperates him2 he longs with an       
unspeakable longing to be rid of them   
altogether1 and from time to time1      
driven to bay1 his patience utterly     
exhausted1 he turns fiercely on his     
persecutors and makes a desperate       
effort to chase the whole pack of them  
from the land1 to clear the air of      
their swarming multitudes1 that he may  
breathe more freely and go on his  way  
unmolested1 at least for a time4 ,thus  
it comes about that the  endeavour of   
primitive people to make a clean sweep  
of all their troubles  generally takes  
the form of a grand hunting out and     
expulsion of devils or  ghosts4 ,they   
think that if they can only shake off   
these their accursed  tormentors1 they  
will make a fresh start in life1 happy  
and innocent2 the  tales of ,eden and   
the old poetic golden age will come true
 again4    7,m#ec7 ,hence1 before we    
review some examples of these           
spirit-hunts1 it may  be well to adduce 

evidence of the deep hold which a belief
 in the  omnipresence and malignity of  
spirits has upon the primitive mind4    
,the  reader will be better able to     
understand the savage remedy when he has
 an  inkling of the nature of the evil  
which it is designed to combat4 ,in     
citing the evidence ,i shall for the    
most part reproduce the exact words of  
my authorities lest ,i should incur the 
suspicion of deepening unduly the       
shadows in a gloomy picture4    7,m#ed7 
,thus in regard to the aborigines of    
,australia we are told that 8the  number
 of supernatural beings1 feared if not  
loved1 that they acknowledge  is        
exceedingly great2 for not only are the 
heavens peopled with such1 but  the     
whole face of the country swarms with   
them2 every thicket1 most               
watering-places1 and all rocky places   
abound with evil spirits4 ,in like      
manner1 every natural phenomenon is     
believed to be the work of demons1  none
 of which seem of a benign nature1 one  

and all apparently striving to  do all  
imaginable mischief to the poor         
blackfellow407#bci7 8,the negro10  says 
another writer1 8is wont to regard the  
whole world around him as  peopled with 
invisible beings1 to whom he imputes    
every misfortune that  happens to him1  
and from whose harmful influence he     
seeks to protect  himself by all kinds  
of magic means407#bdj7 ,the ,bantu      
negroes of ,western  ,africa 8regard    
their god as the creator of man1 plants1
 animals1 and the  earth1 and they hold 
that having made them1 he takes no      
further interest  in the affair4 ,but   
not so the crowd of spirits with which  
the universe is  peopled1 they take only
 too much interest1 and the ,bantu      
wishes they would  not and is           
perpetually saying so in his prayers1 a 
large percentage  whereof amounts to1   
#8,go away1 we don't want you4' #8,come 
not into this  house1 this village1 or  
its plantations4' 0 ,almost all these   
subordinate  spirits are                

malevolent47#bda7 ,a similar but fuller 
account of the ,west  ,african creed is 
given by a ,german writer1 whose        
statements apply  particularly to the   
,ewe-speaking negroes of the ,slave     
,coast4 ,he says3  8,thus the term      
fetishism denotes the attitude of the   
,ewes1 or of ,west  ,african negro      
tribes in general1 towards magic2 it    
forms one of the  principal constituents
 of their religion4 ,the other main     
constituent is  their attitude to the   
gods1 which is properly demonolatry4    
,the ,ewe names  the gods drowo1 that   
is1 intermediaries1 namely1 between a   
,supreme  ,being1 whom he calls ,mawu   
7#8the ,unsurpassable'71 and mankind4   
,the drowo  with whom the ,ewe has to   
do1 to whom his offerings and his       
respects are  paid1 are thus subordinate
 deities1 who according to the          
etymological  meaning of the word dro   
are conceived as judging1 composing     
disputes1  and mediating among men4 ,the
 existence of a ,supreme ,being is by no

 means  unfamiliar to the ,ewe2 he has  
his ,mawu often in his mouth1 especially
 in  talking with the missionary1 and he
 willingly acknowledges that ,mawu      
created him and the gods4 ,but he can   
only conceive of this ,supreme ,being   
on the analogy of his own personality   
and not as omnipresent and so forth4    
,it is impossible that this ,mawu can   
trouble himself about details in the    
creation or even about every individual 
man and his petty affairs2 what  would  
be the use of the many higher and lower 
spirits with which the world  is filled 
before his eyes8 ,the ,west ,african    
perhaps conceives of ,god as            
transcendant1 but not as immanent2 a    
creation he possibly apprehends1 but    
not an omnipresent government of the    
world by the ,supreme ,being4 ,that     
government is carried on by ,mawu at a  
distance by means of the many  spirits  
or subordinate gods whom he has created 
for the purpose4444 ,a  portion of the  
gods fills the air1 wherefore the forces

 and the phenomena  of nature are       
deified as their manifestations4 ,the   
elements are thought to  be moved by the
 gods of the air4 ,in the storm and the 
wind1 in thunder and  lightning the ,ewe
 sees the manifestation of particularly 
powerful gods4 ,in  the mysterious roll 
and roar of the deep sea the ,ewe1 like 
the negro in  general1 beholds the sway 
of a very mighty god or of a whole host 
of gods4  ,further1 the earth itself is 
also the abode of a multitude of spirits
 or  gods1 who have in it their sphere  
of activity4 ,they inhabit certain great
  mountains1 great hollow trees1 caves1 
rivers1 and especially woods4 ,in  such 
woods of the gods no timber may be      
felled4 ,thus the gods fill not  only   
the air and the sea1 they also walk on  
earth1 on all paths2 they lurk  under   
the trees1 they terrify the lonely      
wayfarer1 they disquiet and  plague even
 the sleeper4 ,when the negro rises from
 the stool on which he  has been        
sitting1 he never fails to turn it      

upside down1 to prevent a  spirit from  
sitting down on it4444 ,the spirit-world
 falls into two main  classes3 there are
 good and kindly spirits1 whose help is 
eagerly sought  by offerings2 but there 
are also gloomy and revengeful spirits1 
whose  approach and influence people    
eagerly endeavour to avert1 and against 
whom  all possible means are employed to
 ban them from the houses and villages4 
,the people are much more zealous in    
their devotion to the evil spirits  than
 in their devotion to the good4 ,the    
reason is that the feeling of fear  and 
the consciousness of guilt are much     
stronger than the emotions of love  and 
gratitude for benefits received4 ,hence 
the worship of the false gods  or       
spirits among this people1 and among the
 ,west ,african negro tribes in         
general1 is properly speaking a worship 
of demons or devils407#bdb7    7,m#ee7  
,again1 a missionary who spent fifteen  
years among the ,boloki of the  ,upper  
,congo ,river tells us that 8the        

religion of the ,boloki has its basis   
in their fear of those numerous         
invisible spirits which surround them on
  every side1 and are constantly trying 
to compass their sickness1  misfortune  
and death2 and the ,boloki's sole object
 in practising their  religion is to    
cajole1 or appease1 cheat1 or conquer   
and kill those  spirits that trouble    
them--hence their nganga medicine-men1  
their  rites1 their ceremonies and their
 charms4 ,if there were no evil spirits 
to  be circumvented there would be no   
need of their medicine men and their    
charms407#bdc7 8,the ,boloki folk       
believe they are surrounded by spirits  
which try to thwart them at every twist 
and turn1 and to harm them every  hour  
of the day and night4 ,the rivers and   
creeks are crowded with the  spirits of 
their ancestors1 and the forests and    
bush are full also of  spirits1 ever    
seeking to injure the living who are    
overtaken by night when  travelling by  
road or canoe4 ,i never met among them a

 man daring enough to  go at night      
through the forest that divided         
,monsembe from the upper  villages1 even
 though a large reward was offered4     
,their invariable reply  was3 #8,there  
are too many spirits in the bush and    
forest4' 07#bdd7 ,the  spirits which    
these people dread so much are the      
mingoli or disembodied  souls of the    
dead2 the life of the ,boloki is        
described as 8one long drawn  out fear  
of what the mingoli may next do to      
them40 ,these dangerous  beings dwell   
everywhere1 land and water are full of  
them2 they are ever  ready to pounce on 
the living and carry them away or to    
smite them with  disease and kill them4 
,though they are invisible to common    
eyes1 the  medicine-man can see them1   
and can cork them up in calabashes or   
cover  them up with saucepans2 indeed1  
if it is made worth his while1 he can   
even  destroy them altogether47#bde7    
,again1 of the ,bantu tribes of ,south  
,africa  we read that 8nearer than the  

spirits of deceased chiefs or of their  
own  ancestors was a whole host of      
hobgoblins1 water sprites1 and          
malevolent  demons1 who met the ,bantu  
turn which way they would4 ,there was no
  beautiful fairyland for them1 for all 
the beings who haunted the  mountains1  
the plains1 and the rivers were         
ministers of evil4 ,the most  feared of 
these was a large bird that made love to
 women and incited those  who returned  
its affection to cause the death of     
those who did not1 and a  little        
mischievous imp who was also amorously  
inclined4 ,many instances  could be     
gathered from the records of            
magistrates' courts in recent years  of 
demented women having admitted their    
acquaintance with these fabulous        
creatures1 as well as of whole          
communities living in terror of         
them407#bdf7  ,however1 it would be no  
doubt a great mistake to imagine that   
the minds of  the ,bantu1 or indeed of  
any savages1 are perpetually occupied by

 a dread  of evil spirits27#bdg7 the    
savage and indeed the civilized man is  
incapable1 at least in his normal state1
 of such excessive preoccupation  with a
 single idea1 which1 if prolonged1 could
 hardly fail to end in  insanity4       
7,m#ef7 ,speaking of the spirits which  
the ,indians of ,guiana attribute to all
  objects in nature1 ,sir ,everard ,f4  
im ,thurn observes that 8the whole world
  of the ,indian swarms with these      
beings4 ,if by a mighty mental effort we
  could for a moment revert to a similar
 mental position1 we should find        
ourselves everywhere surrounded by a    
host of possibly hurtful beings1 so     
many in number that to describe them as 
innumerable would fall  ridiculously    
short of the truth4 ,it is not therefore
 wonderful that the  ,indian fears to   
move beyond the light of his camp-fire  
after dark1 or1 if  he is obliged to do 
so1 carries a fire-brand with him that  
he may at least  see among what enemies 
he walks2 nor is it wonderful that      

occasionally the  air round the         
settlement seems to the ,indian to grow 
so full of beings1  that a peaiman      
sorcerer1 who is supposed to have the   
power of  temporarily driving them away1
 is employed to effect a general        
clearance  of these beings1 if only for 
a time4 ,that is the main belief1 of the
 kind  that is generally called         
religious1 of the ,indians of           
,guiana407#bdh7 ,the  ,lengua ,indians  
of the ,paraguayan ,chaco believe in    
certain demons which  they call         
kilyikhama4 8,the kilyikhama are        
confined to no particular  place4 ,time 
and distance do not seem to affect them 
in the least4 ,they are  held in great  
awe by the ,indian1 and whithersoever he
 turns1 whether by  day or night1 but   
particularly at night1 he is subject to 
their malign  influences4444 ,they live 
in constant dread of these supernatural 
beings1  and if nothing else contributed
 to make their life miserable1 this     
ever-present dread of the kilyikhama    

would be in itself quite sufficient  to 
rob it of most of its joy407#bdi7       
7,m#eg7 ,very different from the life of
 these ,indians of the ,south ,american 
forests and prairies is the life of the 
,esquimaux on the desolate shores  of   
,labrador2 yet they too live in like    
bondage to the evil creatures of  their 
own imagination4 8,all the affairs of   
life are supposed to be under  the      
control of spirits1 each of which rules 
over a certain element1 and  all of     
which are under the direction of a      
greater spirit4 ,each person is         
supposed to be attended by a special    
guardian who is malignant in  character1
 ever ready to seize upon the least     
occasion to work harm upon  the         
individual whom it accompanies4 ,as this
 is an evil spirit1 its good  offices   
and assistance can be obtained by       
propitiation only4 ,the person  strives 
to keep the good-will of the evil spirit
 by offerings of food1  water1 and      
clothing40 8,besides this class of      

spirits1 there are the  spirits of the  
sea1 the land1 the sky 7for be it       
understood that the  ,eskimo know       
nothing of the air71 the winds1 the     
clouds1 and everything in  nature4      
,every cove of the sea-shore1 every     
point1 island1 and prominent  rock has  
its guardian spirit4 ,all are of the    
malignant type1 and to be  propitiated  
only by acceptable offerings from       
persons who desire to visit  the        
locality where it is supposed to reside4
 ,of course some of the spirits  are    
more powerful than others1 and these are
 more to be dreaded than those  able to 
inflict less harm4 ,these minor spirits 
are under the control of  the great     
spirit1 whose name is ,tung ak4 ,this   
one great spirit is more  powerful than 
all the rest besides4 ,the lesser       
spirits are immediately  under his      
control and ever ready to obey his      
command4 ,the shaman 7or  conjuror7     
alone is supposed to be able to deal    
with the ,tung ak4 ,while the  shaman   

does not profess to be superior to the  
,tung ak1 he is able to  enlist his     
assistance and thus be able to control  
all the undertakings his  profession may
 call for4 ,this ,tung ak is nothing    
more or less than death1  which ever    
seeks to torment and harass the lives of
 people that their  spirits may go to   
dwell with him407#bej7    7,m#eh7       
,brighter at first sight and more       
pleasing is the mythology of the        
islanders of the ,pacific1 as the       
picture of it is drawn for us by one who
  seems to have felt the charm of those 
beliefs which it was his mission to     
destroy4 8,by their rude mythology10 he 
says1 8each lovely island was made  a   
sort of fairy-land1 and the spells of   
enchantment were thrown over its  varied
 scenes4 ,the sentiment of the poet that
          #8,millions of spiritual      
creatures walk the earth1      ,unseen1 
both when we wake1 and when we sleep1'  
was one familiar to their minds2 and it 
is impossible not to feel  interested in

 a people who were accustomed to        
consider themselves  surrounded by      
invisible intelligences1 and who        
recognized in the rising  sun--the mild 
and silver moon--the shooting star--the 
meteor's transient  flame--the ocean's  
roar--the tempest's blast1 or the       
evening breeze--the  movements of mighty
 spirits4 ,the mountain's summit1 and   
the fleecy mists  that hang upon its    
brows--the rocky defile--the foaming    
cataract--and the  lonely dell--were all
 regarded as the abode or resort of     
these invisible  beings407#bea7 ,yet the
 spiritual powers which compassed the   
life of the  islanders on every side    
appear to have been far from friendly to
 man4  ,speaking of their beliefs       
touching the souls of the dead1 the same
 writer  says that the ,polynesians     
8imagined they lived in a world of      
spirits1  which surrounded them night   
and day1 watching every action of their 
lives1  and ready to avenge the         
slightest neglect or the least          

disobedience to  their injunctions1 as  
proclaimed by their priests4 ,these     
dreaded beings  were seldom thought to  
resort to the habitations of men on     
errands of  benevolence407#beb7 ,the    
,tahitians1 when they were visited by   
,captain ,cook1  believed that 8sudden  
deaths and all other accidents are      
effected by the  immediate action of    
some divinity4 ,if a man only stumble   
against a stone  and hurt his toe1 they 
impute it to an ,eatooa2 so that they   
may be  literally said1 agreeably to    
their system1 to tread enchanted        
ground407#bec7 8,the ,maori gods10 says 
a well-informed writer1 8were demons1   
whose evil designs could only be        
counteracted by powerful spells and     
charms2 these proving effectual1        
sacrifices and offerings were made to   
soothe the vanquished spirits and       
appease their wrath40 8,the gods in     
general appeared in the whirlwind and   
lightning1 answering their votaries  in 
the clap of thunder4 ,the inferior      

beings made themselves visible in the   
form of lizards1 moths1 butterflies1    
spiders1 and even flies2 when they      
spoke it was in a low whistling tone4   
,they were supposed to be so numerous   
as to surround the living in crowds1 kei
 te muia nga wairua penei nga  wairoa1  
#8the spirits throng like mosquitoes1'  
ever watching to inflict  evil407#bed7  
7,m#ei7 ,again1 we are informed that the
 popular religion of the ,pelew         
,islanders 8has reference to the gods   
7kaliths7 who may be useful or  harmful 
to men in all their doings4 ,their      
imagination peoples the sea1 the  wood1 
the earth with numerous gods1 and       
whatever a man undertakes1 be it  to    
catch fish or fell a tree1 he must first
 propitiate the deities1 or  rather     
guard himself against their spiteful    
anger1 which can only be done  by means 
of certain spells and incantations4 ,the
 knowledge of these  incantations is    
limited to a very few persons1 and forms
 in fact the  secret of the arts and    

industries which are plied in the       
islands4 ,a master  of his craft is not 
he who can build a good house or a      
faultless canoe1  but he who possesses  
the golay or magic power to ban the     
tree-gods1 that  they may not prove     
hurtful to the workmen and to the people
 who afterwards  use the things4 ,all   
these gods of the earth1 the woods1 the 
mountains1 the  brooks are very         
mischievous and dangerous1 and most     
diseases are caused by  them4 ,hence the
 persons who possess the magic power are
 dreaded1  frequently employed1 and well
 paid2 but in extreme cases they are    
regarded  as sorcerers and treated      
accordingly4 ,if one of them builds a   
house for  somebody and is dissatisfied 
with his remuneration1 he stirs up the  
tree-god to avenge him4 ,so the         
inhabitants of the house he has built   
fall  sick1 and if help is not          
forthcoming they die407#bee7 ,of the    
,mortlock  ,islanders we are told that  
8their imagination peopled the whole of 

nature  with spirits and deities1 of    
whom the number was past finding        
out407#bef7    7,m#fj7 ,speaking of the 
natives of the ,philippine ,islands a   
writer observes  that 8the basis of all 
the superstitious beliefs of the        
,negritos1 what  might else be termed   
their religion1 is the constant presence
 of the  spirits of the dead near where 
they lived when alive4 ,all places are  
inhabited by the spirits4 ,all adverse  
circumstances1 sickness1 failure of     
crops1 unsuccessful hunts1 are          
attributed to them407#beg7 ,as to the   
,melanesians of ,new ,britain we read   
that 8another deeply rooted belief      
which exercises an extraordinary        
influence on the life and customs of    
these people is a belief in demons4 ,to 
their thinking the demons1  tambaran 7a 
word synonymous with #8poor wretch1'    
#8sufferer'7 are spirits  entirely      
perverse1 deceitful1 maleficent1 and    
ceaselessly occupied in  injuring us4   
,diseases1 death1 the perturbations of  

nature1 all unfortunate  events are     
imputed to them4 ,the demons exist in   
legions2 they live  everywhere1         
especially in the forests1 desert       
places1 and the depths of  the          
sea407#beh7 ,the beliefs and customs of 
one particular tribe of this  great     
island--the ,livuans1 who occupy the    
eastern coast of the ,gazelle           
,peninsula in ,new ,britain--have been  
described by a ,catholic missionary in  
similar terms4 8,the distrustful        
natives10 he tells us1 8have not        
attained  to a belief in a beneficent1  
compassionate deity4 ,all the more      
numerous1  however1 are the evil spirits
 with which they people the universe4   
,these  are legion4 ,the power which the
 natives ascribe to these spirits       
extends  not merely to the property of  
mankind but also to life and death4 ,the
  ,livuan always believes that he can   
trace the pernicious influence of these 
tambaran 7devils7 on his actions4 ,in   
his conviction1 the whole thoughts  and 

endeavours of the evil spirits have no  
other object than to injure men  in     
every possible way4 ,this dismal1       
comfortless superstition weighs heavy   
on the native407#bei7 ,again1 another   
writer who lived for thirty years  among
 the ,melanesians of the ,bismarck      
,archipelago1 of which ,new ,britain    
forms part1 observes that 8we often find
 the view expressed that the  native is 
a being who lives only for the day1     
without cares of any kind4  ,the view is
 very erroneous1 for in fact he leads a 
life which is plagued  by cares of all  
sorts4 ,amongst the greatest plagues of 
his life is his  bottomless             
superstition4 ,he sees himself          
surrounded at every step by evil        
spirits and their influences4 ,he trusts
 nobody1 for who knows whether his      
nearest neighbour1 his professedly best 
friend1 is not plotting to bring        
trouble1 sickness1 and even death on him
 by means of magic8 ,everywhere he  sees
 snares set for him1 everywhere he      

scents treachery and guile4 ,we need    
not wonder1 therefore1 that mistrust is 
a leading feature in the character  not 
only of the ,new ,britons1 but of the   
,melanesians generally4444 ,the  native 
is simply not accessible to rational    
motives4 ,the only motive he            
understands is sorcery on the part of   
malicious men or the influence of  evil 
spirits407#bfj7    7,m#fa7 ,a ,dutch    
missionary1 who spent twenty-five years 
among the natives of  ,dutch ,new       
,guinea1 tells us that 8in their        
ignorance of a living ,god the  ,papuans
 people earth and air1 land and sea with
 mysterious malignant  powers1 which    
take up their abode in stones and trees 
or in men and cause  all kinds of       
misfortunes1 especially sickness and    
death407#bfa7 ,again1  speaking of the  
,bukaua1 a tribe of ,german ,new        
,guinea1 a ,german missionary  writes   
that 8the ,bukaua knows himself to be   
surrounded by spirits  7balum7 at every 
step4 ,an insight into the life and mode

 of thought of  the natives1 as the     
latter is expressed especially in their 
stories1  confirms this view completely4
 ,what wonder that the fear of spirits  
dominates the whole existence of the    
,bukaua and causes him to tremble even  
in the hour of death8 ,there are spirits
 of the beach1 the water1 the  fields1  
the forests1 spirits that reside in the 
villages and particular  places1 and a  
sort of vagabonds1 who can take up their
 abode even in  lifeless things40 ,then 
after describing the demons of the      
beach1 the  water1 and the field1 the   
writer proceeds as follows3 8,of forest 
spirits  the number is infinite2 for it 
is above all in the mysterious darkness1
  the tangled wildernesses of the virgin
 forest that the spirits love to  dwell4
 ,they hold their meetings in what are  
called evil places4 ,they are  never    
bent on good4 ,especially at nightfall  
the native fancies he hears  the voice  
of the spirits in the hum and chirping  
of the insects in the  forest4 ,they    

lure hunting dogs from the trail4 ,they 
make wild boars rabid2  in the form of  
snakes they make inroads into human     
dwellings2 they drive  men crazy or into
 fits2 they play roguish tricks of all  
sorts407#bfb7    7,m#fb7 ,among the     
tribes who inhabit the south-eastern    
coasts of ,new ,guinea  8a death in a   
village is the occasion of bringing     
plenty of ghosts to  escort their new   
companion1 and perhaps fetch some one   
else4 ,all night the  friends of the    
deceased sit up and keep the drums going
 to drive away the  spirits4 ,when ,i   
was sleeping one night at ,hood ,bay1 a 
party of young men  and boys came round 
with sticks1 striking the fences and    
posts of houses  all through the        
village4 ,this ,i found was always done 
when any one died1  to drive back the   
spirits to their own quarters on the    
adjacent mountain  tops4 ,but it is the 
spirits of the inland tribes1 the       
aborigines of the  country1 that the    
coast tribes most fear4 ,the road from  

the interior to  ,port ,moresby passed  
close to our house1 and the natives told
 us that the  barking of our ,english   
dog at night had frightened the evil    
spirits so  effectually that they had   
had no ghostly visitors since we came4  
,i was  camping out one night in the    
bush with some coast natives1 at a time 
when  a number of the natives of the    
interior were hunting in the            
neighbourhood2  noticing that the men   
with me did not go to sleep1 ,i asked if
 they were  afraid of the mountain men4 
#8,no1' they replied1 #8but the whole   
plain is  full of the spirits who come  
with them4' ,all calamities are         
attributed to  the power and malice of  
these evil spirits4 ,drought and famine1
 storm and  flood1 disease and death are
 all supposed to be brought by #8,vata' 
and his  hosts407#bfc7    7,m#fc7 ,the  
inhabitants of ,timor1 an island to the 
south-west of ,new ,guinea1  revere the 
lord of heaven1 the sun1 the mistress of
 the earth1 and the  spirits of the     

dead4 8,these last dwell1 some with the 
mistress of the  earth under ground1    
others on graves1 others in stones and  
springs and  woods1 some on mountains   
and some in the habitations of their    
kinsfolk1  where they take up their     
abode in the middle of the principal    
post of the  house or in copper cymbals1
 in swords and pikes4 ,others again     
assume the  shape of pigs and deer and  
bees2 men who have fallen in battle love
  especially to turn into bees1 that    
they may roam over the earth at will4   
,the ghosts who reside with the mistress
 of the earth are male and female1  and 
their offspring swarm by myriads in the 
air1 so that the people think  you      
cannot stir without striking against one
 of them4 ,according to their  whim of  
the moment the ghosts are good or bad40 
8,all diseases which are  not due to    
infection or transmitted by inheritance 
are ascribed to the  mistress of the    
earth1 to the ghosts1 and to their      
wicked offspring1 who  inflict them as  

punishments for insults and injuries1   
for insufficient  food1 for the killing 
of deer and of wild pigs1 in which the  
ghosts take  up their abode temporarily1
 and also for the sale of cymbals1      
swords and  pikes1 in which a ghost had 
settled407#bfd7 ,the natives of ,amboyna
 think  that 8woods1 mountains1 trees1  
stones1 indeed the whole universe1 is   
inhabited by a multitude of spirits1 of 
whom many are the souls of the          
dead407#bfe7 ,in ,bolang ,mongondo1 a   
district of ,celebes1 8all calamities1  
great and small1 of whatever kind1 and  
by whatever name they are called1  that 
befall men and animals1 villages1       
gardens and so forth1 are  attributed to
 evil or angry spirits4 ,the            
superstition is indescribably  great4   
,the smallest wound1 the least          
indisposition1 the most trifling        
adversity in the field1 at the fishing1 
on a journey or what not1 is  believed  
by the natives to be traceable to the   
anger of their ancestors4  ,the         

superstition cripples every effort to   
remedy the calamities except by         
sacrifice4 ,there is perhaps no country 
the inhabitants of which know so  little
 about simples as ,bolang ,mongondo4    
,what a native of ,bolang ,mongondo     
calls medicine is nothing but sacrifice1
 magic1 and talismans4 ,and the  method 
of curing a sick man always consists in 
the use of magic1 or in the             
propitiation of angry ancestral spirits 
by means of offerings1 or in the        
banishment of evil spirits4 ,the        
application of one or other of these    
three  methods depends again on the     
decision of the sorcerer1 who plays a   
great  part in every case of            
sickness407#bff7    7,m#fd7 ,in the     
island of ,bali 8all the attention paid 
to the sick has its  root solely in the 
excessive superstition of these         
islanders1 which leads  them to impute  
every unpleasantness in life1 every     
adversity to the  influence of evil     
spirits or of men who are in some way in

 league with  them4 ,the belief in      
witches and wizards is everywhere great 
in the ,indies1  but perhaps nowhere is 
it so universal and so strong as in     
,bali407#bfg7 ,in  ,java1 we are told1  
it is not merely great shady trees that 
are believed to  be the abode of        
spirits4 8,in other places also1 where  
the vital energy of  nature manifests   
itself strikingly and impressively1 a   
feeling of  veneration is stirred1 as on
 the sea-shore1 in deep woods1 on steep 
mountain sides4 ,all such spots are     
supposed to be the abode of spirits of  
various kinds1 whose mighty power is    
regarded with reverence and awe1  whose 
anger is dreaded1 and whose favour is   
hoped for4 ,but wherever they  dwell1   
whether in scenes of loveliness that    
move the heart1 or in spots  that affect
 the mind with fright and horror1 the   
nature and disposition of  these spirits
 appear not to differ4 ,they are a      
source of fear and anxiety  in the one  
case just as much as in the other4 ,to  

none of them did ,i ever  hear moral    
qualities ascribed4 ,they are mighty1   
they are potentates1 and  therefore it  
is well with him who has their favour   
and ill with him who  has it not2 this  
holds true of them all40 8,the number of
 the spirits is  innumerable and        
inconceivable4 ,all the phenomena of    
nature1 which we trace  to fixed laws   
and constant forces1 are supposed by the
 ,javanese to be  wrought by            
spirits407#bfh7    7,m#fe7 ,the natives 
of the valley of the ,barito in ,borneo 
hold that 8the air  is filled with      
countless hantoes 7spirits74 ,every     
object has such a  spirit which watches 
over it and seeks to defend it from     
danger4 ,it is  these spirits especially
 that bring sickness and misfortune on  
men1 and  for that reason offerings are 
often made to them and also to the      
powerful  ,sangsangs 7angels71 whereas  
the supreme ,god1 the original fountain 
of  all good1 is neglected407#bfi7 ,of  
the ,battas or ,bataks of ,sumatra we   

are  told that 8the key-note of their   
religious mood is fear of the unknown   
powers1 a childish feeling of           
dependence1 the outcome of a belief in  
supernatural influences to which man is 
constantly exposed1 in wonders and      
witchcraft1 which hamper his free       
action4 ,they feel themselves           
continually  surrounded by unseen beings
 and dependent on them for everything40 
8,every  misfortune bespeaks the        
ill-will of the hostile spirits4 ,the   
whole world  is a meeting-place of      
demons1 and most of the phenomena of    
nature are an  expression of their      
power4 ,the only means of remedying or  
counteracting  their baleful influence  
is to drive away the spirits by means of
 certain  words1 as well as by the use  
of amulets and the offering of          
sacrifices to  the guardian             
spirits407#bgj7 ,to the same effect     
another authority on the  religion of   
the ,battas remarks that 8the common man
 has only a very dim  and misty notion  

of his triune god1 and troubles himself 
far more about  the legions of spirits  
which people the whole world around him1
 and  against which he must always be   
protected by magic spells407#bga7       
,again1  speaking of the same people1 a 
,dutch missionary observes that 8if     
there is  still any adherent of         
,rousseau's superficial theories about  
the  idyllically happy and careless life
 of people #8in a state of nature1' he  
ought to come and spend a little time   
among the ,bataks and keep his eyes  and
 ears open4 ,he would soon be convinced 
of the hollowness and falsehood  of     
these phrases and would learn to feel a 
deep compassion for human  beings living
 in perpetual fear of evil              
spirits407#bgb7    7,m#ff7 ,the religion
 of the ,nicobar ,islanders 8is an      
undisguised animism1  and the whole of  
their very frequent and elaborate       
ceremonies and  festivals are aimed at  
exorcising and scaring spirits          
7#8devils1' as they  have been taught to

 call them74 ,fear of spirits and ghosts
 7iwi7 is the  guide to all ceremonies1 
and the life of the people is very      
largely  taken up with ceremonials and  
feasts of all kinds4 ,these are usually 
held  at night1 and whether directly    
religious or merely convivial1 seem all 
to  have an origin in the overmastering 
fear of spirits that possesses the      
,nicobarese4 ,it has so far proved      
ineradicable1 for two centuries of      
varied  and almost continuous missionary
 effort has had no appreciable effect on
  it407#bgc7 ,the ,mantras1 an          
aboriginal race of the ,malay           
,peninsula1 8find or  put a spirit      
everywhere1 in the air they breathe1 in 
the land they  cultivate1 in the forests
 they inhabit1 in the trees they cut    
down1 in the  caves of the rocks4       
,according to them1 the demon is the    
cause of  everything that turns out ill4
 ,if they are sick1 a demon is at the   
bottom  of it2 if an accident happens1  
it is still the spirit who is at work2  

thereupon the demon takes the name of   
the particular evil of which he is      
supposed to be the cause4 ,hence the    
demon being assumed as the author of    
every ill1 all their superstitions      
resolve themselves into enchantments    
and spells to appease the evil spirit1  
to render mild and tractable the        
fiercest beasts407#bgd7 ,to the mind of 
the ,kamtchatkan every corner of  earth 
and heaven seemed full of spirits1 whom 
he revered and dreaded more  than       
,god47#bge7    7,m#fg7 ,in ,india from  
the earliest times down to the present  
day the real  religion of the common    
folk appears always to have been a      
belief in a vast  multitude of spirits1 
of whom many1 if not most1 are          
mischievous and  harmful4 ,as in ,europe
 beneath a superficial layer of         
,christianity a faith  in magic and     
witchcraft1 in ghosts and goblins has   
always survived and  even flourished    
among the weak and ignorant1 so it has  
been and so it is  in the ,east4        

,brahmanism1 ,buddhism1 ,islam may come 
and go1 but the belief  in magic and    
demons remains unshaken through them    
all1 and1 if we may  judge of the future
 from the past1 is likely to survive the
 rise and fall  of other historical     
religions4 ,for the great faiths of the 
world1 just in  so far as they are the  
outcome of superior intelligence1 of    
purer  morality1 of extraordinary       
fervour of aspiration after the ideal1  
fail to  touch and move the common man4 
,they make claims upon his intellect and
 his  heart to which neither the one nor
 the other is capable of responding4    
,the  philosophy they teach is too      
abstract1 the morality they inculcate   
too  exalted for him4 ,the keener minds 
embrace the new philosophy1 the more    
generous spirits are fired by the new   
morality2 and as the world is led by    
such men1 their faith sooner or later   
becomes the professed faith of the      
multitude4 ,yet with the common herd1   
who compose the great bulk of every     

people1 the new religion is accepted    
only in outward show1 because it is     
impressed upon them by their natural    
leaders whom they cannot choose but     
follow4 ,they yield a dull assent to it 
with their lips1 but in their heart     
they never really abandon their old     
superstitions2 in these they cherish a  
faith such as they cannot repose in the 
creed which they nominally  profess2 and
 to these1 in the trials and emergencies
 of life1 they have  recourse as to     
infallible remedies1 when the promises  
of the higher faith  have failed them1  
as indeed such promises are apt to      
do47#bgf7    7,m#fh7 ,to establish for  
,india in particular the truth of the   
propositions  which ,i have just        
advanced1 it may be enough to cite the  
evidence of two  writers of high        
authority1 one of whom deals with the   
most ancient form of  ,indian religion  
known to us1 while the other describes  
the popular  religion of the ,hindoos at
 the present day4 8,according to the    

creed of the  ,vedic ages10 says        
,professor ,oldenberg1 8the whole world 
in which man lives  is animated4 ,sky   
and earth1 mountain1 forest1 trees and  
beasts1 the  earthly water and the      
heavenly water of the clouds1--all is   
filled with  living spiritual beings1   
who are either friendly or hostile to   
mankind4  ,unseen or embodied in visible
 form1 hosts of spirits surround and    
hover  about human habitations1--bestial
 or misshapen goblins1 souls of dead    
friends and souls of foes1 sometimes as 
kindly guardians1 oftener as            
mischief-makers1 bringing disease and   
misfortune1 sucking the blood and       
strength of the living4 ,a soul is      
attributed even to the object fashioned 
by human hands1 whose functions are felt
 to be friendly or hostile4 ,the        
warrior pays his devotion to the divine 
war-chariot1 the divine arrow1 the      
drum2 the ploughman to the ploughshare2 
the gambler to the dice2 the            
sacrificer1 about whom naturally we have

 the most exact information1  reveres   
the stone that presses out the juice of 
the ,soma1 the straw on  which the gods 
recline1 the post to which the          
sacrificial victim is bound1  and the   
divine doors through which the gods come
 forth to enjoy the  sacrifice4 ,at one 
time the beings in whose presence man   
feels himself are  regarded by him as   
really endowed with souls2 at another   
time1 in harmony  with a more advanced  
conception of the world1 they are       
imagined as  substances or fluids       
invested with beneficent or maleficent  
properties3  belief oscillates to and   
fro between the one mode of thought and 
the  other4 ,the art of turning to      
account the operations of these animated
  beings1 the play of these substances  
and forces1 is magic rather than        
worship in the proper sense of the word4
 ,the foundations of this faith and  of 
this magic are an inheritance from the  
remotest past1 from a period1 to  put it
 shortly1 of shamanistic faith in       

spirits and souls1 of shamanistic       
magic4 ,such a period has been passed   
through by the forefathers of the       
,indo-,germanic race as well as by other
 peoples407#bgg7    7,m#fi7 ,coming down
 to the ,hindoos of the present day1 we 
find that their  attitude towards the   
spiritual world is described as follows 
by ,professor  ,monier ,williams4 8,the 
plain fact undoubtedly is that the great
 majority of  the inhabitants of ,india 
are1 from the cradle to the             
burning-ground1  victims of a form of   
mental disease which is best expressed  
by the term  demonophobia4 ,they are    
haunted and oppressed by a perpetual    
dread of  demons4 ,they are firmly      
convinced that evil spirits of all      
kinds1 from  malignant fiends to merely 
mischievous imps and elves1 are ever on 
the  watch to harm1 harass1 and torment 
them1 to cause plague1 sickness1        
famine1 and disaster1 to impede1 injure1
 and mar every good work407#bgh7        
,elsewhere the same writer has expressed

 the same view somewhat more fully4     
8,in fact10 he says1 8a belief in every 
kind of demoniacal influence has  always
 been from the earliest times an        
essential ingredient in ,hindu          
religious thought4 ,the idea probably   
had its origin in the supposed  peopling
 of the air by spiritual beings--the    
personifications or companions  of storm
 and tempest4 ,certainly no one who has 
ever been brought into  close contact   
with the ,hindus in their own country   
can doubt the fact that  the worship of 
at least ninety per cent4 of the people 
of ,india in the  present day is a      
worship of fear4 ,not that the existence
 of good deities  presided over by one  
,supreme ,being is doubted2 but that    
these deities are  believed to be too   
absolutely good to need propitiation2   
just as in  ancient histories of the    
,slav races1 we are told that they      
believed in a  white god and a black    
god1 but paid adoration to the last     
alone1 having1  as they supposed1       

nothing to apprehend from the           
beneficence of the first  or white      
deity4 ,the simple truth is that evil of
 all kinds1 difficulties1  dangers and  
disasters1 famines1 diseases1           
pestilences and death1 are  thought by  
an ordinary ,hindu to proceed from      
demons1 or1 more properly  speaking1    
from devils1 and from devils alone4     
,these malignant beings are  held1 as we
 have seen1 to possess varying degrees  
of rank1 power1 and  malevolence4 ,some 
aim at destroying the entire world1 and 
threaten the  sovereignty of the gods   
themselves4 ,some delight in killing    
men1 women1  and children1 out of a mere
 thirst for human blood4 ,some take a   
mere  mischievous pleasure in           
tormenting1 or revel in the infliction  
of  sickness1 injury1 and misfortune4   
,all make it their business to mar or   
impede the progress of good works and   
useful undertakings407#bgi7    7,m#gj7  
,it would be easy but tedious to        
illustrate in detail this general       

account of the dread of demons which    
prevails among the inhabitants of       
,india at the present day4 ,a very few  
particular statements must suffice4     
,thus1 we are told that the ,oraons1 a  
,dravidian race in ,bengal1             
8acknowledge a ,supreme ,god1 adored as 
,dharmi or ,dharmesh1 the ,holy ,one1   
who is manifest in the sun1 and they    
regard ,dharmesh as a perfectly pure1   
beneficent being1 who created us and    
would in his goodness and mercy         
preserve us1 but that his benevolent    
designs are thwarted by malignant       
spirits whom mortals must propitiate1 as
 ,dharmesh cannot or does not           
interfere1 if the spirit of evil once   
fastens upon us4 ,it is1 therefore1  of 
no use to pray to ,dharmesh or to offer 
sacrifices to him2 so though            
acknowledged1 recognised1 and           
reverenced1 he is neglected1 whilst the 
malignant spirits are adored40 ,again1  
it is said of these ,oraons that1 8as   
the sole object of their religious      

ceremonies is the propitiation of the   
demons who are ever thwarting the       
benevolent intentions of ,dharmesh1 they
  have no notion of a service of        
thanksgiving40 ,once more1 after giving 
a  list of ,oraon demons1 the same      
writer goes on3 8,besides this          
superstitious  dread of the spirits     
above named1 the ,oraon's imagination   
tremblingly  wanders in a world of      
ghosts4 ,every rock1 road1 river1 and   
grove is  haunted407#bhj7 ,again1 a     
missionary who spent many years among   
the ,kacharis  of ,assam tells us that  
8the religion of the ,kachri race is    
distinctly of  the type commonly known  
as #8animistic' and its underlying      
principle is  characteristically one of 
fear or dread4 ,the statement ,timor    
fecit deos  certainly holds good of this
 people in its widest and strictest     
sense2 and  their religion thus stands  
in very marked1 not to say violent1     
contrast  with the teaching of the      
,faith in ,christ4 ,in the typical      

,kachri village  as a rule neither idol 
nor place of worship is to be found2 but
 to the  ,kachri mind and imagination   
earth1 air1 and sky are alike peopled   
with a  vast number of invisible        
spiritual beings1 known usually as      
,modai1 all  possessing powers and      
faculties far greater than those of man1
 and almost  invariably inclined to use 
these powers for malignant and          
malevolent1  rather than benevolent1    
purposes4 ,in a certain stage of moral  
and  spiritual development men are      
undoubtedly influenced far more by what 
they  fear than by what they love2 and  
this truth certainly applies to the     
,kachri race in the most unqualified    
way407#bha7 ,again1 the ,siyins1 who    
inhabit the ,chin ,hills of             
north-eastern ,india1 on the borders of 
,burma1  8say that there is no ,supreme 
,god and no other world save this1 which
 is  full of evil spirits who inhabit   
the fields1 infest the houses1 and haunt
  the jungles4 ,these spirits must be   

propitiated or bribed to refrain from   
doing the particular harm of which each 
is capable1 for one can destroy  crops1 
another can make women barren1 and a    
third cause a lizard to enter  the      
stomach and devour the bowels407#bhb7   
8,like most mountaineers1 the  people of
 ,sikhim and the ,tibetans are          
thorough-going demon-worshippers4 ,in   
every nook1 path1 big tree1 rock1       
spring1 waterfall and lake there lurks a
  devil2 for which reason few           
individuals will venture out alone after
 dark4  ,the sky1 the ground1 the house1
 the field1 the country have each their 
special demons1 and sickness is always  
attributed to malign demoniacal         
influence407#bhc7 8,even the purest of  
all the ,lamaist sects--the             
,ge-lug-pa--are thorough-paced          
devil-worshippers1 and value ,buddhism  
chiefly  because it gives them the      
whip-hand over the devils which         
everywhere vex  humanity with disease   
and disaster1 and whose ferocity weighs 

heavily on  all407#bhd7 ,the ,lushais of
 ,assam believe in a beneficent spirit  
named  ,pathian1 who made everything but
 troubles himself very little about men4
  ,far more important in ordinary life  
are the numerous demons 7huai71 who     
inhabit every stream1 mountain1 and     
forest1 and are all malignant4 ,to      
their agency are ascribed all the       
illnesses and misfortunes that afflict  
humanity1 and a ,lushai's whole life is 
spent in propitiating them4 ,it is  the 
sorcerer 7puithiam7 who knows what demon
 is causing any particular  trouble1 and
 it is he who can prescribe the sort of 
sacrifice which will  appease the wrath 
of the fiend4 ,every form of sickness is
 set down to the  influence of some     
demon or other1 and all the tales about 
these spiritual  foes begin or end with 
the recurrent phrase1 8,there was much  
sickness in  our village407#bhe7 ,in    
,travancore 8the minor superstitions    
connected with  demon-worship are       
well-nigh innumerable2 they enter into  

all the feelings1  and are associated   
with the whole life of these people4    
,every disease1  accident1 or misfortune
 is attributed to the agency of the     
devils1 and  great caution is exercised 
to avoid arousing their fury407#bhf7    
7,m#ga7 ,with regard to the inhabitants 
of ,ceylon we are told that 8the  fiends
 which they conceive to be hovering     
around them are without number4  ,every 
disease or trouble that assails them is 
produced by the immediate  agency of the
 demons sent to punish them3 while1 on  
the other hand1 every  blessing or      
success comes directly from the hands of
 the beneficent and  supreme ,god4 ,to  
screen themselves from the power of the 
inferior deities1  who are all          
represented as wicked spirits1 and whose
 power is by no means  irresistible1    
they wear amulets of various            
descriptions2 and employ a  variety of  
charms and spells to ward off the       
influence of witchcraft and             
enchantments by which they think        

themselves beset on all sides40 8,it is 
probable that1 by degrees1 intercourse  
with ,europeans will entirely do  away  
these superstitious fears1 as the       
,cinglese of the towns have already     
made considerable progress in subduing  
their gloomy apprehensions4 ,not so  the
 poor wretched peasants who inhabit the 
more mountainous parts of the  country1 
and live at a distance from our         
settlements4 ,these unhappy people  have
 never for a moment their minds free    
from the terror of those demons  who    
seem perpetually to hover around them4  
,their imaginations are so  disturbed by
 such ideas that it is not uncommon to  
see many driven to  madness from this   
cause4 ,several ,cinglese lunatics have 
fallen under my  own observation2 and   
upon inquiring into the circumstances   
which had  deprived them of their       
reason1 ,i universally found that their 
wretched  state was to be traced solely 
to the excess of their superstitious    
fears4  ,the spirits of the wicked      

subordinate demons are the chief objects
 of fear  among the ,ceylonese2 and     
impress their minds with much more awe  
than the  more powerful divinities who  
dispense blessings among them4 ,they    
indeed  think that their country is in a
 particular manner delivered over to the
  dominion of evil spirits407#bhg7      
7,m#gb7 ,in ,eastern as well as         
,southern ,asia the same view of nature 
as  pervaded by a multitude of spirits1 
mostly mischievous and malignant1 has   
survived the nominal establishment of a 
higher faith4 8,in spite of their  long 
conversion1 their sincere belief in1 and
 their pure form of1  ,buddhism1 which  
expressly repudiates and forbids such   
worship1 the ,burmans  and ,taleins 7or 
,mons7 have in a great measure kept     
their ancient spirit or  demon worship4 
,with the ,taleins this is more         
especially the case4 ,indeed1  with the 
country population of ,pegu the worship1
 or it should rather be  said the       
propitiation1 of the #8nats' or spirits1

 enters into every act of  their        
ordinary life1 and ,buddha's doctrine   
seems kept for sacred days and  their   
visits to the kyoung 7monastery7 or to  
the pagoda407#bhh7 ,or1 as  another     
writer puts it1 8the propitiating of the
 nats is a question of  daily concern to
 the lower class ,burman1 while the     
worship at the pagoda  is only thought  
of once a week4 ,for the nat may prove  
destructive and  hostile at any time1   
whereas the acquisition of koothoh merit
 at the  pagoda is a thing which may be 
set about in a business-like way1 and at
  proper and convenient seasons407#bhi7 
,but the term worship1 we are  informed1
 hardly conveys a proper notion of the  
attitude of the ,burmese  towards the   
nats or spirits4 8,even the ,karens and 
,kachins1 who have no  other form of    
belief1 do not regard them otherwise    
than as malevolent  beings who must be  
looked up to with fear1 and propitiated 
by regular  offerings4 ,they do not want
 to have anything to do with the nats2  

all they  seek is to be let alone4 ,the 
bamboo pipes of spirit1 the bones of    
sacrificial animals1 the hatchets1      
swords1 spears1 bows and arrows that    
line the way to a ,kachin village1 are  
placed there not with the idea of       
attracting the spirits1 but of          
preventing them from coming right among 
the  houses in search of their          
requirements4 ,if they want to drink1   
the rice  spirit has been poured out1   
and the bamboo stoup is there in        
evidence of  the libation2 the          
blood-stained skulls of oxen1 pigs1 and 
the feathers of  fowls show that there  
has been no stint of meat offerings2    
should the nats  wax quarrelsome1 and   
wish to fight1 there are the axes and   
dahs with which  to commence the fray4  
,only let them be grateful1 and leave   
their trembling  worshippers in peace   
and quietness407#bij7    7,m#gc7        
,similarly the ,lao or ,laosians of     
,siam1 though they are nominally        
,buddhists1 and have monks and pagodas  

with images of ,buddha1 are said to  pay
 more respect to spirits or demons than 
to these idols47#bia7 8,the  desire to  
propitiate the good spirits and to      
exorcise the bad ones is the  prevailing
 influence upon the life of a ,laosian4 
,with phees evil  spirits to right of   
him1 to left of him1 in front of him1   
behind him1 all  round him1 his mind is 
haunted with a perpetual desire to make 
terms with  them1 and to ensure the     
assistance of the great ,buddha1 so that
 he may  preserve both body and soul    
from the hands of the spirits407#bib7   
8,independently of the demons who are in
 hell1 the ,siamese recognise  another  
sort of devils diffused in the air3 they
 call them phi2 these  are1 they say1   
the demons who do harm to men and who   
appear sometimes in  horrible shapes4   
,they put down to the account of these  
malign spirits all  the calamities which
 happen in the world4 ,if a mother has  
lost a child1 it  is a phi who has done 
the ill turn2 if a sick man is given    

over1 it is a  phi that is at the bottom
 of it4 ,to appease him1 they invoke him
 and  make him offerings which they hang
 up in desert places407#bic7 ,as to the 
,thay1 a widely spread race of          
,indo-,china17#bid7 a ,french missionary
 writes  as follows3 8,it may be said   
that the ,thay lives in constant        
intercourse  with the invisible world4  
,there is hardly an act of his life     
which is not  regulated by some         
religious belief4 ,there are two        
worships1 the worship of  the spirits   
and the worship of the dead1 which1     
however1 are scarcely  distinguishable  
from each other1 since the dead become  
spirits by the mere  fact of their      
death4 ,his simple imagination          
represents to him the world of  spirits 
as a sort of double of the state of     
things here below4 ,at the  summit is   
,po ,then1 the father of the empyrean4  
,below him are the ,then--,then  ,bun1  
,then ,kum1 ,then ,kom1 of whom the     
chief is ,then ,luong1 #8the great      

,then4' ,the dead go and cultivate his  
rice-fields in heaven and clear his     
mountains1 just as they did their own in
 their life on earth4 ,he has to  wife a
 goddess ,me ,bau4 ,besides these       
heavenly spirits1 the ,thay reckons a   
multitude of others under the name of   
phi4 ,his science being not very        
extensive1 many things seem             
extraordinary to him4 ,if he cannot     
explain a  certain natural phenomenon1  
his perplexity does not last long4 ,it  
is the  work of a phi1 he says1 and his 
priests take care not to dissuade him4  
,hence he sees spirits everywhere4      
,there are phi on the steep mountains1  
in the deep woods1 the phi bai who1 by  
night on the mountain1 imitate  the rain
 and the storms and leave no trace of   
their passage4 ,if they shew            
themselves1 they appear in the form of  
gigantic animals and cause terrible     
stomach troubles1 such as diarrha1      
dysentery1 and so on4444 ,the large     
animals of the forest1 wild oxen and    

buffaloes1 rhinoceroses1 elephants1  and
 so on1 have their guardian spirits4    
,hence the prudent hunter learns at  the
 outset to exorcise them in order that1 
when he has killed these  animals1 he   
may be able to cut them up and eat their
 flesh without having  to fear the      
vengeance of their invisible guardian4  
,spirits also guard the  clearings      
whither the deer come by night to drink4
 ,the hunter should  sacrifice a fowl to
 them from time to time1 if he would    
bring down his  game with ease4 ,the gun
 itself has a spirit who looks to it    
that the  powder explodes4 ,in short1   
the ,thay cannot take a single step     
without  meeting a spirit on the        
path407#bie7 8,thus the life of the     
,thay seems  regulated down to its      
smallest details by custom founded on   
his belief in  the spirits4 ,spirits    
perpetually watch him1 ready to punish  
his  negligences1 and he is afraid4     
,fear is not only for him the beginning 
of  wisdom1 it is the whole of his      

wisdom4 ,love has only a very moderate  
place  in it4 ,even the respect in which
 he holds his dead1 and the honours     
which  he pays them on various          
occasions1 seem to be dominated by a    
superstitious  fear4 ,it seems that the 
sacrifices which he offers to them aim  
rather at  averting from himself the    
evils which he dreads than at honouring 
worthily  the memory of his deceased    
kinsfolk and at paying them the tribute 
of his  affection and gratitude4 ,once  
they sleep their last sleep yonder in   
the  shadow of the great trees of the   
forest1 none goes to shed a tear and    
murmur a prayer on their grave4 ,nothing
 but calamity suffices to rescue  them  
from the oblivion into which they had   
fallen in the memory of the             
living407#bif7    7,m#gd7 8,the dogma1  
prevailing in ,china from the earliest  
times1 that the  universe is filled in  
all its parts with shen and kwei1       
naturally  implies that devils and      
demons must also swarm about the homes  

of men in  numbers inestimable4 ,it is1 
in fact1 an axiom which constantly comes
 out  in conversing with the people1    
that they haunt every frequented and    
lonely  spot1 and that no place exists  
where man is safe from them407#big7     
8,the  worship and propitiation of the  
gods1 which is the main part of ,china's
  religion1 has no higher purpose than  
that of inducing the gods to protect    
man against the world of evil1 or1 by   
descending among men1 to drive  spectres
 away by their intimidating presence4   
,this cult implies invocation  of       
happiness2 but as happiness merely means
 absence of misfortune which  the       
spectres cause1 such a cult is          
tantamount to the disarming of spectres 
by means of the gods4444 ,taoism may    
then actually be defined as ,exorcising 
,polytheism1 a cult of the gods with    
which ,eastern ,asiatic imagination has 
filled the universe1 connected with a   
highly developed system of magic1       
consisting for a great part in exorcism4

 ,this cult and magic is1 of  course1   
principally in the hands of priests4    
,but1 besides1 the lay world1  enslaved 
to the intense belief in the perilous   
omnipresence of spectres1  is engaged   
every day in a restless defensive and   
offensive war against  those            
beings407#bih7    7,m#ge7 ,in ,corea1   
8among the reasons which render the     
shaman a necessity are  these4 ,in      
,korean belief1 earth1 air1 and sea are 
peopled by demons4 ,they  haunt every   
umbrageous tree1 shady ravine1 crystal  
spring1 and mountain  crest4 ,on green  
hill-slopes1 in peaceful agricultural   
valleys1 in grassy  dells1 on wooded    
uplands1 by lake and stream1 by road and
 river1 in north1  south1 east1 and     
west1 they abound1 making malignant     
sport of human  destinies4 ,they are on 
every roof1 ceiling1 fireplace1 kang and
 beam4  ,they fill the chimney1 the     
shed1 the living-room1 the kitchen--they
 are on  every shelf and jar4 ,in       
thousands they waylay the traveller as  

he leaves  his home1 beside him1 behind 
him1 dancing in front of him1 whirring  
over  his head1 crying out upon him from
 earth1 air1 and water4 ,they are       
numbered by thousands of billions1 and  
it has been well said that their        
ubiquity is an unholy travesty of the   
,divine ,omnipresence4 ,this belief1    
and it seems to be the only one he has1 
keeps the ,korean in a perpetual  state 
of nervous apprehension1 it surrounds   
him with indefinite terrors1  and it may
 truly be said of him that he #8passes  
the time of his sojourning  here in     
fear4' ,every ,korean home is subject to
 demons1 here1 there1 and  everywhere4  
,they touch the ,korean at every point  
in life1 making his  well-being depend  
on a continual series of acts of        
propitiation1 and they  avenge every    
omission with merciless severity1       
keeping him under this yoke  of bondage 
from birth to death40 8,koreans         
attribute every ill by which  they are  
afflicted to demoniacal influence4 ,bad 

luck in any transaction1  official      
malevolence1 illness1 whether sudden or 
prolonged1 pecuniary  misfortune1 and   
loss of power or position1 are due to   
the malignity of  demons4 ,it is over   
such evils that the ,pan-su shaman is   
supposed to  have power1 and to be able 
to terminate them by magical rites1 he  
being  possessed by a powerful demon1   
whose strength he is able to            
wield407#bii7    7,m#gf7 ,of the nomadic
 ,koryaks of north-eastern ,asia it is  
said that 8all  their religious customs 
have only reference to the evil spirits 
of the  earth4 ,their religion is thus a
 cunning diplomacy or negotiation with  
these spirits in order1 as far as       
possible1 to deter them from actions    
which would be injurious to men4        
,everywhere1 on every mountain1 in the  
sea1 by the rivers1 in the forest1 and  
on the plains their fancy sees  demons  
lurking1 whom they picture to themselves
 as purely malignant and  very greedy4  
,hence the frequent offerings by which  

they seek to satisfy  the greed of these
 insatiable beings1 and to redeem that  
which they value  and hold dear4 ,those 
of the people who are believed to be    
able to divine  most easily the wishes  
of the evil ones and who enjoy their    
favour to a  certain extent are called  
shamans1 and the religious ceremonies   
which they  perform are shamanism4 ,in  
every case the shamans must give their  
advice as  to how the devils are to be  
got rid of1 and must reveal the wishes  
of the  demons407#cjj7 ,as to these     
demons of the earth1 who infest the     
,koryaks1 we  are told that 8when       
visiting the houses to cause diseases   
and to kill  people1 they enter from    
under ground1 through the hearth-fire1  
and return  the same way4 ,it happens at
 times that they steal people1 and carry
 them  away4 ,they are invisible to     
human beings1 and are capable of        
changing  their size4 ,they are         
sometimes so numerous in houses1 that   
they sit on the  people1 and fill up all

 corners4 ,with hammers and axes they   
knock people  over their heads1 thus    
causing headaches4 ,they bite1 and cause
 swellings4  ,they shoot invisible      
arrows1 which stick in the body1 causing
 death1 if a  shaman does not pull them 
out in time4 ,the kalau demons tear out 
pieces of flesh from people1 thus       
causing sores and wounds to form on     
their bodies407#cja7    7,m#gg7 ,the    
,gilyaks of the ,amoor valley in eastern
 ,asia believe that besides  the gods   
8there are evil supernatural beings who 
do him harm4 ,they are  devils1 called  
mil'k1 kinr4 ,these beings appear in the
 most varied  forms and are             
distinguished according to the degree of
 their harmfulness4  ,they appear now in
 the form of a ,gilyak1 now in the form 
of an animal1  from a bear down to a    
toad and a lizard4 ,they exist on the   
land and in the  sea1 under the earth   
and in the sky4 ,some of them form      
special tribes of  treacherous beings   
whose essential nature it is to be      

destructive4 ,others  are isolated      
individuals1 ruined beings1 #8lost sons'
 of families of  beneficent beings1 who 
are exceptional in their hostility to   
man4 ,the  former class are naturally   
the most dangerous4 ,some are wholly    
occupied in  robbing the ,gilyak on the 
road 7the spirits of                    
loss--gerniwuch-en72  others empty his  
barns1 his traps1 his pitfalls1 and so  
on2 lastly there  are such also1 the    
most dreadful of all1 who lie in wait   
for his life and  bring sickness and    
death4 ,were there no such beings1 men  
would not die4 ,a  natural death is     
impossible4 ,death is the result of the 
wiles of these  treacherous             
beings407#cjb7    7,m#gh7 ,in the more  
westerly parts of the old world the same
 belief in the  omnipresence and        
mischievous power of spirits has        
prevailed from antiquity  to the present
 day4 ,if we may judge from the         
fragments of their literature  which    
have been deciphered1 few people seem to

 have suffered more from the  persistent
 assaults of demons than the ancient    
,babylonians and ,assyrians1  and the   
evil spirits that preyed on them were of
 a peculiarly cruel and  malignant sort2
 even the gods themselves were not      
exempt from their  attacks4 ,these      
baleful beings lurked in solitary       
places1 in graves1 in the  shadow of    
ruins and on the tops of mountains4     
,they dwelt in the  wilderness1 in the  
holes and dens of the earth1 they issued
 from the lower  parts of the ground4   
,nothing could resist them in heaven    
above1 nothing  could withstand them on 
earth below4 ,they roamed the streets1  
they leaped  from house to house4 ,the  
high and thick fences they penetrated   
like a  flood1 the door could not stay  
them1 nor the bolt make them turn back4 
,they glided through the door like a    
serpent1 they pierced through the       
planks like the wind4 ,there was no     
place1 however small1 which they could  
not invade1 none so large that they     

could not fill4 ,and their wickedness   
was equal to their power4 8,they are    
wicked1 they are wicked10 says an       
incantation4 ,no prayers could move     
them1 no supplications could make them  
relent2 for they knew no pity1 they     
hearkened not to reason1 they knew no   
troth4 ,to them all manner of evil was  
ascribed4 ,their presence was felt  not 
only in the terrible winds that swept   
the land1 in the fevers bred of  the    
marshes1 and in the diseases engendered 
by the damp heat of summer4  ,all the   
petty annoyances of life--a sudden fall1
 an unlucky word1 a  headache1 a paltry 
quarrel--were set down to the agency of 
fiends2 and all  the fierce emotions    
that rend the mind--love1 hate1         
jealousy1 and  madness--were equally the
 work of these invisible tormentors4    
,men and women  stood in constant danger
 of them4 ,they tore the wife from the  
bosom of her  husband1 the son from the 
knees of his father4 ,they ate the flesh
 and  drank the blood of men1 they      

prevented them from sleeping or taking  
food1  and to adopt a metaphor from one 
of the texts1 8they ground the country  
like flour40 ,almost every part of the  
human frame was menaced by a special    
fiend4 ,one demon assailed the head1    
another the neck1 another the hips1  and
 so on4 ,they bound a man's hands1 they 
fettered his feet1 they spat  poison and
 gall on him4 ,day and night must he    
wander without rest2 sighs  and         
lamentations were his food4 ,they       
attacked even the animals4 ,they drove  
doves from their dovecotes1 and swallows
 from their nests2 they smote the  bull 
and the ass4 ,they pursued the cattle to
 their stalls3 they lodged  with the    
horses in the stable3 they caused the   
she-ass to miscarry1 and  the young ass 
at its mother's dugs to pine away4 ,even
 lifeless things  could be possessed by 
them2 for there were demons that rushed 
against  houses and took walls by storm1
 that shut themselves up in doors1 and  
hid  themselves under bolts4 ,indeed    

they threatened the whole world with    
destruction1 and there was none that    
could deliver from them save only the   
mighty god ,marduk47#cjc7    7,m#gi7 ,in
 the opinion of the ancient ,egyptians  
8there were good spirits as  well as    
bad1 but the ,book of the ,dead         
practically ignores the former1  and its
 magical formulae were directed entirely
 against the operations of  evil        
spirits4 ,though naturally of a gay and 
light-hearted disposition1 the          
,egyptian must have lived in a perpetual
 state of fear of spirits of all  kinds1
 spirits of calamity1 disease1 and      
sickness1 spirits of angry gods  and    
ancestors1 and above all the spirit of  
,death4 ,his imagination filled  the    
world with spirits1 whose acts seemed to
 him to be generally  malevolent1 and   
his magical and religious literature and
 his amulets  testify to the very real  
terror with which he regarded his future
  existence in the world of spirits4    
,escape from such spirits was           

impossible1 for they could not          
die407#cjd7 ,in modern ,egypt the jinn1 
a  class of spiritual beings            
intermediate between angels and men1 are
  believed to pervade the solid matter  
of the earth as well as the  firmament1 
and they inhabit rivers1 ruined houses1 
wells1 baths1 ovens1  and so forth4 ,so 
thickly do they swarm that in pouring   
water or other  liquids on the ground an
 ,egyptian will commonly exclaim or     
mutter  8,destoor60 thereby asking the  
permission or craving the pardon of any 
jinn who might chance to be there1 and  
who might otherwise resent being        
suddenly soused with water or unsavoury 
fluids4 ,so too when people light a     
fire1 let down a bucket into a well1 or 
perform other necessary functions1  they
 will say 8,permission60 or             
8,permission1 ye blessed607#cje7 ,again1
 in  ,egypt it is not considered proper 
to sweep out a house at night1 lest in  
doing so you should knock against a     
jinnee1 who might avenge the            

insult47#cjf7    7,m#hj7 ,the earliest  
of the ,greek philosophers1 ,thales1    
held that the world  is full of gods or 
spirits27#cjg7 and the same primitive   
creed was  expounded by one of the      
latest pagan thinkers of antiquity4     
,porphyry  declared that demons appeared
 in the likeness of animals1 that every 
house  and every body was full of them1 
and that forms of ceremonial            
purification1 such as beating the air   
and so forth1 had no other object  but  
that of driving away the importunate    
swarms of these invisible but  dangerous
 beings4 ,he explained that evil spirits
 delighted in food1  especially in blood
 and impurities1 that they settled like 
flies on us at  meals1 and that they    
could only be kept at a distance by     
ceremonial  observances1 which were     
directed1 not to pleasing the gods1 but 
simply and  solely to beating off       
devils47#cjh7 ,his theory of religious  
purification  seems faithfully to       
reflect the creed of the savage on this 

subject17#cji7  but a philosopher is    
perhaps the last person whom we should  
expect to find  acting as a mirror of   
savagery4 ,it is less surprising to meet
 with the  same venerable doctrine1 the 
same world-wide superstition in the     
mouth of  a mediaeval abbot2 for we know
 that a belief in devils has the        
authority  of the founder of            
,christianity and is sanctioned by the  
teaching of the  church4 ,no ,esquimau  
on the frozen shores of ,labrador1 no   
,indian in the  sweltering forests of   
,guiana1 no cowering ,hindoo in the     
jungles of ,bengal1  could well have a  
more constant and abiding sense of the  
presence of  malignant demons everywhere
 about him than had ,abbot ,richalm1 who
 ruled  over the ,cistercian monastery  
of ,schnthal in the first half of the   
thirteenth century4 ,in the curious work
 to which he gave the name of           
,revelations1 he set forth how he was   
daily and hourly infested by  devils1   
whom1 though he could not see1 he heard1

 and to whom he imputed  all the        
ailments of his flesh and all the       
frailties of his spirit4 ,if he  felt   
squeamish1 he was sure that the feeling 
was wrought in him by  demoniacal       
agency4 ,if puckers appeared on his     
nose1 if his lower lip  drooped1 the    
devils had again to answer for it2 a    
cough1 a cold in the  head1 a hawking   
and spitting1 could have none but a     
supernatural and  devilish origin4 ,if1 
pacing in his orchard on a sunny autumn 
morning1 the  portly abbot stooped to   
pick up the mellow fruit that had fallen
 in the  night1 the blood that mounted  
to his purple face was sent coursing    
thither  by his invisible foes4 ,if the 
abbot tossed on his sleepless couch1    
while  the moonlight1 streaming in at   
the window1 cast the shadows of the     
stanchions like black bars on the floor 
of his cell1 it was not the fleas  and  
so forth that kept him awake--oh no6    
8,vermin10 said he sagely1 8do not      
really bite02 they seem to bite indeed1 

but it is all the work of devils4  ,if a
 monk snored in the dormitory1 the      
unseemly noise proceeded not from  him1 
but from a demon lurking in his person4 
,especially dangerous were the  demons  
of intoxication4 ,these subtle fiends   
commonly lodged at the taverns  in the  
neighbouring town1 but on feast days    
they were apt to slip through  the      
monastery gates and glide unseen among  
the monks seated at the  refectory      
table1 or gathered round the roaring    
fire on the hearth1 while  the bleak    
wind whistled in the abbey towers1 and a
 more generous vintage  than usual      
glowed and sparkled in the flagons4 ,if 
at such times a jolly1  rosy-faced      
brother appeared to the carnal eye and  
ear to grow obstreperous  or maudlin1 to
 speak thick or to reel and stagger in  
his gait1 be sure it  was not the fiery 
spirit of the grape that moved the holy 
man2 it was a  spirit of quite a        
different order4 ,holding such views on 
the source of all  bodily and mental    

indisposition1 it was natural enough    
that the abbot  should prescribe        
remedies which are not to be found in   
the pharmacopia1  and which would be    
asked for in vain at an apothecary's4   
,they consisted  chiefly of holy water  
and the sign of the cross2 this last he 
recommended  particularly as a specific 
for flea-bites47#caj7    7,m#ha7 ,it is 
easy to suggest that the abbot's wits   
were unsettled1 that he  suffered from  
hallucinations1 and so forth4 ,this may 
have been so2 yet a  mode of thought    
like his seems to be too common over a  
great part of the  world to allow us to 
attribute it purely to mental           
derangement4 ,in the  ,middle ,ages1    
when the general level of knowledge was 
low1 a state of mind  like ,richalm's   
may have been shared by multitudes even 
of educated people1  who have not1      
however1 like him1 left a monument of   
their folly to  posterity4 ,at the      
present day1 through the advance and    
spread of  knowledge1 it might be       

difficult to find any person of         
acknowledged sanity  holding the abbot's
 opinions on the subject of demons2 but 
in remote parts  of ,europe a little    
research might shew that the creed of   
,porphyry and  ,richalm is still held1  
with but little variation1 by the mass  
of the  people4 ,thus we are told that  
the ,roumanians of ,transylvania        
8believe  themselves to be surrounded on
 all sides by whole legions of evil     
spirits4  ,these devils are furthermore 
assisted by ismejus 7another sort of    
dragon71 witches1 and goblins1 and to   
each of these dangerous beings are      
ascribed particular powers on particular
 days and at certain places4 ,many  and 
curious are therefore the means by which
 the ,roumanians endeavour to           
counteract these baleful influences2 and
 a whole complicated study1 about  as   
laborious as the mastering of an unknown
 language1 is required in order  to     
teach an unfortunate peasant to steer   
clear of the dangers by which he        

supposes himself to be beset on all     
sides407#caa7    7,m#hb7 ,similar       
beliefs are held to this day by the     
,armenians1 who1 though  they are not a 
,european people1 have basked in the    
light of ,christianity  from a time when
 ,central and ,northern ,europe was     
still plunged in heathen  darkness4 ,all
 the activities1 we are told1 of these  
professing ,christians  8are paralyzed  
after sunset1 because at every step they
 quake with fear1  believing that the   
evil demons are everywhere present in   
the air1 in the  water1 on the earth4   
,by day the evil ones are under the     
earth1 therefore  boiling hot water may 
not be poured on the ground1 because it 
sinks into  the earth and burns the feet
 of the children of the evil spirits4   
,but in  the evening the superstitious  
,armenian will pour no water at all on  
the  earth1 because the evil ones are   
everywhere present on the earth4 ,some  
of  them are walking about1 others are  
sitting at table and feasting1 so that  

they might be disturbed by the pouring  
out of water1 and they would take       
vengeance for it4 ,also by night you    
should not smite the ground with a      
stick1 nor sweep out the house1 nor     
remove the dung from the stable1        
because without knowing it you might hit
 the evil spirits4 ,but if you are      
compelled to sweep by night1 you singe  
the tip of the broom so as to  frighten 
the evil ones away in time4 ,you must   
not go out at night  bareheaded1 for the
 evil ones would smite you on the head4 
,it is also  dangerous to drink water   
out of a vessel in the dark1 especially 
when the  water is drawn from a brook or
 river2 for the evil ones in the water  
hit  out1 or they pass with the water   
into a man4 ,therefore in drinking you  
should hold a knife with three blades or
 a piece of iron in the water4 ,the     
baleful influence of the nocturnal      
demons extends also to useful objects2  
hence after sunset people do not lend   
salt or fire and do not shake out  the  

tablecloth1 because thereby the salt    
would lose its savour and the  welfare  
of the house would depart407#cab7       
,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,public         
,,expulsion ,,of ,,evils4           #a4 
,the ,occasional ,expulsion of ,evils4  
7,m#hc7 ,we can now understand why those
 general clearances of evil1 to which   
from time to time the savage resorts1   
should commonly take the form of a      
forcible expulsion of devils4 ,in these 
evil spirits primitive man sees the     
cause of many if not of most of his     
troubles1 and he fancies that if he  can
 only deliver himself from them1 things 
will go better with him4 ,the  public   
attempts to expel the accumulated ills  
of a whole community may be  divided    
into two classes1 according as the      
expelled evils are immaterial  and      
invisible or are embodied in a material 
vehicle or scapegoat4 ,the  former may  
be called the direct or immediate       
expulsion of evils2 the  latter the     
indirect or mediate expulsion1 or the   

expulsion by scapegoat4  ,we begin with 
examples of the former4    7,m#hd7 ,in  
the island of ,rook1 between ,new       
,guinea and ,new ,britain1 when any     
misfortune has happened1 all the people 
run together1 scream1 curse1 howl1  and 
beat the air with sticks to drive away  
the devil 7,marsba71 who is  supposed to
 be the author of the mishap4 ,from the 
spot where the mishap  took place they  
drive him step by step to the sea1 and  
on reaching the  shore they redouble    
their shouts and blows in order to expel
 him from the  island4 ,he generally    
retires to the sea or to the island of  
,lottin47#cac7  ,the natives of ,new    
,britain ascribe sickness1 drought1 the 
failure of  crops1 and in short all     
misfortunes1 to the influence of wicked 
spirits4  ,so at times when many people 
sicken and die1 as at the beginning of  
the  rainy season1 all the inhabitants  
of a district1 armed with branches and  
clubs1 go out by moonlight to the       
fields1 where they beat and stamp on the

  ground with wild howls till morning1  
believing that this drives away the     
devils2 and for the same purpose they   
rush through the village with  burning  
torches47#cad7 ,the natives of ,new     
,caledonia are said to believe  that all
 evils are caused by a powerful and     
malignant spirit2 hence in  order to rid
 themselves of him they will from time  
to time dig a great  pit1 round which   
the whole tribe gathers4 ,after cursing 
the demon1 they  fill up the pit with   
earth1 and trample on the top with loud 
shouts4 ,this  they call burying the    
evil spirit47#cae7 ,among the ,dieri    
tribe of ,central  ,australia1 when a   
serious illness occurs1 the medicine-men
 expel ,cootchie  or the devil by       
beating the ground in and outside of the
 camp with the  stuffed tail of a       
kangaroo1 until they have chased the    
demon away to some  distance from the   
camp47#caf7 ,in some ,south ,african    
tribes it is a general  rule that no    
common man may meddle with spirits1     

whether good or bad1  except to offer   
the customary sacrifices4 ,demons may   
haunt him and make  his life a burden to
 him1 but he must submit to their       
machinations until  the matter is taken 
up by the proper authorities4 ,a baboon 
may be sent by  evil spirits and perch  
on a tree within gunshot1 or regale     
itself in his  maize-field2 but to fire 
at the beast would be worse than        
suicide4 ,so long  as a man remains a   
solitary sufferer1 he has little chance 
of redress4 ,it  is supposed that he has
 committed some crime1 and that the     
ancestors in  their wrath have sent a   
demon to torment him4 ,but should his   
neighbours  also suffer2 should the     
baboon from choice or necessity 7for men
 do  sometimes pluck up courage to scare
 the brutes7 select a fresh field for   
its depredations1 or the roof of another
 man's barn for its perch1 the  case    
begins to wear a different complexion4  
,the magicians now deal with  the matter
 seriously4 ,one man may be haunted for 

his sins by a demon1 but  a whole       
community infested by devils is another 
matter4 ,to shoot the  baboon1 however1 
would be useless2 it would merely enrage
 the demon and  increase the danger4    
,the first thing to do is to ascertain  
the permanent  abode of the devil4 ,it  
is generally a deep pool with           
overhanging banks and  dark recesses4   
,there the villagers assemble with the  
priests and magicians  at their head1   
and set about pelting the demon with    
stones1 men1 women1  and children all   
joining in the assault1 while they load 
the object of  their fear and hate with 
the foulest abuse4 ,drums too are       
beaten1 and  horns blown at intervals1  
and when everybody has been worked up to
 such a  frenzy of excitement that some 
even fancy they see the imp dodging the 
missiles1 he suddenly takes to flight1  
and the village is rid of him for a     
time4 ,after that1 the crops may be     
protected and baboons killed with       
impunity47#cag7    7,m#he7 ,when a      

village has been visited by a series of 
disasters or a severe  epidemic1 the    
inhabitants of ,minahassa in ,celebes   
lay the blame upon the  devils who are  
infesting the village and who must be   
expelled from it4  ,accordingly1 early  
one morning all the people1 men1 women1 
and children1  quit their homes1        
carrying their household goods with     
them1 and take up  their quarters in    
temporary huts which have been erected  
outside the  village4 ,here they spend  
several days1 offering sacrifices and   
preparing  for the final ceremony4 ,at  
last the men1 some wearing masks1 others
 with  their faces blackened1 and so on1
 but all armed with swords1 guns1 pikes1
  or brooms1 steal cautiously and       
silently back to the deserted village4  
,then1 at a signal from the priest1 they
 rush furiously up and down the  streets
 and into and under the houses 7which   
are raised on piles above the  ground71 
yelling and striking on walls1 doors1   
and windows1 to drive away  the devils4 

,next1 the priests and the rest of the  
people come with the  holy fire and     
march nine times round each house and   
thrice round the  ladder that leads up  
to it1 carrying the fire with them4     
,then they take  the fire into the      
kitchen1 where it must burn for three   
days continuously4  ,the devils are now 
driven away1 and great and general is   
the joy47#cah7 ,the  ,alfoors of        
,halmahera attribute epidemics to the   
devil who comes from other  villages to 
carry them off4 ,so1 in order to rid the
 village of the  disease1 the sorcerer  
drives away the devil4 ,from all the    
villagers he  receives a costly garment 
and places it on four vessels1 which he 
takes to  the forest and leaves at the  
spot where the devil is supposed to be4 
,then  with mocking words he bids the   
demon abandon the place47#cai7 ,in the  
,kei  ,islands to the south-west of ,new
 ,guinea1 the evil spirits1 who are     
quite  distinct from the souls of the   
dead1 form a mighty host4 ,almost every 

tree  and every cave is the             
lodging-place of one of these fiends1   
who are  moreover extremely irascible   
and apt to fly out on the smallest      
provocation4 ,to speak loudly in passing
 their abode1 to ease nature near a     
haunted tree or cave1 is enough to bring
 down their wrath on the offender1  and 
he must either appease them by an       
offering or burn the scrapings of a     
buffalo's horn or the hair of a ,papuan 
slave1 in order that the smell may      
drive the foul fiends away4 ,the spirits
 manifest their displeasure by  sending 
sickness and other calamities4 ,hence in
 times of public  misfortune1 as when an
 epidemic is raging1 and all other      
remedies have  failed1 the whole        
population go forth with the priest at  
their head to a  place at some distance 
from the village4 ,here at sunset they  
erect a  couple of poles with a         
cross-bar between them1 to which they   
attach bags  of rice1 wooden models of  
pivot-guns1 gongs1 bracelets1 and so on4

 ,then1  when everybody has taken his   
place at the poles and a death-like     
silence  reigns1 the priest lifts up his
 voice and addresses the spirits in     
their  own language as follows3 8,ho6   
ho6 ho6 ye evil spirits who dwell in the
  trees1 ye evil spirits who live in the
 grottoes1 ye evil spirits who lodge  in
 the earth1 we give you these           
pivot-guns1 these gongs1 etc4 ,let the  
sickness cease and not so many people   
die of it40 ,then everybody runs home   
as fast as their legs can carry         
them47#cbj7    7,m#hf7 ,in the island of
 ,nias1 when a man is seriously ill and 
other  remedies have been tried in vain1
 the sorcerer proceeds to exorcise the  
devil who is causing the illness4 ,a    
pole is set up in front of the house1   
and from the top of the pole a rope of  
palm-leaves is stretched to the  roof of
 the house4 ,then the sorcerer mounts   
the roof with a pig1 which he  kills and
 allows to roll from the roof to the    
ground4 ,the devil1 anxious  to get the 

pig1 lets himself down hastily from the 
roof by the rope of  palm-leaves1 and a 
good spirit1 invoked by the sorcerer1   
prevents him from  climbing up again4   
,if this remedy fails1 it is believed   
that other devils  must still be lurking
 in the house4 ,so a general hunt is    
made after them4  ,all the doors and    
windows in the house are closed1 except 
a single  dormer-window in the roof4    
,the men1 shut up in the house1 hew and 
slash  with their swords right and left 
to the clash of gongs and the rub-a-dub 
of drums4 ,terrified at this onslaught1 
the devils escape by the  dormer-window1
 and sliding down the rope of           
palm-leaves take themselves  off4 ,as   
all the doors and windows1 except the   
one in the roof1 are shut1  the devils  
cannot get into the house again4 ,in the
 case of an epidemic1  the proceedings  
are similar4 ,all the gates of the      
village1 except one1 are  closed2 every 
voice is raised1 every gong and drum    
beaten1 every sword  brandished4 ,thus  

the devils are driven out and the last  
gate is shut  behind them4 ,for eight   
days thereafter the village is in a     
state of siege1  no one being allowed to
 enter it47#cba7    7,m#hg7 ,the means  
adopted in ,nias to exclude an epidemic 
from a village  which has not yet been  
infected by it are somewhat similar2 but
 as they  exhibit an interesting        
combination of religious ritual with the
 purely  magical ceremony of exorcism1  
it may be worth while to describe them4 
,when  it is known that a village is    
suffering from the ravages of a         
dangerous  malady1 the other villages in
 the neighbourhood take what they regard
 as  effective measures for securing    
immunity from the disease4 ,some of     
these  measures commend themselves to us
 as rational and others do not4 ,in the 
first place1 quarantine is established  
in each village1 not only against  the  
inhabitants of the infected village1 but
 against all strangers2 no  person from 
outside is allowed to enter4 ,in the    

second place1 a feast is  made by the   
people for one of their idols who goes  
by the name of  ,fangeroe wch1 or       
,protector from sickness4 ,all the      
people of the  village must participate 
in the sacrifice and bear a share of the
 cost4  ,the principal idol1 crowned    
with palm-leaves1 is set up in front of 
the  chief's house1 and all the         
inhabitants who can do so gather about  
it4 ,the  names of those who cannot     
attend are mentioned1 apparently as a   
substitute  for their attendance in     
person4 ,while the priest is reciting   
the spells  for the banishment of the   
evil spirits1 all persons present come  
forward  and touch the image4 ,a pig is 
then killed and its flesh furnishes a   
common  meal4 ,the mouth of the idol is 
smeared with the bloody heart of the    
pig1  and a dishful of the cooked pork  
is set before him4 ,of the flesh thus   
consecrated to the idol none but priests
 and chiefs may partake4 ,idols  called 
daha1 or branches of the principal idol1

 are also set up in front  of all the   
other houses in the village4 ,moreover1 
bogies made of black  wood with white   
eyes1 to which the broken crockery of   
the inhabitants has  freely contributed1
 are placed at the entrances of the     
village to scare  the demon and prevent 
him from entering4 ,all sorts of objects
 whitened  with chalk are also hung up  
in front of the houses to keep the devil
 out4  ,when eight days have elapsed1 it
 is thought that the sacrifice has taken
  effect1 and the priest puts an end to 
the quarantine4 ,all boys and men now   
assemble for the purpose of expelling   
the evil spirit4 ,led by the priest1    
they march four times1 with a prodigious
 noise and uproar1 from one end of  the 
village to the other1 slashing the air  
with their knives and stabbing  it with 
their spears to frighten the devil away4
 ,if all these efforts  prove vain1 and 
the dreaded sickness breaks out1 the    
people think it must  be because they   
have departed from the ways of their    

fathers by raising  the price of        
victuals and pigs too high or by        
enriching themselves with  unjust gain4 
,accordingly a new idol is made and set 
up in front of the  chief's house2 and  
while the priest engages in prayer1 the 
chief and the  magnates of the village  
touch the image1 vowing as they do so to
 return to  the old ways and cursing all
 such as may refuse their consent or    
violate  the new law thus solemnly      
enacted4 ,then all present betake       
themselves to  the river and erect      
another idol on the bank4 ,in presence  
of this latter  idol the weights and    
measures are compared1 and any that     
exceed the lawful  standard are at once 
reduced to it4 ,when this has been done1
 they rock the  image to and fro to     
signify1 or perhaps rather to ensure1   
thereby that he  who does not keep the  
new law shall suffer misfortune1 or fall
 sick1 or be  thwarted in some way or   
other4 ,then a pig is killed and eaten  
on the bank  of the river4 ,the feast   

being over1 each family contributes a   
certain sum  in token that they make    
restitution of their unlawful gains4    
,the money  thus collected is tied in a 
bundle1 and the priest holds the bundle 
up  towards the sky and down towards the
 earth to satisfy the god of the upper  
and the god of the nether world that    
justice has now been done4 ,after that  
he either flings the bag of money into  
the river or buries it in the  ground   
beside the idol4 ,in the latter case the
 money naturally disappears1  and the   
people explain its disappearance by     
saying that the evil spirit  has come   
and fetched it47#cbb7 ,a method like    
that which at the present day  the      
people of ,nias adopt for the sake of   
conjuring the demon of disease  was     
employed in antiquity by the ,caunians  
of ,asia ,minor to banish certain       
foreign gods whom they had imprudently  
established in their country4 ,all  the 
men of military age assembled under     
arms1 and with spear-thrusts in  the air

 drove the strange gods step by step    
from the land and across the            
boundaries47#cbc7    7,m#hh7 ,the       
,solomon ,islanders of ,bougainville    
,straits believe that epidemics  are    
always1 or nearly always1 caused by evil
 spirits2 and accordingly when  the     
people of a village have been suffering 
generally from colds1 they  have been   
known to blow conch-shells1 beat tins1  
shout1 and knock on the  houses for the 
purpose of expelling the demons and so  
curing their  colds47#cbd7 ,when cholera
 has broken out in a ,burmese village   
the  able-bodied men scramble on the    
roofs and lay about them with bamboos   
and  billets of wood1 while all the rest
 of the population1 old and young1      
stand below and thump drums1 blow       
trumpets1 yell1 scream1 beat floors1    
walls1 tin pans1 everything to make a   
din4 ,this uproar1 repeated on three    
successive nights1 is thought to be very
 effective in driving away the  cholera 
demons47#cbe7 ,the ,shans of ,kengtung1 

a province of ,upper ,burma1  imagine   
that epidemics are brought about by the 
prowling ghosts of wicked  men1 such as 
thieves and murderers1 who cannot rest  
but go about doing all  the harm they   
can to the living4 ,hence when sickness 
is rife1 the people  take steps to expel
 these dangerous spirits4 ,the ,buddhist
 priests exert  themselves actively in  
the beneficent enterprise4 ,they        
assemble in a body  at the ,town ,court 
and read the scriptures4 ,guns are fired
 and processions  march to the city     
gates1 by which the fiends are supposed 
to take their  departure4 ,there small  
trays of food are left for them1 but the
 larger  offerings are deposited in the 
middle of the town47#cbf7 ,when smallpox
  first appeared amongst the ,kumis of  
,south-,eastern ,india1 they thought it 
was a devil come from ,aracan4 ,the     
villages were placed in a state of      
siege1 no one being allowed to leave or 
enter them4 ,a monkey was killed by     
being dashed on the ground1 and its body

 was hung at the village gate4 ,its     
blood1 mixed with small river pebbles1  
was sprinkled on the houses1 the        
threshold of every house was swept with 
the monkey's tail1 and the fiend  was   
adjured to depart47#cbg7 ,during the hot
 summer cholera is endemic in  ,southern
 ,china1 and from time to time1 when the
 mortality is great1  vigorous attempts 
are made to expel the demons who do all 
the mischief4  ,for this salutary       
purpose processions parade the streets  
by night2 images  of the gods are borne 
in them1 torches waved1 gongs beaten1   
guns fired1  crackers popped1 swords    
brandished1 demon-dispelling trumpets   
blown1 and  priests in full canonicals  
trot up and down jingling hand-bells1   
winding  blasts on buffalo horns1 and   
reciting exorcisms4 ,sometimes the      
deities are  represented in these       
processions by living men1 who are      
believed to be  possessed by the divine 
spirit4 ,such a man-god may be seen     
naked to the  waist with his dishevelled

 hair streaming down his back2 long     
daggers are  stuck in his cheeks and    
arms1 so that the blood drips from them4
 ,in his  hand he carries a two-edged   
sword1 with which he deals doughty blows
 at  the invisible foes in the air2 but 
sometimes he inflicts bloody wounds on  
his own back with the weapon or with a  
ball which is studded with long  sharp  
nails4 ,other inspired men are carried  
in armchairs1 of which the  seat1 back1 
arms1 and foot-rest are set with nails  
or composed of rows of  parallel        
sword-blades1 that cut into the flesh of
 the wretches seated on  them3 others   
are stretched at full length on beds of 
nails4 ,for hours  these bleeding       
votaries are carried about the city4    
,again1 it is not  uncommon to see in   
the procession a medium or man-god with 
a thick needle  thrust through his      
tongue4 ,his bloody spittle drips on    
sheets of paper1  which the crowd       
eagerly scrambles for1 knowing that with
 the blood they  have absorbed the      

devil-dispelling power inherent in the  
man-god4 ,the  bloody papers1 pasted on 
the lintel1 walls1 or beds of a house or
 on the  bodies of the family1 are      
supposed to afford complete protection  
against  cholera4 ,such are the methods 
by which in ,southern ,china the demons 
of  disease are banished the city47#cbh7
    7,m#hi7 ,in ,japan the old-fashioned
 method of staying an epidemic is to    
expel  the demon of the plague from     
every house into which he has entered4  
,the  treatment begins with the house in
 which the malady has appeared in the   
mildest form4 ,first of all a ,shinto   
priest makes a preliminary visit to  the
 sick-room and extracts from the demon a
 promise that he will depart  with him  
at his next visit4 ,the day after he    
comes again1 and1 seating  himself near 
the patient1 beseeches the evil spirit  
to come away with him4  ,meanwhile red  
rice1 which is used only on special     
occasions1 has been  placed at the      
sufferer's head1 a closed litter made of

 pine boughs has  been brought in1 and  
four men equipped with flags or weapons 
have taken  post in the four corners of 
the room to prevent the demon from      
seeking  refuge there4 ,all are silent  
but the priest4 ,the prayer being over1 
the  sick man's pillow is hastily thrown
 into the litter1 and the priest cries1 
8,all right now60 ,at that the bearers  
double with it into the street1 the     
people within and without beat the air  
with swords1 sticks1 or anything  that  
comes to hand1 while others assist in   
the cure by banging away at  drums and  
gongs4 ,a procession is now formed in   
which only men take part1  some of them 
carrying banners1 others provided with a
 drum1 a bell1 a  flute1 a horn1 and all
 of them wearing fillets and horns of   
twisted straw  to keep the demon away   
from themselves4 ,as the procession     
starts an old  man chants1 8,what god   
are you bearing away80 ,to which the    
others respond  in chorus1 8,the god of 
the pest we are bearing away60 ,then to 

the music of  the drum1 the bell1 the   
flute1 and the horn the litter is borne 
through  the streets4 ,during its       
passage all the people in the town who  
are not  taking part in the ceremony    
remain indoors1 every house along the   
route of  the procession is carefully   
closed1 and at the cross-roads swordsmen
 are  stationed1 who guard the street by
 hewing the air to right and left with  
their blades1 lest the demon should     
escape by that way4 ,the litter is thus 
carried to a retired spot between two   
towns and left there1 while all who     
escorted it thither run away4 ,only the 
priest remains behind for half an  hour 
to complete the exorcism and the cure4  
,the bearers of the litter  spend the   
night praying in a temple4 ,next day    
they return home1 but not  until they   
have plunged into a cold bath in the    
open air to prevent the  demon from     
following them4 ,the same litter serves 
to convey the evil  spirit from every   
house in the town47#cbi7 ,in ,corea1    

when a patient is  recovering from the  
smallpox1 a farewell dinner is given in 
honour of the  departing spirit of the  
disease4 ,friends and relations are     
invited1 and  the spirit's share of the 
good things is packed on the back of a  
hobby-horse and despatched to the       
boundary of the town or village1 while  
respectful farewells are spoken and     
hearty good wishes uttered for his      
prosperous journey to his own           
place47#ccj7 ,in ,tonquin also a banquet
 is  sometimes given to the demon of    
sickness to induce him to go quietly    
away  from the house4 ,the most         
honourable place at the festive board is
 reserved  for the fiend2 prayers1      
caresses1 and presents are lavished on  
him2 but if  he proves obdurate1 they   
assail him with coarse abuse and drive  
him from  the house with                
musket-shots47#cca7    7,m#ij7 ,when an 
epidemic is raging on the ,gold ,coast  
of ,west ,africa1 the  people will      
sometimes turn out1 armed with clubs and

 torches1 to drive the  evil spirits    
away4 ,at a given signal the whole      
population begin with  frightful yells  
to beat in every corner of the houses1  
then rush like mad  into the streets    
waving torches and striking frantically 
in the empty air4  ,the uproar goes on  
till somebody reports that the cowed and
 daunted demons  have made good their   
escape by a gate of the town or village2
 the people  stream out after them1     
pursue them for some distance into the  
forest1 and  warn them never to return4 
,the expulsion of the devils is followed
 by a  general massacre of all the cocks
 in the village or town1 lest by their  
unseasonable crowing they should betray 
to the banished demons the  direction   
they must take to return to their old   
homes4 ,for in that country  the forest 
grows so thick or the grass so high that
 you can seldom see a  village till you 
are close upon it2 and the first warning
 of your approach  to human habitations 
is the crowing of the cocks47#ccb7 ,at  

,great ,bassam1 in  ,guinea1 the ,french
 traveller ,hecquard witnessed the      
exorcism of the evil  spirit who was    
believed to make women barren4 ,the     
women who wished to  become mothers     
offered to the fetish wine-vessels or   
statuettes  representing women suckling 
children4 ,then being assembled in the  
fetish  hut1 they were sprinkled with   
rum by the priest1 while young men fired
  guns and brandished swords to drive   
away the demon47#ccc7 ,when smallpox    
breaks out in a village of the          
,cameroons1 in ,west ,africa1 the spirit
 of  the disease is driven out of the   
village by a 8bushman0 or member of the 
oppressed ,bassa tribe1 the members of  
which are reputed to possess high       
magical powers4 ,the mode of expulsion  
consists in drumming and dancing for    
several days4 ,then the village is      
enclosed by ropes made of creepers in   
order that the disease may not return4  
,over the principal paths arches of     
bent poles are made1 and fowls are      

buried as sacrifices4 ,plants of various
  sorts and the mushroom-shaped nests of
 termite ants are hung from the  arches1
 and a dog1 freshly killed1 is suspended
 over the middle of the  entrance47#ccd7
 ,the ,gallas try to drive away fever by
 firing guns1  shouting1 and lighting   
great fires47#cce7 ,when sickness was   
prevalent in a  ,huron village1 and all 
other remedies had been tried in vain1  
the ,indians  had recourse to the       
ceremony called ,lonouyroya1 8which is  
the principal  invention and most proper
 means1 so they say1 to expel from the  
town or  village the devils and evil    
spirits which cause1 induce1 and import 
all  the maladies and infirmities which 
they suffer in body and mind40          
,accordingly1 one evening the men would 
begin to rush like madmen about the     
village1 breaking and upsetting whatever
 they came across in the wigwams4  ,they
 threw fire and burning brands about the
 streets1 and all night long  they ran  
howling and singing without cessation4  

,then they all dreamed of  something1 a 
knife1 dog1 skin1 or whatever it might  
be1 and when morning  came they went    
from wigwam to wigwam asking for        
presents4 ,these they  received         
silently1 till the particular thing was 
given them which they had  dreamed      
about4 ,on receiving it they uttered a  
cry of joy and rushed from  the hut1    
amid the congratulations of all present4
 ,the health of those who  received what
 they had dreamed of was believed to be 
assured2 whereas  those who did not get 
what they had set their hearts upon     
regarded their  fate as sealed47#ccf7   
7,m#ia7 ,sometimes1 instead of chasing  
the demon of disease from their homes1  
savages prefer to leave him in peaceable
 possession1 while they themselves  take
 to flight and attempt to prevent him   
from following in their tracks4  ,thus  
when the ,patagonians were attacked by  
smallpox1 which they attributed  to the 
machinations of an evil spirit1 they    
used to abandon their sick and  flee1   

slashing the air with their weapons and 
throwing water about in  order to keep  
off the dreadful pursuer2 and when after
 several days' march  they reached a    
place where they hoped to be beyond his 
reach1 they used by  way of precaution  
to plant all their cutting weapons with 
the sharp edges  turned towards the     
quarter from which they had come1 as if 
they were  repelling a charge of        
cavalry47#ccg7 ,similarly1 when the     
,lules or ,tonocotes  ,indians of the   
,gran ,chaco were attacked by an        
epidemic1 they regularly  sought to     
evade it by flight1 but in so doing they
 always followed a  sinuous1 not a      
straight1 course2 because they said that
 when the disease  made after them he   
would be so exhausted by the turnings   
and windings of  the route that he would
 never be able to come up with          
them47#cch7 ,when the  ,indians of ,new 
,mexico were decimated by smallpox or   
other infectious  disease1 they used to 
shift their quarters every day1         

retreating into the  most sequestered   
parts of the mountains and choosing the 
thorniest  thickets they could find1 in 
the hope that the smallpox would be too 
afraid of scratching himself on the     
thorns to follow them47#cci7 ,when some 
,chins on a visit to ,rangoon were      
attacked by cholera1 they went about    
with  drawn swords to scare away the    
demon1 and they spent the day hiding    
under  bushes so that he might not be   
able to find them47#cdj7           #b4  
,the ,periodic ,expulsion of ,evils4    
7,m#ib7 ,the expulsion of evils1 from   
being occasional1 tends to become       
periodic4 ,it comes to be thought       
desirable to have a general riddance of 
evil spirits at fixed times1 usually    
once a year1 in order that the people   
may make a fresh start in life1 freed   
from all the malignant influences  which
 have been long accumulating about them4
 ,some of the ,australian  blacks       
annually expelled the ghosts of the dead
 from their territory4 ,the  ceremony   

was witnessed by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,ridley  
on the banks of the ,river  ,barwan4 8,a
 chorus of twenty1 old and young1 were  
singing and beating time  with          
boomerangs4444 ,suddenly1 from under a  
sheet of bark darted a man with  his    
body whitened by pipeclay1 his head and 
face coloured with lines of  red and    
yellow1 and a tuft of feathers fixed by 
means of a stick two feet  above the    
crown of his head4 ,he stood twenty     
minutes perfectly still1  gazing        
upwards4 ,an aboriginal who stood by    
told me he was looking for the  ghosts  
of dead men4 ,at last he began to move  
very slowly1 and soon rushed  to and fro
 at full speed1 flourishing a branch as 
if to drive away some  foes invisible to
 us4 ,when ,i thought this pantomime    
must be almost over1  ten more1         
similarly adorned1 suddenly appeared    
from behind the trees1 and  the whole   
party joined in a brisk conflict with   
their mysterious  assailants4444 ,at    
last1 after some rapid evolutions in    

which they put  forth all their         
strength1 they rested from the exciting 
toil which they  had kept up all night  
and for some hours after sunrise2 they  
seemed  satisfied that the ghosts were  
driven away for twelve months4 ,they    
were  performing the same ceremony at   
every station along the river1 and ,i am
  told it is an annual custom407#cda7   
7,m#ic7 ,certain seasons of the year    
mark themselves naturally out as        
appropriate moments for a general       
expulsion of devils4 ,such a moment     
occurs towards the close of an ,arctic  
winter1 when the sun reappears on  the  
horizon after an absence of weeks or    
months4 ,accordingly1 at ,point         
,barrow1 the most northerly extremity of
 ,alaska1 and nearly of ,america1 the   
,esquimaux choose the moment of the     
sun's reappearance to hunt the          
mischievous spirit ,tua from every      
house4 ,the ceremony was witnessed by   
the members of the ,united ,states      
,polar ,expedition1 who wintered at     

,point  ,barrow4 ,a fire was built in   
front of the council-house1 and an old  
woman  was posted at the entrance to    
every house4 ,the men gathered round the
  council-house1 while the young women  
and girls drove the spirits out of      
every house with their knives1 stabbing 
viciously under the bunk and            
deer-skins1 and calling upon ,tua to be 
gone4 ,when they thought he had  been   
driven out of every hole and corner1    
they thrust him down through the  hole  
in the floor and chased him into the    
open air with loud cries and  frantic   
gestures4 ,meanwhile the old woman at   
the entrance of the house  made passes  
with a long knife in the air to keep him
 from returning4 ,each  party drove the 
spirit towards the fire and invited him 
to go into it4 ,all  were by this time  
drawn up in a semicircle round the fire1
 when several of  the leading men made  
specific charges against the spirit2 and
 each after  his speech brushed his     
clothes violently1 calling on the spirit

 to leave  him and go into the fire4    
,two men now stepped forward with rifles
 loaded  with blank cartridges1 while a 
third brought a vessel of urine and     
flung  it on the flames4 ,at the same   
time one of the men fired a shot into   
the  fire2 and as the cloud of steam    
rose it received the other shot1 which  
was  supposed to finish ,tua for the    
time being47#cdb7    7,m#id7 ,in late   
autumn1 when storms rage over the land  
and break the icy  fetters by which the 
frozen sea is as yet but slightly bound1
 when the  loosened floes are driven    
against each other and break with loud  
crashes1  and when the cakes of ice are 
piled in wild disorder one upon another1
 the  ,esquimaux of ,baffin ,land fancy 
they hear the voices of the spirits who 
people the mischief-laden air4 ,then the
 ghosts of the dead knock wildly at  the
 huts1 which they cannot enter1 and woe 
to the hapless wight whom they  catch2  
he soon sickens and dies4 ,then the     
phantom of a huge hairless dog  pursues 

the real dogs1 which expire in          
convulsions and cramps at sight of  him4
 ,all the countless spirits of evil are 
abroad1 striving to bring  sickness and 
death1 foul weather and failure in      
hunting on the ,esquimaux4  ,most       
dreaded of all these spectral visitants 
are ,sedna1 mistress of the  nether     
world1 and her father1 to whose share   
dead ,esquimaux fall4 ,while  the other 
spirits fill the air and the water1 she 
rises from under ground4  ,it is then a 
busy season for the wizards4 ,in every  
house you may hear them  singing and    
praying1 while they conjure the spirits1
 seated in a mystic  gloom at the back  
of the hut1 which is dimly lit by a lamp
 burning low4  ,the hardest task of all 
is to drive away ,sedna1 and this is    
reserved for  the most powerful         
enchanter4 ,a rope is coiled on the     
floor of a large hut  in such a way as  
to leave a small opening at the top1    
which represents the  breathing hole of 
a seal4 ,two enchanters stand beside it1

 one of them  grasping a spear as if he 
were watching a seal-hole in winter1 the
 other  holding the harpoon-line4 ,a    
third sorcerer sits at the back of the  
hut  chanting a magic song to lure      
,sedna to the spot4 ,now she is heard   
approaching under the floor of the hut1 
breathing heavily2 now she emerges  at  
the hole2 now she is harpooned and sinks
 away in angry haste1 dragging  the     
harpoon with her1 while the two men hold
 on to the line with all their  might4  
,the struggle is severe1 but at last by 
a desperate wrench she tears  herself   
away and returns to her dwelling in     
,adlivun4 ,when the harpoon is  drawn up
 out of the hole it is found to be      
splashed with blood1 which the          
enchanters proudly exhibit as a proof of
 their prowess4 ,thus ,sedna and the    
other evil spirits are at last driven   
away1 and next day a great festival  is 
celebrated by old and young in honour of
 the event4 ,but they must still  be    
cautious1 for the wounded ,sedna is     

furious and will seize any one she  may 
find outside of his hut2 so they all    
wear amulets on the top of their  hoods 
to protect themselves against her4      
,these amulets consist of pieces  of the
 first garments that they wore after    
birth47#cdc7    7,m#ie7 ,the ,koryaks of
 the ,taigonos ,peninsula1 in           
north-eastern ,asia1  celebrate annually
 a festival after the winter solstice4  
,rich men invite  all their neighbours  
to the festival1 offer a sacrifice to   
8,the-,one-on-,high10 and slaughter many
 reindeer for their guests4 ,if there   
is a shaman present he goes all round   
the interior of the house1 beating  the 
drum and driving away the demons        
7kalau74 ,he searches all the people  in
 the house1 and if he finds a demon's   
arrow sticking in the body of one  of   
them1 he pulls it out1 though naturally 
the arrow is invisible to  common eyes4 
,in this way he protects them against   
disease and death4 ,if  there is no     
shaman present1 the demons may be       

expelled by the host or by a  woman     
skilled in incantations47#cdd7          
7,m#if7 ,the ,iroquois inaugurated the  
new year in ,january1 ,february1 or     
,march  7the time varied7 with a        
8festival of dreams0 like that which the
 ,hurons  observed on special           
occasions47#cde7 ,the whole ceremonies  
lasted several  days1 or even weeks1 and
 formed a kind of saturnalia4 ,men and  
women1  variously disguised1 went from  
wigwam to wigwam smashing and throwing  
down  whatever they came across4 ,it was
 a time of general license2 the people  
were supposed to be out of their senses1
 and therefore not to be  responsible   
for what they did4 ,accordingly1 many   
seized the opportunity of  paying off   
old scores by belabouring obnoxious     
persons1 drenching them  with ice-cold  
water1 and covering them with filth or  
hot ashes4 ,others  seized burning      
brands or coals and flung them at the   
heads of the first  persons they met4   
,the only way of escaping from these    

persecutors was to  guess what they had 
dreamed of4 ,on one day of the festival 
the ceremony of  driving away evil      
spirits from the village took place4    
,men clothed in the  skins of wild      
beasts1 their faces covered with hideous
 masks1 and their  hands with the shell 
of the tortoise1 went from hut to hut   
making  frightful noises2 in every hut  
they took the fuel from the fire and    
scattered the embers and ashes about the
 floor with their hands4 ,the  general  
confession of sins which preceded the   
festival was probably a  preparation for
 the public expulsion of evil           
influences2 it was a way of  stripping  
the people of their moral burdens1 that 
these might be collected  and cast out4 
,this ,new ,year festival is still      
celebrated by some of the  heathen      
,iroquois1 though it has been shorn of  
its former turbulence4 ,a  conspicuous  
feature in the ceremony is now the      
sacrifice of the ,white ,dog1  but this 
appears to have been added to the       

festival in comparatively  modern times1
 and does not figure in the oldest      
descriptions of the  ceremonies4 ,we    
shall return to it later on47#cdf7 ,a   
great annual festival  of the ,cherokee 
,indians was the ,propitiation1         
8,cementation10 or  ,purification       
festival4 8,it was celebrated shortly   
after the first new moon  of autumn1 and
 consisted of a multiplicity of rigorous
 rites1 fastings1  ablutions1 and       
purifications4 ,among the most important
 functionaries on  the occasion were    
seven exorcisers or cleansers1 whose    
duty it was1 at a  certain stage of the 
proceedings1 to drive away evil and     
purify the town4  ,each one bore in his 
hand a white rod of sycamore4 #8,the    
leader1 followed  by the others1 walked 
around the national heptagon1 and coming
 to the  treasure or store-house to the 
west of it1 they lashed the eaves of the
  roofs with their rods4 ,the leader    
then went to another house1 followed by 
the others1 singing1 and repeated the   

same ceremony until every house was     
purified4' ,this ceremony was repeated  
daily during the continuance of the     
festival4 ,in performing their ablutions
 they went into the water1 and  allowed 
their old clothes to be carried away by 
the stream1 by which means  they        
supposed their impurities               
removed407#cdg7    7,m#ig7 ,in          
,september the ,incas of ,peru          
celebrated a festival called ,situa1    
the object of which was to banish from  
the capital and its vicinity all        
disease and trouble4 ,the festival fell 
in ,september because the rains  begin  
about this time1 and with the first     
rains there was generally much          
sickness4 ,and the melancholy begotten  
by the inclemency of the weather and    
the sickliness of the season may well   
have been heightened by the  sternness  
of a landscape which at all times is    
fitted to oppress the mind  with a sense
 of desolation and gloom4 ,for ,cuzco1  
the capital of the ,incas  and the scene

 of the ceremony1 lies in a high upland 
valley1 bare and  treeless1 shut in on  
every side by the most arid and         
forbidding  mountains47#cdh7 ,as a      
preparation for the festival the people 
fasted on the  first day of the moon    
after the autumnal equinox4 ,having     
fasted during the  day1 and the night   
being come1 they baked a coarse paste of
 maize4 ,this  paste was made of two    
sorts4 ,one was kneaded with the blood  
of children  aged from five to ten      
years1 the blood being obtained by      
bleeding the  children between the      
eyebrows4 ,these two kinds of paste were
 baked  separately1 because they were   
for different uses4 ,each family        
assembled at  the house of the eldest   
brother to celebrate the feast2 and     
those who had  no elder brother went to 
the house of their next relation of     
greater age4  ,on the same night all who
 had fasted during the day washed their 
bodies1  and taking a little of the     
blood-kneaded paste1 rubbed it over     

their head1  face1 breast1 shoulders1   
arms1 and legs4 ,they did this in order 
that the  paste might take away all     
their infirmities4 ,after this the head 
of the  family anointed the threshold   
with the same paste1 and left it there  
as a  token that the inmates of the     
house had performed their ablutions and 
cleansed their bodies4 ,meantime the    
,high ,priest performed the same        
ceremonies in the temple of the ,sun4   
,as soon as the ,sun rose1 all the      
people worshipped and besought him to   
drive all evils out of the city1 and    
then they broke their fast with the     
paste that had been kneaded without     
blood4 ,when they had paid their worship
 and broken their fast1 which they  did 
at a stated hour1 in order that all     
might adore the ,sun as one man1 an     
,inca of the blood royal came forth from
 the fortress1 as a messenger of  the   
,sun1 richly dressed1 with his mantle   
girded round his body1 and a  lance in  
his hand4 ,the lance was decked with    

feathers of many hues1  extending from  
the blade to the socket1 and fastened   
with rings of gold4  ,he ran down the   
hill from the fortress brandishing his  
lance1 till he  reached the centre of   
the great square1 where stood the golden
 urn1 like a  fountain1 that was used   
for the sacrifice of the fermented juice
 of the  maize4 ,here four other ,incas 
of the blood royal awaited him1 each    
with a  lance in his hand1 and his      
mantle girded up to run4 ,the messenger 
touched  their four lances with his     
lance1 and told them that the ,sun bade 
them1 as  his messengers1 drive the     
evils out of the city4 ,the four ,incas 
then  separated and ran down the four   
royal roads which led out of the city to
  the four quarters of the world4 ,while
 they ran1 all the people1 great and    
small1 came to the doors of their       
houses1 and with great shouts of joy and
  gladness shook their clothes1 as if   
they were shaking off dust1 while they  
cried1 8,let the evils be gone4 ,how    

greatly desired has this festival been  
by us4 ,o ,creator of all things1 permit
 us to reach another year1 that we  may 
see another feast like this40 ,after    
they had shaken their clothes1  they    
passed their hands over their heads1    
faces1 arms1 and legs1 as if in  the act
 of washing4 ,all this was done to drive
 the evils out of their  houses1 that   
the messengers of the ,sun might banish 
them from the city2  and it was done not
 only in the streets through which the  
,incas ran1 but  generally in all       
quarters of the city4 ,moreover1 they   
all danced1 the ,inca  himself amongst  
them1 and bathed in the rivers and      
fountains1 saying that  their maladies  
would come out of them4 ,then they took 
great torches of  straw1 bound round    
with cords4 ,these they lighted1 and    
passed from one to  the other1 striking 
each other with them1 and saying1 8,let 
all harm go  away40 ,meanwhile the      
runners ran with their lances for a     
quarter of a  league outside the city1  

where they found four other ,incas      
ready1 who  received the lances from    
their hands and ran with them4 ,thus the
 lances  were carried by relays of      
runners for a distance of five or six   
leagues1  at the end of which the       
runners washed themselves and their     
weapons in  rivers1 and set up the      
lances1 in sign of a boundary within    
which the  banished evils might not     
return47#cdi7    7,m#ih7 ,the negroes of
 ,guinea annually banish the devil from 
all their towns  with much ceremony at a
 time set apart for the purpose4 ,at    
,axim1 on the  ,gold ,coast1 this annual
 expulsion is preceded by a feast of    
eight days1  during which mirth and     
jollity1 skipping1 dancing1 and singing 
prevail1  and 8a perfect lampooning     
liberty is allowed1 and scandal so      
highly  exalted1 that they may freely   
sing of all the faults1 villanies1 and  
frauds of their superiors as well as    
inferiors1 without punishment1 or so    
much as the least interruption40 ,on the

 eighth day they hunt out the devil     
with a dismal cry1 running after him and
 pelting him with sticks1 stones1  and  
whatever comes to hand4 ,when they have 
driven him far enough out of  the town1 
they all return4 ,in this way he is     
expelled from more than a  hundred towns
 at the same time4 ,to make sure that he
 does not return to  their houses1 the  
women wash and scour all their wooden   
and earthen  vessels1 8to free them from
 all uncleanness and the devil407#cej7  
,a later  writer tells us that 8on the  
,gold ,coast there are stated occasions1
 when  the people turn out en masse     
7generally at night7 with clubs and     
torches  to drive away the evil spirits 
from their towns4 ,at a given signal1   
the  whole community start up1 commence 
a most hideous howling1 beat about in   
every nook and corner of their          
dwellings1 then rush into the streets1  
with  their torches and clubs1 like so  
many frantic maniacs1 beat the air1 and 
scream at the top of their voices1 until

 some one announces the departure  of   
the spirits through some gate of the    
town1 when they are pursued  several    
miles into the woods1 and warned not to 
come back4 ,after this the  people      
breathe easier1 sleep more quietly1 have
 better health1 and the  town is once   
more cheered by an abundance of         
food407#cea7    7,m#ii7 ,the ceremony as
 it is practised at ,gatto1 in ,benin1  
has been  described by an ,english      
traveller4 ,he says3 8,it was about this
 time that ,i  witnessed a strange      
ceremony1 peculiar to this people1      
called the time of  the #8grand devils4'
 ,eight men were dressed in a most      
curious manner1  having a dress made of 
bamboo about their bodies1 and a cap on 
the head1  of various colours and       
ornamented with red feathers taken from 
the  parrot's tail2 round the legs were 
twisted strings of shells1 which made a 
clattering noise as they walked1 and the
 face and hands of each individual  were
 covered with a net4 ,these strange     

beings go about the town1 by day  and by
 night1 for the term of one month1      
uttering the most discordant and        
frightful noises2 no one durst venture  
out at night for fear of being  killed  
or seriously maltreated by these        
fellows1 who are then especially        
engaged in driving the evil spirits from
 the town4 ,they go round to all  the   
chief's houses1 and in addition to the  
noise they make1 perform some           
extraordinary feats in tumbling and     
gymnastics1 for which they receive a    
few cowries407#ceb7    7,m#ajj7 ,at     
,cape ,coast ,castle1 on the ,gold      
,coast1 the ceremony was witnessed  on  
the ninth of ,october #ahdd by an       
,englishman1 who has described it as    
follows3 8,to-night the annual custom of
 driving the evil spirit1 ,abonsam1  out
 of the town has taken place4 ,as soon  
as the eight o'clock gun fired in  the  
fort the people began firing muskets in 
their houses1 turning all  their        
furniture out of doors1 beating about in

 every corner of the rooms  with sticks1
 etc41 and screaming as loudly as       
possible1 in order to  frighten the     
devil4 ,being driven out of the houses1 
as they imagine1 they  sallied forth    
into the streets1 throwing lighted      
torches about1 shouting1  screaming1    
beating sticks together1 rattling old   
pans1 making the most  horrid noise1 in 
order to drive him out of the town into 
the sea4 ,the  custom is preceded by    
four weeks' dead silence2 no gun is     
allowed to be  fired1 no drum to be     
beaten1 no palaver to be made between   
man and man4  ,if1 during these weeks1  
two natives should disagree and make a  
noise in  the town1 they are immediately
 taken before the king and fined        
heavily4 ,if  a dog or pig1 sheep or    
goat be found at large in the street1 it
 may be  killed1 or taken by anyone1 the
 former owner not being allowed to      
demand  any compensation4 ,this silence 
is designed to deceive ,abonsam1 that1  
being  off his guard1 he may be taken by

 surprise1 and frightened out of the    
place4 ,if anyone die during the        
silence1 his relatives are not allowed  
to  weep until the four weeks have been 
completed407#cec7    7,m#aja7 ,at       
,onitsha1 on the ,niger1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4   
,taylor witnessed the  celebration of   
,new ,year's ,day by the negroes4 ,it   
fell on the twentieth of  ,december     
#aheh4 ,every family brought a firebrand
 out into the street1 threw  it away1   
and exclaimed as they returned1 8,the   
gods of the new year6 ,new  ,year has   
come round again40 ,mr4 ,taylor adds1   
8,the meaning of the custom  seems to be
 that the fire is to drive away the old 
year with its sorrows  and evils1 and to
 embrace the new year with hearty       
reception407#ced7 ,of all  ,abyssinian  
festivals that of ,mascal or the ,cross 
is celebrated with the  greatest pomp4  
,during the whole of the interval       
between ,st4 ,john's day and  the feast 
a desultory warfare is waged betwixt the
 youth of opposite sexes  in the towns4 

,they all sally out in the evenings1 the
 boys armed with  nettles or thistles   
and the girls with gourds containing a  
filthy solution  of all sorts of        
abominations4 ,when any of the hostile  
parties meet1 they  begin by reviling   
each other in the foulest language1 from
 which they  proceed to personal        
violence1 the boys stinging the girls   
with their  nettles1 while the girls    
discharge their stink-pots in the faces 
of their  adversaries4 ,these           
hostilities may perhaps be regarded as a
 preparation  for the festival of the   
,cross4 ,the eve of the festival        
witnesses a  ceremony which doubtless   
belongs to the world-wide class of      
customs we are  dealing with4 ,at sunset
 a discharge of firearms takes place    
from all the  principal houses4 8,then  
every one provides himself with a torch1
 and  during the early part of the night
 bonfires are kindled1 and the people   
parade the town1 carrying their lighted 
torches in their hands4 ,they go        

through their houses1 too1 poking a     
light into every dark corner in the     
hall1 under the couches1 in the stables1
 kitchen1 etc41 as if looking for       
something lost1 and calling out1        
#8,akho1 akhoky6 turn out the spinage1  
and  bring in the porridge2 ,mascal is  
come6'444 ,after this they play1 and    
poke  fun and torches at each other40   
,next morning1 while it is still dark1  
bonfires are kindled on the heights near
 the towns1 and people rise early  to   
see them4 ,the rising sun of ,mascal    
finds the whole population of           
,abyssinia awake47#cee7    7,m#ajb7     
,sometimes the date of the annual       
expulsion of devils is fixed with       
reference to the agricultural seasons4  
,thus at ,kiriwina1 in ,south-,eastern  
,new ,guinea1 when the new yams had been
 harvested1 the people feasted and      
danced for many days1 and a great deal  
of property1 such as armlets1  native   
money1 and so forth1 was displayed      
conspicuously on a platform  erected for

 the purpose4 ,when the festivities were
 over1 all the people  gathered together
 and expelled the spirits from the      
village by shouting1  beating the posts 
of the houses1 and overturning          
everything under which a  wily spirit   
might be supposed to lurk4 ,the         
explanation which the people  gave to a 
missionary was that they had entertained
 and feasted the spirits  and provided  
them with riches1 and it was now time   
for them to take their  departure4 ,had 
they not seen the dances1 and heard the 
songs1 and gorged  themselves on the    
souls of the yams1 and appropriated the 
souls of the  money and all the other   
fine things set out on the platform8    
,what more  could the spirits want8 ,so 
out they must go47#cef7 ,among the ,hos 
of  ,togoland in ,west ,africa the      
expulsion of evils is performed annually
  before the people eat the new         
yams47#ceg7 ,the chiefs meet together   
and  summon the priests and magicians4  
,they tell them that the people are now 

to eat the new yams and to be merry1    
therefore they must cleanse the town    
and remove the evils4 ,for that purpose 
they take leaves of the adzu and  wo    
trees1 together with creepers and ashes4
 ,the leaves and creepers they  bind    
fast to a pole of an adzu tree1 while   
they pray that the evil  spirits1 the   
witches1 and all the ills in the town   
may pass into the  bundle and be bound4 
,then they make a paste out of the ashes
 and smear it  on the bundle1 saying1   
8,we smear it on the face of all the    
evil ones who  are in this bundle1 in   
order that they may not be able to see40
 ,with that  they throw the bundle1 that
 is1 the pole wrapt in leaves and       
creepers1 on  the ground and they all   
mock at it4 ,then they prepare a        
medicine and take  the various          
leaf-wrapt poles1 into which they have  
conjured and bound up  all mischief1    
carry them out of the town1 and set them
 up in the earth on  various roads      
leading into the town4 ,when they have  

done this1 they say  that they have     
banished the evils from the town and    
shut the door in their  face4 ,with the 
medicine1 which the elders have         
prepared1 all men1 women1  children and 
chiefs wash their faces4 ,after that    
everybody goes home to  sweep out his   
house and homestead4 ,the ground in     
front of the homesteads  is also swept1 
so that the town is thoroughly cleansed4
 ,all the stalks of  grass and refuse of
 stock yams that have been swept        
together they cast out  of the town1 and
 they rail at the stock yams4 ,in the   
course of the night  the elders assemble
 and bind a toad to a young palm-leaf4  
,they say that  they will now sweep out 
the town and end the ceremony4 ,for that
 purpose  they drag the toad through the
 whole town in the direction of ,mount  
,adaklu4 ,when that has been done1 the  
priests say that they will now remove   
the sicknesses4 ,in the evening they    
give public notice that they are about  
to go on the road1 and that therefore no

 one may light a fire on the  hearth or 
eat food4 ,next morning the women of the
 town sweep out their  houses and       
hearths and deposit the sweepings on    
broken wooden plates4 ,many  wrap       
themselves in torn mats and tattered    
clothes2 others swathe  themselves in   
grass and creepers4 ,while they do so1  
they pray1 saying1  8,all ye sicknesses 
that are in our body and plague us1 we  
are come to-day  to throw you out40     
,when they start to do so1 the priest   
gives orders that  everybody is to      
scream once and at the same time to     
smite his mouth4 ,in a  moment they all 
scream1 smite their mouths1 and run as  
fast as they can in  the direction of   
,mount ,adaklu4 ,as they run1 they say1 
8,out to-day6 ,out  to-day6 ,that which 
kills anybody1 out to-day6 ,ye evil     
spirits1 out to-day6  and all that      
causes our heads to ache1 out to-day6   
,anlo and ,adaklu are the  places       
whither all ill shall betake itself60   
,now on ,mount ,adaklu there  grows a   

klo tree1 and when the people have come 
to the tree they throw  everything away 
and return home4 ,on their return they  
wash themselves with  the medicine which
 is set forth in the streets2 then they 
enter their  houses47#ceh7    7,m#ajc7  
,among the ,hos of ,north-,eastern      
,india the great festival of the year   
is the harvest home1 held in ,january1  
when the granaries are full of  grain1  
and the people1 to use their own        
expression1 are full of devilry4  8,they
 have a strange notion that at this     
period1 men and women are so            
overcharged with vicious propensities1  
that it is absolutely necessary for  the
 safety of the person to let off steam  
by allowing for a time full vent  to the
 passions40 ,the ceremonies open with a 
sacrifice to the village god  of three  
fowls1 a cock and two hens1 one of which
 must be black4 ,along  with them are   
offered flowers of the ,palas tree      
7,butea frondosa71 bread  made from     
rice-flour1 and sesamum seeds4 ,these   

offerings are presented by  the village 
priest1 who prays that during the year  
about to begin they and  their children 
may be preserved from all misfortune and
 sickness1 and that  they may have      
seasonable rain and good crops4 ,prayer 
is also made in some  places for the    
souls of the dead4 ,at this time an evil
 spirit is supposed  to infest the      
place1 and to get rid of it men1 women1 
and children go in  procession round and
 through every part of the village with 
sticks in  their hands1 as if beating   
for game1 singing a wild chant1 and     
shouting  vociferously1 till they feel  
assured that the evil spirit must have  
fled4  ,then they give themselves up to 
feasting and drinking rice-beer1 till   
they  are in a fit state for the wild   
debauch which follows4 ,the festival now
  8becomes a saturnale1 during which    
servants forget their duty to their     
masters1 children their reverence for   
parents1 men their respect for  women1  
and women all notions of modesty1       

delicacy1 and gentleness2 they  become  
raging bacchantes40 ,usually the ,hos   
are quiet and reserved in  manner1      
decorous and gentle to women4 ,but      
during this festival 8their  natures    
appear to undergo a temporary change4   
,sons and daughters revile  their       
parents in gross language1 and parents  
their children2 men and women  become   
almost like animals in the indulgence of
 their amorous  propensities40 ,the     
festival is not held simultaneously in  
all the  villages4 ,the time during     
which it is celebrated in the different 
villages  of a district may be from a   
month to six weeks1 and by a            
preconcerted  arrangement the           
celebration begins at each village on a 
different date and  lasts three or four 
days2 so the inhabitants of each may    
take part in a  long series of orgies4  
,on these occasions the utmost liberty  
is given to  the girls1 who may absent  
themselves for days with the young men  
of  another village2 parents at such    

times never attempt to lay their        
daughters under any restraint4 ,the     
,mundaris1 kinsmen and neighbours of the
  ,hos1 keep the festival in much the   
same manner4 8,the resemblance to a     
,saturnale is very complete1 as at this 
festival the farm labourers are  feasted
 by their masters1 and allowed the      
utmost freedom of speech in  addressing 
them4 ,it is the festival of the harvest
 home2 the termination  of one year's   
toil1 and a slight respite from it      
before they commence  again407#cei7     
7,m#ajd7 ,amongst some of the ,hindoo   
,koosh tribes1 as among the ,hos and    
,mundaris1 the expulsion of devils takes
 place after harvest4 ,when the last    
crop of autumn has been got in1 it is   
thought necessary to drive away evil    
spirits from the granaries4 ,a kind of  
porridge called mool is eaten1 and  the 
head of the family takes his matchlock  
and fires it into the floor4  ,then1    
going outside1 he sets to work loading  
and firing till his  powder-horn is     

exhausted1 while all his neighbours are 
similarly employed4  ,the next day is   
spent in rejoicings4 ,in ,chitral this  
festival is called                      
8devil-driving407#cfj7 ,on the other    
hand the ,khonds of ,india expel the    
devils at seed-time instead of at       
harvest4 ,at this time they worship     
,pitteri ,pennu1 the god of increase and
 of gain in every shape4 ,on the  first 
day of the festival a rude car is made  
of a basket set upon a few  sticks1 tied
 upon bamboo rollers for wheels4 ,the   
priest takes this car  first to the     
house of the lineal head of the tribe1  
to whom precedence is  given in all     
ceremonies connected with agriculture4  
,here he receives a  little of each kind
 of seed and some feathers4 ,he then    
takes the car to  all the other houses  
in the village1 each of which           
contributes the same  things4 ,lastly1  
the car is conducted to a field without 
the village1  attended by all the young 
men1 who beat each other and strike the 

air  violently with long sticks4 ,the   
seed thus carried out is called the     
share  of the 8evil spirits1 spoilers of
 the seed40 8,these are considered to be
  driven out with the car2 and when it  
and its contents are abandoned to  them1
 they are held to have no excuse for    
interfering with the rest of the        
seed-corn40 ,next day each household    
kills a hog over the seed for the  year1
 and prays to ,pitteri ,pennu1 saying1  
8,o ,pitteri ,pennu6 this seed we  shall
 sow to-morrow4 ,some of us1 your       
suppliants1 will have a great  return1  
some a small return4 ,let the least     
favoured have a full basket1  let the   
most favoured have many baskets4 ,give  
not this seed to ant1 or  rat1 or hog4  
,let the stems which shall spring from  
it be so stout that the  earth shall    
tremble under them4 ,let the rain find  
no hole or outlet  whereby to escape    
from our fields4 ,make the earth soft   
like the ashes of  cow-dung4 ,to him who
 has no iron wherewith to shoe his      

plough1 make the  wood of the doh-tree  
like iron4 ,provide other food than our 
seed for the  parrot1 the crow1 and all 
the fowls and beasts of the jungle4 ,let
 not the  white ant destroy the roots1  
nor the wild hog crush the stem to get  
at the  fruit2 and make our crops of all
 kinds have a better flavour than that  
of  those of any other country40 ,the   
elders then feast upon the hogs4 ,the   
young men are excluded from the repast1 
but enjoy the privilege of  waylaying   
and pelting with jungle-fruit their     
elders as they return from  the feast4  
,upon the third day the lineal head of  
the tribe goes out and  sows his seed1  
after which all the rest may do         
so47#cfa7    7,m#aje7 ,in ,ranchi1 a    
district of ,chota ,nagpur in ,bengal1 a
 ceremony is  performed every year by   
one of the clans to drive away disease4 
,should it  prove ineffectual1 all the  
villagers assemble by night and walk    
about the  village in a body armed with 
clubs1 searching for the disease4       

,everything  they find outside of the   
houses they smash4 ,hence on that day   
the people  throw out their chipped     
crockery1 old pots and pans1 and other  
trash into  the courtyard1 so that when 
the search party comes along they may   
belabour  the heap of rubbish to their  
heart's content2 the crash of shattered 
crockery and the clatter of shivered    
pans indicates1 we are told1 that the   
disease has departed2 perhaps it might  
be more strictly accurate to say  that  
they have frightened it away4 ,at all   
events a very loud noise is made  8so   
that the disease may not remain hidden  
anywhere407#cfb7 ,in a village of  the  
,mossos1 an aboriginal tribe of         
south-western ,china1 a ,french         
traveller  witnessed the annual ceremony
 of the expulsion of devils4 ,two       
magicians1  wearing mitres of red       
pasteboard1 went from house to house1   
attended by a  troop of children1 their 
faces smeared with flour1 some of whom  
carried  torches and others cymbals1    

while all made a deafening noise4 ,after
  dancing a wild dance in the courtyard 
of the house1 they entered the          
principal room1 where the performers    
were regaled with a draught of ardent   
spirits1 of which they sprinkled a few  
drops on the floor4 ,then the  magicians
 recited their spells to oblige the evil
 spirits to quit the  chamber and the   
good spirits to enter it4 ,at the end of
 each phrase1 the  children1 speaking   
for the spirits1 answered with a shout1 
8,we go0 or 8,we  come40 ,that concluded
 the ceremony in the house1 and the     
noisy procession  filed out to repeat it
 in the next47#cfc7    7,m#ajf7 ,the    
people of ,bali1 an island to the east  
of ,java1 have periodical  expulsions of
 devils upon a great scale4 ,generally  
the time chosen for the  expulsion is   
the day of the 8dark moon0 in the ninth 
month4 ,when the  demons have been long 
unmolested the country is said to be    
8warm10 and the  priest issues orders to
 expel them by force1 lest the whole of 

,bali should  be rendered uninhabitable4
 ,on the day appointed the people of the
 village  or district assemble at the   
principal temple4 ,here at a cross-road 
offerings are set out for the devils4   
,after prayers have been recited by  the
 priests1 the blast of a horn summons   
the devils to partake of the meal  which
 has been prepared for them4 ,at the    
same time a number of men step  forward 
and light their torches at the holy lamp
 which burns before the  chief priest4  
,immediately afterwards1 followed by the
 bystanders1 they  spread in all        
directions and march through the streets
 and lanes crying1  8,depart6 go away60 
,wherever they pass1 the people who have
 stayed at home  hasten1 by a deafening 
clatter on doors1 beams1 rice-blocks1   
and so forth1  to take their share in   
the expulsion of devils4 ,thus chased   
from the  houses1 the fiends flee to the
 banquet which has been set out for     
them2  but here the priest receives them
 with curses which finally drive them   

from the district4 ,when the last devil 
has taken his departure1 the uproar  is 
succeeded by a dead silence1 which lasts
 during the next day also4 ,the  devils1
 it is thought1 are anxious to return to
 their old homes1 and in  order to make 
them think that ,bali is not ,bali but  
some desert island1 no  one may stir    
from his own abode for twenty-four      
hours4 ,even ordinary  household work1  
including cooking1 is discontinued4     
,only the watchmen may  shew themselves 
in the streets4 ,wreaths of thorns and  
leaves are hung at  all the entrances to
 warn strangers from entering4 ,not till
 the third day  is this state of siege  
raised1 and even then it is forbidden to
 work at  the rice-fields or to buy and 
sell in the market4 ,most people still  
stay  at home1 striving to while away   
the time with cards and dice47#cfd7     
7,m#ajg7 ,the ,shans of ,southern ,china
 annually expel the fire-spirit4 ,the   
ceremony was witnessed by the ,english  
,mission under ,colonel ,sladen on the  

thirteenth of ,august #ahfh4 ,bullocks  
and cows were slaughtered in the        
market-place2 the meat was all sold1    
part of it was cooked and eaten1  while 
the rest was fired out of guns at       
sundown4 ,the pieces of flesh which     
fell on the land were supposed to become
 mosquitoes1 those which fell in  the   
water were believed to turn into        
leeches4 ,in the evening the chief's    
retainers beat gongs and blew trumpets2 
and when darkness had set in1  torches  
were lit1 and a party1 preceded by the  
musicians1 searched the  central court  
for the fire-spirit1 who is supposed to 
lurk about at this  season with evil    
intent4 ,they then ransacked all the    
rooms and the  gardens1 throwing the    
light of the torches into every nook and
 corner  where the evil spirit might    
find a hiding-place47#cfe7 ,in some     
parts of  ,fiji an annual ceremony took 
place which has much the aspect of an   
expulsion of devils4 ,the time of its   
celebration was determined by the       

appearance of a certain fish or sea-slug
 7balolo7 which swarms out in  dense    
shoals from the coral reefs on a single 
day of the year1 usually in  the last   
quarter of the moon in ,november4 ,the  
appearance of the sea-slugs  was the    
signal for a general feast at those     
places where they were taken4  ,an      
influential man ascended a tree and     
prayed to the spirit of the sky for     
good crops1 fair winds1 and so on4      
,thereupon a tremendous clatter1 with   
drumming and shouting1 was raised by all
 the people in their houses for  about  
half an hour4 ,this was followed by a   
dead quiet for four days1  during which 
the people feasted on the sea-slug4 ,all
 this time no work of  any kind might be
 done1 not even a leaf plucked nor the  
offal removed from  the houses4 ,if a   
noise was made in any house1 as by a    
child crying1 a  forfeit was at once    
exacted by the chief4 ,at daylight on   
the expiry of the  fourth night the     
whole town was in an uproar2 men and    

boys scampered  about1 knocking with    
clubs and sticks at the doors of the    
houses and  crying 8,sinariba60 ,this   
concluded the ceremony47#cff7 ,the      
natives of  ,tumleo1 a small island off 
,german ,new ,guinea1 also catch the    
sea-slug in  the month of ,november1 and
 at this season they observe a curious  
ceremony1  which may perhaps be         
explained as an expulsion of evils or   
demons4 ,the  lads1 and sometimes grown 
men with them1 go in troops into the    
forest to  search for grass-arrows      
7rng74 ,when they have collected a store
 of  these arrows1 they take sides and1 
armed with little bows1 engage in a     
regular battle4 ,the arrows fly as thick
 as hail1 and though no one is  killed1 
many receive skin wounds and are covered
 with blood4 ,the ,catholic  missionary 
who reports the custom could not        
ascertain the reasons for  observing it4
 ,perhaps one set of combatants         
represents the demons or  embodied evils
 of the year1 who are defeated and      

driven away by the  champions of the    
people4 ,the month in which these       
combats take place  7,november and the  
beginning of ,december7 is sometimes    
named after the  grass-arrows and       
sometimes after the sea-slug47#cfg7     
7,m#ajh7 ,on the last night of the year 
there is observed in most ,japanese     
houses a ceremony called 8the exorcism  
of the evil spirit40 ,it is  performed  
by the head of the family4 ,clad in his 
finest robes1 with a  sword1 if he has  
the right of bearing one1 at his waist1 
he goes through  all the rooms at the   
hour of midnight1 carrying in his left  
hand a box of  roasted beans on a       
lacquered stand4 ,from time to time he  
dips his right  hand into the box and   
scatters a handful of beans on a mat1   
pronouncing a  cabalistic form of words 
of which the meaning is1 8,go forth1    
demons6 ,enter  riches607#cfh7          
,according to another account1 the      
ceremony takes place on  the night      
before the beginning of spring1 and the 

roasted beans are flung  against the    
walls as well as on the floors of the   
houses47#cfi7 ,while the  duty of       
expelling the devils should1 strictly   
speaking1 be discharged by  the head of 
the house1 it is often delegated to a   
servant4 ,whether master  or servant1   
the performer goes by the name of       
year-man 7toshi-otoko71  the rite being 
properly performed on the last day of   
the year4 ,the words  8,out with the    
devils0 7,oni ha soto7 are pronounced by
 him in a loud  voice1 but the words    
8,in with the luck0 7fuku ha uchi7 in a 
low tone4 ,in  the ,shogun's palace the 
ceremony was performed by a year-man    
specially  appointed for the purpose1   
who scattered parched beans in all the  
principal rooms4 ,these beans were      
picked up by the women of the palace1   
who wrapped as many of them in paper as 
they themselves were years old1  and    
then flung them backwards out of doors4 
,sometimes people who had  reached an   
unlucky year would gather these beans1  

one for each year of  their life and one
 over1 and wrap them in paper together  
with a small  copper coin which had been
 rubbed over their body to transfer the 
ill-luck4 ,the packet was afterwards    
thrown away at a cross-road4 ,this was  
called 8flinging away ill-luck0 7yaku   
sute747#cgj7 ,according to ,lafcadio    
,hearn1 the casting-out of devils from  
the houses is performed by a            
professional exorciser for a small fee1 
and the peas which he scatters  about   
the house are afterwards swept up and   
carefully kept until the first  peal of 
thunder is heard in spring1 when it is  
customary to cook and eat  some of them4
 ,after the demons have been thoroughly 
expelled from a house1  a charm is set  
up over the door to prevent them from   
returning3 it  consists of a wooden     
skewer with a holly leaf and the dried  
head of a fish  like a sardine stuck on 
it47#cga7    7,m#aji7 ,on the third day 
of the tenth month in every year the    
,hak-,ka1 a  native race in the province

 of ,canton1 sweep their houses and turn
 the  accumulated filth out of doors1   
together with three sticks of incense   
and  some mock money made of paper4 ,at 
the same time they call out1 8,let the  
devil of poverty depart6 ,let the devil 
of poverty depart60 ,by performing  this
 ceremony they hope to preserve their   
homes from penury47#cgb7 ,among  some of
 the ,hindoos of the ,punjaub on the    
morning after ,diwali or the  festival  
of lamps1 at which the souls of         
ancestors are believed to visit  the    
house1 the oldest woman of the family   
takes a corn-sieve or winnowing  basket 
and a broom1 to both of which magical   
virtues are ascribed1 and  beats them in
 every corner of the house1 exclaiming1 
8,god abide1 and  poverty depart60 ,the 
sieve is then carried out of the        
village1 generally  to the east or      
north1 and being thrown away is supposed
 to bear away with  it the poverty and  
distress of the household4 ,or the woman
 flings all the  sweepings and rubbish  

out of doors1 saying1 8,let all dirt and
 wretchedness  depart from here1 and all
 good fortune come in407#cgc7 ,the      
,persians used  annually to expel the   
demons or goblins 7,dives7 from their   
houses in the  month of ,december4 ,for 
this purpose the ,magi wrote certain    
words with  saffron on a piece of       
parchment or paper and then held the    
writing over a  fire into which they    
threw cotton1 garlic1 grapes1 wild rue1 
and the horn  of an animal that had been
 killed on the sixteenth of ,september4 
,the spell  thus prepared was nailed or 
glued to the inside of the door1 and the
 door  was painted red4 ,next the priest
 took some sand and spread it out with a
  knife1 while he muttered certain      
prayers4 ,after that he strewed the sand
  on the floor1 and the enchantment was 
complete4 ,the demons now immediately   
vanished1 or at least were deprived of  
all their malignant power47#cgd7        
7,m#aaj7 ,for ages it has been customary
 in ,china to expel the demons from     

house and home1 from towns and cities1  
at the end of every year4 ,such  general
 expulsions of devils go by the name of 
no4 ,they are often  mentioned and      
described in ,chinese literature4 ,for  
example1 under the ,han  dynasty1 in the
 second century of our era1 8it was     
ordered that  fang-siang shi with four  
eyes of gold1 masked with bearskins1 and
  wearing black coats with red skirts1  
bearing lances and brandishing  shields1
 should always perform at the end of the
 year in the twelfth month  the no of   
the season1 in the rear of hundreds of  
official servants and  boys1 and search 
the interior of the palace1 in order to 
expel the demons  of plague4 ,with bows 
of peach wood and arrows of the thorny  
jujube they  shoot at the spectres1 and 
with porcelain drums they drum at them2 
moreover they throw red balls and       
cereals at them1 in order to remove     
disease and calamity407#cge7 ,again1 in 
a poem of the same period we read  that 
8at the end of the year the great no    

takes place for the purpose of  driving 
off all spectres4 ,the fang-siang carry 
their spears1 wu and  hih hold their    
bundles of reed4 ,ten thousand lads with
 red heads and  black clothes1 with bows
 of peach wood and arrows of thorny     
jujube shoot  at random all around4     
,showers of potsherds and pebbles come  
down like  rain1 infallibly killing     
strong spectres as well as the weak4    
,flaming  torches run after these       
beings1 so that a sparkling and         
streaming glare  chases the red plague  
to all sides2 thereupon they destroy    
them in the  imperial moats and break   
down the suspension bridges 7to prevent 
their  return7407#cgf7 ,at a later      
period ,chinese historians inform us    
that the  house of ,tsi caused the      
annual expulsion of demons to be        
performed on the  last day of the year  
by two groups1 each of one hundred and  
twenty lads1  and twelve animals headed 
by drums and wind instruments4 ,the     
gates of the  wards and of the city     

walls were flung open1 and the emperor  
witnessed the  ceremony seated on his   
throne in the midst of his officers4    
,with rolling  drums the procession     
entered the palace through the western  
gate1 and  passed through all parts of  
it in two divisions1 even ascending the 
towers1 while they hopped1 jumped and   
shrieked2 and on quitting the palace    
they spread out in six directions till  
they reached the city walls47#cgg7  ,at 
the present time it is customary in     
every part of ,china to fire off        
crackers on the last day and night of   
the year for the purpose of  terrifying 
and expelling the devils3 enormous      
quantities of the explosives  are       
consumed at this season3 the people seem
 to vie with one another as to  who     
shall let off the most crackers and make
 the most noise4 ,sometimes  long       
strings of these fireworks hang from    
balconies and eaves and keep up  a      
continuous crackling for half an hour   
together or more2 in great cities  the  

prolonged and ear-splitting din is very 
annoying to foreigners4 ,to the  ears of
 the ,chinese the noise appears to be   
agreeable1 if not for its own  sake1 at 
least for the beneficial effect it is   
supposed to produce by  driving demons  
away4 ,indeed they seem to be of opinion
 that any noise1  provided it be        
sufficiently harsh and loud1 serves this
 useful purpose4  ,the sound of brass   
instruments is particularly terrifying  
to devils2 hence  the great use which   
the ,chinese make of gongs in rites of  
exorcism4 ,the  clash of gongs1 we are  
told1 resounds through the ,chinese     
empire daily1  especially in summer1    
when a rise in the death-rate1 which    
ignorant  ,europeans attribute to mere  
climatic influences1 stimulates the     
people to  redouble their efforts for   
the banishment of the fiends1 who are   
the real  cause of all the mischief4 ,at
 such times you may see and hear groups 
of  benevolent and public-spirited men  
and women banging gongs1 clashing       

cymbals1 and drubbing drums for hours   
together4 ,no protest is made by  their 
neighbours1 no complaint that they      
disturb the night's rest of the  sick   
and the tired4 ,people listen with      
resignation or rather with  gratitude   
and complacency to the deafening uproar 
raised by these generous                
philanthropists1 who thus devote their  
services gratuitously to the cause  of  
the public health47#cgh7 ,in ,corea1    
also1 the devils are driven out of  the 
towns on ,new ,year's ,eve by the firing
 of guns and the popping of             
crackers47#cgi7    7,m#aaa7 ,in ,tonquin
 a theckydaw or general expulsion of    
malevolent spirits  commonly took place 
once a year1 especially if there was a  
great mortality  amongst men1 the       
elephants or horses of the general's    
stable1 or the  cattle of the country1  
8the cause of which they attribute to   
the malicious  spirits of such men as   
have been put to death for treason1     
rebellion1 and  conspiring the death of 

the king1 general1 or princes1 and that 
in revenge  of the punishment they have 
suffered1 they are bent to destroy      
everything  and commit horrible         
violence4 ,to prevent which their       
superstition has  suggested to them the 
institution of this theckydaw1 as a     
proper means  to drive the devil away1  
and purge the country of evil spirits40 
,the day  appointed for the ceremony was
 generally the twenty-fifth of          
,february1 one  month after the         
beginning of the new year1 which fell on
 the twenty-fifth  of ,january4 ,the    
intermediate month was a season of      
feasting1 merry-making  of all kinds1   
and general licence4 ,during the whole  
month the great seal  was kept shut up  
in a box1 face downwards1 and the law   
was1 as it were1  laid asleep4 ,all     
courts of justice were closed2 debtors  
could not be  seized2 small crimes1 such
 as petty larceny1 fighting1 and        
assault1  escaped with impunity2 only   
treason and murder were taken account of

 and  the malefactors detained till the 
great seal should come into operation   
again4 ,at the close of the saturnalia  
the wicked spirits were driven away4    
,great masses of troops and artillery   
having been drawn up with flying        
colours and all the pomp of war1 8the   
general beginneth then to offer meat    
offerings to the criminal devils and    
malevolent spirits 7for it is usual  and
 customary likewise amongst them to     
feast the condemned before their        
execution71 inviting them to eat and    
drink1 when presently he accuses them   
in a strange language1 by characters and
 figures1 etc41 of many offences  and   
crimes committed by them1 as to their   
having disquieted the land1  killed his 
elephants and horses1 etc41 for all     
which they justly deserve  to be        
chastised and banished the country4     
,whereupon three great guns are  fired  
as the last signal2 upon which all the  
artillery and musquets are  discharged1 
that1 by their most terrible noise the  

devils may be driven  away2 and they are
 so blind as to believe for certain1    
that they really  and effectually put   
them to flight407#chj7    7,m#aab7 ,in  
,cambodia the expulsion of evil spirits 
took place in ,march4 ,bits  of broken  
statues and stones1 considered as the   
abode of the demons1 were  collected and
 brought to the capital4 ,here as many  
elephants were  collected as could be   
got together4 ,on the evening of the    
full moon  volleys of musketry were     
fired and the elephants charged         
furiously to put  the devils to flight4 
,the ceremony was performed on three    
successive  days47#cha7 ,in ,siam the   
banishment of demons is annually carried
 into  effect on the last day of the old
 year4 ,a signal gun is fired from the  
palace2 it is answered from the next    
station1 and so on from station to      
station1 till the firing has reached the
 outer gate of the city4 ,thus the      
demons are driven out step by step4 ,as 
soon as this is done a consecrated  rope

 is fastened round the circuit of the   
city walls to prevent the  banished     
demons from returning4 ,the rope is made
 of tough couch-grass and  is painted in
 alternate stripes of red1 yellow1 and  
blue47#chb7 ,according  to a more recent
 account1 the ,siamese ceremony takes   
place at the ,new ,year  holidays1 which
 are three in number1 beginning with the
 first of ,april4  ,for the feasting    
which accompanies these holidays a      
special kind of cake  is made1 8which is
 as much in demand as our own           
,shrove-,tuesday pancakes or  our       
,good-,friday hot cross-buns4 ,the      
temples are thronged with women and     
children making offerings to ,buddha and
 his priests4 ,the people inaugurate    
their ,new ,year with numerous          
charitable and religious deeds4 ,the    
rich  entertain the monks1 who recite   
appropriate prayers and chants4 ,every  
departed soul returns to the bosom of   
his family during these three days1     
freed from any fetters that may have    

bound him in the regions of  indefinable
 locality4 ,on the third day the        
religious observances  terminate1 and   
the remaining hours are devoted to #8the
 world1 the flesh1  and the devil4'     
,gambling is not confined to the        
licensed houses1 but may  be indulged in
 anywhere4 ,games of chance hold        
powerful sway in every house  as long as
 the licence to participate in them     
lasts4 ,priests in small  companies     
occupy posts at regular intervals round 
the city wall1 and spend  their time in 
chanting away the evil spirits4 ,on the 
evening of the second  day1 the ghostly 
visitors from the lower realms lose the 
luxury of being  exorcised with psalms4 
,every person who has a gun may fire it 
as often as  he pleases1 and the noise  
thus made is undoubtedly fearful enough 
in its  intensity to cause any wandering
 traveller from the far-off fiery land  
to  retrace his steps with speed4 ,the  
bang and rattle of pistols1 muskets1    
shot-guns1 and rifles cease not till the

 break of day1 by which time the  city  
is effectually cleared of all its       
infernal visitors407#chc7 ,from this    
account we learn that among the spirits 
thus banished are the souls of the      
dead1 who revisit their living friends  
once a year4 ,to the same effect1       
apparently1 ,bishop ,bruguire1 writing  
from ,bangkok in #ahbi1 tells us that   
8the three first days of the moon of    
,april are days of solemn festivity  for
 the pious ,siamese4 ,that day ,lucifer 
opens all the gates of the abyss1  the  
souls of the dead1 which are shut up    
there1 come forth and partake of  a     
repast in the bosom of their family4    
,they are treated splendidly4 ,one of   
these three days a monk repairs to the  
palace to preach before the king4  ,at  
the end of the sermon a preconcerted    
signal is given1 and in a moment  the   
cannons are fired in all the quarters of
 the city to chase the devil  out of the
 walls or to kill him1 if he dares to   
resist4 ,on the first day a  temporary  

king is named1 who bears the title of   
phaja-phollathep2 during  these three   
days he enjoys all the royal            
prerogatives1 the real king  remaining  
shut up in his palace407#chd7           
7,m#aac7 ,a similar belief and a similar
 custom prevail in ,japan4 ,there1 too1 
the souls of the departed return to     
their old homes once a year1 and a      
festival called the ,feast of ,lanterns 
is made to welcome them4 ,they come  at 
evening on the thirteenth day of the    
seventh month of the old calendar1      
which falls towards the end of ,august4 
,it is needful to light them on  their  
way4 ,accordingly bamboos with pretty   
coloured lanterns attached to  them are 
fastened on the tombs1 and being thickly
 set they make an  illumination on the  
hills1 where the burying-grounds are    
generally  situated4 ,lamps of many hues
 or rows of tapers are also lit and set 
out in  front of the houses and in the  
gardens1 and small fires are kindled in 
the  streets1 so that the whole city is 

in a blaze of light4 ,after the sun has 
set1 a great multitude issues from the  
town1 for every family goes forth  to   
meet its returning dead4 ,when they come
 to the spot where they believe  the    
souls to be1 they welcome the unseen    
visitors and invite them to rest  after 
their journey1 and to partake of        
refreshments which they offer to  them4 
,having allowed the souls time enough to
 satisfy their hunger and  recover from 
their fatigue1 they escort them by      
torchlight1 chatting gaily  with them1  
into the city and to the houses where   
they lived and died4  ,these are also   
illuminated with brilliant lanterns2 a  
banquet is spread on  the tables2 and   
the places of the dead1 who are supposed
 to absorb the  ethereal essence of the 
food1 are laid for them as if they were 
alive4  ,after the repast the living go 
from house to house to visit the souls  
of  their dead friends and neighbours2  
and thus they spend the night running   
about the town4 ,on the evening of the  

third day of the festival1 which is  the
 fifteenth day of the month1 the time   
has come for the souls to return  to    
their own place4 ,fires again blaze in  
the streets to light them on the  road2 
the people again escort them            
ceremoniously to the spot where they    
met them two days before2 and in some   
places they send the lanterns  floating 
away on rivers or the sea in miniature  
boats1 which are laden  with provisions 
for the spirits on their way to their   
long home4 ,but there  is still a fear  
that some poor souls may have lagged    
behind1 or even  concealed themselves in
 a nook or corner1 loth to part from the
 scenes of  their former life and from  
those they love4 ,accordingly steps are 
taken to  hunt out these laggards and   
send them packing after their           
fellow-ghosts4  ,with this intention the
 people throw stones on the roofs of    
their houses  in great profusion2 and   
going through every room armed with     
sticks they  deal swashing blows all    

about them in the empty air to chase    
away the  lingering souls4 ,this they   
do1 we are told1 out of a regard for    
their own  comfort quite as much as from
 the affection they bear to the dead2   
for  they fear to be disturbed by       
unseasonable apparitions if they        
suffered the  airy visitors to remain in
 the house47#che7    7,m#aad7 ,thus in  
spite of the kindly welcome given to the
 souls1 the fear  which they inspire    
comes out plainly in the pains taken to 
ensure their  departure2 and this fear  
justifies us in including such forced   
departures  among the ceremonies for the
 expulsion of evils with which we are   
here  concerned4 ,it may be remembered  
that the annual banishment of ghosts has
  been practised by savages so low in   
the scale of humanity as the            
,australian aborigines47#chf7 ,at the   
other end of the scale it was observed  
in classical antiquity by the civilized 
,greeks and ,romans4 ,the ,athenians    
believed that at the festival of the    

,anthesteria the souls of the dead  came
 back from the nether world and went    
about the city4 ,accordingly ropes  were
 fastened round the temples to keep out 
the wandering ghosts2 and with  a like  
intention the people chewed buckthorn in
 the morning and smeared  the doors of  
their houses with pitch1 apparently     
thinking that any rash  spirits who     
might attempt to enter would stick fast 
in the pitch and be  glued1 like so many
 flies1 to the door4 ,but at the end of 
the festival the  souls were bidden to  
depart in these words3 8,out of the door
 with you1  souls4 ,the ,anthesteria is 
over407#chg7 ,yet for the entertainment 
of the  unseen guests during their short
 stay earthenware pots full of boiled   
food  appear to have been everywhere    
prepared throughout the city2 but       
probably  these were placed in the      
street outside the houses1 in order to  
give the  ghosts no excuse for entering 
and disturbing the inmates4 ,no priest  
would  eat of the food thus offered to  

the dead17#chh7 but prowling beggars    
probably had no such scruples4          
,similarly when the ,sea ,dyaks of      
,sarawak  celebrate their great         
,festival of ,departed ,spirits at      
intervals which vary  from one to three 
or four years1 food is prepared for the 
dead and they  are summoned from their  
far-off home to partake of it2 but it is
 put  outside at the entrance of the    
house4 ,and before the general arrival  
of  the souls1 while the people are busy
 brewing the drink for the feast1 each  
family takes care to hang an earthenware
 pot full of the liquor outside of  the 
single room which it occupies in the    
large common house1 lest some  thirsty  
soul should arrive prematurely from the 
other world1 and1 forcing  his way into 
the domestic circle1 should not merely  
slake his thirst but  carry off one of  
the living47#chi7 ,during three days in 
,may the ,romans held  a festival in    
honour of the ghosts4 ,the temples were 
shut1 doubtless to  keep out the ghostly

 swarms2 but1 as in ,japan1 every house 
seems to have  been thrown open to      
receive the spirits of its own departed4
 ,when the  reception was over1 each    
head of a family arose at dead of night1
 washed  his hands1 and having made with
 fingers and thumb certain magic signs  
to  ward off ghosts1 he proceeded to    
throw black beans over his shoulder     
without looking behind him4 ,as he did  
so1 he said nine times1 8,with these    
beans ,i redeem me and mine02 and the   
ghosts1 following unseen at his  heels1 
picked up the beans and left him and his
 alone4 ,then he dipped his  hands again
 in water1 clashed bronze vessels       
together to make a din1 and  begged the 
ghosts to depart from his house1 saying 
nine times1 8,go forth1  paternal       
shades60 ,after that he looked behind   
him1 and the ceremony was  over3 the    
ghosts had taken their leave for another
 year47#cij7    7,m#aae7 ,annual        
expulsions of demons1 witches1 or evil  
influences appear to  have been common  

among the heathen of ,europe1 if we may 
judge from the  relics of such customs  
among their descendants at the present  
day4 ,thus  among the heathen ,wotyaks1 
a ,finnish people of ,eastern ,russia1  
all the  young girls of the village     
assemble on the last day of the year or 
on ,new  ,year's ,day1 armed with       
sticks1 the ends of which are split in  
nine places4  ,with these they beat     
every corner of the house and yard1     
saying1 8,we are  driving ,satan out of 
the village40 ,afterwards the sticks are
 thrown into  the river below the       
village1 and as they float down stream  
,satan goes with  them to the next      
village1 from which he must be driven   
out in turn4 ,in  some villages the     
expulsion is managed otherwise4 ,the    
unmarried men  receive from every house 
in the village groats1 flesh1 and       
brandy4 ,these  they take to the fields1
 light a fire under a fir-tree1 boil the
 groats1  and eat of the food they have 
brought with them1 after pronouncing the

  words1 8,go away into the wilderness1 
come not into the house40 ,then they    
return to the village and enter every   
house where there are young women4      
,they take hold of the young women and  
throw them into the snow1 saying1  8,may
 the spirits of disease leave you40 ,the
 remains of the groats and the  other   
food are then distributed among all the 
houses in proportion to the  amount that
 each contributed1 and each family      
consumes its share4  ,according to a    
,wotyak of the ,malmyz district the     
young men throw into the  snow whomever 
they find in the houses1 and this is    
called 8driving out  ,satan02 moreover1 
some of the boiled groats are cast into 
the fire with  the words1 8,o god1      
afflict us not with sickness and        
pestilence1 give us  not up as a prey to
 the spirits of the wood40 ,but the most
 antique form of  the ceremony is that  
observed by the ,wotyaks of the ,kasan  
,government4  ,first of all a sacrifice 
is offered to the ,devil at noon4 ,then 

all the men  assemble on horseback in   
the centre of the village1 and decide   
with which  house they shall begin4     
,when this question1 which often gives  
rise to hot  disputes1 is settled1 they 
tether their horses to the paling1 and  
arm  themselves with whips1 clubs of    
lime-wood1 and bundles of lighted twigs4
  ,the lighted twigs are believed to    
have the greatest terrors for ,satan4   
,thus armed1 they proceed with frightful
 cries to beat every corner of the      
house and yard1 then shut the door1 and 
spit at the ejected fiend4 ,so they  go 
from house to house1 till the ,devil has
 been driven from every one4  ,then they
 mount their horses and ride out of the 
village1 yelling wildly  and brandishing
 their clubs in every direction4        
,outside of the village  they fling away
 the clubs and spit once more at the    
,devil47#cia7 ,the  ,cheremiss1 another 
,finnish people of ,eastern ,russia1    
chase ,satan from  their dwellings by   
beating the walls with cudgels of       

lime-wood4 ,for the  same purpose they  
fire guns1 stab the ground with knives1 
and insert  burning chips of wood in the
 crevices4 ,also they leap over         
bonfires1  shaking out their garments as
 they do so2 and in some districts they 
blow  on long trumpets of lime-tree bark
 to frighten him away4 ,when he has fled
  to the wood1 they pelt the trees with 
some of the cheese-cakes and eggs  which
 furnished the feast47#cib7    7,m#aaf7 
,in ,christian ,europe the old heathen  
custom of expelling the powers  of evil 
at certain times of the year has        
survived to modern times4 ,thus in  some
 villages of ,calabria the month of     
,march is inaugurated with the          
expulsion of the witches4 ,it takes     
place at night to the sound of the      
church bells1 the people running about  
the streets and crying1 8,march is      
come40 ,they say that the witches roam  
about in ,march1 and the ceremony is    
repeated every ,friday evening during   
the month47#cic7 ,often1 as might have  

been anticipated1 the ancient pagan rite
 has attached itself to church          
festivals4 ,for example1 in ,calabria at
 ,eastertide every family provides      
itself in time with a supply of holy    
water1 and when the church bells        
proclaim the resurrection of ,christ the
 people sprinkle the house with the     
water1 saying in a loud voice1 8,esciti 
fora srici uorvi1 esciti fora           
tentaziuni1 esca u malu ed entri u      
bene40 ,at the same time they knock on  
doors and windows1 on chests and other  
articles of furniture47#cid7 ,again1  in
 ,albania on ,easter ,eve the young     
people light torches of resinous wood   
and march in procession1 swinging them1 
through the village4 ,at last they      
throw the torches into the river1       
crying1 8,ha1 ,kore6 we throw you into  
the  river1 like these torches1 that you
 may never return407#cie7 ,silesian     
peasants believe that on ,good ,friday  
the witches go their rounds and have    
great power for mischief4 ,hence about  

,oels1 near ,strehlitz1 the people on   
that day arm themselves with old brooms 
and drive the witches from house  and   
home1 from farmyard and cattle-stall1   
making a great uproar and  clatter as   
they do so47#cif7    7,m#aag7 ,the      
belief in the maleficent power and      
activity of witches and  wizards would  
seem to have weighed almost as heavily  
on the heathen of  ,central and         
,northern ,europe in prehistoric times  
as it still weighs on the  minds of     
,african negroes and other savages in   
many parts of the world4 ,but  while    
these unhallowed beings were always with
 our forefathers1 there were  times and 
seasons of the year when they were      
supposed to be particularly             
mischievous1 and when accordingly       
special precautions had to be taken     
against them4 ,among such times were the
 twelve days from ,christmas to         
,twelfth ,night1 the ,eve of ,st4       
,george1 the ,eve of ,may ,day          
7,walpurgis  ,night71 and ,midsummer    

,eve47#cig7    7,m#aah7 ,in ,central    
,europe it was apparently on ,walpurgis 
,night1 the ,eve of  ,may ,day1 above   
all other times that the baleful powers 
of the witches were  exerted to the     
fullest extent2 nothing therefore could 
be more natural  than that men should be
 on their guard against them at that    
season1 and  that1 not content with     
merely standing on their defence1 they  
should  boldly have sought to carry the 
war into the enemy's quarters by        
attacking  and forcibly expelling the   
uncanny crew4 ,amongst the weapons with 
which  they fought their invisible      
adversaries in these grim encounters    
were holy  water1 the fumes of incense  
or other combustibles1 and loud noises  
of all  kinds1 particularly the clashing
 of metal instruments1 amongst which the
  ringing of church bells was perhaps   
the most effectual47#cih7 ,some of these
  strong measures are still in use among
 the peasantry1 or were so down to      
recent years1 and there seems no reason 

to suppose that their magical  virtue   
has been at all impaired by lapse of    
time4 ,in the ,tyrol1 as in  other      
places1 the expulsion of the powers of  
evil at this season goes by  the name of
 8,burning out the ,witches40 ,it takes 
place on ,may ,day1 but  people have    
been busy with their preparations for   
days before4 ,on a  ,thursday at        
midnight bundles are made up of resinous
 splinters1 black and  red spotted      
hemlock1 caperspurge1 rosemary1 and     
twigs of the sloe4 ,these  are kept and 
burned on ,may ,day by men who must     
first have received plenary  absolution 
from the ,church4 ,on the last three    
days of ,april all the houses  are      
cleansed and fumigated with juniper     
berries and rue4 ,on ,may ,day1 when    
the evening bell has rung and the       
twilight is falling1 the ceremony of    
8,burning out the ,witches0 begins4 ,men
 and boys make a racket with whips1     
bells1 pots1 and pans2 the women carry  
censers2 the dogs are unchained and  run

 barking and yelping about4 ,as soon as 
the church bells begin to ring1  the    
bundles of twigs1 fastened on poles1 are
 set on fire and the incense  is        
ignited4 ,then all the house-bells and  
dinner-bells are rung1 pots and  pans   
are clashed1 dogs bark1 every one must  
make a noise4 ,and amid this  hubbub all
 scream at the pitch of their voices1   
8,witch flee1 flee from here1      ,or  
it will go ill with thee40      ,then   
they run seven times round the houses1  
the yards1 and the village4 ,so  the    
witches are smoked out of their         
lurking-places and driven away47#cii7   
7,m#aai7 ,the custom of expelling the   
witches on ,walpurgis ,night is still1  
or  was down to thirty or forty years   
ago1 observed in many parts of ,bavaria 
and among the ,germans of ,bohemia4     
,thus in the ,bhmerwald ,mountains1     
which  divide ,bavaria from ,bohemia1   
all the young fellows of the village    
assemble  after sunset on some height1  
especially at a cross-road1 and crack   

whips  for a while in unison with all   
their strength4 ,this drives away the   
witches2 for so far as the sound of the 
whips is heard1 these maleficent  beings
 can do no harm4 ,the peasants believe  
firmly in the efficacy of this  remedy4 
,a yokel will tell his sons to be sure  
to crack their whips loudly  and hit the
 witches hard2 and to give more sting to
 every blow the  whip-lashes are        
knotted4 ,on returning to the village   
the lads often sing  songs and collect  
contributions of eggs1 lard1 bread1 and 
butter4 ,in some  places1 while the     
young fellows are cracking their whips1 
the herdsmen  wind their horns1 and the 
long-drawn notes1 heard far-off in the  
silence  of night1 are very effectual   
for banning the witches4 ,in other      
places1  again1 the youth blow upon     
so-called shawms made of peeled         
willow-wood in  front of every house1   
especially in front of such houses as   
are suspected  of harbouring a          
witch47#djj7 ,in ,voigtland1 a bleak    

mountainous region of  ,central         
,germany7#dja7 bordering on the         
,frankenwald ,mountains1 the belief in  
witchcraft is still widely spread4 ,the 
time when the witches are  particularly 
dreaded is ,walpurgis ,night1 but they  
play their pranks also  on ,midsummer   
,eve1 ,st4 ,thomas's ,eve1 and          
,christmas ,eve4 ,on these days they    
try to make their way into a neighbour's
 house and to borrow or steal  something
 from it2 and woe betide the man in     
whose house they have  succeeded in     
their nefarious errand6 ,it is on       
,walpurgis ,night and  ,midsummer ,eve  
that they ride through the air astride  
of pitchforks and  churn-dashers4 ,they 
also bewitch the cattle2 so to protect  
the poor beasts  from their hellish     
machinations the people on these days   
chalk up three  crosses on the doors of 
the cattle-stalls or hang up ,st4       
,john's wort1  marjoram1 and so forth4  
,very often1 too1 the village youth turn
 out in a  body and drive the witches   

away with the cracking of whips1 the    
firing of  guns1 and the waving of      
burning besoms through the air1 not to  
mention  shouts and noises of all       
sorts47#djb7 ,such customs appear to be 
observed  generally in ,thringen1 of    
which ,voigtland is a part4 ,the people 
think  that the blows of the whip       
actually fall on the witches hovering   
unseen in  the air1 and that so far as  
the cracking of the whips is heard1 the 
crops  will be good and nothing will be 
struck by lightning17#djc7 no doubt     
because the witches have been banished  
by the sound4    7,m#abj7 ,in ,bohemia  
many are the precautions taken by the   
peasantry1 both  ,german and ,czech1 to 
guard themselves and their cattle       
against the witches  on ,walpurgis      
,night4 ,thorny branches are laid on the
 thresholds of  cow-houses and dwellings
 to keep out the infernal crew1 and     
after sunset  boys armed with whips and 
guns drive them from the villages with a
  prodigious uproar and burn them in    

bonfires on the neighbouring heights4   
,it is true that the witches themselves 
are not seen1 though effigies of  them  
are sometimes consumed in the bonfires4 
,this 8,burning of the  ,witches10 as it
 is called1 protects the crops from     
their ravages4 ,german  lads also employ
 goats' horns as a means of driving away
 the witches at  the moment when they   
issue forth from kitchen-chimneys on    
their way to the  witches'              
,sabbath47#djd7 ,some minor variations  
in the mode of expelling the  witches on
 ,walpurgis ,night have been noted in   
the ,german villages of  ,western       
,bohemia4 ,thus in ,absrot the village  
youth go out to cross-roads  and there  
beat the ground with boards1 no doubt   
for the purpose of  thrashing the       
witches who are commonly supposed to    
assemble at such spots4  ,in ,deslawen1 
after the evening bells have rung1      
people go through the  houses beating   
the walls or floors with boards2 then   
they issue forth into  the roads1 headed

 by a boy who carries the effigy of a   
witch made up of  rags4 ,thereupon      
grown-up folk crack whips and fire      
shots4 ,in ,schnwert the  young people  
go in bands through the village and the 
meadows1 making a  great noise with     
bells1 flutes1 and whips1 for the more  
noise they make  the more effectual is  
the ceremony supposed to be4 ,meantime  
the older men  are busy firing shots    
over the fields and the dungheaps4 ,in  
,hochofen  troops of children go from   
house to house on ,walpurgis ,evening1  
making a  great clatter with tin cans   
and kettles1 while they scream1 8,witch1
 go  out1 your house is burning40 ,this 
is called 8,driving out the             
,witches407#dje7 ,the ,german peasants  
of ,moravia1 also1 universally believe  
that on ,walpurgis ,night the witches   
ride through the air on broomsticks  and
 pitchforks in order to revel with      
,satan1 their master1 at the old        
heathen places of sacrifice1 which are  
commonly on heights4 ,to guard the      

cattle and horses from their insidious  
attacks it is usual to put knives  under
 the thresholds and to stick sprigs of  
birch in the dungheaps4  ,formerly lads 
used to gather on the heights where the 
witches were  believed to assemble2 and 
by hurling besoms1 dipped in pitch and  
ignited1  they attempted to banish the  
invisible foe47#djf7    7,m#aba7 ,in    
,silesia also1 we are told1 the belief  
in witchcraft still  occupies a large   
space in the minds of the people4 ,it is
 on ,walpurgis  ,night that the witches 
are let loose and all the powers of     
magic have full  sway4 ,at that time the
 cottagers not uncommonly see a witch   
astride a  hayfork or broomstick        
emerging from the chimney4 ,hence people
 are careful  to remove all utensils    
from the fireplace1 or the witches would
 ride on  them1 when they go with the   
,evil ,one to a cross-road or a         
gallows-hill1  there to dance wild      
dances in a circle on the snow or to cut
 capers on the  corn-fields4 ,steps are 

taken to guard village1 house1 and      
farmyard against  their incursions4     
,three crosses are chalked up on every  
door1 and little  birch-trees fastened  
over the house-door1 because the witches
 must count  every leaf on the tree     
before they can cross the threshold1 and
 while they  are still counting1 the day
 breaks and their power is gone4 ,on    
that  evening the cattle are especially 
exposed to the attacks of the witches1  
and prudent farmers resort to many      
expedients for the sake of protecting   
the animals from the wiles of these     
malignant beings4 ,no wise man would    
sell milk or butter on ,walpurgis       
,night2 if he did1 his cows would       
certainly be bewitched4 ,and all the    
work of the byres should be finished    
and the cattle fed before sundown1 which
 is the time when the witches  begin to 
swarm in the air4 ,besides the usual    
crosses chalked on the door  of the     
byre1 it is customary to fasten over it 
three horse-shoes1 or a  holed flint1 or

 a goat's horns with four branches2 it  
is well1 too1 to  nail bits of buckthorn
 crosswise over every entrance1 and to  
lean  pitchforks and harrows against the
 doors with the sharp points turned     
outwards4 ,a sod freshly cut from a     
meadow and sprinkled with               
marsh-marigolds has likewise a very good
 effect when it is placed before a      
threshold4 ,moreover in the ,grnberg    
district young men go clanking chains   
through the village and farmyards1 for  
iron scares the witches2 also they      
knock at the doors and they prance      
through the yards astride on pitchforks 
and broomsticks1 all to drive away the  
witches1 but in doing so they must  be  
sure not to speak a word4 ,a very       
powerful means of keeping witches at    
bay are the ,walpurgis bonfires1 which  
are still kindled in the ,hoyerswerda   
district and the ,iser ,mountains4 ,the 
fires are fed with the stumps of old    
brooms1 and the people dance round them 
and wave burning besoms1 just as  they  

do at the ,midsummer bonfires4 ,about   
,hoyerswerda they call these  fires1 as 
usual1 8,burning the ,witches407#djg7   
7,m#abb7 ,the ,wends of ,saxony adopt   
very similar precautions against witches
  on the evening of ,walpurgis ,day4    
,any one who has been in ,lusatia on the
  last day of ,april must remember the  
fires which he saw blazing on the       
mountains and in the valleys and the    
plains4 ,that is the ,witch-burning     
7kuzlarnie pali74 ,for weeks before that
 the boys and lads have been  collecting
 old brooms1 and when the time comes    
they sally forth and dance  with the    
burning besoms on the fields2 the fire  
is thought to ban the  witches and foul 
fiends4 ,also on that day people march  
about the fields  and meadows clinking  
stones on scythes2 for the noise is also
 deemed  effectual in driving the       
witches away47#djh7 ,at ,penzance in    
,cornwall boys  run about blowing horns 
on the thirtieth of ,april 7,walpurgis  
,day71 and  when questioned why they do 

so they say that they are 8scaring away 
the  devil40 ,the horns used for this   
purpose are made of tin and shaped like 
a  herald's trumpet2 they vary in length
 from a foot to a yard and can give     
forth a very loud blast47#dji7 ,the     
custom is probably a relic of a general 
expulsion of witches and demons on that 
day4    7,m#abc7 ,another witching time 
is the period of twelve days between    
,christmas 7the twenty-fifth of         
,december7 and ,epiphany 7the sixth of  
,january74 ,a thousand quaint           
superstitions cluster round that mystic 
season4 ,it is then that the ,wild      
,huntsman sweeps through the air1 the   
powers of evil are let loose1 werewolves
 are prowling round1 and the  witches   
work their wicked will4 ,hence in some  
parts of ,silesia the people  burn      
pine-resin all night long between       
,christmas and the ,new ,year in order  
that the pungent smoke may drive witches
 and evil spirits far away from  house  
and homestead2 and on ,christmas ,eve   

and ,new ,year's ,eve they fire  shots  
over fields and meadows1 into shrubs and
 trees1 and wrap straw round  the       
fruit-trees1 to prevent the spirits from
 doing them harm47#daj7 ,on ,new        
,year's ,eve1 which is ,saint           
,sylvester's ,day1 ,bohemian lads1 armed
 with  guns1 form themselves into       
circles and fire thrice into the air4   
,this is  called 8,shooting the         
,witches0 and is supposed to frighten   
the witches  away4 ,while the young     
fellows are rendering this service to   
the community1  the housewives go about 
their houses sprinkling holy water in   
all the  rooms and chalking three       
crosses on every door17#daa7 no doubt to
  accelerate the departure of the       
witches1 and to prevent their return4   
,at  ,trieste on ,st4 ,sylvester's ,eve 
people form processions and drive the   
evil  spirits with sticks and brooms out
 of the houses1 while they invite the   
good spirits and good luck to come and  
dwell there47#dab7 ,in the town of      

,biggar1 in ,lanarkshire1 it has been   
customary from time immemorial to       
celebrate a custom called 8burning out  
the ,old ,year0 on the thirty-first  of 
,december4 ,a large bonfire1 to which   
all the onlookers think it their  duty  
to contribute fuel1 is kindled in the   
evening at the town cross1 and  fires   
are also lighted on the adjacent        
hills47#dac7 ,when we remember how      
common it is in ,central ,europe to     
kindle fires at critical seasons for the
  purpose of burning the witches1 we may
 suspect that what the good people  of  
,biggar originally intended to burn on  
the last night of the year was  not the 
,old ,year but the witches4 ,it would   
have been well for ,scotland and  for   
,europe if the practice of burning      
witches had always been carried out  in 
this harmless fashion4 ,a visitor to    
,scotland in #afdd saw nine witches  of 
flesh and blood burned at one time on   
,leith ,links47#dad7    7,m#abd7 ,the   
last of the mystic twelve days is       

,epiphany or ,twelfth ,night1  and it   
has been selected as a proper season for
 the expulsion of the  powers of evil in
 various parts of ,europe4 ,thus at     
,brunnen on the ,lake of  ,lucerne the  
boys go about in procession on ,twelfth 
,night1 carrying torches  and lanterns1 
and making a great noise with horns1    
cow-bells1 whips1 and  so forth4 ,this  
is said to frighten away the two female 
spirits of the  wood1 ,strudeli and     
,strtteli4 ,of these two names ,strudeli
 seems to mean  8witch0 and ,strtteli   
8nightmare40 ,the people believe that if
 they do not  make enough noise1 there  
will be little fruit that year47#dae7   
,on the same  day the inhabitants of the
 ,muota ,valley1 immediately to the east
 of  ,brunnen1 used to make a similar   
racket1 no doubt for a similar purpose4 
,they collected chains1 pots and pans1  
cow-bells1 horns1 and such like  musical
 instruments4 ,he who could borrow a    
number of horse's bells and  wear them  
on his person so that the jangling      

sounded afar off was deemed  uncommonly 
lucky4 ,thus equipped parties of people 
marched about making all  the din they  
could2 sometimes they would meet and    
joining all their  efforts in one       
concerted burst of harmony or discord   
would raise such a  hubbub that the     
surrounding rocks rang again with the   
sound47#daf7 ,in  ,labruguire1 also1 a  
canton of ,southern ,france1 the evil   
spirits are  expelled at the same       
season4 ,the canton lies in the         
picturesque and  little-known region of 
the ,black ,mountains1 which form a sort
 of link  between the ,pyrenees and the 
,cevennes1 and have preserved in their  
remote  recesses certain types of life  
which have long disappeared elsewhere4  
,on  the eve of ,twelfth ,day the       
inhabitants rush through the streets    
jangling  bells1 clattering kettles1 and
 doing everything to make a discordant  
noise4 ,then by the light of torches and
 blazing faggots they set up a          
prodigious hue and cry1 an ear-splitting

 uproar1 hoping thereby to chase  all   
the wandering ghosts and devils from the
 town47#dag7    7,m#abe7 ,with this     
noisy ceremony we may compare a similar 
custom which is  still observed year by 
year at the same season in the long and 
spacious  ,piazza ,navona at ,rome4     
,there on the night before ,epiphany a  
dense crowd  assembles1 and diverts     
itself by raising a hideous uproar4     
,soon after  supper troops of young folk
 and others march through the streets1  
preceded  by puppets or pasteboard      
figures and all making the utmost       
possible din4  ,they converge from      
different quarters on the ,piazza       
,navona1 there to unite  in one         
prolonged and deafening outburst of     
clangorous discord4 ,the  favourite     
musical instruments employed in this    
cats' concert are penny  trumpets1 of   
which1 together with tambourines1 bells1
 and so forth1 the  shops take care to  
provide a large stock as a preparation  
for the  pandemonium of the evening4    

,the ceremony is supposed to be in      
honour of a  certain mythical old hag   
called ,befana1 effigies of whom1 made  
of rags1  are put by women and children 
in the windows on ,twelfth ,night4 ,her 
name  ,befana is clearly a popular      
corruption of ,epiphany1 the            
ecclesiastical  name of the festival2   
but viewed in connexion with the popular
  celebrations which we have examined   
she may be suspected to be of heathen   
rather than ,christian origin4 ,in fact 
we may conjecture that she was of  old a
 witch1 and that the noisy rite in the  
,piazza ,navona is nothing but a  relic 
of an annual expulsion of witches at    
this season47#dah7 ,a ceremony of  the  
same sort is annually observed on the   
same evening1 the ,eve of  ,epiphany1 by
 the peasantry who inhabit the mountains
 of the ,tuscan  ,romagna4 ,a troop of  
lads parade the streets of the village  
making a  fiendish noise by means of    
bells and kitchen utensils of tin and   
brass1  while others blow blasts on     

horns and reed-pipes4 ,they drag about a
 cart  containing an effigy of an old   
woman made up of rags and tow1 which    
represents ,befana 7,epiphany74 ,when   
they come to the village square they    
put fire to the effigy1 which soon      
vanishes in smoke and flames amid a     
chorus of cries1 shrieks1 and other     
forms of rustic melody47#dai7 ,similar  
ceremonies are probably observed on the 
same evening in other parts of  ,italy4 
7,m#abf7 ,in the ,shetland ,islands the 
,yule or ,christmas holidays begin1 or  
used to begin1 seven days before        
,christmas and last till ,antinmas1 that
  is1 the twenty-fourth day after       
,christmas4 ,in the ,shetland parlance  
these  holidays are known as 8the       
,yules40 ,on the first night1 called    
,tul-ya's  e'en1 seven days before      
,christmas1 certain mischievous elves1  
whom the  ,shetlanders name ,trows1     
8received permission to leave their     
homes in the  heart of the earth and    
dwell1 if it so pleased them1 above     

ground4 ,there  seemed to have been no  
doubt that those creatures preferred    
disporting  themselves among the        
dwellings of men to residing in their   
own  subterranean abodes1 for they      
availed themselves of every permission  
given1 and created no little disturbance
 among the mortals whom they  visited4  
,one of the most important of all       
,yule-tide observances was the          
#8saining' required to guard life or    
property from the ,trows4 ,if the proper
  observances were omitted1 the         
#8grey-folk' were sure to take advantage
 of  the opportunity407#dbj7 ,on the    
last day of the holidays1 the           
twenty-fourth  day after ,christmas1    
which in ,shetland goes by the name of  
,up-helly-a'1  ,uphellia1 or ,uphaliday1
 8the doors were all opened1 and a great
 deal of  pantomimic chasing and driving
 and dispersing of unseen creatures took
  place4 ,many pious ejaculations were  
uttered1 and iron was ostentatiously    
displayed1 #8for ,trows can never abide 

the sight o' iron4' ,the ,bible was     
read and quoted4 ,people moved about in 
groups or couples1 never singly1  and   
infants were carefully guarded as well  
as sained by vigilant and  learned      
#8wise women4' ,alas1 the poor ,trows6  
their time of frolic and  liberty was   
ended1 and on ,twenty-fourth night they 
retired to their gloomy  abodes beneath 
the sod1 seldom finding opportunity to  
reappear again1 and  never with the same
 licence1 until the ,yules returned4    
,all that pantomime1  all that invoking 
of holier ,powers1 were but methods of  
#8speeding the  parting guest1' and     
mortals were rejoicing that the         
unbidden1 unwelcome  grey-folk must     
depart4 ,when day dawned after          
,twenty-fourth night the ,trows  had    
vanished and the ,yules were            
ended407#dba7 ,of late years            
,up-helly-a' has  been celebrated in    
,lerwick with pompous and elaborate     
masquerades4 ,the  chief event of the   
evening is a torch-light procession of  

maskers or  8guizers10 as they are      
called1 who escort the model of a ,norse
 galley  through the streets1 and       
finally set it on fire by throwing their
 torches  into it4 ,but in this form the
 celebration seems to date only from the
  latter part of the nineteenth century2
 in former times an old boat filled     
with tar and ignited was dragged about  
and blazing tar-barrels were drawn  or  
kicked through the streets47#dbb7 ,the  
fire1 however procured1 was  probably in
 origin intended to chase away the      
lingering ,trows from the  town at the  
end of the holidays4    7,m#abg7 ,thus  
it would seem that the custom of        
annually banishing witches  and demons  
on a day or night set apart for the     
purpose has not been  confined to       
,central ,europe1 but can be traced from
 ,calabria and ,rome in  the south to   
the ,shetland ,islands in the far north4
            ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,public    
,,scapegoats4           #a4 ,the        
,expulsion of ,embodied ,evils4         

7,m#abh7 ,thus far we have dealt with   
that class of the general expulsion of  
evils which ,i have called direct or    
immediate4 ,in this class the evils are 
invisible1 at least to common eyes1 and 
the mode of deliverance consists  for   
the most part in beating the empty air  
and raising such a hubbub as  may scare 
the mischievous spirits and put them to 
flight4 ,it remains to  illustrate the  
second class of expulsions1 in which the
 evil influences  are embodied in a     
visible form or are at least supposed to
 be loaded upon  a material medium1     
which acts as a vehicle to draw them off
 from the  people1 village1 or town4    
7,m#abi7 ,the ,pomos of ,california     
celebrate an expulsion of devils every  
seven years1 at which the devils are    
represented by disguised men4 8,twenty  
or thirty men array themselves in       
harlequin rig and barbaric paint1 and   
put vessels of pitch on their heads2    
then they secretly go out into the      
surrounding mountains4 ,these are to    

personify the devils4 ,a herald goes up 
to the top of the assembly-house1 and   
makes a speech to the multitude4 ,at  a 
signal agreed upon in the evening the   
masqueraders come in from the           
mountains1 with the vessels of pitch    
flaming on their heads1 and with all    
the frightful accessories of noise1     
motion1 and costume which the savage    
mind can devise in representation of    
demons4 ,the terrified women and        
children flee for life1 the men huddle  
them inside a circle1 and1 on the       
principle of fighting the devil with    
fire1 they swing blazing firebrands  in 
the air1 yell1 whoop1 and make frantic  
dashes at the marauding and             
bloodthirsty devils1 so creating a      
terrific spectacle1 and striking great  
fear into the hearts of the assembled   
hundreds of women1 who are screaming    
and fainting and clinging to their      
valorous protectors4 ,finally the devils
  succeed in getting into the           
assembly-house1 and the bravest of the  

men  enter and hold a parley with them4 
,as a conclusion of the whole farce1 the
  men summon courage1 the devils are    
expelled from the assembly-house1 and   
with a prodigious row and racket of sham
 fighting are chased away into the      
mountains407#dbc7 ,in spring1 as soon as
 the willow-leaves were full grown  on  
the banks of the river1 the ,mandan     
,indians celebrated their great  annual 
festival1 one of the features of which  
was the expulsion of the  devil4 ,a man1
 painted black to represent the devil1  
entered the village  from the prairie1  
chased and frightened the women1 and    
acted the part of a  buffalo bull in the
 buffalo dance1 the object of which was 
to ensure a  plentiful supply of        
buffaloes during the ensuing year4      
,finally he was  chased from the        
village1 the women pursuing him with    
hisses and gibes1  beating him with     
sticks1 and pelting him with dirt47#dbd7
 ,the ,mayas of  ,yucatan divided the   
year into eighteen months of twenty days

 each1 and  they added five             
supplementary days at the end of the    
year in order to make  a total of three 
hundred and sixty-five days4 ,these five
 supplementary  days were deemed        
unlucky4 ,in the course of them the     
people banished the  evils that might   
threaten them in the year on which they 
were about to  enter4 ,for that purpose 
they made a clay image of the demon of  
evil  ,uuayayab1 that is u-uayab-haab1  
8,he by whom the year is poisoned10     
confronted it with the deity who had    
supreme power over the coming year1  and
 then carried it out of the village in  
the direction of that cardinal  point to
 which1 on the system of the ,mayan     
calendar1 the particular year  was      
supposed to belong4 ,having thus rid    
themselves of the demon1 they  looked   
forward to a happy ,new ,year47#dbe7    
7,m#acj7 ,some of the native tribes of  
,central ,queensland believe in a       
noxious being called ,molonga1 who      
prowls unseen and would kill men and    

violate women if certain ceremonies were
 not performed4 ,these ceremonies  last 
for five nights and consist of dances1  
in which only men1  fantastically       
painted and adorned1 take part4 ,on the 
fifth night ,molonga  himself1          
personified by a man tricked out with   
red ochre and feathers and  carrying a  
long feather-tipped spear1 rushes forth 
from the darkness at  the spectators and
 makes as if he would run them through4 
,great is the  excitement1 loud are the 
shrieks and shouts1 but after another   
feigned  attack the demon vanishes in   
the gloom47#dbf7 ,on the last night of  
the year  the palace of the ,kings of   
,cambodia is purged of devils4 ,men     
painted as  fiends are chased by        
elephants about the palace courts4 ,when
 they have  been expelled1 a consecrated
 thread of cotton is stretched round the
  palace to keep them out47#dbg7 ,in    
,munzerabad1 a district of ,mysore in   
,southern ,india1 when cholera or       
smallpox has broken out in a parish1 the

  inhabitants assemble and conjure the  
demon of the disease into a wooden      
image1 which they carry1 generally at   
midnight1 into the next parish4 ,the    
inhabitants of that parish in like      
manner pass the image on to their       
neighbours1 and thus the demon is       
expelled from one village after another1
  until he comes to the bank of a river 
into which he is finally  thrown47#dbh7 
,russian villagers seek to protect      
themselves against  epidemics1 whether  
of man or beast1 by drawing a furrow    
with a plough  right round the village4 
,the plough is dragged by four widows   
and the  ceremony is performed at night2
 all fires and lights must be           
extinguished  while the plough is going 
the round4 ,the people think that no    
unclean  spirit can pass the furrow     
which has thus been traced4 ,in the     
village of  ,dubrowitschi a puppet is   
carried before the plough with the cry1 
8,out of  the village with the unclean  
spirit60 and at the end of the ceremony 

it is  torn in pieces and the fragments 
scattered about47#dbi7 ,no doubt the    
demon  of the disease is supposed to be 
in the puppet and to be destroyed with  
it4 ,sometimes in an ,esthonian village 
a rumour will get about that the  ,evil 
,one himself has been seen in the place4
 ,instantly the whole village  is in an 
uproar1 and the entire population1 armed
 with sticks1 flails1 and  scythes1     
turns out to give him chase4 ,they      
generally expel him in the  shape of a  
wolf or a cat1 occasionally they brag   
that they have beaten the  devil to     
death47#dcj7 ,at ,carmona1 in           
,andalusia1 on one day of the year1     
boys are stripped naked and smeared with
 glue in which feathers are stuck4      
,thus disguised1 they run from house to 
house1 the people trying to avoid  them 
and to bar their houses against         
them47#dca7 ,the ceremony is probably a 
relic of an annual expulsion of devils4 
7,m#aca7 ,some of the ,khasis of ,assam 
annually expel the demon of plague4 ,the

  ceremony is called ,beh-dieng-khlam1  
that is 8,driving away 7beh7 the  plague
 7khlam7 with sticks 7dieng702 it takes 
place in the ,deep-water  month 7,june74
 ,on the day fixed for the expulsion the
 men rise early and  beat the roof with 
sticks1 calling upon the demon of the   
plague to leave  the house4 ,later in   
the day they go down to the stream where
 the goddess  ,aitan dwells4 ,then long 
poles or bamboos1 newly cut1 are laid   
across the  stream and the people jump  
on them1 trying to break them2 when they
  succeed1 they give a great shout4     
,next a very large pole or bamboo is    
similarly laid across the stream1 and   
the people divide themselves into  two  
parties1 one on each side of the stream1
 and pull against each other  at        
opposite ends of the pole4 ,according to
 one account the party which  succeeds  
in dragging the pole to their side of   
the stream is supposed to  gain health  
and prosperity during the coming year4  
,according to another  account1 if the  

people on the east bank win in the      
contest or  8tug-of-war10 good luck and 
prosperity are assured2 but if the      
people on  the west bank are victorious1
 then everything will go wrong4 ,on this
  occasion the people disguise          
themselves as giants and wild beasts1   
and  they parade images of serpents1    
elephants1 tigers1 peacocks1 and so on4 
,the men dance with enthusiasm1 and the 
girls1 dressed in their best1 look  on4 
,before the assembly breaks up1 the men 
play a sort of game of hockey  with     
wooden balls47#dcb7 ,in this ceremonial 
contest or 8tug of war0 between  two    
parties of the people1 we may conjecture
 that the one party represents  the     
expelled demons of the plague2 and if   
that is so1 we may perhaps  assume that 
in the struggle the representatives of  
the demons generally  allow themselves  
to be overcome by their adversaries1 in 
order that the  village may be free from
 pestilence in the coming year4         
,similarly in  autumn the ,central      

,esquimaux divide themselves into two   
parties1  representing summer and winter
 respectively1 which pull at opposite   
ends  of a rope2 and they draw omens of 
the weather to be expected in the coming
  winter according as the party of      
summer or of winter prevails in the     
struggle47#dcc7 ,that in such contests1 
resembling our ,english game of         
8,french and ,english0 or the 8,tug of  
,war10 the one side may represent       
demons is proved by a custom observed by
 the ,chukmas1 a tribe of the           
,chittagong ,hill ,tracts in            
,south-,eastern ,india4 8,on the death  
of a ,dewan or  of a priest a curious   
sport is customary at the funeral4 ,the 
corpse is  conveyed to the place of     
cremation on a car2 to this car ropes   
are  attached1 and the persons attending
 the ceremony are divided into two      
equal bodies and set to work to pull in 
opposite directions4 ,one side          
represents the good spirits2 the other1 
the powers of evil4 ,the contest is  so 

arranged that the former are victorious4
 ,sometimes1 however1 the young  men    
representing the demons are inclined to 
pull too vigorously1 but a  stick       
generally quells this unseemly ardour in
 the cause of evil407#dcd7  ,the contest
 is like that between the angels and    
devils depicted in the  frescoes of the 
,campo ,santo at ,pisa4 ,in ,burma a    
similar struggle takes  place at the    
funeral of a ,buddhist monk who passed  
for a saint in the  popular estimation3 
ropes are attached to opposite ends of  
the car on  which the coffin is placed1 
all the able-bodied men of the          
neighbourhood  hold on to one or other  
of the two ends and pull as if for dear 
life  against each other2 even the women
 and girls sometimes join in the tug of 
war1 and policemen have been seen1 in a 
state of frantic excitement1  waving    
their batons to encourage the combatants
 and dragging back shirkers  by main    
force into the fighting line4 ,the      
struggle is sometimes prolonged  for    

hours or even days47#dce7 ,with the     
example of the ,chukmas before us1 we   
may conjecture that the original motive 
of this internecine strife was a        
persuasion that the eternal happiness or
 misery of the departed saint  depended 
on the issue of this contest between the
 powers of good and evil  for the       
possession of his mortal remains4       
7,m#acb7 ,but in ,burma the tug of war  
has been employed for more secular      
purposes than the salvation or perdition
 of souls4 8,the inhabitants10 we  are  
told1 8still have a custom of pulling a 
rope to produce rain4 ,a rain  party and
 a drought party tug against each other1
 the rain party being  allowed the      
victory1 which in the popular notion is 
generally followed by  rain407#dcf7 ,the
 mode in which this salutary result     
follows from tugging at  a rope is      
explained by the ,burmese doctrine of   
nats or spirits who cause  rain4 ,but it
 is only when these spirits sport in the
 air that rain falls2  when they shut   

themselves up in their houses there is  
drought4 ,now in some  ,burmese writings
 8it is said1 that when the sun is in   
the path of the  goat1 these ,nat do not
 chuse to leave their houses on account 
of the  great heat1 whence there is then
 no rain4 ,for this reason1 the         
inhabitants  of the ,burma empire1 in   
times of drought1 are wont to assemble  
in great  numbers1 with drums and a long
 cable4 ,dividing themselves into two   
parties1 with a vast shouting and noise1
 they drag the cable contrary  ways1 the
 one party endeavouring to get the      
better of the other3 and they  think1 by
 this means1 to invite the ,nat to come 
out from their houses1  and to sport in 
the air4 ,the thunder and lightning1    
which frequently  precede rain1 are the 
clashing and shining of the arms of     
these ,nat1 who  sometimes sport in mock
 battles407#dcg7 ,apparently1 therefore1
 in the tug  of war1 practised as a     
rain-charm1 the one party represent the 
spirits who  have to be dragged         

reluctantly from their houses in order  
to make rain in  the sky4 ,similarly in 
the ,timor-laut ,islands1 when the      
people want a rainy  wind from the west1
 the population of the village1 men1    
women1 and  children divide into two    
parties and pull against each other at  
the end of  a long bamboo4 ,but the     
party at the eastern end must pull the  
harder1 in  order to draw the desired   
wind out of the west47#dch7 ,we can now 
perhaps  understand why among the       
,khasis the victory of the eastern side 
in the tug  of war is thought to        
prognosticate good luck and prosperity1 
and why the  victory of the western side
 is believed to portend the contrary2   
the  distinction is at once intelligible
 when we remember that in the country   
of the ,khasis the rainy wind is the    
monsoon which blows from the            
south-west1 whereas the wind which blows
 from the south-east is hot and         
dry47#dci7 ,thus a victory of the       
eastern party in the tug of war means   

that  they have drawn rain and          
consequently fertility into the country 
from the  west2 whereas a victory of the
 western party signifies that they have 
dragged drought and consequently dearth 
into the country from the east4         
7,m#acc7 ,however1 a somewhat different 
turn is given to the ceremony of        
rope-pulling in the ,east ,indies by    
another writer1 who informs us1 that    
while the contest only takes place in   
some of these islands when rain is      
wanted1 it is closely connected with    
those licentious rites performed for    
the fertilization of the ground which   
have been described in another part  of 
this work47#ddj7 ,according to this     
account the men and women appear to     
take opposite sides in the tug of war1  
and in pulling against each other  they 
imitate by their movements the union of 
the sexes47#dda7 ,if that is  so1 it    
would seem that the rite is a magical   
ceremony designed to promote  the       
fertility of the ground by means of     

homoeopathic or imitative magic4  ,the  
same may perhaps be the intention of the
 tug of war as it is practised  for the 
benefit of the crops by some of the     
,naga tribes of ,assam1 and this  is the
 more likely because in the case of     
these tribes we are definitely  told    
that the sexes take opposite sides1 the 
women and girls tugging  against the men
 and boys4 ,this is done by the         
,tangkhuls of ,assam a month  after the 
rice has been sown2 the ceremony is     
performed 8in order to take  the omens  
for the future of the crops10 and it 8is
 followed by  considerable license40    
,the tug of war between the sexes with  
its attendant  license is repeated      
before the first-fruits are cut by the  
sacred  headman47#ddb7 ,in ,corea about 
the fifteenth day of the first month    
villages  engage in the same kind of    
contest with each other1 and it is      
thought that  the village which wins    
will have a good harvest4 ,the rope     
which they pull  is made of straw1 two  

feet in diameter1 with its ends divided 
into  branches4 ,the men lay hold of the
 main stem1 while the women grasp the   
branches1 and they often tug harder than
 the men1 for they load their  skirts   
with stones1 which adds weight to the   
force of their muscles47#ddc7  ,in      
,kamtchatka1 when the fishing season is 
over1 the people used to divide  into   
two parties1 one of which tried to pull 
a birch-tree by a strap  through the    
smoke-hole into their subterranean      
winter dwelling1 while the  other party 
outside1 pulling at the end of the tree1
 endeavoured to hinder  them4 ,if the   
party in the house succeeded1 they      
raised shouts of joy and  set up a grass
 effigy of a wolf1 which they preserved 
carefully throughout  the year1         
believing that it espoused their young  
women and prevented them  from giving   
birth to twins4 ,for they deem the birth
 of twins a dreadful  misfortune and a  
horrible sin2 they put it down to the   
wolf in the forest1  and all who chance 

to be in the house at the time shew a   
clean pair of  heels1 leaving the mother
 and her infants to shift for           
themselves4 ,should  the twins be both  
girls1 the calamity is even             
greater47#ddd7 ,in the village  of      
,doreh1 in ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 when    
some of the inhabitants have gone on a  
long journey1 the people who stay at    
home engage in a ,tug of ,war among     
themselves to determine whether the     
journey will be prosperous or not4 ,one 
side represents the voyagers and the    
other side those who are left behind4   
,they pull at opposite ends of a long   
bamboo1 and if the bamboo breaks or  the
 side which represents the people at    
home is obliged to let go1 the  omen is 
favourable47#dde7    7,m#acd7 ,in       
,morocco1 also1 the ,tug of ,war is     
resorted to as a means of  influencing  
the weather1 sometimes in order to      
procure rain and sometimes  to procure  
sunshine2 and here men and women appear 
usually to take  opposite sides in the  

contest4 ,for example1 among the        
,igliwa1 a ,berber  people of the ,great
 ,atlas1 when rain is wanted1 they take 
a rope and the  men pull at one end and 
women at the other4 ,while they are     
tugging away1 a  man suddenly cuts the  
rope and the women fall down4 ,the same 
device for  procuring rain in time of   
drought is practised by the ,ait        
,warain1 another  ,berber tribe of      
,morocco2 but among them in the heat of 
the contest the  women as well as the   
men will sometimes let go the rope and  
allow the  opposite party to fall on    
their backs4 ,however1 the ,tsl1 another
 ,berber  tribe of ,morocco1 employ the 
,tug of ,war for the opposite purpose of
  ensuring a supply of sunshine and heat
 in autumn1 when they wish to dry  their
 figs and grapes2 the contest takes     
place at night by the light of  the     
moon47#ddf7 ,the apparent contradiction 
of employing the same procedure  for    
opposite purposes vanishes if we suppose
 that1 as the ,assamese custom  seems to

 indicate1 the intention is to draw     
either a rainy or a dry wind  out of the
 quarters from which the breezes that   
bring rain or sunshine  usually blow1   
and which will usually be on opposite   
sides of the sky4  ,hence in order fully
 to understand the ,tug of ,war1 when it
 is practised  for the purpose of       
influencing the weather1 we should know1
 first1 the  directions from which the  
rainy and the dry winds respectively    
come in the  country under              
consideration1 and second1 the direction
 in which the rope  is stretched between
 the contending parties4 ,if1 for       
example1 as happens  in ,assam1 the     
rainy wind blows from the west1 and a   
victory of the eastern  party in the    
,tug of ,war is an omen of prosperity1  
we may conclude with a  fair degree of  
probability that the intention of the   
contest is to draw  the rain from the   
quarter of the sky in which it is       
lingering4 ,but these  niceties of      
observation have usually escaped the    

attention of those who  have described  
the ,tug of ,war4    7,m#ace7 ,in       
various parts of ,morocco games of ball 
are played for the sake  now of         
procuring rain and now of procuring dry 
weather2 the ball is  sometimes         
propelled with sticks and sometimes with
 the feet of the  competitors4 ,an ,arab
 questioned as to why a game of ball    
should bring on  rain explained that the
 ball is dark like a rain-cloud47#ddg7  
,perhaps the  answer furnishes the clue 
to the meaning of the rite4 ,if in such 
games  played to influence the weather  
the ball represents a rain-cloud1 the   
success or failure of the charm will    
depend on which side contrives to get   
the ball home in the enemy's quarters4  
,for example1 if rain is desired and    
the rainy wind blows in ,morocco1 as may
 perhaps be assumed1 from the west1     
then should the western side succeed in 
driving the ball through the  eastern   
goal1 there will be rain2 but if the    
eastern party wins1 then the  rain is   

driven away and the drought will        
continue4 ,thus a game of ball  would in
 theory and practice answer exactly to  
the ,tug of ,war practised  for the same
 purposes4    7,m#acf7 ,in ,morocco1    
however1 the ,tug of ,war is apparently 
used also for the  purpose of ensuring  
prosperity in general without any       
special reference to  the weather4 ,dr4 
,westermarck was informed by an old     
,arab from the ,hiaina  that the ,tug of
 ,war 8is no longer practised at the    
,great ,feast1 as it was  in his        
childhood1 but that it is performed in  
the autumn when the  threshing is going 
on and the fruits are ripe4 ,then men   
and women have a  tug of war by         
moonlight so that the bs1 or evil1 shall
 go away1 that  the year shall be good1 
and that the people shall live in peace4
 ,some man  secretly cuts two of the    
three cords of which the rope is made1  
with the  result that both parties      
tumble down407#ddh7 ,in this contest one
 party  perhaps represents the powers of

 good and the other the powers of evil  
in  general4 ,but why in these ,moroccan
 cases of the ,tug of ,war the rope     
should  be so often cut and one or both 
sides laid on their backs1 is not       
manifest4 ,perhaps the simple device of 
suddenly slacking the rope in order  to 
make the opposite side lose their       
footing1 and so to haul the rope away   
from them before they can recover       
themselves1 may have led to the more    
trenchant measure of cutting it with a  
knife for the same purpose4    7,m#acg7 
,these examples make it probable that   
wherever the ,tug of ,war is  played    
only at certain definite seasons or on  
certain particular  occasions1 it was   
originally performed1 not as a mere     
pastime1 but as a  magical ceremony     
designed to work some good for the      
community4 ,further1 we  may surmise    
that in many cases the two contending   
parties represent  respectively the     
powers of good and evil struggling      
against each other for  the mastery1 and

 as the community has always an interest
 in the prevalence  of the powers of    
good1 it may well happen that the powers
 of evil do not  always get fair play in
 these conflicts2 though no doubt when  
it comes to  be 8pull devil1 pull       
baker10 the devil is apt1 in the spirit 
of a true  sportsman1 to tug with as    
hearty good will as his far more        
deserving  adversary the baker4 ,to take
 cases in which the game is played      
without any  alleged practical motive1  
the ,roocooyen ,indians of ,french      
,guiana engage in  the ,tug of ,war as a
 sort of interlude during the ceremonial
 tortures of  the youth47#ddi7 ,among   
the ,cingalese the game 8is connected   
with the  superstitious worship of the  
goddess ,patin2 and is more intended for
 a  propitiation to that deity1 than    
considered as an indulgence1 or pursued 
as an exercise4 ,two opposite parties   
procure two sticks of the strongest  and
 toughest wood1 and so crooked as to    
hook into one another without  slipping2

 they then attach strong cords or       
cable-rattans of sufficient  length to  
allow of every one laying hold of them4 
,the contending parties  then pull until
 one of the sticks gives way40 ,the     
victorious piece of wood  is gaily      
decorated1 placed in a palanquin1 and   
borne through the village  amid noisy   
rejoicings1 often accompanied with      
coarse and obscene  expressions47#dej7  
,the use of foul language on this       
occasion suggests that  the ceremony is 
here1 as elsewhere1 observed for the    
purpose of ensuring  fertility4 ,in the 
,north-,western provinces of ,india the 
game is played on  the fourteenth day of
 the light half of the month ,kuar4 ,the
 rope 7barra7  is made of the grass     
called makra1 and is thicker than a     
man's arm4 ,the  various quarters of a  
village pull against each other1 and the
 one which  is victorious keeps         
possession of the rope during the       
ensuing year4 ,it is  chiefly in the    
east of these provinces that the game is

 played2 in the  west it is             
unknown47#dea7 ,sometimes the contest is
 between the inhabitants  of            
neighbouring villages1 and the rope is  
stretched across the boundary2  plenty  
is supposed to attend the victorious    
side47#deb7 ,at the ,great ,feast1  a   
yearly sacrificial festival of the      
,mohammedan world1 some tribes in       
,morocco practise a ,tug of ,war4 ,thus 
among the ,ait ,sadden it is observed on
  the first day of the festival before  
the sacrifice2 among the ,ait ,yusi it  
is performed either before the religious
 service or in the afternoon of  the    
same day1 and also in the morning of the
 ,little ,feast4 ,both sexes  generally 
take part in the contest1 the men       
tugging at one end of the rope  and the 
women at the other1 and sometimes the   
weaker party applies for  help to       
persons of the same sex in a            
neighbouring village4 ,when they are    
all hard at it1 the men may suddenly let
 go the rope and so send the women      

sprawling on their backs47#dec7         
7,m#ach7 ,at ,ludlow in ,shropshire a   
grand ,tug of ,war used to take place on
  ,shrove ,tuesday between the          
inhabitants of ,broad ,street ,ward on  
the one  side and of ,corve ,street     
,ward on the other4 ,the rope was three 
inches  thick and thirty-six yards long1
 with a red knob at one end and a blue  
knob at the other4 ,the rope was paid   
out by the ,mayor in person from a      
window in the ,market ,hall at four     
o'clock in the afternoon4 ,the shops    
then  put up their shutters1 and the    
population engaged in the struggle with 
enthusiasm1 gentle and simple1 lawyers  
and parsons bearing a hand on one  side 
or the other1 till their clothes were   
torn to tatters on their backs4  ,the   
injured were carried into the           
neighbouring houses1 where their hurts  
were attended to4 ,if the party of the  
,red ,knob won1 they carried the rope   
in triumph to the ,river ,leme and      
dipped it in the water4 ,finally1 the   

rope  was sold1 the money which it      
brought in was devoted to the purchase  
of  beer1 and drinking1 squabbling1 and 
fighting ended the happy day4 ,this     
ancient and highly popular pastime was  
suppressed in #ahea on the frivolous    
pretext that it gave rise to disorderly 
scenes and dangerous  accidents47#ded7  
,a similar custom has long been observed
 on ,shrove ,tuesday  at ,presteign in  
,radnorshire4 ,the rope is pulled by two
 parties  representing the upper and the
 lower portions of the town1 who strive 
to  drag it either to a point in the    
west wall or to another point in ,broad 
,street1 where the ,river ,lugg is      
reached47#dee7 ,in the ,bocage of       
,normandy  most desperate struggles used
 to take place between neighbouring     
parishes  on ,shrove ,tuesday for the   
possession of a large leathern ball     
stuffed with  bran and called a soule4  
,the ball was launched on the village   
green and  contended for by             
representatives of different parishes1  

who sometimes  numbered seven or eight  
hundred1 while five or six thousand     
people might  assemble to witness the   
combat2 for indeed it was a fight rather
 than a  game4 ,the conflict was        
maintained with the utmost fury2 old    
scores were  paid off between personal  
enemies2 there were always many wounded1
 and  sometimes there were deaths4 ,the 
aim of each side was to drive the ball  
over a stream and to lodge it in a house
 of their own parish4 ,it was  thought  
that the parish which was victorious in 
the struggle would have a  better crop  
of apples that year than its neighbours4
 ,at ,lande-,patry the  ball was        
provided by the bride who had been last 
married1 and she had the  honour of     
throwing it into the arena4 ,the scene  
of the fiercest battles  was ,st4       
,pierre d',entremont1 on the highroad   
between ,cond and ,tinchebray4  ,after  
several unsuccessful attempts the custom
 was suppressed at that  village in     
#aheb with the help of four or five     

brigades of police4 ,it is  now         
everywhere extinct47#def7 ,the belief   
that the parish which succeeded in      
carrying the ball home would have a     
better crop of apples that year raises  
a presumption that these conflicts were 
originally practised as magical  rites  
to ensure fertility4 ,the local custom  
of ,lande-,patry1 which required  that  
the ball should be provided and thrown  
by the last bride17#deg7 points  in the 
same direction4 ,it is possible that the
 popular ,english1 or rather  ,scotch1  
game of football had a similar origin3  
the winning side may have  imagined that
 they secured good crops1 good weather1 
or other substantial  advantages to     
their village or ward4    7,m#aci7 ,in  
like manner1 wherever a sham or a real  
conflict takes place  between two       
parties annually1 above all at the ,new 
,year1 we may suspect  that the old     
intention was to ensure prosperity in   
some form for the  people throughout the
 following year1 whether by obtaining   

possession of a  material object in     
which the luck of the year was supposed 
to be embodied1  or by defeating and    
driving away a band of men who          
personated the powers  of evil4 ,for    
example1 among the ,tenggerese of       
eastern ,java the ,new ,year  festival  
regularly includes a sham fight fought  
between two bands of men1  who are armed
 with spears and swords and advance     
against each other again  and again at a
 dancing step1 thrusting at their       
adversaries with their  spears1 but     
always taking care to miss their        
aim47#deh7 ,again1 in ,ferghana1  a     
province of ,turkestan1 it is or used to
 be customary on the first day of  the  
year for the king and chiefs to divide  
into two parties1 each of which  chose a
 champion4 ,then the two champions1 clad
 in armour1 engaged in a  combat with   
each other1 while the crowd joined in   
with bricks and stones4  ,when one of   
them was slain the scrimmage stopped1   
and omens were drawn as  to whether the 

year on which they had entered would be 
prosperous or the  reverse47#dei7 ,in   
these combats it seems probable that one
 side represents  the demons or other   
powers of evil whom the people hope to  
vanquish and  expel at the beginning of 
the ,new ,year4    ,oftener1 however1   
the expelled demons are not represented 
at all1 but are  understood to be       
present invisibly in the material and   
visible vehicle  which conveys them     
away4 ,here1 again1 it will be          
convenient to distinguish  between      
occasional and periodical expulsions4   
,we begin with the former4           #b4
 ,the ,occasional ,expulsion of ,evils  
in a ,material ,vehicle4      7,m#adj7  
,the vehicle which conveys away the     
demons may be of various kinds4  ,a     
common one is a little ship or boat4    
,thus1 in the southern district of  the 
island of ,ceram1 when a whole village  
suffers from sickness1 a small  ship is 
made and filled with rice1 tobacco1     
eggs1 and so forth1 which have  been    

contributed by all the people4 ,a little
 sail is hoisted on the ship4  ,when all
 is ready1 a man calls out in a very    
loud voice1 8,o all ye  sicknesses1 ye  
smallpoxes1 agues1 measles1 etc41 who   
have visited us so  long and wasted us  
so sorely1 but who now cease to plague  
us1 we have made  ready this ship for   
you and we have furnished you with      
provender  sufficient for the voyage4   
,ye shall have no lack of food nor of   
betel-leaves nor of areca nuts nor of   
tobacco4 ,depart1 and sail away from  us
 directly2 never come near us again2 but
 go to a land which is far from  here4  
,let all the tides and winds waft you   
speedily thither1 and so convey  you    
thither that for the time to come we may
 live sound and well1 and that  we may  
never see the sun rise on you again40   
,then ten or twelve men carry  the      
vessel to the shore1 and let it drift   
away with the land-breeze1  feeling     
convinced that they are free from       
sickness for ever1 or at least  till the

 next time4 ,if sickness attacks them   
again1 they are sure it is  not the same
 sickness1 but a different one1 which in
 due time they dismiss  in the same     
manner4 ,when the demon-laden bark is   
lost to sight1 the  bearers return to   
the village1 whereupon a man cries out1 
8,the sicknesses  are now gone1         
vanished1 expelled1 and sailed away40   
,at this all the people  come running   
out of their houses1 passing the word   
from one to the other  with great joy1  
beating on gongs and on tinkling        
instruments47#dfj7    7,m#ada7 ,similar 
ceremonies are commonly resorted to in  
other ,east ,indian  islands4 ,thus in  
,timor-laut1 to mislead the demons who  
are causing  sickness1 a small proa1    
containing the image of a man and       
provisioned for  a long voyage1 is      
allowed to drift away with wind and     
tide4 ,as it is being  launched1 the    
people cry1 8,o sickness1 go from here2 
turn back2 what do  you here in this    
poor land80 ,three days after this      

ceremony a pig is  killed1 and part of  
the flesh is offered to ,dudilaa1 who   
lives in the sun4  ,one of the oldest   
men says1 8,old sir1 ,i beseech you make
 well the  grandchildren1 children1     
women1 and men1 that we may be able to  
eat pork  and rice and to drink         
palm-wine4 ,i will keep my promise4 ,eat
 your share1  and make all the people in
 the village well40 ,if the proa is     
stranded at  any inhabited spot1 the    
sickness will break out there4 ,hence a 
stranded  proa excites much alarm       
amongst the coast population1 and they  
immediately  burn it1 because demons fly
 from fire47#dfa7 ,in the island of     
,buru the proa  which carries away the  
demons of disease is about twenty feet  
long1 rigged  out with sails1 oars1     
anchor1 and so on1 and well stocked with
 provisions4  ,for a day and a night the
 people beat gongs and drums1 and rush  
about to  frighten the demons4 ,next    
morning ten stalwart young men strike   
the people  with branches1 which have   

been previously dipped in an earthen pot
 of  water4 ,as soon as they have done  
so1 they run down to the beach1 put the 
branches on board the proa1 launch      
another boat in great haste1 and tow    
the disease-burdened bark far out to    
sea4 ,there they cast it off1 and one   
of them calls out1 8,grandfather        
,smallpox1 go away--go willingly        
away--go  visit another land2 we have   
made you food ready for the voyage1 we  
have  now nothing more to give40 ,when  
they have landed1 all the people bathe  
together in the sea47#dfb7 ,in this     
ceremony the reason for striking the    
people with the branches is clearly to  
rid them of the disease-demons1  which  
are then supposed to be transferred to  
the branches4 ,hence the haste  with    
which the branches are deposited in the 
proa and towed away to sea4  ,so in the 
inland districts of ,ceram1 when        
smallpox or other sickness is  raging1  
the priest strikes all the houses with  
consecrated branches1 which  are then   

thrown into the river1 to be carried    
down to the sea27#dfc7  exactly as      
amongst the ,wotyaks of ,russia the     
sticks which have been used  for        
expelling the devils from the village   
are thrown into the river1 that  the    
current may sweep the baleful burden    
away47#dfd7 ,in ,amboyna1 for a  similar
 purpose1 the whole body of the patient 
is rubbed with a live white  cock1 which
 is then placed on a little proa and    
committed to the  waves27#dfe7 and in   
the ,babar archipelago the bark which is
 to carry away  to sea the sickness of a
 whole village contains a bowl of ashes 
taken from  every kitchen in the        
village1 and another bowl into which all
 the sick  people have spat47#dff7 ,the 
plan of putting puppets in the boat to  
represent sick persons1 in order to lure
 the demons after them1 is not          
uncommon47#dfg7 ,for example1 most of   
the pagan tribes on the coast of        
,borneo seek to drive away epidemic     
disease as follows4 ,they carve one or  

more rough human images from the pith of
 the sago palm and place them on a      
small raft or boat or full-rigged ,malay
 ship together with rice and other      
food4 ,the boat is decked with blossoms 
of the areca palm and with ribbons  made
 from its leaves1 and thus adorned the  
little craft is allowed to  float out to
 sea with the ebb-tide1 bearing1 as the 
people fondly think or  hope1 the       
sickness away with it47#dfh7    7,m#adb7
 ,in ,selangor1 one of the native states
 in the ,malay ,peninsula1 the  ship    
employed in the export of disease is1 or
 used to be1 a model of a  special kind 
of ,malay craft called a lanchang4 ,this
 was a two-masted  vessel with galleries
 fore and aft1 armed with cannon1 and   
used by ,malay  rajahs on the coast of  
,sumatra4 ,so gallant a ship would be   
highly  acceptable to the spirits1 and  
to make it still more beautiful in their
  eyes it was not uncommonly stained    
yellow with turmeric or saffron1 for    
among the ,malays yellow is the royal   

colour4 ,some years ago a very fine     
model of a lanchang1 with its cargo of  
sickness1 was towed down the  river to  
sea by the ,government steam launch4 ,a 
common spell uttered at the  launching  
of one of these ships runs as follows3--
          8,ho1 elders of the upper     
reaches1      ,elders of the lower      
reaches1      ,elders of the dry land1  
,elders of the river-flats1             
,assemble ye1 ,o people1 lords of hill  
and hill-foot1      ,lords of cavern and
 hill-locked basin1      ,lords of the  
deep primeval forest1      ,lords of the
 river-bends1      ,come on board this  
lanchang1 assembling in your multitudes4
      ,so may ye depart with the ebbing 
stream1      ,depart on the passing     
breeze1      ,depart in the yawning     
earth1      ,depart in the red-dyed     
earth4      ,go ye to the ocean which   
has no wave1      ,and the plain where  
no green herb grows1      ,and never    
return hither4      ,but if ye return   
hither1      ,ye shall be consumed by   

the curse4      ,at sea ye shall get no 
drink1      ,ashore ye shall get no     
food1      ,but gape in vain about the  
world407#dfi7      7,m#adc7 ,the        
practice of sending away diseases in    
boats is known outside the  limits of   
the ,malay region4 ,thus when smallpox  
raged among the ,yabim of  ,german ,new 
,guinea1 they used to make a little     
model of a canoe with mast1  sail1 and  
rudder4 ,then they said to the small    
vessel1 on which the spirit  of smallpox
 was supposed to have taken his passage1
 8,bear him away to  another village4   
,when the people come forth to draw you 
ashore1 give them  #8the thing' and do  
to them what you have done to us40 ,lest
 the spirit  should be hungry on the    
voyage1 they put some taro on board1 and
 to make  sure of getting rid of the    
disease1 they wiped their hands on the  
tiny  canoe1 after which they let it    
drift away4 ,it often happened that the 
wind  or tide drove the vessel back to  
the place from which it started4 ,then  

there would be a deafening rub-a-dub of 
drums and blowing of  shell-trumpets2   
and the little ship1 or rather its      
invisible passenger1  would be again    
apostrophized1 8,do go away1 you have   
already raged among us  so that the air 
is poisoned with the stench of corpses40
 ,if this time it  sailed away1 they    
would stand on the shore and watch it   
with glad hearts  disappearing2 then    
they would climb the trees to get a last
 glimpse of it  till it vanished in the 
distance4 ,after that they came down    
joyfully and  said to each other1 8,we  
have had enough of it4 ,the sickness has
 happily  gone away407#dgj7 ,when the   
,tagbanuas and other tribes of the      
,philippines  suffered from epidemics1  
they used to make little models of      
ships1 supply  them with rice and fresh 
drinking water1 and launch them on the  
sea1 in  order that the evil spirits    
might sail away in them47#dga7 ,when the
 people  of ,tikopia1 a small island in 
the ,pacific1 to the north of the ,new  

,hebrides1 were attacked by an epidemic 
cough1 they made a little canoe and     
adorned it with flowers4 ,four sons of  
the principal chiefs carried it on      
their shoulders all round the island1   
accompanied by the whole population1    
some of whom beat the bushes1 while     
others uttered loud cries4 ,on          
returning to the spot from which they   
had set out1 they launched the canoe  on
 the sea47#dgb7 ,in the ,nicobar        
,islands1 in the ,bay of ,bengal1 when  
there  is much sickness in a village or 
no fish are caught1 the blame is laid   
upon the spirits4 ,they must be         
propitiated with offerings4 ,all        
relations  and friends are invited1 a   
huge pig is roasted1 and the best of it 
is  eaten1 but some parts are offered to
 the shades4 ,the heap of offerings     
remains in front of the house till it is
 carried away by the rising tide4  ,then
 the priests1 their faces reddened with 
paint and swine's blood1  pretend to    
catch the demon of disease1 and after a 

hand-to-hand tussle1  force him into a  
model boat1 made of leaves and decked   
with garlands1  which is then towed so  
far to sea that neither wind nor tide is
 likely to  drive it back to the        
shore47#dgc7 ,in ,annam1 when the       
population of a  village has been       
decimated by cholera1 they make a raft  
and lade it with  offerings of money and
 food1 such as a sucking pig1 bananas1  
and oranges4  ,sticks of incense also   
smoke on the floating altar2 and when   
all is ready  and earnest prayers have  
been uttered1 the raft is abandoned to  
the  current of the river4 ,the people  
hope that the demon of cholera1 allured 
and gratified by these offerings1 will  
float away on the raft and trouble  them
 no more47#dgd7    7,m#add7 ,often the  
vehicle which carries away the collected
 demons or ills  of a whole community is
 an animal or scapegoat4 ,in the        
,central ,provinces  of ,india1 when    
cholera breaks out in a village1 every  
one retires after  sunset to his house4 

,the priests then parade the streets1   
taking from the  roof of each house a   
straw1 which is burnt with an offering  
of rice1 ghee1  and turmeric1 at some   
shrine to the east of the village4      
,chickens daubed  with vermilion are    
driven away in the direction of the     
smoke1 and are  believed to carry the   
disease with them4 ,if they fail1 goats 
are tried1  and last of all pigs47#dge7 
,when cholera rages among the ,bhars1   
,malians1  and ,kurmis of ,india1 they  
take a goat or a buffalo--in either case
 the  animal must be a female1 and as   
black as possible--then having tied some
  grain1 cloves1 and red lead in a      
yellow cloth on its back they turn it   
out  of the village4 ,the animal is     
conducted beyond the boundary and not   
allowed to return47#dgf7 ,sometimes the 
buffalo is marked with a red pigment    
and driven to the next village1 where he
 carries the plague with him47#dgg7     
,the people of the city and cantonments 
of ,sagar being afflicted with a        

violent influenza1 ,general ,sir        
,william ,sleeman received a request    
from the  old ,queen ,dowager of ,sagar 
8to allow of a noisy religious          
procession for  the purpose of imploring
 deliverance from this great calamity4  
,men1 women1  and children in this      
procession were to do their utmost to   
add to the  noise by #8raising their    
voices in psalmody1' beating upon their 
brass pots  and pans with all their     
might1 and discharging firearms where   
they could  get them2 and before the    
noisy crowd was to be driven a buffalo1 
which had  been purchased by general    
subscription1 in order that every family
 might  participate in the merit4 ,they 
were to follow it out for eight miles1  
where it was to be turned loose for any 
man who would take it4 ,if the  animal  
returned1 the disease1 it was said1 must
 return with it1 and the  ceremony be   
performed over again4444 ,it was1       
however1 subsequently  determined that  
the animal should be a goat1 and he was 

driven before the  crowd accordingly4 ,i
 have on several occasions been         
requested to allow of  such noisy pjs in
 cases of epidemics407#dgh7 ,once1 when 
influenza was  raging in ,pithoria1 a   
village to the north-west of ,sagar1 a  
man had a  small carriage made1 after a 
plan of his own1 for a pair of          
scapegoats1  which were harnessed to it 
and driven to a wood at some distance1  
where  they were let loose4 ,from that  
hour the disease entirely ceased in the 
town4 ,the goats never returned2 had    
they done so1 it was affirmed that the  
disease must have come back with        
them47#dgi7    7,m#ade7 ,the use of a   
scapegoat is not uncommon in the hills  
of the ,eastern  ,ghats4 ,in #ahhf1     
during a severe outbreak of smallpox1   
the people of ,jepur  did reverence to a
 goat1 marched it to the ,ghats1 and let
 it loose on the  plains47#dhj7 ,in     
,southern ,konkan1 on the appearance of 
cholera1 the  villagers went in         
procession from the temple to the       

extreme boundaries of  the village1     
carrying a basket of cooked rice covered
 with red powder1 a  wooden doll        
representing the pestilence1 and a cock4
 ,the head of the cock  was cut off at  
the village boundary1 and the body was  
thrown away4 ,when  cholera had thus    
been transferred from one village to    
another1 the second  village observed   
the same ceremony and passed on the     
scourge to its  neighbours1 and so on   
through a number of villages47#dha7     
,among the ,korwas  of ,mirzapur1 when  
cholera has broken out1 the priest      
offers a black cock  or1 if the disease 
is very malignant1 a black goat1 at the 
shrine of the  local deity1 and then    
drives the animal away in the direction 
of some  other village4 ,but it has not 
gone far before he overtakes it1 kills  
it1  and eats it2 which he may do with  
perfect safety in virtue of his sacred  
office4 ,again1 when cholera is raging  
among the ,pataris1 an aboriginal       
,dravidian race of ,south ,mirzapur1 the

 wizard and the village elders feed a   
black cock with grain and drive it      
beyond the boundaries1 ordering the     
fowl to take the disease away with it4  
,a little oil1 red lead1 and a  spangle 
worn by a woman on her forehead are     
usually fastened to the bird's  head    
before it is let loose4 ,the cost of    
purchasing the cock is defrayed  by     
public subscription4 ,when such a bird  
of ill-omen appears in a village1  the  
priest takes it to the shrine of the    
local deity and sacrifices it  there2   
but sometimes he merely bows before it  
at the shrine and passes it  on to some 
other village4 ,if a murrain attacks    
their cattle1 the ,kharwars  of         
,northern ,india take a black cock and  
put red lead on its head1 antimony  on  
its eyes1 a spangle on its forehead1 and
 a pewter bangle on its leg2  thus      
arrayed they let it loose1 calling out  
to the disease1 8,mount on the  fowl and
 go elsewhere into the ravines and      
thickets2 destroy the sin40  ,perhaps1  

as has been suggested1 this tricking out
 of the bird with women's  ornaments may
 be a relic of some grosser form of     
expiation in which a  human being was   
sacrificed or banished47#dhb7 ,charms of
 this sort in ,india  no doubt date from
 a remote antiquity4 ,an ancient ,indian
 book of magic1  known as the ,kausika  
,sutra1 describes a ceremony of letting 
loose  against a hostile army a         
white-footed ewe in which the power of  
disease  was believed to be             
incarnate47#dhc7 ,in the same treatise  
we read of a mode  of getting rid of    
ill-luck by fastening a hook to the left
 leg of a crow1  attaching a sacrificial
 cake to the hook1 and then letting the 
bird fly  away in a south-westerly      
direction1 while the priest or magician 
recites  as usual the appropriate       
formula47#dhd7    7,m#adf7 ,amongst the 
,dinkas1 a pastoral people of the ,white
 ,nile1 each  family possesses a sacred 
cow4 ,when the country is threatened    
with war1  famine1 or any other public  

calamity1 the chiefs of the village     
require a  particular family to         
surrender their sacred cow to serve as a
 scapegoat4  ,the animal is driven by   
the women to the brink of the river and 
across it  to the other bank1 there to  
wander in the wilderness and fall a prey
 to  ravening beasts4 ,then the women   
return in silence and without looking   
behind them2 were they to cast a        
backward glance1 they imagine that the  
ceremony would have no effect47#dhe7    
,when influenza broke out in a virulent 
form among the negroes of ,togoland     
during the winter of #ahib1 the natives 
set the trouble down to the machinations
 of evil spirits1 who must be  expelled 
the country4 ,the principal instrument  
of expulsion was a fat  toad1 which was 
dragged through the streets of every    
town or village1  followed by an elder  
who sprinkled holy water to right and   
left4 ,all the  evil was thus           
concentrated in the toad1 which was     
finally thrown away into  the forest4   

,thus the natives expected to rid the   
village of the  influenza47#dhf7 ,in    
#aheg1 when the ,aymara ,indians of     
,bolivia and ,peru were  suffering from 
a plague1 they loaded a black llama with
 the clothes of the  plague-stricken    
people1 sprinkled brandy on the clothes1
 and then turned  the animal loose on   
the mountains1 hoping that it would     
carry the pest  away with it47#dhg7     
7,m#adg7 ,in some parts of ,india a     
principal means of expelling an epidemic
  is a little toy chariot called a ratha
 or rath1 in which the goddess  of the  
disease is supposed to be carted away4  
,it is carried or drawn in  procession  
to the next village1 the inhabitants of 
which pass it on in  like manner1 with  
great alacrity1 to their neighbours4    
,thus the goddess  and the plague are   
transferred from village to village1    
until at last they  come to one which is
 so far away from its next neighbour    
that the people  do not care to         
undertake the long weary journey4 ,in   

that case they content  themselves with 
conveying the chariot to a place so shut
 in by hills that  the disease cannot   
possibly escape1 and there they leave it
 to die4 ,or if  the village is near the
 sea1 they drown the sickness by        
throwing the  chariot into the water4   
,however1 in ,central ,india the real   
home of the  goddess of cholera is at   
,unkareshwar2 and accordingly the       
chariot in which  she is politely       
escorted out of a village is finally    
deposited at or near  that place4 ,it is
 usual and proper for the people of a   
village to give a  friendly notice to   
their neighbours that they are going to 
cart the  cholera1 smallpox1 or whatever
 it may be1 to their village1 so that   
the  inhabitants may be ready to receive
 the goddess with due honour and to     
escort her on her progress4 ,but some   
unneighbourly folk1 without giving      
notice1 go by night and stealthily      
deposit the chariot on the outskirts of 
the next village4 ,if the inhabitants   

are not on the watch1 and suffer the    
fatal little vehicle to remain there1   
the disease will naturally cleave to    
them4 ,sometimes1 perhaps generally1 the
 procession with the chariot is         
accompanied by a goat1 a cock1 and a pot
 of native beer or wine1 which  serve as
 additional attractions to the goddess  
to set out on her  travels47#dhh7       
7,m#adh7 ,occasionally the scapegoat is 
a man4 ,for example1 from time to time  
the gods used to warn the ,king of      
,uganda that his foes the ,banyoro were 
working magic against him and his people
 to make them die of disease4 ,to  avert
 such a catastrophe the king would send 
a scapegoat to the frontier  of         
,bunyoro1 the land of the enemy4 ,the   
scapegoat consisted of either a man  and
 a boy or a woman and her child1 chosen 
because of some mark or bodily  defect1 
which the gods had noted and by which   
the victims were to be  recognized4     
,with the human victims were sent a cow1
 a goat1 a fowl1 and a  dog2 and a      

strong guard escorted them to the land  
which the god had  indicated4 ,there the
 limbs of the victims were broken and   
they were left  to die a lingering death
 in the enemy's country1 being too      
crippled to  crawl back to ,uganda4 ,the
 disease or plague was thought to have  
been thus  transferred to the victims   
and to have been conveyed back in their 
persons  to the land from which it came4
 ,so1 too1 after a war the gods         
sometimes  advised the king to send back
 a scapegoat in order to free the       
warriors  from some evil that had       
attached itself to the army4 ,one of the
 women  slaves1 a cow1 a goat1 a fowl1  
and a dog would be chosen from among the
  captives and sent back to the borders 
of the country whence they had come2    
there they were maimed and left to die4 
,after that the army would be           
pronounced clean and allowed to return  
to the capital4 ,in each case a  bundle 
of herbs would be rubbed over the people
 and the cattle1 and would  then be tied

 to the victims1 who would thus carry   
back the evil with  them47#dhi7 ,a      
similar use of scapegoats1 human and    
animal1 was regularly  made after a     
,king of ,uganda had been crowned4 ,two 
men were brought to the  king2 one of   
them he wounded slightly with an arrow  
shot from a bow4 ,the  man was then sent
 away1 under a strong guard1 as a       
scapegoat to ,bunyoro1  the enemy's     
country1 and with him were sent a cow1 a
 goat1 and a dog4 ,on  his sad journey  
he took with him the dust and ashes of  
the sacred fire1  which had burned day  
and night at the entrance to the late   
king's  enclosure and had been          
extinguished1 as usual1 at his death4   
,arrived at  their destination1 the man 
and the animals were maimed and left to 
die4  ,they were believed to bear away  
with them any uncleanness that might    
cleave to the new ,king or ,queen47#dij7
    7,m#adi7 ,some of the aboriginal    
tribes of ,china1 as a protection       
against  pestilence1 select a man of    

great muscular strength to act the part 
of  scapegoat4 ,having besmeared his    
face with paint1 he performs many antics
  with the view of enticing all         
pestilential and noxious influences to  
attach themselves to him only4 ,he is   
assisted by a priest4 ,finally the      
scapegoat1 hotly pursued by men and     
women beating gongs and tom-toms1 is    
driven with great haste out of the town 
or village47#dia7 ,in the ,punjaub a    
cure for the murrain is to hire a man of
 the ,chamar caste1 turn his face  away 
from the village1 brand him with a      
red-hot sickle1 and let him go out  into
 the jungle taking the murrain with him4
 ,he must not look back47#dib7  ,when   
disease breaks out among a herd1 the    
,oraons take the herdsman  himself1 tie 
a wooden bell from one of the cows round
 his neck1 beat him  with sticks1 and   
drive him out of the village to a       
cross-road1 where the  bell and sticks  
are deposited47#dic7 ,in the territory  
of ,kumaon1 lying on  the southern      

slopes of the ,western ,himalayas1 the  
custom of employing a  human scapegoat  
appears to have taken a somewhat        
peculiar form in the  ceremony known as 
,barat4 ,first of all a thick rope of   
grass is stretched  from the top of a   
cliff to the valley beneath1 where it is
 made fast to  posts driven into the    
ground4 ,next a wooden saddle1 with a   
very sharp  ridge and unpadded1 is      
attached by thongs to the cable1 along  
which it  runs in a deep groove4 ,a man 
now seats himself on the saddle and is  
strapped to it1 while sand-bags or heavy
 stones are suspended from his  feet to 
secure his balance4 ,then1 after various
 ceremonies have been  performed and a  
kid sacrificed1 he throws himself as far
 back in the  saddle as he can go1 and  
is started off to slide down the rope   
into the  valley4 ,away he shoots at an 
ever-increasing speed2 the saddle under 
him1  however well greased1 emits       
volumes of smoke during the greater part
 of  his progress2 and he is nearly     

senseless when he reaches the bottom4   
,here  men are waiting to catch him and 
run forward with him some distance in   
order to break gradually the force of   
his descent4 ,this ceremony1 regarded   
as a propitiation of ,mahadeva1 is      
performed as a means of delivering a    
community from present or impending     
calamity4 ,thus1 for example1 it was    
performed when cholera was raging at    
,almora1 and the people traced the      
immunity they enjoyed to the due        
observance of the rite4 ,each district  
has  its hereditary ,badi1 as the       
performer is called2 he is supported by 
annual  contributions in grain from the 
inhabitants1 as well as by special      
payments for each performance4 ,when the
 ceremony is over1 the grass rope  is   
cut up and distributed among the        
villagers1 who hang the pieces as       
charms at the eaves of their houses2 and
 they preserve the hair of the  ,badi   
for a similar purpose4 ,yet while his   
severed locks bring fertility to  other 

people's lands1 he entails sterility on 
his own2 and it is firmly  believed that
 no seed sown by his hand could ever    
sprout4 ,formerly the  rule prevailed   
that1 if a ,badi had the misfortune to  
fall from the rope in  the course of his
 flying descent1 he was immediately     
despatched with a  sword by the         
spectators4 ,the rule has naturally been
 abolished by the  ,english ,government2
 but its former observance seems to     
indicate that the  custom of letting a  
man slide down a rope as a charm to     
avert calamity is  only a mitigation of 
an older custom of putting him to       
death47#did7    7,m#aej7 ,a somewhat    
similar ceremony is annually performed  
at ,lhasa a few  days after the         
beginning of the ,tibetan ,new ,year1   
which falls in spring4  ,the scene of   
the performance is ,potala ,hill1 on the
 summit and slope of  which is built the
 superb castle of the ,grand ,lama of   
,tibet1 a massive and  imposing pile of 
buildings which attracts the eye and    

dominates the  landscape from afar4 ,on 
the day in question a rope of hide is   
stretched  from the top to the bottom of
 the steep hill1 and men from a distant 
province of ,tibet climb up it with the 
agility of monkeys4 ,they are called    
,flying ,spirits4 ,arrived at the top1  
each of them places a piece of wood on  
his breast1 stretches out his hands and 
feet1 and letting himself go  shoots    
down the rope 7in the words of a        
,chinese writer7 8like the bolt  flying 
from the bow1 or the swallow skimming   
the water4 ',tis a wondrous  sight60    
,considering that these performers are  
called ,spirits1 and that the           
performance takes place a few days after
 the ,new ,year1 a season so  commonly  
selected for the expulsion of demons1 we
 may conjecture that the  ,flying       
,spirits represent the powers of evil   
who are thus shot out of the  ,tibetan  
pope's palace at the beginning of the   
year47#die7           #c4 ,the ,periodic
 ,expulsion of ,evils in a ,material    

,vehicle4      7,m#aea7 ,in this last   
case the expulsion of evils1 if ,i am   
right in so  interpreting the ceremony1 
is periodic1 not occasional1 being      
repeated  every spring at the beginning 
of a new year4 ,it brings us accordingly
 to  the consideration of a whole class 
of such cases1 for the mediate          
expulsion of evils by means of a        
scapegoat or other material vehicle1    
like  the immediate expulsion of them in
 invisible form1 tends to become        
periodic1 and for a like reason4 ,thus  
in ,perak1 a state on the west coast  of
 the ,malay ,peninsula1 it was in       
ancient times the custom to perform     
periodically a ceremony intended to     
ensure the prosperity of the country  by
 the propitiation of friendly spirits   
and the expulsion of evil  influences4  
,the writer who records the custom is   
uncertain as to the  period which       
elapsed between two successive          
celebrations2 he suggests with          
hesitation that the rite was performed  

once in seven years or once in a        
,rajah's reign4 ,the name of the        
ceremony was plas negri1 which means    
8the cleansing of the country from      
evils40 ,when the time came1 the ,rajah1
  the chiefs1 and a great following of  
people assembled at a point as far up   
the river as possible1 but short of the 
rapids which further up impede          
navigation4 ,there a number of rafts    
were prepared1 some of them  elaborately
 built with houses on them4 ,four of    
them were devoted to the  four great    
classes of spirits which are found in   
,perak1 namely the ,hantu  ,blian or    
8,tiger-spirits10 the ,hantu ,sungkei1  
the ,hantu ,malayu1 and  the ,jin ,raja4
 ,in each of these rafts a number of    
wizards 7pawangs7  took up their post1  
according to the particular class of    
demon which they  affected4 ,the        
procession was headed by the raft       
devoted to the  ,tiger-spirits2 and in  
it was set up a prah tree with all its  
branches1  kept erect by stays4 ,it was 

followed by the three rafts dedicated to
 the  other three classes of spirits1   
and behind them came a train of other   
rafts bearing mere common mortals1 the  
royal bandsmen1 the ,rajah himself1  the
 chiefs1 and the people4 ,as the long   
procession floated down the river  with 
the current1 the wizards1 standing on   
sheets of tin1 waved white  cloths and  
shouted invocations to the spirits and  
demons who inhabited the  country       
through which the rafts were drifting   
seaward4 ,the burden of the  invocations
 was to invite the spirits and demons to
 come aboard the rafts  and partake of  
the food which had been considerately   
made ready for them4  ,at every village 
on the bank large enough to possess a   
mosque 7for the  ,malays of ,perak are  
professing ,mohammedans7 the procession 
halted2 a  buffalo1 subscribed for by   
the inhabitants1 was slaughtered1 and   
its head  placed on one of the          
spirit-barks1 while people feasted on   
the flesh4 ,the  ceremony ended at ,bras

 ,basah1 a village on the left bank of  
the ,perak  river1 not far from its     
mouth4 ,there the rafts were abandoned  
to the  current1 which swept them out to
 sea17#dif7 doubtless bearing with them 
the  hapless demons who had been lured  
by the tempting viands to embark and    
were now left to toss forlorn on the    
great deep at the mercy of the waves    
and the winds4    7,m#aeb7 ,again1 every
 year1 generally in ,march1 the people  
of ,leti1 ,moa1 and  ,lakor1 islands of 
the ,indian ,archipelago1 send away all 
their diseases to  sea4 ,they make a    
proa about six feet long1 rig it with   
sails1 oars1  rudder1 and other gear1   
and every family deposits in it some    
rice1 fruit1  a fowl1 two eggs1 insects 
that ravage the fields1 and so on4 ,then
 they let  it drift away to sea1 saying1
 8,take away from here all kinds of     
sickness1  take them to other islands1  
to other lands1 distribute them in      
places that  lie eastward1 where the sun
 rises407#dig7 ,the ,biajas of ,borneo  

annually  send to sea a little bark     
laden with the sins and misfortunes of  
the  people4 ,the crew of any ship that 
falls in with the ill-omened bark at sea
  will suffer all the sorrows with which
 it is laden47#dih7 ,a like custom is   
annually observed by the ,dusuns of the 
,tuaran district in ,british ,north     
,borneo4 ,the ceremony is the most      
important of the whole year4 ,its aim is
  to bring good luck to the village     
during the ensuing year by solemnly     
expelling all the evil spirits that may 
have collected in or about the  houses  
throughout the last twelve months4 ,the 
task of routing out the  demons and     
banishing them devolves chiefly on      
women1 who indeed play the  principal   
part in all religious ceremonies among  
the ,dusuns1 while the  humble duty of  
beating drums and banging gongs is      
discharged by members of  the inferior  
sex4 ,on this momentous occasion a      
procession of women1 in  full ceremonial
 dress1 goes from house to house1       

stopping at each to go  through their   
performances4 ,at the head of the       
procession marches a boy  carrying a    
spear on which is impaled a bundle of   
palm leaves containing  rice4 ,he is    
followed by two men1 who carry a large  
gong and a drum slung  on a pole between
 them4 ,then come the women4 ,one of    
them carries a small  sucking pig in a  
basket on her back2 and all of them bear
 wands1 with  which they belabour the   
little pig at the appropriate moment2   
its squeals  help to attract the vagrant
 spirits4 ,at every house the women     
dance and  sing1 clashing castanets or  
cymbals of brass and jingling bunches of
  little brass bells in both hands4     
,when the performance has been repeated 
at every house in the village1 the      
procession defiles down to the river    
and all the evil spirits1 which the     
performers have chased from the  houses1
 follow them to the edge of the water4  
,there a raft has been made  ready and  
moored to the bank4 ,it contains        

offerings of food1 cloth1  cooking-pots1
 and swords2 and the deck is crowded    
with figures of men1  women1 animals1   
and birds1 all made out of the leaves of
 the sago palm4  ,the evil spirits now  
embark on the raft1 and when they are   
all aboard1 it  is pushed off and       
allowed to float down with the current1 
carrying the  demons with it4 ,should   
the raft run aground near the village1  
it is shoved  off with all speed1 lest  
the invisible passengers should seize   
the  opportunity of landing and         
returning to the village4 ,finally1 the 
sufferings of the little pig1 whose     
squeals served to decoy the demons  from
 their lurking-places1 are terminated by
 death1 for it is killed and  its       
carcase thrown away47#dii7    7,m#aec7  
,every year1 at the beginning of the dry
 season1 the ,nicobar  ,islanders carry 
the model of a ship through their       
villages4 ,the devils are  chased out of
 the huts1 and driven on board the      
little ship1 which is then  launched and

 suffered to sail away with the         
wind47#ejj7 ,the ceremony has  been     
described by a catechist1 who witnessed 
it at ,car ,nicobar in ,july  #ahig4    
,for three days the people were busy    
preparing two very large  floating cars1
 shaped like canoes1 fitted with sails1 
and loaded with  certain leaves1 which  
possessed the valuable property of      
expelling devils4  ,while the young     
people were thus engaged1 the exorcists 
and the elders sat  in a house singing  
songs by turns2 but often they would    
come forth1 pace  the beach armed with  
rods1 and forbid the devil to enter the 
village4 ,the  fourth day of the        
solemnity bore the name of              
,int-nga-,sya1 which means  8,expelling 
the ,devil by ,sails40 ,in the evening  
all the villagers  assembled1 the women 
bringing baskets of ashes and bunches of
  devil-expelling leaves4 ,these leaves 
were then distributed to everybody1  old
 and young4 ,when all was ready1 a band 
of robust men1 attended by a  guard of  

exorcists1 carried one of the cars down 
to the sea on the right  side of the    
village graveyard1 and set it floating  
in the water4 ,as soon  as they had     
returned1 another band of men carried   
the other car to the  beach and floated 
it similarly in the sea to the left of  
the graveyard4  ,the demon-laden barks  
being now launched1 the women threw     
ashes from the  shore1 and the whole    
crowd shouted1 saying1 8,fly away1      
devil1 fly away1  never come again60    
,the wind and the tide being favourable1
 the canoes  sailed quickly away2 and   
that night all the people feasted       
together with  great joy1 because the   
devil had departed in the direction of  
,chowra4 ,a  similar expulsion of devils
 takes place once a year in other       
,nicobar  villages2 but the ceremonies  
are held at different times in different
  places47#eja7    7,m#aed7 ,at         
,sucla-,tirtha1 in ,india1 an earthen   
pot containing the  accumulated sins of 
the people is 7annually87 set adrift on 

the river4  ,legend says that the custom
 originated with a wicked priest who1   
after  atoning for his guilt by a course
 of austerities and expiatory           
ceremonies1  was directed to sail upon  
the river in a boat with white sails4   
,if the  white sails turned black1 it   
would be a sign that his sins were      
forgiven  him4 ,they did so1 and he     
joyfully allowed the boat to drift with 
his sins  to sea47#ejb7 ,amongst many of
 the aboriginal tribes of ,china1 a     
great  festival is celebrated in the    
third month of every year4 ,it is held  
by way  of a general rejoicing over what
 the people believe to be a total       
annihilation of the ills of the past    
twelve months4 ,the destruction is      
supposed to be effected in the following
 way4 ,a large earthenware jar  filled  
with gunpowder1 stones1 and bits of iron
 is buried in the earth4 ,a  train of   
gunpowder1 communicating with the jar1  
is then laid2 and a match  being        
applied1 the jar and its contents are   

blown up4 ,the stones and bits  of iron 
represent the ills and disasters of the 
past year1 and the  dispersion of them  
by the explosion is believed to remove  
the ills and  disasters themselves4 ,the
 festival is attended with much         
revelling and  drunkenness47#ejc7 ,on   
,new ,year's ,day people in ,corea seek 
to rid themselves  of all their         
distresses by painting images on paper1 
writing against them  their troubles of 
body or mind1 and afterwards giving the 
papers to a boy  to burn4 ,another      
method of effecting the same object at  
the same season is  to make rude dolls  
of straw1 stuff them with a few copper  
coins1 and throw  them into the street4 
,whoever picks up such an effigy gets   
all the  troubles and thereby relieves  
the original sufferer47#ejd7 ,again1 on 
the  fourteenth day of the first month  
the ,coreans fly paper kites inscribed  
with a wish that all the ills of the    
year may fly away with them47#eje7 ,mr4 
,george ,bogle1 the ,english envoy sent 

to ,tibet by ,warren ,hastings1         
witnessed the celebration of the        
,tibetan ,new ,year's ,day at ,teshu    
,lumbo1  the capital of the ,teshu      
,lama4 ,monks walked in procession round
 the court  to the music of cymbals1    
tabors1 trumpets1 hautboys and drums4   
,then  others1 clad in masquerade dress 
and wearing masks which represented the 
heads of animals1 mostly wild beasts1   
danced with antic motions4 8,after      
this1 the figure of a man1 chalked upon 
paper1 was laid upon the ground4  ,many 
strange ceremonies1 which to me who did 
not understand them appeared  whimsical1
 were performed about it2 and a great   
fire being kindled in a  corner of the  
court1 it was at length held over it1   
and being formed of  combustibles1      
vanished with much smoke and explosion4 
,i was told it was a  figure of the     
devil407#ejf7 ,another ,tibetan mode of 
expelling demons from a  dwelling is to 
make a paste image1 into which the lamas
 by their  incantations conjure all the 

evil spirits that may be lurking in the 
house4 ,this image is carried to a      
distance by a runner and thrown away4   
,he  is attended by men1 who shout at   
the top of their voices1 brandish       
swords1  and fire guns1 all to frighten 
the demons and drive them far from human
  habitations47#ejg7    7,m#aee7 ,at    
,old ,calabar on the coast of ,guinea1  
the devils and ghosts are1  or used to  
be1 publicly expelled once in two years4
 ,among the spirits thus  driven from   
their haunts are the souls of all the   
people who died since  the last         
lustration of the town4 ,about three    
weeks or a month before the  expulsion1 
which according to one account takes    
place in the month of  ,november1 rude  
effigies representing men and animals1  
such as crocodiles1  leopards1          
elephants1 bullocks1 and birds1 are made
 of wicker-work or wood1  and being hung
 with strips of cloth and bedizened with
 gew-gaws1 are set  before the door of  
every house4 ,about three o'clock in the

 morning of the  day appointed for the  
ceremony the whole population turns out 
into the  streets1 and proceeds with a  
deafening uproar and in a state of the  
wildest excitement to drive all lurking 
devils and ghosts into the  effigies1 in
 order that they may be banished with   
them from the abodes of  men4 ,for this 
purpose bands of people roam through the
 streets knocking on  doors1 firing     
guns1 beating drums1 blowing on horns1  
ringing bells1  clattering pots and     
pans1 shouting and hallooing with might 
and main1 in  short making all the noise
 it is possible for them to raise4 ,the 
hubbub  goes on till the approach of    
dawn1 when it gradually subsides and    
ceases  altogether at sunrise4 ,by this 
time the houses have been thoroughly    
swept1  and all the frightened spirits  
are supposed to have huddled into the   
effigies or their fluttering drapery4   
,in these wicker figures are also       
deposited the sweepings of the houses   
and the ashes of yesterday's fires4     

,then the demon-laden images are hastily
 snatched up1 carried in tumultuous     
procession down to the brink of the     
river1 and thrown into the water to  the
 tuck of drums4 ,the ebb-tide bears them
 away seaward1 and thus the town  is    
swept clean of ghosts and devils for    
another two years4 ,this biennial       
expulsion of spirits goes by the name of
 ,ndok1 and the effigies by which  it is
 effected are called ,nabikem or        
,nabikim47#ejh7    7,m#aef7 ,further to 
the west similar ceremonies are or were 
till recently  enacted at ,porto ,novo1 
the seaport of ,dahomey4 ,one of them   
has been  described by an eye-witness1 a
 ,catholic missionary1 who interpreted  
the  rites as a ,funeral of ,death4 ,he 
says3 8,some time ago a curious event   
took  place3 the ,king had commanded to 
celebrate the funeral of ,death4 ,every 
year1 at the season of the rains1 the   
predecessors of his sable ,majesty1  in 
order to preserve the life of their dear
 subjects1 had caused the  fetish of    

that terrible and pitiless enemy1 who   
spares not even kings1 to  be drowned in
 the lagoon4 ,toffa wished to comply    
with the traditions of  his ancestors40 
,however1 the ceremony as described by  
the missionary seems  to conform closely
 to the type of the expulsion of ghosts 
and demons4 ,two  days before the       
crowning act of the celebration the     
streets were carefully  swept and all   
the filth which usually encumbered them 
was removed1 8lest  ,death should there 
find a refuge40 ,all the people from the
 neighbouring  villages assembled2 their
 fetishes1 daubed with red paint1 were  
carried in  great pomp through the      
streets of the capital attended by noisy
  processions of mummers4 ,a great      
multitude passed the night in the public
  square1 drinking1 singing1 and        
shouting4 ,finally1 a number of rude and
  hideous effigies were escorted by a   
noisy crowd to the shore of the  lagoon2
 there canoes were waiting to receive   
them and paddle them out to  deep water1

 where they were flung overboard4 ,these
 effigies the missionary  regarded as so
 many images of ,death1 who thus        
received his passport and  was dismissed
 from the territory of ,porto ,novo4    
,but more probably they  represented the
 hosts of demons and ghosts who were    
believed to lurk about  the town and to 
massacre people under the form of       
sickness and disease4  ,having made a   
clean sweep of the whole baleful crew   
the inhabitants no  doubt thought that  
they had removed the principal1 if not  
the only1 cause  of death1 and that     
accordingly they had taken out a new    
lease of  life47#eji7 ,it is not without
 interest to observe that in cleansing  
their  streets the people did actually  
retrench one of the most fruitful       
sources  of disease and death1          
especially in the sweltering heat of a  
damp tropical  climate2 hence the       
measures they took for the prolongation 
of their lives  were really to a certain
 extent effectual1 though they did not  

accomplish  their object in the precise 
way they imagined4 ,so curiously does it
 often  happen that the savage reaches  
the goal of his wishes by a road which  
to  civilized man might appear at first 
sight to lead far away from it4         
7,m#aeg7 ,before the ,hos of ,togoland1 
to the west of ,dahomey1 celebrate their
  festival of the new yams1 which has   
been described in another part of this  
work17#eaj7 they say that it is         
necessary to clean the town and to put  
it  in order4 ,the way in which they do 
so is this4 ,they take leaves of two    
particular sorts of trees 7the adzu and 
the wo71 together with  creepers and    
ashes1 and bind all the leaves fast to a
 pole of the adzu  tree4 ,as they do so 
they pray or command the evil spirits1  
the witches1  and all other evils in the
 town to enter into the band and be     
bound with  it4 ,then they make a paste 
out of the ashes mixed with urine and   
smear it  on the bundle of leaves1      
saying1 8,we smear it on the face of the

 ,evil ,ones  who are in this bundle1 in
 order that they may not be able to see 
any  more40 ,then they throw the bundle 
on the ground and mock at it4 ,next they
  take all the similar poles1 wrapt in  
creepers1 in which they have bound up   
all the evil powers1 and carry them out 
of the town and stick them in the       
ground on the various roads leading into
 the town4 ,when they have done  this1  
they say that they have driven the evils
 out of the town and shut  the door     
against them4 ,after that they wash the 
faces of all the people  with a medicine
 which has been prepared by the oldest  
men4 ,thereupon they  all return home to
 sweep out their houses and yards2 they 
sweep even the  ground in front of the  
yards1 so that the whole town is        
thoroughly clean4  ,all the grass-stalks
 and refuse of stock-yams which have    
been swept  together are carried out of 
the town1 and the people rail at the    
stock-yams4 ,in the course of the night 
the oldest men assemble and tie a  toad 

to a young palm-leaf4 ,they say that    
they wish now to sweep the town  and    
finish the ceremony4 ,so they drag the  
toad behind them through the  whole town
 in the direction of ,mount ,adaklu4    
,when that has been done1 the  priests  
say that they will now remove the       
sicknesses4 ,in the evening they  give  
public notice that they are about to    
take to the road1 so nobody may  light a
 fire on the hearth or eat4 ,at dead of 
night1 when people are  asleep1 three   
men go through the town4 ,one of them   
drags behind them a  toad fastened to a 
bunch of herbs2 another carries a       
calabash of holy  herbs and water1 with 
which he sprinkles the streets2 and the 
third  whistles softly4 ,as soon as they
 have thus passed through the whole     
town1  they throw away the toad and the 
holy herbs in the direction of ,mount   
,adaklu4 ,next morning the women sweep  
out their houses and hearths and set    
the sweepings on broken wooden plates4  
,many put on torn mats or torn  clothes2

 others tie grasses and creepers about  
them4 ,while they do so1  they pray1    
saying1 8,all ye sicknesses which are in
 our body and plague us1  we are come   
this day to cast you out60 ,when they   
set out so to do1 the  priest commands  
every man to cry out thrice and thereby 
to smite himself  on the mouth4 ,in a   
moment they all cry out1 smite          
themselves on the mouth1  and run as    
fast as their legs can carry them in the
 direction of ,mount  ,adaklu4 ,as they 
run1 they say1 8,out to-day6 ,out       
to-day6 ,what kills  anybody1 out       
to-day6 ,ye evil spirits1 out to-day6   
,and all that makes our  heads to ache1 
out to-day6 ,anlo and ,adaklu are the   
places whither all evil  ought to go40  
,now on ,mount ,adaklu there stands a   
klo tree2 and when they  have come      
thither they throw everything away and  
return home4 ,after their  return every 
man washes himself with the medicine    
which is set forth for  that purpose in 
the public street2 then he goes into his

 house4 ,such is  the ceremony by which 
the ,hos prepare themselves to eat the  
new yams47#eaa7  ,thus among the ,hos   
the public expulsion of evils is        
definitely connected  with the crops and
 therefore takes place every year1 not  
every two years1  as at ,old ,calabar4  
7,m#aeh7 ,similar annual expulsions of  
embodied evils are not unknown in       
,europe4 ,on the evening of ,easter     
,sunday the gypsies of ,southern ,europe
  take a wooden vessel like a band-box1 
which rests cradle-wise on two cross    
pieces of wood4 ,in this they place     
herbs and simples1 together with the    
dried carcase of a snake1 or lizard1    
which every person present must first   
have touched with his fingers4 ,the     
vessel is then wrapt in white and red   
wool1 carried by the oldest man from    
tent to tent1 and finally thrown into   
running water1 not1 however1 before     
every member of the band has spat into  
it once1 and the sorceress has uttered  
some spells over it4 ,they believe  that

 by performing this ceremony they dispel
 all the illnesses that would  otherwise
 have afflicted them in the course of   
the year2 and that if any  one finds the
 vessel and opens it out of curiosity1  
he and his will be  visited by all the  
maladies which the others have          
escaped47#eab7    7,m#aei7 ,the         
scapegoat by means of which the         
accumulated ills of a whole  year are   
publicly expelled is sometimes an       
animal4 ,for example1 among the  ,garos 
of ,assam1 8besides the sacrifices for  
individual cases of illness1  there are 
certain ceremonies which are observed   
once a year by a whole  community or    
village1 and are intended to safeguard  
its members from  dangers of the forest1
 and from sickness and mishap during the
 coming  twelve months4 ,the principal  
of these is the ,asongtata ceremony4    
,close to  the outskirts of every big   
village a number of stones may be       
noticed stuck  into the ground1         
apparently without order or method4     

,these are known by  the name of asong1 
and on them is offered the sacrifice    
which the  ,asongtata demands4 ,the     
sacrifice of a goat takes place1 and a  
month later1  that of a langur          
7,entellus monkey7 or a bamboo-rat is   
considered  necessary4 ,the animal      
chosen has a rope fastened round its    
neck and is led  by two men1 one on each
 side of it1 to every house in the      
village4 ,it is  taken inside each house
 in turn1 the assembled villagers1      
meanwhile1  beating the walls from the  
outside1 to frighten and drive out any  
evil  spirits which may have taken up   
their residence within4 ,the round of   
the  village having been made in this   
manner1 the monkey or rat is led to the 
outskirts of the village1 killed by a   
blow of a dao1 which disembowels  it1   
and then crucified on bamboos set up in 
the ground4 ,round the  crucified animal
 long1 sharp bamboo stakes are placed1  
which form chevaux  de frise round about
 it4 ,these commemorate the days when   

such defences  surrounded the villages  
on all sides to keep off human enemies1 
and they  are now a symbol to ward off  
sickness and dangers to life from the   
wild  animals of the forest4 ,the langur
 required for the purpose is hunted     
down some days before1 but should it be 
found impossible to catch one1 a  brown 
monkey may take its place2 a hulock may 
not be used407#eac7 ,here the  crucified
 ape or rat is the public scapegoat1    
which by its vicarious  sufferings and  
death relieves the people from all      
sickness and mishap in  the coming year4
    7,m#afj7 ,again1 on one day of the  
year the ,bhotiyas of ,juhar1 in the    
,western  ,himalayas1 take a dog1       
intoxicate him with spirits and bhang or
 hemp1 and  having fed him with         
sweetmeats1 lead him round the village  
and let him  loose4 ,they then chase and
 kill him with sticks and stones1 and   
believe  that1 when they have done so1  
no disease or misfortune will visit the 
village during the year47#ead7 ,in some 

parts of ,breadalbane it was formerly   
the custom on ,new ,year's ,day to take 
a dog to the door1 give him a bit of    
bread1 and drive him out1 saying1 8,get 
away1 you dog6 ,whatever death of  men  
or loss of cattle would happen in this  
house to the end of the present  year1  
may it all light on your head607#eae7   
,it appears that the white dogs         
annually sacrificed by the ,iroquois at 
their ,new ,year ,festival are1 or  have
 been1 regarded as scapegoats4          
,according to ,mr4 ,j4 ,v4 ,h4 ,clark1  
who  witnessed the ceremony in ,january 
#ahda1 on the first day of the festival 
all the fires in the village were       
extinguished1 the ashes scattered to the
  winds1 and a new fire kindled with    
flint and steel4 ,on a subsequent day1  
men dressed in fantastic costumes went  
round the village1 gathering the  sins  
of the people4 ,when the morning of the 
last day of the festival was  come1 two 
white dogs1 decorated with red paint1   
wampum1 feathers1 and  ribbons1 were led

 out4 ,they were soon strangled1 and    
hung on a ladder4  ,firing and yelling  
succeeded1 and half an hour later the   
animals were  taken into a house1 8where
 the people's sins were transferred to  
them40  ,the carcases were afterwards   
burnt on a pyre of wood47#eaf7          
,according to  the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,kirkland1
 who wrote in the eighteenth century1   
the ashes of  the pyre upon which one of
 the white dogs was burnt were carried  
through  the village and sprinkled at   
the door of every house47#eag7          
,formerly1  however1 as we have seen1   
the ,iroquois expulsion of evils was    
immediate  and not by scapegoat47#eah7  
,on the ,day of ,atonement1 which was   
the tenth  day of the seventh month1 the
 ,jewish high-priest laid both his hands
 on  the head of a live goat1 confessed 
over it all the iniquities of the       
,children of ,israel1 and1 having       
thereby transferred the sins of the     
people  to the beast1 sent it away into 
the wilderness47#eai7    7,m#afa7 ,the  

scapegoat upon whom the sins of the     
people are periodically  laid1 may also 
be a human being4 ,at ,onitsha1 on the  
,niger1 two human  beings used to be    
annually sacrificed to take away the    
sins of the land4  ,the victims were    
purchased by public subscription4 ,all  
persons who1 during  the past year1 had 
fallen into gross sins1 such as         
incendiarism1 theft1  adultery1         
witchcraft1 and so forth1 were expected 
to contribute #bh  ngugas1 or a little  
over #b4 ,the money thus collected was  
taken into the  interior of the country 
and expended in the purchase of two     
sickly persons  8to be offered as a     
sacrifice for all these abominable      
crimes--one for the  land and one for   
the river40 ,a man from a neighbouring  
town was hired to  put them to death4   
,on the twenty-seventh of ,february     
#aheh the ,rev4 ,j4 ,c4  ,taylor        
witnessed the sacrifice of one of these 
victims4 ,the sufferer was a  woman1    
about nineteen or twenty years of age4  

,they dragged her alive along  the      
ground1 face downwards1 from the king's 
house to the river1 a distance  of two  
miles1 the crowds who accompanied her   
crying1 8,wickedness6  wickedness60 ,the
 intention was 8to take away the        
iniquities of the land4  ,the body was  
dragged along in a merciless manner1 as 
if the weight of all  their wickedness  
was thus carried away407#ebj7 ,similar  
customs are said to  be still secretly  
practised every year by many tribes on  
the delta of the  ,niger in spite of the
 vigilance of the ,british              
,government47#eba7 ,among the  ,yoruba  
negroes of ,west ,africa 8the human     
victim chosen for sacrifice1 and  who   
may be either a free-born or a slave1 a 
person of noble or wealthy  parentage1  
or one of humble birth1 is1 after he has
 been chosen and marked  out for the    
purpose1 called an ,oluwo4 ,he is always
 well fed and  nourished and supplied   
with whatever he should desire during   
the period of  his confinement4 ,when   

the occasion arrives for him to be      
sacrificed and  offered up1 he is       
commonly led about and paraded through  
the streets of  the town or city of the 
,sovereign who would sacrifice him for  
the  well-being of his government and of
 every family and individual under it1  
in order that he might carry off the    
sin1 guilt1 misfortune and death of  all
 without exception4 ,ashes and chalk    
would be employed to hide his  identity 
by the one being freely thrown over his 
head1 and his face  painted with the    
latter1 whilst individuals would often  
rush out of their  houses to lay their  
hands upon him that they might thus     
transfer to him  their sin1 guilt1      
trouble1 and death4 ,this parading done1
 he is taken  through a temporary sacred
 shed of palm and other tree branches1  
and  especially of the former1 the      
,igbodu7#ebb7 and to its first division1
 where  many persons might follow him1  
and through a second where only the     
chiefs  and other very important persons

 might escort and accompany him to1 and 
to  a third where only the ,babalawo    
priest and his official assistant1 the  
,ajigbona1 are permitted to enter with  
him4 ,here1 after he himself has  given 
out or started his last song1 which is  
to be taken up by the large  assembly of
 people who will have been waiting to   
hear his last word or his  last groan1  
his head is taken off and his blood     
offered to the gods4 ,the  announcement 
of his last word or his last groan heard
 and taken up by the  people1 would be a
 signal for joy1 gladness1 and          
thanksgiving1 and for  drum beating and 
dancing1 as an expression of their      
gratification because  their sacrifice  
has been accepted1 the divine wrath is  
appeased1 and the  prospect of          
prosperity or increased prosperity      
assured407#ebc7    7,m#afb7 ,in ,siam it
 used to be the custom on one day of the
 year to single  out a woman broken down
 by debauchery1 and carry her on a      
litter through  all the streets to the  

music of drums and hautboys4 ,the mob   
insulted her  and pelted her with dirt2 
and after having carried her through the
 whole  city1 they threw her on a       
dunghill or a hedge of thorns outside   
the  ramparts1 forbidding her ever to   
enter the walls again4 ,they believed   
that  the woman thus drew upon herself  
all the malign influences of the air and
  of evil spirits47#ebd7 ,in ,japan the 
8tsuina or oni-yarahi1 that is to  say1 
demon expelling1 is a sort of drama in  
which disease1 or more  generally       
ill-luck1 is personified1 and driven    
away with threats and a  show of        
violence4 ,like the oho-harahi17#ebe7 it
 was performed on the last  day of the  
year4 ,this association is only natural4
 ,the demons of the  tsuina are         
personified wintry influences1 with the 
diseases which they  bring with them1   
while the oho-harahi is intended to     
cleanse the people  from sin and        
uncleanness1 things closely related to  
disease1 as well as  from disease       

itself4 ,though probably of ,chinese    
origin1 the tsuina is a  tolerably      
ancient rite4 ,it is alluded to in the  
,nihongi under the date  ,a4,d4 #fhi4   
,it was at one time performed at ,court 
on an imposing scale4 ,four  bands of   
twenty youths1 each wearing a four-eyed 
mask1 and each carrying a  halberd in   
the left hand1 marched simultaneously   
from the four gates of  the palace1     
driving the devils before them4 ,another
 account of this  ceremony says that a  
man disguised himself as the demon of   
pestilence1 in  which garb he was shot  
at and driven off by the courtiers armed
 with  peach-wood bows and arrows of    
reed4 ,peach-wood staves were used for  
the  same purpose4 ,there was formerly a
 practice at ,asakusa in ,tokio on the  
last day of the year for a man got up as
 a devil to be chased round the  pagoda 
there by another wearing a mask4 ,after 
this #c1jjj tickets were  scrambled for 
by the spectators4 ,these were carried  
away and pasted up  over the doors as a 

charm against pestilence407#ebf7 ,the   
,battas of ,sumatra  offer either a red 
horse or a buffalo as a public sacrifice
 to purify the  land and obtain the     
favour of the gods4 ,formerly1 it is    
said1 a man was  bound to the same stake
 as the buffalo1 and when they killed   
the animal1  the man was driven away2 no
 one might receive him1 converse with   
him1 or  give him food47#ebg7 ,doubtless
 he was supposed to carry away the sins 
and  misfortunes of the people4         
7,m#afc7 ,human scapegoats1 as we shall 
see presently1 were well known in       
classical antiquity1 and even in medival
 ,europe the custom seems not to  have  
been wholly extinct4 ,in the town of    
,halberstadt1 in ,thringen1 there  was a
 church said to have been founded by    
,charlemagne4 ,in this church  every    
year they chose a man1 who was believed 
to be stained with heinous  sins4 ,on   
the first day of ,lent he was brought to
 the church1 dressed in  mourning garb1 
with his head muffled up4 ,at the close 

of the service he  was turned out of the
 church4 ,during the forty days of ,lent
 he  perambulated the city barefoot1    
neither entering the churches nor       
speaking  to any one4 ,the canons took  
it in turn to feed him4 ,after midnight 
he was  allowed to sleep in the streets4
 ,on the day before ,good ,friday1 after
 the  consecration of the holy oil1 he  
was readmitted to the church and        
absolved  from his sins4 ,the people    
gave him money4 ,he was called ,adam1   
and was now  believed to be in a state  
of innocence47#ebh7 ,at ,entlebuch1 in  
,switzerland1  down to the close of the 
eighteenth century1 the custom of       
annually  expelling a scapegoat was     
preserved in the ceremony of driving    
8,posterli0  from the village into the  
lands of the neighbouring village4      
8,posterli0  was represented by a lad   
disguised as an old witch or as a goat  
or an ass4  ,amid a deafening noise of  
horns1 clarionets1 bells1 whips1 and so 
forth1  he was driven out4 ,sometimes   

8,posterli0 was represented by a puppet1
 which  was drawn on a sledge and left  
in a corner of the neighbouring village4
  ,the ceremony took place on the       
,thursday evening of the last week but  
one  before ,christmas47#ebi7           
7,m#afd7 ,in ,munich down to about a    
hundred years ago the expulsion of the  
devil from the city used to be annually 
enacted on ,ascension ,day4 ,on the     
,eve of ,ascension ,day a man disguised 
as a devil was chased through the       
streets1 which were then narrow and     
dirty in contrast to the broad1         
well-kept thoroughfares1 lined with     
imposing buildings1 which now           
distinguish the capital of ,bavaria4    
,his pursuers were dressed as witches   
and wizards and provided with the       
indispensable crutches1 brooms1 and     
pitchforks which make up the outfit of  
these uncanny beings4 ,while the  devil 
fled before them1 the troop of maskers  
made after him with wild  whoops and    
halloos1 and when they overtook him they

 ducked him in puddles  or rolled him on
 dunghills4 ,in this way the demon at   
last succeeded in  reaching the palace1 
where he put off his hideous and now    
filthy disguise  and was rewarded for   
his vicarious sufferings by a copious   
meal4 ,the  devilish costume which he   
had thrown off was then stuffed with hay
 and  straw and conveyed to a particular
 church 7the ,frauenkirche71 where it   
was  kept over night1 being hung by a   
rope from a window in the tower4 ,on the
  afternoon of ,ascension ,day1 before  
the ,vesper service began1 an image of  
the ,saviour was drawn up to the roof of
 the church1 no doubt to symbolize  the 
event which the day commemorates4 ,then 
burning tow and wafers were  thrown on  
the people4 ,meantime the effigy of the 
devil1 painted black1  with a pair of   
horns and a lolling red tongue1 had been
 dangling from the  church tower1 to the
 delight of a gaping crowd of spectators
 gathered  before the church4 ,it was   
now flung down into their midst1 and a  

fierce  struggle for possession of it   
took place among the rabble4 ,finally1  
it was  carried out of the town by the  
,isar gate and burned on a neighbouring 
height1 8in order that the foul fiend   
might do no harm to the city40 ,the     
custom died out at ,munich towards the  
end of the eighteenth century2 but  it  
is said that similar ceremonies are     
observed to this day in some  villages  
of ,upper ,bavaria47#ecj7    7,m#afe7   
,this quaint ceremony suggests that the 
pardoned criminal who used  to play the 
principal part in a solemn religious    
procession on ,ascension  ,day at       
,rouen7#eca7 may in like manner have    
originally served1 if not as a          
representative of the devil1 at least as
 a public scapegoat1 who relieved  the  
whole people of their sins and sorrows  
for a year by taking them upon  himself4
 ,this would explain why the gaol had to
 be raked in order to  furnish one who  
would parade with the highest           
ecclesiastical dignitaries  in their    

gorgeous vestments through the streets  
of ,rouen1 while the church  bells      
pealed out1 the clergy chanted1 banners 
waved1 and every  circumstance combined 
to enhance the pomp and splendour of the
 pageant4 ,it  would add a pathetic     
significance to the crowning act of the 
ceremony1  when on a lofty platform in  
the public square1 with the eyes of a   
great  and silent multitude turned upon 
him1 the condemned malefactor received  
from the ,church the absolution and     
remission of his sins2 for if the rite  
is to be interpreted in the way here    
suggested1 the sins which were thus     
forgiven were those not of one man only 
but of the whole people4 ,no  wonder1   
then1 that when the sinner1 now a sinner
 no more1 rose from his  knees and      
thrice lifted the silver shrine of ,st4 
,romain in his arms1 the  whole vast    
assembly in the square broke out into   
joyous cries of 8,noel6  ,noel6 ,noel60 
which they understood to signify1 8,god 
be with us60 ,in  ,christian countries  

no more appropriate season could be     
selected for the  ceremony of the human 
scapegoat than ,ascension ,day1 which   
commemorates the  departure from earth  
of ,him who1 in the belief of millions1 
took away the  sins of the world47#ecb7 
7,m#aff7 ,sometimes the scapegoat is a  
divine animal4 ,the people of ,malabar  
share the ,hindoo reverence for the cow1
 to kill and eat which 8they esteem  to 
be a crime as heinous as homicide or    
wilful murder40 ,nevertheless the       
8,bramans transfer the sins of the      
people into one or more ,cows1 which are
  then carry'd away1 both the ,cows and 
the ,sins wherewith these ,beasts are   
charged1 to what place the ,braman shall
 appoint407#ecc7 ,when the ancient      
,egyptians sacrificed a bull1 they      
invoked upon its head all the evils that
  might otherwise befall themselves and 
the land of ,egypt1 and thereupon  they 
either sold the bull's head to the      
,greeks or cast it into the             
river47#ecd7 ,now1 it cannot be said    

that in the times known to us the       
,egyptians worshipped bulls in general1 
for they seem to have commonly  killed  
and eaten them47#ece7 ,but a good many  
circumstances point to the  conclusion  
that originally all cattle1 bulls as    
well as cows1 were held  sacred by the  
,egyptians4 ,for not only were all cows 
esteemed holy by them  and never        
sacrificed1 but even bulls might not be 
sacrificed unless they  had certain     
natural marks2 a priest examined every  
bull before it was  sacrificed2 if it   
had the proper marks1 he put his seal on
 the animal in  token that it might be  
sacrificed2 and if a man sacrificed a   
bull which  had not been sealed1 he was 
put to death4 ,moreover1 the worship of 
the  black bulls ,apis and ,mnevis1     
especially the former1 played an        
important  part in ,egyptian religion2  
all bulls that died a natural death were
  carefully buried in the suburbs of the
 cities1 and their bones were           
afterwards collected from all parts of  

,egypt and interred in a single  spot2  
and at the sacrifice of a bull in the   
great rites of ,isis all the            
worshippers beat their breasts and      
mourned47#ecf7 ,on the whole1 then1 we  
are perhaps entitled to infer that bulls
 were originally1 as cows were  always1 
esteemed sacred by the ,egyptians1 and  
that the slain bull upon  whose head    
they laid the misfortunes of the people 
was once a divine  scapegoat4 ,it seems 
not improbable that the lamb annually   
slain by the  ,madis of ,central ,africa
 is a divine scapegoat1 and the same    
supposition  may partly explain the     
,zuni sacrifice of the turtle47#ecg7    
7,m#afg7 ,lastly1 the scapegoat may be a
 divine man4 ,thus1 in ,november the    
,gonds of ,india worship ,ghansyam ,deo1
 the protector of the crops1 and at  the
 festival the god himself is said to    
descend on the head of one of the       
worshippers1 who is suddenly seized with
 a kind of fit and1 after  staggering   
about1 rushes off into the jungle1 where

 it is believed that1  if left to       
himself1 he would die mad4 ,however1    
they bring him back1 but he  does not   
recover his senses for one or two days4 
,the people think that one  man is thus 
singled out as a scapegoat for the sins 
of the rest of the  village47#ech7 ,in  
the temple of the ,moon the ,albanians  
of the ,eastern  ,caucasus kept a number
 of sacred slaves1 of whom many were    
inspired and  prophesied4 ,when one of  
these men exhibited more than usual     
symptoms of  inspiration or insanity1   
and wandered solitary up and down the   
woods1 like  the ,gond in the jungle1   
the high priest had him bound with a    
sacred chain  and maintained him in     
luxury for a year4 ,at the end of the   
year he was  anointed with unguents and 
led forth to be sacrificed4 ,a man whose
  business it was to slay these human   
victims and to whom practice had given  
dexterity1 advanced from the crowd and  
thrust a sacred spear into the  victim's
 side1 piercing his heart4 ,from the    

manner in which the slain man  fell1    
omens were drawn as to the welfare of   
the commonwealth4 ,then the  body was   
carried to a certain spot where all the 
people stood upon it as a  purificatory 
ceremony47#eci7 ,this last circumstance 
clearly indicates that  the sins of the 
people were transferred to the victim1  
just as the ,jewish  priest transferred 
the sins of the people to the scapegoat 
by laying his  hands on the animal's    
head2 and since the man was believed to 
be possessed  by the divine spirit1 we  
have here an undoubted example of a     
man-god slain  to take away the sins and
 misfortunes of the people4    7,m#afh7 
,in ,tibet the ceremony of the scapegoat
 presents some remarkable  features4    
,the ,tibetan new year begins with the  
new moon which appears  about the       
fifteenth of ,february4 ,for            
twenty-three days afterwards the        
government of ,lhasa1 the capital1 is   
taken out of the hands of the  ordinary 
rulers and entrusted to the monk of the 

,debang monastery who  offers to pay the
 highest sum for the privilege4 ,the    
successful bidder is  called the ,jalno1
 and he announces his accession to power
 in person1 going  through the streets  
of ,lhasa with a silver stick in his    
hand4 ,monks from  all the neighbouring 
monasteries and temples assemble to pay 
him homage4  ,the ,jalno exercises his  
authority in the most arbitrary manner  
for his own  benefit1 as all the fines  
which he exacts are his by purchase4    
,the profit  he makes is about ten times
 the amount of the purchase money4 ,his 
men go  about the streets in order to   
discover any conduct on the part of the 
inhabitants that can be found fault     
with4 ,every house in ,lhasa is taxed at
  this time1 and the slightest offence  
is punished with unsparing rigour by    
fines4 ,this severity of the ,jalno     
drives all working classes out of the   
city till the twenty-three days are     
over4 ,but if the laity go out1 the     
clergy come in4 ,all the ,buddhist      

monasteries of the country for miles    
round about open their gates and        
disgorge their inmates4 ,all the roads  
that lead down into ,lhasa from the     
neighbouring mountains are full of      
monks hurrying to the capital1 some on  
foot1 some on horseback1 some  riding   
asses or lowing oxen1 all carrying their
 prayer-books and culinary  utensils4   
,in such multitudes do they come that   
the streets and squares of  the city are
 encumbered with their swarms1 and      
incarnadined with their red  cloaks4    
,the disorder and confusion are         
indescribable4 ,bands of the holy  men  
traverse the streets chanting prayers or
 uttering wild cries4 ,they  meet1 they 
jostle1 they quarrel1 they fight2 bloody
 noses1 black eyes1 and  broken heads   
are freely given and received4 ,all day 
long1 too1 from before  the peep of dawn
 till after darkness has fallen1 these  
red-cloaked monks  hold services in the 
dim incense-laden air of the great      
,machindranath  temple1 the cathedral of

 ,lhasa2 and thither they crowd thrice a
 day to  receive their doles of tea and 
soup and money4 ,the cathedral is a vast
  building1 standing in the centre of   
the city1 and surrounded by bazaars  and
 shops4 ,the idols in it are richly     
inlaid with gold and precious  stones4  
7,m#afi7 ,twenty-four days after the    
,jalno has ceased to have authority1 he 
assumes it again1 and for ten days acts 
in the same arbitrary manner as  before4
 ,on the first of the ten days the      
priests again assemble at the           
cathedral1 pray to the gods to prevent  
sickness and other evils among the      
people1 8and1 as a peace-offering1      
sacrifice one man4 ,the man is not      
killed purposely1 but the ceremony he   
undergoes often proves fatal47#edj7     
,grain is thrown against his head1 and  
his face is painted half white1 half    
black40 ,thus grotesquely disguised1 and
 carrying a coat of skin on his  arm1 he
 is called the ,king of the ,years1 and 
sits daily in the  market-place1 where  

he helps himself to whatever he likes   
and goes about  shaking a black yak's   
tail over the people1 who thus transfer 
their bad  luck to him4 ,on the tenth   
day1 all the troops in ,lhasa march to  
the great  temple and form in line      
before it4 ,the ,king of the ,years is  
brought forth  from the temple and      
receives small donations from the       
assembled multitude4  ,he then ridicules
 the ,jalno1 saying to him1 8,what we   
perceive through the  five senses is no 
illusion4 ,all you teach is untrue10 and
 the like4 ,the  ,jalno1 who represents 
the ,grand ,lama for the time being1    
contests these  heretical opinions2 the 
dispute waxes warm1 and at last both    
agree to  decide the questions at issue 
by a cast of the dice1 the ,jalno       
offering to  change places with the     
scapegoat should the throw be against   
him4 ,if the  ,king of the ,years wins1 
much evil is prognosticated2 but if the 
,jalno  wins1 there is great rejoicing1 
for it proves that his adversary has    

been  accepted by the gods as a victim  
to bear all the sins of the people of   
,lhasa4 ,fortune1 however1 always       
favours the ,jalno1 who throws sixes    
with  unvarying success1 while his      
opponent turns up only ones4 ,nor is    
this so  extraordinary as at first sight
 it might appear2 for the ,jalno's dice 
are  marked with nothing but sixes and  
his adversary's with nothing but ones4  
,when he sees the finger of ,providence 
thus plainly pointed against him1  the  
,king of the ,years is terrified and    
flees away upon a white horse1 with  a  
white dog1 a white bird1 salt1 and so   
forth1 which have all been  provided for
 him by the government4 ,his face is    
still painted half white  and half      
black1 and he still wears his leathern  
coat4 ,the whole populace  pursues him1 
hooting1 yelling1 and firing blank shots
 in volleys after  him4 ,thus driven out
 of the city1 he is detained for seven  
days in the  great chamber of horrors at
 the ,samyas monastery1 surrounded by   

monstrous  and terrific images of devils
 and skins of huge serpents and wild    
beasts4  ,thence he goes away into the  
mountains of ,chetang1 where he has to  
remain  an outcast for several months or
 a year in a narrow den4 ,if he dies    
before  the time is out1 the people say 
it is an auspicious omen2 but if he     
survives1 he may return to ,lhasa and   
play the part of scapegoat over again   
the following year47#eda7    7,m#agj7   
,this quaint ceremonial1 still annually 
observed in the secluded  capital of    
,buddhism--the ,rome of ,asia--is       
interesting because it exhibits1  in a  
clearly marked religious stratification1
 a series of divine redeemers           
themselves redeemed1 of vicarious       
sacrifices vicariously atoned for1 of   
gods undergoing a process of            
fossilization1 who1 while they retain   
the  privileges1 have disburdened       
themselves of the pains and penalties of
  divinity4 ,in the ,jalno we may       
without undue straining discern a       

successor  of those temporary kings1    
those mortal gods1 who purchase a short 
lease of  power and glory at the price  
of their lives4 ,that he is the         
temporary  substitute of the ,grand     
,lama is certain2 that he is1 or was    
once1 liable  to act as scapegoat for   
the people is made nearly certain by his
 offer to  change places with the real  
scapegoat--the ,king of the ,years--if  
the  arbitrament of the dice should go  
against him4 ,it is true that the       
conditions under which the question is  
now put to the hazard have reduced  the 
offer to an idle form4 ,but such forms  
are no mere mushroom growths1  springing
 up of themselves in a night4 ,if they  
are now lifeless  formalities1 empty    
husks devoid of significance1 we may be 
sure that they  once had a life and a   
meaning2 if at the present day they are 
blind alleys  leading nowhere1 we may be
 certain that in former days they were  
paths  that led somewhere1 if only to   
death4 ,that death was the goal to which

 of  old the ,tibetan scapegoat passed  
after his brief period of licence in the
  market-place1 is a conjecture that has
 much to commend it4 ,analogy  suggests 
it2 the blank shots fired after him1 the
 statement that the  ceremony often     
proves fatal1 the belief that his death 
is a happy omen1  all confirm it4 ,we   
need not wonder then that the ,jalno1   
after paying so  dear to act as         
deputy-deity for a few weeks1 should    
have preferred to die  by deputy rather 
than in his own person when his time was
 up4 ,the painful  but necessary duty   
was accordingly laid on some poor devil1
 some social  outcast1 some wretch with 
whom the world had gone hard1 who       
readily agreed  to throw away his life  
at the end of a few days if only he     
might have his  fling in the meantime4  
,for observe that while the time allowed
 to the  original deputy--the           
,jalno--was measured by weeks1 the time 
allowed to the  deputy's deputy was cut 
down to days1 ten days according to one 

authority1  seven days according to     
another4 ,so short a rope was doubtless 
thought a  long enough tether for so    
black or sickly a sheep2 so few sands in
 the  hour-glass1 slipping so fast away1
 sufficed for one who had wasted so many
  precious years4 ,hence in the         
jack-pudding who now masquerades with   
motley  countenance in the market-place 
of ,lhasa1 sweeping up misfortune with a
  black yak's tail1 we may fairly see   
the substitute of a substitute1 the     
vicar of a vicar1 the proxy on whose    
back the heavy burden was laid when  it 
had been lifted from nobler shoulders4  
,but the clue1 if we have  followed it  
aright1 does not stop at the ,jalno2 it 
leads straight back to  the pope of     
,lhasa himself1 the ,grand ,lama1 of    
whom the ,jalno is merely the  temporary
 vicar4 ,the analogy of many customs in 
many lands points to the  conclusion    
that1 if this human divinity stoops to  
resign his ghostly power  for a time    
into the hands of a substitute1 it is1  

or rather was once1 for  no other reason
 than that the substitute might die in  
his stead4 ,thus  through the mist of   
ages unillumined by the lamp of history1
 the tragic  figure of the pope of      
,buddhism--,god's vicar on earth for    
,asia--looms dim and  sad as the man-god
 who bore his people's sorrows1 the     
,good ,shepherd who  laid down his life 
for the sheep4            ,,chapter ,v4 
,,on ,,scapegoats ,,in ,,general4       
7,m#aga7 ,the foregoing survey of the   
custom of publicly expelling the        
accumulated evils of a village or town  
or country suggests a few general       
observations4    7,m#agb7 ,in the first 
place1 it will not be disputed that what
 ,i have called  the immediate and the  
mediate expulsions of evil are identical
 in  intention2 in other words1 that    
whether the evils are conceived of as   
invisible or as embodied in a material  
form1 is a circumstance entirely        
subordinate to the main object of the   
ceremony1 which is simply to effect  a  

total clearance of all the ills that    
have been infesting a people4 ,if  any  
link were wanting to connect the two    
kinds of expulsion1 it would be         
furnished by such a practice as that of 
sending the evils away in a litter  or a
 boat4 ,for here1 on the one hand1 the  
evils are invisible and  intangible2    
and1 on the other hand1 there is a      
visible and tangible  vehicle to convey 
them away4 ,and a scapegoat is nothing  
more than such a  vehicle4    7,m#agc7  
,in the second place1 when a general    
clearance of evils is resorted  to      
periodically1 the interval between the  
celebrations of the ceremony is         
commonly a year1 and the time of year   
when the ceremony takes place  usually  
coincides with some well-marked change  
of season1 such as the  beginning or end
 of winter in the arctic and temperate  
zones1 and the  beginning or end of the 
rainy season in the tropics4 ,the       
increased  mortality which such climatic
 changes are apt to produce1 especially 

amongst ill-fed1 ill-clothed1 and       
ill-housed savages1 is set down by      
primitive man to the agency of demons1  
who must accordingly be expelled4       
,hence1 in the tropical regions of ,new 
,britain and ,peru1 the devils are or   
were driven out at the beginning of the 
rainy season2 hence1 on the dreary      
coasts of ,baffin ,land1 they are       
banished at the approach of the bitter  
arctic winter4 ,when a tribe has taken  
to husbandry1 the time for the  general 
expulsion of devils is naturally made to
 agree with one of the  great epochs of 
the agricultural year1 as sowing1 or    
harvest2 but1 as  these epochs          
themselves naturally coincide with      
changes of season1 it does  not follow  
that the transition from the hunting or 
pastoral to the  agricultural life      
involves any alteration in the time of  
celebrating this  great annual rite4    
,some of the agricultural communities of
 ,india and the  ,hindoo ,koosh1 as we  
have seen1 hold their general clearance 

of demons at  harvest1 others at        
sowing-time4 ,but1 at whatever season of
 the year it is  held1 the general      
expulsion of devils commonly marks the  
beginning of the  new year4 ,for1 before
 entering on a new year1 people are     
anxious to rid  themselves of the       
troubles that have harassed them in the 
past2 hence it  comes about that in so  
many communities the beginning of the   
new year is  inaugurated with a solemn  
and public banishment of evil spirits4  
7,m#agd7 ,in the third place1 it is to  
be observed that this public and        
periodic expulsion of devils is commonly
 preceded or followed by a period  of   
general license1 during which the       
ordinary restraints of society are      
thrown aside1 and all offences1 short of
 the gravest1 are allowed to pass       
unpunished4 ,in ,guinea and ,tonquin the
 period of license precedes the  public 
expulsion of demons2 and the suspension 
of the ordinary government  in ,lhasa   
previous to the expulsion of the        

scapegoat is perhaps a relic of  a      
similar period of universal license4    
,amongst the ,hos of ,india the period  
of license follows the expulsion of the 
devil4 ,amongst the ,iroquois it  hardly
 appears whether it preceded or followed
 the banishment of evils4 ,in  any case1
 the extraordinary relaxation of all    
ordinary rules of conduct on  such      
occasions is doubtless to be explained  
by the general clearance of  evils which
 precedes or follows it4 ,on the one    
hand1 when a general  riddance of evil  
and absolution from all sin is in       
immediate prospect1 men  are encouraged 
to give the rein to their passions1     
trusting that the  coming ceremony will 
wipe out the score which they are       
running up so fast4  ,on the other hand1
 when the ceremony has just taken place1
 men's minds are  freed from the        
oppressive sense1 under which they      
generally labour1 of an  atmosphere     
surcharged with devils2 and in the first
 revulsion of joy they  overleap the    

limits commonly imposed by custom and   
morality4 ,when the  ceremony takes     
place at harvest-time1 the elation of   
feeling which it  excites is further    
stimulated by the state of physical     
wellbeing produced  by an abundant      
supply of food47#edb7    7,m#age7       
,fourthly1 the employment of a divine   
man or animal as a scapegoat  is        
especially to be noted2 indeed1 we are  
here directly concerned with the  custom
 of banishing evils only in so far as   
these evils are believed to be          
transferred to a god who is afterwards  
slain4 ,it may be suspected that the    
custom of employing a divine man or     
animal as a public scapegoat is much    
more widely diffused than appears from  
the examples cited4 ,for1 as has        
already been pointed out1 the custom of 
killing a god dates from so early  a    
period of human history that in later   
ages1 even when the custom  continues to
 be practised1 it is liable to be       
misinterpreted4 ,the divine  character  

of the animal or man is forgotten1 and  
he comes to be regarded  merely as an   
ordinary victim4 ,this is especially    
likely to be the case  when it is a     
divine man who is killed4 ,for when a   
nation becomes  civilized1 if it does   
not drop human sacrifices altogether1 it
 at least  selects as victims only such 
wretches as would be put to death at any
  rate4 ,thus the killing of a god may  
sometimes come to be confounded with    
the execution of a criminal4    7,m#agf7
 ,if we ask why a dying god should be   
chosen to take upon himself and  carry  
away the sins and sorrows of the people1
 it may be suggested that in  the       
practice of using the divinity as a     
scapegoat we have a combination of  two 
customs which were at one time distinct 
and independent4 ,on the one  hand we   
have seen that it has been customary to 
kill the human or animal  god in order  
to save his divine life from being      
weakened by the inroads of  age4 ,on the
 other hand we have seen that it has    

been customary to have a  general       
expulsion of evils and sins once a year4
 ,now1 if it occurred to  people to     
combine these two customs1 the result   
would be the employment of  the dying   
god as a scapegoat4 ,he was killed1 not 
originally to take away  sin1 but to    
save the divine life from the degeneracy
 of old age2 but1  since he had to be   
killed at any rate1 people may have     
thought that they  might as well seize  
the opportunity to lay upon him the     
burden of their  sufferings and sins1 in
 order that he might bear it away with  
him to the  unknown world beyond the    
grave4    7,m#agg7 ,the use of the      
divinity as a scapegoat clears up the   
ambiguity  which1 as we saw1 appears to 
hang about the ,european folk-custom of 
8carrying out ,death407#edc7 ,grounds   
have been shewn for believing that in   
this ceremony the so-called ,death was  
originally the spirit of vegetation1    
who was annually slain in spring1 in    
order that he might come to life  again 

with all the vigour of youth4 ,but1 as  
,i pointed out1 there are  certain      
features in the ceremony which are not  
explicable on this  hypothesis alone4   
,such are the marks of joy with which   
the effigy of ,death  is carried out to 
be buried or burnt1 and the fear and    
abhorrence of it  manifested by the     
bearers4 ,but these features become at  
once intelligible  if we suppose that   
the ,death was not merely the dying god 
of vegetation1  but also a public       
scapegoat1 upon whom were laid all the  
evils that had  afflicted the people    
during the past year4 ,joy on such an   
occasion is  natural and appropriate2   
and if the dying god appears to be the  
object of  that fear and abhorrence     
which are properly due not to himself1  
but to the  sins and misfortunes with   
which he is laden1 this arises merely   
from the  difficulty of distinguishing1 
or at least of marking the distinction1 
between the bearer and the burden4 ,when
 the burden is of a baleful  character1 

the bearer of it will be feared and     
shunned just as much as if  he were     
himself instinct with those dangerous   
properties of which1 as it  happens1 he 
is only the vehicle4 ,similarly we have 
seen that disease-laden  and sin-laden  
boats are dreaded and shunned by ,east  
,indian peoples47#edd7  ,again1 the view
 that in these popular customs the      
,death is a scapegoat as  well as a     
representative of the divine spirit of  
vegetation derives some  support from   
the circumstance that its expulsion is  
always celebrated in  spring and chiefly
 by ,slavonic peoples4 ,for the         
,slavonic year began in  spring27#ede7  
and thus1 in one of its aspects1 the    
ceremony of 8carrying  out ,death0 would
 be an example of the widespread custom 
of expelling the  accumulated evils of  
the old year before entering on a new   
one4            ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,human 
,,scapegoats ,,in ,,classical           
,,antiquity4           #a4 ,the ,human  
,scapegoat in ,ancient ,rome4           

7,m#agh7 ,we are now prepared to notice 
the use of the human scapegoat in       
classical antiquity4 ,every year on the 
fourteenth of ,march a man clad in      
skins was led in procession through the 
streets of ,rome1 beaten with long      
white rods1 and driven out of the city4 
,he was called ,mamurius                
,veturius17#edf7 that is1 8the old      
,mars107#edg7 and as the ceremony took  
place on the day preceding the first    
full moon of the old ,roman year  7which
 began on the first of ,march71 the     
skin-clad man must have  represented the
 ,mars of the past year1 who was driven 
out at the beginning  of a new one4 ,now
 ,mars was originally not a god of war  
but of vegetation4  ,for it was to ,mars
 that the ,roman husbandman prayed for  
the prosperity of  his corn and his     
vines1 his fruit-trees and his          
copses27#edh7 it was to  ,mars that the 
priestly college of the ,arval          
,brothers1 whose business it  was to    
sacrifice for the growth of the         

crops17#edi7 addressed their  petitions 
almost exclusively27#eej7 and it was to 
,mars1 as we saw17#eea7  that a horse   
was sacrificed in ,october to secure an 
abundant harvest4  ,moreover1 it was to 
,mars1 under his title of 8,mars of the 
woods0 7,mars  ,silvanus71 that farmers 
offered sacrifice for the welfare of    
their  cattle47#eeb7 ,we have already   
seen that cattle are commonly supposed  
to be  under the special patronage of   
tree-gods47#eec7 ,once more1 the        
consecration  of the vernal month of    
,march to ,mars seems to point him out  
as the deity  of the sprouting          
vegetation4 ,thus the ,roman custom of  
expelling the old  ,mars at the         
beginning of the new year in spring is  
identical with the  ,slavonic custom of 
8carrying out ,death10 if the view here 
taken of the  latter custom is correct4 
,the similarity of the ,roman and       
,slavonic customs  has been already     
remarked by scholars1 who appear1       
however1 to have taken  ,mamurius       

,veturius and the corresponding figures 
in the ,slavonic ceremonies  to be      
representatives of the old year rather  
than of the old god of                  
vegetation47#eed7 ,it is possible that  
ceremonies of this kind may have come   
to be thus interpreted in later times   
even by the people who practised  them4 
,but the personification of a period of 
time is too abstract an idea  to be     
primitive47#eee7 ,however1 in the       
,roman1 as in the ,slavonic1 ceremony1  
the representative of the god appears to
 have been treated not only as a  deity 
of vegetation but also as a scapegoat4  
,his expulsion implies this2  for there 
is no reason why the god of vegetation1 
as such1 should be  expelled the city4  
,but it is otherwise if he is also a    
scapegoat2 it then  becomes necessary to
 drive him beyond the boundaries1 that  
he may carry  his sorrowful burden away 
to other lands4 ,and1 in fact1 ,mamurius
 ,veturius  appears to have been driven 
away to the land of the ,oscans1 the    

enemies of  ,rome47#eef7    7,m#agi7    
,the blows with which the 8old ,mars0   
was expelled the city seem to  have been
 administered by the dancing priests of 
,mars1 the ,salii4 ,at least  we know   
that in their songs these priests made  
mention of ,mamurius  ,veturius27#eeg7  
and we are told that on a day dedicated 
to him they beat a  hide with           
rods47#eeh7 ,it is therefore highly     
probable that the hide which  they      
drubbed on that day was the one worn by 
the representative of the  deity whose  
name they simultaneously chanted4 ,thus 
on the fourteenth day  of ,march every  
year ,rome witnessed the curious        
spectacle of the human  incarnation of a
 god chased by the god's own priests    
with blows from the  city4 ,the rite    
becomes at least intelligible on the    
theory that the man so  beaten and      
expelled stood for the outworn deity of 
vegetation1 who had to  be replaced by a
 fresh and vigorous young divinity at   
the beginning of a  ,new ,year1 when    

everywhere around in field and meadow1  
in wood and thicket  the vernal flowers1
 the sprouting grass1 and the opening   
buds and blossoms  testified to the     
stirring of new life in nature after the
 long torpor and  stagnation of winter4 
,the dancing priests of the god derived 
their name of  ,salii from the leaps or 
dances which they were bound to execute 
as a  solemn religious ceremony every   
year in the ,comitium1 the centre of    
,roman  political life47#eei7 ,twice a  
year1 in the spring month of ,march and 
the  autumn month of ,october1 they     
discharged this sacred duty27#efj7 and  
as  they did so they invoked ,saturn1   
the ,roman god of sowing47#efa7 ,as the 
,romans sowed the corn both in spring   
and autumn17#efb7 and as down to the    
present time in ,europe superstitious   
rustics are wont to dance and leap  high
 in spring for the purpose of making the
 crops grow high17#efc7 we may          
conjecture that the leaps and dances    
performed by the ,salii1 the priests  of

 the old ,italian god of vegetation1    
were similarly supposed to quicken  the 
growth of the corn by homoeopathic or   
imitative magic4 ,the ,salii were  not  
limited to ,rome2 similar colleges of   
dancing priests are known to have       
existed in many towns of ancient        
,italy27#efd7 everywhere1 we may        
conjecture1 they were supposed to       
contribute to the fertility of the earth
  by their leaps and dances4 ,at ,rome  
they were divided into two colleges1    
each composed of twelve members2 and it 
is not impossible that the number       
twelve was fixed with reference to the  
twelve months of the old lunar          
year27#efe7 the ,fratres ,arvales1 or   
8,brethren of the ,ploughed ,fields10   
another ,roman college of priests1 whose
 functions were purely  agricultural1   
and who wore as a badge of their office 
a wreath of  corn-ears1 were also twelve
 in number1 perhaps for a similar       
reason47#eff7  ,nor was the martial     
equipment of the ,salii so alien to this

 peaceful  function as a modern reader  
might naturally suppose4 ,each of them  
wore on  his head a peaked helmet of    
bronze1 and at his side a sword2 on his 
left  arm he carried a shield of a      
peculiar shape1 and in his right hand he
  wielded a staff with which he smote on
 the shield till it rang again47#efg7   
,such weapons in priestly hands may be  
turned against spiritual foes2 in  the  
preceding pages we have met with many   
examples of the use of material  arms to
 rout the host of demons who oppress the
 imagination of primitive  man1 and we  
have seen that the clash and clangour of
 metal is often deemed  particularly    
effective in putting these baleful      
beings to flight47#efh7 ,may  it not    
have been so with the martial priests of
 ,mars8 ,we know that they  paraded the 
city for days together in a regular     
order1 taking up their  quarters for the
 night at a different place each day2   
and as they went  they danced in triple 
time1 singing and clashing on their     

shields and  taking their time from a   
fugleman1 who skipped and postured at   
their  head47#efi7 ,we may conjecture   
that in so doing they were supposed to  
be  expelling the powers of evil which  
had accumulated during the preceding    
year or six months1 and which the people
 pictured to themselves in the  form of 
demons lurking in the houses1 temples1  
and the other edifices of  the city4 ,in
 savage communities such tumultuous and 
noisy processions  often parade the     
village for a similar purpose4          
,similarly1 we have seen  that among the
 ,iroquois men in fantastic costume used
 to go about  collecting the sins of the
 people as a preliminary to transferring
 them to  the scapegoat dogs2 and we    
have met with many examples of armed men
  rushing about the streets and houses  
to drive out demons and evils of all    
kinds47#egj7 ,why should it not have    
been so also in ancient ,rome8 ,the     
religion of the old ,romans is full of  
relics of savagery4    7,m#ahj7 ,if     

there is any truth in this conjecture1  
we may suppose that1 as  priests of a   
god who manifested his power in the     
vegetation of spring1 the  ,salii turned
 their attention above all to the demons
 of blight and  infertility1 who might  
be thought by their maleficent activity 
to  counteract the genial influence of  
the kindly god and to endanger the      
farmer's prospects in the coming summer 
or winter4 ,the conjecture may be       
supported by analogies drawn from the   
customs of modern ,european peasants  as
 well as of savages4 ,thus1 to begin    
with savages1 we have seen that at  the 
time of sowing the ,khonds drive out the
 8evil spirits1 spoilers of the  seed0  
from every house in the village1 the    
expulsion being effected by  young men  
who beat each other and strike the air  
violently with long  sticks47#ega7 ,if  
,i am right in connecting the vernal and
 the autumnal  processions of the ,salii
 with the vernal and the autumnal       
sowing1 the  analogy between the ,khond 

and the ,roman customs would be very    
close4 ,in  ,west ,africa the fields of 
the ,king of ,whydah1 according to an   
old ,french  traveller1 8are hoed and   
sowed before any of his subjects has    
leave to hoe  and sow a foot of his own 
lands4 ,these labours are performed     
thrice a  year4 ,the chiefs lead their  
people before the king's palace at      
daybreak1  and there they sing and dance
 for a full quarter of an hour4 ,half of
 these  people are armed as in a day of 
battle1 the other half have only their  
farm tools4 ,they go all together       
singing and dancing to the scene of     
their  labours1 and there1 keeping time 
to the sound of the instruments1 they   
work with such speed and neatness that  
it is a pleasure to behold4 ,at the  end
 of the day they return and dance before
 the king's palace4 ,this  exercise     
refreshes them and does them more good  
than all the repose they  could         
take407#egb7 ,from this account we might
 infer that the dancing was  merely a   

recreation of the field-labourers1 and  
that the music of the band  had no other
 object than to animate them in their   
work by enabling them to  ply their     
mattocks in time to its stirring        
strains4 ,but this inference1  though it
 seems to have been drawn by the        
traveller who has furnished the         
account1 would probably be erroneous4   
,for if half of the men were armed as   
for war1 what were they doing in the    
fields all the time that the others     
were digging8 ,a clue to unravel the    
mystery is furnished by the  description
 which a later ,french traveller gives  
of a similar scene  witnessed by him    
near ,timbo in ,french ,guinea4 ,he saw 
some natives at work  preparing the     
ground for sowing4 8,it is a very       
curious spectacle3 fifty or  sixty      
blacks in a line1 with bent backs1 are  
smiting the earth  simultaneously with  
their little iron tools1 which gleam in 
the sun4 ,ten  paces in front of them1  
marching backwards1 the women sing a    

well marked  air1 clapping their hands  
as for a dance1 and the hoes keep time  
to the  song4 ,between the workers and  
the singers a man runs and dances1      
crouching  on his hams like a clown1    
while he whirls about his musket and    
performs  other manuvres with it4 ,two  
others dance1 also pirouetting and      
smiting  the earth here and there with  
their little hoe4 ,all that is necessary
 for  exorcising the spirits and causing
 the grain to sprout407#egc7 ,here1     
while  the song of the women gives the  
time to the strokes of the hoes1 the    
dances and other antics of the armed man
 and his colleagues are intended  to    
exorcise or ward off the spirits who    
might interfere with the diggers  and so
 prevent the grain from sprouting4      
7,m#aha7 ,again1 an old traveller in    
southern ,india tells us that 8the men  
of  ,calicut1 when they wish to sow     
rice1 observe this practice4 ,first1    
they  plough the land with oxen as we   
do1 and when they sow the rice in the   

field they have all the instruments of  
the city continually sounding and       
making merry4 ,they also have ten or    
twelve men clothed like devils1 and     
these unite in making great rejoicing   
with the players on the instruments1  in
 order that the devil may make that rice
 very productive407#egd7 ,we may        
suspect that the noisy music is played  
and the mummers cut their capers  for   
the purpose rather of repelling demons  
than of inducing them to favour  the    
growth of the rice4 ,however1 where our 
information is so scanty it  would be   
rash to dogmatize4 ,perhaps the old     
traveller was right in  thinking that   
the mummers personated devils4 ,among   
the ,kayans of ,central  ,borneo men    
disguised in wooden masks and great     
masses of green foliage  certainly play 
the part of demons for the purpose of   
promoting the growth  of the rice just  
before the seed is committed to the     
ground2 and it is  notable that among   
the performances which they give on this

 occasion are  war dances47#ege7 ,again1
 among the ,kaua and ,kobeua ,indians of
 ,north-,western  ,brazil masked men who
 represent spirits or demons of         
fertility perform  dances or rather     
pantomimes for the purpose of           
stimulating the growth of  plants1      
quickening the wombs of women1 and      
promoting the multiplication of         
animals47#egf7    7,m#ahb7 ,further1 we 
are told that 8the natives of ,aracan   
dance in order to  render propitious the
 spirits whom they believe to preside   
over the sowing  and over the harvest4  
,there are definite times for doing it1 
and we may  say that in their eyes it   
is1 as it were1 an act of               
religion407#egg7  ,another people who   
dance diligently to obtain good crops   
are the  ,tarahumare ,indians of        
,mexico4 ,they subsist by agriculture   
and their  thoughts accordingly turn    
much on the supply of rain1 which is    
needed for  their fields4 ,according to 
them1 8the favour of the gods may be won

 by  what for want of a better term may 
be called dancing1 but what in reality  
is a series of monotonous movements1 a  
kind of rhythmical exercise1 kept  up   
sometimes for two nights4 ,by dint of   
such hard work they think to  prevail   
upon the gods to grant their prayers4   
,the dancing is accompanied  by the song
 of the shaman1 in which he communicates
 his wishes to the  unseen world1       
describing the beautiful effect of the  
rain1 the fog1 and  the mist on the     
vegetable world4 ,he invokes the aid of 
all the animals1  mentioning each by    
name1 and also calls on them1 especially
 the deer and  the rabbit1 to multiply  
that the people may have plenty to eat4 
,as a  matter of fact1 the ,tarahumares 
assert that the dances have been taught 
them by the animals4 ,like all primitive
 people1 they are close observers  of   
nature4 ,to them the animals are by no  
means inferior creatures2 they          
understand magic and are possessed of   
much knowledge1 and may assist the      

,tarahumares in making rain4 ,in spring1
 the singing of the birds1 the  cooing  
of the dove1 the croaking of the frog1  
the chirping of the cricket1  all the   
sounds uttered by the denizens of the   
greensward1 are to the  ,indian appeals 
to the deities for rain4 ,for what other
 reason should they  sing or call8 ,for 
the strange behaviour of many animals in
 the early  spring the ,tarahumares can 
find no other explanation but that these
  creatures1 too1 are interested in     
rain4 ,and as the gods grant the prayers
  of the deer expressed in its antics   
and dances1 and of the turkey in its    
curious playing1 by sending the rain1   
they easily infer that to please the    
gods they1 too1 must dance as the deer  
and play as the turkey4 ,from this  it  
will be understood that dance with these
 people is a very serious and           
ceremonious matter1 a kind of worship   
and incantation rather than             
amusement407#egh7    7,m#ahc7 ,the two  
principal dances of these ,indians1 the 

rutuburi and the  yumari1 are supposed  
to have been taught them by the turkey  
and the deer  respectively4 ,they are   
danced by numbers of men and women1 the 
two sexes  keeping apart from each other
 in the dance1 while the shaman sings   
and  shakes his rattle4 ,but 8a large   
gathering is not necessary in order to  
pray to the gods by dancing4 ,sometimes 
the family dances alone1 the father     
teaching the boys4 ,while doing         
agricultural work1 the ,indians often   
depute  one man to dance yumari near the
 house1 while the others attend to the  
work in the fields4 ,it is a curious    
sight to see a lone man taking his      
devotional exercise to the tune of his  
rattle in front of an apparently        
deserted dwelling4 ,the lonely          
worshipper is doing his share of the    
general  work by bringing down the      
fructifying rain and by warding off     
disaster1  while the rest of the family 
and their friends plant1 hoe1 weed1 or  
harvest4 ,in the evening1 when they     

return from the field1 they may join    
him for a little while2 but often he    
goes on alone1 dancing all night1 and   
singing himself hoarse1 and the ,indians
 told me that this is the very  hardest 
kind of work1 and exhausting even to    
them4 ,solitary worship is  also        
observed by men who go out hunting deer 
or squirrels for a communal  feast4     
,every one of them dances yumari alone  
in front of his house for  two hours to 
insure success on the hunt2 and when    
putting corn to sprout  for the making  
of tesvino the owner of the house dances
 for a while1  that the corn may sprout 
well40 ,another dance is thought to     
cause the  grass and funguses to grow1  
and the deer and rabbits to multiply2   
and  another is supposed to draw the    
clouds together from the north and      
south1  so that they clash and descend  
in rain47#egi7    7,m#ahd7 ,the ,cora   
,indians of ,mexico celebrate a festival
 of sowing shortly  before they commit  
the seed of the maize to the ground4    

,the festival falls  in ,june1 because  
that is the month when the rainy season 
sets in1  supplying the moisture needed 
for the growth of the maize4 ,at the    
festival  two old women1 who represent  
the goddesses of sowing1 dance side by  
side  and imitate the process of sowing 
by digging holes in the earth with long 
sticks and inserting the seed of the    
maize in the holes2 whereupon a man  who
 represents the ,morning ,star pours    
water on the buried seeds4 ,this  solemn
 dance is accompanied by the singing of 
an appropriate hymn1 which  may be      
compared to the song of the ,arval      
,brothers in ancient ,rome47#ehj7       
7,m#ahe7 ,we have seen that in many     
parts of ,germany1 ,austria1 and ,france
 the  peasants are still1 or were till  
lately1 accustomed to dance and leap    
high  in order that the crops may grow  
tall4 ,such leaps and dances are        
sometimes  performed by the sower       
immediately before or after he sows the 
seed2 but  often they are executed by   

the people on a fixed day of the year1  
which in  some places is ,twelfth ,night
 7the sixth of ,january71 or ,candlemas 
7the  second of ,february7 or ,walpurgis
 ,night1 that is1 the ,eve of ,may ,day2
 but  apparently the favourite season   
for these performances is the last day  
of  the ,carnival1 namely ,shrove       
,tuesday47#eha7 ,in such cases the leaps
 and  dances are performed by every man 
for his own behoof2 he skips and jumps  
merely in order that his own corn1 or   
flax1 or hemp may spring up and  thrive4
 ,but sometimes in modern ,europe1 as   
7if ,i am right7 in ancient  ,rome1 the 
duty of dancing for the crops was       
committed to bands or troops  of men1   
who cut their capers for the benefit of 
the whole community4 ,for  example1 at  
,grub1 in the ,swiss canton of the      
,grisons 7,graubnden71 the  practice    
used to be as follows4 8,the peasants of
 ,grub10 we are informed1  8have still  
some hereditary customs1 in that they   
assembled in some years1  mostly at the 

time of the summer solstice1 disguised  
themselves as maskers  so as to be      
unrecognizable1 armed themselves with   
weapons defensive and  offensive1 took  
every man a great club or cudgel1       
marched in a troop  together from one   
village to another1 and executed high   
leaps and strange  antics4 ,they ran    
full tilt at each other1 struck every   
man his fellow with  all his might1 so  
that the blow resounded1 and clashed    
their great staves  and cudgels4 ,hence 
they were called by the country folk the
 ,stopfer4  ,these foolish pranks they  
played from a superstitious notion that 
their  corn would thrive the better2 but
 now they have left off1 and these      
,stopfer are no longer in any repute40  
,another authority1 after  describing   
the custom1 remarks3 8,with this custom 
was formerly connected  the belief that 
its observance brought a fruitful       
year407#ehb7    7,m#ahf7 ,in the        
,austrian provinces of ,salzburg and    
,tyrol bands of mummers  wearing        

grotesque masks1 with bells jingling on 
their persons1 and  carrying long sticks
 or poles in their hands1 used formerly 
to run and  leap about on certain days  
of the year for the purpose of procuring
 good  crops4 ,they were called         
,perchten1 a name derived from ,perchta1
 ,berchta1  or ,percht1 a mythical old  
woman1 whether goddess or elf1 who is   
well known  all over ,south ,germany2   
,mrs4 ,perchta 7,frau ,perchta71 as they
 call her1  is to be met with in        
,elsace1 ,swabia1 ,bavaria1 ,austria1   
and ,switzerland1  but nowhere1 perhaps1
 so commonly as in ,salzburg and the    
,tyrol4 ,in the  ,tyrol she appears as a
 little old woman with a very wrinkled  
face1 bright  lively eyes1 and a long   
hooked nose2 her hair is dishevelled1   
her garments  tattered and torn4 ,hence 
they say to a slatternly wench1 8,you   
are a  regular ,perchta40 ,she goes     
about especially during the twelve days 
from  ,christmas to ,twelfth ,night     
7,epiphany71 above all on the ,eve of   

,twelfth  ,night1 which is often called 
,perchta's ,day4 ,many precautions must 
be  observed during these mystic days in
 order not to incur her displeasure1    
for she is mischievous to man and beast4
 ,if she appears in the byre1 a         
distemper breaks out among the cows4    
,that is why during these days the      
byres must be kept very clean and straw 
laid on the threshold2 otherwise  you   
will find bald patches on your sheep and
 goats next morning1 and next  summer   
the hair which has been filched from the
 animals will descend in  hail-stones   
from the sky4 ,old ,mrs4 ,perchta also  
keeps a very sharp eye on  spinners     
during the twelve days2 she inspects all
 distaffs and  spinning-wheels in the   
houses1 and if she finds any flax or tow
 unspun on  them1 she tears it to bits1 
and she does not spare the lazy spinner1
 for  she scratches her and smacks her  
fingers so that they bear the marks of  
it  for the rest of her life4 ,indeed   
she sometimes does much more2 for she   

rips up the belly of the sluggard and   
stuffs it with flax4 ,that is the       
punishment with which a ,bavarian mother
 will threaten an idle jade of a  girl  
who has left some flax on her distaff on
 ,new ,year's ,eve4 ,however1  they say 
in ,bavaria that if you only eat plenty 
of the rich juicy cakes  which are baked
 for ,mrs4 ,perchta on her day1 the old 
woman's knife will  glance off your body
 without making any impression on it4   
,perchta often  comes not alone but     
attended by many little children1 who   
follow her as  chickens waddle after the
 mother hen2 and if you should see any  
little  child lagging behind the rest   
and blubbering1 you may be quite sure   
that  that child has been baptized4 ,on 
the ,eve of ,twelfth ,night everybody   
should  eat pancakes baked of meal and  
milk or water4 ,if anybody does not do  
so1  old ,mrs4 ,perchta comes and slits 
up his stomach1 takes out the other     
food1  fills up the vacuity so created  
with a tangled skein and bricks1 and    

then  sews up the orifice neatly1 using1
 singularly enough1 a ploughshare for a 
needle and an iron chain for thread4 ,in
 other or the same places she does  the 
same thing to anybody who does not eat  
herrings and dumplings on  ,twelfth     
,night4 ,some say that she rides on the 
storm like the ,wild  ,huntsman1        
followed by a boisterous noisy pack1 and
 carrying off people  into far          
countries4 ,yet withal old ,mrs4        
,perchta has her redeeming  qualities4  
,good children who spin diligently and  
learn their lessons she  rewards with   
nuts and sugar plums4 ,it has even been 
affirmed that she  makes the ploughed   
land fruitful and causes the cattle to  
thrive4 ,when a  mist floats over the   
fields1 the peasants see her figure     
gliding along in  a white mantle4 ,on   
the ,eve of ,twelfth ,night good people 
leave the remains  of their supper for  
her on the table1 and when they have    
gone to bed and  all is quiet in the    
house1 she comes in the likeness of an  

old wizened  little woman1 with all the 
children about her1 and partakes of the 
broken  victuals4 ,but woe to the prying
 wight who peeps at her through the     
key-hole6 ,many a man has been blinded  
by her for a whole year as a  punishment
 for his ill-timed curiosity47#ehc7     
7,m#ahg7 ,the processions of maskers who
 took their name of ,perchten from  this
 quaint creation of the popular fancy   
were known as ,perchten-running  or     
,perchten-leaping from the runs and     
leaps which the men took in their  wild 
headlong course through the streets and 
over the fields4 ,they appear  to have  
been held in all the ,alpine regions of 
,germany1 but are best known  to us in  
the ,tyrol and ,salzburg4 ,the          
appropriate season for the  celebration 
of the rite was ,perchta's ,day1 that   
is1 ,twelfth ,night or  ,epiphany1 the  
sixth of ,january1 but in some places it
 was held on ,shrove  ,tuesday1 the last
 day of the ,carnival1 the very day when
 many farmers of  ,central ,europe jump 

to make the crops grow tall4            
,corresponding to the  double character 
of ,perchta as a power for good and     
evil1 the maskers are  divided into two 
sets known respectively as the          
,beautiful and the ,ugly  ,perchten4 ,at
 ,lienz in the ,tyrol1 where the maskers
 made their appearance  on ,shrove      
,tuesday1 the ,beautiful ,perchten were 
decked with ribbons1  galloons1 and so  
forth1 while the ugly ,perchten made    
themselves as  hideous as they could by 
hanging rats and mice1 chains and bells 
about  their persons4 ,all wore on their
 heads tall pointed caps with bells     
attached to them2 their faces were      
concealed by masks1 and in their hands  
they all carried long sticks4 ,the      
sticks of the ,beautiful ,perchten were 
adorned with ribbons2 those of the ,ugly
 ,perchten ended in the heads of        
devils4 ,thus equipped they leaped and  
ran about the streets and went into  the
 houses4 ,amongst them was a clown who  
blew ashes and soot in people's  faces  

through a blow-pipe4 ,it was all very   
merry and frolicsome1 except  when 8the 
wild ,perchta0 herself came1 invisible  
to ordinary eyes1 upon the  scene4 ,then
 her namesakes the ,perchten grew wild  
and furious too2 they  scattered and    
fled for their lives to the nearest     
house1 for as soon as  they got under   
the gutter of a roof they were safe4    
,but if she caught  them1 she tore them 
in pieces4 ,to this day you may see the 
graves where  the mangled bodies of her 
victims lie buried4 ,when no such       
interruption  took place1 the noisy rout
 of maskers rushed madly about1 with    
jingling  bells and resounding cracks of
 whips1 entering the houses1 dancing    
here1  drinking there1 teasing          
wayfarers1 or racing from village to    
village like  the ,wild ,hunt itself in 
the sky2 till at the close of the winter
 day the  church bells rang the ,ave    
,maria4 ,then at last the wild uproar   
died away  into silence4 ,such          
tumultuous masquerades were thought to  

be very  beneficial to the crops2 a bad 
harvest would be set down to the        
omission  of the ,perchten to skip and  
jump about in their usual fashion47#ehd7
    7,m#ahh7 ,in the province of        
,salzburg the ,perchten mummers are also
 divided  into two sets1 the ,beautiful 
,perchten and the ,ugly ,perchten4 ,the 
,ugly  ,perchten are properly speaking  
twelve young men dressed in black       
sheepskins and wearing hoods of         
badger-skins and grotesque wooden masks1
  which represent either coarse human   
features with long teeth and horns1 or  
else the features of fabulous animals   
with beaks and bristles or movable      
jaws4 ,they all carry bells1 both large 
and small1 fastened to broad  leathern  
girdles4 ,the procession was headed by a
 man with a big drum1 and  after him    
came lads bearing huge torches and      
lanterns fastened to tall  poles2 for in
 ,salzburg or some parts of it these    
mummers played their  pranks by night4  
,behind the torchbearers came two       

,fools1 a male and a  female1 the latter
 acted by a lad in woman's clothes4 ,the
 male ,fool  carried a sausage-like     
roll1 with which he struck at all women 
or girls of  his acquaintance when they 
shewed themselves at the open doors or  
windows4  ,along with the ,perchten     
themselves went a train of young fellows
  cracking whips1 blowing horns1 or     
jingling bells4 ,the ways might be miry 
and the night pitch dark1 but with      
flaring lights the procession swept     
rapidly by1 the men leaping along with  
the help of their long sticks and       
waking the echoes of the slumbering     
valley by their loud uproar4 ,from time 
to time they stopped at a farm1 danced  
and cut their capers before the  house1 
for which they were rewarded by presents
 of food and strong drink2  to offer    
them money would have been an insult4   
,by midnight the performance  came to an
 end1 and the tired maskers dispersed to
 their homes4    7,m#ahi7 ,the          
,beautiful ,perchten in ,salzburg are   

attired very differently  from the ,ugly
 ,perchten1 but their costume varies    
with the district4 ,thus  in the ,pongau
 district the distinctive feature of    
their costume is a tall  and heavy      
framework covered with bright red cloth 
and decorated with a  profusion of      
silver jewelry and filagree work4 ,this 
framework is sometimes  nine or ten feet
 high and forty or fifty pounds in      
weight4 ,the performer  carries it above
 his head by means of iron supports     
resting on his  shoulders or his back4  
,to run or jump under the weight of such
 an  encumbrance is impossible2 the     
dancer has to content himself with      
turning  round and round slowly and     
clumsily4 ,very different is the        
headdress of  the ,beautiful ,perchten  
in the ,pinzgau district of ,salzburg4  
,there the  performers are dressed in   
scarlet and wear straw hats1 from which 
bunches  of white feathers1 arranged    
like fans1 nod and flutter in the wind4 
,red  shoes and white stockings complete

 their attire4 ,thus lightly equipped   
they hop and jump and stamp briskly in  
the dance4 ,unlike their ,ugly          
namesakes1 who seem now to be extinct1  
the ,beautiful ,perchten still  parade  
from time to time among the peasantry of
 the ,salzburg highlands2  but the      
intervals between their appearances are 
irregular1 varying from  four to seven  
years or more4 ,unlike the ,ugly        
,perchten1 they wear no  masks and      
appear in full daylight1 always on      
,perchta's ,day 7,twelfth ,night1  the  
sixth of ,january7 and the two following
 ,sundays4 ,they are attended by  a     
train of followers who make a great din 
with bells1 whips1 pipes1 horns1        
rattles1 and chains4 ,amongst them one  
or two clowns1 clothed in white and     
wearing tall pointed hats of white felt 
with many jingling bells attached  to   
them1 play a conspicuous part4 ,they    
carry each a sausage-shaped roll        
stuffed with tow1 and with this         
instrument they strike lightly such     

women  and girls among the spectators as
 they desire particularly to favour4    
,another attendant carries the effigy of
 a baby in swaddling bands1 made of     
linen rags1 and fastened to a string2   
this effigy he throws at women and      
girls and then pulls back again1 but he 
does this only to women and girls  whom 
he respects and to whom he wishes well4 
,at ,st4 ,johann the ,perchten  carry   
drawn swords2 each is attended by a lad 
dressed as a woman2 and they  are       
followed by men clad in black           
sheepskins1 wearing the masks of devils1
  and holding chains in their           
hands47#ehe7    7,m#aij7 ,what is the   
meaning of the quaint performances still
 enacted by the  ,perchten and their    
attendants in the ,austrian highlands8  
,the subject has  been carefully        
investigated by a highly competent      
enquirer1 ,mrs4  ,andree-,eysn4 ,she has
 visited the districts1 witnessed the   
performances1  collected information1   
and studied the costumes4 ,it may be    

well to quote  her conclusion3 8,if we  
enquire into the inner meaning which    
underlies the  ,perchten-race and       
kindred processions1 we must confess    
that it is not at  first sight obvious1 
and that the original meaning appears   
blurred and  indistinct4 ,nevertheless  
from many features which they present in
 common  it can be demonstrated that the
 processions were held for the purpose  
of  driving away demons and had for     
their object to promote fertility4 ,in  
favour of this view it may be urged1    
first of all1 that their appearance  is 
everywhere greeted with joy1 because it 
promises fertility and a good  harvest4 
#8,it is a good year1' they say in      
,salzburg4 ,if the processions are      
prevented from taking place1 dearth and 
a bad harvest are to be  apprehended4   
,the peasants of the ,tyrol still       
believe that the more  ,perchten run    
about1 the better will the year be1 and 
therefore they  treat them to brandy and
 cakes4 ,in ,lienz1 when the harvest    

turns out ill1  they say that they      
omitted to let the ,perchten run over   
the fields1 and  for that reason the    
peasant in the ,sarn valley gets the    
,perchten to leap  about on his fields1 
for then there will be a good year4     
8,if fertility and blessing are to be   
poured out on field1 house1 and         
homestead1 it is obvious that everything
 that could hinder or harm must be      
averted and driven away4 ,when we       
consider how even at the present time1  
and still more in times gone by1 much   
that is harmful is attributed to the    
malevolence of invisible powers1 we can 
readily understand why people  should   
resort to measures which they deem      
effective for the purpose of  disarming 
these malevolent beings4 ,now it is a   
common belief that certain  masks       
possess the virtue of banning demons1   
and that loud noise and din  are a means
 of keeping off evil spirits or         
hindering their activity4 ,in  the      
procession of the ,perchten we see the  

principle of the banishment of  evil    
carried out in practice4 ,the people    
attack the evil spirits and seek  to    
chase them away by putting on frightful 
masks1 with which they confront  the    
demon4 ,for one sort of malevolent      
spirits one kind of mask appears        
suitable1 and for another another2 this 
spirit is daunted by this mask1  and    
that spirit by that2 and so they came to
 discriminate4 ,originally1  particular 
masks may have been used against        
particular evil spirits1 but  in course 
of time they were confused1 the         
individual taste of the maker of  the   
mask counted for something1 and so      
gradually it resulted in carving  all   
kinds of horrible1 fantastic1 and       
hideous masks which had nothing in      
common but their general tendency to    
frighten away all evil spirits407#ehf7  
7,m#aia7 ,in support of her view that   
the procession of the ,perchten aims    
chiefly at banishing demons who might   
otherwise blight the crops1 ,mrs4       

,andree-,eysn lays stress on the bells  
which figure so prominently in the      
costume of these maskers2 for the sound 
of bells1 as she reminds us1 is         
commonly believed to be a potent means  
of driving evil spirits away4 ,the      
notion is too familiar to call for      
proof17#ehg7 but a single case from     
,central ,africa may be cited as an     
illustration4 ,the ,teso people1 who    
inhabit a land of rolling plains between
 ,mount ,elgon and ,lake ,kioga1 8make  
use of bells to exorcise the storm      
fiend2 a person who has been injured by 
a flash or in the resulting fire wears  
bells round his ankles for weeks        
afterwards4 ,whenever rain threatens1   
and rain in ,uganda almost always  comes
 in company with thunder and lightning1 
this person will parade the  village for
 an hour1 with the jingling bells upon  
his legs and a wand of  papyrus in his  
hand1 attended by as many of his family 
as may happen to be  at hand and not    
employed in necessary duties407#ehh7    

,the resemblance of  such men1 with     
their bells and wands1 to the ,austrian 
,perchten with  their bells and wands   
is1 on the theory in question1 fairly   
close2 both of  them go about to dispel 
demons by the sound of their bells and  
probably  also by the blows of their    
rods4 ,whatever may be thought of their 
efficacy  in banning fiends1 certain it 
is that in the ,tyrol1 where the        
,perchten  play their pranks1 the chime 
of bells is used for the express purpose
 of  causing the grass to grow in       
spring4 ,thus in the lower valley of the
 ,inn1  especially at ,schwaz1 on the   
twenty-fourth of ,april 7there reckoned 
,st4  ,george's ,day7 troops of young   
fellows go about ringing bells1 some of 
which they hold in their hands1 while   
others are attached to their  persons2  
and the peasants say1 8,wherever the    
,grass-ringers come1 there the  grass   
grows well1 and the corn bears abundant 
fruit40 ,hence the  bell-ringers are    
welcomed and treated wherever they go4  

,formerly1 it is  said1 they wore masks1
 like the ,perchten1 but afterwards they
 contented  themselves with blackening  
their faces with soot47#ehi7 ,in other  
parts of  the ,tyrol the bell-ringing   
processions take place at the ,carnival1
 but  their object is the same2 for 8it 
is believed that by this noisy          
procession growth in general1 but       
especially the growth of the meadows1 is
  promoted407#eij7 ,again1 at ,bergell1 
in the ,swiss canton of the ,grisons1   
children go in procession on the first  
of ,march ringing bells1 8in order  that
 the grass may grow407#eia7 ,so in      
,hildesheim1 on the afternoon of        
,ascension ,day1 young girls ascend the 
church tower and ring all the church    
bells1 8in order that they may get a    
good harvest of flax2 the girl who1     
hanging on to the bell-rope1 is swung   
highest by the swing of the bell1  will 
get the longest flax407#eib7 ,here the  
sound of the bells as a means of        
promoting the growth of the flax is     

reinforced by the upward swing of the   
bell1 which1 carrying with it the       
bell-ringer at the end of the rope1     
naturally causes the flax in like manner
 to rise high in the air4 ,it is a      
simple piece of imitative magic1 like   
the leaps and bounds which the  peasants
 of ,central ,europe often execute for  
precisely the same purpose4  ,once more1
 in various parts of the ,tyrol on      
,senseless ,thursday1 which is  the last
 ,thursday in ,carnival1 young men in   
motley attire1 with whips and  brooms1  
run about cracking their whips and      
making believe to sweep away  the       
onlookers with their brooms4 ,they are  
called ,huttler or ,huddler4  ,the      
people say that if these fellows do not 
run about1 the flax will not  thrive1   
and that on the contrary the more of    
them run about1 the better  will the    
flax grow4 ,and where there are many of 
them1 there will be much  maize47#eic7  
,in this custom the cracking of the     
whips may be supposed to  serve the same

 purpose as the ringing of the bells by 
frightening and  banishing the demons of
 infertility and dearth4 ,about ,hall1  
in the  northern ,tyrol1 the ceremony of
 the ,hudel-running1 as it is called1 is
  or used to be as follows4 ,a          
peasant-farmer1 generally well-to-do and
  respected1 rigs himself out in motley 
and hides his face under a mask2  round 
his waist he wears a girdle crammed with
 rolls1 while in his hand he  wields a  
long whip1 from which more than fifty   
cracknels dangle on a  string4 ,thus    
arrayed he suddenly bursts from the     
ale-house door into the  public view1   
solicited thereto by the cries of the   
street urchins1 who  have been anxiously
 waiting for his appearance4 ,he throws 
amongst them the  string of cracknels1  
and while they are scrambling for these 
dainties1 he  lays on to them most      
liberally with his whip4 ,having        
faithfully discharged  this public duty1
 he marches down between rows of        
peasants1 who have  meantime taken up   

their position in a long street4        
,amongst them he picks  out one who is  
to run before him4 ,the man selected for
 the honour  accordingly takes to his   
heels1 hotly pursued by the other with  
the whip1  who lashes the feet of the   
fugitive till he comes up with him4     
,having run  him down1 he leads him back
 to the alehouse1 where he treats him to
 a roll  and a glass of wine4 ,after    
that the masker runs a similar race with
  another man2 and so it goes on1 one   
race after another1 till the sun sets4  
,then the mummer doffs his mask and     
leads the dance in the alehouse4 ,the   
object of these races is said to be to  
ensure a good crop of flax and          
maize47#eid7    7,m#aib7 ,in these races
 of mummers1 whether known as ,perchten 
or  ,huttler1 there are certain features
 which it is difficult to explain on    
the theory that the aim of the          
performers is simply to drive away      
demons1  and that the hideous masks     
which they assume have no other         

intention than  that of frightening     
these uncanny beings4 ,for observe that 
in the last  example the blows of the   
whip fall not on the airy swarms of     
invisible  spirits1 but on the solid    
persons of street urchins and sturdy    
yokels1 who  can hardly be supposed to  
receive the chastisement vicariously for
 the  demons4 ,again1 what are we to    
make of the rolls and cracknels with    
which  in this case the mummer is laden1
 and which he distributes among his     
victims1 as if to console them in one   
part of their person for the pain  which
 he has inflicted on another8 ,surely   
this bounty seems to invest him  with   
something more than the purely negative 
character of an exorciser of  evil2 it  
appears to raise him to the positive    
character of a dispenser of  good4 ,the 
same remark applies to the action of the
 ,perchten who strike  women lightly1 as
 a mark of friendship and regard1 with  
the sausage-like  rolls which they carry
 in their hands1 or throw them1 as a    

mark of favour1  the effigy of a baby4  
,the only probable explanation of these 
practices1 as  ,mrs4 ,andree-,eysn      
rightly points out1 is that the mummers 
thereby intend to  fertilize the women  
whom they honour by these               
attentions47#eie7 ,here1  again1        
therefore the maskers appear as the     
actual dispensers of good1 the          
bestowers of fruitfulness1 not merely   
the averters of evil4 ,if that is so1   
we seem bound to infer that these masked
 men represent or embody the  spirits   
who quicken the seed both in the earth  
and in the wombs of women4  ,that was   
the view of ,w4 ,mannhardt1 the highest 
authority on the  agricultural          
superstitions of ,european peasantry4   
,after reviewing these  and many more   
similar processions1 he concludes that  
if the comparison  which he has         
instituted between them holds good1 all 
these various mummers  8were intended by
 the original founders of the           
processions to represent  demons of     

vegetation1 who by their mere appearance
 and cries drove away  the powers that  
hinder growth and woke to new life the  
slumbering spirits  of the grasses and  
corn-stalks407#eif7 ,thus ,mannhardt    
admitted that these  noisy processions  
of masked men are really supposed to    
dispel the evil  spirits of blight and  
infertility1 while at the same time he  
held that the  men themselves originally
 personated vegetation-spirits4 ,and he 
thought it  probable that the original  
significance of these performances was  
in later  times misunderstood and       
interpreted as a simple expulsion of    
witches and  other uncanny beings that  
haunt the fields47#eig7    7,m#aic7 ,on 
the whole this conclusion of an enquirer
 remarkable for a rare  combination of  
learning1 sobriety1 and insight1 is     
perhaps the most  probable that can now 
be reached with the evidence at our     
disposal4 ,it is  confirmed by some of  
the savage masquerades in which the     
maskers  definitely represent spirits of

 fertility in order to promote the      
fruitfulness of the earth and of        
women27#eih7 and it is supported by the 
evidence of many other rustic mummeries 
in ,europe1 for example1 by the         
,english rites of ,plough ,monday1 in   
which the dancers1 or rather jumpers1   
who wore bunches of corn in their hats  
as they leaped into the air1 are  most  
naturally interpreted as agents or      
representatives of the                  
corn-spirit47#eii7 ,it is1 therefore1   
worth observing that in some places  the
 dancers of ,plough ,monday1 who        
attended the plough in its              
peregrinations through the streets and  
fields1 are described as                
morris-dancers47#fjj7 ,if the           
description is correct1 it implies that 
they  had bells attached to their       
costume1 which would further assimilate 
them  to the ,perchten and other        
masqueraders of ,central ,europe2 for   
the chief  characteristic of the        
morris-dance is that the performers wear

 bells  fastened to their legs which    
jingle at every step47#fja7 ,we may     
suppose  that if the men who ran and    
capered beside the plough on ,plough    
,monday  really wore bells1 the original
 intention of this appendage to their   
costume was either to dispel the demons 
who might hinder the growth of the      
corn1 or to waken the spirits of        
vegetation from their long winter sleep4
  ,in favour of the view which sees in  
all these dances and mummeries rather   
the banishment of what is evil than the 
direct promotion of what is good1  it   
may be urged that some of the dancers   
wear swords17#fjb7 a weapon which       
certainly seems better fitted to combat 
demons than to prune fruit-trees  or    
turn up the sod4 ,further1 it deserves  
to be noted that many of the            
performances take place either on       
,twelfth ,day or1 like the celebration  
of  ,plough ,monday1 very shortly after 
it2 and that in the ,lord of ,misrule1  
who  reigned from ,christmas to ,twelfth

 ,day17#fjc7 we have a clear trace of   
one  of those periods of general licence
 and suspension of ordinary government1 
which so commonly occur at the end of   
the old year or the beginning of the    
new one in connexion with a general     
expulsion of evils4    7,m#aid7         
,surveying these masquerades and        
processions1 as they have been or  still
 are celebrated in modern ,europe1 we   
may say in general that they  appear to 
have been originally intended both to   
stimulate the growth of  vegetation in  
spring and to expel the demoniac or     
other evil influences  which were       
thought to have accumulated during the  
preceding winter or  year2 and that     
these two motives of stimulation and    
expulsion1 blended and  perhaps confused
 together1 appear to explain the quaint 
costumes of the  mummers1 the           
multitudinous noises which they make1   
and the blows which  they direct either 
at invisible foes or at the visible and 
tangible  persons of their fellows4 ,in 

the latter case the beating may be      
supposed  to serve as a means of        
forcibly freeing the sufferers from the 
demons or  other evil things that cling 
to them unseen4    7,m#aie7 ,to apply   
these conclusions to the ,roman custom  
of expelling  ,mamurius ,veturius or    
8the ,old ,mars0 every year in spring1  
we may say that  they lend some support 
to the theory which sees in 8the ,old   
,mars0 the  outworn deity of vegetation 
driven away to make room1 either for a  
younger  and more vigorous              
personification of vernal life1 or      
perhaps for the  return of the same     
deity refreshed and renovated by the    
treatment to which  he had been         
subjected1 and particularly by the      
vigorous application of the  rod to his 
sacred person4 ,for1 as we shall see    
presently1 ,king ,solomon was  by no    
means singular in his opinion of the    
refreshing influence of a sound         
thrashing4 ,so far as 8the ,old ,mars0  
was supposed to carry away with him  the

 accumulated weaknesses and other evils 
of the past year1 so far would  he serve
 as a public scapegoat1 like the effigy 
in the ,slavonic custom of  8,carrying  
out ,death10 which appears not only to  
represent the  vegetation-spirit of the 
past year1 but also to act as a         
scapegoat1  carrying away with it a     
heavy load of suffering1 misfortune1 and
 death4           #b4 ,the ,human       
,scapegoat in ,ancient ,greece4         
7,m#aif7 ,the ancient ,greeks were also 
familiar with the use of a human        
scapegoat4 ,in ,plutarch's native town  
of ,chaeronea a ceremony of this kind   
was performed by the chief magistrate at
 the ,town ,hall1 and by each           
householder at his own home4 ,it was    
called the 8expulsion of hunger40 ,a    
slave was beaten with rods of the agnus 
castus1 and turned out of doors  with   
the words1 8,out with hunger1 and in    
with wealth and health40 ,when          
,plutarch held the office of chief      
magistrate of his native town he        

performed this ceremony at the ,town    
,hall1 and he has recorded the          
discussion to which the custom          
afterwards gave rise47#fjd7 ,the        
ceremony  closely resembles the         
,japanese1 ,hindoo1 and ,highland       
customs already  described47#fje7       
7,m#aig7 ,but in civilized ,greece the  
custom of the scapegoat took darker     
forms than the innocent rite over which 
the amiable and pious ,plutarch         
presided4 ,whenever ,marseilles1 one of 
the busiest and most brilliant of       
,greek colonies1 was ravaged by a       
plague1 a man of the poorer classes used
  to offer himself as a scapegoat4 ,for 
a whole year he was maintained at the   
public expense1 being fed on choice and 
pure food4 ,at the expiry of the  year  
he was dressed in sacred garments1      
decked with holy branches1 and led      
through the whole city1 while prayers   
were uttered that all the evils of  the 
people might fall on his head4 ,he was  
then cast out of the city or  stoned to 

death by the people outside of the      
walls47#fjf7 ,the ,athenians  regularly 
maintained a number of degraded and     
useless beings at the public  expense2  
and when any calamity1 such as plague1  
drought1 or famine1 befell  the city1   
they sacrificed two of these outcasts as
 scapegoats4 ,one of the  victims was   
sacrificed for the men and the other for
 the women4 ,the former  wore round his 
neck a string of black1 the latter a    
string of white figs4  ,sometimes1 it   
seems1 the victim slain on behalf of the
 women was a woman4  ,they were led     
about the city and then sacrificed1     
apparently by being  stoned to death    
outside the city47#fjg7 ,but such       
sacrifices were not  confined to        
extraordinary occasions of public       
calamity2 it appears that  every year1  
at the festival of the ,thargelia in    
,may1 two victims1 one for  the men and 
one for the women1 were led out of      
,athens and stoned to  death47#fjh7 ,the
 city of ,abdera in ,thrace was publicly

 purified once a  year1 and one of the  
burghers1 set apart for the purpose1 was
 stoned to  death as a scapegoat or     
vicarious sacrifice for the life of all 
the  others2 six days before his        
execution he was excommunicated1 8in    
order  that he alone might bear the sins
 of all the people407#fji7    7,m#aih7  
,from the ,lover's ,leap1 a white bluff 
at the southern end of their  island1   
the ,leucadians used annually to hurl a 
criminal into the sea as a  scapegoat4  
,but to lighten his fall they fastened  
live birds and feathers  to him1 and a  
flotilla of small boats waited below to 
catch him and convey  him beyond the    
boundary4 ,probably these humane        
precautions were a  mitigation of an    
earlier custom of flinging the scapegoat
 into the sea to  drown1 just as in     
,kumaon the custom of letting a man     
slide down a rope  from the top of a    
cliff appears to be a modification of an
 older practice  of putting him to      
death4 ,the ,leucadian ceremony took    

place at the time of  a sacrifice to    
,apollo1 who had a temple or sanctuary  
on the spot47#faj7  ,elsewhere it was   
customary to cast a young man every year
 into the sea1  with the prayer1 8,be   
thou our offscouring40 ,this ceremony   
was supposed to  rid the people of the  
evils by which they were beset1 or      
according to a  somewhat different      
interpretation it redeemed them by      
paying the debt they  owed to the       
sea-god47#faa7 ,as practised by the     
,greeks of ,asia ,minor in the  sixth   
century before our era1 the custom of   
the scapegoat was as follows4  ,when a  
city suffered from plague1 famine1 or   
other public calamity1 an  ugly or      
deformed person was chosen to take upon 
himself all the evils  which afflicted  
the community4 ,he was brought to a     
suitable place1 where  dried figs1 a    
barley loaf1 and cheese were put into   
his hand4 ,these he  ate4 ,then he was  
beaten seven times upon his genital     
organs with squills  and branches of the

 wild fig and other wild trees1 while   
the flutes played  a particular tune4   
,afterwards he was burned on a pyre     
built of the wood of  forest trees2 and 
his ashes were cast into the sea47#fab7 
,a similar custom  appears to have been 
annually celebrated by the ,asiatic     
,greeks at the  harvest festival of the 
,thargelia47#fac7    7,m#aii7 ,in the   
ritual just described the scourging of  
the victim with  squills1 branches of   
the wild fig1 and so forth1 cannot have 
been intended  to aggravate his         
sufferings1 otherwise any stick would   
have been good  enough to beat him with4
 ,the true meaning of this part of the  
ceremony has  been explained by ,w4     
,mannhardt47#fad7 ,he points out that   
the ancients  attributed to squills a   
magical power of averting evil          
influences1 and  that accordingly they  
hung them up at the doors of their      
houses and made  use of them in         
purificatory rites47#fae7 ,hence the    
,arcadian custom of  whipping the image 

of ,pan with squills at a festival1 or  
whenever the  hunters returned          
empty-handed17#faf7 must have been      
meant1 not to punish  the god1 but to   
purify him from the harmful influences  
which were impeding  him in the exercise
 of his divine functions as a god who   
should supply the  hunter with game4    
,similarly the object of beating the    
human scapegoat on  the genital organs  
with squills and so on1 must have been  
to release his  reproductive energies   
from any restraint or spell under which 
they might  be laid by demoniacal or    
other malignant agency2 and as the      
,thargelia at  which he was annually    
sacrificed was an early harvest festival
 celebrated  in ,may17#fag7 we must     
recognize in him a representative of the
 creative and  fertilizing god of       
vegetation4 ,the representative of the  
god was annually  slain for the purpose 
,i have indicated1 that of maintaining  
the divine  life in perpetual vigour1   
untainted by the weakness of age2 and   

before he  was put to death it was not  
unnatural to stimulate his reproductive 
powers  in order that these might be    
transmitted in full activity to his     
successor1 the new god or new embodiment
 of the old god1 who was doubtless      
supposed immediately to take the place  
of the one slain47#fah7 ,similar        
reasoning would lead to a similar       
treatment of the scapegoat on special   
occasions1 such as drought or famine4   
,if the crops did not answer to the     
expectation of the husbandman1 this     
would be attributed to some failure in  
the generative powers of the god whose  
function it was to produce the  fruits  
of the earth4 ,it might be thought that 
he was under a spell or was  growing old
 and feeble4 ,accordingly he was slain  
in the person of his  representative1   
with all the ceremonies already         
described1 in order that1  born young   
again1 he might infuse his own youthful 
vigour into the  stagnant energies of   
nature4 ,on the same principle we can   

understand why  ,mamurius ,veturius was 
beaten with rods1 why the slave at the  
,chaeronean  ceremony was beaten with   
the agnus castus 7a tree to which       
magical  properties were                
ascribed717#fai7 why the effigy of      
,death in some parts of  ,europe is     
assailed with sticks and stones17#fbj7  
and why at ,babylon the  criminal who   
played the god was scourged before he   
was crucified47#fba7 ,the  purpose of   
the scourging was not to intensify the  
agony of the divine  sufferer1 but on   
the contrary to dispel any malignant    
influences by which  at the supreme     
moment he might conceivably be beset4   
7,m#bjj7 ,thus far ,i have assumed that 
the human victims at the ,thargelia     
represented the spirits of vegetation in
 general17#fbb7 but it has been  well   
remarked by ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,paton that    
these poor wretches seem to have        
masqueraded as the spirits of fig-trees 
in particular4 ,he points out that  the 
process of caprification1 as it is      

called1 that is1 the artificial         
fertilization of the cultivated         
fig-trees by hanging strings of wild    
figs  among the boughs1 takes place in  
,greece and ,asia ,minor in ,june about 
a  month after the date of the          
,thargelia1 and he suggests that the    
hanging of  the black and white figs    
round the necks of the two human        
victims1 one of  whom represented the   
men and the other the women1 may have   
been a direct  imitation of the process 
of caprification designed1 on the       
principle of  imitative magic1 to assist
 the fertilization of the fig-trees4    
,and since  caprification is in fact a  
marriage of the male fig-tree with the  
female  fig-tree1 ,mr4 ,paton further   
supposes that the loves of the trees    
may1 on  the same principle of imitative
 magic1 have been simulated by a mock or
  even a real marriage between the two  
human victims1 one of whom appears      
sometimes to have been a woman4 ,on this
 view the practice of beating the  human

 victims on their genitals with branches
 of wild fig-trees and with  squills was
 a charm intended to stimulate the      
generative powers of the man  and woman 
who for the time being personated the   
male and the female  fig-trees          
respectively1 and who by their union in 
marriage1 whether real  or pretended1   
were believed to help the trees to bear 
fruit47#fbc7    7,m#bja7 ,the theory is 
ingenious and attractive2 and to some   
extent it is  borne out by the ,roman   
celebration of the ,nonae ,caprotinae1  
which ,i have  described in an earlier  
part of this work47#fbd7 ,for on the    
,nonae  ,caprotinae1 the ninth of ,july1
 the female slaves1 in the attire of    
free  women1 feasted under a wild       
fig-tree1 cut a rod from the tree1 beat 
each  other1 perhaps with the rod1 and  
offered the milky juice of the tree to  
the goddess ,juno ,caprotina1 whose     
surname seems to point her out as the   
goddess of the wild fig-tree            
7caprificus74 ,here the rites performed 

in  ,july by women under the wild       
fig-tree1 which the ancients rightly    
regarded  as a male and employed to     
fertilize the cultivated female         
fig-tree1 can  hardly be dissociated    
from the caprification or artificial    
marriage of the  fig-trees which1       
according to ,columella1 was best       
performed in ,july2 and  if the blows   
which the women gave each other on this 
occasion were  administered1 as seems   
highly probable1 by the rod which they  
cut from the  wild fig-tree1 the        
parallel between the ,roman and the     
,greek ceremony would  be still closer2 
since the ,greeks1 as we saw1 beat the  
genitals of the  human victims with     
branches of wild fig-trees4 ,it is true 
that the human  sacrifices1 which formed
 so prominent a feature in the ,greek   
celebration  of the ,thargelia1 do not  
figure in the ,roman celebration of the 
,nonae  ,caprotinae within historical   
times2 yet a trace of them may perhaps  
be  detected in the tradition that      

,romulus himself mysteriously           
disappeared on  that very day in the    
midst of a tremendous thunder-storm1    
while he was  reviewing his army outside
 the walls of ,rome at the ,goat's      
,marsh 78ad  ,caprae paludem071 a name  
which suggests that the place was not   
far  distant from the wild fig-tree or  
the goat-fig 7caprificus71 as the       
,romans called it1 where the slave women
 performed their curious  ceremonies4   
,the legend that he was cut in pieces by
 the patricians1 who  carried away the  
morsels of his body under their robes   
and buried them in  the earth17#fbe7    
exactly describes the treatment which   
the ,khonds used to  accord to the      
bodies of the human victims for the     
purpose of fertilizing  their           
fields47#fbf7 ,can the king have played 
at ,rome the same fatal part in  the    
fertilization of fig-trees which1 if    
,mr4 ,paton is right1 was played in     
,greece by the male victim8 ,the        
traditionary time1 place1 and manner of 

his  death all suggest it4 ,so many     
coincidences between the ,greek and     
,roman  ceremonies and traditions can   
hardly be wholly accidental2 and        
accordingly  ,i incline to think that   
there may well be an element of truth in
 ,mr4  ,paton's theory1 though it must  
be confessed that the ancient writers   
who  describe the ,greek custom appear  
to regard it merely as a purification of
  the city and not at all as a mode of  
fertilizing fig-trees47#fbg7 ,in        
similar ceremonies1 which combine the   
elements of purification and            
fertilization1 the notion of            
purification apparently tends gradually 
to  overshadow the notion of            
fertilization in the minds of those who 
practise  the rites4 ,it seems to have  
been so in the case of the annual       
expulsion of  ,mamurius ,veturius from  
ancient ,rome and in the parallel       
processions of the  ,perchten in modern 
,europe2 it may have been so also in the
 case of the  human sacrifices at the   

,thargelia47#fbh7    7,m#bjb7 ,the      
interpretation which ,i have adopted of 
the custom of beating  the human        
scapegoat with certain plants is        
supported by many analogies4 ,we  have  
already met with examples of a practice 
of beating sick people with  the leaves 
of certain plants or with branches in   
order to rid them of  noxious           
influences47#fbi7 ,some of the          
,dravidian tribes of ,northern ,india1  
who attribute epilepsy1 hysteria1 and   
similar maladies to demoniacal          
possession1 endeavour to cure the       
sufferer by thrashing him soundly with a
  sacred iron chain1 which is believed  
to have the effect of immediately       
expelling the demon47#fcj7 ,when a herd 
of camels refuses to drink1 the  ,arabs 
will sometimes beat the male beasts on  
the back to drive away the  jinn who are
 riding them and frightening the        
females47#fca7 ,in ,bikol1 the          
south-western part of ,luzon1 it was    
generally believed that if the evil     

spirit ,aswang were not properly        
exorcised he took possession of the     
bodies  of the dead and tormented them4 
,hence to deliver a corpse from his     
clutches the native priestesses used to 
beat it with a brush or whisk made  of  
the leaves of the aromatic ,china       
orange1 while they chanted a certain    
song1 throwing their bodies into        
contortions and uttering shrill cries1  
as  if the evil spirit had entered into 
themselves4 ,the soul of the deceased1  
thus delivered from the cruel tyranny of
 ,aswang1 was then free to roam at      
pleasure along the charming lanes or in 
the thick shade of the  forest47#fcb7   
7,m#bjc7 ,sometimes it appears that a   
beating is administered for the purpose 
of ridding people of a ghost who may be 
clinging too closely to their  persons2 
in such cases the blows1 though they    
descend on the bodies of the  living1   
are really aimed at the spirit of the   
dead1 and have no other  object than to 
drive it away1 just as a coachman will  

flick the back of a  horse with his whip
 to rid the beast of a fly4 ,at a       
funeral in the island  of ,halmahera1   
before the coffin is lowered into the   
grave1 all the  relations whip          
themselves on the head and shoulders    
with wands made of  plants which are    
believed to possess the power of keeping
 off evil  spirits4 ,the intention of   
the custom is said to be to bring back  
their own  spectres or souls and to     
prevent them from following the ghost2  
but this  may fairly be interpreted to  
mean that the blows are directed to     
brushing  off the ghost1 who would      
otherwise abstract the soul of the      
person on  whose body he was allowed to 
settle4 ,this interpretation is strongly
  confirmed by the practice1 observed by
 the same people on the same  occasion1 
of throwing the trunk of a banana-tree  
into the grave1 and  telling the dead   
man that it is a companion for him2 for 
this practice is  expressly intended to 
prevent the deceased from feeling       

lonely1 and so  coming back to fetch    
away a friend47#fcc7 ,when ,mr4         
,batchelor returned to a  hut after     
visiting the grave of an old ,aino      
woman1 her relations brought  him a bowl
 of water to the door and requested him 
to wash his face and  hands4 ,while he  
did so1 the women beat him and brushed  
him down with  sacred whittled sticks   
7inao74 ,on enquiring into the meaning  
of this  treatment1 he discovered that  
it was intended to purify him from all  
uncleanness contracted at the grave     
through contact with the ghost of the   
deceased1 and that the beating and      
brushing with the whittled sticks had   
for its object to drive away all evil   
influences and diseases with which  the 
ghost of the old woman might have       
attempted to infect him out of spite    
for his trespassing on her domain47#fcd7
 ,the ,banmanas of ,senegambia think    
that the soul of a dead infant becomes  
for a time a wandering and  maleficent  
spirit4 ,accordingly when a baby dies1  

all the uncircumcised  children of the  
same sex in the village run about the   
streets in a band1  each armed with     
three or four supple rods4 ,some of them
 enter every house  to beg1 and while   
they are doing so1 one of the troop1    
propping himself  against the wall with 
his hands1 is lashed by another of the  
children on  his back or legs till the  
blood flows4 ,each of the children takes
 it in  turn to be thus whipped4 ,the   
object of the whipping1 we are told1    
8appears  to be to preserve the         
uncircumcised child from being carried  
off by its  comrade who has just        
died407#fce7 ,the severe scourgings     
inflicted on each  other by some ,south 
,american ,indians at ceremonies        
connected with the dead  may be         
similarly intended to chase away the    
dangerous ghost1 who is  conceived as   
sticking like a leech or a bur to the   
skin of the  living47#fcf7 ,the ancient 
,greeks employed the laurel very        
commonly as an  instrument of ceremonial

 purification27#fcg7 and from the       
monuments which  represent the purgation
 of ,orestes from the guilt of          
matricide7#fch7 it  seems probable that 
the regular rite of cleansing a homicide
 consisted  essentially in sprinkling   
him with pig's blood and beating him    
with a  laurel bough1 for the purpose1  
as we may conjecture1 of whisking away  
the  wrathful ghost of his victim1 who  
was thought to buzz about him like an   
angry wasp in summer4 ,if that was so1  
the ,greek ritual of purification       
singularly resembles the ,nicobarese    
ceremony of exorcism2 for when a man  is
 supposed to be possessed by devils1 the
 ,nicobarese rub him all over  with     
pig's blood and beat him with bunches of
 certain leaves1 to which a  special    
power of exorcising demons is           
attributed4 ,as fast as each devil is   
thus disengaged from his person1 it is  
carefully folded up in leaves1 to  be   
afterwards thrown into the sea at       
daybreak47#fci7    7,m#bjd7 ,at the     

autumn festival in ,peru people used to 
strike each other  with torches1 saying1
 8,let all harm go away407#fdj7 ,every  
year when the  ,pleiades reappeared in  
the sky1 the ,guaycurus1 an ,indian     
nation of the  ,gran ,chaco1 held a     
festival of rejoicing1 at which men1    
women1 and  children all thrashed each  
other1 expecting thereby to procure     
health1  abundance1 and victory over    
their enemies47#fda7 ,indians of the    
,quixos1 in  ,south ,america1 before    
they set out on a long hunting          
expedition1 cause  their wives to whip  
them with nettles1 believing that this  
renders them  fleeter1 and helps them to
 overtake the peccaries4 ,they resort to
 the same  proceeding as a cure for     
sickness47#fdb7 ,the ,roocooyen ,indians
 of ,french  ,guiana train up young     
people in the way they should go by     
causing them to  be stung by ants and   
wasps2 and at the ceremony held for this
 purpose the  grown-up people improve   
the occasion by allowing themselves to  

be whacked  by the chief with a stick   
over the arms1 the legs1 and the chest4 
,they  appear to labour under an        
impression that this conveys to them all
 sorts  of moral and physical           
excellences4 ,one of the tribe1         
ambitious of  acquiring the ,european   
virtues1 begged a ,french traveller to  
be so kind as  to give him a good       
hiding4 ,the traveller obligingly did   
his best to  gratify him1 and the face  
of the ,indian beamed with gratitude as 
the blows  fell on his naked back47#fdc7
 ,the ,delaware ,indians had two        
sovereign  remedies for sin2 one was an 
emetic1 the other a thrashing4 ,in the  
latter  case1 the remedy was            
administered by means of twelve         
different sticks1  with which the sinner
 was belaboured from the soles of his   
feet up to his  neck4 ,in both cases the
 sins were supposed to be expelled from 
the body1  and to pass out through the  
throat47#fdd7 ,at the inauguration of a 
king in  ancient ,india it was customary

 for the priests to strike him lightly  
on  the back with sticks4 8,by beating  
him with sticks10 it was said1 8they    
guide him safely over judicial          
punishment2 whence the king is exempt   
from  punishment1 because they guide him
 safely over judicial punishment407#fde7
  ,on the thirtieth of ,december the    
heathen of ,harran used to receive      
three1  five1 or seven blows apiece from
 a priest with a tamarisk branch4 ,after
  the beating had been duly administered
 the priest on behalf of the whole      
community prayed for long life1 much    
offspring1 power and glory over all     
peoples1 and the restoration of their   
ancient kingdom47#fdf7    7,m#bje7      
,sometimes1 in the opinion of those who 
resort to it1 the effect of  a beating  
is not merely the negative one of       
dispelling demoniac or other  baneful   
influences2 it confers positive benefits
 by virtue of certain  useful properties
 supposed to inhere in the instrument   
with which the  beating is              

administered47#fdg7 ,thus among the ,kai
 of ,german ,new ,guinea1  when a man   
wishes to make his banana shoots bear   
fruit quickly1 he beats  them with a    
stick cut from a banana-tree which has  
already borne  fruit47#fdh7 ,here it is 
obvious that fruitfulness is believed to
 inhere in  a stick cut from a fruitful 
tree and to be imparted by contact to   
the  young banana plants4 ,similarly in 
,new ,caledonia a man will beat his taro
  plants lightly with a branch1 saying  
as he does so1 8,i beat this taro that  
it may grow10 after which he plants the 
branch in the ground at the end of  the 
field47#fdi7 ,among the ,indians of     
,brazil at the mouth of the ,amazon1    
when a man wishes to increase the size  
of his generative organ1 he strikes  it 
with the fruit of a white aquatic plant 
called an aninga1 which grows           
luxuriantly on the banks of the river4  
,the fruit1 which is inedible1          
resembles a banana1 and is clearly      
chosen for this purpose on account of   

its shape4 ,the ceremony should be      
performed three days before or after the
  new moon47#fej7 ,in the county of     
,bekes1 in ,hungary1 barren women are   
fertilized by being struck with a stick 
which has first been used to  separate  
pairing dogs47#fea7 ,here a fertilizing 
virtue is clearly supposed  to be       
inherent in the stick and to be conveyed
 by contact to the women4  ,the         
,toradjas of ,central ,celebes think    
that the plant ,dracaena terminalis  has
 a strong soul1 because when it is      
lopped1 it soon grows up again4  ,hence 
when a man is ill1 his friends will     
sometimes beat him on the crown  of the 
head with ,dracaena leaves in order to  
strengthen his weak soul  with the      
strong soul of the plant47#feb7 ,at     
,mowat in ,british ,new ,guinea  small  
boys are beaten lightly with sticks     
during ,december 8to make them  grow    
strong and hardy407#fec7    7,m#bjf7    
,among the ,arabs of ,morocco the ,great
 ,feast1 which is the annual            

sacrificial festival of ,mohammedan     
peoples1 is the occasion when men go    
about beating people with the kindly    
intention of healing or preventing      
sickness and benefiting the sufferers   
generally4 ,in some tribes the  operator
 is muffled in the bloody skins of      
sacrificed sheep1 and he  strikes       
everybody within reach of him with a    
flap of the skin or a foot of  the sheep
 which dangles loose from his arm2 sick 
people present themselves  to him in    
order to receive the health-giving      
blows1 and mothers bring  their little  
children to him for the same purpose4   
,anybody whom he hits on  the head will 
be free from headache4 ,nor does he     
confine his attention to  people2 he    
goes about striking the tents also1 in  
order that they too may  receive their  
share of the blessed influence 7baraka7 
that radiates like  sunshine from a     
bloody sheepskin4 ,from the costume     
which he wears the  masker is known as  
the 8,lion with ,sheepskins02 and he    

himself participates  in the blessings  
which he diffuses so liberally around   
him4 ,hence in at  least one tribe he is
 generally a person who suffers from    
some illness1  because he expects to be 
healed by the magic virtue or holiness  
of the  bloody skins47#fed7 ,similarly1 
as we shall see presently1 in ancient   
,mexico  the men who masqueraded in the 
skins of the human victims were commonly
  persons who suffered from skin        
disease1 because they thought that the  
bleeding skin of a man who had been     
killed in the character of a god must   
surely possess a sovereign virtue for   
the healing of disease47#fee7 ,in       
,morocco the skin-clad mummer sometimes 
operates with sticks instead of a  flap 
of the skin1 and sometimes the skins in 
which he is muffled are those  of goats 
instead of sheep1 but in all cases the  
effect1 or at least the  intention1 is  
probably the same47#fef7    7,m#bjg7 ,in
 some parts of ,eastern and ,central    
,europe a similar custom is  very       

commonly observed in spring4 ,on the    
first of ,march the ,albanians  strike  
men and beast with cornel branches1     
believing that this is very  good for   
their health47#feg7 ,in ,march the      
,greek peasants of ,cos switch  their   
cattle1 saying1 8,it is ,march1 and up  
with your tail60 ,they think  that the  
ceremony benefits the animals1 and      
brings good luck4 ,it is never  observed
 at any other time of the year47#feh7   
,in some parts of ,mecklenburg  it is   
customary to beat the cattle before     
sunrise on the morning of ,good  ,friday
 with rods of buckthorn1 which are      
afterwards concealed in some  secret    
place where neither sun nor moon can    
shine on them4 ,the belief is  that     
though the blows light upon the animals1
 the pain of them is felt by  the       
witches who are riding the beasts47#fei7
 ,in the neighbourhood of  ,iserlohn1 in
 ,westphalia1 the herdsman rises at peep
 of dawn on ,may  morning1 climbs a     
hill1 and cuts down the young rowan-tree

 which is the  first to catch the beams 
of the rising sun4 ,with this he returns
 to the  farm-yard4 ,the heifer which   
the farmer desires to 8quicken0 is then 
led to  the dunghill1 and the herdsman  
strikes it over the hind-quarters1 the  
haunches1 and the udders with a branch  
of the rowan-tree1 saying1              
8,quick1 quick1 quick6      ,bring milk 
into the dugs4      ,the sap is in the  
birches4      ,the heifer receives a    
name4        8,quick1 quick1 quick6     
,bring milk into the dugs4      ,the sap
 comes in the beeches1      ,the leaf   
comes on the oak4        8,quick1 quick1
 quick6      ,bring milk into the dugs4 
,in the name of the sainted ,greta1     
,gold-flower shall be thy name10        
and so on47#ffj7 ,the intention of the  
ceremony appears to be to make sure     
that the heifer shall in due time yield 
a plentiful supply of milk2 and  this is
 perhaps supposed to be brought about by
 driving away the witches1  who are     
particularly apt1 as we have seen17#ffa7

 to rob the cows of their  milk on the  
morning of ,may ,day4 ,certainly in the 
north-east of ,scotland  pieces of      
rowan-tree and woodbine used to be      
placed over the doors of the  byres on  
,may ,day to keep the witches from the  
cows2 sometimes a single rod  of rowan1 
covered with notches1 was found to      
answer the purpose4 ,an even  more      
effectual guard against witchcraft was  
to tie a small cross of  rowan-wood by a
 scarlet thread to each beast's tail2   
hence people said1          8,rawn-tree 
in red-threed      ,pits the witches t' 
their speed407#ffb7      ,in ,germany   
also the rowan-tree is a protection     
against witchcraft27#ffc7  and          
,norwegian sailors and fishermen carry a
 piece of it in their boats for  good   
luck47#ffd7 ,thus the benefit to young  
cows of beating them with rowan  appears
 to be not so much the positive one of  
pouring milk into their  udders1 as     
merely the negative one of averting evil
 influence2 and the  same may perhaps be

 said of most of the beatings with which
 we are here  concerned4    7,m#bjh7 ,on
 ,good ,friday and the two previous days
 people in ,croatia and  ,slavonia take 
rods with them to church1 and when the  
service is over they  beat each other   
8fresh and healthy407#ffe7 ,in some     
parts of ,russia people  returning from 
the church on ,palm ,sunday beat the    
children and servants  who have stayed  
at home with palm branches1 saying1     
8,sickness into the  forest1 health into
 the bones407#fff7 ,a similar custom is 
widely known  under the name of         
,schmeckostern or 8,easter ,smacks0 in  
some parts of  ,germany and ,austria4   
,the regions in which the practice      
prevails are for  the most part         
districts in which the people either are
 or once were  predominantly of         
,slavonic blood1 such as ,east and ,west
 ,prussia1 ,voigtland1  ,silesia1       
,bohemia1 and ,moravia4 ,while the      
,german population call the custom      
,schmeckostern1 the ,slavonic           

inhabitants give it1 according to their 
particular language or dialect1 a       
variety of names which signify to beat  
or scourge4 ,it is usually observed on  
,easter ,monday1 less frequently on     
,easter ,saturday or ,easter ,sunday4   
,troops of boys or lads go from house to
  house on the morning of ,easter       
,monday beating every girl or woman whom
  they meet2 they even make their way   
into the bedrooms1 and if they find  any
 girls or women still abed1 they compel 
them with blows to get up4 ,even        
grown-up men indulge themselves in the  
pastime of going to the houses of       
friends and relations to inflict the    
8,easter ,smacks40 ,in some places1 for 
example in the ,leobschtz district of   
,silesia1 the boys and men further      
claim and exercise the right of         
drenching all the girls and women with  
water on ,easter ,monday2 and for this  
purpose they generally go about armed   
with squirts1 which are not always      
charged with eau de ,cologne4 ,next day1

  ,easter ,tuesday1 the women have the  
right to retaliate on the men2 however1 
they do not as a rule go about the      
streets but confine their operations to 
their own houses1 beating and chasing   
from their beds any lads or men they    
can find lying in them4 ,children are   
less discriminating in their 8,easter   
,smacks10 which they bestow impartially 
on parents and relations1 friends  and  
strangers1 without observing the subtle 
distinction of sex4 ,in many  places it 
is only the women who are privileged to 
receive the smacks4 ,the  instrument    
with which the beating is administered  
is in some districts1  such as          
,lithuania1 ,samland1 and ,neumark1 a   
twig or branch of birch on  which the   
fresh green leaves have just sprouted4  
,if the birch-trees have  not budded in 
time1 it is customary to keep the rods  
in pickle for days or  even weeks1      
nursing them tenderly in warm water2 and
 if that measure also  fails1 they are  
heated in the stove-pipe4 ,but more     

commonly the instrument  of torture is a
 branch of willow with catkins on it1   
which has also been  nursed in warm     
water or the chimney so as to be ripe   
for execution on  ,easter ,monday4 ,a   
number of these birch or willow twigs   
are usually tied  together into a       
switch1 and ornamented with motley      
ribbons and pieces of  silk paper1 so   
that they present the appearance of a   
nosegay2 indeed1 in  northern ,bohemia  
spring flowers form part of the         
decoration4 ,in some  places1           
particularly in ,silesia and ,moravia1  
pieces of licorice root are  substituted
 for willow twigs2 or again in the      
vine-growing districts of  ,bohemia     
vine-branches are used for the same     
purpose4 ,sometimes a scourge  made of  
leather straps of various colours takes 
the place of a green  bough4 ,the blows 
are commonly inflicted on the hands and 
feet2 and in some  places1 particularly 
in ,bohemia1 the victims are expected to
 reward their  tormentors with a present

 of red ,easter eggs2 nay sometimes a   
woman is  bound to give an egg for every
 blow she receives4 ,in the afternoon   
the  lads carry their eggs to high      
ground and let them roll down the slope2
 he  whose egg reaches the bottom first1
 wins all the rest4 ,the beating is     
supposed to bring good luck to the      
beaten1 or to warrant them against      
flies and vermin during the summer1 or  
to save them from pains in their  back  
throughout the whole year4 ,at          
,gilgenburg in ,masuren the rods or     
bundles of twigs are afterwards laid by 
and used to drive the cattle out  to    
pasture for the first time after their  
winter confinement47#ffg7    7,m#bji7   
,in some parts of ,germany and ,austria 
a custom like that of 8,easter  ,smacks0
 is observed at the ,christmas holidays1
 especially on ,holy  ,innocents' ,day1 
the twenty-eighth of ,december4 ,young  
men and women beat  each other mutually1
 but on different days1 with branches of
 fresh green1  whether birch1 willow1 or

 fir4 ,thus1 for example1 among the     
,germans of  western ,bohemia it is     
customary on ,st4 ,barbara's ,day 7the  
fourth of  ,december7 to cut twigs or   
branches of birch and to steep them in  
water in  order that they may put out   
leaves or buds4 ,they are afterwards    
used by  each sex to beat the other on  
subsequent days of the ,christmas       
holidays4  ,in some villages branches of
 willow or cherry-trees or rosemary are 
employed for the same purpose4 ,with    
these green boughs1 sometimes tied in   
bundles with red or green ribbons1 the  
young men go about beating the  young   
women on the morning of ,st4 ,stephen's 
,day 7the twenty-sixth of  ,december7   
and also on ,holy ,innocents' ,day 7the 
twenty-eighth of ,december74  ,the      
beating is inflicted on the hands1 feet1
 and face2 and in ,neugramatin  it is   
said that she who is not thus beaten    
with fresh green will not  herself be   
fresh and green4 ,as the blows descend1 
the young men recite  verses importing  

that the beating is administered as a   
compliment and in  order to benefit the 
health of the victim4 ,for the service  
which they thus  render the damsels they
 are rewarded by them with cakes1       
brandy1 or money4  ,early in the morning
 of ,new ,year's ,day the lasses pay off
 the lads in the  same kind47#ffh7 ,a   
similar custom is also observed in      
central and  south-west ,germany1       
especially in ,voigtland4 ,thus in      
,voigtland and the  whole of the ,saxon 
,erz-gebirge the lads beat the lasses   
and women on the  second day of the     
,christmas holidays with something      
green1 such as  rosemary or juniper2 and
 if possible the beating is inflicted on
 the women  as they lie in bed4 ,as they
 beat them1 the lads say                
8,fresh and green6 ,pretty and fine6    
,gingerbread and brandy-wine60      ,the
 last words refer to the present of     
gingerbread and brandy which the  lads  
expect to receive from the lasses for   
the trouble of thrashing them4  ,next   

day the lasses and women retaliate on   
the lads and men47#ffi7 ,in  ,thringen  
on ,holy ,innocents' ,day 7the          
twenty-eighth of ,december7 children    
armed with rods and green boughs go     
about the streets beating passers-by    
and demanding a present in return2 they 
even make their way into the  houses and
 beat the maid-servants4 ,in ,orlagau   
the custom is called  8whipping with    
fresh green40 ,on the second day of the 
,christmas holidays  the girls go to    
their parents1 godparents1 relations1   
and friends1 and  beat them with fresh  
green branches of fir2 next day the boys
 and lads do  the same4 ,the words      
spoken while the beating is being       
administered are  8,good morning6 fresh 
green6 ,long life6 ,you must give us a  
bright thaler10  and so on47#fgj7       
7,m#baj7 ,in these ,european customs the
 intention of beating persons1          
especially of the other sex1 with fresh 
green leaves appears  unquestionably to 
be the beneficent one of renewing their 

life and vigour1  whether the purpose is
 supposed to be accomplished directly   
and positively  by imparting the vital  
energy of the fresh green to the        
persons1 or  negatively and indirectly  
by dispelling any injurious influences1 
such as  the machinations of witches and
 demons1 by which the persons may be    
supposed to be beset4 ,the application  
of the blows by the one sex to the      
other1 especially by young men to young 
women1 suggests that the beating  is or 
was originally intended above all to    
stimulate the reproductive  powers of   
the men or women who received it2 and   
the pains taken to ensure  that the     
branches with which the strokes are     
given should have budded or  blossomed  
out just before their services are      
wanted speak strongly in  favour of the 
view that in these customs we have a    
deliberate attempt to  transfuse a store
 of vital energy from the vegetable to  
the animal world4    7,m#baa7 ,these    
analogies1 accordingly1 support the     

interpretation which1  following my     
predecessors ,w4 ,mannhardt and ,mr4 ,w4
 ,r4 ,paton1 ,i have given  of the      
beating inflicted on the human victims  
at the ,greek harvest  festival of the  
,thargelia4 ,that beating1 being        
administered to the  generative organs  
of the victims by fresh green plants and
 branches1 is  most naturally explained 
as a charm to increase the reproductive 
energies  of the men or women either by 
communicating to them the fruitfulness  
of  the plants and branches1 or by      
ridding them of maleficent influences2  
and  this interpretation is confirmed by
 the observation that the two victims   
represented the two sexes1 one of them  
standing for the men in general and  the
 other for the women4 ,the season of the
 year when the ceremony was  performed1 
namely the time of the corn harvest1    
tallies well with the  theory that the  
rite had an agricultural significance4  
,further1 that it  was above all        
intended to fertilize the fig-trees is  

strongly suggested by  the strings of   
black and white figs which were hung    
round the necks of the  victims1 as well
 as by the blows which were given their 
genital organs  with the branches of a  
wild fig-tree2 since this procedure     
closely  resembles the procedure which  
ancient and modern husbandmen in ,greek 
lands  have regularly resorted to for   
the purpose of actually fertilizing     
their  fig-trees4 ,when we remember what
 an important part the artificial       
fertilization of the date palm-tree     
appears to have played of old not only  
in the husbandry but in the religion of 
,mesopotamia17#fga7 there seems no      
reason to doubt that the artificial     
fertilization of the fig-tree may in    
like manner have vindicated for itself a
 place in the solemn ritual of  ,greek  
religion4    7,m#bab7 ,if these         
considerations are just1 we must        
apparently conclude that  while the     
human victims at the ,thargelia         
certainly appear in later  classical    

times to have figured chiefly as public 
scapegoats1 who carried  away with them 
the sins1 misfortunes1 and sorrows of   
the whole people1 at  an earlier time   
they may have been looked on as         
embodiments of vegetation1  perhaps of  
the corn but particularly of the        
fig-trees2 and that the  beating which  
they received and the death which they  
died were intended  primarily to brace  
and refresh the powers of vegetation    
then beginning to  droop and languish   
under the torrid heat of the ,greek     
summer4    7,m#bac7 ,the view here taken
 of the ,greek scapegoat1 if it is      
correct1  obviates an objection which   
might otherwise be brought against the  
main  argument of this book4 ,to the    
theory that the priest of ,aricia was   
slain  as a representative of the spirit
 of the grove17#fgb7 it might have been 
objected that such a custom has no      
analogy in classical antiquity4 ,but    
reasons have now been given for         
believing that the human being          

periodically and occasionally slain by  
the ,asiatic ,greeks was regularly      
treated as an embodiment of a divinity  
of vegetation4 ,probably the persons    
whom the ,athenians kept to be          
sacrificed were similarly treated as    
divine4  ,that they were social outcasts
 did not matter4 ,on the primitive view 
a man  is not chosen to be the          
mouth-piece or embodiment of a god on   
account of  his high moral qualities or 
social rank4 ,the divine afflatus       
descends  equally on the good and the   
bad1 the lofty and the lowly4 ,if then  
the  civilized ,greeks of ,asia and     
,athens habitually sacrificed men whom  
they  regarded as incarnate gods1 there 
can be no inherent improbability in the 
supposition that at the dawn of history 
a similar custom was observed by  the   
semi-barbarous ,latins in the ,arician  
,grove4            ,,chapter ,,vii4     
,,killing ,,the ,,god ,,in ,,mexico4    
7,m#bad7 ,by no people does the custom  
of sacrificing the human  representative

 of a god appear to have been observed  
so commonly and with  so much solemnity 
as by the ,aztecs of ancient ,mexico4   
,with the ritual of  these remarkable   
sacrifices we are well acquainted1 for  
it has been fully  described by the     
,spaniards who conquered ,mexico in the 
sixteenth century1  and whose curiosity 
was naturally excited by the discovery  
in this distant  region of a barbarous  
and cruel religion which presented many 
curious  points of analogy to the       
doctrine and ritual of their own church4
 8,they  took a captive10 says the      
,jesuit ,acosta1 8such as they thought  
good2 and  afore they did sacrifice him 
unto their idols1 they gave him the name
 of  the idol1 to whom he should be     
sacrificed1 and apparelled him with the 
same ornaments like their idol1 saying1 
that he did represent the same  idol4   
,and during the time that this          
representation lasted1 which was for a  
year in some feasts1 in others six      
months1 and in others less1 they        

reverenced and worshipped him in the    
same manner as the proper idol2 and  in 
the meantime he did eat1 drink1 and was 
merry4 ,when he went through the        
streets1 the people came forth to       
worship him1 and every one brought him  
an alms1 with children and sick folks1  
that he might cure them1 and bless      
them1 suffering him to do all things at 
his pleasure1 only he was  accompanied  
with ten or twelve men lest he should   
fly4 ,and he 7to the end  he might be   
reverenced as he passed7 sometimes      
sounded upon a small flute1  that the   
people might prepare to worship him4    
,the feast being come1 and he  grown    
fat1 they killed him1 opened him1 and   
ate him1 making a solemn  sacrifice of  
him407#fgc7    7,m#bae7 ,this general   
description of the custom may now be    
illustrated by  particular examples4    
,thus at the festival called ,toxcatl1  
the greatest  festival of the ,mexican  
year1 a young man was annually          
sacrificed in the  character of         

,tezcatlipoca1 8the god of gods10 after 
having been maintained  and worshipped  
as that great deity in person for a     
whole year4 ,according  to the old      
,franciscan monk ,sahagun1 our best     
authority on the ,aztec  religion1 the  
sacrifice of the human god fell at      
,easter or a few days  later1 so that1  
if he is right1 it would correspond in  
date as well as in  character to the    
,christian festival of the death and    
resurrection of the  ,redeemer47#fgd7   
,more exactly he tells us that the      
sacrifice took place on  the first day  
of the fifth ,aztec month1 which        
according to him began on  the          
twenty-third or twenty-seventh day of   
,april47#fge7 ,however1 according  to   
other ,spanish authorities of the       
sixteenth century the festival lasted   
from the ninth to the nineteenth day of 
,may1 and the sacrifice of the  human   
victim in the character of the god was  
performed on the last of  these         
days47#fgf7 ,an eminent modern          

authority1 ,professor ,e4 ,seler1 is of 
opinion that the festival originally    
celebrated the beginning of the year1   
and that it fell on the day when the sun
 on his passage northward to the  tropic
 of ,cancer stood in the zenith over the
 city of ,mexico1 which in the  early   
part of the sixteenth century would be  
the ninth or tenth day of ,may  7old    
style7 or the nineteenth or twentieth   
day of ,may 7new style747#fgg7          
,whatever the exact date of the         
celebration may have been1 we are told  
that  the 8feast was not made to any    
other end1 but to demand rain1 in the   
same  manner that we solemnize the      
,rogations2 and this feast was always in
 ,may1  which is the time that they have
 most need of rain in those             
countries407#fgh7    7,m#baf7 ,at this  
festival the great god died in the      
person of one human  representative and 
came to life again in the person of     
another1 who was  destined to enjoy the 
fatal honour of divinity for a year and 

to perish1  like all his predecessors1  
at the end of it4 ,the young man singled
 out for  this high dignity was         
carefully chosen from among the captives
 on the  ground of his personal beauty4 
,he had to be of unblemished body1 slim 
as a  reed and straight as a pillar1    
neither too tall nor too short4 ,if     
through  high living he grew too fat1 he
 was obliged to reduce himself by       
drinking  salt water4 ,and in order that
 he might behave in his lofty station   
with  becoming grace and dignity he was 
carefully trained to comport himself    
like a gentleman of the first quality1  
to speak correctly and elegantly1  to   
play the flute1 to smoke cigars and to  
snuff at flowers with a  dandified air4 
,he was honourably lodged in the temple 
where the nobles  waited on him and paid
 him homage1 bringing him meat and      
serving like a  prince4 ,the king       
himself saw to it that he was apparelled
 in gorgeous  attire1 8for already he   
esteemed him as a god40 ,eagle down was 

gummed to  his head and white cock's    
feathers were stuck in his hair1 which  
drooped  to his girdle4 ,a wreath of    
flowers like roasted maize crowned his  
brows1  and a garland of the same       
flowers passed over his shoulders and   
under his  arm-pits4 ,golden ornaments  
hung from his nose1 golden armlets      
adorned his  arms1 golden bells jingled 
on his legs at every step he took2      
earrings of  turquoise dangled from his 
ears1 bracelets of turquoise bedecked   
his  wrists2 necklaces of shells        
encircled his neck and depended on his  
breast2  he wore a mantle of network1   
and round his middle a rich waist-cloth4
 ,when  this bejewelled exquisite       
lounged through the streets playing on  
his  flute1 puffing at a cigar1 and     
smelling at a nosegay1 the people whom  
he  met threw themselves on the earth   
before him and prayed to him with sighs 
and tears1 taking up the dust in their  
hands and putting it in their  mouths in
 token of the deepest humiliation and   

subjection4 ,women came  forth with     
children in their arms and presented    
them to him1 saluting him  as a god4    
,for 8he passed for our ,lord ,god2 the 
people acknowledged him as  the ,lord40 
,all who thus worshipped him on his     
passage he saluted gravely  and         
courteously4 ,lest he should flee1 he   
was everywhere attended by a  guard of  
eight pages in the royal livery1 four of
 them with shaven crowns  like the      
palace-slaves1 and four of them with the
 flowing locks of  warriors2 and if he  
contrived to escape1 the captain of the 
guard had to  take his place as the     
representative of the god and to die in 
his stead4  ,twenty days before he was  
to die1 his costume was changed1 and    
four  damsels1 delicately nurtured and  
bearing the names of four goddesses--the
  ,goddess of ,flowers1 the ,goddess of 
the ,young ,maize1 the ,goddess 8,our   
,mother among the ,water10 and the      
,goddess of ,salt--were given him to be 
his  brides1 and with them he consorted4

 ,during the last five days divine      
honours were showered on the destined   
victim4 ,the king remained in his       
palace while the whole court went after 
the human god4 ,solemn banquets and     
dances followed each other in regular   
succession and at appointed places4  ,on
 the last day the young man1 attended by
 his wives and pages1 embarked  in a    
canoe covered with a royal canopy and   
was ferried across the lake to  a spot  
where a little hill rose from the edge  
of the water4 ,it was called  the       
,mountain of ,parting1 because here his 
wives bade him a last farewell4  ,then1 
accompanied only by his pages1 he       
repaired to a small and lonely  temple  
by the wayside4 ,like the ,mexican      
temples in general1 it was built  in the
 form of a pyramid2 and as the young man
 ascended the stairs he  broke at every 
step one of the flutes on which he had  
played in the days  of his glory4 ,on   
reaching the summit he was seized and   
held down by the  priests on his back   

upon a block of stone1 while one of them
 cut open his  breast1 thrust his hand  
into the wound1 and wrenching out his   
heart held  it up in sacrifice to the   
sun4 ,the body of the dead god was not1 
like the  bodies of common victims1 sent
 rolling down the steps of the temple1  
but  was carried down to the foot1 where
 the head was cut off and spitted on a  
pike4 ,such was the regular end of the  
man who personated the greatest god  of 
the ,mexican pantheon47#fgi7    7,m#bag7
 ,but he was not the only man who played
 the part of a god and was  sacrificed  
as such in the month of ,may4 ,the great
 god ,vitzilopochtli or                 
,huitzilopochtli was also worshipped at 
the same season4 ,an image of him  was  
made out of dough in human shape1       
arrayed in all the ornaments of the     
deity1 and set up in his temple4 ,but   
the god had also his living             
representative in the person of a young 
man1 who1 like the human  representative
 of ,tezcatlipoca1 personated the       

divinity for a whole year  and was      
sacrificed at the end4 ,in the month of 
,may it was the duty of the  divine man1
 destined so soon to die1 to lead the   
dances which formed a  conspicuous      
feature of the festivities4 ,courtiers  
and warriors1 old and  young1 danced in 
winding figures1 holding each other by  
the hand2 and with  them danced young   
women1 who had taken a vow to dance with
 roasted maize4  ,on their heads these  
damsels wore crowns of roasted maize2   
festoons of  maize hung from their      
shoulders and crossed on their breasts2 
their faces  were painted1 and their    
arms and legs were covered with red     
feathers4  ,dancing in this attire the  
damsels were said to hold the god       
,vitzilopochtli in their arms2 but they 
conducted themselves with the  utmost   
gravity and decorum4 ,if any man so far 
forgot himself as to toy  with one of   
the maidens1 the elder warriors dealt   
with him promptly and  severely1        
reproaching him for the sacrilege of    

which he had been guilty4  ,sahagun     
compares these ,may dances to the dances
 of peasant men and women  in old       
,castile1 and the crowns of maize worn  
by the girls he compares to  the        
garlands of flowers worn by rustic      
,castilian maidens in the month of      
,may4 ,so they danced till nightfall4   
,next morning they danced again1 and in 
the course of the day the man who       
represented the god ,vitzilopochtli was 
put to death4 ,he had the privilege of  
choosing the hour when he was to  die4  
,when the fatal moment drew near1 they  
clothed him in a curious dress  of paper
 painted all over with black circles2 on
 his head they clapped a  paper mitre   
decked with eagle feathers and nodding  
plumes1 among which was  fastened a     
blood-stained obsidian knife4 ,thus     
attired1 with golden bells  jingling at 
his ankles1 he led the dance at all the 
balls of the festival1  and thus attired
 he went to his death4 ,the priests     
seized him1 stretched  him out1 gripped 

him tight1 cut out his heart1 and held  
it up to the sun4  ,his head was severed
 from the trunk and spiked beside the   
head of the  other human god1 who had   
been sacrificed not long before47#fhj7  
7,m#bah7 ,in ,cholula1 a wealthy trading
 city of ,mexico1 the merchants         
worshipped a god named ,quetzalcoatl4   
,his image1 set upon a richly  decorated
 altar or pedestal in a spacious temple1
 had the body of a man  but the head of 
a bird1 with a red beak surmounted by a 
crest1 the face  dyed yellow1 with a    
black band running from the eyes to     
below the beak1  and the tongue lolling 
out4 ,on its head was a paper mitre     
painted black1  white1 and red2 on its  
neck a large golden jewel in the shape  
of butterfly  wings2 about its body a   
feather mantle1 black1 red1 and white2  
golden  socks and golden sandals encased
 its legs and feet4 ,in the right hand  
the  image wielded a wooden instrument  
like a sickle1 and in the left a buckler
  covered with the black and white      

plumage of sea-birds47#fha7 ,the        
festival  of this god was celebrated on 
the third day of ,february4 ,forty days 
before  the festival 8the merchants     
bought a slave well proportioned1       
without any  fault or blemish1 either of
 sickness or of hurt1 whom they did     
attire with  the ornaments of the idol1 
that he might represent it forty days4  
,before  his clothing they did cleanse  
him1 washing him twice in a lake1 which 
they  called the lake of the gods2 and  
being purified1 they attired him like   
the  idol4 ,during these forty days1 he 
was much respected for his sake whom he 
represented4 ,by night they did imprison
 him 7as hath been said7 lest he  should
 fly1 and in the morning they took him  
out of prison1 setting him  upon an     
eminent place1 where they served him1   
giving him exquisite meats  to eat4     
,after he had eaten1 they put a chain of
 flowers about his neck1  and many      
nosegays in his hands4 ,he had a        
well-appointed guard1 with much  people 

to accompany him4 ,when he went through 
the city1 he went dancing  and singing  
through all the streets1 that he might  
be known for the  resemblance of their  
god1 and when he began to sing1 the     
women and little  children came forth of
 their houses to salute him1 and to     
offer unto him  as to their god4 ,two   
old men of the ancients of the temple   
came unto him  nine days before the     
feast1 and humbling themselves before   
him1 they said  with a low and          
submissive voice1 #8,sir1 you must      
understand that nine days  hence the    
exercise of dancing and singing doth    
end1 and thou must then  die'2 and then 
he must answer1 #8,in a good hour4'     
,they call this ceremony  ,neylo ,maxilt
 ,ileztli1 which is to say1 the         
advertisement2 and when they  did thus  
advertise him1 they took very careful   
heed whether he were sad1  or if he     
danced as joyfully as he was accustomed1
 the which if he did not  as cheerfully 
as they desired1 they made a foolish    

superstition in this  manner4 ,they     
presently took the sacrifizing razors1  
the which they washed  and cleansed from
 the blood of men which remained of the 
former  sacrifices4 ,of this washing    
they made a drink mingled with another  
liquor  made of cacao1 giving it him to 
drink2 they said that this would make   
him  forget what had been said unto him1
 and would make him in a manner         
insensible1 returning to his former     
dancing and mirth4 ,they said1          
moreover1 that he would offer himself   
cheerfully to death1 being enchanted    
with this drink4 ,the cause why they    
sought to take from him this  heaviness1
 was1 for that they held it for an ill  
augury1 and a  fore-telling of some     
great harm4 ,the day of the feast being 
come1 after  they had done him much     
honour1 sung1 and given him incense1 the
  sacrificers took him about midnight   
and did sacrifice him1 as hath been     
said1 offering his heart unto the ,moon1
 the which they did afterwards cast     

against the idol1 letting the body fall 
to the bottom of the stairs of the      
temple1 where such as had offered him   
took him up1 which were the  merchants1 
whose feast it was4 ,then having carried
 him into the chiefest  man's house     
amongst them1 the body was drest with   
diverse sauces1 to  celebrate 7at the   
break of day7 the banquet and dinner of 
the feast1  having first bid the idol   
good morrow1 with a small dance1 which  
they made  whilst the day did break1 and
 that they prepared the sacrifice4 ,then
 did  all the merchants assemble at this
 banquet1 especially those which made it
  a trafick to buy and sell slaves1 who 
were bound every year to offer one1  for
 the resemblance of their god4 ,this    
idol was one of the most honoured  in   
all the land2 and therefore the temple  
where he was1 was of great              
authority407#fhb7    7,m#bai7 ,the      
honour of living for a short time in the
 character of a god and  dying a violent
 death in the same capacity was not     

restricted to men in  ,mexico2 women    
were allowed1 or rather compelled1 to   
enjoy the glory and to  share the doom  
as representatives of goddesses4 ,thus  
in the seventh month  of their year1    
which corresponded roughly to ,june1 the
 ,aztecs celebrated a  festival in      
honour of ,huixtocihuatl1 the ,goddess  
of ,salt4 ,she was said to  be a sister 
of the ,rain ,gods1 but having          
quarrelled with them she was  banished  
and driven to take up her abode in the  
salt water4 ,being of an  ingenious turn
 of mind1 she invented the process of   
extracting salt by  means of pans2 hence
 she was worshipped by all salt-makers  
as their patron  goddess4 ,her garments 
were yellow2 on her head she wore a     
mitre surmounted  by bunches of waving  
green plumes1 which shone with greenish 
iridescent  hues in the sun4 ,her robe  
and petticoats were embroidered with    
patterns  simulating the waves of the   
sea4 ,golden ear-rings in the form of   
flowers  dangled at her ears2 golden    

bells jingled at her ankles4 ,in one    
hand she  carried a round shield painted
 with the leaves of a certain plant and 
adorned with drooping fringes of        
parrots' feathers2 in the other hand she
  carried a stout baton ending in a knob
 and bedecked with paper1 artificial    
flowers1 and feathers4 ,for ten days    
before her festival a woman personated  
the goddess and wore her gorgeous       
costume4 ,it was her duty during these  
days to lead the dances which at this   
season were danced by the women and     
girls of the salt-makers4 ,they danced1 
young1 old1 and children1 in a  ring1   
all holding a cord1 their heads crowned 
with garlands of a fragrant  flower     
7,artemisia laciniata7 and singing airs 
in a shrill soprano4 ,in  the middle of 
the ring danced the woman who           
represented the goddess1 with  her      
golden bells jingling at every step1    
brandishing her shield1 and  marking the
 time of the dance and song with her    
baton4 ,on the last day1  the eve of the

 festival1 she had to dance all night   
without resting till  break of day1 when
 she was to die4 ,old women supported   
her in the weary  task1 and they all    
danced together1 arm in arm4 ,with her1 
too1 danced the  slaves who were to die 
with her in the morning4 ,when the hour 
was come1  they led her1 still          
personating the goddess1 up the steps of
 the temple of  ,tlaloc1 followed by the
 doomed captives4 ,arrived at the summit
 of the  pyramid1 the butchery began    
with the captives1 while the woman stood
  looking on4 ,her turn being come1 they
 threw her on her back on the block1    
and while five men held her down and two
 others compressed her throat with  a   
billet of wood or the sword of a        
sword-fish to prevent her from          
screaming1 the priest cut open her      
breast with his knife1 and thrusting    
his hand into the wound tore out her    
heart and flung it into a bowl4 ,when   
all was over1 the salt-makers who had   
witnessed the sacrifice went home to    

drink and make merry47#fhc7    7,m#bbj7 
,again1 in the eighth month of the      
,mexican year1 which answered to  the   
latter end of ,june and the early part  
of ,july1 the ,aztecs sacrificed a      
woman who personated ,xilonen1 the      
goddess of the young maize-cobs         
7xilotl74 ,the festival at which the    
sacrifice took place was held on the    
tenth day of the month about the time   
when the maize is nearly ripe1 and  when
 fibres shooting forth from the green   
ear shew that the grain is fully        
formed4 ,for eight days before the      
festival men and women1 clad in rich    
garments and decked with jewels1 danced 
and sang together in the courts of  the 
temples1 which were brilliantly         
illuminated for the purpose4 ,rows of   
tall braziers sent up a flickering      
blaze1 and torchbearers held aloft huge 
torches of pinewood4 ,some of the       
dancers themselves carried heavy        
torches1  which flared and spluttered as
 they danced4 ,the dances began at      

sundown  and lasted till about nine     
o'clock4 ,none but tried and            
distinguished  warriors might take part 
in them4 ,the women wore their long hair
 hanging  loose on their back and       
shoulders1 in order that the tassels of 
the maize  might likewise grow long and 
loose1 for the more tassels the more    
grain in  the ear4 ,men and women danced
 holding each other by the hand or with 
their  arms round each other's waists1  
marking time exactly with their feet to 
the music of the drums and moving out   
and in among the flaming braziers  and  
torches4 ,the dances were strictly      
decorous4 ,if any man was detected      
making love to one of the women dancers1
 he was publicly disgraced1  severely   
punished1 and never allowed to dance and
 sing in public again4 ,on  the eve of  
the festival the woman who was to die in
 the character of the  ,goddess of the  
,young ,maize was arrayed in the rich   
robes and splendid  jewels of the       
divinity whom she personated4 ,the upper

 part of her face was  painted red and  
the lower part yellow1 probably to      
assimilate her to the  ruddy and orange 
hues of the ripe maize4 ,her legs and   
arms were covered  with red feathers4   
,she wore a paper crown decked with a   
bunch of feathers2  necklaces of gems   
and gold encircled her neck2 her        
garments were  embroidered with quaint  
figures2 her shoes were striped with    
red4 ,in her  left hand she held a round
 shield1 in her right a crimson baton4  
,thus  arrayed1 she was led by other    
women to offer incense in four different
  places4 ,all the rest of the night she
 and they danced and sang in front of   
the temple of the goddess ,xilonen1     
whose living image she was supposed to  
be4 ,in the morning the nobles danced a 
solemn dance by themselves1  leaning1 or
 making believe to lean1 on stalks of   
maize4 ,the women1 pranked  with        
garlands and festoons of yellow flowers1
 danced also by themselves  along with  
the victim4 ,among the priests the one  

who was to act as  executioner wore a   
fine bunch of feathers on his back4     
,another shook a  rattle before the     
doomed woman as she mounted up the steps
 of the temple  of ,cinteotl1 the       
,goddess of the ,maize4 ,on reaching the
 summit she was  seized by a priest1 who
 threw her on his back1 while the       
sacrificer  severed her head from her   
body1 tore out her heart1 and threw it  
in a  saucer4 ,when this sacrifice had  
been performed in honour of ,xilonen1   
the  ,goddess of the ,young ,maize1 the 
people were free to eat the green ears  
of  maize and the bread that was baked  
of it4 ,no one would have dared to eat  
of these things before the              
sacrifice47#fhd7    7,m#bba7 ,again1 in 
the seventeenth month of the ,mexican   
year17#fhe7 which  corresponded to the  
latter part of ,december and the early  
part of ,january1  the ,aztecs          
sacrificed a woman1 who personated the  
goddess ,ilamatecutli or  ,tonan1 which 
means 8,our ,mother40 ,her festival fell

 on ,christmas ,day1 the  twenty-fifth  
of ,december4 ,the image of the goddess 
wore a two-faced mask  with large mouths
 and protruding eyes4 ,the woman who    
represented her was  dressed in white   
robes and shod with white sandals4 ,over
 her white mantle  she wore a leathern  
jerkin1 the lower edge of which was cut 
into a fringe  of straps1 and to the end
 of each strap was fastened a small     
shell4 ,as she  walked1 the shells      
clashed together and made a noise which 
was heard afar  off4 ,the upper half of 
her face was painted yellow and the     
lower half  black2 and she wore a wig4  
,in her hand she carried a round        
whitewashed  shield decorated in the    
middle with a circle of eagle feathers1 
while  white heron plumes1 ending in    
eagle feathers1 drooped from it4 ,thus  
arrayed and personating the goddess1 the
 woman danced alone to music  played by 
old men1 and as she danced she sighed   
and wept at the thought of  the death   
that was so near4 ,at noon or a little  

later the dance ceased2  and when the   
sun was declining in the west1 they led 
her up the long  ascent to the summit of
 ,huitzilopochtli's temple4 ,behind her 
marched the  priests clad in the        
trappings of all the gods1 with masks on
 their faces4  ,one of them wore the    
costume and the mask of the goddess     
,ilamatecutli1  whom the victim also    
represented4 ,on reaching the lofty     
platform which  crowned the pyramidal   
temple1 they slew her in the usual      
fashion1 wrenched  out her heart1 and   
cut off her head4 ,the dripping head was
 given to the  priest who wore the      
costume and mask of the goddess and     
waving it up and  down he danced round  
the platform1 followed by all the other 
priests in  the attire and masks of the 
gods4 ,when the dance had lasted a      
certain  time1 the leader gave the      
signal1 and they all trooped down the   
long  flight of stairs to disrobe       
themselves and deposit the masks and    
costumes  in the chapels where they were

 usually kept4 ,next day the people     
indulged  in a certain pastime4 ,men and
 boys furnished themselves with little  
bags  or nets stuffed with paper1       
flowers of galingale1 or green leaves of
  maize1 which they tied to strings1 and
 used them as instruments to strike  any
 girl or woman they might meet in the   
streets4 ,sometimes three or four       
urchins would gather round one girl1    
beating her till she cried2 but some    
shrewd wenches went about that day armed
 with sticks1 with which they           
retaliated smartly on their assailants4 
,it was a penal offence to put  stones  
or anything else that could hurt in the 
bags47#fhf7    7,m#bbb7 ,in the         
preceding custom1 what are we to make of
 the sacrifice of a  woman1 who         
personated the goddess1 by a man who    
also wore the costume and  mask of the  
goddess1 and who immediately after the  
sacrifice danced with  the bleeding head
 of the victim8 ,perhaps the intention  
of the strange rite  was to represent   

the resurrection of the slain goddess in
 the person of  the priest who wore her 
costume and mask and dangled the severed
 head of  her slaughtered               
representative4 ,if that was so1 it     
would explain another  and still        
ghastlier rite1 in which the ,mexicans  
seem to have set forth the  doctrine of 
the divine resurrection4 ,this was to   
skin the slain woman who  had personated
 the goddess and then to clothe in the  
bloody skin a man1  who pranced about in
 it1 as if he were the dead woman or    
rather goddess  come to life again4     
,thus in the eleventh ,mexican month1   
which corresponded  to the latter part  
of ,august and the early part of        
,september1 they  celebrated a festival 
in honour of a goddess called the       
,mother of the ,gods  7,teteo innan7 or 
,our ,ancestress 7,toci71 or the ,heart 
of the ,earth1 and  they sacrificed a   
woman clad in the costume and ornaments 
of the goddess4  ,she was a slave bought
 for the purpose by the guilds of       

physicians1  surgeons1 blood-letters1   
midwives and fortune-tellers1 who       
particularly  worshipped this deity4    
,when the poor wretch came forth decked 
in all the  trappings of the goddess1   
the people1 we are told1 looked on her  
as  equivalent to the ,mother of the    
,gods herself and paid her as much      
honour  and reverence as if she had     
indeed been that great divinity4 ,for   
eight  days they danced silently in four
 rows1 if dance it could be called in   
which the dancers scarcely stirred their
 legs and bodies1 but contented         
themselves with moving their hands1 in  
which they held branches of  blossoms1  
up and down in time to the tuck of drum4
 ,these dances began in  the afternoon  
and lasted till the sun went down4 ,no  
one might speak during  their           
performance2 only some lively youths    
mimicked by a booming murmur of  the    
lips the rub-a-dub of the drums4 ,when  
the dances were over1 the  medical      
women1 young and old1 divided themselves

 into two parties and  engaged in a sham
 fight before the woman who acted the   
part of the ,mother  of the ,gods4 ,this
 they did to divert her and keep her    
from being sad and  shedding tears2 for 
if she wept1 they deemed it an omen that
 many men  would die in battle and many 
women in childbed4 ,the fight between   
the  women consisted in throwing balls  
of moss1 leaves1 or flowers at each     
other2 and she who personated the       
goddess led one of the parties to the   
attack4 ,these mock battles lasted four 
days4    7,m#bbc7 ,after that they led  
the woman who was to die to the         
market-place1  that she might bid it    
farewell2 and by way of doing so she    
scattered the  flour of maize wherever  
she went4 ,the priests then attended her
 to a  building near the temple in which
 she was to be sacrificed4 ,the         
knowledge  of her doom was kept from her
 as far as possible4 ,the medical women 
and  the midwives comforted her1 saying1
 8,be not cast down1 sweetheart2 this   

night thou shalt sleep with the king2   
therefore rejoice40 ,then they put on   
her the ornaments of the goddess1 and at
 midnight led her to the temple  where  
she was to die4 ,on the passage not a   
word was spoken1 not a cough  was heard2
 crowds were gathered to see her pass1  
but all kept a profound  silence4       
,arrived at the summit of the temple she
 was hoisted on to the  back of one     
priest1 while another adroitly cut off  
her head4 ,the body1  still warm1 was   
skinned1 and a tall robust young man    
clothed himself in  the bleeding skin   
and so became in turn a living image of 
the goddess4 ,one  of the woman's thighs
 was flayed separately1 and the skin    
carried to  another temple1 where a     
young man put it over his face as a mask
 and so  personated the maize-goddess   
,cinteotl1 daughter of the ,mother of   
the ,gods4  ,meantime the other1 clad in
 the rest of the woman's skin1 hurried  
down the  steps of the temple4 ,the     
nobles and warriors fled before him1    

carrying  blood-stained besoms of       
couchgrass1 but turned to look back at  
him from  time to time and smote upon   
their shields as if to bid him come on4 
,he  followed hard after them and all   
who saw that flight and pursuit quaked  
with fear4 ,on arriving at the foot of  
the temple of ,huitzilopochtli1 the  man
 who wore the skin of the dead woman and
 personated the ,mother of the  ,gods1  
lifted up his arms and stood like a     
cross before the image of the  god2 this
 action he repeated four times4 ,then he
 joined the man who  personated the     
maize-goddess ,cinteotl1 and together   
they went slowly to  the temple of the  
,mother of the ,gods1 where the woman   
had been sacrificed4  ,all this time it 
was night4 ,next morning at break of day
 the man who  personated the ,mother of 
the ,gods took up his post on the       
highest point of  the temple2 there they
 decked him in all the gorgeous         
trappings of the  goddess and set a     
splendid crown on his head4 ,then the   

captives were set  in a row before him1 
and arrayed in all his finery he        
slaughtered four of  them with his own  
hand3 the rest he left to be butchered  
by the priests4 ,a  variety of          
ceremonies and dances followed4 ,amongst
 others1 the blood of  the human victims
 was collected in a bowl and set before 
the man who  personated the ,mother of  
the ,gods4 ,he dipped his finger into   
the blood and  then sucked his bloody   
finger2 and when he had sucked it he    
bowed his head  and uttered a dolorous  
groan1 whereat the ,indians believed the
 earth  itself shook and trembled1 as   
did all who heard it4 ,finally the skin 
of  the slain woman and the skin of her 
thigh were carried away and deposited   
separately at two towers1 one of which  
stood on the border of the enemy's      
country47#fhg7    7,m#bbd7 ,this        
remarkable festival in honour of the    
,mother of the ,gods is  said to have   
been immediately preceded by a similar  
festival in honour of  the ,maize       

,goddess ,chicomecohuatl47#fhh7 ,the    
image of this goddess was of  wood and  
represented her as a girl of about      
twelve years of age wearing  feminine   
ornaments painted in gay colours4 ,on   
her head was a pasteboard  mitre2 her   
long hair fell on her shoulders2 in her 
ears she had golden  earrings2 round her
 neck she wore a necklace of golden     
maize-cobs strung  on a blue ribbon1 and
 in her hands she held the likeness of  
maize-cobs  made of feathers and        
garnished with gold4 ,her festival1     
which was observed  throughout the whole
 country with great devotion on the     
fifteenth day of  ,september1 was       
preceded by a strict fast of seven days1
 during which old  and young1 sick and  
whole1 ate nothing but broken victuals  
and dry bread  and drank nothing but    
water1 and did penance by drawing blood 
from their  ears4 ,the blood so drawn   
was kept in vessels1 which were not     
scoured1 so  that a dry crust formed    
over it4 ,on the day before the fast    

began the  people ate and drank to their
 heart's content1 and they sanctified a 
woman  to represent ,atlatatonan1 the   
,goddess of ,lepers1 dressing her up in 
an  appropriate costume4 ,when the fast 
was over1 the high priest of the temple 
of ,tlaloc sacrificed the woman in the  
usual way by tearing out her heart  and 
holding it up as an offering to the sun4
 ,her body1 with all the robes  and     
ornaments she had worn1 was cast into a 
well or vault in the temple1  and along 
with the corpse were thrown in all the  
plates and dishes out of  which the     
people had eaten1 and all the mats on   
which they had sat or  slept during the 
fast1 as if1 says the historian1 they   
had been infected  with the plague of   
leprosy4 ,after that the people were    
free to eat bread1  salt1 and tomatoes2 
and immediately after the sacrifice of  
the woman who  personated the ,goddess  
of ,leprosy they sanctified a young     
slave girl of  twelve or thirteen years1
 the prettiest they could find1 to      

represent the  ,maize ,goddess          
,chicomecohuatl4 ,they invested her with
 the ornaments of the  goddess1 putting 
the mitre on her head and the maize-cobs
 round her neck  and in her hands1 and  
fastening a green feather upright on the
 crown of  her head to imitate an ear of
 maize4 ,this they did1 we are told1 in 
order  to signify that the maize was    
almost ripe at the time of the festival1
 but  because it was still tender they  
chose a girl of tender years to play the
  part of the ,maize ,goddess4 ,the     
whole long day they led the poor child  
in  all her finery1 with the green plume
 nodding on her head1 from house to     
house dancing merrily to cheer people   
after the dulness and privations of  the
 fast4    7,m#bbe7 ,in the evening all  
the people assembled at the temple1 the 
courts  of which they lit up by a       
multitude of lanterns and candles4      
,there they  passed the night without   
sleeping1 and at midnight1 while the    
trumpets1  flutes1 and horns discoursed 

solemn music1 a portable framework or   
palanquin was brought forth1 bedecked   
with festoons of maize-cobs and  peppers
 and filled with seeds of all sorts4    
,this the bearers set down at  the door 
of the chamber in which the wooden image
 of the goddess stood4  ,now the chamber
 was adorned and wreathed1 both outside 
and inside1 with  wreaths of maize-cobs1
 peppers1 pumpkins1 roses1 and seeds of 
every kind1  a wonder to behold2 the    
whole floor was covered deep with these 
verdant  offerings of the pious4 ,when  
the music ceased1 a solemn procession   
came  forth of priests and dignitaries1 
with flaring lights and smoking censers1
  leading in their midst the girl who   
played the part of the goddess4 ,then   
they made her mount the framework1 where
 she stood upright on the maize  and    
peppers and pumpkins with which it was  
strewed1 her hands resting on  two      
bannisters to keep her from falling4    
,then the priests swung the  smoking    
censers round her2 the music struck up  

again1 and while it played1  a great    
dignitary of the temple suddenly stepped
 up to her with a razor in  his hand and
 adroitly shore off the green feather   
she wore on her head1  together with the
 hair in which it was fastened1 snipping
 the lock off by  the root4 ,the feather
 and the hair he then presented to the  
wooden image  of the goddess with great 
solemnity and elaborate ceremonies1     
weeping and  giving her thanks for the  
fruits of the earth and the abundant    
crops which  she had bestowed on the    
people that year2 and as he wept and    
prayed1 all  the people1 standing in the
 courts of the temple1 wept and prayed  
with  him4 ,when that ceremony was over1
 the girl descended from the framework  
and was escorted to the place where she 
was to spend the rest of the  night4    
,but all the people kept watch in the   
courts of the temple by the  light of   
torches till break of day4    7,m#bbf7  
,the morning being come1 and the courts 
of the temple being still  crowded by   

the multitude1 who would have deemed it 
sacrilege to quit the  precincts1 the   
priests again brought forth the damsel  
attired in the  costume of the goddess1 
with the mitre on her head and the cobs 
of maize  about her neck4 ,again she    
mounted the portable framework or       
palanquin and  stood on it1 supporting  
herself by her hands on the bannisters4 
,then the  elders of the temple lifted  
it on their shoulders1 and while some   
swung  burning censers and others played
 on instruments or sang1 they carried it
  in procession through the great       
courtyard to the hall of the god        
,huitzilopochtli and then back to the   
chamber1 where stood the wooden image   
of the ,maize ,goddess1 whom the girl   
personated4 ,there they caused the      
damsel to descend from the palanquin and
 to stand on the heaps of corn and      
vegetables that had been spread in      
profusion on the floor of the sacred    
chamber4 ,while she stood there all the 
elders and nobles came in a line1  one  

behind the other1 carrying the saucers  
of dry and clotted blood which  they had
 drawn from their ears by way of penance
 during the seven days'  fast4 ,one by  
one they squatted on their haunches     
before her1 which was the  equivalent of
 falling on their knees with us1 and    
scraping the crust of  blood from the   
saucer cast it down before her as an    
offering in return for  the benefits    
which she1 as the embodiment of the     
,maize ,goddess1 had  conferred upon    
them4 ,when the men had thus humbly     
offered their blood to  the human       
representative of the goddess1 the      
women1 forming a long line1  did so     
likewise1 each of them dropping on her  
hams before the girl and  scraping her  
blood from the saucer4 ,the ceremony    
lasted a long time1 for  great and      
small1 young and old1 all without       
exception had to pass before  the       
incarnate deity and make their offering4
 ,when it was over1 the people  returned
 home with glad hearts to feast on flesh

 and viands of every sort  as merrily1  
we are told1 as good ,christians at     
,easter partake of meat and  other      
carnal mercies after the long abstinence
 of ,lent4 ,and when they had  eaten and
 drunk their fill and rested after the  
night watch1 they returned  quite       
refreshed to the temple to see the end  
of the festival4 ,and the end  of the   
festival was this4 ,the multitude being 
assembled1 the priests  solemnly        
incensed the girl who personated the    
goddess2 then they threw her  on her    
back on the heap of corn and seeds1 cut 
off her head1 caught the  gushing blood 
in a tub1 and sprinkled the blood on the
 wooden image of the  goddess1 the walls
 of the chamber1 and the offerings of   
corn1 peppers1  pumpkins1 seeds1 and    
vegetables which cumbered the floor4    
,after that they  flayed the headless   
trunk1 and one of the priests made shift
 to squeeze  himself into the bloody    
skin4 ,having done so they clad him in  
all the  robes which the girl had worn2 

they put the mitre on his head1 the     
necklace of golden maize-cobs about his 
neck1 the maize-cobs of feathers  and   
gold in his hands2 and thus arrayed they
 led him forth in public1 all  of them  
dancing to the tuck of drum1 while he   
acted as fugleman1 skipping  and        
posturing at the head of the procession 
as briskly as he could be  expected to  
do1 incommoded as he was by the tight   
and clammy skin of the  girl and by her 
clothes1 which must have been much too  
small for a grown  man47#fhi7           
7,m#bbg7 ,in the foregoing custom the   
identification of the young girl with   
the ,maize ,goddess appears to be       
complete4 ,the golden maize cobs which  
she  wore round her neck1 the artificial
 maize cobs which she carried in her    
hands1 the green feather which was stuck
 in her hair in imitation 7we are  told7
 of a green ear of maize1 all set her   
forth as a personification of  the      
corn-spirit2 and we are expressly       
informed that she was specially  chosen 

as a young girl to represent the young  
maize1 which at the time of  the        
festival had not yet fully ripened4     
,further1 her identification with  the  
corn and the corn-goddess was clearly   
announced by making her stand on  the   
heaps of maize and there receive the    
homage and blood-offerings of the  whole
 people1 who thereby returned her thanks
 for the benefits which in  her         
character of a divinity she was supposed
 to have conferred upon them4  ,once    
more1 the practice of beheading her on a
 heap of corn and seeds and  sprinkling 
her blood1 not only on the image of the 
,maize ,goddess1 but on  the piles of   
maize1 peppers1 pumpkins1 seeds1 and    
vegetables1 can  seemingly have had no  
other object but to quicken and         
strengthen the crops  of corn and the   
fruits of the earth in general by       
infusing into their  representatives the
 blood of the ,corn ,goddess herself4   
,the analogy of this  ,mexican          
sacrifice1 the meaning of which appears 

to be indisputable1 may be  allowed to  
strengthen the interpretation which ,i  
have given of other human  sacrifices   
offered for the crops47#fij7 ,if the    
,mexican girl1 whose blood  was         
sprinkled on the maize1 indeed          
personated the ,maize ,goddess1 it      
becomes more than ever probable that the
 girl whose blood the ,pawnees          
similarly sprinkled on the seed corn    
personated in like manner the female    
,spirit of the ,corn2 and so with the   
other human beings whom other races     
have slaughtered for the sake of        
promoting the growth of the crops4      
7,m#bbh7 ,lastly1 the concluding act of 
the sacred drama1 in which the body  of 
the dead ,maize ,goddess was flayed and 
her skin worn1 together with all  her   
sacred insignia1 by a man who danced    
before the people in this grim  attire1 
seems to be best explained on the       
hypothesis that it was intended  to     
ensure that the divine death should be  
immediately followed by the  divine     

resurrection4 ,if that was so1 we may   
infer with some degree of  probability  
that the practice of killing a human    
representative of a deity  has commonly1
 perhaps always1 been regarded merely as
 a means of  perpetuating the divine    
energies in the fulness of youthful     
vigour1  untainted by the weakness and  
frailty of age1 from which they must    
have  suffered if the deity had been    
allowed to die a natural death4         
7,m#bbi7 ,this interpretation of the    
,mexican custom of flaying human beings 
and permitting or requiring other       
persons to parade publicly in the skins 
of the victims may perhaps be confirmed 
by a consideration of the festival  at  
which this strange rite was observed on 
the largest scale1 and which            
accordingly went by the name of the     
,festival of the ,flaying of ,men       
7,tlacaxipeualiztli74 ,it was celebrated
 in the second month of the ,aztec      
year1 which corresponded to the last    
days of ,february and the early part  of

 ,march4 ,the exact day of the festival 
was the twentieth of ,march1  according 
to one pious chronicler1 who notes with 
unction that the bloody  rite fell only 
one day later than the feast which ,holy
 ,church solemnizes  in honour of the   
glorious ,st4 ,joseph4 ,the god whom the
 ,aztecs worshipped  in this strange    
fashion was named ,xipe1 8the ,flayed   
,one10 or ,totec1 8,our  ,lord40 ,on    
this occasion he also bore the solemn   
name of ,youallauan1 8,he  who drinks in
 the ,night40 ,his image was of stone   
and represented him in  human form with 
his mouth open as if in the act of      
speaking2 his body was  painted yellow  
on the one side and drab on the other2  
he wore the skin of  a flayed man over  
his own1 with the hands of the victim   
dangling at his  wrists4 ,on his head he
 had a hood of various colours1 and     
about his loins  a green petticoat      
reaching to his knees with a fringe of  
small shells4 ,in  his two hands he     
grasped a rattle like the head of a     

poppy with the seeds  in it2 while on   
his left arm he supported a yellow      
shield with a red rim4  ,at his festival
 the ,mexicans killed all the prisoners 
they had taken in  war1 men1 women1 and 
children4 ,the number of the victims was
 very great4 ,a  ,spanish historian of  
the sixteenth century estimated that in 
,mexico more  people used to be         
sacrificed on the altar than died a     
natural death4 ,all  who were sacrificed
 to ,xipe1 8the ,flayed ,god10 were     
themselves flayed1 and  men who had made
 a special vow to the god put on the    
skins of the human  victims and went    
about the city in that guise for twenty 
days1 being  everywhere welcomed and    
revered as living images of the deity4  
,forty days  before the festival1       
according to the historian ,duran1 they 
chose a man to  personate the god1      
clothed him in all the insignia of the  
divinity1 and  led him about in public1 
doing him as much reverence all these   
days as if  he had really been what he  

pretended to be4 ,moreover1 every parish
 of the  capital did the same2 each of  
them had its own temple and appointed   
its  own human representative of the    
deity1 who received the homage and      
worship  of the parishioners for the    
forty days4    7,m#bcj7 ,on the day of  
the festival these mortal gods and all  
the other  prisoners1 with the exception
 of a few who were reserved for a       
different  death1 were killed in the    
usual way4 ,the scene of the slaughter  
was the  platform on the summit of the  
god ,huitzilopochtli's temple4 ,some of 
the  poor wretches fainted when they    
came to the foot of the steps and had to
  be dragged up the long staircase by   
the hair of their heads4 ,arrived at    
the summit they were slaughtered one by 
one on the sacrificial stone by  the    
high priest1 who cut open their breasts1
 tore out their hearts1 and  held them  
up to the sun1 in order to feed the     
great luminary with these  bleeding     
relics4 ,then the bodies were sent      

rolling down the staircase1  clattering 
and turning over and over like gourds as
 they bumped from step  to step till    
they reached the bottom4 ,there they    
were received by other  priests1 or     
rather human butchers1 who with a       
dexterity acquired by  practice slit the
 back of each body from the nape of the 
neck to the heels  and peeled off the   
whole skin in a single piece as neatly  
as if it had  been a sheepskin4 ,the    
skinless body was then fetched away by  
its owner1  that is1 by the man who had 
captured the prisoner in war4 ,he took  
it home  with him1 carved it1 sent one  
of the thighs to the king1 and other    
joints  to friends1 or invited them to  
come and feast on the carcase in his    
house4  ,the skins of the human victims 
were also a perquisite of their captors1
  and were lent or hired out by them to 
men who had made a vow of going  about  
clad in the hides for twenty days4 ,such
 men clothed in the reeking  skins of   
the butchered prisoners were called     

,xixipeme or ,tototectin after  the god 
,xipe or ,totec1 whose living image they
 were esteemed and whose  costume they  
wore4 ,among the devotees who bound     
themselves to this pious  exercise were 
persons who suffered from loathsome skin
 diseases1 such as  smallpox1 abscesses1
 and the itch2 and among them there was 
a fair  sprinkling of debauchees1 who   
had drunk themselves nearly blind and   
hoped  to recover the use of their      
precious eyes by parading for a month in
 this  curious mantle4 ,thus arrayed1   
they went from house to house throughout
 the  city1 entering everywhere and     
asking alms for the love of ,god4 ,on   
entering  a house each of these reverend
 palmers was made to sit on a heap of   
leaves2 festoons of maize and wreaths of
 flowers were placed round his  body2   
and he was given wine to drink and cakes
 to eat4 ,and when a mother  saw one of 
these filthy but sanctified ruffians    
passing along the street1  she would run
 to him with her infant and put it in   

his arms that he might  bless it1 which 
he did with unction1 receiving an alms  
from the happy  mother in return4 ,the  
earnings of these begging-friars on     
their rounds  were sometimes            
considerable1 for the rich people       
rewarded them handsomely4  ,whatever    
they were1 the collectors paid them in  
to the owners of the  skins1 who thus   
made a profit by hiring out these       
valuable articles of  property4 ,every  
night the wearers of the skins deposited
 them in the  temple and fetched them   
again next morning when they set out on 
their  rounds4 ,at the end of the twenty
 days the skins were dry1 hard1         
shrivelled  and shrunken1 and they smelt
 so villainously that people held their 
noses  when they met the holy beggars   
arrayed in their fetid mantles4 ,the    
time  being come to rid themselves of   
these encumbrances1 the devotees walked 
in  solemn procession1 wearing the      
rotten skins and stinking like dead     
dogs1  to the temple called ,yopico1    

where they stripped themselves of the   
hides  and plunged them into a tub or   
vat1 after which they washed and        
scrubbed  themselves thoroughly1 while  
their friends smacked their bare bodies 
loudly with wet hands in order to       
squeeze out the human grease with which 
they were saturated4 ,finally1 the skins
 were solemnly buried1 as holy  relics1 
in a vault of the temple4 ,the burial   
service was accompanied by  chanting and
 attended by the whole people2 and when 
it was over1 one of  the high           
dignitaries preached a sermon to the    
assembled congregation1 in  which he    
dwelt with pathetic eloquence on the    
meanness and misery of human  existence 
and exhorted his hearers to lead a sober
 and quiet life1 to  cultivate the      
virtues of reverence1 modesty1 humility 
and obedience1 to be  kind and          
charitable to the poor and to strangers2
 he warned them against  the sins of    
robbery1 fornication1 adultery1 and     
covetousness2 and kindling  with the    

glow of his oratory1 he passionately    
admonished1 entreated1 and  implored all
 who heard him to choose the good and   
shun the evil1 drawing a  dreadful      
picture of the ills that would overtake 
the wicked here and  hereafter1 while he
 painted in alluring colours the bliss  
in store for the  righteous and the     
rewards they might expect to receive at 
the hands of the  deity in the life to  
come4    7,m#bca7 ,while most of the men
 who masqueraded in the skins of the    
human  victims appear to have personated
 the ,flayed ,god ,xipe1 whose name they
  bore in the form ,xixipeme1 others    
assumed the ornaments and bore the names
  of other ,mexican deities1 such as    
,huitzilopochtli and ,quetzalcoatl2 the 
ceremony of investing them with the     
skins and the insignia of divinity was  
called netcotoquiliztli1 which means 8to
 think themselves gods40 ,amongst  the  
gods thus personated was ,totec4 ,his   
human representative wore1 over  the    
skin of the flayed man1 all the splendid

 trappings of the deity4 ,on  his head  
was placed a curious crown decorated    
with rich feathers4 ,a golden  crescent 
dangled from his nose1 golden earrings  
from his ears1 and a  necklace of       
hammered gold encircled his neck4 ,his  
feet were shod in red  shoes decorated  
with quail's feathers2 his loins were   
begirt with a  petticoat of gorgeous    
plumage2 and on his back three small    
paper flags  fluttered and rustled in   
the wind4 ,in his left hand he carried a
 golden  shield and in his right a      
rattle1 which he shook and rattled as he
 walked  with a majestic dancing step4  
,seats were always prepared for this    
human  god2 and when he sat down1 they  
offered him a paste made of uncooked    
maize-flour4 ,also they presented to him
 little bunches of cobs of maize  chosen
 from the seed-corn2 and he received as 
offerings the first fruits  and the     
first flowers of the season47#fia7      
7,m#bcb7 ,in the eighteenth and last    
month of their year1 which fell in      

,january1 the ,mexicans held a festival 
in honour of the god of fire4 ,every    
fourth year the festival was celebrated 
on a grand scale by the sacrifice  of a 
great many men and women1 husbands and  
wives1 who were dressed in the          
trappings of the fire-god and regarded  
as his living images4 ,bound hand  and  
foot1 they were thrown alive into a     
great furnace1 and after roasting  in it
 for a little were raked out of the fire
 before they were dead in  order to     
allow the priest to cut the hearts out  
of their scorched1  blistered1 and still
 writhing bodies in the usual way47#fib7
 ,the intention  of the sacrifice       
probably was to maintain the ,fire-god  
in full vigour1  lest he should grow    
decrepit or even die of old age1 and    
mankind should  thus be deprived of his 
valuable services4 ,this important      
object was  attained by feeding the fire
 with live men and women1 who thus as it
 were  poured a fresh stock of vital    
energy into the veins of the ,fire-god  

and  perhaps of his wife also4 ,but they
 had to be raked out of the flames      
before they were dead2 for clearly it   
would never do to let them die in  the  
fire1 else the ,fire-god whom they      
personated would die also4 ,for the     
same reason their hearts had to be torn 
from their bodies while they were  still
 palpitating2 what use could the        
,fire-god make of human hearts that     
were burnt to cinders8    7,m#bcc7 ,this
 was the ordinary mode of sacrificing   
the human representatives  of the       
,fire-god every fourth year4 ,but in    
,quauhtitlan1 a city distant four       
leagues from the city of ,mexico1 the   
custom was different4 ,on the eve of    
the festival two women were beheaded on 
the altar of the temple and  afterwards 
flayed1 faces and all1 and their thigh  
bones extracted4 ,next  morning two men 
of high rank clothed themselves in the  
skins1 including  the skins of the      
women's faces1 which they put over their
 own2 and thus  arrayed and carrying in 

their hands the thigh bones of the      
victims they  came down the steps of the
 temple roaring like wild beasts4 ,a    
vast crowd  of people had assembled to  
witness the spectacle1 and when they saw
 the  two men coming down the steps in  
the dripping skins1 brandishing the     
bones1 and bellowing like beasts1 they  
were filled with fear and said1  8,there
 come our gods60 ,arrived at the foot of
 the staircase these human  gods engaged
 in a dance1 which they kept up for the 
rest of the day1 never  divesting       
themselves of the bloody skins till the 
festival was over47#fic7    7,m#bcd7    
,the theory that the custom of wearing  
the skin of a flayed man or  woman and  
personating a god in that costume is    
intended to represent the  resurrection 
of the deity derives some support from  
the class of persons  who made a vow to 
masquerade in the skins4 ,they were1 as 
we have seen1  especially men who       
suffered from diseases of the skin and  
the eyes3 they  hoped1 we are told1 by  

wearing the skins to be cured of their  
ailments1  and the old ,spanish monk who
 records the belief adds dryly that some
 were  cured and some were not47#fid7   
,we may conjecture that by donning the  
skins  of men who had acted the part of 
gods they expected to slough off their  
own diseased old skins and to acquire   
new and healthy skins1 like those of    
the deities4 ,this notion may have been 
suggested to them by the  observation of
 certain animals1 such as serpents and  
lizards1 which seem  to renew their     
youth by casting their skins and appear 
refreshed and  renovated in new         
integuments4 ,that many savages have    
noticed such  transformations in the    
animal world is proved by the tales     
which some of  them tell to account for 
the origin of death among mankind4 ,for 
example1  the ,arawaks of ,british      
,guiana say that man was created by a   
good being  whom they call ,kururumany4 
,once on a time this kindly creator came
 to  earth to see how his creature man  

was getting on4 ,but men were so        
ungrateful that they tried to kill their
 ,maker4 ,hence he took from them  the  
gift of immortality and bestowed it upon
 animals that change their  skins1 such 
as snakes1 lizards1 and beetles47#fie7  
,again1 the ,tamanachiers1  an ,indian  
tribe of the ,orinoco1 tell how the     
creator kindly intended to  make men    
immortal by telling them that they      
should change their skins4 ,he  meant to
 say that by so doing they should renew 
their youth like serpents  and beetles4 
,but the glad tidings were received with
 such incredulity by  an old woman that 
the creator in a huff changed his tune  
and said very  curtly1 8,ye shall       
die407#fif7    7,m#bce7 ,in ,annam they 
say that ,ngoc hoang sent a messenger   
from heaven to  inform men that when    
they reached old age they should change 
their skins  and live for ever1 but that
 when serpents grew old1 they must die4 
,unfortunately for the human race the   
message was perverted in the            

transmission1 so that men do not change 
their skins and are therefore  mortal1  
whereas serpents do cast their old skins
 and accordingly live for  ever47#fig7  
,according to the natives of ,nias the  
personage who was charged  by the       
creator with the duty of putting the    
last touches to man broke his  fast on  
bananas instead of on river-crabs1 as he
 should have done2 for had  he only     
eaten river-crabs1 men would have       
changed their skins like crabs1  and    
like crabs would have never died4 ,but  
the serpents1 wiser in their  generation
 than men1 ate the crabs1 and that is   
why they too are  immortal47#fih7       
,stories of the same sort are current   
among the ,melanesians4  ,thus the      
natives of the ,gazelle ,peninsula in   
,new ,britain account for the  origin of
 death by a tale very like that told in 
,annam4 ,the ,good ,spirit1  they say1  
loved men and wished to make them       
immortal1 but he hated  serpents and    
wished to kill them4 ,so he despatched  

his brother to mankind  with this       
cheering message3 8,go to men and take  
them the secret of  immortality4 ,tell  
them to cast their skin every year4 ,so 
will they be  protected from death1 for 
their life will be constantly renewed4  
,but tell  the serpents that they must  
henceforth die40 ,through the           
carelessness or  treachery of the       
messenger this message was reversed2 so 
that now1 as we  all know1 men die and  
serpents live for ever by annually      
casting their  skins47#fii7 ,again1 if  
we can trust the traditions of the      
,banks' ,islanders  and ,new            
,hebrideans1 there was a time when men  
did really cast their skins  and renew  
their youth4 ,the melancholy change to  
mortality was brought  about by an old  
woman1 who most unfortunately resumed   
her old cast-off  skin to please an     
infant1 which squalled at seeing her in 
her new  integument47#gjj7 ,the ,gallas 
of ,east ,africa say that ,god sent a   
certain  bird 7holawaka1 8the sheep of  

,god07 to tell men that they would not  
die1  but that when they grew old they  
would slough their skins and so renew   
their youth4 ,but the bird foolishly or 
maliciously delivered the message  to   
serpents instead of to men1 and that is 
why ever since men have been  mortal and
 serpents immortal4 ,for that evil deed 
,god punished the bird  with a painful  
malady from which it suffers to this    
day1 and it sits on  the tops of trees  
and moans and wails perpetually47#gja7  
7,m#bcf7 ,thus it appears that some     
peoples have not only observed the      
curious transformations which certain   
animals undergo1 but have imagined  that
 by means of such transformations the   
animals periodically renew their  youth 
and live for ever4 ,from such           
observations and fancies it is an easy  
step to the conclusion that man might   
similarly take a fresh lease of life    
and renew the lease indefinitely1 if    
only he could contrive like the  animals
 to get a new skin4 ,this desirable     

object the ,mexicans apparently  sought 
to accomplish by flaying men and wearing
 their bleeding skins like  garments    
thrown over their own4 ,by so doing     
persons who suffered from  cutaneous    
diseases hoped to acquire a new and     
healthy skin2 and by so  doing the      
priests attempted not merely to revive  
the gods whom they had  just slain in   
the persons of their human              
representatives1 but also to  restore to
 their wasting and decaying frames all  
the vigour and energy of  youth4        
7,m#bcg7 ,the rites described in the    
preceding pages suffice to prove that   
human sacrifices of the sort ,i suppose 
to have prevailed at ,aricia7#gjb7      
were1 as a matter of fact1              
systematically offered on a large scale 
by a  people whose level of culture was 
probably not inferior1 if indeed it was 
not distinctly superior1 to that        
occupied by the ,italian races at the   
early period to which the origin of the 
,arician priesthood must be  referred4  

,the positive and indubitable evidence  
of the prevalence of such  sacrifices in
 one part of the world may reasonably be
 allowed to  strengthen the probability 
of their prevalence in places for which 
the  evidence is less full and          
trustworthy4 ,taken all together1 the   
facts which  we have passed in review   
seem to shew that the custom of killing 
men whom  their worshippers regard as   
divine has prevailed in many parts of   
the  world4 ,but to clinch the argument1
 it is clearly desirable to prove that  
the custom of putting to death a human  
representative of a god was known  and  
practised in ancient ,italy elsewhere   
than in the ,arician ,grove4 ,this      
proof ,i now propose to adduce4         
,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,saturnalia    
,,and ,,kindred ,,festivals4            
#a4 ,the ,roman ,saturnalia4            
7,m#bch7 ,in an earlier part of this    
book we saw that many peoples have been 
used to observe an annual period of     
license1 when the customary restraints  

of law and morality are thrown aside1   
when the whole population give          
themselves up to extravagant mirth and  
jollity1 and when the darker  passions  
find a vent which would never be allowed
 them in the more staid  and sober      
course of ordinary life4 ,such outbursts
 of the pent-up forces of  human nature1
 too often degenerating into wild orgies
 of lust and crime1  occur most commonly
 at the end of the year1 and are        
frequently associated1  as ,i have had  
occasion to point out1 with one or other
 of the agricultural  seasons1          
especially with the time of sowing or of
 harvest4 ,now1 of all  these periods of
 license the one which is best known and
 which in modern  languages has given   
its name to the rest1 is the            
,saturnalia4 ,this famous  festival fell
 in ,december1 the last month of the    
,roman year1 and was  popularly supposed
 to commemorate the merry reign of      
,saturn1 the god of  sowing and of      
husbandry1 who lived on earth long ago  

as a righteous and  beneficent king of  
,italy1 drew the rude and scattered     
dwellers on the  mountains together1    
taught them to till the ground1 gave    
them laws1 and  ruled in peace4 ,his    
reign was the fabled ,golden ,age3 the  
earth brought  forth abundantly3 no     
sound of war or discord troubled the    
happy world3 no  baleful love of lucre  
worked like poison in the blood of the  
industrious  and contented peasantry4   
,slavery and private property were alike
 unknown3  all men had all things in    
common4 ,at last the good god1 the      
kindly king1  vanished suddenly2 but his
 memory was cherished to distant ages1  
shrines  were reared in his honour1 and 
many hills and high places in ,italy    
bore  his name47#gjc7 ,yet the bright   
tradition of his reign was crossed by a 
dark  shadow3 his altars are said to    
have been stained with the blood of     
human  victims1 for whom a more merciful
 age afterwards substituted             
effigies47#gjd7 ,of this gloomy side of 

the god's religion there is little  or  
no trace in the descriptions which      
ancient writers have left us of the     
,saturnalia4 ,feasting and revelry and  
all the mad pursuit of pleasure are  the
 features that seem to have especially  
marked this carnival of  antiquity1 as  
it went on for seven days in the streets
 and public squares  and houses of      
ancient ,rome from the seventeenth to   
the twenty-third of  ,december47#gje7   
7,m#bci7 ,but no feature of the festival
 is more remarkable1 nothing in it      
seems to have struck the ancients       
themselves more than the license granted
  to slaves at this time4 ,the          
distinction between the free and the    
servile  classes was temporarily        
abolished4 ,the slave might rail at his 
master1  intoxicate himself like his    
betters1 sit down at table with them1   
and not  even a word of reproof would be
 administered to him for conduct which  
at  any other season might have been    
punished with stripes1 imprisonment1 or 

death47#gjf7 ,nay1 more1 masters        
actually changed places with their      
slaves  and waited on them at table2 and
 not till the serf had done eating and  
drinking was the board cleared and      
dinner set for his master47#gjg7 ,so far
  was this inversion of ranks carried1  
that each household became for a time  a
 mimic republic in which the high       
offices of state were discharged by the 
slaves1 who gave their orders and laid  
down the law as if they were indeed     
invested with all the dignity of the    
consulship1 the praetorship1 and the    
bench47#gjh7 ,like the pale reflection  
of power thus accorded to bondsmen at   
the ,saturnalia was the mock kingship   
for which freemen cast lots at the  same
 season4 ,the person on whom the lot    
fell enjoyed the title of king1  and    
issued commands of a playful and        
ludicrous nature to his temporary       
subjects4 ,one of them he might order to
 mix the wine1 another to drink1        
another to sing1 another to dance1      

another to speak in his own dispraise1  
another to carry a flute-girl on his    
back round the house47#gji7    7,m#bdj7 
,now1 when we remember that the liberty 
allowed to slaves at this  festive      
season was supposed to be an imitation  
of the state of society in  ,saturn's   
time1 and that in general the           
,saturnalia passed for nothing more  or 
less than a temporary revival or        
restoration of the reign of that merry  
monarch1 we are tempted to surmise that 
the mock king who presided over  the    
revels may have originally represented  
,saturn himself4 ,the conjecture  is    
strongly confirmed1 if not established1 
by a very curious and  interesting      
account of the way in which the         
,saturnalia was celebrated by  the      
,roman soldiers stationed on the ,danube
 in the reign of ,maximian and          
,diocletian4 ,the account is preserved  
in a narrative of the martyrdom of  ,st4
 ,dasius1 which was unearthed from a    
,greek manuscript in the ,paris         

library1 and published by ,professor    
,franz ,cumont of ,ghent4 ,two briefer  
descriptions of the event and of the    
custom are contained in manuscripts  at 
,milan and ,berlin2 one of them had     
already seen the light in an obscure    
volume printed at ,urbino in #agbg1 but 
its importance for the history of  the  
,roman religion1 both ancient and       
modern1 appears to have been  overlooked
 until ,professor ,cumont drew the      
attention of scholars to all  three     
narratives by publishing them together  
some years ago47#gaj7  ,according to    
these narratives1 which have all the    
appearance of being  authentic1 and of  
which the longest is probably based on  
official  documents1 the ,roman soldiers
 at ,durostorum in ,lower ,moesia       
celebrated the  ,saturnalia year by year
 in the following manner4 ,thirty days  
before the  festival they chose by lot  
from amongst themselves a young and     
handsome  man1 who was then clothed in  
royal attire to resemble ,saturn4 ,thus 

arrayed  and attended by a multitude of 
soldiers he went about in public with   
full  license to indulge his passions   
and to taste of every pleasure1 however 
base and shameful4 ,but if his reign was
 merry1 it was short and ended          
tragically2 for when the thirty days    
were up and the festival of ,saturn  had
 come1 he cut his own throat on the     
altar of the god whom he                
personated47#gaa7 ,in the year #cjc     
,a4,d4 the lot fell upon the ,christian 
soldier ,dasius1 but he refused to play 
the part of the heathen god and  soil   
his last days by debauchery4 ,the       
threats and arguments of his  commanding
 officer ,bassus failed to shake his    
constancy1 and accordingly  he was      
beheaded1 as the ,christian             
martyrologist records with minute       
accuracy1 at ,durostorum by the soldier 
,john on ,friday the twentieth day of   
,november1 being the twenty-fourth day  
of the moon1 at the fourth hour4        
,since this narrative was published by  

,professor ,cumont1 its historical      
character1 which had been doubted or    
denied1 has received strong             
confirmation from an interesting        
discovery4 ,in the crypt of the         
cathedral  which crowns the promontory  
of ,ancona there is preserved1 among    
other  remarkable antiquities1 a white  
marble sarcophagus bearing a ,greek     
inscription1 in characters of the age of
 ,justinian1 to the following  effect3  
8,here lies the holy martyr ,dasius1    
brought from ,durostorum40 ,the         
sarcophagus was transferred to the crypt
 of the cathedral in #ahdh from the     
church of ,san ,pellegrino1 under the   
high altar of which1 as we learn from  a
 ,latin inscription let into the        
masonry1 the martyr's bones still repose
  with those of two other saints4 ,how  
long the sarcophagus was deposited in   
the church of ,san ,pellegrino1 we do   
not know2 but it is recorded to have    
been there in the year #afej4 ,we may   
suppose that the saint's relics were    

transferred for safety to ,ancona at    
some time in the troubled centuries     
which followed his martyrdom1 when      
,moesia was occupied and ravaged by     
successive hordes of barbarian          
invaders47#gab7 ,at all events it       
appears  certain from the independent   
and mutually confirmatory evidence of   
the  martyrology and the monuments that 
,dasius was no mythical saint1 but a    
real man1 who suffered death for his    
faith at ,durostorum in one of the      
early centuries of the ,christian era4  
,finding the narrative of the  nameless 
martyrologist thus established as to the
 principal fact recorded1  namely1 the  
martyrdom of ,st4 ,dasius1 we may       
reasonably accept his  testimony as to  
the manner and cause of the martyrdom1  
all the more  because his narrative is  
precise1 circumstantial1 and entirely   
free from  the miraculous element4      
,accordingly ,i conclude that the       
account which he  gives of the          
celebration of the ,saturnalia among the

 ,roman soldiers is  trustworthy4       
7,m#bda7 ,this account sets in a new and
 lurid light the office of the ,king  of
 the ,saturnalia1 the ancient ,lord of  
,misrule1 who presided over the  winter 
revels at ,rome in the time of ,horace  
and of ,tacitus4 ,it seems to  prove    
that his business had not always been   
that of a mere harlequin or             
merry-andrew whose only care was that   
the revelry should run high and the  fun
 grow fast and furious1 while the fire  
blazed and crackled on the  hearth1     
while the streets swarmed with festive  
crowds1 and through the  clear frosty   
air1 far away to the north1 ,soracte    
shewed his coronal of  snow4 ,when we   
compare this comic monarch of the gay1  
the civilized  metropolis with his grim 
counterpart of the rude camp on the     
,danube1 and  when we remember the long 
array of similar figures1 ludicrous yet 
tragic1  who in other ages and in other 
lands1 wearing mock crowns and wrapped  
in  sceptred palls1 have played their   

little pranks for a few brief hours or  
days1 then passed before their time to a
 violent death1 we can hardly  doubt    
that in the ,king of the ,saturnalia at 
,rome1 as he is depicted by  classical  
writers1 we see only a feeble           
emasculated copy of that original1      
whose strong features have been         
fortunately preserved for us by the     
obscure author of the ,martyrdom of ,st4
 ,dasius4 ,in other words1 the          
martyrologist's account of the          
,saturnalia agrees so closely with the  
accounts of similar rites elsewhere1    
which could not possibly have been      
known to him1 that the substantial      
accuracy of his description may be      
regarded as established2 and further1   
since the custom of putting a mock  king
 to death as a representative of a god  
cannot have grown out of a  practice of 
appointing him to preside over a holiday
 revel1 whereas the  reverse may very   
well have happened1 we are justified in 
assuming that in  an earlier and more   

barbarous age it was the universal      
practice in ancient  ,italy1 wherever   
the worship of ,saturn prevailed1 to    
choose a man who  played the part and   
enjoyed all the traditionary privileges 
of ,saturn for  a season1 and then died1
 whether by his own or another's hand1  
whether by  the knife or the fire or on 
the gallows-tree1 in the character of   
the good  god who gave his life for the 
world4 ,in ,rome itself and other great 
towns  the growth of civilization had   
probably mitigated this cruel custom    
long  before the ,augustan age1 and     
transformed it into the innocent shape  
it  wears in the writings of the few    
classical writers who bestow a passing  
notice on the holiday ,king of the      
,saturnalia4 ,but in remoter districts  
the  older and sterner practice may long
 have survived2 and even if after the   
unification of ,italy the barbarous     
usage was suppressed by the ,roman      
government1 the memory of it would be   
handed down by the peasants and  would  

tend from time to time1 as still happens
 with the lowest forms of  superstition 
among ourselves1 to lead to a           
recrudescence of the practice1          
especially among the rude soldiery on   
the outskirts of the empire over  whom  
the once iron hand of ,rome was         
beginning to relax its grasp47#gac7     
7,m#bdb7 ,the resemblance between the   
,saturnalia of ancient and the ,carnival
  of modern ,italy has often been       
remarked2 but in the light of all the   
facts  that have come before us1 we may 
well ask whether the resemblance does   
not  amount to identity4 ,we have seen  
that in ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,france1    
that  is1 in the countries where the    
influence of ,rome has been deepest and 
most  lasting1 a conspicuous feature of 
the ,carnival is a burlesque figure     
personifying the festive season1 which  
after a short career of glory and       
dissipation is publicly shot1 burnt1 or 
otherwise destroyed1 to the  feigned    
grief or genuine delight of the         

populace47#gad7 ,if the view here       
suggested of the ,carnival is correct1  
this grotesque personage is no other    
than a direct successor of the old ,king
 of the ,saturnalia1 the master of  the 
revels1 the real man who personated     
,saturn and1 when the revels were  over1
 suffered a real death in his assumed   
character4 ,the ,king of the ,bean  on  
,twelfth ,night and the mediaeval       
,bishop of ,fools1 ,abbot of ,unreason1 
or  ,lord of ,misrule are figures of the
 same sort and may perhaps have had a   
similar origin4 ,we will consider them  
in the following section4           #b4 
,the ,king of the ,bean and the         
,festival of ,fools4      7,m#bdc7 ,the 
custom of electing by lot a ,king and   
often also a ,queen of the  ,bean on    
,twelfth ,night 7,epiphany1 the sixth of
 ,january7 or on the eve of  that       
festival used to prevail in ,france1    
,belgium1 ,germany1 and ,england1  and  
it is still kept up in some parts of    
,france4 ,it may be traced back to  the 

first half of the sixteenth century at  
least1 and no doubt dates from  a very  
much more remote antiquity4 ,at the     
,french court the ,kings  themselves did
 not disdain to countenance the mock    
royalty1 and ,louis ,,xiv4  even        
supported with courtly grace the shadowy
 dignity in his own person4  ,every     
family as a rule elected its own ,king4 
,on the eve of the festival a  great    
cake was baked with a bean in it2 the   
cake was divided in portions1  one for  
each member of the family1 together with
 one for ,god1 one for the  ,virgin1 and
 sometimes one also for the poor4 ,the  
person who obtained the  portion        
containing the bean was proclaimed ,king
 of the ,bean4 ,where a ,queen  of the  
,bean was elected as well as a ,king1 a 
second bean was sometimes  baked in the 
cake for the ,queen4 ,thus at           
,blankenheim1 near ,neuerburg1 in  the  
,eifel1 a black and a white bean were   
baked in the cake2 he who drew  the     
piece with the black bean was ,king1 and

 she who drew the white bean  was       
,queen4 ,in ,franche-,comt1 at the      
beginning of the nineteenth century1    
they used to put as many white haricot  
beans in a hat as there were  persons   
present1 and two coloured beans were    
added2 the beans were drawn  at         
haphazard from the hat by a child1 and  
they who got the coloured beans  were   
,king and ,queen4 ,in ,england and      
perhaps elsewhere the practice was to   
put a bean in the cake for the ,king and
 a pea for the ,queen4 ,but in some     
places only the ,king was elected by    
lot1 and after his election he chose    
his ,queen for himself4 ,sometimes a    
coin was substituted for the bean in    
the cake2 but though this usage was     
followed in southern ,germany as early  
as the first half of the sixteenth      
century1 it is probably an innovation   
on the older custom of employing a bean 
as the lot4 ,in ,france the             
distribution of the pieces of the cake  
among the persons present was made  in  

accordance with the directions of a     
child1 the youngest boy present1  who   
was placed under or on the table and    
addressed by the name of 8,phoebe0  or  
8,tb02 he answered in ,latin 8,domine40 
,the master of the house1  holding a    
piece of the cake in his hand1 asked the
 child to whom he should  give it1 and  
the child named any person he pleased4  
,sometimes the first  slice of cake was 
regularly assigned to 8the good ,god0   
and set aside for  the poor4 ,in the    
name 8,phoebe0 or 8,tb10 by which the   
child was  addressed1 learned           
antiquaries have detected a reference to
 the oracle of  ,apollo2 but more       
probably the name is a simple corruption
 of the ,latin or  ,french word for bean
 7,latin faba1 ,french fve74            
,immediately on his  election the ,king 
of the ,bean was enthroned1 saluted by  
all1 and thrice  lifted up1 while he    
made crosses with chalk on the beams and
 rafters of  the ceiling4 ,great virtue 
was attributed to these white crosses4  

,they were  supposed to protect the     
house for the whole year against        
8all injuryes and harmes      ,of cursed
 devils1 sprites1 and bugges1 of        
conjurings and                          
charmes40      ,then feasting and       
revelry began and were kept up merrily  
without respect  of persons4 ,every time
 the ,king or ,queen drank1 the whole   
company was  expected to cry1 8,the     
,king drinks60 or 8,the ,queen drinks60 
,any person who  failed to join in the  
cry was punished by having his face     
blackened with  soot or a burned cork or
 smeared with the lees of wine4 ,in some
 parts of  the ,ardennes the custom was 
to fasten great horns of paper in the   
hair of  the delinquent and to put a    
huge pair of spectacles on his nose2 and
 he  had to wear these badges of infamy 
till the end of the festival47#gae7 ,the
  custom of electing a ,king and ,queen 
of the ,bean on ,twelfth ,day is still  
kept up all over the north of ,france4  
,a miniature porcelain figure of a      

child is sometimes substituted for the  
bean in the cake4 ,if the lot1  whether 
bean or doll1 falls to a boy he becomes 
,king and chooses his  ,queen2 if it    
falls to a girl she becomes ,queen and  
chooses her ,king47#gaf7    7,m#bdd7 ,so
 far1 apart from the crosses chalked up 
to ban hobgoblins1  witches1 and bugs1  
the ,king and ,queen of the ,bean might 
seem to be merely  playful personages   
appointed at a season of festivity to   
lead the revels4  ,however1 a more      
serious significance was sometimes      
attached to the office  and to the      
ceremonies of ,twelfth ,day in general4 
,thus in ,lorraine the  height of the   
hemp crop in the coming year was        
prognosticated from the  height of the  
,king and ,queen2 if the ,king was the  
taller of the two1 it  was supposed that
 the male hemp would be higher than the 
female1 but that  the contrary would    
happen if the ,queen were taller than   
the ,king47#gag7  ,again1 in the ,vosges
 ,mountains1 on the borders of          

,franche-,comt1 it is  customary on     
,twelfth ,day for people to dance on the
 roofs in order to make  the hemp grow  
tall47#gah7 ,further1 in many places the
 beans used in the  cake were carried to
 the church to be blessed by the clergy1
 and people  drew omens from the cake as
 to the good or ill that would befall   
them  throughout the year4 ,moreover1   
certain forms of divination were        
resorted  to on ,twelfth ,night for the 
purpose of ascertaining in which month  
of the  year wheat would be             
dearest47#gai7    7,m#bde7 ,in          
,franche-,comt1 particularly in the     
,montagne du ,doubs1 it is  still the   
custom on the ,eve of ,twelfth ,night   
7the fifth of ,january7 to  light       
bonfires1 which appear to have1 in the  
popular mind1 some reference  to the    
crops4 ,the whole population takes part 
in the festivity4 ,in the  afternoon the
 young folk draw a cart about the street
 collecting fuel4  ,some people         
contribute faggots1 others bundles of   

straw or of dry hemp  stalks4 ,towards  
evening the whole of the fuel thus      
collected is piled up a  little way from
 the houses and set on fire4 ,while it  
blazes1 the people  dance round it1     
crying1 8,good year1 come back6 ,bread  
and wine1 come back60  ,in the district 
of ,pontarlier the young folk carry     
lighted torches about  the fields1      
shaking sparks over the sowed lands and 
shouting1 8,couaille1  couaille1        
blanconnie60--words of which the meaning
 has been  forgotten47#gbj7 ,a similar  
custom is commonly observed on the same 
day 7the  ,eve of ,twelfth ,night1 the  
fifth of ,january7 in the ,bocage of    
,normandy1  except that it is the       
fruit-trees rather than the sowed fields
 to which  the fire is applied4 ,when   
the evening shadows have fallen on the  
landscape1 the darkness begins to be    
illuminated here and there by  twinkling
 points of fire1 which multiply as the  
night grows late1 till  they appear as  
numerous on earth as the stars in the   

sky4 ,about every  village1 in the      
fields and orchards1 on the crests of   
the hills1 wandering  lights may be     
discerned1 vanishing and suddenly       
reappearing1 gathering  together and    
then dispersing1 pursuing each other    
capriciously1 and  tracing broken lines1
 sparkling arabesques of fire in the    
gloom of night  ,the peasants are       
observing the ceremony of the 8,moles   
and ,field-mice0  7,taupes et ,mulots72 
and that evening there is not a hamlet1 
not a farm1  hardly a solitary cottage  
that does not contribute its flame to   
the  general illumination1 till the     
whole horizon seems in a blaze1 and     
houses1  woods1 and hills stand out in  
dark relief against the glow of the sky4
 ,the  villages vie with each other in  
the number and brilliancy of the fires  
they can exhibit on this occasion4      
,woods and hedges are scoured to provide
  the materials for the blaze4 ,torches 
of straw wound about poles are  provided
 in abundance2 and armed with them men  

and women1 lads and lasses1  boys and   
girls1 pour forth from the houses at    
nightfall into the fields  and orchards4
 ,there they run about among the trees1 
waving the lighted  torches under the   
branches and striking the trunks with   
them so that the  sparks fly out in     
showers4 ,and as they do so they sing or
 scream at the  top of their voices     
certain traditional curses against the  
animals and  insects that injure the    
fruit-trees4 ,they bid the moles and    
field-mice to  depart from their        
orchards1 threatening to break their    
bones and burn  their beards if they    
tarry4 ,the more they do this1 the      
larger1 they  believe1 will be the crop 
of fruit in the following autumn4 ,when 
everybody  has rushed about his own     
orchard1 meadow or pasture in this      
fashion1 they  all assemble on a height 
or crest of a hill1 where they picnic1  
each  bringing his share of provisions1 
cider1 or brandy to the feast4 ,there1  
too1 they kindle a huge bonfire1 and    

dance round it1 capering and            
brandishing their torches in wild       
enthusiasm47#gba7 ,customs of the same  
sort used to be observed on the same day
 7the ,eve of ,epiphany1 the fifth  of  
,january7 in the ,ardennes4 ,people ran 
about with burning torches1  commanding 
the moles and field-mice to go forth4   
,then they threw the  torches on the    
ground1 and believed that by this       
proceeding they purified  the earth and 
made it fruitful47#gbb7    7,m#bdf7     
,this ceremony appears to be intended to
 ensure a good crop of fruit  by burning
 out the animals and insects that harm  
the fruit-trees4 ,in some  parts of     
,england it used to be customary to     
light fires at the same season  for the 
purpose1 apparently1 of procuring a     
plentiful crop of wheat in the  ensuing 
autumn4 ,thus1 8in the parish of        
,pauntley1 a village on the borders  of 
the county of ,gloucester1 next         
,worcestershire1 and in the             
neighbourhood1 a custom prevails1 which 

is intended to prevent the smut in      
wheat4 ,on the ,eve of ,twelfth-day1 all
 the servants of every farmer  assemble 
together in one of the fields that has  
been sown with wheat4 ,at  the end of   
twelve lands1 they make twelve fires in 
a row with straw1  around one of which1 
much larger than the rest1 they drink a 
cheerful  glass of cider to their       
master's health1 and success to the     
future  harvest2 then1 returning home1  
they feast on cakes soaked in cider1    
which  they claim as a reward for their 
past labours in sowing the grain407#gbc7
  ,similarly in ,herefordshire1 8on the 
,eve of ,twelfth ,day1 at the approach  
of  evening1 the farmers1 their friends1
 servants1 etc41 all assemble1 and1     
near six o'clock1 all walk together to a
 field where wheat is growing4 ,the     
highest part of the ground is always    
chosen1 where twelve small fires1 and   
one large one are lighted up4 ,the      
attendants1 headed by the master of the 
family1 pledge the company in old cyder1

 which circulates freely on these       
occasions4 ,a circle is formed round the
 large fire1 when a general shout  and  
hallooing takes place1 which you hear   
answered from all the villages  and     
fields near2 as ,i have myself counted  
fifty or sixty fires burning at  the    
same time1 which are generally placed on
 some eminence4 ,this being  finished1  
the company all return to the house1    
where the good housewife  and her maids 
are preparing a good supper1 which on   
this occasion is very  plentiful4 ,a    
large cake is always provided1 with a   
hole in the middle4  ,after supper1 the 
company all attend the bailiff 7or head 
of the oxen7 to  the wain-house1 where  
the following particulars are observed4 
,the master1  at the head of his        
friends1 fills the cup 7generally of    
strong ale71 and  stands opposite the   
first or finest of the oxen 7twenty-four
 of which ,i  have often seen tied up in
 their stalls together72 he then pledges
 him in  a curious toast2 the company   

then follow his example with all the    
other  oxen1 addressing each by their   
name4 ,this being over1 the large cake  
is  produced1 and is1 with much         
ceremony1 put on the horn of the first  
ox1  through the hole in the cake2 he is
 then tickled to make him toss his      
head3 if he throws the cake behind1 it  
is the mistress's perquisite2 if  before
 7in what is termed the boosy71 the     
bailiff claims this prize4  ,this ended1
 the company all return to the house1   
the doors of which are in  the meantime 
locked1 and not opened till some joyous 
songs are sung4 ,on  entering1 a scene  
of mirth and jollity commences1 and     
reigns thro' the  house till a late1 or 
rather an early1 hour1 the next         
morning407#gbd7    7,m#bdg7 ,the custom 
was known as ,wassailing and it was     
believed to have a  beneficial effect on
 the crops47#gbe7 ,according to one     
,herefordshire  informant1 8on ,twelfth 
,day they make twelve fires of straw and
 one large  one to burn the old witch2  

they sing1 drink1 and dance round it2   
without  this festival they think they  
should have no crop407#gbf7 ,this       
explanation  of the large fire on       
,twelfth ,day is remarkable and may     
supply the key to  the whole custom of  
kindling fires on the fields or in the  
orchards on  that day4 ,we have seen    
that witches and fiends of various sorts
 are  believed to be let loose during   
the ,twelve ,days and that in some      
places  they are formally driven away on
 ,twelfth ,night47#gbg7 ,it may well be 
that  the fires lighted on that day were
 everywhere primarily intended to burn  
the witches and other maleficent beings 
swarming invisible in the               
mischief-laden air1 and that the benefit
 supposed to be conferred by the  fires 
on the crops was not so much the        
positive one of quickening the  growth  
of vegetation by genial warmth as the   
negative one of destroying  the baleful 
influences which would otherwise blast  
the fruits of the earth  and of the     

trees4 ,this interpretation of the      
,english and ,french custom of  lighting
 fires in fields and orchards on        
,twelfth ,night is confirmed by a       
parallel custom observed by ,macedonian 
peasants for the express purpose of     
burning up certain malicious fiends1 who
 are believed to be abroad at this      
season4 ,these noxious beings are known 
as ,karkantzari or ,skatsantzari4  ,they
 are thought to be living people1       
whether men or women1 who during the    
,twelve ,days are transformed into      
horrible monsters1 with long nails1 red 
faces1 bloodshot eyes1 snottering noses1
 and slobbering mouths4 ,in this        
hideous guise they roam about by night  
haunting houses and making the          
peasant's life well-nigh unbearable2    
they knock at the doors and should  they
 be refused admittance they will        
scramble down the chimney and pinch1    
worry1 and defile the sleepers in their 
beds4 ,the only way to escape from      
these tormenters is to seize and bind   

them fast with a straw rope4 ,if you    
have no such rope or your heart fails   
you1 there is nothing for it but to     
shut yourself up in the house before    
dark1 fasten the door tight1 block up   
the chimney1 and wait for daylight2 for 
it is only at night that the  monsters  
are on the prowl1 during the day they   
resume their ordinary human  shape4     
,however1 in some places strenuous      
efforts are made during the  ,twelve    
,days to destroy these hateful nocturnal
 goblins by fire4 ,for  example1 on     
,christmas ,eve some people burn the    
,karkantzari by lighting  faggots of    
holm-oak and throwing them out into the 
streets at early dawn4  ,in other       
places1 notably at ,melenik1 they scald 
the fiends to death on ,new  ,year's    
,eve by means of pancakes frizzling and 
hissing in a pan4 ,while the  goodwife  
is baking the cakes1 the goodman        
disguises himself as one of the  fiends 
in a fur coat turned inside out1 and in 
his assumed character  dances and sings 

outside the door1 while he invites his  
wife to join him  in the dance4 ,in     
other districts people collect faggots  
during the whole  of the ,twelve ,days  
and lay them up on the hearth4 ,then on 
the ,eve of  ,twelfth ,night they set   
fire to the pile in order that the      
goblins1 who are  supposed to be lurking
 under the ashes1 may utterly           
perish47#gbh7 ,thus the  view that the  
large fire in ,herefordshire on ,twelfth
 ,night is intended 8to  burn the old   
witch0 is far more probable than the    
opinion that it  represents the ,virgin 
,mary1 and that the other twelve fires  
stand for the  twelve apostles47#gbi7   
,this latter interpretation is in all   
probability  nothing more than a        
,christian gloss put upon an old heathen
 custom of  which the meaning was       
forgotten4    7,m#bdh7 ,the             
,gloucestershire custom was described by
 the ,english traveller  ,thomas        
,pennant in the latter part of the      
eighteenth century4 ,he says3 8,a       

custom savouring of the ,scotch         
,bel-tien prevales in ,gloucestershire1 
particularly about ,newent and the      
neighbouring parishes1 on the twelfth   
day1 or on the ,epiphany1 in the        
evening4 ,all the servants of every     
particular farmer assemble together in  
one of the fields that has been  sown   
with wheat2 on the border of which1 in  
the most conspicuous or most  elevated  
place1 they make twelve fires of straw1 
in a row2 around one of  which1 made    
larger than the rest1 they drink a      
cheerful glass of cyder to  their       
master's health1 success to the future  
harvest1 and then returning  home1 they 
feast on cakes made of carraways1 etc41 
soaked in cyder1 which  they claim as a 
reward for their past labours in sowing 
the grain407#gcj7  ,in ,shropshire also 
it used to be customary to kindle festal
 fires on the  tops of hills and other  
high places on ,twelfth ,night47#gca7   
,again1 in  ,ireland 8on ,twelfth-,eve  
in ,christmas1 they use to set up as    

high as they  can a sieve of oats1 and  
in it a dozen of candles set round1 and 
in the  centre one larger1 all lighted4 
,this in memory of our ,saviour and his 
,apostles1 lights of the world407#gcb7  
,down to the present time1 apparently1  
in the county of ,roscommon1 8,twelfth  
,night1 which is ,old ,christmas ,day1  
is  a greater day than ,christmas ,day  
itself4 ,thirteen rushlights are made in
  remembrance of the numbers at the     
,last ,supper1 and each is named after  
some member of the family4 ,if there are
 not enough in the household other      
relations' names are added4 ,the candles
 are stuck in a cake of cow-dung  and   
lighted1 and as each burns out1 so will 
be the length of each person's  life4   
,rushlights are only used for this      
occasion407#gcc7    7,m#bdi7 ,in these  
,english and ,irish customs observed on 
,twelfth ,night the  twelve fires or    
candles probably refer either to the    
twelve days from  ,christmas to         
,epiphany or to the twelve months of the

 year4 ,in favour of  this view it may  
be said that according to a popular     
opinion1 which has  been reported in    
,england7#gcd7 and is widely diffused in
 ,germany and the  ,german provinces of 
,austria1 the weather of the twelve days
 in question  determines the weather of 
the twelve following months1 so that    
from the  weather on each of these days 
it is possible to predict the weather of
 the  corresponding month in the ensuing
 year47#gce7 ,hence in ,swabia the days 
are  called 8the ,twelve ,lot ,days02   
and many people seek to pry into the    
future  with scientific precision by    
means of twelve circles1 each subdivided
 into  four quadrants1 which they chalk 
up over the parlour door or inscribe on 
paper4 ,each circle represents a month1 
and each quadrant represents a  quarter 
of a month2 and according as the sky is 
overcast or clear during  each quarter  
of a day from ,christmas to ,epiphany1  
you shade the  corresponding quadrant of
 a circle or leave it a blank4 ,by this 

contrivance1 as simple as it is         
ingenious1 you may forecast the weather 
for the whole year with more or less of 
accuracy47#gcf7 ,at ,hosskirch in       
,swabia they say that you can predict   
the weather for the twelve months  from 
the weather of the twelve hours of      
,twelfth ,day alone47#gcg7 ,a somewhat  
different system of meteorology is      
adopted in various parts of             
,switzerland1 ,germany1 and ,austria4   
,on ,christmas1 ,new ,year's ,day1 or   
another of the twelve days you take an  
onion1 slice it in two1 peel off  twelve
 coats1 and sprinkle a pinch of salt in 
each of them4 ,the twelve  coats of the 
onion stand for the twelve months of the
 year1 and from the  amount of moisture 
which has gathered in each of them next 
morning you may  foretell the amount of 
rain that will fall in the corresponding
  month47#gch7    7,m#bej7 ,but the     
belief that the weather of the twelve   
months can be  predicted from the       
weather of the twelve days is not       

confined to the  ,germanic peoples4 ,it 
occurs also in ,france and among the    
,celts of ,brittany  and ,scotland4     
,thus in the ,bocage of ,normandy 8the  
village old wives have a  very simple   
means of divining the general           
temperature of the coming  season4      
,according to them1 the twelve days     
between ,christmas and ,epiphany1       
including ,epiphany1 represent the      
twelve months of the year4 ,so the thing
  to do is to mark the temperature of   
each of these days1 for the  temperature
 of the corresponding month will be     
relatively the same4 ,some  people say  
that this experience is rarely at fault1
 and more trust is put  in it than in   
the predictions of the                  
,double-,ligois407#gci7 ,in             
,cornouaille1 ,brittany1 it is popularly
 believed that the weather of the  last 
six days of ,december and the first six 
of ,january prognosticates the  weather 
of the twelve months2 but in other parts
 of ,brittany it is the  first twelve   

days of ,january that are supposed to be
 ominous of the  weather for the year4  
,these days are called gour-deziou1     
which is  commonly interpreted 8male    
days10 but is said to mean properly     
8additional  or supplementary           
days407#gdj7 ,again1 in the ,highlands  
of ,scotland the  twelve days of        
,christmas 7,da latha dheug na ,nollaig7
 8were the twelve  days commencing from 
the ,nativity or ,big ,nollaig1 and were
 deemed to  represent1 in respect of    
weather1 the twelve months of the year4 
,some say  the days should be calculated
 from ,new ,year's ,day407#gda7 ,others 
again  reckon the ,twelve ,days from the
 thirty-first of ,december4 ,thus       
,pennant  tells us that 8the            
,highlanders form a sort of almanack or 
presage of the  weather of the ensuing  
year in the following manner3 they make 
observation  on twelve days1 beginning  
at the last of ,december1 and hold as an
  infallible rule1 that whatsoever      
weather happens on each of those days1  

the same will prove to agree in the     
correspondent months4 ,thus1 ,january is
  to answer to the weather of ,december 
#cast2 ,february to that of ,january    
#ast2 and so with the rest4 ,old people 
still pay great attention to this       
augury407#gdb7 ,it is interesting to    
observe that in the ,celtic regions of  
,scotland and ,france popular opinion   
hesitates as to the exact date of the   
twelve days1 some people dating them    
from ,christmas1 others from the ,new   
,year1 and others again from the        
thirty-first of ,december4 ,this        
hesitation  has an important bearing on 
the question of the origin of the twelve
 days'  period1 as ,i shall point out   
immediately4    7,m#bea7 ,thus in the   
popular mind the twelve days from       
,christmas to ,epiphany  are conceived  
as a miniature of the whole year1 the   
character of each  particular day       
answering to the character of a         
particular month4 ,the  conception      
appears to be very ancient1 for it meets

 us again among the  ,aryans of the     
,vedic age in ,india4 ,they1 too1 appear
 to have invested  twelve days in       
midwinter with a sacred character as a  
time when the three  ,ribhus or genii of
 the seasons rested from their labours  
in the home of  the sun-god2 and these  
twelve rest-days they called 8an image  
or copy of  the year407#gdc7    7,m#beb7
 ,this curious coincidence1 if such it  
is1 between the winter  festivals of the
 ancient ,aryans of ,india and their    
modern kinsfolk in  ,europe seems to be 
best explained on the theory that the   
twelve days in  question derive their   
sanctity from the position which they   
occupied in  the calendar of the        
primitive ,aryans4 ,the coincidence of  
the name for  month with the name for   
moon in the various ,aryan              
languages7#gdd7 points to  the          
conclusion that the year of our remote  
ancestors was primarily based  on       
observation of the moon rather than of  
the sun2 but as a year of twelve  lunar 

months or three hundred and fifty-four  
days 7reckoning the months at           
twenty-nine and thirty days alternately7
 falls short of the solar year of  three
 hundred and sixty-five and a quarter   
days by roundly twelve days1  the       
discrepancy could not fail to attract   
the attention of an intelligent  people1
 such as the primitive ,aryans must be  
supposed to have been1 who  had made    
some progress in the arts of life2 and  
the most obvious way of  removing the   
discrepancy and equating the lunar with 
the solar year is to  add twelve days at
 the end of each period of twelve lunar 
months so as to  bring the total days of
 the year up to three hundred and       
sixty-six4 ,the  equation is not indeed 
perfectly exact1 but it may well have   
been  sufficiently so for the           
rudimentary science of the primitive    
,aryans47#gde7  ,as many savage races in
 modern times have observed the         
discrepancy between  solar and lunar    
time and have essayed to correct it by  

observations of the  sun or the         
constellations1 especially the          
,pleiades17#gdf7 there seems no  reason 
to doubt that the ancestors of the      
,indo-,european peoples in  prehistoric 
times were able to make similar         
observations1 and that they  were not1  
as has been suggested1 reduced to the   
necessity of borrowing the  knowledge of
 such simple and obvious facts from the 
star-gazers of ancient  ,babylonia4     
,learned men who make little use of     
their eyes except to read  books are too
 apt to underrate the observational     
powers of the savage1 who  lives under  
totally different conditions from us1   
spending most of his  time in the open  
air and depending for his very existence
 on the accuracy  with which he notes   
the varied and changing aspects of      
nature4    7,m#bec7 ,it has been        
proposed to explain the manifold        
superstitions which  cluster round the  
,twelve ,days1 or rather the ,twelve    
,nights1 as they are  more popularly    

called17#gdg7 by reference to the place 
which they occupy in  the ,christian    
calendar1 beginning as they do          
immediately after ,christmas  and ending
 with ,epiphany47#gdh7 ,but1 in the     
first place1 it is difficult to  see why
 the interval between these two         
particular festivals should have        
attracted to itself a greater mass of   
superstitious belief and custom than    
the interval between any other two      
,christian festivals in the calendar2 if
  it really did so1 the ground of its   
special attraction is still to seek1    
and on this essential point the         
advocates of the ,christian origin of   
the  ,twelve ,nights throw no light4 ,in
 the second place1 the superstitious    
beliefs and customs themselves appear to
 have no relation to ,christianity  but 
to be purely pagan in character4        
,lastly1 a fatal objection to the       
theory in question is that the place of 
the ,twelve ,days in the calendar is    
not uniformly fixed to the interval     

between ,christmas and ,epiphany2 it    
varies considerably in popular opinion  
in different places1 but it is          
significant that the variations never   
exceed certain comparatively narrow     
limits4 ,the twelve-days' festival1 so  
to speak1 oscillates to and fro  about a
 fixed point1 which is either the end of
 the year or the winter  solstice4 ,thus
 in ,silesia the ,twelve ,days are      
usually reckoned to fall  before        
,christmas instead of after it2 though  
in the ,polish districts and  the       
mountainous region of the country the   
ordinary ,german opinion prevails  that 
the days immediately follow             
,christmas47#gdi7 ,in some parts of     
,bavaria  the ,twelve ,days are counted 
from ,st4 ,thomas's ,day 7the           
twenty-first of  ,december7 to ,new     
,year's ,day2 while in parts of         
,mecklenburg they begin with  ,new      
,year's ,day and so coincide with the   
first twelve days of ,january17#gej7    
and this last mode of reckoning finds   

favour1 as we saw1 with some ,celts  of 
,brittany and ,scotland47#gea7 ,these   
variations in the dating of the  ,twelve
 ,days seem irreconcilable with the     
theory that they derive their           
superstitious character purely from the 
accident that they fall between         
,christmas and ,epiphany2 accordingly we
 may safely dismiss the theory of  their
 ,christian origin and recognize1 with  
many good authorities17#geb7 in  the    
,twelve ,days the relics of a purely    
pagan festival1 which was probably      
celebrated long before the foundation of
 ,christianity4 ,in truth the           
hypothesis of the ,christian derivation 
of the ,twelve ,days in all  probability
 exactly inverts the historical order of
 the facts4 ,on the  whole the evidence 
goes to shew that the great ,christian  
festivals were  arbitrarily timed by the
 church so as to coincide with          
previously existing  pagan festivals for
 the sake of weaning the heathen from   
their old faith  and bringing them over 

to the new religion4 ,to make the       
transition as easy  as possible the     
ecclesiastical authorities1 in          
abolishing the ancient  rites1 appointed
 ceremonies of somewhat similar         
character on the same  days1 or nearly  
so1 thus filling up the spiritual void  
by a new creation  which the worshipper 
might accept as an adequate substitute  
for what he  had lost4 ,christmas and   
,easter1 the two pivots on which the    
,christian  calendar revolves1 appear   
both to have been instituted with this  
intention3 the one superseded a         
midwinter festival of the birth of the  
sun-god1 the other superseded a vernal  
festival of the death and  resurrection 
of the vegetation-god47#gec7    7,m#bed7
 ,if the twelve days from ,christmas to 
,epiphany were indeed an  ancient       
intercalary period inserted for the     
purpose of equating the lunar  to the   
solar year1 we can better understand the
 curious superstitions that  have       
clustered round them and the quaint     

customs that have been annually         
observed during their continuance4 ,to  
the primitive mind it might well  seem  
that an intercalary period stands       
outside of the regular order of  things1
 forming part neither of the lunar nor  
of the solar system2 it is  an          
excrescence1 inevitable but             
unaccountable1 which breaks the smooth  
surface of ordinary existence1 an eddy  
which interrupts the even flow of       
months and years4 ,hence it may be      
inferred that the ordinary rules of     
conduct do not apply to such            
extraordinary periods1 and that         
accordingly  men may do in them what    
they would never dream of doing at other
 times4  ,thus intercalary days tend to 
degenerate into seasons of unbridled    
license2 they form an interregnum during
 which the customary restraints of  law 
and morality are suspended and the      
ordinary rulers abdicate their          
authority in favour of a temporary      
regent1 a sort of puppet king1 who      

bears a more or less indefinite1        
capricious1 and precarious sway over a  
community given up for a time to riot1  
turbulence1 and disorder4 ,if that  is  
so--though it must be confessed that the
 view here suggested is to a  great     
extent conjectural--we may perhaps      
detect the last surviving               
representatives of such puppet kings in 
the ,king of the ,bean and other        
grotesque figures of the same sort who  
used to parade with the mimic pomp  of  
sovereignty on one or other of the      
twelve days between ,christmas and      
,epiphany4 ,for the ,king of the ,bean  
was by no means the only such ruler of  
the festive season1 nor was ,twelfth    
,night the only day on which he and his 
colleagues played their pranks4 ,we will
 conclude this part of our subject  with
 a brief notice of some of these        
mummers4    7,m#bee7 ,in the first place
 it deserves to be noticed that in many 
parts of  the continent1 such as        
,france1 ,spain1 ,belgium1 ,germany1 and

 ,austria1  ,twelfth ,day is regularly  
associated with three mythical kings    
named  ,caspar1 ,melchior1 and          
,balthasar1 and derives its popular     
appellation from  them1 being known in  
,germany and ,austria as the ,day of the
 ,three ,kings  7,dreiknigstag7 and in  
,france as the ,festival of the ,kings  
7,fte des  ,rois74 ,further1 it has been
 customary in many places to represent  
the  three kings by mummers1 who go     
about arrayed in royal costume from door
 to  door1 singing songs and collecting 
contributions from the households which 
they visit47#ged7 ,the custom may very  
well be older than ,christianity1       
though it has received a ,christian     
colouring2 for the mythical kings are   
commonly identified with the wise men of
 the ,east1 who are said to have  been  
attracted to the infant ,christ at      
,bethlehem by the sight of his star  in 
the sky47#gee7 ,yet there is no         
,biblical authority for regarding these 
wise men as kings or for fixing their   

number at three4 ,in ,franche-,comt  the
 old custom is still observed1 or at all
 events it was so down to  recent years4
 ,the ,three ,kings are personated by   
three boys dressed in long  white shirts
 with coloured sashes round their       
waists2 on their heads they  wear       
pointed mitres of pasteboard decorated  
with a gilt star and floating  ribbons4 
,each carries a long wand topped by a   
star1 which he keeps  constantly        
turning4 ,the one who personates        
,melchior has his face blackened  with  
soot1 because ,melchior is supposed to  
have been a negro king4 ,when  they     
enter a house1 they sing a song1 setting
 forth that they are three  kings who   
have come from three different          
countries1 led by a star1 to  adore the 
infant ,jesus at ,bethlehem4 ,after the 
song the negro king  solicits           
contributions by shaking his money-box  
or holding out a basket1  in which the  
inmates of the house deposit eggs1 nuts1
 apples and so forth4  ,by way of thanks

 for this liberality the three kings    
chant a stave in  which they call down  
the blessing of ,god on the             
household47#gef7 ,the custom  is similar
 in the ,vosges ,mountains1 where the   
,three ,kings are held in  great        
veneration and invoked by hedge doctors 
to effect various cures4 ,for  example1 
if a man drops to the ground with the   
falling sickness1 you need  only whisper
 in his right ear1 8,gaspard fert       
myrrham1 thus ,melchior1  ,balthasar    
aurum10 and he will get up at once4 ,but
 to make the cure  complete you must    
knock three nails into the earth on the 
precise spot  where he fell2 each nail  
must be exactly of the length of the    
patient's  little finger1 and as you    
knock it in you must take care to utter 
the  sufferer's name47#geg7 ,in many    
,czech villages of ,bohemia the children
 who  play the part of the ,three ,kings
 assimilate themselves to the wise men  
of  the ,east in the gospel by carrying 
gilt paper1 incense1 and myrrh with     

them on their rounds1 which they        
distribute as gifts in the houses they  
visit1 receiving in return money or     
presents in kind4 ,moreover they        
fumigate and sprinkle the houses and    
describe crosses and letters on the     
doors4 ,amongst the ,germans of ,west   
,bohemia it is the schoolmaster who1    
accompanied by some boys1 goes the round
 of the village on ,twelfth ,day4 ,he   
chalks up the letters ,c4 ,m4 ,b4 7the  
initials of ,caspar1 ,melchior1 and     
,balthasar71 together with three        
crosses1 on every door1 and fumigates   
the  house with a burning censer in     
order to guard it from evil influences  
and  infectious diseases47#geh7 ,some   
people used to wear as an amulet a      
picture  representing the adoration of  
the ,three ,kings with a ,latin         
inscription to  the following effect3   
8,holy three kings1 ,caspar1 ,melchior1 
,balthasar1 pray  for us1 now and in the
 hour of our death40 ,the picture was   
thought to  protect the wearer not only 

from epilepsy1 headache1 and fever1 but 
also  from the perils of the roads1 from
 the bite of mad dogs1 from sudden      
death1 from sorcery and                 
witchcraft47#gei7 ,whatever its origin1 
the festival  of the ,three ,kings goes 
back to the middle ages1 for it is known
 to have  been celebrated with great    
pomp at ,milan in #accf4 ,on that       
occasion the  ,three ,kings appeared    
wearing crowns1 riding richly           
caparisoned horses1 and  surrounded by  
pages1 bodyguards1 and a great retinue  
of followers4 ,before  them was carried 
a golden star1 and they offered gifts of
 gold1  frankincense1 and myrrh to the  
infant ,christ cradled in a manger      
beside  the high altar of the church of 
,st4 ,eustorgius47#gfj7    7,m#bef7 ,in 
our own country a popular figure during 
the ,christmas holidays  used to be the 
,lord of ,misrule1 or1 as he was called 
in ,scotland1 the  ,abbot of ,unreason1 
who led the revels at that merry season 
in the halls of  colleges1 the ,inns of 

,court1 the palace of the king1 and the 
mansions of  nobles47#gfa7 ,writing at  
the end of the sixteenth century1 the   
antiquary  ,john ,stow tells us that1   
8in the feast of ,christmas1 there was  
in the  ,king's house1 wheresoever he   
was lodged1 a ,lord of ,misrule1 or     
,master of  ,merry ,disports2 and the   
like had ye in the house of every       
nobleman of  honour or good worship1    
were he spiritual or temporal4 ,amongst 
the which  the ,mayor of ,london1 and   
either of the ,sheriffs1 had their      
several ,lords  of ,misrule1 ever       
contending1 without quarrel or offence1 
who should make  the rarest pastimes to 
delight the beholders4 ,these ,lords    
beginning their  rule on ,alhollon eve1 
continued the same til the morrow after 
the ,feast of  the ,purification1       
commonly called ,candlemas day4 ,in all 
which space there  were fine and subtle 
disguisings1 masks and mummeries1 with  
playing at  cards for counters1 nails1  
and points1 in every house1 more for    

pastime  than for gain407#gfb7 ,again1  
in the seventeenth century the ardent   
royalist  ,sir ,thomas ,urquhart wrote  
that 8they may be likewise said to use  
their  king 444 as about ,christmas we  
do the ,king of ,misrule2 whom we invest
 with  that title to no other end1 but  
to countenance the ,bacchanalian riots  
and  preposterous disorders of the      
family1 where he is installed407#gfc7   
,from  the former passage it appears    
that the ,lords of ,misrule often or    
even  generally reigned for more than   
three months in winter1 namely from     
,allhallow ,even 7the thirty-first of   
,october1 the ,eve of ,all ,saints'     
,day7  till ,candlemas 7the second of   
,february74 ,sometimes1 however1 their  
reign  seems to have been restricted to 
the ,twelve ,nights4 ,thus we are told  
that  ,george ,ferrers of ,lincoln's    
,inn was ,lord of ,misrule for twelve   
days one  year when ,king ,edward ,,vi4 
kept his ,christmas with open house at  
,greenwich47#gfd7 ,at ,trinity ,college1

 ,cambridge1 a ,master of ,arts used to 
be  appointed to this honourable office1
 which he held for the twelve days  from
 ,christmas to ,twelfth ,day1 and he    
resumed office on ,candlemas ,day4 ,his 
duty was to regulate the games and      
diversions of the students1             
particularly the plays which were acted 
in the college hall4 ,similar  masters  
of the revels were commonly instituted  
in the colleges at ,oxford2  for        
example1 at ,merton ,college the fellows
 annually elected about ,st4  ,edmund's 
,day1 in ,november a ,lord of ,misrule  
or1 as he was called in the  registers1 
a ,king of the ,bean 7,rex ,fabarum71   
who held office till  ,candlemas and    
sometimes assumed a number of ridiculous
 titles4 ,in the  ,inner ,temple a ,lord
 of ,misrule used to be appointed on    
,st4 ,stephen's ,day  7the twenty-sixth 
of ,december72 surrounded by his        
courtiers1 who were  dubbed by various  
derogatory or ribald names1 he presided 
at the dancing1  feasting1 and          

minstrelsy in the hall4 ,of the mock    
monarch who in the  ,christmas holidays 
of #afce held office in the ,middle     
,temple the  jurisdiction1 privileges1  
and parade have been minutely described4
 ,he was  attended by his lord keeper1  
lord treasurer1 with eight white staves1
 a  band of gentleman pensioners with   
poleaxes1 and two chaplains4 ,he dined  
under a canopy of state both in the hall
 and in his own chambers4 ,he  received 
many petitions1 which he passed on in   
regal style to his ,master  of          
,requests2 and he attended service in   
the ,temple church1 where his  chaplains
 preached before him and did him        
reverence4 ,his expenses1  defrayed from
 his own purse1 amounted to no less than
 two thousand  pounds47#gfe7 8,i        
remember to have heard a ,bencher of the
 ,temple tell a  story of a tradition in
 their house1 where they had formerly a 
custom of  choosing kings for such a    
season1 and allowing him his expences at
 the  charge of the society3 ,one of our

 kings1 said my friend1 carried his     
royal  inclination a little too far1 and
 there was a committee ordered to look  
into the management of his treasury4    
,among other things it appeared1 that   
his ,majesty walking incog4 in the      
cloister1 had overheard a poor man say  
to another1 ,such a small sum would make
 me the happiest man in the world4  ,the
 king out of his royal compassion       
privately inquired into his  character1 
and finding him a proper object of      
charity1 sent him the money4  ,when the 
committee read the report1 the house    
passed his accounts with a  plaudite    
without further examination1 upon the   
recital of this article in  them1 #8,for
 making a man happy1 #aj3j3j4' 07#gff7  
7,m#beg7 ,at the ,english court the     
annual ,lord of ,misrule is not to be   
confounded with the ,master of the      
,revels1 who was a permanent official   
and  probably despised the temporary    
,lord as an upstart rival and intruder4 
,certainly there seems to have been at  

times bad blood between them4 ,some     
correspondence which passed between the 
two merry monarchs in the reign of      
,edward ,,vi4 has been preserved1 and   
from it we learn that on one occasion   
the ,lord of ,misrule had much          
difficulty in extracting from the       
,master of  the ,revels the fool's coat1
 hobby-horses1 and other trumpery       
paraphernalia  which he required for the
 proper support of his dignity4 ,indeed 
the  costumes furnished by his rival    
were so shabby that his lordship        
returned  them with a note1 in which he 
informed the ,master of the ,revels that
 the  gentlemen of rank and position who
 were to wear these liveries stood too  
much on their dignity to be seen        
prancing about the streets of ,london   
rigged out in such old slops4 ,the      
,lords of ,council had actually to      
interpose in the petty squabble between 
the two potentates47#gfg7    7,m#beh7   
,in ,france the counterparts of these   
,english ,lords of ,misrule  masqueraded

 in clerical attire as mock ,bishops1   
,archbishops1 ,popes1 or  ,abbots4 ,the 
festival at which they disported        
themselves was known as the  ,festival  
of ,fools 7,fte des ,fous71 which fell  
in different places at  different dates1
 sometimes on ,christmas ,day1 sometimes
 on ,st4 ,stephen's  ,day 7the          
twenty-sixth of ,december71 sometimes on
 ,new ,year's ,day1 and  sometimes on   
,twelfth ,day4 ,according to one account
 8on the first day1  which was the      
festival of ,christmas1 the lower orders
 of clergy and monks  cried in unison   
,nol 7,christmas7 and gave themselves up
 to jollity4 ,on  the morrow1 ,st4      
,stephen's ,day1 the deacons held a     
council to elect a ,pope  or ,patriarch 
of ,fools1 a ,bishop or ,archbishop of  
,innocents1 an ,abbot of  ,ninnies2 next
 day1 the festival of ,st4 ,john1 the   
subdeacons began the  dance in his      
honour2 afterwards1 on the fourth day1  
the festival of the  ,holy ,innocents1  
the choristers and minor clergy claimed 

the ,pope or ,bishop  or ,abbot elect1  
who made his triumphal entry into the   
church on  ,circumcision ,day 7the first
 of ,january7 and sat enthroned         
pontifically  till the evening of       
,epiphany4 ,it was then the joyous reign
 of this ,pope or  this ,bishop or this 
,abbot of ,folly which constituted the  
,festival of ,fools  and dominated its  
whimsical phases1 the grotesque and     
sometimes impious  masquerades1 the     
merry and often disgusting scenes1 the  
furious orgies1  the dances1 the games1 
the profane songs1 the impudent parodies
 of the  catholic liturgy407#gfh7 ,at   
these parodies of the most solemn rites 
of the  church the priests1 wearing     
grotesque masks and sometimes dressed as
  women1 danced in the choir and sang   
obscene chants3 laymen disguised as     
monks and nuns mingled with the clergy3 
the altar was transformed into a        
tavern1 where the deacons and subdeacons
 ate sausages and black-puddings  or    
played at dice and cards under the nose 

of the celebrant2 and the  censers      
smoked with bits of old shoes instead of
 incense1 filling the  church with a    
foul stench4 ,after playing these pranks
 and running1  leaping1 and cutting     
capers through the whole church1 they   
rode about the  town in mean carts1     
exchanging scurrilities with the crowds 
of laughing  and jeering                
spectators47#gfi7    7,m#bei7 ,amongst  
the buffooneries of the ,festival of    
,fools one of the most  remarkable was  
the introduction of an ass into the     
church1 where various  pranks were      
played with the animal4 ,at ,autun the  
ass was led with great  ceremony to the 
church under a cloth of gold1 the       
corners of which were  held by four     
canons2 and on entering the sacred      
edifice the animal was  wrapt in a rich 
cope1 while a parody of the mass was    
performed4 ,a regular  ,latin liturgy in
 glorification of the ass was chanted on
 these occasions1  and the celebrant    
priest imitated the braying of an ass4  

,at ,beauvais the  ceremony was         
performed every year on the fourteenth  
of ,january4 ,a young  girl with a child
 in her arms rode on the back of the ass
 in imitation of  the ,flight into      
,egypt4 ,escorted by the clergy and the 
people she was led  in triumph from the 
cathedral to the parish church of ,st4  
,stephen4 ,there  she and her ass were  
introduced into the chancel and         
stationed on the left  side of the      
altar2 and a long mass was performed    
which consisted of scraps  borrowed     
indiscriminately from the services of   
many church festivals  throughout the   
year4 ,in the intervals the singers     
quenched their thirst3  the congregation
 imitated their example2 and the ass was
 fed and watered4  ,the services over1  
the animal was brought from the chancel 
into the nave1  where the whole         
congregation1 clergy and laity mixed up 
together1 danced  round the animal and  
brayed like asses4 ,finally1 after      
vespers and  compline1 the merry        

procession1 led by the precentor and    
preceded by a  huge lantern1 defiled    
through the streets to wind up the day  
with indecent  farces in a great theatre
 erected opposite the church47#ggj7     
7,m#bfj7 ,a pale reflection or          
diminutive copy of the ,festival of     
,fools was  the ,festival of the        
,innocents1 which was celebrated on     
,childermas or ,holy  ,innocents' ,day1 
the twenty-eighth of ,december4 ,the    
custom was widely  observed both in     
,france and ,england4 ,in ,france on    
,childermas or the eve of  the festival 
the choristers assembled in the church  
and chose one of their  number to be a  
,boy ,bishop1 who officiated in that    
character with mock  solemnity4 ,such   
burlesques of ecclesiastical ritual     
appear to have been  common on that day 
in monasteries and convents1 where the  
offices  performed by the clergy and    
laity were inverted for the occasion4   
,at the  ,franciscan monastery of       
,antibes1 for example1 the lay brothers1

 who  usually worked in the kitchen and 
the garden1 took the place of the       
priests on ,childermas and celebrated   
mass in church1 clad in tattered        
sacerdotal vestments turned inside out1 
holding the books upside down1  wearing 
spectacles made of orange peel1 mumbling
 an unintelligible jargon1  and uttering
 frightful cries4 ,these buffooneries   
were kept up certainly as  late as the  
eighteenth century17#gga7 and probably  
later4 ,in the great  convent of the    
,congrgation de ,notre ,dame at ,paris  
down to the latter part  of the         
nineteenth century the nuns and their   
girl pupils regularly  exchanged parts  
on ,holy ,innocents' ,day4 ,the pupils  
pretended to be nuns  and a select few  
of them were attired as such1 while the 
nuns made believe  to be pupils1 without
 however changing their dress47#ggb7    
7,m#bfa7 ,in ,england the ,boy ,bishop  
was widely popular during the later     
,middle ,ages and only succumbed to the 
austerity of the ,reformation4 ,he is   

known1 for example1 to have officiated  
in ,st4 ,paul's1 ,london1 in the        
cathedrals of ,salisbury1 ,exeter1      
,hereford1 ,gloucester1 ,lichfield1     
,norwich1  ,lincoln1 and ,york1 in great
 collegiate churches such as ,beverley  
minster1  ,st4 ,peter's1 ,canterbury1   
and ,ottery ,st4 ,mary's1 in college    
chapels such as  ,magdalen and ,all     
,souls' at ,oxford1 in the private      
chapels of the king1 and  in many parish
 churches throughout the country4 ,the  
election was usually  made on ,st4      
,nicholas's ,day 7the sixth of          
,december71 but the office and          
authority lasted till ,holy ,innocents' 
,day 7the twenty-eighth of ,december74  
,both days were appropriate1 for ,st4   
,nicholas was the patron saint of       
school children1 and ,holy ,innocents'  
,day commemorates the slaughter of the  
young children by ,herod4 ,in cathedrals
 the ,bishop was chosen from among  the 
choir boys4 ,after his election he was  
completely apparelled in the  episcopal 

vestments1 with a mitre and crosier1    
bore the title and  displayed the state 
of a ,bishop1 and exacted ceremonial    
obedience from his  fellows1 who were   
dressed like priests4 ,they took        
possession of the church  and1 with the 
exception of mass1 performed all the    
ceremonies and offices4  ,the ,boy      
,bishop preached from the pulpit4 ,at   
,salisbury the ceremonies at  which he  
presided are elaborately regulated by   
the statutes of ,roger de  ,mortival1   
enacted in #acai2 and two of the great  
service-books of the ,sarum  use1 the   
,breviary and the ,processional1 furnish
 full details of the  ministrations of  
the ,boy ,bishop and his fellows4 ,he is
 even said to have  enjoyed the right of
 disposing of such prebends as happened 
to fall vacant  during the days of his  
episcopacy4 ,but the pranks of the mock 
bishop were  not confined to the church4
 ,arrayed in full canonicals he was led 
about  with songs and dances from house 
to house1 blessing the grinning people  

and collecting money in return for his  
benedictions4 ,at ,york in the year     
#acif the ,boy ,bishop is known to have 
gone on his rounds to places so far     
distant as ,bridlington1 ,leeds1        
,beverley1 ,fountains ,abbey1 and       
,allerton2  and the profits which he    
made were considerable4 ,william of     
,wykeham  ordained in #adjj that a ,boy 
,bishop should be chosen at ,winchester 
,college  and another at ,new ,college1 
,oxford1 and that he should recite the  
office  at the ,feast of the ,innocents4
 ,his example was followed some forty   
years  afterwards in the statutes of the
 royal foundations of ,eton ,college and
 of  ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,from
 being elected on ,st4 ,nicholas's ,day 
the  ,boy ,bishop was sometimes called a
 ,nicholas ,bishop 7,episcopus          
,nicholatensis747#ggc7 ,in ,spanish     
cathedrals1 also1 it appears to have    
been  customary on ,st4 ,nicholas's ,day
 to elect a chorister to the office of  
,bishop4 ,he exercised a certain        

jurisdiction till ,holy ,innocents'     
,day1 and  his prebendaries took secular
 offices1 acting in the capacity of     
alguazils1 catchpoles1 dog-whippers1 and
 sweepers47#ggd7    7,m#bfb7 ,on the    
whole it seems difficult to suppose that
 the a curious  superstitions and quaint
 ceremonies1 the outbursts of profanity 
and the  inversions of ranks1 which     
characterize the popular celebration of 
the  twelve days from ,christmas to     
,epiphany1 have any connexion with the  
episodes of ,christian history believed 
to be commemorated by these two         
festivals4 ,more probably they are      
relics of an old heathen festival       
celebrated during the twelve intercalary
 days which our forefathers  annually   
inserted in their calendar at midwinter 
in order to equalize the  short lunar   
year of twelve months with the longer   
solar year of three  hundred and        
sixty-five or sixty-six days4 ,we need  
not assume that the  license and        
buffooneries of the festive season were 

borrowed from the  ,roman ,saturnalia2  
both celebrations may well have been    
parallel and  independent deductions    
from a like primitive philosophy of     
nature4 ,there  is not indeed1 so far as
 ,i am aware1 any direct evidence that  
the  ,saturnalia at ,rome was an        
intercalary festival2 but the license   
which  characterized it1 and the        
temporary reign of a mock king1 who     
personated  ,saturn1 suggest that it may
 have been so4 ,if we were better       
acquainted  with the intercalary periods
 of peoples at a comparatively low level
 of  culture1 we might find that they   
are commonly marked by similar outbreaks
  of lawlessness and similar reigns of  
more or less nominal and farcical       
rulers4 ,but unfortunately we know too  
little about the observance of such     
periods among primitive peoples to be   
warranted in making any positive        
affirmation on the subject4    7,m#bfc7 
,however1 there are grounds for thinking
 that intercalary periods  have commonly

 been esteemed unlucky4 ,the ,aztecs    
certainly regarded as very  unlucky the 
five supplementary days which they added
 at the end of every  year in order to  
make up a total of three hundred and    
sixty-five  days47#gge7 ,these five     
supplementary days1 corresponding to the
 last four  of ,january and the first of
 ,february1 were called nemontemi1 which
 means  8vacant10 8superfluous10 or     
8useless40 ,being dedicated to no god1  
they  were deemed inauspicious1 equally 
unfit for the services of religion and  
the transaction of civil business4      
,during their continuance no sacrifices 
were offered by the priests and no      
worshippers frequented the temples4 ,no 
cases were tried in the courts of       
justice4 ,the houses were not swept4    
,people abstained from all actions of   
importance and confined themselves to   
performing such as could not be avoided1
 or spent the time in paying  visits to 
each other4 ,in particular they were    
careful during these fatal  days not to 

fall asleep in the daytime1 not to      
quarrel1 and not to  stumble2 because   
they thought that if they did such      
things at that time  they would continue
 to do so for ever4 ,persons born on any
 of these days  were deemed unfortunate1
 destined to fail in their undertakings 
and to  live in wretchedness and poverty
 all their time on earth47#ggf7 ,the    
,mayas  of ,yucatan employed a calendar 
like that of the ,aztecs1 and they too  
looked upon the five supplementary days 
at the end of the year as unlucky  and  
of evil omen2 hence they gave no names  
to these days1 and while they  lasted   
the people stayed for the most part at  
home2 they neither washed  themselves1  
nor combed their hair1 nor loused each  
other2 and they did no  servile or      
fatiguing work lest some evil should    
befall them47#ggg7    7,m#bfd7 ,the     
ancient ,egyptians like the ,aztecs     
considered a year to consist  of three  
hundred and sixty ordinary days divided 
into months and eked out  with five     

supplementary days so as to bring the   
total number of days in  the year up to 
three hundred and sixty-five2 but       
whereas the ,aztecs  divided the three  
hundred and sixty ordinary days into    
eighteen arbitrary  divisions or months 
of twenty days each1 the ,egyptians1    
keeping much  closer to the natural     
periods marked by the phases of the     
moon1 divided  these days into twelve   
months of thirty days each47#ggh7 ,this 
mode of  regulating the calendar appears
 to be exceedingly ancient in ,egypt and
 may  even date from the prehistoric    
period2 for the five days over and above
  the year 7haru duat hiru ronpit7 are  
expressly mentioned in the texts  of the
 pyramids47#ggi7 ,the myth told to      
explain their origin was as  follows4   
,once on a time the earth-god ,keb lay  
secretly with the  sky-goddess ,nut1 and
 the sun-god ,ra in his anger cursed the
 goddess1  saying that she should give  
birth to her offspring neither in any   
month  nor in any year4 ,he thought1 no 

doubt1 by this imprecation to prevent   
her  from bringing forth the fruit of   
her womb4 ,but he was outwitted by the  
wily ,thoth1 who engaged the goddess of 
the moon in a game of draughts and      
having won the game took as a forfeit   
from her the seventieth part of  every  
day in the year1 and out of the         
fractions thus abstracted he made up    
five new days1 which he added to the old
 year of three hundred and sixty  days4 
,as these days formed no part either of 
a month or of a year1 the  goddess ,nut 
might be delivered in them without      
rendering the sun-god's  curse void and 
of no effect4 ,accordingly she bore     
,osiris on the first of  the days1      
,horus on the second1 ,set or ,typhon on
 the third1 ,isis on the  fourth1 and   
,nephthys on the fifth4 ,of these five  
supplementary or  intercalary days the  
third1 as the birthday of the evil deity
 ,set or  ,typhon1 was deemed unlucky1  
and the ,egyptian kings neither         
transacted  business on it nor attended 

to their persons till nightfall47#ghj7  
,thus it  appears that the ancient      
,egyptians regarded the five            
supplementary or  intercalary days as   
belonging neither to a month nor to a   
year1 but as  standing outside of both  
and forming an extraordinary period     
quite apart  and distinct from the      
ordinary course of time4 ,it is         
probable1 though we  cannot prove it1   
that in all countries intercalary days  
or months have  been so considered by   
the primitive astronomers who first     
observed the  discrepancy between solar 
and lunar time and attempted to         
reconcile it by  the expedient of       
intercalation4    7,m#bfe7 ,thus we     
infer with some probability that the    
sacred ,twelve ,days or  ,nights at     
midwinter derive their peculiar         
character in popular custom and         
superstition from the circumstance that 
they were originally an  intercalary    
period inserted annually at the end of a
 lunar year of three  hundred and       

fifty-four days for the purpose of      
equating it to a solar year  reckoned at
 three hundred and sixty-six days4      
,however1 there are grounds  for        
thinking that at a very early time the  
,aryan peoples sought to correct  their 
lunar year1 not by inserting twelve     
supplementary days every year1  but by  
allowing the annual deficiency to       
accumulate for several years and  then  
supplying it by a whole intercalary     
month4 ,in ,india the ,aryans of the    
,vedic age appear to have adopted a year
 of three hundred and sixty days1       
divided into twelve months of thirty    
days each1 and to have remedied the     
annual deficiency of five days by       
intercalating a whole month of thirty   
days every fifth year1 thus regulating  
their calendar according to a five      
years' cycle47#gha7 ,the ,celts of      
,gaul1 as we learn from the ,coligny    
calendar1 also adopted a five years'    
cycle1 but they managed it  differently4
 ,they retained the old lunar year of   

three hundred and  fifty-four days      
divided into twelve months1 six of      
thirty days and six of  twenty-nine     
days2 but instead of intercalating      
twelve days every year to  restore the  
balance between lunar and solar time    
they intercalated a month  of thirty    
days every two and a half years1 so that
 in each cycle of five  years the total 
number of intercalary days was sixty1   
which was equivalent  to intercalating  
twelve days annually4 ,thus the result  
at the end of each  cycle of five years 
was precisely the same as it would have 
been if they  had followed the old      
system of annual intercalation47#ghb7   
,why they  abandoned the simple and     
obvious expedient of annually           
intercalating  twelve days1 and adopted 
instead the more recondite system of    
intercalating a month of thirty days    
every two and a half years1 is not      
plain4 ,it may be that religious or     
political motives unknown to us         
concurred with practical considerations 

to recommend the change4 ,one  result of
 the reform would be the abolition of   
the temporary king who1 if  ,i am right1
 used to bear a somewhat tumultuary sway
 over the community  during the         
saturnalia of the ,twelve ,days4        
,perhaps the annually recurring         
disorders which attended that period of 
license were not the least urgent  of   
the reasons which moved the rulers to   
strike the twelve intercalary  days out 
of the year and to replace them by an   
intercalary month at longer  intervals4 
7,m#bff7 ,however that may be1 the      
equivalence of the new intercalary month
  to the old intercalary ,twelve ,days  
multiplied by two and a half is         
strongly suggested by a remarkable      
feature of the ,coligny calendar2 for in
  it the thirty days of the intercalary 
month1 which bore the name of  ,ciallos1
 are named after the ordinary twelve    
months of the year4 ,thus the  first day
 of the intercalary month is called     
,samon1 which is the name of  the first 

month of the year2 the second day of the
 month is called  ,dumannos1 which is   
the name of the second month of the     
year2 the third day  of the month is    
called ,rivros1 which is the name of the
 third month of the  year2 the fourth   
day of the month is called ,anacan1     
which is the name of  the fourth month  
of the year2 and so on with all the     
rest1 so that the  thirty days of the   
intercalary month bear the names of the 
twelve months  of the year repeated two 
and a half times47#ghc7 ,this seems to  
shew that1  just as our modern peasants 
regard the ,twelve ,days as representing
 each a  month of the year in their     
chronological order1 so the old ,celts  
of ,gaul  who drew up the ,coligny      
calendar regarded the thirty days of the
  intercalary month as representing the 
thirty ordinary months which were to    
follow it till the next intercalation   
took place4 ,and we may conjecture  that
 just as our modern peasants still draw 
omens from the ,twelve ,days for  the   

twelve succeeding months1 so the old    
,celts drew omens from the thirty  days 
of the intercalary month for the thirty 
months of the two and a half  succeeding
 years4 ,indeed we may suppose that the 
reformers of the calendar  transferred1 
or attempted to transfer1 to the new    
intercalary month the  whole of the     
quaint customs and superstitions which  
from time immemorial  had clustered     
round the twelve intercalary days of the
 old year4 ,thus1  like the old ,twelve 
,days of midwinter1 the thirty days of  
the new  intercalary month may have     
formed an interregnum or break in the   
ordinary  course of government1 a       
tumultuary period of general license1   
during which  the ordinary rules of law 
and morality were suspended and the     
direction of  affairs committed to a    
temporary and more or less farcical     
ruler or ,king  of the ,bean1 who may   
possibly have had to pay with his life  
for his brief  reign of thirty days4    
,the floating traditions of such merry  

monarchs and  of the careless           
happy-go-lucky life under them may have 
crystallized in  after ages into the    
legend of ,saturn and the ,golden ,age4 
,if that was  so--and ,i put forward the
 hypothesis for no more than a web of   
conjectures  woven from the gossamer    
threads of popular superstition--we can 
understand  why the ,twelve ,days1      
intercalated every year in the old      
calendar1 should  have survived to the  
present day in the memory of the people1
 whereas the  thirty days1 intercalated 
every two and a half years in the new   
calendar1  have long been forgotten4 ,it
 is the simplest ideas that live longest
 in  the simple minds of the peasantry2 
and since the intercalation of twelve   
days in every year to allow the lagging 
moon to keep pace with the longer       
stride of the sun is certainly an easier
 and more obvious expedient than  to    
wait for two and a half years till he   
has outrun her by thirty days1 we  need 
not wonder that this ancient mode of    

harmonizing lunar and solar time  should
 have lingered in the recollection and  
in the usages of the people  ages after 
the more roundabout method1 which       
reflective minds had devised  for       
accomplishing the same end1 had faded   
alike from the memory of the  peasant   
and the page of the historian4          
#c4 ,the ,saturnalia and ,lent4         
7,m#bfg7 ,as the ,carnival is always    
held on the last three days before the  
beginning of ,lent1 its date shifts     
somewhat from year to year1 but it      
invariably falls either in ,february or 
,march4 ,hence it does not coincide     
with the date of the ,saturnalia1 which 
within historical times seems to  have  
been always celebrated in ,december even
 in the old days1 before  ,caesar's     
reform of the calendar1 when the ,roman 
year ended with ,february  instead of   
,december47#ghd7 ,yet if the            
,saturnalia1 like many other seasons  of
 license1 was originally celebrated as a
 sort of public purification at  the end

 of the old year or the beginning of the
 new one1 it may at a still  more remote
 period1 when the ,roman year began with
 ,march1 have been  regularly held      
either in ,february or ,march and       
therefore at approximately  the same    
date as the modern ,carnival4 ,so strong
 and persistent are the  conservative   
instincts of the peasantry in respect to
 old custom1 that it  would be no matter
 for surprise if1 in rural districts of 
,italy1 the  ancient festival continued 
to be celebrated at the ancient time    
long after  the official celebration of 
the ,saturnalia in the towns had been   
shifted  from ,february to ,december4   
,latin ,christianity1 which struck at   
the root of  official or civic paganism1
 has always been tolerant of its rustic 
cousins1 the popular festivals and      
ceremonies which1 unaffected by         
political and religious revolutions1 by 
the passing of empires and of  gods1    
have been carried on by the people with 
but little change from time  immemorial1

 and represent in fact the original     
stock from which the state  religions of
 classical antiquity were comparatively 
late offshoots4 ,thus  it may very well 
have come about that while the new faith
 stamped out the  ,saturnalia in the    
towns1 it suffered the original         
festival1 disguised by a  difference of 
date1 to linger unmolested in the       
country2 and so the old  feast of       
,saturn1 under the modern name of the   
,carnival1 has reconquered  the cities1 
and goes on merrily under the eye and   
with the sanction of the  ,catholic     
,church4    7,m#bfh7 ,the opinion that  
the ,saturnalia originally fell in      
,february or the  beginning of ,march   
receives some support from the          
circumstance that the  festival of the  
,matronalia1 at which mistresses feasted
 their slaves just  as masters did      
theirs at the ,saturnalia1 always       
continued to be held on  the first of   
,march1 even when the ,roman year began 
with ,january47#ghe7 ,it  is further not

 a little recommended by the            
consideration that this date  would be  
eminently appropriate for the festival  
of ,saturn1 the old ,italian  god of    
sowing and planting4 ,it has always been
 a puzzle to explain why  such a        
festival should have been held at       
midwinter2 but on the present           
hypothesis the mystery vanishes4 ,with  
the ,italian farmer ,february and       
,march were the great season of the     
spring sowing and planting27#ghf7       
nothing could be more natural than that 
the husbandman should inaugurate  the   
season with the worship of the deity to 
whom he ascribed the function  of       
quickening the seed4 ,it is no small    
confirmation of this theory that  the   
last day of the ,carnival1 namely       
,shrove ,tuesday1 is still1 or was down 
to recent times1 the customary season in
 ,central ,europe for promoting the     
growth of the crops by means of leaps   
and dances47#ghg7 ,the custom fits in   
very well with the view which derives   

the ,carnival from an old festival of   
sowing such as the ,saturnalia probably 
was in its origin4 ,further1 the        
orgiastic character of the festival is  
readily explained by the help of  facts 
which met us in a former part of our    
investigation4 ,we have seen  that      
between the sower and the seed there is 
commonly supposed to exist a            
sympathetic connexion of such a nature  
that his conduct directly affects  and  
can promote or retard the growth of the 
crops47#ghh7 ,what wonder then  if the  
simple husbandman imagined that by      
cramming his belly1 by swilling  and    
guzzling just before he proceeded to sow
 his fields1 he thereby  imparted       
additional vigour to the seed87#ghi7    
7,m#bfi7 ,but while his crude philosophy
 may thus have painted gluttony and     
intoxication in the agreeable colours of
 duties which he owed to himself1  to   
his family1 and to the commonwealth1 it 
is possible that the zest with  which he
 acquitted himself of his obligations   

may have been whetted by a  less        
comfortable reflection4 ,in modern times
 the indulgence of the  ,carnival is    
immediately followed by the abstinence  
of ,lent2 and if the  ,carnival is the  
direct descendant of the ,saturnalia1   
may not ,lent in like  manner be merely 
the continuation1 under a thin disguise1
 of a period of  temperance which was   
annually observed1 from superstitious   
motives1 by  ,italian farmers long      
before the ,christian era8 ,direct      
evidence of this1 so  far as ,i am      
aware1 is not forthcoming2 but we have  
seen that a practice of  abstinence from
 fleshly lusts has been observed by     
various peoples as a  sympathetic charm 
to foster the growth of the seed27#gij7 
and such an  observance would be an     
appropriate sequel to the ,saturnalia1  
if that  festival was indeed1 as ,i     
conjecture it to have been1 originally  
held in  spring as a religious or       
magical preparation for sowing and      
planting4 ,when  we consider how widely 

diffused is the belief in the           
sympathetic influence  which human      
conduct1 and especially the intercourse 
of the sexes1 exerts  on the fruits of  
the earth1 we may be allowed to         
conjecture that the  ,lenten fast1 with 
the rule of continence which is         
recommended1 if not  strictly enjoined1 
by the ,catholic and ,coptic churches   
during that  season17#gia7 was in its   
origin intended1 not so much to         
commemorate the  sufferings of a dying  
god1 as to foster the growth of the     
seed1 which in  the bleak days of early 
spring the husbandman commits with      
anxious care  and misgiving to the bosom
 of the naked earth4 ,ecclesiastical    
historians  have been puzzled to say why
 after much hesitation and great        
diversity of  usage in different places 
the ,christian church finally adopted   
forty days  as the proper period for the
 mournful celebration of ,lent47#gib7   
,perhaps in  coming to this decision the
 authorities were guided1 as so often1  

by a  regard for an existing pagan      
celebration of similar character and    
duration  which they hoped by a change  
of name to convert into a ,christian    
solemnity4 ,such a heathen ,lent they   
may have found to hand in the rites of  
,persephone1 the ,greek goddess of the  
corn1 whose image1 carved out of a      
tree1 was annually brought into the     
cities and mourned for forty nights1    
after which it was burned47#gic7 ,the   
time of year when these lamentations    
took place is not mentioned by the old  
,christian writer who records them2  but
 they would fall most appropriately at  
the season when the seed was  sown or1  
in mythical language1 when the          
corn-goddess was buried1 which in       
ancient ,italy1 as we saw1 was done     
above all in the months of ,february and
  ,march4 ,we know that at the time of  
the autumnal sowing ,greek women held a 
sad and serious festival because the    
,corn-goddess ,persephone or the        
,maiden1 as they called her1 then went  

down into the earth with the sown       
grain1 and ,demeter fondly mourned her  
daughter's absence2 hence in  sympathy  
with the sorrowful mother the women     
likewise mourned and observed  a solemn 
fast and abstained from the marriage    
bed47#gid7 ,it is reasonable1           
therefore1 to suppose that they         
practised similar rules of mourning and 
abstinence for a like reason at the time
 of the spring sowing1 and that  the    
ancient ritual survives in the modern   
,lent1 which preserves the memory  of   
the ,mater ,dolorosa1 though it has     
substituted a dead ,son for a dead      
,daughter4    7,m#bgj7 ,be that as it   
may1 it is worthy of note that in ,burma
 a similar  fast1 which ,english writers
 call the ,buddhist ,lent1 is observed  
for three  months every year while the  
ploughing and sowing of the fields go   
forward2  and the custom is believed to 
be far older than ,buddhism1 which has  
merely  given it a superficial tinge    
like the veneer of ,christianity which1 

if ,i  am right1 has overlaid an old    
heathen observance in ,lent4 ,this      
,burmese  ,lent1 we are told1 covers the
 rainy season from the full moon of     
,july to  the full moon of ,october4    
8,this is the time to plough1 this is   
the time to  sow2 on the villagers'     
exertions in these months depends all   
their  maintenance for the rest of the  
year4 ,every man1 every woman1 every    
child1  has hard work of some kind or   
another4 ,and so1 what with the         
difficulties  of travelling1 what with  
the work there is to do1 and what with  
the custom  of ,lent1 every one stays at
 home4 ,it is the time for prayer1 for  
fasting1  for improving the soul4 ,many 
men during these months will live even  
as the  monks live1 will eat but before 
midday1 will abstain from tobacco4      
,there  are no plays during ,lent1 and  
there are no marriages4 ,it is the time 
for  preparing the land for the crop2 it
 is the time for preparing the soul for 
eternity4 ,the congregations on the     

,sundays will be far greater at this    
time than at any other2 there will be   
more thought of the serious things  of  
life407#gie7           #d4 ,saturnalia  
in ,ancient ,greece4      7,m#bga7      
,beyond the limits of ,italy festivals  
of the same general character  as the   
,saturnalia appear to have been held    
over a considerable area of the  ancient
 world4 ,a characteristic feature of the
 ,saturnalia1 as we saw1 was  an        
inversion of social ranks1 masters      
changing places with their slaves  and  
waiting upon them1 while slaves were    
indulged with a semblance not  merely of
 freedom but even of power and office4  
,in various parts of ,greece  the same  
hollow show of granting liberty to      
slaves was made at certain  festivals4  
,thus at a ,cretan festival of ,hermes  
the servants feasted and  their masters 
waited upon them4 ,in the month of      
,geraestius the ,troezenians  observed a
 certain solemnity lasting many days1 on
 one of which the slaves  played at dice

 with the citizens and were treated to a
 banquet by their  lords4 ,the          
,thessalians held a great festival      
called ,peloria1 which ,baton  of       
,sinope identified with the ,saturnalia1
 and of which the antiquity is  vouched 
for by a tradition that it originated   
with the ,pelasgians4 ,at this  festival
 sacrifices were offered to ,pelorian   
,zeus1 tables splendidly  adorned were  
set out1 all strangers were invited to  
the feast1 all  prisoners released1 and 
the slaves sat down to the banquet1     
enjoyed full  freedom of speech1 and    
were served by their masters47#gif7     
7,m#bgb7 ,but the ,greek festival which 
appears to have corresponded most       
closely to the ,italian ,saturnalia was 
the ,cronia or festival of ,cronus1 a   
god whose barbarous myth and cruel      
ritual clearly belong to a very early   
stratum of ,greek religion1 and who was 
by the unanimous voice of antiquity     
identified with ,saturn4 ,we are told   
that his festival was celebrated in     

most parts of ,greece1 but especially at
 ,athens1 where the old god and his     
wife ,rhea had a shrine near the        
stately1 but far more modern1 temple of 
,olympian ,zeus4 ,a joyous feast1 at    
which masters and slaves sat down       
together1 formed a leading feature of   
the solemnity4 ,at ,athens the  festival
 fell in the height of summer1 on the   
twelfth day of the month  ,hecatombaeon1
 formerly called the month of ,cronus1  
which answered nearly  to ,july2 and    
tradition ran that ,cecrops1 the first  
king of ,attica1 had  founded an altar  
in honour of ,cronus and ,rhea1 and had 
ordained that  master and man should    
share a common meal when the harvest was
 got  in47#gig7 ,yet there are          
indications that at ,athens the ,cronia 
may once have  been a spring festival4  
,for a cake with twelve knobs1 which    
perhaps  referred to the twelve months  
of the year1 was offered to ,cronus by  
the  ,athenians on the fifteenth day of 
the month ,elaphebolion1 which          

corresponded roughly to ,march17#gih7   
and there are traces of a license       
accorded to slaves at the ,dionysiac    
festival of the opening of the          
wine-jars1 which fell on the eleventh   
day of the preceding month              
,anthesterion47#gii7 ,at ,olympia the   
festival of ,cronus undoubtedly occurred
  in spring2 for here a low but steep   
hill1 now covered with a tangled  growth
 of dark holly-oaks and firs1 was sacred
 to him1 and on its top  certain        
magistrates1 who bore the title of      
kings1 offered sacrifice to the  old god
 at the vernal equinox in the ,elean    
month ,elaphius47#hjj7    7,m#bgc7 ,in  
this last ceremony1 which probably went 
on year by year long  before the upstart
 ,zeus had a temple built for himself at
 the foot of the  hill1 there are two   
points of special interest1 first the   
date of the  ceremony1 and second the   
title of the celebrants4 ,first1 as to  
the date1  the spring equinox1 or the   
twenty-first of ,march1 must have fallen

 so near  the fifteenth day of the      
,athenian month ,elaphebolion1 that we  
may fairly  ask whether the ,athenian   
custom of offering a cake to ,cronus on 
that day  may not also have been an     
equinoctial ceremony4 ,in the second    
place1 the  title of kings borne by the 
magistrates who sacrificed to ,cronus   
renders  it probable that1 like         
magistrates with similar high-sounding  
titles  elsewhere in republican ,greece1
 they were the lineal descendants of    
sacred  kings whom the superstition of  
their subjects invested with the        
attributes  of divinity47#hja7 ,if that 
was so1 it would be natural enough that 
one of  these nominal kings should pose 
as the god ,cronus in person4 ,for1 like
 his  ,italian counterpart ,saturn1 the 
,greek ,cronus was believed to have been
 a  king who reigned in heaven or on    
earth during the blissful ,golden ,age1 
when men passed their days like gods    
without toil or sorrow1 when life was  a
 long round of festivity1 and death came

 like sleep1 sudden but gentle1         
announced by none of his sad            
forerunners1 the ailments and           
infirmities of  age47#hjb7 ,thus the    
analogy of the ,olympian ,cronia1       
probably one of the  oldest of ,greek   
festivals1 to the ,italian ,saturnalia  
would be very close  if originally1 as  
,i conjecture1 the ,saturnalia fell in  
spring and ,saturn  was personated at   
it1 as we have good reason to believe1  
by a man dressed  as a king4 ,may we go 
a step further and suppose that1 just as
 the man who  acted ,king ,saturn at the
 ,saturnalia was formerly slain in that 
character1  so one of the kings who     
celebrated the ,cronia at ,olympia not  
only played  the part of ,cronus1 but   
was sacrificed1 as god and victim in    
one1 on the  top of the hill8 ,cronus   
certainly bore a sinister reputation in 
antiquity4  ,he passed for an unnatural 
parent who had devoured his own         
offspring1 and  he was regularly        
identified by the ,greeks with the cruel

 ,semitic ,baals who  delighted in the  
sacrifice of human victims1 especially  
of children47#hjc7  ,a legend which     
savours strongly of infant sacrifice is 
reported of a  shrine that stood at the 
very foot of the god's own hill at      
,olympia27#hjd7  and a quite unambiguous
 story was told of the sacrifice of a   
babe to  ,lycaean ,zeus on ,mount       
,lycaeus in ,arcadia1 where the worship 
of ,zeus was  probably nothing but a    
continuation1 under a new name1 of the  
old worship  of ,cronus1 and where human
 victims appear to have been regularly  
offered  down to the ,christian         
era47#hje7 ,the ,rhodians annually      
sacrificed a man to  ,cronus in the     
month ,metageitnion2 at a later time    
they kept a condemned  criminal in      
prison till the festival of the ,cronia 
was come1 then led him  forth outside   
the gates1 made him drunk with wine1 and
 cut his  throat47#hjf7 ,with the       
parallel of the ,saturnalia before our  
eyes1 we may  surmise that the victim   

who thus ended his life in a state of   
intoxication  at the ,cronia perhaps    
personated ,king ,cronus himself1 the   
god who reigned  in the happy days of   
old when men had nothing to do but to   
eat and drink  and make merry4 ,at least
 the ,rhodian custom lends some         
countenance to the  conjecture that     
formerly a human victim may have figured
 at the sacrifice  which the so-called  
kings offered to ,cronus on his hill at 
,olympia4 ,in  this connexion it is to  
be remembered that we have already found
  well-attested examples of a custom of 
sacrificing the scions of royal  houses 
in ancient ,greece47#hjg7 ,if the god to
 whom1 or perhaps rather in  whose      
character1 the princes were sacrificed1 
was ,cronus1 it would be  natural that  
the ,greeks of a later age should       
identify him with ,baal or  ,moloch1 to 
whom in like manner ,semitic kings      
offered up their children4  ,the        
,laphystian ,zeus of ,thessaly and      
,boeotia1 whom tradition associated     

with these human sacrifices1 was        
probably1 like the ,lycaean ,zeus of    
,arcadia1 nothing but the aboriginal    
deity1 commonly known as ,cronus1 whose 
gloomy rites the ,greek invaders        
suffered the priests of the vanquished  
race to continue after the ancient      
manner1 while they quieted their        
scruples of conscience or satisfied     
their pride as conquerors by investing  
the bloodthirsty old savage with the    
name1 if not with the character1 of     
their own milder deity1 the humane and  
gracious ,zeus4           #e4           
,saturnalia in ,western ,asia4          
7,m#bgd7 ,when we pass from ,europe to  
western ,asia1 from ancient ,greece to  
ancient ,babylon and the regions where  
,babylonian influence penetrated1 we    
are still met with festivals which bear 
the closest resemblance to the  oldest  
form of the ,italian ,saturnalia4 ,the  
reader may remember the  festival of the
 ,sacaea1 on which ,i had occasion to   
touch in an earlier  part of this       

work47#hjh7 ,it was held at ,babylon    
during five days of the  month ,lous1   
beginning with the sixteenth day of the 
month4 ,during its  continuance1 just as
 at the ,saturnalia1 masters and        
servants changed  places1 the servants  
issuing orders and the masters obeying  
them2 and in  each house one of the     
servants1 dressed as a king and bearing 
the title of  ,zoganes1 bore rule over  
the household4 ,further1 just as at the 
,saturnalia  in its original form a man 
was dressed as ,king ,saturn in royal   
robes1  allowed to indulge his passions 
and caprices to the full1 and then put  
to  death1 so at the ,sacaea a condemned
 prisoner1 who probably also bore for   
the time being the title of ,zoganes1   
was arrayed in the king's attire and    
suffered to play the despot1 to use the 
king's concubines1 and to give  himself 
up to feasting and debauchery without   
restraint1 only however in  the end to  
be stript of his borrowed finery1       
scourged1 and hanged or                 

crucified47#hji7 ,from ,strabo we learn 
that this ,asiatic counterpart of the   
,saturnalia was celebrated in ,asia     
,minor wherever the worship of the      
,persian goddess ,anaitis had           
established itself4 ,he describes it as 
a  ,bacchic orgy1 at which the revellers
 were disguised as ,scythians1 and men  
and women drank and dallied together by 
day and night47#haj7    7,m#bge7 ,as the
 worship of ,anaitis1 though of ,persian
 origin1 appears to  have been deeply   
leavened with coarse elements which it  
derived from the  religion of           
,babylon17#haa7 we may perhaps regard   
,mesopotamia as the  original home from 
which the ,sacaean festival spread      
westward into other  parts of ,asia     
,minor4 ,now the ,sacaean festival1     
described by the ,babylonian  priest    
,berosus in the first book of his       
history of ,babylon1 has been  plausibly
 identified7#hab7 with the great        
,babylonian festival of the ,new  year  
called ,zakmuk1 ,zagmuk1 ,zakmuku1 or   

,zagmuku1 which has become known to  us 
in recent times through inscriptions4   
,the ,babylonian year began with  the   
spring month of ,nisan1 which seems to  
have covered the second half of  ,march 
and the first half of ,april4 ,thus the 
,new ,year festival1 which  occupied at 
least the first eleven days of ,nisan1  
probably included the  spring equinox4  
,it was held in honour of ,marduk or    
,merodach1 the chief god  of ,babylon1  
whose great temple of ,esagila in the   
city formed the religious  centre of the
 solemnity4 ,for here1 in a splendid    
chamber of the vast  edifice1 all the   
gods were believed to assemble at this  
season under the  presidency of ,marduk 
for the purpose of determining the fates
 for the new  year1 especially the fate 
of the king's life4 ,on this occasion   
the king of  ,babylon was bound annually
 to renew his regal power by grasping   
the hands  of the image of ,marduk in   
his temple1 as if to signify that he    
received  the kingdom directly from the 

deity and was unable without the divine 
assistance and authority to retain it   
for more than a year4 ,unless he thus   
formally reinstated himself on the      
throne once a year1 the king ceased to  
reign legitimately4 ,when ,babylonia was
 conquered by ,assyria1 the ,assyrian   
monarchs themselves used to come to     
,babylon and perform the ceremony of    
grasping the god's hands in order to    
establish by this solemn act their      
title to the kingdom which they had won 
for themselves by the sword2 until  they
 had done so1 they were not recognized  
as kings by their ,babylonian  subjects4
 ,some of them indeed found the ceremony
 either so burdensome or  so humiliating
 to their pride as conquerors1 that     
rather than perform it  they renounced  
the title of king of ,babylon altogether
 and contented  themselves with the more
 modest title of regent4 ,another       
notable feature  of the ,babylonian     
festival of the ,new ,year appears to   
have been a  ceremonial marriage of the 

god ,marduk2 for in a hymn relating to  
the  solemnity it is said of the deity  
that 8he hastened to his bridal40 ,the  
festival was of hoar antiquity1 for it  
was known to ,gudea1 an old king of     
,southern ,babylonia who flourished     
between two and three thousand years    
before the beginning of our era1 and it 
is mentioned in an early account  of the
 ,great ,flood4 ,at a much later period 
it is repeatedly referred to by  ,king  
,nebuchadnezzar and his successors4     
,nebuchadnezzar records how he  built of
 bricks and bitumen a chapel or altar1  
8a thing of joy and  rejoicing10 for the
 great festival of ,marduk1 the lord of 
the gods2 and we  read of the rich and  
abundant offerings which were made by   
the high priest  at this time47#hac7    
7,m#bgf7 ,unfortunately the notices of  
this ,babylonian festival of the ,new   
,year which have come down to us deal   
chiefly with its mythical aspect and    
throw little light on the mode of its   
celebration4 ,hence its identity with   

the ,sacaea must remain for the present 
a more or less probable hypothesis4  ,in
 favour of the hypothesis may be alleged
 in the first place the  resemblance of 
the names ,sacaea and ,zoganes to       
,zakmuk or ,zagmuku1 if that  was the   
real pronunciation of the name17#had7   
and in the second place the  very       
significant statement that the fate of  
the king's life was supposed  to be     
determined by the gods1 under the       
presidency of ,marduk1 at the  ,zakmuk  
or ,new ,year's festival47#hae7 ,when we
 remember that the central  feature of  
the ,sacaea appears to have been the    
saving of the king's life  for another  
year by the vicarious sacrifice of a    
criminal on the cross or  the gallows1  
we can understand that the season was a 
critical one for the  king1 and that it 
may well have been regarded as          
determining his fate for  the ensuing   
twelve months4 ,the annual ceremony of  
renewing the king's  power by contact   
with the god's image1 which formed a    

leading feature of  the ,zakmuk         
festival1 would be very appropriately   
performed immediately  after the        
execution or sacrifice of the temporary 
king who died in the  room of the real  
monarch4    7,m#bgg7 ,a difficulty1     
however1 in the way of identifying the  
,sacaea with  the ,zakmuk arises from   
the statement of ,berosus that the      
,sacaea fell on  the sixteenth day of   
,lous1 which was the tenth month of the 
,syro-,macedonian calendar and appears  
to have nearly coincided with ,july4    
,thus if the ,sacaea occurred in ,july  
and the ,zakmuk in ,march1 the theory of
  their identity could not be           
maintained4 ,but the dating of the      
months of  the ,syro-,macedonian        
calendar is a matter of some            
uncertainty2 the month of  ,lous in     
particular appears to have fallen at    
different times of the year  in         
different places17#haf7 and until we    
have ascertained beyond the reach  of   
doubt when ,lous fell at ,babylon in the

 time of ,berosus1 it would be          
premature to allow much weight to the   
seeming discrepancy in the dates of  the
 two festivals4 ,at all events1 whether 
the festivals were the same or          
different1 we are confronted with       
difficulties which in the present state 
of our knowledge may be pronounced      
insoluble4 ,if the festivals were the   
same1 we cannot explain their apparent  
difference of date3 if they were        
different1 we cannot explain their      
apparent similarity of character4 ,in   
what follows ,i shall1 with some eminent
 ,oriental scholars17#hag7              
provisionally assume the identity of    
,zakmuk and ,sacaea1 but ,i would ask   
the reader to bear clearly in mind that 
the hypothesis leaves the apparent      
discrepancy of their dates unexplained4 
,towards a solution of the problem  ,i  
can only suggest conjecturally either   
that the date of the festival had  been 
for some reason shifted in the time of  
,berosus1 or that two different         

festivals of the same type may have been
 held at different seasons of the  year1
 one in spring and one in summer1       
perhaps by two distinct but kindred     
tribes1 who retained their separate     
religious rites after they had          
coalesced in the ,babylonian empire4    
,both conjectures might be supported by 
analogies4 ,on the one hand1 for        
example1 in the ,jewish calendar ,new   
,year's  ,day was shifted under         
,babylonian influence from autumn to    
spring17#hah7 and  in a later part of   
this work we shall see that the ,chinese
 festival of new  fire1 at first        
celebrated in spring1 was afterwards    
shifted to the summer  solstice1 only   
however to be brought back at a later   
time to its original  date4 ,on the     
other hand1 the popular festivals of our
 ,european peasantry  afford many       
examples of rites which appear to be    
similar in character1  though they fall 
at different times of the year2 such1   
for instance1 are  the ceremonies       

concerned with vegetation on ,may ,day1 
,whitsuntide1 and  ,midsummer           
,day17#hai7 and the fire festivals which
 are distributed at still  wider        
intervals throughout the months47#hbj7  
,similarly in ancient ,italy the        
agricultural festival of the ,ambarvalia
 was celebrated by ,italian farmers  at 
different dates in different            
places47#hba7 ,these cases may warn us  
against the danger of hastily inferring 
an essential difference between  ,zakmuk
 and ,sacaea on the ground of a real or 
apparent difference in their  dates4    
7,m#bgh7 ,a fresh and powerful argument 
in favour of the identity of the two    
festivals is furnished by the connexion 
which has been traced between both  of  
them and the ,jewish feast of           
,purim47#hbb7 ,there are good grounds   
for  believing that ,purim was unknown  
to the ,jews until after the exile1 and 
that they learned to observe it during  
their captivity in the ,east4 ,the      
festival is first mentioned in the book 

of ,esther1 which by the majority  of   
critics is assigned to the fourth or    
third century ,b4,c417#hbc7 and which   
certainly cannot be older than the      
,persian period1 since the scene of the 
narrative is laid in ,susa at the court 
of a ,persian king ,ahasuerus1 whose    
name appears to be the ,hebrew          
equivalent of ,xerxes4 ,the next        
reference to  ,purim occurs in the      
second book of ,maccabees1 a work       
written probably  about the beginning of
 our era47#hbd7 ,thus from the absence  
of all notice  of ,purim in the older   
books of the ,bible1 we may fairly      
conclude that the  festival was         
instituted or imported at a             
comparatively late date among the       
,jews4 ,the same conclusion is supported
 by the book of ,esther itself1 which   
was manifestly written to explain the   
origin of the feast and to suggest      
motives for its observance4 ,for1       
according to the author of the book1 the
  festival was established to           

commemorate the deliverance of the ,jews
 from a  great danger which threatened  
them in ,persia under the reign of ,king
  ,xerxes4 ,thus the opinion of modern  
scholars that the feast of ,purim1 as   
celebrated by the ,jews1 was of late    
date and oriental origin1 is borne out  
by the tradition of the ,jews           
themselves4 ,an examination of that     
tradition  and the mode of celebrating  
the feast renders it probable that      
,purim is  nothing but a more or less   
disguised form of the ,babylonian       
festival of  the ,sacaea or ,zakmuk4    
7,m#bgi7 ,in the first place1 the feast 
of ,purim was and is held on the        
fourteenth and fifteenth days of ,adar1 
the last month of the ,jewish year1     
which corresponds roughly to            
,march47#hbe7 ,thus the date agrees     
nearly1  though not exactly1 with the   
date of the ,babylonian ,zakmuk1 which  
fell a  fortnight later in the early    
days of the following month ,nisan4 ,a  
trace of  the original celebration of   

,purim in ,nisan may perhaps be found in
 the  statement that 8they cast ,pur1   
that is1 the lot1 before ,haman0 in     
,nisan1  the first month of the         
year47#hbf7 ,it has been suggested with 
some  plausibility that the ,jews may   
have shifted the date of ,purim in order
  that the new and foreign festival     
might not clash with their own old      
festival of the ,passover1 which began  
on the fourteenth day of ,nisan4        
,another circumstance which speaks at   
once for the alien origin of ,purim  and
 for its identity with ,zakmuk is its   
name4 ,the author of the book of        
,esther derives the name ,purim from    
pur1 8a lot107#hbg7 but no such word    
with this signification exists in       
,hebrew1 and hence we are driven to look
  for the meaning and etymology of      
,purim in some other language4 ,a       
specious  theory is that the name was   
derived from an ,assyrian word puvru1   
8an  assembly10 and referred primarily  
to the great assembly of the gods which1

  as we have seen1 formed a chief       
feature of the festival of ,zakmuk1 and 
was  held annually in the temple of     
,marduk at ,babylon for the purpose of  
determining the fates or lots of the new
 year27#hbh7 the august assembly        
appears to have been occasionally1 if   
not regularly1 designated by the  very  
name puvru47#hbi7 ,on this hypothesis   
the traditional ,jewish  explanation of 
the name ,purim preserved a genuine     
kernel of historical  truth1 or at least
 of mythical fancy1 under the husk of a 
verbal error2  for the name1 if this    
derivation of it is correct1 really     
signified1 not  8the lots10 but the     
assembly for drawing or otherwise       
determining the  lots4 ,another         
explanation which has been offered is   
8that pr or br  seems to be an old      
,assyrian word for #8stone1' and that   
therefore it is  possible that the word 
was also used to signify #8lot1' like   
the ,hebrew   #8lot1' which originally1 
no doubt1 meant #8little stone4' 07#hcj7

  ,either of these explanations of the  
name ,purim1 by tracing it back to the  
,new ,year assembly of the gods at      
,babylon for settling the lots1         
furnishes  an adequate explanation of   
the traditional association of ,purim   
with the  casting of lots--an           
association all the more remarkable and 
all the more  likely to be ancient      
because there is nothing to justify it  
either in the  ,hebrew language or in   
the ,jewish mode of celebrating the     
festival4 ,when to  this we add the     
joyous1 nay1 extravagant festivity which
 has always been  characteristic of     
,purim1 and is entirely in keeping with 
a ,new ,year  celebration1 we may       
perhaps be thought to have made out a   
fairly probable  case for holding that  
the ,jewish feast is derived from the   
,babylonian ,new  ,year festival of     
,zakmuk4 ,whether the ,jews borrowed the
 feast directly from  the ,babylonians  
or indirectly through the ,persian      
conquerors of ,babylon is  a question   

which deserves to be considered2 but the
 ,persian colouring of  the book of     
,esther speaks strongly for the view    
that ,purim came to ,israel  by way of  
,persia1 or at all events from ,babylon 
under ,persian rule1 and  this view is  
confirmed by other evidence1 to which ,i
 shall have to ask the  reader's        
attention a little later on4    7,m#bhj7
 ,if the links which bind ,purim to     
,zakmuk are reasonably strong1 the      
chain of evidence which connects the    
,jewish festival with the ,sacaea is    
much stronger4 ,nor is this surprising  
when we remember that1 while the        
popular mode of celebrating ,zakmuk is  
unknown1 we possess important and       
trustworthy details as to the manner of 
holding the ,sacaea4 ,we have seen  that
 the ,sacaea was a wild ,bacchanalian   
revel at which men and women  disguised 
themselves and drank and played together
 in a fashion that was  more gay than   
modest4 ,now this is1 or used to be1    
precisely the nature of  ,purim4 ,the   

two days of the festival1 according to  
the author of the book  of ,esther1 were
 to be kept for ever as 8days of        
feasting and gladness1 and  of sending  
portions one to another1 and gifts to   
the poor407#hca7 ,and this  joyous      
character the festival seems always to  
have retained4 ,the author of  a tract  
in the ,talmud lays it down as a rule   
that at the feast of ,purim  every ,jew 
is bound to drink until he cannot       
distinguish between the words  8,cursed 
be ,haman0 and 8,blessed be ,mordecai02 
and he tells how on one  occasion a     
certain ,rabba drank so deep at ,purim  
that he murdered a rabbi  without       
knowing what he was about4 ,indeed      
,purim has been described as the        
,jewish ,bacchanalia1 and we are told   
that at this season everything is       
lawful which can contribute to the mirth
 and gaiety of the festival47#hcb7      
,writers of the seventeenth century     
assert that during the two days1 and    
especially on the evening of the second 

day1 the ,jews did nothing but  feast   
and drink to repletion1 play1 dance1    
sing1 and make merry2 in  particular    
they disguised themselves1 men and women
 exchanging clothes1  and thus attired  
ran about like mad1 in open defiance of 
the ,mosaic law1  which expressly       
forbids men to dress as women and women 
as men47#hcc7 ,among  the ,jews of      
,frankfort1 who inhabited the squalid   
but quaint and  picturesque old street  
known as the ,judengasse1 which many of 
us still  remember1 the revelry at      
,purim ran as high as ever in the       
eighteenth  century4 ,the gluttony and  
intoxication began punctually at three  
o'clock  in the afternoon of the first  
day and went on until the whole         
community  seemed to have taken leave of
 their senses4 ,they ate and drank1 they
  frolicked and cut capers1 they reeled 
and staggered about1 they shrieked1     
yelled1 stamped1 clattered1 and broke   
each other's heads with wooden  hammers 
till the blood flowed4 ,on the evening  

of the first day the women  were        
allowed1 as a special favour1 to open   
their latticed window and look  into the
 men's synagogue1 because the great     
deliverance of the ,jews from  their    
enemies in the time of ,king ,ahasuerus 
was said to have been effected  by a    
woman4 ,a feature of the festival which 
should not be overlooked was  the acting
 of the story of ,esther as a comedy1 in
 which ,esther1 ,ahasuerus1  ,haman1    
,mordecai1 and others played their parts
 after a fashion that  sometimes        
degenerated from farce into             
ribaldry47#hcd7 ,thus on the whole we   
may take it that ,purim has always been 
a ,saturnalia1 and therefore            
corresponds in character to the ,sacaea 
as that festival has been described  for
 us by ,strabo4    7,m#bha7 ,but        
further1 when we examine the narrative  
which professes to  account for the     
institution of ,purim1 we discover in it
 not only the  strongest traces of      
,babylonian origin1 but also certain    

singular analogies  to those very       
features of the ,sacaean festival with  
which we are here more  immediately     
concerned4 ,the book of ,esther turns   
upon the fortunes of two  men1 the      
vizier ,haman and the despised ,jew     
,mordecai1 at the court of a  ,persian  
king4 ,mordecai1 we are told1 had given 
mortal offence to the  vizier1 who      
accordingly prepares a tall gallows on  
which he hopes to see  his enemy hanged1
 while he himself expects to receive the
 highest mark of  the king's favour by  
being allowed to wear the royal crown   
and the royal  robes1 and thus attired  
to parade the streets mounted on the    
king's own  horse and attended by one of
 the noblest princes1 who should        
proclaim to  the multitude his temporary
 exaltation and glory4 ,but the artful  
intrigues  of the wicked vizier         
miscarried and resulted in precisely the
 opposite of  what he had hoped and     
expected2 for the royal honours which he
 had looked  for fell to his rival      

,mordecai1 and he himself was hanged on 
the gallows  which he had made ready for
 his foe4 ,in this story we seem to     
detect a  reminiscence1 more or less    
confused1 of the ,zoganes of the        
,sacaea1 in  other words1 of the custom 
of investing a private man with the     
insignia of  royalty for a few days and 
then putting him to death on the gallows
 or the  cross4 ,it is true that in the 
narrative the part of the ,zoganes is   
divided  between two actors1 one of whom
 hopes to play the king but is hanged   
instead1 while the other acts the royal 
part and escapes the gallows to  which  
he was destined by his enemy4 ,but this 
bisection1 so to say1 of the  ,zoganes  
may have been deliberately invented by  
the ,jewish author of the  book of      
,esther for the sake of setting the     
origin of ,purim1 which it was  his     
purpose to explain1 in a light that     
should reflect glory on his own  nation4
 ,or1 perhaps more probably1 it points  
back to a custom of  appointing two mock

 kings at the ,sacaea1 one of whom was  
put to death at  the end of the         
festival1 while the other was allowed to
 go free1 at least  for a time4 ,we     
shall be the more inclined to adopt the 
latter hypothesis  when we observe that 
corresponding to the two rival aspirants
 to the  temporary kingship there appear
 in the ,jewish narrative two rival     
queens1  ,vashti and ,esther1 one of    
whom succeeds to the high estate from   
which the  other has fallen4 ,further1  
it is to be noted that ,mordecai1 the   
successful  candidate for the mock      
kingship1 and ,esther1 the successful   
candidate for  the queenship1 are linked
 together by close ties both of interest
 and  blood1 the two being said to be   
cousins4 ,this suggests that in the     
original story or the original custom   
there may have figured two pairs of     
kings and queens1 of whom one pair is   
represented in the ,jewish narrative  by
 ,mordecai and ,esther and the other by 
,haman and ,vashti4    7,m#bhb7 ,some   

confirmation of this view is furnished  
by the names of two at  least out of the
 four personages4 ,it seems to be now   
generally recognized  by ,biblical      
scholars that the name ,mordecai1 which 
has no meaning in  ,hebrew1 is nothing  
but a slightly altered form of ,marduk  
or ,merodach1 the  name of the chief god
 of ,babylon1 whose great festival was  
the ,zakmuk2 and  further1 it is        
generally admitted that ,esther in like 
manner is equivalent  to ,ishtar1 the   
great ,babylonian goddess whom the      
,greeks called ,astarte1  and who is    
more familiar to ,english readers as    
,ashtaroth4 ,the derivation  of the     
names of ,haman and ,vashti is less     
certain1 but some high  authorities are 
disposed to accept the view of ,jensen  
that ,haman is  identical with ,humman  
or ,homman1 the national god of the     
,elamites1 and  that ,vashti is in like 
manner an ,elamite goddess whose name   
,jensen read as  ,mashti in             
inscriptions4 ,now1 when we consider    

that the ,elamites were from  time      
immemorial the hereditary foes of the   
,babylonians and had their  capital at  
,susa1 the very place in which the scene
 of the book of ,esther  is laid1 we can
 hardly deny the plausibility of the    
theory that ,haman and  ,vashti on the  
one side and ,mordecai and ,esther on   
the other represent the  antagonism     
between the gods of ,elam and the gods  
of ,babylon1 and the final  victory of  
the ,babylonian deities in the very     
capital of their  rivals47#hce7 8,it is 
therefore possible10 says ,professor    
,nldeke1 8that we  here have to do with 
a feast whereby the ,babylonians        
commemorated a  victory gained by their 
gods over the gods of their neighbours  
the  ,elamites1 against whom they had so
 often waged war4 ,the ,jewish feast of 
,purim is an annual merrymaking of a    
wholly secular kind1 and it is known    
that there were similar feasts among the
 ,babylonians4 ,that the ,jews in       
,babylonia should have adopted a        

festival of this sort cannot be deemed  
improbable1 since in modern ,germany1 to
 cite an analogous case1 many ,jews     
celebrate ,christmas after the manner of
 their ,christian fellow-countrymen1  in
 so far at least as it is a secular     
institution4 ,it is true that  hitherto 
no ,babylonian feast coinciding1 like   
,purim1 with the full moon of  the      
twelfth month has been discovered2 but  
our knowledge of the ,babylonian  feasts
 is derived from documents of an earlier
 period4 ,possibly the  calendar may    
have undergone some change by the time  
when the ,jewish feast  of ,purim was   
established4 ,or it may be that the     
,jews intentionally shifted  the date of
 the festival which they borrowed from  
the heathen407#hcf7    7,m#bhc7         
,however1 the theory of an opposition   
between the gods of ,babylon  and the   
gods of ,elam at the festival appears to
 break down at a crucial  point2 for the
 latest and most accurate reading of the
 ,elamite  inscriptions proves1 ,i am   

informed1 that the name of the goddess  
which  ,jensen read as ,mashti1 and     
which on that assumption he legitimately
  compared to the ,hebrew ,vashti17#hcg7
 must really be read as ,parti1 between 
which and ,vashti there is no connexion4
 ,accordingly1 in a discussion of  the  
origin of ,purim it is safer at present 
to lay no weight on the  supposed       
religious antagonism between the deities
 of ,babylon and  ,elam47#hch7          
7,m#bhd7 ,if we are right in tracing the
 origin of ,purim to the ,babylonian    
,sacaea and in finding the counterpart  
of the ,zoganes in ,haman and           
,mordecai1 it would appear that the     
,zoganes during his five days of office 
personated not merely a king but a god1 
whether that god was the  ,babylonian   
,marduk or some other deity not yet     
identified4 ,the union of the  divine   
and royal characters in a single person 
is so common that we need  not be       
surprised at meeting with it in ancient 
,babylon4 ,and the view that  the mock  

king of the ,sacaea died as a god on the
 cross or the gallows is  no novelty4   
,the acute and learned ,movers long ago 
observed that 8we should  be overlooking
 the religious significance of oriental 
festivals and the  connexion of the     
,sacaea with the worship of ,anaitis1 if
 we were to treat  as a mere jest the   
custom of disguising a slave as a king4 
,we may take it  for certain that with  
the royal dignity the king of the       
,sacaea assumed  also the character of  
an oriental ruler as representative of  
the divinity1  and that when he took his
 pleasure among the women of the king's 
harem1 he  played the part of ,sandan or
 ,sardanapalus himself4 ,for according  
to  ancient oriental ideas the use of   
the king's concubines constituted a     
claim to the throne1 and we know from   
,dio that the five-days' king  received 
full power over the harem4 ,perhaps he  
began his reign by publicly  cohabiting 
with the king's concubines1 just as     
,absalom went in to his  father's       

concubines in a tent spread on the roof 
of the palace before all  ,israel1 for  
the purpose of thereby making known and 
strengthening his  claim to the         
throne407#hci7    7,m#bhe7 ,whatever may
 be thought of this latter conjecture1  
there can be no  doubt that ,movers is  
right in laying great stress both on the
 permission  given to the mock king to  
invade the real king's harem1 and on the
  intimate connexion of the ,sacaea with
 the worship of ,anaitis4 ,that         
connexion is vouched for by ,strabo1 and
 when we consider that in ,strabo's     
time the cult of the old ,persian       
goddess ,anaitis was thoroughly         
saturated  with ,babylonian elements and
 had practically merged in the sensual  
worship  of the ,babylonian ,ishtar or  
,astarte17#hdj7 we shall incline to view
 with  favour ,movers's further         
conjecture1 that a female slave may have
 been  appointed to play the divine     
queen to the part of the divine king    
supported by the ,zoganes1 and that     

reminiscences of such a queen have      
survived in the myth or legend of       
,semiramis4 ,according to tradition1    
,semiramis was a fair courtesan beloved 
by the king of ,assyria1 who took  her  
to wife4 ,she won the king's heart so   
far that she persuaded him to  yield up 
to her the kingdom for five days1 and   
having assumed the sceptre  and the     
royal robes she made a great banquet on 
the first day1 but on the  second day   
she shut up her husband in prison or put
 him to death and  thenceforward reigned
 alone47#hda7 ,taken with ,strabo's     
evidence as to the  association of the  
,sacaea with the worship of ,anaitis1   
this tradition  seems clearly to point  
to a custom of giving the ,zoganes1     
during his five  days' reign1 a queen   
who represented the goddess ,anaitis or 
,semiramis or  ,astarte1 in short the   
great ,asiatic goddess of love and      
fertility1 by  whatever name she was    
called4 ,for that in ,eastern legend    
,semiramis was a  real queen of         

,assyria1 who had absorbed many of the  
attributes of the  goddess ,astarte1    
appears to be established by the        
researches of modern  scholars2 in      
particular it has been shewn by         
,robertson ,smith that the  worship of  
,anaitis is not only modelled on        
,astarte worship in general1 but        
corresponds to that particular type of  
it which was specially associated  with 
the name of ,semiramis47#hdb7 ,the      
identity of ,anaitis and the mythical   
,semiramis is clearly proved by the     
circumstance that the great sanctuary   
of ,anaitis at ,zela in ,pontus was     
actually built upon a mound of          
,semiramis27#hdc7 probably the old      
worship of the ,semitic goddess always  
continued there even after her ,semitic 
name of ,semiramis or ,astarte had  been
 exchanged for the ,persian name of     
,anaitis1 perhaps in obedience to a     
decree of the ,persian king ,artaxerxes 
,,ii41 who first spread the worship of  
,anaitis in the west of ,asia47#hdd7 ,it

 is highly significant1 not only that   
the ,sacaean festival was annually held 
at this ancient seat of the worship  of 
,semiramis or ,astarte2 but further1    
that the whole city of ,zela was        
formerly inhabited by sacred slaves and 
harlots1 ruled over by a supreme        
pontiff1 who administered it as a       
sanctuary rather than as a city47#hde7  
,formerly1 we may suppose1 this priestly
 king himself died a violent death  at  
the ,sacaea in the character of the     
divine lover of ,semiramis1 while the   
part of the goddess was played by one of
 the sacred prostitutes4 ,the           
probability of this is greatly          
strengthened by the existence of the    
so-called mound of ,semiramis under the 
sanctuary4 ,for the mounds of           
,semiramis1 which were pointed out all  
over ,western ,asia17#hdf7 were said to 
have been the graves of her lovers whom 
she buried alive47#hdg7 ,the  tradition 
ran that the great and lustful queen    
,semiramis1 fearing to  contract a      

lawful marriage lest her husband should 
deprive her of power1  admitted to her  
bed the handsomest of her soldiers1     
only1 however1 to  destroy them all     
afterwards47#hdh7 ,now this tradition is
 one of the surest  indications of the  
identity of the mythical ,semiramis with
 the ,babylonian  goddess ,ishtar or    
,astarte4 ,for the famous ,babylonian   
epic which recounts  the deeds of the   
hero ,gilgamesh tells how1 when he      
clothed himself in  royal robes and put 
his crown on his head1 the goddess      
,ishtar was smitten  with love of him   
and wooed him to be her mate4 ,but      
,gilgamesh rejected her  insidious      
advances1 for he knew the sad fate that 
had overtaken all her  lovers1 and he   
reproached the cruel goddess1 saying3-- 
8,tammuz1 the lover of thy youth1       
,thou causest to weep every year4       
,the bright-coloured allallu bird thou  
didst love4      ,thou didst crush him  
and break his pinions4      ,in the     
woods he stands and laments1 #8,o my    

pinions6'      ,thou didst love the lion
 of perfect strength1      ,seven and   
seven times thou didst dig pit-falls for
 him4      ,thou didst love the horse   
that joyed in the fray1      ,with whip 
and spur and lash thou didst urge him   
on4      ,thou didst force him on for   
seven double hours1      ,thou didst    
force him on when wearied and thirsty2  
,his mother the goddess ,silili thou    
madest weep4      ,thou didst also love 
a shepherd of the flock1      ,who      
continually poured out for thee the     
libation1      ,and daily slaughtered   
kids for thee2      ,but thou didst     
smite him1 and didst change him into a  
wolf1      ,so that his own sheep-boys  
hunted him1      ,and his own hounds    
tore him to pieces40      7,m#bhf7 ,the 
hero also tells the miserable end of a  
gardener in the service  of the         
goddess's father4 ,the hapless swain had
 once been honoured with the  love of   
the goddess1 but when she tired of him  
she changed him into a  cripple so that 

he could not rise from his bed4         
,therefore ,gilgamesh fears  to share   
the fate of all her former lovers and   
spurns her proffered  favours47#hdi7    
,but it is not merely that the myth of  
,ishtar thus tallies  with the legend of
 ,semiramis2 the worship of the goddess 
was marked by a  profligacy which has   
found its echo in the loose character   
ascribed by  tradition to the queen4    
,inscriptions1 which confirm and        
supplement the  evidence of ,herodotus1 
inform us that ,ishtar was served by    
harlots of  three different classes all 
dedicated to her worship4 ,indeed1 there
 is  reason to think that these women   
personated the goddess herself1 since   
one  of the names given to them is      
applied also to her47#hej7    7,m#bhg7  
,thus we can hardly doubt that the      
mythical ,semiramis is  substantially a 
form of ,ishtar or ,astarte1 the great  
,semitic goddess of  love and fertility2
 and if this is so1 we may assume with  
at least a fair  degree of probability  

that the high pontiff of ,zela or his   
deputy1 who  played the king of the     
,sacaea at the sanctuary of ,semiramis1 
perished as  one of the unhappy lovers  
of the goddess1 perhaps as ,tammuz1 whom
 she  caused 8to weep every year40 ,when
 he had run his brief meteoric career of
  pleasure and glory1 his bones would be
 laid in the great mound which  covered 
the mouldering remains of many mortal   
gods1 his predecessors1 whom  the       
goddess had honoured with her fatal     
love47#hea7    7,m#bhh7 ,here then at   
the great sanctuary of the goddess in   
,zela it appears  that her myth was     
regularly translated into action2 the   
story of her love  and the death of her 
divine lover was performed year by year 
as a sort of  mystery-play by men and   
women who lived for a season and        
sometimes died in  the character of the 
visionary beings whom they personated4  
,the intention  of these sacred dramas1 
we may be sure1 was neither to amuse nor
 to  instruct an idle audience1 and as  

little were they designed to gratify the
  actors1 to whose baser passions they  
gave the reins for a time4 ,they were   
solemn rites which mimicked the doings  
of divine beings1 because man  fancied  
that by such mimicry he was able to     
arrogate to himself the divine          
functions and to exercise them for the  
good of his fellows4 ,the operations  of
 nature1 to his thinking1 were carried  
on by mythical personages very  like    
himself2 and if he could only assimilate
 himself to them completely  he would be
 able to wield all their powers4 ,this  
is probably the original  motive of most
 religious dramas or mysteries among    
rude peoples4 ,the  dramas are played1  
the mysteries are performed1 not to     
teach the  spectators the doctrines of  
their creed1 still less to entertain    
them1 but  for the purpose of bringing  
about those natural effects which they  
represent in mythical disguise2 in a    
word1 they are magical ceremonies and   
their mode of operation is mimicry or   

sympathy4 ,we shall probably not err  in
 assuming that many myths1 which we now 
know only as myths1 had once  their     
counterpart in magic2 in other words1   
that they used to be acted as  a means  
of producing in fact the events which   
they describe in figurative  language4  
,ceremonies often die out while myths   
survive1 and thus we are  left to infer 
the dead ceremony from the living myth4 
,if myths are1 in a  sense1 the         
reflections or shadows of men cast upon 
the clouds1 we may say  that these      
reflections continue to be visible in   
the sky and to inform us  of the doings 
of the men who cast them1 long after the
 men themselves are  not only beyond our
 range of vision but sunk beneath the   
horizon4    7,m#bhi7 ,the principle of  
mimicry is implanted so deep in human   
nature and  has exerted so far-reaching 
an influence on the development of      
religion as  well as of the arts that it
 may be well1 even at the cost of a     
short  digression1 to illustrate by     

example some of the modes in which      
primitive  man has attempted to apply it
 to the satisfaction of his wants by    
means of  religious or magical dramas4  
,for it seems probable that the masked  
dances  and ceremonies1 which have      
played a great part in the social life  
of  savages in many quarters of the     
world1 were primarily designed to       
subserve  practical purposes rather than
 simply to stir the emotions of the     
spectators and to while away the languor
 and tedium of idle hours4 ,the  actors 
sought to draw down blessings on the    
community by mimicking certain  powerful
 superhuman beings and in their assumed 
character working those  beneficent     
miracles which in the capacity of mere  
men they would have  confessed          
themselves powerless to effect4 ,in fact
 the aim of these  elementary dramas1   
which contain in germ the tragedy and   
comedy of  civilized nations1 was the   
acquisition of superhuman power for the 
public  good4 ,that this is the real    

intention of at least many of these     
dramatic  performances will appear from 
the following accounts1 which for the   
sake  of accuracy ,i will quote for the 
most part in the words of the original  
observers4    7,m#bij7 ,a conspicuous   
feature in the social life of the       
,indian tribes of  ,north-,western      
,america are the elaborate masked dances
 or pantomimes in  which the actors     
personate spirits or legendary animals4 
,most of them  appear designed to bring 
before the eyes of the people the       
guardian  spirits of the clans4 8,owing 
to the fact that these spirits are      
hereditary1 their gifts are always      
contained in the legend detailing their 
acquisition by the ancestor of a clan4  
,the principal gifts in these tales  are
 the magic harpoon which insures success
 in sea-otter hunting2 the  death       
bringer which1 when pointed against     
enemies1 kills them2 the water  of life 
which resuscitates the dead2 the burning
 fire which1 when pointed  against an   

object1 burns it2 and a dance1 a song1  
and cries which are  peculiar to the    
spirit4 ,the gift of this dance means   
that the protg of  the spirit is to     
perform the same dances which have been 
shown to him4 ,in  these dances he      
personates the spirit4 ,he wears his    
mask and his  ornaments4 ,thus the dance
 must be considered a dramatic          
performance of the  myth relating to the
 acquisition of the spirit1 and shows to
 the people  that the performer by his  
visit to the spirit has obtained his    
powers and  desires4 ,when nowadays a   
spirit appears to a young ,indian1 he   
gives him  the same dance1 and the youth
 also returns from the initiation filled
 with  the powers and desires of the    
spirit4 ,he authenticates his initiation
 by  his dance in the same way as his   
mythical ancestor did4 ,the obtaining of
  the magical gifts from these spirits  
is called lokoala1 while the person  who
 has obtained them becomes naualaku1    
supernatural1 which is also the  quality

 of the spirit himself4 ,the ornaments  
of all these spirits are  described as  
made of cedar bark1 which is dyed red in
 the juice of alder  bark4 ,they appear 
to their devotees only in winter1 and   
therefore the  dances are also performed
 only in winter407#heb7 ,in some of the 
dances the  performers imitate animals1 
and the explanation which the ,indians  
give of  these dances is that 8the      
ceremonial was instituted at the time   
when men  had still the form of animals2
 before the transformer had put         
everything  into its present shape4 ,the
 present ceremonial is a repetition of  
the  ceremonial performed by the man    
animals or1 as we may say1 a            
dramatization  of the myth4 ,therefore  
the people who do not represent spirits1
 represent  these animals407#hec7       
7,m#bia7 ,another observer of these     
,indians writes on the same subject as  
follows3 8,the dukwally 7i4e41 lokoala7 
and other tamanawas7#hed7  performances 
are exhibitions intended to represent   

incidents connected  with their         
mythological legends4 ,there are a great
 variety1 and they seem  to take the    
place1 in a measure1 of theatrical      
performances or games  during the season
 of the religious festivals4 ,there are 
no persons  especially set apart as     
priests for the performance of these    
ceremonies1  although some1 who seem    
more expert than others1 are usually    
hired to give  life to the scenes1 but  
these performers are quite as often     
found among  the slaves or common people
 as among the chiefs1 and excepting     
during the  continuance of the          
festivities are not looked on as of any 
particular  importance4 ,on inquiring   
the origin of these ceremonies1 ,i was  
informed  that they did not originate   
with the ,indians1 but were revelations 
of the  guardian spirits1 who made known
 what they wished to be performed4 ,an  
,indian1 for instance1 who has been     
consulting with his guardian spirit1    
which is done by going through the      

washing and fasting process before      
described1 will imagine or think he is  
called upon to represent the owl4  ,he  
arranges in his mind the style of dress1
 the number of performers1 the  songs   
and dances or other movements1 and1     
having the plan perfected1  announces at
 a tamanawas meeting that he has had a  
revelation which he  will impart to a   
select few4 ,these are then taught and  
drilled in strict  secrecy1 and when    
they have perfected themselves1 will    
suddenly make their  appearance and     
perform before the astonished tribe4    
,another ,indian gets up  the           
representation of the whale1 others do  
the same of birds1 and in fact  of      
everything that they can think of4 ,if  
any performance is a success1 it  is    
repeated1 and gradually comes to be     
looked upon as one of the regular  order
 in the ceremonies2 if it does not      
satisfy the audience1 it is laid  aside4
 ,thus they have performances that have 
been handed down from remote  ages1     

while others are of a more recent       
date407#hee7    7,m#bib7 ,another       
writer1 who travelled among the ,indians
 of ,north-,western  ,america1 has      
expressed himself on this subject as    
follows3 8,the task of  representing the
 gods is undertaken in every tribe by   
some intelligent  and1 according to     
their own account1 inspired men2 they   
form the ,secret  ,societies1 in order  
that their secret arts and doctrines1   
their mummeries  and masquerades may not
 be revealed to the uninitiated and to  
the public4  ,the intention of these    
exhibitions is to confirm the faith of  
the young  people and the women in the  
ancient traditions as to the intercourse
 of  the gods with men and as to their  
own intimate relations to the gods4 ,in 
order to convince possible doubters1 the
 members of the ,secret ,societies  have
 had recourse to all kinds of mysterious
 means1 which to a civilized  man must  
appear the height of savagery2 for      
example1 they mutilate their  bodies1   

rend corpses in pieces and devour them1 
tear pieces out of the  bodies of living
 men1 and so on4 ,further1 the almost   
morbid vanity of the  ,north-,western   
,indians and their desire to win fame1  
respect1 and  distinction may have      
served as a motive for joining the      
,secret ,societies2  since every member 
of them enjoys great respect4    8,there
 were and still are hundreds of masks in
 use1 every one of which  represents a  
spirit who occurs in their legends4 ,in 
the exhibitions they  appear singly or  
in groups1 according as the legend to be
 represented  requires1 and the masked  
men are then looked upon by the         
astonished crowd1  not only as actors   
representing the gods1 but as the very  
gods themselves  who have come down from
 heaven to earth4 ,hence every such     
representative  must do exactly what    
legend says the spirit did4 ,if the     
representative  wears no mask1 as often 
happens with the ,hametzes 7the         
,cannibals or  ,biters7 or the ,pakwalla

 7,medicine-men71 then the spirit whom  
he  represents has passed into his body1
 and accordingly the man possessed by   
the spirit is not responsible for what  
he does amiss in this condition4 ,as    
the use of masks throws a sort of       
mysterious glamour over the performance 
and at the same time allows the actor to
 remain unknown1 the peculiarly  sacred 
festivals are much oftener celebrated   
with masks than without them4  ,in every
 ,secret ,society there are definite    
rules as to how often and how  long a   
mask may be used4 ,amongst the ,kwakiutl
 the masks may not1 under the  heaviest 
penalties1 be disposed of for four      
winters1 the season when such  festivals
 are usually celebrated4 ,after that    
time they may be destroyed or  hidden in
 the forest1 that no uninitiated person 
may find them1 or they  may be finally  
sold4 ,the masks are made only in       
secret1 generally in the  deep solitude 
of the woods1 in order that no          
uninitiated person may detect  the maker

 at work4444    7,m#bic7 8,the dance is 
accompanied by a song which celebrates  
in boastful  words the power of the gods
 and the mighty deeds represented in the
  performance4 ,at the main part of the 
performance all present join in the     
song1 for it is generally known to      
everybody and is repeated in recitative 
again and again4 ,it seems that new     
songs and new performances are          
constantly springing up in one or other 
of the villages through the agency  of  
some intelligent young man1 hitherto    
without a song of his own1 who  treats  
in a poetical fashion some legend which 
has been handed down orally  from their 
forefathers4 ,for every man who takes   
part in the performances  and festivals 
must make his dbut with a song composed 
by himself4 ,in  this way new songs and 
dances are constantly originating1 the  
material for  them being1 of course1    
always taken from the tribal deities of 
the  particular singer and poet407#hef7 
7,m#bid7 ,similar masquerades are in    

vogue among the neighbours of these     
,indians1 the ,esquimaux of ,bering     
,strait1 and from the following account 
it  will appear that the performances   
are based on similar ideas and beliefs4 
8,shamans make masks representing       
grotesque faces of supernatural beings  
which they claim to have seen4 ,these   
may be yu-1 which are the spirits  of   
the elements1 of places1 and of         
inanimate things in general2 the        
tunght1 or wandering genii1 or the      
shades of people and animals4 ,the      
first-named are seen in lonely places1  
on the plains and mountains or at  sea1 
and more rarely about the villages1 by  
the clairvoyant vision of the  shamans4 
,they are usually invisible to common   
eyes1 but sometimes render  themselves  
visible to the people for various       
purposes4    8,many of them1 especially 
among the tunght1 are of evil character1
  bringing sickness and misfortune upon 
people from mere wantonness or for  some
 fancied injury4 ,the ,eskimo believe   

that everything1 animate or  inanimate1 
is possessed of a shade1 having         
semihuman form and features1  enjoying  
more or less freedom of motion2 the     
shamans give form to their  ideas of    
them in masks1 as well as of others     
which they claim inhabit the  moon and  
the sky-land4 ,in their daily life1 if  
the people witness some  strange        
occurrence1 are curiously affected1 or  
have a remarkable  adventure1 during    
which they seem to be influenced or     
aided in a  supernatural manner1 the    
shamans interpret the meaning and       
describe the  appearance of the being   
that exerted its power4    7,m#bie7     
8,curious mythological beasts are also  
said to inhabit both land and  sea1 but 
to become visible only on special       
occasions4 ,these ideas furnish         
material upon which their fancy works1  
conjuring up strange forms that are     
usually modifications of known          
creatures4 ,it is also believed that in 
early days all animate beings had a dual

 existence1 becoming at will  either    
like man or the animal forms they now   
wear4 ,in those early days  there were  
but few people2 if an animal wished to  
assume its human form1  the forearm1    
wing1 or other limb was raised and      
pushed up the muzzle or  beak as if it  
were a mask1 and the creature became    
manlike in form and  features4 ,this    
idea is still held1 and it is believed  
that many animals  now possess this     
power4 ,the manlike form thus appearing 
is called the  inua1 and is supposed to 
represent the thinking part of the      
creature1  and at death becomes its     
shade4 ,shamans are believed to have the
 power of  seeing through the animal    
mask to the manlike features behind4    
,the ideas  held on this subject are    
well illustrated in the ,raven legends1 
where the  changes are made repeatedly  
from one form to another4    7,m#bif7   
8,masks may also represent totemic      
animals1 and the wearers during  the    
festivals are believed actually to      

become the creature represented or  at  
least to be endowed with its spiritual  
essence4 ,some of the masks of  the     
lower ,yukon and the adjacent territory 
to the ,kuskokwim are made with  double 
faces4 ,this is done by having the      
muzzle of the animal fitted over  and   
concealing the face of the inua below1  
the outer mask being held in  place by  
pegs so arranged that it can be removed 
quickly at a certain time  in the       
ceremony1 thus symbolizing the          
transformation4 ,another style of  mask 
from the lower ,kuskokwim has the under 
face concealed by a small  hinged door  
on each side1 which opens out at the    
proper time in a  ceremony1 indicating  
the metamorphosis4 ,when the mask       
represents a totemic  animal1 the wearer
 needs no double face1 since he         
represents in person the  shade of the  
totemic animal4    8,when worn in any   
ceremonial1 either as a totem mask or as
 representing  the shade1 yu- or tunghk1
 the wearer is believed to become       

mysteriously and unconsciously imbued   
with the spirit of the being which  his 
mask represents1 just as the namesakes  
are entered into and possessed  by the  
shades at certain parts of the ,festival
 to the ,dead44447#heg7    8,mask       
festivals are usually held as a species 
of thanksgiving to the  shades and      
powers of earth1 air1 and water for     
giving the hunter success4  ,the inuas  
or shades of the powers and creatures of
 the earth are  represented that they   
may be propitiated1 thus insuring       
further  success407#heh7    7,m#big7    
,the religious ritual of the ,cora      
,indians of ,mexico comprises  elaborate
 dramatic ceremonies or dances1 in which
 the actors or dancers  identify        
themselves with the gods1 such as the   
god of the ,morning ,star1  the goddess 
of the ,moon1 and the divinities of the 
,rain4 ,these dances form  the principal
 part of the ,cora festivals and are    
accompanied by liturgical  songs1 the   
words of which the ,indians believe to  

have been revealed to  their forefathers
 by the gods and to exercise a direct   
magical influence  upon the deities     
themselves and through them upon        
nature47#hei7 ,the ,kobeua  and ,kaua   
,indians of ,north-,western ,brazil     
perform masked dances at their          
festivals in honour of the dead4 ,the   
maskers imitate the actions and the     
habits of birds1 beasts1 and insects4   
,for example1 there is a large          
azure-blue butterfly which delights the 
eye with the splendour of its  colour1  
like a fallen fragment of the sky2 and  
in the butterfly dance two  men         
represent the play of these brilliant   
insects in the sunshine1  fluttering on 
the wing and settling on sandbanks and  
rocks4 ,again1 the  sloth is acted by a 
masker who holds on to a cross-beam of  
the house by  means of a hooked stick1  
in imitation of the sluggish creature   
which will  hang by its claws from the  
bough of a tree for hours together      
without  stirring4 ,again1 the darting  

of swallows1 as they flit to and fro    
across a  river1 is mimicked by masked  
men dancing side by side3 the swarming  
of  sandflies in the air is acted by a  
swarm of maskers2 and so with the       
movements of the black vulture1 the owl1
 the jaguar1 the aracu fish1 the        
house-spider1 and the dung-beetle4 ,yet 
these representations are not  simple   
dramas designed to amuse and divert the 
mourners in their hour of  sorrow2 the  
,indian attributes to them a much deeper
 significance1 for  under the outer husk
 of beasts and birds and insects he     
believes that  there lurk foul fiends   
and powerful spirits4 8,all these       
mimicries are  based on an idea of      
magical efficiency4 ,they are intended  
to bring  blessing and fertility to the 
village and its inhabitants1 to the     
plantations1 and to the whole of        
surrounding nature1 thereby             
compensating1  as it were1 for the loss 
of the dead man in whose honour the     
festival is  held4 ,by copying as       

faithfully as possible the movements and
 actions of  the being whom he          
personates1 the actor identifies himself
 with him4 ,the  mysterious force which 
resides in the mask passes into the     
dancer1 turns  the man himself into a   
mighty demon1 and endows him with the   
power of  banning demons or earning     
their favour4 ,especially is it the     
intention by  means of mimicry to obtain
 for man control over the demons of     
growth and  the spirits of game and     
fish40 ,when the festival is over1 the  
masks are  burned1 and the demons1 which
 are thought to have animated them1 take
  flight to their own place1 it may be  
to the other world or to a mountain     
top1 or to the side of a thundering     
cascade47#hfj7    7,m#bih7 ,the ,monumbo
 of ,german ,new ,guinea perform masked 
dances in which the  dancers personate  
supernatural beings or animals1 such as 
kangaroos1 dogs1  and cassowaries4 ,they
 consecrate the masks by fumigating them
 with the  smoke of a certain creeper1  

and believe that by doing so they put   
life  into them4 ,accordingly they      
afterwards treat the masks with respect1
 talk  to them as if they were alive1   
and refuse to part with them to         
,europeans4  ,certain of the masks they 
even regard as guardian spirits and     
appeal to  them for fine weather1 help  
in the chase or in war1 and so forth4   
,every  clan owns some masks and the    
head man of the clan makes all the      
arrangements for a masquerade4 ,the     
dances are accompanied by songs of      
which the words are unintelligible even 
to the natives themselves47#hfa7        
,again1 the ,kayans of ,central ,borneo 
perform masked dances for the purpose   
of ensuring abundant crops of rice4 ,the
 actors personate demons1 wearing       
grotesque masks on their faces1 their   
bodies swathed in cumbrous masses of    
green leaves4 8,in accordance with their
 belief that the spirits are more       
powerful than men1 the ,kayans assume   
that when they imitate the form of      

spirits and play their part1 they       
acquire superhuman power4 ,hence just as
  their spirits can fetch back the souls
 of men1 so they imagine that they  can 
lure to themselves the souls of the     
rice407#hfb7    7,m#bii7 ,when the ,sea 
,dyaks of ,borneo have taken a human    
head1 they hold a  ,head-feast 7,gaw    
,pala7 in honour of the war-god or      
bird-chief ,singalang  ,burong1 who     
lives far away above the sky4 ,at this  
festival a long liturgy  called mengap  
is chanted1 the god is invoked1 and is  
believed to be  present in the person of
 an actor1 who poses as the deity and   
blesses the  people in his name4 8,but  
the invocation is not made by the human 
performer  in the manner of a prayer    
direct to this great being2 it takes the
 form of  a story1 setting forth how the
 mythical hero ,kling or ,klieng made a 
head-feast and fetched ,singalang       
,burong to it4 ,this ,kling1 about whom 
there are many fables1 is a spirit1 and 
is supposed to live somewhere or  other 

not far from mankind1 and to be able to 
confer benefits upon them4  ,the ,dyak  
performer or performers then1 as they   
walk up and down the long  verandah of  
the house singing the mengap1 in reality
 describe ,kling's  ,gaw ,pala          
head-feast1 and how ,singalang ,burong  
was invited and came4  ,in thought the  
,dyaks identify themselves with ,kling1 
and the resultant  signification is that
 the recitation of this story is an     
invocation to  ,singalang ,burong1 who  
is supposed to come not to ,kling's     
house only1 but  to the actual ,dyak    
house where the feast is celebrated2 and
 he is received  by a particular        
ceremony1 and is offered food or        
sacrifice40 ,at the close  of the       
ceremony 8the performer goes along the  
house1 beginning with the  head man1    
touches each person in it1 and          
pronounces an invocation upon  him4 ,in 
this he is supposed to personate        
,singalang ,burong and his  sons-in-law1
 who are believed to be the real actors4

 ,singalang ,burong  himself nenjangs   
the headmen1 and his sons-in-law1 the   
birds1 bless the  rest4 ,the touch of   
the human performer1 and the            
accompanying invocation  are thought to 
effect a communication between these    
bird-spirits from the  skies and each   
individual being4 ,the great bird-chief 
and his dependants  come from above to  
give men their charms and their         
blessings4 ,upon the men  the performer 
invokes physical strength and bravery in
 war2 and upon the  women luck with     
paddy1 cleverness in ,dyak feminine     
accomplishments1 and  beauty in form and
 complexion407#hfc7    7,m#cjj7 ,thus   
the dramatic performances of these      
primitive peoples are in  fact religious
 or oftener perhaps magical ceremonies1 
and the songs or  recitations which     
accompany them are spells or            
incantations1 though the  real character
 of both is apt to be overlooked by     
civilized man1  accustomed as he is to  
see in the drama nothing more than an   

agreeable  pastime or at best a vehicle 
of moral instruction4 ,yet if we could  
trace  the drama of the civilized       
nations back to its origin1 we might    
find that  it had its roots in magical  
or religious ideas like those which     
still  mould and direct the masked      
dances of many savages4 ,certainly the  
,athenians in the heyday of their       
brilliant civilization retained a lively
  sense of the religious import of      
dramatic performances2 for they         
associated them directly with the       
worship of ,dionysus and allowed them to
  be enacted only during the festivals  
of the god47#hfd7 ,in ,india1 also1 the 
drama appears to have been developed out
 of religious dances or  pantomimes1 in 
which the actors recited the deeds and  
played the parts of  national gods and  
heroes47#hfe7 ,hence it is at least a   
legitimate  hypothesis that the         
criminal1 who masqueraded as a king and 
perished in  that character at the      
,bacchanalian festival of the ,sacaea1  

was only one of  a company of actors1   
who figured on that occasion in a sacred
 drama of  which the substance has been 
preserved to us in the book of ,esther4 
7,m#cja7 ,when once we perceive that the
 gods and goddesses1 the heroes and     
heroines of mythology have been         
represented officially1 so to say1 by a 
long succession of living men and women 
who bore the names and were  supposed to
 exercise the functions of these        
fabulous creatures1 we have  attained a 
point of vantage from which it seems    
possible to propose terms  of peace     
between two rival schools of            
mythologists who have been waging       
fierce war on each other for ages4 ,on  
the one hand it has been argued that    
mythical beings are nothing but         
personifications of natural objects and 
natural processes2 on the other hand1 it
 has been maintained that they are      
nothing but notable men and women who in
 their lifetime1 for one reason or      
another1 made a great impression on     

their fellows1 but whose doings have    
been distorted and exaggerated by a     
false and credulous tradition4 ,these   
two views1 it is now easy to see1 are   
not so mutually exclusive as their      
supporters have imagined4 ,the          
personages about whom all the marvels of
  mythology have been told may have been
 real human beings1 as the  ,euhemerists
 allege2 and yet they may have been at  
the same time  personifications of      
natural objects or processes1 as the    
adversaries of  ,euhemerism assert4 ,the
 doctrine of incarnation supplies the   
missing link  that was needed to unite  
the two seemingly inconsistent theories4
 ,if the  powers of nature or a certain 
department of nature be conceived as    
personified in a deity1 and that deity  
can become incarnate in a man or  woman1
 it is obvious that the incarnate deity 
is at the same time a real  human being 
and a personification of nature4 ,to    
take the instance with  which we are    
here concerned1 ,semiramis may have been

 the great ,semitic  goddess of love1   
,ishtar or ,astarte1 and yet she may be 
supposed to have  been incarnate in a   
woman or even in a series of real women1
 whether  queens or harlots1 whose      
memory survives in ancient history4     
,saturn1  again1 may have been the god  
of sowing and planting1 and yet may have
 been  represented on earth by a        
succession or dynasty of sacred kings1  
whose gay  but short lives may have     
contributed to build up the legend of   
the ,golden  ,age4 ,the longer the      
series of such human divinities1 the    
greater1  obviously1 the chance of their
 myth or legend surviving2 and when     
moreover  a deity of a uniform type was 
represented1 whether under the same name
 or  not1 over a great extent of country
 by many local dynasties of divine men  
or women1 it is clear that the stories  
about him would tend still further  to  
persist and be stereotyped4    7,m#cjb7 
,the conclusions which we have reached  
in regard to the legend of  ,semiramis  

and her lovers probably holds good of   
all the similar tales that  were current
 in antiquity throughout the ,east2 in  
particular1 it may be  assumed to apply 
to the myths of ,aphrodite and ,adonis  
in ,syria1 of ,cybele  and ,attis in    
,phrygia1 and of ,isis and ,osiris in   
,egypt4 ,if we could trace  these       
stories back to their origin1 we might  
find that in every case a  human couple 
acted year by year the parts of the     
loving goddess and the  dying god4 ,we  
know that down to ,roman times ,attis   
was personated by  priests who bore his 
name27#hff7 and if within the period of 
which we have  knowledge the dead ,attis
 and the dead ,adonis were represented  
only by  effigies1 we may surmise that  
it had not always been so1 and that in  
both  cases the dead god was once       
represented by a dead man4 ,further1 the
  license accorded to the man who played
 the dying god at the ,sacaea speaks    
strongly in favour of the hypothesis    
that before the incarnate deity was  put

 to a public death he was in all cases  
allowed1 or rather required1 to  enjoy  
the embraces of a woman who played the  
goddess of love4 ,the reason  for such  
an enforced union of the human god and  
goddess is not hard to  divine4 ,if     
primitive man believes that the growth  
of the crops can be  stimulated by the  
intercourse of common men and           
women17#hfg7 what showers  of blessings 
will he not anticipate from the commerce
 of a pair whom his  fancy invests with 
all the dignity and powers of deities of
 fertility8    7,m#cjc7 ,thus the theory
 of ,movers1 that at the ,sacaea the    
,zoganes  represented a god and paired  
with a woman who personated a goddess1  
turns  out to rest on deeper and wider  
foundations than that able scholar was  
aware of4 ,he thought that the divine   
couple who figured by deputy at the     
ceremony were ,semiramis and ,sandan or 
,sardanapalus4 ,it now appears that he  
was substantially right as to the       
goddess2 but we have still to enquire   

into the god4 ,there seems to be no     
doubt that the name ,sardanapalus is    
only the ,greek way of representing     
,ashurbanapal1 the name of the greatest 
and nearly the last king of ,assyria4   
,but the records of the real monarch    
which have come to light within recent  
years give little support to the  fables
 that attached to his name in classical 
tradition4 ,for they prove  that1 far   
from being the effeminate weakling he   
seemed to the ,greeks of a  later age1  
he was a warlike and enlightened        
monarch1 who carried the arms  of       
,assyria to distant lands and fostered  
at home the growth of science and       
letters47#hfh7 ,still1 though the       
historical reality of ,king             
,ashurbanapal is  as well attested as   
that of ,alexander or ,charlemagne1 it  
would be no  wonder if myths gathered1  
like clouds1 round the great figure that
 loomed  large in the stormy sunset of  
,assyrian glory4 ,now the two features  
that  stand out most prominently in the 

legends of ,sardanapalus are his        
extravagant debauchery and his violent  
death in the flames of a great  pyre1 on
 which he burned himself and his        
concubines to save them from  falling   
into the hands of his victorious        
enemies4 ,it is said that the  womanish 
king1 with painted face and arrayed in  
female attire1 passed his  days in the  
seclusion of the harem1 spinning purple 
wool among his  concubines and wallowing
 in sensual delights2 and that in the   
epitaph  which he caused to be carved on
 his tomb he recorded that all the days 
of  his life he ate and drank and toyed1
 remembering that life is short and     
full of trouble1 that fortune is        
uncertain1 and that others would soon   
enjoy the good things which he must     
leave behind47#hfi7 ,these traits bear  
little resemblance to the portrait of   
,ashurbanapal either in life or in      
death2 for after a brilliant career of  
conquest the ,assyrian king died in  old
 age1 at the height of human ambition1  

with peace at home and triumph  abroad1 
the admiration of his subjects and the  
terror of his foes4 ,but if  the        
traditional characteristics of          
,sardanapalus harmonize but ill with    
what we know of the real monarch of that
 name1 they fit well enough with  all   
that we know or can conjecture of the   
mock kings who led a short life  and a  
merry during the revelry of the ,sacaea1
 the ,asiatic equivalent of  the        
,saturnalia4 ,we can hardly doubt that  
for the most part such men1 with  death 
staring them in the face at the end of a
 few days1 sought to drown  care and    
deaden fear by plunging madly into all  
the fleeting joys that  still offered   
themselves under the sun4 ,when their   
brief pleasures and  sharp sufferings   
were over1 and their bones or ashes     
mingled with the  dust1 what more       
natural that on their tomb--those mounds
 in which the  people saw1 not untruly1 
the graves of the lovers of             
,semiramis--there  should be carved some

 such lines as those which tradition    
placed in the  mouth of the great       
,assyrian king1 to remind the heedless  
passer-by of the  shortness and vanity  
of life8    7,m#cjd7 ,when we turn to   
,sandan1 the other legendary or mythical
 being whom  ,movers thought that the   
,zoganes may have personated1 we find   
the arguments  in support of his theory 
still stronger4 ,the city of ,tarsus in 
,cilicia is  said to have been founded  
by a certain ,sandan whom the ,greeks   
identified  with ,hercules2 and at the  
festival of this god or hero an effigy  
of him  was burned on a great           
pyre47#hgj7 ,this ,sandan is doubtless  
the same with  the ,sandes whom         
,agathias calls the old ,persian        
,hercules4 ,professing to  give a list  
of the gods whom the ,persians          
worshipped before the days of           
,zoroaster1 the ,byzantine historian    
mentions ,bel1 ,sandes1 and ,anaitis1   
whom  he identifies with ,zeus1         
,hercules1 and ,aphrodite               

respectively47#hga7 ,as we  know that   
,bel was a ,babylonian1 not a ,persian  
deity1 and that in later  times ,anaitis
 was practically equivalent to the      
,babylonian ,ishtar or  ,astarte1 a     
strong presumption is raised that       
,sandes also was a ,babylonian  or at   
all events ,semitic deity1 and that in  
speaking of him as ,persian the         
historian confused the ancient ,persians
 with the ,babylonians and perhaps      
other stocks of ,western ,asia4 ,the    
presumption is strengthened when we find
  that in ,lydia the surname of ,sandon1
 doubtless equivalent to ,sandan1 is    
said to have been borne by ,hercules    
because he wore a woman's garment       
called a sandyx1 fine and diaphanous as 
gossamer1 at the bidding of  ,queen     
,omphale1 whom the hero served for three
 years in the guise of a  female slave1 
clad in purple1 humbly carding wool and 
submitting to be  slapped by the saucy  
queen with her golden slipper47#hgb7    
,the familiar  legend that ,hercules    

burned himself alive on a great pyre    
completes the  parallel between the     
effeminate ,hercules ,sandon of ,lydia  
and the ,assyrian  ,sardanapalus4 ,so   
exact a parallel must surely rest on a  
common base of  custom as well as of    
myth4 ,that base1 according to the      
conjecture of the  admirable scholar ,k4
 ,o4 ,mller1 may have been a custom of  
dressing up an  effigy of an effeminate 
,asiatic deity in the semblance of a    
reveller1 and  then publicly burning it 
on a pyre4 ,such a custom appears to    
have  prevailed not only at ,tarsus in  
,cilicia1 but also in ,lydia2 for a coin
 of  the ,lydian ,philadelphia1 a city  
which lay not far from the old royal    
capital ,sardes1 exhibits a device like 
that on coins of ,tarsus1 consisting  of
 a figure stretched on a pyre4 8,we may 
suppose10 says ,mller1 8that in  the old
 ,assyrian mythology a certain being    
called ,sandan1 or perhaps  ,sardan1    
figured beside ,baal and ,mylitta or    
,astarte4 ,the character of this        

mythical personage is one which often   
meets us in oriental religion--the      
extreme of voluptuousness and sensuality
 combined with miraculous force  and    
heroic strength4 ,we may imagine that at
 the great festivals of ,nineveh  this  
,sandan or ,sardan was exhibited as a   
buxom figure with womanish  features1   
the pale face painted with white lead1  
the eyebrows and  eyelashes blackened   
with kohl1 his person loaded with golden
 chains1  rings1 and earrings1 arrayed  
in a bright red transparent garment1    
grasping  a goblet in one hand and      
perhaps1 as a symbol of strength1 a     
double axe in  the other1 while he sat  
cross-legged and surrounded by women on 
a  splendidly adorned couch under a     
purple canopy1 altogether not unlike the
  figure of ,adonis at the court        
festivals of ,alexandria4 ,then the     
people of  #8mad ,nineveh1' as the poet 
,phocylides called it1 #8the            
well-favoured  harlot1' as the prophet  
,nahum has it1 would rejoice and make   

merry with  this their darling hero4    
,afterwards there may have been another 
show1 when  this gorgeous ,sandan or    
,sardan was to be seen on a huge pyre of
 precious  wood1 draped in              
gold-embroidered tapestry and laden with
 incense and  spices of every sort1     
which being set on fire1 to the howling 
of a  countless multitude and the       
deafening din of shrill music1 sent up a
  monstrous pillar of fire whirling     
towards heaven and flooded half ,nineveh
  with smoke and smell407#hgc7          
7,m#cje7 ,the distinguished scholar whom
 ,i have just quoted does not fail to   
recognize the part which imagination    
plays in the picture he has set  before 
us2 but he reminds us very properly that
 in historical enquiries  imagination   
must always supply the cement that binds
 together the broken  fragments of      
tradition4 ,one thing1 he thinks1       
emerges clearly from the  present       
investigation3 the worship and legend of
 an effeminate hero like  ,sandan appear

 to have spread1 by means of an early   
diffusion of the  ,semitic stock1 first 
to the neighbourhood of ,tarsus in      
,cilicia and  afterwards to ,sardes in  
,lydia4 ,in favour of the former        
prevalence of the  rite in ,lydia it may
 be added that the oldest dynasty of    
,lydian kings  traced their descent1 not
 only from the mythical ,assyrian hero  
,ninus1 but  also from the ,greek hero  
,hercules17#hgd7 whose legendary death  
in the fire  finds at least a curious   
echo in the story that ,croesus1 the    
last king of  ,lydia1 was laid by his   
,persian conqueror ,cyrus on a great    
pyre of wood1  and was only saved at the
 last moment from being consumed in the 
flames47#hge7 ,may not this story embody
 a reminiscence of the manner in  which 
the ancient kings of ,lydia1 as living  
embodiments of their god1  formerly met 
their end8 ,it was thus1 as we have     
seen1 that the old  ,prussian rulers    
used to burn themselves alive in front  
of the sacred  oak27#hgf7 and by an odd 

coincidence1 if it is nothing more1 the 
,greek  ,hercules directed that the pyre
 on which he was to be consumed should  
be  made of the wood of the oak and the 
wild olive47#hgg7 ,some grounds have    
also been shewn for thinking that in    
certain ,south ,african tribes the      
chiefs may formerly have been burnt     
alive as a religious or magical         
ceremony47#hgh7 ,all these facts and    
indications tend to support the view of 
,movers that at the ,sacaea also the man
 who played the god for five days  was  
originally burnt at the end of          
them47#hgi7 ,death by hanging or        
crucifixion may have been a later       
mitigation of his sufferings1 though it 
is quite possible that both forms of    
execution or rather of sacrifice may    
have been combined by hanging or        
crucifying the victim first and burning 
him afterwards17#hhj7 much as our       
forefathers used to disembowel traitors 
after suspending them for a few minutes 
on a gibbet4 ,at ,tarsus apparently  the

 custom was still further softened by   
burning an effigy instead of a  man2 but
 on this point the evidence is not      
explicit4 ,it is worth observing  that  
as late as ,lucian's time the principal 
festival of the year at                 
,hierapolis--the great seat of the      
worship of ,astarte--fell at the        
beginning  of spring and took its name  
of the ,pyre or the ,torch from the tall
 masts  which were burnt in the court of
 the temple with sheep1 goats1 and other
  animals hanging from them47#hha7 ,here
 the season1 the fire1 and the          
gallows-tree all fit our hypothesis2    
only the man-god is wanting4    7,m#cjf7
 ,if the ,jewish festival of ,purim was1
 as ,i have attempted to shew1  directly
 descended either from the ,sacaea or   
from some other ,semitic  festival1 of  
which the central feature was the       
sacrifice of a man in the  character of 
a god1 we should expect to find traces  
of human sacrifice  lingering about it  
in one or other of those mitigated forms

 to which ,i  have just referred4 ,this 
expectation is fully borne out by the   
facts4 ,for  from an early time it has  
been customary with the ,jews at the    
feast of  ,purim to burn or otherwise   
destroy effigies of ,haman4 ,the        
practice was  well known under the      
,roman empire1 for in the year #djh     
,a4,d4 the emperors  ,honorius and      
,theodosius issued a decree commanding  
the governors of the  provinces to take 
care that the ,jews should not burn     
effigies of ,haman on  a cross at one of
 their festivals47#hhb7 ,we learn from  
the decree that the  custom gave great  
offence to the ,christians1 who regarded
 it as a  blasphemous parody of the     
central mystery of their own religion1  
little  suspecting that it was nothing  
but a continuation1 in a milder form1 of
 a  rite that had probably been         
celebrated in the ,east long ages before
 the  birth of ,christ4 ,apparently the 
custom long survived the publication of 
the edict1 for in a form of abjuration  

which the ,greek church imposed on      
,jewish converts and which seems to date
 from the tenth century1 the  renegade  
is made to speak as follows3 8,i curse  
also those who celebrate  the festival  
of the so-called ,mordecai on the first 
,sabbath 7,saturday7 of  the ,christian 
fast1 and who nail ,haman forsooth to   
the tree1 attaching to  it the symbol of
 the cross and burning him along with   
it1 while they heap  all sorts of       
imprecations and curses on the          
,christians407#hhc7 ,a ,jewish  account 
of the custom as it was observed in     
,babylonia and ,persia in the  tenth    
century of our era runs as follows3 8,it
 is customary in ,babylonia  and ,elam  
for boys to make an effigy resembling   
,haman2 this they suspend on  their     
roofs1 four or five days before ,purim4 
,on ,purim day they erect a  bonfire1   
and cast the effigy into its midst1     
while the boys stand round  about it    
jesting and singing4 ,and they have a   
ring suspended in the midst  of the     

fire1 which 7ring7 they hold and wave   
from one side of the fire to  the       
other407#hhd7 ,again1 the ,arab         
historian ,albrn1 who wrote in the year 
#ajjj ,a4,d41 informs us that at ,purim 
the ,jews of his time rejoiced greatly  
over the death of ,haman1 and that they 
made figures which they beat and        
burned1 8imitating the burning of       
,haman40 ,hence one name for the        
festival  was ,hmn-,sr47#hhe7 ,another  
,arabic writer1 ,makrz1 who died in     
#addb ,a4,d41  says that at the feast of
 ,purim1 which fell on the fifteenth day
 of the  month ,adar1 some of the ,jews 
used to make effigies of ,haman which   
they  first played with and then threw  
into the fire47#hhf7 ,during the ,middle
  ,ages the ,italian ,jews celebrated   
,purim in a lively fashion which has    
been  compared by their own historians  
to that of the ,carnival4 ,the children 
used to range themselves in rows        
opposite each other and pelt one another
  with nuts1 while grown-up people rode 

on horseback through the streets  with  
pine branches in their hands or blew    
trumpets and made merry round a  puppet 
representing ,haman1 which was set on a 
platform or scaffold and  then solemnly 
burnt on a pyre47#hhg7 ,in the          
eighteenth century the ,jews of         
,frankfort used at ,purim to make       
pyramids of thin wax candles1 which they
  set on fire2 also they fashioned      
images of ,haman and his wife out of    
candles and burned them on the          
reading-desk in the synagogue47#hhh7    
7,m#cjg7 ,now1 when we consider the     
close correspondence in character as    
well  as in date between the ,jewish    
,purim and the ,christian ,carnival1 and
  remember further that the effigy of   
,carnival1 which is now destroyed at    
this merry season1 had probably its     
prototype in a living man who was put   
to a violent death in the character of  
,saturn at the ,saturnalia1 analogy  of 
itself would suggest that in former     
times the ,jews1 like the  ,babylonians1

 from whom they appear to have derived  
their ,purim1 may at one  time have     
burned1 hanged1 or crucified a real man 
in the character of  ,haman4 ,there are 
some positive grounds for thinking that 
this was so4 ,the  early church         
historian ,socrates informs us that at  
,inmestar1 a town in  ,syria1 the ,jews 
were wont to observe certain sports     
among themselves1 in  the course of     
which they played many foolish pranks4  
,in the year #daf ,a4,d41  being heated 
with wine1 they carried these sports    
further than usual and  began deriding  
,christians and even ,christ himself1   
and to give the more  zest to their     
mockery they seized a ,christian child1 
bound him to a cross1  and hung him up4 
,at first they only laughed and jeered  
at him1 but soon1  their passions       
getting the better of them1 they        
ill-treated the child so  that he died  
under their hands4 ,the thing got noised
 abroad1 and resulted  in a serious     
brawl between the ,jews and their       

,christian neighbours4 ,the  authorities
 then stepped in1 and the ,jews had to  
pay dear for the crime  they had        
perpetrated in sport47#hhi7 ,the        
,christian historian does not  mention1 
and perhaps did not know1 the name of   
the drunken and jovial  festival which  
ended so tragically2 but we can hardly  
doubt that it was  ,purim1 and that the 
boy who died on the cross represented   
,haman47#hij7 ,in  medival and modern   
times many accusations of ritual        
murders1 as they are  called1 have been 
brought against the ,jews1 and the      
arguments for and  against the charge   
have been discussed on both sides with a
 heat which1  however natural1 has      
tended rather to inflame the passions of
 the  disputants than to elicit the     
truth47#hia7 ,into this troubled arena  
,i  prefer not to enter2 ,i will only   
observe that1 so far as ,i have looked  
into the alleged cases1 and these are   
reported in sufficient detail1 the      
majority of the victims are said to have

 been children and to have met  their   
fate in spring1 often in the week before
 ,easter4 ,this last  circumstance      
points1 if there is any truth in the    
accusations1 to a  connexion of the     
human sacrifice with the ,passover1     
which falls in this  week1 rather than  
with ,purim1 which falls a month        
earlier4 ,indeed it has  often been made
 a part of the accusation that the blood
 of the youthful  victims was intended  
to be used at the ,passover4 ,if all the
 charges of  ritual murder which have   
been brought against the ,jews in modern
 times are  not1 as seems most probable1
 mere idle calumnies1 the baneful fruit 
of  bigotry1 ignorance1 and malice1 the 
extraordinary tenacity of life          
exhibited by the lowest forms of        
superstition in the minds of ignorant   
people1 whether they are ,jews or       
,gentiles1 would suffice to account for 
an  occasional recrudescence of         
primitive barbarity among the most      
degraded  part of the ,jewish community4

 ,to make the ,jews as a nation         
responsible for  outrages which1 if they
 occur at all1 are doubtless quite as   
repugnant to  them as they are to every 
humane mind1 would be a monstrous       
injustice2 it  would be as fair to      
charge ,christians in general with      
complicity in the  incalculably greater 
number of massacres and atrocities of   
every kind that  have been perpetrated  
by ,christians in the name of           
,christianity1 not  merely on ,jews and 
heathen1 but on men and women and       
children who  professed--and died       
for--the same faith as their torturers  
and murderers4 ,if  deeds of the sort   
alleged have been really done by        
,jews--a question on  which ,i must     
decline to pronounce an opinion--they   
would interest the  student of custom as
 isolated instances of reversion to an  
old and  barbarous ritual which once    
flourished commonly enough among the    
ancestors  both of ,jews and ,gentiles1 
but on which1 as on a noxious monster1  

an  enlightened humanity has long set   
its heel4 ,such customs die hard2 it is 
not the fault of society as a whole if  
sometimes the reptile has strength      
enough left to lift its venomous head   
and sting4    7,m#cjh7 ,but between the 
stage when human sacrifice goes on      
unabashed in the  light of common day1  
and the stage when it has been driven   
out of sight  into dark holes and       
corners1 there intervenes a period      
during which the  custom is slowly      
dwindling away under the growing light  
of knowledge and  philanthropy4 ,in this
 middle period many subterfuges are     
resorted to for  the sake of preserving 
the old ritual in a form which will not 
offend the  new morality4 ,a common and 
successful device is to consummate the  
sacrifice on the person of a malefactor1
 whose death at the altar or  elsewhere 
is little likely to excite pity or      
indignation1 since it  partakes of the  
character of a punishment1 and people   
recognize that if  the miscreant had not

 been dealt with by the priest1 it would
 have been  needful in the public       
interest to hand him over to the        
executioner4 ,we  have seen that in the 
,rhodian sacrifices to ,cronus a        
condemned criminal  was after a time    
substituted for an innocent             
victim27#hib7 and there can be  little  
doubt that at ,babylon the criminals1   
who perished in the character  of gods  
at the ,sacaea1 enjoyed an honour which1
 at an earlier period1 had  been        
reserved for more respectable persons4  
,it seems therefore by no means         
impossible that the ,jews1 in borrowing 
the ,sacaea from ,babylon under the  new
 name of ,purim1 should have borrowed   
along with it the custom of  putting to 
death a malefactor who1 after           
masquerading as ,mordecai in a  crown   
and royal robe1 was hanged or crucified 
in the character of ,haman4  ,there are 
some grounds for thinking that this or  
something of this sort  was done2 but a 
consideration of them had better be     

deferred till we have  cleared up some  
points which still remain obscure in    
,purim1 and in the  account which the   
,jews give of its origin4    7,m#cji7   
,in the first place1 then1 it deserves  
to be remarked that the  joyous festival
 of ,purim on the fourteenth and        
fifteenth days of the month  ,adar is   
invariably preceded by a fast1 known as 
the fast of ,esther1 on the  thirteenth2
 indeed1 some ,jews fast for several    
days before ,purim47#hic7 ,in  the book 
of ,esther the fast is traditionally    
explained as a commemoration  of the    
mourning and lamentation excited among  
the ,jews by the decree of  ,king       
,ahasuerus that they should all be      
massacred on the thirteenth day of  the 
month ,adar2 for 8in every province1    
whithersoever the king's  commandment   
and his decree came1 there was great    
mourning among the ,jews1  and fasting1 
and weeping1 and wailing2 and many lay  
in sackcloth and  ashes40 ,and ,esther1 
before she went into the presence of the

 king to plead  for the lives of her    
people1 8bade them return answer unto   
,mordecai1 ,go1  gather together all the
 ,jews that are present in ,shushan1 and
 fast ye for  me1 and neither eat nor   
drink three days1 night or day3 ,i also 
and my  maidens will fast in like       
manner40 ,hence fasting and lamentation 
were  ordained as the proper preparation
 for the happy feast of ,purim which    
commemorated the great deliverance of   
the ,jews from the destruction that  had
 threatened them on the thirteenth day  
of ,adar47#hid7 ,now we have seen  that1
 in the opinion of some eminent modern  
scholars1 the basis of the  book of     
,esther is not history but a ,babylonian
 myth1 which celebrated the  triumphs   
and sufferings of deities rather than of
 men4 ,on this hypothesis1  how is the  
fast that precedes ,purim to be         
explained8 ,the best solution  appears  
to be that of ,jensen1 that the fasting 
and mourning were  originally for the   
supposed annual death of a ,semitic god 

or hero of the  type of ,tammuz or      
,adonis1 whose resurrection on the      
following day  occasioned that outburst 
of joy and gladness which is            
characteristic of  ,purim4 ,the         
particular god or hero1 whose death and 
resurrection thus  touched with sorrow  
and filled with joy the hearts of his   
worshippers1 may  have been1 according  
to ,jensen1 either the great hero       
,gilgamesh1 or his  comrade and friend  
,eabani47#hie7 ,the doughty deeds and   
adventures of this  mighty pair are the 
theme of the longest ,babylonian poem   
that has been as  yet discovered4 ,it is
 recorded on twelve tablets1 and this   
circumstance  has suggested to some     
scholars the view that the story may be 
a solar  myth1 descriptive of the sun's 
annual course through the twelve months 
or  the twelve signs of the zodiac4     
,however that may be1 the scene of the  
poem  is laid chiefly at the very       
ancient ,babylonian city of ,erech1 the 
chief  seat of the worship of the       

goddess ,ishtar or ,astarte1 who plays  
an  important part in the story4 ,for   
the goddess is said to have been smitten
  with the charms of ,gilgamesh1 and to 
have made love to him2 but he spurned   
her proffered favours1 and thereafter   
fell into a sore sickness1 probably     
through the wrath of the offended       
goddess4 ,his comrade ,eabani also      
roused  the fury of ,ishtar1 and was    
wounded to death4 ,for twelve days he   
lingered  on a bed of pain1 and1 when he
 died1 his friend ,gilgamesh mourned and
  lamented for him1 and rested not until
 he had prevailed on the god of the     
dead to suffer the spirit of ,eabani to 
return to the upper world4 ,the         
resurrection of ,eabani1 recorded on the
 twelfth tablet1 forms the  conclusion  
of the long poem47#hif7 ,jensen's theory
 is that the death and  resurrection of 
a mythical being1 who combined in       
himself the features of  a solar god and
 an ancient king of ,erech1 were        
celebrated at the  ,babylonian ,zakmuk  

or festival of the ,new ,year1 and that 
the transference  of the drama from     
,erech1 its original seat1 to ,babylon  
led naturally to  the substitution of   
,marduk1 the great god of ,babylon1 for 
,gilgamesh or  ,eabani in the part of   
the hero4 ,although ,jensen apparently  
does not  identify the ,zakmuk with the 
,sacaea1 a little consideration will    
shew how  well his general theory of    
,zakmuk fits in with those features of  
the  ,sacaean festival which have       
emerged in the course of our enquiry4   
,at the  ,sacaean festival1 if ,i am    
right1 a man1 who personated a god or   
hero of  the type of ,tammuz or ,adonis1
 enjoyed the favours of a woman1        
probably a  sacred harlot1 who          
represented the great ,semitic goddess  
,ishtar or  ,astarte2 and after he had  
thus done his part towards securing1 by 
means of  sympathetic magic1 the revival
 of plant life in spring1 he was put to 
death4 ,we may suppose that the death of
 this divine man was mourned over  by   

his worshippers1 and especially by      
women1 in much the same fashion as  the 
women of ,jerusalem wept for ,tammuz at 
the gate of the temple17#hig7 and  as   
,syrian damsels mourned the dead        
,adonis1 while the river ran red with   
his blood4 ,such rites appear1 in fact1 
to have been common all over  ,western  
,asia2 the particular name of the dying 
god varied in different  places1 but in 
substance the ritual was the same4      
,fundamentally1 the  custom was a       
religious or rather magical ceremony    
intended to ensure the  revival and     
reproduction of life in spring4         
7,m#caj7 ,now1 if this interpretation of
 the ,sacaea is correct1 it is obvious  
that one important feature of the       
ceremony is wanting in the brief notices
  of the festival that have come down to
 us4 ,the death of the man-god at the   
festival is recorded1 but nothing is    
said of his resurrection4 ,yet if he    
really personated a being of the ,adonis
 or ,attis type1 we may feel pretty     

sure that his dramatic death was        
followed at a shorter or longer interval
  by his dramatic revival1 just as at   
the festivals of ,attis and ,adonis the 
resurrection of the dead god quickly    
succeeded to his mimic death47#hih7     
,here1 however1 a difficulty presents   
itself4 ,at the ,sacaea the man-god     
died a real1 not a mere mimic death2 and
 in ordinary life the resurrection  even
 of a man-god is at least not an        
everyday occurrence4 ,what was to be    
done8 ,the man1 or rather the god1 was  
undoubtedly dead4 ,how was he to come   
to life again8 ,obviously the best1 if  
not the only way1 was to set another    
and living man to support the character 
of the reviving god1 and we may         
conjecture that this was done4 ,we may  
suppose that the insignia of royalty    
which had adorned the dead man were     
transferred to his successor1 who1      
arrayed in them1 would be presented to  
his rejoicing worshippers as their  god 
come to life again2 and by his side     

would probably be displayed a  woman in 
the character of his divine consort1 the
 goddess ,ishtar or  ,astarte4 ,in      
favour of this hypothesis it may be     
observed that it at once  furnishes a   
clear and intelligible explanation of a 
remarkable feature in  the book of      
,esther which has not yet1 so far as ,i 
am aware1 been  adequately elucidated2  
,i mean that apparent duplication of the
 principal  characters to which ,i have 
already directed the reader's attention4
 ,if ,i  am right1 ,haman represents the
 temporary king or mortal god who was   
put to  death at the ,sacaea2 and his   
rival ,mordecai represents the other    
temporary  king who1 on the death of his
 predecessor1 was invested with his     
royal  insignia1 and exhibited to the   
people as the god come to life again4   
,similarly ,vashti1 the deposed queen in
 the narrative1 corresponds to the      
woman who played the part of queen and  
goddess to the first mock king1 the     
,haman2 and her successful rival1       

,esther or ,ishtar1 answers to the woman
  who figured as the divine consort of  
the second mock king1 the ,mordecai or  
,marduk4 ,a trace of the sexual license 
accorded to the mock king of the        
festival seems to be preserved in the   
statement that ,king ,ahasuerus found   
,haman fallen on the bed with ,esther   
and asked1 8,will he even force the     
queen before me in the house807#hii7 ,we
 have seen that the mock king of the    
,sacaea did actually possess the right  
of using the real king's concubines1    
and there is much to be said for the    
view of ,movers that he began his  short
 reign by exercising the right in       
public47#ijj7 ,in the parallel ritual   
of ,adonis the marriage of the goddess  
with her ill-fated lover was  publicly  
celebrated the day before his mimic     
death47#ija7 ,a clear  reminiscence of  
the time when the relation between      
,esther and ,mordecai was  conceived as 
much more intimate than mere cousinship 
appears to be  preserved in some of the 

,jewish plays acted at ,purim1 in which 
,mordecai  appears as the lover of      
,esther2 and this significant indication
 is  confirmed by the teaching of the   
rabbis that ,king ,ahasuerus never      
really  knew ,esther1 but that a phantom
 in her likeness lay with him while the 
real ,esther sat on the lap of          
,mordecai47#ijb7    7,m#caa7 ,the       
,persian setting1 in which the ,hebrew  
author of the book of  ,esther has      
framed his highly-coloured picture1     
naturally suggests that the  ,jews      
derived their feast of ,purim not       
directly from the old ,babylonians1  but
 from their ,persian conquerors4 ,even  
if this could be demonstrated1 it  would
 in no way invalidate the theory that   
,purim originated in the  ,babylonian   
festival of the ,sacaea1 since we know  
that the ,sacaea was  celebrated by the 
,persians47#ijc7 ,hence it becomes worth
 while to enquire  whether in the       
,persian religion we can detect any     
traces of a festival  akin to the       

,sacaea or ,purim4 ,here ,lagarde has   
shewn the way by directing  attention to
 the old ,persian ceremony known as the 
8,ride of the ,beardless  ,one407#ijd7  
,this was a rite performed both in      
,persia and ,babylonia at the  beginning
 of spring1 on the first day of the     
first month1 which in the  most ancient 
,persian calendar corresponded to       
,march1 so that the date of  the        
ceremony agrees with that of the        
,babylonian ,new ,year festival of      
,zakmuk4 ,a beardless and1 if possible1 
one-eyed buffoon was set naked on an    
ass1 a horse1 or a mule1 and conducted  
in a sort of mock triumph through  the  
streets of the city4 ,in one hand he    
held a crow and in the other a  fan1    
with which he fanned himself1           
complaining of the heat1 while the      
people pelted him with ice and snow and 
drenched him with cold water4 ,he  was  
supposed to drive away the cold1 and to 
aid him perhaps in discharging  this    
useful function he was fed with hot     

food1 and hot stuffs were smeared  on   
his body4 ,riding on his ass and        
attended by all the king's household1   
if the city happened to be the capital1 
or1 if it was not1 by all the  retainers
 of the governor1 who were also mounted1
 he paraded the streets  and extorted   
contributions4 ,he stopped at the doors 
of the rich1 and if  they did not give  
him what he asked for1 he befouled their
 garments with  mud or a mixture of red 
ochre and water1 which he carried in an 
earthenware pot4 ,if a shopkeeper       
hesitated a moment to respond to his    
demands1 the importunate beggar had the 
right to confiscate all the goods  in   
the shop2 so the tradesmen who saw him  
bearing down on them1 not  unnaturally  
hastened to anticipate his wants by     
contributing of their  substance before 
he could board them4 ,everything that he
 thus collected  from break of day to   
the time of morning prayers belonged to 
the king or  governor of the city2 but  
everything that he laid hands on between

 the  first and the second hour of      
prayer he kept for himself4 ,after the  
second  prayers he disappeared1 and if  
the people caught him later in the day  
they  were free to beat him to their    
heart's content4 8,in like manner10     
proceeds  one of the native writers who 
has described the custom1 8people at the
  present time appoint a ,new ,year     
,lord and make merry4 ,and this they do 
because the season1 which is the        
beginning of ,azur or ,march1 coincides 
with the sun's entry into ,aries1 for on
 that day they disport themselves  and  
rejoice because the winter is           
over407#ije7    7,m#cab7 ,now in this   
harlequin1 who rode through the streets 
attended by all  the king's men1 and    
levying contributions which went either 
to the royal  treasury or to the pocket 
of the collector1 we recognize the      
familiar  features of the mock or       
temporary king1 who is invested for a   
short time  with the pomp and privileges
 of royalty for reasons which have been 

already explained47#ijf7 ,the abrupt    
disappearance of the ,persian clown at a
  certain hour of the day1 coupled with 
the leave given to the populace to      
thrash him if they found him afterwards1
 points plainly enough to the  harder   
fate that probably awaited him in former
 days1 when he paid with  his life for  
his brief tenure of a kingly crown4 ,the
 resemblance between  his burlesque     
progress and that of ,mordecai through  
the streets of ,susa is  obvious2 though
 the ,jewish author of ,esther has      
depicted in brighter  colours the pomp  
of his hero 8in royal apparel of blue   
and white1 and with  a great crown of   
gold1 and with a robe of fine linen and 
purple10 riding  the king's own charger1
 and led through the city by one of the 
king's most  noble princes47#ijg7 ,the  
difference between the two scenes is    
probably not  to be explained simply by 
the desire of the ,jewish writer to shed
 a halo  of glory round the personage   
whom he regarded as the deliverer of his

  people4 ,so long as the temporary king
 was a real substitute for the  reigning
 monarch1 and had to die sooner or later
 in his stead1 it was  natural that he  
should be treated with a greater show of
 deference1 and  should simulate his    
royal brother more closely than a clown 
who had  nothing worse than a beating to
 fear when he laid down his office4 ,in 
short1 after the serious meaning of the 
custom had been forgotten1 and the      
substitute was allowed to escape with   
his life1 the high tragedy of the       
ancient ceremony would rapidly          
degenerate into farce4    7,m#cac7 ,but 
while the 8,ride of the ,beardless ,one0
 is1 from one point of  view1 a         
degenerate copy of the original1        
regarded from another point of  view1 it
 preserves some features which are      
almost certainly primitive1  though they
 do not appear in the kindred           
,babylonian and ,jewish festivals4  ,the
 ,persian custom bears the stamp of a   
popular festivity rather than of a      

state ceremonial1 and everywhere it     
seems as if popular festivals1 when     
left to propagate themselves freely     
among the folk1 reveal their old        
meaning and intention more transparently
 than when they have been adopted  into 
the official religion and enshrined in a
 ritual4 ,the simple thoughts  of our   
simple forefathers are better understood
 by their unlettered  descendants than  
by the majority of educated people2     
their rude rites are  more faithfully   
preserved and more truly interpreted by 
a rude peasantry  than by the priest1   
who wraps up their nakedness in the     
gorgeous pall of  religious pomp1 or by 
the philosopher1 who dissolves their    
crudities into  the thin air of         
allegory4 ,in the present instance the  
purpose of the 8,ride  of the ,beardless
 ,one0 at the beginning of spring is    
sufficiently obvious2  it was meant to  
hasten the departure of winter and the  
approach of summer4  ,we are expressly  
told that the clown who went about      

fanning himself and  complaining of the 
heat1 while the populace snowballed him1
 was supposed  to dispel the cold2 and  
even without any such assurance we      
should be  justified in inferring as    
much from his behaviour4 ,on the        
principles of  homoeopathic or imitative
 magic1 which is little more than an    
elaborate  system of make-believe1 you  
can make the weather warm by pretending 
that  it is so2 or if you cannot1 you   
may be sure that there is some person   
wiser than yourself who can4 ,such a    
wizard1 in the estimation of the        
,persians1 was the beardless one-eyed   
man who went through the performance  ,i
 have described2 and no doubt his       
physical defects were believed to       
contribute in some occult manner to the 
success of the rite4 ,the ceremony  was 
thus1 as ,lagarde acutely perceived1 the
 oriental equivalent of those  popular  
,european customs which celebrate the   
advent of spring by  representing in a  
dramatic form the expulsion or defeat of

 winter by the  victorious summer47#ijh7
 ,but whereas in ,europe the two rival  
seasons are  often1 if not regularly1   
personated by two actors or two         
effigies1 in  ,persia a single actor    
sufficed4 ,whether he definitely        
represented winter  or summer is not    
quite clear2 but his pretence of        
suffering from heat and  his final      
disappearance suggest that1 if he       
personified either of the  seasons1 it  
was the departing winter rather than the
 coming summer4    7,m#cad7 ,if there is
 any truth in the connexion thus traced 
between ,purim  and the 8,ride of the   
,beardless ,one10 we are now in a       
position finally to  unmask the leading 
personages in the book of ,esther4 ,i   
have attempted to  shew that ,haman and 
,vashti are little more than doubles of 
,mordecai and  ,esther1 who in turn     
conceal under a thin disguise the       
features of ,marduk  and ,ishtar1 the   
great god and goddess of ,babylon4 ,but 
why1 the reader may  ask1 should the    

divine pair be thus duplicated and the  
two pairs set in  opposition to each    
other8 ,the answer is suggested by the  
popular ,european  celebrations of      
spring to which ,i have just adverted4  
,if my interpretation  of these customs 
is right1 the contrast between the      
summer and winter1 or  between the life 
and death1 which figure in effigy or in 
the persons of  living representatives  
at the spring ceremonies of our         
peasantry1 is  fundamentally a contrast 
between the dying or dead vegetation of 
the old  and the sprouting vegetation of
 the new year--a contrast which would   
lose  nothing of its point when1 as in  
ancient ,rome and ,babylon and ,persia1 
the  beginning of spring was also the   
beginning of the new year4 ,in these and
  in all the ceremonies we have been    
examining the antagonism is not between 
powers of a different order1 but between
 the same power viewed in  different    
aspects as old and young2 it is1 in     
short1 nothing but the  eternal and     

pathetic contrast between youth and age4
 ,and as the power or  spirit of        
vegetation is represented in religious  
ritual and popular custom  by a human   
pair1 whether they be called ,ishtar and
 ,tammuz1 or ,venus and  ,adonis1 or the
 ,queen and ,king of ,may1 so we may    
expect to find the old  decrepit spirit 
of the past year personated by one pair1
 and the fresh  young spirit of the new 
year by another4 ,this1 if my hypothesis
 is right1  is the ultimate explanation 
of the struggle between ,haman and      
,vashti on  the one side1 and their     
doubles ,mordecai and ,esther on the    
other4 ,in the  last analysis both pairs
 stood for the powers that make for the 
fertility  of plants and perhaps also of
 animals27#iji7 but the one pair        
embodied the  failing energies of the   
past1 and the other the vigorous and    
growing  energies of the coming         
year47#iaj7 ,both powers1 on my         
hypothesis1 were  personified not merely
 in myth1 but in custom2 for year by    

year a human  couple undertook to       
quicken the life of nature by a union in
 which1 as in  a microcosm1 the loves of
 tree and plant1 of herb and flower1 of 
bird and  beast were supposed in some   
mystic fashion to be summed up47#iaa7   
,originally1 we may conjecture1 such    
couples exercised their functions for  a
 whole year1 on the conclusion of which 
the male partner--the divine  king--was 
put to death2 but in historical times it
 seems that1 as a rule1  the human      
god--the ,saturn1 ,zoganes1 ,tammuz1 or 
whatever he was  called--enjoyed his    
divine privileges1 and discharged his   
divine duties  only for a short part of 
the year4 ,this curtailment of his reign
 on earth  was probably introduced at   
the time when the old hereditary        
divinities or  deified kings contrived  
to shift the most painful part of their 
duties to  a substitute1 whether that   
substitute was a son or a slave or a    
malefactor4 ,having to die as a king1 it
 was necessary that the substitute      

should also live as a king for a season2
 but the real monarch would  naturally  
restrict within the narrowest limits    
both of time and of power a  reign      
which1 so long as it lasted1 necessarily
 encroached upon and indeed  superseded 
his own47#iab7 ,what became of the      
divine king's female partner1  the human
 goddess who shared his bed and         
transmitted his beneficent  energies to 
the rest of nature1 we cannot say4 ,so  
far as ,i am aware1 there  is little or 
no evidence that she like him suffered  
death when her primary  function was    
discharged47#iac7 ,the nature of        
maternity suggests an obvious  reason   
for sparing her a little longer1 till   
that mysterious law1 which  links       
together woman's life with the changing 
aspects of the nightly sky1  had been   
fulfilled by the birth of an infant god1
 who should in his turn1  reared perhaps
 by her tender care1 grow up to live and
 die for the world4           #f4       
,conclusion4      7,m#cae7 ,we may now  

sum up the general results of the       
enquiry which we have  pursued in the   
present chapter4 ,we have found evidence
 that festivals of  the type of the     
,saturnalia1 characterized by an        
inversion of social ranks  and the      
sacrifice of a man in the character of a
 god1 were at one time  held all over   
the ancient world from ,italy to        
,babylon4 ,such festivals seem  to date 
from an early age in the history of     
agriculture1 when people lived  in small
 communities1 each presided over by a   
sacred or divine king1 whose  primary   
duty was to secure the orderly          
succession of the seasons1 the          
fertility of the earth1 and the         
fecundity both of cattle and of women4  
,associated with him was his wife or    
other female consort1 with whom he      
performed some of the necessary         
ceremonies1 and who therefore shared his
  divine character4 ,originally his term
 of office appears to have been  limited
 to a year1 on the conclusion of which  

he was put to death2 but in  time he    
contrived by force or craft to extend   
his reign and sometimes to  procure a   
substitute1 who after a short and more  
or less nominal tenure of  the crown was
 slain in his stead4 ,at first the      
substitute for the divine  father was   
probably the divine son1 but afterwards 
this rule was no longer  insisted on1   
and still later the growth of a humane  
feeling demanded that  the victim should
 always be a condemned criminal4 ,in    
this advanced stage  of degeneration it 
is no wonder if the light of divinity   
suffered eclipse1  and many should fail 
to detect the god in the malefactor4    
,yet the downward  career of fallen     
deity does not stop here2 even a        
criminal comes to be  thought too good  
to personate a god on the gallows or in 
the fire2 and  then there is nothing    
left but to make up a more or less      
grotesque effigy1  and so to hang1 burn1
 or otherwise destroy the god in the    
person of this  sorry representative4   

,by this time the original meaning of   
the ceremony  may be so completely      
forgotten that the puppet is supposed to
 represent  some historical personage1  
who earned the hatred and contempt of   
his  fellows in his life1 and whose     
memory has ever since been held up to   
eternal execration by the annual        
destruction of his effigy4 ,the figures 
of  ,haman1 of the ,carnival1 and of    
,winter or ,death which are or used to  
be  annually destroyed in spring by     
,jews1 ,catholics1 and the peasants of  
,central ,europe respectively1 appear to
 be all lineal descendants of those     
human incarnations of the powers of     
nature whose life and death were  deemed
 essential to the welfare of mankind4   
,but of the three the only one  which   
has preserved a clear trace of its      
original meaning is the effigy of       
,winter or ,death4 ,in the others the   
ancient significance of the custom as a 
magical ceremony designed to direct the 
course of nature has been almost  wholly

 obscured by a thick aftergrowth of     
legend and myth4 ,the cause of  this    
distinction is that1 whereas the        
practice of destroying an effigy of     
,winter or ,death has been handed down  
from time immemorial through            
generations of simple peasants1 the     
festivals of ,purim and the ,carnival1  
as well as their ,babylonian and        
,italian prototypes1 the ,sacaea and the
  ,saturnalia1 were for centuries       
domesticated in cities1 where they were 
necessarily exposed to those thousand   
transforming and disintegrating         
currents of speculation and enquiry1 of 
priestcraft and policy1 which roll      
their turbid waters through the busy    
haunts of men1 but leave undefiled  the 
limpid springs of mythic fancy in the   
country4    7,m#caf7 ,if there is any   
truth in the analysis of the ,saturnalia
 and kindred  festivals which ,i have   
now brought to a close1 it seems to     
point to a  remarkable homogeneity of   
civilization throughout ,southern       

,europe and  ,western ,asia in          
prehistoric times4 ,how far such        
homogeneity of  civilization may be     
taken as evidence of homogeneity of race
 is a question  for the ethnologist2 it 
does not concern us here4 ,but without  
discussing  it1 ,i may remind the reader
 that in the far east of ,asia we have  
met with  temporary kings whose magical 
functions and intimate relation to      
agriculture stand out in the clearest   
light27#iad7 while ,india furnishes     
examples of kings who have regularly    
been obliged to sacrifice themselves  at
 the end of a term of years47#iae7 ,all 
these things appear to hang  together2  
all of them may1 perhaps1 be regarded as
 the shattered remnants  of a uniform   
zone of religion and society which at a 
remote era belted the  ,old ,world from 
the ,mediterranean to the ,pacific4     
,whether that was so or  not1 ,i may at 
least claim to have made it probable    
that if the ,king of the  ,wood at      
,aricia lived and died as an incarnation

 of a sylvan deity1 the  functions he   
thus discharged were by no means        
singular1 and that for the  nearest     
parallel to them we need not go beyond  
the bounds of ,italy1 where  the divine 
king ,saturn--the god of the sown and   
sprouting seed--was annually  slain in  
the person of a human representative at 
his ancient festival of  the            
,saturnalia4    7,m#cag7 ,it is possible
 that such sacrifices of deified men1   
performed for  the salvation of the     
world1 may have helped to beget the     
notion that the  universe or some part  
of it was originally created out of the 
bodies of  gods offered up in sacrifice4
 ,certainly it is curious that notions  
of this  sort meet us precisely in parts
 of the world where such sacrifices     
appear  to have been regularly          
accomplished4 ,thus in ancient ,mexico1 
where the  sacrifice of human beings in 
the character of gods formed a          
conspicuous  feature of the national    
religion1 it is said that in the        

beginning1 when  as yet the light of day
 was not1 the gods created the sun to   
illumine the  earth by voluntarily      
burning themselves in the fire1 leaping 
one after the  other into the flames of 
a great furnace47#iaf7 ,again1 in the   
,babylonian  ,genesis the great god ,bel
 created the world by cleaving the      
female monster  ,tiamat in twain and    
using the severed halves of her body to 
form the  heaven and the earth4         
,afterwards1 perceiving that the earth  
was waste and  void1 he obligingly      
ordered one of the gods to cut off his1 
the ,creator's1  head1 and with the     
flowing blood mixed with clay he kneaded
 a paste out of  which he moulded men   
and animals47#iag7 ,similarly in a hymn 
of the ,rig ,veda  we read how the gods 
created the world out of the dismembered
 body of the  great primordial giant    
,purushu4 ,the sky was made out of his  
head1 the  earth out of his feet1 the   
sun out of his eye1 and the moon out of 
his  mind2 animals and men were also    

engendered from his dripping fat or his 
limbs1 and the great gods ,indra and    
,agni sprang from his mouth47#iah7 ,the 
crude1 nay savage1 account of creation  
thus set forth by the poet was  retained
 by the ,brahman doctors of a later age 
and refined by them into a  subtle      
theory of sacrifice in general4         
,according to them the world was not    
only created in the beginning by the    
sacrifice of the creator ,prajapati1    
the ,lord of ,creatures2 to this day it 
is renewed and preserved solely by a    
repetition of that mystic sacrifice in  
the daily sacrificial ritual  celebrated
 by the ,brahmans4 ,every day the body  
of the ,creator and ,saviour  is broken 
anew1 and every day it is pieced        
together for the restoration  and       
conservation of a universe which        
otherwise must dissolve and be          
shattered into fragments4 ,thus is the  
world continually created afresh by  the
 self-sacrifice of the deity2 and1      
wonderful to relate1 the priest who     

offers the sacrifice identifies himself 
with the ,creator1 and so by the  very  
act of sacrificing renews the universe  
and keeps up uninterrupted the          
revolution of time and matter4 ,all     
things depend on his beneficent1 nay    
divine activity1 from the heaven above  
to the earth beneath1 from the  greatest
 god to the meanest worm1 from the sun  
and moon to the humblest  blade of grass
 and the minutest particle of dust4     
,happily this grandiose  theory of      
sacrifice as a process essential to the 
salvation of the world  does not oblige 
the priest to imitate his glorious      
prototype by  dismembering his own body 
and shedding his blood on the altar2 on 
the  contrary a comfortable corollary   
deduced from it holds out to him the    
pleasing prospect of living for the     
unspeakable benefit of society to a     
good old age1 indeed of stretching out  
the brief span of human existence  to a 
full hundred years47#iai7 ,well is it1  
not only for the priest but for         

mankind1 when with the slow progress of 
civilization and humanity the hard      
facts of a cruel ritual have thus been  
softened and diluted into the  nebulous 
abstractions of a mystical theology4    
,,note4 ,,the ,,crucifixion ,,of        
,,christ47#ibj7      7,m#cah7 ,an       
eminent scholar has recently pointed out
 the remarkable  resemblance between the
 treatment of ,christ by the ,roman     
soldiers at  ,jerusalem and the         
treatment of the mock king of the       
,saturnalia by the  ,roman soldiers at  
,durostorum2 and he would explain the   
similarity by  supposing that the       
soldiers ridiculed the claims of ,christ
 to a divine  kingdom by arraying him in
 the familiar garb of old ,king ,saturn1
 whose  quaint person figured so        
prominently at the winter revels47#iba7 
,even if  the theory should prove to be 
right1 we can hardly suppose that       
,christ  played the part of the regular 
,saturn of the year1 since at the       
beginning  of our era the ,saturnalia   

fell at midwinter1 whereas ,christ was  
crucified  at the ,passover in spring4  
,there is1 indeed1 as ,i have pointed   
out1 some  reason to think that when the
 ,roman year began in ,march the        
,saturnalia was  held in spring1 and    
that in remote districts the festival   
always continued  to be celebrated at   
the ancient date4 ,if the ,roman        
garrison of ,jerusalem  conformed to the
 old fashion in this respect1 it seems  
not quite  impossible that their        
celebration of the ,saturnalia may have 
coincided  with the ,passover2 and that 
thus ,christ1 as a condemned criminal1  
may have  been given up to them to make 
sport with as the ,saturn of the year4  
,but on  the other hand it is rather    
unlikely that the officers1 as          
representatives  of the ,state1 would   
have allowed their men to hold the      
festival at any but  the official date2 
even in the distant town of ,durostorum 
we saw that the  ,roman soldiers        
celebrated the ,saturnalia in ,december4

 ,thus if the  legionaries at ,jerusalem
 really intended to mock ,christ by     
treating him  like the burlesque king of
 the ,saturnalia1 they probably did so  
only by  way of a jest which was in more
 senses than one unseasonable4          
7,m#cai7 ,but closely as the passion of 
,christ resembles the treatment of the  
mock king of the ,saturnalia1 it        
resembles still more closely the        
treatment  of the mock king of the      
,sacaea47#ibb7 ,the description of the  
mockery by ,st4  ,matthew is the        
fullest4 ,it runs thus3 8,then released 
he ,barabbas unto  them3 and when he had
 scourged ,jesus1 he delivered him to be
 crucified4  ,then the soldiers of the  
governor took ,jesus into the common    
hall1 and  gathered unto him the whole  
band of soldiers4 ,and they stripped    
him1 and  put on him a scarlet robe4    
,and when they had platted a crown of   
thorns1  they put it upon his head1 and 
a reed in his right hand3 and they bowed
  the knee before him1 and mocked him1  

saying1 ,hail1 ,king of the ,jews6 ,and 
they spit upon him1 and took the reed1  
and smote him on the head4 ,and  after  
that they had mocked him1 they took the 
robe off from him1 and put  his own     
raiment on him1 and led him away to     
crucify him407#ibc7 ,compare  with this 
the treatment of the mock king of the   
,sacaea1 as it is described  by ,dio    
,chrysostom3 8,they take one of the     
prisoners condemned to death and  seat  
him upon the king's throne1 and give him
 the king's raiment1 and let  him lord  
it and drink and run riot and use the   
king's concubines during  these days1   
and no man prevents him from doing just 
what he likes4 ,but  afterwards they    
strip and scourge and crucify           
him407#ibd7 ,now it is quite  possible  
that this remarkable resemblance is     
after all a mere coincidence1  and that 
,christ was executed in the ordinary way
 as a common malefactor2  but on the    
other hand there are so many scattered  
hints and indications of  something     

unusual1 so many broken lines seemingly 
converging towards the  cross on        
,calvary1 that it is worth while to     
follow them up and see where  they lead 
us4 ,in attempting to draw these        
fragmentary data together1 to  bridge   
the chasms1 and to restore the shattered
 whole1 we must beware of  mistaking    
hypothesis for the facts which it only  
professes to cement2 yet  even if our   
hypothesis should be thought to bear a  
somewhat undue  proportion to the facts1
 the excess may perhaps be overlooked in
  consideration of the obscurity and the
 importance of the enquiry4 7,m#cbj7    
,we have seen reason to think that the  
,jewish festival of ,purim is a         
continuation1 under a changed name1 of  
the ,babylonian ,sacaea1 and that in    
celebrating it by the destruction of an 
effigy of ,haman the modern ,jews  have 
kept up a reminiscence of the ancient   
custom of crucifying or hanging  a man  
in the character of a god at the        
festival4 ,is it not possible that  at  

an earlier time they may1 like the      
,babylonians themselves1 have  regularly
 compelled a condemned criminal to play 
the tragic part1 and that  ,christ thus 
perished in the character of ,haman8    
,the resemblance between  the hanged    
,haman and the crucified ,christ struck 
the early ,christians  themselves2 and  
whenever the ,jews destroyed an effigy  
of ,haman they were  accused by their   
,christian neighbours of deriding the   
most sacred mystery  of the new         
faith47#ibe7 ,it is probable that on    
this painful subject the  ,christians   
were too sensitive2 remembering the     
manner of their ,founder's  death it was
 natural that they should wince at any  
pointed allusion to a  cross1 a gallows1
 or a public execution1 even when the   
shaft was not aimed  at them4 ,an       
objection to supposing that ,christ died
 as the ,haman of the  year is that     
according to the ,gospel narrative the  
crucifixion occurred at  the ,passover1 
on the fourteenth day of the month      

,nisan1 whereas the feast  of ,purim1 at
 which the hanging of ,haman would      
naturally take place1 fell  exactly a   
month earlier1 namely1 on the fourteenth
 day of the month ,adar4  ,i have no    
wish to blink or extenuate the serious  
nature of the difficulty  arising from  
this discrepancy of dates1 but ,i would 
suggest some  considerations which may  
make us hesitate to decide that the     
discrepancy  is fatal4 ,in the first    
place1 it is possible1 though perhaps   
not probable1  that ,christian tradition
 shifted the date of the crucifixion by 
a month in  order to make the great     
sacrifice of the ,lamb of ,god coincide 
with that  annual sacrifice of the      
,passover lamb which in the belief of   
pious hearts  had so long foreshadowed  
it and was thenceforth to cease47#ibf7  
,instances  of gentle pressure brought  
to bear1 for purposes of edification1 on
  stubborn facts are perhaps not wholly 
unknown in the annals of religion4  ,but
 the express testimony of history is    

never to be lightly set aside2 and  in  
the investigation of its problems a     
solution which assumes the veracity  and
 accuracy of the historian is1 on an    
even balance of probabilities1  always  
to be preferred to one which impugns    
them both4 ,now in the present  case we 
have seen reason to think that the      
,babylonian ,new ,year festival1  of    
which ,purim was a continuation1 did    
fall in ,nisan at or near the time  of  
the ,passover1 and that when the ,jews  
borrowed the festival they altered  the 
date from ,nisan to ,adar in order to   
prevent the new feast from  clashing    
with the old ,passover4 ,a reminiscence 
of the original date of  ,purim perhaps 
survives1 as ,i have already pointed    
out1 in the statement in  the book of   
,esther that ,haman caused pur or lots  
to be cast before him  from the month of
 ,nisan onward47#ibg7 ,it thus seems not
 impossible that  occasionally1 for some
 special reason1 the ,jews should have  
celebrated the  feast of ,purim1 or at  

least the death of ,haman1 at or about  
the time of  the ,passover4 ,but there  
is another possibility which1 remote and
 fanciful  as it may appear1 deserves at
 least to be mentioned4 ,the mock king  
of the  ,saturnalia1 whose resemblance  
to the dying ,christ was first pointed  
out by  ,mr4 ,wendland1 was allowed a   
period of license of thirty days before 
he was  put to death4 ,if we could      
suppose that in like manner the ,jews   
spared the  human representative of     
,haman for one month from ,purim1 the   
date of his  execution would fall       
exactly on the ,passover4 ,which1 if    
any1 of these  conjectural solutions of 
the difficulty is the true one1 ,i will 
not  undertake to say4 ,i am fully      
conscious of the doubt and uncertainty  
that  hang round the whole subject2 and 
if in this and what follows ,i throw out
  some hints and suggestions1 it is more
 in the hope of stimulating and         
directing further enquiry than with any 
expectation of reaching definite        

conclusions4    7,m#cba7 ,it may be     
objected that the mockery of ,christ was
 done1 not by the  ,jews1 but by the    
,roman soldiers1 who knew and cared     
nothing about ,haman2  how then can we  
suppose that the purple or scarlet robe1
 the sceptre of  reed1 and the crown of 
thorns1 which the soldiers thrust upon  
,christ1 were  the regular insignia of  
the ,haman of the year8 ,to this we may 
reply1 in  the first place1 that even if
 the legions stationed in ,syria were   
not  recruited in the country1 they may 
have contracted some of the native      
superstitions and have fallen in with   
the local customs4 ,this is not an  idle
 conjecture4 ,we know that the third    
legion during its stay in ,syria        
learned the ,syrian custom of saluting  
the rising sun1 and that this formal    
salute1 performed by the whole regiment 
as one man at a critical moment of  the 
great battle of ,bedriacum1 actually    
helped to turn the scale when the       
fortune of empire hung trembling in the 

balance47#ibh7 ,but it is not  necessary
 to suppose that the garrison of        
,jerusalem really shared the  beliefs   
and prejudices of the mob whom they     
overawed2 soldiers everywhere  are ready
 to go with a crowd bent on sport1      
without asking any curious  questions as
 to the history or quality of the       
entertainment1 and we should  probably  
do the humanity of ,roman soldiers too  
much honour if we imagined  that they   
would be deterred by any qualm of       
conscience from joining in the  pastime1
 which is still so popular1 of baiting a
 ,jew to death4 ,but in the  second     
place it should be observed that1       
according to one of the  ,evangelists1  
it was not the soldiers of ,pilate who  
mocked ,jesus1 but the  soldiers of     
,herod17#ibi7 and we may fairly assume  
that ,herod's guards were  ,jews4       
7,m#cbb7 ,the hypothesis that the       
crucifixion with all its cruel mockery  
was  not a punishment specially devised 
for ,christ1 but was merely the fate    

that annually befell the malefactor who 
played ,haman1 appears to go some  way  
towards relieving the ,gospel narrative 
of certain difficulties which  otherwise
 beset it4 ,if1 as we read in the       
,gospels1 ,pilate was really  anxious to
 save the innocent man whose fine       
bearing seems to have struck  him1 what 
was to hinder him from doing so8 ,he had
 the power of life and  death2 why      
should he not have exercised it on the  
side of mercy1 if his  own judgment     
inclined that way8 ,his reluctant       
acquiescence in the  importunate demand 
of the rabble becomes easier to         
understand if we assume  that custom    
obliged him annually at this season to  
give up to them a  prisoner on whom they
 might play their cruel pranks4 ,on this
 assumption  ,pilate had no power to    
prevent the sacrifice2 the most he could
 do was to  choose the victim4          
,again1 consider the remarkable         
statement of the ,evangelists that      
,pilate  set up over the cross a        

superscription stating that the man who 
hung on it  was king of the ,jews47#icj7
 ,is it likely that in the reign of     
,tiberius a  ,roman governor1 with the  
fear of the jealous and suspicious old  
emperor  before his eyes1 would have    
ventured1 even in mockery1 to blazon    
forth a  seditious claim of this sort   
unless it were the regular formula      
employed  on such occasions1 recognized 
by custom1 and therefore not liable to  
be  misconstrued into treason by the    
malignity of informers and the fears of 
a  tyrant8    ,but if the tragedy of the
 ill-fated aspirant after royal honours 
was  annually enacted at ,jerusalem by a
 prisoner who perished on the cross1 it 
becomes probable that the part of his   
successful rival was also played by     
another actor who paraded in the same   
kingly trappings but did not share  the 
same fate4 ,if ,jesus was the ,haman of 
the year1 where was the ,mordecai8      
,perhaps we may find him in ,barabbas4  
7,m#cbc7 ,we are told by the            

,evangelists that at the feast which    
witnessed  the crucifixion of ,christ it
 was the custom for the ,roman governor 
to  release one prisoner1 whomsoever the
 people desired1 and that ,pilate1      
convinced of the innocence of ,jesus1   
attempted to persuade the multitude  to 
choose him as the man who should go     
free4 ,but1 hounded on by the  priests  
and elders who had marked out ,jesus for
 destruction1 the rabble  would not hear
 of this1 and clamoured for the blood of
 ,jesus1 while they  demanded the       
release of a certain miscreant1 by name 
,barabbas1 who lay in  gaol for murder  
and sedition4 ,accordingly ,pilate had  
to give way3 ,christ  was crucified and 
,barabbas set at liberty47#ica7 ,now    
what1 we may ask1 was  the reason for   
setting free a prisoner at this         
festival8 ,in the absence of  positive  
information1 we may conjecture that the 
gaol-bird whose cage was  thrown open at
 this time had to purchase his freedom  
by performing some  service from which  

decent people would shrink4 ,such a     
service may very  well have been that of
 going about the streets1 rigged out in 
tawdry  splendour with a tinsel crown on
 his head and a sham sceptre in his     
hand1  preceded and followed by all the 
tag-rag and bobtail of the town hooting1
  jeering1 and breaking coarse jests at 
his expense1 while some pretended to    
salaam his mock majesty1 and others     
belaboured the donkey on which he  rode4
 ,it was in this fashion1 probably1 that
 in ,persia the beardless and  one-eyed 
man made his undignified progress       
through the town1 to the  delight of    
ragamuffins and the terror of           
shopkeepers1 whose goods he             
unceremoniously confiscated if they did 
not hasten to lay their  peace-offerings
 at his feet4 ,so1 perhaps1 the ruffian 
,barabbas1 when his  irons were knocked 
off and the prison door had grated on   
its hinges to let  him forth1 tasted the
 first sweets of liberty in this public 
manner1 even  if he was not suffered1   

like his one-eyed brother1 to make raids
 with  impunity on the stalls of the    
merchants and the tables of the         
money-changers4 ,a curious confirmation 
of this conjecture is supplied by a     
passage in the writings of ,philo the   
,jew1 who lived at ,alexandria in the   
time of ,christ4 ,he tells us that when 
,agrippa1 the grandson of ,herod1 had   
received the crown of ,judaea from      
,caligula at ,rome1 the new king passed 
through ,alexandria on his way to his   
own country4 ,the disorderly populace   
of that great city1 animated by a hearty
 dislike of his nation1 seized the      
opportunity of venting their spite by   
publicly defaming and ridiculing the    
,jewish monarch4 ,among other things    
they laid hold of a certain harmless    
lunatic named ,carabas1 who used to roam
 the streets stark naked1 the butt  and 
laughing-stock of urchins and idlers4   
,this poor wretch they set up in  a     
public place1 clapped a paper crown on  
his head1 thrust a broken reed  into his

 hand by way of a sceptre1 and having   
huddled a mat instead of a  royal robe  
about his naked body1 and surrounded him
 with a guard of  bludgeon-men1 they did
 obeisance to him as to a king and made 
a show of  taking his opinion on        
questions of law and policy4 ,to point  
the jest  unmistakably at the ,syrian   
king ,agrippa1 the bystanders raised    
cries of  8,marin6 ,marin60 which they  
understood to be the ,syrian word for   
8lord407#icb7 ,this mockery of the      
,jewish king closely resembles the      
mockery  of ,christ2 and the joke1 such 
as it was1 would receive a keener edge  
if we  could suppose that the riff-raff 
of ,alexandria were familiar with the   
,jewish practice of setting up a sham   
king on certain occasions1 and that     
they meant by implication to ridicule   
the real ,king ,agrippa by comparing    
him to his holiday counterfeit4 ,may we 
go a step further and conjecture  that  
one at least of the titles of the mock  
king of the ,jews was regularly         

,barabbas8 ,the poor imbecile who       
masqueraded in a paper crown at         
,alexandria  was probably a ,jew1       
otherwise the jest would have lost much 
of its point2  and his name1 according  
to the ,greek manuscripts of ,philo1 was
 ,carabas4  ,but ,carabas is meaningless
 in ,hebrew1 whereas ,barabbas is a     
regularly  formed ,hebrew word meaning  
8,son of the ,father40 ,the             
palaeographic  difference between the   
two forms is slight1 and perhaps we     
shall hardly be  deemed very rash if we 
conjecture that in the passage in       
question ,philo  himself wrote          
,barabbas1 which a ,greek copyist1      
ignorant of ,hebrew1  afterwards        
corrupted into ,carabas4 ,if this were  
granted1 we should still  have to assume
 that both ,philo and the authors of the
 ,gospels fell into  the mistake of     
treating as the name of an individual   
what in fact was a  title of office4    
7,m#cbd7 ,thus the hypothesis which1    
with great diffidence1 ,i would put     

forward for consideration is this4 ,it  
was customary1 we may suppose1 with  the
 ,jews at ,purim1 or perhaps            
occasionally at ,passover1 to employ two
  prisoners to act the parts            
respectively of ,haman and ,mordecai in 
the  passion-play which formed a central
 feature of the festival4 ,both men     
paraded for a short time in the insignia
 of royalty1 but their fates were       
different2 for while at the end of the  
performance the one who played  ,haman  
was hanged or crucified1 the one who    
personated ,mordecai and bore in        
popular parlance the title of ,barabbas 
was allowed to go free4 ,pilate1        
perceiving the trumpery nature of the   
charges brought against ,jesus1 tried   
to persuade the ,jews to let him play   
the part of ,barabbas1 which would  have
 saved his life2 but the merciful       
attempt failed and ,jesus perished on   
the cross in the character of ,haman4   
,the description of his last triumphal  
ride into ,jerusalem reads almost like  

an echo of that brilliant progress      
through the streets of ,susa which      
,haman aspired to and ,mordecai         
accomplished2 and the account of the    
raid which he immediately afterwards    
made upon the stalls of the hucksters   
and money-changers in the temple1  may  
raise a question whether we have not    
here a trace of those arbitrary  rights 
over property which it has been         
customary on such occasions to  accord  
to the temporary king47#icc7    7,m#cbe7
 ,if it be asked why one of these       
temporary kings should bear the         
remarkable title of ,barabbas or 8,son  
of the ,father10 ,i can only surmise    
that the title may perhaps be a relic of
 the time when the real king1 the       
deified man1 used to redeem his own life
 by deputing his son to reign for  a    
short time and to die in his stead4 ,we 
have seen that the custom of            
sacrificing the son for the father was  
common1 if not universal1 among         
,semitic peoples2 and if we are right in

 our interpretation of the  ,passover1  
that festival--the traditional date of  
the crucifixion--was the  very season   
when the dreadful sacrifice of the      
first-born was  consummated47#icd7      
,hence ,barabbas or the 8,son of the    
,father0 would be a  natural enough     
title for the man or child who reigned  
and died as a  substitute for his royal 
sire4 ,even in later times1 when the    
father  provided a less precious        
substitute than his own offspring1 it   
would be  quite in accordance with the  
formal conservatism of religion that the
 old  title should be retained after it 
had ceased to be appropriate2 indeed the
  efficacy of the sacrifice might be    
thought to require and justify the      
pious fiction that the substitute was   
the very son of that divine father  who 
should have died1 but who preferred to  
live1 for the good of his  people4 ,if  
in the time of ,christ1 as ,i have      
conjectured1 the title of  ,barabbas or 
,son of the ,father was bestowed on the 

,mordecai1 the mock king  who lived1    
rather than on the ,haman1 the mock king
 who died at the  festival1 this        
distinction can hardly have been        
original2 for at first1 we  may suppose1
 the same man served in both capacities 
at different times1 as  the ,mordecai of
 one year and the ,haman of the next4   
,the two characters1 as  ,i have        
attempted to shew1 are probably nothing 
but two different aspects  of the same  
deity considered at one time as dead and
 at another as risen2  hence the human  
being who personated the risen god would
 in due time1  after he had enjoyed his 
divine honours for a season1 act the    
dead god by  dying in good earnest in   
his own person2 for it would be         
unreasonable to  expect of the ordinary 
man-god that he should play the two     
parts in the  reverse order by dying    
first and coming to life afterwards4 ,in
 both parts  the substitute would still 
be1 whether in sober fact or in pious   
fiction1  the ,barabbas or ,son of that 

divine ,father who generously gave his  
own son  to die for the world47#ice7    
7,m#cbf7 ,to conclude this speculation1 
into which ,i have perhaps been led by  
the interest and importance of the      
subject somewhat deeper than the        
evidence warrants1 ,i venture to urge in
 its favour that it seems to shed  fresh
 light on some of the causes which      
contributed to the remarkably  rapid    
diffusion of ,christianity in ,asia     
,minor4 ,we know from a famous  letter  
of the younger ,pliny addressed to the  
,emperor ,trajan in the year  #aab      
,a4,d4 that by the beginning of our era1
 less than a hundred years after  the   
,founder's death1 ,christianity had made
 such strides in ,bithynia and  ,pontus 
that not only cities but villages and   
rural districts were affected  by it1   
and that multitudes of both sexes and of
 every age and every rank  professed its
 tenets2 indeed things had gone so far  
that the temples were  almost deserted1 
the sacred rites of the public religion 

discontinued1 and  hardly a purchaser   
could be found for the sacrificial      
victims47#icf7 ,it is  obvious1         
therefore1 that the new faith had       
elements in it which appealed           
powerfully to the ,asiatic mind4 ,what  
these elements were1 the present        
investigation has perhaps to some extent
 disclosed4 ,we have seen that the      
conception of the dying and risen god   
was no new one in these regions4 ,all   
over ,western ,asia from time immemorial
 the mournful death and happy           
resurrection of a divine being appear to
 have been annually celebrated  with    
alternate rites of bitter lamentation   
and exultant joy2 and through  the veil 
which mythic fancy has woven round this 
tragic figure we can  still detect the  
features of those great yearly changes  
in earth and sky  which1 under all      
distinctions of race and religion1 must 
always touch the  natural human heart   
with alternate emotions of gladness and 
regret1  because they exhibit on the    

vastest scale open to our observation   
the  mysterious struggle between life   
and death4 ,but man has not always been 
willing to watch passively this         
momentous conflict2 he has felt that he 
has too great a stake in its issue to   
stand by with folded hands while it  is 
being fought out2 he has taken sides    
against the forces of death and         
decay--has flung into the trembling     
scale all the weight of his puny        
person1 and has exulted in his fancied  
strength when the great balance has     
slowly inclined towards the side of     
life1 little knowing that for all his   
strenuous efforts he can as little stir 
that balance by a hair's-breadth  as can
 the primrose on a mossy bank in spring 
or the dead leaf blown by  the chilly   
breath of autumn4 ,nowhere do these     
efforts1 vain and pitiful1  yet         
pathetic1 appear to have been made more 
persistently and  systematically than in
 ,western ,asia4 ,in name they varied   
from place to  place1 but in substance  

they were all alike4 ,a man1 whom the   
fond  imagination of his worshippers    
invested with the attributes of a god1  
gave  his life for the life of the      
world2 after infusing from his own body 
a  fresh current of vital energy into   
the stagnant veins of nature1 he was    
cut off from among the living before his
 failing strength should initiate  a    
universal decay1 and his place was taken
 by another who played1 like all  his   
predecessors1 the ever-recurring drama  
of the divine resurrection and  death4  
,such a drama1 if our interpretation of 
it is right1 was the  original story of 
,esther and ,mordecai or1 to give them  
their older names1  of ,ishtar and      
,marduk4 ,it was played in ,babylonia1  
and from ,babylonia the  returning      
captives brought it to ,judaea1 where it
 was acted1 rather as an  historical    
than a mythical piece1 by players who1  
having to die in grim  earnest on a     
cross or gallows1 were naturally drawn  
rather from the gaol  than the          

green-room4 ,a chain of causes which1   
because we cannot follow  them1 might in
 the loose language of daily life be    
called an accident1  determined that the
 part of the dying god in this annual   
play should be  thrust upon ,jesus of   
,nazareth1 whom the enemies he had made 
in high places  by his outspoken        
strictures were resolved to put out of  
the way4 ,they  succeeded in ridding    
themselves of the popular and           
troublesome preacher2  but the very step
 by which they fancied they had         
simultaneously stamped  out his         
revolutionary doctrines contributed more
 than anything else they  could have    
done to scatter them broadcast not only 
over ,judaea but over  ,asia2 for it    
impressed upon what had been hitherto   
mainly an ethical  mission the character
 of a divine revelation culminating in  
the passion  and death of the incarnate 
,son of a heavenly ,father4 ,in this    
form the  story of the life and death of
 ,jesus exerted an influence which it   

could  never have had if the great      
teacher had died1 as is commonly        
supposed1 the  death of a vulgar        
malefactor4 ,it shed round the cross on 
,calvary a halo of  divinity which      
multitudes saw and worshipped afar off2 
the blow struck on  ,golgotha set a     
thousand expectant strings vibrating in 
unison wherever men  had heard the old1 
old story of the dying and risen god4   
,every year1 as  another spring bloomed 
and another autumn faded across the     
earth1 the  field had been ploughed and 
sown and borne fruit of a kind till it  
received that seed which was destined to
 spring up and overshadow the  world4   
,in the great army of martyrs who in    
many ages and in many lands1  not in    
,asia only1 have died a cruel death in  
the character of gods1 the  devout      
,christian will doubtless discern types 
and forerunners of the  coming          
,saviour--stars that heralded in the    
morning sky the advent of the  ,sun of  
,righteousness--earthen vessels wherein 

it pleased the divine wisdom  to set    
before hungering souls the bread of     
heaven4 ,the sceptic1 on the  other     
hand1 with equal confidence1 will reduce
 ,jesus of ,nazareth to the  level of a 
multitude of other victims of a         
barbarous superstition1 and  will see in
 him no more than a moral teacher1 whom 
the fortunate accident  of his execution
 invested with the crown1 not merely of 
a martyr1 but of a  god4 ,the divergence
 between these views is wide and deep4  
,which of them is  the truer and will in
 the end prevail8 ,time will decide the 
question of  prevalence1 if not of      
truth4 ,yet we would fain believe that  
in this and in  all things the old maxim
 will hold good--,magna est veritas et  
praevalebit4            ,,index4        
,abbot of ,folly in ,france1 #ccd       
---- of ,unreason in ,scotland1 #cca    
,abdera1 human scapegoats at1 #bed      
,abeghian1 ,manuk1 quoted1 #ajg sq4     
,abjuration1 form of1 imposed on ,jewish
 converts1 #cic    ,abonsam1 an evil    

spirit on the ,gold ,coast1 #acb        
,abrahams1 ,israel1 #cic n4 #b          
,abruzzi1 ,epiphany in the1 #afg n4 #b  
,absalom1 his intercourse with his      
father's concubines1 #cfh    ,absrot1   
village of ,bohemia1 #afa    ,abstinence
 as a charm to promote the growth of the
 seed1 #cdg sqq4    ,abyssinian festival
 of ,mascal or the ,cross1 #acc sq4     
,accusations of ritual murders brought  
against the ,jews1 #cid sqq4            
,acilisena1 in ,armenia1 the worship of 
,anaitis at1 #cfi n4 #a    ,acosta1 ,j4 
de1 quoted1 #bge sq41 #bgg    ,adaklu1  
,mount1 in ,west ,africa1 #ace sq41 #bjf
 sq4    ,adam and ,eve1 #bei n4 #c      
,adar1 a ,jewish month1 #cfa1 #cid1     
#cig1 #cih1 #dae    ,adonis at          
,alexandria1 #cij2    annual death and  
resurrection of1 #cih2    his marriage  
with ,ishtar 7,aphrodite71 #dja4    ,see
 also ,tammuz    ---- and ,aphrodite1   
#chf    ,aegisthus and ,agamemnon1 #ai  
,aesculapius at ,epidaurus1 #dg         
,africa1 ,northern1 cairns in1 #ba2     

popular cure for toothache in1 #fb2     
,south1 dread of demons in1 #gg sq42    
tribes of1 their expulsion of demons1   
#aaj sq42    ,west1 demons in1 #gd sqq4 
,agamemnon and ,aegisthus1 #ai          
,agathias on ,sandes1 #chi    ,agni1    
creation of the great god1 #daj         
,agnus castus1 used in ceremony of      
beating1 #beb1 #beg    ,agricultural    
year1 expulsions of demons timed to     
coincide with seasons of                
the1 #bbe    ,agrippa1 ,king of ,judaea1
 his mockery at ,alexandria1 #dah       
,ague1 popular cures for1 #ef1 #eg sq42 
,suffolk cure for1 #fh    ,ahasuerus1   
,king1 #cig1 #dja2    the ,hebrew       
equivalent of ,xerxes1 #cfj    ,ait     
,sadden1 the1 of ,morocco1 #ahb    ---- 
,warain1 a ,berber tribe1 #agh          
,aitan1 a goddess1 #agc    ,akamba1 the1
 of ,british ,east ,africa1 riddles     
among the1 #abb n4    ,akikuyu of ,east 
,africa1 #cb    ,alaska1 the ,esquimaux 
of1 #abd    ,albania1 expulsion of ,kore
 on ,easter ,eve in1 #aeg    ,albanian  

custom of beating men and beasts in     
,march1 #bff    ,albanians of the       
,caucasus1 their use of human           
scapegoats1 #bah    ,albrn1 ,arab       
historian1 #cic    ,alenon1 the ,boy    
,bishop at1 #ccg n4 #a    ,aleutian     
,islands1 #c1 #af    ,alexandria1       
,adonis at1 #cij2    mockery of ,king   
,agrippa at1 #dah    ,alexandrian       
calendar1 #cie n4 #a    ,alfoors of     
,central ,celebes1 riddles among the1   
#abb n4    ---- of ,halmahera1 their    
expulsion of the devil1 #aab            
,algeria1 #ca2    popular cure in1 #fj  
,all ,souls' ,college1 ,oxford1 the ,boy
 ,bishop at1 #ccg    ,allallu bird      
beloved by ,ishtar1 #cga    ,allhallow  
,even1 #ccb    ,almora1 in ,kumaon1 #aig
    ,altars1 bloodless1 #cjg            
,ambarvalia1 the1 #cei    ,amboyna1     
belief in spirits in1 #he2              
disease-transference in1 #ahg           
,amerett1 a ,persian archangel1 #cgc n4 
#a    ,america1 ,indian tribes of       
,north-,western1 their masked dances1   

#cge sqq4    ,amoor1 ,gilyaks of the1   
#aja    ,amshaspands1 ,persian          
archangels1 #cgc n4 #a    ,amulets      
against demons1 #ie    ,anacan1 a month 
of the ,gallic calendar1 #cdc           
,anadates1 at ,zela1 #cgc n4 #a         
,anaitis1 a ,persian goddess1 #cee1     
#cfh1 #cfi1 #cgj1 #chi1 #djb n4 #a1 #dba
 n4              #a    ,ancestral       
spirits1 propitiation of1 #hf           
,ancona1 sarcophagus of ,st4 ,dasius at1
 #caj    ,andalusia1 #agc    ,anderson1 
,j4 ,d41 #agf n4 #c    ,anderson1 ,miss1
 of ,barskimming1 #afi n4 #b            
,andree-,eysn1 ,mrs41 quoted1 #bde sq4  
,animals1 transference of evil to1 #ca  
sqq42    as scapegoats1 #ca sqq41 #aij  
sqq41 #bjh sqq41 #baf sq42    guardian  
spirits of1 #ih2    prayed to1 #bcf2    
dances taught by1 #bcg2    imitated in  
dances1 #cgf1 #cgg1 #cha1 #chb          
,aninga1 aquatic plant in ,brazil1 #bfd 
,annam1 #cc2    demon of cholera sent   
away on a raft from1 #aij2              
explanation of human mortality in1 #cjc 

,anthesteria1 ,athenian festival of the 
dead1 #aeb sq4    ,anthesterion1 an     
,athenian month1 #ceb    ,antibes1 ,holy
 ,innocents' ,day at1 #ccf sq4          
,antinmas1 #afg    ,antiquity1 human    
scapegoats in classical1 #bbi sqq4      
,antoninus1 ,marcus1 plague in his      
reign1 #fd    ,ants1 jealousy           
transferred to1 #cc2    stinging people 
with1 #bfc    ,anu1 ,babylonian god1    
visit of ,ishtar to1 #cii n4 #a         
,apachitas1 heaps of stones1 #i         
,aphrodite and ,adonis1 #chf            
,aphrodite1 the ,oriental1 #cfi n4 #a   
,apis1 sacred ,egyptian bull1 #bag      
,apollo1 temple of1 at the ,lover's     
,leap1 #bed    ---- and ,artemis1 cake  
with twelve knobs offered to1 #cea n4 #c
    ,april1 ,siamese festival of the    
dead in1 #aej    ,arab cure for         
melancholy1 #d    ,arabia1 #cc          
,arabs1 their custom as to widows1 #ce2 
their custom in regard to murder1 #fc2  
beat camels to deliver them from jinn1  
#bfj2    of ,morocco1 their custom at   

the ,great ,feast1 #bfe    ,aracan1 #ab 
n4 #a1 #aag2    dances for the crops in1
 #bcf    ,araucanians1 the1 of ,south   
,america1 #ab    ,arawaks of ,british   
,guiana1 their explanation of human     
mortality1 #cjb sq4    ,arcadian custom 
of beating ,pan's image1 #bef    ,arch  
to shut out plague1 #e2    creeping     
through1 as a cure1 #ee    ,arches made 
over paths at expulsion of demons1 #aac1
 #abj sq4    ,arctic regions1 ceremonies
 at the reappearance of the sun in the1 
#abd              sq41 #abe n4 #a       
,ardennes1 the ,king of the ,bean in    
the1 #cad2    the ,eve of ,epiphany in  
the1 #cag    ,argentina1 #i    ,argus1  
the murder of1 #bd    ,aricia1 #cje2    
the priest of1 #bgc2    ,king of the    
,wood at1 #dji    ,arician grove1 the1  
#bgd1 #cje    ---- priesthood1 #cje     
,aries1 the constellation1 the sun in1  
#cfa n4 #a1 #djc    ,armenia1 the       
worship of ,anaitis in1 #cfi n4 #a      
,armenians1 their belief in demons1 #ajg
 sq4    ,arrows1 invisible1 of demons1  

#aja1 #abf    ,artaxerxes ,,ii41 his    
promotion of the worship of ,anaitis1   
#cgj    ,artemisia laciniata1 garlands  
of1 #bhd    ,aru ,archipelago1 #aba n4  
#c    ,arval ,brothers1 the college of  
the1 at ,rome1 #bcj1 #bcb1 #bch         
,aryan custom of counting by nights     
instead of days1 #cbf n4 #b    ----     
languages1 names for moon and month in1 
#cbe    ---- peoples1 their correction  
of the lunar year1 #cdb    ,aryans of   
the ,vedic age1 #cbd2    their calendar1
 #cbe1 #cdb    ,ascalon1 ,derceto at1   
#cgj n4 #a    ,ascension ,day1 cures on 
,eve of1 #ed2    annual expulsion of the
 devil on1 #bad sq42    ceremony at     
,rouen on1 #bae sq42    bells rung to   
make flax grow on1 #bdg sq4    ,ash-tree
 in popular cure1 #eg    ,ashantee1     
annual period of license in1 #bbf n4 #a 
,ashtaroth1 #cff    ,ashurbanapal and   
,sardanapalus1 #chg sq4    ,asia1       
,saturnalia in ,western1 #ced sqq4      
,asia ,minor1 use of human scapegoats by
 the ,greeks of1 #bee    ,asongtata1 an 

annual ceremony1 #bjh    ,aspen in      
popular cure1 #eg    ,ass in cure for   
scorpion's bite1 #di sq42    introduced 
into church at ,festival of ,fools1 #cce
 sq42    triumphal ride of a buffoon on 
an1 #djb sq4    ,assam1 the ,kacharis   
of1 #ic2    the ,lushais of1 #id2    the
 ,khasis of1 #agc2    the ,nagas of1    
#agg2    the ,garos of1 #bjh sq4        
,assembly of the gods at the ,new ,year 
in ,babylon1 #cef    ,assimilation of   
human victims to trees1 #beg1 #bei n4 #c
    ,assyria1 ,ashurbanapal1 king of1   
#chg sq4    ,assyrian monarchs1         
conquerors of ,babylonia1 #cef          
,assyrians1 the ancient1 their belief in
 demons1 #ajb    ,astarte or ,ishtar1 a 
great ,babylonian goddess1 #cfe4    ,see
 also ,ishtar    ---- and ,semiramis1   
#cfi sqq4    ,aston1 ,w4 ,g41 quoted1   
#bac n4 #a    ,aswang1 an evil spirit1  
exorcism of1 #bfj    ,athenians1 their  
use of human scapegoats1 #bec sq42      
their mode of reckoning a day1 #cbf n4  
#b2    their religious dramas1 #chd     

,athens1 ,cronus and the ,cronia at1    
#cea sq4    ,atkhans1 the1 of ,aleutian 
,islands1 #c    ,atlas1 ,berbers of the 
,great1 #agh    ,atlatatonan1 ,mexican  
goddess of lepers1 #bib2    woman       
annually sacrificed in the character of1
 #bib    ,atonement1 the ,jewish ,day   
of1 #baj    ,attis and ,cybele1 #chf    
,aubrey1 ,john1 on sin-eating1 #dc sq4  
,aucas1 the1 of ,south ,america1 #ab    
,australia1 ,central1 #b    ----1 demons
 in1 #gd2    annual expulsion of ghosts 
in1 #abc sq4    ,austria1 cure of warts 
in1 #dh    ,autumn1 ceremony of the     
,esquimaux in late1 #abe    ,autun1 the 
,festival of ,fools at1 #cce    ,avestad
 in ,sweden1 #bj    ,axim1 on the ,gold 
,coast1 #aca    ,aymara ,indians1 their 
remedy for plague1 #aic    ,azazel1 #baj
 n4 #d    ,aztecs1 their custom of      
sacrificing human representatives of    
gods1 #bge2    their five supplementary 
days1 #cci    ,azur1 the month of       
,march1 #djc    ,baal1 human sacrifices 
to1 #cec1 #ced    ,babalawo1 priest1    

#bab    ,babar ,archipelago1 #h2        
sickness expelled in a boat from the1   
#ahg    ,baboons sent by evil spirits1  
#aaj sq4    ,baby1 effigy of1 used to   
fertilize women1 #bde1 #bdi    ,babylon1
 festival of the ,sacaea at1 #ced sqq4  
,babylonia1 belief in demons in ancient1
 #ajb sq42    conquered by ,assyria1    
#cef2    the feast of ,purim in1 #cic   
,babylonian calendar1 #cih n4 #b        
,bacchanalia1 ,purim a ,jewish1 #cfc    
,badagas1 the1 of the ,neilgherry       
,hills1 #cf    ,badi1 performer at a    
ceremony1 #aig    ,baffin ,land1 the    
,esquimaux of1 #abe    ,baganda1 the1 of
 ,central ,africa1 #d1 #g1 #ag sq41 #bg1
 #cb2    human scapegoats among the1 #db
    ,bahima1 the1 of the ,uganda        
,protectorate1 #f1 #cb    ,baiga1       
aboriginal priest1 #bg    ,bali1 belief 
in demons in1 #hf2    periodical        
expulsion of demons in1 #adj    ,ball1  
games of1 played as a magical ceremony1 
#agi sq42    in ,normandy1 #ahc sq4     
,balolo1 a sea-slug1 #ada    ,bamboo-rat

 sacrificed for riddance of evils1 #bjh 
sq4    ,bananas1 mode of fertilizing1   
#bfd2    the cause of human mortality1  
#cjc    ,bangkok1 #aej    ,banishment of
 evil spirits1 #hf    ,banks' ,islands1 
#i    ,banks' ,islanders1 their story of
 the origin of death1 #cjd    ,banmanas 
of ,senegambia1 their custom at the     
death of an infant1 #bfa sq4            
,banquets in honour of the spirits of   
disease1 #aai    ,bantu tribes1 #gg     
,banyoro1 the1 #db1 #aid    ,barabbas   
and ,christ1 #dag sqq4    ,baraka1      
blessed influence1 #bfe    ,barat1 a    
ceremony performed in ,kumaon1 #aif     
,barito1 river in ,borneo1 #hg          
,baron1 ,s41 quoted1 #adh    ,barwan1   
river1 #abc    ,bassa tribe1 of the     
,cameroons1 #abj    ,bassus1 ,roman     
officer1 #cji    ,basutos1 the1 #cj n4  
#b    ,batchelor1 ,rev4 ,j41 #bfa       
,baton of ,sinope1 #cej    ,battas or   
,bataks of ,sumatra1 #cd2    their      
belief in demons1 #hg sq42    their use 
of human scapegoats1 #bac    ,battle1   

annual1 among boys in ,tumleo1 #adc     
,bavaria1 mode of reckoning the ,twelve 
,days in1 #cbg    ----1 ,rhenish1 #ef   
,bavarian cure for fever1 #di           
,bawenda1 the1 #cj n4 #b    ,bean1 the  
,king of the1 #cac sqq42    the ,queen  
of the1 #cac1 #cae    ---- clan1 the1   
#bg    ,beans thrown about the house at 
the expulsion of demons1 #adc sq42      
thrown about the house at the expulsion 
of ghosts1 #aee    8,beardless ,one1 the
 ,ride of the10 #djb sq4    ,beating as 
a mode of purification1 #bfb    ----    
human scapegoats1 #aif1 #beb1 #bee1 #bef
 sq41 #bgb sq4    ---- people as a mode 
of conveying good qualities1 #bfb sqq42 
with skins of sacrificial victims1 #bfe2
    with green boughs1 #bgj sqq4    ----
 persons1 animals1 or things to deliver 
them from demons and ghosts1 #bei       
sqq4    ,beating the air to drive away  
demons or ghosts1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aae1     
#abb1 #aca1              #aeb1 #aef1    
#bcd    ,beauce and ,perche1 in ,france1
 #eg1 #fb    ,beauvais1 the ,festival of

 ,fools at1 #cce sq4    ,bechuana king1 
cure of1 #ca sq4    ,bedriacum1 the     
battle of1 #daf    ,befana at ,rome and 
elsewhere1 #afg    ,behar1 #cg n4 #d    
,bekes1 in ,hungary1 mode of fertilizing
 women in1 #bfd    ,bel1 a ,babylonian  
deity1 #chi    ,belethus1 ,j41 #bgj n4  
,belgium1 the ,king of the ,bean in1    
#cac    ,bella ,coola ,indians of ,n4   
,w4 ,america1 their masked dances1 #cgf 
n4 #b    ,bells on animal used as       
scapegoat1 #cg2    rung to expel demons1
 #aag2    rung as a protection against  
witches1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afa1 #afe1  
#aff2    used in the expulsion of evils1
 #aif1 #bjj2    used at the expulsion of
 demons1 #bad1 #bdf sq41 #bea2    worn  
by dancers1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdf sqq41 #bej 
sq42    rung to make grass and flax     
grow1 #bdg sq42    golden1 worn by human
 representatives of gods in ,mexico1    
#bgh1 #bhj1 #bhd    ,benin1 time of the 
8grand devils0 in1 #aca sq4    ,bergell 
in the ,grisons1 #bdg    ,berkhampstead1
 cure for ague in1 #eg sq4    ,berosus1 

,babylonian historian1 #cee1 #ceh1 #cei 
,besisi of the ,malay ,peninsula1 their 
carnival at rice-harvest1 #bbf n4 #a    
,bethlehem1 the star of1 #ccj    ,bevan1
 ,professor ,a4 ,a41 #cfg n4 #b         
,beverley minster1 the ,boy ,bishop at1 
#ccg    ,bhars of ,india1 #aij          
,bhootan1 cairns in1 #bf    ,bhotiyas of
 ,juhar1 their use of a scapegoat1 #bji 
,biajas of ,borneo1 their expulsion of  
evils1 #bjj    ,biggar1 8,burning out   
the ,old ,year0 at1 #afe    ,bikol1 in  
,luzon1 #bfj    ,bilaspur1 #dd    ,bilda
 in ,algeria1 #fj    ,birch1 sprigs of1 
a protection against witches1 #afb2     
used to beat people with at ,easter and 
,christmas1 #bfi1 #bgj    ---- -trees in
 popular cure for gout1 #ef sq4         
,bird-chief of the ,sea ,dyaks1 #chc1   
#chd    ,birds as scapegoats1 #ce sq41  
#ea sq4    ,bishop1 the ,boy1 on ,holy  
,innocents' ,day1 #ccf sqq4    ---- of  
,innocents1 #ccc    ,bishop1 ,mrs41     
quoted1 #ii sq4    ,bismarck            
,archipelago1 the ,melanesians of the1  

their belief in demons1 #hc    ,bithynia
 and ,pontus1 rapid spread of           
,christianity in1 #dbj sq4    ,biyars of
 ,n4 ,w4 ,india1 #bcj n4 #g    ,black   
animals as scapegoats1 #aij1 #aib1 #aic 
---- god and white god among the ,slavs1
 #ib    ,black and white in relation to 
human scapegoats1 #bbj1 #bec1 #beg1 #bgb
    ---- ,mountains in ,s4 ,france1 #aff
    ,blankenheim in the ,eifel1 the     
,king of the ,bean at1 #cac    ,blood1  
fatigue let out with1 #ab2    of        
children used to knead a paste1 #abi2   
of pigs used in purificatory rites1     
#bfb2    drawn from ears as penance1    
#bib    ,bloodless altars1 #cjg         
,blows to drive away ghosts1 #bfj sqq4  
,boars1 evil spirits transferred to1 #ca
    ,boas1 ,franz1 quoted1 #cge sq4     
,bocage of ,normandy1 games of ball in  
the1 #ahc sq42    mode of forecasting   
the weather in1 #cbc2    ,eve of        
,twelfth ,night in the1 #caf sq4        
,bock1 ,c41 quoted1 #ig    ,bogle1      
,george1 envoy to ,tibet1 #bjc          

,bohemia1 8,easter ,smacks0 in1 #bfh1   
#bfi2    the ,three ,kings of ,twelfth  
,day in1 #ccj    ----1 the ,germans of  
,western1 their custom at ,christmas1   
#bgj2    ,twelfth ,day among1 #cca      
,bohemian cures for fever1 #di1 #ea1 #ee
 sq41 #eh1 #ei1 #fc2    remedy for      
jaundice1 #eb    ,bhmerwald ,mountains1 
#aei    ,bolang ,mongondo in ,celebes1  
#he sq41 #aba n4 #c    ,bolbe in        
,macedonia1 lake of1 #adb n4 #a         
,bolivia1 #i2    ,indians of1 #bf1 #aic 
,boloki1 the1 of the ,upper ,congo1     
their fear of demons1 #gf sq4           
,bonfires1 leaping over1 #aef2    on the
 ,eve of ,twelfth ,day1 #caf sqq4       
,book of the ,dead1 the ,egyptian1 #ajc 
,borneo1 the ,dyaks of1 #ad1 #chc2      
belief in demons in1 #hg2    the ,kayans
 of1 #aed n41 #bcf1 #chb sq42           
sickness expelled in a ship from1 #ahg2 
the ,biajas and ,dusuns of1 #bjj        
,bourlet1 ,a41 quoted1 #ig sqq4    ,boy 
,bishop on ,holy ,innocents' ,day1 #ccf 
sqq4    ,brahmanism1 vestiges of1 under 

,mohammedanism1 #ij n4 #a    ,brahmans1 
sacrificial custom of the1 #be2    as   
human scapegoats1 #db sq41 #dd sq42     
their theory of sacrifice1 #daj sq4     
,branches1 fatigue transferred to1 #h2  
sickness transferred to1 #ahf           
,brandenburg1 ,mark of1 cure for        
headache and giddiness in1 #eb1 #ec2    
cure for toothache in1 #fj    ,bras     
,basah1 a village on the ,perak river1  
#aii    ,brass instrument sounded to    
frighten away demons1 #adg    ,brazil1  
,indians of ,north-,western1 #bcf2      
custom of1 #bfd2    their masked dances1
 #cha    ,breadalbane1 use of a         
scapegoat in1 #bji    8,brethren of the 
,ploughed ,fields10 #bcb    ,bride1 the 
last1 privilege of1 #ahc    ,brittany1  
custom of sticking pins into a saint's  
image in1 #gj2    riddles in1 #aba sq41 
n42    forecasting the weather in1 #cbc 
sq4    ,brooms used to sweep misfortune 
out of house1 #e    ,broomsticks1       
witches ride on1 #afb    ,brown1 ,dr4   
,george1 quoted1 #adb n4 #a             

,bruguire1 ,mgr41 quoted1 #ig1 #aej sq4 
,brunnen1 ,twelfth ,night at1 #afe      
,buchanan1 ,francis1 quoted1 #age sq4   
,buckthorn chewed to keep off ghosts1   
#aec2    as a charm against witchcraft1 
#aec n4 #a1 #afc2    used to beat       
cattle1 #bff    ,buddha1 transmigrations
 of1 #da2    in relation to spirits1    
#ig2    offerings to1 #aej    ,buddhism 
in ,burma1 #ie sq42    the pope of1 #bbc
    ,buddhist ,lent1 the1 #cdi sq4      
---- monk1 ceremony at the funeral of a1
 #age    ---- priests expel demons1 #aaf
    ,buddhists of ,ceylon1 #ij n4 #a2   
nominal1 #ig    ,budge1 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis1
 quoted1 #ajc sq4    ,buffalo calf1 sins
 of dead transferred to a1 #cf sq4      
---- dance to ensure a supply of        
buffaloes1 #aga    ,buffaloes as        
scapegoats1 #aij1 #aia    ,buffooneries 
at the ,festival of ,fools1 #cce sq4    
,bukaua1 the1 of ,german ,new ,guinea1  
their belief in demons1 #hc sq4         
,bulgarian cure for fever1 #ee          
,bulgarians1 their way of keeping off   

ghosts1 #aec n4 #a    ,bulls as         
scapegoats in ancient ,egypt1 #baf sq4  
,bunyoro1 in ,central ,africa1 #aie     
,burial of infants1 #de    ,burkitt1    
,professor ,f4 ,c41 #dbj n4 #a          
,burlesques of ecclesiastical ritual1   
#ccf sq4    ,burma1 belief in demons in1
 #ie sq42    expulsion of demons in1    
#aaf sq42    the tug-of-war in1 #age sq4
    ,burmese ,lent1 #cdi sq4            
8,burning the ,old ,year10 #bcj n4 #g2  
at ,biggar1 #afe    ---- of ,sandan and 
,hercules1 #chh sqq4    ---- witches    
alive1 #ai1 #cai2    on ,may ,day in the
 ,tyrol1 #aeh sq42    on ,walpurgis     
,night in ,bohemia2    #afa1 in ,silesia
 and ,saxony1 #afc    ,buru1 demons of  
sickness expelled in a proa from1 #ahf  
,burying the evil spirit1 #aaj          
,bushes1 ailments transferred to1 #ed1  
#ef    ,bushmen1 the1 #af1 #cj          
,butterflies1 annual expulsion of1 #aei 
n4 #a    ,butterfly dance1 #cha         
,caffres of ,south ,africa1 #aa1 #cj1   
#ca    ,cairns to which every passer-by 

adds a stone1 #i sqq42    near shrines  
of saints1 #ba2    offerings at1 #bf    
sqq4    ,see also ,heaps    ,cairo1 cure
 for toothache and headache at1 #fc     
,cake on ,twelfth ,night used to        
determine the ,king1 #cac sqq42    put  
on horn of ox1 #cah sq42    offered to  
,cronus1 #cea    ,cakes1 special1 at    
,new ,year1 #adi sq42    with twelve    
knobs offered to gods1 #cea n4 #c       
,calabar1 ,old1 biennial expulsion of   
demons at1 #bjc sq4    ---- ,river1 #bh 
,calabria1 annual expulsion of witches  
in1 #aeg    ,calendar of the ,mayas of  
,yucatan1 #aga2    of the primitive     
,aryans1 #cbe2    of the ,celts of      
,gaul1 #cdb sqq42    the ,coligny1 #cdb 
sqq42    the ,alexandrian1 #cie n4 #a2  
the ,babylonian1 #cih n4 #b    ,calicut1
 ceremonies at sowing in1 #bce          
,california1 the ,pomos of1 #agj sq4    
,cambodia1 annual expulsion of demons   
in1 #adi2    palace of the ,kings of    
,cambodia purged of devils1 #agb        
,cambridge1 ,lord of ,misrule at1 #ccj  

,camel1 plague transferred to1 #cc      
,camels infested by jinn1 #bfj          
,cameroons1 the1 of ,west ,africa1 #abj 
,candlemas1 dances at1 #bch    ----     
,day1 #ccb1 #ccc    ,candles1 twelve1 on
 ,twelfth ,night1 #cba sq42    burnt at 
the ,feast of ,purim1 #cid    ,cannibal 
banquets1 #bgi n4 #a1 #bhc1 #bih        
,canton1 the province of1 #add          
,caprification1 the artificial          
fertilization of fig-trees1 #beg        
,caprificus1 the wild fig-tree1 #beh    
,car ,nicobar1 annual expulsion of      
devils in1 #bja sq4    ,carabas and     
,barabbas1 #dah sq4    ,carmona in      
,andalusia1 #agc    ,carnival1          
bell-ringing processions at the1 #bdg2  
,senseless ,thursday in1 #bdh2    in    
relation to the ,saturnalia1 #cab1 #cde 
sqq4    ---- and ,purim1 #cid           
8,carrying out ,death10 #bbg sq41 #bcj1 
#beb    ,casablanca in ,morocco1 #ba    
,caspar1 ,melchior1 and ,balthasar1 the 
,three ,kings of ,twelfth ,day1 #cbi    
sqq4    ,castilian peasants1 their      

dances in ,may1 #bhj    ,casting the    
skin supposed to be a mode of renewing  
youth1 #cjb sqq4    ,cattle exposed to  
attacks of witches1 #afb2    beaten to  
do them good1 #bff sq4    ,caucasus1 the
 ,albanians of the1 #bah    ,caunians of
 ,asia ,minor1 their expulsion of       
foreign gods1 #aaf    ,cecrops1 first   
king of ,attica1 #cea    ,cedar-bark    
ornaments worn in dances1 #cgf          
,celebes1 ,bolang ,mongondo in1 #he1    
#aba2    ,minahassa in1 #aaa sq4        
----1 ,central1 #cd1 #abb n41 #bfe      
,celts1 their mode of forecasting the   
weather of the year1 #cbc sq42    of    
,gaul1 their calendar1 #cdb sqq4        
,ceram1 sicknesses expelled in a ship   
from1 #ahe    ,ceylon1 fear of demons   
in1 #id sq4    ,chaeronea1 the          
8expulsion of hunger0 at1 #beb    ,chain
 used to expel demons1 #bfj    ,chains  
clanked as a protection against witches1
 #afc2    clanked in masquerade1 #bdd   
,chaldeans1 magic of1 #fd    ,chalking  
up crosses as a protection against      

witches1 #afb sq4    ,chamar caste1 #aif
    ,chamba in ,india1 #de    ,chambers1
 ,e4 ,k41 quoted1 #ccf n4 #a            
,chameleon1 ceremony at killing a1 #bh  
,chariots1 epidemics sent away in toy1  
#aic sq4    ,cheremiss of ,russia1 their
 expulsion of ,satan1 #aef    ,cherokee 
,indians1 annual expulsion of evils     
among the1 #abh    ,cheshire1 cure for  
thrush in1 #ej2    cure for warts in1   
#eg    ,chickens as scapegoats1 #aij    
,chicomecohuatl1 ,mexican goddess of    
maize1 #bhf n4 #a1 #bia1 #bib2    girl  
annually sacrificed in the character of1
 #bib sqq4    ,childermas 7,holy        
,innocents' ,day71 #ccf    ,children    
personating spirits1 #aci    ,china1 the
 ,miotse of1 #d2    belief in demons in1
 #ih2    men possessed by spirits in1   
#aag2    the ,mossos of1 #aci2    the   
,shans of ,southern1 #ada2    annual    
expulsion of demons in1 #ade sqq4       
----1 aboriginal tribes of1 their use of
 a human scapegoat1 #aif2    their      
annual destruction of evils1 #bjb       

,chinese festival of new fire1 #cei     
,chins of ,burma1 their way of keeping  
off cholera1 #abc    ,chirouba1 festival
 in ,manapur1 #dj    ,chirus of ,assam1 
#agg n4 #c    ,chitral1 devil-driving   
in1 #acg    ,chittagong1 #fc n4 #d      
---- ,hill ,tracts1 the ,chukmas of the1
 #agd    ,choerilus1 historian1 #chh n4 
#a    ,cholera sent away in animal      
scapegoats1 #aij1 #aia sq4    ----1     
demon of1 #agb2    expelled1 #aaf1 #aag2
    sent away on a raft1 #aij    ----1  
goddess of1 #aid    ,cholula1 a city of 
,mexico1 #bha    ,chota ,nagpur in      
,india1 #ai2    annual expulsion of     
disease in1 #aci    ,christ1 the        
crucifixion of1 #dab sqq4    ,christian 
festivals1 the great1 timed by the      
,church to coincide with old            
pagan festivals1 #cbh    ,christianity1 
,latin1 its tolerance of rustic         
paganism1 #cdf    ,christmas1 custom of 
young men and women beating each other  
at1 #bgj2    an old midwinter festival  
of the sun-god1 #cbh    ---- ,day1      

,mexican festival on1 #bhg2    ,old     
7,twelfth ,night71 #cba    ---- ,eve1   
witches active on1 #afj    ,chukmas1 the
 tug-of-war among the1 #agd    ,church  
bells a protection against witchcraft1  
#aeg1 #aeh    ,churn-dashers ridden by  
witches1 #afj    ,chwolsohn1 ,d41 on the
 worship of ,haman1 #cff n4 #a          
,ciallos1 intercalary month of ,gallic  
calendar1 #cdc    ,cilicia1 ,tarsus in1 
#chh1 #chi1 #cia    ,cingalese1 the     
tug-of-war among the1 #aha2             
devil-dancers1 #ch    ,cinteotl or      
,centeotl1 ,mexican goddess of maize1   
#bhf n4 #a1 #bij    ,circumcision ,day1 
#ccd    ,clangour of metal used to      
dispel demons1 #bcc    ,clanking chains 
as a protection against witches1 #afc   
,clark1 ,j4 ,v4 ,h41 #bji    ,clarke1   
,e4 ,d41 quoted1 #bj sq4    ,clashing of
 metal instruments a protection against 
witchcraft1 #aeh2    used to dispel     
demons1 #bcc    ,clavigero1 historian of
 ,mexico1 #bhf n4 #a    ,clippings of   
nails in popular cures1 #eg1 #eh        

,clowns in processions1 #bdd sq4        
,cochinchina1 mode of disposing of      
ghosts in1 #fb    ,cock1 disease        
transferred to a white1 #ahg2    white1 
as scapegoat1 #baj n4 #d    ,cocks as   
scapegoats1 #aia sq4    ,coligny        
calendar of ,gaul1 #cdb sqq4            
,columella on caprification1 #beh       
,comana1 sacred harlots at1 #cgj n4 #a2 
worship of ,ma at1 #dba n4 #a           
,comitium1 dances of the ,salii in the1 
#bcb    ,communion by means of stones1  
#ba sq4    ,concubines of a king taken  
by his successor1 #cfh    ,cond in      
,normandy1 #ahc    ,confession of sins1 
#ca1 #cf1 #abg    ,conflicts1 annual1 at
 the ,new ,year1 old intention of1 #ahd 
,congrgation de ,notre ,dame at ,paris1 
#ccg    ,consumption1 cure for1 #ea     
,cook1 ,a4 ,b41 #bdf n4 #b    ,cook1    
,captain ,james1 #hj    ,cootchie1 a    
demon1 #aaj    ,cora ,indians of        
,mexico1 their dance at sowing1 #bch2   
their dramatic dances1 #cha    ,coran1  
the1 #fb    ,corea1 #aa1 #bg2    traps  

for demons in1 #fa sq42    belief in    
demons in1 #ii sq42    spirit of disease
 expelled in1 #aai2    annual expulsion 
of demons in1 #adg2    the tug-of-war   
in1 #agg sq4    ,coreans1 their annual  
ceremonies for the riddance of evils1   
#bjb sq4    ,corn festivals of the ,cora
 ,indians1 #cha    ---- -ears1 wreath   
of1 as badge of priestly office1 #bcb   
---- -sieve beaten at ceremony1 #ade    
,cornel-tree in popular remedy1 #ee     
,cornouaille in ,brittany1 #cbc         
8,corpse-praying priest10 #de           
,corpses devoured by members of ,secret 
,societies1 #cgg    ,cos1 custom of     
,greek peasants in1 #bff                
,cosmogonies1 primitive1 perhaps        
influenced by human sacrifices1 #dji    
sqq4    ,cosquin1 ,e41 on the book of   
,esther1 #cfg n4 #c    ,coughs          
transferred to animals1 #ea1 #eb        
,coupp1 ,mgr41 quoted1 #hb    ,crabs    
change their skin1 #cjc    ,crackers    
ignited to expel demons1 #aag1 #adf sq4 
,creation of the world1 legends of1     

influenced by human sacrifices1 #dji    
sqq4    ,creator beheaded1 #daj2        
sacrifices himself daily to create the  
world afresh1 #daa    ,creeping through 
an arch as a cure1 #ee    ,cretan       
festival of ,hermes1 #cej    ,crimes1   
sticks or stones piled on the scene of1 
#ac sqq4    ,criminals sacrificed1 #ced1
 #cif sq41 #djh    ,croatia1 ,good      
,friday custom in1 #bfh    ,croesus on  
the pyre1 #cia    ,cronia1 a ,greek     
festival resembling the ,saturnalia1    
#cea2    at ,olympia1 #ceb sq4          
,cronion1 a ,greek month1 #cea n4 #b    
,cronus and the ,cronia1 #cea sq42      
and the ,golden ,age1 #cec2    and human
 sacrifice1 #cec sq41 #cig              
,cross-roads1 #f1 #g1 #aj1 #bd2         
offerings at1 #adj2    ceremonies at1   
#add1 #aei1 #afa1 #aif2    witches at1  
#afb    ,crosses painted with tar as    
charms against ghosts and vampyres1 #aec
 n4              #a2    chalked on doors
 as protection against witchcraft1 #afj1
 #afb sq42    white1 made by the ,king  

of the ,bean1 #cad    ,crow as          
scapegoat1 #aic    ,crucifixion of      
,christ1 #dab sqq4    ,cumont1 ,franz1  
#cji1 #cic n4 #a    ,cuzco1 its scenery1
 #abh sq4    ,cybele and ,attis1 #chf   
,cyrus and ,croesus1 #cia    ,dahomey1  
,porto ,novo in1 #bje    ,dalton1 ,e4   
,t41 quoted1 #ib sq4    ,dance at       
cairns1 #bi2    the buffalo dance to    
ensure a supply of buffaloes1 #aga2     
to cause the grass to grow1 #bch        
,dancers personate spirits1 #cge        
,dances of the witches1 #afb2    of the 
,salii1 #bcb2    to promote the growth  
of the crops1 #bcb sqq41 #cdg2    at    
sowing1 #bcd sqq42    taught by animals1
 #bcg2    for rain1 #bcf sq41 #bch2     
solemn ,mexican1 #bhj1 #bhd1 #bhf1 #bhg1
 #bhh1 #bhi2    of ,castilian peasants  
in ,may1 #bhj2    of salt-makers in     
,mexico1 #bhd2    to make hemp grow     
tall1 #cae2    as dramatic performances 
of myths1 #cge sqq42    bestowed on men 
by spirits1 #cge2    in imitation of    
animals1 #cgf1 #cgg1 #cha1 #chb         

,dances1 masked1 to promote fertility1  
#bcf2    of savages1 #cgd sqq42    to   
ensure good crops1 #chb    ,dancing to  
obtain the favour of the gods1 #bcf     
,dandaki1 ,king1 #da    8,dark0 moon and
 8light0 moon1 #adj1 #ada n4 #a         
,darwin1 ,sir ,francis1 #aec n4 #a      
,dasius1 martyrdom of ,st41 #cjh sqq4   
,dassera festival in ,nepaul1 #bbf n4 #a
    ,date palm1 artificial fertilization
 of the1 #bgb sq4    ,davies1 ,t4       
,witton1 #cfj n4 #b    ,dead1           
disembodied souls of the1 dreaded1 #gg2 
worship of the1 #ig2    ghosts of the1  
periodically expelled1 #abc sq42        
souls of the1 received by their         
relations once a year1 #aej sqq4        
----1 spirits of the1 in the ,philippine
 ,islands1 #hb2    in ,timor1 #he       
,death1 the funeral of1 #bje2    the    
ceremony of carrying out1 #bbg sq41     
#bcj1 #beb2    savage tales of the      
origin of1 #cjb sqq4    ,debang         
monastery at ,lhasa1 #bah    ,december1 
annual expulsion of demons in1 #ade2    

custom of the heathen of ,harran in1    
#bfc sq42    the ,saturnalia held in1   
#cjf1 #cjg1 #cde    ,decle1 ,l41 #aa n4 
#a    ,de ,goeje1 ,m4 ,j41 #bd n4 #a    
,deified men1 sacrifices of1 #dji       
,delaware ,indians1 their remedies for  
sins1 #bfc    ,demonophobia in ,india1  
#ia    ,demon-worship1 #id1 #if4    ,see
 also ,propitiation    ,demons bunged   
up1 #fa sq42    omnipresence of1 #gb    
sqq42    propitiation of1 #ic1 #id1 #if1
 #ajj2    religious purification        
intended to ward off1 #ajd2    cause    
sickness1 failure of crops1 etc41 #aji  
sqq42    of cholera1 #aaf1 #aag1 #abc2  
men disguised as1 #agj sq41 #agb1 #agc2 
decoyed by a pig1 #bjj1 #bja2           
conjured into images1 #aga1 #agb1 #agc1 
#bjc1 #bjd1 #bje2    put to flight by   
clangour of metal1 #bcc2    banned by   
masks1 #bdf2    exorcised by bells1 #bdf
 sq41 #bea4    ,see also ,devil and     
,devils    ,de ,mortival1 ,roger1 #cch  
,derceto1 the fish goddess of ,ascalon1 
#cgj n4 #a    ,de ,ricci1 ,s41 #cdc n4  

,deslawen1 village of ,bohemia1 #afa    
,devil driven away by paper kites1 #d   
,devil-driving in ,chitral1 #acg        
,devil's ,neck1 the1 #af1 #cj    ,devils
 personated by men1 #bce4    ,see       
,demons    ,devonshire1 cure for cough  
in1 #ea    ,dharmi or ,dharmesh1 the    
,supreme ,god of the ,oraons1 #ib sq4   
,dice used in divination1 #bbj2         
played at festivals1 #cej    ,dieri     
tribe of ,central ,australia1 their     
expulsion of a demon1 #aaj    ,dinkas1  
their use of cows as scapegoats1 #aic   
,dio ,chrysostom on the ,sacaea1 #cfh2  
his account of the treatment of the mock
 king of the ,sacaea1 #dad    ,dionysiac
 festival of the opening of the wine    
jars1 #cea sq4    ,dionysus and the     
drama1 #chd    ,disease transferred to  
other people1 #f sq42    transferred to 
tree1 #g2    caused by ghosts1 #he2     
annual expulsion of1 #aci2    sent away 
in little ships1 #ahe sqq4    ,dittmar1 
,c4 von1 quoted1 #ajj sq4    ,divination
 on ,twelfth ,night1 #caf    ,divine    

animals as scapegoats1 #baf sq41 #bbf   
sq4    ---- men as scapegoats1 #bag     
sqq41 #bbf sq4    ,dog1 sickness        
transferred to1 #cc2    as scapegoat1   
#ea1 #bjh sq42    sacrifice of white1   
#abg    ,dog-demon of epilepsy1 #fi n4  
,doreh in ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 the      
tug-of-war at1 #agh    ,doubs1 ,montagne
 de1 #caf    ,douglas1 ,alexander1      
victim of witchcraft1 #ci    ,doutt1    
,e41 #bb n4 #b    ,doves of ,astarte1   
the sacred1 #cgj n4 #a    ,dracaena     
terminalis1 its leaves used to beat the 
sick1 #bfe    ,dramas1 sacred1 as       
magical rites1 #cgc sqq4    ,dravidian  
tribes of ,n4 ,india1 their cure for    
epilepsy1 #bei sq4    ,dreams1 festival 
of1 among the ,iroquois1 #abg           
,dreiknigstag1 ,twelfth ,day1 #cbi      
8,driving out the ,witches10 #afb       
,drowo1 gods1 #gd    ,drums beaten to   
expel demons1 #aaa1 #aac1 #aaf1 #abj1   
#abf1 #adf1 #bjd    ,dubrowitschi1 a    
,russian village1 #agc    ,duck as      
scapegoat1 #ej    ,dudilaa1 a spirit who

 lives in the sun1 #ahf    ,dumannos1 a 
month of the ,gallic calendar1 #cdc     
,duran1 ,diego1 ,spanish historian of   
,mexico1 #bie n4 #a1 #big1 #cjj n4 #a   
,durostorum in ,moesia1 celebration of  
the ,saturnalia at1 #cji    ,dussaud1   
,ren1 #bb n4 #b    ,dusuns of ,borneo1  
their annual expulsion of evils1 #bjj   
sq4    ,dyak priestesses1 #e2           
transference of evil1 #e2    mode of    
neutralizing bad omens1 #ci    ,dyaks1  
their 8lying heaps10 #ad2    their ,head
 ,feast1 #chc    ,dying god as          
scapegoat1 #bbg    ,eabani1 ,babylonian 
hero1 #cih sq4    ,ears1 blood drawn    
from1 as penance1 #bib    ,earth1 the   
,mistress of the1 #he    ---- -god1 #bh2
    the ,egyptian1 #cda    ,earthman1   
the1 #fa    ,east1 the ,wise ,men of    
the1 #ccj sq4    ---- ,indian ,islands1 
#b    ---- ,indies1 the tug-of-war in   
the1 #agg    ,easter an old vernal      
festival of the vegetation-god1 #cbh    
---- eggs1 #bfi    ---- ,eve in         
,albania1 expulsion of ,kore on1 #aeg   

---- ,monday1 8,easter ,smacks0 on1 #bfh
    8---- ,smacks0 in ,germany and      
,austria1 #bfh sq4    ---- ,sunday1     
ceremony on the ,eve of1 #bjg sq4       
---- ,tuesday1 8,easter ,smacks0 on1    
#bfh    ,eastertide1 expulsion of evils 
at1 in ,calabria1 #aeg    ,eck1 ,r4 van1
 quoted1 #hf    ,edward ,,vi41 his ,lord
 of ,misrule1 #ccb1 #ccd    ,effigies1  
disease transferred to1 #g2    demons   
conjured into1 #bjd1 #bje2              
substituted for human victims1 #djh     
,effigy of baby used to fertilize women1
 #bde1 #bdi    ,eggs1 red ,easter1 #bfi 
,egypt1 mode of laying ghosts in1 #fc2  
modern1 belief in the jinn in1 #ajd2    
,isis and ,osiris in1 #chf              
,egyptians1 the ancient1 their belief in
 spirits1 #ajc sq42    their use of     
bulls as scapegoats1 #baf sq42    the   
five supplementary days of their year1  
#cdj sq4    ,eifel1 the ,king of the    
,bean in the1 #cac    ,eight days1 feast
 and license of1 before expulsion of    
demons1 #aca    ,ekoi1 the1 of ,west    

,africa1 #bh    ,elamite deities in     
opposition to ,babylonian deities1 #cff2
    inscriptions1 #cfg    ,elamites1 the
 hereditary foes of the ,babylonians1   
#cff    ,elaphebolion1 an ,athenian     
month1 #cea    ,elaphius1 an ,elean     
month1 #ceb    ,elder brother1 the sin  
of marrying before an1 #c    ,elgon1    
,mount1 #bdf    ,elis1 law of1 #ceb n4  
#b    ,ellis1 ,w41 quoted1 #hj          
,embodied evils1 expulsion of1 #agj sqq4
    ,emetics as remedies for sins1 #bfc 
,endle1 ,s41 quoted1 #ic    ,england1   
cure of warts in1 #dh2    the ,king of  
the ,bean in1 #cac2    the ,boy ,bishop 
in1 #ccg sq4    ,enigmas1 ceremonial use
 of1 #aba n4 #c4    ,see ,riddles       
,entlebuch in ,switzerland1 expulsion of
 ,posterli at1 #bad    ,epidaurus1      
,aesculapius at1 #dg    ,epidemics      
attributed to demons1 #aaa sqq42    kept
 off by means of a plough1 #agb sq42    
sent away in toy chariots1 #aic sq4     
,epilepsy1 cure for1 #b1 #cca2          
,highland treatment of1 #fh n4 #b2      

,roman cure for1 #fh2    ,hindoo cure   
for1 #fi n42    cured by beating1 #bfj4 
,see also ,falling ,sickness            
,epiphany1 annual expulsion of the      
powers of evil at1 #afe sqq42    the    
,king of the ,bean on1 #cac sqq4    ,see
 also ,twelfth ,night    ,eponyms1      
annual1 as scapegoats1 #ci sqq4         
,equinox1 the vernal1 festival of       
,cronus at1 #ceb2    ,persian marriages 
at the1 #djf n4 #c    ,equos1 a ,gallic 
month1 #cdc n4    ,erech1 ,babylonian   
city1 ,ishtar at1 #cih1 #cii            
,erz-gebirge1 the ,saxon1 #bga          
,esagila1 temple at ,babylon1 #cef      
,esquimaux of ,labrador1 their fear of  
demons1 #gi sq42    of ,point ,barrow1  
their expulsion of ,lua1 #abd sq42    of
 ,baffin ,land1 their expulsion of      
,sedna1 #abe sq42    the ,central1 the  
tug-of-war among the1 #agd2    of       
,bering ,strait1 their masquerades1 #cgi
 sq4    ,esther1 fast of1 #cig sq42     
the story of1 acted as a comedy at      
,purim1 #cfd    ----1 the book of1 its  

date and purpose1 #cfj2    its ,persian 
colouring1 #cfb1 #dja2    duplication of
 the personages in1 #djj sq42    the    
personages unmasked1 #dje sqq4    ----  
and ,mordecai equivalent to ,ishtar and 
,marduk1 #dje2    the duplicates of     
,vashti and ,haman1 #djf    ---- and    
,vashti1 temporary queens1 #dja         
,esthonian mode of transferring bad luck
 to trees1 #ed2    expulsion of the     
devil1 #agc    ,eton ,college1 ,boy     
,bishop at1 #cch    ,euhemerism1 #che   
,euripides1 #ai    ,europe1 transference
 of evil in1 #dg sqq42    annual        
expulsion of demons and witches in1 #aee
 sqq42    annual expulsion of evils in1 
#bjg sqq42    masquerades in modern1    
#bea sq4    ,european folk-custom of    
8carrying out ,death10 #bbg sq4    ,eve 
and ,adam1 #bei n4 #c    ,evening ,star1
 the goddess of the1 #cfi n4 #a         
,evessen1 in ,brunswick1 #fj    ,evil1  
the transference of1 #a sqq42           
transferred to other people1 #e sqq42   
transferred to sticks and stones1 #h    

sqq42    transferred to animals1 #ca    
sqq42    transferred to men1 #ch sqq42  
transference of1 in ,europe1 #dg sqq4   
---- spirits1 banishment of1 #hf4       
,see ,demons    ,evil-,merodach1        
,babylonian king1 #cfg n4 #b    ,evils  
transferred to trees1 #ed sqq42         
nailed into trees1 walls1 etc41 #ei     
sqq42    occasional expulsion of1 #aji  
sqq41 #ahe sqq42    periodic expulsion  
of1 #abc sqq41 #aih sqq42    expulsion  
of embodied1 #agj sqq42    expulsion of1
 in a material vehicle1 #ahe sqq4       
,see also ,expulsion    ,ewe1           
white-footed1 as scapegoat1 #aib sq4    
,ewe-speaking negroes of the ,slave     
,coast1 #gd    ,excommunication of human
 scapegoat1 #bed    ,execution by       
stoning1 #bd n4 #b    ,exeter1 the ,boy 
,bishop at1 #ccg    ,exorcising spirits 
at sowing the seed1 #bce    ,exorcism of
 devils in ,morocco1 #fc2    annual1 of 
the evil spirit in ,japan1 #adc sq42    
,nicobarese ceremony of1 #bfb           
,exorcists1 #b sq41 #cc    ,expiation   

for sin1 #ci    ,expulsion of evils1    
#aji sqq42    the direct or immediate   
and the indirect or mediate1 #aji1 #bbd2
    occasional1 #aji sqq41 #ahe sqq42   
periodic1 #abc sqq41 #aih sqq42    of   
embodied evils1 #agj sqq42    of evils  
in a material vehicle1 #ahe sqq42       
annual1 of demons and witches in        
,europe1 #aee sqq42    of ,trows in     
,shetland1 #afh sq42    of hunger at    
,chaeronea1 #beb2    of winter1 ceremony
 of the1 #djd sq4    ,faditras among the
 ,malagasy1 #cc sq4    ,faiths of the   
world1 the great1 their little influence
 on common men1 #hi    ,falling         
sickness1 cure for1 #eb1 #ccj4    ,see  
also ,epilepsy    ,fans1 the1 of ,west  
,africa1 #cj n4 #b    8,fast of ,esther0
 before ,purim1 #cig sq4    ,fatigue    
transferred to stones or sticks1 #h     
sqq42    let out with blood1 #ab        
,fawckner1 ,captain ,james1 quoted1 #aca
 sq4    ,fear as a source of religion1  
#ic    ,feast1 the ,great1 in ,morocco1 
#ahj1 #ahb1 #bfe    ---- of ,lanterns in

 ,japan1 #aea sq4    ,february and      
,march1 the season of the spring sowing 
in ,italy1 #cdf    ,ferghana in         
,turkestan1 #ahd    ,ferrers1 ,george1 a
 ,lord of ,misrule1 #ccb    ,fertility  
of the ground1 magical ceremony to      
promote the1 #agg    ,fertilization1    
artificial1 of fig-trees1 #beg sqq41    
#bgb sq42    of the date palm1 #bgb     
,fertilizing virtue attributed to       
certain sticks1 #bfd    8,festival of   
dreams0 among the ,iroquois1 #abg       
---- of the ,flaying of ,men1 ,mexican1 
#bif sqq4    ---- of ,fools in ,france1 
#ccd sqq42    in ,germany1 ,bohemia1 and
 ,england1 #ccf n4 #a    ---- of the    
,innocents1 #ccf sqq4    ,festivals1 the
 great ,christian1 timed by the ,church 
to coincide with old              pagan 
festivals1 #cbh    ,fte des ,fous in    
,france1 #ccd sqq4    ---- des ,rois1   
,twelfth ,day1 #cbi    ,fever1 remedy   
for1 #ch2    ,roman cure for1 #dg2      
popular cures for1 #dg1 #di1 #ea1 #ec1  
#ee1 #ef1 #eh1 #ei1 #fc2    driven away 

by firing guns1 etc41 #aba    ,fielding1
 ,h41 quoted1 #cdi sq4    ,fiends burnt 
in fire1 #cbj    ,fig1 the wild1 human  
scapegoats beaten with branches of1 #bee
    ,fig-tree1 sacred1 #fa    ----      
-trees artificially fertilized1 #beg    
sqq41 #bgb sq42    personated by human  
victims1 #beg    ,fights1 annual1 at the
 ,new ,year1 old intention of1 #ahd     
,figs1 black and white1 worn by human   
scapegoats1 #bec1 #beg1 #bgb    ,fiji1  
#ae2    annual ceremony at appearance of
 sea-slug in1 #ada sq4    ,fir used to  
beat people with at ,christmas1 #bgj1   
#bga    ---- -trees in popular cure1 #ef
    ,fire1 ,mexican god of1 #cjj2       
human sacrifices to1 #cjj sqq42    to   
burn witches1 #cai    ---- new1 at ,new 
,year1 #bji2    ,chinese festival of    
the1 #cei    ---- sacred1 of ,king of   
,uganda1 #aie2    kindled by friction1  
#cia n4 #d    ---- -spirit1 annual      
expulsion of the1 #ada    ,fires        
extinguished during ceremony1 #agb2     
ceremonial1 on ,eve of ,twelfth ,day1   

#caf sqq42    to burn fiends1 #cbj4     
,see also ,bonfires    ,five days'      
duration of mock king's reign1 #djg n4  
#a    ---- days' reign of mock king at  
the ,sacaea1 #cee1 #ceg2    of          
,semiramis1 #cfi    ,flax1 giddiness    
transferred to1 #ec2    bells rung to   
make flax grow1 #bdg sq4    ,flaying of 
,men1 ,mexican festival of the1 #bif    
sqq4    ,flemish cure for ague1 #ef     
,flight from the demons of disease1 #abb
 sq4    ,flint1 holed1 a protection     
against witches1 #afb    ,flood1 the    
great1 #cii n4 #a    ,flowers1 the      
goddess of1 #bgh    ,flying ,spirits1   
the1 at ,lhasa1 #aig sq4    ,food set   
out for ghosts1 #aed    ,fools in       
processions of maskers1 #bdc    ----1   
festival of1 in ,france1 #ccd sqq42     
in ,germany1 ,bohemia1 and ,england1    
#ccf n4 #a    ,football1 suggested      
origin of1 #ahd    ,fords1 offerings and
 prayers at1 #bg sq4    ,formosa1 #cc   
,forty days1 man treated as a god       
during1 #bha2    man personating god    

during1 #big    ---- nights of mourning 
for ,persephone1 #cdh    ,foucart1 ,g41 
quoted1 #cda n4 #a    ,fountains ,abbey1
 #cch    ,fowler1 ,w4 ,warde1 #fg n4 #b1
 #bbi n4 #a    ,fowls as scapegoats1    
#ca1 #cc1 #cf1 #eb sq4    ,france1 cure 
of warts in1 #dh2    cure for toothache 
in1 #ei2    the ,king of the ,bean in1  
#cac sqq42    ,festival of ,fools in1   
#ccd sqq4    ,franche-,comt1 the ,king  
of the ,bean in1 #cac2    bonfires on   
the ,eve of ,twelfth ,night in1 #caf2   
the ,three ,kings of ,twelfth ,day in1  
#ccj2    ,lent in1 #cdh n4 #a           
,frankenwald ,mountains1 #afj           
,frankfort1 the feast of ,purim at1 #cid
    ,fratres ,arvales1 #bcb    8,french 
and ,english0 or the 8,tug-of-war0 as a 
religious or magical rite1              
#agd sqq4    ,french cure for fever1 #ee
    ,fresh and green1 beating people1   
#bgj sq4    ,frogs1 malady transferred  
to1 #ej1 #ec    ,fruit-trees1 fire      
applied to1 on ,eve of ,twelfth ,night1 
#cag    ,fruitful tree1 use of stick cut

 from a1 #bfd    ,fumigation with       
juniper and rue as a precaution against 
witches1 #aeh    ,funeral1 relations    
whipped at a1 #bfj sq4    ---- of       
,death1 #bje    ---- ceremony in        
,uganda1 #de n4 #b2    of a ,buddhist   
monk1 #age    ,furrow drawn round       
village as protection against epidemic1 
#agb    ,gallas1 their mode of expelling
 fever1 #aba2    annual period of       
license among the1 #bbf n4 #a2    their 
story of the origin of death1 #cjd      
,gallows-hill1 witches at1 #afb         
,gambling allowed during three days of  
the year1 #aej    ,games of ball played 
to produce rain or dry weather1 #agi sq4
    ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 #acj n4 #a 
,garos of ,assam1 their annual use of a 
scapegoat1 #bjh sq4    ,gatto1 in       
,benin1 #aca    ,gaul1 the ,celts of1   
their calendar1 #cdb sqq4    ,gazelle   
,peninsula in ,new ,britain1 #hb1 #cjc  
,ge-lug-pa1 a ,lamaist sect1 #id        
,geraestius1 a ,greek month1 #cej       
,gerard1 ,e41 quoted1 #ajf sq4          

,germany1 cure for toothache in1 #ei2   
the ,king of the ,bean in1 #cac         
,ghansyam ,deo1 a deity of the ,gonds1  
#bag    ,ghats1 the ,eastern1 use of    
scapegoats in the1 #aia    ,ghosts of   
suicides feared1 #ag sq42               
impregnation of women by1 #ah2    shut  
up in wood1 #fj sq42    modes of laying1
 #fc2    diseases caused by1 #he2    of 
the dead periodically expelled1 #abc    
sq42    ,roman festival of1 in ,may1    
#aed sq42    driven off by blows1 #bfj  
sqq4    ,giddiness1 cure for1 #ec       
,gilgamesh1 the epic of1 #cga1 #cih sq42
    his name formerly read as ,izdubar1 
#cgb n4 #a2    a ,babylonian hero1      
beloved by the goddess ,ishtar1 #cga    
sq41 #cih sq4    ,gilgamus1 a           
,babylonian king1 #cgb n4 #a            
,gilgenburg in ,masuren1 #bfi           
,gilyaks of the ,amoor1 their belief in 
demons1 #aja sq4    ,glamorganshire1    
cure for warts in1 #ec    ,glen ,mor1 in
 ,islay1 #fb    ,gloucester1 the ,boy   
,bishop at1 #ccg    ,gloucestershire1   

,eve of ,twelfth ,day in1 #cah1 #cba    
,goat's ,marsh at ,rome1 #beh    ,goats1
 evil transferred to1 #ca1 #cb2    as   
scapegoats1 #aij1 #aia1 #aib    ,gobi1  
the desert of1 #ac    ,god1 killing the1
 #a2    the black and the white1 #ib2   
dying1 as scapegoat1 #bbg2    the       
killing of the1 in ,mexico1 #bge sqq42  
resurrection of the1 #djj    ,gods and  
goddesses represented by living men and 
women1 #che sq4    ----1 ,mexican1 burn 
themselves to create the sun1 #daj2     
,mother of the1 #bhi2    woman annually 
sacrificed in the character of the      
,mother of the1 #bhi                sq4 
---- shut up in wood1 #fa2    of the    
,maoris1 #ha2    of the ,pelew          
,islanders1 #ha sq42    personated by   
priests1 #bhg2    represented in        
masquerades1 #cgg    ,goitre1 popular   
cure for1 #ed    ,gold ,coast of ,west  
,africa1 expulsion of demons on the1    
#abj1 #aca sqq4    ,golden ,age1 the1   
#cec1 #chf2    the reign of ,saturn1    
#cjf1 #cdd    ,golden bells worn by     

human representatives of gods in        
,mexico1 #bgh1 #bhj1              #bhd  
,gomes1 ,e4 ,h41 on the head-feast of   
the ,sea ,dyaks1 #chd n4 #a    ,gonds of
 ,india1 human scapegoats among the1    
#bag sq4    ,gongs beaten to expel      
demons1 #aac1 #aag1 #adg    ,good       
,friday1 #bad2    expulsion of witches  
in ,silesia on1 #aeg2    cattle beaten  
on1 #bff2    custom of beating each     
other with rods on1 #bfh    ,goudie1    
,mr4 ,gilbert1 #afi n4 #b               
,gour-deziou1 8,supplementary ,days10 in
 ,brittany1 #cbd    ,gout1 popular cures
 for1 #ef sq4    ,graetz1 ,h41 #cie n4  
#a    ,gran ,chaco1 ,indians of the1    
#abb1 #bfb    ,grass to grow1 dances to 
cause the1 #bch2    bells rung to cause 
the1 #bdg    ,grasshoppers1 sacrifice   
of1 #ce    8,grass-ringers10 #bdg       
,graubnden 7the ,grisons71 #bci         
,graves1 heaps of sticks or stones on1  
#ae sqq4    ,great ,bassam in ,guinea1  
exorcism of evil spirit at1 #abj    ----
 ,feast1 the1 in ,morocco1 #ahj1 #ahb1  

#bfe    8---- ,purification10 ,japanese 
ceremony1 #bac n4 #a    ,greece1        
ancient1 custom of stone-throwing in1   
#bd sq42    human scapegoats in1 #beb   
sqq42    ,saturnalia in1 #cej sqq4      
,greek use of swallows as scapegoats1   
#ce2    of laurel in purification1 #bfb 
,greek women1 their mourning for        
,persephone1 #cdi    ,greeks1 the       
ancient1 their cure for love1 #c    ----
 of ,asia ,minor1 their use of human    
scapegoats1 #bee    ,green boughs1      
custom of beating young people with1 at 
,christmas1 #bgj    ,grisons1           
masquerades in the1 #bci    ,groot1 ,j4 
,j4 ,m4 de1 quoted1 #ii    ,grove1 the  
,arician1 #cje    ,grub in the ,grisons1
 masquerade at1 #bci    ,grubb1 ,w4     
,barbrooke1 quoted1 #gh sq4    ,grnberg 
in ,silesia1 #afc    ,guardian spirits  
of animals1 #ih    ,guatemala1 #aj2     
,indians of1 #bf    ,guaycurus1 ,indian 
nation1 their ceremony at appearance of 
the ,pleiades1              #bfb        
,gudea1 king of ,southern ,babylonia1   

#cef    ,guessing dreams1 #abg          
,guiana1 ,british1 the ,arawaks of1 #cjb
    ----1 ,french1 the ,roocooyen       
,indians of1 #aha1 #bfc2    their fear  
of demons1 #gh sq4    ,guinea1 annual   
expulsion of the devil in1 #aca    ----1
 ,french1 #bce    ---- negroes1 #ca     
,guns fired to expel demons1 #aaf sq41  
#aai1 #abj1 #aba1 #abe1 #acb1 #acc1     
#acg1              #adg1 #adh1 #adi1    
#aej1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bba n4 #a2    against
 witches1 #afj1 #afa1 #afd    ,gypsies1 
annual ceremony performed by the1 #bjg  
sq4    ,hagen1 ,b41 quoted1 #hg sq4     
,hair of patient inserted in oak1 #eg   
sq4    ,hak-,ka1 the1 a native race in  
the province of ,canton1 #add           
,halberstadt in ,thringen1 annual       
ceremony at1 #bad    ,hall in the       
,tyrol1 #bdh    ,halmahera1 the ,alfoors
 of1 #aab2    ceremonies at a funeral   
in1 #bfj sq4    ,haman1 effigies of1    
burnt at ,purim1 #cib sqq4    ---- and  
,mordecai1 #cfd sqq42    as temporary   
kings1 #djj sq4    ---- and ,vashti the 

duplicates of ,mordecai and ,vashti1    
#djf    ,haman1 a god worshipped by the 
heathen of ,harran1 #cff n4 #a          
,hmn-,sr1 a name for ,purim1 #cic       
,hammedatha1 father of ,haman1 #cgc n4  
#a    ,hammer1 sick people struck with  
a1 #bei n4 #d    ,hands of deity1       
ceremony of grasping the1 #cef          
,hantoes1 spirits1 #hg    ,hare as      
scapegoat1 #ej sq4    ,harlots1 sacred1 
#cgj1 #cga1 #cgb2    at ,comana1 #dba n4
 #a    ,harpooning a spirit1 #abf       
,harran1 the heathen of1 their custom in
 ,december1 #bfc sq42    their marriage 
festival of all the gods1 #bgc n4 #a2   
worship a god ,haman1 #cff n4 #a        
,harrison1 ,miss ,j4 ,e41 #aec n4 #a    
,harthoorn1 ,s4 ,e41 quoted1 #hf sq4    
,hartland1 ,e4 ,s41 #bb n4 #b1 #fi n4 #a
    ,harvest1 annual expulsion of demons
 at or after1 #acg sq41 #bbe            
,hasselt1 ,j4 ,l4 van1 quoted1 #hc      
,hastings1 ,warren1 #bjc    ,haupt1 ,p41
 #djf n4 #b    ,hawk1 omens from1 #chd  
n4 #a    ,hawthorn a charm against      

ghosts1 #aec n4 #a    ,headache1 cure   
for1 #b1 #eb1 #eh1 #fc1 #fd             
,head-feast of the ,sea ,dyaks1 #chc1   
#chd n4 #a    ,headman sacred1 #agg n4  
#c    ,heaps of stones1 sticks1 or      
leaves1 to which every passer-by adds1  
#i              sqq42    on the scene of
 crimes1 #ac sqq42    on graves1 #ae    
sqq42    8lying heaps10 #ad    ,hearn1  
,lafcadio1 #add    ,hearts of human     
victims offered to the sun1 #bgi1 #bih  
,hebrews1 their custom as to leprosy1   
#ce    ,hebron1 #ba    ,hecatombaeon1 an
 ,athenian month1 #cea    ,hecquard1    
,h41 #abj    ,heitsi-eibib1 ,hottentot  
god or hero1 #af    ,hemp1 augury as to 
the height of the1 #cae2    dances to   
make hemp grow tall1 #cae    ,hercules1 
cake with twelve knobs offered to1 #cea 
n4 #c2    identified with ,sandan1 #chh2
    his death on a pyre1 #cia    ----   
and ,omphale1 #chi    ,hereford1 the    
,boy ,bishop at1 #ccg    ,herefordshire1
 the sin-eater in1 #dc2    ,eve of      
,twelfth ,day in1 #cah sqq4    ,hermes1 

wayside images of1 #bd2    ,cretan      
festival of1 #cej    ---- and ,argus1   
#bd    ,herodotus on the worship of     
,ishtar 7,astarte71 #cgb    ,hide beaten
 with rods1 #bca    ,hierapolis1        
festival of the ,pyre at1 #cib          
,highlands of ,scotland1 #bj2    the    
,twelve ,days in the1 #cbd              
,hildesheim1 bell-ringing at1 on        
,ascension ,day1 #bdg sq4    ,himalayan 
districts of ,n4 ,w4 ,india1 #bi        
,hindoo ,koosh1 expulsion of demons in  
the1 #bbe    ---- tribes1 their annual  
expulsion of demons after harvest1 #acg 
,hindoos1 transference of evil among    
the1 #ch2    their fear of demons1 #ia  
sq4    ,hirt1 ,h41 #cbe n4 #c           
,hobby-horse to carry away spirit of    
smallpox1 #aai    ,hochofen1 village of 
,bohemia1 #afa    ,hockey played as a   
ceremony1 #agd    ,holed flint a        
protection against witches1 #afb        
,holy ,innocents' ,day1 #ccf1 #ccg1     
#cch2    young people beat each other   
on1 #bgj1 #bga    ,homoeopathic or      

imitative magic1 #agg    ,homogeneity of
 civilization in prehistoric times in   
,southern ,europe and                   
,western ,asia1 #dji    ,honorius and   
,theodosius1 decree of1 #cib    ,hood   
,bay in ,new ,guinea1 #hd    ,horns     
blown to expel demons1 #aaa1 #aag1 #bjd1
 #bad2    to ban witches1 #afj1 #afa1   
#afe1 #aff2    at ,penzance on eve of   
,may ,day1 #afc sq42    by maskers1     
#bdc1 #bdd    ---- of straw worn to keep
 off demons1 #aah2    of goat a         
protection against witches1 #afb        
,horse sacrificed to ,mars1 #bcj2       
beloved by ,ishtar1 #cga1 #djg n4 #b2   
beloved by ,semiramis1 #djg n4 #b       
---- -shoes a protection against        
witches1 #afb    ,horus1 the birth of1  
#cda    ,hos of ,n4 ,e4 ,india1 their   
annual expulsion of demons at harvest1  
#acf sq4    ---- of ,togoland1 their    
annual expulsion of evils1 #acd sqq41   
#bjf sq4    ,hosskirch in ,swabia1 #cbc 
,hottentots1 the1 #af1 #bi              
,hoyerswerda in ,silesia1 #afc          

,huddler or ,huttler in the ,tyrol1 #bdh
    ,hudel-running in the ,tyrol1 #bdh  
,huichol ,indians of ,mexico1 #aj1 #cdg 
n4 #c    ,huitzilopochtli1 great        
,mexican god1 #bhj1 #cjj2    young man  
sacrificed in the character of1 #bhj    
sq42    temple of1 #bhg1 #bij1 #big2    
hall of1 #bid    ,huixtocihuatl1        
,mexican goddess of ,salt1 #bhc2        
woman annually sacrificed in the        
character of1 #bhc sq4    ,human god and
 goddess1 their enforced union1 #chf sq4
    ---- representatives of gods        
sacrificed in ,mexico1 #bge sqq4    ----
 sacrifice1 successive mitigations of1  
#cif sq41 #djh    ---- sacrifices1 their
 influence on cosmogonical theories1    
#dji sqq4    ---- scapegoats1 #ch sqq41 
#aid sqq41 #baj sqq42    in ancient     
,rome1 #bbi sqq42    in classical       
antiquity1 #bbi sqq42    in ancient     
,greece1 #beb sqq42    reason for       
beating the1 #bef sq42    victims1 men  
clad in the skins of1 #bfe sq4          
,hunger1 expulsion of1 at ,chaeronea1   

#beb    ,hurons1 their way of expelling 
sickness1 #aba    ,husbandman1 the      
,roman1 his prayers to ,mars1 #bbi      
,huss1 ,john1 #ccf n4 #a    ,huttler or 
,huddler in the ,tyrol1 #bdh    ,huzuls1
 the1 of the ,carpathians1 #cb sq41 #ce 
,hyginus on the death of ,semiramis1    
#djg n4 #b    ,hysteria cured by        
beating1 #bfj    ,identification of girl
 with ,maize ,goddess1 #bie    ,idols1  
nails knocked into1 #fi sq4    ,igbodu1 
a sacred grove1 #bab    ,igliwa1 a      
,berber tribe1 #agh    ,ilamatecutli1   
,mexican goddess1 #bhg2    woman        
sacrificed in the character of1 #bhg sq4
    ,ill ,luck embodied in an ascetic1  
#da2    the casting away of1 #add    ,im
 ,thurn1 ,sir ,everard ,f41 quoted1 #gh 
,images1 demons conjured into1 #aga1    
#agb1 #agc1 #bjc    ,immestar in ,syria1
 #cid    ,immortality1 how men lost the 
boon of1 #cjb sqq4    ,impregnation of  
women by ghosts1 #ah    ,inanimate      
objects1 transference of evil to1 #a    
sqq4    ,inao1 sacred whittled sticks1  

#bfa    ,inauguration of a king in      
ancient ,india1 #bfc    ,incas of ,peru1
 their annual expulsion of evils1 #abh  
sqq4    ,incense used against witches1  
#aeh1 #aei    ,india1 fear of demons in1
 #hi sqq42    epidemics sent away in toy
 chariots in1 #aic sq42    ,dravidian   
tribes of ,northern1 #bei2              
inauguration of a king in ancient1 #bfc2
    the ,twelve ,days in ancient1 #cbd  
sq42    origin of the drama in1 #chd sq4
    ----1 the ,central ,provinces of1   
#g2    expulsion of disease in the1 #aij
    ----1 the ,north-,western ,provinces
 of1 #fa2    the tug-of-war in1 #aha    
,indian ,archipelago1 expulsion of      
diseases in the1 #aii    ---- tribes of 
,n4 ,w4 ,america1 their masked dances1  
#cge sqq4    ,indians1 mutual scourgings
 of ,south ,american1 #bfb              
,indo-,china1 worship of spirits in1 #ig
 sq4    ,indra1 creation of the great   
god1 #daj    ,infant1 children whipt at 
death of an1 #bfa sq4    ,infants1      
burial of1 #de    ,infertility1 evil    

spirits of1 #bej    ,influenza expelled 
by scapegoat1 #aia1 #aic    ,initiation 
by spirits1 #cge    ,innocents1 ,bishop 
of1 in ,france1 #ccd2    ,festival of   
the1 #ccf sqq4    ,innocents' ,day1     
#ccf1 #ccg1 #cch2    young people beat  
each other on1 #bgj1 #bga    ,inspired  
men in ,china1 #aag    ,intercalary     
month1 #cdb sqq4    ---- period of five 
days1 #djg n4 #a    ---- periods1       
customs and superstitions attaching to1 
#cbh sq42    deemed unlucky1 #cci sqq4  
,intercalation1 rudimentary1 to equate  
lunar and solar years1 #cbe sqq4        
,interregnum on intercalary days1 #cbh  
sq4    ,inversion of social ranks at the
 ,saturnalia and kindred festivals1     
#cjh1              #cej1 #djg           
,ireland1 ,twelfth ,night in1 #cba sq4  
,iroquois1 their 8festival of dreams10  
#abg2    their use of scapegoats1 #bji  
sq41 #bcc    ,iser ,mountains in        
,silesia1 #afc    ,iserlohn in          
,westphalia1 #bff    ,ishtar1 a great   
,babylonian goddess1 #cfe2    associated

 with ,sirius1 #cei n4 #a2    at ,erech1
 #cih2    her visit to ,anu1 #cii n4 #a2
    goddess of fertility in animals1    
#djf n4 #a    ,see also ,astarte    ----
 and ,gilgamesh1 #cga sq41 #cih sq4     
---- and ,semiramis1 #cfi sqq4    ----  
and ,tammuz1 #cii1 #djf    ,isis1 the   
birth of1 #cda    ---- and ,osiris1 #chf
    ,italian cure for fever1 #ee2       
season of sowing in spring1 #cdf        
,italy1 cure of warts in1 #dh           
,izdubar4 ,see ,gilgamesh    ,jackson1  
,professor ,henry1 #ce n4 #c            
,jacobsen1 ,j4 ,adrian1 on the ,secret  
,societies of ,n4 ,w4 ,america1 #cgg    
sqq4    ,jalno1 temporary ruler at      
,lhasa1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb          
,james1 ,m4 ,r41 #cie notes  #b and  #c 
,jamieson1 ,j41 on ,trows1 #afh n4 #a1  
#afi n4 #b    ,japan1 cure for toothache
 in1 #ga2    expulsion of demons in1    
#aah sq41 #adc sq42    ,feast of        
,lanterns in1 #aea sq42    annual       
expulsion of evil in1 #bab sq4          
,jastrow1 ,m41 on the epic of           

,gilgamesh1 #cii n4 #a    ,jataka1 the1 
#da    ,jaundice1 cure for1 #eb         
,java1 belief in demons in1 #hf sq42    
the ,tenggerese of1 #ahd    ,jay1 blue1 
as scapegoat1 #ea    ,jealousy1 cure    
for1 #cc    ,jensen1 ,p41 #cfb n4 #a2   
his theory of ,haman and ,vashti as     
,elamite deities1 #cff sq42    on       
,anaitis1 #cfi n4 #a2    on the fast of 
,esther1 #cih sq4    ,jepur in ,india1  
use of scapegoat at1 #aia    ,jerusalem1
 the weeping for ,tammuz at1 #djj       
,jewish calendar1 ,new ,year's ,day of  
the1 #cei    ---- converts1 form of     
abjuration used by1 #cic    ---- ,day of
 ,atonement1 #baj    ---- festival of   
,purim1 #cfj sqq4    ---- use of        
scapegoats1 #baj    ,jews accused of    
ritual murders1 #cid sqq42    the great 
deliverance of the1 at ,purim1 #cih     
,jinn1 belief in the1 #ajd2    infesting
 camels1 #bfj    ,jochelson1 ,w41       
quoted1 #aja    ,johns1 ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4   
,w41 #ceg n4 #b1 #cfg notes #b and #c   
,joustra1 ,m41 quoted1 #hh    ,juhar1   

the ,bhotiyas of1 #bji    ,july1 the    
,nonae ,caprotinae in1 #beh    ,june1   
,mexican human sacrifice in1 #bhc       
,jungle ,mother1 the1 #bg    ,juniper   
burned to keep out ghosts1 #aed n42     
used to beat people with1 #bga    ----  
berries1 fumigation with1 as a          
precaution against witches1 #aeh        
,juno ,caprotina1 #beh    ,jupiter1     
temple of ,capitoline1 #ff    ,kabyle   
cure for jealousy1 #cc    ,kacharis1    
the1 of ,assam1 their fear of demons1   
#ic    ,kachins of ,burma1 their belief 
in demons1 #if    ,kai1 the1 of ,german 
,new ,guinea1 #bfd    ,kalau1 demons1   
#aja    ,kaliths1 gods of the ,pelew    
,islanders1 #ha sq4    ,kamtchatka1 the 
tug-of-war in1 #agh    ,kamtchatkans1   
their fear of demons1 #hi    ,kanagra in
 ,india1 #de    ,kanhar river1 #fj      
,karens of ,burma1 their belief in      
demons1 #if    ,karkantzari1 fiends or  
monsters in ,macedonia1 #cbj            
,karpathos1 a ,greek island1 #ee        
,kasan ,government in ,russia1 the      

,wotyaks of the1 #aef    ,kaua ,indians 
of ,n4 ,w4 ,brazil1 #bcf2    their      
masked dances1 #cha    ,kaumpuli1 god of
 plague1 #d    ,kausika ,sutra1 ,indian 
book of magic1 #aib    ,kayans1 the1 of 
,borneo1 #ai1 #aed n42    their masked  
dances1 #bcf1 #chb sq4    ,keb1 the     
,egyptian ,earth-god1 #cda    ,kei      
,islands1 expulsion of demons in the1   
#aab sq4    ---- river1 #aa    ,kengtung
 in ,burma1 #aaf    ,kennedy1 ,prof4 ,a4
 ,r4 ,s41 quoted1 #baj n4 #d            
,kharwars of ,n4 ,india1 their use of   
scapegoats1 #aib    ,khasis of ,assam1  
their annual expulsion of demon of      
plague1 #agc    ,khonds1 their annual   
expulsion of demons at seed-time1 #ach1 
#bcd2    their treatment of human       
victims1 #bei    ,killing the god1 #a2  
in ,mexico1 #bge sqq4    ,king1         
temporary1 in ,siam1 #aea2    in ancient
 ,india1 inauguration of a1 #bfc2       
assembly for determining the fate of    
the1 #cef2    mock or temporary1 #djc   
sq4    ---- and ,queen of ,may1 #djf    

---- of the ,bean1 #cac sqq42    at     
,merton ,college1 ,oxford1 #ccb    ---- 
of the ,saturnalia1 #cjh1 #caa1 #cab    
---- of the ,years at ,lhasa1 #bbj1 #bba
    ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,boy  
,bishop at1 #cch    ,kings1 the ,three1 
on ,twelfth ,day1 #cbi sqq42            
magistrates at ,olympia called1 #ceb2   
marry the wives and concubines of their 
predecessors1 #cfh    ,kingsley1 ,mary  
,h41 quoted1 #gd    ,kioga ,lake1 #bdf  
,kiriwina1 in ,s4 ,e4 ,new ,guinea1 #acd
    ,kirkland1 ,rev4 ,mr41 #baj         
,kitching1 ,a4 ,l41 quoted1 #bdf sq4    
,kites1 artificial1 used to drive away  
the devil1 #d2    paper1 flown as       
scapegoats1 #bjc    ,kleintitschen1 ,p4 
,a41 quoted1 #hb sq4    ,kleptomania1   
cure for1 #cd    ,kling or ,klieng1 a   
mythical hero of the ,dyaks1 #chc1 #chd 
n4 #a    ,knives under the threshold1 a 
protection against witches1 #afb        
,knots tied in branches of trees as     
remedies1 #ef sq4    ,knotted thread in 
magic1 #dh    ,kobeua ,indians of ,n4   

,w4 ,brazil1 their masked dances1 #bcf1 
#cha    ,kore1 expulsion of1 on ,easter 
,eve in ,albania1 #aeg    ,korkus1 the1 
of ,india1 #g    ,korwas of ,mirzapur1  
their use of scapegoats1 #aib           
,koryaks1 the1 of ,n4 ,e4 ,asia1 their  
belief in demons1 #ajj sq42    expulsion
 of demons among the1 #abf sq4          
,kubary1 ,j41 quoted1 #ha sq4           
,kumaon1 in ,n4 ,w4 ,india1 #cg2        
sliding down a rope in1 #aif sq4        
,kumis1 the1 of ,s4 ,e4 ,india1 #aag    
,kurmis of ,india1 #aij    ,kururumany1 
the ,arawak creator1 #cjb    ,kuskokwin 
,river1 #chj    ,kwakiutl ,indians of   
,n4 ,w4 ,america1 their masked dances1  
#cgf n4 #b1 #cgh    ,labrador1 fear of  
demons in1 #gi sq4    ,labruguire1 in   
,s4 ,france1 #aff    ,lagarde1 on the   
8,ride of the ,beardless ,one10 #djb1   
#dje    ,lakor1 island of1 #aii    ,lama
 of ,tibet1 the ,grand1 #aig1 #bbj1     
#bba1 #bbb    ----1 the ,teshu1 #bjc    
,lamaist sects1 #id    ,lanchang1 a     
,malay craft1 #ahg    ,lande-,patry in  

,normandy1 #ahc    ,lane1 ,e4 ,w41      
quoted1 #ajd    ,lanterns1 feast of1 in 
,japan1 #aea sq4    ,laos1 #bi          
,laosians of ,siam1 their belief in     
demons1 #ig    ,last day of the year1   
annual expulsion of demons on the1 #ade 
sqq4    ,latin ,christianity1 its       
tolerance of rustic paganism1 #cdf      
,laurel in purification1 #bfb           
,laurels1 ceremony of renewing the1 #cdf
 n4 #a    ,lawes1 ,w4 ,g41 quoted1 #hd  
sq4    ,lead1 melted1 in cure1 #d       
,leafman1 the1 #fa    ,leaping over     
bonfires1 #aef    ,leaps to promote the 
growth of the crops1 #bcb1 #bch sqq4    
,leaves1 disease transferred to1 #b2    
fatigue transferred to1 #h sqq42    used
 to expel demons1 #bja1 #bjf2           
sickness transferred to1 #bei2    used  
in exorcism1 #bfb    ,lehmann-,haupt1   
,c4 ,f41 #dab n4 #a1 #dae n4 #a         
,lehner1 ,stefan1 quoted1 #hc sq4       
,leith ,links1 witches burnt on1 #afe   
,leme1 the river1 #ahb    ,lengua       
,indians1 #gh    ,lent1 ceremony at     

,halberstadt in1 #bad2    perhaps       
derived from an old pagan period of     
abstinence observed for the             
growth of the seed1 #cdg sqq4    ----   
and the ,saturnalia1 #cde sqq4          
,lenten fast1 its origin1 #cdh          
,leobschtz district of ,silesia1 #bfh   
,leprosy1 ,hebrew custom as to1 #ce2    
,mexican goddess of1 #bib    ,lerwick1  
ceremony of ,up-helly-a' at1 #afi       
,leti1 island of1 #aii    ,leucadians1  
their use of human scapegoats1 #bed     
,lhasa1 ceremony of the ,tibetan ,new   
,year at1 #aig sq41 #bah sqq4           
8,liar's mound1 the10 in ,borneo1 #ad   
,license1 month of general1 #adh2       
periods of1 preceding or following the  
annual expulsion of demons1 #bbe        
sq41 #cjf1 #cbh sq41 #cdc1 #cdd2        
granted to slaves at the ,saturnalia1   
#cjg sq41 #cej sq41 #cea sq4            
,licentious rites for the fertilization 
of the ground1 #agg    ,lichfield1 the  
,boy ,bishop at1 #ccg    ,licorice root 
used to beat people with at ,easter1    

#bfi    ,liebrecht1 ,f41 #cib n4 #a     
,lienz in the ,tyrol1 masquerade at1    
#bdb1 #bde    ,lime-tree in popular     
cure1 #ei sq4    ,limewood used at      
expulsion of demons1 #aef    ,lincoln1  
the ,boy ,bishop at1 #ccg    ,lion      
beloved by ,ishtar1 #cga    8---- with  
the ,sheepskins10 #bfe    ,livuans1 the1
 of ,new ,britain1 #hb    ,livy on the  
annual custom of knocking a nail1 #ff2  
on the ,saturnalia1 #cde n4 #a          
,lizard or snake in annual ceremony for 
the riddance of evils1 #bjh    ,lizards 
and serpents supposed to renew their    
youth by casting their skins1           
#cjb sqq4    ,llama1 black1 as          
scapegoat1 #aic    ,loango1 practice of 
knocking nails into idols in1 #fi sq4   
,lokoala1 initiation by spirits1 #cgf   
,lord of the ,diamond1 #bi    ---- of   
,misrule1 #bea2    in ,england1 #cca    
sqq4    ,lorraine1 ,king and ,queen of  
the ,bean in1 #cae    ,loth1 ,j41 #cbe  
n4 #c    ,lots cast at ,purim1 #cfa sq4 
,louis ,,xiv4 as ,king of the ,bean1    

#cac    ,lous1 a ,babylonian month1     
#cee1 #ceh    ,love1 cure for1 #c       
,lover's ,leap1 #bed    ,lovers of      
,semiramis and ,ishtar1 their sad fate1 
#cga sq4    ,lucian1 as to the rites of 
,hierapolis1 #cib    ,ludlow in         
,shropshire1 the tug-of-war at1 #ahb    
,lugg1 river1 #ahc    ,lules or         
,tonocotes of the ,gran ,chaco1 their   
behaviour in an epidemic1 #abb          
sq4    ,lumholtz1 ,c41 quoted1 #aj1 #cdg
 n4 #c    ,lunar year equated to solar  
year by intercalation1 #cbe1 #cdb sq4   
,lusatia1 the 8,witch-burning0 in1 #afc 
,lushais of ,assam1 their belief in     
demons1 #id    ,luzon1 exorcism in1 #bfj
    ,lycaeus1 ,mount1 in ,arcadia1 human
 sacrifice on1 #cec    ,lydia1 the      
burning of kings in1 #cia    ,lydus1    
,joannes1 #bbi n4 #a    ,ma1 goddess    
worshipped at ,comana1 #dba n4 #a       
,mac,culloch1 ,j4 ,a41 #cbf n4          
,macdonald1 ,rev4 ,james1 #aaa n4 #a    
,macdonell1 ,lady ,agnes1 #afd n4 #a    
,macedonian superstitions as to the     

,twelve ,days1 #cbj    ,machindranath   
temple at ,lhasa1 #bai    ,mackenzie1   
,sheriff ,david ,j41 #afi n4 #b         
,macrobius on institution of the        
,saturnalia1 #cde n4 #a    ,madagascar1 
#ai    ,madis1 the1 of ,central ,africa1
 #bag    ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford1   
the ,boy ,bishop at1 #ccg    ,magic in  
ancient ,india1 #ia2    and witchcraft1 
permanence of the belief in1 #hi2       
homoeopathic or imitative1 #agg1 #bcb1  
#beg    ,magnesia on the ,maeander1 #cig
 n4 #b    ,mahadeva1 propitiation of1   
#aig    ,maize1 the goddess of the      
,young1 #bgh2    ,mexican goddesses of1 
#bhe sq41 #bhf n4 #a1 #bij1 #bia1 #bib1 
#bid1 #bie    ,majhwars1 ,dravidian race
 of ,mirzapur1 #cf1 #fj    ,makrz1      
,arabic writer1 #cic    ,malabar1 use of
 cows as scapegoats in1 #baf            
,malagasy1 faditras among the1 #cc sq4  
,malay ,peninsula1 the ,besisi of the1  
#bbf n4 #a    ,malays1 their use of     
birds as scapegoats1 #ce2               
stratification of religious beliefs     

among the1 #ij n4 #a    ,mallans of     
,india1 #aij    ,mamurius ,veturius in  
ancient ,rome1 #bbi sqq41 #beb1 #beg    
,man-god in ,china1 #aag sq4    ,mandan 
,indians1 their annual expulsion of the 
devil1 #aga    ,manipur1 ,rajah of1 #ci 
sq42    annual eponyms in1 #ci sq4      
,mannhardt1 ,w41 on processions of      
maskers1 #bej2    on beating human      
scapegoats1 #bee1 #bgb    ,mantras1 the1
 of the ,malay ,peninsula1 their fear of
 demons1 #hh sq4    ,maori gods1 #ha    
,maraves1 the1 of ,south ,africa1 #ai   
,marcellus of ,bordeaux1 #dh1 #ej       
,march1 annual expulsion of demons in1  
#adi2    annual expulsion of witches in1
 #aeg2    annual expulsion of evils in1 
#aii2    ceremony of ,mamurius ,veturius
 in1 #bbi1 #bca2    old ,roman year     
began in1 #bca1 #cde2    dances of the  
,salii in1 #bcb2    bell-ringing        
procession on the first of1 #bdg2       
custom of beating people and cattle in1 
#bff2    marriage festival of all the   
gods in1 #cgc n4 #a2    festival of the 

,matronalia in1 #cdf    ,marduk or      
,merodach1 ,babylonian god1 #cef1 #ceg1 
#cii2    as a deliverer from demons1    
#ajc2    his ceremonial marriage at ,new
 ,year1 #cef2    the votaries of1 #cgb  
n4 #b    ,marjoram a protection against 
witchcraft1 #afj    ,mar-na1 a          
,philistine deity1 #dah n4 #a           
,marriage of the god ,marduk1 #cef      
----1 mock or real1 of human victims1   
#beg sq4    ---- festival of all the    
gods1 #bgc n4 #a    ,mars a god of      
vegetation1 #bbi sq42    the ,old1 at   
,rome1 #bbi1 #bca1 #beb    ----         
,silvanus1 #bcj    ,marsaba1 a demon1   
#aji    ,marseilles1 human scapegoats   
at1 #bec    ,marsh-marigolds a          
protection against witches1 #afc        
,martin1 ,rev4 ,john1 quoted1 #acb sq4  
,martyrdom of ,st4 ,dasius1 #cjh sqq4   
,mascal or ,festival of the ,cross in   
,abyssinia1 #acc sq4    ,mashti1        
supposed name of ,elamite goddess1 #cff 
sq4    ,mask1 two-faced1 worn by image  
of goddess1 #bhg4    ,see also ,masks   

,masked dances and ceremonies of        
savages1 #cgd sqq42    to promote       
fertility1 #bcf    ,maskers in the      
,tyrol and ,salzburg1 #bdb sqq42    as  
bestowers of fertility1 #bdi2           
supposed to be inspired by the spirits  
whom they represent1 #chj1 #chb1        
#chc    ,masks worn at expulsion of     
demons1 #aaa1 #abg1 #ade1 #bac2         
intended to ban demons1 #bdf2    worn at
 ceremonies to promote the growth of the
 crops1 #bcf1 #bdj1 #bdb                
sqq41 #bdg1 #bdh sq42    worn by the    
,perchten1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bde1 #bdg2      
worn by priests who personate gods1     
#bhg2    worn in religious dances and   
performances1 #cge1 #cgf n4 #b1 #cgh1   
#cgi1                #chj1 #chb2        
burned at end of masquerade1 #chb2      
treated as animate #chb    ,masquerades 
in modern ,europe1 intention of certain1
 #bea sq4    ,master of the ,revels1    
#ccc sq4    ,masuren1 8,easter ,smacks0 
in1 #bfi    ,mateer1 ,s41 quoted1 #id   
,mater ,dolorosa1 the ancient and the   

modern1 #cdi    ,material vehicles of   
immaterial things 7fear1 misfortune1    
disease1 etc471              #a sqq41   
#bb n4 #b1 #bc sqq4    ,materialization 
of prayer1 #bb n4 #b    ,matronalia1    
festival of the1 in ,march1 #cdf        
,matse negroes of ,togoland1 #c         
,mawu1 ,supreme ,being of ,ewe negroes1 
#gd sq4    ,maxwell1 ,w4 ,e41 quoted1   
#ij n4 #a    ,may1 ,mexican human       
sacrifices in1 #bgf1 #bhj2    dances of 
,castilian peasants in1 #bhj2    the    
,king and ,queen of1 #djf    ---- ,day1 
#cei2    ,eve of1 witches abroad on1    
#aeh sqq42    in the ,tyrol1 8,burning  
out of the ,witches0 on1 #aeh sq42      
witches rob cows of milk on1 #bfg       
---- morning1 custom of herdsmen on1    
#bff    ,mayas of ,yucatan1 their annual
 expulsion of the demon1 #aga2    their 
calendar1 #aga2    their five           
supplementary days1 #cdj    ,mecca1     
stone-throwing at1 #bd    ,mecklenburg1 
custom on ,good ,friday in1 #bff2       
mode of reckoning the ,twelve ,days in1 

#cbg    ,medicine-man1 need of1 #gf     
,melanesia1 belief in demons in1 #hb    
,melenik in ,macedonia1 #cbj    ,men1   
evil transferred to1 #ch sqq42          
possessed by spirits in ,china1 #aag2   
divine1 as scapegoats1 #bag sqq42       
sacrifices of deified1 #dji    ---- and 
women forbidden by ,mosaic law to       
interchange dress1 #cfc    ,mengap1 a   
,dyak liturgy1 #chc    ,merodach or     
,marduk1 ,babylonian deity1 #cef        
,merton ,college1 ,oxford1 ,king of the 
,bean at1 #ccb    ,metageitnion1 a      
,greek month1 #ced    ,mexican temples1 
their form1 #bgi    ,mexico1 ,indians   
of1 #aj2    the ,cora ,indians of1 #bch1
 #cha2    the ,tarahumare ,indians of1  
#bcf sq42    use of skins of human      
victims in ancient1 #bfe sq42    killing
 the god in1 #bge sqq42    story of the 
creation of the sun in1 #daj    ,meyer1 
,eduard1 #cdi n4 #d    ,midsummer ,day1 
#cei    ---- ,eve1 witches active on1   
#aeh1 #afj    ,milan1 festival of the   
,three ,kings of ,twelfth ,day at1 #cca 

,milk1 heifers beaten to make them      
yield1 #bff sq4    ,milky juice of wild 
fig-tree in religious rite1 #beh        
,mimicry the principle of religious or  
magical dramas1 #cgd    ,minahassa in   
,celebes1 expulsion of demons in1 #aaa  
sq4    ,mingoli1 spirits of the dead1   
#gg    ,miotse1 the1 of ,china1 #d      
,mirzapur1 #f1 #bg1 #cf2    the ,korwas 
and ,pataris of1 #aib    ,misfortune    
swept out of house with brooms1 #e      
,misrule1 the ,lord of1 #bea2    in     
,england1 #cca sqq4    ,missiles hurled 
at dangerous ghosts or spirits1 #ag sqq4
    ,mistress of the ,earth1 #he        
,mitigations of human sacrifice1 #cif   
sq41 #djh    ,mnevis1 sacred ,egyptian  
bull1 #bag    ,moa1 island of1 #aii     
,mock king1 #djc sq4    ---- marriage of
 human victims1 #beg sq4    ,mockery of 
,christ1 #dab sqq4    ,modai1 invisible 
spirits1 #ic    ,moesia1 ,durostorum in 
,lower1 #cji    ,mogador1 #fc           
,mohammed and the devil1 #bd            
,mohammedan custom of raising cairns1   

#ba    ---- saints1 #ba1 #bb    8,moles 
and ,field-mice10 fire ceremony on ,eve 
of ,twelfth ,night1 #cag    ,molina1    
,spanish historian1 #acj n4 #a          
,molonga1 a demon1 #agb    ,mommsen1    
,august1 #aec n4 #a    ,mongol          
transference of evil1 #g sq4    ,monkey 
sacrificed for riddance of evils1 #bjh  
sq4    ,montagne du ,doubs1 #caf        
,month during which men disguised as    
devils go about1 #acb2    of general    
license before expulsion of demons1     
#adh2    intercalary1 #cdb sqq4    ---- 
and moon1 names for1 in ,aryan          
languages1 #cbe    ,monumbo1 the1 of    
,german ,new ,guinea1 their masked      
dances1 #chb    ,moon1 bodily ailments  
transferred to the1 #ec sq42    the     
waning1 #fj2    the 8dark0 and the      
8light10 #adj1 #ada n4 #a2    temple of 
the1 #bah2    hearts of human victims   
offered to the1 #bhb2    the goddess of 
the1 #cda1 #cha    ---- and month1 names
 for1 in ,aryan languages1 #cbe         
,moors of ,morocco1 #ca    ,moravia1    

precautions against witchcraft in1 #afb2
    8,easter ,smacks0 in1 #bfh1 #bfi    
,mordecai1 his triumphal ride in ,susa1 
#djc    ---- and ,esther equivalent to  
,marduk and ,ishtar1 #dje2    the       
duplicates of ,haman and ,vashti1 #djf  
---- and ,haman1 #cfd sqq42    as       
temporary kings1 #djj sq4    ,morning   
,star1 personated by a man1 #bch2    the
 god of the1 #cha    ,morocco1 #ba1 #ca2
    exorcism in1 #fc2    the tug-of-war 
in1 #agh sq41 #ahb2    custom of beating
 people in1 #bfe1 #bff                  
,morris-dancers1 #bej sq4    ,mortality1
 savage explanations of human1 #cjb sqq4
    ,mortlock ,islanders1 their belief  
in spirits1 #hb    ,mosaic law forbids  
interchange of dress between men and    
women1 #cfc    ,moses1 the tomb of1 #ba 
,moslem custom of raising cairns1 #ba   
,mossos of ,china1 their annual         
expulsion of demons1 #aci    ,mosul1    
cure for headache at1 #fd    ,mother of 
the ,gods1 ,mexican goddess1 #bhi2      
woman annually sacrificed in the        

character of the1 #bhi sq4    ---- -kin 
in royal families1 #cfh n4 #a           
,moulton1 ,professor ,j4 ,h41 #cbe n4   
#c1 #cgc n4 #a    ,mounds of ,semiramis1
 #cgj1 #cga1 #cgc    ,mountain of       
,parting1 #bgi    ,movers1 ,f4 ,c41 on  
the ,sacaea1 #cfh1 #chg1 #chh1 #cia     
,mowat in ,british ,new ,guinea1 #bfe   
,mrus1 the1 of ,aracan1 #ab n4 #a       
,mule as scapegoat1 #ej    ,mller1 ,k4  
,o41 on ,sandan1 #chi sq4    ,mundaris1 
the1 of ,n4 ,e4 ,india1 their annual    
saturnalia at harvest1 #acg    ,munich1 
annual expulsion of the devil at1 #bad  
sq4    ,munzerabad in ,s4 ,india1 #agb  
,muota ,valley in ,switzerland1 #aff    
,murder1 heaps of sticks or stones on   
scenes of1 #ae    ,mylitta1 ,babylonian 
goddess1 #cgb n4 #b1 #cij    ,mysore in 
,s4 ,india1 #agb    ,mysteries as       
magical ceremonies1 #cgd    ,mythical   
beings represented by men and women1    
#che sq4    ,myths in relation to magic1
 #cgd2    performed dramatically in     
dances1 #cge sqq4    ,nabu1 ,babylonian 

god1 #ceh n4    ,nagas of ,assam1 the   
tug-of-war among the1 #agg    ,nahum1   
the prophet1 on ,nineveh1 #cij          
,nahunt1 an ,elamite goddess1 #cfi n4 #a
    ,nailing evils into trees1 walls1   
etc41 #ei sqq4    ,nails1 clippings of1 
in popular cures1 #eg1 #eh2    knocked  
into trees1 walls1 etc41 as remedy1 #ei 
sqq42    knocked into idols or fetishes1
 #fi sq42    knocked in ground as cure  
for epilepsy1 #ccj    ,nakiza1 the      
river1 #bg    ,nat superstition in      
,burma1 #ij n4 #a    ,nats1 spirits in  
,burma1 #age sq42    propitiation of1   
#if    ,navona1 ,piazza1 at ,rome1      
ceremony of ,befana on the1 #aff sq4    
,nebuchadnezzar1 his record of the      
festival of ,marduk1 #ceg    ,negritos1 
religion of the1 #hb    ,neilgherry     
,hills1 #cf1 #cg    ,nelson1 ,e4 ,w41 on
 the masquerades of the ,esquimaux1 #cgi
 sqq4    ,nemontemi1 the five           
supplementary days of the ,aztec        
calendar1 #cci    ,nepaul1 ,dassera     
festival in1 #bbf n4 #a    ,nephthys1   

the birth of1 #cda    ,nettles1 whipping
 with1 #bfc    ,neugramatin in ,bohemia1
 #bgj    ,neumann1 ,j4 ,b41 quoted1 #hg 
,new ,britain1 the ,melanesians of1     
their belief in demons1 #hb sq42        
expulsion of devils in1 #aji sq42       
,gazelle ,peninsula in1 #cjc    ----    
,caledonia1 burying the evil spirit in1 
#aaj2    mode of promoting growth of    
taros in1 #bfd    ---- ,college1        
,oxford1 ,boy ,bishop at1 #cch    ----  
,guinea1 annual expulsion of demons in1 
#acd    ---- ,guinea1 ,british1 #bfe2   
belief in ghosts in1 #hd sq4    ----    
,guinea1 ,dutch1 #agh2    the ,papuans  
of1 their belief in demons1 #hc    ---- 
,guinea1 ,german1 the ,yabim of1 #ahh2  
the ,bukaua of1 their belief in demons1 
#hc sq42    the ,kai of1 #bfd2    the   
,monumbo of1 #chb    ---- ,hebrideans1  
their story of the origin of death1 #cjd
    ---- yams1 ceremonies before eating 
the1 #acd sqq4    ---- ,year1 expulsion 
of evils at the1 #abg1 #acc1 #adi sq41  
#aee2    not reckoned from first month1 

#adi n4 #b2    sham fight at the1 #ahd2 
ceremony at the ,tibetan1 #aig sq42     
festival among the ,iroquois1 #bji sq42 
the ,tibetan1 #bah2    festival at      
,babylon1 #cef sqq4    ---- ,year's ,day
 in ,corea1 annual riddance of evil on1 
#bjb2    in ,tibet1 ceremony on1 #bjc2  
among the ,swahili1 #bbf n4 #a2    young
 women beat young men on1 #bga2    of   
the ,jewish calendar1 #cei    ----      
,zealand1 human scapegoats in1 #ci      
,nganga1 medicine-man1 #gf    ,ngoc     
hoang1 his message to men1 #cjc         
,nias1 expulsion of demons in1 #aac     
sqq42    explanation of human mortality 
in1 #cjc    ,nicaragua1 #i    ,nicholas 
,bishop1 #cch    ,nicobar ,islanders1   
their belief in demons1 #hh2    their   
annual expulsion of demons1 #bja sq4    
---- ,islands1 demon of disease sent    
away in a boat from the1 #ahi sq4       
,nicobarese ceremony of exorcism1 #bfb  
,nights1 custom of reckoning by1 #cbf n4
 #b    ,nineveh1 tomb of ,sardanapalus  
at1 #chh n4 #a2    the burning of       

,sandan at1 #cij    ,ninus1 ,assyrian   
hero1 #cia    ,nirriti1 goddess of evil1
 #be    ,nisan1 ,jewish month1 #cef1    
#cfa1 #dae    ,no1 annual expulsion of  
demons in ,china1 #ade sq4    ,noises   
made to expel demons1 #aji sqq41 #adg   
,nldeke1 ,professor ,th41 on ,purim and 
,esther1 #cff1 #cfg n4 #a1 #cfh n42     
on ,omanos and ,anadates1 #cgc n4 #a    
,nonae ,caprotinae1 ,roman celebration  
of the1 #beh    ,normandy1 the ,bocage  
of1 #ahc sq41 #caf1 #cbc                
,northamptonshire cure for cough1 #ea   
,nortia1 ,etruscan goddess1 #fg         
,norwegian sailors1 their use of rowan1 
#bfg    ,norwich1 the ,boy ,bishop at1  
#ccg    ,november1 annual ceremony in1  
at catching sea-slug1 #adc2    expulsion
 of demons in1 #bjd    ,nut1 the        
,egyptian sky-goddess1 #cda    ,nyassa1 
,lake1 #aj    ,oak and wild olive1 pyre 
of ,hercules made of1 #cia    ----      
-trees in popular cures1 #eg1 #fj       
,obassi ,nsi1 earth-god1 #bh            
,october1 annual expulsion of demons in1

 #bbf n4 #a2    ,roman sacrifice of     
horse in1 #bcj    ,oels1 in ,silesia1   
#aeg    ,oesel1 ,esthonian island1 #ad  
,offerings at cairns1 #bf sqq42    to   
demons1 #if    ,oho-harahi1 a ,japanese 
ceremony1 #bac    ,old ,christmas ,day  
7,twelfth ,night71 #cba    ,oldenberg1  
,h41 quoted1 #ij sq4    ,oldenburg1     
popular cures in1 #di1 #ea1 #eb1 #ec-eh 
,oldfield1 ,h4 ,a41 quoted1 #bbf n4 #a  
,olive1 wild1 and oak1 pyre of ,hercules
 made of1 #cia    ---- -tree in popular 
remedy1 #fj    ,olympia1 festival of    
,cronus at1 #ceb sq4    ,olynthiac1     
river1 #adb n4 #a    ,olynthus1 tomb of1
 #adc n4    ,omanos at ,zela1 #cgc n4 #a
    ,omens1 mode of neutralizing bad1   
#ci    ,omnipresence of demons1 #gb sqq4
    ,omphale and ,hercules1 #chi        
,one-eyed buffoon in ,new ,year         
ceremony1 #djb    ,onions used to       
foretell weather of the year1 #cbc      
,onitsha1 on the ,niger1 annual         
expulsion of evils at1 #acc2    use of  
human scapegoats at1 #baj sq4           

,opening of the ,wine-jars1 ,dionysiac  
festival of the1 #ceb    ,oraons1 the1  
of ,bengal1 their belief in demons1 #ic 
sq42    their use of a human scapegoat1 
#aif    ,orchards1 fire applied to1 on  
,eve of ,twelfth ,day1 #cag1 #cai1 #cbj 
,orestes1 purification of1 #bfb         
,origin of death1 savage tales of the1  
#cjb sqq4    ,orinoco1 ,indians of the1 
#cjc    ,orkney ,islands1 #bi2          
transference of sickness in the1 #di    
,orlagau in ,thringen1 #bga    ,oscans1 
the enemies of ,rome1 #bca    ,osiris1  
the birth of1 #cda    ---- and ,isis1   
#chf    ,ottery ,st4 ,mary's1 the ,boy  
,bishop at1 #ccg    ,oude1 burial of    
infants in1 #de    8,our ,mother among  
the ,water10 ,mexican goddess1 #bgh     
,owl represented dramatically as a      
mystery1 #cgg    ,ox1 disease           
transferred to1 #ca sq4    ,oxen pledged
 on ,eve of ,twelfth ,day1 #cai         
,oxford1 ,lords of ,misrule at1 #ccb    
,pairing dogs1 stick that has beaten1   
#bfd    ,palm ,sunday1 ,russian custom  

on1 #bfh    ,pan's image beaten by the  
,arcadians1 #bef    ,pancakes to scald  
fiends on ,new ,year's ,eve1 #cbj       
,pandarus1 tattoo marks of1 #dg sq4     
,papa ,westray1 one of the ,orkney      
,islands1 #bi    ,papuans1 their belief 
in demons1 #hc    ,parkinson1 ,r41      
quoted1 #hc    ,parti1 name of an       
,elamite deity1 #cfg    ,passover1      
accusations of murders at1 #cie sq42    
the crucifixion of ,christ at1 #dad sqq4
    ,patagonians1 their remedy for      
smallpox1 #abb    ,pataris of ,mirzapur1
 their use of scapegoats1 #aib          
,pathian1 a beneficent spirit1 #id      
,paton1 ,l4 ,b41 #cfj n4 #a    ,paton1  
,w4 ,r41 on human scapegoats in ancient 
,greece1 #beg sq41 #bei1 #bgb2    on    
,adam and ,eve1 #bei n4 #c2    on the   
crucifixion1 #dac n4 #b    ,pauntley1   
parish of1 ,eve of ,twelfth ,day in1    
#cah    ,pawnees1 their human sacrifice1
 #bif    ,payne1 ,e4 ,j41 #bhf n4 #a    
,peach-tree in popular remedy1 #ed      
,peaiman1 sorcerer1 #gh    ,peg used to 

transfer disease to tree1 #g    ,pegging
 ailments into trees1 #eh sqq4    ,pelew
 ,islanders1 their gods1 #ha sq4        
,peloria1 a ,thessalian festival        
resembling the ,saturnalia1 #cej        
,pelorian ,zeus1 #cej    ,pemali1 taboo1
 #ci    ,pembrokeshire1 cure for warts  
in1 #ec    ,penance by drawing blood    
from ears1 #bib    ,pennant1 ,thomas1   
quoted1 #cba1 #cbd    ,penzance1        
horn-blowing at1 on the ,eve of ,may    
,day1 #afc sq4    ,perak1 periodic      
expulsion of evils in1 #aih sqq42    the
 rajah of1 #aih sq4    ,perche and      
,beauce1 in ,france1 #eg1 #fb           
,perchta1 ,frau1 #bdj sq4    ,perchta's 
,day1 #bdj1 #bdb1 #bdd    ,perchten1    
maskers in ,salzburg and the ,tyrol1    
#bdj1 #bdb sqq4    ,percival1 ,r41      
quoted1 #id sq4    ,perham1 ,rev4 ,j41  
on the ,head-feast of the ,sea ,dyaks1  
#chc sq4    ,periodic expulsion of evils
 in a material vehicle1 #aih sqq4       
,periods of license preceding or        
following the annual expulsion of       

demons1              #bbe sq4    1 #bee 
n4 #a    ,persephone1 mourning for1 #cdh
 sq4    ,persia1 cure for toothache in1 
#ei2    the feast of ,purim in1 #cic    
,persian framework of the book of       
,esther1 #cfb1 #dja    ---- kings       
married the wives of their predecessors1
 #cfh n4 #a    ---- marriages at the    
vernal equinox1 #djf n4 #c    ,persians 
annually expel demons1 #ade2    the     
,sacaea celebrated by the1 #djb         
,peru1 ,indians of1 #c2    ,incas of1   
#abh2    ,aymara ,indians of1 #aic2     
autumn festival in1 #bfb    ,peruvian   
,indians1 #i1 #bg    ,phees 7phi71 evil 
spirits1 #ig    ,philadelphia in ,lydia1
 coin of1 #chi    ,philippine ,islands1 
spirits of the dead in the1 #hb         
,philippines1 the ,tagbanuas of the1    
#ahi    ,philo of ,alexandria1 on the   
mockery of ,king ,agrippa1 #dah         
,phocylides1 the poet1 on ,nineveh1 #cij
    ,phrygia1 ,cybele and ,attis in1    
#chf    ,piazza ,navona at ,rome1       
,befana on the1 #aff sq4    ,pig used to

 decoy demons1 #bjj1 #bja    ,pig's     
blood used in purificatory rites1 #bfb  
,pilate and ,christ1 #daf sq4    ,piles 
of sticks or stones4 ,see ,heaps        
,pillar1 fever transferred to a1 #ec    
,pine-resin burnt as a protection       
against witches1 #afd    ,pins stuck    
into saint's image1 #gj sq4    ,pinzgau 
district of ,salzburg1 #bdd    ,pitch   
smeared on doors to keep out ghosts1    
#aec    ,pitchforks ridden by witches1  
#afj1 #afb    ,pithoria1 village in     
,india1 #aia    ,pitteri ,pennu1 the god
 of increase1 #ach    ,plague           
transferred to plantain-tree1 #d sq42   
god of1 #d2    transferred to camel1    
#cc2    preventive of1 #fd2    demon of1
 expelled1 #agc2    sent away in        
scapegoat1 #aic    ,plato on parricide1 
etc41 #bd sq42    on poets1 #ce n4 #c2  
on sorcery1 #dg    ,playfair1 ,major    
,a41 quoted1 #bjh sq4    ,pleiades1     
ceremony at the appearance of the1 #bfb2
    observed by savages1 #cbf    ,pliny 
on cure of warts1 #dh n4 #b2    on cure 

for epilepsy1 #fh    ,pliny's letter to 
,trajan1 #dbj    ,plough drawn round    
village to keep off epidemic1 #agb sq4  
---- ,monday1 the rites of1 #bej sq4    
,ploughing1 ceremonies at1 #bce         
,plutarch on 8the expulsion of hunger10 
#beb    ,po ,then1 a great spirit1 #ig  
,point ,barrow1 the ,esquimaux of1 #abd 
,pollution caused by murder1 #be        
,polynesia1 demons in1 #hj sq4          
,pomerania1 #ag    ,pomos of            
,california1 their expulsion of devils1 
#agj sq4    ,pongau district of         
,salzburg1 #bdd    ,pontarlier1 ,eve of 
,twelfth ,day in1 #caf    ,pontiff of   
,zela in ,pontus1 #cgj1 #cgb    ,pontus1
 rapid spread of ,christianity in1 #dbj 
sq4    ,porphyry on demons1 #ajd        
,port ,charlotte in ,islay1 #fb    ---- 
,moresby in ,new ,guinea1 #hd    ,porto 
,novo1 annual expulsion of demons at1   
#bje    ,poseidon1 cake with twelve     
knobs offered to1 #cea    ,posterli1    
expulsion of1 #bad    ,potala ,hill at  
,lhasa1 #aig    ,poverty1 annual        

expulsion of1 #add sq4    ,powers1      
,stephen1 quoted1 #agj sq4              
,prajapati1 the sacrifice of the        
creator1 #daa    ,prayer1 the           
materialization of1 #bb n4 #b2    at    
sowing1 #ach    ,prayers at cairns or   
heaps of sticks or leaves1 #bf1 #bh1 #bi
 sq4    ,presteign in ,radnorshire1 the 
tug-of-war at1 #ahb sq4    ,priest1 the 
corpse-praying1 #de    ,priests         
personating gods1 #bhg    ,proa1 demons 
of sickness expelled in a1 #ahe sqq42   
diseases sent away in a1 #aii sq4       
,processions for the expulsion of       
demons1 #aag1 #bcc2    bell-ringing1 at 
the ,carnival1 #bdg2    to drive away   
demons of infertility1 #bde2    of      
maskers1 ,w4 ,mannhardt on1 #bej        
,procopius1 quoted1 #abe n4 #a          
,propertius1 #ai    ,propitiation of    
ancestral spirits1 #hf2    of demons1   
#ic1 #id1 #if1 #ajj    ,prussia1        
8,easter ,smacks0 in1 #bfh    ----1     
,west1 #ag    ,prussian rulers1 formerly
 burnt1 #cia    ,public expulsion of    

evils1 #aji sqq4    ---- scapegoats1    
#agj sqq4    ,puru1 8assembly10 #cfa    
,puithiam1 sorcerer1 #id    ,puna       
,indians1 #i    ,punjaub1 human         
scapegoats in the1 #aif    ,puppy1      
blind1 as scapegoat1 #ej    ,pur in the 
sense of 8lot10 #cfa    ,purification by
 bathing or washing1 #c sq42    by means
 of stone-throwing1 #bc sqq42           
religious1 intended to keep off demons1 
#ajd sq42    the ,great1 a ,japanese    
ceremony1 #bac n4 #a2    by beating1    
#bfb2    ,feast of the1 7,candlemas71   
#ccb    ---- festival among the         
,cherokee ,indians1 #abh    ,purim1 the 
,jewish festival of1 #cfj sqq42         
custom of burning effigies of ,haman at1
 #cib sqq42    compared to the          
,carnival1 #cid2    its relation to     
,persia1 #dja sqq4    ,purushu1 great   
primordial giant1 #daj    ,pyre1        
traditionary death of ,asiatic kings and
 heroes on a1 #chg1 #chh1 #chi          
sqq42    festival of the1 at            
,hierapolis1 #cib    ,pythagoras1 his   

saying as to swallows1 #ce n4 #c        
,quauhtitlan1 city in ,mexico1 #cja     
,queen of the ,bean1 #cac1 #cae         
,queensland1 tribes of ,central1 their  
expulsion of a demon1 #agb              
,quetzalcoatl1 a ,mexican god1 #bha1    
#cjj2    man sacrificed in the character
 of1 #bha sq4    8,quickening0 heifers  
with a branch of rowan1 #bff sq4        
,quixos1 ,indians of the1 #bfc    ,ra1  
the ,egyptian ,sun-god1 #cda    ,races  
to ensure good crops1 #bdi              
,radnorshire1 #ahb    ,rafts1 evils     
expelled in1 #aii1 #bjj sq4    ,rain1   
charms to produce1 #age sq41 #agh sq42  
or drought1 games of ball played to     
produce1 #agi sq42    dances to obtain1 
#bcf sq41 #bch2    festival to procure1 
#bgg2    divinities of the1 #cha    ----
 gods of ,mexico1 #bhc    ,rainy season1
 expulsion of demons at the beginning of
 the1 #bbe    ,rajah of ,manipur1 #ci   
sq42    of ,travancore1 #db sq42    of  
,tanjore1 #dd    ,ramsay1 ,sir ,w4 ,m41 
#dba n4 #a    ,ranchi1 in ,chota        

,nagpur1 #aci    ,rattles to keep out   
ghosts1 #aed n4    ,raven legends among 
the ,esquimaux1 #chj    ,red thread in  
popular cure1 #ee    ---- and yellow    
paint on human to represent colours of  
maize1 #bhe    ,reed1 ,w4 ,a41 quoted1  
#hb    ,reinach1 ,salomon1 #dbj n4 #a   
,renan1 ,ernest1 #gj    ,renewal1       
annual1 of king's power at ,babylon1    
#cef1 #ceh    ,resurrection1 the divine1
 in ,mexican ritual1 #bhh1 #bif1 #cjb2  
of the dead god1 #djj    ,revelry at    
,purim1 #cfc sq4    ,revels1 ,master of 
the1 #ccc sq4    ,rhea1 wife of ,cronus1
 #cea    ,rhodians1 their annual        
sacrifice of a man to ,cronus1 #cec sq41
 #cig    ,rhys1 ,sir ,john1 #cdc n42    
quoted1 #gj sq4    ,ribhus1 ,vedic genii
 of the seasons1 #cbe    ,rice-harvest1 
carnival at the1 #bbf n4 #a    ,richalm1
 ,abbot1 his fear of devils1 #aje sq4   
,riddles asked at certain seasons or on 
certain occasions1 #abj sq41 n4         
8,ride of the ,beardless ,one10 a       
,persian ,new ,year ceremony1 #djb sq4  

,ridgeway1 ,w41 #cec n4 #d2    on the   
origin of ,greek tragedy1 #chd n4 #b    
,ridley1 ,rev4 ,w41 quoted1 #abc sq4    
,riedel1 ,j4 ,g4 ,f41 quoted1 #he       
,rig ,veda1 story of creation in the1   
#daj    ,ring suspended in ,purim       
bonfire1 #cic    ,rings1 headache       
transferred to1 #b    ,ritual murder1   
accusations of1 brought against the     
,jews1 #cid sqq4    ,river of ,good     
,fortune1 #bh    ,rivers used to sweep  
away evils1 #c sq41 #e2    offerings and
 prayers to1 #bg sq4    ,rivros1 a month
 of the ,gallic calendar1 #cdc          
,rockhill1 ,w4 ,w41 #bbj n4 #a          
,rogations1 #bgg    ,roman cure for     
fever1 #dg2    for epilepsy1 #fh    ----
 festival in honour of ghosts1 #aed sq4 
---- husbandman1 his prayers to ,mars1  
#bbi    ---- seasons of sowing1 #bcb    
---- soldiers1 celebration of the       
,saturnalia by1 #cjh sq4    ,romans1    
their mode of reckoning a day1 #cbf n4  
#b    ,rome1 the knocking of nails in   
ancient1 #fd sqq42    ,piazza ,navona   

at1 #aff sq42    ancient1 human         
scapegoats in1 #bbi sqq42    the        
,saturnalia at1 #cjg sq4    ,romulus1   
disappearance of1 #beh    ,roocooyen    
,indians of ,french ,guiana1 #bfc2      
their tug-of-war1 #aha    ,roof1 dances 
on the1 #cae    ,rook1 expulsion of     
devil in island of1 #aji    ,rope1      
ceremony of sliding down a1 #aif sqq4   
,ropes used to keep off demons1 #abj1   
#adi2    used to exclude ghosts1 #aeb   
sq41 #aed n4    ,roscher1 ,w4 ,h41 on   
the ,salii1 #bca n4 #c    ,roscommon1   
,twelfth ,night in1 #cba sq4            
,rosemary1 used to beat people with1    
#bgj1 #bga    ,rouen1 ceremony on       
,ascension ,day at1 #bae sq4            
,roumanians of ,transylvania1 #af2      
their belief in demons1 #ajf sq4        
,rowan-tree1 cattle beaten with branches
 of1 on ,may ,day1 #bff sq42    used to 
keep witches from cows1 #bfg    ,rue1   
fumigation with1 as a precaution against
 witches1 #aeh    ,rupture1 popular     
cures for1 #eb1 #fj    ,russia1 the     

,wotyaks of1 #aee sq4    ,russian custom
 on ,palm ,sunday1 #bfh    ----         
villagers1 their precautions against    
epidemics1 #agb sq4    ,rutuburi1 a     
dance of the ,tarahumare ,indians1 #bcg 
,sacaea1 a ,babylonian festival1 #ced   
sqq42    in relation to ,purim1 #cei    
sqq42    and ,zakmuk1 #cii2             
celebrated by the ,persians1 #djb       
,sacred dramas1 as magical rites1 #cgc  
sqq4    ---- harlots1 #cgj1 #cga1 #cgb  
---- slaves1 #cgj    ,sacrifice1 human1 
successive mitigations of1 #cif sq41    
#djh2    the ,brahmanical theory of1    
#daj sq4    ,sacrifices1 human1 their   
influence on cosmogonical theories1 #dji
 sqq42    of deified men1 #dji          
,sacrificial victims1 beating people    
with the skins of1 #bfe    ,sagar in    
,india1 use of scapegoat at1 #aij sq4   
,sahagun1 ,b4 de1 #bgf1 #bhj1 #cjj n4   
#a1 #cja n4 #a    8,saining10 a         
protection against spirits1 #afh    ,st4
 ,barbara's ,day1 custom of putting rods
 in pickle on1 #bgj    ,st4 ,dasius1    

martyrdom of1 #cjh sqq4    ,st4         
,edmund's ,day in ,november1 #ccb       
,st4 ,eustorgius1 church of1 at ,milan1 
#cca    ,st4 ,george1 ,eve of1 witches  
active on the1 #aeh    ,st4 ,george's   
,day among the ,south ,slavs1 #ed       
,st4 ,guirec1 #gj    ,st4 ,hiztibouzit1 
#dac n4 #b    ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1  
#ec    ,st4 ,john 7the ,evangelist71    
festival of1 #ccd    ,st4 ,john's ,day  
in ,abyssinia1 #acc    ,st4 ,john's wort
 a protection against witchcraft1 #afj  
,st4 ,joseph1 feast of1 #big    ,st4    
,nicholas ,day1 #ccg1 #cch    ,st4      
,paul's1 ,london1 the ,boy ,bishop at   
#ccg    ,st4 ,peter's1 ,canterbury1 the 
,boy ,bishop at1 #ccg    ,st4 ,peter's  
,day 7#bbnd ,february71 ceremony on1    
#aei n4 #a    ,st4 ,pierre d',entremont 
in ,normandy1 #ahc    ,st4 ,romain1 the 
shrine of1 at ,rouen1 #baf    ,st4      
,stephen's ,day1 #ccc1 #ccd2    custom  
of beating young women on1 #bgj    ,st4 
,sylvester's ,day 7,new ,year's ,eve71  
precautions against witches on1 #afd    

sq4    ---- ,eve at ,trieste1 #afe      
,st4 ,tecla1 #eb    ,st4 ,thomas's ,eve1
 witches active on1 #afj    ,saints1    
cairns near shrines of1 #ba2            
,mohammedan1 #ba1 #bb    ,salii1 the    
dancing priests of ,mars1 #bca sqq4     
,salisbury1 the ,boy ,bishop at1 #ccg1  
#cch    ,salt1 the goddess of1 #bgh1    
#bhc    ---- -makers worship the goddess
 of ,salt1 #bhc2    their dance1 #bhd   
,saluting the rising sun1 a ,syrian     
custom1 #daf    ,salzburg1 the ,perchten
 in1 #bdj1 #bdb sqq4    ,samon1 a month 
of the ,gallic calendar1 #cdc           
,sampson1 ,agnes1 a witch1 #ch          
,samsi-,adad1 king of ,assyria1 #cgj n4 
#a    ,samyas monastery near ,lhasa1    
#bbj    ,san ,pellegrino1 church of1 at 
,ancona1 #caj    ,sandan1 #cfh2         
legendary or mythical hero of ,western  
,asia1 #chh sqq4    ,sandes1 the        
,persian ,hercules1 #chi4    ,see       
,sandan    ,santiago ,tepehuacan1       
,indians of1 #d1 #cdg4 #d    ,sarawak1  
the ,sea ,dyaks of1 #aed    ,sardan or  

,sandan1 the burning of1 #chi sq4       
,sardanapalus1 #cfh2 the epitaph of1    
#chh    ---- and ,ashurbanapal1 #chg sq4
    ,sardes in ,lydia1 #chi1 #cia       
,sarn1 valley of the1 in ,salzburg1 #bde
    ,sarum use1 service-books of the1   
#cch    ,satan annually expelled by the 
,wotyaks1 #aee sq42    by the           
,cheremiss1 #aef    ,saturn1 the ,roman 
god of sowing1 #bcb1 #cjf1 #cjg n4 #a2  
his festival the ,saturnalia1 #cjf sqq42
    and the ,golden ,age1 #cjf1 #cdd1   
#chf2    man put to death in the        
character of1 #cji2    dedication of the
 temple of1 #cde n4 #a2    the old      
,italian god of sowing1 #cdf            
,saturnalia among the ,hos and ,mundaris
 of ,n4 ,e4 ,india1 #acf sq42    and    
kindred festivals1 #cjf sqq42    the    
,roman1 #cjf sqq42    as celebrated by  
,roman soldiers1 #cjh sq42    the ,king 
of the1 #cjh1 #caa1 #cab2    its        
relation to the ,carnival1 #cab1 #cde   
sqq42    and ,lent1 #cde sqq42    in    
ancient ,greece1 #cej sqq42    in       

,western ,asia1 #ced sqq42    wide      
prevalence of festivals like the1 #djg  
sqq4    ,savages1 their regulation of   
the calendar1 #cbf    ,saxon cure for   
rupture1 #eb    ,scapegoat1             
plantain-tree as a1 #e2    decked with  
women's ornaments1 #aib2    ,jewish use 
of1 #baj2    a material vehicle for the 
expulsion of evils1 #bbd    ,scapegoats1
 immaterial objects as1 #a sqq42        
animals as1 #ca sqq41 #aij sqq41 #bjh   
sqq42    birds as1 #ce sq42    human    
beings as1 #ch sqq41 #baj sqq42         
public1 #agj sqq42    divine animals as1
 #baf sq41 #bbf sq42    divine men as1  
#bag sqq41 #bbf sq42    in general1 #bbd
 sqq4    ----1 human1 #aid sqq42    in  
classical antiquity1 #bbi sqq42    in   
ancient ,greece1 #beb sqq42    beaten1  
#beb1 #bee2    stoned1 #bec1 #bed2      
cast into the sea1 #bed sq42    reason  
for beating the1 #bef sq4    8,scaring  
away the devil0 at ,penzance on the ,eve
 of ,may ,day1 #afc sq4    ,scarlet     
thread in charm against witchcraft1 #bfg

    ,schechter1 ,dr4 ,s41 #cfd n4 #a    
,scheil1 ,father1 on ,elamite           
inscriptions1 #cfg n4 #c                
,schmeckostern in ,germany and ,austria1
 #bfh sq4    ,schnthal1 the abbot of1   
#aje    ,schnwert1 village of ,bohemia1 
#afa    ,schrader1 ,o41 #cbf n4         
,schuyler1 ,e41 #de    ,schwaz1 on the  
,inn1 the 8grass-ringers0 at1 #bdg      
,scorpion's bite1 cure for1 #di sq4     
,scotch witch1 #ch sq4    ,scotland1 the
 ,highlands of1 #bj2    cure of warts   
in1 #dh2    witches burnt in1 #afe2     
,abbot of ,unreason in1 #cca4    ,see   
also ,highlands    ,scourgings1 mutual1 
of ,south ,american ,indians1 #bfb      
,scythian kings married the wives of    
their predecessors1 #cfh n4 #a          
,scythians1 revellers disguised as1 #cee
    ,sea1 scapegoats cast into the1 #bed
 sq4    ---- ,dyaks of ,sarawak1 their  
,festival of ,departed ,spirits1 #aed   
,sea-god1 sacrifice to1 #bee    ----    
-slugs1 ceremonies at the annual        
appearance of1 #ada sqq4    ,secret     

,societies in ,north-,western ,america1 
#cgg sq4    ,sedna1 ,mistress of the    
,nether ,world1 among the ,esquimaux1   
#abe sq4    ,seed-time1 annual expulsion
 of demons at1 #ach    ,selangor1 demons
 of disease expelled in a ship from1    
#ahg sq4    ,selemnus1 the river1 #c    
,seler1 ,e41 #bgg    ,seleucia1 #fd     
,semiramis1 mythical and historical1    
#cfi sqq42    the mounds of1 #cgj1 #cga1
 #cgc1 #chh n4 #a2    the sad fate of   
her lovers1 #cga2    burnt herself on a 
pyre1 #djg n4 #b    ,sena-speaking      
people1 #g    ,senegambia1 #af2    the  
,banmanas of1 #bfa    ,senseless        
,thursday in ,carnival1 #bdh            
,september1 expulsion of evils by the   
,incas of ,peru in1 #abh    ,serpents   
and lizards supposed to renew their     
youth by casting their skins1           
#cjb sqq4    ,servians1 their precaution
 against vampyres1 #aec n4 #a    ,set1  
the birth of1 #cda    ,sham fight at    
,new ,year1 #ahd2    as religious rite1 
#bhi    ,shaman1 function of the1 #gi   

sq4    ,shamans1 necessity of1 #ii1     
#ajj2    expel demons1 #abf2    among   
the ,esquimaux1 #cgi1 #chj              
,shammuramat and ,semiramis1 #cgj n4 #a 
,shampoo1 the fatal1 #db    ,shans of   
,kengtung1 their expulsion of demons1   
#aaf sq42    of ,southern ,china1 their 
annual expulsion of the fire-spirit1    
#ada    ,shawms blown to ban witches1   
#afj    ,sheepskins1 people beaten with1
 #bfe    ,shepherd beloved by ,ishtar1  
#cga    ,shetland ,islands1 ,yule in    
the1 #afg sqq4    ,shinto priest1 #aaf  
,ship1 sicknesses expelled in a1 #ahe   
sqq42    demons expelled in a1 #bja sq4 
,shogun's palace in ,japan1 #add        
8,shooting the ,witches10 #afd          
,shropshire1 #ahb2    the sin-eater in1 
#dd2    fires on ,twelfth ,night in1    
#cba    ,shrove ,tuesday1 the tug-of-war
 on1 #ahb sq42    dances to promote the 
growth of the crops on1 #bci1 #cdg      
,siam1 the ,laosians of1 #ig2    annual 
expulsion of demons in1 #adi sqq42      
human scapegoats in1 #bab    ,siamese   

year of twelve lunar months1 #adi n4 #b 
,sicily1 ,ascension ,day in1 #ed        
,sickness transferred to animals in     
,europe1 #di sqq42    ascribed to       
demons1 #aji sqq4    ,sicknesses        
expelled in a ship1 #ahe sqq4           
,sihanaka1 the1 of ,madagascar1 #b      
,sikhim1 cairns in1 #bf2    demonolatry 
in1 #id    ,silence1 compulsory1 to     
deceive demons1 #acb sq41 #adj4         
,compare #adb    ,silesia1 expulsion of 
witches on ,good ,friday in1 #aeg2      
precautions against witches in1 #afb    
sq41 #afd2    8,easter ,smacks0 in1     
#bfh1 #bfi2    mode of reckoning the    
,twelve ,days in1 #cbg    ,silili1 a    
,babylonian goddess1 #cga    ,sin-eater1
 the1 #dc sq4    ,sin-eating in ,wales1 
#dc sq4    ,singalang ,burong1 a ,dyak  
war-god1 #chc    ,sins1 confession of1  
#cf1 #abg2    transferred to a buffalo  
calf1 #cf sq42    transferred           
vicariously to human beings1 #ci sqq42  
of people transferred to animals1 #baj2 
,delaware ,indian remedies for1 #bfc    

,sirius associated with ,ishtar1 #cei n4
 #a    ,situa1 annual festival of the   
,incas1 #abh    ,siyins1 of ,n4 ,e4     
,india1 their belief in demons1 #ic     
,skin disease1 supposed remedy for1     
#bff2    ,mexican remedy for1 #bih      
,skins1 creatures that slough their1    
supposed to renew their youth1 #cjb     
sqq4    ---- of human victims1 worn by  
men in ,mexico1 #bfe sq41 #bhh1 #bij1   
#bid              sq41 #bif sqq41 #cja  
sq4    ---- of sacrificial victims used 
to beat people1 #bfe    ,sky-goddess1   
the ,egyptian1 #cda    ,sladen1         
,colonel1 #ada    ,slave ,coast1 #gd    
---- women1 religious ceremony performed
 by1 #beh    ,slaves1 license granted   
to1 at the ,saturnalia1 #cjg sq41 #cej  
sq41 #cea              sq42    feasted  
by their masters1 #cjh1 #cej sq42       
feasted by their mistresses1 #cdf       
,slavonia1 ,good ,friday custom in1 #bfh
    ,slavonic custom of 8carrying out   
,death10 #bcj    ---- peoples1 8,easter 
,smacks0 among the1 #bfh    ---- year1  

the beginning of the1 #bbh    ,slavs1   
black god and white god among the1 #ib  
,sleeman1 ,general ,sir ,william1 #aia  
,sloth1 the animal1 imitated by masker1 
#cha    ,sloughing the skin supposed to 
be a mode of renewing youth1 #cjb sqq4  
,smallpox1 cure for1 #f2    attributed  
to a devil1 #aag1 #aai1 #abj1 #abc2     
expelled in a proa1 #ahf    ----1 demon 
of1 #agb2    sent away in a canoe1 #ahh 
sq4    ,smell1 foul1 used to drive      
demons away1 #aab    ,smith1 ,w4        
,robertson1 on ,semiramis1 #cfi sq4     
,smut in wheat1 ceremony to prevent1    
#cah    ,snails as scapegoats1 #eb1 #ec 
,snake or lizard in annual ceremony for 
the riddance of evils1 #bjh    ,snipe as
 scapegoat1 #ea    ,social ranks1       
inversion of1 at festivals1 #cej1 #djg  
,socrates1 church historian1 #cid       
,sods1 freshly cut1 a protection against
 witches1 #afc    ,soldiers1 ,roman1    
celebration of the ,saturnalia by1 #cjh 
sq4    ,solomon ,islanders1 their       
expulsion of demons1 #aaf    ----       

,islands1 #i    ,solstice1 the winter1  
ceremony after the1 #abg    ,soma1      
worship of1 #ij    ,songs1 liturgical1  
revealed by gods1 #cha    ---- and      
dances1 how they originate1 #cgh sq4    
,sonnenberg1 popular cure for gout in1  
#ef    ,soracte1 ,mount1 #caa           
,sorcerers as protectors against demons1
 #id2    exorcise demons1 #aac          
,soule1 a ball contended for in         
,normandy1 #ahc    ,souls of the dead   
received once a year by their relations1
 #aej sqq4    ,south ,american ,indians1
 #ab1 #bj    ,sow as scapegoat1 #cc     
,sowing1 prayer at1 #ach2    expulsion  
of demons at1 #bbe2    the god of1 #bcb2
    dances at1 #bcd sqq42    ,saturn the
 god of1 #cdf2    in ,italy1 season of  
the spring1 #cdf    ,sown fields1 fire  
applied to1 on ,eve of ,twelfth ,night1 
#caf1 #cah1 #cba    ,spain1 the ,boy    
,bishop in1 #cch    ,spear1 sacred1 #bah
    ,spears used to expel demons1 #aae1 
#aaf    ,spirits1 retreat of the army   
of1 #gb sq42    guardian1 #ih2    good  

and evil1 personated by children1 #aci2 
,festival of ,departed1 #aed            
,spitting as a mode of transferring     
evil1 #c1 #aj1 #aa2    as a mode of     
transferring disease1 #ahg2    at       
ceremony for expulsion of evils1 #bjh   
,spittle as a protection against demons1
 #aah    ,spring1 rites to ensure the   
revival of life in1 #djj    ,squills    
used to beat human scapegoats1 etc41    
#bee sq4    ,star1 the ,morning1        
personated by a man1 #bch2    of        
,bethlehem1 #ccj    ,steele1 ,sir       
,richard1 quoted1 #ccc    ,sternberg1   
,l41 quoted1 #aja sq4    ,sticks1       
fertilizing virtue attributed to        
certain1 #bfd sq4    ---- and stones1   
evils transferred to1 #h sqq42    piled 
on the scene of crimes1 #ac sqq4    ,see
 also ,throwing    ,stinging young      
people with ants and wasps1 custom of1  
#bfc    ,stone-throwing at ,mecca1 rite 
of1 #bd2    in ancient ,greece1 #bd sq4 
,stones heaped up near shrines of       
saints1 #ba2    communion by means of1  

#ba sq42    thrown at demons1 #aca1     
#adf1 #aeb    ---- and sticks1 evil     
transferred to1 #h sqq42    piled on the
 scene of crimes1 #ac sqq4    ,see also 
,throwing    ,stoning1 execution by1 #bd
 n4 #b    ---- human scapegoats1 #bec1  
#bed    ,stopfer1 maskers in            
,switzerland1 #bci    ,stow1 ,john1 on  
,lords of ,misrule1 quoted1 #cca sq4    
,strabo1 on the ,sacaea1 #cee1 #cfi2    
on the worship at ,zela1 #cgj n4 #d2    
on the sanctuary at ,zela1 #dba n4 #a   
,strack1 ,h4 ,l41 #cie n4 #c            
,stratification of religious beliefs    
among the ,malays1 #ij n4 #a    ,straw  
wrapt round fruit-trees as a protection 
against evil spirits1 #afd              
,strehlitz1 in ,silesia1 #aeg           
,strudeli and ,strtteli1 #afe           
,substitutes in human sacrifice1 #cif   
sq41 #djh    ,sucla-,tirtha in ,india1  
expulsion of sins in1 #bjb              
,suffering1 principle of vicarious1 #a  
sq4    ,suffolk cure for ague1 #fh      
,suicides1 ghosts of1 feared1 #ag sq4   

,sukandar river1 #fj    ,sumatra1 the   
,battas or ,bataks of1 #hg1 #bac        
,sun1 appeal to the1 #c2    charm to    
prevent the sun from setting1 #cj n4 #b2
    reappearance of1 in the ,arctic     
regions1 ceremonies at1 #abd sq41 #abe  
n4 #a2    temple of the1 at ,cuzco1     
#abi2    spirit who lives in the1 #ahf2 
hearts of human victims offered to the1 
#bgi1 #bih2    ,mexican story of the    
creation of the1 #daj2    ,syrian custom
 of saluting the rising1 #daf    ----   
-god1 ,christmas1 an old pagan festival 
of the1 #cbh2    the ,egyptian1 #cda    
,sunderland1 cure for cough in1 #eb     
,sntevgel or ,sunnenvgel1 #aei n4 #a    
,superhuman power supposed to be        
acquired by actors in sacred dramas1    
#chb1              #chc                 
,supplementary days of the year1 #aga   
,supreme ,being in ,west ,africa1 #gd   
sq4    ---- ,god of the ,oraons1 #ib sq4
    ,susa1 capital of the ,elamites1    
#cff    ,swabia1 the 8,twelve ,lot      
,days0 in1 #cbb    ,swahili1 the1 of    

,east ,africa1 their ,new ,year's ,day1 
#bbf n4 #a    ,swallow dance1 #cha      
,swallows as scapegoats1 #ce    ,sweden1
 #ad1 #bj1 #bg    ,sweeping misfortune  
out of house with brooms1 #e    ---- out
 the town1 annual ceremony of1 #ace     
,swords used to ward off or expel       
demons1 #aac1 #aah1 #aai1 #abj1 #abc1   
#bjc2    carried by mummers1 #bde       
,syria1 #ag1 #ba2    ,aphrodite and     
,adonis in1 #chf    ,syro-,macedonian   
calendar1 #ceh n4 #a    ,tagbanuas of   
the ,philippines1 their custom of       
sending spirits of disease              
away in little ships1 #ahi    ,tahiti1  
transference of sins in1 #de sq4        
,tahitians1 the1 #hj    ,taigonos       
,peninsula1 #abf    ,taleins1 the1 of   
,burma1 their worship of demons1 #if    
,talmud1 the1 on ,purim1 #cfc           
,tamanachiers1 ,indian tribe of the     
,orinoco1 #cjc    ,tamanawas1 dramatic  
performances of myths1 #cgf1 #cgg       
,tamarisk branches used to beat people  
ceremonially1 #bfc    ,tambaran1 demons1

 #hb1 #hc    ,tammuz1 the lover of      
,ishtar1 #cga1 #cgc2    annual death and
 resurrection of1 #cih2    at           
,jerusalem1 the weeping for1 #djj4      
,see also ,adonis    ---- and ,ishtar1  
#cii1 #djf    ,tanganyika1 ,lake1 #aj   
,tangkhuls of ,assam1 #agg    ,tanjore1 
,rajah of1 #dd    ,taoism1 #ii    ,tar  
to keep out ghosts and witches1 #aec n4 
#a    ---- -barrels burnt1 #afi         
,tarahumares1 the1 of ,mexico1 #aj2     
their dances for the crops1 #bcf sqq4   
,taros1 mode of fertilizing1 #bfd       
,tarsus in ,cilicia1 ,sandan at1 #chh1  
#chi1 #cia1 #cib    ,taupes et ,mulots1 
fire ceremony on ,eve of ,twelfth       
,night1 #cag    ,tavernier1 ,j4 ,b41    
quoted1 #adh n4 #a    ,taylor1 ,rev4 ,j4
 ,c41 quoted1 #acc1 #baa    ,taylor1    
,rev4 ,r41 quoted1 #ha    ,tellemarken  
in ,norway1 #ad    ,telugu remedy for a 
fever1 #ch    ,temple1 ,sir ,richard    
,c41 quoted1 #hh    ,temple1 the ,inner 
and the ,middle1 ,lords of ,misrule in  
the1 #ccc    ---- church1 ,lord of      

,misrule in the1 #ccc    ,temporary     
king1 #djc sq42    in ,siam1 #aea       
,tench as scapegoat1 #eb    ,tenggerese 
of ,java1 their sham fight at ,new      
,year1 #ahd    ,tepehuanes1 the1 of     
,mexico1 #aj    ,teshu ,lama1 the1 #bjc 
---- ,lumbo in ,tibet1 #bjc    ,teso    
people of ,central ,africa1 their use of
 bells to exorcise fiends1 #bdf         
sq4    ,tezcatlipoca1 great ,mexican    
god1 #bgf2    young man annually        
sacrificed in the character of1 #bgf    
sqq4    ,thales on spirits1 #ajd        
,thargelia1 human scapegoats at the     
festival of the1 #bed1 #bee1 #bef1 #beg1
              #bei1 #bgb1 #bgc    ,thay1
 the1 of ,indo-,china1 their worship of 
spirits1 #ig sq4    ,theal1 ,g4         
,mc,call1 on fear of demons1 #gg sq4    
,theckydaw1 expulsion of demons1 #adg   
sq4    ,then1 spirits1 #ig              
,theodosius and ,honorius1 decree of1   
#cib    ,theory of sacrifice1 the       
,brahmanical1 #daj sq4    ,thompson     
,indians of ,british ,columbia1 their   

charms against ghosts1 #aed             
n4    ,thorns1 wreaths of1 #adj         
,thrace1 ,abdera in1 #bed    ,thrashing 
people to do them good1 #bfb sqq4       
,see also ,beating and ,whipping        
,thread1 red1 in popular cure1 #ee      
,three ,kings on ,twelfth ,day1 #cbi    
sqq4    ,threshold protected against    
witches by knives1 #afb2    by sods1    
#afc    ,throwing of sticks or stones   
interpreted as an offering or token of  
respect1 #bj sqq41 #be sqq42    as a    
mode of riddance of evil1 #bc sqq4      
,thule1 ceremony in ,thule at the annual
 reappearance of the sun1 #abe n4 #a    
,thunder1 the first peal heard in       
spring1 #add2    demon of1 exorcised by 
bells1 #bdf sq4    ,thringen1 expulsion 
of witches in1 #afj2    custom of       
beating people on ,holy ,innocents' ,day
 in1 #bga    ,tiamat1 mythical          
,babylonian monster1 #daj    ,tibet1    
demonolatry in1 #id2    human scapegoats
 in1 #bah sqq4    ,tiger-spirits1 #aii  
,tikopia1 island of1 #ahi    ,timbo in  

,french ,guinea1 #bce    ,time1         
personification of periods of1 #bcj     
,timor1 the island of1 #h2    belief in 
the spirits of the dead in1 #he         
,timor fecit deos1 #ic    ,timor-laut   
,islands1 the tug-of-war in the1 #agf2  
demons of sicknesses expelled in a proa 
from1 #ahe sq4    ,tinchebray in        
,normandy1 #ahc    ,tjingilli tribe of  
,central ,australia1 #b                 
,tlacaxipeualiztli1 ,mexican festival1  
#bif    ,tlaloc1 temple of1 in ,mexico1 
#bhd1 #bib    ,tlemcen in ,algeria1 #ca 
,toad as scapegoat1 #aic1 #bjf sq4      
,toboongkoo1 the1 of ,central ,celebes1 
riddles among the1 #aab n4    ,toci1    
,mexican goddess1 #bhi    ,todas1 the1  
of the ,neilgherry ,hills1 #cg          
,togoland1 #c2 the ,hos of1 #acd1 #bjf2 
the negroes of1 their remedy for        
influenza1 #aic    ,tokio1 annual       
expulsion of demons at1 #bac    ,tomb of
 ,moses1 #ba    ,tonan1 ,mexican        
goddess1 #bhg2    woman sacrificed in   
the character of1 #bhg sq4              

,tonocotes4 ,see ,lules    ,tonquin1    
demon of sickness expelled in1 #aai2    
annual expulsion of demons in1 #adg sq4 
,toothache1 cure for1 #f1 #eg1 #eh1 #ei 
sq41 #fb1 #fc1 #ga    ,toradjas1 the1 of
 ,central ,celebes1 #cd2    their cure  
by beating1 #bfe    ,torches used in the
 expulsion of demons1 #aaj1 #aag1 #abj1 
#acj1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc              sq41
 #aci1 #adj1 #adf1 #aeg1 #aga2    used  
in the expulsion of witches1 etc41 #aef1
 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afc1          
#afe1 #aff2    carried in procession by 
maskers1 #bdc2    applied to fruit-trees
 on ,eve of ,twelfth ,night1 #caf sq4   
,torquemada1 ,j4 de1 ,spanish historian 
of ,mexico1 #bgi n4 #a1 #bhf n4 #a1     
#cjj n4 #a    ,totec1 ,mexican god1     
#big1 #bih2    personated by a man      
wearing the skin of a human victim1 #cjj
    ,totonacs1 their worship of the     
corn-spirit1 #bhf n4 #a    ,tototectin1 
men clad in skins of human victims1 #bih
    ,toxcatl1 fifth month of old        
,mexican year1 #adi n4 #b2    ,mexican  

festival1 #bgf    ,trajan1 ,pliny's     
letter to1 #dbj    ,transference of     
evil1 #a sqq42    to other people1 #e   
sqq42    to sticks and stones1 #h sqq42 
to animals1 #ca sqq42    to men1 #ch    
sqq42    in ,europe1 #dg sqq4           
,transformation of animals into men1    
#chj    ,transylvania1 the ,roumanians  
of1 #af1 #ajf sq4    ,travancore1 ,rajah
 of1 #db sq42    demon-worship in1 #id  
,tree1 disease transferred to1 #f2      
use of stick cut from a fruitful1 #bfd  
,trees1 evils transferred to1 #eb1 #ed  
sqq4    ,trieste1 ,st4 ,sylvester's ,eve
 at1 #afe    ,trinity1 the ,batta1 #hh  
n4 #a    ---- ,college1 ,cambridge1     
,lord of ,misrule at1 #ccb              
,trinouxtion1 #cdc n4    ,tripoli1 mode 
of laying ghosts in1 #fc                
,troezenians1 their festival resembling 
the ,saturnalia1 #cej    ,trows in      
,shetland1 #afh sq4    ,trumpets blown  
to expel demons1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aef2      
blown at the feast of ,purim1 #cid      
,tsuina1 expulsion of demons in ,japan1 

#bab sq4    ,tsl1 a ,berber tribe1 #agi 
,tuaran district of ,british ,north     
,borneo1 #bjj    ,tug-of-war as a       
religious or magical rite1 #agc sqq42   
as a charm to produce rain1 #age sq41   
#agh sq4    ,tul-ya's e'en in ,shetland1
 #afh    ,tullus ,hostilius1 #cde n4 #a 
,tumleo1 annual fight in1 #adb sq4      
,tuna1 a spirit1 expulsion of1 #abd sq4 
,tung ak1 a powerful spirit1 #gi1 #hj   
,turkestan1 #de2    ,ferghana in1 #ahd  
,turkish tribes of ,central ,asia1      
riddles among the1 #abb n4    ,turner1  
,l4 ,m41 quoted1 #gi sq4    ,tuscan     
,romagna1 the1 #afg    ,twelfth ,day1   
serious significance of1 #cae2    the   
,three ,kings on1 #cbi sqq4    ,see also
 ,twelfth ,night    ---- ,day1 ,eve of1 
#cah2    expulsion of witches1 etc41 on1
 #aff sq4    ---- ,night1 expulsion of  
the powers of evil on1 #afe sqq42       
dances on1 #bch2    ,perchta's ,day1    
#bdd2    7,epiphany71 the ,king of the  
,bean on1 #cac sqq4    ,see also        
,twelfth ,day    ---- ,night1 ,eve of1  

#caf2    old ,mrs4 ,perchta on1 #bdj1   
#bda2    ceremonial fires on1 #caf sqq4 
,twelve ,days1 weather of the twelve    
months supposed to be determined by the 
weather of the1 #cbb sqq42    in        
,macedonia1 superstitions as to the1    
#cbj2    in ancient ,india1 #cbd sq42   
accounted a miniature of the year1 #cbd2
    in the ,highlands of ,scotland1     
#cbd2    difference of opinion as to the
 date of the1 #cbd1 #cbg2    probably an
 old intercalary period at midwinter1   
#cch sq41 #cdb    ---- ,days from       
,christmas to ,twelfth ,night           
7,epiphany71 precautions against        
witches during the1 #aeh sqq41 #afd sqq4
    ---- ,days or ,twelve ,nights not of
 ,christian origin1 #cbf sqq4    ----   
fires on ,eve of ,twelfth ,day1 #cah    
sq41 #cba sq4    ,two-faced mask worn by
 image of goddess1 #bhg    ,typhon1 the 
birth of1 #cda    ,tyre and ,sidon1 #ag 
,tyrol1 annual 8,burning out of the     
,witches0 in the1 #aei sq42    the      
,perchten in the1 #bdj1 #bdb sq42       

,senseless ,thursday in the1 #bdh       
,uganda ,protectorate1 #f1 #db2         
funeral ceremony in1 #de n1 #b2    human
 scapegoats in1 #aid sq4    ,see also   
,baganda    ,unalashka1 one of the      
,aleutian ,islands1 #af    ,unkareshwar1
 the goddess of cholera at1 #aid        
,unreason1 ,abbot of1 in ,scotland1 #cca
    ,up-helly-a' in ,shetland1 #afh sq4 
,urquhart1 ,sir ,thomas1 quoted1 #ccb   
,usener1 ,h41 #afg n4 #a1 #bbi n4 #b    
,utch ,kurgan1 in ,turkestan1 #de       
,vampyres1 charms against1 #aec n4 #a   
,vashti and ,esther1 temporary queens1  
#dja    ---- and ,haman the duplicates  
of ,esther and ,mordecai1 #djf    ,vedic
 times1 #c2    cure for consumption in1 
#ea2    the creed of the1 #ij2          
riddles in1 #abb n42    the ,aryans of  
the1 #cbd    ,vegetation1 ,mars a deity 
of1 #bbi sq42    out-worn deity of1     
#bca2    processions representing       
spirits of1 #bej    ---- -god1 ,easter  
an old vernal festival of the1 #cbh     
,vehicle1 expulsion of evils in a       

material1 #ahe sqq41 #aih sqq41 #bbd    
,vehicles1 material1 of immaterial      
things 7fear1 misfortune1 disease1      
etc471 #a sqq41 #bb n4 #b1 #bc sqq4     
,venus and ,adonis1 #djf4    ,see also  
,adonis1 ,aphrodite    ,verrall1 ,a4    
,w41 #cia n4 #d    ,vicarious suffering1
 principle of1 #a sq4    ,vienne1 the   
,boy ,bishop at1 #ccg n4 #a             
,vieux-,pont1 in ,orne1 #ahc n4 #c      
,vitzilopochtli1 great ,mexican god1    
#bhj2    young man annually sacrificed  
in the character of1 #bhj sq4           
,vohumano or ,vohu ,manah1 a ,persian   
archangel1 #cgc n4 #a    ,voigtland1    
cure for toothache in1 #ei2    belief in
 witchcraft in1 #afj2    8,easter       
,smacks0 in1 #bfh2    young people beat 
each other at ,christmas in1 #bga       
,vosges1 cure for toothache in the1 #ei 
---- ,mountains1 dances on ,twelfth ,day
 in the1 #cae2    the ,three ,kings of  
,twelfth ,day in the1 #ccj    ,vulsinii 
in ,etruria1 #fg    ,wagogo1 the1 of    
,german ,east ,africa1 #f    ,walpurgis 

,night1 witches abroad on1 #aeh sqq42   
annual expulsion of witches on1 #aei    
sqq42    dances on1 #bch    ,warramunga 
tribe of ,central ,australia1 #b        
,warts1 transference of1 #dh sq42       
popular cures for1 #ed1 #eg             
,washamba1 the1 of ,german ,east        
,africa1 #bi    ,wasps1 stinging people 
with1 #bfc    ,wassailing on ,eve of    
,twelfth ,day1 #cai    ,wax figures in  
magic1 #dg    ,weapons turned against   
spiritual foes1 #bcc    ,weariness      
transferred to stones or sticks1 #h sqq4
    ,weather of the twelve months       
determined by the weather of the ,twelve
 ,days1              #cbb sqq4          
,weber1 ,a41 on origin of the ,twelve   
,days1 #cbe n4 #c    ,weeks1 ,rev4 ,john
 ,h41 quoted1 #gf sq4    ,weights and   
measures1 false1 corrected in time of   
epidemic1 #aae    ,weinhold1 ,k41 #cbg  
n4 #d    ,welsh cure for cough1 #ea     
---- custom of sin-eating1 #dc sq4      
,wendland1 ,p41 on the crucifixion of   
,christ1 #dab sq41 #dah n4 #a    ,wends 

of ,saxony1 their precautions against   
witches1 #afc    ,westermarck1 ,dr4     
,edward1 #ahj    ,westphalia1 #bff      
,westphalian form of the expulsion of   
evil1 #aei n4 #a    ,whale represented  
dramatically as a mystery1 #cgg         
,whipping people to rid them of ghosts1 
#bfj sqq4    ,whips used in the         
expulsion of demons and witches1 #aef1  
#aei1 #afj1 #afa1              #afe1    
#bad2    used by maskers1 #bdc1 #bdd    
,white as a colour to repel demons1 #aae
    ---- and black in relation to human 
scapegoats1 #bbj2    figs worn by human 
scapegoats1 #bec1 #beg1 #bgb    ----    
cock1 disease transferred to1 #ahg2     
as scapegoat1 #baj n4 #d    ---- crosses
 made by the ,king of the ,bean1 #cad   
---- dog1 sacrifice of1 #abg2    as     
scapegoat1 #bji sq4    ---- god and     
black god among the ,slavs1 #ib    ---- 
,nile1 the ,dinkas of the1 #aic         
,whitsuntide1 #cei    ,whydah1 the ,king
 of1 #bcd    ,widow1 bald-headed1 in    
cure1 #ch    ,widows1 cleansing of1 #ce 

sq4    ,wild ,huntsman1 #afd1 #bda      
,willcock1 ,dr4 ,j41 #afi n4 #b         
,william of ,wykeham1 #cch    ,williams1
 ,monier1 quoted1 #ia sq4    ,willow    
used to beat people with at ,easter and 
,christmas1 #bfi1 #bgj    ---- -trees in
 popular remedies1 #ef1 #eh1 #ei        
,willow-wood used against witches1 #afj 
,winchester ,college1 ,boy ,bishop at1  
#cch    ,wind1 charm to produce a rainy 
or dry1 #agf1 #agh sq4                  
,winnowing-basket beaten at ceremony1   
#ade    ,winter1 ceremony at the end of1
 #abd2    dances performed only in1     
#cgf2    ceremony of the expulsion of1  
#djd sq42    effigies of1 destroyed1    
#djh sq4    ---- solstice1 ceremony     
after the1 #abf    ,witch1 fire to burn 
old1 on ,twelfth ,day1 #cai             
,witchcraft in ,scotland1 #ch sq42    on
 the ,congo1 dread of1 #gg n4 #b2       
permanence of the belief in1 #hi2    in 
,moravia1 precautions against1 #afb     
,witches burnt alive1 #ai2    the       
burning out of the1 in the ,tyrol1 #aeh 

sq42    in ,bohemia1 #afa2    in        
,silesia and ,saxony1 #afc2    special  
precautions against1 at certain seasons 
of the year1 #aeg sqq42    annually     
expelled in ,calabria1 ,silesia1 and    
other parts of ,europe1 #aeg            
sqq42    active during the ,twelve ,days
 from ,christmas to ,twelfth ,night1    
#aeh                sqq42    shooting   
the1 #afd2    driving out the1 #afd2    
burnt in ,scotland1 #afe2    beaten with
 buckthorn1 #bff2    rob cows of milk on
 ,may ,day1 #bfg    ,wives of a king    
taken by his successor1 #cfh n4 #a      
,woman's ornaments1 scapegoat decked    
with1 #aib    ,women impregnated by     
ghosts1 #ah2    fertilized by effigy of 
a baby1 #bde1 #bdi2    mode of          
fertilizing1 #bfd2    put to death in   
the character of goddesses in ,mexico1  
#bhc sqq4    ,wood1 ,king of the1 at    
,aricia1 #dji    ,world conceived as    
animated1 #ij sq42    daily created     
afresh by the self-sacrifice of the     
deity1 #daa    ,worship of the dead1    

#ig2    paid to human representatives of
 gods in ,mexico1 #bgh1 #bhb1 #bhi1 #bic
    ,wotyaks of ,russia1 annual         
expulsion of ,satan among the1 #aee sq4 
,wuttke1 ,a41 #cbg n4 #d    ,xerxes     
identified with ,ahasuerus1 #cfj        
,xilonen1 ,mexican goddess of the ,young
 ,maize1 #bhe2    woman annually        
sacrificed in the character of1 #bhe sq4
    ,xipe1 ,mexican god1 #big1 #bih1    
#bii2    statuette of1 #bia n4 #a2      
his festival1 #bif sqq42    his image1  
#big    ,xixipeme1 men clad in skins of 
human victims1 #bih1 #bii    ,yabim of  
,german ,new ,guinea1 their custom of   
sending disease away in a               
small canoe1 #ahh sq4    ,yams1         
ceremonies before eating the new1 #acd  
,year1 burning out the ,old1 #afe1 #bcj 
n4 #g2    the old ,roman1 began in      
,march1 #bbi2    supposed               
representatives of the old1 #bcj4       
,see also ,new ,year    ----1 lunar1 of 
old ,roman calendar1 #bcb2    equated to
 solar year by intercalation1 #cbe1 #cdb

 sq4    ----1 solar1 intercalation of   
the1 #djg n4 #a    ---- -man1 the1 in   
,japan1 #add    ,years named after      
eponymous magistrates1 #ci sq4    ----1 
the ,king of the1 #bbj1 #bba    ,yellow 
the royal colour among the ,malays1 #ahg
    ,yopico1 temple in ,mexico1 #bii    
,york1 the ,boy ,bishop at1 #ccg1 #cch  
,yoruba negroes of ,west ,africa1 their 
use of human scapegoats1 #baa sq4       
,younghusband1 ,sir ,francis1 #ac       
,youth supposed to be renewed by        
sloughing of skin1 #cjb sqq4            
,yucatan1 the ,mayas of1 #aga1 #cdj     
,yukon ,river1 the ,lower1 #chj         
,yules1 the1 in ,shetland1 #afh         
,yumari1 a dance of the ,tarahumare     
,indians1 #bcg sq4    ,zakmuk or        
,zagmuk1 the ,babylonian festival of the
 ,new ,year1 #cef sqq4    ---- and the  
,sacaea1 #cii    ,zambesi1 the river1   
#g1 #aa    ,zela in ,pontus1 ,anaitis   
and the ,sacaea at1 #cgj1 #cgb1 #cgc1   
#dba n4 #a2    ,omanos and ,anadates at1
 #cgc n4 #a    ,zeus1 cake with twelve  

knobs offered to1 #cea2    an upstart at
 ,olympia1 #ceb2    identified with the 
,babylonian ,bel1 #chi    ----1         
,laphystian1 associated with human      
sacrifices1 #ced    ----1 ,lycaean1     
human sacrifices to1 #cec1 #ced    ----1
 ,olympian1 his temple at ,athens1 #cea 
----1 ,pelorian1 #cej    ,zimmern1 ,h41 
#ceh n41 #cei n4 #a1 #cfa n4 #d1 #djf n4
 #b    ,zoganes1 a mock king at         
,babylon1 #cee1 #ceg1 #cfe1 #cfh1 #cfi1 
#chg1 #chh1 #djf    ,zoroaster1 #chi    
,zndel1 ,g41 on demonolatry in ,west    
,africa1 #gd sqq4    ,zuni sacrifice of 
turtle1 #bag              ,,footnotes   
,m#a ,the principle of vicarious        
suffering4     ,m#b ,transference of    
evil to things4 ,evils swept away by    
rivers4        #a ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1  
,de sluik- en kroesharige rassen        
tusschen ,selebes        en ,papua 7,the
 ,hague1 #ahhf71 pp4 #bff sq41 #cje1    
#ceg sq42 compare        id41 pp4 #ada1 
#cdj4        #b ,baldwin ,spencer and   
,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,the ,northern ,tribes 

of ,central        ,australia 7,london1 
#aijd71 p4 #dgd4        #c ,j4 ,pearse1 
8,customs connected with ,death and     
,burial among the        ,sihanaka10    
,the ,antananarivo ,annual and          
,madagascar ,magazine1 vol4        ii41 
,reprint of the ,second four ,numbers   
7,antananarivo1 #ahif71 pp4        #adf 
sq4        #d ,ivan ,petroff1 ,report on
 the ,population1 ,industries1 and      
,resources        of ,alaska1 p4 #aeh4  
#e ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion des   
,veda 7,berlin1 #ahid71 p4 #cbb4        
#f ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme        
7,berlin1 #aijf71 p4 #hjj4        #g    
,pausanias1 vii4 #bc4 #c4        #h ,p4 
,j4 de ,arriaga1 ,extirpacion de la     
,idolatria del ,piru 7,lima1            
#afba71 p4 #bi4       ,m#c ,transference
 of evil to things4        #i ,this ,i  
learned from my friend ,w4 ,robertson   
,smith1 who mentioned as        his     
authority ,david of ,antioch1 ,tazyin1  
in the story 8,orwa40       #aj ,r4     
,andree1 ,ethnographische ,parallele und

 ,vergleiche 7,stuttgart1        #ahgh71
 pp4 #bi sq4       #aa 8,lettre du cur  
de ,santiago ,tepehuacan  son vque sur  
les murs et        coutumes des ,indiens
 soumis  ses soins10 ,bulletin de la    
,socit de        ,gographie 7,paris71   
,deuxime ,srie1 ii4 7#ahcd7 p4 #ahb4    
#ab ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda    
7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #cji sq4          
,m#d ,dyak transference of evil to      
things4       #ac ,c4 ,hupe1 8,korte    
,verhandeling over de ,godsdienst1      
,zeden enz4 der        ,dajakkers10     
,tijdschrift voor ,nerlands ,indi1      
#ahdf1 dl4 iii4 pp4        #adi sq42 ,f4
 ,grabowsky1 8,die ,theogonie der       
,dajaken auf ,borneo10                  
,internationales ,archiv fr             
,ethnographie1 v4 7#ahib7 p4 #aca4      
,m#e ,evils transferred to other persons
 through the medium of things4       #ad
 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines   
7,melbourne1 ,sydney1 and ,adelaide1    
#ahha71 p4 #ei4       #ae ,w4 ,crooke1  
,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of    

,northern ,india        7,westminster1  
#ahif71 i4 #afd sq4       #af ,rev4 ,j4 
,roscoe1 8,the ,bahima1 a ,cow ,tribe of
 ,enkole10 ,journal of the        ,royal
 ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvii4   
7#aijg7 p4 #ajc4       #ag ,rev4 ,j4    
,cole1 8,notes on the ,wagogo of ,german
 ,east ,africa10 ,journal        of the 
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxiii4    
7#aijb7 p4 #cac4       ,m#f ,evils      
transferred to images4 ,mongol          
transference of evil to things4         
#ah ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda    
7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #cdc sq4       #ai
 ,dudley ,kidd1 ,the ,essential ,kafir  
7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #adf4       #bj    
,central ,provinces1 ,ethnographic      
,survey1 iii41 ,draft ,articles on      
,forest ,tribes 7,allahabad1 #aijg71 p4 
#fc4       #ba ,m4 v4 ,beguelin1        
8,religise ,volksbruche der ,mongolen10 
,globus1        lvii4 7#ahij7 pp4 #bji  
sq4       ,m#g ,fatigue transferred to  
stones1 sticks1 or leaves4       #bb ,j4
 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 8,die ,landschaft     

,dawan oder ,west-,timor10 ,deutsche    
geographische ,bltter1 x4 #bca4         
#bc ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik- en  
kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes    
en ,papua 7,the ,hague1 #ahhf71 p4 #cdj4
       #bd ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,d4,d41 
,the ,melanesians 7,oxford1 #ahia71 p4  
#ahf4       ,m#h ,heaps of stones or    
sticks among the ,american ,indians4    
#be ,g4 ,f4 de ,oviedo1 ,histoire du    
,nicaragua 7,paris1 #ahdj71 pp4 #db sq4 
7,ternaux-,compans1 ,voyages1 ,relations
 et ,mmoires originaux1 pour            
servir  l',histoire de la ,dcouverte de 
l',amrique74       #bf ,p4 ,j4 de       
,arriaga1 ,extirpacion de la ,idolatria 
del ,piru 7,lima1        #afba71 pp4    
#cg1 #acj4 ,as to the custom compare ,j4
 ,j4 von ,tschudi1        ,peru 7,st4   
,gallen1 #ahdf71 ii4 #gg sq42 ,h4 ,a4   
,weddell1 ,voyage dans        le ,nord  
de la ,bolivia et dans les parties      
voisines du ,prou 7,paris        and    
,london1 #ahec71 pp4 #gd sq4 ,these     
latter writers interpret the            

stones as offerings4       #bg ,baron   
,e4 ,nordenskild1 8,travels on the      
,boundaries of ,bolivia and             
,argentina10 ,the ,geographical         
,journal1 xxi4 7#aijc7 p4 #eah4         
#bh ,c4 ,lumholtz1 ,unknown ,mexico     
7,london1 #aijc71 ii4 #bhb4       #bi   
,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire des  
,nations civilises du ,mexique        et
 de l',amrique-,centrale 7,paris1       
#aheg-ahei71 ii4 #efd2 compare iii4     
#dhf4 ,indians of ,guatemala1 when they 
cross a pass for the first        time1 
still commonly add a stone to the cairn 
which marks the spot4        ,see ,c4   
,sapper1 8,die ,gebruche und religisen  
,anschauungen der                       
,kekchi-,indianer10 ,internationales    
,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 viii4         
7#ahie7 p4 #aig4       ,m#i ,heaps of   
stones or sticks among the natives of   
,africa4       #cj ,f4 ,f4 ,r4 ,boileau1
 8,the ,nyasa-,tanganyika ,plateau10    
,the ,geographical        ,journal1     
xiii4 7#ahii7 p4 #ehi4 ,in the same     

region ,mr4 ,l4 ,decle        observed  
many trees or rocks on which were placed
 little heaps of        stones or bits  
of wood1 to which in passing each of his
 men added a        fresh stone or bit  
of wood or a tuft of grass4 8,this10    
says ,mr4 ,l4        ,decle1 8is a      
tribute to the spirits1 the general     
precaution to        ensure a safe      
return0 7,three ,years in ,savage       
,africa1 ,london1 #ahih1        p4      
#bhi74 ,a similar practice prevails     
among the ,wanyamwezi 7ibid4        p4  
#cde74 ,compare ,j4 ,a4 ,grant1 ,a ,walk
 across ,africa 7,edinburgh and         
,london1 #ahfd71 pp4 #acc sq4       #ca 
,cowper ,rose1 ,four ,years in ,southern
 ,africa 7,london1 #ahbi71 p4 #adg4     
#cb ,dudley ,kidd1 ,the ,essential      
,kafir 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #bfd4       
,m#aj ,the heaps of stones or sticks    
generally on the tops of mountains or   
passes4       #cc ,s4 ,kay1 ,travels and
 ,researches in ,caffraria 7,london1    
#ahcc71 pp4        #baa sq42 ,rev4 ,h4  

,callaway1 ,religious ,system of the    
,amazulu1 i4        #ff2 ,d4 ,leslie1   
,among the ,zulus and ,amatongas        
7,edinburgh1 #ahge71        pp4 #adf sq4
 ,compare ,h4 ,lichtenstein1 ,reisen im 
sdlichen ,africa        7,berlin1       
#ahaa-ahab71 i4 #daa4       #cd ,w4     
,gowland1 8,dolmens and other           
,antiquities of ,corea10 ,journal of    
the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxiv4  
7#ahie7 pp4 #cbh sq42 ,mrs4             
,bishop1 ,korea and her ,neighbours     
7,london1 #ahih71 i4 #adg1 ii4 #bbc4    
,both writers speak as if the practice  
were to spit on the cairn        rather 
than on the particular stone which the  
traveller adds to it2        indeed1    
,mrs4 ,bishop omits to notice the custom
 of adding to the        cairns4 ,mr4   
,gowland says that almost every         
traveller carries up at        least one
 stone from the valley and lays it on   
the pile4       #ce ,d4 ,forbes1 8,on   
the ,aymara ,indians of ,peru and       
,bolivia10 ,journal of        the       

,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ii4  
7#ahgj7 pp4 #bcg sq42 ,g4 ,c4           
,musters1 8,notes on ,bolivia10 ,journal
 of the ,royal ,geographical            
,society1 xlvii4 7#ahgg7 p4 #baa2 ,t4   
,t4 ,cooper1 ,travels of a ,pioneer     
of ,commerce 7,london1 #ahga71 p4 #bge2 
,j4 ,a4 ,h4 ,louis1 ,the ,gates of      
,thibet1 a ,bird's ,eye ,view of        
,independent ,sikkhim1 ,british         
,bhootan1        and the ,dooars        
7,calcutta1 #ahid71 pp4 #aaa sq42 ,a4   
,bastian1 ,die        ,vlker des        
stlichen ,asien1 ii4 7,leipsic1 #ahff7  
p4 #dhc4 ,so among        the ,mrus of  
,aracan1 every man who crosses a hill1  
on reaching the        crest1 plucks a  
fresh young shoot of grass and lays it  
on a pile of        the withered        
deposits of former travellers 7,t4 ,h4  
,lewin1 ,wild ,races        of          
,south-,eastern ,india1 ,london1 #ahgj1 
pp4 #bcb sq474      ,m#aa ,fatigue let  
out with the blood4       #cf ,a4       
d',orbigny1 ,voyage dans l',amrique     

,mridionale1 ii4 7,paris and            
,strasburg1 #ahci-ahdc7 pp4 #ib sq4     
,m#ab ,piles of stones or sticks on the 
scene of crimes4 ,the ,liar's ,heap4    
#cg 7,sir7 ,f4 ,e4 ,younghusband1 8,a   
,journey across ,central ,asia10        
,proceedings of the ,royal ,geographical
 ,society1 x4 7#ahhh7 p4 #did4       #ch
 ,f4 ,liebrecht1 ,zur ,volkskunde       
7,heilbronn1 #ahgi71 pp4 #bgd sq4       
#ci ,f4 ,liebrecht1 ,zur ,volkskunde1 p4
 #bgd2 ,j4 ,b4 ,holzmayer1 8,osiliana10 
,verhandlungen der gelehrten ,estnischen
 ,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat1        vii4  
7#ahgb7 p4 #gc4       #dj ,spenser ,st4 
,john1 ,life in the ,forests of the ,far
 ,east#b 7,london1        #ahfc71 i4    
#hh4       #da ,e4 ,h4 ,gomes1          
,seventeen ,years among the ,sea ,dyaks 
of ,borneo        7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 
#ff sq4       #db ,ch4 ,hose and ,w4    
,mc,dougall1 ,the ,pagan ,tribes of     
,borneo 7,london1        #aiab71 i4     
#abc4      ,m#ac ,heaps of stones1      
sticks1 or leaves on scenes of murder4  

,heaps of        stones or sticks on    
graves4       #dc ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 8,a  
,batch of ,irish ,folk-lore10           
,folk-lore1 iv4 7#ahic7        pp4 #ceg1
 #cfj2 ,laisnel de la ,salle1 ,croyances
 et ,lgendes du ,centre        de la    
,france 7,paris1 #ahge71 ii4 #ge1 #gg2  
,j4 ,brand1 ,popular                    
,antiquities1 ii4 #cji2                 
,hylten-,cavallius1 quoted by ,f4       
,liebrecht1        ,zur ,volkskunde1 p4 
#bgd2 ,k4 ,haupt1 ,sagenbuch der        
,lausitz        7,leipsic1 #ahfb-ahfc71 
ii4 #fe2 ,k4 ,mllenhoff1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen
 und        ,lieder der ,herzogthmer    
,schleswig1 ,holstein und ,lauenburg    
7,kiel1        #ahde71 p4 #abe2 ,a4     
,kuhn1 ,mrkische ,sagen und ,mrchen     
7,berlin1        #ahdc71 p4 #aac2 ,a4   
,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche  
,sagen1 ,mrchen        und ,gebruche    
7,leipsic1 #ahdh71 p4 #he2 ,a4          
,treichel1 8,reisighufung        und    
,steinhufung an ,mordstellen10 ,am      
,ur-,quelle1 vi4 7#ahif7 p4 #bbj2       

,georgeakis et ,pineau1 ,folk-lore de   
,lesbos1 p4 #cbc2 ,a4 ,leared1          
,morocco and the ,moors 7,london1       
#ahgf71 pp4 #aje sq42 ,e4 ,doutt1       
8,figuig10 ,la ,gographie1 ,bulletin de 
la ,socit de ,gographie        7,paris71
 vii4 7#aijc7 p4 #aig2 id41 ,magie et   
,religion dans        l',afrique du     
,nord 7,algiers1 #aijh71 pp4 #dbd sq42  
,a4 von        ,haxthausen1             
,transkaukasia 7,leipsic1 #ahef71 i4    
#bbb2 ,c4 ,t4 ,wilson1        ,peasant  
,life in the ,holy ,land 7,london1      
#aijf71 p4 #bhe2 ,w4 ,crooke1           
,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of    
,northern ,india 7,westminster1         
#ahif71 i4 #bfg sq42 ,j4 ,bricknell1    
,the ,natural ,history of ,north        
,carolina 7,dublin1 #agcg71 p4 #chj2 ,j4
 ,adair1 ,history of the ,american      
,indians 7,london1 #agge71 p4 #ahd2 ,k4 
,martin1 ,bericht ber eine ,reise       
nach ,nederlandsch ,west-,indien1       
,erster ,theil 7,leyden1 #ahhg71 p4     
#aff2        ,g4 ,c4 ,musters1 8,notes  

on ,bolivia10 ,journal of the ,royal    
,geographical ,society1 xlvii4 7#ahgg7  
p4 #baa2 ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 ,einige      
,eigenthmlichkeiten in den ,festen und  
,gewohnheiten der ,makassaren        und
 ,bginesen1 p4 #be 7separate reprint    
from ,travaux de la #f;e        ,session
 du ,congrs ,international des          
,orientalistes  ,leide1 vol4            
ii472 ,r4 ,a4 ,cruise1 ,journal of a    
,ten ,months' ,residence in ,new        
,zealand 7,london1 #ahbc71 p4 #ahf4     
#dd ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the     
,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 
,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 iii4 
#ej4       #de ,captain ,james ,cook1   
,voyages 7,london1 #ahji71 vi4 #dgi4    
#df ,e4 ,gerard1 ,the ,land beyond the  
,forest 7,edinburgh and ,london1        
#ahhh71 i4 #caa1 #cah4       #dg ,h4    
,lichtenstein1 ,reisen im ,sdlichen     
,africa 7,berlin1 #ahaa-ahab71        i4
 #cdi sq42 ,sir ,james ,e4 ,alexander1  
,expedition of ,discovery into          
the ,interior of ,africa 7,london1      

#ahch71 i4 #aff2 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1    
,lake ,ngami1 ,second ,edition 7,london1
 #ahef71 p4 #cbg2 ,w4 ,h4 ,i4 ,bleek1   
,reynard the ,fox in ,south ,africa     
7,london1 #ahfd71 p4 #gf2 ,th4 ,hahn1   
,tsuni-,goam1 the ,supreme ,being of the
 ,khoi-,khoi 7,london1 #ahha71 p4       
#ef4 ,compare ,the ,dying ,god1 p4 #c4  
#dh ,th4 ,hahn1 8,die ,buschmnner10     
,globus1 xviii4 #ada4       #di ,th4    
,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 
ii4 7,leipsic1 #ahfj7 p4        #aie1   
referring to ,raffenel1 ,nouveau ,voyage
 dans le pays des ngres        7,paris1 
#ahef71 i4 #ic sq4       #ej ,eijb      
,abla1 8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss         
aberglubischer ,gebruche in             
,syrien10 ,zeitschrift des ,deutschen   
,palaestina-,vereins1 vii4 7#ahhd7      
p4 #ajb4       #ea ,note by ,g4 ,p4     
,badger1 on ,the ,travels of ,ludovico  
di ,varthema1        translated by ,j4  
,w4 ,jones 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahfc71  
p4 #de4 ,for more        evidence of the
 custom in ,syria see ,w4 ,m4 ,thomson1 

,the ,land and the        ,book         
7,london1 #ahei71 p4 #dij2 ,f4          
,sessions1 8,some ,syrian ,folklore     
,notes10 ,folk-lore1 ix4 7#ahih7 p4 #ae2
 ,a4 ,jaussen1 ,coutumes des            
,arabes au pays de ,moab 7,paris1       
#aijh71 p4 #ccf4      ,m#ad ,stones and 
sticks hurled as missiles at dangerous  
ghosts and demons4        ,missiles to  
ward off dangerous ghosts4       #eb ,a4
 ,treichel1 8,reisig- und ,steinhufung  
bei ,ermordeten oder                    
,selbstmrdern10 ,verhandlungen der      
,berliner ,gesellschaft fr              
,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie und         
,urgeschichte1 #ahhh1 p4 7#efi7 7bound  
up with ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xx4
 #ahhh74       #ec ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1   
,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #bj 
sq41 #df        sq41 #abd sq41 #abf sq41
 #bhi sq4 ,stones are not mentioned     
among the missiles hurled at ghosts1    
probably because stones are             
scarce in ,uganda4 ,see ,j4 ,roscoe1 op4
 cit4 p4 #e4       #ed ,father ,finaz1  

,s4,j41 in ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 
vii4 7#ahge7 p4        #cbh4       #ee  
8,der ,muata ,cazembe und die           
,vlkerstmme der ,maraves1 ,chevas1      
,muembas1 ,lundas1 und andere von       
,sd-,afrika10 ,zeitschrift fr           
allgemeine ,erdkunde1 vi4 7#ahef7 p4    
#bhg4       #ef ,journal of the ,asiatic
 ,society of ,bengal1 lxxii4 ,part iii4 
7,calcutta1 #aijd7 p4 #hg4       #eg ,a4
 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,in ,centraal ,borneo
 7,leyden1 #aijj71 i4 #adf4       #eh   
,euripides1 ,electra1 #cbg sq4       #ei
 ,propertius1 v4 #e4 #gg sq4      ,m#ae 
,but the stones and sticks thrown on    
heaps cannot always be explained        
as missiles discharged at spiritual     
foes4 ,cairns raised in honour of       
,moslem saints4       #fj ,m4 ,merker1  
,die ,masai 7,berlin1 #aijd71 p4 #aic4  
#fa ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,masai        
7,oxford1 #aije71 pp4 #cje sq4       #fb
 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 ,travels in various   
,countries of ,europe and ,asia1 vi4    
7,london1 #ahbc7 p4 #afe4       #fc ,w4 

,h4 ,d4 ,rouse1 8,notes from ,syria10   
,folk-lore1 vi4 7#ahie7 p4 #agc4        
,compare ,f4 ,sessions1 8,some ,syrian  
,folklore ,notes1 gathered on ,mount    
,lebanon10 ,folk-lore1 ix4 7#ahih7 p4   
#ae4       #fd ,e4 ,doutt1 ,magie et    
,religion dans l' ,afrique du ,nord     
7,algiers1        #aijh71 pp4 #dbj-dbb4 
,m#af ,stones as channels of            
communication with saints1 living or    
dead4       #fe ,e4 ,doutt1 ,magie et   
,religion dans l',afrique du ,nord1 p4  
#ddj1        quoting ,de ,sgonzac1      
,voyage au ,maroc1 p4 #hb4       #ff ,i 
follow the exposition of ,e4 ,doutt1    
whose account of the sanctity        or 
magical influence 7baraka7 ascribed to  
the persons of living        ,mohammedan
 saints 7marabouts7 is very instructive4
 ,see his ,magie et        ,religion    
dans l',afrique du ,nord1 pp4 #dch sqq4 
,mr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,hartland        had       
previously explained the custom of      
throwing stones and sticks on           
cairns as acts of ceremonial union with 

the spirit who is supposed        to    
reside in the cairn4 ,see his ,legend of
 ,perseus1 ii4 7,london1        #ahie7  
p4 #abh4 ,while this theory offers a    
plausible explanation of        some    
cases of the custom1 ,i do not think    
that it will cover them        all4 ,m4 
,ren ,dussaud argues that the stones    
deposited at shrines of        holy men 
are simply material embodiments of the  
prayers which at the        same time   
the suppliants address to the saints2   
and he holds that        the practice of
 depositing stones at such places rests 
on a        principle entirely different
 from that of throwing stones for the   
purpose of repelling evil spirits4 ,see 
,ren ,dussaud1 8,la                     
matrialisation de la prire en ,orient10 
,bulletins et ,mmoires de        la     
,socit d' ,anthropologie de ,paris1 ,v4 
,srie1 vii4 7#aijf7 pp4        #bac-bbj4
 ,if ,i am right1 the fundamental idea  
in these customs is        neither that 
the stones or sticks are offerings      

presented to good        spirits nor    
that they are missiles hurled at bad    
ones1 but that they        embody the   
evil1 whether disease1 misfortune1 fear1
 horror1 or what        not1 of which   
the person attempts to rid himself by   
transferring it        to a material    
vehicle4 ,but ,i am far from confident  
that this        explanation applies to 
all cases4 ,in particular it is         
difficult to        reconcile it with   
the custom1 described in the text1 of   
throwing a        marked stone at a holy
 man and then recovering it4 ,are we to 
suppose        that the stone carries   
away the evil to the good man and brings
 back        his blessing instead8 ,the 
idea is perhaps too subtle and          
far-fetched4          ,the word baraka1 
which in ,north ,africa describes the   
powerful and        in general          
beneficent1 yet dangerous1 influence    
which emanates from        holy persons 
and things1 is no doubt identical with  
the ,hebrew        brakhah 77           

8blessing40 ,the importance which the   
ancient        ,hebrews ascribed to the 
blessing or the curse of a holy man is  
familiar to us from many passages in the
 ,old ,testament4 ,see1 for             
example1 ,genesis xxvii41 xlviii4 #h    
sqq42 ,deuteronomy xxvii4 #aa           
sqq41 xxviii4 #a sqq4      ,m#ag ,the   
rite of throwing sticks or stones is    
perhaps best explained as a        mode 
of purification1 the evil being thought 
to be embodied in the        missile    
which is thrown away4       #fg ,e4     
,doutt1 ,magie et ,religion dans        
l',afrique du ,nord 7,algiers1          
#aijh71 pp4 #dcj sq42 ,j4 ,wellhausen1  
,reste arabischen ,heidentums#b         
7,berlin1 #ahig71 p4 #aaa4 ,the         
explanation given in the text is        
regarded as probable by ,professor ,m4  
,j4 de ,goeje 7,internationales         
,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 xvi4 1#aijd1  
p4 #db47      ,m#ah ,this interpretation
 of stone-throwing agrees with ancient  
,greek and        ,indian tradition and 

custom4       #fh ,etymologicum ,magnum1
 s4v4 1 pp4 #cge sq42 ,eustathius on    
,homer1 ,odyssey1 xvi4 #dga4 ,as to the 
heaps of stones see ,cornutus1          
,theologiae ,graecae ,compendium1 #af2  
,babrius1 ,fabulae1 xlviii4 #a          
sq42 ,suidas1 s4v4 2 ,scholiast on      
,nicander1 ,ther4 #aej2        ,m4 ,p4  
,nilsson1 ,griechische ,feste 7,leipsic1
 #aijf71 pp4 #chh sqq4        ,the      
method of execution by stoning may      
perhaps have been resorted to        in 
order to avoid the pollution which would
 be entailed by contact        with the 
guilty and dying man4       #fi ,plato1 
,laws1 ix4 #ab1 p4 #hgc ,a-,c           
4       #gj ,satapatha ,brahmana1 ix4   
#a4 #b4 #i-ab1 ,part iv4 p4 #aga of ,j4 
,eggeling's translation 7,sacred ,books 
of the ,east1 vol4 xliii41              
,oxford1 #ahig74 ,as to ,nirriti1 the   
,goddess of ,destruction1 see ,h4       
,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion des ,veda    
7,berlin1 #ahid71 pp4 #cbc1 #cea1       
#ced1 #dhi note #c4      ,m#ai ,the     

throwing of sticks or stones on piles is
 sometimes explained as        a        
sacrifice4 ,certainly the throwing of   
stones is sometimes        accompanied  
by sacrifices4 ,heaps of sticks at the  
fords of rivers in        ,africa4      
#ga ,see1 for example1 ,o4 ,baumann1    
,durch ,massailand zur ,nilquelle       
7,berlin1 #ahid71 p4 #bad2 ,g4 ,m4      
,dawson1 8,notes on the ,shuswap ,people
        of ,british ,columbia10         
,transactions of the ,royal ,society of 
,canada1        ix4 7#ahia7 section ii4 
p4 #ch2 ,f4 ,liebrecht1 ,zur ,volkskunde
        7,heilbronn1 #ahgi71 pp4 #bfg   
sq41 #bgc sq41 #bgf1 #bgh sq42 ,r4      
,andree1 ,ethnographische ,parallelen   
und ,vergleiche 7,stuttgart1            
#ahgh71 p4 #dh2 ,catat1 in ,le ,tour du 
,monde1 lxv4 7#ahic71 p4 #dj4 ,some     
of these writers have made a special    
study of the practices in               
question4 ,see ,f4 ,liebrecht1 8,die    
geworfenen ,steine10 ,zur               
,volkskunde1 pp4 #bfg-bhd2 ,r4 ,andree1 

8,steinhaufen10 ,ethnographische        
,parallelen und ,vergleiche1 pp4 #df-eh2
 ,e4 ,s4 ,hartland1 ,the ,legend        
of ,perseus1 ii4 7,london1 #ahie7 pp4   
#bjd sqq42 ,e4 ,doutt1 ,magie et        
,religion dans l',afrique du ,nord      
7,algiers1 #aijh71 pp4 #dai sqq4        
,with the views of the last of these    
writers ,i am in general                
agreement4       #gb ,however1 at the   
waterfall of ,kriml1 in the ,tyrol1 it  
is customary        for every passer-by 
to throw a stone into the water2 and    
this        attention is said to put the
 water-spirits in high good humour2 for 
they follow the wayfarer who has        
complied with the custom and guard      
him from all the perils of the dangerous
 path4 ,see ,f4 ,panzer1        ,beitrag
 zur deutschen ,mythologie 7,munich1    
#ahdh-ahee71 ii4 #bcf        sq4        
#gc ,j4 ,a4 ,h4 ,louis1 ,the ,gates of  
,thibet1 ,second ,edition 7,calcutta1   
#ahid71 pp4 #aaa sq4       #gd ,l4 ,a4  
,waddell1 ,among the ,himalayas         

7,westminster1 #ahii71 pp4 #aae1        
#ahh4       #ge ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1
 ,histoire des nations civilises du     
,mexique        et de                   
l',amrique-,centrale1 ii4 #efd4         
#gf ,c4 ,sapper1 8,die ,gebruche und    
religisen ,anschauungen der             
,kekch-,indianer10 ,internationales     
,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 viii4         
7#ahie7 pp4 #aig sq4       #gg ,d4      
,forbes1 8,on the ,aymara ,indians of   
,bolivia and ,peru10 ,journal of        
the ,ethnological ,society of ,london1  
ii4 7#ahgj7 pp4 #bcg sq42 ,g4 ,c4       
,musters1 8,notes on ,bolivia10 ,journal
 of the ,royal ,geographical            
,society1 xlvii4 7#ahgg7 p4 #baa2 ,baron
 ,e4 ,nordenskild1 8,travels on         
the ,boundaries of ,bolivia and         
,argentina10 ,the ,geographical         
,journal1 xxi4 7#aijc7 p4 #eah4         
#gh ,p4 ,j4 de ,arriaga1 ,extirpacion de
 la ,idolatria del ,piru 7,lima1        
#afba71 pp4 #cg1 #acj4       #gi ,f4    
,liebrecht1 ,zur ,volkskunde1 p4 #bgd2  

,brett1 8,dans la ,core                 
,septentrionale10 ,les ,missions        
,catholiques1 xxxi4 7#ahii7 p4 #bcg4    
#hj ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and 
,folk-lore of ,northern ,india          
7,westminster1 #ahif71 i4 #aae4 8,in    
some parts of ,bilaspore there may      
be seen heaps of stones1 which are known
 as kuriy1 from the word        kurhon1 
meaning to heap or pile-up4 ,just how   
and why the practice        was started 
the people cannot explain2 but to this  
day every one who        passes a kuriy 
will take up a stone and throw it on the
 pile4        ,this1 they say1 has been 
done as long as they can remember0 7,e4 
,m4        ,gordon1 ,indian ,folk       
,tales1 ,london1 #aijh1 p4 #ad74        
#ha ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and 
,folk-lore of ,northern ,india          
7,westminster1 #ahif71 i4 #bfg sq4      
#hb ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda    
7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #afc4       #hc ,p4
 ,amaury ,talbot1 ,in the ,shadow of the
 ,bush 7,london1 #aiab71 p4        #bdb4

 ,as to the goddess ,nimm1 see id41 pp4 
#b sq4       #hd ,p4 ,amaury ,talbot1   
op4 cit4 p4 #ia4       #he ,a4 ,karasek1
 8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der           
,waschambaa10        ,baessler-,archiv1 
i4 7#aiaa7 p4 #aid4       #hf ,m4       
,martin1 8,a ,description of the        
,western ,islands of ,scotland10 in     
,john ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels
 7,london1 #ahjh-ahad71 iii4            
#fia4      ,m#bj ,the throwing of stones
 and sticks is sometimes accompanied by 
prayers4 ,gradual transformation of an  
old magical ceremony into a             
religious rite4       #hg ,e4 ,aymonier1
 ,notes sur le ,laos 7,saigon1 #ahhe71  
p4 #aih4       #hh ,e4 ,t4 ,atkinson1   
,the ,himalayan ,districts of the       
,north-,western        ,provinces of    
,india1 ii4 7,allahabad1 #ahhd7 p4 #hcb4
       #hi ,t4 ,t4 ,cooper1 ,travels of 
a ,pioneer of ,commerce 7,london1       
#ahga71 p4        #bge4 ,compare ,w4 ,w4
 ,rockhill1 ,the ,land of the ,lamas    
7,london1 #ahia71        pp4 #abf sq4   

#ij ,rev4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 8,manners1    
,customs1 ,superstitions1 and ,religions
        of ,south ,african ,tribes10    
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xx4 7#ahia7 p4 #abf4        
#ia ,sir ,james ,e4 ,alexander1         
,expedition of ,discovery into the      
,interior        of ,africa 7,london1   
#ahch71 i4 #aff4       #ib ,s4 ,kay1    
,travels and ,researches in ,caffraria  
7,london1 #ahcc71 pp4        #baa sq4   
,when the ,bishop of ,capetown once     
passed a heap of stones        on the   
top of a mountain in the ,amapondo      
country he was told that        8it was 
customary for every traveller to add one
 to the heap that it        might have a
 favourable influence on his journey1   
and enable him to        arrive at some 
kraal while the pot is yet boiling0 7,j4
 ,shooter1 ,the        ,kaffirs of      
,natal1 ,london1 #aheg1 p4 #bag74 ,here 
there is no mention        of a prayer4 
,similarly a ,basuto on a journey1 when 
he fears that the        friend with    

whom he is going to stay may have eaten 
up all the food        before his       
guest's arrival1 places a stone on a    
cairn to avert the        danger 7,e4   
,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 ,london1 #ahfa1
 p4 #bgb74 ,the reason        alleged   
for the practice in these cases is      
perhaps equivalent to the        one    
assigned by the ,melanesians and others2
 by ridding the traveller        of his 
fatigue it enables him to journey faster
 and so to reach his        destination 
before supper is over4 ,but sometimes a 
travelling        ,mowenda will place a 
stone1 not on a cairn1 but in the fork  
of a        tree1 saying1 8,may the sun 
not set before ,i reach my destination40
        ,see ,rev4 ,e4 ,gottschling1    
8,the ,bawenda10 ,journal of the        
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxv4      
7#aije7 p4 #cha4 ,this last custom is   
a charm to prevent the sun from setting4
 ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the          
,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #cah4 ,in      
,senegal the custom of throwing         

stones on cairns by the wayside is said 
to be observed 8in order to             
ensure a speedy and prosperous return40 
,see ,dr4 ,bellamy1 8,notes             
ethnographiques recueillies dans le     
,haut-,sngal10 ,revue d'                
,ethnographie1 v4 7#ahhf7 p4 #hc4 ,in   
the ,fan country of ,west ,africa       
the custom of adding a leafy branch to a
 heap of such branches in        the    
forest was explained by a native1 who   
said that it was done to        prevent 
the trees and branches from falling on  
the traveller's head1        and their  
roots from wounding his feet4 ,see      
,father ,trilles1 8,mille        lieues 
dans l'inconnu10 ,les ,missions         
,catholiques1 xxxiv4 7#aijb7 p4         
#adb4       #ic ,th4 ,hahn1 8,die       
,buschmnner10 ,globus1 xviii4 #ada4 ,as 
to the cairn        in question1 see    
above1 p4 #af4      ,m#ba ,evils        
transferred to animals in ,africa4      
#id ,j4 ,smith1 ,trade and ,travels in  
the ,gulph of ,guinea 7,london1 #ahea71 

p4 #gg4       #ie ,o4 ,dapper1          
,description de l',afrique 7,amsterdam1 
#afhf71 p4 #aag4       #if ,a4 ,leared1 
,morocco and the ,moors 7,london1       
#ahgf71 p4 #cja4 ,compare        ,e4    
,doutt1 ,magie et ,religion dans        
l',afrique du ,nord 7,algiers1          
#aijh71 p4 #ded4       #ig ,e4 ,doutt1  
op4 cit4 pp4 #ded sq4       #ih ,dudley 
,kidd1 ,the ,essential ,kafir 7,london1 
#aijd71 p4 #bfa4       #ii ,rev4 ,john  
,campbell1 ,travels in ,south ,africa   
7,london1 #ahbb71 ii4        #bjg sq4   
#ajj ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda   
7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #cdb sq4      #aja
 ,p4 ,cayzac1 8,la religion des         
,kikuyu10 ,anthropos1 v4 7#aiaj7 p4     
#caa4      #ajb ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 8,the
 ,bahima1 a ,cow ,tribe of ,enkole10    
,journal of the        ,royal           
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvii4    
7#aijg7 p4 #aaa4      ,m#bb ,evils      
transferred to animals in various parts 
of the world4      #ajc ,dr4 ,r4 ,f4    
,kaindl1 8,zauberglaube bei den         

,huzulen10 ,globus1 lxxvi4              
7#ahii7 p4 #bed4      #ajd ,j4          
,goldziher1 ,muhammedanische ,studien   
7,halle a4 ,s41 #ahhh-ahij71 i4         
#cd4      #aje ,e4 ,diguet1 ,les        
,annamites 7,paris1 #aijf71 pp4 #bhc sq4
      #ajf ,w4 ,mller1 8ber die         
,wildenstmme der ,insel ,formosa10      
,zeitschrift        fr ,ethnologie1     
xlii4 7#aiaj7 p4 #bcg4 ,the writer's use
 of the        pronoun 7sie7 is         
ambiguous4      #ajg ,father ,e4 ,amat1 
in ,annales de la ,propagation de la    
,foi1 lxx4        7#ahih7 pp4 #bff sq4  
,m#bc ,vehicles for the transference of 
evils in ,madagascar4      #ajh ,rev4   
,w4 ,ellis1 ,history of ,madagascar     
7,london1 ,n4,d471 i4 #dbb sq42         
compare id41 pp4 #bcb1 #dce1 #dcf sq42  
,rev4 ,j4 ,sibree1 ,the ,great          
,african ,island 7,london1 #ahhj71 pp4  
#cjc sq4 ,as to divination by        the
 sikidy1 see ,j4 ,sibree1 8,divination  
among the ,malagasy10        ,folk-lore1
 iii4 7#ahib7 pp4 #aic-bbf4      #aji   

,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cgd2 ,j4       
,sibree1 ,the ,great ,african ,island1  
p4 #cjd2 ,j4 ,cameron1 in ,antananarivo 
,annual and ,madagascar ,magazine1      
,reprint of the ,first ,four ,numbers   
7,antananarivo1 #ahhe71 p4 #bfc4        
,m#bd ,extraction of kleptomania by     
spiders and crabs4 ,evils transferred to
        birds1 which fly away with them4
      #aaj ,n4 ,adriani en ,alb4 ,c4    
,kruijt1 ,de ,bare'e-sprekende          
,toradja's van        ,midden-,celebes1 
i4 7,batavia1 #aiab7 p4 #cii4      #aaa 
,w4 ,kdding1 8,die ,batakschen ,gtter10 
,allgemeine                             
,missions-,zeitschrift1 xii4 7#ahhe7 p4 
#dgh2 ,dr4 ,r4 ,rmer1 8,bijdrage        
tot de ,geneeskunst der ,karo-,batak's10
 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische            
,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 l4       
7#aijh7 p4 #bbc4      #aab ,w4 ,e4      
,maxwell1 8,the ,folklore of the        
,malays10 ,journal of the ,straits      
,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1
 ,no4 #g 7,june1 #ahha71 p4 #bg2 ,w4    

,w4 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic 7,london1     
#aijj71 pp4 #ecd sq4      #aac ,dio     
,chrysostom1 ,orat4 liii4 vol4 ii4 pp4  
#afd sq4 ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf               
7,leipsic1 #aheg74 ,compare ,plato1     
,republic1 iii4 #i1 p4 #cih ,a1 who     
ironically proposes to dismiss poets    
from his ideal state in the        same 
manner4 ,these passages of ,plato and   
,dio ,chrysostom were pointed        out
 to me by my friend ,professor ,henry   
,jackson4 ,there was a ,greek           
saying1 attributed to ,pythagoras1 that 
swallows should not be        allowed to
 enter a house 7,plutarch1 ,quaest4     
,conviv4 viii4 #g1 #a74      #aad ,dr4  
,r4 ,f4 ,kaindl1 8,zauberglaube bei den 
,huzulen10 ,globus1 lxxvi4              
7#ahii7 pp4 #bee sq4      #aae          
,leviticus xiv4 #g1 #ec4      #aaf ,j4  
,wellhausen1 ,reste arabischen          
,heidentumes 7,berlin1 #ahhg71 p4       
#aef2 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion  
of the ,semites1 ,new ,edition          
7,london1 #ahid71 pp4 #dbb1 #dbh4       

,m#be ,evils transferred to animals in  
,india4      #aag ,w4 ,crooke1 ,tribes  
and ,castes of the ,north-,western      
,provinces and        ,oudh 7,calcutta1 
#ahif71 iii4 #dcd4      #aah ,e4        
,thurston1 ,castes and ,tribes of       
,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aiji71      
i4 #aac-aag2 id41 ,ethnographic ,notes  
in ,southern ,india 7,madras1           
#aijf71 pp4 #aib-aif2 ,captain ,h4      
,harkness1 ,description of a ,singular  
,aboriginal ,race inhabiting the ,summit
 of the ,neilgherry ,hills              
7,london1 #ahcb71 p4 #acc2 ,f4 ,metz1   
,the ,tribes inhabiting the             
,neilgherry ,hills1 ,second ,edition    
7,mangalore1 #ahfd71 p4 #gh2 ,jagor1    
8,ueber die ,badagas im                 
,nilgiri-,gebirge10 ,verhandlungen der  
,berliner        ,gesellschaft fr       
,anthropologie 7#ahgf71 pp4 #aif sq4 ,at
 the ,badaga        funerals witnessed  
by ,mr4 ,e4 ,thurston 8no calf was      
brought near the        corpse1 and the 
celebrants of the rites were satisfied  

with the mere        mention by name of 
a calf1 which is male or female         
according to the        sex of the      
deceased40      #aai ,h4 ,harkness1 l4c4
      #abj ,j4 ,w4 ,breeks1 ,an ,account
 of the ,primitive ,tribes and          
,monuments of        the ,nlagiris      
7,london1 #ahgc71 pp4 #bc sq42 ,w4 ,h4  
,r4 ,rivers1 ,the        ,todas         
7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #cgf sq4      #aba
 ,e4 ,t4 ,atkinson1 ,the ,himalayan     
,districts of the ,north-,western       
,provinces of ,india1 ii4 7,allahabad1  
#ahhd7 pp4 #ibg sq4 ,in other           
parts of ,north-,western ,india on the  
eleventh day after a death a        bull
 calf is let loose with a trident       
branded on its shoulder or              
quarter 8to become a pest40 ,see 7,sir7 
,denzil ,c4 ,j4 ,ibbetson1 ,report      
on the ,revision of ,settlement of the  
,panipat ,tahsil and ,karnal            
,parganah of the ,karnal ,district      
7,allahabad1 #ahhc71 p4 #acg4 ,in       
,behar1 a district of ,bengal1 a bullock

 is also let loose on the               
eleventh day of mourning for a near     
relative4 ,see ,g4 ,a4 ,grierson1       
,bihr ,peasant ,life 7,calcutta1 #ahhe71
 p4 #dji4      ,m#bf ,evils transferred 
to human beings in ,india and elsewhere4
      #abb ,w4 ,caland1 ,altindisches   
,zauberritual 7,amsterdam1 #aijj71 p4   
#hc2        ,hymns of the               
,atharva-,veda1 translated by ,maurice  
,bloomfield        7,oxford1 #ahig71 pp4
 #cjh sq4 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 
vol4        xlii474      #abc ,m4 ,n4   
,venketswami1 8,telugu ,superstitions10 
,the ,indian ,antiquary1        xxiv4   
7#ahie7 p4 #cei4      #abd ,a4          
,grnwedel1 8,sinhalesische ,masken10    
,internationales ,archiv fr             
,ethnographie1 vi4 7#ahic7 pp4 #he sq4  
#abe ,j4 ,g4 ,dalyell1 ,darker          
,superstitions of ,scotland 7,edinburgh1
 #ahcd71        pp4 #ajd sq4 ,i have    
modernised the spelling4      #abf ,j4  
,perham1 8,sea ,dyak ,religion10        
,journal of the ,straits ,branch of     

the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #aj  
7,december #ahhb71 p4 #bcb4      ,m#bg  
,sins and misfortunes transferred to    
human scapegoats in ,new ,zealand       
and ,manipur4 ,annual eponyms in        
,manipur4 ,eponymous magistrates as     
public scapegoats4      #abg ,rev4      
,richard ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 or 
,new ,zealand and its                   
,inhabitants1 ,second ,edition 7,london1
 #ahgj71 p4 #aja4      #abh ,t4 ,c4     
,hodson1 8,the ,native ,tribes of       
,manipur10 ,journal of the              
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxi4      
7#aija7 p4 #cjb2 id41 ,the              
,meitheis 7,london1 #aijh71 pp4 #ajf sq4
      #abi ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1 8,the       
,native ,tribes of ,manipur10 ,journal  
of the        ,anthropological          
,institute1 xxxi4 7#aija7 p4 #cjb4      
#acj ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1 ,the ,meitheis    
7,london1 #aijh71 pp4 #ajd-ajf4         
#aca ,compare ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #aaf
 sq4      ,m#bh ,indian story of the    
transference of sins to a holy man4     

#acb ,the ,jataha or ,stories of the    
,buddha's former ,births1 vol4 v41      
translated by ,h4 ,t4 ,francis          
7,cambridge1 #aije71 pp4 #ga sq4        
,m#bi ,transference of evils to human   
scapegoats in ,uganda4      #acc ,rev4  
,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1    
#aiaa71 p4 #cdb4      ,m#cj             
,transference of sins to a ,brahman in  
,travancore4 ,transference of           
sins to a ,sin-eater in ,england4       
#acd ,rev4 ,s4 ,mateer1 ,native ,life in
 ,travancore 7,london1 #ahhc71 p4 #acf4 
#ace ,j4 ,aubrey1 ,remaines of          
,gentilisme and ,judaisme 7,folk-lore   
,society1        ,london1 #ahha71 pp4   
#ce sq4      #acf ,bagford's letter in  
,leland's ,collectanea1 i4 #gf1 quoted  
by ,j4        ,brand1 ,popular          
,antiquities1 ii4 #bdf sq41 ,bohn's     
edition 7,london1        #ahhb-ahhc74   
#acg ,in ,the ,academy1 #acth ,nov4     
#ahge1 p4 #eje1 ,mr4 ,d4 ,silvan ,evans 
stated        that he knew of no such   
custom anywhere in ,wales2 and the      

custom        seems to be now quite     
unknown in ,shropshire4 ,see ,c4 ,s4    
,burne and ,g4        ,f4 ,jackson1     
,shropshire ,folk-lore 7,london1 #ahhc71
 pp4 #cjg sq4      #ach ,the authority  
for the statement is a ,mr4 ,moggridge1 
reported in        ,archaeologia        
,cambrensis1 second series1 iii4 #ccj4  
,but ,mr4        ,moggridge did not     
speak from personal knowledge1 and as he
 appears        to have taken it for    
granted that the practice of placing    
bread and        salt upon the breast of
 a corpse was a survival of the custom  
of        8sin-eating10 his evidence    
must be received with caution4 ,he      
repeated his statement1 in somewhat     
vaguer terms1 at a meeting of        the
 ,anthropological ,institute1 #adth     
,december #ahge4 ,see ,journal of       
the ,anthropological ,institute1 v4     
7#ahgf7 pp4 #dbc sq4      ,m#ca         
,transference of sins to a sin-eater in 
,india4      #aci ,j4 ,a4 ,dubois1 ,murs
 des ,peuples de l',inde 7,paris1       

#ahbe71 ii4 #cb        sq4      #adj ,r4
 ,richardson1 in ,panjab ,notes and     
,queries1 i4 p4 #hf1  #fgd 7,may1       
#ahhd74      #ada ,panjab ,notes and    
,queries1 i4 p4 #hf1  #fgd1 ii4 p4 #ic1 
#eei        7,march1 #ahhe74 ,some of   
these customs have been already referred
 to        in a different connexion4    
,see ,the ,dying ,god1 p4 #aed4 ,in     
,uganda the        eldest son used to   
perform a funeral ceremony1 which       
consisted in        chewing some seeds  
which he took with his lips from the    
hand of his        dead father2 some of 
these seeds he then blew over the corpse
 and        the rest over one of the    
childless widows who thereafter became  
his        wife4 ,the meaning of the    
ceremony is obscure4 ,the eldest son in 
,uganda never inherited his father's    
property4 ,see the ,rev4 ,j4            
,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71
 p4 #aag4      #adb ,panjab ,notes and  
,queries1 iii4 p4 #agi1  #gde 7,july1   
#ahhf74      #adc ,e4 ,schuyler1        

,turkistan 7,london1 #ahgf71 ii4 #bh4   
,m#cb ,transference of sins in ,tahiti4 
#add ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian            
,researches1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 
#ahcb-ahcf71 i4 #dja sqq4      #ade ,the
 ,welsh custom of 8sin-eating0 has been 
interpreted by ,mr4 ,e4 ,s4             
,hartland as a modification of an older 
custom of eating the corpse4        ,see
 his article1 8,the ,sin-eater10        
,folk-lore1 iii4 7#ahib7 #ade-aeg2      
,the ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4 #bia sqq41
 iii4 p4 ix4 ,i cannot think        his 
interpretation probable or borne out by 
the evidence4 ,the ,badaga        custom
 of transferring the sins of the dead to
 a calf which is then        let loose  
and never used again 7above1 pp4 #cf    
sq471 the ,tahitian        custom of    
burying the sins of a person whose body 
is carefully        preserved by being  
embalmed1 and the ,manipur and          
,travancore customs        of           
transferring the sins of a ,rajah before
 his death 7pp4 #ci1 #db        sq47    

establish the practice of transferring  
sins in cases where        there can be 
no question of eating the corpse4 ,the  
original        intention of such       
practices was perhaps not so much to    
take away the        sins of the        
deceased as to rid the survivors of the 
dangerous        pollution of death4    
,this comes out to some extent in the   
,tahitian        custom4      ,m#cc     
,transference of evils in ancient       
,greece4 ,the transference of warts4    
,transference of sickness in ,scotland1 
,germany1 and ,austria4      #adf       
,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxviii4 #hf4       
#adg ,plato1 ,laws1 xi4 #ab1 p4 #icc ,b4
      #adh  1 #ahhc1 col4 #bac1 #bad2   
,g4 ,dittenberger1        ,sylloge      
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,no4 #hjb1 
lines #dh sqq4 7vol4        ii4 pp4 #feb
 sq474      #adi ,marcellus1 ,de        
medicamentis1 xxxiv4 #ajb4 ,a similar   
cure is        described by ,pliny      
7,nat4 ,hist4 xxii4 #adi72 you are to   
touch the        warts with chick-peas  

on the first day of the moon1 wrap the  
peas in        a cloth1 and throw them  
away behind you4 ,but ,pliny does not   
say that        the warts will be       
transferred to the person who picks up  
the peas4        ,on this subject see   
further ,j4 ,hardy1 8,wart and ,wen     
,cures10        ,folk-lore ,record1 i4  
7#ahgh7 pp4 #baf-bbh4      #aej ,z4     
,zanetti1 ,la ,medicina delle nostre    
donne 7,citt di ,castello1              
#ahib71 pp4 #bbd sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,thiers1  
,trait des ,superstitions               
7,paris1 #afgi71 p4 #cba2 ,b4 ,souch1   
,croyances1 prsages et traditions       
diverses 7,niort1 #ahhj71 p4 #ai2 ,j4   
,w4 ,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen       
,mythologie 7,gttingen1 #aheb-aheg71 i4 
#bdh1  #egf2 ,dr4 ,r4 ,f4 ,kaindl1      
8,aus dem ,volksglauben der ,rutenen in 
,galizien10 ,globus1 lxiv4              
7#ahic7 p4 #ic2 ,j4 ,harland and ,t4 ,t4
 ,wilkinson1 ,lancashire ,folk-lore     
7,manchester and ,london1 #ahhb71 p4    
#aeg2 ,g4 ,w4 ,black1 ,folk-medicine    

7,london1 #ahhc71 p4 #da2 ,w4 ,gregor1  
,folk-lore of the ,north-,east of       
,scotland 7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #di2 ,j4 
,g4 ,campbell1 ,witchcraft and          
,second ,sight in the ,highlands and    
,islands of ,scotland 7,glasgow1        
#aijb71 pp4 #id sq4      #aea ,l4       
,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus
 dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg             
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 ii4 #ga1  #he2 ,e4 
,monseur1 ,le ,folklore ,wallon         
7,brussels1 ,n4,d471 p4 #bi2 ,h4        
,zahler1 ,die ,krankheit im             
,volksglauben        des ,simmenthals   
7,bern1 #ahih71 p4 #ic2 ,r4 ,andree1    
,braunschweiger        ,volkskunde      
7,brunswick1 #ahif71 p4 #cjf4      #aeb 
,a4 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus     
,schwaben 7,freiburg im ,breisgau1      
#ahfa-ahfb71 i4 #dhc4      #aec ,thiers1
 ,souch1 ,strackerjan1 ,monseur1 ll4cc42
 ,j4 ,g4 ,campbell1        ,witchcraft  
and ,second ,sight in the ,highlands and
 ,islands of        ,scotland 7,glasgow1
 #aijb71 p4 #ie4      #aed ,ch4 ,rogers1

 ,social ,life in ,scotland 7,edinburgh1
 #ahhd-ahhf71 iii4        #bbf4         
#aee ,g4 ,lammert1 ,volksmedizin und    
medizinischer ,aberglaube in ,bayern    
7,wrzburg1 #ahfi71 p4 #bfd4      #aef   
,ibid4 p4 #bfc4      #aeg ,j4 ,v4       
,grohmann1 ,aberglauben und ,gebruche   
aus ,bhmen und ,mhren        7,prague   
and ,leipsic1 #ahfd71 p4 #afg1  #aahj4  
#aeh ,l4 ,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und  
,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg   
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 i4 #ga1  #he4      
,m#cd ,sickness transferred to asses1   
frogs1 dogs1 and other animals4         
#aei ,geoponica1 xiii4 #i1 xv4 #a2      
,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxviii4 #aee4 ,the 
authorities for these cures are         
respectively ,apuleius and              
,democritus4 ,the latter is probably not
 the atomic philosopher4 ,see        ,j4
 ,g4 ,frazer1 8,the ,language of        
,animals10 ,the ,archological ,review1  
vol4 i4 7,may1 #ahhh7 p4 #ahj1 note     
#adj4      #afj ,marcellus1 ,de         
medicamentis1 xii4 #bd4      #afa ,w4   

,g4 ,black1 ,folk-medicine 7,london1    
#ahhc71 pp4 #ce sq4      #afb           
,marcellus1 ,de medicamentis1 xvii4 #ah4
      #afc ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxx4    
#fa2 ,marcellus1 ,de medicamentis1      
xxvii4        #cc4 ,the latter writer   
mentions 7op4 cit4 xxviii4 #abc7 that   
the        same malady might similarly  
be transferred to a live frog4      #afd
 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxx4 #fd2         
,marcellus1 ,de medicamentis1 xxviii4   
#acb4      #afe ,marcellus1 ,de         
medicamentis1 xxix4 #ce4      #aff ,w4  
,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern 
,counties 7,london1 #ahgi71        p4   
#adc2 ,w4 ,g4 ,black1 ,folk-medicine1 p4
 #ce2 ,marie ,trevelyan1                
,folk-lore and ,folk-stories of ,wales  
7,london1 #aiji71 p4 #bbf4      #afg ,l4
 ,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen   
aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg          
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 i4 #gb1  #hf4      
,m#ce ,sickness transferred to birds1   
snails1 fish1 and fowls4      #afh ,j4  
,v4 ,grohmann1 ,aberglauben und         

,gebruche aus ,bhmen und ,mhren         
7,prague and ,leipsic1 #ahfd71 p4 #aff1 
#aagc1 quoting ,kuhn's                  
translation of ,rig-veda1 x4 #ig4 #ac4  
,a slightly different        translation
 of the verse is given by ,h4           
,grassmann1 who here follows        ,r4 
,roth 7,rig-veda bersetzt1 vol4 ii4 p4  
#cgi74 ,compare ,hymns of        the    
,rigveda1 translated by ,r4 ,t4 ,h4     
,griffith 7,benares1 #ahhi-ahib71       
iv4 #cab4      #afi ,l4 ,strackerjan1   
op4 cit4 i4 #gb1  #hg4      #agj ,w4    
,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern 
,counties 7,london1 #ahgi71        p4   
#adc4      #aga ,j4 ,d4 ,h4 ,temme1 ,die
 ,volkssagen der ,altmark 7,berlin1     
#ahci71 p4 #hc2        ,a4 ,kuhn1       
,mrkische ,sagen und ,mrchen 7,berlin1  
#ahdc71 p4 #chd1  #fb4      #agb ,r4    
,wuttke1 ,schsische ,volkskunde#b       
7,dresden1 #aija71 p4 #cgb4      #agc   
,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1 op4 cit4 p4 #bcj1    
#affc4 ,a similar remedy is             
prescribed in ,bavaria4 ,see ,g4        

,lammert1 ,volksmedizin und             
medizinischer ,aberglaube in ,bayern    
7,wrzburg1 #ahfi71 p4 #bdi4      #agd   
,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 ii4  
#cge2 ,w4 ,g4 ,black1                   
,folk-medicine1 p4 #df4      #age ,marie
 ,trevelyan1 ,folk-lore and             
,folk-stories of ,wales 7,london1       
#aiji71 pp4 #bbi sq4      ,m#cf         
,sickness and ill-luck transferred to   
inanimate objects4      #agf ,b4        
,schmidt1 ,das ,volksleben der          
,neugriechen 7,leipsic1 #ahga71 p4 #hb4 
#agg ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,mrkische ,sagen und    
,mrchen 7,berlin1 #ahdc71 p4 #chf4      
#agh ,l4 ,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und  
,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg   
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 i4 #gd1  #ia4      
,m#cg ,sickness and trouble transferred 
to trees and bushes4      #agi ,f4 ,j4  
,wiedemann1 ,aus dem inneren und ussern 
,leben der ,ehsten 7,st4                
,petersburg1 #ahgf71 pp4 #dea sq4       
#ahj ,le ,tour du ,monde1 lxvii4 7#ahid7
 p4 #cjh2 id41 ,nouvelle ,srie1 v4      

7#ahii7 p4 #eba4      #aha ,f4 ,s4      
,krauss1 ,volksglaube und religiser     
,brauch der ,sdslaven        7,mnster i4
 ,w41 #ahij71 pp4 #ce sq4      #ahb ,f4 
,s4 ,krauss1 op4 cit4 p4 #ci4      #ahc 
,a4 ,strausz1 ,die ,bulgaren 7,leipsic1 
#ahih71 p4 #djj1 compare p4 #dja4       
#ahd ,blackwood's ,magazine1 ,february  
#ahhf1 p4 #bci4      #ahe ,z4 ,zanetti1 
,la medicina delle nostre donne 7,citt  
di ,castello1        #ahib71 p4 #gc4    
#ahf ,j4 ,b4 ,thiers1 ,trait des        
,superstitions 7,paris1 #afgi71 pp4 #cbc
        sq4      #ahg ,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1
 ,aberglauben und ,gebruche aus ,bhmen  
und ,mhren        7,prague and ,leipsic1
 #ahfd71 p4 #afg1  #aagh4 ,a ,belgian   
cure of the        same sort is reported
 by ,j4 ,w4 ,wolf 7,beitrge zur         
deutschen        ,mythologie1 ,gttingen1
 #aheb-aheg1 i4 #bbc 7wrongly numbered  
#bai71         #bef74      ,m#ch        
,sickness transferred to trees by means 
of knots4      #ahh ,l4 ,strackerjan1   
,aberglaube und ,sagen aus dem          

,herzogthum ,oldenburg                  
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 i4 #gd1  #ij4      
#ahi ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie#d
 7,berlin1 #ahge-ahgh71 ii4 #igi4       
#aij ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde 
des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 iv4 #b         
7,munich1 #ahfg71 p4 #djf4      #aia ,a4
 ,schleicher1 ,volkstmliches aus        
,sonnenberg 7,weimar1 #aheh71 p4        
#aej2 ,a4 ,witschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und
 ,gebruche aus ,thringen                
7,vienna1 #ahgh71 p4 #bhc1  #hb4        
#aib ,w4 ,kolbe1 ,hessische             
,volks-,sitten und ,gebrauche#b         
7,marburg1 #ahhh71        pp4 #hh sq4   
,m#ci ,sickness transferred to trees by 
means of the patient's hair or          
nails4      #aic ,c4 ,meyer1 ,der       
,aberglaube des ,mittelalters 7,ble1    
#ahhd71 p4 #ajd4      #aid ,h4 ,zahler1 
,die ,krankheit im ,volksglauben des    
,simmenthals 7,bern1        #ahih71 p4  
#id4      #aie ,w4 ,g4 ,black1          
,folk-medicine1 p4 #ch4      #aif ,f4   
,chapiseau1 ,le ,folk-lore de la ,beauce

 et du ,perche 7,paris1        #aijb71  
i4 #bac4      #aig ,w4 ,g4 ,black1      
,folk-medicine1 p4 #ci4      ,m#dj      
,toothache1 headache1 and fevers plugged
 up in trees4      #aih ,a4 ,wuttke1    
,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube#b        
7,berlin1 #ahfi71 p4 #caj1         #dij4
      #aii ,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1           
,aberglauben und ,gebruche aus ,bhmen   
und ,mhren1        p4 #afe1  #aafj4     
#bjj ,l4 ,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und  
,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg1  
ii4 #gd sq41  #hi4      #bja ,j4 ,grimm1
 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #igi4     
#bjb ,t4 ,j4 ,pettigrew1 ,on            
,superstitions connected with the       
,history and        ,practice of        
,medicine and ,surgery 7,london1 #ahdd71
 p4 #gg2 ,w4 ,g4        ,black1         
,folk-medicine1 p4 #cg4      ,m#da      
,sickness and pain pegged or nailed into
 trees4      #bjc ,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1    
,aberglauben und ,gebruche aus ,bhmen   
und ,mhren1        p4 #afg1  #aahb4     
#bjd ,l4 ,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und  

,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg1  
i4 #gc1  #hi2 ,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche
 ,volksaberglaube1#b pp4 #cji           
sq41  #dij4      #bje ,l4 ,f4 ,sauv1 ,le
 ,folk-lore des ,hautes-,vosges 7,paris1
 #ahhi71 p4 #dj2        ,a4 ,meyrac1    
,traditions1 ,coutumes1 ,lgendes et     
,contes des ,ardennes                   
7,charleville1 #ahij71 p4 #agd2 ,a4     
,schleicher1 ,volkstmliches aus         
,sonnenberg 7,weimer1 #aheh71 p4 #adi2  
,j4 ,a4 ,e4 ,khler1 ,volksbrauch1       
,aberglauben1 ,sagen und andre alte     
,ueberlieferungen im ,voigtlande        
7,leipsic1 #ahfg71 p4 #dad2 ,a4         
,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und         
,gebruche        aus ,thringen 7,vienna1
 #ahgh71 p4 #bhc1  #gi2 ,h4 ,zahler1    
,die        ,krankheit im ,volksglauben 
des ,simmenthals 7,bern1 #ahih71 p4 #ic4
      #bjf ,r4 ,andree1 ,braunschweiger 
,volkskunde 7,brunswick1 #ahif71 p4     
#cjg4      #bjg ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,mrkische    
,sagen und ,mrchen 7,berlin1 #ahdc71 p4 
#chd1  #ff4      #bjh ,h4 ,zahler1 loc4 

cit4      #bji ,p4 ,wagler1 ,die ,eiche 
in alter und neuer ,zeit1 i4 7,wurzen1  
,n4,d47 p4        #bc4      ,m#db       
,ghosts and gods bunged up in ,india4   
,demon plugged up and ghost             
nailed down4      #baj ,e4 ,doutt1      
,magie et ,religion dans l',afrique du  
,nord 7,algiers1        #aijh71 p4 #dcf4
      #baa ,w4 ,crooke1 ,the ,tribes and
 ,castes of the ,north-,western         
,provinces and        ,oudh 7,calcutta1 
#ahif71 iii4 #dcf sq42 compare id41     
,popular        ,religion and ,folk-lore
 of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1     
#ahif71 i4        #dc1 #afb4 ,compare   
,e4 ,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes in  
,southern ,india        7,madras1       
#aijf71 pp4 #cac1 #cca4      #bab ,w4   
,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and         
,folk-lore of ,northern ,india          
7,westminster1 #ahif71 i4 #ajb sq4      
#bac ,mrs4 ,bishop1 ,korea and her      
,neighbours 7,london1 #ahih71 ii4 #adc  
sq4      #bad ,p4 ,giran1 ,magie et     
,religion ,annamites 7,paris1 #aiab71   

pp4 #acb sq4      ,m#dc ,evils nailed   
into stones1 walls1 door-posts1 and so  
on4      #bae ,r4 ,c4 ,maclagan1 8,notes
 on folk-lore ,objects collected in     
,argyleshire10 ,folk-lore1 vi4 7#ahie7  
p4 #aeh4      #baf ,r4 ,andree1         
,braunschweiger ,volkskunde 7,brunswick1
 #ahif71 p4 #cjg4      #bag ,f4         
,chapiseau1 ,le ,folk-lore de la ,beauce
 et du ,perche 7,paris1        #aijb71  
i4 #agj4      #bah ,e4 ,doutt1 ,magie et
 ,religion dans l',afrique du ,nord     
7,algiers1        #aijh71 pp4 #bbh sq4  
#bai ,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1 ,aberglauben und
 ,gebruche aus ,bhmen und ,mhren1       
p4 #aaf1  #aagb4      ,m#dd ,devils and 
ghosts nailed down in ,morocco1 ,tunis1 
and ,egypt4 ,headache        nailed into
 a door or a wall4 ,plague pegged into a
 hole4      #bbj ,a4 ,leared1 ,morocco  
and the ,moors 7,london1 #ahgf71 pp4    
#bge sqq4      #bba ,r4 ,c4 ,thompson1  
,semitic ,magic 7,london1 #aijh71 p4    
#ag4 ,it would seem        that in      
,macedonia demons and ghosts can be     

hammered into walls4 ,see        ,g4 ,f4
 ,abbott1 ,macedonian ,folklore         
7,cambridge1 #aijc71 p4 #bba4 ,in       
,chittagong1 as soon as a coffin has    
been carried out of the house1 a        
nail is knocked into the threshold 8to  
prevent death from entering        the  
dwelling1 at least for a time40 ,see    
,th4 ,brengier1 8,les        funrailles 
,chittagong10 ,les ,missions            
,catholiques1 xiii4 7#ahha7        p4   
#ejd4      #bbb ,e4 ,w4 ,lane1 ,manners 
and ,customs of the ,modern ,egyptians  
7,paisley        and ,london1 #ahie71   
ch4 x4 p4 #bdj4      #bbc ,r4 ,c4       
,thompson1 ,semitic ,magic 7,london1    
#aijh71 p4 #ah4      #bbd ,l4           
,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus
 dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg1        ii4 
#abj1  #dbh a4 ,a similar story is told 
of a house in ,neuenburg        7op4    
cit4 ii4 #ahb1  #eab c74      #bbe      
,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxiii4 #f4 #bd4 
,m#de ,plague nailed down in ancient    
,rome4      #bbf ,livy1 vii4 #a-c4 ,the 

plague raged from #cfe to #cfc ,b4,c41  
when it was        happily stayed in the
 manner described in the text4          
,m#df ,pestilence and civil discord     
nailed into a wall in ,rome4      #bbg  
,livy1 ix4 #bh4 ,this happened in the   
year #cac ,b4,c4      #bbh ,livy1 viii4 
#ah4 ,these events took place in #cca   
,b4,c4      ,m#dg ,the annual ceremony  
of knocking in a nail at ,rome4         
#bbi ,livy1 vii4 #c4 ,livy says nothing 
as to the place where the nails were    
affixed2 but from ,festus 7p4 #ef ed4   
,c4 ,o4 ,mller7 we learn that it        
was the wall of a temple1 and as the    
date of the ceremony was also        the
 date of the dedication of the temple of
 ,jupiter on the ,capitol               
7,plutarch1 ,publicola1 #ad71 we may    
fairly conjecture that this             
temple was the scene of the rite4 ,it is
 the more necessary to call             
attention to the uncertainty which      
exists on this point because            
modern writers1 perhaps misunderstanding

 the words of ,livy1 have               
commonly stated as a fact what is at    
best only a more or less        probable
 hypothesis4 ,octavian seems to have    
provided for the        knocking of a   
nail into the temple of ,mars by men who
 had held the        office of censor4  
,see ,dio ,cassius1 lv4 #aj1            
4      ,m#dh ,the ceremony was probably 
a purificatory rite designed to disarm  
and        disable all evils that might 
threaten the ,roman state in the course 
of the year4 ,roman cure for epilepsy4  
#bcj ,livy1 vii4 #c4 ,festus speaks 7p4 
#ef ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller7 of 8the annual  
nail1 which was fixed in the walls of   
temples for the purpose of              
numbering the years10 as if the practice
 were common4 ,from ,cicero's           
passing reference to the custom 78,ex   
hoc die clavum anni movebis10           
,epist4 ad ,atticum1 v4 #ae4 #a7 we see 
that it was matter of        notoriety4 
,hence we may safely reject ,mommsen's  
theory1 which ,mr4 ,w4        ,warde    

,fowler is disposed to accept 7,the     
,roman ,festivals of the        period  
of the ,republic1 ,london1 #ahii1 pp4   
#bcd sq471 that the        supposed     
annual custom never existed except in   
the brains of ,roman        ,dryasdusts4
      #bca ,see ,livy and ,festus1      
ll4cc4      #bcb ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4   
xxviii4 #fc4      #bcc ,county          
,folk-lore1 ,suffolk1 edited by ,lady   
,e4 ,c4 ,gurdon 7,london1        #ahic71
 p4 #ad4 ,in the north-west ,highlands  
of ,scotland it used to be              
customary to bury a black cock alive on 
the spot where an epileptic             
patient fell down4 ,along with the cock 
were buried parings of the              
patient's nails and a lock of his hair4 
,see 7,sir7 ,arthur ,mitchell1          
,on various ,superstitions in the       
,north-,west ,highlands and ,islands of 
,scotland 7,edinburgh1 #ahfb71 p4 #bf2  
,j4 ,g4 ,campbell1 ,witchcraft and      
,second ,sight in the ,highlands and    
,islands of ,scotland 7,glasgow1        

#aijb71 p4 #ig4 ,probably the disease   
was supposed to be buried with          
the cock in the ground4 ,the ancient    
,hindoos imagined that epilepsy         
was caused by a dog-demon4 ,when a boy  
fell down in a fit1 his father        or
 other competent person used to wrap the
 sufferer in a net1 and        carry him
 into the hall1 not through the door1   
but through an        opening made for  
the purpose in the roof4 ,then taking up
 some earth        in the middle of the 
hall1 at the place where people gambled1
 he        sprinkled the spot with      
water1 cast dice on it1 and laid the boy
 on        his back on the dice4 ,after 
that he prayed to the dog-demon1 saying1
        8,doggy1 let him loose6         
,reverence be to thee1 barker1 bender6  
,doggy1        let him loose6 ,reverence
 be to thee1 barker1 bender60 ,see ,the 
,grihya ,sutras1 translated by ,h4      
,oldenberg1 ,part i4 7,oxford1 #ahhf7   
pp4 #bif sq42 id4 ,part ii4 7,oxford1   
#ahib7 pp4 #bai sq41 #bhf        sq4    

7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vols4     
xxix4 and xxx474 ,apparently        the 
place where people gambled was for some 
reason supposed to be a        spot     
where an epileptic could divest himself 
most readily of his        malady4 ,but 
the connexion of thought is obscure4    
#bcd ,the analogy of the ,roman custom  
to modern superstitious practices       
has been rightly pointed out by ,mr4 ,e4
 ,s4 ,hartland 7,folk-lore1 iv4         
7#ahic7 pp4 #deg1 #dfd2 ,legend of      
,perseus1 ii4 #ahh71 but ,i am unable   
to accept his general explanation of    
these and some other practices        as
 modes of communion with a divinity4    
,m#di ,knocking nails into idols as a   
means of attracting the attention of    
the deity or spirit4      #bce ,a4      
,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an  
der ,loango-,kste 7,jena1               
#ahgd-ahge71 ii4 #agf4      #bcf ,a4    
,bastian1 op4 cit4 ii4 #age-agh4        
,compare ,father ,campana1 8,congo1     
,mission ,catholique de ,landana10 ,les 

,missions ,catholiques1 xxvii4          
7#ahie7 p4 #ic2 ,notes ,analytiques sur 
les ,collections ,ethnographiques       
du ,muse du ,congo1 i4 7,brussels1      
#aijb-aijf7 pp4 #aec1 #bdf2 ,b4 ,h4     
,mullen1 8,fetishes from ,landana1      
,south-,west ,africa10 ,man1 v4 7#aije7 
pp4 #ajb-ajd2 ,r4 ,e4 ,dennett1 8,bavili
 ,notes10 ,folk-lore1 xvi4 7#aije7      
pp4 #chb sqq42 id41 ,at the ,back of the
 ,black ,man's ,mind        7,london1   
#aijf71 pp4 #he sqq41 #ia sqq4 ,the     
,ethnological ,museum at        ,berlin 
possesses a number of rude images from  
,loango and ,congo1        which are    
thickly studded with nails hammered into
 their bodies4 ,the        intention of 
the custom1 as explained to me by       
,professor von        ,luschan1 is to   
pain the fetish and so to refresh his   
memory1 lest he        should forget to 
do his duty4      #bcg ,sir ,john ,rhys1
 8,celtae and ,galli10 ,proceedings of  
the ,british        ,academy1 ii4       
7#aije-aijf7 pp4 #aad sq4      #bch     

,lafcadio ,hearn1 ,glimpses of          
,unfamiliar ,japan 7,london1 #ahid71 ii4
        #eih sq41 note4      ,m#ej ,two 
different spiritual applications of     
nails or pins4    ,m#ea ,attempts to get
 rid of the accumulated sorrows of a    
whole people4    ,m#eb ,sorrows         
conceived of as the work of demons4     
,m#ec ,primitive belief in the          
omnipresence of demons4    ,m#ed ,demons
 in ,australia and ,west ,africa4       
#bci ,a4 ,oldfield1 8,the ,aborigines of
 ,australia10 ,transactions of the      
,ethnological ,society of ,london1      
,n4,s41 iii4 7#ahfe7 p4 #bbh4      #bdj 
,j4 ,bttikoffer1 8,einiges ber die      
,eingebornen von ,liberia10             
,internationales ,archiv fr             
,ethnographie1 i4 7#ahhh7 p4 #he4       
#bda ,mary ,h4 ,kingsley1 ,travels in   
,west ,africa 7,london1 #ahig7 pp4 #ddb 
sq4      #bdb ,g4 ,zndel1 8,land und    
,volk der ,eweer auf der ,sclavenkste in
        ,westafrika10 ,zeitschrift der  
,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde zu ,berlin1  

xii4 7#ahgg7 pp4 #dab-dad4 ,full details
 as to the religious creed of        the
 ,ewes1 including their belief in a     
,supreme ,being 7,mawu71 are            
given1 to a great extent in the words of
 the natives themselves1 by        the  
,german missionary ,jakob ,spieth in his
 elaborate and valuable        works    
,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1 #aijf7 and   
,die ,religion der ,eweer in            
,sd-,togo 7,leipsic1 #aiaa74 ,as to     
,mawu in particular1 the meaning        
of whose name is somewhat uncertain1 see
 ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die        ,ewe-,stmme1  
pp4 #dba sqq42 ,die ,religion der ,eweer
 in ,sd-,togo1        pp4 #ae sqq4      
,m#ee ,demons on the ,congo4 ,demons in 
,south ,africa4      #bdc ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 
,weeks1 8,anthropological ,notes on the 
,bangala of the ,upper        ,congo    
,river10 ,journal of the ,royal         
,anthropological ,institute1 xl4        
7#aiaj7 p4 #cgg4      #bdd ,rev4 ,john  
,h4 ,weeks1 ,among ,congo ,cannibals    
7,london1 #aiac71 p4 #bfa4      #bde    

,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,weeks1 8,anthropological 
,notes on the ,bangala of the ,upper    
,congo ,river10 ,journal of the ,royal  
,anthropological ,institute1 xl4        
7#aiaj7 pp4 #cfh1 #cgj4 ,the singular   
form of mingoli is mongoli1 8a          
disembodied spirit40 ,compare id41      
,among ,congo ,cannibals 7,london1      
#aiac71 p4 #beb2 and again ibid4 p4     
#bge4 ,but great as is the fear of      
evil spirits among the natives of the   
,congo1 their dread of        witchcraft
 seems to be still more intense4 ,see   
,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,weeks1        8,notes on 
some ,customs of the ,lower ,congo      
,people10 ,folk-lore1 xx4        7#aiji7
 pp4 #ea sq43 8,the belief in witchcraft
 affects their lives        in a vast   
number of ways1 and touches them        
socially at a hundred        different  
points4 ,it regulates their actions1    
modifies their mode of        thought   
and speech1 controls their conduct      
towards each other1        causes       
cruelty and callousness in a people not 

naturally cruel1 and        sets the    
various members of a family against each
 other4 ,a man may        believe any   
theory he likes about creation1 about   
,god1 and about the        abode of     
departed spirits1 but he must believe in
 witches and their        influence for 
evil1 and must in unmistakable terms    
give expression        to that belief1  
or be accused of witchcraft himself4444 
,but for        witchcraft no one would 
die1 and the earnest longing of all     
right-minded men and women is to clear  
it out of the country by        killing 
every discovered witch4 ,it is an act of
        self-preservation4444 ,belief in
 witches is interwoved into the very    
fibre of every ,bantu-speaking man and  
woman1 and the person who does          
not believe in them is a monster1 a     
witch1 to be killed as soon as          
possible40 ,could we weigh against each 
other the two great terrors        which
 beset the minds of savages all over the
 world1 it seems        probable that   

the dread of witches would be found far 
to outweigh        the dread of evil    
spirits4 ,however1 it is the fear of    
evil spirits        with which we are at
 present concerned4      #bdf ,g4       
,mc,call ,theal1 ,records of            
,south-,eastern ,africa1 vii4 7#aija7   
pp4        #dje sq4      #bdg ,on this  
subject ,mr4 ,dudley ,kidd has made some
 judicious observations        7,savage 
,childhood1 ,london1 #aijf1 pp4 #aca    
sq474 ,he says3 8,the        ,kafirs    
certainly do not live in everlasting    
dread of spirits1 for        the chief  
part of their life is not spent in      
thinking at all4 ,a        merrier set  
of people it would be hard to find4     
,they are so        easy-going that it  
would seem to them too much burden to be
 for ever        thinking of spirits40  
,m#ef ,demons in ,south ,america4       
#bdh 7,sir7 ,e4 ,f4 im ,thurn1 ,among   
the ,indians of ,guiana4 7,london1      
#ahhc71        pp4 #cef sq4 ,as to the  
dread which the ,brazilian ,indians     

entertain        of demons1 see ,j4 ,b4 
von ,spix and ,c4 ,f4 ,ph4 von ,martius1
 ,reise in        ,brasilien 7,munich1  
#ahbc-ahca71 iii4 #aajh-aaaa4      #bdi 
,w4 ,barbrooke ,grubb1 ,an ,unknown     
,people in an ,unknown ,land 7,london1  
#aiaa71 pp4 #aah1 #aai4      ,m#eg      
,demons in ,labrador4      #bej ,l4 ,m4 
,turner1 8,ethnology of the ,ungava     
,district1 ,hudson ,bay                 
,territory10 ,eleventh ,annual ,report  
of the ,bureau of ,ethnology            
7,washington1 #ahid71 pp4 #aic sq4      
,m#eh ,demons in ,polynesia4 ,demons in 
,new ,zealand4      #bea ,w4 ,ellis1    
,polynesian ,researches1 ,second        
,edition 7,london1        #ahcb-ahcf71  
i4 #cca4      #beb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 
i4 #djf4      #bec ,the ,voyages of     
,captain ,james ,cook round the ,world  
7,london1 #ahji71        vi4 #aeb4      
#bed ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika a ,maui1 or  
,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1     
,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahgj71 p4   
#ajd4      ,m#ei ,demons in the ,pelew  

,islands4      #bee ,j4 ,kubary1 8,die  
,religion der ,pelauer10 in ,a4         
,bastian's ,allerlei aus        ,volks- 
und ,menschenkunde 7,berlin1 #ahhh71 i4 
#df4      #bef ,j4 ,kubary1 8,die       
,bewohner der ,mortlock-,inseln10       
,mittheilungen der        geographischen
 ,gesellschaft in ,hamburg1 #ahgh-gi1 p4
 #cf4      ,m#fj ,demons in the         
,philippines and in ,melanesia4         
#beg ,w4 ,a4 ,reed1 ,negritos of        
,zambales 7,manilla1 #aijd71 p4 #fe     
7,ethnological ,survey ,publications1   
vol4 ii4 ,part i474      #beh ,mgr4     
,coupp 8,en ,nouvelle-,pomranie10 ,les  
,missions ,catholiques1        xxiii4   
7#ahia7 pp4 #cee sq4      #bei ,p4 ,a4  
,kleintitschen1 ,die ,kstenbewohner der 
,gazellehalbinsel        7,hiltrup bei  
,mnster1 preface dated #aijf71 pp4 #ccf 
sq4 ,compare        ,joachim ,graf      
,pfeil1 ,studien und ,beobachtungen aus 
der ,sdsee        7,brunswick1 #ahii71  
p4 #aei2 id41 in ,journal of the        
,anthropological        ,institute1     

xxvii4 7#ahih7 pp4 #ahc sq4      #bfj   
,r4 ,parkinson1 ,dreissig ,jahre in der 
,sdsee 7,stuttgart1 #aijg71 pp4         
#abj1 #aba4      ,m#fa ,demons in ,dutch
 ,new ,guinea and ,german ,new ,guinea4 
#bfa ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 8,die        
,papuastmme an der ,geelvinkbai         
7,neu-guinea710 ,mitteilungen der       
,geographischen ,gesellschaft zu        
,jena1 ix4 7#ahia7 p4 #ih4 ,as to ,mr4  
van ,hasselt's twenty-five years'       
residence among these savages1 see id41 
p4 #bb4      #bfb ,stefan ,lehner1      
8,bukaua10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch  
,neu-,guinea1 iii4        7,berlin1     
#aiaa7 pp4 #dad-daf4      ,m#fb ,demons 
in ,british ,new ,guinea4      #bfc ,w4 
,g4 ,lawes1 8,notes on ,new ,guinea and 
its ,inhabitants10 ,proceedings         
of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1   
#ahhj1 p4 #fae4      ,m#fc ,demons in   
,timor and ,celebes4      #bfd ,j4 ,g4  
,f4 ,riedel1 8,die ,landschaft ,dawan   
oder ,west-,timor10 ,deutsche           
geographische ,bltter1 x4 #bgh sq4      

#bfe ,g4 ,w4 ,w4 ,c4 ,baron van ,hovell1
 ,ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de         
,oeliasers 7,dordrecht1 #ahge71 p4 #adh4
      #bff ,n4 ,p4 ,wilken en ,j4 ,a4   
,schwarz1 8,het heidendom en de ,islam  
in ,bolaang        ,mongondou10         
,mededeelingen van wege het             
,nederlandsche                          
,zendelinggenootschap1 xi4 7#ahfg7 p4   
#bei4      ,m#fd ,demons in ,bali and   
,java4      #bfg ,r4 van ,eck1          
8,schetsen van het eiland ,bali10       
,tijdschrift voor        ,nederlandsch  
,indi1 ,august1 #ahhj1 p4 #hc4      #bfh
 ,s4 ,e4 ,harthoorn1 8,de ,zending op   
,java en meer bepaald die van           
,malang10 ,mededeelingen van wege het   
,nederlandsche                          
,zendelinggenootschap1 iv4 7#ahfj7 pp4  
#aaf sq4      ,m#fe ,demons in ,borneo  
and ,sumatra4      #bfi ,c4 ,a4 ,l4 ,m4 
,schwaner1 ,borneo1 ,beschrijving van   
het stroomgebied van        den ,barito 
7,amsterdam1 #ahec-ed71 i4 #agf4        
#bgj ,j4 ,b4 ,neumann1 8,het ,pane- en  

,bila-stroomgebied10 ,tijdschrift van   
het ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig      
,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 iii4      
,afdeeling1 meer uitgebreide artikelen1 
,no4 #b 7,amsterdam1 #ahhf71 p4         
#bhg4      #bga ,b4 ,hagen1 8,beitrge   
zur ,kenntniss der ,battareligion10     
,tijdschrift        voor ,indische      
,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxviii4  
7#ahhc7 p4 #ejh4        ,the persons of 
the ,batta ,trinity are ,bataraguru1    
,sori1 and        ,balabulan4 ,the most 
fundamental distinction between the     
persons of        the ,trinity appears  
to be that one of them is allowed to eat
 pork1        while the others are not  
7ibid4 p4 #eje74      #bgb ,m4 ,joustra1
 8,het leven1 de zeden en gewoonten der 
,bataks10        ,mededeelingen van wege
 het ,nederlandsche                     
,zendelinggenootschap1        xlvi4     
7#aijb7 p4 #dab4      ,m#ff ,demons in  
the ,nicobars1 in the ,malay ,peninsula1
 and in ,kamtchatka44      #bgc ,the    
,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 iii4 ,the

 ,andaman and ,nicobar        ,islands1 
by ,lieut4-,colonel ,sir ,richard ,c4   
,temple 7,calcutta1 #aijc71        p4   
#bjf4      #bgd ,borie1 8,notice sur les
 ,mantras1 tribu sauvage de la pninsule 
,malaise10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische  
,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 x4       
7#ahfj7 p4 #dcd4      #bge ,s4          
,krascheninnikow1 ,beschreibung des     
,landes ,kamtschatka 7,lemgo1           
#agff71 p4 #bae4      ,m#fg ,demons in  
,india4 ,the high gods come and go1 but 
demons remain4      #bgf ,we may compare
 the instructive remarks made by ,mr4   
,w4 ,e4 ,maxwell on        the          
stratification of religious beliefs     
among the ,malays 78,the                
,folk-lore of the ,malays10 ,journal of 
the ,straits ,branch of the             
,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #g1      
,june1 #ahha1 pp4 #aa sq474 ,he says3   
8,two successive religious changes have 
taken place among them1 and        when 
we have succeeded in identifying the    
vestiges of ,brahmanism        which    

underly the external forms of the faith 
of ,muhammed1 long        established in
 all ,malay kingdoms1 we are only       
half-way through our        task4 ,there
 yet remain the powerful influences of  
the still earlier        indigenous     
faith to be noted and accounted for4    
,just as the        ,buddhists of       
,ceylon turn1 in times of sickness and  
danger1 not to        the consolations  
offered by the creed of ,buddha1 but to 
the        propitiation of the demons   
feared and reverenced by their early    
progenitors1 and just as the ,burmese   
and ,talaings1 though ,buddhists1       
retain in full force the whole of the   
,nat superstition1 so among        the  
,malays1 in spite of centuries which    
have passed since the                   
establishment of an alien worship1 the  
,muhammedan peasant may be        found 
invoking the protection of ,hindu gods  
against the spirits of        evil with 
which his primitive faith has peopled   
all natural        objects40      ,m#fh 

,demons in ancient ,india4      #bgg ,h4
 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion des ,veda   
7,berlin1 #ahid71 pp4 #ci sq4      ,m#fi
 ,demons in modern ,india4      #bgh    
,monier ,williams1 ,religious ,thought  
and ,life in ,india 7,london1           
#ahhc71 pp4 #baj sq4      #bgi ,monier  
,williams1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bcj sq4 ,the   
views here expressed        by the late 
,professor ,monier ,williams are        
confirmed from personal        knowledge
 by ,mr4 ,e4 ,t4 ,atkinson1 ,the        
,himalayan ,districts of the            
,north-,western ,provinces of ,india1   
ii4 7,allahabad1 #ahhd7 p4 #hdj4        
,m#gj ,demons in ,bengal1 ,assam1 the   
,chin ,hills ,sikhim1 ,tibet1 and       
,travancore4      #bhj ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 
,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal      
7,calcutta1 #ahgb71        pp4 #bef1    
#beg1 #beh4      #bha ,rev4 ,s4 ,endle1 
,the ,kacharis 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #cc4
      #bhb ,bertram ,s4 ,carey and ,h4  
,n4 ,tuck1 ,the ,chin ,hills1 i4        
7,rangoon1        #ahif7 p4 #aif4       

#bhc ,l4 ,a4 ,waddell1 8,demonolatry in 
,sikhim ,lamaism10 ,the ,indian         
,antiquary1 xxiii4 7#ahid7 p4 #aig4     
#bhd ,l4 ,a4 ,waddell1 ,the ,buddhism of
 ,tibet 7,london1 #ahie71 p4 #aeb4      
#bhe ,lt4-,colonel ,j4 ,shakespear1 ,the
 ,lushei ,kuki ,clans 7,london1 #aiab71 
pp4 #fa1 #fe sq41 #fg4      #bhf ,rev4  
,s4 ,mateer1 ,the ,land of ,charity     
7,london1 #ahhc71 p4 #bjg4      ,m#ga   
,demons in ,ceylon4      #bhg ,r4       
,percival1 ,account of the ,island of   
,ceylon1 ,second ,edition               
7,london1 #ahje71 pp4 #baa-bac4         
,m#gb ,demons in ,burma4      #bhh ,c4  
,j4 ,f4 ,s4 ,forbes1 ,british ,burma    
7,london1 #ahgh71 pp4 #bba sq4      #bhi
 ,shway ,yoe1 ,the ,burman1 his ,life   
and ,notions 7,london1 #ahhb71 i4 #bgf  
sq4      #bij ,shway ,yoe1 op4 cit4 i4  
#bgh4 8,to the ,burman10 says ,a4       
,bastian1 8the        whole world is    
filled with nats4 ,mountains1 rivers1   
waters1 the        earth1 etc41 have all
 their nat40 7,die ,vlker des stlichen  

,asien1        ii4 #dig74      ,m#gc    
,demons in ,siam and ,indo-,china4      
#bia ,mgr4 ,pallegoix1 ,description du  
royaume ,thai ou ,siam 7,paris1 #ahed71 
i4 #db4      #bib ,c4 ,bock1 ,temples   
and ,elephants 7,london1 #ahhd71 p4     
#aih4      #bic ,mgr4 ,bruguire1 in     
,annales de l',association de la        
,propagation de la        ,foi1 v4      
7#ahca7 p4 #abh4      #bid ,j4 ,deniker1
 ,the ,races of ,man 7,london1 #aijj71  
pp4 #djj sqq4      #bie ,a4 ,bourlet1   
8,les ,thay10 ,anthropos1 ii4 7#aijg7 p4
 #fai4      #bif ,a4 ,bourlet1 op4 cit4 
p4 #fcb4      ,m#gd ,demons in ,china4  
#big ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,the        
,religious ,system of ,china1 v4        
7,leyden1        #aijg7 p4 #dgj4        
#bih ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 op4 cit4 vi4
 7,leyden1 #aiaj7 pp4 #icj-icb4 ,this   
sixth volume of ,professor de ,groot's  
great work is mainly devoted to         
an account of the ceaseless war waged by
 the ,chinese people on        demons or
 spectres 7kwei74 ,a more summary notice

 of this curious        national        
delusion will be found in his work ,the 
,religion of the        ,chinese 7,new  
,york1 #aiaj71 chapter ii41 8,the       
,struggle against        ,spectres10 pp4
 #cc-fa4      ,m#ge ,demons in ,corea4  
#bii ,mrs4 ,bishop 7,isabella ,l4       
,bird71 ,korea and her ,neighbours      
7,london1        #ahih71 ii4 #bbg sq41  
#bbi4 ,i have taken the liberty of      
changing the        writer's 8daemon0   
and 8daemoniacal0 into 8demon0 and      
8demoniacal40      ,m#gf ,demons among  
the ,koryaks4      #cjj ,c4 von         
,dittmar1 8ber die ,korken und die ihnen
 sehr nahe verwandten                   
,tschuktschen10 ,bulletin de la ,classe 
,historico-philologique de              
l',acadmie ,impriale des ,sciences de   
,st4 ,ptersbourg1 xiii4 7#ahef7         
coll4 #abc sq4      #cja ,w4 ,jochelson1
 ,the ,koryak 7,leyden and ,new ,york1  
#aijh71 p4 #bh 7,the        ,jesup      
,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of 
the ,american ,museum of        ,natural

 ,history74      ,m#gg ,demons among the
 ,gilyaks4      #cjb ,l4 ,sternberg1    
8,die ,religion der ,giljaken10 ,archiv 
fr        ,religionswissenschaft1 viii4 
7#aije7 pp4 #dfj sq4      ,m#gh ,demons 
in ancient ,babylonia and ,assyria4     
#cjc ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of    
,babylonia and ,assyria 7,boston1       
#ahih71        pp4 #bfj sqq42 id41 ,die 
,religion ,babyloniens und ,assyriens1  
i4        7,giessen1 #aije7 pp4 #bgh    
sqq42 ,c4 ,fossey1 ,la ,magie           
,assyrienne        7,paris1 #aijb71 pp4 
#bg-cj1 #cd2 ,e4 ,schrader1 ,die        
,keilinschriften und        das ,alte   
,testament1 ,dritte ,auflage1 neu       
bearbeitet von ,h4 ,zimmern        und  
,h4 ,winckler 7,berlin1 #aijb71 pp4 #deh
 sqq4      ,m#gi ,demons in ancient and 
modern ,egypt4      #cjd ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis
 ,budge1 ,osiris and the ,egyptian      
,resurrection 7,london1        #aiaa71  
ii4 #aej4      #cje ,e4 ,w4 ,lane1      
,manners and ,customs of the ,modern    
,egyptians 7,paisley        and ,london1

 #ahie71 chap4 x4 pp4 #bca sq4      #cjf
 ,c4 ,b4 ,klunzinger1 ,bilder aus       
,obergypten1 der ,wste und dem ,rothen  
,meere 7,stuttgart1 #ahgg71 p4 #chb2    
compare ibid4 pp4 #cgd sq4      ,m#hj   
,demons in ancient ,greece and mediaeval
 ,europe4      #cjg ,aristotle1 ,de     
anima1 i4 #e4 #ag2 ,diogenes ,laertius1 
i4 #a4 #bg4      #cjh ,porphyry1 quoted 
by ,eusebius1 ,praeparatio ,evangelii1  
iv4 #bc4      #cji ,elsewhere ,i have   
attempted to shew that a particular     
class of        purifications--those    
observed by mourners--is intended to    
protect the        living from the      
disembodied spirits of the dead 78,on   
certain ,burial        ,customs as      
illustrative of the ,primitive ,theory  
of the ,soul10        ,journal of the   
,anthropological ,institute1 xv4 7#ahhf7
 pp4 #fd        sqq474      #caj ,c4    
,meyer1 ,der ,aberglaube des            
,mittelalters 7,ble1 #ahhd71 pp4        
#aji-aaa1 #aia sq4      ,m#ha ,demons in
 modern ,europe4      #caa ,e4 ,gerard1 

,the ,land beyond the ,forest           
7,edinburgh and ,london1        #ahhh71 
i4 #cbh4 ,the superstitions of the      
,roumanians of ,transylvania        have
 been collected by ,w4 ,schmidt in his  
tract ,das ,jahr und seine        ,tage 
in ,meinung und ,brauch der ,romnen     
,siebenbrgens 7,hermannstadt1           
#ahff74      ,m#hb ,demons in modern    
,armenia4      #cab ,manuk ,abeghian1   
,der armenische ,volksglaube 7,leipsic1 
#ahii71 pp4 #ca        sq4      ,m#hc   
,general clearances of evils take the   
form of expulsions of demons4    ,m#hd  
,general expulsions of demons in        
,melanesia1 ,australia and ,south       
,africa4      #cac ,paul ,reina1 8ber   
die ,bewohner der ,insel ,rook10        
,zeitschrift fr        allgemeine       
,erdkunde1 ,n4,f41 iv4 7#aheh7 p4 #cef4 
#cad ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,im                
,bismarck-,archipel 7,leipsic1 #ahhg71  
p4 #adb2 id41        ,dreissig ,jahre in
 der ,sdsee 7,stuttgart1 #aijg71 p4     
#aai4      #cae ,o4 ,opigez1 8,aperu    

gnral sur la ,nouvelle-,caldonie10      
,bulletin de        la ,socit de        
,gographie 7,paris71 ,,vii4 ,srie1 vii4 
7#ahhf7 p4 #ddc4      #caf ,s4 ,gason1  
in ,journal of the ,anthropological     
,institute1 xxiv4        7#ahie7 p4     
#agj4      #cag ,rev4 ,james ,macdonald1
 ,religion and ,myth 7,london1 #ahic71  
pp4        #ajj-ajb4 ,the writer1 who   
describes the ceremony at first hand1   
remarks that 8there is no periodic      
purging of devils1 nor are more         
spirits than one expelled at a time40   
,he adds3 8,i have noticed              
frequently a connection between the     
quantity of grain that could be         
spared for making beer1 and the         
frequency of gatherings for the         
purging of evils40      ,m#he ,general  
expulsion of demons in ,minahassa1      
,halmahera1 and the ,kei                
,islands4      #cah ,p4 ,n4 ,wilken1    
8,de godsdienst en                      
godsdienstplegtigheden der              
,alfoeren in de ,menahassa op het eiland

 ,celebes10 ,tijdschrift voor           
,nederlandsch ,indi1 ,december #ahdi1   
pp4 #cib-cid2 id41 8,bijdragen          
tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten 
der ,alfoeren in de        ,minahassa10 
,mededeelingen van wege het             
,nederlandsche                          
,zendelinggenootschap1 vii4 7#ahfc7 pp4 
#adi sqq42 ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1         
8,de ,minahasa in #ahbe10 ,tijdschrift  
voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en         
,volkenkunde1 xviii4 7#ahgb7 pp4 #eba   
sq4 ,wilken's first and fuller          
account is reprinted in ,n4 ,graafland's
 ,de ,minahassa 7,rotterdam1            
#ahfi71 i4 #aag-abj4 ,a ,german         
translation of ,wilken's earlier article
        is printed in ,zeitschrift fr   
allgemeine ,erdkunde1 ,n4,f41 x4 7#ahfa7
        pp4 #dc-fa4      #cai ,j4 ,g4   
,f4 ,riedel1 8,galela und ,tobeloresen10
 ,zeitschrift fr        ,ethnologie1    
xvii4 7#ahhe7 p4 #hb2 ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1  
8,het ,shamanisme bij        de ,volken 
van de ,indischen ,archipel10 ,bijdragen

 tot de ,taal- ,land-        en         
,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch ,indie1  
xxxvi4 7#ahhg7 p4 #dhd2 id41            
,verspreide ,geschriften 7,the ,hague1  
#aiab71 iii4 #chc4 ,when smallpox       
is raging1 the ,toradjas of ,central    
,celebes abandon the village and        
live in the bush for seven days in order
 to make the spirit of        smallpox  
believe that they are all dead4 ,but it 
does not appear that        they        
forcibly expel him from the village4    
,see ,n4 ,adriani en ,alb4 ,c4          
,kruijt1 ,de ,bare'e-sprekende          
,toradja's van ,midden-,celebes1 i4     
7,batavia1 #aiab7 p4 #dag4      #cbj ,c4
 ,m4 ,pleyte1 8,ethnographische         
,beschrijving der ,kei-eilanden10       
,tijdschrift van het ,nederlandsch      
,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1          
,tweede ,serie1 x4 7#ahic7 pp4 #hcd sq4 
,a briefer account of the        custom 
had previously been given by ,j4 ,g4 ,f4
 ,riedel 7,de sluik- en                 
kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en 

,papua1 ,the ,hague1 #ahhf1 p4          
#bci74      ,m#hf ,demons of sickness   
expelled in ,nias4      #cba ,j4 ,t4    
,nieuwenhuisen en ,h4 ,c4 ,b4 von       
,rosenberg1 8,verslag omtrent het       
eiland ,nias10 ,verhandelingen van het  
,bataviaasch ,genootschap van           
,kunsten en ,wetenschapen1 xxx4         
7,batavia1 #ahfc7 pp4 #aaf sq42 ,h4 von 
,rosenberg1 ,der ,malayische ,archipel  
7,leipsic1 #ahgh71 pp4 #agd sq4         
,compare ,l4 ,n4 ,h4 ,a4 ,chatelin1     
8,godsdienst en ,bijgeloof der          
,niassers10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische 
,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1          
xxvi4 7#ahhj7 p4 #aci2 ,e4 ,modigliani1 
,un ,viaggio a ,nas 7,milan1            
#ahij71 pp4 #aie1 #chb4 ,the ,dyaks also
 drive the devil at the point of        
the sword from a house where there is   
sickness4 ,see ,c4 ,hupe1 8,korte       
verhandeling over de godsdienst1 zeden1 
enz4 der ,dajakkers10                   
,tijdschrift voor ,nerlands ,indi1      
#ahdf1 dl4 iii4 p4 #adi4      ,m#hg     

,spiritual quarantine against demons of 
sickness in ,nias4      #cbb ,fr4       
,kramer1 8,der ,gtzendienst der         
,niasser10 ,tijdschrift voor            
,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1
 xxxiii4 7#ahij7 pp4 #dhf-dhh4      #cbc
 ,herodotus1 i4 #agb4      ,m#hh ,demons
 of sickness expelled in the ,solomon   
,islands1 ,burma1 ,india1        ,china4
      #cbd ,g4 ,c4 ,wheeler1 8,sketch of
 the ,totemism and ,religion of the     
,people of        the ,islands in the   
,bougainville ,straits 7,western        
,solomon ,islands710        ,archiv fr  
,religionswissenschaft1 xv4 7#aiab7 pp4 
#di1 #ea sq4      #cbe ,c4 ,j4 ,f4 ,s4  
,forbes1 ,british ,burma 7,london1      
#ahgh71 p4 #bcc2 ,shway        ,yoe1    
,the ,burman1 his ,life and ,notions    
7,london1 #ahhb71 i4 #bhb1 ii4          
#aje sqq42 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des
 stlichen ,asien1 ii4 #ih2        ,max  
and ,bertha ,ferrars1 ,burma 7,london1  
#aijj71 p4 #abh4      #cbf 7,sir7 ,j4   
,george ,scott and ,j4 ,p4 ,hardiman1   

,gazetteer of ,upper ,burma        and  
the ,shan ,states1 ,part ii4 vol4 i4    
7,rangoon1 #aija7 p4 #ddj4      #cbg ,t4
 ,h4 ,lewin1 ,wild ,tribes of           
,south-,eastern ,india 7,london1 #ahgj71
 p4        #bbf4      #cbh ,j4 ,j4 ,m4  
de ,groot1 ,the ,religious ,system of   
,china1 vi4 7,leyden1        #aiaj7 pp4 
#iha sqq42 id41 ,the ,religion of the   
,chinese 7,new        ,york1 #aiaj71 pp4
 #dj sqq4      ,m#hi ,demons of sickness
 expelled in ,japan1 ,corea and         
,tonquin4      #cbi ,this description is
 taken from a newspaper-cutting1 which  
was sent        to me from the west of  
,scotland in ,october #ahij1 but without
 the        name or date of the paper4  
,the account1 which is headed 8,exorcism
 of        the ,pest ,demon in ,japan10 
purports to be derived from a series of 
notes on medical customs of the         
,japanese1 which were contributed by    
,dr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,h4 ,hall1 of the ,u4,s4   
,navy1 to the ,sei-,i ,kwai ,medical    
,journal4 ,compare ,lafcadio ,hearn1    

,glimpses of ,unfamiliar ,japan         
7,london1 #ahid71 i4 #adg4      #ccj    
,masanao ,koike1 8,zwei ,jahren in      
,korea10 ,internationales ,archiv fr    
,ethnographie1 iv4 7#ahia7 p4 #aj2 ,mrs4
 ,bishop1 ,korea and her                
,neighbours 7,london1 #ahih71 ii4 #bdj4 
#cca ,lettres difiantes et curieuses1   
,nouvelle dition 7,paris1               
#aghj-aghc71 xvi4 #bjf4 ,it will be     
noticed that in this and the            
preceding case the principle of         
expulsion is applied for the benefit    
of an individual1 not of a whole        
community4 ,yet the method of           
procedure in both is so similar to that 
adopted in the cases under              
consideration that ,i have allowed      
myself to cite them4      ,m#ij ,demons 
of sickness expelled in ,africa1        
,america4      #ccb ,g4 ,zndel1 8,land  
und ,volk der ,eweer auf der            
,sclavenkste in        ,westafrika10    
,zeitschrift der ,gesellschaft fr       
,erdkunde zu ,berlin1        xii4       

7#ahgg7 pp4 #dad sq4      #ccc ,h4      
,hecquard1 ,reise an die ,kste und in   
das ,innere von ,west-,afrika           
7,leipsic1 #ahed71 p4 #dc4      #ccd    
,dr4 ,a4 ,plehn1 8,beobachtungen in     
,kamerun1 ber die ,anschauungen und     
,gebruche einiger ,negerstmme10         
,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xxxvi4     
7#aijd7 pp4 #gag sq4      #cce ,ph4     
,paulitschke1 ,ethnographie             
,nordost-,afrikas3 die materielle       
,cultur der ,dankil1 ,galla und ,soml   
7,berlin1 #ahic71 p4 #agg4      #ccf ,f4
 ,gabriel ,sagard1 ,le ,grand ,voyage du
 ,pays des ,hurons1 pp4 #bgi        sqq4
 7#aie sq4 of the reprint1 ,paris1      
,libraire ,tross1 #ahfe74               
,compare ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afci1
 pp4 #hh-ib 7,canadian reprint1         
,quebec1 #aheh71 from which it appears  
that each man demanded the              
subject of his dream in the form of a   
riddle1 which the hearers        tried  
to solve4 ,the custom of asking riddles 
at certain seasons or        on certain 

special occasions is curious and has not
 yet1 so far as ,i        know1 been    
explained4 ,perhaps enigmas were        
originally        circumlocutions       
adopted at times when for certain       
reasons the        speaker was forbidden
 the use of direct terms4 ,they appear  
to be        especially employed in the 
neighbourhood of a dead body4 ,thus in  
,bolang ,mongondo 7,celebes7 riddles may
 never be asked except when        there
 is a corpse in the village4 ,see ,n4   
,p4 ,wilken en ,j4 ,a4 ,schwarz1        
8,allerlei over het land en volk van    
,bolang ,mongondou10                    
,mededeelingen van wege het             
,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1   
xi4        7#ahfg7 p4 #ceg4 ,in the ,aru
 archipelago1 while a corpse is         
uncoffined1        the watchers propound
 riddles to each other1 or rather they  
think of        things which the others 
have to guess4 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1
 ,de        sluik- en kroesharige rassen
 tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 pp4 #bfg  

sq4 ,in ,brittany after a burial1 when  
the rest have gone to partake        of 
the funeral banquet1 old men remain     
behind in the graveyard1 and            
having seated themselves on mallows1 ask
 each other riddles4 ,see ,a4        de 
,nore1 ,coutumes1 ,mythes et ,traditions
 des ,provinces de ,france              
7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahdf71 p4 #aii4    
,among the ,akamba of ,british ,east    
,africa boys and girls at circumcision  
have to interpret certain               
pictographs cut on sticks3 these        
pictographs are called 8riddles40       
,see ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 ,ethnology of     
,a-,kamba and other ,east ,african      
,tribes 7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 pp4 #ga sq4
 ,in ,vedic times the priests           
proposed enigmas to each other at the   
great sacrifice of a horse4        ,see 
,the ,satapatha ,brahmana1 translated by
 ,j4 ,eggeling1 ,part v4                
7,oxford1 #aijj71 pp4 #cad-caf 7,sacred 
,books of the ,east1 vol4        xliv472
 ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion des     

,veda 7,berlin1 #ahid71 p4        #dge4 
,compare ,o4 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der
 indogermanischen        ,altertumskunde
 7,strasburg1 #aija71 pp4 #fdg sq4      
,among ,turkish        tribes of        
,central ,asia girls publicly propound  
riddles to their        wooers1 who are 
punished if they cannot read them4 ,see 
,h4 ,vambery1        ,das ,trkenvolk    
7,leipsic1 #ahhe71 pp4 #bcb sq4 ,among  
the ,alfoors of        ,central ,celebes
 riddles may only be asked during the   
season when the        fields are being 
tilled and the crops are growing4       
,people meeting        together at this 
time occupy themselves with asking      
riddles and        telling stories4 ,as 
soon as some one has found the answer to
 a        riddle1 they all cry out1     
8,make our rice to grow1 make fat ears  
to        grow both in the valleys and  
on the heights40 ,but during the months 
which elapse between harvest and the    
preparation of new land for             
tillage the propounding of enigmas is   

strictly forbidden4 ,the writer         
who reports the custom conjectures that 
the cry 8,make our rice to        grow0 
is addressed to the souls of the        
ancestors4 ,see ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1        
8,een en ander aangaande het geestelijk 
en maatschappelijk leven van        den 
,poso-,alfoer10 ,mededeelingen van wege 
het ,nederlandsche                      
,zendelinggenootschap1 xxxix4 7#ahie7   
pp4 #adb sq4 ,amongst the               
,toboongkoo of ,central ,celebes riddles
 are propounded at harvest and        by
 watchers over a corpse4 ,see ,a4 ,c4   
,kruijt1 8,eenige ethnografische        
aanteekeningen omtrent de ,toboengkoe en
 de ,tomori10 ,mededeelingen        van 
wege het ,nederlandsche                 
,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7#aijj7 pp4
        #bbc1 #bbh4      ,m#ia ,flight  
from the demons of sickness4      #ccg  
,a4 d',orbigny1 ,voyage dans l',amrique 
,mridionale1 ii4 7,paris and            
,strasburg1 #ahci-ahdc7 p4 #aij4        
#cch ,pedro ,lozano1 ,description       

,chorographica del ,terreno1 ,rios1     
,arboles1        y ,animales de las     
dilatadissimas ,provincias del ,gran    
,chaco1        ,gualamba1 etc4          
7,cordova1 #agcc7 p4 #ajj4      #cci ,h4
 ,h4 ,bancroft1 ,natives ,races of the  
,pacific ,states 7,london1              
#ahge-ahgf71 i4 #ehi note #bei1 quoting 
,arlegui1 ,chrn4 de ,zacatecas1         
pp4 #aeb-c1 #ahb4      #cdj ,bertram ,s4
 ,carey and ,h4 ,n4 ,tuck1 ,the ,chin   
,hills1 i4 7,rangoon1        #ahif7 p4  
#aih4      ,m#ib ,the periodic expulsion
 of evils4 ,annual expulsion of ghosts  
in        ,australia4      #cda ,rev4   
,w4 ,ridley1 in ,j4 ,d4 ,lang's         
,queensland 7,london1 #ahfa71 p4 #dda4  
,compare ,rev4 ,w4 ,ridley1 ,kamilaroi  
7,sydney1 #ahge71 p4 #adi4      ,m#ic   
,annual expulsion of ,tua among the     
,esquimaux of ,alaska4      #cdb ,report
 of the ,international ,polar           
,expedition to ,point ,barrow1          
,alaska 7,washington1 #ahhe71 pp4 #db   
sq4 ,it is said that in ,thule1         

where the sun disappeared below the     
horizon for forty days every            
winter1 the greatest festival of the    
year was held when the luminary         
reappeared4 8,it seems to me10 says     
,procopius1 who records the fact1       
8that though the same thing happens     
every year1 these islanders are         
very much afraid lest the sun should    
fail them altogether40 ,see             
,procopius1 ,de bello ,gothico1 ii4 #ae4
      ,m#id ,annual expulsion of ,sedna 
among the ,esquimaux of ,baffin ,land4  
#cdc ,fr4 ,boas1 8,the ,eskimo10        
,proceedings and ,transactions of the   
,royal        ,society of ,canada for   
#ahhg1 vol4 v4 7,montreal1 #ahhh7 sect4 
ii4 #cf        sq42 id41 8,the ,central 
,eskimo10 ,sixth ,annual ,report of the 
,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington1     
#ahhh71 pp4 #fjc sq4 ,elsewhere1        
however1 the writer mentions a different
 explanation of the custom        of    
harpooning ,sedna4 ,he says3 8,sedna    
feels kindly towards the people         

if they have succeeded in cutting her4  
,if there is no blood on the            
knife1 it is an ill omen4 ,as to the    
reason why ,sedna must be cut1          
the people say that it is an old custom1
 and that it makes her feel             
better1 that it is the same as giving a 
thirsty person drink40 ,see        ,fr4 
,boas1 8,the ,eskimo of ,baffin ,land   
and ,hudson ,bay10 ,bulletin of         
the ,american ,museum of ,natural       
,history1 xv4 7,new ,york1 #aija7 p4    
#aci4 ,however1 this explanation may    
well be an afterthought devised         
to throw light on an old custom of which
 the original meaning had        been   
forgotten4      ,m#ie ,annual expulsion 
of demons among the ,koryaks4      #cdd 
,w4 ,jochelson1 ,the ,koryak 7,leyden   
and ,new ,york1 #aijh71 p4 #hh 7,the    
,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 vol4
 vi41 ,memoir of the ,american          
,museum of ,natural ,history74          
,m#if ,annual expulsion of demons among 
the ,iroquois and the ,cherokees44      

#cde ,above1 p4 #aba4      #cdf         
,relations des ,jsuites1 #afef1 pp4     
#bf-bh 7,canadian reprint1 ,quebec1     
#aheh72 ,j4 ,f4 ,lafitau1 ,murs des     
,sauvages ,ameriquains 7,paris1         
#agbd71 i4 #cfg-cfi2 ,charlevoix1       
,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france1 vi4  
#hb sqq42 ,timothy ,dwight1 ,travels in 
,new ,england and ,new ,york            
7,london1 #ahbc71 iv4 #bja sq42 ,l4 ,h4 
,morgan1 ,league of the        ,iroquois
 7,rochester1 #ahea71 pp4 #bjg sqq42    
,mrs4 ,e4 ,a4 ,smith1        8,myths of 
the ,iroquois10 ,second ,annual ,report 
of the ,bureau of        ,ethnology     
7,washington1 #ahhc71 pp4 #aab sqq42    
,horatio ,hale1        8,iroquois       
,sacrifice of the ,white ,dog10         
,american ,antiquarian1 vii4            
7#ahhe7 pp4 #g sqq42 ,w4 ,m4 ,beauchamp1
 8,iroquois ,white ,dog ,feast10        
ibid4 pp4 #bce sqq4 8,they had one day  
in the year which might be        called
 the ,festival of ,fools2 for in fact   
they pretended to be mad1        rushing

 from hut to hut1 so that if they       
ill-treated any one or        carried   
off anything1 they would say next day1  
#8,i was mad2 ,i had not        my      
senses about me4' ,and the others would 
accept this explanation        and exact
 no vengeance0 7,l4 ,hennepin1          
,description de la ,louisiane1          
,paris1 #afhc1 pp4 #ga sq474      #cdg  
,j4 ,h4 ,payne1 quoted in 8,observations
 on the ,creek and ,cherokee            
,indians1 by ,w4 ,bartram1 #aghi1 with  
prefatory and supplementary notes       
by ,e4 ,g4 ,squier10 ,transactions of   
the ,american ,ethnological             
,society1 vol4 iii4 ,part i4 7#ahec7 p4 
#gh4      ,m#ig ,annual expulsion of    
evils among the ,incas of ,peru4        
#cdh ,c4 ,gay1 8,fragment d'un voyage   
dans le ,chili et au ,cusco patrie des  
anciens ,incas10 ,bulletin de la ,socit 
de ,gographie 7,paris71 ii4             
,srie1 xix4 7#ahdc7 pp4 #bi sq4         
#cdi ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,royal    
,commentaries of the ,yncas1 translated 

by 7,sir7 ,clements ,r4 ,markham        
7,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1            
#ahfi-ahga71        ,part i4 bk4 vii4   
ch4 #f1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bbh sqq42 ,molina1
 8,fables and        ,rites of the      
,yncas10 in ,rites and ,laws of the     
,yncas 7,hakluyt        ,society1       
#ahgc71 pp4 #bj sqq42 ,j4 de ,acosta1   
,history of the        ,indies1 bk4 v4  
ch4 #bh1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cge sq4 7,hakluyt
 ,society1        ,london1 #ahhj74 ,the 
accounts of ,garcilasso and ,molina are 
somewhat        discrepant1 but this may
 be explained by the statement of the   
latter        that 8in one year they    
added1 and in another they reduced the  
number        of ceremonies1 according  
to circumstances40 ,molina places the   
festival in ,august1 ,garcilasso and    
,acosta in ,september4 ,according to    
,garcilasso there were only four runners
 in ,cuzco2 according to        ,molina 
there were four hundred4 ,acosta's      
account is very brief4 ,in        the   
description given in the text features  

have been borrowed from        all three
 accounts1 where these seemed consistent
 with each other4      ,m#ih ,annual    
expulsion of demons among the negroes of
 ,guinea4      #cej ,w4 ,bosman1        
8,description of the ,coast of ,guinea10
 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's        ,voyages and
 ,travels1 xvi4 7,london1 #ahad7 p4     
#djb2 ,pierre ,bouche1        ,la ,cte  
des ,esclaves 7,paris1 #ahhe71 p4 #cie4 
#cea ,rev4 ,j4 ,leighton ,wilson1       
,western ,africa 7,london1 #ahef71 p4   
#bag4      ,m#ii ,annual expulsion of   
demons in ,benin4      #ceb ,narrative  
of ,captain ,james ,fawckner's ,travels 
on the ,coast of        ,benin1 ,west   
,africa 7,london1 #ahcg71 pp4 #ajb sq4  
,m#ajj ,annual expulsion of demons at   
,cape ,coast ,castle4      #cec         
8,extracts from ,diary of the late ,rev4
 ,john ,martin1 ,wesleyan               
,missionary in ,west ,africa1           
#ahdc-ahdh10 ,man1 xii4 7#aiab7 pp4 #ach
        sq4 ,compare ,major ,a4 ,j4 ,n4 
,tremearne1 ,the ,tailed ,head-hunters  

of        ,nigeria 7,london1 #aiab71 pp4
 #bjb sq4     ,m#aja ,annual expulsion  
of evils on the ,niger and in           
,abyssinia4      #ced ,s4 ,crowther and 
,j4 ,c4 ,taylor1 ,the ,gospel on the    
,banks of the ,niger        7,london1   
#ahei71 p4 #cbj4      #cee ,mansfield   
,parkyns1 ,life in ,abyssinia1 ,second  
,edition 7,london1        #ahfh71 pp4   
#bhe sq4     ,m#ajb ,annual expulsion of
 spirits at the yam harvest in ,new     
,guinea4 ,annual        expulsion of    
demons among the ,hos of ,west ,africa  
before eating the        new yams4      
#cef ,george ,brown1 ,d4,d41            
,melanesians and ,polynesian 7,london1  
#aiaj71 pp4        #dac sq4      #ceg   
,as to the ceremony of eating the new   
yams1 see ,spirits of the ,corn         
and of the ,wild1 ii4 #eh sqq4      #ceh
 ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1
 #aijf71 pp4 #cje-cjg4 ,at              
,kotedougou a ,french officer saw a     
number of disguised men called          
dou dancing and performing various      

antics about the houses1 under          
the trees1 and in the fields4 ,hemp and 
palm leaves were sewn on        their   
garments and they wore caps of hemp     
surmounted by a crest of                
red-ochred wood1 sometimes by a wooden  
beak of a bird4 ,he gathered        that
 the ceremony takes place at the        
beginning of winter1 and he             
thought that the processions 8are       
perhaps intended to drive away the      
evil spirits at the season of tillage or
 perhaps also to procure        rain40  
,see ,le ,capitaine ,binger1 ,du ,niger 
au ,golfe de ,guine par le        pays  
de ,kong et le ,mossi 7,paris1 #ahib71  
pp4 #cgh-chj4     ,m#ajc ,annual        
expulsion of demons among the ,hos of   
,north-,eastern ,india at               
harvest4      #cei ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1     
,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal      
7,calcutta1 #ahgb71        pp4 #aif sq4 
,we have seen that among the ,pondos of 
,south ,africa the        harvest       
festival of first-fruits is in like     

manner a period of        licence and   
debauchery4 ,see ,spirits of the ,corn  
and of the ,wild1        ii4 #ff sq4    
,m#ajd ,annual expulsion of demons among
 the ,hindoo ,koosh tribes at harvest4  
,annual expulsion of demons among the   
,khonds at sowing4      #cfj ,major ,j4 
,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh
 7,calcutta1 #ahhj71 p4        #ajc4    
#cfa ,w4 ,macpherson1 ,memorials of     
,service in ,india from the             
,correspondence of the late ,major ,s4  
,c4 ,macpherson 7,london1 #ahfe71       
pp4 #ceg sq4 ,possibly this case belongs
 more strictly to the class        of   
mediate expulsions1 the devils being    
driven out upon the car4                
,perhaps1 however1 the car with its     
contents is regarded rather as a        
bribe to induce them to go than as a    
vehicle in which they are               
actually carted away4 ,anyhow it is     
convenient to take this case            
along with those other expulsions of    
demons which are the                    

accompaniment of an agricultural        
festival4     ,m#aje ,annual expulsion  
of disease in ,chota ,nagpur4 ,annual   
expulsion of        demons among the    
,mossos of ,china4      #cfb ,h4 ,c4    
,streatfield1 8,ranchi10 ,journal of the
 ,asiatic ,society of        ,bengal1   
lxxii4 ,part iii4 7,calcutta1 #aijd7 p4 
#cf4      #cfc ,le ,tour du ,monde1 iii4
 7,paris1 #ahig7 pp4 #bbg sq41 quoting  
,aux        sources de l',irraouaddi1   
d',hano  ,calcutta par terre1 par ,m4   
,e4        ,roux1 ,troisime ,partie4    
,m#ajf ,periodical expulsion of demons  
in ,bali4      #cfd ,r4 van ,eck1       
8,schetsen van het eiland ,bali10       
,tijdschrift voor        ,nederlandsch  
,indi1 ,n4,s41 viii4 7#ahgi7 pp4 #eh-fj4
 ,van ,eck's account        is reprinted
 in ,j4 ,jacobs's ,eenigen tijd onder de
 ,balirs        7,batavia1 #ahhc71 pp4  
#aij sqq4 ,according to another writer1 
each        village may choose its own  
day for expelling the devils1 but the   
ceremony must always be performed at the

 new moon4 ,a necessary                 
preliminary is to mark exactly the      
boundaries of the village               
territory1 and this is done by          
stretching the leaves of a certain      
palm across the roads at the boundaries4
 ,see ,f4 ,a4 ,liefrinck1               
8,bijdrage tot de kennis van het eiland 
,bali10 ,tijdschrift voor               
,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1
 xxxiii4 7#ahij7 pp4 #bdf sq4        ,as
 to the 8dark moon0 it is to be observed
 that some eastern        nations1      
particularly the ,hindoos and the       
,burmese1 divide the        monthly     
cycle of the moon into two parts1 which 
they call the light        moon and the 
dark moon respectively4 ,the light moon 
is the first        half of the month1  
when the luminary is waxing2 the dark   
moon is the        second half of the   
month1 when the luminary is waning4 ,see
 ,francis        ,buchanan1 8,on the    
,religion and ,literature of the        
,burmas10 ,asiatick        ,researches1 

vi4 7,london1 #ahja7 p4 #aga4 ,the      
,balinese have no doubt        derived  
the distinction1 like much else1 from   
the ,hindoos4     ,m#ajg ,annual        
expulsion of the fire-spirit among the  
,shans4 ,annual ceremony        in      
,fiji4 ,annual ceremony in ,tumleo4     
#cfe ,j4 ,anderson1 ,mandalay to ,momien
 7,london1 #ahgf71 p4 #cjh4      #cff   
,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 
,ethnography and ,philology1 by         
,h4 ,hale 7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 pp4   
#fg sq42 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative       
of the ,u4,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1   
,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71      
iii4 #ij sq41 #cdb4 ,according to the   
latter writer1 the sea-slug was         
eaten by the men alone1 who lived during
 the four days in the        temple1    
while the women and boys remained shut  
up in their houses4        ,as to the   
annual appearance and catch of the      
sea-slug in the seas of        ,fiji1   
see further ,b4 ,seeman1 ,viti1 an      
,account of a ,government               

,mission to the ,vitian or ,fijian      
,islands in the ,years #ahfj-ahfb       
7,cambridge1 #ahfb71 pp4 #ei-fa2 ,basil 
,thomson1 ,the ,fijians 7,london1       
#aijh71 pp4 #cbd-cbg4 ,a somewhat       
different account of the appearance     
of the slug 7,palolo veridis7 in the    
,samoan ,sea is given from              
personal observation by ,dr4 ,george    
,brown4 ,he says3 8,this annelid1 as    
far as ,i can remember1 is about #h or  
#ab inches long1 and somewhat           
thicker than ordinary piping-cord4 ,it  
is found only on two mornings        in 
the year1 and the time when it will     
appear and disappear can be             
accurately predicted4 ,as a general rule
 only a few palolo are        found on  
the first day1 though occasionally the  
large quantity may        appear first2 
but1 as a rule1 the large quantity      
appears on the        second morning4   
,and it is only found on these mornings 
for a very        limited period1 viz4  
from early dawn to about seven o'clock1 

i4e4        for about two hours4 ,it    
then disappears until the following     
year1        except in some rare        
instances1 when it is found for the same
 limited        period in the following 
month after its first appearance4 ,i    
kept        records of the time1 and of 
the state of the moon1 for some years1  
with the following result3 that it      
always appeared on two out of the       
following three days1 viz4 the day      
before1 the day of1 and the day         
after the last quarter of the ,october  
moon40 ,see ,george ,brown1 ,d4,d41     
,melanesians and ,polynesians 7,london1 
#aiaj71 pp4 #ace sq4 ,the slug        is
 also caught in the sea off ,samoa1     
according to one account1 at            
intervals of six months4 ,one of its    
appearances takes place on the          
eighth day after the new moon of        
,october4 ,so regular are the           
appearances of the creature that the    
,samoans reckon their time by           
them4 ,see ,e4 ,boisse1 8,les les       

,samoa1 ,nukunono1 ,fakaafo1 ,wallis et 
,hoorn10 ,bulletin de la ,socit de      
,gographie 7,paris71 vi4 ,srie1         
x4 7#ahge7 pp4 #dcj sq4 ,in antiquity   
every year vast shoals of a        small
 fish used to ascend the river          
,olynthiac from the lake of ,bolbe      
in ,macedonia1 and all the people of the
 neighbourhood caught and        salted 
great store of them4 ,they thought that 
the fish were sent to        them by    
,bolbe1 the mother of ,olynthus1 and    
they noted it as a        curious fact  
that the fish never swam higher up than 
the tomb of        ,olynthus1 which     
stood on the bank of the river          
,olynthiac4 ,the shoals        always   
made their appearance in the months of  
,anthesterion and        ,elaphebolion1 
and as the people of ,apollonia 7a city 
on the bank of        the lake7         
celebrated their festival of the dead at
 that season1        formerly in the    
month of ,elaphebolion1 but afterwards  
in the month        of ,anthesterion1   

they imagined that the fish came at that
 time on        purpose4 ,see           
,athenaeus1 viii4 #aa1 p4 #ccd ,f4      
#cfg ,m4 ,j4 ,erdweg1 8,die ,bewohner   
der ,insel ,tumleo ,berlinhafen1        
,deutsch-,new-,guinea10 ,mittheilungen  
der anthropologischen                   
,gesellschaft in ,wien1 xxxii4 7#aijb7  
pp4 #cbi sq4     ,m#ajh ,annual         
expulsion of demons in ,japan4      #cfh
 ,a4 ,humbert1 ,le ,japon illustr       
7,paris1 #ahgj71 ii4 #cbf4      #cfi ,a4
 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen     
,asien1 v4 7,jena1 #ahfi7 p4            
#cfg4      #cgj ,w4 ,g4 ,aston1 ,shinto 
7,london1 #aije71 p4 #cji4      #cga    
,lafcadio ,hearn1 ,glimpses of          
,unfamiliar ,japan 7,london1 #ahid71 ii4
        #dih sq4 ,the writer agrees with
 ,mr4 ,aston as to the formula of       
exorcism--8,oni wa soto6 fuku wa uchi01 
8,devils out6 ,good fortune        in60 
,m#aji ,annual expulsion of poverty and 
demons in ,china1 ,india1 and ,persia4  
#cgb ,eitel1 8,les ,hak-ka10            

,l',anthropologie1 iv4 7#ahic7 pp4 #age 
sq4      #cgc ,panjab ,notes and        
,queries1 ii4 pp4 #adf sq41  #gib       
7,june1 #ahhe72        ,d4 ,c4 ,j4      
,ibbetson1 ,outlines of ,panjab         
,ethnography 7,calcutta1        #ahhc71 
p4 #aai2 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion
 and ,folklore of ,northern             
,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #ahh1 
#bie sq4      #cgd ,john ,richardson1   
,dictionary of ,persian1 ,arabic1 and   
,english1 ,new        ,edition 7,london1
 #ahbi71 p4 liii4     ,m#aaj ,annual    
expulsion of demons in ,china at the end
 of the year4      #cge ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de  
,groot1 ,the ,religious ,system of      
,china1 vi4 7,leyden1        #aiaj7 pp4 
#igg sq4      #cgf ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de       
,groot1 op4 cit4 vi4 #igh4      #cgg ,j4
 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 op4 cit4 vi4 #igi4  
#cgh ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,the        
,religious ,system of ,china1 vi4 #idd  
sqq42        id41 ,the ,religion of     
,china 7,new ,york1 #aiaj71 pp4 #ch sq42
 ,j4 ,h4        ,gray1 ,china 7,london1 

#ahgh71 i4 #bea sq4      #cgi ,w4       
,woodville ,rockhill1 8,notes on some of
 the ,laws1 ,customs1 and               
,superstitions of ,korea10 ,the         
,american ,anthropologist1 iv4 7#ahia7  
p4 #ahe4     ,m#aaa ,annual expulsion of
 demons in ,tonquin4      #chj ,s4      
,baron1 8,description of the ,kingdom of
 ,tonqueen10 in ,j4        ,pinkerton's 
,voyages and ,travels1 ix4 7,london1    
#ahaa7 pp4 #fgc1 #fie        sq42       
compare ,richard1 8,history of          
,tonquin10 ibid4 p4 #gdf4 ,the          
account of the ceremony by ,tavernier   
7whom ,baron criticises very            
unfavourably7 is somewhat different4    
,according to him1 the expulsion        
of wicked souls at the ,new ,year is    
combined with sacrifice to the          
honoured dead4 8,at the beginning of    
every year they have a great            
solemnity in honour of the dead1 who    
were in their lives renowned        for 
their noble actions and valour1         
reckoning rebels among them4            

,they set up several altars1 some for   
sacrifices1 others for the        names 
of the persons they design to honour2   
and the king1 princes1        and       
mandarins are present at them1 and make 
three profound        reverences to the 
altars when the sacrifices are finished2
 but the        king shoots five times  
against the altars where the rebels'    
names        are2 then the great guns   
are let off1 and the soldiers give      
vollies        of small shot1 to put the
 souls to flight4 ,the altars and papers
        made use of at the sacrifices   
are burnt1 and the bonzes and sages go  
to eat the meat made use of at the      
sacrifice0 7,tavernier1 in ,john        
,harris's ,collection of ,voyages and   
,travels1 vol4 i4 7,london1 #agdd7      
p4 #hbc74 ,the translation is somewhat  
abridged4 ,for the ,french              
original1 see ,j4 ,b4 ,tavernier1       
,voyages en ,turquie1 en ,perse1 et aux 
,indes 7,the ,hague1 #agah71 iii4 #bcj  
sq4     ,m#aab ,annual expulsion of     

demons in ,cambodia and ,siam4      #cha
 4 ,aymonier1 ,notice sur le ,cambodge  
7,paris1 #ahge71 p4 #fb4      #chb ,a4  
,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen      
,asien1 iii4 7,jena1 #ahfg7 pp4         
#bcg1 #bih1 #cad1 #ebi sq42 ,mgr4       
,pallegoix1 ,description du ,royaume    
,thai ou ,siam 7,paris1 #ahed71 i4 #beb4
 ,bastian 7p4 #cad71 with whom          
,pallegoix seems to agree1 distinctly   
states that the expulsion takes         
place on the last day of the year4 ,yet 
both say that it occurs in        the   
fourth month of the year4 ,according to 
,pallegoix 7i4 #bec7 the        ,siamese
 year is composed of twelve lunar       
months1 and the first month             
usually begins in ,december4 ,hence the 
expulsion of devils would               
commonly take place in ,march1 as in    
,cambodia4 ,in ,laos the year           
begins in the fifth month and it ends in
 the fifth month of the        following
 year4 ,see ,lieutenant-,colonel        
,tournier1 ,notice sur le ,laos         

,franais 7,hanoi1 #aijj71 p4 #ahg4      
,according to ,professor ,e4 ,seler the 
festival of ,toxcatl1 celebrated in the 
fifth month1 was the old        ,mexican
 festival of the ,new ,year4 ,see ,e4   
,seler1 ,altmexikanische                
,studien1 ii4 7,berlin1 #ahii7 pp4 #aec1
 #aff sq4 7,verffentlichungen        aus
 dem kniglichen ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde1 
vi4 ,heft #b_/d74 ,hence it             
appears that in some calendars the year 
is not reckoned to begin        with the
 first month4      #chc ,ernest ,young1 
,the ,kingdom of the ,yellow ,robe      
7,westminster1 #ahih71        pp4 #ace  
sq4      #chd 8,lettre de ,mgr4         
,bruguire1 vque de ,capse1  ,m4         
,bousquet1        vicaire-gnral         
d',aire10 ,annales de l',association de 
la ,propagation        de la ,foi1 v4   
7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahca7 p4 #ahh4 ,as 
to the temporary        king of ,siam1  
his privileges and the ceremony of      
ploughing which he        performs1 see 
,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #adi-aea4         

,m#aac ,annual reception and expulsion  
of the spirits of the dead in ,japan4   
#che ,charlevoix1 ,histoire et          
description generale du ,japon 7,paris1 
#agcf71 i4 #abh sq42 ,c4 ,p4 ,thunberg1 
,voyages au ,japon 7,paris1             
#agif71 iv4 #ah-bj2 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die  
,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 v4          
7,jena1 #ahfi7 p4 #cfd2 ,beaufort1 in   
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xv4 7#ahhf7 p4 #ajb2 ,a4    
,morgan1 in ,journal of ,american       
,folk-lore1 x4 7#ahig7 pp4 #bdd sq42    
,lafcadio ,hearn1 ,glimpses of          
,unfamiliar ,japan 7,london1 #ahid71 i4 
#ajf-aaj1 ii4 #ejd sq4 ,the             
custom of welcoming the souls of the    
dead back to their old homes        once
 a year has been observed in many lands4
 ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1        ,osiris1  
,second ,edition1 pp4 #cja sqq4         
,m#aad ,annual reception and expulsion  
of the spirits of the dead in ancient   
,greece and ,rome4      #chf ,above1 pp4
 #abc sq4      #chg ,hesychius1 s4v4  2 

1               4 ,photius1 ,lexicon1   
s4vv4         2   444             2    2
                4 ,id41 s4vv4  2        
1               1               4       
,pollux1 viii4 #ada3                 4  
,as to the closing of the temples1 see  
further ,athenaeus1 x4 #di1 p4 #ddg ,c4 
,as to the ,anthesteria in              
general1 see ,e4 ,rohde1 ,psyche#c      
7,tbingen and ,leipsic1 #aijc71 i4      
#bcf sqq41 who rightly adopts           
,hesychius's second explanation of      
4 ,the reasons given by ,august ,mommsen
 for rejecting that        explanation  
betray an imperfect acquaintance with   
popular        superstition 7,feste der 
,stadt ,athen im ,altertum1 ,leipsic1   
#ahih1 p4        #chf1 note #a74        
,compare ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1       
,prolegomena to the ,study        of    
,greek ,religion1 ,second ,edition      
7,cambridge1 #aijh71 pp4 #cb sqq4       
,the ,greeks thought that branches of   
buckthorn 7rhamnus7 fastened        to  
doors or windows kept out witches       

7,dioscorides1 ,de materia              
medica1 i4 #aai74 ,a similar virtue was 
attributed to buckthorn or              
hawthorn by the ancient ,romans and     
modern ,european peasants4 ,see ,a4     
,kuhn1 ,die ,herabkunft des ,feuers und 
des ,gttertranks#b 7,gterslh1           
#ahhf71 pp4 #bji sq42 ,j4 ,murr1        
,pflanzenwelt in der griechischen       
,mythologie 7,innsbruck1 #ahij71 pp4    
#ajd-ajf2 ,the ,magic ,art and the      
,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ed sq41 #aia4
 ,according to ,mr4 ,murr1              
rhamnus is ,lycium europaeum ,l4 ,i     
learn from ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison      
that ,sir ,francis ,darwin believes it  
to be buckthorn 7,rhamnus               
catharticus74 ,in some parts of ,bosnia1
 when peasant women go to pay        a  
visit in a house where a death has      
occurred they put a little              
hawthorn 7,weissdorn7 behind their      
headcloth1 and on returning from        
the house they throw it away on the     
street4 ,they think that if the         

deceased has turned into a vampyre1 he  
will be so occupied in        picking up
 the hawthorn1 that he will not be able 
to follow them to        their homes4   
,see ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 8,vampyre im      
sdslavischen        ,volksglauben10     
,globus1 lxi4 7#ahib7 p4 #cbf4 ,at      
childbirth also the        ,greeks      
smeared pitch on their houses to keep   
out the demons 7          7 who attack  
women at such times 7,photius1          
,lexicon1 s4v4 74 ,to this day the      
,bulgarians try to keep        wandering
 ghosts from their houses by painting   
crosses with tar on        the outside  
of their doors1 while on the inside they
 hang a tangled        skein composed of
 countless broken threads4 ,the ghost   
cannot enter        until he has counted
 all the threads1 and before he has done
 the sum        the cock crows and the  
poor soul must return to the grave4 ,see
 ,a4        ,strausz1 ,die ,bulgaren    
7,leipsic1 #ahih71 p4 #ded4 ,the        
,servians paint        crosses with tar 

on the doors of houses and barns to keep
 out        vampyres4 ,see ,f4 ,s4      
,krauss1 8,vampyre im sdslavischen      
,volksglauben10        ,globus1 lxi4    
7#ahib7 p4 #cbf4 ,in the ,highlands of  
,scotland it was        believed that   
tar put on a door kept witches away4    
,see ,j4 ,g4        ,campbell1          
,witchcraft and ,second ,sight in the   
,highlands and ,islands        of       
,scotland 7,glasgow1 #aijb71 p4 #ac4    
,the ,thompson ,indians of ,british     
,columbia used to bar their houses      
against ghosts by means not unlike      
those adopted by the ,athenians at the  
,anthesteria4 ,when a death had         
happened1 they hung a string of         
deer-hoofs across the inside of the     
house1 and an old woman often pulled at 
the string to make the hoofs            
rattle4 ,this kept the ghost out4 ,they 
also placed branches of        juniper  
at the door or burned them in the fire  
for the same purpose4        ,see ,james
 ,teit1 8,the ,thompson ,indians of     

,british ,columbia0 7,april             
#aijj71 p4 #ccb 7,the ,jesup ,north     
,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of the    
,american ,museum of ,natural ,history74
 ,with the ,athenian use of ropes       
to keep ghosts out of the temples at the
 ,anthesteria we may compare        the 
,siamese custom of roping demons out of 
the city at the ,new ,year              
7above1 p4 #adi74 ,ropes of rice-straw1 
which are supposed to repel             
demoniacal and evil influences1 are hung
 by the ,japanese in front of           
shrines1 and at the ,new ,year they hang
 them also before ordinary              
houses4 ,see ,w4 ,g4 ,aston1 ,shinto    
7,london1 #aije71 pp4 #cce sq4 ,some    
of the ,kayans of ,borneo stretch ropes 
round their houses to keep out          
demons of disease2 in order to do so    
more effectually leaves of a            
certain plant or tree are fastened to   
the rope4 ,see ,a4 ,w4                  
,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch ,borneo1 i4   
7,leyden1 #aijd7 p4 #ddh4      #chh     

,scholiast on ,aristophanes1 ,frogs1    
#bah4      #chi ,j4 ,perham1 8,sea ,dyak
 ,religion10 ,journal of the ,straits   
,branch of        the ,royal ,asiatic   
,society1 ,no4 #ad1 ,december #ahhd1 pp4
 #bif-bih4      #cij ,ovid1 ,fasti1 v4  
#dai-dhf2 ,varro1 quoted by ,nonius     
,marcellus1 p4 #ace        7p4 #adb ed4 
,quicherat71 s4v4 8,lemures02 ,festus1  
p4 #hg ed4 ,c4 ,o4        ,mller1 s4v4  
8,fabam40 ,ovid1 who is our chief       
authority for the        ceremony1      
speaks as if the festival lasted only   
one day 7the ninth        of ,may74 ,but
 we know from the inscribed calendars   
that it lasted        three days4 ,see  
,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,the ,roman         
,festivals of the period        of the  
,republic 7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #ajf    
sqq4     ,m#aae ,annual expulsion of    
,satan among the ,wotyaks and ,cheremiss
 of ,russia4      #cia ,max ,buch1 ,die 
,wotjken 7,stuttgart1 #ahhb71 pp4 #aec  
sq4      #cib ,a4 ,bastian1 ,der ,mensch
 in der ,geschichte 7,leipsic1 #ahfj71  

ii4 #id2        ,p4 v4 ,stenin1 8,ein   
neuer ,beitrag zur ,ethnographie der    
,tscheremissen10 ,globus1 lviii4 7#ahij7
 p4 #bjd4     ,m#aaf ,annual expulsion  
of witches and other powers of evil in  
,christian        ,europe4      #cic    
,vincenzo ,dorsa1 ,la tradizione        
greco-latina negli usi e nelle          
credenze popolari della ,calabria       
,citeriore 7,cosenza1 #ahhd71 pp4 #db   
sq4      #cid ,vincenzo ,dorsa1 ,la     
tradizione greco-latina negli usi e     
nelle        credenze popolari della    
,calabria ,citeriore1 p4 #dh4      #cie 
,j4 ,g4 von ,hahn1 ,albanesische        
,studien 7,jena1 #ahed71 i4 #afj4       
,compare        ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4   
#bfd sq4      #cif ,p4 ,drechsler1      
,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube in     
,schlesien 7,leipsic1                   
#aijc-aijf71 i4 #hf4     ,m#aag         
,widespread fear of witches and wizards 
in ,europe4      #cig ,as to the        
activity of the evil powers on the      
twelve days from        ,christmas to   

,twelfth ,night1 see ,gustav ,bilfinger1
 ,das germanische        ,julfest       
7,stuttgart1 #aija71 pp4 #gd sqq42 as to
 witches on ,st4        ,george's ,eve1 
,may ,eve1 and ,midsummer ,eve1 see ,the
 ,magic ,art and the        ,evolution  
of ,kings1 ii4 #eb sqq41 #abg1 #ccd sqq4
     ,m#aah ,annual expulsion of witches
 on ,walpurgis ,night 7the ,eve of ,may 
,day71        on ,may ,day in the       
,tyrol4      #cih ,g4 ,bilfinger1 ,das  
germanische ,julfest 7,stuttgart1       
#aija71 p4 #gf4      #cii ,j4 ,m4       
,ritter von ,alpenburg1 ,mythen und     
,sagen ,tirols 7,zurich1        #aheg71 
pp4 #bfj sq4 ,compare ,j4 ,e4           
,waldfreund1 8,volksgebruche und        
,aberglauben10 ,zeitschrift fr deutsche 
,mythologie und ,sittenkunde1           
iii4 7#ahee7 p4 #cci4 ,a ,westphalian   
form of the expulsion of evil is        
the driving out the ,sntevgel1          
,sunnenvgel1 or ,sommervgel1        that
 is1 the butterfly4 ,on ,st4 ,peter's   
,day1 #bbnd ,february1 children         

go from house to house knocking on them 
with hammers and singing        doggerel
 rhymes in which they bid the           
,sommervgel to depart4        ,presents 
are given to them at every house4 ,or   
the people of the        house          
themselves go through all the rooms1    
knocking on all the        doors1 to    
drive away the ,sunnenvgel4 ,if this    
ceremony is omitted1        it is       
thought that various misfortunes will be
 the consequence4 ,the        house will
 swarm with rats1 mice1 and other       
vermin1 the cattle will        be sick1 
the butterflies will multiply at the    
milk-bowls1 etc4 ,see        ,j4 ,f4 ,l4
 ,woeste1 ,volksberlieferungen in der   
,grafschaft ,mark        7,iserlohn1    
#ahdh71 p4 #bd2 ,j4 ,w4 ,wolf1 ,beitrge 
zur deutschen        ,mythologie1 i4    
7,gttingen and ,leipsic1 #aheb7 p4 #hg2 
,a4 ,kuhn1        ,westflische ,sagen1  
,gebruche und ,mrchen 7,leipsic1 #ahei71
 ii4 pp4        #aai-aba1  #cff-cgd2    
,montanus1 ,die deutschen ,volksfeste1  

,volksbruche1 und deutscher ,volksglaube
 7,iserlohn1 ,n4,d471 pp4 #ba           
sq42 ,u4 ,jahn1 ,die deutschen          
,opfergebruche bei ,ackerbau und        
,viehzucht 7,breslau1 #ahhd71 pp4       
#id-if4     ,m#aai ,annual expulsion of 
witches on ,walpurgis ,night in ,bavaria
 and        ,voigtland4      #djj       
,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde des  
,knigreichs ,bayern 7,munich1           
#ahfj-ahff71 ii4 #bgb1 iii4 #cjb sq41   
#icd2 ,o4 ,freiherr von                 
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,das festliche  
,jahr 7,leipsic1 #ahfc71 p4 #acg4       
#dja ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,ninth 
,edition1 xx4 #dic4      #djb ,r4       
,eisel1 ,sagenbuch des ,voigtlandes     
7,gera1 #ahga71 p4 #baj4      #djc      
,august ,witzschel1 ,sitten1 ,sagen und 
,gebruche aus ,thringen        7,vienna1
 #ahgh71 pp4 #bfb sq4     ,m#abj ,annual
 8,burning of the ,witches0 on          
,walpurgis ,night in ,bohemia4      #djd
 ,o4 ,freiherr von                      
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender 

aus ,bhmen        7,prague1 preface     
dated #ahfa71 pp4 #baj-bab2 id41 ,das   
festliche        ,jahr 7,leipsic1       
#ahfc71 p4 #acg2 ,alois ,john1 ,sitte1  
,brauch und        ,volksglaube im      
deutschen ,westbhmen 7,prague1 #aije71  
pp4 #gj-gc4      #dje ,alois ,john1 op4 
cit4 p4 #ga4      #djf ,willibald       
,mller1 ,beitrge zur ,volkskunde der    
,deutschen in ,mhren        7,vienna and
 ,olmutz1 #ahic71 p4 #cbd4     ,m#aba   
,annual 8,burning of the ,witches0 on   
,walpurgis ,night in ,silesia4      #djg
 ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und    
,volksglaube in ,schlesien 7,leipsic1   
#aijc-aijf71 i4 #ajh-aaj4 ,with regard  
to the dance of the witches in          
the snow1 it is a common saying in the  
northern district of the ,harz          
,mountains that the witches must dance  
the snow away on the top of        the  
,blocksberg on the first of ,may4 ,see  
,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1            
,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und       
,gebruche 7,leipsic1 #ahdh71 p4 #cgf4   

,at ,dabelow in ,mecklenburg all        
utensils are removed from the           
fireplace on ,walpurgis ,night1 lest the
 witches should ride on them        to  
the ,blocksberg4 ,see ,a4 ,kuhn and ,w4 
,schwartz1 l4c4     ,m#abb ,annual      
8,burning of the ,witches0 on ,walpurgis
 ,night among the ,wends        of      
,saxony4      #djh ,r4 ,wuttke1         
,schsische ,volkskunde 7,dresden1       
#aija71 p4 #cei4      #dji ,lady ,agnes 
,macdonell1 in ,the ,times1 ,may #crd1  
#aiac1 p4 #f4 ,in a        letter to me 
7dated #ca1 ,kensington ,park ,gardens1 
,may #eth #aiac7        ,lady ,macdonell
 was kind enough to give me some further
 particulars        as to the custom4   
,it seems that the boys use their horns 
on ,may ,day        as well as on the   
thirtieth of ,april4 ,processions of    
boys and girls        decorated with    
flowers and leaves1 and carrying flags  
and horns1        went about ,penzance  
on ,may ,day of the present year        
7#aiac74 ,the horns        are straight2

 some of them terminate in a bell-shaped
 opening1        others have no such    
appendage4 ,the latter and plainer are  
the older        pattern4     ,m#abc    
,annual expulsion of witches during the 
,twelve ,days from ,christmas to        
,epiphany4 8,burning out the ,old ,year0
 at ,biggar4      #daj ,p4 ,drechsler1  
,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube in     
,schlesien 7,leipsic1                   
#aijc-aijf71 i4 #ae-ah4 ,with regard to 
the superstitions attached to           
these twelve days or twelve nights1 as  
the ,germans call them1 see             
further ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1    
,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und       
,gebruche 7,leipsic1 #ahdh71 pp4        
#djh-dah2 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,sagen1 ,gebruche  
und ,mrchen aus ,westfalen 7,leipsic1   
#ahei71 ii4 #aaa-aag2 ,l4               
,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus
 dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg             
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 ii4 #bh sqq42 ,m4  
,toeppen1 ,aberglauben aus              
,masuren#b 7,danzig1 #ahfg71 pp4 #fa    

sqq42 ,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche        
,volksaberglaube#b 7,berlin1 #ahfi71 pp4
 #fa sqq41  #gd2 ,e4 ,mogk1             
8,mythologie10 in ,h4 ,paul's ,grundriss
 der germanischen ,philologie1#b        
iii4 7,strasburg1 #aijj7 pp4 #bfj sq42  
,alois ,john1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und       
,volksglaube im deutschen ,westbhmen    
7,prague1 #aije71 pp4 #aa sqq4      #daa
 ,o4 ,freiherr von                      
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender 
aus ,bhmen        7,prague1 preface     
dated #ahfa71 p4 #fjb4      #dab ,w4 ,g4
 ,aston1 ,shinto 7,london1 #aije71 p4   
#cab1 referring to ,lady                
,burton's life of her husband4      #dac
 ,t4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british ,popular
 ,customs 7,london1 #ahgf71 p4 #ejf4    
#dad ,j4 ,g4 ,dalyell1 ,the ,darker     
,superstitions of ,scotland 7,edinburgh1
        #ahcd71 p4 #fgj4     ,m#abd     
,annual expulsion of witches and demons 
in ,switzerland and ,france4      #dae  
,h4 ,usener1 8,italische ,mythen10      
,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4,f41 xxx4      

7#ahge7 p4 #aih2 id41 ,kleine           
,schriften1 iv4 7,leipzic and ,berlin1  
#aiac71 p4 #aji2 ,e4 ,hoffmann-,krayer1 
,feste und ,bruche des                  
,schweizervolkes 7,zurich1 #aiac71 p4   
#aja4      #daf ,h4 ,herzog1            
,schweizerische ,volksfeste1 ,sitten und
 ,gebruche 7,aaran1        #ahhd71 pp4  
#bab sq4      #dag ,a4 de ,nore1        
,coutumes1 ,mythes1 et ,traditions des  
,provinces de        ,france 7,paris and
 ,lyons1 #ahdf71 pp4 #ha1 #he4          
,m#abe ,befana in the ,piazza ,navona at
 ,rome1 in the ,tuscan ,romagna4        
#dah ,as to ,befana and her connexion   
with ,epiphany1 see ,j4 ,grimm1         
,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4 #bcd4 ,the  
personified ,befana1 an ugly but        
good-natured old woman1 is known in     
,sicily as well as ,italy4 ,see ,g4     
,pitr1 ,spettacoli e ,feste ,popolari   
,siciliane 7,palermo1 #ahha71 p4        
#afg4 ,as to the ceremony in the ,piazza
 ,navona1 see ,h4 ,usener1              
8,italische ,mythen10 ,kleine           

,schriften1 iv4 7,leipsic and ,berlin1  
#aiac7 pp4 #ajh sqq41 who rightly       
compares it to the ,swiss               
ceremonies observed at and near ,brunnen
 on ,twelfth ,night4 ,i        witnessed
 the noisy scene in the ,piazza ,navona 
in ,january1 #aija4      #dai ,p4       
,fabbri1 8,canti popolari raccolti sui  
monti della        ,romagna-,toscana10  
,archivio per lo ,studio delle          
,tradizioni        ,popolari1 xxii4     
7#aijc7 pp4 #cef sq42 ,h4 ,usener1      
,kleine        ,schriften1 iv4 #ajh note
 #fb4 ,in the ,abruzzi1 on the evening  
before        ,epiphany1 musicians go   
from house to house serenading the      
inmates        with songs and the       
strains of fiddles1 guitars1 organs1 and
 so        forth4 ,they are accompanied 
by others carrying lanterns1 torches1 or
        burning branches of juniper4    
,see ,antonio de ,nino1 ,usi e ,costumi 
,abruzzesi 7,florence1 #ahgi-ahhc71 ii4 
#agh-ahj2 ,g4 ,finamore1                
,credenze1 ,usi e ,costumi ,abruzzesi   

7,palermo1 #ahij71 pp4 #hh sq4          
,such house to house visitations may be 
a relic of an old expulsion        of   
witches and demons4     ,m#abf          
,expulsion of the ,trows in ,shetland on
 ,up-helly-a'1 the twenty-fourth        
day after ,christmas4      #dbj ,rev4   
,biot ,edmondston and ,jessie ,m4 ,e4   
,saxby1 ,the ,home of a                 
,naturalist 7,london1 #ahhh71 p4 #acf4  
,compare ,county ,folk-lore1 vol4       
iii4 ,orkney and ,shetland ,islands1    
collected by ,g4 ,f4 ,black             
7,london1 #aijc71 p4 #aif4 ,as to the   
,trows1 whose name is doubtless         
identical with the ,norse ,trolls       
7,swedish troll1 ,norwegian             
trold71 see ,edmondston and ,saxby1 op4 
cit4 pp4 #ahi sqq42 ,john               
,jamieson1 ,etymological ,dictionary of 
the ,scottish ,language1 ,new           
,edition1 edited by ,j4 ,longmuir and   
,d4 ,donaldson 7,paisley1               
#ahgi-ahhb71 iv4 #fcj sq41 who observes 
that 8while the ,fairies are            

uniformly represented as social1        
cheerful1 and benevolent beings1        
the ,trows are described as gloomy and  
malignant1 ever prone to        injure  
men40      #dba ,rev4 ,biot ,edmondston 
and ,jessie ,m4 ,e4 ,saxby1 ,the ,home  
of a        ,naturalist 7,london1       
#ahhh71 p4 #adf4 ,compare ,county       
,folk-lore1 vol4        iii4 ,orkney and
 ,shetland ,islands1 collected by ,g4   
,f4 ,black        7,london1 #aijc71 pp4 
#bjb sq4      #dbb ,the ,shetland ,news1
 ,february #ast1 #aiac1 p4 #e4 ,as      
,january #eth is        reckoned        
,christmas in ,shetland1 the celebration
 of ,up-helly-a' falls        on        
,january #bith4 ,see ,j4 ,nicolson1 in  
,the ,world's ,work and ,play1          
,february1 #aijf1 pp4 #bhc sqq4 ,for    
further information relating to         
the ceremony ,i am indebted to the      
kindness of ,sheriff-,substitute        
,david ,j4 ,mackenzie 7formerly of      
,lerwick1 now of ,kilmarnock74          
,according to one of his correspondents1

 the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,willcock of        
,lerwick1 the present elaborate form of 
the ceremony dates only from            
#ahhb1 when the ,duke of ,edinburgh     
visited ,lerwick on naval business1     
and ,up-helly-a' was celebrated in his  
honour on a grander scale than          
ever before4 ,yet ,dr4 ,willcock        
apparently does not deny the antiquity  
of the festival in a simpler form1 for  
in his letter he says3 8,in             
former times an old boat filled with tar
 was set on fire and dragged            
about1 as were also lighted             
tar-barrels40 ,another authority on     
,shetland antiquities1 ,mr4 ,gilbert    
,goudie1 writes to ,sheriff             
,mackenzie that 8the kicking about and  
burning a tar-barrel is very        old 
in ,lerwick40 ,compare ,county          
,folk-lore1 iii4 ,orkney and            
,shetland ,islands1 collected by ,g4 ,f4
 ,black 7,london1 #aijc71 p4 #bje3      
8,formerly1 blazing tar-barrels were    
dragged about the town1 and             

afterwards1 with the first break of     
morning1 dashed over the knab           
into the sea40 ,up-helly-a'1 the        
,shetland name for ,antinmas1 is no     
doubt the same with ,uphalyday1 which   
,dr4 ,j4 ,jamieson 7,dictionary of      
the ,scottish ,language1 ,new ,edition1 
iv4 #fgf7 defines as 8the first         
day after the termination of the        
,christmas holidays10 quoting two       
official documents of ,a4,d4 #adid and  
#aeda respectively4          ,i have to 
thank my friend ,miss ,anderson of      
,barskimming1 ,mauchline1               
,ayrshire1 for kindly calling my        
attention to this interesting relic     
of the past4     ,m#abg ,annual         
expulsion of witches and demons in      
,europe4   ,m#abh ,the expulsion of     
embodied evils4   ,m#abi ,expulsion of  
demons personified by men among the     
,american ,indians4        ,expulsion of
 a demon embodied in an image among the 
,mayas of        ,yucatan4      #dbc    
,stephen ,powers1 ,tribes of ,california

 7,washington1 #ahgg71 p4 #aei4         
#dbd ,g4 ,catlin1 ,north ,american      
,indians1 ,fourth ,edition 7,london1    
#ahdd71        i4 #aff sqq42 id41       
,o-kee-pa1 a ,religious ,ceremony1 and  
other        ,customs of the ,mandans   
7,london1 #ahfg74      #dbe ,diego de   
,landa1 ,relation des ,choses de        
,yucatan 7,paris1 #ahfd71 pp4           
#bjc-bje1 #baa-bae2 ,e4 ,seler1 8,the   
,mexican ,chronology10 ,bureau of       
,american ,ethnology1 ,bulletin #bh     
7,washington1 #aijd71 p4 #ag4 ,as to    
the ,maya calendar see further ,cyrus   
,thomas1 ,the ,maya ,year               
7,washington1 #ahid71 pp4 #ai sqq4      
7,smithsonian ,institution1 ,bureau     
of ,ethnology74     ,m#acj ,expulsion of
 a demon personified by a man among the 
aborigines of        ,queensland4       
,expulsion of demons embodied in        
effigies in ,india and        ,russia4  
,expulsion of demons embodied in animals
 or boys in ,esthonia        and ,spain4
      #dbf ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 ,ethnological 

,studies among the ,north-,west-,central
        ,queensland ,aborigines         
7,brisbane and ,london1 #ahig71 pp4     
#abj-abe4      #dbg ,j4 ,moura1 ,le     
,royaume du ,cambodge 7,paris1 #ahhc71  
i4 #agb4 ,compare        above1 p4 #adi4
      #dbh ,r4 ,h4 ,elliot1 ,experiences
 of a ,planter in the ,jungles of       
,mysore        7,london1 #ahga71 i4 #fj 
sq4      #dbi ,a4 ,c4 ,winter1          
8,russische ,volksbruche bei ,seuchen10 
,globus1 lxxix4        7#aija7 p4 #cjb4 
,for the ,russian ceremony of drawing a 
plough round a        village to keep   
out the cattle plague1 see also ,w4 ,r4 
,s4 ,ralston1        ,songs of the      
,russian ,people1 ,second ,edition      
7,london1 #ahgb71 pp4        #cif sqq4  
#dcj ,j4 ,g4 ,kohl1 ,die                
deutsch-russischen ,ostseeprovinzen     
7,dresden and        ,leipsic1 #ahda71  
ii4 #bgh4      #dca ,folk-lore ,journal1
 vii4 7#ahhi7 p4 #agd4     ,m#aca       
,annual expulsion of the demon of plague
 among the ,khasis of ,assam4           

,the ,tug of ,war probably a contest    
with demons represented by human        
beings4 ,the ,tug of ,war at funerals in
 ,chittagong and ,burma4      #dcb      
,major ,p4 ,r4 ,t4 ,gurdon1 ,the ,khasis
 7,london1 #aijg71 p4 #aeg2 ,a4         
,bastian1 in ,verhandlungen der         
,berliner ,gesellschaft fr              
,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie1 und        
,urgeschichte1 #ahha1 p4 #aea2 id41     
,vlkerstmme am ,brahmaputra 7,berlin1   
#ahhc71 pp4 #f sq4      #dcc ,fr4 ,boas1
 8,the ,central ,eskimo10 ,sixth ,annual
 ,report of the ,bureau        of       
,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahhh71 p4     
#fje4 ,see ,the ,dying ,god1 p4         
#bei4      #dcd ,capt4 ,t4 ,h4 ,lewin1  
,wild ,races of ,south-,eastern ,india  
7,london1        #ahgj71 p4 #ahe4       
#dce ,father ,sangermano1 ,description  
of the ,burmese ,empire 7,rangoon1      
#ahhe71 p4 #ih2 ,capt4 ,c4 ,j4 ,f4 ,s4  
,forbes1 ,british ,burma 7,london1      
#ahgh71 pp4 #baf sq42 ,shway ,yoe1 ,the 
,burman1 his ,life and ,notions         

7,london1 #ahhb71 ii4 #ccd sq41 #cdb4   
,m#acb ,the ,tug of ,war as a           
rain-making ceremony in ,burma and else 
where4      #dcf ,f4 ,e4 ,sawyer1 8,s4  
,swithin and ,rainmakers10 ,the         
,folk-lore ,journal1        i4 7#ahhc7  
p4 #bad4      #dcg ,francis ,buchanan1  
8,on the ,religion and ,literature of   
the ,burmas10        ,asiatick          
,researches1 vi4 7,london1 #ahja7 pp4   
#aic sq4 ,compare                       
,lieut4-,general ,a4 ,fytche1 ,burma    
,past and ,present 7,london1 #ahgh71    
i4 #bdh note #a2 ,max and ,bertha       
,ferrars1 ,burma 7,london1 #aijj71 p4   
#ahd2 7,sir7 ,j4 ,g4 ,scott and ,j4 ,p4 
,hardiman1 ,gazetteer of ,upper ,burma  
and the ,shan ,states 7,rangoon1        
#aijj-aija71 ,part ii4 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ie1
        #bgi4      #dch ,j4 ,g4 ,f4     
,riedel1 ,de sluik- en kroesharige      
rassen tusschen ,celebes        en      
,papua 7,the ,hague1 #ahhf71 p4 #bhb4   
#dci ,for particulars as to the winds of
 ,assam ,i am indebted to my friend     

,mr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,anderson1 formerly of the 
,indian ,civil ,service1 who            
resided many years in that country4     
,m#acc ,the ,tug of ,war between the    
sexes4 ,the ,tug of ,war in ,kamtchatka 
and        ,new ,guinea4      #ddj ,the 
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 ii4 #ih sq4      #dda ,g4 ,w4   
,w4 ,c4 ,baron van ,hoevell1            
8,leti-eilanden10 ,tijdschrift voor     
,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1
 xxxiii4 7#ahij7 p4 #bjg4               
,however1 it is not quite clear from the
 writer's words 78,immers de            
mannen en vrouwen in twee partijeen     
verdeelt en elk een stuk van de         
roten in de hande houdende bootsen toch 
ook door't voor- en                     
achteroverbuigen van't lichaam de       
bewegingen van cohabitie na07           
whether the men and women take opposite 
sides or are distributed        between 
the two4      #ddb ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1 ,the
 ,naga ,tribes of ,manipur 7,london1    
#aiaa71 p4 #afh2        compare #fd4    

8,the ,chirus have six crop festivals1  
one of which1 that        before the    
crops are cut1 is marked by a           
rope-pulling ceremony of        the same
 nature as that observed among the      
,tangkhuls0 7op4 cit4 p4        #agb74  
,the headman 7khullkpa7 8is a sacrosanct
 person1 the        representative of   
the village in all religious rites1 and 
surrounded        by special alimentary1
 social and conjugal gennas0 or taboos  
7op4        cit4 p4 #aaj74      #ddc    
,stewart ,culin1 ,korean ,games         
7,philadelphia1 #ahie71 p4 #ce2 ,a4 ,c4 
,haddon1 ,the ,study of ,man 7,london   
and ,new ,york1 #ahih71 p4 #bgd4        
#ddd ,g4 ,w4 ,steller1 ,beschreibung von
 dem ,lande ,kamtschatka 7,frankfort    
and ,leipsic1 #aggd71 pp4 #cbg sq4      
#dde ,h4 von ,rosenberg1 ,der malayisch 
,archipel 7,leipsic1 #ahgh71 p4 #dfb4   
,m#acd ,the ,tug of ,war in ,morocco to 
procure rain or sunshine4      #ddf     
,edward ,westermarck1 8,the ,popular    
,ritual of the ,great ,feast in         

,morocco10 ,folk-lore1 xxii4 7#aiaa7 pp4
 #aeh sq42 id41        ,ceremonies and  
,beliefs connected with ,agriculture1   
,certain ,dates of        the ,solar    
,year1 and the ,weather in ,morocco     
7,helsingfors1 #aiac71 p4        #abb4  
,m#ace ,games of ball in ,morocco to    
procure rain or sunshine4      #ddg ,e4 
,westermarck1 ,ceremonies and ,beliefs  
connected with ,agriculture1            
,certain ,dates of the ,solar ,year1 and
 the ,weather in ,morocco               
7,helsingfors1 #aiac74 pp4 #aba sq4     
,m#acf ,the ,tug of ,war in ,morocco to 
ensure prosperity4      #ddh ,e4        
,westermarck1 8,the ,popular ,ritual of 
the ,great ,feast in ,morocco10         
,folk-lore1 xxii4 7#aiaa7 p4 #aei4      
,m#acg ,spiritual significance of the   
,tug of ,war4 ,the ,tug of ,war in      
,french        ,guiana1 in              
,north-,western ,india4      #ddi ,h4   
,coudreau1 ,chez nos ,indiens1 ,quatre  
,annes dans la ,guayane        ,franaise
 7,paris1 #ahie71 p4 #bcd4      #dej    

,major ,forbes1 ,eleven ,years in       
,ceylon 7,london1 #ahdj71 i4 #ceh4      
#dea ,sir ,henry ,m4 ,elliot1 ,memoirs  
on the ,history1 ,folk-lore1 and        
,distribution of the ,races of the      
,north-,western ,provinces of ,india1   
edited1 revised1 and re-arranged by     
,john ,beames 7,london1 #ahfi71 i4      
#bce4      #deb ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular   
,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern   
,india        7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4
 #cba4      #dec ,e4 ,westermarck1 8,the
 ,popular ,ritual of the ,great ,feast  
in ,morocco10        ,folk-lore1 xxii4  
7#aiaa7 p4 #aeh4     ,m#ach ,the ,tug of
 ,war in ,shropshire and ,radnorshire4  
,contests for a ball        7soule7 in  
,normandy4      #ded ,john ,brand1      
,popular ,antiquities of ,great         
,britain1 ,new ,edition        7,london1
 #ahhc71 i4 #ib2 ,miss ,c4 ,s4 ,burne   
and ,miss ,g4 ,f4 ,jackson1             
,shropshire ,folk-lore 7,london1 #ahhc71
 pp4 #cai-cba4      #dee ,c4 ,s4 ,burne 
and ,g4 ,f4 ,jackson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cba4 

#def ,jules ,lecur1 ,esquisses du       
,bocage ,normand 7,cond-sur-,noireau1   
#ahhc-ahhg71 i4 #ac1 ii4 #aec-afe4      
,compare ,laisnel de la ,salle1         
,croyances et ,lgendes du ,centre de la 
,france 7,paris1 #ahge71 i4 #hf         
sqq42 and as to the game of soule1 see  
,guerry1 in ,mmoires des                
,antiquaires de ,france1 viii4 7#ahbi7  
pp4 #dei-dfa4      #deg ,in the parish  
of ,vieux-,pont1 in the department of   
,orne1 the man who        is last       
married before the first ,sunday in     
,lent must throw a ball        from the 
foot of the cross4 ,the village lads    
compete with each other        for its  
possession4 ,to win it the lad must     
carry it through three        parishes  
without being overtaken by his rivals4  
,see ,a4 de ,nore1        ,coutumes1    
,mythes1 et ,traditions des ,provinces  
de ,france 7,paris and        ,lyons1   
#ahdf71 pp4 #bdd sq4     ,m#aci ,annual 
sham fights may represent contests with 
demons4      #deh ,j4 ,h4 ,f4           

,kohlbrugge1 8,die ,tenggeresen1 ein    
alter ,javanischer        ,volksstamm10 
,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en      
,volkenkunde van                        
,nederlandsch-,indi1 liii4 7#aija7 pp4  
#adj sq4      #dei ,edouard ,chavannes1 
,documents sur les ,tou-,kiue 7,turcs7  
,occidentaux        7,st4 ,petersburg1  
#aijc71 p4 #adh4     ,m#adj ,demons of  
sickness expelled in a small ship in    
,ceram4      #dfj ,franois ,valentyn1   
,oud- en nieuw ,ost-,indin 7,dordrecht  
and        ,amsterdam1 #agbd-agbf71 iii4
 #ad4 ,l4 de ,backer 7,l',archipel      
,indien1        ,paris1 #ahgd1 pp4 #cgg 
sq47 copies from ,valentyn4     ,m#ada  
,demons of sickness expelled in a small 
ship in ,timor-laut1 in a ship        in
 ,buru1 removed from the persons of the 
sufferers4      #dfa ,j4 ,g4 ,f4        
,riedel1 ,de sluik- en kroesharige      
rassen tusschen ,selebes        en      
,papua 7,the ,hague1 #ahhf71 pp4 #cjd   
sq4      #dfb ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 op4  
cit4 pp4 #be sq4      #dfc ,ibid4 p4    

#ada4      #dfd ,see above1 p4 #aee4    
#dfe ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 op4 cit4 p4   
#gh4      #dff ,ibid4 p4 #ceg4      #dfg
 ,ibid4 pp4 #bff1 #cjd sq41 #cbg1 #ceg2 
,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,natives of            
,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo    
7,london1 #ahif71 i4 #bhd4      #dfh    
,ch4 ,hose and ,w4 ,mc,dougall1 ,the    
,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo 7,london1     
#aiab71 ii4 #abb sq4     ,m#adb ,demons 
of disease expelled in a ship in        
,selangor4      #dfi ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1    
,malay ,magic 7,london1 #aijj71 pp4     
#dcc-dce4 ,for other        examples of 
sending away plague-laden boats in the  
,malay region see        ,j4 ,g4 ,f4    
,riedel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aha1 #baj2 ,r4   
van ,eck1 8,schetsen van        het     
eiland ,bali10 ,tijdschrift voor        
,nederlandsch ,indi1 ,n4,s41 viii4      
7#ahgi7 p4 #ajd2 ,a4 ,bastian1          
,indonesien1 i4 #adg2 ,c4 ,hupe1 8,korte
        verhandeling over de godsdienst1
 zeden1 enz4 der ,dajakkers10           
,tijdschrift voor ,nerlands ,indi1      

#ahdf1 dl4 iii4 #aej2 ,c4 ,f4 ,h4       
,campen1 8,de godsdienstbegrippen der   
,halmaherasche ,alfoeren10              
,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal-      
,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxvii4          
7#ahhb7 p4 #dda2 ,journal of the        
,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic 
,society1 ,no4 #ab1 pp4 #bbi-bca2 ,a4   
,l4 van ,hasselt1 ,volksbeschrijving    
van ,midden-,sumatra 7,leyden1 #ahhb71  
p4 #ih2 ,c4 ,m4 ,pleyte1                
8,ethnographische ,beschrijving der     
,kei-,eilanden10 ,tijdschrift van       
het ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig      
,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 x4        
7#ahic7 p4 #hce2 ,h4 ,ling ,roth1       
8,low's ,natives of ,sarawak10 ,journal 
of        the ,anthropological          
,institute1 xxii1 7#ahic7 p4 #be2 ,c4   
,snouck        ,hurgronje1 ,de ,atjehers
 7,batavia and ,leyden1 #ahic-ahid71 i4 
#dfa        sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,jacobsen1     
,reisen in der ,inselwelt des           
,banda-,meeres        7,berlin1 #ahif71 
p4 #aaj4     ,m#adc ,demons of sickness 

expelled in small ships in ,new ,guinea1
 the        ,philippines1 ,tikopia1 and 
the ,nicobar ,islands4      #dgj ,h4    
,zahn1 8,die ,jabim10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's
 ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4            
7#aiaa7 pp4 #cbi sq4      #dga ,f4      
,blumentritt1 8ber die ,eingeborenen der
 ,insel ,palawan und der                
,inselgruppe der ,talamianen10 ,globus1 
lix4 7#ahia7 p4 #ahc4      #dgb ,j4     
,dumont ,d',urville1 ,voyage autour du  
monde et  la recherche de ,la           
,prouse1 sur la corvette ,astrolabe     
7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 v4 #caa4      #dgc
 ,roepstorff1 8,ein ,geisterboot der    
,nicobaresen10 ,verhandlungen der       
,berliner ,gesellschaft fr              
,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie und         
,urgeschichte 7#ahha71 p4 #dja2 ,w4     
,svoboda1 8,die ,bewohner des           
,nikobaren-,archipels10 ,internationales
 ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 vi4          
7#ahic7 pp4 #aj sq4      #dgd ,p4       
,denjoy1 8,an-nam1 ,mdecins et          
,sorciers1 ,remdes et ,superstitions10  

etc41 ,bulletins de la ,socit           
d',anthropologie de ,paris1 v4 7#ahid7  
pp4 #dji sq4 ,compare 4 ,aymonier1      
,voyage dans le ,laos 7,paris1          
#ahie-ahig71 i4 #aba4 ,for ,siamese     
applications of the same principle      
to the cure of individuals1 see ,a4     
,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des               
stlichen ,asien1 iii4 7,jena1 #ahfg7 pp4
 #bie sq41 #dhe sq4     ,m#add ,demons  
of sickness expelled in the form of     
animals in ,india4      #dge ,panjab    
,notes and ,queries1 i4 p4 #dh1  #dah   
7,january1 #ahhd74      #dgf ,id41 iii4 
p4 #ha1  #cgc 7,february #ahhf74        
#dgg ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and
 ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india         
7,westminster1 #ahif71 i4 #adb4 ,bulls  
are used as scapegoats for              
cholera in ,cashmeer 7,h4 ,g4 ,m4       
,murray-,aynsley1 in ,folk-lore1 iv4    
7#ahic7 pp4 #cih sq474      #dgh        
,major-,general ,sir ,w4 ,h4 ,sleeman1  
,rambles and ,recollections of          
,indian ,official1 ,new ,edition        

7,westminster1 #ahic71 i4 #bjc4         
#dgi ,major-,general ,sir ,w4 ,h4       
,sleeman1 op4 cit4 i4 #aih4     ,m#ade  
,goats and cocks employed as scapegoats 
in various parts of ,india4      #dhj   
,f4 ,fawcett1 8,on the ,saoras 7or      
,savaras71 an ,aboriginal ,hill ,people 
of the ,eastern ,ghats10 ,journal of the
 ,anthropological ,society of           
,bombay1 i4 #bac1 note4      #dha ,mr4  
,y4 ,v4 ,athalye1 in ,journal of the    
,anthropological ,society of            
,bombay1 i4 #cg4      #dhb ,w4 ,crooke1 
,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of    
,northern ,india        7,westminster1  
#ahif71 i4 #afi sq42 id41 ,tribes and   
,castes of the        ,north-,western   
,provinces and ,oudh 7,calcutta1 #ahif71
 iii4 #dde4      #dhc ,kausika ,sutra1  
xiv4 #bb 7,w4 ,caland1 ,altindisches    
,zauberritual1        ,amsterdam1 #aijj1
 p4 #bi72 ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion
 des ,veda        7,berlin1 #ahid71 p4  
#dih4      #dhd ,kausika ,sutra1 xviii4 
#af 7,w4 ,caland1 ,altindisches         

,zauberritual1        pp4 #dd sq474     
,m#adf ,cows1 toads1 and llamas as      
scapegoats in ,africa and ,america4     
#dhe ,dom ,daniel ,sour ,dharim ,dena 7a
 ,dinka convert71 in ,annales de la     
,propagation de la ,foi1 lx4 7#ahhh7 pp4
 #eg sq4      #dhf ,h4 ,seidel1         
8,krankheit1 ,tod1 und ,begrbnis bei den
 ,togonegern10        ,globus1 lxxii4   
7#ahig7 p4 #bd4      #dhg ,d4 ,forbes1  
8,on the ,aymara ,indians of ,bolivia   
and ,peru10 ,journal of        the      
,ethnological ,society of ,london1 vol4 
ii4 ,no4 #c 7,october1 #ahgj71        p4
 #bcg4     ,m#adg ,goddess of disease   
expelled in a toy chariot4      #dhh    
,jivangi ,jimshedji ,modi1 ,b4,a41 8,on 
the ,chariot of the ,goddess1 a         
,supposed ,remedy for driving out an    
,epidemic10 ,journal of the             
,anthropological ,society of ,bombay1   
vol4 iv4 ,no4 #h 7,bombay1 #ahii71      
pp4 #dbj-dbd2 ,captain ,c4 ,eckford     
,luard1 in ,census of ,india1 #aija1    
vol4 xix41 ,central ,india 7,lucknow1   

#aijb71 p4 #gh4     ,m#adh ,human       
scapegoats in ,uganda4      #dhi ,rev4  
,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1    
#aiaa71 p4 #cdb4      #dij ,rev4 ,j4    
,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda1 pp4 #aji1 #bjj4 
,as to the perpetual        fire at the 
entrance to a king's enclosure1 see id4 
pp4 #ajc1 #aig1        #bjb sq4         
,m#adi ,human scapegoats in ,china and  
,india4 ,indian ceremony of sliding down
        a rope4      #dia ,j4 ,h4 ,gray1
 ,china 7,london1 #ahgh71 ii4 #cjf4     
#dib ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 i4 p4 
#ge1  #eih 7,april1 #ahhd72 ,w4         
,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and         
,folk-lore of ,northern ,india          
7,westminster1 #ahif71 i4 #agj4         
#dic ,rev4 ,f4 ,hahn1 8,some ,notes on  
the ,religion and ,superstitions of the 
,ors0 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society 
of ,bengal1 lxxii4 ,part iii4           
7,calcutta1 #aijd7 p4 #ag2 compare ,h4  
,c4 ,streatfield1 ibid4 p4 #cg4         
#did ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1
 i4 pp4 #ee1 #gd sq41 #gg1  #dag1       

#dii1 #eaf 7,july and ,august1 #ahia71  
quoting ,g4 ,w4 ,traill1 ,statistical   
,sketch of ,kumaun1 pp4 #fh sq41 and    
,moorcroft and ,trebeck1 ,travels       
in the ,himalayan ,provinces of         
,hindustan and the ,panjb1 i4 #ag sq4   
,compare ,e4 ,t4 ,atkinson1 ,the        
,himalayan ,districts of the            
,north-,western ,provinces of ,india1   
ii4 7,allahabad1 #ahhd71 pp4 #hcd       
sq4     ,m#aej ,tibetan ,new ,year      
ceremony of sliding down a rope4        
#die ,w4 ,woodville ,rockhill1 8,tibet1 
,a ,geographical1 ,ethnographical1 and  
,historical ,sketch1 derived from       
,chinese ,sources10 ,journal of the     
,royal ,asiatic ,society for #ahia      
7,london1 #ahia71 p4 #bji4 ,compare     
,hue1        ,souvenirs d'un ,voyage    
dans la ,tartarie et le ,thibet1 ,sixime
        dition 7,paris1 #ahgh71 ii4 #cgi
 sq4 ,for a description of ,potala      
,hill and its grand palace1 see ,l4     
,austine ,waddell1 ,lhasa and its       
,mysteries 7,london1 #aije71 pp4 #ccj   

sqq41 #chg sqq4     ,m#aea ,periodic    
expulsion of evils in a material        
vehicle4 ,periodic        expulsion of  
spirits in rafts from ,perak4      #dif 
,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic 
,society1 ,notes and ,queries1          
,no4 #c 7,singapore1 #ahhf71 pp4 #hj sq4
     ,m#aeb ,annual expulsion of evils  
in small ships in the ,indian           
,archipelago4      #dig ,j4 ,g4 ,f4     
,riedel1 ,de sluik- en kroesharige      
rassen tusschen ,selebes        en      
,papua 7,the ,hague1 #ahhf71 p4 #cic4   
#dih ,a4 ,bastian1 ,der ,mensch in der  
,geschichte 7,leipsic1 #ahfj71 ii4 #ic4 
#dii ,ivor ,h4 ,n4 ,evans1 8,notes on   
the ,religious ,beliefs1 ,superstitions1
        ,ceremonies and ,tabus of the   
,dusuns of the ,tuaran and ,tempassuk   
,districts1 ,british ,north ,borneo10   
,journal of the ,royal                  
,anthropological ,institute1 xlii4      
7#aiab7 pp4 #chb-chd4     ,m#aec ,annual
 expulsion of demons in little ships in 
the ,nicobar ,islands4      #ejj ,a4    

,bastian1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ia4      #eja   
,v4 ,solomon1 8,extracts from ,diaries  
kept in ,car ,nicobar10 ,journal of     
the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 
7#aijb7 pp4 #bbh sq4     ,m#aed ,annual 
expulsion of embodied evils in ,india1  
,china1 and ,corea4        ,annual      
expulsion or destruction of demons      
embodied in images in        ,tibet4    
#ejb ,captain ,f4 ,wilford1 8,an ,essay 
on the ,sacred ,isles in the ,west10    
,asiatic ,researches1 ix4 7,london1     
#ahji7 pp4 #if sq4      #ejc ,j4 ,h4    
,gray1 ,china 7,london1 #ahgh71 ii4 #cjf
 sq4      #ejd ,w4 ,woodville ,rockhill1
 8,notes on some of the ,laws1 ,customs1
 and        ,superstitions of ,corea10  
,the ,american ,anthropologist1 iv4     
7#ahia7        p4 #ahe2 ,mrs4 ,bishop1  
,korea and her ,neighbours 7,london1    
#ahih71 ii4        #ef4      #eje       
,stewart ,culin1 ,korean ,games         
7,philadelphia1 #ahie71 p4 #ab4         
#ejf ,narratives of the ,mission of     
,george ,bogle to ,tibet and of the     

,journey of ,thomas ,manning to ,lhasa1 
edited by 7,sir7 ,clements ,r4          
,markham 7,london1 #ahgf71 pp4 #ajf sq4 
,compare ,sarat ,chandra ,das1          
,journey to ,lhasa and ,central ,tibet  
7,london1 #aijb71 p4 #aaf4      #ejg    
,missionary ,fage1 in ,annales de la    
,propagation de la ,foi1 xxix4          
7#aheg7 p4 #cba4     ,m#aee ,biennial   
expulsion of demons embodied in effigies
 at ,old ,calabar4      #ejh ,t4 ,j4    
,hutchinson1 ,impressions of ,western   
,africa 7,london1 #aheh71 p4            
#afb2 ,rev4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,religion   
and ,myth 7,london1 #ahic71 pp4         
#aje-ajg2 ,hugh ,goldie1 ,calabar and   
its ,mission1 ,new ,edition             
7,edinburgh and ,london1 #aija71 pp4 #di
 sq42 ,miss ,mary ,h4 ,kingsley1        
,travels in ,west ,africa 7,london1     
#ahig71 p4 #die2 ,major ,a4 ,g4         
,leonard1 ,the ,lower ,niger and its    
,tribes 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4           
#ddi-dea4 ,the ceremony takes place both
 in ,creek ,town and ,duke ,town4       

,the date of it1 according to ,miss     
,kingsley1 is either every ,november    
or every second ,november2 but with the 
exception of ,mr4 ,macdonald1        who
 does not mention the period1 the other 
authorities agree in        describing  
the ceremony as biennial4 ,according to 
,major ,leonard it        is celebrated 
usually towards the end of the year4    
,miss ,kingsley        speaks of the    
effigies being set up in the houses     
themselves2 but        all the other    
writers say or imply that they are set  
up at the doors        of the houses in 
the streets4 ,according to ,mr4 ,goldie 
the spirits        expelled are 8all the
 ghosts of those who have died since the
 last        lustration40 ,he makes no  
mention of devils4     ,m#aef ,annual   
expulsion of demons embodied in effigies
 at ,porto ,novo4      #eji ,missionary 
,f4 ,terrien1 in ,annales de la         
,propagation de la ,foi1        liv4    
7#ahhb7 pp4 #cge-cgg4     ,m#aeg ,annual
 expulsion of embodied evils among the  

,hos of ,togoland4      #eaj ,spirits of
 the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ii4 #eh    
sqq4      #eaa ,jakob ,spieth1 ,die     
,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1 #aijf71 pp4       
#cje-cjg4 ,we have        seen 7above1  
p4 #aic7 that these people used a toad  
as a scapegoat to        free them from 
the influenza4     ,m#aeh ,annual       
expulsion of embodied evils among the   
gypsies4      #eab ,h4 von ,wlislocki1  
,volksglaube und religiser ,brauch der  
,zigeuner        7,mnster i4 ,w41       
#ahia71 pp4 #fe sq4     ,m#aei ,annual  
expulsion of evils in an animal         
scapegoat among the ,garos of           
,assam4      #eac ,major ,a4 ,playfair1 
,the ,garos 7,london1 #aiji71 p4 #ib4   
,m#afj ,dogs as scapegoats in ,india1   
,scotland and ,america4 ,the ,jewish    
scapegoat4      #ead ,e4 ,t4 ,atkinson1 
8,notes on the ,history of ,religion in 
the ,himalaya of        the ,north-,west
 ,provinces10 ,journal of the ,asiatic  
,society of        ,bengal1 liii4 ,pt4  
i4 7#ahhd7 p4 #fb2 id41 ,the ,himalayan 

,districts        of the ,north-,western
 ,provinces of ,india1 ii4 7,allahabad1 
#ahhd7 p4        #hga4      #eae        
,scotland and ,scotsmen in the          
,eighteenth ,century1 from the ,,mss4 of
        ,john ,ramsay of ,ochtertyre1   
edited by ,alex4 ,allardyce 7,edinburgh1
        #ahhh71 ii4 #dci4      #eaf ,w4 
,m4 ,beauchamp1 8,the ,iroquois ,white  
,dog ,feast10 ,american                 
,antiquarian1 vii4 7#ahhe7 p4 #bcg4     
#eag ,ibid4 p4 #bcf2 ,t4 ,dwight1       
,travels in ,new ,england and ,new ,york
        7,london1 #ahbc71 iv4 #bjb4     
#eah ,above1 p4 #abg4      #eai         
,leviticus xvi4 ,the word translated    
8scapegoat0 in the ,authorised          
,version is ,azazel1 which appears      
rather to be the name of a bad          
angel or demon1 to whom the goat was    
sent away4 8,in later ,jewish           
literature 7,book of ,enoch7 ,azazel    
appears as the prince of the            
fallen angels1 the offspring of the     
unions described in ,gen4 vi4 #a        

ff4 ,the familiar rendering             
#8scapegoat1' i4e4 the goat which is    
allowed to escape1 goes back to the     
caper emissarius of the        ,vulgate1
 and is based on an untenable etymology0
 7,professor ,a4 ,r4 ,s4                
,kennedy1 in his commentary on          
,leviticus xvi4 #h1 in the ,century     
,bible74 ,there is some ground for      
thinking that the animal was            
killed by being thrown over a certain   
crag that overhangs a rocky        chasm
 not far from ,jerusalem4 ,see          
,encyclopdia ,biblica1 ed4 ,t4 ,k4      
,cheyne and ,j4 ,s4 ,black1 vol4 i4     
7,london1 #ahii7 coll4 #cid sqq41       
s4v4 8,azazel40 ,modern ,jews sacrifice 
a white cock on the eve of        the   
,day of ,atonement1 nine days after the 
beginning of their ,new        ,year4   
,the father of the family knocks the    
cock thrice against his        own head1
 saying1 8,let this cock be a substitute
 for me1 let it take        my place1   
let death be laid upon this cock1 but a 

happy life        bestowed on me and on 
all ,israel40 ,then he cuts its throat  
and        dashes the bird violently on 
the ground4 ,the intestines are thrown  
on the roof of the house4 ,the flesh of 
the cock was formerly given        to   
the poor4 ,see ,j4 ,buxtorf1 ,synagoga  
,judaica 7,ble1 #affa71 ch4        xxv4 
pp4 #ejh sqq4     ,m#afa ,human         
scapegoats formerly put to death every  
year in ,africa4      #ebj ,s4 ,crowther
 and ,j4 ,c4 ,taylor1 ,the ,gospel on   
the ,banks of the ,niger                
7,london1 #ahei71 pp4 #cdc-cde4 ,compare
 ,j4 ,f4 ,schn and ,s4 ,crowther1       
,journals 7,london1 #ahdh71 pp4 #dh sq4 
,the account of the custom by        ,j4
 ,africanus ,b4 ,horton 7,west ,african 
,countries and ,peoples1 pp4        #ahe
 sq47 is taken entirely from ,taylor4   
#eba ,major ,a4 ,g4 ,leonard1 ,the      
,lower ,niger and its ,tribes 7,london1 
#aijf71 pp4 #ddf sqq4      #ebb ,an     
,igbodu is a sacred grove in which      
oracles are given4 ,it is        divided

 into three compartments by fences of   
palm branches and the        omu shrub4 
,into the first compartment women and   
uninitiated men        may enter2 into  
the other two only priestly officials   
are permitted1        according to their
 rank in the hierarchy1 to enter4 ,see  
,bishop ,james        ,johnson1 8,yoruba
 ,heathenism10 quoted by ,r4 ,e4        
,dennett1 ,at the ,back        of the   
,black ,man's ,mind 7,london1 #aijf71 p4
 #bed4      #ebc ,bishop ,james         
,johnson1 op4 cit4 p4 #bfc4 ,bishop     
,johnson is a native        ,african4   
,it does not appear whether the         
sacrifice which he describes        is  
occasional or periodical4     ,m#afb    
,human scapegoats formerly put to death 
every year in ,siam4 ,annual            
human scapegoats in ,japan and ,sumatra4
      #ebd ,turpin1 8,history of ,siam10
 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and       
,travels        7,london1 #ahjh-ahad71  
ix4 #egi4      #ebe ,the oho-harahi or  
8,great ,purification0 is a ceremony1   

which used        to be performed in the
 ,japanese capital twice every year1    
namely on        the last days of the   
sixth and twelfth month4 ,it included a 
preliminary lustration1 expiatory       
offerings1 and the recital of a         
norito or formula 7not a prayer71 in    
which the ,mikado1 by virtue        of  
an authority transmitted to him from the
 ,sun-goddess1 pronounced        to his 
ministers and people the absolution and 
remission of their        sins4 ,see ,w4
 ,g4 ,aston1 ,shinto 7,london1 #aije71  
pp4 #bid sqq4 ,the        writer adds   
7p4 #bie73 8,the ,chinese had an        
oho-harahi1 defined by        ,mr4      
,giles in his ,chinese ,dictionary as   
#8a religious ceremony of               
purification performed in spring and    
autumn1 with a view to secure           
divine protection for agricultural      
interests4' 0 ,the popular              
celebrations of the first of ,may and   
the first of ,november in ,europe       
seem to be relics of similar biennial   

purifications4      #ebf ,w4 ,g4 ,aston1
 ,shinto1 pp4 #cjh sq4      #ebg ,w4    
,kdding1 8,die ,batakschen ,gtter und   
ihr ,verhltnis zum                      
,brahmanismus10 ,allgemeine             
,missions-,zeitschrift1 xii4 7#ahhe7 pp4
        #dgf1 #dgh4     ,m#afc ,annual  
human scapegoats in ,europe4 ,the       
expulsion of ,posterli in               
,switzerland4      #ebh ,aeneas         
,sylvius1 ,opera 7,ble1 #aega71 pp4 #dbc
 sq4      #ebi ,h4 ,usener1 8,italische 
,mythen10 ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4,f41 
xxx4        7#ahge7 p4 #aih2 id41       
,kleine ,schriften1 iv4 7,leipsic and   
,berlin1        #aiac7 pp4 #aji sq4 ,the
 custom seems to have been revived in   
the        latter part of the nineteenth
 century2 perhaps it may still be       
observed4 ,see ,h4 ,herzog1             
,schweizerische ,volksfeste1 ,sitten und
        ,gebruche 7,aarau1 #ahhd71 pp4  
#bic sq42 ,e4 ,hoffmann-,krayer1 ,feste 
und ,bruche des ,schweizervolkes        
7,zurich1 #aiac71 p4 #aja4     ,m#afd   

,annual expulsion of the devil1         
personified by a man1 from ,munich on   
,ascension ,day4      #ecj ,l4 ,curtius1
 8,christi ,himmelfahrt10 ,archiv fr    
,religionswissenschaft1 xiv4 7#aiaa7 p4 
#cjg1 quoting the ,mnchener             
,neuesten ,nachrichten1 ,no4 #bce1 ,may 
#bast1 #aiji4     ,m#afe ,the pardoned  
criminal at ,rouen on ,ascension ,day   
may have been a        public scapegoat4
      #eca ,the ,magic ,art and the     
,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #afd sqq4     
#ecb ,on the use of eponymous           
magistrates as annual scapegoats see    
above1        pp4 #ci-da4     ,m#aff    
,divine animals as scapegoats in ,india 
and ancient ,egypt4      #ecc ,j4       
,thomas ,phillips1 ,account of the      
,religion1 ,manners1 and ,learning      
of the ,people of ,malabar 7,london1    
#agag71 pp4 #f1 #ab sq4      #ecd       
,herodotus1 ii4 #ci4      #ece          
,herodotus1 ii4 #ch-da2 ,sir ,j4        
,gardner ,wilkinson1 ,manners and       
,customs        of the ,ancient         

,egyptians1 ,new ,edition 7,london1     
#ahgh71 iii4 #djc        sqq4      #ecf 
,herodotus1 l4c4 ,as to the worship of  
sacred bulls in ancient        ,egypt1  
see further ,spirits of the ,corn and of
 the ,wild1 ii4 #cd        sqq4         
#ecg ,spirits of the ,corn and of the   
,wild1 ii4 #age sqq41 #cad sq4          
,m#afg ,divine men as scapegoats among  
the ,gonds of ,india and the ,albanians 
of the ,caucasus4      #ech ,panjab     
,notes and ,queries1 ii4 p4 #ed1  #cce  
7,december1 #ahhd74      #eci ,strabo1  
xi4 #d4 #g1 p4 #ejc4 ,for the custom of 
standing upon a        sacrificed       
victim1 compare ,demosthenes1 ,or4      
xxiii4 #fh1 p4 #fdb2        ,pausanias1 
iii4 #bj4 #i4     ,m#afh ,annual human  
scapegoats in ,tibet4 ,the ,jalno1 the  
temporary ruler of        ,lhasa4       
,m#afi ,the ,jalno and the ,king of the 
,years4 ,expulsion of the ,king of the  
,years4      #edj ,the ceremony referred
 to is perhaps the one performed on the 
tenth        day1 as described in the   

text4      #eda 8,report of a ,route    
,survey by ,pundit--from ,nepal to      
,lhasa10 etc41        ,journal of the   
,royal ,geographical ,society1 xxxviii4 
7#ahfh7 pp4        #afg1 #agj sq42      
8,four ,years ,journeying through ,great
 ,tibet1 by one        of the           
,trans-,himalayan ,explorers10          
,proceedings of the ,royal              
,geographical ,society1 ,n4,s4 vii4     
7#ahhe7 pp4 #fg sq42 ,w4 ,woodville     
,rockhill1 8,tibet1 a ,geographical1    
,ethnographical1 and ,historical        
,sketch1 derived from ,chinese          
,sources10 ,journal of the ,royal       
,asiatic        ,society for #ahia      
7,london1 #ahia71 pp4 #baa sq42 ,l4 ,a4 
,waddell1 ,the        ,buddhism of      
,tibet 7,london1 #ahie71 pp4 #ejd sqq41 
#eab sq42 ,j4 ,l4        ,dutreuil de   
,rhins1 ,mission ,scientifique dans la  
,haute ,asie        #ahij-ahie3 ,rcit du
 ,voyage 7,paris1 #ahig71 pp4 #beg sq4  
,the        accounts supplement each    
other1 though they differ in some       

particulars4 ,i have endeavoured to     
combine them4 ,according to ,mr4        
,rockhill's account1 which is drawn from
 ,chinese sources1 at one        point  
of the ceremonies the troops march      
thrice round the temple and        fire 
volleys of musketry to drive away the   
devil4 ,with the like        intent they
 discharge a great old cannon1 which    
bears the        inscription1 8,my power
 breaks up and destroys rebellion40 ,the
 same        account speaks of a fencing
 with battle-axes by a troop of         
boy-dancers1 a great illumination of the
 cathedral with lanterns1        and its
 decoration with figures made out of    
butter and flour to        represent    
men1 animals1 dragons1 etc42 also it    
makes mention of a        horse-race and
 a foot-race1 both run by boys4 ,the    
clerical invasion        of the capital 
at this season is graphically described 
by an        eye-witness4 ,see ,huc1    
,souvenirs d'un ,voyage dans la         
,tartarie et le        ,thibet1 ,sixime 

dition 7,paris1 #ahgh71 ii4 #chj sq4    
,m#agj ,the ,grand ,lama1 the ,jalno1   
and the ,king of the ,years in their    
relations to each other4 ,probability   
that of old the ,tibetan                
scapegoat was put to death as a         
substitute for the ,grand ,lama4        
,m#aga ,general remarks4   ,m#agb       
,first1 the immediate and the mediate   
expulsions of evil are        identical 
in intention4   ,m#agc ,second1 the     
annual expulsion of evil generally      
coincides with some        well-marked  
change of season1 such as the beginning 
or end of        winter1 the beginning  
or end of the rainy season1 etc4        
,m#agd ,third1 the annual expulsion of  
evil is commonly preceded or followed   
by a period of general license4         
#edb ,in the ,dassera festival1 as      
celebrated in ,nepaul1 we seem to have  
another instance of the annual expulsion
 of demons preceded by a        time of 
license4 ,the festival occurs at the    
beginning of ,october and        lasts  

ten days4 8,during its continuance there
 is a general holiday        among all  
classes of the people4 ,the city of     
,kathmandu at this time        is       
required to be purified1 but the        
purification is effected rather         
by prayer than by water-cleansing4 ,all 
the courts of law are closed1        and
 all prisoners in jail are removed from 
the precincts of the        city4444    
,the ,kalendar is cleared1 or there is a
 jail-delivery always        at the     
,dassera of all prisoners40 ,this seems 
a trace of a period of        license4  
,at this time 8it is a general custom   
for masters to make an        annual    
present1 either of money1 clothes1      
buffaloes1 goats1 etc41 to        such  
servants as have given satisfaction     
during the past year4 ,it is        in  
this respect1 as well as in the feasting
 and drinking which goes        on1     
something like our #8boxing-time' at    
,christmas40 ,on the seventh        day 
at sunset there is a parade of all the  

troops in the capital1        including 
the artillery4 ,at a given signal the   
regiments begin to        fire1 the     
artillery takes it up1 and a general    
firing goes on for        about twenty  
minutes1 when it suddenly ceases4 ,this 
probably        represents the expulsion
 of the demons4 8,the grand cutting of  
the        rice-crops is always         
postponed till the ,dassera is over1 and
        commences all over the valley   
the very day afterwards40 ,see the      
description of the festival in ,h4 ,a4  
,oldfield's ,sketches from        ,nipal
 7,london1 #ahhj71 ii4 #cdb-cea4 ,on the
 ,dassera in ,india1 see ,j4        ,a4 
,dubois1 ,murs1 ,institutions et        
,crmonies des ,peuples de l',inde       
7,paris1 #ahbe71 ii4 #cbi sqq4 ,the     
,besisi of the ,malay ,peninsula hold   
a regular carnival at the end of the    
rice-harvest1 when they are        said 
to be allowed to exchange wives4 ,see   
,w4 ,w4 ,skeat and ,c4 ,o4              
,blagden1 ,pagan ,races of the ,malay   

,peninsula 7,london1 #aijf71 ii4        
#gj1 #gf1 #ade1 compare #abj sq4        
,amongst the ,swahili of ,east ,africa  
,new ,year's ,day was formerly a day of 
general license1 8every man did         
as he pleased4 ,old quarrels were       
settled1 men were found dead on the     
following day1 and no inquiry was       
instituted about the matter40 ,see      
,ch4 ,new1 ,life1 ,wanderings1 and      
,labours in ,eastern ,africa 7,london1  
#ahgc71 p4 #fe2 and ,the ,golden        
,bough1#b iii4 #bej4 ,an annual period  
of        anarchy and license1 lasting  
three days1 is reported by ,borelli to  
be observed by some of the ,gallas4 ,see
 ,ph4 ,paulitschke1        ,ethnographie
 ,nordost-,afrikas3 die geistige ,cultur
 der ,dankil1        ,galla und ,somal  
7,berlin1 #ahif71 p4 #aeh4 ,in ,ashantee
 the annual        festival of the new  
yams is a time of general license4 ,see 
,spirits        of the ,corn and of the 
,wild1 ii4 #fb4     ,m#age ,fourth1 the 
use of a divine man or animal as a      

scapegoat is        remarkable4   ,m#agf
 ,why a dying god should serve as a     
scapegoat4   ,m#agg ,the use of a       
divinity as scapegoat explains an       
ambiguity in the        ceremony of     
8,carrying out ,death40      #edc ,see  
,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #bcc sqq41 #bfd4  
#edd ,above1 pp4 #ahf1 #ahi1 #bja4      
#ede ,h4 ,usener1 8,italische ,mythen10 
,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4,f4 7#ahge7    
xxx4 #aid2 id41 ,kleine ,schriften1 iv4 
7,leipsic and ,berlin1 #aiac7        p4 
#aje4     ,m#agh ,annual expulsion of   
8the ,old ,mars0 in the month of ,march 
in ancient        ,rome4      #edf      
,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iii4 #bi1
 iv4 #cf4 ,lydus places the             
expulsion on the ,ides of ,march1 that  
is #aeth ,march4 ,but this seems        
to be a mistake4 ,see ,h4 ,usener1      
8,italische ,mythen10 ,rheinisches      
,museum1 xxx4 7#ahge7 pp4 #bji sqq42    
id41 ,kleine ,schriften1 iv4            
7,leipsic and ,berlin1 #aiac7 pp4 #abb  
sqq4 ,again1 ,lydus does not            

expressly say that ,mamurius ,veturius  
was driven out of the city1 but         
he implies it by mentioning the legend  
that his mythical prototype        was  
beaten with rods and expelled the city4 
,lastly1 ,lydus only        mentions the
 name ,mamurius4 ,but the full name     
,mamurius ,veturius is        preserved 
by ,varro1 ,de lingua latina1 vi4 #de2  
,festus1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4        ,mller1 p4  
#aca2 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #ac4 ,mr4 ,w4   
,warde ,fowler is        disposed to be 
sceptical as to the antiquity of the    
ceremony of        expelling ,mamurius4 
,see his ,roman ,festivals of the period
 of the        ,republic 7,london1      
#ahii71 pp4 #dd-ej4      #edg ,h4       
,usener1 8,italische ,mythen10 pp4 #bab 
sq42 id41 ,kleine        ,schriften1 iv4
 #abe sq42 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ,apollon   
und ,mars        7,leipsic1 #ahgc71 p4  
#bg2 ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische             
,mythologie#c 7,berlin1                 
#ahha-ahhc71 i4 #cfj2 ,a4 ,vaniek1      
,griechisch-lateinisches                

etymologisches ,wrterbuch 7,leipsic1    
#ahgg71 p4 #gae4 ,the three latter      
scholars take ,veturius as  annuus1     
because vetus is        etymologically  
equivalent to 4 ,but1 as ,usener argues1
 it seems        quite unallowable to   
take the ,greek meaning of the word     
instead of        the ,latin4      #edh 
,cato1 ,de agri cultura1 #ada4      #edi
 ,varro1 ,de lingua latina1 v4 #he4     
#eej ,see the song of the ,arval        
,brothers in ,acta ,fratrum ,arvalium1  
ed4        ,g4 ,henzen 7,berlin1 #ahgd71
 pp4 #bf sq42 ,j4 ,wordsworth1          
,fragments        and ,specimens of     
,early ,latin 7,oxford1 #ahgd71 p4 #aeh2
 ,h4 ,dessau1        ,inscriptiones     
,latinae ,selectae1 ii4 ,pars i4        
7,berlin1 #aijb7 p4 #bgf4      #eea     
,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 
ii4 #db sqq4      #eeb ,cato1 ,de agri  
cultura1 #hc4      #eec ,the ,magic ,art
 and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ej  
sq41 #ee1 #abd        sq4      #eed ,l4 
,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1#c i4    

#cfj2 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ,apollon        
und ,mars1 p4 #di2 id41 ,lexikon der    
griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1        ii4 
#bdjh sq42 ,h4 ,usener1 op4 cit4 ,the   
ceremony also closely        resembles  
the ,highland ,new ,year ceremony       
already described4 ,see        ,spirits 
of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ii4 #cbb 
sqq4      #eee ,but the ,biyrs1 a mixed 
tribe of ,north-,western ,india1 observe
 an        annual ceremony which they   
call 8burning the old year40 ,the old   
year        is represented by a stake of
 the wood of the cotton-tree1 which is  
planted in the ground at an appointed   
place outside of the village1        and
 then burned on the day of the full moon
 in the month of ,ps4        ,fire is   
first put to it by the village priest1  
and then all the        people follow   
his example1 parch stalks of barley in  
the fire1 and        afterwards eat     
them4 ,next day they throw the ashes of 
the burnt wood        in the air2 and on
 the morrow the festival ends with a    

regular        saturnalia1 at which     
decency and order are forgotten4 ,see   
,w4 ,crooke1        ,tribes and ,castes 
of the ,north-,western ,provinces and   
,oudh        7,calcutta1 #ahif71 ii4    
#acg sq4 ,compare id41 ,popular         
,religion and        ,folk-lore of      
,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 
ii4 #cai4      #eef ,propertius1 v4 #b4 
#fa sq42 ,h4 ,usener1 8,italische       
,mythen10 p4 #baj2        id41 ,kleine  
,schriften1 iv4 #abc4     ,m#agi 8,the  
,old ,mars0 seems to have been beaten by
 the ,salii1 the dancing        priests 
of ,mars4 ,the dances of the ,salii in  
spring and autumn were        perhaps   
intended to quicken the growth of the   
corn sown at these        seasons4 ,the 
armed processions of the ,salii may have
 been intended        to rout out and   
expel the demons lurking in the city4   
#eeg ,varro1 ,de lingua latina1 vi4 #de 
ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,festus1 s4v4       
8,mamuri ,veturi10 p4 #aca ed4 ,c4 ,o4  
,mller2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #chi        

sqq42 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #ac4      #eeh  
,servius1 on ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #ahh1  
8,cui scil4 ,mamurio et diem            
consecrarunt1 quo pellem virgis         
feriunt02 ,minucius ,felix1             
,octavius1 #bd1 8,nudi cruda hieme      
discurrunt1 alii incedunt               
pilleati1 scuta vetera circumferunt1    
pelles caedunt40 ,neither               
,servius nor ,minucius ,felix expressly 
mentions the ,salii1 but the            
description given by the latter writer  
78pilleati1 scuta vetera                
circumferunt07 proves that he alludes to
 them4 ,the expression of               
,minucius ,felix pelles caedunt is      
conclusive in favour of pellem        in
 the passage of ,servius1 where some    
would wrongly substitute        peltam1 
the reading of a single ,,ms4 ,that the 
beating of the        skin-clad         
representative of ,mamurius was done by 
the ,salii was long        ago rightly  
pointed out by ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher    
7,apollon und ,mars1 p4        #di74    

#eei ,varro1 ,de lingua latina1 v4 #he1 
8,saliia salitando1 quod facere in      
comitio in sacris quotannis et solent et
 debent40 ,compare ,ovid1        ,fasti1
 iii4 #chg1 8,iam dederat ,saliis a     
saltu nomina dicta02        ,plutarch1  
,numa1 #ac2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1
 ,antiquitates        ,romanae1 ii4 #gj4
      #efj ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische     
,staatsverwaltung1 iii4#b 7,leipsic1    
#ahhe7 p4        #dca2 ,g4 ,wissowa1    
,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer#b       
7,munich1 #aiab71 p4        #add2 ,w4   
,warde ,fowler1 ,the ,religious         
,experience of the ,roman ,people       
7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #if sq4      #efa 
,festus1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller1 p4 #cbe1   
8,qui deus in saliaribus ,saturnus      
nominatur1 videlicet a sationibus40 ,in 
this passage ,ritschl reads             
,saeturnus for ,saturnus4 ,the best     
,,mss4 of the epitome read              
,sateurnus4 ,see ,j4 ,wordsworth1       
,fragments and ,specimens of ,early     
,latin 7,oxford1 #ahhd71 p4 #dje4 ,as to

 ,saturn in this capacity see           
below1 p4 #cjf4      #efb ,columella1   
,de re rustica1 ii4 #i4 #f sq4      #efc
 ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of 
,kings1 i4 #acg sqq4      #efd ,j4      
,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 
iii4#b 7,leipsic1 #ahhe7 pp4        #dbg
 sq4      #efe ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische   
,mythologie#c 7,berlin1 #ahha-ahhc71 i4 
#cei4 ,as        to the lunar year of   
the old ,roman ,calendar see ,l4        
,ideler1 ,handbuch        der           
mathematischen und technischen          
,chronologie 7,berlin1 #ahbe-ahbf71     
ii4 #ch sqq4      #eff ,as to their     
number and badge see ,aulus ,gellius1   
vi4 7vii41 ed4 ,m4        ,hertz7 #g4   
#h2 as to their function see ,varro1 ,de
 lingua latina1 v4        #he1 8,fratres
 ,arvales dicti sunt1 qui sacra publica 
faciunt        propterea ut fruges      
ferant arva1 a ferendo et arvis fratres 
arvales        dicti40      #efg ,livy1 
i4 #bj4 #d2 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #ac2      
,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1            

,antiquitates ,romanae1 ii4 #gj4 ,livy  
only mentions the shields4 ,from        
an ancient relief we learn that the     
staves of the ,salii terminated         
in a knob at each end4 ,hence we may    
correct the statement of                
,dionysius1 who describes the weapon    
doubtfully as              4 ,see ,j4   
,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 
iii4#b #dcb1 note #f4      #efh ,see    
above1 pp4 #aac1 #aaf1 #aag1 #acb1 #aci1
 #ada1 #adg1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afa1          
#afc1 #afe1 #aff1 #ahf1 #aia1 #aif1     
#bjj1 #bjd1 #bad4      #efi ,livy1 i4   
#bj4 #d2 ,j4 ,marquardt1 op4 cit4 iii4#b
 #dcb sq42 ,w4 ,smith1                  
,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman        
,antiquities1 ,third ,edition 7,london1 
#ahia71 vol4 ii4 p4 #eij1 s4v4 8,salii40
      #egj ,see above1 pp4 #aaa sqq4    
,m#ahj ,the demons expelled by the      
,salii may have been above all the      
demons        of blight and infertility4
 ,this conjecture is supported by       
analogous        ceremonies performed by

 savages for the purpose of driving off 
the        demons that would harm the   
crops4      #ega ,see above1 p4 #ach4   
#egb ,labat1 ,voyage du ,chevalier ,des 
,marchais en ,guine1 ,isles voisines1   
et  ,cayenne 7,amsterdam1 #agca71 ii4   
#hj 7p4 #ii of the ,paris               
edition74      #egc ,olivier de         
,sanderval1 ,de l',atlantique au ,niger 
par le        ,foutah-,djallon 7,paris1 
#ahhc71 p4 #bcj4 ,the phrase which ,i   
have        translated 8for exorcising  
the spirits0 is 8pour conjurer les      
esprits40     ,m#aha ,dances of masked  
men in ,india1 ,borneo1 and ,south      
,america to promote        the growth of
 the crops4      #egd ,ludovico di      
,varthema1 ,travels in ,egypt1 ,syria1  
etc41 translated by        ,j4 ,w4      
,jones 7,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1     
#ahfc71 pp4 #aff sq4      #ege ,spirits 
of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 i4 #ie1  
#ahf sq4      #egf ,spirits of the ,corn
 and of the ,wild1 i4 #aaa sq4          
,m#ahb ,dances in ,aracan for the sake  

of the crops4 ,dances of the ,tarahumare
        ,indians of ,mexico to procure  
rain for their crops4      #egg ,annales
 de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 liii4   
7#ahha7 p4 #agh4      #egh ,c4          
,lumholtz1 ,unknown ,mexico 7,london1   
#aijc71 i4 #ccj sq4     ,m#ahc ,dances  
of the ,tarahumare ,indians to cause    
rain to fall1 corn to        sprout1    
grass to grow1 and animals to multiply4 
#egi ,c4 ,lumholtz1 ,unknown ,mexico    
7,london1 #aijc71 i4 #cce sqq41 #ceb    
sq4     ,m#ahd ,dance of the ,cora      
,indians at the sowing festival4        
#ehj ,k4 ,th4 ,preuss1 ,die             
,nayarit-,expedition1 ,i4 ,die ,religion
 der        ,cora-,indianer 7,leipsic1  
#aiab71 pp4 xcviii4 sq41 #fa-fc4 ,as to 
the        sowing festival of the       
,mexican ,indians1 compare ,k4 ,th4     
,preuss1 8,die        religisen ,gesnge 
und ,mythen einiger ,stmme der          
mexikanischen        ,sierra ,madre10   
,archiv fr ,religionswissenschaft1 xi4  
7#aijh7 pp4        #cgd sqq4     ,m#ahe 

,dances and leaps of ,european peasants 
to make the corn grow tall4      #eha   
,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of  
,kings1 i4 #acg-aci4      #ehb ,dr4 ,f4 
,j4 ,vonbun1 ,beitrge zur deutschen     
,mythologie gesammelt in                
,churrhaetien 7,chur1 #ahfb71 p4 #ba1   
quoting ,j4 ,stumpf and ,ulr4           
,campell4 ,as the passage is curious and
 the work probably rare1 ,i        will 
quote the original in full3 8,sicherlich
 auch im zusammenhange        mit       
,donarcultus war ein brauch der leute in
 der ,grub 7in        ,graubnden74      
#8,die landleute in der ,grub haben noch
 etwas anererbte        bruche1 indem   
dass sie sich zu etlichen jahren        
7meistens zur zeit        der           
sonnenwende7 besammelten1 verbutzten    
7sich als masken        vermummten7 und 
einander unbekannt machten1 legten      
harnisch und        geweer an1 und nahm 
jeder ein grossen kolben oder knttel1   
zugen in        einer rott mit einander 
von einem dorf zum andern1 triben hohe  

sprnge und seltsame abentheur4--,sie    
luffen gestracks laufs                  
aneinander1 stiessen mit krften je einer
 den andern1 dass es        erhillt1    
stiessen laut mit ihren grssen stcken   
und kntteln1        deswegen sie vom    
landvolk genannt werden die ,stopfer4   
,diese        thorechte abentheuer      
triben sie zum aberglauben1 dass ihnen  
das korn        destobas gerathen slle1 
haben aber anjetzo abgelassen1 und sind 
diese ,stopfer in keiner achtung mehr4' 
7,joh4 ,stumpf74 ,auch ,ulr4            
,campell erwhnt dieses volksbrauch 7s4  
#aa7 und bemerkt3 #8mit        diesem   
gebrauche hing frher der glaube         
zusammen1 dass dessen        ausbung ein
 fruchtbares jahr bringe4' 0 ,the word  
,stopfer means        8stopper10        
8rammer10 8crammer10 etc4     ,m#ahf    
,dances of mummers called ,perchten in  
,austria for the good of the            
crops4 ,the mythical old woman called   
,perchta4      #ehc ,j4 ,grimm1         
,deutsche ,mythologie#d 7,berlin1       

#ahge-ahgh71 i4 #bbf sqq41        iii4  
#hh sq42 ,fr4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur     
deutschen ,mythologie        7,munich1  
#ahdh-ahee71 i4 #bdg sq41 ii4 #cha2 ,i4 
,v4 ,zingerle1 8,perahta        in      
,tirol10 ,zeitschrift fr deutsche       
,mythologie1 iii4 7,gttingen1           
#ahee71 pp4 #bjc-bjf2 id41 ,sitten1     
,bruche und ,meinungen des              
,tiroler ,volkes#b 7,innsbruck1 #ahga71 
pp4 #abh sq41 #ach sq42 ,j4 ,m4         
,ritter von ,alpenburg1 ,mythen und     
,sagen ,tirols 7,zrich1 #aheg71 pp4     
#df-ea1 #fc-fe2 ,bavaria1 ,landes- und  
,volkskunde des ,knigreichs             
,bayern 7,munich1 #ahfj-ahfg71 i4 #cfe2 
,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche              
,volksaberglaube#b 7,berlin1 #ahfi71    
#be1 pp4 #be-bg2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1        
,der ,baumkultus der ,germanen und ihrer
 ,nachbarstmme 7,berlin1        #ahge71 
pp4 #edb sq42 ,karl ,weinhold1          
,weinacht-,spiele und ,lieder aus       
,sddeutschland und ,schlesien 7,vienna1 
#ahge71 pp4 #ai sqq42 ,e4        ,mogk1 

in ,h4 ,paul's ,grundriss der           
germanischen ,philologie1#b iii4        
7,strasburg1 #aijj71 pp4 #bhj sq4 7where
 it is said that ,perchta               
8spendet dem ,acker ,fruchtbarkeit und  
lsst das ,vieh gedeihen072 ,e4          
,h4 ,meyer1 ,mythologie der ,germanen   
7,strasburg1 #aijc71 pp4 #dbd           
sqq42 ,p4 ,herrmann1 ,deutsche          
,mythologie 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 pp4 #cjc 
sqq42 ,m4 ,andree-,eysen1               
,volkskundliches aus dem                
bayrisch-sterreichischen ,alpengebiet   
7,brunswick1 #aiaj71 pp4 #aef           
sqq42 ,e4 ,hoffmann-,krayer1 ,feste und 
,bruche des ,schweizervolkes            
7,zrich1 #aiac71 pp4 #aah sqq4          
,m#ahg ,the running and leaping of the  
,perchten mummers on ,twelfth ,night4   
,the ,beautiful ,perchten and the ,ugly 
,perchten4      #ehd ,j4 ,grimm1        
,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4 #bca2 ,i4   
,v4 ,zingerle1 ,sitten1        ,bruche  
und ,meinungen des ,tiroler ,volkes#b   
7,innsbruck1 #ahga71 pp4        #ach    

sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4   
#edb sq42 ,j4 ,m4 ,ritter        von    
,alpenburg1 ,mythen und ,sagen ,tirols  
7,zrich1 #aheg71 pp4 #ej        sq42 ,k4
 ,weinhold1 ,weinacht-,spiele und       
,lieder aus ,sddeutschland        und   
,schlesien 7,vienna1 #ahge71 pp4 #ba    
sqq4     ,m#ahh ,the ,ugly ,perchten in 
,salzburg4   ,m#ahi ,the ,beautiful     
,perchten in ,salzburg4      #ehe ,marie
 ,andree-,eysn1 ,volkskundliches aus dem
        bayrisch-sterreichischen        
,alpengebiet 7,brunswick1 #aiaj71 pp4   
#aef-age4     ,m#aij ,mrs4 ,andree-,eysn
 on the ,perchten2 according to her1 the
        processions of ,perchten are    
intended to promote fertility by        
banishing the demons that would thwart  
it4      #ehf ,marie ,andree-,eysn1     
,volkskundliches aus dem                
bayrisch-sterreichischen ,alpengebiet   
7,brunswick1 #aiaj71 pp4 #agi        sq4
 ,the authoress kindly presented me with
 a copy of her valuable        work in  
,may #aiaj1 when ,i had the pleasure of 

visiting her and her        husband1 the
 eminent anthropologist1 the late ,dr4  
,richard ,andree1 in        their home  
at ,munich4     ,m#aia ,the bells worn  
by the ,perchten mummers may be intended
 to ban        demons4 ,bells rung to   
make the grass grow in spring4 ,bells   
rung to        make the flax grow4      
,whips cracked to make the flax grow4   
#ehg ,see ,p4 ,sartori1 8,glockensagen  
und ,glockenaberglaube10 ,zeitschrift   
des ,vereins fr ,volkskunde1 vii4       
7#ahig7 pp4 #cfj sqq4 ,the use in       
classical antiquity of bells1 gongs1 and
 the clash of bronze        generally to
 ban the demon host has been learnedly  
illustrated by        ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook
 in his article1 8,the ,gong at         
,dodona10 ,journal of        ,hellenic  
,studies1 xxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #ad sqq4    
#ehh ,rev4 ,a4 ,l4 ,kitching1 ,on the   
,backwaters of the ,nile 7,london1      
#aiab71        p4 #bfd4 ,as to the      
country of the ,teso people1 who do not 
belong to        the ,bantu stock1 see  

id41 pp4 #bf sq4      #ehi ,marie       
,andree-,eysn1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahj-ahb4   
,as to the custom of        8ringing-out
 the grass10 see further ,w4 ,mannhardt1
 ,baumkultus1 p4        #edj2 ,the      
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 ii4 #cdc sq4      #eij ,marie   
,andree-,eysn1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahb4        
#eia ,marie ,andree-,eysn1 l4c4         
#eib ,k4 ,seifart1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen1     
,schwnke und ,gebruche aus ,stadt und   
,stift ,hildesheim#b 7,hildesheim1      
#ahhi71 p4 #ahj4 ,for more evidence of  
the supposed fertilizing influence of   
bells1 see ,p4 ,sartori1                
8,glockensagen und ,glockenaberglaube10 
,zeitschrift des ,vereins fr            
,volkskunde1 vii4 7#ahig7 pp4 #cfc sq4  
#eic ,i4 ,v4 ,zingerle1 ,sitten1 ,bruche
 und ,meinungen des ,tiroler ,volkes#b  
7,innsbruck1 #ahga71 pp4 #ace sq41 #aci1
  #aaif1 #abaa1 #abab4      #eid ,w4    
,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #bfh sq4   
,m#aib ,certain features in these       
processions or races of mummers seem to 

shew that the mummers represent         
beneficent spirits of fertility1 who    
quicken the seed in the ground and      
offspring in the wombs of women4        
,the view of ,w4 ,mannhardt4      #eie  
,marie ,andree-,eysn1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahb 
sq4      #eif ,w4 ,mannhardt1           
,baumkultus1 p4 #edh4      #eig ,w4     
,mannhardt1 l4c4     ,m#aic             
,confirmations of this view4 ,the use of
 bells and swords in these              
ceremonies4      #eih ,see above1 p4    
#bcf4      #eii ,spirits of the ,corn   
and of the ,wild1 ii4 #cbe sqq4         
#fjj ,t4 ,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british 
,popular ,customs 7,london1 #ahgf71 p4  
#cb2 ,county ,folk-lore1 ,printed       
,extracts1 ,no4 #c1 ,leicestershire and 
,rutlandshire1 collected and edited by  
,c4 ,j4 ,billson 7,london1 #ahie71      
pp4 #ic sq4      #fja ,mrs4 ,lilly      
,grove 7,mrs4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer71 ,dancing
 7,london1 #ahie71 pp4        #adg sqq42
 ,e4 ,k4 ,chambers1 ,the ,mediaeval     
,stage 7,oxford1 #aijc71 i4        #aie 

sqq4      #fjb ,as to the swords carried
 by the ,perchten see above1 p4 #bde2 as
 to        those carried by the dancers 
on ,plough ,monday1 see ,j4 ,brand1     
,popular ,antiquities of ,great ,britain
 7,london1 #ahhb-ahhc71 i4 #eje4        
,as to the sword-dance in general1 see  
,k4 ,mllenhoff1 8ber den                
,schwerttanz10 in ,festgaben fr ,gustav 
,homeyer 7,berlin1 #ahga71 pp4          
#aaa-adg 7who compares the dances of the
 ,salii72 ,mrs4 ,lilly ,grove1          
op4 cit4 pp4 #ahi sqq41 #baa sqq42 ,e4  
,k4 ,chambers1 op4 cit4 i4        #ahb  
sqq4      #fjc ,see below1 pp4 #cca sqq4
     ,m#aid ,these masquerades          
originally intended both to stimulate   
vegetation        in spring and to expel
 demons4   ,m#aie ,application of these 
conclusions to the expulsion of 8the    
,old ,mars0        in ancient ,rome4    
,m#aif ,human scapegoats in ancient     
,greece4 ,the 8,expulsion of ,hunger0 at
        ,chaeronea4      #fjd ,plutarch1
 ,quaest4 conviv4 vi4 #h4      #fje ,see

 above1 pp4 #adc sqq41 #bji4     ,m#aig 
,human scapegoats at ,marseilles4 ,human
 scapegoats put to death at             
,athens4 ,human scapegoats annually     
stoned to death at ,abdera4      #fjf   
,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 iii4 #eg1    
following ,petronius2 ,lactantius       
,placidius1 ,commentarii in ,statii     
,thebaida x4 #gic1 p4 #deb1 ed4 ,r4     
,jahnke 7,leipsic1 #ahih74 ,according to
 the former writer1 the        scapegoat
 was cast out 78projiciebatur072        
according to the latter1        he was  
stoned to death by the people outside of
 the walls 78extra        pomeria saxis 
occidebatur a populo074 ,the statement  
of some modern        writers that he   
was killed by being hurled from a height
 rests on a        reading              
78praecipitabatur0 for 8projiciebatur07 
in the text of        ,servius1 which   
appears to have no manuscript authority 
and to be        merely a conjecture of 
,r4 ,stephan's4 ,yet the conjecture has 
been        inserted in the text by ,f4 

,buecheler in his edition of ,petronius 
7,third ,edition1 ,berlin1 #ahhb1 p4    
#aji7 without any intimation that       
all the ,,mss4 present a different      
reading4 ,see the critical edition      
of ,servius edited by ,g4 ,thilo and ,h4
 ,hagen1 vol4 i4 7,leipsic1 #ahha71     
p4 #cdf4      #fjg ,helladius1 in       
,photius1 ,bibliotheca1 p4 #ecd ,a1 ed4 
,im4 ,bekker        7,berlin1 #ahbd72   
,scholiast on ,aristophanes1 ,frogs1    
#gcd1 and on        ,knights1 #aacf2    
,hesychius1 ,lexicon1 s4v4 2 compare    
,suidas1 ,lexicon1 s4vv4 1 1 and 2      
,lysias1        ,orat4 vi4 #ec4 ,that   
they were stoned is an inference from   
,harpocration4 ,see next note4 ,when the
 people of ,cyrene sacrificed to        
,saturn 7,cronus71 they wore crowns of  
fresh figs on their heads4 ,see         
,macrobius1 ,saturn1 i4 #g4 #be4        
#fjh ,harpocration1 ,lexicon1 s4v4 1 who
 says                  1            1   
4 ,he does not        expressly state   
that they were put to death2 but as he  

says that the        ceremony was an    
imitation of the execution of a mythical
 ,pharmacus        who was stoned to    
death1 we may infer that the victims    
were killed        by being stoned4     
,suidas 7s4v4 7 copies ,harpocration4   
,as to        the human scapegoats      
employed by the ,greeks at the          
,thargelia and on        other occasions
 see ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen        7,strasburg1 #ahhd71
 pp4 #abd sqq42 ,j4 ,tpffer1 ,beitrge   
zur        griechischen                 
,altertumswissenschaft 7,berlin1 #ahig71
 pp4 #acj sqq42        ,august ,mommsen1
 ,feste der ,stadt ,athen im ,altertum  
7,leipsic1 #ahih71        pp4 #dfh sqq42
 ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1 ,prolegomena  
to the ,study of        ,greek          
,religion1 ,second ,edition 7,cambridge1
 #aijh71 pp4 #ie sqq42 ,m4        ,p4   
,nilsson1 ,griechische ,feste 7,leipsic1
 #aijf71 pp4 #aje sqq42 ,w4        ,r4  
,paton1 8,the  and the ,story of the    
,fall10 ,revue        ,archologique1 iv4

 ,srie ix4 7#aijg7 pp4 #ea-eg4      #fji
 ,ovid1 ,ibis1 #dfg sq43          8,aut 
te devoveat certis ,abdera diebus       
,saxaque devotum grandine plura petant10
          with the two scholia quoted   
respectively by ,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson1       
,griechische ,feste1 p4 #ajh note #f1   
and by ,o4 ,schneider1 in his           
,callimachea 7,leipsic1 #ahgj-ahgc71 ii4
 #fhd4 ,the scholiast refers to         
,callimachus as his authority4          
,m#aih ,annual human scapegoats in      
,leucadia4 ,human scapegoats annually   
put        to death at the festival of  
the ,thargelia in ,asia ,minor4         
#faj ,strabo1 x4 #b4 #i1 p4 #edb2       
,photius1 ,lexicon1 s4v4 2 ,l4          
,ampelius1 ,liber ,memorialis1 viii4 #d2
 ,servius1 on ,virgil1 ,aen4        iii4
 #bgi2 ,ptolemaeus ,hephaest41 ,nov4    
,histor4 in ,photius1                   
,bibliotheca1 cod4 #aij1 p4 #aec1 ed4   
,im4 ,bekker2 ,mythographi              
,graeci1 ed4 ,a4 ,westermann            
7,brunswick1 #ahdc71 pp4 #aih sq4       

,according to the manuscript reading in 
,photius1 l4c41 the priests        flung
 themselves into the sea2 but the       
reading has been altered by        the  
editors4 ,as to the ,kumaon ceremony see
 above1 pp4 #aif sq4      #faa ,suidas  
and ,photius1 ,lexicon1 s4v4 4 ,the word
 which ,i        have translated        
8offscouring0 77 occurs in #a           
,corinthians iv4        #ac1 where it is
 similarly translated in the ,english   
version4 ,it        means properly that 
on which something is wiped off1 like a 
sponge        or a duster4      #fab ,j4
 ,tzetzes1 ,chiliades1 v4 #gbf-gfa 7ed4 
,th4 ,kiesseling1 ,leipsic1             
#ahbf74 ,tzetzes's authority is the     
satirical poet ,hipponax4 ,the tune     
which was played by the flutes while the
 man was being beaten is                
mentioned by ,hesychius1 s4v4  4        
,compare id41 s4v4        2 ,plutarch1  
,de musica1 #h4      #fac ,this may be  
inferred from the verse of ,hipponax1   
quoted by        ,athenaeus1 ix4 #i1 p4 

#cgj ,b1 where for  we should perhaps   
read  with ,schneidewin 7,poetae lyrici 
,graeci1#c ed4 ,th4        ,bergk1 ii4  
#gfc74     ,m#aii ,mannhardt's          
interpretation of the custom of beating 
the human        scapegoat on the       
genitals3 it was intended to free his   
reproductive        energies from any   
restraint laid on them by demoniacal or 
other        malignant agency4      #fad
 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische         
,forschungen 7,strasburg1 #ahhd71 pp4   
#aac        sqq41 especially #abc sq41  
#acc4      #fae ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xx4
 #aja2 ,dioscorides1 ,de materia medica1
 ii4        #bjb2 ,lucian1 ,necyom4 #g2 
id41 ,alexander1 #dg2 ,theophrastus1    
,superstitious ,man4      #faf          
,theocritus1 vii4 #ajf sqq4 with the    
scholiast4      #fag ,compare ,aug4     
,mommsen1 ,heortologie 7,leipsic1       
#ahfd71 pp4 #dad sqq41        id41      
,feste der ,stadt ,athen im ,altertum   
7,leipsic1 #ahih71 pp4 #dfh        sq41 
#dgi sqq42 ,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson1            

,griechische ,feste 7,leipsic1          
#aijf71 pp4 #aje1 iii sqq42 ,w4         
,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und          
,feldkulte 7,berlin1 #ahgg71 p4 #bae4   
#fah ,at certain sacrifices in ,yucatan 
blood was drawn from the genitals       
of a human victim and smeared on the    
face of the idol4 ,see ,diego de        
,landa1 ,relation des choses de         
,yucatan1 texte espagnol et             
traduction franaise par l',abb ,brasseur
 de ,bourbourg 7,paris1 #ahfd71         
p4 #afg4 ,was the original intention of 
this rite to transfuse into        the  
god a fresh supply of reproductive      
energy8      #fai ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,anim4 
ix4 #bf4      #fbj ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4
 #bci sq4      #fba ,the ,dying ,god1 p4
 #aad4     ,m#bjj ,w4 ,r4 ,paton's view 
that the human scapegoats at the        
,thargelia        personated the spirits
 of fig-trees1 and that the ceremony was
 a        magical rite for the          
fertilization of fig-trees1 being copied
 from        the process of             

caprification4      #fbb ,on the other  
hand1 ,w4 ,mannhardt regarded the       
victims as representing        the      
demons of infertility1 dearth1 and      
sickness1 who in the persons        of  
their representatives were thus hounded 
with blows out of the        city4 ,see 
his ,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4     
#abi4      #fbc ,w4 ,r4 ,paton1 8,the   
and the ,story of the ,fall10 ,revue    
,archologique1 iv4 ,srie1 ix4 7#aijg7   
pp4 #ea sqq4     ,m#bja ,this theory is 
confirmed by a comparison with the      
,roman rites of the        ,nonae       
,caprotinae4      #fbd ,the ,magic ,art 
and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #cac  
sqq4      #fbe ,dionysius               
,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquitates         
,romanae1 ii4 #ef4 #d4        ,compare  
,livy1 i4 #af4 #d2 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 
#bg4      #fbf ,spirits of the ,corn and
 of the ,wild1 i4 #bdh4 ,compare        
,adonis1        ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second
 ,edition1 pp4 #cca sqq4      #fbg ,see1
 for example1 ,helladius1 cited by      

,photius1 ,bibliotheca1 p4 #ecd         
a1 ed4 ,im4 ,bekker1                 2  
,harpocration1 s4v4  7vol4 i4 p4 #bih1  
ed4        ,g4 ,dindorf71               
2 ,scholiast on ,aristophanes1 ,knights1
 #aacf1  1          1              4    
#fbh ,mr4 ,paton ingeniously suggests   
that in the ,biblical narrative of      
,adam and ,eve1 who for eating a        
particular fruit were condemned to      
death and driven out of the happy garden
 with aprons of fig-leaves        about 
their loins 7,genesis iii471 we have a  
reminiscence of a custom        of      
fertilizing fig-trees by a pair of human
 scapegoats1 who1 like        the       
victims at the ,thargelia1 assimilated  
themselves to the tree by        wearing
 its foliage or fruit4 ,see ,w4 ,r4     
,paton1 8,the  and the        ,story of 
the ,fall10 ,revue ,archologique1 iv4   
,srie1 ix4 7#aijg7 pp4        #ee sq4   
,m#bjb ,beating as a mode of dispelling 
evil influences4      #fbi ,above1 pp4  
#b1 #ahf4 ,compare ,plutarch1           

,parallela1 #ce1 where a woman        is
 represented as going from house to     
house striking sick people        with a
 hammer and bidding them be whole4      
#fcj ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and
 ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india         
7,westminster1 #ahif71 i4 #ii1 #aee2    
id41 ,tribes and ,castes of the         
,north-,western ,provinces and ,oudh    
7,calcutta1 #ahif71 iii4 #ccc1 #dda1    
#dde4      #fca ,a4 ,certeux et ,e4 ,h4 
,carnoy1 ,l',algrie ,traditionnelle     
7,paris and        ,algiers1 #ahhd71 p4 
#ahi4      #fcb ,h4 ,kern1 8,een        
,spanisch schrijver over den godsdienst 
der heidensche        ,bikollers10      
,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en      
,volkenkunde van                        
,nederlandsch-,indi1 xlvii4 7#ahig7 pp4 
#bcb sq4 ,the ,spanish        authority 
is ,father ,jos ,castao4 ,an ancient    
,egyptian relief from        ,saqqarah  
represents a mummy at the entrance of   
the tomb1 while the        women tear   
out their hair and the men wave         

palm-branches1 apparently        to     
drive evil spirits away4 ,the custom has
 been inherited by the        modern    
,arabs1 who similarly beat off the      
invisible foes with                     
palm-branches4 ,see ,a4 ,wiedemann1     
,herodots ,zweites ,buch 7,leipsic1     
#ahij71 p4 #cdg4 ,however1 in these     
cases the blows seem to be              
administered to the demons and not to   
the corpse4     ,m#bjc ,beating people  
to rid them of clinging ghosts4         
,exorcism of ghosts by        means of  
leaves and pig's blood4      #fcc ,j4   
,m4 van ,baarda1 8,ile de ,halmaheira10 
,bulletins de la ,socit                 
d',anthropologie de ,paris1 ,quatrime   
,srie1 iii4 7#ahib7 p4 #ede4 ,as        
to throwing a banana-trunk into the     
grave1 see ,spirits of the ,corn        
and of the ,wild1 ii4 #ig4      #fcd    
,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu and    
their ,folk-lore 7,london1 #aija71 p4   
#eej4      #fce ,revue d',ethnographie1 
iii4 7#ahhe7 pp4 #cie sq4      #fcf ,r4 

,schomburgk1 ,reisen in                 
,britisch-,guiana 7,leipsic1            
#ahdg-ahdh71 ii4        #deg sqq42 ,rev4
 ,j4 ,h4 ,bernau1 ,missionary ,labours  
in ,british        ,guiana 7,london1    
#ahdg71 p4 #eb2 ,c4 ,f4 ,ph4 von        
,martius1 ,zur        ,ethnographie     
,amerika's1 zumal ,brasiliens 7,leipsic1
 #ahfg71 pp4 #fid        sq42 ,j4       
,crevaux1 ,voyages dans l',amrique du   
,sud 7,paris1 #ahhc71        p4 #edh4   
#fcg ,servius1 on ,virgil1 ,aen4 i4     
#cbi4 ,for more evidence see ,c4        
,boetticher1 ,der ,baumkultus der       
,hellenen 7,berlin1 #ahef71 pp4 #cfi    
sqq4      #fch ,see my note on          
,pausanias1 ii4 #ca4 #h1 vol4 ii4 pp4   
#bgf sqq4      #fci ,v4 ,solomon1       
8,extracts from ,diaries kept in ,car   
,nicobar10 ,journal of        the       
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4     
7#aijb7 p4 #bbg4     ,m#bjd ,beating    
practised by ,south ,american ,indians  
and others as a mode of        conveying
 good qualities4      #fdj ,j4 de       

,acosta1 ,history of the ,indies1 vol4  
ii4 p4 #cge 7,hakluyt        ,society1  
,london1 #ahhj74 ,see above1 pp4 #abh   
sqq4      #fda ,p4 ,lozano1 ,descripcion
 ,chorographica del terreno1 rios1      
arboles1 y        animales de las       
dilatadissimas provincias del ,gran     
,chaco1 ,gualamba1        etc4          
7,cordova1 #agcc71 p4 #fg4 ,the         
reappearance of the ,pleiades           
probably marked the beginning of the    
year for these people4 ,see             
,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 
i4 #cjg sqq4      #fdb ,g4 ,osculati1   
,esplorazione delle regioni equatoriali 
lungo il ,napo        ed il fiume delle 
,amazzoni 7,milan1 #ahej71 p4 #aah4     
#fdc ,h4 ,coudreau1 ,chez nos ,indiens3 
quatre annes dans la ,guyane            
,franaise 7,paris1 #ahie71 p4 #edd4     
#fdd ,g4 ,h4 ,loskiel1 ,history of the  
,mission of the ,united ,brethren among 
the ,indians in ,north ,america         
7,london1 #agid71 ,part i4 p4 #cg4      
#fde ,the ,satapatha ,brahmana1 v4 #d4  

#d4 #g1 translated by ,j4 ,eggeling1    
,part iii4 7,oxford1 #ahid7 p4 #ajh     
7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4      
xli474      #fdf ,d4 ,chwolsohn1 ,die   
,ssabier und der ,ssabismus 7,st4       
,petersburg1        #ahef71 ii4 #cd4    
,m#bje ,beating people with instruments 
which possess and impart special        
virtues4      #fdg ,on the positive     
benefits supposed in certain cases to   
flow from a        beating compare ,s4  
,reinach1 8,la flagellation rituelle10  
,cultes1        ,mythes et ,religions1  
i4 7,paris1 #aije7 pp4 #ahj sqq42 ,e4   
,s4        ,hartland1 ,primitive        
,paternity 7,london1 #aiji-aiaj71 i4    
#ajb sqq4      #fdh ,ch4 ,keysser1 8,aus
 dem ,leben der ,kaileute10 in ,r4      
,neuhauss's ,deutsch                    
,neu-,guinea1 iii4 7,berlin1 #aiaa7 p4  
#abd4      #fdi ,father ,lambert1 8,murs
 et ,superstitions de la tribu ,blep10  
,les        ,missions ,catholique1 xii4 
7#ahhj7 p4 #bgc2 id41 ,murs et          
,superstitions des ,no-,caldoniens      

7,nouma1 #aijj71 p4 #bah4      #fej ,f4 
,j4 de ,santa-,anna ,nery1 ,folk-lore   
,brsilien 7,paris1 #ahhi71 p4           
#bec4      #fea ,r4 ,temesvry1          
,volksbruche und ,aberglauben in der    
,geburtshilfe und        der ,pflege des
 ,neugeborenen in ,ungarn 7,leipsic1    
#aijj71 p4 #h4        ,compare ,e4 ,s4  
,hartland1 ,primitive ,paternity        
7,london1 #aiji-aiaj71        i4 #ajf4  
#feb ,a4 ,c4 ,kruyt1 8,het koppensnellen
 der ,toradja's van ,midden-,celebes1 en
        zijne beteekenis10 ,verslagen en
 ,mededeelingen der ,koninklijke        
,akademie van ,wetenschappen1 ,afdeeling
 ,letterkunde1 iv4 ,reeks1 iii4         
7,amsterdam1 #ahii7 p4 #aii4      #fec  
,e4 ,beardmore1 8,the ,natives of       
,mowat1 ,daudai1 ,new ,guinea10 ,journal
        of the ,anthropological         
,institute1 xix4 7#ahij7 p4 #dfd4       
,m#bjf ,custom in ,morocco of beating   
people with the skins of sacrificed     
sheep or goats4      #fed ,e4           
,westermarck1 8,the ,popular ,ritual of 

the ,great ,feast in ,morocco10         
,folk-lore1 xxii4 7#aiaa7 pp4 #afc-afe4 
#fee ,see below1 pp4 #bih1 #cjb1 #cjd4  
#fef ,e4 ,westermarck1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afe
 sq41 #agj1 #agh4 ,the purificatory     
character of the rite is duly recognised
 by ,dr4 ,westermarck 7op4        cit4  
p4 #agh74     ,m#bjg ,european custom of
 beating cattle with branches to make   
them healthy        or drive away the   
witches from them4 ,the rowan-tree as a 
protection        against witchcraft4   
#feg ,j4 ,g4 v4 ,hahn1 ,albanesische    
,studien 7,jena1 #ahed71 i4 #aee4       
#feh ,w4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rouse1 8,folk-lore    
from the ,southern ,sporades10          
,folk-lore1        x4 7#ahii7 p4 #agi4  
#fei ,k4 ,bartsch1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und  
,gebruche aus ,mecklenburg 7,vienna1    
#ahgi-ahhj71 ii4 p4 #beh1  #acdh4       
#ffj ,j4 ,f4 ,l4 ,woeste1               
,volksberlieferungen in der ,grafschaft 
,mark        7,iserlohn1 #ahdh71 pp4 #be
 sq42 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,die ,herabkunft des   
,feuers        und des ,gttertranks#b   

7,gtersloh1 #ahhf71 pp4 #afa sqq4 ,the  
ceremony takes its name of 8quickening0 
from ,quieke or        ,quickenbaum1 a  
,german name for the rowan-tree4        
,quicken-tree is        also an ,english
 name for the rowan4      #ffa ,the     
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 ii4 #eb sqq4      #ffb ,rev4 ,w4
 ,gregor1 ,notes on the ,folk-lore of   
the ,north-east of        ,scotland     
7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #ahh4      #ffc ,a4
 ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche                 
,volksaberglaube#b 7,berlin1 #ahfi71 p4 
#ajf1         #ade4      #ffd ,j4 ,f4   
,l4 ,woeste1 ,volksberlieferungen in der
 ,grafschaft ,mark        7,iserlohn1   
#ahdh71 p4 #bf4 ,compare ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,die
 ,herabkunft des ,feuers        und des 
,gttertranks#b 7,gtersloh1 #ahhf71 p4   
#agi4     ,m#bjh ,european custom of    
beating people with branches at ,easter 
to do them        good3 8,easter        
,smacks40      #ffe ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1    
,kroatien und ,slavonien 7,vienna1      
#ahhi71 p4 #ajh4      #fff ,w4          

,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #beg4       
#ffg ,th4 ,vernaleken1 ,mythen und      
,bruche des ,volkes in sterreich        
7,vienna1 #ahei71 pp4 #cjj sq42 ,o4     
,freiherr von                           
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender 
aus ,bhmen 7,prague1 preface            
dated #ahfa71 pp4 #afc-afg2 ,a4 ,peter1 
,volksthmliches aus                     
sterreichisch-,schlesien 7,troppau1     
#ahfe-ahfg71 ii4 #bhe2 ,j4 ,a4 ,e4      
,khler1 ,volksbrauch1 ,aberglauben1     
,sagen und andre alte                   
berlieferungen im ,voigtlande 7,leipsic1
 #ahfg71 pp4 #agc sq42 ,m4              
,toeppen1 ,aberglauben aus ,masuren#b1  
7,danzig1 #ahfg71 pp4 #fi sq42          
,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche              
,volksaberglaube#b 7,berlin1 #ahfi71 p4 
#gj1         #hc2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der  
,baumkultus 7,berlin1 #ahge71 pp4       
#beh-bfc2 ,w4        ,mller1 ,beitrge   
zur ,volkskunde der ,deutschen in ,mhren
 7,vienna        and ,olmtz1 #ahic71 pp4
 #cbb1 #cii sq42 ,dr4 ,f4 ,tetzner1     

8,die        ,tschechen und ,mhrer in   
,schlesien10 ,globus1 lxxviii4 7#aijj7  
p4        #cdj2 ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 
,brauch und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien  
7,leipsic1 #aijc-aijf71 pp4 #ajj sq42   
,alois ,john1 ,sitte1 ,brauche und      
,volksglaube im deutschen ,westbhmen    
7,prague1 #aije71 pp4 #fg sq4           
,mannhardt's whole discussion of what he
 calls 8the ,blow with the ,rod         
of ,life0 78,der ,schlag mit der        
,lebensrute07 deserves to be studied4   
,see his ,baumkultus1 pp4 #bea-cjc2 and 
compare his treatment of the        same
 theme1 8,der ,schlag mit dem ,februum10
 ,mythologische        ,forschungen     
7,strasburg1 #ahhd71 pp4 #aac-aec4 ,the 
custom of 8,easter        ,smacks0 can  
be traced back to the twelfth century1  
when the practice        was for women  
to beat their husbands on ,easter       
,monday and for        husbands to      
retaliate on their wives on ,easter     
,tuesday4 ,see ,j4        ,belethus1    
,rationale ,divinorum ,officiorum1 cap4 

#abj1 appended to ,g4        ,durandus's
 ,rationale ,divinorum ,officiorum      
7,lyons1 #aehd71 p4 #edf        recto3  
8,notandum quoque est in plerisque      
regionibus secundo die        post      
,pascha mulieres maritos suos verberare1
 ac vicissim viros eas        tertio die
 quemadmodum licebat servis in ,decembri
 dominos suos        impune accusare40  
,m#bji ,european custom of beating      
people with branches in the ,christmas  
holidays 7,holy ,innocents' ,day1 etc47 
to do them good4      #ffh ,alois ,john1
 ,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube im    
deutschen ,westbhmen        7,prague1   
#aije71 pp4 #e1 #bc sq41 #be1 #bh4      
,compare ,th4 ,vernaleken1              
,mythen und ,bruche des ,volkes in      
sterreich 7,vienna1 #ahei71 pp4         
#cja sq4      #ffi ,j4 ,a4 ,e4 ,khler1  
,volksbrauch1 ,aberglauben1 ,sagen und  
andre alte        berlieferungen im     
,voigtlande 7,leipsic1 #ahfg71 p4 #agd2 
,w4        ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 
#bfd sq4      #fgj ,august ,witzschel1  

,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus       
,thringen        7,vienna1 #ahgh71 pp4  
#aha sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1  
p4 #bfe4        ,compare ,g4 ,bilfinger1
 ,unterschungen ber die ,zeitrechnung   
der alten        ,germanen1 ii41 ,das   
,germanische ,julfest 7,stuttgart1      
#aija71 pp4 #he        sq4     ,m#baj   
,the intention of beating people with   
fresh green leaves is to renew          
their life and vigour4   ,m#baa ,hence  
the custom of beating the human victims 
at the ,thargelia with                  
fig-branches and squills was probably a 
charm to increase their                 
reproductive energies4      #fga ,the   
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 ii4 #bd sq4 ,it is highly       
significant that the heathen of ,harran 
celebrated the marriage        festival 
of all the gods and goddesses in the    
very month 7,march7 in        which the 
artificial fertilization of the         
date-palm was effected 7,d4             
,chwolsohn1 ,die ,ssabier und der       

,ssabismus1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahef1    
ii4 #cf1 #bea74 ,the frequency with     
which the artificial fertilization      
of the palm-tree by a mythical winged   
figure is represented on                
,assyrian monuments furnishes strong    
evidence of the religious and           
economic importance of the ceremony4    
,m#bab ,hence the human victims at the  
,thargelia may have primarily           
represented spirits of vegetation4      
,m#bac ,parallel between the human      
sacrifices at the ,thargelia and the    
bloody ritual of the ,arician ,grove4   
#fgb ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 i4 #dj sqq41 ii4 #cgf       
sqq4     ,m#bad ,the custom of          
sacrificing human representatives of the
 gods among        the ,aztecs of       
,mexico4      #fgc ,j4 de ,acosta1 ,the 
,natural and ,moral ,history of the     
,indies 7,london1        ,hakluyt       
,society1 #ahhj71 ii4 #cbc4 ,i have     
modernized the spelling of        the   
old ,english translator1 whose version  

was originally published        in      
#afjd4 ,acosta resided both in ,peru and
 ,mexico1 and published his        work 
at ,seville in #aeij4 ,it was reprinted 
in a convenient form at        ,madrid  
in #ahid4 ,compare ,a4 de ,herrera1     
,general ,history of the ,vast          
,continent and ,islands of ,america1    
translated by ,captain ,john            
,stevens 7,london1 #agbe-agbf71 iii4    
#bjg sq4     ,m#bae ,sacrifice of a man 
in the character of the great god       
,tezcatlipoca at        the festival of 
,toxcatl in the fifth ,aztec month4     
#fgd ,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,histoire ,gnrale 
des ,choses de la                       
,nouvelle-,espagne1 traduite par ,d4    
,jourdanet et ,r4 ,simon 7,paris1       
#ahhj71 pp4 #fa sq43 8,on appelait le   
cinquime moi toxcatl4 ,au        premier
 jour on faisait une grande fte en      
l'honneur du dieu appel                 
,titlacauan1 autrement dit              
,tezcatlipoca1 que l'on croyait tre le  
dieu des dieux4 ,c'tait en son honneur  

que l'on tuait1 le jour de sa           
fte1 un jeune homme choisi4444 ,cette   
fte tait la principale de        toutes1
 comme qui dirait la ,pque1 et1 en      
ralit1 elle se clbrait        aux       
environs de la ,pque de rsurrection1 ou 
quelques jours aprs40        ,compare   
,j4 de ,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1
 lib4 x4 cap4 #ad1 vol4        ii4 p4   
#bef 7,madrid1 #agbc74 ,as to           
,tezcatlipoca1 the greatest of the      
,mexican gods1 see ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1      
,geschichte der amerikanischen          
,urreligionen 7,ble1 #ahfg71 pp4 #fac   
sqq42 ,h4 ,h4 ,bancroft1 ,the           
,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states  
7,london1 #ahge-ahgf71 iii4 #aii        
sqq41 #bcg sqq42 ,e4 ,seler1            
,altmexikanische ,studien1 ii4          
7,berlin1 #ahii7 pp4 #abe sqq4          
7,verffentlichungen aus dem             
kniglichen ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde1 vol4 
vi4 ,heft #b_/d74      #fge ,on the     
twenty-third of ,april according to the 
,spanish text of        ,sahagun's work 

as translated in ,french by ,d4         
,jourdanet and ,r4 ,simeon        7p4   
#eb72 the twenty-seventh of ,april      
according to the ,aztec text of         
,sahagun's work as translated into      
,german by ,professor ,e4 ,seler        
7,altmexikanische ,studien1 ii4 #aid74  
#fgf ,j4 de ,acosta1 ,natural and ,moral
 ,history of the ,indies 7,hakluyt      
,society1 ,london1 #ahhj71 ii4 #cgh1    
#chj2 ,diego ,duran1 ,historia de las   
,indias de ,nueva ,espaa 7,mexico1      
#ahfg-ahhj71 ii4 #ii1 #aja2 ,manuscrit  
,ramirez1 ,histoire de l',origine des   
,indiens qui habitent la ,nouvelle      
,espagne selon leurs traditions1 publi  
par ,d4 ,charnay 7,paris1        #aijc71
 pp4 #aei1 #afj sq4 ,according to       
,clavigero1 the fifth ,mexican          
month1 in which the sacrifice of the    
human representative of                 
,tezcatlipoca took place1 began on the  
#agth of ,may 7,history of              
,mexico1 translated by ,c4 ,cullen1     
,london1 #ahjg1 i4 #bii72 but this      

must be an error4      #fgg ,e4 ,seler1 
,altmexikanische ,studien1 ii4 7,berlin1
 #ahii7 pp4 #aag note        #a1        
#aba-abe1 #aec sq41 #aff sq4            
7,verffentlichungen aus dem             
kniglichen ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde1 vol4 
vi4 ,heft #b_/d74      #fgh ,j4 de      
,acosta1 op4 cit4 ii4 #chj2 ,diego      
,duran1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aja2              
,manuscrit ,ramirez1 ,histoire de       
l',origine des ,indiens qui habitent    
la ,nouvelle ,espagne selon leurs       
traditions1 publi par ,d4 ,charnay      
7,paris1 #aijc71 p4 #afj2 ,j4 de        
,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1 lib4  
x4 cap4 #ad1 vol4 ii4 p4 #beg 7,madrid1 
#agbc74 ,i have modernized the          
spelling of ,acosta's old translator    
7,edward ,grimston74     ,m#baf ,the    
training and equipment of the human god4
 ,the manner of the        sacrifice4   
#fgi ,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,histoire ,gnrale 
des ,choses de la ,nouvelle             
,espagne1 traduite par ,d4 ,jourdanet1  
et ,r4 ,simon 7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4      

#fa sq41 #if-ii1 #ajc2 ,e4 ,seler1      
,altmexikanische ,studien1 ii4          
7,berlin1 #ahii71 pp4 #aaf-afe1 #aid-bji
 7the latter passage contains        the
 ,aztec text of ,sahagun's account with 
a ,german translation72 ,j4        de   
,acosta1 ,the ,natural and ,moral       
,history of the ,indies 7,hakluyt       
,society1 ,london1 #ahhj71 pp4 #cej sq42
 ,manuscrit ,ramirez1 ,histoire         
de l',origine des ,indiens qui habitent 
la ,nouvelle ,espagne selon        leurs
 traditions1 publi par ,d4 ,charnay     
7,paris1 #aijc71 pp4 #aeg        sqq41  
#ahj sq42 ,diego ,duran1 ,historia de   
las ,indias de ,nueva        ,espaa     
7,mexico1 #ahfg-ahhj71 ii4 #ih-aje2 ,j4 
de ,torquemada1        ,monarquia       
,indiana1 lib4 x4 cap4 #ad1 vol4 ii4 pp4
 #bef sqq4        7,madrid1 #agbc72 ,f4 
,s4 ,clavigero1 ,history of ,mexico1    
translated by        ,charles ,cullen1  
,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahjg71 i4   
#cjj2 ,brasseur de        ,bourbourg1   
,histoire des ,nations civilises du     

,mexique et de                          
l',amrique-,centrale 7,paris1           
#aheg-ahei71 iii4 #eaj-eab2 ,h4 ,h4     
,bancroft1 ,the ,native ,races of the   
,pacific ,states 7,london1              
#ahge-ahgf71 iii4 #cai sq4 ,according to
 ,torquemada the flesh of the           
human victim was eaten by the elders 8as
 a sacred and divine flesh02        but 
this is not mentioned by the other      
authorities of the sixteenth            
century cited above4 ,elsewhere         
7,spirits of the ,corn and of the       
,wild1 ii4 #ib sq47 ,i cited this       
cannibal banquet as an example of       
a sacramental communion with the deity2 
but the silence of most        early    
writers on the point makes it doubtful  
whether the custom has        been      
correctly reported by ,torquemada and   
later writers4     ,m#bag ,sacrifice of 
a man in the character of the great     
,mexican god        ,vitzilopochtli     
7,huitzilopochtli7 in the month of ,may4
      #fhj ,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,histoire   

,gnrale des ,choses de la ,nouvelle     
,espagne1 traduite par ,d4 ,jourdanet et
 ,r4 ,simon 7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4        
#ii-ajd2 ,e4 ,seler1 ,altmexikanische   
,studien1 ii4 7,berlin1 #ahii7 pp4      
#aei-afe1 #bjb-bji2 ,f4 ,s4 ,clavigero1 
,history of ,mexico1 translated         
by ,ch4 ,cullen1 ,second ,edition       
7,london1 #ahjg71 i4 #cja-cjc2 ,brasseur
        de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire des    
,nations civilises du ,mexique et de    
l',amrique-,centrale1 iii4 #eab-eaf2 ,h4
 ,h4 ,bancroft1 ,the ,native            
,races of the ,pacific ,states1 ii4     
#cba-cbd4 ,as to the dances of the      
maidens wearing garlands of maize1 see  
also ,j4 de ,acosta1 ,natural        and
 ,moral ,history of the ,indies         
7,london1 #ahhj71 ii4 #chj4     ,m#bah  
,sacrifice of a man in the character of 
the great ,mexican god                  
,quetzalcoatl in the month of ,february4
      #fha ,j4 de ,acosta1 ,the ,natural
 and ,moral ,history of the ,indies     
7,hakluyt        ,society1 ,london1     

#ahhj71 ii4 #cba2 ,diego ,duran1        
,historia de las        ,indias de      
,nueva ,espaa 7,mexico1 #ahfg-ahhj71 ii4
 #aah-abj2 ,manuscrit        ,ramirez1  
,histoire de l',origine des ,indiens qui
 habitent la ,nouvelle        ,espagne  
selon leurs traditions1 publi par ,d4   
,charnay 7,paris1        #aijc71 pp4    
#ahb sq4 ,acosta's description of the   
idol is abridged4        ,as to the     
,mexican god ,quetzalcoatl1 worshipped  
especially by the        people of      
,cholula1 see ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1           
,geschichte der amerikanischen          
,urreligionen 7,ble1 #ahfg71 pp4 #egg   
sqq42 ,h4 ,h4 ,bancroft1 ,the           
,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states  
7,london1 #ahge-ahgf71 iii4 #bdh        
sqq4      #fhb ,j4 de ,acosta1 ,the     
,natural and ,moral ,history of the     
,indies 7,hakluyt        ,society1      
,london1 #ahhj71 ii4 #chd-chf4 ,i have  
modernized the old        translator's  
spelling4 ,the accounts of ,duran and   
the anonymous        author of the      

,ramirez manuscript agree verbally with 
that of ,acosta4        ,it is plain    
that ,acosta and ,duran drew on the same
 source1 which may        be the        
,ramirez manuscript4 ,however1 ,duran is
 the only one of the        three who   
gives the date of the festival 7the     
third of ,february74        ,see ,diego 
,duran1 ,historia de las ,indias de     
,nueva ,espaa 7,mexico1                 
#ahfg-ahhj71 ii4 #abj sq42 ,manuscrit   
,ramirez1 ,histoire de l',origine       
des ,indiens qui habitent la ,nouvelle  
,espagne selon leurs        traditions1 
publi par de ,charnay 7,paris1 #aijc71  
pp4 #ahb sqq4        ,compare ,a4 de    
,herrera1 ,the ,general ,history of the 
,vast ,continent        and ,islands of 
,america1 translated by ,captain ,john  
,stevens 7,london1        #agbe-agbf71  
iii4 #bah sq42 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1          
,geschichte der        amerikanischen   
,urreligionen 7,ble1 #ahfg71 pp4 #ehi   
sq42 ,h4 ,h4        ,bancroft1 ,the     
,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states  

7,london1        #ahge-ahgf71 iii4 #bhf4
     ,m#bai ,sacrifice of a woman in the
 character of the ,mexican ,goddess of  
,salt        in the month of ,june4     
#fhc ,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,histoire ,gnrale 
des ,choses de la ,nouvelle             
,espagne1 traduite par ,d4 ,jourdanet et
 ,r4 ,simon 7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4        
#fd1 #aae-aag2 ,j4 de ,torquemada1      
,monarquia ,indiana 7,madrid1 #agbc71   
lib4 x4 cap4 #ah1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bfh4     
,compare ,f4 ,s4 ,clavigero1 ,history   
of ,mexico1 translated by ,c4 ,cullen   
7,london1 #ahjg71 i4 #cje2 ,brasseur    
de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire des ,nations   
,civilises du ,mexique et de            
l',amrique-,centrale1 iii4 #eag sq42 ,h4
 ,h4 ,bancroft1 ,the ,native            
,races of the ,pacific ,states1 ii4     
#cbe-cbg4     ,m#bbj ,sacrifice of a    
woman in the character of the ,mexican  
,goddess of the        ,young ,maize    
about ,mid-summer4      #fhd ,b4 de     
,sahagun1 ,histoire ,gnrale des ,choses 
de la ,nouvelle        ,espagne1        

traduite par ,d4 ,jourdanet ,r4 ,simon  
7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4 #fe        sq41    
#aah-abf2 ,j4 de ,torquemada1 ,monarquia
 ,indiana 7,madrid1        #agbc71 lib4 
x4 cap4 #ai1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bfi-bga2 ,e4 
,j4 ,payne1 ,history        of the ,new 
,world called ,america1 i4 7,oxford1    
#ahib7 pp4 #dba-dbc4        ,compare    
,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire des  
,nations civilises du        ,mexique et
 de l',amrique-,centrale1 iii4 #eah-ebj2
 ,h4 ,h4 ,bancroft1        ,the ,native 
,races of the ,pacific ,states1 ii4 #cbf
 sq4 ,i have        followed ,torquemada
 7vol4 ii4 p4 #bfi7 and the ,french     
translators of        ,sahagun 7p4 #fe1 
note #b7 in deriving the name of        
,xilonen from        xilotl in the sense
 of 8young cobs of maize40 ,but         
according to ,e4        ,j4 ,payne1 the 
word xilotl means 8hair10 and ,xilonen  
is 8,hairy        ,mother0 7,mater      
comata7 with reference to the hair-like 
fibres or        tassels that shoot from
 the maize-cobs4 ,see ,e4 ,j4 ,payne1   

op4 cit4        i4 #dag4 ,on either     
interpretation the goddess is a         
personification of        the young     
maize4 ,the goddess of the maize in     
general was called        ,cinteotl or  
,centeotl 7,centeutl71 a name which1    
according to        ,torquemada1 is     
derived from centli1 8maize-cob0        
7,monarquia        ,indiana1 lib4 vi4   
cap4 #be1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eb74 ,but ,e4 ,j4
 ,payne1 while        he regards        
,cinteotl as the maize-goddess1 explains
 her name        differently4 ,he says  
7op4 cit4 i4 #daf sq473 8,the ,totonacs 
worshipped the corn-spirit under names  
which were translated into              
,mexican as ,tzinteotl 7goddess of      
beginning or origin7 and                
,tonacayohua 7provider of our food74    
,they considered her to be the          
wife of the sun1 their supreme god4     
,theoretically subordinated to          
him1 the maize-goddess was in practice  
the chief deity of the        ,totonacs3
 it was to her service that the         

principal warriors1        quitting     
their wives and children1 dedicated     
themselves in their old        age40    
,similarly ,clavigero1 who lived many   
years in ,mexico and        learned the 
,mexican language1 explains ,cinteotl   
7,tzinteotl7 to mean        8original   
goddess02 he adds that the ,maize       
,goddess changed her name               
8according to the different states of   
the grain in the progress of        its 
growth0 7,history of ,mexico1 translated
 by ,c4 ,cullen1 i4 #bec        note p74
 ,another name applied to the ,maize    
,goddess ,cinteotl was                  
,chicomecohuatl or 8,seven ,snakes40    
,see ,j4 de ,torquemada1 ,monarquia     
,indiana1 lib4 x4 cap4 #ac1 vol4 ii4 p4 
#bee2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1        ,geschichte
 der amerikanischen ,urreligionen 7,ble1
 #ahfg71 pp4 #dia        sqq42 ,e4      
,seler1 ,altmexikanische ,studien1 ii4  
7,berlin1 #ahii7 pp4        #ajh sq41   
#aab4 ,some have held that ,cinteotl was
 a ,maize ,god rather        than a     

,maize ,goddess4 ,see ,h4 ,h4 ,bancroft1
 ,the ,native ,races of the             
,pacific ,states1 iii4 #cdi sqq4        
,m#bba ,sacrifice of a woman in the     
character of the ,mexican goddess 8,our 
,mother0 on ,christmas ,day4      #fhe  
,the ,mexican year of three hundred and 
sixty-five days was divided        into 
eighteen months of twenty days each1    
with five supplementary        days     
over4 ,see ,j4 de ,torquemada1          
,monarquia ,indiana1 lib4 x4 cap4       
#cf1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cjj 7,madrid1 #agbc72 
,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,histoire              
,gnrale des ,choses de la ,nouvelle     
,espagne1 traduite par ,d4              
,jourdanet et ,r4 ,simeon 7,paris1      
#ahhj71 p4 lxvii42 ,f4 ,s4 ,clavigero1  
,history of ,mexico1 translated by ,c4  
,cullen 7,london1 #ahjg71 i4 #bij       
sq4      #fhf ,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,histoire
 ,gnrale des ,choses de la ,nouvelle    
,espagne1 traduite par ,d4 ,jourdanet et
 ,r4 ,simeon 7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4       
#ge1 #aeh-afj2 ,j4 de ,torquemada1      

,monarquia ,indiana1 lib4 x4 cap4 #bi1  
vol4 ii4 pp4 #bhd sq4 7,madrid1 #agbc74 
,compare ,f4 ,s4 ,clavigero1            
,history of ,mexico1 translated by ,c4  
,cullen 7,london1 #ahjg71 i4 #cab2      
,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire des  
,nations ,civilises du ,mexique         
et de l' ,amrique-,centrale1 iii4 #ece  
sq42 ,h4 ,h4 ,bancroft1 ,the            
,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 
ii4 #ccg sq4     ,m#bbb ,sacrifice of a 
woman in the character of the ,mexican  
goddess the        ,mother of the ,gods 
at the end of ,august or beginning of   
,september4   ,m#bbc ,the farewell to   
the market4 ,the skin of the sacrificed 
woman flayed        and worn by a man   
who personated the goddess4      #fhg   
,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,histoire ,gnrale des  
,choses de la ,nouvelle        ,espagne1
 traduite par ,d4 ,jourdanet et ,r4     
,simeon 7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4        #ah 
sq41 #fh sq41 #acc-aci3 ,j4 de          
,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana        
7,madrid1 #agbc71 lib4 x4 cap4 #bc1 vol4

 ii4 pp4 #bge sq42 ,diego        ,duran1
 ,historia de las ,indias de ,nueva     
,espaa 7,mexico1 #ahfg-ahhj71        ii4
 #ahe-aia4 ,compare ,brasseur de        
,bourbourg1 ,histoire des ,nations      
civilises du ,mexique et de             
l',amrique-,centrale1 iii4 #ebc-ebe2 ,h4
        ,h4 ,bancroft1 ,the ,native     
,races of the ,pacific ,states1 iii4    
#cec-cei2        ,e4 ,j4 ,payne1        
,history of the ,new ,world called      
,america1 i4 7,oxford1        #ahib71   
pp4 #dgj sq4 ,a statue of basalt1 about 
half the size of        life1 said to   
have come from ,tezcuco1 represents a   
man clothed in a        human skin which
 he wears on his body1 his arms1 and his
 face2 his        own skin is painted   
bright red1 the other skin a dirty      
white4 ,see ,h4        ,h4 ,bancroft1   
op4 cit4 iv4 #ebb2 ,marquis de          
,nadaillac1 ,l',amrique                 
,prhistorique 7,paris1 #ahhc71 p4 #bie1 
fig4 #aai4 ,in the ,art ,museum         
7,kunst-,museum7 at ,ble there is a     

statuette of the same sort4 ,it         
is labelled3 8,xipe4 ,der in einer      
,menschenhaut gekleidete ,gott4         
,gesch4 v4 ,h4 ,luk4 ,vischer           
7#ahbh-ahcg740 ,the figure is about     
eighteen inches high and appears to be  
made of a porous stone4 ,it             
represents a man seated on his haunches 
with his feet crossed in        front of
 him and his hands resting on his knees4
 ,his own skin1 of        which the     
legs1 feet1 hands1 wrists1 neck and part
 of the face are        visible1 is     
coloured a terra-cotta red4 ,the rest of
 his body is        covered by the      
representation of the skin of a human   
victim1 of a        greyish colour1     
quite distinct from that of the wearer1 
and this        skin is also worn like a
 mask on his face4 ,at his back the     
jacket of        human skin only        
partially meets1 displaying the wearer's
 red skin        under it for some      
distance2 it is as if the skin of the   
human victim        had been split up   

the back and then drawn together and    
fastened at        the back of the      
wearer like an ill-fitting and          
imperfectly buttoned        coat4 ,the  
hands of the human victim are           
represented dangling at the             
wrists of the seated figure4 ,i saw this
 remarkable statuette in the            
,museum at ,ble on ,july #beth1 #aiab1  
but ,i was not able to remove it        
from the case for closer examination4   
,as to ,xipe1 the ,mexican god          
clad in a human skin1 whom the statuette
 represents1 see below1 pp4        #bif 
sqq4     ,m#bbd ,young girl chosen to   
personate the ,mexican ,goddess of the  
,maize1        ,chicomecohuatl4         
#fhh ,as to this name for the ,maize    
,goddess1 see above1 p4 #bhf1 note #a4  
,m#bbe ,adoration of the girl who       
personated the ,goddess of the ,maize4  
,m#bbf ,the girl who personated the     
,goddess of the ,maize carried in       
procession and worshipped with offerings
 of human blood4 ,the human             

representative of the ,maize ,goddess   
put to death on a heap of corn          
and her skin flayed and worn by a       
priest4      #fhi ,diego ,duran1        
,historia de las ,indias de ,nueva      
,espaa 7,mexico1        #ahfg-ahhj71 ii4
 #agi-ahd4 ,this remarkable festival    
appears not to be        noticed by the 
other early ,spanish writers such as    
,sahagun1 ,acosta1        and           
,torquemada1 who have given us detailed 
descriptions of the        ,mexican     
festivals4 ,it might perhaps have been  
conjectured that ,duran        was here 
describing the similar festival of the  
,mother of the ,gods        7see above1 
pp4 #bhh sqq471 which fell about the    
same time of the        year4 ,but the  
conjecture is excluded by the simple    
fact that ,duran        describes both  
festivals1 the one immediately after the
 other1        assigning as their dates 
the fifteenth and sixteenth of          
,september        respectively 7op4 cit4
 ii4 #ahj1 #ahe sq474 ,almost nothing is

        known about ,duran except that  
he was a ,spanish monk1 apparently a    
native of ,mexico1 who had weak health  
and died in #aehh4 ,his work            
remained in manuscript till it was      
edited at ,mexico in #ahfg-ahhj by      
,jos ,f4 ,ramirez4 ,the original        
manuscript is preserved in the          
,natonal ,library at ,madrid4 ,the      
accounts contained in his history       
bear internal marks of authenticity and 
are in general supported by        the  
independent testimony of the other early
 ,spanish authorities4     ,m#bbg       
,identification of the human victim with
 the ,goddess of ,maize whom        she 
personated4      #fij ,spirits of the   
,corn and of the ,wild1 i4 #bcf sqq4    
,m#bbh ,the resurrection of the ,maize  
,goddess set forth by the wearing of    
the skin of her human representative4   
,m#bbi ,xipe1 the ,flayed ,god1 and the 
,mexican festival of the ,flaying of    
,men4   ,m#bcj ,the human shambles4 ,the
 holy beggars clad in the skins of the  

flayed        human victims4   ,m#bca   
,various ,mexican gods personated by the
 men clad in the skins of the           
human victims4      #fia ,b4 de         
,sahagun1 ,histoire ,gnrale des ,choses 
de la ,nouvelle        ,espagne1        
traduite par ,d4 ,jourdanet et ,r4      
,simeon 7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4        #cg 
sq41 #eh-fj1 #hg-id1 #ehd sq42 ,e4      
,seler1 ,altmexikanische                
,studien1 ii4 7,berlin1 #ahii7 pp4      
#gf-ajj1 #aga-ahh 7the latter passage   
gives the ,aztec text of ,sahagun's     
account with a ,german                  
translation72 ,diego ,duran1 ,historia  
de las ,indias de ,nueva ,espaa         
7,mexico1 #ahfg-ahhj71 ii4 #adg-aee2 ,j4
 de ,torquemada1 ,monarquia             
,indiana1 lib4 x4 cap4 #aa1 vol4 ii4 pp4
 #beb sq4 7,madrid1 #agbc74             
,compare ,f4 ,s4 ,clavigero1 ,history of
 ,mexico1 translated by ,c4             
,cullen1 ,second ,edition 7,london1     
#ahjg71 i4 #big sq42 ,brasseur de       
,bourbourg1 ,histoire des ,nations      

civilises du ,mexique et de             
l',amrique-,centrale 7,paris1           
#aheg-ahei71 iii4 #ejc sq42 ,h4 ,h4     
,bancroft1 ,the ,native ,races of the   
,pacific ,states 7,london1              
#ahge-ahgf71 ii4 #cjf sqq4 ,according to
 ,torquemada1 the prisoners        were 
flayed alive1 but this statement is not1
 so far as ,i know1        supported by 
the other early ,spanish authorities4   
,it is ,duran who        gives the #bjth
 of ,march as the date of the festival  
at which the        captives were killed
 and skinned2 but this is inconsistent  
with the        evidence of ,sahagun1   
according to whom the second ,aztec     
month1 in        which the festival     
fell1 ended with the #acth of ,march4   
,see ,b4 de        ,sahagun1 ,histoire  
,gnrale des ,choses de la ,nouvelle     
,espagne1 p4        #ea4     ,m#bcb ,men
 roasted alive as images of the         
,fire-god4      #fib ,j4 de ,torquemada1
 ,monarquia ,indiana1 lib4 x4 cap4 #cj1 
vol4 ii4 pp4        #bhe sq4 7,mexico1  

#agbc72 ,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,histoire      
,gnrale des        ,choses de la        
,nouvelle ,espagne1 traduite par ,d4    
,jourdanet et ,r4        ,simeon        
7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4 #afd sq4 ,the      
latter writer does not        describe  
the mode in which the victims were      
sacrificed at this        quadriennial  
festival2 but he describes as in the    
text the annual        sacrifice of     
victims in honour of the fire-god in the
 tenth month of        the ,mexican year
 7op4 cit4 pp4 #fg sq41 #abi sqq474     
,compare ,f4        ,s4 ,clavigero1     
,history of ,mexico1 translated by ,c4  
,cullen1 ,second        ,edition        
7,london1 #ahjg71 i4 #cjf sq42 ,h4 ,h4  
,bancroft1 ,the ,native        ,races of
 the ,pacific ,states1 ii4 #cbi sq4     
,m#bcc ,women flayed in honour of the   
,fire-god and their skins worn by men   
who personated gods4      #fic ,j4 de   
,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1 lib4  
x4 cap4 #cj1 vol4 ii4 p4        #bhf    
7,madrid1 #agbc74 ,compare ,f4 ,s4      

,clavigero1 ,history of ,mexico1        
translated by ,c4 ,cullen1 ,second      
,edition 7,london1 #ahjg71 i4 #bhc      
sq42 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire 
des ,nations civilises du               
,mexique et de l',amrique-,centrale1    
iii4 #eci sq4     ,m#bcd ,the           
personation of a god by a man wearing   
the skin of a human victim        is    
probably intended to represent and      
ensure the resurrection of the          
deity4 ,the idea of resurrection from   
the dead is suggested by the            
observation of snakes and other         
creatures that cast their skins4        
#fid ,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,histoire ,gnrale 
des ,choses de la ,nouvelle             
,espagne1 traduite par ,d4 ,jourdanet et
 ,r4 ,simeon1 pp4 #cg1 #ic2 ,e4         
,seler1 ,altmexikanische ,studien1 ii4  
7,berlin4 #ahhi7 pp4 #if1 #ahe          
7quoting the ,aztec text of ,sahagun74  
#fie ,r4 ,schomburgk1 ,reisen in        
,britisch-,guiana 7,leipsic1            
#ahdg-ahdh71 ii4        #cai4 ,i have   

already noticed this and the following  
stories of the        origin of death in
 ,the ,belief in ,immortality1 i4 #fi   
sqq4      #fif ,r4 ,schomburgk1 op4 cit4
 ii4 #cbj4     ,m#bce ,savage notion    
that men would have been immortal1 if   
only they could        have cast their  
skins like serpents and crabs4      #fig
 ,a4 ,landes1 8,contes et ,lgendes      
,annamites10 ,cochinchine franaise1     
,excursions et ,reconnaissances1 ,no4   
#be 7,saigon1 #ahhf71 pp4 #ajh sq4      
#fih ,h4 ,sundermann1 8,die ,insel ,nias
 und die ,mission daselbst10            
,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1 xi4 
7#ahhd7 p4 #dea2 id41 ,die        ,insel
 ,nias und die ,mission daselbst        
7,barmen1 #aije71 p4 #fh2 ,e4           
,modigliani1 ,un ,viaggio a ,nias       
7,milan1 #ahij71 p4 #bie2 ,a4 ,fehr1    
,der        ,niasser im ,leben und      
,sterben 7,barmen1 #aija71 p4 #h4       
#fii ,p4 ,kleintitschen1 ,die           
,kstenbewohner der ,gazellehalbinsel    
7,hiltrup        bei ,mnster1 preface   

dated ,christmas1 #aijf71 p4 #ccd4      
#gjj ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the          
,melanesians 7,oxford1 #ahia71 pp4 #bfj1
 #bfe2 ,w4        ,gray1 8,some ,notes  
on the ,tannese10 ,internationales      
,archiv fr        ,ethnographie1 vii4   
7#ahid7 p4 #bcb4 ,the same story of the 
origin of        death has been recorded
 in the ,shortlands ,islands and among  
the ,kai        of ,german ,new ,guinea4
 ,see ,c4 ,ribbe1 ,zwei ,jahre unter den
 ,kannibalen        der ,salomo-,inseln 
7,dresden-,blasowitz1 #aijc71 p4 #adh2  
,ch4 ,keysser1        8,aus dem ,leben  
der ,kaileute10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's      
,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1        iii4      
7,berlin1 #aiaa7 pp4 #afa sq4 ,it is    
also told with some        variations by
 the natives of the ,admiralty ,islands4
 ,see ,josef ,meier1        8,mythen und
 ,sagen der ,admiralittsinsulaner10     
,anthropos1 iii4        7#aijh7 p4 #aic4
      #gja ,miss ,a4 ,werner1 8,two     
,galla ,legends10 ,man1 xiii4 7#aiac7   
pp4 #ij        sq4     ,m#bcf ,hence the

 ,mexicans apparently thought that they 
could renew their        own skins by   
putting on those of other people4       
,m#bcg ,general conclusion3 the custom  
of putting human beings to death in     
the character of gods has prevailed in  
many parts of the world4      #gjb ,the 
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 i4 #dj sqq41 ii4 #cgf           
sqq4     ,m#bch ,annual periods of      
license4 ,the ,roman ,saturnalia4       
#gjc ,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4 #ecf-edj1     
,aen4 viii4 #cai-cbg1 with the          
comments of ,servius2 ,tibullus1 i4 #c4 
#ce-dh2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 i4 #bcc          
sqq42 ,lucian1 ,saturnalia1 #g2         
,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #g4 #ba-bf2     
,justin1 xliii4 #a4 #c-e2 ,aurelius     
,victor1 ,origo gentis ,romanae1 #c2    
,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 
,rom4 i4 #cd4 ,on ,saturn and the       
,saturnalia see especially ,l4 ,preller1
 ,rmische ,mythologie1#c ii4 #aj        
sqq4 ,compare ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische  
,staatsverwaltung1 iii4#b               

7,leipsic1 #ahhe7 pp4 #ehf sqq42 ,w4    
,warde ,fowler1 ,the ,roman             
,festivals of the ,period of the        
,republic 7,london1 #ahii71 pp4         
#bfh-bgc2 ,g4 ,wissowa1 ,religion und   
,kultus der ,rmer#b 7,munich1           
#aiab71 pp4 #bjd sqq42 id41 in ,w4 ,h4  
,roscher's ,ausfhrliches        ,lexikon
 der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 iv4   
#dbg sqq4 ,a good        account of the 
,saturnalia1 based on the texts of the  
classical        writers1 is given by   
,dezobry 7,rome au sicle d',auguste1#c  
iii4 #adc        sqq474 ,the name       
,saturn seems to be etymologically akin 
to satus        and satio1 8a sowing0 or
 8planting40 ,compare ,varro1 ,de lingua
        ,latina1 v4 #fd1 8,ab satu est  
dictus ,saturnus02 ,festus1 s4v4        
8,opima spolia10 p4 #ahf ed4 ,c4 ,o4    
,mller3 8ipse ,saturnus agrorum         
cultor habetur1 nominatus a satu1       
tenensque falcem effingitur1 quae       
est insigne agricolae40 ,compare        
,tertullian1 ,ad ,nationes1 ii4 #ab2    

,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 iv4 #i2 
,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1          
vii4 #b1 #c1 #ac1 #ae1 #ah1 #ai4 ,the   
god's name appears in the form          
,saeturnus inscribed on an ancient bowl 
7,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones            
,latinae ,selectae1 vol4 ii4 pars i4 p4 
#b1 ,no4 #biff74      #gjd ,dionysius   
,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 i4 #ch2   
,macrobius1 ,saturn4        i4 #g4 #ca2 
,lactantius1 ,divin4 ,inst4 i4 #ba2     
,arnobius1 ,adversus        ,nationes1  
ii4 #fh4      #gje ,for the general     
dissipation of the ,saturnalia see      
,seneca1 ,epist4        #ah2 for the    
seven days of the popular festival see  
,martial1 xiv4 #gb4        #b2          
,macrobius1 ,sat4 i4 #aj4 #b2 ,lucian1  
,saturnalia1 #ba4     ,m#bci ,the       
license granted to slaves at the        
,saturnalia4 ,the mock ,king of         
the ,saturnalia4      #gjf ,horace1     
,sat4 ii4 #g4 #d sq42 ,macrobius1       
,saturn4 i4 #g4 #bf2        ,justin1    
xliii4 #a4 #d2 ,plutarch1 ,sulla1 #ah2  

,lucian1 ,saturnalia1 #e1        #g2    
,porphyry1 ,de antro nympharum1 #bc4    
#gjg ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #ab4 #g1 i4
 #bd4 #bc2 ,solinus1 i4 #ce2 ,joannes   
,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iii4 #ae2         
,athenaeus1 xiv4 #dd1 p4 #fci ,b2 ,dio  
,cassius1 lx4 #ai4      #gjh ,seneca1   
,epist4 #dg4 #ad4 ,compare ,porphyry1   
,de abstinentia1 ii4 #bc4      #gji     
,tacitus1 ,annals1 xiii4 #ae2 ,arrian1  
,epicteti ,dissert4 i4 #be4 #h2         
,lucian1 ,saturnalia1 #d4     ,m#bdj    
,personation of ,saturn at the          
,saturnalia by a soldier who afterwards 
suffered death4 ,the sarcophagus of ,st4
 ,dasius1 the martyr on whom        the 
lot fell to play the part of ,saturn4   
#gaj 8,les ,actes de ,s4 ,dasius10      
,analecta ,bollandiana1 xvi4 7#ahig7 pp4
        #e-af4 ,i have to thank ,prof4  
,cumont for courteously sending me a    
copy        of this important paper4    
,the bearing of the new evidence on the 
,saturnalia has been further discussed  
by ,messrs4 ,parmentier and             

,cumont 78,le roi des ,saturnales10     
,revue de ,philologie1 xxi4 7#ahig7     
pp4 #adc-aec74      #gaa ,the phrase of 
the ,paris ,,ms4 is ambiguous 7         
1          72 but the other two versions
 say plainly that the mock king         
perished by his own hand 7             1
 ,berlin ,,ms42     1 ,milan            
,,ms474      #gab ,franz ,cumont1 8,le  
tombeau de ,s4 ,dasius de ,durostorum10 
,analecta        ,bollandiana1 xxvii4   
7,brussels1 #aijh7 pp4 #cfi-cgb4 ,the   
inscription        on the sarcophagus   
runs thus3                4 ,the        
inscription on the altar runs           
thus3 8,vetere diruta nobiliorem ,,ff4  
,karmelitani excalciati aram            
extruxerunt subter qua sanctorum        
martyrum ,peregrini ,flaviani ,dasii    
corpora et infantium ab ,herode         
necatorum ossa minus decenter           
antiquitus recondita honorificentius et 
populo spectanda reponi                 
curaverunt die virgini et matri         
,theresiae sacro anno ,,mdccciv40       

,m#bda ,the mock ,king of the           
,saturnalia may have been the degenerate
        successor of a series of        
temporary kings who personated ,saturn  
at        the ,saturnalia and were put  
to death in the character of the god4   
#gac ,the opinion that at ,rome a man   
used to be sacrificed at the            
,saturnalia cannot be regarded as in    
itself improbable1 when we              
remember that down apparently to the    
establishment of ,christianity a        
human victim was slaughtered every year 
at ,rome in honour of ,latian           
,jupiter4 ,see ,tertullian1             
,apologeticus1 #i1 ,contra ,gnosticos   
,scorpiace1 #g2 ,minucius ,felix1       
,octavius1 #bb and #cj2 ,lactantius1    
,divin4 ,instit4 i4 #ba2 ,porphyry1 ,de 
abstinentia1 ii4 #ef4 ,we may           
conjecture that at first the sacrifice  
took place on the top of the            
,alban ,mountain1 and was offered to    
,saturn1 to whom1 as we have seen1      
high places were sacred4     ,m#bdb ,the

 modern ,carnival perhaps the equivalent
 of the ancient        ,saturnalia4     
#gad ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #bbj sqq4    
,m#bdc ,the ,king of the ,bean on       
,twelfth ,night4 ,crosses made by the   
,king of        the ,bean to protect the
 house against demons and witchcraft4   
#gae ,joannes ,boemus1 ,mores1 ,leges1  
et ,ritus ,omnium ,gentium 7,lyons1     
#aeda71 p4 #abb2 ,the ,popish ,kingdome 
or reigne of ,antichrist1 written       
in ,latin verse by ,thomas ,naogeorgus  
and ,englyshed by ,barnabe ,googe1      
#aegj1 edited by ,r4 ,c4 ,hope 7,london1
 #ahhj71 pp4 #de sq42 ,e4               
,pasquier1 ,recherches de la ,france    
7,paris1 #afcc71 pp4 #cge sq42 ,r4      
,herrick1 8,twelfth ,night1 or ,king and
 ,queene10 ,the ,works of ,robert       
,herrick 7,edinburgh1 #ahbc71 ii4 #aga  
sq42 ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular               
,antiquities of ,great ,britain         
7,london1 #ahhc71 i4 #ba sqq42 ,t4 ,f4  
,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british ,popular     
,customs 7,london1 #ahgf71 pp4 #bd-bh2  

,r4 ,chambers1 ,the ,book of ,days      
7,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahhf71 i4 #fa 
sqq42 ,desgranges1 8,usages du ,canton  
de ,bonneval10 ,mmoires de la           
,socit ,royale des ,antiquaires de      
,france1 i4 7,paris1 #ahag7 pp4         
#bcc-bcf2 ,l4 ,beaulieu1 ,archologie de 
la ,lorraine 7,paris1                   
#ahdj-ahdc71 i4 #bee sq42               
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,calendrier     
,belge        7,brussels1 #ahfa-ahfb71  
i4 #bc sqq42 id41 ,das festliche ,jahr  
7,leipsic1 #ahfc71 pp4 #bj-bc2 ,e4      
,cortet1 ,essai sur les ,ftes           
religieuses 7,paris1 #ahfg71 pp4 #bi-ej2
 ,j4 ,h4 ,schmitz1 ,sitten und          
,sagen1 ,lieder1 ,sprchwrter und ,rthsel
 des ,eifler ,volkes 7,trves1           
#ahef-aheh71 i4 #f2 ,laisnel de la      
,salle1 ,croyances et ,lgendes du       
,centre de la ,france 7,paris1 #ahge71  
i4 #ai-bi2 ,j4 ,lecur1 ,esquisses       
du ,bocage ,normand 7,cond-sur-,noireau1
 #ahhc-ahhg71 ii4 #abe2 ,l4             
,bonnemre1 8,le ,jour des ,rois en      

,normandie10 ,revue des ,traditions     
populaires1 ii4 7#ahhg7 pp4 #ee sq42 ,p4
 ,sbillot1 8,la ,fte des        ,rois10 
,revue des ,traditions populaires1 iii4 
7#ahhh7 pp4 #g-ab2 ,a4        ,meyrac1  
,traditions1 ,coutumes1 ,lgendes et     
,contes des ,ardennes                   
7,charleville1 #ahij71 pp4 #gd sq42 ,j4 
,l4 ,m4 ,nogus1 ,les ,murs              
d'autrefois en ,saintonge et en ,aunis  
7,saintes1 #ahia71 pp4 #di        sqq42 
,l4 ,f4 ,sauv1 ,le ,folk-lore des       
,hautes-,vosges 7,paris1 #ahhi71        
pp4 #af sq42 ,ch4 ,beauquier1 ,les ,mois
 en ,franche-,comt 7,paris1             
#aijj71 pp4 #af sq42 ,f4 ,chapiseau1 ,le
 ,folk-lore de la ,beauce et du         
,perche 7,paris1 #aijb71 i4 #cab-cae2   
,anatole ,france1 8,le roy boit10       
,annales ,politiques et ,littraires1 #e 
,janvier1 #aijb1 pp4 #d sq42        ,la 
,bresse ,louhannaise1 ,janvier1 #aijf1  
pp4 #db-df4 ,the custom of        making
 white crosses on the ceiling is        
reported for ,germany and               

,switzerland1 but apparently not for    
,france4 ,it is mentioned in the        
earliest of the works cited above1      
namely that of ,joannes ,boemus1        
whose description applies especially to 
,franconia 7,franken74      #gaf ,this  
,i learn from my friend ,m4 ,lon        
,chouville of ,rouen and                
,cambridge4 ,the custom is also kept up 
in ,bresse 7,la ,bresse                 
,louhannaise1 ,janvier1 #aijf1 pp4      
#dd-df74     ,m#bdd ,serious            
significance of the ,king of the ,bean  
and ,twelfth ,night4        ,divination 
on ,twelfth ,night4      #gag ,l4       
,beaulieu1 ,archologie de la ,lorraine  
7,paris1 #ahdj-ahdc71 i4 #bef           
note #a2 ,e4 ,cortet1 ,essai stir les   
,ftes religieuses 7,paris1 #ahfg71      
p4 #dc4      #gah ,l4 ,f4 ,sauv1 op4    
cit4 pp4 #ag sq4      #gai ,anatole     
,france1 8,le roy boit10 ,annales       
,politiques et ,littraires1        #e   
,janvier1 #aijb1 p4 #e4 ,in some parts  
of ,france divination was               

practised for this purpose on ,christmas
 ,day4 ,twelve grains of wheat1         
each representing a month of the year1  
were placed1 one after the        other1
 on a hot fire-shovel2 if the grain     
bounced up from the        shovel1 wheat
 would be dear in the corresponding     
month1 but it would        be cheap if  
the grain remained still4 ,see ,j4 ,b4  
,thiers1 ,trait des                     
,superstitions 7,paris1 #afgi71 p4 #bfh4
 ,see further ,p4 ,sbillot1 ,le         
,folk-lore de ,france1 iii4 7,paris1    
#aijf7 pp4 #eaj sq4     ,m#bde ,bonfires
 on the ,eve of ,twelfth ,night4 ,fire  
applied to the        fruit-trees on the
 ,eve of ,twelfth ,night in ,normandy   
and the        ,ardennes4      #gbj ,ch4
 ,beauquier1 ,les ,mois en              
,franche-,comt 7,paris1 #aijj71 p4 #ab4 
#gba ,j4 ,lecur1 ,esquisses du ,bocage  
,normand 7,cond-sur-,noireau1           
#ahhc-ahhg71 ii4 #abf-abi4 ,compare     
,amlie ,bosquet1 ,la ,normandie         
,romanesque et ,merveilleuse 7,paris and

 ,rouen1 #ahde71 pp4 #bie sq42          
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus        
7,berlin1 #ahge71 pp4 #ecf sqq4         
#gbb ,a4 ,meyrac1 ,traditions1          
,coutumes1 ,lgendes et ,contes des      
,ardennes        7,charleville1 #ahij71 
pp4 #ge sq4     ,m#bdf ,fires kindled on
 ,twelfth ,night or the ,eve of ,twelfth
 ,night in        ,england for the sake 
of the crops4      #gbc ,j4 ,brand1     
,popular ,antiquities of ,great         
,britain1 ,new ,edition        7,london1
 #ahhc71 i4 #cc4 ,in many parishes of   
,gloucestershire it used        to be   
customary on ,twelfth ,day to light     
twelve small fires and one        large 
one 7,j4 ,brand1 op4 cit4 i4 #bh74      
#gbd ,the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 vol4  
lxi41 ,february1 #agia1 p4 #aaf4 ,the   
article is signed ,j4 ,w4 and dated     
8,hereford1 ,jan4 #bd40 ,the passage    
is quoted1 correctly in substance1 but  
with many verbal changes1 by        ,j4 
,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities of ,great 
,britain1 i4 #cj sq41 and        by     

7,mrs47 ,e4 ,m4 ,leather1 ,the          
,folk-lore of ,herefordshire 7,hereford 
and ,london1 #aiab71 p4 #ic4     ,m#bdg 
,one of the fires on ,twelfth ,day said 
to be intended 8to burn the old         
witch40 ,parallel custom observed in    
,macedonia on the ,eve of ,twelfth      
,night4      #gbe 7,mrs47 ,ella ,mary   
,leather1 ,the ,folk-lore of            
,herefordshire 7,hereford        and    
,london1 #aiab71 pp4 #ic sq4      #gbf  
7,mrs47 ,e4 ,m4 ,leather1 op4 cit4 pp4  
#id sq4      #gbg ,see above1 pp4 #afd  
sqq4      #gbh ,g4 ,f4 ,abbott4         
,macedonian ,folk-lore 7,cambridge1     
#aijc71 pp4 #gc-ge4      #gbi ,this     
opinion is mentioned by 7,mrs47 ,e4 ,m4 
,leather1 ,the ,folk-lore of            
,herefordshire1 p4 #ie4     ,m#bdh      
,other accounts of the fires on ,twelfth
 ,night in ,england and ,ireland4       
#gcj ,thomas ,pennant1 8,a ,tour in     
,scotland1 #agfi10 in ,john ,pinkerton's
        ,voyages and ,travels 7,london1 
#ahjh-ahad71 iii4 #di4      #gca ,thomas

 ,hyde1 ,historia religionis veterum    
,persarum 7,oxford1 #agjj71        p4   
#beg4      #gcb ,sir ,henry ,piers1     
,description of the ,county of          
,westmeath1 quoted by        ,j4 ,brand1
 ,popular ,antiquities of ,great        
,britain 7,london1 #ahhc71 i4           
#be4      #gcc ,h4 ,j4 ,byrne1 8,all    
,hallows ,eve and other ,festivals in   
,connaught10        ,folk-lore1 xviii4  
7#aijg7 p4 #dci4     ,m#bdi ,belief of  
the ,germanic peoples that the weather  
for the twelve        months of the year
 is determined by the weather of the    
,twelve ,days4      #gcd ,c4 ,s4 ,burne 
and ,g4 ,f4 ,jackson1 ,shropshire       
,folk-lore 7,london1        #ahhc71 p4  
#djh4      #gce ,the ,popish ,kingdome  
or reigne of ,antichrist1 written in    
,latin verse        by ,thomas          
,naogeorgus and ,englyshed by ,barnabe  
,googe1 #aegj1 edited        by ,r4 ,c4 
,hope 7,london1 #ahhj71 p4 #df2 ,e4     
,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1        ,sitten
 und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben            

7,stuttgart1 #aheb71 p4 #dgc1  #bcg2    
,a4 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus     
,schwaben 7,freiburg im ,breisgau1      
#ahfa-ahfb71 i4 #dfh1  #fif2 ,a4 ,kuhn  
und ,w4 ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche        
,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche 7,leipsic1
 #ahdh71 p4 #daa2 ,a4 ,kuhn1            
,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen aus       
,westfalen 7,leipsic1 #ahei71 ii4       
#aae1  #ced2 ,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche 
,volksaberglaube#b 7,berlin1            
#ahfi71 p4 #fa1  #gd2 ,montanus1 ,die   
deutschen ,volksfeste1                  
,volksbruche und deutscher ,volksglaube 
7,iserlohn1 ,n4,d471 p4 #ah2 ,m4        
,toeppen1 ,aberglauben aus ,masuren#b   
7,danzig1 #ahfg71 p4 #fa2 ,l4           
,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus
 dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg             
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 ii4 #bi1  #bid2    
,august ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten     
und ,gebruche aus ,thringen 7,vienna1   
#ahgh71 p4 #age2 ,k4 ,bartsch1          
,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche aus       
,mecklenburg 7,vienna1 #ahhj71 p4       

#bej1  #abib2 ,christian ,schneller1    
,mrchen und ,sagen aus                  
,wlschtirol 7,innsbruck1 #ahfg71 p4     
#bca2 ,j4 ,haltrich1 ,zur ,volkskunde   
der ,siebenbrger ,sachsen 7,vienna1     
#ahhe71 p4 #bhb2 ,willibald ,mller1     
,beitrge zur ,volkskunde der ,deutschen 
in ,mhren 7,vienna and        ,olmutz1  
#ahic71 p4 #cag2 ,alois ,john1 ,sitte1  
,brauch und ,volksglaube im             
deutschen ,westbhmen 7,prague1 #aije71  
p4 #ab2 ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1         
,brauch und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien  
7,leipsic1 #aijc-aijf71 i4 #af          
sq4      #gcf ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche     
,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus       
,schwaben        7,stuttgart1 #aheb71 p4
 #dgc1  #bcg2 ,a4 ,birlinger1           
,volksthmliches aus        ,schwaben    
7,freiburg im ,breisgau1 #ahfa-ahfb71 i4
 #dfh1  #fif4      #gcg ,a4 ,birlinger1 
op4 cit4 i4 #dgj4      #gch ,f4 ,j4     
,vonbun1 ,beitrge zur deutschen         
,mythologie 7,chur1 #ahfb71 p4          
#aca2 ,a4 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches   

aus ,schwaben1 i4 #dfi2 ,chr4           
,schneller1 ,mrchen und ,sagen aus      
,wlschtirol 7,innsbruck1 #ahfg71 p4     
#bca4     ,m#bej ,belief of the ,celtic 
peoples that the weather for the twelve 
months        of the year is determined 
by the weather of the ,twelve ,days4    
#gci ,jules ,lecoeur1 ,esquisses du     
,bocage ,normand 7,cond-sur-,noireau1   
#ahhc-ahhg71 ii4 #bj sq4      #gdj ,j4  
,loth1 8,les douze jours supplmentaires 
7gourdeziou7 des ,bretons        et les 
douze jours des ,germains et des        
,indous10 ,revue ,celtique1        xxiv4
 7#aijc7 pp4 #caj sq4      #gda ,j4 ,g4 
,campbell1 ,witchcraft and ,second      
,sight in the ,highlands and            
,islands of ,scotland 7,glasgow1 #aijb71
 p4 #bdc4      #gdb ,thomas ,pennant1   
8,a ,tour in ,scotland and ,voyage to   
the ,hebrides in        #aggb10 in ,john
 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels     
7,london1        #ahjh-ahad71 iii4 #chd4
     ,m#bea ,the ,twelve ,nights among  
the ancient ,aryans of ,india4      #gdc

 ,the ,hymns of the ,rigveda1 translated
 by ,r4 ,t4 ,h4 ,griffith               
7,benares1 #ahhi-ahib71 book iv4 hymn   
#cc1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aej sqq42 ,h4        
,zimmer1 ,altindisches ,leben 7,berlin1 
#ahgi71 pp4 #cfe-cfg2 ,a4               
,hillebrandt1 ,ritual-,litteratur1      
,vedische ,opfer und ,zauber            
7,strasburg1 #ahig71 pp4 #e sq4         
,however1 the ,ribhus are very obscure  
figures in ,vedic mythology4 ,compare   
,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion des      
,veda 7,berlin1 #ahid71 pp4 #bce sq42   
,a4 ,a4 ,macdonnell1 ,vedic             
,mythology 7,strasburg1 #ahig71 pp4 #aca
 sqq4     ,m#beb ,the ,twelve ,nights   
are probably an ancient intercalary     
period        introduced to equate      
twelve lunar months to the solar year4  
#gdd ,f4 ,max ,mller1 ,lectures on the  
,science of ,language1 ,sixth ,edition  
7,london1 #ahga71 i4 #f sqq42 ,o4       
,schrader1 ,reallexikon der             
indogermanischen ,altertumskunde        
7,strasburg1 #aija71 p4 #edg2 id41      

,sprachvergleichung und ,urgeschichte#c 
7,jena1 #aijf-aijg71 ii4 #bbh4      #gde
 ,this explanation of the sacredness of 
the twelve days among the               
,indo-,european peoples of the ,east and
 ,west is due to ,a4 ,weber4 ,see       
,o4 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der         
indogermanischen ,altertumskunde        
7,strasburg1 #aija71 pp4 #cia-cid2 id41 
,sprachvergleichung und                 
,urgeschichte#c 7,jena1 #aijf-aijg71 ii4
 #b4 pp4 #bbh-bcd4 ,it is accepted      
by ,j4 ,loth 7in ,revue ,celtique1 xxiv4
 #aijc1 pp4 #caa sq471        ,professor
 ,h4 ,hirt 7,die ,indogermanen1         
,strasburg1 #aije-aijg1 ii4        #ecg1
 #edd71 ,professor ,j4 ,h4 ,moulton     
7,two ,lectures on the ,science of      
,language1 ,cambridge1 #aijc1 pp4 #dg   
sq471 and ,j4 ,a4 ,mac,culloch 7in      
,dr4 ,j4 ,hastings's ,encyclopaedia of  
,religion and ,ethics1 iii4 #ha         
sq471 but is rejected on what seem to me
 insufficient grounds by                
,professor ,o4 ,schrader 7ll4cc474      

#gdf ,spirits of the ,corn and of the   
,wild1 i4 #cjg sqq4     ,m#bec ,the     
superstitions attaching to the ,twelve  
,nights are not of        ,christian    
origin4      #gdg ,die gestriegelte     
,rockenphilosophie 7,chemnitz1 #agei71  
pp4 #hfj1 #hfa2        ,bavaria1        
,landes- und ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs
 ,bayern 7,munich1        #ahfj-ahfg71  
i4 #cfe2 ,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche     
,volksaberglaube#b        7,berlin1     
#ahfi71 p4 #fa2 ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 
,brauch und ,volksglaube        in      
,schlesien 7,leipsic1 #aijc-aijf71 i4   
#ae2 ,a4 ,john1 ,sitte1 ,brauch         
und ,volksglaube im deutschen ,westbhmen
 7,prague1 #aije71 p4 #aa4 ,the         
phrase 8the ,twelve ,nights0 in the     
sense of 8the ,twelve ,days and         
,nights0 is doubtless derived from the  
ancient ,aryan custom of        counting
 by nights instead of by days and of    
regarding the period of        the      
earth's revolution on its axis as       
beginning with the night        rather  

than with the day4 ,see ,caesar1 ,de    
bello ,gallico1 vi4 #ah2                
,tacitus1 ,germania1 #aa2 ,o4 ,schrader1
 ,reallexikon der                       
indogermanischen ,altertumskunde        
7,strasburg1 #aija71 pp4 #hdd sqq42     
,j4 ,loth1 8,l',anne celtique10 ,revue  
,celtique1 xxv4 7#aijd7 pp4 #aae        
sqq4 ,the ,athenians reckoned a day from
 sunset to sunset1 and the              
,romans reckoned it from midnight to    
midnight 7,censorinus1 ,de die          
natali1 xxiii4 #c74      #gdh ,a4       
,tille1 ,die ,geschichte der deutschen  
,weihnacht 7,leipsic1 preface           
dated #ahic71 pp4 #c sq41 #bha sqq42 ,o4
 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der            
indogermanischen ,altertumskunde        
7,strasburg1 #aija71 p4 #cib4      #gdi 
,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und     
,volksglaube in ,schlesien 7,leipsic1   
#aijc-aijf71 i4 #ae4      #gej ,a4      
,wuttke1 ,der deutsche                  
,volksaberglaube#b 7,berlin1 #ahfi71 p4 
#fa1         #gd4 ,as to the varying    

dates of the ,twelve ,nights see further
 ,e4        ,mogk1 8,mythologie10 in ,h4
 ,paul's ,grundriss der germanischen    
,philologie1 iii4#b 7,strasburg1 #aijj71
 p4 #bfj4      #gea ,see above1 p4 #cbd4
      #geb ,thus ,a4 ,wuttke observes   
that by far the greater part of the     
superstitions attaching to the ,twelve  
,nights are of purely heathen           
origin 7,der deutsche                   
,volksaberglaube1#b p4 #fa72 and ,k4    
,weinhold        similarly remarks that 
the superstitions in question cannot    
have        originated in ,christian    
dogmas1 and that they point to the      
sacredness of the winter solstice among 
the heathen tribes of        ,germany   
7,weinacht-,spiele und ,lieder aus      
,sddeutschland und        ,schlesien1   
,vienna1 #ahge1 p4 #d74      #gec ,see  
,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second       
,edition1 pp4 #bed sqq42 and for        
,easter in particular see my letter     
8,attis and ,christ10 ,the              
,athenaeum1 ,no4 #dahd1 ,january #dth1  

#aijh1 pp4 #ai sq42 ,franz ,cumont1     
,les ,religions orientales dans le      
,paganisme romain#b 7,paris1 #aiji71    
pp4 #ajf sq41 #ccc sq4     ,m#bed ,an   
intercalary period a natural subject of 
superstition to primitive               
peoples4   ,m#bee ,the ,three ,kings of 
,twelfth ,night4      #ged ,j4 ,brand1  
,popular ,antiquities of ,great ,britain
 7,london1 #ahhc71 i4        #ba sq42   
,e4 ,cortet1 ,essai sur les ,ftes       
religieuses 7,paris1        #ahfg71 pp4 
#cb1 #ch1 #ci-db2                       
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,calendrier     
,belge        7,brussels1 #ahfa-ahfb71  
i4 #ba sq41 #cj sq42 id41               
,fest-,kalender        aus ,bhmen       
7,prague1 ,n4,d471 p4 #ah2 id41 ,das    
festliche ,jahr        7,leipsic1       
#ahfc71 pp4 #bc-bf2 ,bavaria1 ,landes-  
und ,volkskunde des        ,knigreichs  
,bayern 7,munich1 #ahfj-ahfg71 ii4 #bfb 
sq42 ,l4 ,f4 ,sauv1        ,le          
,folk-lore des ,hautes-,vosges 7,paris1 
#ahhi71 pp4 #ae-ah2 ,ch4                

,beauquier1 ,les ,mois en ,franche-,comt
 7,paris1 #aijj71 pp4 #ac-ae2 ,la       
,bresse ,louhannaise1 ,janvier1 #aijf1  
p4 #db2 ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1         
,brauch und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien  
7,leipsic1 #aijc-aijf71 i4 #ea2 ,a4     
,john1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube 
im deutschen ,westbhmen        7,prague1
 #aije71 pp4 #cb-cd2 ,e4                
,hoffmann-,krayer1 ,feste und ,bruche   
des ,schweizervolkes 7,zrich1 #aiac71   
pp4 #ajd1 #aba4      #gee ,matthew ii4  
#a-ab4      #gef ,ch4 ,beauquier1 ,les  
,mois en ,franche-,comt 7,paris1 #aijj71
 pp4 #ac-af4      #geg ,l4 ,f4 ,sauv1   
,le ,folk-lore des ,hautes-,vosges      
7,paris1 #ahhi71 pp4        #ae-ag4     
,compare the old ,roman cure for the    
falling sickness 7above1        p4 #fh74
      #geh ,o4 ,freiherr von            
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender 
aus ,bhmen        7,prague1 ,n4,d471 pp4
 #ag sq4      #gei                      
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,calendrier     
,belge 7,brussels1 #ahfa-ahfb71 i4      

#bb4 ,the mere names of the three kings 
worn on the person were        believed 
to be a cure for epilepsy4 ,see ,j4 ,b4 
,thiers1 ,trait des                     
,superstitions 7,paris1 #afgi71 pp4 #cej
 sq4      #gfj ,r4 ,chambers1 ,the ,book
 of ,days 7,london and ,edinburgh1      
#ahhf71 i4 #fb1        referring to     
,warton's ,history of ,english ,poetry4 
,m#bef ,the ,lord of ,misrule in        
,england4 ,reign of the ,lord of        
,misrule during        the ,twelve      
,days4 ,lord of ,misrule in the ,temple4
      #gfa ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular         
,antiquities of ,great ,britain         
7,london1 #ahhc71 i4        #dig sqq42  
,e4 ,k4 ,chambers1 ,the ,mediaeval      
,stage 7,oxford1 #aijc71 i4        #djc 
sqq4      #gfb ,john ,stow1 ,a ,survey  
of ,london1 written in the year #aeih1  
edited by        ,william ,j4 ,thoms    
7,london1 #ahgf71 p4 #cg4      #gfc ,sir
 ,thomas ,urquhart1 ,the ,discovery of a
 most ,exquisite ,jewel1 more           
precious than ,diamonds inchased in     

,gold 7,edinburgh1 #aggd71 p4 #adf4     
#gfd ,j4 ,brand1 op4 cit4 i4 #dii4      
#gfe ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities  
of ,great ,britain 7,london1 #ahhc71 i4 
#dig sqq4 ,as to the ,lords of ,misrule 
in colleges and the ,inns of            
,court see further ,e4 ,k4 ,chambers1   
,the ,mediaeval ,stage1 i4 #djg         
sqq4      #gff ,sir ,richard ,steele1 in
 ,the ,spectator1 ,friday1 #adth        
,december #agaa4     ,m#beg ,lord of    
,misrule at the ,english ,court4        
#gfg ,e4 ,k4 ,chambers1 ,the ,mediaeval 
,stage1 i4 #dje-djg4     ,m#beh ,the    
,festival of ,fools in ,france4         
#gfh ,l4 ,j4 ,b4 ,brenger-,feraud1      
,superstitions et ,survivances1 iv4     
7,paris1 #ahif7 pp4 #d sq41 quoting     
,jacob1 ,murs et ,coutumes du           
,moyen-,age4 ,compare ,e4 ,cortet1      
,essai sur les ,ftes religieuses        
7,paris1 #ahfg71 pp4 #ej sqq4 ,in some  
places the festival was held on         
the octave of ,epiphany4 ,see ,e4 ,k4   
,chambers1 ,the ,mediaeval ,stage       

7,oxford1 #aijc71 i4 #cbc4      #gfi ,e4
 ,cortet1 op4 cit4 p4 #ea2 ,papon1      
,histoire ,gnrale de la                 
,provence1 iii4 p4 #bab1 quoted by ,l4  
,j4 ,b4 ,brenger-,feraud1 op4           
cit4 iv4 #i sq42 ,e4 ,k4 ,chambers1 ,the
 ,mediaeval ,stage 7,oxford1            
#aijc71 i4 #bic sq41 quoting a circular 
letter which was addressed        by the
 ,faculty of ,theology at ,paris to the 
bishops and chapters of        ,france  
on ,march #abth1 #adde4 ,many details as
 to the mode of        celebrating the  
,festival of ,fools in different parts  
of ,france are        on record4 ,see   
,a4 de ,nore1 ,coutumes1 ,mythes1 et    
,traditions des        ,provinces de    
,france 7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahdf71 pp4 
#bic-bie2 ,e4        ,cortet1 op4 cit4  
pp4 #eb sqq42 ,l4 ,j4 ,b4               
,brenger-,feraud1 op4        cit4 iv4 #e
 sqq42 ,g4 ,bilfinger1 ,untersuchungen  
ber die        ,zeitrechnung der alten  
,germanen1 ii4 ,das germanische ,julfest
        7,stuttgart1 #aija71 pp4 #gb    

sq42 and especially ,e4 ,k4 ,chambers1  
,the        ,mediaeval ,stage1 i4 #bgd  
sqq4     ,m#bei ,buffooneries in the    
churches at the ,festival of ,fools4    
#ggj ,e4 ,cortet1 ,essai sur les ,ftes  
religieuses 7,paris1 #ahfg71 pp4        
#ec-ef2 ,l4 ,j4 ,b4 ,brenger-,feraud1   
,superstitions et ,survivances1 iv4     
#bh-da2 ,e4 ,k4 ,chambers1 ,the         
,mediaeval ,stage 7,oxford1 #aijc71 i4  
#ccj-ccd4 ,while the ,festival of ,fools
 appears to have been most              
popular in ,france1 it is known to have 
been celebrated also in        ,germany1
 ,bohemia1 and ,england4 ,see ,e4 ,k4   
,chambers1 op4 cit4 i4 #cah        sqq4 
,in his youth the ,bohemian reformer    
,john ,huss took part in        these   
mummeries4 ,the revellers wore masks4   
8,a clerk1 grotesquely        vested1   
was dubbed #8bishop1' set on an ass with
 his face to the        tail1 and led to
 mass in the church4 ,he was regaled on 
a platter of        broth and a bowl of 
beer1 and ,huss recalls the unseemly    

revel which        took place4 ,torches 
were borne instead of candles1 and the  
clergy        turned their garments     
inside out and danced0 7,e4 ,k4         
,chambers1 op4        cit4 i4 #cbj sq474
     ,m#bfj ,festival of the ,innocents 
and the ,boy ,bishop in ,france4        
#gga ,e4 ,cortet1 ,essai sur les ,ftes  
religieuses1 p4 #eh2 ,e4 ,k4 ,chambers1 
,the ,mediaeval ,stage 7,oxford1 #aijc71
 i4 #cag sq41 #ccf sqq4        ,compare 
,l4 ,j4 ,b4 ,brenger-,feraud1           
,superstitions et ,survivances1         
iv4 #be-bh4 ,from the evidence collected
 by the latter writer it        appears 
that in some places the election of the 
,boy ,bishop took        place on other 
days than ,childermas4 ,at ,alenon the  
election took        place on the sixth 
of ,december2 at ,vienne1 in ,dauphin1  
on the        fifteenth1 and at         
,soissons on ,st4 ,thomas's ,day 7the   
twenty-first of        ,december74      
#ggb ,this ,i learn from my wife1 who as
 a girl was educated in the             

convent4     ,m#bfa ,the ,boy ,bishop in
 ,england4      #ggc ,j4 ,brand1        
,popular ,antiquities of ,great ,britain
 7,london1 #ahhc71 i4        #dba-dca2  
,e4 ,k4 ,chambers1 ,the ,mediaeval      
,stage 7,oxford1 #aijc71 i4        #ceb 
sqq42 7,mrs47 ,ella ,mary ,leather1 ,the
 ,folk-lore of        ,herefordshire    
7,hereford and ,london1 #aiab71 pp4 #ach
 sq42 ,county        ,folk-lore1 ,,ii4  
,north ,riding of ,yorkshire1 ,york and 
the ,ainsty1        edited by ,mrs4     
,gutch 7,london1 #aija71 pp4 #ceb sq4   
#ggd ,j4 ,brand1 op4 cit4 i4 #dbf4      
,m#bfb ,the customs and superstitions   
associated with the ,twelve ,days or    
,nights are probably relics of an old   
heathen festival of        intercalation
 at midwinter4   ,m#bfc ,superstitions  
associated with intercalary periods     
among the ,aztecs        of ,mexico and 
the ,mayas of ,yucatan4      #gge ,as to
 the ,aztec year see above1 p4 #bhg note
 #a4      #ggf ,b4 de ,sahagun1         
,histoire ,gnrale des ,choses de la     

,nouvelle        ,espagne1 traduite par 
,d4 ,jourdanet et ,r4 ,simeon 7,paris1  
#ahhj71 pp4        #gg1 #bhc2 ,e4       
,seler1 8,the ,mexican ,chronology10 in 
,bureau of ,american        ,ethnology1 
,bulletin ,no4 #bh 7,washington1 #aijd71
 p4 #af 7where some        extracts from
 the ,aztec text of ,sahagun are quoted 
and translated72        ,j4 de ,acosta1 
,natural and ,moral ,history of the     
,indies 7,hakluyt        ,society1      
,london1 #ahhj71 ii4 #cib4      #ggg    
,diego de ,landa1 ,relation des ,choses 
de ,yucatan 7,paris1 #ahfd71 pp4        
#bjd sq41 #bgf sq4     ,m#bfd ,the five 
supplementary days of the year in       
ancient ,egypt4      #ggh ,geminus1     
,elementa ,astronomiae1 viii4 #ah1 p4   
#ajf1 ed4 ,c4 ,manitius                 
7,leipsic1 #ahih74      #ggi ,g4        
,foucart1 in ,dr4 ,j4 ,hastings's       
,encyclopaedia of ,religion and         
,ethics1 iii4 7#aiaj7 p4 #ic4 ,professor
 ,ed4 ,meyer adduces astronomical       
and other grounds for thinking that the 

ancient ,egyptian calendar1        as we
 know it1 began on the #aith of ,july1  
#dbda ,b4,c41 which        accordingly  
he calls 8the oldest sure date in the   
history of the        world40 ,see ,ed4 
,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums#b1 i4
 #b4 7,stuttgart        and ,berlin1    
#aiji71 pp4 #aja sq41  #aig2 and against
 this view ,c4 ,f4                      
,lehmann-,haupt1 in the ,english        
,historical ,review1 ,april #aiac1 p4   
#cdh4      #ghj ,plutarch1 ,isis et     
,osiris1 #ab4 ,compare ,diodorus        
,siculus1 i4 #ac4 #d        sq4 ,as to  
,keb and ,nut1 the parents of ,osiris1  
,isis1 and the rest1        see ,a4     
,erman1 ,die gyptische ,religion        
7,berlin1 #aije71 p4 #bi4 ,the          
,egyptian deities ,keb1 ,nut1 and ,thoth
 are called by ,plutarch by the         
,greek names of ,cronus1 ,rhea1 and     
,hermes4 ,on account of these ,greek    
names the myth was long thought to be of
 comparatively recent date2        8but 
the ,leyden ,papyrus 7i4 #cdf7 has shown

 that the legend existed        in its  
essential features in the time of the   
,thebans1 and the ,texts        of the  
,pyramids have carried it back to the   
very beginnings of        ,egyptian     
mythology0 7,g4 ,foucart1 l4c474 ,as    
five days are the        seventy-second1
 not the seventieth1 part of three      
hundred and sixty        days1 it was   
proposed by ,wyttenbach to read         
instead of   in ,plutarch's text4 ,see  
,d4 ,wyttenbachius1                     
,animadversiones in ,plutarchi ,moralia 
7,leipsic1 #ahbj-ahcd71 iii4        #adc
 sq4     ,m#bfe ,early attempts of the  
,aryan peoples to correct the lunar year
 by        intercalating a month at     
intervals of several years instead of   
intercalating twelve days in every year4
      #gha ,h4 ,zimmer1 ,altindisches   
,leben 7,berlin1 #ahgi71 pp4 #cfe-cgj4  
,compare        ,the ,hymns of the      
,rigveda1 translated by ,r4 ,t4 ,h4     
,griffith        7,benares1 #ahhi-ahib71
 ,book i4 ,hymn #afd1 stanza #dh 7vol4  

i4 p4 #bic71        ,book iii4 ,hymn    
#ee1 stanza #ah 7vol4 ii4 pp4 #gf sq474 
#ghb ,j4 ,a4 ,mac,culloch1 in ,dr4 ,j4  
,hastings's ,encyclopaedia of ,religion 
and ,ethics1 iii4 7,edinburgh1 #aiaj7   
pp4 #gh sqq4 ,compare ,s4 de            
,ricci1 8,le calendrier ,gaulois de     
,coligny10 ,revue ,celtique1 xix4       
7#ahih7 pp4 #bac-bbc2 id41 8,le         
calendrier ,celtique de ,coligny10      
,revue ,celtique1 xxi4 7#aijj7 pp4      
#aj-bg2 id41 8,un passage               
remarquable du calendrier de ,coligny10 
,revue ,celtique1 xxiv4        7#aijc7  
pp4 #cac-caf2 ,j4 ,loth1 8,l'anne       
,celtique10 ,revue ,celtique1           
xxv4 7#aijd7 pp4 #aac-afb2 ,sir ,john   
,rhys1 8,the ,coligny ,calendar01       
,proceedings of the ,british ,academy1  
#aiji-aiaj1 pp4 #bjg sqq4 ,as        the
 calendar stands1 the number of days in 
the ordinary year is #cee1        not   
#ced1 seven of the months having thirty 
days and five of them        twenty-nine
 days4 ,but the month ,equos has        

attached to it the sign        ,,anm1   
which is attached to all the months of  
twenty-nine days but to        none of  
the months of thirty days except ,equos1
 all of which1 except        ,equos1 are
 marked with the sign ,,mat4 ,hence1    
following a suggestion        of ,m4 ,s4
 de ,ricci 7,revue ,celtique1 xxi4 #be71
 ,i suppose that the        month ,equos
 had regularly twenty-nine days instead 
of thirty1 and        that the          
attribution of thirty days to it is an  
error of the scribe        or mason who 
engraved the calendar4          ,in the 
,coligny calendar the summer solstice   
seems to be marked by        the word   
trinouxtion affixed to the seventeenth  
day of the first        month           
7,samonios1 nearly equivalent to our    
,june74 ,as interpreted by        ,sir  
,john ,rhys 7op4 cit4 p4 #bag71 the word
 means 8a period of three        nights 
of equal length40 ,if he is right1 it   
follows that the ,celts        who      
constructed the calendar had observed   

the summer solstice4     ,m#bff         
,equivalence of the new intercalary     
month to the old intercalary            
,twelve ,days multiplied by two and a   
half4 ,the intercalary month may        
have been a period of license1 during   
which the reins of government           
were held by a temporary king4      #ghc
 ,j4 ,a4 ,mac,culloch1 in ,dr4 ,j4      
,hastings's ,encyclopaedia of ,religion 
and ,ethics1 iii4 #gi4 ,compare ,sir ,j4
 ,rhys1 8,the ,coligny ,calendar10      
,proceedings of the ,british ,academy1  
#aiji-aiaj1 pp4 #bib sq4     ,m#bfg ,the
 modern ,carnival is perhaps the        
equivalent of the ancient               
,saturnalia4      #ghd ,we know from    
,livy 7xxii4 i4 #ai sq47 that the       
,saturnalia was        celebrated in    
,december as early as the year #bag     
,b4,c42 and in his        learned       
discussion of the proper date of the    
festival the antiquary        ,macrobius
 gives no hint that it ever fell at any 
other time than in        ,december     

7,saturnal4 i4 #aj74 ,it would be a     
mistake to infer from        ,livy's    
account of the ,saturnalia in the year  
#bag ,b4,c4 that he        supposed the 
festival to have been first instituted  
in that year2        for elsewhere 7ii4 
#ba4 #a7 he tells us that it was        
established at the        time when the 
temple of ,saturn was dedicated1 namely 
in the year #dig        ,b4,c4          
,macrobius 7,saturn4 i4 #h4 #a7 refers  
the institution of the                  
,saturnalia to ,king ,tullus ,hostilius4
 ,more probably the festival was        
of immemorial antiquity4     ,m#bfh ,the
 ,saturnalia may have originally fallen 
at the end of ,february1        which   
would be an appropriate time for a      
festival of sowing4      #ghe           
,macrobius1 ,sat4 i4 #ab4 #g2 ,solinus1 
i4 #ce1 p4 #ac ed4 ,th4 ,mommsen        
7,berlin1 #ahfd72 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de  
,mensibus1 iii4 #ae4 ,on the other      
hand1 we know that the ceremony of      
renewing the laurels1 which             

originally took place on the first of   
,march1 was long afterwards             
transferred to the first of ,january4   
,see ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #ace           
sqq41 and ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #ab4  
#f1 compared with        ,geoponica1 xi4
 #b4 #f1 where the note of the          
commentator ,niclas may        be       
consulted4 ,this transference is        
strictly analogous to the change        
which ,i conjecture to have been made in
 the date of celebrating the            
,saturnalia4      #ghf ,palladius1 ,de  
re rustica1 books iii4 and iv4 passim4  
#ghg ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 i4 #acg-aci4      #ghh ,the 
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 i4 #acf-add1 ii4 #ig        sqq4
      #ghi ,compare ,c4 ,lumholtz1      
,unknown ,mexico 7,london1 #aijc71 ii4  
#bfh3 8,to        the ,huichol so       
closely are corn1 deer1 and hikuli      
associated that by        consuming the 
broth of the deer-meat and the hikuli   
they think the        same effect is    

produced--namely1 making the corn grow4 
,therefore when        clearing the     
fields they eat hikuli before starting  
the day's work40     ,m#bfi ,the ,lenten
 fast in spring may be an old heathen   
period of abstinence        intended to 
promote the growth of the seed4         
,autumnal rites of        mourning and  
fasting for the sake of the seed4       
#gij ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 ii4 #ajd sqq4 ,the          
,indians of ,santiago ,tepehuacan       
abstain from flesh1 eggs1 and grease    
while they are engaged in sowing cotton 
and chilis1 because they        believe 
that were they to partake of these      
viands at that time1 the        blossoms
 would fall and the crop would suffer4  
,see 8,lettre du cur        de ,santiago
 ,tepehuacan  son vque sur les murs et  
coutumes des        ,indiens10 ,bulletin
 de la ,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71   
,deuxime        ,srie1 ii4 7#ahcd7 p4   
#aha4      #gia ,in ,franche-,comt not  
only husbands and wives were expected to

 be        continent from the first     
,sunday of ,lent to the first ,sunday   
after        ,easter1 but even          
sweethearts separated during that time1 
bidding        each other a formal      
farewell on the first of these days and 
meeting        again with similar       
formality on the last4 ,see ,c4         
,beauquier1 ,les        ,mois en        
,franche-,comt 7,paris1 #aijj71 p4 #ce4 
,i am informed that the                 
observance of chastity during ,lent is  
enjoined generally by the               
,catholic church4 ,as to its injunction 
by the ,coptic church see ,f4           
,wstenfeld1 ,macrizi's ,geschichte der  
,copten 7,gttingen1 #ahde71 p4          
#hd2 ,il ,fetha ,nagast1 o ,legislazione
 dei ,re1 codice ecclesiastico        e 
civile di ,abissinia1 tradotto e        
annotato da ,ignazio ,guidi 7,rome1     
#ahii71 p4 #afd4      #gib ,socrates1   
,historia ,ecclesiastica1 v4 #bb2       
,sozomenus1 ,historia                   
,ecclesiastica1 vii4 #ai 7,migne1       

,patrologia ,graeca1 lxvii4 coll4       
#fcb-fcf1 #adgg72 ,w4 ,smith and ,s4    
,cheetham1 ,dictionary of ,christian    
,antiquities1 s4v4 8,lent10 vol4 ii4 pp4
 #igb sq42 ,mgr4 ,l4        ,duchesne1  
,origines du ,culte ,chrtien 7,paris1   
#aijc71 pp4 #bda-bdc4      #gic         
,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore         
profanarum religionum1 #bg4      #gid   
,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #fi3       
1              1     1                  
4               1   1   1           4   
,as to the festival and the rule of     
chastity observed at it1 see further    
,spirits of the ,corn and of the        
,wild1 i4 #aaf1 ii4 #ag sq4     ,m#bgj  
,the ,buddhist ,lent4      #gie ,h4     
,fielding1 ,the ,soul of a ,people      
7,london1 #ahih71 pp4 #agb sq4          
,the orthodox explanation of the custom 
is that during these three        months
 the ,buddha retired to a monastery4    
,but 8the custom was far        older   
even than that--so old that we do not   
know how it arose4 ,its        origin is

 lost in the mists of far-away time40   
,compare ,c4 ,j4 ,f4 ,s4        ,forbes1
 ,british ,burma 7,london1 #ahgh71 pp4  
#agj sq42 ,shway ,yoe1        ,the      
,burman1 his ,life and ,notions         
7,london1 #ahhb71 i4 #beg1 #bfb         
sqq4     ,m#bga ,inversion of social    
ranks at ancient ,greek festivals held  
in ,crete1        ,troezen1 and         
,thessaly4      #gif ,athenaeus1 xiv4   
#dd sq41 pp4 #fci ,b-#fdj ,a4     ,m#bgb
 ,the ,greek festival of the ,cronia    
compared to the ,roman ,saturnalia4     
,the ,olympian ,cronia held at the      
spring equinox4      #gig ,macrobius1   
,saturn4 i4 #g4 #cg and i4 #aj4 #bb2    
,demosthenes1 ,or4        xxiv4 #bf1 p4 
#gjh4 ,as to the temple of ,cronus and  
,rhea1 see        ,pausanias1 i4 #ah4   
#g2 ,im4 ,bekker's ,anecdota ,graeca    
7,berlin1        #ahad-ahba71 i4 p4     
#bgc1 lines #bj sq4 ,that the ,attic    
month        ,hecatombaeon was formerly 
called ,cronius is mentioned by         
,plutarch        7,theseus1 #ab74 ,other

 ,greek states1 including ,samos1       
,amorgos1        ,perinthus1 and        
,patmos1 had a month called ,cronion1   
that is1 the        month of ,cronus1   
which seems to have coincided with ,june
 or ,july4        ,see ,g4              
,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum  
,graecarum#b 7,leipsic1                 
#ahih-aija71 ,nos4 #fdd and #fde2 ,e4   
,bischoff1 8,de fastis ,graecorum       
antiquioribus10 ,leipziger ,studien fr  
classischen ,philologie1 vii4           
7#ahhd7 p4 #djj4 ,at ,magnesia on the   
,maeander the month of ,cronion was     
the time of sowing 7,dittenberger1 op4  
cit4 ,no4 #eec1 lines #ae        sq471  
which cannot have fallen in the height  
of summer4 ,compare        ,spirits of  
the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ii4 #h4     
#gih ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,atticarum1 
iii4 ,no4 #gg2 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil   
d',inscriptions ,grecques 7,brussels1   
#aijj71 ,no4 #fib1 pp4 #eie sq42        
,i4 de ,prott et ,l4 ,ziehen1 ,leges    
,graecorum ,sacrae1 i4 7,leipsic1       

#ahif71 ,no4 #c1 pp4 #g sq42 ,e4 ,s4    
,roberts and ,e4 ,a4 ,gardner1          
,introduction to ,greek ,epigraphy1     
,part ,,ii4 7,cambridge1 #aije71 ,no4   
#adb1 pp4 #chg sq4 ,from the same       
inscription we learn that cakes         
with twelve knobs were offered to other 
deities1 including ,apollo        and   
,artemis1 ,zeus1 ,poseidon1 and         
,hercules4      #gii ,scholiast on      
,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #cgj 7p4 #agj
 ed4 ,e4 ,vollbehr1        ,kiel1       
#ahdd73       1                    1    
4 ,as to the        festival of the     
opening of the wine-jars see ,august    
,mommsen1        ,heortologie 7,leipsic1
 #ahfd71 pp4 #cdi sqq42 id41 ,feste der 
,stadt ,athen im ,altertum 7,leipsic1   
#ahih71 pp4 #chd sqq4 8,when the        
slaves10 says ,plutarch1 8feast at the  
,cronia or go about celebrating         
the festival of ,dionysus in the        
country1 the shouts they raise and      
the tumult they make in their rude      
merriment are intolerable0 7,non        

posse suaviter vivi secundum ,epicurum1 
#bf74 ,that the original        festival
 of ,cronus fell at ,athens in          
,anthesterion is the view of            
,aug4 ,mommsen 7,heortologie1 pp4 #bb1  
#gi2 ,feste der ,stadt ,athen1 p4       
#djb74      #hjj ,pausanias1 vi4 #bj4   
#a4 ,compare ,dionysius                 
,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4            
,rom4 i4 #cd4 ,the magistrates called   
8kings0 77 by ,pausanias        are     
doubtless identical with 8the kings0 7 7
 mentioned in        a law of ,elis1    
which was found inscribed on a bronze   
plate at        ,olympia4 ,see ,h4      
,roehl1 ,inscriptiones ,graecae         
,antiquissimae        7,berlin1 #ahhb71 
,no4 #aab1 p4 #ci2 ,c4 ,cauer1 ,delectus
 ,inscriptionum        ,graecarum       
propter dialectum memorabilium#b        
7,leipsic1 #ahhc71 ,no4 #bec1        p4 
#age2 ,h4 ,collitz1 ,sammlung der       
griechischen ,dialekt-,inschriften1     
,no4 #aaeb 7vol4 i4 ,gttingen1 #ahhd1 p4
 #cba72 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil          

d',inscriptions ,grecques1 ,no4 #aie1 p4
 #agi4     ,m#bgc ,the magistrates      
called ,kings who celebrated the ,cronia
 at ,olympia        may have personated 
,king ,cronus himself4 ,perhaps the man 
who        annually personated ,king    
,cronus was put to death4 ,a man        
annually        sacrificed to ,cronus at
 the ,cronia in ,rhodes4      #hja ,see 
,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of  
,kings1 i4 #dd sqq41 ii4        #agg1   
#cfa4      #hjb ,hesiod1 ,works and     
,days1 #aaa1 #afi2 ,plato1 ,politicus1  
p4 #bfi ,a2        ,diodorus ,siculus1  
iii4 #fa1 v4 #ff2 ,julian1 ,epistola ad 
,themistium1        p4 #beh ,c 7pp4 #ccd
 sq41 ed4 ,f4 ,c4 ,hertlein1 ,leipsic1  
#ahge-ahgf72        8,anonymi           
,chronologica10 printed in ,l4          
,dindorf's edition of ,j4               
,malalas 7,bonn1 #ahca71 p4 #ag4 ,see   
further ,m4 ,mayer's article            
8,kronos10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's        
,lexikon der griech4 und rm4            
,mythologie1 ii4 7,leipsic1 #ahij-ahig7 

col4 #adeh4      #hjc ,see ,m4 ,mayer1  
op4 cit4 ii4 #aeja sqq4      #hjd       
,pausanias1 vi4 #bj4 #d sq4      #hje   
,plato1 ,republic1 ix4 p4 #efe ,d ,e2   
pseudo-,plato1 ,minos1 p4 #cae ,c2      
,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 viii4 #ha2         
,pausanias1 viii4 #b and #ch2 ,porphyry1
        ,de abstinentia1 ii4 #bg2       
,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 xviii4   
#ag4        ,the suggestion that        
,lycaean ,zeus may have been merely a   
successor of        ,cronus is due to my
 friend ,professor ,w4 ,ridgeway4       
#hjf ,porphyry1 ,de abstinentia1 ii4    
#ed4      #hjg ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4    
#afa sqq4     ,m#bgd ,the ,babylonian   
festival of the ,sacaea4      #hjh ,the 
,dying ,god1 pp4 #aac sqq4      #hji    
,athenaeus1 xiv4 #dd1 p4 #fci ,c2 ,dio  
,chrysostom1 ,or4 iv4 #fi sq4           
7vol4 i4 p4 #gf ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf1       
,leipsic1 #aheg74 ,from ,athenaeus we   
learn that the festival was described or
 mentioned by ,berosus in his           
first book and by ,ctesias in his       

second4      #haj ,strabo1 xi4 #h4 #e1  
p4 #eab4     ,m#bge ,the ,sacaea by some
 identified with ,zakmuk or ,zagmuk1 the
 ,babylonian        festival of the ,new
 ,year1 which was held about the spring 
equinox in        ,march4 ,annual       
renewal of the king of ,babylon's power 
at the ,zakmuk        festival4         
#haa ,strabo1 xi4 #ad4 #af1 pp4 #ecb    
sq42 ,ed4 ,meyer's article 8,anaitis10  
in        ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon   
der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 i4     
7,leipsic1 #ahhd-ahij7 pp4 #ccj sqq4    
#hab ,by ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,religion of   
the ,ancient ,babylonians 7,london and  
,edinburgh1 #ahhg71 p4 #fh2 ,bruno      
,meissner1 8,zur ,entstehungsgeschichte 
des ,purimfestes10 ,zeitschrift der     
deutschen morgenlndischen               
,gesellschaft1 l4 7#ahif7 pp4 #bif-cja2 
,h4 ,winckler1 ,altorientalische        
,forschungen1 ,zweite ,reihe1 ii4 ,heft 
#c 7,leipsic1 #aijj71 p4 #cde2 ,c4      
,brockelmann1 8,wesen und ,ursprung des 
,eponymats in ,assyrien10               

,zeitschrift fr ,assyriologie1 xvi4     
7#aijb7 pp4 #cia sq4      #hac ,p4      
,jensen1 ,die ,kosmologie der           
,babylonier 7,strasburg1 #ahij71 pp4 #hd
        sqq42 ,h4 ,zimmern1 8,zur ,frage
 nach dem ,ursprunge des ,purimfestes10 
,zeitschrift fr die alttestamentliche   
,wissenschaft1 xi4 7#ahia7 pp4          
#aei sqq42 ,a4 ,jeremias1 s4v4          
8,marduk10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's        
,lexicon der griech4 und rm4            
,mythologie1 ii4 #bcdg sq42 ,m4         
,jastrow1 ,religion of ,babylonia and   
,assyria 7,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 #ahih71   
pp4 #ahf1 #fgg sqq42 ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1   
,assyrian and ,babylonian               
,literature 7,new ,york1 #aija71 pp4    
#acf sq41 #acg1 #adj1 #adi2 ,c4         
,brocklemann1 8,wesen und ,ursprung des 
,eponymats in ,assyrien10               
,zeitschrift fr ,assyriologie1 xvi4     
7#aijb7 pp4 #cia sqq42 ,h4              
,zimmern1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die       
,keilinschriften und das ,alte          
,testament#c 7,berlin1 #aijb71 pp4 #cgj 

sq41 #cgd1 #chd n4#d1 #djb1 #ead        
sqq42 id41 8,zum ,babylonischen         
,neujahrsfest10 ,berichte ber die       
,verhandlungen der kniglich ,schsischen 
,gesellschaft der        ,wissenschaften
 zu ,leipzig1 ,philologisch-historische 
,klasse1 lviii4        7#aijf7 pp4      
#abf-aef2 ,m4 ,j4 ,lagrange1 tudes sur  
les ,religions        ,smitiques#b      
7,paris1 #aije72 pp4 #bhe sqq4 ,king    
,gudea is thought to        have        
flourished about #bcdj ,b4,c4 ,see ,ed4 
,meyer1 ,geschichte des                 
,altertums1#b i4 #b4 7,stuttgart and    
,berlin1 #aiji7 pp4 #dhh sq4 ,as to     
the ceremony of grasping the hands of   
,marduk's image1 see also ,c4 ,f4       
,lehmann 7-,haupt71 amaumukin1 ,knig von
 ,babylonien 7,leipsic1        #ahib71  
pp4 #ej sqq42 ,sir ,g4 ,maspero1        
,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples        
de l',orient ,classique1 iii4 ,les      
,empires 7,paris1 #ahii74 pp4 #cha      
sq4     ,m#bgf ,reasons for identifying 
the ,sacaea with ,zakmuk4      #had ,on 

this subject the ,master of ,st4        
,catharine's ,college1 ,cambridge       
7the ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns71 has     
kindly furnished me with the            
following note3 8,,zag is the name of   
the ideogram meaning #8head or          
beginning4' ,,mu is the sign for        
#8year4' ,when put together ,,zag-,,mu  
means #8beginning of year4' ,but        
,,zag-,,mu-,,ku means ,,zag ,,mu-d1 i4e4
 ,,zag        with ,,mu suffixed4       
,therefore it is the name of the        
ideogram1 and        there is as yet no 
proof that it was ever read ,zakmuk4    
,hence any        similarity of sound   
with either ,sacaea or ,zoganes is      
precarious4 ,i        cannot prove that 
the signs were never read ,zakmuku1 but 
that is        not a ,semitic word nor a
 ,sumerian word40      #hae ,the        
statement occurs in an inscription of   
,nebuchadnezzar4 ,see ,p4               
,jensen1 ,die ,kosmologie der           
,babylonier1 p4 #he2 ,h4 ,zimmern1 in   
,e4        ,schrader's ,die             

,keilinschriften und das ,alte          
,testament#c 7,berlin1        #aijb71 p4
 #djb4 ,the title of the president of   
the divine synod1 8king        of the   
gods of heaven and earth10 is believed  
by ,professor ,zimmern        to have   
originally referred to the god ,nabu1   
though at a later time        it was    
applied to ,marduk4     ,m#bgg ,a       
difficulty in identifying the ,sacaea   
with ,zakmuk is that the two            
festivals seem to have been celebrated  
at different times of the        year1  
,zakmuk falling in ,march and the       
,sacaea in ,july4 ,suggested ways       
of meeting the difficulty4      #haf    
,see ,the ,dying ,god1 p4 #aaf note #a4 
,in ,egypt the ,macedonian calendar     
seems to have fallen into great         
confusion4 ,see ,w4 ,dittenberger1      
,orientis ,graeci ,inscriptiones        
,selectae 7,leipsic1 #aijc-aije71 ii4   
pp4 #fdi sq4 ,i would remind the reader 
that while the dates of        the      
,syro-,macedonian months varied in      

different places1 their order        was
 the same everywhere4      #hag ,see    
above1 p4 #cee1 note #e4 ,on the other  
hand ,prof4 ,h4 ,zimmern        prefers 
to suppose that the ,sacaea was quite   
distinct from ,zakmuk1        and that  
it fell in ,july at the time of the     
heliacal rising of        ,sirius1 which
 seems to have been associated with the 
goddess ,ishtar4        ,see ,h4        
,zimmern1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die       
,keilinschriften und das ,alte          
,testament#c 7,berlin1 #aijb71 pp4 #dbf 
sq4      #hah ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1  
s4v4 8,year10 vol4 iv4 7,london1 #aijc7 
coll4 #ecfe sqq4      #hai ,the ,magic  
,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4  
#ei sqq4      #hbj ,the ,golden ,bough1 
,second ,edition1 iii4 #bcg sqq4        
#hba ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische           
,staatsverwaltung#b 7,leipsic1 #ahhe71  
pp4 #bjj        sq4     ,m#bgh ,an      
argument for identifying ,sacaea and    
,zakmuk is the apparent        connexion
 of both with the ,jewish festival of   

,purim4      #hbb ,h4 ,zimmern1 8,zur   
,frage nach dem ,ursprunge des          
,purimfestes10        ,zeitschrift fr   
die alttestamentliche ,wissenschaft1 xi4
 7#ahia7 pp4        #aeg-afi2 ,w4       
,nowack1 ,lehrbuch der hebrischen       
,archologie 7,freiburg        i4 ,b4 and
 ,leipsic1 #ahid71 ii4 #aih sqq42 ,br4  
,meissner1 8,zur                        
,entstehungsgeschichte des              
,purimfestes10 ,zeitschrift der         
deutschen        morgenlndischen        
,gesellschaft1 l4 7#ahif7 pp4 #bif-cja2 
,fr4 ,cumont1        8,le roi des       
,saturnales10 ,revue de ,philologie1    
xxi4 7#ahig7 p4 #aej2        ,p4 ,haupt1
 ,purim 7,leipsic1 #aijf74 ,the various 
theories which have        been         
propounded as to the origin of ,purim   
are stated and discussed        by      
,prof4 ,l4 ,b4 ,paton in his ,commentary
 on the ,book of ,esther                
7,edinburgh1 #aijh71 pp4 #gg-id4 ,see   
also ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1           
s4v4 8,purim10 vol4 iii4 7,london1      

#aijb7 coll4 #cigf sqq4      #hbc ,s4   
,r4 ,driver1 ,introduction to the       
,literature of the ,old ,testament#h    
7,edinburgh1 #aiji71 p4 #dhd4 ,professor
 ,t4 ,witton ,davies would date the     
book about #acj ,b4,c4 ,see ,ezra1      
,nehemiah and ,esther1 edited by ,rev4  
,t4 ,witton ,davies 7,edinburgh and     
,london1 ,n4,d471 pp4 #bii-cja 7,the    
,century ,bible74      #hbd #b          
,maccabees xv4 #cf4 ,as to the date of  
this book1 see ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1         
op4 cit4 p4 #dha4     ,m#bgi ,the       
,jewish festival of ,purim seems to be  
derived from the ,babylonian            
festival of ,zakmuk4      #hbe ,we know 
from ,josephus 7,antiquit4 iii4 #aj4 #e7
 that in the month        ,nisan1 the   
first month of the ,jewish year1 the sun
 was in ,aries4 ,now        the sun is  
in ,aries from ,march #bjth or #bast to 
,april #aith or #bjth2        hence     
,nisan answers approximately to ,april1 
and ,adar to ,march4      #hbf ,esther  
iii4 #g4      #hbg ,esther iii4 #g1 ix4 

#bf4      #hbh ,this is the view of ,h4 
,zimmern 7,zeitschrift fr die           
alttestamentliche ,wissenschaft1 xi4    
7#ahia7 pp4 #aeg sqq471 and it        is
 favoured by ,w4 ,nowack 7,lehrbuch der 
hebrischen ,archologie1        ii4 #aih 
sq474 ,compare ,h4 ,zimmern1 in ,e4     
,schrader's ,die        ,keilinschriften
 und das ,alte ,testament#c 7,berlin1   
#aijb71 p4 #eah4      #hbi ,p4 ,jensen1 
,die ,kosmologie der ,babylonier1 pp4   
#bdj sq4      #hcj ,the explanation is  
that of ,p4 ,jensen1 quoted by ,th4     
,nldeke in        ,encyclopaedia        
,biblica1 s4v4 8,esther10 vol4 ii4      
7,london1 #aija7        col4 #adjd note 
#a4 ,in ,greek1 for a similar reason1   
the word for        8pebble0 and 8vote0 
is identical 774 ,as to this etymology  
see        also ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns1 s4v4
 8,purim10 ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 iii4
        7,london1 #aijb7 coll4 #cigi sq4
     ,m#bhj ,connexion of ,purim with   
the ,sacaea4 ,the joyous nature of      
,purim4      #hca ,esther x4 #bb4       

#hcb ,j4 ,buxtorf1 ,synagoga ,judaica   
7,ble1 #affa71 pp4 #eed sq41 #eei       
sq4      #hcc ,j4 ,buxtorf1 op4 cit4 p4 
#eei2 ,schickard1 quoted by ,lagarde1   
8,purim10 ,abhandlungen der kn4         
,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften zu    
,gttingen1 xxxiv4 7#ahhg7 pp4 #ed sq4   
,compare ,j4 ,chr4 ,g4                  
,bodenschatz1 ,kirchliche ,verfassung   
der heutigen ,juden 7,erlangen1         
#agdh71 ii4 #bef4 ,for the rule         
forbidding men and women to exchange    
garments1 see ,deuteronomy xxii4 #e4    
#hcd ,j4 ,j4 ,schudt1 ,jdische          
,merkwrdigkeiten 7,frankfort and        
,leipsic1        #agad71 ii4 ,theil1 pp4
 #cji1 #cad1 #caf1 iv4 ,theiles die ii4 
,continuation1 p4 #cdg2 ,i4 ,abrahams1  
,jewish ,life in the ,middle ,ages      
7,london1 #ahif71 pp4 #bfa sqq4 ,i have 
to thank my learned friend ,dr4         
,s4 ,schechter for bringing both these  
works to my notice4     ,m#bha ,the     
origin of ,purim according to the book  
of ,esther4 ,the rival pairs            

,mordecai and ,esther on the one side1  
,haman and ,vashti on the other4        
,m#bhb ,analysis of the names ,mordecai 
and ,esther1 ,haman and ,vashti4        
,jensen's theory that ,haman and ,vashti
 were ,elamite deities in               
opposition to the ,babylonian deities   
,mordecai 7,marduk7 and ,esther         
7,ishtar74      #hce ,p4 ,jensen1       
8,elamitische ,eigennamen10 ,wiener     
,zeitschrift fr die        ,kunde des   
,morgenlandes1 vi4 7#ahib7 pp4 #dg-gj2  
compare ib4 pp4        #bji-bab4 ,all   
,jensen's etymologies are accepted by   
,w4 ,nowack        7,lehrbuch der       
hebrischen ,archologie1 ,freiburg i4    
,baden and        ,leipsic1 #ahid1 ii4  
#aii sq472 ,h4 ,gunkel 7,schpfung und   
,chaos1        ,gttingen1 #ahie1 pp4    
#caj sq472 ,d4 ,g4 ,wildeboer 7in his   
commentary        on ,esther1 pp4 #agc  
sqq41 forming part of ,k4 ,marti's      
,kurzer        ,hand-,commentar zum     
alten ,testament1 ,freiburg i4 ,b4      
#ahih72 ,th4        ,nldeke 7s4v4       

8,esther10 ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 vol4
 ii4 coll4        #adjd sq472 and ,h4   
,zimmern 7in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die       
,keilinschriften        und das ,alte   
,testament1#c ,berlin1 #aijb1 pp4 #dhe1 
#eaf sq474 ,on the        other hand1   
,br4 ,meissner 7,zeitschrift der        
deutschen        morgenlndischen        
,gesellschaft1 ,i4 7#ahif7 p4 #cja7 and 
,m4 ,jastrow        7,the ,religion of  
,babylonia and ,assyria1 p4 #fhf1 note  
#b7 suspend        their judgment as to 
the identification of ,haman and ,vashti
 with        ,elamite deities1 though   
they apparently regard the              
identification of        ,mordecai and  
,esther with ,marduk and ,ishtar as     
quite certain4 ,the        doubt which  
these scholars felt as to the derivation
 of one at least        of these names  
7,vashti7 is now known to be well       
founded4 ,see below1        p4 #cfg1    
note #c4          ,it deserves to be    
noted that on the twenty-seventh day of 
the month        ,tammuz the heathen of 

,harran used to sacrifice nine male     
lambs to        ,haman1 8the supreme    
,god1 the father of the gods10 and they 
ate and        drank on that day4       
,chwolsohn suggests a comparison of the 
festival        with the ,athenian      
,cronia4 ,see ,d4 ,chwolsohn1 ,die      
,ssabier und der        ,ssabismus 7,st4
 ,petersburg1 #ahef71 ii4 #bg sq41 #baa 
sqq4      #hcf ,th4 ,nldeke1 s4v4       
8,esther10 in ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1  
vol4 ii4        7,london1 #aija7 coll4  
#adje4 ,but in a letter1 written to me  
7#bjth ,may        #aija7 since the     
publication of the last edition of this 
book1        ,professor ,nldeke         
expresses a doubt whether he has not    
followed        ,jensen's mythological  
identifications in the book of ,esther  
too far4     ,m#bhc ,but the proposed   
etymology of ,vashti is untenable4      
#hcg 8,the change of m to w or v 7the   
,hebrew   waw7 is frequent        and   
certain0 7the ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns  
in a letter to me1 ,may #aith1          

#aiac74 ,the change is vouched for also 
by my friend ,professor ,a4 ,a4         
,bevan1 who cites as an instance the    
name of the ,babylonian king            
,amel-,marduk1 which in ,hebrew is      
changed into ,evil-,merodach 7#b ,kings 
xxv4 #bg2 ,jeremiah lii4 #ca74 ,see ,e4 
,schrader1 ,die ,keilinschriften        
und das ,alte ,testament#c 7,berlin1    
#aijb71 p4 #cif4      #hch ,the name of 
the ,elamite goddess is read as ,parti  
by the ,rev4 ,father        ,scheil4    
,see ,e4 ,cosquin1 ,le ,prologue-cadre  
des ,mille et ,une ,nuits1        les   
,lgendes ,perses1 et le ,livre d',esther
 7,paris1 #aiji71 p4 #fh        7extract
 from the ,revue ,biblique              
,internationale1 ,janvier et ,avril1    
#aiji1 published by the ,dominicans of  
,jerusalem74 ,the ,master of ,st4       
,catharine's ,college1 ,cambridge 7the  
,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns71 has kindly   
examined the facsimile of the           
inscriptions for me4 ,he informs me     
that ,father ,scheil's reading is       

correct and that the reading ,mashti    
is quite wrong4 ,he further tells me    
that ,jensen was misled by an           
incorrect edition of the inscriptions to
 which alone he had access4        ,the 
signs for par 7or bar7 and mash in the  
inscriptions        resemble each other 
and therefore might easily be confused  
by a        copyist4 ,all ,jensen's     
etymologies1 except that of ,mordecai1  
are        adversely criticized by ,m4  
,emile ,cosquin in the work to which ,i 
have        referred 7pp4 #fg sqq474 ,he
 prefers with ,oppert to derive all the 
names except ,mordecai 7the identity of 
which with ,marduk he does not          
dispute7 from the old ,persian4         
,however1 these derivations from the    
,persian are rejected by ,professor ,th4
 ,nldeke1 whose opinion on such        a
 point is entitled to carry great       
weight4 ,see ,encyclopaedia             
,biblica1 ii4 7,london1 #aija7 col4     
#adjb1 s4v4 8,esther40     ,m#bhd ,the  
mock king of the ,sacaea seems to have  

personated a god4 ,the view        of   
,movers4      #hci ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die
 ,phoenizier1 i4 7,bonn1 #ahda7 pp4 #dij
 sq42 #b        ,samuel xvi4 #ba sq41   
compare xii4 #h4 ,it was a well-attested
 custom        of the ,assyrian kings1  
when they had conquered a city1 to take 
into        their harem the daughters of
 the vanquished princes and rulers4 ,see
        ,c4 ,f4 ,lehmann 7-,haupt71     
amaumutkn ,knig von ,babylonien         
7,leipsic1 #ahib71 p4 #ca4 ,the ,persian
 and ,scythian kings seem also to       
have married the wives of their         
predecessors4 ,see ,herodotus1 iii4 #fh 
and #hh1 iv4 #gh2 ,k4 ,neumann1 ,die    
,hellenen im ,skythenlande1 i4          
7,berlin1 #ahee7 p4 #cja4 ,such a custom
 points to an old system of             
mother-kin under which the royal dignity
 was transmitted through        women4  
,see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 ii4 #bfh        sqq4        
,m#bhe ,the mock king of the ,sacaea may
 have mated with a woman who played     

the part of a goddess1 whether ,anaitis1
 ,astarte1 or ,semiramis4               
,identity of the mythical ,semiramis    
with ,astarte4 ,the lovers of           
,semiramis and ,ishtar 7,astarte74      
#hdj ,ed4 ,meyer1 s4v4 8,anaitis10 in   
,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 
und rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 7,leipsic1      
#ahhd-ahij7 coll4 #ceb sq4 ,at the      
temple of ,anaitis in ,acilisena1 a city
 of ,armenia1 the daughters of          
the noblest families regularly          
prostituted themselves for a long       
time before marriage 7,strabo1 xi4 #ad4 
#af1 p4 #ecb74 ,agathias                
identified ,anaitis with ,aphrodite     
7,hist4 ii4 #bd71 and when the          
,greeks spoke of the ,oriental          
,aphrodite1 they meant ,astarte or one  
of        her equivalents4 ,jensen      
proposes to identify ,anaitis with an   
,elamite        goddess ,nahunt1 whom he
 takes to have been equivalent to       
,ishtar or        ,astarte1 especially  
in her quality of the ,evening ,star4   

,see his        article1 8,elamitische  
,eigennamen10 ,wiener ,zeitschrift fr   
die ,kunde        des ,morgenlandes1 vi4
 7#ahib7 pp4 #fd-fg1 #gj4      #hda     
,diodorus ,siculus1 ii4 #bj2 ,aelian1   
,var4 ,hist4 vii4 #a4      #hdb ,w4     
,robertson ,smith1 8,ctesias and the    
,semiramis ,legend10 ,english           
,historical ,review1 ii4 7#ahhg7 pp4    
#cjc-cag4 ,amongst other evidence1      
,smith refers to ,diodorus ,siculus1    
from whose account 7ii4 #d7 of the      
birth of ,semiramis he infers that she  
8is the daughter of ,derceto1        the
 fish goddess of ,ascalon1 and is       
herself the ,astarte whose sacred       
doves were honoured at ,ascalon and     
throughout ,syria40 ,it seems           
probable that the legendary ,semiramis  
is to be identified with                
,shammuramat1 the 8palace wife0 of      
,samsi-,adad1 king of ,assyria1 and     
mother of ,king ,adad-,nirari2 she lived
 towards the end of the ninth           
century ,b4,c41 and is known to us from 

,assyrian inscriptions4 ,see ,c4        
,f4 ,lehmann-,haupt1 ,die historische   
,semiramis und ihre ,zeit               
7,tbingen1 #aiaj71 pp4 #a sqq42 id41    
s4v4 8,semiramis10 in ,w4 ,h4           
,roscher's ,lexicon der griech4 und rm4 
,mythologie1 iv4 coll4 #fgh        sqq4 
#hdc ,strabo1 xii4 #c4 #cg1 p4 #eei1    
compare xi4 #h4 #d1 p4 #eab4 ,zela is   
the        modern ,zileh1 a town of     
about #bj1jjj inhabitants clustered at  
the        foot of the so-called mound  
of ,semiramis1 which is an              
inconsiderable        protuberance of   
natural rock crowned by the walls of an 
old citadel4        ,the place is       
singularly destitute of ancient remains1
 but every year        in the first     
fortnight of ,december a fair is held in
 the town1 to        which merchants    
come not only from the whole of ,asia   
,minor1 but also        from the        
,caucasus1 ,armenia1 and ,persia4 ,this 
fair may very well be a        direct   
descendant of a great festival held in  

honour of ,anaitis or        ,astarte4  
,see ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1      
,histoire de l',art dans                
l',antiquit1 iv4 7,paris1 #ahhg7 p4     
#fdi2 ,f4 ,cumont et ,e4 ,cumont1       
,voyage d',exploration archologique dans
 le ,pont et la ,petite        ,armnie  
7,brussels1 #aijf71 pp4 #ahh sqq4       
#hdd ,berosus1 cited by ,clement of     
,alexandria1 ,protrept4 v4 #fe1 p4 #eg  
ed4 ,potter 7where for  we should read 1
 as is done        by ,c4 ,mller1       
,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ii4
 #eji74      #hde ,strabo1 xi4 #h4 #d1  
p4 #eab1 xii4 #c4 #cg1 p4 #eei4 ,the    
nature of the         at ,zela is       
indicated by ,strabo in a passage 7xii4 
#c4 #cf7        where he describes a    
similar state of things at ,comana1 a   
city not        far from ,zela4 ,his    
words are              1     4      #hdf
 ,herodotus1 i4 #ahd2 ,strabo1 xvi4 i4  
#b1 p4 #gcg2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 ii4    
#ad4      #hdg ,ctesias1 cited by ,john 
of ,antioch1 in ,c4 ,mller's ,fragmenta 

,historicorum ,graecorum1 iv4 #eci4     
#hdh ,diodorus ,siculus1 ii4 #ac4 ,note 
that the first husband of ,semiramis    
is said to have hanged himself          
7,diodorus ,siculus1 ii4 #f74     ,m#bhf
 ,the sacred harlots of ,ishtar4        
#hdi ,a4 ,jeremias1 ,izdubar-,nimrod1   
7,leipsic1 #ahia71 pp4 #bc sqq42 ,m4    
,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia  
and ,assyria 7,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41       
#ahih71 p4 #dhb2 ,l4 ,w4 ,king1         
,babylonian ,religion and ,mythology    
7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #aei sqq42 ,p4    
,jensen1 ,assyrisch-,babylonische       
,mythen und ,epen 7,berlin1 #aijj71 pp4 
#afi1 #aga2 ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1            
,assyrian and ,babylonian ,literature   
7,new ,york1 #aija71 pp4 #cch           
sq42 ,das ,gilgamesch-,epos1 neu        
bersetzt von ,arthur ,ungnad und        
gemeinverstndlich erklrt von ,hugo      
,gressmann 7,gttingen1 #aiaa71          
pp4 #ca sq4 ,the true name of the       
,babylonian hero1 which used to be      
read as ,izdubar1 has been found to be  

,gilgamesh4 ,see ,m4 ,jastrow1          
op4 cit4 pp4 #dfh sq42 ,h4 ,zimmern1 in 
,e4 ,schrader's ,die                    
,keilinschriften und das ,alte          
,testament#c 7,berlin1 #aijb71 p4 #eff  
note        #d2 ,a4 ,ungnad1 ,das       
,gilgamesch-,epos1 pp4 #gf sq4 ,aelian  
mentions        7,de natura animalium1  
xii4 #ba7 a ,babylonian king1 ,gilgamus1
 whose        name is doubtless         
identical with that of the hero4        
#hej ,a4 ,jeremias1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ei    
sq42 ,m4 ,jastrow1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dge    
sq41 #dhd sq42 ,herodotus1 i4 #aii4 ,the
 name which ,herodotus gives        to  
the goddess is ,mylitta1 but this is    
only a corruption of one of        her  
,semitic titles1 whether ,baalath       
7,hebrew 7 8mistress10 or        perhaps
 rather ,mullittu1 from ,mu'allidtu     
7,hebrew 71 8she        who helps to the
 birth40 ,see ,e4 ,meyer1 s4v4          
8,astarte10 in ,w4 ,h4        ,roscher's
 ,lexicon der griech4 und rm4           
,mythologie1 i4 #fdh2 ,h4               

,zimmern1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die       
,keilinschriften und das ,alte          
,testament#c 7,berlin1 #aijb71 p4 #dbc  
note #g4 ,the female 8votaries of       
,marduk0 are repeatedly mentioned in the
 code of ,hammurabi4 ,see ,c4 ,h4       
,w4 ,johns1 ,babylonian and ,assyrian   
,laws1 ,contracts1 and ,letters         
7,edinburgh1 #aijd71 pp4 #ed1 #ee1 #ei1 
#fj1 #fa2 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1     
,second ,edition1 p4 #fc4     ,m#bhg    
,the myth of ,ishtar 7,astarte7 and her 
lovers acted at the ,sacaea in          
,zela4      #hea ,along with ,anaitis at
 ,zela there were worshipped two deities
 named        ,omanos and ,anadates2    
,strabo says that they were ,persian    
divinities1        and certainly their  
ritual as described by him was purely   
,persian4        ,see ,strabo1 xi4 #h4  
#d1 p4 #eab1 xv4 #c4 #ae1 p4 #gcc2      
,franz ,cumont1 ,les        ,religions  
orientales dans le ,paganisme romain#b  
7,paris1 #aiji71 pp4        #bad sq4 ,it
 has been proposed to identify their    

names1 first1 with        those of the  
two ,persian archangels 7,amshaspands71 
,vohumano or ,vohu        ,manah 78,good
 ,thought07 and ,amerett                
78,immortality071 and1 second1          
with those of ,haman and his father     
,hammedatha in the book of ,esther      
7iii4 #a74 ,in order to support the     
identification of ,anadates with        
,amerett and ,hammedatha it has been    
further proposed to alter               
,anadates into ,amadates or ,amardates  
in the text of ,strabo1 which           
would assimilate the name to ,amurdd1 a 
late form of ,amerett4 ,see        ,p4  
,jensen1 ,hittiter und ,armenier        
7,strasburg1 #ahih71 p4 #aha2 ,franz    
,cumont1 ,textes et ,monuments figurs   
relatifs aux ,mystres de        ,mithra1
 i4 7,brussels1 #ahii7 pp4 #acj1 #aca2  
,h4 ,winckler1        ,altorientalische 
,forschungen1 ,dritte ,reihe1 i4        
7,leipsic1 #aija7 p4        #d2 ,h4     
,zimmern1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die       
,keilinschriften und das ,alte          

,testament#c 7,berlin1 #aijb71 p4 #eaf  
note #c2 ,p4 ,haupt1 ,purim             
7,leipsic1 #aijf71 p4 #bf2 ,l4 ,b4      
,paton1 ,critical and ,exegetical       
,commentary on the ,book of ,esther     
7,edinburgh1 #aijh71 pp4 #hh1 #ib4 ,as  
to the ,persian archangels              
7,amshaspands7 see ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1      
,geschichte        der ,religion im     
,altertum 7,gotha1 #ahif-aijc71 ii4 #bjj
 sqq42 ,l4 ,h4        ,gray1 8,the      
,double ,nature of the ,iranian         
,archangels10 ,archiv fr                
,religionswissenschaft1 vii4 7#aijd7 pp4
 #cde sqq42 ,j4 ,h4 ,moulton1           
,early ,religious ,poetry of ,persia    
7,cambridge1 #aiaa71 pp4 #eh sqq4       
,but apart from the philological        
difficulty created by the forcible      
alteration of ,strabo's text in order to
 bring it into conformity        with   
the theory1 it is difficult to see how  
the highly abstract        conceptions  
of the archangels 8,good ,thought0 and  
8,immortality0 could        have passed 

into the highly concrete and by no means
 angelic figures        of ,haman and   
,hammedatha4 ,this latter difficulty has
 been pointed out        to me in a     
letter 7#hth ,june1 #aija7 by my friend 
the ,rev4 ,professor        ,j4 ,h4     
,moulton1 who further informs me that in
 ,persian religion ,vohu        ,manah  
is never linked with ,amerett1 whereas  
,amerett is constantly        linked    
with another archangel ,haurvatt        
78,health074 ,professor        ,theodor 
,nldeke in a letter to me 7#bjth ,may1  
#aija7 also expresses        himself    
sceptical as to the proposed            
identifications2 he tells me        that
 the name of a ,persian god cannot end  
in data1 just as the        name of a   
,greek god cannot end in - or -4 ,on the
 whole it        seems better to leave  
,omanos and ,anadates out of the present
        discussion4     ,m#bhh ,such    
sacred dramas are magical rites intended
 to influence the        course of      
nature4   ,m#bhi ,magical intention of  

sacred dramas and masked dances among   
savages4   ,m#bij ,masked dances among  
the ,indians of ,north-,west ,america4  
#heb ,franz ,boas1 8,the ,social        
,organization and the ,secret ,societies
 of the        ,kwakiutl ,indians10     
,report of the ,united ,states ,national
 ,museum for        #ahie 7,washington1 
#ahig71 p4 #cif4      #hec ,franz ,boas1
 op4 cit4 pp4 #dbj sq4 ,the description 
applies        specially to the masked  
dances of the ,kwakiutl tribe1 but      
probably        it holds good for the   
similar dances of the other ,indian     
tribes on        the same coast4 ,thus  
among the ,bella ,coola ,indians 8the   
masks used        in the dances         
represent mythical personages1 and the  
dances are        pantomimic            
representations of myths4 ,among others1
 the thunder bird        and his servant
 444 appear in the dances0 7,f4 ,boas1  
op4 cit4 p4        #fea74     ,m#bia    
,these masked dances represent mythical 
incidents and are supposed to           

have been revealed to the ,indians by   
their guardian spirits4      #hed       
,tamanawas or tamanous is a ,chinook    
term signifying 8guardian               
spirits40 ,see ,totemism and ,exogamy1  
iii4 #dje sqq4      #hee ,james ,g4     
,swan1 ,the ,indians of ,cape ,flattery1
 p4 #ff1 quoted by        ,franz ,boas1 
op4 cit4 pp4 #fcg sq4     ,m#bib ,gods  
or spirits personated by the actors in  
the masked dances4   ,m#bic ,the dances 
accompanied by songs4      #hef ,j4     
,adrian ,jacobsen1 8,geheimbnde der     
,kstenbewohner                          
,nordwest-,america's10 ,verhandlungen   
der ,berliner ,gesellschaft fr          
,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie und         
,urgeschichte 7#ahia71 pp4 #chd sq4     
,the passage has been already quoted by 
me in ,totemism and ,exogamy1           
iii4 #ejj-ejb4     ,m#bid ,spirits      
personated by masked performers among   
the ,esquimaux of        ,bering        
,strait4   ,m#bie ,the animal masks worn
 by the actors4   ,m#bif ,identification

 of the masked actor with the mythical  
being whom he        represents4        
#heg ,as to the belief of these         
,esquimaux that at the ,festival of the 
,dead        the spirits of the departed
 enter into and animate their human     
namesakes1 see ,taboo and the ,perils of
 the ,soul1 p4 #cga4      #heh ,e4 ,w4  
,nelson1 8,the ,eskimo about ,bering    
,strait10 ,eighteenth ,annual           
,report of the ,bureau of ,american     
,ethnology1 ,part i4 7,washington1      
#ahii7 pp4 #cid sq4     ,m#big ,dramatic
 ceremonies of the ,cora ,indians of    
,mexico in which the        actors      
personate gods4 ,masked dances of the   
,brazilian ,indians to        ensure    
fertility and abundance4      #hei ,k4  
,th4 ,preuss1 ,die ,nayarit ,expedition1
 ,i4 ,die ,religion der ,cora           
,indianer 7,leipsic1 #aiab71 pp4 xcii4  
sqq41 xcv4 sqq4      #hfj ,th4          
,koch-,grnberg1 ,zwei ,jahre unter den  
,indianern 7,berlin1        #aiji-aiaj71
 i4 #acj-adj1 ii4 #afi-bja4 ,the passage

 translated in the        text occurs in
 vol4 ii4 p4 #aif4     ,m#bih ,masked   
dances of the ,monumbo in ,german ,new  
,guinea4 ,masked dances of        the   
,kayans of ,borneo4      #hfa ,f4       
,vormann1 8,tnze und ,tanzfestlichkeiten
 der ,monumbo-,papua                    
7,deutsch-,neuguinea710 ,anthropos1 vi4 
7#aiaa7 pp4 #dae sq41 #dah        sqq41 
#dbf sq4      #hfb ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1
 ,quer durch ,borneo 7,leyden1          
#aijd-aijg71 i4 #cbd4        ,as to     
these masquerades of the ,kayans see    
,spirits of the ,corn and        of the 
,wild1 i4 #ie sq41 #ahf sq4     ,m#bii  
,dramatic performances of the ,sea      
,dyaks of ,borneo1 in which the actor   
personates a god4      #hfc ,rev4 ,j4   
,perham1 8,mengap1 the ,song of the     
,dyak ,sea ,feast10 ,journal        of  
the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal      
,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #b              
7,singapore1 ,december1 #ahgh71 pp4 #abc
 sq41 #acd2 ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the       
,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north

 ,borneo 7,london1 #ahif71 ii4 #agd     
sq41 #ahc4 ,compare ,e4 ,h4 ,gomes1     
,seventeen ,years among the ,sea        
,dyaks of ,borneo 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 
#bac sq43 8,this song of the        head
 feast takes the form of a story setting
 forth how the mythical        hero     
,klieng held a head feast on his return 
from the warpath1 and        invited the
 god of war1 ,singalang ,burong1 to     
attend it4 ,it describes        at great
 length all that happened on that       
occasion4 ,the singing of        this   
song takes up the whole night4 ,it      
begins before #h ,p4,m41 and            
lasts till next morning4 ,except for a  
short interval for rest in the          
middle of the night1 the performers are 
marching and singing all the            
time40 ,on the third day of the festival
 the people go out on the               
open-air platform in front of the house 
and sacrifice a pig4 8,the        people
 shout together 7manjong7 at short      
intervals until a hawk is        seen   

flying in the heavens4 ,that hawk is    
,singalang ,burong1 who has        taken
 that form to manifest himself to them4 
,he has accepted their        offerings 
and has heard their cry0 7,e4 ,h4       
,gomes1 op4 cit4 p4 #bad74     ,m#cjj   
,religious or magical origin of the     
drama4      #hfd ,a4 ,e4 ,haigh1 ,the   
,attic ,theatre 7,oxford1 #ahhi71 pp4 #d
 sqq1 ,the        religious origin of   
,greek tragedy is maintained by         
,professor ,w4        ,ridgeway 7,the   
,origin of ,tragedy1 ,cambridge1 #aiaj71
 but he finds        its immediate      
inspiration in the worship of the dead  
rather than in        the worship of    
,dionysus4      #hfe ,h4 ,oldenberg1    
,die ,literatur des alten ,indien       
7,stuttgart and        ,berlin1 #aijc71 
pp4 #bcf sqq4 ,professor ,oldenberg     
holds that the        evolution of the  
,indian drama was probably not          
influenced by that of        ,greece4   
,m#cja ,the representation of mythical  
beings by living men and women may      

furnish a common ground where two rival 
schools of mythology can        meet and
 be reconciled4   ,m#cjb ,the legend of 
,semiramis and her lovers a duplicate of
 the myth of        ,aphrodite and      
,adonis1 of ,cybele and ,attis1 of ,isis
 and ,osiris4      #hff ,adonis1 ,attis1
 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #bci sq4
      #hfg ,the ,magic ,art and the     
,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ig sqq4      
,m#cjc ,sardanapalus and ,ashurbanapal4 
,the legendary death of ,sardanapalus   
in the fire4      #hfh ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1  
,babylonisch-,assyrische ,geschichte    
7,gotha1 #ahhf-ahhh71        pp4 #cea   
sqq42 ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,religion of        
,babylonia and ,assyria        7,boston1
 ,u4,s4,a41 #ahih71 p4 #dc2 ,sir ,g4    
,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne        des
 ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 iii4 
,les ,empires 7,paris1        #ahii71   
pp4 #cgh sqq42 ,c4 ,f4 ,harper1         
,assyrian and ,babylonian               
,literature 7,new ,york1 #aija71 pp4 #id
 sqq4      #hfi ,athenaeus1 xii4 #ch    

sq41 pp4 #ebh ,f-#ecj ,c2 ,diodorus     
,siculus1 ii4 #bc        and #bg2       
,justin1 i4 #c4 ,several different      
versions of the king's        epitaph   
have come down to us4 ,i have followed  
the version of        ,choerilus1 the   
original of which is said to have been  
carved in        ,chaldean letters on a 
tombstone that surmounted a great barrow
 at        ,nineveh4 ,this barrow may1  
as ,i suggest in the text1 have been one
 of        the so-called mounds of      
,semiramis4     ,m#cjd ,the burning of  
,sandan1 a mythical god or hero of      
,western ,asia4 ,k4 ,o4        ,mller's 
description of the burning of ,sandan4  
#hgj ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xiv4 #h2   
,dio ,chrysostom1 ,or4 xxxiii4 p4 #djh  
7vol4 ii4 p4 #af ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf1      
,leipsic1 #aheg74 ,coins of ,tarsus     
exhibit the effigy on the pyre1 which   
seems to be composed of a        pyramid
 of great beams resting on a cubical    
base4 ,see ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1              
8,sandon und ,sardanapal10              

,kunstarchologische ,werke 7,berlin1    
#ahgc71        iii4 #h sqq41 whose      
valuable essay ,i follow4 ,for fuller   
details see        ,adonis1 ,attis1     
,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #ia sqq41
 #aci sqq4      #hga ,agathias1 ,hist4  
ii4 #bd4      #hgb ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de 
magistratibus1 iii4 #fd2 ,apollodorus1  
,bibliotheca1 ii4 #f4 #b sq42 ,lucian1  
,dial4 deorum1 xiii4 #b4      #hgc ,k4  
,o4 ,mller1 8,sandon und ,sardanapal10  
,kunstarchologische ,werke              
7,berlin1 #ahgc71 iii4 #af sq4 ,the     
writer adds that there is               
authority for every stroke in the       
picture4 ,his principal source is       
the sixty-second speech of ,dio         
,chrysostom 7vol4 ii4 p4 #bjb ed4 ,l4   
,dindorf71 where the unmanly            
,sardanapalus1 seated cross-legged on a 
gilded couch with purple hangings1 is   
compared to 8the ,adonis for        whom
 the women wail40     ,m#cje ,death in  
the fire of men who personate gods or   
heroes4      #hgd ,herodotus1 i4 #g4    

#hge ,herodotus1 i4 #hf sq41 with ,j4   
,c4 ,f4 ,bhr's note4 ,according to      
another and perhaps more probable       
tradition the king sought a             
voluntary death in the flames4 ,see     
,bacchylides1 iii4 #bd-fb2 ,adonis1     
,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4  
#ada sqq4      #hgf ,the ,dying ,god1   
pp4 #da sq4      #hgg ,sophocles1       
,trachiniae1 #aaie sqq43                
1   4          ,the passage was pointed 
out to me by my friend the late ,dr4 ,a4
 ,w4        ,verrall4 ,the poet's       
language suggests that of old a sacred  
fire was        kindled by the friction 
of oak and wild olive wood1 and that in 
accordance with a notion common among   
rude peoples1 one of the        pieces  
of wood 7in this case the wild olive7   
was regarded as male        and the     
other 7the oak7 as female4 ,on this     
hypothesis1 the fire was        kindled 
by drilling a hole in a piece of oak    
with a stick of wild        olive4 ,as  
to the different sorts of wood used by  

the ancients in        making fire by   
friction1 see ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,die           
,herabkunft des ,feuers und        des  
,gttertranks#b 7,gtersloh1 #ahhf71 pp4  
#ce sqq42 ,the ,magic ,art        and   
the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #bdi sqq4 
,in ,south ,africa a        special fire
 is procured for sacrifices by the      
friction of two        pieces of the    
,uzwati tree1 which are known           
respectively as husband        and wife4
 ,see ,spirits of the ,corn and of the  
,wild1 ii4 #fe4      #hgh ,spirits of   
the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ii4 #fh4    
#hgi ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 
i4 7,bonn1 #ahda7 p4 #dif4      #hhj    
,this suggestion was made by ,f4        
,liebrecht1 ,zur ,volkskunde            
7,heilbronn1 #ahgi71 p4 #i4 ,it occurred
 to me independently4      #hha ,lucian1
 ,de dea ,syria1 #di4     ,m#cjf ,traces
 of human sacrifice in the ,jewish      
festival of ,purim2 effigies        of  
,haman burnt4      #hhb ,codex          
,theodosianus1 ,lib4 ,,xvi4 ,tit4 viii4 

#ah3 8,judaeos quodam                   
festivitatis suae solleni ,aman ad      
poenae quondam recordationem            
incendere1 et sanctae crucis adsimulatam
 speciem in contemptu                   
,christianae fidei sacrilega mente      
exurere provinciarum rectores           
prohibeant3 ne locis suis fidei nostrae 
signum immisceant1 sed ritus        suos
 infra contemptum ,christianae legis    
retineant3 amissuri sine        dubio   
permissa hactenus1 nisi ab inlicitis    
temperaverint40 ,the        decree is   
dated at ,constantinople1 in the        
consulship of ,bassus and               
,philip4 ,for locis we should probably  
read jocis with ,mommsen4      #hhc ,fr4
 ,cumont1 8,une formule grecque de      
renonciation au judasme10        ,wiener
 ,studien1 xxiv4 7#aijb7 p4 #dfh4 ,the  
8,christian fast0 referred        to in 
the formula is no doubt ,lent4 ,the     
mention of the ,jewish        ,sabbath  
7the ,christian ,saturday7 raises a     
difficulty1 which has been              

pointed out by the editor1 ,franz       
,cumont1 in a note 7p4 #dgj73 8,the     
festival of ,purim was celebrated on the
 #adth of ,adar1 that is1 in            
,february or ,march1 about the beginning
 of the ,christian ,lent2 but           
that festival1 the date of which is     
fixed in the ,jewish calendar1          
does not always fall on a ,saturday4    
,either the author made a mistake       
or the civil authority obliged the ,jews
 to transfer their rejoicings        to 
a ,sabbath0 7,saturday74      #hhd      
,israel ,abrahams1 ,the ,book of        
,delight and other ,papers              
7,philadelphia1 #aiab71 pp4 #bff sq4    
,mr4 ,abrahams ingeniously              
suggests 7op4 cit4 pp4 #bfg sq47 that   
the ring waved over the        fire was 
an emblem of the sun1 and that the      
kindling of the ,purim        fires was 
originally a ceremony of imitative magic
 to ensure a        supply of solar     
light and heat4      #hhe ,albrn1 ,the  
,chronology of ,ancient ,nations1       

translated and edited        by ,dr4 ,c4
 ,edward ,sachau 7,london1 #ahgi71 pp4  
#bgc sq4      #hhf ,quoted by ,lagarde1 
8,purim10 p4 #ac 7,abhandlungen der     
kniglichen        ,gesellschaft der     
,wissenschaften zu ,gttingen1 xxxiv4    
#ahhg74      #hhg ,m4 ,gdemann1         
,geschichte des ,erziehungswesens und   
der ,cultur der        abendlndischen   
,juden 7,vienna1 #ahhj-ahhh71 ii4 #baa  
sq42 ,i4        ,abrahams1 ,jewish ,life
 in the ,middle ,ages 7,london1 #ahif71 
pp4 #bfj        sq4      #hhh ,j4 ,j4   
,schudt1 ,jdische ,merkwrdigkeiten      
7,frankfort and ,leipsic1        #agad71
 ii4 ,theil1 p4 #cji4     ,m#cjg        
,accusations of ritual murder brought   
against the ,jews4 ,the                 
accusations probably false4      #hhi   
,socrates1 ,historia ,ecclesiastica1    
vii4 #af2 ,theophanes1                  
,chronographia1 ed4 ,j4 ,classen 7,bonn1
 #ahci-ahda71 vol4 i4 p4 #abi4          
,theophanes places the event in the year
 #djh ,a4,d4 ,from a note in            

,migne's edition of ,socrates1 ,i learn 
that in the ,alexandrian                
calendar1 which ,theophanes used1 the   
year #djh corresponded to the           
year which in our reckoning began on the
 first of ,september #dae4        ,hence
 if the murder was perpetrated in spring
 at ,purim it must have        taken    
place in #daf4      #hij ,this is the   
view of ,h4 ,graetz 7,geschichte der    
,juden1#b iv4 ,leipsic1        #ahff1   
pp4 #cic sq47 and ,dr4 ,m4 ,r4 ,james   
7,life and ,miracles of ,st4            
,william of ,norwich 7,cambridge1       
#ahif71 by ,a4 ,jessopp and ,m4 ,r4     
,james1 pp4 lxiii4 sq474      #hia ,for 
an examination of some of these reported
 murders1 see ,m4 ,r4        ,james1 op4
 cit4 pp4 lxii4 sqq42 ,h4 ,l4 ,strack1  
,das ,blut im        ,glauben und       
,aberglauben der ,menschheit 7,munich1  
#aijj71 pp4 #aba        sqq4 ,both      
writers incline to dismiss the charges  
as groundless4     ,m#cjh ,mitigation of
 human sacrifice by the substitution of 

a criminal for        the victim4       
#hib ,above1 pp4 #cec sq4     ,m#cji    
,the 8fast of ,esther0 before ,purim4   
,jensen's theory that the 8fast of      
,esther0 was originally a mourning for  
the annual death of a deity        like 
,tammuz4      #hic ,j4 ,buxtorf1        
,synagoga ,judaica 7,ble1 #affa71 cap4  
xxix4 p4 #eed2 ,j4        ,chr4 ,g4     
,bodenschatz1 ,kirchliche ,verfassung   
der heutigen ,juden        7,erlangen1  
#agdh71 ii4 #bec sq4      #hid ,esther  
iv4 #c and #af1 ix4 #ca4      #hie ,so  
far as ,i know1 ,professor ,jensen has  
not yet published his theory1        but
 he has stated it in letters to         
correspondents4 ,see ,w4 ,nowack1       
,lehrbuch der hebrischen ,archologie    
7,freiburg i4 ,baden and                
,leipsic1 #ahid71 ii4 #bjj2 ,h4 ,gnkel1 
,schpfung und ,chaos        7,gttingen1 
#ahie71 pp4 #caa sqq42 ,d4 ,g4          
,wildeboer1 in his        commentary on 
,esther1 pp4 #agd sq4 7,kurzer          
,hand-,commentar zum        ,alten      

,testament1 herausgegeben von ,d4 ,k4   
,marti1 ,lieferung #f1        ,freiburg 
i4 ,b41 #ahih74 ,in the ,babylonian     
calendar the #acth of ,adar        was  
so far a fast day that on it no fish or 
fowl might be eaten4 ,in        one     
tablet the #acth of ,adar is marked 8not
 good10 while the #adth and        #aeth
 are marked 8good40 ,see ,c4 ,h4 ,w4    
,johns1 s4v4 8,purim10                  
,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 iii4 7,london1 
#aijb7 col4 #cihj4      #hif ,m4        
,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia  
and ,assyria 7,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41       
#ahih71 pp4 #dga sq41 #dge sq41         
#dha-dhf1 #eaj-eab2 ,l4 ,w4 ,king1      
,babylonian ,religion and ,mythology    
7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #adf sqq42        
,p4 ,jensen1 ,assyrisch-,babylonische   
,mythen und ,epen 7,berlin1 #aijj71     
pp4 #aaf-bgc2 ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1 ,assyrian
 and ,babylonian ,literature 7,new      
,york1 #aija71 pp4 #cbd-cfh2 ,h4        
,zimmern1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die       
,keilinschriften und das ,alte          

,testament#c 7,berlin1 #aijb71 pp4      
#eff-ehb2 ,das ,gilgamesch-,epos1 neu   
bersetzt von ,arthur ,ungnad und        
gemeinverstndlich erklrt von ,hugo      
,gressmann 7,gttingen1 #aiaa74          
,professor ,jastrow points out that     
though a relation cannot be traced      
between each of the tablets of the poem 
and the corresponding month        of   
the year1 such a relation appears       
undoubtedly to exist between        some
 of the tablets and the months4 ,thus1  
for example1 the sixth        tablet    
describes the affection of ,ishtar for  
,gilgamesh1 and the        visit which  
she paid to ,anu1 her father in heaven1 
to complain of        the hero's        
contemptuous rejection of her love4 ,now
 the sixth        ,babylonian month was 
called the 8,mission of ,ishtar10 and in
 it was        held the festival of     
,tammuz1 the hapless lover of the       
goddess4        ,again1 the story of the
 great flood is told in the eleventh    
tablet1        and the eleventh month   

was called the 8month of rain40 ,see ,m4
        ,jastrow1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dhd1    
#eaj4      #hig ,ezekiel viii4 #ad4     
,m#caj ,the resurrection of the dead god
 perhaps represented by a living man    
who afterwards died in earnest in the   
character of the god4 ,this        would
 explain the apparent duplication of the
 principal characters        in the book
 of ,esther3 ,haman and ,vashti would   
represent the gods        dying1 while  
,mordecai and ,esther would represent   
the gods rising        from the dead4   
#hih ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second  
,edition1 pp4 #ahc sq41 #bbg4      #hii 
,esther vii4 #h4      #ijj ,see above1  
p4 #cfh4      #ija ,adonis1 ,attis1     
,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 p4 #ahc4     
#ijb ,j4 ,j4 ,schudt1 ,jdische          
,merkwrdigkeiten 7,frankfort and        
,leipsic1        #agad71 ii4 ,theil1 p4 
#caf4     ,m#caa ,the ,persian setting  
of the book of ,esther4 ,the ,persian   
ceremony of        the 8,ride of the    
,beardless ,one0 in spring4      #ijc   

,dio ,chrysostom makes ,diogenes say to 
,alexander the ,great1             1    
7,or4 iv4 vol4        i4 p4 #gf ed4 ,l4 
,dindorf74 ,the festival was mentioned  
by ,ctesias in        the second book of
 his ,persian history 7,athenaeus1 xiv4 
#dd p4 #fci        ,c72 and down to the 
time of ,strabo it was associated with  
the        nominal worship of the       
,persian goddess ,anaitis 7,strabo1 xi4 
#h4 #d and        #e1 p4 #eab74         
#ijd ,lagarde1 8,purim10 pp4 #ea sqq4   
7,abhandlungen der knigl4               
,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften zu    
,gttingen1 xxxiv4 #ahhg74      #ije ,th4
 ,hyde1 ,historia religionis veterum    
,persarum 7,oxford1 #agjj71 pp4         
#ahc1 #bdi-bea2 ,albrn1 ,the ,chronology
 of ,ancient ,nations1        translated
 and edited by ,dr4 ,c4 ,edward ,sachau 
7,london1 #ahgi71 p4        #baa4       
,m#cab ,the 8,beardless ,one0 in the    
,persian ceremony is apparently the     
degenerate successor of a temporary     
king4      #ijf ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4   

#adh sqq4      #ijg ,esther vi4 #h sq41 
viii4 #ae4     ,m#cac ,the 8,ride of the
 ,beardless ,one0 seems to be a magical 
ceremony for        the expulsion of    
winter4      #ijh ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 
#bed sqq4     ,m#cad ,the opposition of 
,haman and ,vashti to ,mordecai and     
,esther seems to        be a contrast   
between the annual death of nature in   
winter and its        revival in spring4
      #iji ,the goddess ,ishtar         
certainly seems to have embodied the    
principle of        fertility in animals
 as well as in plants2 for in the poem  
which        describes her descent into 
the world of the dead it is said that   
8,after the mistress ,ishtar had        
descended to the land of                
,no-,return1         ,the bull did not  
mount the cow1 nor did the ass leap upon
 the        she-ass1         ,the man   
did not approach the maid in the street1
         ,the man lay down to sleep upon
 his own couch1         ,while the maid 
slept by herself40          ,see ,c4 ,f4

 ,harper1 ,assyrian and ,babylonian     
,literature 7,new ,york1        #aija71 
pp4 #daj sq42 ,p4 ,jensen1              
,assyrisch-,babylonische ,mythen und    
,epen 7,berlin1 #aijj71 p4 #hg4         
#iaj ,the interpretation here given of  
the four principal personages in        
the book of ,esther was suggested by me 
in the second edition of this           
book 7#aijj74 ,it agrees substantially  
with the one which has since        been
 adopted by ,professor ,h4 ,zimmern 7in 
,e4 ,schrader's ,die                    
,keilinschriften und das ,alte          
,testament1#c ,berlin1 #aijb1 p4 #eai71 
and        by ,professor ,p4 ,haupt     
7,purim1 ,leipsic1 #aijf1 pp4 #ba sq474 
#iaa ,in this connexion it deserves to  
be noted that among the ancient         
,persians marriages are said to have    
been usually celebrated at the          
vernal equinox 7,strabo1 xv4 #c4 #ag1 p4
 #gcc74      #iab ,the five days'       
duration of the mock king's reign may   
possibly have        been an intercalary

 period introduced1 as in ancient ,egypt
 and        ,mexico1 for the purpose of 
equalizing a year of #cfj days 7twelve  
months of #cj days each7 to a solar year
 reckoned at #cfe days4 ,see            
above1 pp4 #cci sqq4      #iac ,however1
 the legend that ,semiramis burned      
herself on a pyre in        ,babylon for
 grief at the loss of a favourite horse 
7,hyginus1 ,fab4        #bdc2 compare   
,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 viii4 #aee7 may    
perhaps point to an        old custom of
 compelling the human representative of 
the goddess to        perish in the     
flames4 ,we have seen 7above1 p4 #cga7  
that one of the        lovers of ,ishtar
 had the form of a horse4 ,hence the    
legend recorded        by ,hyginus is a 
fresh link in the chain of evidence     
which binds        ,semiramis to        
,ishtar4     ,m#cae ,wide prevalence of 
festivals like the ,saturnalia in       
antiquity4 ,such        festivals seem  
to have been held by agricultural       
communities for the        good of the  

crops1 and at them the king or his      
substitute appears to        have       
personated the god of fertility1 and to 
have been put to death        in that   
character in order to ensure that the   
god should rise from        the dead    
with renewed youth and vigour4   ,m#caf 
,the festivals point to a remarkable    
homogeneity of civilization over        
a great part of the ,old ,world in      
antiquity4      #iad ,the ,dying ,god1  
pp4 #adh sqq4      #iae ,the ,dying     
,god1 pp4 #df sqq4     ,m#cag ,the      
periodical sacrifice of deified men for 
the sake of maintaining        the      
course of nature perhaps helps to       
explain traditions which                
represent the world or parts of it as   
created out of the bodies of            
gods4 ,the ,brahmanical theory of the   
perpetual renewal of the        creation
 in the daily sacrifice4      #iaf ,b4  
de ,sahagun1 ,histoire ,gnrale des      
,choses de la ,nouvelle        ,espagne1
 traduite par ,d4 ,jourdanet et ,r4     

,simeon 7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4            
#dgh-dhj4 ,compare ,e4 ,seler1          
,altmexikanische ,studien1 ii4 7,berlin1
        #ahii7 p4 #aag4      #iag       
,berosus1 quoted by ,eusebius1          
,chronicorum liber prior1 ed4 ,a4       
,schoene 7,berlin1 #ahge71 coll4 #ad-ah2
 id41 in ,fragmenta        ,historicorum
 ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,muller1 ii4 #dig  
sq42 ,p4 ,jensen1                       
,assyrisch-,babylonische ,mythen und    
,epen 7,berlin1 #aijj71 pp4 #b          
sqq42 ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 ,babylonian        
,religion and ,mythology 7,london1      
#ahii71 pp4 #ed sqq42 ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,the
 ,religion of ,babylonia and            
,assyria 7,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 #ahih71   
pp4 #djh sqq42 ,h4 ,zimmern1 in ,e4     
,schrader's ,die ,keilinschriften und   
das ,alte ,testament#c 7,berlin1        
#aijb71 pp4 #dhh sqq42 ,m4 ,j4          
,lagrange1 tudes sur les ,religions     
,smitiques#b 7,paris1 #aije71 pp4 #cff  
sqq42 ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1 ,cuneiform       
,parallels to the ,old ,testament       

7,oxford1 preface dated #aiaa71 pp4 #ca 
sq41 #cf4 ,in the ,hebrew account of the
 creation 7,genesis i4 #b7 8the         
deep0 7 thom7 is a reminiscence of the  
,babylonian mythical        monster     
,tiamat4      #iah ,hymns of the ,rig   
,veda1 x4 #ij 7vol4 iv4 pp4 #bhi-bic of 
,r4 ,t4 ,h4        ,griffith's          
translation1 ,benares1 #ahhi-ahib74     
,compare ,a4 ,a4        ,macdonell1     
,vedic ,mythology 7,strasburg1 #ahig71  
pp4 #ab sq4      #iai ,the ,satapatha   
,brhmana1 translated by ,julius         
,eggeling1 ,part iv4        7,oxford1   
#ahig7 pp4 xiv4-xxiv4 7,the ,sacred     
,books of the ,east1 vol4               
xliii474 ,compare ,sylvain ,lvi1 ,la    
doctrine du sacrifice dans les          
,brhmanas 7,paris1 #ahih71 pp4 #ac sqq4 
#ibj ,the following ,note formed part of
 the text in the ,second ,edition of    
,the ,golden ,bough 7,london1 #aijj71   
vol4 iii4 pp4 #ahf-aih4 ,the            
hypothesis which it sets forth has not  
been confirmed by subsequent            

research1 and is admittedly in a high   
degree speculative and        uncertain4
 ,hence ,i have removed it from the text
 but preserved it as        an appendix 
on the chance that1 under a pile of     
conjectures1 it        contains some    
grains of truth which may ultimately    
contribute to a        solution of the  
problem4 ,as my views on this subject   
appear to have        been strangely    
misunderstood1 ,i desire to point out   
explicitly that        my theory assumes
 the historical reality of ,jesus of    
,nazareth as a        great religious   
and moral teacher1 who founded          
,christianity and was        crucified  
at ,jerusalem under the governorship of 
,pontius ,pilate4 ,the        testimony 
of the ,gospels1 confirmed by the       
hostile evidence of        ,tacitus     
7,annals1 xv4 #dd7 and the younger      
,pliny 7,epist4 x4 #if71        appears 
amply sufficient to establish these     
facts to the        satisfaction of all 
unprejudiced enquirers4 ,it is only the 

details        of the life and death of 
,christ that remain1 and will probably  
always remain1 shrouded in the mists of 
uncertainty4 ,the doubts        which   
have been cast on the historical reality
 of ,jesus are in my        judgment    
unworthy of serious attention4 ,quite   
apart from the        positive evidence 
of history and tradition1 the origin of 
a great        religious and moral      
reform is inexplicable without the      
personal        existence of a great    
reformer4 ,to dissolve the founder of   
,christianity into a myth1 as some would
 do1 is hardly less absurd        than  
it would be to do the same for          
,mohammed1 ,luther1 and ,calvin4        
,such dissolving views are for the most 
part the dreams of students        who  
know the great world chiefly through its
 pale reflection in        books4 ,these
 extravagances of scepticism have been  
well exposed by        ,professor ,c4   
,f4 ,lehmann-,haupt in his ,israel1     
seine ,entwicklung im        ,rahmen der

 ,weltgeschichte 7,tbingen1 #aiaa71 pp4 
#bge-bhe4 ,in        reprinting the     
statement of my theory ,i have added a  
few notes1        which are             
distinguished by being enclosed in      
square brackets4     ,m#cah ,the mockery
 of ,christ compared to the mockery of  
the ,king of the        ,saturnalia4    
#iba ,p4 ,wendland1 8,jesus als         
,saturnalien-,knig10 ,hermes1 xxxiii4   
7#ahih7        pp4 #age-agi4     ,m#cai 
,the mockery of ,christ compared to the 
mockery of the ,king of the             
,sacaea4      #ibb ,the resemblance had 
struck me when ,i wrote this book       
originally        #ahhi-ahij1 but as ,i 
could not definitely explain it ,i      
preferred to        leave it unnoticed4 
,the first in recent years to call      
attention to        the resemblance     
seems to have been ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,paton1 
who further        conjectured that the 
crucifixion of ,christ between two      
malefactors        was not accidental1  
but had a ritual significance 8as an    

expiatory        sacrifice to a triple  
god40 ,see ,f4 ,c4 ,conybeare1 ,the     
,apology and        ,acts of ,apollonius
 and other ,monuments of ,early         
,christianity        7,london1 #ahid71  
pp4 #beg sqq42 ,w4 ,r4 ,paton1 8,die    
,kreuzigung ,jesu10        ,zeitschrift 
fr die neutestamentliche ,wissenschaft1 
ii4 7#aija7 pp4        #cci-cda4 ,the   
grounds for the conjecture are somewhat 
slender4 ,it is        true that a      
,persian martyr1 ,s4 ,hiztibouzit1 is   
said to have been        crucified      
between two malefactors on a hill top1  
opposite the sun        7,f4 ,c4        
,conybeare1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgj71 but the  
narrator of the        martyrdom gives  
no hint of any sacred significance      
attaching to the        triple          
crucifixion4      #ibc ,matthew xxvii4  
#bf-ca4 ,mark's description 7xv4 #ae-bj7
 is nearly        identical4      #ibd  
,dio ,chrysostom1 ,or4 iv4 vol4 i4 p4   
#gf ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf4 ,as ,i have       
already mentioned1 the ,greek word which

 describes the execution        77      
leaves it uncertain whether the man was 
crucified or        hanged4     ,m#cbj  
,at ,purim the ,jews may have annually  
put to death a man in the               
character of ,haman1 and ,christ may    
have perished in that character4        
,but the ,passover1 at which ,christ was
 crucified1 fell a month after          
,purim4 ,perhaps the annual ,haman1 like
 the annual ,saturn1 was allowed        
a month's license before being put to   
death4      #ibe ,see above1 p4 #cib4   
#ibf ,the extreme improbability involved
 in the suggested transference of       
the date of the ,crucifixion is rightly 
emphasized by my colleague        and   
friend ,professor ,c4 ,f4               
,lehmann-,haupt in some observations and
        criticisms with which he has    
favoured me4 ,he writes3 8,i regard it  
as        out of the question that      
#8,christian tradition shifted the date 
of        the ,crucifixion by a month4' 
,you yourself regard it as improbable2  

but in my opinion it is impossible4 ,all
 that we hear of the ,passion        is 
only explicable by the ,passover        
festival and by the circumstance        
that at that time every believing ,jew  
had to make a pilgrimage to             
,jerusalem4 ,without the background of  
the festival all that we know        of 
the ,crucifixion and of what led up to  
it is totally        unintelligible40   
#ibg ,esther iii4 #g4     ,m#cba ,the   
part taken by the soldiers in the       
mockery of ,christ4      #ibh ,tacitus1 
,hist4 iii4 #bd sq41 compared with ii4  
#gd4      #ibi ,luke xxiii4 #aa4        
,m#cbb ,the theory that ,christ died1   
not as a malefactor1 but in the         
character of ,haman helps to explain    
both ,pilate's reluctance to put        
him to death1 and it also explains the  
remarkable superscription on        the 
cross4      #icj ,matthew xxvii4 #cg2   
,mark xv4 #bf2 ,luke xxiii4 #ch2 ,john  
xix4 #ai4     ,m#cbc ,the part of       
,mordecai in the annual drama in which  

,christ died as        ,haman may have  
been played by ,barabbas4 ,the mock     
,king ,carabas in        ,egypt4        
#ica ,matthew xxvii4 #ae-bf2 ,mark xv4  
#f-ae2 ,luke xxiii4 #af-be2 ,john xviii4
        #ch-dj4      #icb ,philo        
,judaeus1 ,adversus ,flaccum1 vol4 ii4  
pp4 #ebj-ebc ed4 ,th4        ,mangey    
7,london1 #agdb74 ,the first to call    
attention to this passage        was    
,mr4 ,p4 ,wendland 78,jesus als         
,saturnalien-,knig10 ,hermes1           
xxxiii4 7#ahih7 pp4 #age sq474 ,mar-na1 
8,our ,lord10 was the title of        a 
,philistine deity worshipped at ,gaza   
and elsewhere4 ,see ,c4 ,p4             
,tiele1 ,geschichte der ,religion im    
,altertum 7,gotha1 #ahif-aijc71 i4      
#beh4 ,compare ,hebrew and ,english     
,lexicon1 edited by ,f4 ,brown1 ,s4 ,r4 
,driver1 and ,ch4 ,a4 ,briggs 7,oxford1 
#aijf71 p4 #aaja4     ,m#cbd ,hypothesis
 that every spring at ,purim or         
,passover the ,jews paraded        two  
prisoners in the characters of ,haman   

and ,mordecai1 of whom one        was   
put to death and the other released4    
#icc ,matthew xxi4 #a-ac2 ,mark xi4     
#a-ag2 ,luke xix4 #bh-df2 ,john xii4    
#ab-ae4        ,as to the license       
accorded to temporary kings1 see ,the   
,dying ,god1        pp4 #ef sq41 #adh   
sqq4     ,m#cbe ,barabbas 78,son of the 
,father07 may have been the regular     
title of        the prisoner who was    
released in the character of ,mordecai4 
#icd ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #aff sqq4    
#ice ,in favour of the theory in the    
text1 which supposes that in the        
tragic drama of the crucifixion ,jesus  
and ,barabbas played parts        which 
were the complements1 if not the        
duplicates1 of each other1 it           
might1 as ,m4 ,salomon ,reinach has     
pointed out1 be alleged that in the     
,armenian and old ,syriac versions of   
,matthew xxvii4 #af and #ag1 as         
well as in some ,greek cursive          
manuscripts1 the name of the prisoner   
whom ,pilate proposed to release is     

given as ,jesus ,barabbas1 a            
reading which was also known to ,origen 
and was not absolutely        rejected  
by him4 ,see ,encyclopaedia ,biblica    
7,london1 #ahii-aijc71        s4v4      
8,barabbas10 vol4 i4 col4 #dgg2         
,evangelion da-,mepharreshe1            
edited by ,f4 ,c4 ,burkitt 7,cambridge1 
#aijd71 i4 #afe1 ii4 #bgg sq4 ,in       
the latter passage ,prof4 ,burkitt      
argues that ,jesus ,barabbas was        
probably the original reading in the    
,greek text1 though the name            
,jesus is omitted in nearly all our     
existing manuscripts4 ,compare ,s4      
,reinach1 8,le roi supplici10 ,cultes1  
,mythes1 et ,religions1 i4              
7,paris1 #aije7 pp4 #cci sq4     ,m#cbf 
,the theory that ,christ was put to     
death1 not as a criminal1 but as        
the annual representative of a god1     
whose counterparts were well            
known all over ,western ,asia1 may help 
to explain his early        deification 
and the rapid spread of his worship4    

#icf ,pliny1 ,epist4 x4 #if4 ,the       
province which ,pliny governed was known
        officially as ,bithynia and     
,pontus1 and extended from the river    
,rhyndacos on the west to beyond ,amisus
 on the east4 ,see ,professor           
,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,the ,church in   
the ,roman ,empire 7,london1 #ahic71    
p4 #bbd4 ,professor ,ramsay is of       
opinion 8that the description of the    
great power acquired by the new religion
 in the province applies to             
,eastern ,pontus at least40 ,the chief  
religious centre of this        district
 appears to have been the great         
sanctuary of ,anaitis or                
,semiramis at ,zela1 to which ,i have   
already had occasion to call the        
reader's attention4 ,strabo tells us    
7xii4 #c4 #cg7 that all the people      
of ,pontus took their most solemn oaths 
at this shrine4 ,in the same            
district there was another very popular 
sanctuary of a similar type        at   
,comana1 where the worship of a native  

goddess called ,ma was        carried on
 by a host of sacred harlots and by a   
high priest1 who        wore a diadem   
and was second only to the king in rank4
 ,at the        festivals of the goddess
 crowds of men and women flocked into   
,comana        from all the region round
 about1 from the country as well as from
        the cities4 ,the luxury and     
debauchery of this holy town suggest to 
,strabo a comparison with the famous or 
rather infamous ,corinth4 ,see          
,strabo1 xii4 #c4 #cb and #cf1 compared 
with xii4 #b4 #c4 ,such were some       
of the hot-beds in which the seeds of   
,christianity first struck        root4