file :i* includes ! orig9al illu/rations4 ,see #dbfjb-;h4htm or #dbfjb-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/ca*e_/epub_/ #dbfjb_/pg#dbfjb-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/files_/#dbfj b_/dbfjb-;h4zip7 ,"s *>act]s might n display 9 ?is ,,utf-#h text v]sion or 9 ! html v]sion4 ,if s1 ! read] %\ld consult ! iso-#hhei-a 7,lat9-#a7 text file #dbfjb-h4txt or #dbfjb4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/files_/#dbfj b_/dbfjb-h4txt7 or 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/files_/#dbfj b_/dbfjb-h4zip7 ,images ( ! orig9al pages are available ?r\gh ,int]net ,ar*ive4 ,see https3_/_/ar*ive4org_/details_//eam5g9ee xpla#jjl>dri* ,transcrib]'s note3 ,text enclos$ by und]scores is 9 italics 7italics74 ,! notation n means t n is sup]script4 ,! notation n means t n is subscript4 ,text t 0 9 small capitals has be5 conv]t$ to all capitals4 ,! orig9al page numb]s are emb$d$ 9 squ>e brackets1 e4g4 ,pg#ace4 ,m detail$ notes are provid$ 9 ! ,transcrib]'s endnote4 ,illu/ration3 ,,watt4 ,engrav$ by ,h4 ,adl>d1 f a ,draw+ by ,h4 ,corb\ld1 tak5 ) ! p]mission ( ,james ,watt1 ,esq4 ,,f ,,! ,,/atue ,,by ,,*antrey4 ,london3 ,taylor ,walton1 ,upp] ,g[] ,/reet4 ,,! ,,/eam ,,eng9e ,,expla9$ ,,& ,,illu/rat$2 ,) an ,acc\nt ( ,its ,inv5tion & ,progressive ,improvem5t1 & ,its ,application to ,navigation & ,railways2 ,includ+ also a ,memoir ( ,watt4 by ,,dionysius ,,l>dn]1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,f4,r4,s4 c4 c4 ,,sev5? ,,edition1 ,illu/rat$ by ,engrav+s on ,wood4 ,london3 ,pr9t$ = ,taylor & ,walton1 #bh4 ,upp] ,g[] ,/reet4 ,,mdcccxl4 ,london3 ,pr9t$ by ,a4 ,spottiswoode1 ,new-,/reet-,squ>e4 ,,to ,,! ,,"r ,,hon\rable ,,h5ry ,,"l ,,br\gham ,,& ,,vaux1 ,,fell[ ,,( ,,! ,,royal ,,society1 ,,& ,,memb] ,,( ,,! ,,national ,,in/itute ,,( ,,france1 ,,z ,a ,,m>k ,,( ,,public ,,respect ,,& ,a ,,te/imony ,,( ,,private ,,reg>d1 ,,?is ,,"w ,,inscrib$1 ,,by ,,8 ,,atta*$ ,,fri5d1 ,,! ,,au?or4 ,,adv]tisem5t4 ,! ,draw+s = sev]al ( ! ,cuts 9 ?is ,volume h be5 tak51 by ! p]mission ( ,mr4 ,weale1 f ! admirable ,plates annex$ to ! la/ edition ( ,tr$gold on ! ,/eam ,eng9e & on ,/eam ,navigation4 ,?is ackn[l$gm5t is especially due = ! ,illu/rations :i* ab\nd 9 ?is ,volume4 ,london1 ,june1 #ahdj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,london ,,entrance ,,to ,,! ,,birm+ham ,,rail-,,road4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelim9>y ,,matt]4 ,page ,! ,/eam ,eng9e1 a ,subject ( popul> ,int]e/ #d ,effects ( ,/eam #e ,great ,p[] ( ,/eam #g ,object ( ?is ,"w #i ,disputes respect+ ! ,inv5tion #aa ,h]o ( ,alex&ria's ,ma*9e #ac ,blasco ,de ,g>ay's ,proposition to propel ,vessels by a ,ma*9e #af ,solomon ,de ,caus #ag ,giovanni ,branca proposes to "w ,mills by ,/eam #bb ,m>quis ( ,worce/] #bc ,me*anical ,prop]ties ( ,fluids #be ,ela/ic & ,inela/ic ,fluids #be ,ela/icity ( ,gases #bh ,effects ( ,heat #bi ,application ( ^! ,pr9ciples to ! ,eng9es ( ,h]o1 ,de ,caus1 & ,"l ,worce/] #cj ,sir ,samuel ,morl& #cd ,d5is ,pap9 #cf ,atmosph]ic ,pressure #ch ,weight ( ,air #ci ,pressure ( ,air #da ,b>omet] #da ,ela/ic ,=ce ( ,air & ,gases #db ,=ce obta9$ by a ,vacuum #dc ,common ,pump #dc ,r>efaction by ,heat #dd ,process ( fill+ ,!rmomet]s #dd ,pap9's ,me?od ( produc+ a ,vacuum #dd ,8 ,discov]y ( ! ,cond5sation ( ,/eam #de ,?omas ,sav]y #dg ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,eng9es ,,( ,,sav]y ,,& ,,newcom54 ,sav]y's ,eng9e #di ,boil]s & _! ,app5dages #ej ,work+ ,app>atus describ$ #ea ,mode ( ,op]ation #eb ,defects ( ,sav]y's ,eng9e #eh ,newcom5's ,eng9e describ$ by ,pap9 #fb ,newcom5 & ,cawley obta9 a ,pat5t = ,atmosph]ic ,eng9e #fe ,accid5tal ,discov]y ( ,cond5sation by ,injection #fi ,pott]'s ,discov]y ( ! ,me?od ( work+ ! ,valves #ga ,8 ,contrivance improv$ by ! ,sub/itution ( a ,plug ,frame #gb ,advantages ( ! ,atmosph]ic ,eng9e ov] t ( ,sav]y #gb ,! ,p[] ( ,sav]y's ,eng9e re/rict$ #gc ,x conta9$ no new ,pr9ciple #gc ,its practical ,sup]iority #gc ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,e>ly ,,c>e] ,,& ,,discov]ies ,,( ,,james ,,watt4 ,atmosph]ic ,eng9e improv$ by ,beighton #ge ,smeaton's ,improvem5ts 9 ! ,atmosph]ic ,eng9e #gf ,br9dley obta9s a ,pat5t = ,improvem5t 9 #gf ,inv5ts ! ,self-regulat+ ,fe$] #gf ,infancy ( ,james ,watt #gg ,8 ,desc5t & ,p>5tage #gg ,anecdotes ( 8 ,boyhood #gh ,8 e>ly ,acquirem5ts #gi ,goes to ,london #hj ,returns to ,glasg[ #hj ,appo9t$ ,in/rum5t-mak] to ! ,univ]sity #ha ,op5s a ,%op 9 ,glasg[ #ha ,8 ,fri5ds & ,patrons #ha ,pr(essor ,robison's ,rem>ks on ,watt's p]sonal ,"* #hb ,8 indu/ri\s & /udi\s ,habits #hb ,8 ,att5tion fir/ direct$ to ,/eam #hc ,exp]im5ts on ,high-pressure ,eng9e #hc ,repairs an ,atmosph]ic ,model #hd ,exp]im5tal ,inquiry consequ5t on ?is #hd ,its ,results #hd ,obs]ves great ,defects 9 ! ,atmosph]ic ,eng9e #he ,8 fir/ ,attempt to improve x #he ,8 e>ly ,exp]im5ts on ,/eam #hg ,discov]y by ,exp]im5t ( ! ,expansion :i* ,wat] und]goes 9 ,evaporation #ij ,discov]s ! lat5t ,heat ( ,/eam #ia ,in=m$ by ,dr4 ,black ( ! ,!ory ( lat5t ,heat #ic ,8 ,improvem5t n due to ,black #ic ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,exposition ,,( ,,physical ,,pr9ciples4 ,con/ruction ( ,!rmomet] #ih ,me?od ( graduat+ x #ii ,freez+ & boil+ ,po9ts #ii ,lat5t ,heat ( ,wat] #aja ,quantity ( ,heat necess>y to conv]t ,ice into ,wat]1 fir/ notic$ by ,dr4 ,black #aja ,exam9ation ( ! analog\s ,effects produc$ by ! cont9u$ ,application ( ,heat to ,wat] 9 ! liquid ,/ate #ajb ,process ( ,boil+ #ajd ,reconv]sion ( ,/eam into ,wat] #ajd ,conv]sion ( ,wat] into ,/eam #aje ,lat5t ,heat ( ,/eam #ajg ,boil+ ,po9t v>ies #ajh ,diff]5t 9 diff]5t ,places #aji ,inquiry :e!r a ,dim9ution ( ,pressure w produce a correspond+ ,effect on ! boil+ ,po9t #aab ,table %[+ ! ,temp]ature at :i* ,wat] w boil "u diff]5t ,pressures ( ! ,atmosph]e #aac ,me*anical ,=ce ( ,/eam #aae ,facts to be obs]v$ 9 #aag ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,,fur!r ,,discov]ies ,,( ,,watt4 ,watt f9ds t ,cond5sation 9 ! ,cyl9d] is incompatible ) a due ,economy ( ,fuel #aai ,conceives ! ,notion ( cond5s+ out ( ! ,cyl9d] #abj ,discov]s sep>ate ,cond5sation #aba ,inv5ts ! ,air ,pump #abc ,sub/itutes ,/eam ,pressure = ,atmosph]ic ,pressure #abc ,inv5ts ! ,/eam ,case1 or ,jacket #abd ,8 fir/ ,exp]im5ts to realise ^! ,inv5tions #abe ,8 exp]im5tal ,app>atus #abe ,8 exp]im5tal ,models fitt$ up at ,delft ,h\se1 9 ,glasg[ #abh ,difficulties ( br++ ! improv$ ,eng9es into ,use #abi ,watt fir/ employ$ by ,roebuck z a ,civil ,eng9e] #acj ,8 ,p>tn]%ip ) ,roebuck #acj ,8 fir/ ,pat5t #acj ,exp]im5tal ,eng9e at ,k9neal #aca ,ab/ract ( ! ,act ( ,p>liam5t = ! ,ext5sion ( 8 ,pat5t #acb ,description ( 8 s+le-act+ ,/eam ,eng9e #acc ,,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,,watt',s ,,eng9es4 ,correspond5ce ( ,watt ) ,smeaton #ade ,failure ( ,cond5sation by ,surface #adf ,improvem5ts 9 ,con/ruction ( ,pi/on #adg ,me?od ( ,pack+ #adh ,improvem5ts 9 bor+ ! ,cyl9d] #adi ,disadvantages ( ! new comp>$ ) ! old ,eng9es #aej ,greatly increas$ ,economy ( ,fuel #aej ,economy ( ! ,eng9e #aea ,exp$i5ts to =ce ! new ,eng9es into ,use #aea ,correspond5ce ( ,b\lton #aec ,correspond5ce ) ,smeaton #aee ,effici5cy ( ,fuel 9 ! new ,eng9es #aef ,discov]y ( ! expansive ,action ( ,/eam #aeg ,watt /ates x 9 a ,lett] to ,dr4 ,small #aeg ,its ,pr9ciple expla9$ #aeh ,me*anical ,effects result+ f x #afb ,comput$ ,effect ( cutt+ (f ,/eam at diff]5t ,portions ( ! ,/roke #afc ,produces a v>iable ,p[] #afc ,exp$i5ts = equalis+ ! ,p[] #afd ,expansive ,pr9ciple 9 ,watt's ,eng9es limit$ #afe ,its m ext5sive ,application 9 ! ,corni% ,eng9es #afe ,,*ap4 ,,vii4 ,,d\ble-,,act+ ,,eng9e4 ,common ,/eam #afh ,sup]heat$ ,/eam #agj ,laws ( ,dalton & ,gay ,lussac #aga ,law ( ,m>iotte #aga ,relation betwe5 ,temp]ature & ,pressure ( common ,/eam #aga ,effects ( ! ,expansion ( common ,/eam #agc ,me*anical ,effects ( ,/eam #agc ,me?od ( equalis+ ! expansive ,=ce #agd ,hornbl[]'s ,eng9e #age ,woolf's ,eng9e #agf ,watt's ,attempts to ext5d ! ,/eam ,eng9e to ,manufactures #agh ,pap9's project$ ,applications ( ! ,/eam ,eng9e #agh ,sav]y's ,application ( ! ,eng9e to move ,ma*9]y #ahj ,jona?an ,hull's ,application to ,wat] ,:eels #ahj ,*ampion ( ,bri/ol applies ! ,atmosph]ic ,eng9e to raise ,wat] #aha ,/ew>t's ,application ( ! ,eng9e to ,mill-"w #ahb ,wasbr\gh's ,application ( ! ,fly-:eel & ,crank #ahc ,reasons :y ,watt's s+le-act+ ,/eam ,eng9e 0 n adapt$ to produce cont9u\s uni=m ,motion ( ,rotation #ahd ,watt's ,second ,pat5t #ahf ,sun-&-,planet ,:eels #ahg ,valves ( d\ble-act+ ,eng9e #ahi ,,*ap4 ,,viii4 ,,d\ble-,,act+ ,,eng9e4 ,me?ods ( connect+ ! ,pi/on-rod & ,beam 9 ! d\ble-act+ ,eng9e #aic ,rack & ,sector #aid ,p>allel ,motion #aie ,connection ( ,pi/on-rod & ,beam #aie ,connect+ ,rod & ,crank #bjc ,fly-:eel #bje ,?rottle-valve #bjg ,gov]nor #bji ,con/ruction & ,op]ation ( ! d\ble-act+ ,eng9e #baf ,ecc5tric #bbe ,cocks & ,valves #bbg ,s+le-clack ,valves #bbg ,d\ble-clack ,valves #bbh ,conical ,valves #bbh ,slide ,valves #bbi ,murray's ,slides #bbi ,d ,valves #bcj ,seaw>d's ,slides #bce ,s+le ,cock #bch ,two-way ,cock #bci ,f\r-way ,cock #bci ,pi/ons #bdb ,common hemp-pack$ ,pi/on #bdb ,woolf's ,pi/on #bdc ,metallic ,pi/ons #bdd ,c>twright's ,eng9e #bde ,c>twright's ,pi/on #bdg ,b>ton's ,pi/on #bdh ,,*ap4 ,,ix4 ,,boil]s ,,& ,,furnaces4 ,analysis ( ,coal #beb ,process ( ,combu/ion #bec ,heat evolv$ 9 x #bed ,=m & ,/ructure ( ,boil] #bee ,waggon ,boil] #bee ,furnace #bef ,me?od ( fe$+ x #beg ,combu/ion ( ,gas 9 ,flues #bfj ,williams's ,pat5t = ,me?od ( consum+ unburn$ ,gases #bfj ,con/ruction ( ,grate & ,a%-pit #bfa ,magnitude ( heat+ ,surface ( ,boil] #bfb ,/eam-space & ,wat]-space 9 ,boil] #bfc ,position ( ,flues #bfd ,me?od ( fe$+ ,boil] #bfe ,me?od ( indicat+ ! ,level ( ,wat] 9 ,boil] #bff ,level ,gauges #bff ,self-regulat+ ,fe$]s #bfg ,/eam ,gauge #bgj ,b>omet] ,gauge #bgb ,watt's ,inv5tion ( ! ,indicator #bgd ,c\nt] #bgh ,safety-valve #bgi ,fusible ,plugs #bhj ,self-regulat+ ,damp] #bha ,brunton's ,self-regulat+ ,furnace #bhc ,gross & useful ,effect ( an ,eng9e #bhe ,p[] & ,duty ( ,eng9es #bhg ,horse-p[] ( ,/eam ,eng9es #bhi ,evaporation proportional to ,horse-p[] #bij ,s\rces ( ,loss ( ,p[] #bib ,abs5ce ( good practical ,rules = ,p[] #bib ,common ,rules foll[$ by ,eng9e-mak]s #bib ,duty di/+ui%$ f ,p[] #bid ,duty ( ,boil]s #bid ,proportion ( ,/roke to ,diamet] ( ,cyl9d] #bie ,duty ( ,eng9es #bif ,corni% ,sy/em ( ,inspection #big ,table %[+ ! ,improvem5t ( ,corni% ,eng9es #bih ,b5eficial ,effects ( ,corni% ,inspection #bii ,successive ,improvem5ts on :i* ! increas$ ,duty ( ,eng9es dep5ds1 trac$ by ,john ,taylor 9 8 ,records ( ,m9+ #bii ,,*ap4 ,x4 ,,life ,,( ,,watt4 ,watt's ,fri5ds & ,associates at ,birm+ham #cjb ,8 ,inv5tion ( ! ,copy+ ,press #cjb ,heat+ ,ap>tm5ts & ,build+s by ,/eam #cjc ,watt's ,ma*9e = dry+ ,l95 #cjc ,8 ,%>e 9 ! ,discov]y ( ! ,composition ( ,wat] #cjc ,! ,m]it ( ?is ,discov]y %>$ betwe5 ,cav5di%1 ,lavoisi]1 & ,watt #cje ,anecdote ( ,watt's ,activity ( ,m9d #cji ,8 ,introduction ( ! ,use ( ,*lor9e 9 ,blea*+ #caj ,"o ( ! ,f\nd]s ( ! ,pneumatic ,in/itution at ,clifton #caj ,8 fir/ ,m>riage #caa ,dea? ( 8 fir/ ,wife #caa ,8 second ,m>riage #caa ,dea? ( 8 y\ng] ,son #caa ,extracts f 8 ,lett]s #cab ,"* ( ,watt by ,"l ,br\gham #cac ,extract f ,sir ,walt] ,scott's ,mona/]y on ! ,"* ( ,watt #cad ,sket* ( ! ,life ( ,watt f ! ,scotsman by ,"l ,jeffrey #cae ,occupation ( 8 old ,age #cah ,8 ,inv5tion ( ,ma*9e = copy+ ,sculpture #cah ,8 la/ ,days #cah ,monum5ts to 8 ,memory #cai ,inscription by ,"l ,br\gham on ! ,p$e/al ( ! ,monum5t 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey #cbj ,,*ap4 ,,xi4 ,,locomotive ,,eng9es ,,on ,,railways4 ,page ,high-pressure ,eng9es #cbb ,"o ( ! e>lie/ ,=ms ( ! ,/eam ,eng9e #cbb ,description ( ,leupold's ,eng9e #cbc ,non-cond5s+ ,eng9e ( ,messrs4 ,treve?ick & ,vivian #cbd ,con/ruction ( a ,ma*9e = mov+ ,c>riages on ,railroads #cbh ,effects ( ,railway ,transport #cbi ,moral & political ,consequ5ces ( #ccd ,hi/ory ( ! ,locomotive ,eng9e #ccg ,con/ruction ( ,locomotive ,eng9e by ,bl9k5sop #ccg ,messrs4 ,*apman's ,contrivance #ccg ,walk+ ,eng9e #ccg ,mr4 ,/eph5son's ,eng9es at ,kill+wor? #cci ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway #cdb ,! ,directors (f] a ,prize = ! be/ ,locomotive ,eng9e #cdd ,exp]im5tal ,trial #cdd ,! ,rocket1 ,sansp>eil1 & ,novelty #cdd ,admirable ,arrangem5t 9 ! ,rocket #cde ,description ( ! ,sansp>eil #cdg ,description ( ! ,novelty #cdi ,! ,sup]iority ( ! ,rocket #cej ,me?od ( subdivid+ ! ,flue into ,tubes #cec ,progressive ,improvem5t ( ,locomotive ,eng9es #ced ,dr4 ,l>dn]'s ,exp]im5ts 9 #ahcb #ceg ,adoption ( ,brass ,tubes #cfj ,great ,exp5se ( ,locomotive ,p[] #cfa ,mr4 ,boo?'s ,report #cfb ,detail$ ,description ( ! mo/ improv$ ,locomotive ,eng9es #cfe ,sub/itution ( ,brass = ,copp] ,tubes ascrib$ to ,mr4 ,dixon #cgj ,p[] ( ,locomotive ,eng9es #cgi ,position ( ! ,ecc5trics #cgi ,pressure ( ,/eam 9 ! ,boil] #dja ,dr4 ,l>dn]'s ,exp]im5ts 9 #ahch #djf ,resi/ance to ,railway ,tra9s #djg ,dr4 ,l>dn]'s ,exp]im5ts on ! ,great ,we/]n ,railway #djh ,exp]im5ts on ,resi/ance #dji ,re/rictions on ,gradi5ts #daj ,comp5sat+ ,effect ( ,gradi5ts #dab ,exp]im5t ) ! ,hecla #dab ,disposition ( ,gradi5ts %\ld be uni=m #dae ,me?ods ( surm\nt+ /eep ,incl9ations #dae ,,*ap4 ,,xii4 ,,locomotive ,,eng9es ,,on ,,turnpike ,,roads4 ,railways & ,/one ,roads comp>$ #dbj ,gurney's ,/eam ,c>riage #dbc ,! ,boil] ( ,gurney's ,eng9e #dbc ,8 ,me?od ( cleans+ ,boil]s #dbh ,conv5i5ce & ,safety ( ,/eam ,c>riages #dcb ,two ,me?ods ( apply+ ,locomotive ,eng9es ^u common ,roads #dcd ,horse ,c>riages comp>$ ) ,/eam #dce ,extract f ,mr4 ,f>ey's ,evid5ce be=e ! ,h\se ( ,commons #dce ,hancock's ,/eam ,c>riage #dcf ,h[ x diff]s f t ( ,mr4 ,gurney #dcg ,ogle's ,locomotive ,c>riage #dch ,dr4 ,*ur*'s ,/eam ,eng9e #dci ,,*ap4 ,,xiii4 ,,/eam ,,navigation4 ,=m & ,arrangem5t ( ,m>9e ,eng9es #dda ,arrangem5t ( ! ,eng9e-room #ddf ,m>9e ,boil]s #ddh ,effects ( ,sea ,wat] 9 ,boil]s #dej ,rem$ies = !m #dea ,bl[-(f ,cocks #deb ,indicators ( ,saltness #dec ,seaw>d's ,indicator #ded ,8 ,me?od ( bl[+ out #ded ,field's ,br9e ,pumps #def ,tubul> ,cond5s]s appli$ by ,mr4 ,watt #deg ,hall's ,cond5s]s #deh ,sub/itution ( ,copp] = ,iron ,boil]s #dfj ,process ( ,/ok+ #dfb ,watt's ,exp$i5t ( atta*+ ,felt to ! ,boil] ,surface #dfc ,means ( economis+ ,fuel #dfc ,numb] & ,arrangem5t ( ,furnaces & ,flues #dfc ,h[>d's ,m>9e ,eng9e #dfd ,application ( ! expansive ,pr9ciple 9 ,m>9e ,eng9es #dff ,rec5t ,improvem5ts ( ,messrs4 ,maudslay & ,field #dfg ,humphrey's ,m>9e ,eng9e #dgj ,common ,paddle-:eel #dgb ,fea!r+ ,paddles #dgd ,gall[ay's ,pat5t = a ,paddle-:eel ) movable ,paddles #dgf ,split ,paddle #dgh ,proportion ( ,p[] to ,tonnage #dhj ,improv$ ,effici5cy ( ,m>9e ,eng9es #dhb ,iron ,/eam ,vessels #dhc ,/eam ,navigation to ,india #dhd ,,*ap4 ,,xiv4 ,,am]ican ,,/eam ,,navigation4 ,/eam ,navigation fir/ e/abli%$ 9 ,am]ica #dhg ,circum/ances :i* l$ to x #dhh ,attempts ( ,fit* & ,rumsey to apply ! s+le-act+ ,eng9e to ! ,propulsion ( ,vessels #dhi ,/ev5s ( ,hobok5 comm5ces ,exp]im5ts 9 ,/eam ,navigation #dhi ,exp]im5ts ( ,liv+/one & ,fulton #dhi ,fulton's fir/ ,boat #dij ,! ,hudson navigat$ by ,/eam #dia ,ext5sion & ,improvem5t ( ,riv] ,navigation #dib ,am]ican ,/eam]s #did ,diff]5ce betwe5 !m & ,european ,/eam]s #did ,/eam]s on ! ,hudson #did ,am]ican ,paddle-:eels #die ,sea-go+ ,am]ican ,/eam]s #dif ,spe$ atta9$ by ,am]ican ,/eam]s #dig ,lake ,/eam]s #dii ,! ,mississippi & its ,tribut>ies #dii ,/eam-boats navigat+ x #ejj ,_! ,/ructure & ,ma*9]y #ejj ,new ,orleans ,h>b\r #ejc ,/eam ,tugs #ejc ,,app5dix4 ,on ! ,relation betwe5 ! ,temp]ature1 ,pressure1 & ,d5sity ( ,common ,/eam4 ,empirical ,=mula ( ,biot1 %[+ ! ,relation betwe5 ! ,pressure & ,temp]ature #eje ,empirical =mula ( ,s\!rn #ejf ,tr$gold #ejf ,mellet #ejf ,de ,pamb\r #ejf ,,mm4 ,dulong & ,arago #ejf ,law ( ! ,expansion ( ela/ic ,fluids1 discov]$ by ,dalton & ,gay ,lussac #ejf ,=mula = ! ,relation betwe5 ! ,volumes & ,temp]atures #ejg ,law ( ,m>iotte #ejg ,table ( ,pressures1 ,temp]atures1 ,volumes1 & ,me*anical ,effects ( ,/eam #eji ,empirical ,=mul = ! ,relation betwe5 ! ,volume ( ,wat] & t ( ! ,/eam produc$ by its ,evaporation "u giv5 ,pressures #eaa ,=mula ( ,navi] #eaa ,modifi$ by ,de ,pamb\r #eaa ,on ! ,expansive ,action ( ,/eam4 ,me*anical ,effect produc$ dur+ a giv5 ,ext5t ( ,expansion #eaa ,me*anical ,effect produc$ dur+ ,evaporation & subsequ5t ,expansion #eab ,application to d\ble-act+ ,eng9es #eac ,=mula = ,pressure ( ,/eam 9 ,cyl9d]s #ead ,=mula = total ,me*anical ,effect p] ,m9ute ( ,/eam :5 cut (f at any propos$ ,"p ( ! ,/roke #ead ,=mul exhibit+ ! ,relation betwe5 ! ,resi/ance ( ! ,load1 ! ,resi/ances ( ! ,eng9e1 ! ,evaporation1 ! ,spe$ ( ! ,pi/on1 & ! ,magnitude ( ! ,cyl9d] #eae ,=mul %[+ ! ,relation betwe5 ! ,p[] ( ! ,eng9e1 ! ,evaporation1 & ! useful ,load #eaf ,=mul = ! useful ,effect & ! ,duty #eag ,e/imates ( ! sev]al ,s\rces ( ,resi/ances #eah ,tables to facilitate ! ,computation ( ! ,effects ( ,expansive ,eng9es #eai ,table ( ! ,areas ( ,pi/ons #ebj ,,examples ( ! ,application ( ^! ,=mul #eba ,,index4 #ebc ,illu/ration3 ,,viaduct1 ,,ne> ,,wat=d1 ,,birm+ham ,,rail-,,road4 ,pg#jja ,,! ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,pg#jjc ,illu/ration3 ,,h]o ,,( ,,alex&ria4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,/eam ,,eng9e1 ,a ,,subject ,,( ,,popul> ,,int]e/4 -- ,,! ,,object ,,( ,,?is ,,"w4 -- ,,disputes ,,respect+ ,,! ,,inv5tion4 -- ,,h]o4 -- ,,de ,,g>ay4 -- ,,de ,,caus4 -- ,,branca4 -- ,,m>quis ,,( ,,worce/]4 -- ,,physical ,,pr9ciples4 -- ,,ela/ic ,,& ,,inela/ic ,,fluids4 -- ,,_! ,,prop]ties4 -- ,,application ,,( ,,^! ,,pr9ciples ,,to ,,! ,,eng9es ,,( ,,h]o1 ,,de ,,caus1 ,,& ,,"l ,,worce/]4 -- ,,sir ,,samuel ,,morl&4 -- ,,pap94 -- ,,atmosph]ic ,,pressure4 -- ,,! ,,weight ,,( ,,air4 -- ,,less ,,at ,,great] ,,heights4 -- ,,b>omet]4 -- ,,pressure ,,( ,,air4 -- ,,ela/ic ,,=ce ,,( ,,air ,,& ,,gases4 -- ,,=ce ,,produc$ ,,by ,a ,,vacuum4 -- ,,common ,,pump4 -- ,,r>efaction ,,by ,,heat4 -- ,,pap9',s ,,me?ods ,,( ,,produc+ ,a ,,vacuum4 -- ,,8 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,cond5sation ,,( ,,/eam4 -- ,,sav]y4 7#a47 ,t ! hi/ory ( ! inv5tion ( a piece ( me*anism1 & ! description ( its /ructure1 op]ation1 & ,pg#jjd uses1 %\ld be capable ( be+ r5d]$ ! subject matt] ( a volume1 de/9$ n alone = ! in/ruction ( eng9e]s or ma*9i/s1 b = ! in=mation & amusem5t ( ! public 9 g5]al1 is a /atem5t :i* at no v remote p]iod w\ld h be5 deem$ extravagant & incr$ible4 ,advanc$ z we are 9 ! art ( r5d]+ k popul>1 & cultivat$ z ! public ta/e is 9 ! appreciation ( ! exp$i5ts by :i* sci5ce m9i/]s to ! uses ( life1 !re is /ill p]haps b "o ma*9e ( :i* su* a proposition c be truly pr$icat$3 x is ne$less to say t t ma*9e is ! ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,!re are _m circum/ances att5d+ ?is extraord9>y piece ( me*anism :i* imp>t to x an int]e/ s univ]sally felt4 ,:e!r we reg>d ! details ( its /ructure & op]ation1 ! physical pr9ciples :i* x calls into play1 & ! beautiful contrivances by :i* ^! physical pr9ciples are r5d]$ available2--or1 pass+ ov] ^! means1 we direct our att5tion to ! ends :i* !y atta91 we are equally fill$ ) a/oni%m5t & admiration4 ,! hi/ory ( ! /eam eng9e (f]s to our notice a s]ies ( contrivances :i*1 = exquisite & ref9$ +5uity1 /& )\t any p>allel 9 ! annals ( me*anical sci5ce4 ,^! admirable inv5tions1 unlike o!r results ( sci5tific inquiry1 h also ?is peculi>ity1 t1 to und]/& _! excell5ce & to p]ceive _! beauty1 no previ\s or subsidi>y k is necess>y1 save :at may be imp>t$ ) facility & cle>ness 9 ! progress ( ! explanation & developm5t ( ! ma*9e itself4 ,a simple & cle> exposition1 dive/$ ( ne$less te*nicalities & aid$ by well-select$ diagrams1 is all t is necess>y to r5d] ! con/ruction & op]ation ( ! /eam eng9e1 9 all its =ms1 intelligible to p]sons ( pla9 und]/&+ & mod]ate in=mation4 ,b if ! contrivances by :i* ?is va/ p[] is br\ght to be> on ! arts & manufactures1 be r5d]$ attractive by _! great me*anical beauty1 h[ mu* m impos+ w ! subject become :5 ! effects :i* ! /eam eng9e has produc$ ^u ! well-be+ ( ! human race are consid]$4 ,x has p5etrat$ ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 & drawn f b5ea? x b\ndless treasures ,pg#jje ( m9]al weal?1 :i*1 )\t its aid1 w\ld h be5 r5d]$ inaccessible2 x has drawn up1 9 measureless quantity1 ! fuel on :i* its own life & activity dep5d2 x has reliev$ m5 f _! mo/ slavi% toils1 & r$uc$ lab\r 9 a great degree to light & easy sup]9t5d5ce4 ,to enum]ate its pres5t effects1 w\ld be to c\nt almo/ e com=t & e luxury ( life4 ,x has increas$ ! sum ( human happ9ess1 n only by call+ new pleasures into exi/5ce1 b by s *eap5+ =m] enjoym5ts z to r5d] !m atta9able by ^? :o be=e c\ld nev] h hop$ to %>e !m3 ! surface ( ! l&1 & ! face ( ! wat]s1 are trav]s$ ) equal facility by its p[]2 & by ?us /imulat+ & facilitat+ ! int]c\rse ( nation ) nation1 & ! comm]ce ( p ) p1 x has knit toge!r remote c\ntries by bonds ( amity n likely to be brok54 ,/reams ( k & in=mation are kept fl[+ betwe5 di/ant c5tres ( population1 ^? m advanc$ diffus+ civilisation & improvem5t among ^? t are m backw>d4 ,! press itself1 to :i* mank9d owes 9 s l>ge a degree ! rapidity ( _! improvem5t 9 mod]n times1 has _h its p[] & influ5ce increas$ 9 a manifold ratio by its union ) ! /eam eng9e4 ,x is ?us t lit]ature is *eap5$1 &1 by be+ *eap5$1 diffus$2 x is ?us t ,reason has tak5 ! place ( ,=ce1 & ! p5 has sup]s$$ ! sword2 x is ?us t w> has almo/ ceas$ ^u ! e>?1 & t ! diff]5ces :i* inevitably arise betwe5 p & p are = ! mo/ "p adju/$ by peaceful negotiation4 ,deep z ! int]e/ mu/ be ) :i* ! /eam eng9e w be reg>d$ 9 e civilis$ c\ntry1 x pres5ts peculi> claims ^u ! att5tion ( ! p ( ,great ,brita94 ,its inv5tion & progressive improvem5t are ! "w ( our own "t & our own c\ntry2 x has be5 produc$ & matur$ almo/ )9 ! la/ c5tury1 & is ! exclusive (fspr+ ( ,briti% g5ius1 fo/]$ & su/a9$ by ,briti% ent]prise & ,briti% capital4 ,! /eam eng9e is a me*anical contrivance1 by :i* coal1 wood1 or o!r fuel is r5d]$ capable ( execut+ any ,pg#jjf k9d ( lab\r4 ,,coals are by x made to sp91 weave1 dye1 pr9t & dress silks1 cottons1 wooll5s1 & o!r clo?s2 to make pap]1 & pr9t books ^u x :5 made2 to conv]t corn into fl\r2 to express oil f ! olive1 & w9e f ! grape2 to draw up metal f ! b[els ( ! e>?2 to p\nd & smelt x1 to melt & m\ld x2 to =ge x2 to roll x1 & to fa%ion x into e desirable =m2 to transport ^! manifold products ( its own lab\r to ! doors ( ^? = ^: conv5i5ce !y are produc$2 to c>ry p]sons & goods ov] ! wat]s ( riv]s1 lakes1 seas1 & oceans1 9 opposition alike to ! natural difficulties ( w9d & wat]2 to c>ry ! w9d-b\nd %ip out ( port2 to place h] on ! op5 deep ready to comm5ce h] voyage2 to ?r[ its arms ar\nd ! %ip ( w>1 & place h] side by side ) ! enemy2 to transport ov] ! surface ( ! deep p]sons & in=mation1 f t[n to t[n1 & f c\ntry to c\ntry1 ) a spe$ z mu* exce$+ t ( ! ord9>y w9d1 z ! ord9>y w9d exce$s t ( a common p$e/rian4 ,su* are ! virtues1 su* ! p[]s1 :i* ! /eam eng9e has conf]r$ ^u ,,coals4 ,! means ( call+ ^! p[]s into activity are suppli$ by a sub/ance :i* nature has happily provid$ 9 unb\nd$ quantity 9 e "p ( ! e>?2 & ?\gh x has no price1 x has ine/imable value3 ?is sub/ance is ,,wat]4 ,a p9t ( wat] may be evaporat$ by two ounces ( coals4 ,9 its evaporation x swells into two hundr$ & sixte5 gallons ( /eam1 ) a me*anical =ce suffici5t to raise a weight ( ?irty-sev5 tons a foot high4 ,! /eam ?us produc$ has a pressure equal to t ( common atmosph]ic air2 & by all[+ x to exp&1 by virtue ( its ela/icity1 a fur!r me*anical =ce may be obta9$1 at lea/ equal 9 am\nt to ! =m]4 ,a p9t ( wat]1 !re=e1 & two ounces ( common coal1 are ?us r5d]$ capable ( do+ z mu* "w z is equival5t to sev5ty-f\r tons rais$ a foot high4 ,! circum/ances "u :i* ! /eam eng9e is work$ on a railway are n fav\rable to ! economy ( fuel4 ,nev]!less a p\nd ( coke burn$ 9 a locomotive eng9e ,pg#jjg w evaporate ab\t five p9ts ( wat]4 ,9 _! evaporation !y w ex]t a me*anical =ce suffici5t to draw two tons weight on ! railway a di/ance ( "o mile 9 two m9utes4 ,f\r horses work+ 9 a /age-coa* on a common road are necess>y to draw ! same weight ! same di/ance 9 six m9utes4 ,a tra9 ( coa*es weigh+ ab\t eighty tons1 & transport+ two hundr$ & =ty pass5g]s ) _! luggage1 has be5 tak5 f ,liv]pool to ,birm+ham1 & back f ,birm+ham to ,liv]pool1 ! trip ea* way tak+ ab\t f\r h\rs & a qu>t]1 /oppages includ$4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ^! places by ! railway is n9ety-five miles4 ,?is d\ble j\rney ( "o hundr$ & n9ety miles is effect$ by ! me*anical =ce produc$ 9 ! combu/ion ( f\r tons ( coke1 ! value ( :i* is ab\t five p\nds4 ,to c>ry ! same numb] ( pass5g]s daily betwe5 ! same places by /age-coa*es on a common road1 w\ld require tw5ty coa*es & an e/abli%m5t ( ?ree ?\s& eight hundr$ horses1 ) :i* ! j\rney 9 ea* direction w\ld be p]=m$ 9 ab\t twelve h\rs1 /oppages includ$4 ,! circumf]5ce ( ! e>? measures tw5ty-five ?\s& miles2 & if x 7 begirt ) an iron railway1 su* a tra9 z above describ$1 c>ry+ two hundr$ & =ty pass5g]s1 w\ld be drawn r\nd x by ! combu/ion ( ab\t ?irty tons ( coke1 & ! circuit w\ld be accompli%$ 9 five weeks4 ,9 ! dra9age ( ! ,corni% m9es ! economy ( fuel is mu* att5d$ to1 & coals are !re made to d m "w ?an else:]e4 ,a bu%el ( coals usually raises =ty ?\s& tons ( wat] a foot high2 b x has on "s occasions rais$ sixty ?\s& tons ! same height4 ,let u take its lab\r at fifty ?\s& tons rais$ "o foot high4 ,a horse work$ 9 a fa/ /age-coa* pulls aga9/ an av]age resi/ance ( ab\t a qu>t] ( a hundr$ weight4 ,aga9/ ?is he is able to "w at ! usual spe$ ?r\gh ab\t eight miles daily3 8 "w is !re=e equival5t to "o ?\s& tons rais$ "o foot4 ,a bu%el ( coals consequ5tly1 z us$ 9 ,cornwall1 p]=ms z mu* lab\r z a day's "w ( "o hundr$ su* horses4 ,pg#jjh ,! great pyramid ( ,egypt /&s ^u a base measur+ sev5 hundr$ feet ea* way1 & is five hundr$ feet high1 its weight be+ twelve ?\s& sev5 hundr$ & sixty millions ( p\nds4 ,h]odotus /ates1 t 9 con/ruct+ x "o hundr$ ?\s& m5 7 con/antly employ$ = tw5ty ye>s4 ,! mat]ials ( ?is pyramid w\ld be rais$ f ! gr\nd to _! pres5t position by ! combu/ion ( ab\t f\r hundr$ & eighty tons ( coals4 ,! ,m5ai ,bridge consi/s ( ab\t two ?\s& tons ( iron1 & its height above ! level ( ! wat] is "o hundr$ & tw5ty feet4 ,its mass might be lift$ f ! level ( ! wat] to its pres5t position by ! combu/ion ( f\r bu%els ( coal4 ,! enorm\s consumption ( coals produc$ by ! application ( ! /eam eng9e 9 ! arts & manufactures1 z well z to railways & navigation1 has ( late ye>s excit$ ! fe>s ( _m z to ! possibility ( ! exhau/ion ( our coal-m9es4 ,su* appreh5sions are1 h[ev]1 altoge!r gr\ndless4 ,if ! pres5t consumption ( coal be e/imat$ at sixte5 millions ( tons annually1 x is demon/rable t ! coal-fields ( ?is c\ntry w\ld n be exhau/$ = _m c5turies4 ,b 9 speculations l ^!1 ! probable1 if n c]ta9 progress ( improvem5t & discov]y ought n be ov]look$2 & we may safely pron\nce t1 long be=e su* a p]iod ( "t %all h roll$ away1 o!r & m p[]ful me*anical ag5ts w sup]s$e ! use ( coal4 ,philosophy already directs h] f+] at s\rces ( inexhau/ible p[] 9 ! ph5om5a ( electricity & magnetism4 ,! alt]nate decomposition & recomposition ( wat]1 by magnetism & electricity1 has too close an analogy to ! alt]nate processes ( vaporisation & cond5sation1 n to occur at once to e m9d3 ! developm5t ( ! gases f solid matt] by ! op]ation ( ! *emical aff9ities1 & _! subsequ5t cond5sation into ! liquid =m1 has already be5 essay$ z a s\rce ( p[]4 ,9 a ^w1 ! g5]al /ate ( physical sci5ce at ! pres5t mom5t1 ! vig\r1 activity1 & sagacity ) :i* rese>*es 9 x are prosecut$ 9 e civilis$ ,pg#jji c\ntry1 ! increas+ consid]ation 9 :i* sci5tific m5 are held1 & ! p]sonal hon\rs & rew>ds :i* beg9 to be conf]r$ ^u !m1 all ju/ify ! expectation t we are on ! eve ( me*anical discov]ies /ill great] ?an any :i* h yet appe>$2 & t ! /eam eng9e itself1 ) ! gigantic p[]s conf]r$ ^u x by ! immortal ,watt1 w dw9dle into insignificance 9 comp>ison ) ! en]gies ( nature :i* are /ill to be reveal$2 & t ! day w come :5 t ma*9e1 :i* is n[ ext5d+ ! bless+s ( civilisation to ! mo/ remote skirts ( ! globe1 w cease to h exi/5ce except 9 ! page ( hi/ory4 7#b47 ,! object ( ! pres5t volume w be to deliv]1 9 an easy & famili> /yle1 an hi/orical view ( ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e1 & an exposition ( its /ructure & op]ation 9 ! v>i\s =ms 9 :i* x is n[ us$1 & ( its mo/ important applications 9 ! arts ( life1 especially 9 transport by l& & wat]4 ,x is hop$ t ! details ( ^! subjects may be r5d]$ easily intelligible to all p]sons ( ord9>y in=mation1 :e!r urg$ by t natural & laudable _s ( inquiry awak5$ by contemplat+ effects on ! mat]ial & social condition ( our species1 s rapid & s memorable z ^? :i* h foll[$ ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e1 & by ! pleasure :i* results f ! p]ception ( ! num]\s in/ances ( successful contrivances & beautiful applications ( sci5ce to art :i* x unfolds1--or impell$ by ! exig5cies ( trade or pr(ession to acquire an acqua9tance ) a ma*9e on :i*1 m ?an any o!r1 ! prosp]ity ( our comm]cial & manufactur+ int]e/s dep5ds4 ,x w be our aim to af=d to ! =m] class all ! in=mation :i* !y c require2 &1 if ?is "w be n z compreh5sive 9 its scope1 & z m9ute 9 its details1 z "s ( ! latt] may wi%1 x w at lea/ s]ve z an easy & conv5i5t introduction to o!r works m volum9\s1 co/ly1 & detail$1 b less elem5t>y 9 _! matt]1 & less famili> 9 _! /yle4 ,9 expla9+ ! diff]5t =ms ( /eam eng9e :i* h be5 propos$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! progressive improvem5t ,pg#jaj ( t ma*9e f its e>ly rude & imp]fect /ate to its pres5t comp>atively p]fect =m1 x w be necess>y to adv]t to v>i\s physical ph5om5a & me*anical pr9ciples1 :i*1 h[ev] obvi\s to ^? :o are conv]sant ) matt]s ( sci5ce1 mu/ necess>ily be at lea/ imp]fectly kn[n by ! great majority ( our read]s4 ,to ref] = in=mation on su* topics to o!r works on ,me*anics & g5]al ,physics1 w\ld be ) mo/ read]s ineffectual1 & ) all unsatisfactory4 ,9 =m] editions ( ! pres5t "w1 we consign$ ^! necess>y g5]al pr9ciples ( physics & me*anics to a prelim9>y *apt]2 b x appe>s1 on ! :ole1 m conv5i5t n to remove ! exposition ( ! pr9ciple f ! place :]e its application is requir$4 ,we %all !re=e pause z we proce$1 :]e ^! difficulties occur1 to give su* explanation & illu/ration z may seem be/ suit$ to r5d] !m intelligible & int]e/+ to ! unsci5tific read]4 ,! hi/ory ( ! arts & manufactures af=ds no example ( any inv5tion ! cr$it = :i* has be5 claim$ by s _m diff]5t nations & individuals z t ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,! advocates ( ! competitors = ?is hon\r h urg$ _! pret5sions1 & press$ _! claims1 ) a zeal :i* has occasionally out/ripp$ ! b\nds ( discretion1 & ! conte/ has n unfrequ5tly be5 t+$ ) prejudices1 national & p]sonal1 & *>act]is$ by a degree ( asp]ity altoge!r unwor?y ( s noble a cause1 & b5ea? ! dignity ( sci5ce4 ,:5 a "q is cle>ly propos$1 x is already half resolv$4 ,let u see :e!r a c>eful att5tion to ?is maxim w aid u 9 ! inve/igation ( ! orig9 ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,! s\rce ( ! p[] ( t ma*9e is f\nd 9 ! foll[+ natural ph5om5a4 ,fir/4 ,:5 fire is appli$ to wat]1 ! liquid swells into vap\r1 & 9 und]go+ ?is *ange ex]ts1 z has be5 already /at$1 a consid]able am\nt ( me*anical =ce4 ,?is =ce may1 by prop] means1 be r5d]$ applicable to any purpose = :i* lab\r or p[] is ne$ful4 ,second4 ,! vap\r s produc$ is end[$ ) ! prop]ty ( ela/icity1 9 virtue ( :i* x is capable ( ,pg#jaa swell+ or exp&+ into increas$ dim5sions1 ex]t+1 z x exp&s1 a =ce1 ! en]gy ( :i* is gradually dim9i%$ z ! dim5sions ( ! vap\r are increas$4 ,?is me*anical =ce is likewise capable ( be+ appli$ to any useful purpose = :i* lab\r or p[] is necess>y4 ,?ird4 ,?is vap\r is capable1 by prop] means1 ( be+ reconv]t$ into wat]2 & :5 s reconv]t$1 x %r9ks into its orig9al dim5sions1 des]t+ ! l>ge space :i* x occupi$ z vap\r1 & leav+ t space a vacuum4 ,x is kn[n 9 physics1 t :5 a vacuum is produc$1 surr\nd+ bodies h a t5d5cy to ru% into x ) a def9ite am\nt ( =ce4 ,consequ5tly any ag5t :i* produces a vacuum1 becomes a s\rce ( a consid]able am\nt ( me*anical p[]4 ,by its reconv]sion into wat]1 !re=e1 /eam aga9 becomes a me*anical ag5t4 ,su* are ! natural ph5om5a 9 :i* are f\nd ! orig9al s\rces ( all /eam p[]4 ,9 "s =ms ( /eam eng9e "o ( ^! is us$1 & 9 "s ano!r1 & 9 "s ! application ( all ( !m is comb9$2 b 9 no exi/+ =m ( /eam eng9e :atev] is !re any o!r s\rce ( me*anical p[]4 ,nei!r ^! nor any o!r natural =ces c be appli$ imm$iately to any useful purpose4 ,! int]position ( me*anism is indisp5sable2 on ! inv5tion & contrivance ( t me*anism dep5ds altoge!r ! useful application ( ^! natural =ces4 ,! _w owes ! /eam eng9e !n p>tly to discov]y1 & p>tly to inv5tion4 ,he t discov]$ ! fact1 t me*anical =ce 0 produc$ 9 ! conv]sion ( wat] into /eam1 mu/ be ju/ly held to be a %>] 9 ! m]it ( ! /eam eng9e1 ev5 ?\gh he %\ld nev] h practically appli$ 8 discov]y4 ,! l may be said ( him :o fir/ discov]$ ! s\rce ( ! me*anical p[] aris+ f ! expansion ( /eam4 ,! discov]] ( ! fact1 t /eam be+ reconv]t$ into wat] greatly contract$ its dim5sions1 & !reby produc$ a vacuum1 is likewise entitl$ to a %>e ( ! cr$it4 ,pg#jab ,! me*anism by :i* ^! natural =ces h be5 r5d]$ s univ]sally available z a mov+ p[]1 is v v>i\s & complicat$1 & _c be trac$ to "o inv5tor4 ,if a wat*mak]1 says ,m4 ,arago1 well in/ruct$ 9 ! hi/ory ( 8 art1 7 requir$ to give a categorical answ] to ! "q1 ,:o has inv5t$ wat*es8 he w\ld rema9 mute2 b ! "q w\ld be dive/$ ( mu* ( its difficulty if he 7 requir$ sep>ately to decl>e :o discov]$ ! use ( ! ma9 spr+1 ! diff]5t =ms ( escapem5t1 or ! balance :eel4 ,s x is ) ! /eam eng9e4 ,x is a comb9ation ( a great v>iety ( contrivances1 di/9ct f ea* o!r1 :i* are ! production ( sev]al inv5tors4 ,if1 h[ev]1 "o "n m ?an ! re/ be entitl$ to special notice2 if he is entitl$ to ! *ief cr$it ( ! inv5tion :o by ! p[]s ( 8 me*anical g5ius has imp>t$ to ! /eam eng9e t =m1 & conf]r$ ^u x ^? qualities1 on :i* ma9ly dep5ds its pres5t ext5sive utility1 & by :i* x has become an ag5t ( transc5dant p[]1 spread+ its b5eficial effects ?r\gh\t e "p ( ! civilis$ globe1 !n ! univ]sal voice w1 z x 7 by acclamation1 aw>d ! hon\r to "o individual1 ^: pre-em95t g5ius places him f> above all o!r competitors1 & f ! application ( ^: m5tal en]gies to ?is ma*9e may be dat$ ^? gr& effects :i* r5d] x a topic ( int]e/ to all = :om ! progress ( civilisation has any attractions4 ,be=e ! era r5d]$ memorable by ! discov]ies ( ,,james ,,watt1 ! /eam eng9e1 :i* has s9ce become an object ( su* univ]sal int]e/1 0 a ma*9e ( extremely limit$ p[]1 inf]ior 9 importance & usefulness to mo/ o!r me*anical ag5ts us$ z prime mov]s2 b1 f t epo*1 x is sc>cely necess>y "h to /ate1 t x became a subject n ( ,briti% int]e/ only1 b "o hav+ an important connection ) ! progress ( ! human race4 ,,h]o ,,( ,,alex&ria1 #abj ,b4 ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 7#c47 ,! discov]y ( ! fact1 t a me*anical =ce is produc$ :5 wat] is evaporat$ by ! application ( heat1 ,pg#jac mu/ be consid]$ z ! fir/ capital /ep 9 ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,x is record$ 9 a "w entitl$ ,spiritalia seu ,pneumatica1 t ,h]o ( ,alex&ria contriv$ a ma*9e1 #abj ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 :i* 0 mov$ by ! me*anical =ce ( ! vap\r ( wat]4 ,! pr9ciple ( ?is ma*9e admits ( easy explanation3 ,:5 a fluid issues f any vessel 9 :i* x is conf9$1 t vessel suff]s a =ce equal to t ) :i* ! fluid escapes f x1 & 9 ! opposite direction4 ,if wat] issues f an orifice1 a pressure is produc$ beh9d ! orifice correspond+ to ! =ce ) :i* ! wat] escapes4 ,if a man dis*>ge a gun1 ! gases produc$ by ! explosion ( ! p[d] issue ) a c]ta9 =ce f ! muzzle1 & 8 %\ld] is driv5 backw>ds by ! recoil ) a correspond+ =ce4 ,if ! muzzle1 in/ead ( be+ pres5t$ =w>ds1 7 turn$ at "r angles to ! l5g? ( ! gun1 !n1 z ! gases ( explosion w\ld escape sideways1 ! recoil w\ld likewise take place sideways1 & ! %oot]1 in/ead ( be+ driv5 backw>d1 w\ld be made to sp9 r\nd z a danc] pir\ettes4 ,?is 0 ! pr9ciple ( ,h]o's /eam eng9e4 ,a small globe or ball 0 plac$ on pivots at ,a & ,b 7fig4 #a471 on :i* x 0 capable ( revolv+3 /eam 0 suppli$ ?r\gh "o ( ^! pivots f "o ( ! tubes ,d ,c ,e ,f1 :i* communicat$ ) ! boil]4 ,?is /eam fill$ ! globe ,a ,i ,b ,k1 & also ! arms ,i ,h & ,k ,g4 ,a lat]al orifice1 repres5t$ at ,g1 ne> ! end ( ^! arms1 all[$ ! /eam to escape 9 a jet1 & ! reaction1 produc+ a recoil1 _h a t5d5cy to drive ! arm r\nd4 ,a small orifice at ,h1 on ! o!r side ( ! tube1 produc$ a l effect4 ,9 ! same mann]1 any conv5i5t numb] ( arms might be provid$1 surr\nd+ ! globe & communicat+ ) its int]ior l ! spokes ( a :eel4 ,?us ^! arms1 hav+ lat]al orifices = ! escape ( ! /eam1 all plac$ s t ! recoil may ,pg#jad t5d to turn ! globe 9 ! same direction1 a rotatory motion might be communicat$ to any ma*9]y :i* x 0 desir$ to move4 ,aft] hav+ be5 all[$ to slumb] = ne>ly two ?\s& ye>s1 ?is ma*9e has rec5tly be5 reviv$1 & eng9es con/ruct$ simil> to x are n[ work+ 9 ^! c\ntries4 ,9 ! prop] place we %all describe ,av]y's ,rotatory ,eng9e1 :i* x w be se5 is1 n only 9 its pr9ciple1 b almo/ 9 its details1 ! ma*9e ( ,,h]o ,,( ,,alex&ria4 ,al?\gh ! ela/ic =ce ( /eam 0 n r$uc$ to num]ical measure by ! anci5ts1 nor br\ght "u control1 nor appli$ to any useful purpose1 yet x appe>s to h be5 recognis$ 9 vague & g5]al t]ms4 ,ari/otle1 ,s5eca1 & o!r anci5t writ]s1 acc\nt$ = e>?quakes by ! sudd5 conv]sion ( wat] into /eam )9 ! e>?4 ,?is *ange1 accord+ to !m1 0 effect$ by subt]ranean heat4 ,su* trem5d\s effects be+ ascrib$ to /eam1 x c sc>cely be d\bt$ t ! ,greeks & ,romans 7 acqua9t$ ) ! fact1 t wat] 9 pass+ into vap\r ex]cises consid]able me*anical p[]4 ,!y 7 aw>e t ! e>?quakes1 :i* !y ascrib$ to ?is cause1 ex]t$ =ces suffici5tly p[]ful to ext5d ! natural limits ( ! ocean2 to ov]turn f _! f\ndations ! mo/ massive monum5ts ( human lab\r2 to raise isl&s 9 ! mid/ ( seas2 & to heave up ! surface ( ! l& ( level cont95ts s z to =m l(ty m\nta9s4 ,su* notions1 h[ev]1 result$ n z consequ5ces ( any exact or sci5tific pr9ciples1 b f vague analogies d]iv$ f effects :i* c\ld n fail to h be5 manife/$ 9 ! arts1 su* z ^? :i* commonly occurr$ 9 ! process ( ca/+ 9 metal ! spl5did /atues :i* adorn$ ! temples1 g>d5s1 & public places ( ,rome & ,a!ns4 ,! artisan 0 liable to ! same accid5ts to :i* mod]n f\nd]s are expos$1 produc$ by ! casual pres5ce ( a little wat] 9 ! m\ld into :i* ! molt5 metal is p\r$4 ,"u su* circum/ances1 ! sudd5 =mation ( /eam ( an extreme pressure produces1 z is well kn[n1 explosions att5d$ ) de/ructive effects4 ,! ,grecian ,pg#jae & ,roman artisans 7 subject to su* accid5ts2 & ! philosoph]1 g5]alis+ su* a fact1 w\ld arrive at a solution ( ! gr&] class ( ph5om5a ( e>?quakes & volcanoes4 ,be=e natural ph5om5a are r5d]$ subs]vi5t to purposes ( utility1 !y are (t5 made to m9i/] to ! objects ( sup]/ition4 ,! p[] ( /eam is n an exception to ?is rule4 ,x is record$ 9 ! ,*ronicles1 t ^u ! banks ( ! ,wes] ! anci5t ,teutonic gods sometimes m>k$ _! displeasure by a sort ( ?und]bolt1 :i* 0 imm$iately succe$$ by a cl\d t fill$ ! temple4 ,an image ( ! god ,bu/]i*1 :i* 0 f\nd 9 "s excavations1 cle>ly expla9s ! mann] 9 :i* ?is prodigy 0 accompli%$ by ! prie/s4 ,! head ( ! metal god 0 holl[1 & conta9$ )9 x a pot ( wat]3 ! m\?1 & ano!r hole1 above ! =ehead1 7 /opp$ by wood5 plugs2 a small /ove1 adroitly plac$ 9 a cavity ( ! head "u ! pot1 conta9$ *>coal1 :i*1 be+ light$1 gradually heat$ ! liquid conta9$ 9 ! head4 ,! vap\r produc$ f ! wat]1 hav+ acquir$ suffici5t pressure1 =c$ out ! wood5 plugs ) a l\d report1 & !y 7 imm$iately foll[$ by two jets ( /eam1 :i* =m$ a d5se cl\d r\nd ! god1 & conceal$ him f 8 a/oni%$ wor%ipp]s4#a ,among o!r amus+ anecdotes %[+ ! k :i* ! anci5ts _h ( ! me*anical =ce ( /eam1 x is relat$ t ,an!mius1 ! ar*itect ( ,sa9t ,sophia1 occupi$ a h\se next door to t ( ,z5o1 betwe5 :om & ,an!mius !re exi/$ a feud4 ,to annoy 8 neighb\r1 ,an!mius plac$ on ! gr\nd floor ( 8 own h\se sev]al close dige/]s1 or boil]s1 conta9+ wat]4 ,a flexible tube proce$$ f ! top ( ea* ( ^!1 :i* 0 conduct$ ?r\gh a hole made 9 ! wall betwe5 ! h\ses1 & :i* communicat$ ) ! space "u ! floors ( ! rooms 9 ! h\se ( ,z5o4 ,:5 ,an!mius desir$ to annoy 8 neighb\r1 he light$ fires "u 8 boil]s1 & ! /eam produc$ by !m ru%$ 9 su* quantity & ) ,pg#jaf su* =ce "u ,z5o's floors1 t !y 7 made to heave ) all ! usual symptoms ( an e>?quake4#b ,,blasco ,,de ,,g>ay1 ,a4 ,d4 #aedc4 7#d47 ,9 ! ye> #ahbf1 ,m4 de ,nav>rete publi%$1 9 ,za*'s ,a/ronomical ,correspond5ce1 a communication f ,?omas ,gonzales1 ,director ( ! royal ar*ives ( ,simancas1 giv+ an acc\nt ( an exp]im5t report$ to h be5 made 9 ! ye> #aedc1 9 :i* a vessel 0 propell$ by a ma*9e hav+ ! appe>ance ( a /eam eng9e4 ,blasco de ,g>ay1 a sea capta91 propos$ 9 t ye> to ! ,emp]or ,*>les ,v4 to propel vessels by a ma*9e :i* he _h inv5t$1 ev5 9 "t ( calm1 )\t o>s or sails4 ,not)/&+ ! app>5t improbability att5d+ ?is project1 ! ,emp]or ord]$ ! exp]im5t to be made 9 ! port ( ,b>celona1 & ! #ag? ( ,june1 #aedc1 0 ! day appo9t$ = its trial4 ,! commission]s appo9t$ by ,*>les ,v4 to att5d & witness ! exp]im5t 7 ,don ,h5ry ( ,tol$o1 ,don ,p$ro ( ,c>dona1 ! treasur] ,ravago1 ! vice *ancellor & int5dant ( ,catalonia1 & o!rs4 ,! vessel on :i* ! exp]im5t 0 made 0 ! ,tr9ity1 #bjj tons bur!n1 :i* _h j dis*>g$ a c>go ( corn at ,b>celona4 ,g>ay conceal$ ! nature ( 8 ma*9]y1 ev5 f ! commission]s4 ,all t c\ld be discov]$ dur+ ! trial 01 t x consi/$ ( a l>ge boil] conta9+ wat]1 & t :eels 7 atta*$ to ea* side ( ! vessel1 by ! revolution ( :i* x 0 propell$4 ,! commission]s hav+ witness$ ! exp]im5t1 made a report to ! k+1 approv+ g5]ally ( ! inv5tion1 p>ticul>ly on acc\nt ( ! ease & promptitude ) :i* ! vessel c\ld be put ab\t by x4 ,! treasur] ,ravago1 :o 0 himself ho/ile to ! project1 report$ t ! ma*9e 0 capable ( propell+ a vessel at ! rate ( two leagues 9 ?ree h\rs2 b ! o!r commission]s /at$ t x made a league an h\r at ! lea/1 & t x put ! vessel ab\t z spe$ily z w\ld be accompli%$ ) a galley work$ accord+ to ! common ,pg#jag me?od4 ,ravago report$ t ! ma*9]y 0 too complicat$ & exp5sive1 & t x 0 subject to ! dang] ( ! boil] bur/+4 ,aft] ! exp]im5t 0 made1 ,g>ay took away all ! ma*9]y1 leav+ no?+ b ! fram+ ( wood 9 ! ars5als ( ,b>celona4 ,not)/&+ ! opposition ( ,ravago1 ! inv5tion 0 approv$1 & ! inv5tor 0 promot$ & receiv$ a pecuni>y rew>d1 besides hav+ all 8 exp5ses paid4 ,f ! circum/ance ( ! nature ( ! ma*9]y hav+ be5 conceal$1 x is impossible to say 9 :at ?is ma*9e consi/$2 b z a boil] 0 us$1 x is probable1 ?\gh n c]ta91 t /eam 0 ! ag5t4 ,!re h be5 v>i\s ma*9es propos$1 ( :i* a furnace & boil] =m a "p1 & 9 :i* ! ag5cy ( /eam is n us$4 ,! ma*9e ( ,amontons furni%es an example ( ?is4 ,x is mo/ probable t ! contrivance ( ,g>ay 0 id5tical ) t ( ,h]o4 ,! l[ /ate ( ! arts 9 ,spa9 9 ! sixte5? c5tury w\ld be incompatible ) ! con/ruction ( any ma*9e requir+ great precision ( execution4 ,b ! simplicity ( ,h]o's contrivance w\ld h r5d]$ its con/ruction & op]ation q practicable4 ,z to ! claims to ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e advanc$ by ! advocates ( ,de ,g>ay1 f\nd$ on ! above docum5t1 a refutation is suppli$ by ! admission1 t ?\gh he 0 rew>d$ & promot$ by ! gov]nm5t ( ! day1 9 consequ5ce ( ! exp]im5t1 & al?\gh ! great usefulness ( ! contrivance 9 t[+ %ips out ( port1 c41 0 admitt$1 yet x does n appe> t a second exp]im5t 0 ev] tri$1 mu* less t ! ma*9e 0 ev] br\ght into practical use4 ,,solomon ,,de ,,caus1 #afae4 7#e47 ,solomon ,de ,caus 0 eng9e] & ar*itect to ,l\is ,,xiii41 k+ ( ,france1 be=e ! ye> #afab4 ,9 t ye> he ent]$ ! s]vice ( ! ,elector ,palat9e1 :o m>ri$ ! daught] ( ,k+ ,james ,i41 ) :om he came to ,engl&4 ,he 0 !re employ$ by ! ,pr9ce ( ,wales 9 ornam5t+ ! g>d5s ( 8 h\se at ,ri*mond4 ,pg#jah ,dur+ 8 soj\rn 9 ,engl& he compos$ & publi%$ at ,london1 9 ! same ye>1 a ,treatise on ,p]spective4 ,?is p]son 0 ! au?or ( a "w entitl$1 ,les ,raisons des ,=ces ,m\vantes1 avec div]ses ,ma*9es tant utiles que plaisantes1 :i* 0 app>5tly compos$ at ,heidelburg1 b publi%$ at ,franck=t1 9 #afae4 ,! same "w 0 subsequ5tly republi%$ 9 ,p>is 9 #afbc4 ,! treatise comm5ces ) def9itions ( :at 7 !n consid]$ ! f\r elem5ts3 e>?1 air1 fire1 & wat]4 ,air is def9$ to be a cold1 dry1 & light elem5t1 capable ( compression1 by :i* x may be r5d]$ v viol5t4 ,he says1 ,! viol5ce w be great :5 wat] exhales 9 air by means ( fire1 & t ! said air is enclos$3 z1 = example1 take a ball ( copp] ( "o or two feet diamet]1 & "o in* ?ick1 :i* be+ fill$ ) wat] by a small hole1 :i* %all be /rongly /opp$ ) a peg1 s t nei!r air nor wat] c escape1 x is c]ta9 t if we put ! said ball ^u a great fire1 s t x w become v hot1 t x w cause a compression s viol5t1 t ! ball w bur/ 9 pieces1 ) a noise l a pet>d4 ,! effect :i* is "h describ$ is due to ! comb9$ pressure ( ! heat$ air conta9$ 9 ! ball & ! high pressure /eam rais$ f ! wat]1 b mu* m to ! latt] ?an to ! =m]4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 f ! language ( ,de ,caus1 t he ascribes ! =ce entirely to ! air1 & seems to consid] t ! =ce ( ! air proce$$ f ! wat] :i* exhal$ 9 x4 ,! fir/ !orem is1 t ! p>ts ( ! elem5ts mix toge!r = a "t1 & !n ea* returns to its place 7! elem5ts "h ref]r$ to be+ app>5tly air & wat]74 ,^u ?is subject ! foll[+ is an example3 ,take a r\nd vessel ( copp]1 sold]$ close on e side1 & ) a tube1 :]e( "o end approa*es ne>ly to ! bottom ( ! vessel1 & ! o!r end1 :i* projects on ! outside ( ! vessel1 has a /op-cock2 !re is also a hole 9 ! top ( ! vessel1 ) a plug to /op x4 ,if ?is vessel w conta9 ?ree pots ( wat]1 !n p\r 9 "o pot ( wat]1 & place ! vessel on ! fire ab\t ?ree or f\r m9utes1 leav+ ! hole op52 !n take ! vessel (f ! ,pg#jai fire1 & a little aft] p\r out ! wat] at ! hole1 & x w be f\nd t a "p ( ! said wat] has be5 evaporat$ by ! heat ( ! fire4 ,!n p\r 9 "o pot ( wat] z be=e1 & /op up ! hole & ! cock1 & put ! vessel on ! fire = ! same "t z be=e2 !n take x (f1 & let x cool ( itself1 )\t op5+ ! plug1 & aft] x is q cold p\r out ! wat]1 & x w be f\nd exactly ! same quantity z 0 put 94 ,?us we see t ! wat] :i* 0 evaporat$ 7! fir/ "t t ! vessel 0 put on ! fire7 is return$ into wat] ! second "t :5 t vap\r has be5 %ut up 9 ! vessel1 & cool$ ( itself4 ,9 ! description ( ^! exp]im5ts1 ! processes ( evaporation & cond5sation are obscurely indicat$2 b !re is no intimation t ! au?or possess$ any k ( ! ela/ic =ce ( /eam4 ,8 !orem is1 t ! p>ts ( ! elem5t wat] mix = a "t ) ! p>ts ( ! elem5t air2 t fire causes ?is mixture1 & t on remov+ ! fire1 & dissipat+ ! heat1 !n ! p>ts ( ! wat] mix$ ) air return to _! prop] place1 =m+ aga9 "p ( ! wat]4 ,!re is no indication ( a *ange ( prop]ty ( ! wat] 9 pass+ into vap\r4 ,x is difficult to conceive1 if ,de ,caus _h be5 aw>e t ! vap\r ( wat] possess$ ! same viol5t =ce :i* he di/9ctly & 9 t]ms ascribes to air1 or if he _h be5 aw>e t 9 effect ! vap\r ( ! wat] produc$ by ! fire 0 a fluid1 possess+ exactly ! same me*anical qualities1 & produc+ ! same me*anical effects z air1 t he w\ld n h express$ himself cle>ly on ! subject4 ,he proce$s to give ano!r demon/ration t heat w cause ! p>ticles ( wat] to mix ) ^? ( air4 ,aft] hav+ put ! measure ( wat] into ! vessel1 & %ut ! v5t-hole1 & op5$ ! cock1 put ! vessel on ! fire1 & put ! pot "u ! cock2 !n ! wat] ( ! vessel1 rais+ itself by ! heat ( ! fire1 w run out ?r\gh ! cock2 b ab\t "o six? or "o eigh? "p ( ! wat] w n run out1 because ! viol5ce ( ! vap\r :i* causes ! wat] to rise proce$s f ! ,pg#jbj said wat]2 :i* vap\r goes out ?r\gh ! cock aft] ! wat] ) great viol5ce4 ,!re is also ano!r example 9 quicksilv]1 or m]cury1 :i* is a fluid m9]al1 b be+ heat$ by fire1 exhales 9 vap\r1 & mixes ) ! air = a "t2 b aft] ! said vap\r is cool$1 x returns to its fir/ nature ( quicksilv]4 ,! vap\r ( wat] is mu* light]1 & !re=e x rises high]1 c4 c4 ,9 ?is second demon/ration !re appe>s to be "s obscure indication ( ! =ce ( /eam 9 ! words because ( ! viol5ce ( ! vap\r :i* causes ! wat] to rise1 c4 ,! fif? !orem is ! foll[+3-- ,wat] w m\nt by ! help ( fire high] ?an its level1 :i* is expla9$ & prov$ 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,! ?ird me?od ( rais+ wat] is by ! aid ( fire4 ,on ?is pr9ciple may be con/ruct$ v>i\s ma*9es3 ,i %all "h describe "o4 ,let a ball ( copp] m>k$ ,a2 well sold]$ 9 e "p1 to :i* is atta*$ a tube & /op-cock m>k$ ,d1 by :i* wat] may be introduc$2 & also ano!r tube m>k$ ,b ,c1 :i* w be sold]$ into ! top ( ! ball1 & ! l[] end ,c ( :i* %all desc5d ne>ly to ! bottom ( ! ball )\t t\*+ x4 ,let ! said ball be fill$ ) wat] ?r\gh ! tube ,d1 !n %utt+ ! /op-cock ,d1 & op5+ ! /op-cock 9 ! v]tical tube ,b ,c1 let ! ball be plac$ ^u a fire ! heat act+ ^u ! said ball w cause ! wat] to rise 9 ! tube ,b ,c4 ,9 ! app>atus z "h describ$1 ! space enclos$ 9 ! boil] above ! surface ( ! wat] is fill$ ) air4 ,by ! action ( ! fire1 two effects are produc$3 fir/1 ! air enclos$ above ! wat]1 be+ heat$1 acquires increas$ ela/icity1 & presses ) a correspond+ =ce on ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,by ?is means a column ( wat] w be driv5 up ! tube ,a ,b at su* a height z w balance ! ela/icity ( ! heat$ air conf9$ 9 ! boil]2 b besides ,pg#jba ?is ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! boil] be+ heat$1 w produce /eam1 :i* be+ mix$ ) air conta9$ 9 ! boil]1 w likewise press ) its prop] ela/icity on ! surface ( ! wat]1 & w comb9e ) ! air 9 rais+ a column ( wat] 9 ! tube ,a ,b4 ,9 ! above description ( ! ma*9e1 ! =ce :i* raises ! wat] 9 ! tube ,a ,b is ascrib$ to ! fire1 no m5tion be+ made ( ! wat]1 or ( ! vap\r or /eam produc$ f x hav+ any ag5cy 9 rais+ ! wat] 9 ! tube ,a ,b4 ,antec$5tly to ! date ( ?is inv5tion1 ! effect ( heat 9 increas+ ! ela/ic =ce ( air 0 kn[n1 & s f> z ! above description goes1 ! :ole op]ation might be ascrib$ to ! air by a p]son hav+ no k :atev] ( ! ela/icity ( /eam4 ,m4 ,arago1 h[ev]1 :o1 on ! gr\nds ( ?is passage 9 ! "w ( ,de ,caus1 claims = him a %>e ( ! hon\r ( ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e1 cont5ds t ! ag5cy ( /eam 9 ?is app>atus 0 p]fectly kn[n to ,de ,caus1 al?\gh no m5tion is made ( /eam 9 ! above description1 because 9 ! second demon/ration above quot$ he uses ! words1 ! viol5ce ( ! vap\r :i* causes ! wat] to rise proce$s f ! said wat]2 :i* vap\r goes out f ! cock aft] ! wat] ) great viol5ce4 ,by ^! words ,m4 ,arago consid]s t ,de ,caus expresses ! quality ( ela/icity prop] to ! vap\r1 & t ! context ju/ifies ! inf]5ce1 t to ?is ela/icity he ascrib$ ! elevation ( ! wat] 9 ! tube ,c ,b4 ,!re appe>s to be "s unc]ta9ty att5d+ ! bir?place ( ,de ,caus4 ,9 ! ,biographie ,univ]selle he is said to h be5 born & to h di$ 9 ,norm&y4 ,m4 ,arago assigns ,dieppe1 or its neighb\rhood1 z 8 bir?place4 ,!re 0 ano!r eng9e] & ar*itect1 ,isaac ,de ,caus1 a native ( ,dieppe1 :o publi%$ a "w 9 folio1 entitl$ ,n\velle ,inv5tion de ,lev] l',eau plus haut que sa ,s\rce1 avec quelque ,ma*9es m\vantes1 p> le ,moy5 de l',eau1 et un ,disc\rs de la ,conduite d',icelle4 ,?is volume is )\t a date1 b f ! nature ( its cont5ts x w\ld appe> to h be5 publi%$ be=e ! "w ( ,solomon ,de ,caus already cit$4 ,! draw+s & ma*9es describ$ 9 bo? ,pg#jbb are exactly ! same2 b ! def9itions & !orems quot$ above on rais+ wat] by fire are n giv5 9 ! "w ( ,isaac4 ,x seems1 !re=e1 t ,solomon ,de ,caus re-publi%$1 ) additions1 ! "w ( ,isaac ,de ,caus4 ,f ! same bir?place be+ assign$ to bo? ^! au?ors1 z well z f ! simil>ity ( _! pursuits1 x is likely !y 7 memb]s ( ! same family1 & f _! *ri/ian names !y 7 probably ,jews4 ,! "w cit$ above1 0 d$icat$ to ,l\is ,,xiii41 & 9 ! d$ication ,solomon ,de ,caus calls himself ! subject ( t mon>*2 & 9 ! privilege prefix$ to ! "w he is designat$1 ,our well-belov$ ,solomon ,de ,caus1 ma/] eng9e]1 be+ at pres5t 9 ! s]vice ( our de> & well-belov$ c\s91 ! ,pr9ce ,elector ,palat9e1 has made kn[n to u1 c4--we1 desir+ to gratify ! said ,de ,caus1 he be+ our subject1 c4 ,x is !re=e c]ta91 :atev] may h be5 ! bir?place ( ,de ,caus1 t he 0 at lea/ a subject ( ,france4 ,! circum/ance ( 8 "w be+ writt5 9 ,fr5*1 ?\gh publi%$ beyond ! ,rh9e1 is also an argum5t 9 fav\r ( 8 be+ a native ( t c\ntry4 ,,giovanni ,,branca1 #afbi4 7#f47 ,giovanni ,branca ( ,loretto 9 ,italy1 an eng9e] & ar*itect1 propos$ to "w mills ( diff]5t k9ds by /eam issu+ f a l>ge olopile1 & bl[+ aga9/ ! vanes ( a :eel4 ,branca 0 ! au?or ( _m +5i\s me*anical inv5tions1 a collection ( :i* he d$icat$ to ,m4 ,c5ci1 ! gov]nor ( ,loretto4 ,^! 7 publi%$ 9 a "w pr9t$ at ,rome 9 #afbi4 ,x is a ?9 qu>to1 entitl$ ,le ,ma*9e volume nuovo1 et di molto artificio da f>e effetti m>avigliosi tanto ,spiritali quanto di ,animale ,op]atione1 ari*ito di bellissime figure4 ,del ,sig4 ,giovanni ,branca1 ,cittad9o ,romano4 ,9 ,roma1 #afbi4 ,! "w conta9s sixty-?ree engrav+s1 accompani$ by descriptions 9 ,italian & ,lat94 ,branca's /eam eng9e1 repres5t$ 9 ! tw5ty-fif? plate1 consi/s ( a :eel furni%$ ) flat vanes ^u its rim1 l ! bo>ds ( a paddle :eel4 ,! /eam is produc$ 9 a close vessel1 & made to issue ) viol5ce f ! extremity ,pg#jbc ( a pipe direct$ aga9/ ! vanes1 & causes ! :eel to revolve4 ,?is motion be+ imp>t$ by ! usual me*anical contrivances1 any ma*9]y may be impell$ by x4 ,diff]5t useful applications ( ?is p[] are conta9$ 9 ! "w1 viz4 pe/les & mort>s = p\nd+ mat]ials to make gunp[d]1 & roll+ /ones = gr9d+ ! same2 ma*9es = rais+ wat] by buckets1 = saw+ timb]s1 = driv+ piles1 c4 c4 ,?is me?od ( apply+ ! =ce ( /eam has no analogy to any application ( /eam 9 mod]n eng9es4 ,,edw>d ,,som]set1 ,,m>quis ,,( ,,worce/]1 #affc4 7#g47 ,( all ! names :i* figure 9 ! e>ly annals ( /eam1 by f> ! mo/ rem>kable is t ( ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 :o has left a description ( a ma*9e 9 a "w1 entitl$ ,! ,scantl+ ( ,"o ,hundr$ ,inv5tions1 :i* has be5 g5]ally 9 ?is c\ntry consid]$ z giv+ him a "r to ! hon\r ( hav+ be5 ! inv5tor ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,"l ,worce/] hav+ be5 engag$ on ! side ( ! ,royali/s 9 ! civil w>s ( ! revolution1 lo/ 8 =tune1 & w5t to ,irel&1 :]e he 0 imprison$4 ,he escap$ f !nce1 & rea*$ ,france2 f t c\ntry he v5tur$ to ,london1 z a secret ag5t ( ,*>les ,,ii41 b 0 detect$1 & imprison$ 9 ! ,t[]1 :]e he rema9$ until ! re/oration1 :5 he 0 set at lib]ty4 ,tradition has connect$ ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e ) ! foll[+ anecdote3--,"o day1 dur+ 8 imprisonm5t1 ,"l ,worce/] obs]v$ ! lid ( ! pot 9 :i* 8 d9n] 0 be+ cook$1 sudd5ly =c$ upw>ds by ! vap\r ( ! wat] :i* 0 boil+ 9 x4 ,reflect+ on ?is1 x occurr$ to him t ! same =ce :i* rais$ ! cov] ( ! pot might be r5d]$1 :5 prop]ly appli$1 a useful & conv5i5t mov+ p[]4 ,aft] he recov]$ 8 lib]ty1 he accord+ly proce$$ to c>ry into effect ?is conception4 ,! contrivance to :i* he 0 ultimately l$ is describ$ 9 ! foll[+ t]ms 9 ! sixty-eigh? inv5tion1 9 ! "w above nam$3-- ,i h inv5t$ an admirable & =cible way to drive ,pg#jbd up wat] by fire2 n by draw+ or suck+ x upw>ds1 = t mu/ be1 z ! philosoph] t]ms x1 infra sphrum activitatis1 :i* is b at su* a di/ance4 ,b ?is way ha? no b\nd] if ! vessels be /rong en\gh4 ,= ,i h tak5 a piece ( :ole cannon :]e( ! end 0 bur/1 & fill$ x ?ree qu>t]s full ( wat]1 /opp+ & screw+ up ! brok5 end1 z also ! t\*-hole1 & mak+ a con/ant fire "u x2 )9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 x bur/ & made a great crack4 ,s t1 hav+ a way to make my vessels s t !y are /r5g!n$ by ! =ce )9 !m1 & ! "o to fill aft] ! o!r1 ,i h se5 ! wat] run l a con/ant f\nta9 /ream =ty feet high4 ,"o vessel ( wat] r>efi$ by fire drive? up =ty ( cold wat]1 & a man t t5ds ! "w has b to turn two cocks2 t "o vessel ( wat] be+ consum$1 ano!r beg9s to =ce & refill ) cold wat]1 & s successively2 ! fire be+ t5d$ & kept con/ant1 :i* ! self-same p]son may likewise abundantly p]=m 9 ! int]im betwe5 ! necessity ( turn+ ! said cocks4 ,s9ce ! date ( ! publication ( ! ,c5tury ( ,inv5tions 0 ! ye> #affc1 ! exp]im5ts "h m5tion$ mu/ h be5 made be=e t ye>4 ,! description ( ! ma*9e "h giv51 z well z o!rs 9 ! same "w1 0 int5d$ by ! au?or1 n to convey a k ( ! nature ( ! me*anism :i* he us$1 b only to express ! effects produc$1 & to indicate ! physical pr9ciple on :i* !y dep5d$4 ,x %\ld also be obs]v$1 t an air ( my/]y 0 ?r[n by ,worce/] ov] ! acc\nts ( all ! ma*9es :i* he describ$2 & !re=e any obscurity 9 ! above description ought n to be reg>d$ z an evid5ce aga9/ 8 claim to ! discov]y ( ! me*anical ag5cy ( /eam1 s f> z t ag5cy is indicat$ by ! effects said by him to be produc$4 ,! above acc\nt is1 h[ev]1 suffici5tly di/9ct & explicit to enable any "o possess+ a k ( ! me*anical qualities ( /eam to p]ceive ! g5]al nature ( ! ma*9e describ$4 ,to r5d] ?is ma*9e1 & t ( ,de ,caus1 previ\sly describ$1 intelligible to ^? :o are n famili> ) physical sci5ce1 we mu/ "h expla9 "s g5]al pr9ciples on :i* _! ag5cy dep5ds4 ,pg#jbe 7#h47 ,fluid bodies are ( two k9ds1 inela/ic fluids1 or liquids1 & ela/ic fluids1 or gases4 ,( ! =m] ( ^! classes1 wat] is ! mo/ famili> example1 & ( ! latt]1 air4 ,^! two species ( fluids are ea* di/+ui%$ by peculi> me*anical prop]ties4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 7#i47 ,! con/itu5t p>ticles ( a liquid are di/+ui%$ f ^? ( solids by hav+ little or no coh]5ce2 s t unless ! mass be conf9$ by ! sides ( ! vessel :i* conta9s x1 ! p>ticles w fall asund] by _! gravity4 ,a mass ( liquid1 !re=e1 unlike a solid1 c nev] reta9 any p>ticul> =m1 b w accommodate itself to ! =m ( ! vessel 9 :i* x is plac$4 ,x w press aga9/ ! bottom ( ! vessel :i* conta9s x ) ! :ole =ce ( its weight1 & x w press aga9/ ! sides ) a =ce proportional to ! dep? ( ! p>ticles 9 contact ) ! sides measur$ f ! surface ( ! liquid above4 ,?is lat]al pressure also di/+ui%es liquids f solids4 ,let u take = illu/ration ! case ( a squ>e or a cubical vessel1 ,a ,b ,c ,d1 fig4 #c4 ,if a solid body1 su* z a piece ( lead1 be cut to ! %ape ( ?is vessel1 s z to fit 9 x )\t press+ ) any =ce aga9/ its sides1 ! me*anical effect :i* w\ld be produc$ by x :5 plac$ 9 ! vessel1 w\ld be m]ely a pressure ^u ! bottom1 ,b ,c1 ! am\nt ( :i* w\ld be equal to ! weight ( ! metallic mass4 ,no pressure w\ld be ex]t$ aga9/ ! sides2 = ! coh]5ce ( ! p>ticles ( ! solid ma9ta9+ !m 9 _! position1 ! removal ( ! sides w\ld n subject ! solid body conta9$ 9 ! vessel to any *ange4 ,n[ let u suppose ?is solid mass ( lead to be r5d]$ liquid by be+ melt$4 ,! con/itu5t p>ticles w !n be depriv$ ( t cohesion by :i* !y 7 held toge!r2 !y w accord+ly h a t5d5cy to sep>ate1 & fall asund] by _! gravity1 & w only be prev5t$ f actually do+ s by ! support af=d$ to !m by ! sides1 ,pg#jbf ,a ,b1 ,d ,c1 ( ! vessel4 ,!y w !re=e produce a pressure aga9/ ! sides1 :i* 0 n produc$ by ! lead 9 its solid /ate4 ,?is pressure w v>y at diff]5t dep?s3 ?us a "p ( ! side ( ! vessel at ,p w receive a pressure proportional to ! dep? ( ! po9t ,p bel[ ! surface ( ! lead4 ,if1 = example1 we take a squ>e in* ( ! inn] surface ( ! side ( ! vessel at ,p1 x w su/a9 an outw>d pressure equal to ! weight ( a column ( lead hav+ a squ>e in* = its base1 & a height equal to ,p ,a4 ,&1 9 l mann]1 e squ>e in* ( ! sides ( ! vessel w su/a9 an outw>d pressure equal to ! weight ( a column ( lead hav+ a squ>e in* = its base1 & a height equal to ! dep? ( ! po9t bel[ ! surface ( ! lead4 7#aj47 ,we h "h proce$$ ^u ! supposition t no =ce acts on ! upp] surface ,a ,d ( ! lead4 ,if any =ce presses ,a ,d d[nw>ds1 t =ce w\ld be transf]r$ to ! bottom by ! lead1 & w\ld produce a pressure on ! bottom ,b ,c equal to its own am\nt 9 addition to ! weight ( ! lead2 & if ! lead 7 solid1 ?is w\ld be ! only additional me*anical effect :i* su* a =ce act+ on ! surface ,a ,d ( ! lead w\ld produce4 ,b if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! lead 7 liquifi$1 !n ! =ce n[ adv]t$ to1 act+ on ! surface ,a ,d1 w\ld n only produce a pressure on ! bottom ,b ,c1 equal to its own am\nt 9 addition to ! weight ( ! lead1 b x w\ld also produce a pressure aga9/ e "p ( ! sides ( ! vessel1 equal to t :i* x w\ld produce ^u an equal magnitude ( ! surface ,a ,d4 ,?us if we suppose any me*anical cause produc+ a pressure on ! surface ,a ,d am\nt+ to t5 p\nds on ea* squ>e in*1 ! effect :i* w\ld be produc$1 if ! lead 7 solid1 w\ld be an additional pressure on ! base ,b ,c am\nt+ to t5 p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,b if ! lead 7 liquid1 besides ?is pressure on ea* squ>e in* ( ! base ,b ,c1 !re w\ld likewise be a pressure ( t5 p\nds on e squ>e in* ( ! sides ( ! vessel4 ,all t has be5 "h /at$ ) respect to a squ>e or a cubical vessel w be equally applicable to a vessel ( any o!r =m4 ,pg#jbg 7#aa47 ,! second class ( fluids are di/+ui%$ f liquids by ! p>ticles n m]ely be+ de/itute ( cohesion1 b hav+ a t5d5cy directly ! rev]se1 to repel ea* o!r1 & fly asund] ) m or less =ce4 ,?us if a vessel1 su* z t repres5t$ 9 fig4 #c41 7 fill$ ) a fluid ( ?is k9d1 be+ op5 at ! top1 & n be+ re/ra9$ by any pressure incumb5t ^u x1 ! p>ticles ( ! fluid w\ld n re/ 9 ! vessel by _! gravity1 z ^? ( ! liquid w\ld d2 b !y w\ld1 by _! mutual repulsion1 fly asund]1 & rise out ( ! vessel1 z smoke is se5 to rise f a *imney1 or /eam f ! sp\t ( a kettle4 ,let u suppose1 !n1 t ! vessel 9 :i* an ela/ic fluid is conta9$ is clos$ on e side by solid surfaces4 ,9 fact1 let u imag9e t ! squ>e or cubical vessel repres5t$ 9 fig4 #c4 is clos$ by a squ>e lid at ! top ,a ,d1 hav+ conta9$ 9 x an ela/ic fluid1 su* z atmosph]ic air4 ,if su* a cov]1 or lid1 _h be5 plac$ ^u a liquid1 ! cov] w\ld su/a9 no pressure f ! fluid1 nor w\ld any me*anical effect be produc$1 save ^? already describ$ 9 ! case ( ! op5 vessel2 b :5 ! fluid conta9$ 9 ! vessel is ela/ic1 z is ! case ) air1 !n ! ela/icity 7by :i* "n is express$ ! t5d5cy ( ! p>ticles ( ! fluid to fly asund]7 w produce peculi> me*anical effects1 :i* h no exi/5ce :atev] 9 ! case ( a liquid4 ,x is true t1 suppos+ ! fluid to be air or any o!r gas or vap\r1 a pressure w be produc$ ^u ! bottom ,b ,c ( ! vessel equival5t to ! weight ( su* fluid1 & lat]al pressures w be produc$ on ! diff]5t po9ts ( ! sides by ! weight ( t "p ( ! fluid :i* is above ^! po9ts2 b gases & vap\rs are bodies ( su* extreme levity1 t ^! effects due to _! weight are neglect$ 9 practice4 ,putt+1 !n1 ! weight ( ! air conta9$ 9 ! vessel out ( ! "q1 let u consid] ! effect ( its ela/icity4 ,if ! vessel1 z already describ$1 be suppos$ to conta9 atmosph]ic air 9 its ord9>y /ate1 ! t5d5cy ( ! con/itu5t p>ticles to fly asund] w be su* z to produce on e squ>e in* ( ! inn] surface ( ! vessel ,pg#jbh a pressure am\nt+ to fifte5 p\nds2 ?is pressure be+1 z already /at$1 q indep5d5t ( ! weight ( ! air4 ,9 fact1 ?is pressure w\ld cont9ue to exi/ if ! air conta9$ 9 ! vessel actually ceas$ to h weight by be+ remov$ f ! neighb\rhood ( ! e>?1 :i* is ! cause ( its gravity4 7#ab47 ,diff]5t gases are end[$ ) diff]5t degrees ( ela/icity1 & ! same gas may h its ela/icity increas$ or dim9i%$1 ei!r by v>y+ ! space )9 :i* x is conf9$1 or by alt]+ ! temp]ature to :i* x is expos$4 ,if ! space )9 :i* an ela/ic fluid is enclos$ be enl>g$1 its ela/icity is f\nd to dim9i% 9 ! same proportion4 ,?us if ! air conta9$ 9 ! vessel ,a ,b ,c ,d 7fig4 #c47 be all[$ to pass into a vessel ( twice ! magnitude1 ! ela/icity ( ! p>ticles w cause !m to repel ea* o!r1 s t ! same quantity ( air %all diffuse itself ?r\gh\t ! l>g] vessel1 assum+ d\ble its =m] bulk4 ,"u su* circum/ances1 ! pressure :i* x w\ld ex]t ^u ! sides ( ! l>g] vessel w\ld be only half t :i* x _h ex]t$ on ! sides ( ! small] vessel4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 x 7 =c$ into a vessel ( half ! magnitude ( ,a ,b ,c ,d1 z x might be1 !n its ela/icity w\ld be d\ble1 & x w\ld press on ! inn] surface ( t vessel ) twice ! =ce ) :i* x press$ on t ( ! vessel ,a ,b ,c ,d4 ,?is p[] ( swell+ & contract+ its dim5sions accord+ to ! dim5sions ( ! vessel 9 :i* x is conf9$1 or to ! =ce compress+ x1 is a quality :i* results imm$iately f ela/icity1 & is consequ5tly "o :i* is peculi> to ! gases or ela/ic fluids1 & does n at all app]ta9 to liquids4 ,if ! liquid conta9$ 9 ! vessel ,a ,b ,c ,d 7 transf]r$ to a vessel ( twice ! magnitude1 x w\ld only occupy half ! capacity ( t vessel1 & x c\ld n by any means be transf]r$1 z we h suppos$ ! air or gas to be1 to a vessel ( half ! dim5sions1 s9ce x is inela/ic & incompressible4 7#ac47 ,! ela/icity ( gases is likewise v>i$ by v>y+ ! temp]ature to :i* !y are expos$2 ?us1 9 g5]al1 ,pg#jbi if air or any o!r gas be augm5t$ 9 temp]ature1 x w likewise be increas$ 9 ela/icity2 & if1 on ! o!r h&1 x be dim9i%$ 9 temp]ature1 x w be likewise dim9i%$ 9 its ela/ic =ce4 ,! m heat$1 !re=e1 any air or gas conf9$ 9 a vessel becomes1 ! great] w be ! =ce ) :i* x w press on ! inn] surface ( t vessel1 & t5d to bur/ x4 7#ad47 ,! same body may1 by ! ag5cy ( heat1 be made to pass successively ?r\gh ! diff]5t /ates ( solid1 liquid1 & gas1 or vap\r4 ,! mo/ famili> & obvi\s example ( ^! successive transitions is pres5t$ by wat]4 ,expos$ to a c]ta9 temp]ature1 wat] c only exi/ z a solid2 z ! temp]ature is increas$1 ! ice1 or solid wat]1 is liquefi$2 & by ! cont9u$ application ( heat1 ?is wat] aga9 und]goes a *ange1 & assumes ! =m1 & acquires ! me*anical qualities1 ( air or gas3 9 su* a /ate x is call$ ,,/eam4 ,?is is a common prop]ty ( all liquids4 ,if !y be expos$ = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t to a suffici5t degree ( heat1 !y w always be conv]t$ into ela/ic fluids4 ,^! are usually di/+ui%$ f air & o!r p]man5t gases1 :i* nev] are kn[n to exi/ 9 ! liquid =m1 by ! t]m vap\r1 by :i*1 !re=e1 mu/ be und]/ood an ela/ic fluid :i* at common temp]atures exi/s 9 ! liquid or solid /ate2 by /eam is express$ ! vap\r ( wat]2 & by gases1 ^? ela/ic fluids :i* l air are nev] kn[n--at lea/1 "u ord9>y circum/ances--to exi/ 9 any o!r b ! ela/ic =m4 7#ae47 ,:5 a liquid is caus$1 by ! application ( heat1 to take ! =m ( an ela/ic fluid1 or is evaporat$1 besides acquir+ ! prop]ty ( ela/icity1 x always und]goes a consid]able *ange ( bulk4 ,! am\nt ( ?is *ange is diff]5t ) diff]5t liquids1 & ev5 ) ! same liquid x v>ies ) ! circum/ances "u :i* ! *ange is produc$4 7#af47 ,:5 wat] is evaporat$ "u ord9>y circum/ances1--t is1 :5 expos$ to no o!r ext]nal pressure ?an t ( ! atmosph]e1--x increases its volume ab\t sev5te5-hundr$-fold4 ,?us a cubic in* ( liquid ,pg#jcj wat] w\ld =m ab\t sev5te5 hundr$ cubic in*es ( common /eam4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! wat] be conf9$ by a great] pressure ?an t produc$ by ! common atmosph]e1 !n ! increase ( volume :i* takes place 9 its evaporation w\ld be less 9 proportion4 ,^! important physical circum/ances are n[ only indicat$ 9 a g5]al way4 ,z we proce$ ) our acc\nt ( ! inv5tion & improvem5t ( ! /eam eng9e1 !y w be develop$ m fully & accurately4 7#ag47 ,aft] duly consid]+ :at has be5 j expla9$1 no difficulty w be f\nd 9 compreh5d+ ! pr9ciples on :i* ! fir/ rude attempts at ! me*anical application ( /eam already /at$ dep5d4 ,9 ! app>atus ascrib$ to ,h]o ( ,alex&ria1 ! ela/icity ( ! vap\r conta9$ 9 ! arms ( ! revolv+ ball causes t vap\r to issue f ! lat]al orifices 9 ! arms1 su* z t ( ,g1 fig4 #a4 ,z ^! orifices1 h[ev]1 are expos$ to ! common atmosph]e press+ inw>ds ) a =ce1 ! mean am\nt ( :i* has be5 /at$ to be ab\t fifte5 p\nds p] squ>e in*1 x foll[s t ! /eam _c escape f ^! orifices until its pressure or ela/icity exce$s ?is am\nt1 & t :5 x does1 ! =ce ) :i* x w s escape w be ! excess ( its ela/icity above t ( ! atmosph]e2 & x is ! reaction produc$ by ?is diff]5ce ( pressure1 caus+ ! arms to recoil1 :i* w give motion to ! ma*9e4 ,9 ! case ( ! app>atus ( ,de ,caus 7#e471 ! heat ( ! fire act+ on ! vessel ,d ,c 7fig4 #b47 w raise ! temp]ature ( ! wat] conta9$ 9 x1 & also ( ! air conf9$ )9 x above ! surface ( t wat]4 ,?is air1 z x is increas$ 9 temp]ature1 w also increase 9 ela/icity2 x w !re=e press on ! surface ( ! wat] ) increas$ =ce1 & w gradually =ce ! wat] upw>ds 9 ! tube2 & ?is effect w\ld cont9ue until all ! wat] 9 ! vessel w\ld be =c$ up ! tube4 ,b at ! same "t t ! heat act+ on ! vessel increases ! temp]ature ( ! air above ! wat]1 x also produces a p>tial evaporation ( ! wat]1 s t m or less /eam is mix$ ) ! air 9 ! vessel above ! surface ,pg#jca ( ! wat]2 & ?is /eam possess+ ela/icity1 unites ) ! air 9 press+ on ! surface ( ! wat]1 & 9 rais+ x 9 ! tube4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #d1 #e1 & #f4 ,let u n[ rev]t to ! brief acc\nt ( ! eng9e ( ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 describ$ 9 ,! ,c5tury ( ,inv5tions4 ,we collect f t description t ! vessel 9 :i* ! wat] 0 evaporat$ 0 sep>ate f ^? :i* conta9$ ! wat] to be elevat$2 also t !re 7 two vessels ( ! l description1 ! cont5ts ( :i* 7 alt]nately elevat$ by ! pressure ( ! wat] r>efi$ by ! fire2 9 o!r words by /eam2 & t ! wat] 0 rais$ 9 an un9t]rupt$ /ream1 by ! managem5t ( two cocks communicat+ ) ^! vessels & ) ! boil]4 ,! foll[+ is su* an app>atus z w\ld answ] ?is description4 ,let ,e 7fig4 #d47 be ! vessel conta9+ ! wat] to be evaporat$1 plac$ ov] a prop] furnace ,a2 let ,s be a pipe to all[ ! /eam produc$ f ! boil+ wat] 9 ,e to pass into ! vessels :]e its me*anical action is requir$4 ,let ,r repres5t a cock or regulator1 hav+ 9 x a curv$ passage1 lead+ f ,s to ! tube ,t1 :5 ! lev] or h&le ,l is 9 ! position repres5t$ by ! cut2 b lead+ to ! tube ,t1 :5 ! lev] ,l is turn$ "o qu>t] ( a revolution to ! "r1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #e4 ,by ! %ift+ ( ?is lev]1 !re=e1 ! /eam pipe ,s may be made to communicate alt]nately ) ! tubes ,t & ,t4 ,! tubes ,t & ,t are c>ri$ respectively to two vessels ,v & ,v1 :i* are fill$ ) ! wat] requir$ to be rais$4 ,9 ^! ,pg#jcb vessels tubes ent] at ,c & ,c1 desc5d+ ne>ly to ! bottom3 ^! tubes h valves at ,b & ,b1 op5+ upw>ds1 by :i* wat] w be all[$ to pass into ! v]tical tube ,f1 b :i* w n all[ x to return d[nw>ds1 ! valves ,b & ,b be+ !n clos$ by ! weight ( ! wat] above !m4 ,let ,g ,g be a pipe ent]+ ! sides ( ! vessels ,v & ,v1 = ! purpose ( fill+ !m ) ! wat] to be rais$3 let ,k be a cock hav+ a curv$ passage simil> to ! cock ,r1 & lead+ to a tube by :i* wat] is suppli$ f ! res]voir or o!r s\rce f :i* ! wat] to be rais$ is drawn4 ,:5 ! cock ,k is plac$ z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #d41 ! wat] f ! res]voir w fl[ ?r\gh ! curv$ passage 9 ! cock ,k into ! tube ,g1 & !nce into ! vessel ,v2 b :5 ?is cock is turn$ "o qu>t] r\nd1 by %ift+ ! lev] to ! left1 x w take ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #f41 & ! wat] w fl[ ?r\gh ! curv$ passage into ! tube ,g1 & !nce into ! vessel ,v4 ,let u n[ suppose ! vessel ,v already fill$ ) wat] to be elevat$1 & ! vessel ,v to h dis*>g$ its cont5ts4 ,! cock ,r is turn$1 s z to all[ ! /eam g5]at$ 9 ! boil] ,e to pass into ! tube ,t1 & !nce into ! upp] "p ( ! vessel ,v1 :ile ! cock ,k is turn$ s z to all[ ! wat] f ! res]voir to pass into ! tube ,g1 & !nce into ! vessel ,v4 ,! /eam collect+ 9 ! upp] "p ( ! vessel ,v presses ) its ela/ic =ce on ! surface ( ! wat] !re91 & =ces ! wat] upw>ds 9 ! tube ,c2 x passes ?r\gh ! valve ,b1 :i* x op5s by ! upw>d pressure receiv$ f ! action ( ! /eam1 & !nce into ! tube ,f1 its desc5t into ! tube ,c be+ prev5t$ by ! valve ,v1 :i* c only be op5$ upw>ds4 ,z ! /eam is gradually suppli$ f ! boil] ,e1 ! wat] 9 ! vessel ,v is =c$ up ! tube ,c1 ?r\gh ! valve ,b1 & into ! tube ,f1 until all ! cont5ts ( ! vessel ,v above ! l[] end ( ! tube ,c h be5 rais$4 ,9 ! mean:ile1 ! vessel ,v has be5 fill$ ) wat]1 ?r\gh ! cock ,k3 :5 ?is has be5 accompli%$1 ! man :o att5ds ! ma*9e %ifts ! cocks ,r & ,k1 s z to give !m ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #e4 & fig4 #f4 ,pg#jcc ,9 ?is position1 ! /eam f ! boil]1 be+ exclud$ f ! tube ,t1 w be conduct$ to ! tube ,t1 & !nce to ! vessel ,v1 :ile ! wat] f ! res]voir w be exclud$ f ! tube ,g1 & conduct$ ?r\gh ! tube ,g to ! vessel ,v4 ,! vessel ,v w ?us be repl5i%$ &1 by a process simil> to t already describ$1 ! cont5ts ( ! vessel ,v w be =c$ up ! tube ,c1 ?r\gh ! valve ,b1 & into ! tube ,f2 its desc5t into ! tube ,c be+ prev5t$ by ! valve ,b1 :i* w !n be clos$4 ,aft] ! cont5ts ( ! vessel ,v h ?us be5 rais$1 & ! vessel ,v repl5i%$1 ! two cocks ,r & ,k are once m %ift$1 & ! cont5ts ( ,v rais$ :ile ,v is repl5i%$1 & s on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d1 #e1 & #f4 ,if1 hav+ compreh5d$ ! app>atus "h describ$1 ! read] ref]s to ! description ( ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]'s ma*9e1 he w f9d t all ! conditions !re9 laid d[n are fulfill$ by x4 ,"o vessel 7,e7 ( wat] r>efi$ by fire may by su* means drive up =ty 7or m7 ( cold wat]2 & ! man t t5ds ! "w has b to turn two cocks1 t "o vessel 7,v7 ( wat] be+ consum$1 ano!r 7,v7 beg9s to =ce & refill ) cold wat]1 & s on successively1 ! fire be+ t5d$ & kept con/ant2 :i* ! self-same p]son may likewise abundantly p]=m1 9 ! int]im betwe5 ! necessity ( turn+ ! said cocks4 ,on comp>+ ?is ) ! contrivance previ\sly sugge/$ by ,de ,caus1 x w be obs]v$1 t ev5 if ,de ,caus ,pg#jcd knew ! physical ag5t by :i* ! wat] 0 driv5 upw>ds 9 ! app>atus describ$ by him1 /ill x 0 only a me?od ( caus+ a vessel ( boil+ wat] to empty itself2 & be=e a repetition ( ! process c\ld be made1 ! vessel %\ld be refill$1 & aga9 boil$4 ,9 ! contrivance ( ,"l ,worce/]1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ag5cy ( ! /eam 0 employ$ 9 ! same mann] z x is 9 ! /eam eng9es ( ! pres5t day1 be+ g5]at$ 9 "o vessel1 & us$ = me*anical purposes 9 ano!r4 ,nor mu/ ?is di/9ction be reg>d$ z trifl+ or insignificant1 because on x dep5ds ! :ole practicability ( us+ /eam z a me*anical ag5t4 ,_h its action be5 conf9$ to ! vessel 9 :i* x 0 produc$1 x nev] c\ld h be5 employ$ = any useful purpose4 ,al?\gh _m ( ! projects conta9$ 9 ,"l ,worce/]'s "w 7 9 ! highe/ degree extravagant & absurd1 yet ! eng9e above describ$ is f> f be+ ! only practicable & useful inv5tion propos$ 9 x4 ,on ! contr>y1 _m ( 8 inv5tions h be5 reproduc$1 & "s br\ght into g5]al use s9ce 8 "t4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$1 /5ography1 telegraphs1 float+ ba?s1 speak+ /atues1 c>riages f :i* horses c be dis5gag$ if unruly1 comb9ation locks1 secret escut*eons = locks1 c&le m\lds1 ! rasp+ mill1 ! gravel eng9e1 c4 ,,sir ,,samuel ,,morl&1 #afhc4 7#ah47 ,sir ,samuel ,morl& 0 ! son ( a b>onet ( ! same "n1 :o _h receiv$ 8 title at ! re/oration = "s s]vices to ! royali/ p>ty1 p]=m$ by him dur+ ! w>s ( ! ,commonweal?4 ,he appe>s to h devot$ mu* att5tion to me*anics1 9 :i* he atta9$ "s celebrity4 ,he 0 ! reput$ inv5tor ( sev]al +5i\s contrivances1 su* z ! drum cap/an = %ips1 ! plung] pump1 c4 ,he also inve/igat$ v>i\s que/ions 9 ac\/ics1 & among o!rs1 ! det]m9ation ( ! be/ =m = ! speak+-trumpet4 ,9 #afhj1 ,sir ,samuel ,morl& 0 appo9t$ ,ma/] ,pg#jce ( ! ,works to ,*>les ,,ii41 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> 0 s5t to ,france1 to execute "s wat]works = ,l\is ,,xiv4 ,9 #afhc1 :ile 9 ,france1 he wrote 9 ! ,fr5* language1 a "w entitl$ ,elevation des ,eaux p> t\te sorte de ,ma*9es1 r$uite la ,mesure1 au ,poids et la ,balance4 ,pres5te sa ,maje/ trs ,*re/i5ne1 p> le ,*evali] ,morl&1 ,g5tilhomme ,ord9aire de la ,*ambre ,prive1 et ,mai/re des ,m*aniques du ,roi de la ,gr&e ,brtagne1 #afhc4 ,?is book is pres]v$ 9 manuscript 9 ! ,h>leian ,collection 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,x is writt5 on vellum1 & consi/s ( only ?irty-eight pages4 ,x conta9s tables ( measures & weights1 !orems = ! calculation ( ! volumes ( cyl9d]s1 ! weights ( columns ( wat]1 ! ?ickness ( lead = pipes1 & is conclud$ by a *apt] on /eam1 consi/+ ( f\r pages1 ( :i* ! foll[+ is a translation3-- ,! pr9ciples ( ! new =ce ( fire inv5t$ by ,*evali] ,morl& 9 #afhb1 & pres5t$ to ,8 ,mo/ ,*ri/ian ,maje/y 9 #afhc3-- ',wat] be+ conv]t$ into vap\r by ! =ce ( fire1 ^! vap\rs %ortly require a great] space 7ab\t #bjjj times7 ?an ! wat] be=e occupi$1 & soon] ?an be con/antly conf9$ w\ld split a piece ( cannon4 ,b be+ duly regulat$ accord+ to ! rules ( /atics1 & by sci5ce r$uc$ to measure1 weight1 & balance1 !n !y be> _! load peaceably 7l good horses71 & ?us become ( great use to mank9d1 p>ticul>ly = rais+ wat]1 accord+ to ! foll[+ table1 :i* %[s ! numb] ( p\nds t may be rais$ #ahjj times p] h\r to a height ( six in*es by cyl9d]s half fill$ ) wat]1 z well z ! diff]5t diamet]s & dep?s ( ! said cyl9d]s4' ,!re is no?+ 9 ! description "h giv5 :i* c indicate ! =m ( ! ma*9e by :i* ,morl& propos$ to r5d] ! =ce ( /eam a useful mov]4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 rem>kable1 t at ?is e>ly p]iod1 be=e exp]im5ts _h be5 made on ! expansion :i* wat] und]goes 9 evaporation1 he %\ld h giv5 s ne> an approximation to ,pg#jcf ! actual am\nt ( t expansion4 ,x is sc>cely supposable t su* an e/imate c\ld be obta9$ by him o!rwise ?an by exp]im5t4 ,! "w conta9+ ! above description 0 n pr9t$2 b a "w be>+ ne>ly ! same title1 conta9+1 h[ev]1 no m5tion ( ! =ce ( /eam1 0 publi%$ by him 9 ,p>is 9 ! ye> #afhe4 ,9 ?is he describes v>i\s exp]im5ts made by him at ,/4 ,g]ma9s on ! weight ( ! wat] ( ! ,se9e1 & gives weights ( ! columns ( wat]1 ! cont5ts ( cyl9d]s1 c4 ,soon aft] ! publication ( ?is "w1 ,morl& return$ to ,engl&1 & resid$ ne> ! c\rt till 8 dea?4 ,! celebrat$ ,john ,evelyn m5tion$ hav+ paid a visit to him at 8 h\se at ,hamm]smi?1 9 #afie1 :5 he _h become ag$ & bl9d1 b 0 /ill rem>kable = 8 me*anical +5uity4 ,on ! #be? ( ,octob]1 says ,evelyn1 ! ,ar*bi%op & myself w5t to ,hamm]smi? to visit ,sir ,samuel ,morl&1 :o 0 entirely bl9d2 a v mortify+ sight4 ,he %[$ u 8 inv5tion ( writ+ 7%ort-h&71 :i* 0 v +5i\s2 also 8 wood5 kal5d>1 :i* in/ruct$ him all by feel+2 & o!r pretty & useful inv5tions ( mills1 pumps1 c42 & ! pump he _h erect$1 t s]ves wat] to 8 g>d5 & to pass5g]s1 ) an inscription1 & br+s f a fil?y "p ( ! ,?ames ne> x a mo/ p]fect & pure wat]4#c ,he di$ at ,hamm]smi?1 9 ,janu>y #afif2 & be=e 8 dea?1 z a p5ance = 8 pa/ life1 0 guilty ( ! ecc5tricity ( bury+ 9 ! gr\nd six feet deep a great collection ( music :i* he possess$4#d ,,d5is ,,pap91 #afhh4 7#ai47 ,d5is ,pap91 a native ( ,blois 9 ,france1 & pr(essor ( ma!matics at ,m>b\rg1 is ! "n :i* /&s next record$ 9 ! progressive inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,to ?is philosoph] is due ! discov]y ( "o ( ! qualities ( /eam1 to ! prop] managem5t ( :i* is ow+ mu* ( ! efficacy ( ! mod]n /eam eng9e4 ,pg#jcg ,pap9 0 born at ,blois 9 ,france4 ,he devot$ 8 y\? to ! /udy ( m$ic9e1 9 :i* he took a degree at ,p>is4 ,! revocation ( ! ,edict ( ,nantes hav+ driv5 him into exile1 he w5t to ,engl&1 :]e ! celebrat$ ,boyle associat$ him 9 sev]al ( 8 exp]im5ts ) ! air-pump1 & caus$ him to be elect$ a fell[ ( ! ,royal ,society 9 #afha4 ,hav+ be5 invit$ to ,g]many by ! ,l&grave ( ,hesse1 he dis*>g$ dur+ sev]al ye>s ! duties ( pr(essor ( ma!matics at ! univ]sity ( ,m>b\rg1 :]e he di$ 9 #agaj4 ,not)/&+ 8 discov]ies respect+ ! ag5cy ( /eam1 he nev] receiv$ any m>k ( di/9ction 9 8 own c\ntry4 ,! tru? is1 ! importance & value ( ^! inve/igations 7 n app>5t until long aft]w>ds4 ,?is philosoph] conceiv$ ! idea ( produc+ a mov+ p[] by means ( a pi/on work+ 9 a cyl9d]1 9 ! mann] :i* we %all n[ briefly expla94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,let ,a ,b 7fig4 #g47 be a cyl9d] op5 at ! top1 & let a pi/on ,p be fitt$ into x1 s z to move 9 x air tight4 ,at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] suppose an op5+ provid$1 :i* c be clos$ at pleasure1 by a /op-cock1 or o!rwise1 s t ! communication may be op5$ & clos$ at w betwe5 ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d] & ! ext]nal air4 ,?is /op-cock be+ op5$1 let ! pi/on be drawn upw>ds till x rea* ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,let ! /op-cock at ! bottom be !n remov$1 & imag9e t "s means c be suppli$ by :i* ! air )9 ! cyl9d] c be sudd5ly annihilat$4 ,! pi/on1 n[ at ! top1 w h above x ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e2 & hav+ no air bel[1 x w be resi/$ 9 its desc5t by no =ce save t aris+ f its friction ) ! cyl9d]4 ,if1 !n1 ! =ce ( ! air above ! pi/on be great] ?an ! resi/ance aris+ f ?is friction1 ! pi/on w desc5d ) ! excess ( ?is =ce1 & w cont9ue s to desc5d until x rea* ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,hav+ atta9$ t position1 let u ,pg#jch suppose ! /op-cock 9 ! bottom op5$1 s z to all[ ! ext]nal air to pass freely bel[ ! pi/on4 ,! pi/on may n[ be drawn to ! top ( ! cyl9d] aga91 (f]+ no resi/ance save t ( its weight1 & its friction ) ! cyl9d]4 ,hav+ rea*$ ! top ( ! cyl9d] once m1 let ! /op-cock be clos$1 & ! air includ$ )9 ! cyl9d] once m annihilat$4 ,a second desc5t ( ! pi/on w take place1 ) ! same =ce z be=e1 & 9 l mann] ! process may be cont9u$ indef9itely4 ,n[1 if x %\ld appe> t means c\ld be provid$ sudd5ly & repeat$ly to annihilate ! air )9 ! cyl9d]1 & t ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e above ! pi/on %\ld ex]t a =ce comp>$ ) :i* ! weight ( ! pi/on & its friction are trifl+1 x is evid5t t a mov+ p[] w\ld be obta9$ :i* w\ld be capable1 by prop] me*anism1 ( be+ appli$ to any useful purpose1 b :i* w\ld m especially be applicable to ! work+ ( pumps1 ! motion ( :i* corresponds ) t :i* has be5 j ascrib$ to ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,su* 7 ! fir/ ideas ( ,pap94 ,b 9 ord] to enable ^? :o are n conv]sant ) physical sci5ce fully to appreciate _! importance1 x w be necess>y "h to expla9 "s ( ! me*anical prop]ties ( atmosph]ic air4 7#bj47 ,! atmosph]e is ! ?91 transp>5t1 col\rless1 & !re=e invisible1 fluid 9 :i* we live & move1 :i* by respiration su/a9s animal life1 & is o!rwise connect$ ) v>i\s important functions ( organis$ matt]4 ,?is fluid is s light & att5uat$1 t x might at fir/ be d\bt$ :e!r x be really a body at all2 &1 inde$1 ! "n express+ incorporeal be+s1 _s1 is a ^w 9 its orig9 signify+ air4#e ,! air1 h[ev]1 is light only z comp>$ ) o!r mat]ial sub/ances1 :i* exi/ 9 a m cond5s$ /ate3 x possesses ! quality ( weight z absolutely z ! mo/ solid & massive bodies 9 nature1 & to r5d] ?is quality manife/1 x is only necess>y to submit a suffici5t quantity ( air to any ( ! usual te/s ( gravitation4 ,pg#jci ,a direct demon/ration ( ?is may be giv5 by ! foll[+ exp]im5t3--,on ! m\? ( a flask let a /op-cock be fa/5$ s z to be air-tight4 ,! int]ior ( ! flask may !n be put into free communication ) ! ext]nal air1 or t communication may be cut (f at pleasure1 by op5+ or clos+ ! /op-cock4 ,if a syr+e be appli$ to ! m\? ( ! flask1 ! /op-cock be+ op5 a "p ( ! air conta9$ 9 x may be drawn out4 ,aft] ?is1 ! /op-cock be+ clos$1 & ! syr+e deta*$1 let ! flask be plac$ 9 ! di% ( a good balance1 & accurately c\nt]pois$ by weights 9 ! o!r di%4 ,?is c\nt]poise w !n repres5t ! weight ( ! flask1 & ( ! air :i* has rema9$ 9 x4 ,if ! /op-cock be n[ op5$1 air w imm$iately ru% 91 & replace t :i* ! syr+e _h )drawn f ! flask2 & imm$iately ! di% ( ! balance conta9+ ! flask w s9k by ! effect ( ! weight ( ! air ?us admitt$ into ! flask4 ,if ! weight ( quantity ( air s small z to be capable ( be+ )drawn by a syr+e f an ord9>y flask be ?us ( s5sible am\nt1 x may be easily imag9$ t ! va/ mass ( atmosph]e ext5d+ f ! surface ( ! e>? upw>ds1 to a height n asc]ta9$ ) precision1 b c]ta9ly n be+ less ?an ?irty miles1 mu/ be v consid]able4 ,su* a =ce1 press+ z x mu/ con/antly d1 ^u ! surfaces ( all bodies1 :e!r solid or fluid1 & resi/+ & modify+ _! movem5ts1 w\ld play an important "p 9 all me*anical ph5om5a2 & x is1 !re=e1 n suffici5t m]ely to h recognis$ its exi/5ce1 b x is mo/ ne$ful to measure its am\nt ) t degree ( c]ta9ty & precision1 :i* w enable u to e/imate its effects on ^? ph5om5a :i* we %all h to inve/igate4 7#ba47 ,! am\nt ( ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e on ea* squ>e in* ( horizontal surface on :i* x re/s1 is obvi\sly ! weight ( ! column ( air ext5d+ f t squ>e in* ( surface upw>ds to ! top ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?is =ce is measur$ by ! foll[+ means3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,take a glass tube1 ,a ,b 7fig4 #h471 above #cb in*es long1 op5 at "o end ,a1 & clos$ at ! o!r end ,b1 & let x ,pg#jdj be fill$ ) m]cury 7quicksilv]74 ,let a glass vessel or ci/]n ,c1 conta9+ a quantity ( m]cury1 be also provid$4 ,apply+ ! f+] at ,a1 s z to prev5t ! m]cury 9 ! tube f fall+ out1 let ! tube be inv]t$1 & ! end1 /opp$ by ! f+]1 plung$ into ! m]cury 9 ,c4 ,:5 ! end ( ! tube is bel[ ! surface ( ! m]cury 9 ,c 7fig4 #i471 let ! f+] be remov$4 ,x w be f\nd t ! m]cury 9 ! tube w n1 z might be expect$1 fall to ! level ( ! m]cury 9 ! ci/]n ,c1 :i* x w\ld d 7 ! end ,b op51 s z to admit ! air into ! upp] "p ( ! tube4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! level ,d ( ! m]cury 9 ! tube w be ne>ly #cj in*es above ! level ,c ( ! m]cury 9 ! ci/]n4 ,! cause ( ?is effect is1 t ! weight ( ! atmosph]e re/s on ! surface ,c ( ! m]cury 9 ! ci/]n1 & t5ds !reby to press x up1 or r to resi/ its fall 9 ! tube2 & z ! fall is n assi/$ by ! weight ( ! atmosph]e on ! surface ,d 7s9ce ,b is clos$71 x foll[s1 t z mu* m]cury rema9s susp5d$ 9 ! tube above ! level ,c1 z ! weight ( ! atmosph]e is able to support4 ,if ! section ( ! tube 7 equal to ! magnitude ( a squ>e in*1 ! weight ( ! column ( m]cury 9 ! tube above ! level ,c w\ld be exactly equal to ! weight ( ! atmosph]e on ea* squ>e in* ( ! surface ,c4 7#bb47 ,if su* an app>atus be obs]v$ f "t to "t1 x w be f\nd t ! column ( m]cury su/a9$ 9 ! tube w be subject to v>iation betwe5 c]ta9 limits1 nev] fall+ bel[ tw5ty-eight in*es1 & nev] ris+ above ?irty-"o in*es4 ,?is v>iation ( ! m]curial column is produc$ by a correspond+ v>iation 9 ! weight ( ! atmosph]e4 ,if ! app>atus be transport$ to any height above its ord9>y position1 x w h a less quantity ( atmosph]e above x1 & !re=e ! surface ( ! m]cury 9 ! ci/]n w be press$ by a less weight1 & consequ5tly ! ,pg#jda column ( m]cury w fall proportionally4 ,9 virtue ( ?is effect1 su* an in/rum5t has be5 r5d]$ a means ( measur+ heights1 su* z ! heights ( m\nta9s1 ! asc5ts ( balloons1 c4 c4 7#bc47 ,if a prop] scale be atta*$ to ! tube conta9+ ! m]curial column1 %[+ ! absolute height ( ! column su/a9$ at any "t1 & indicat+ its *anges ( height1 ! in/rum5t becomes a ,,b>omet]4 ,two cubic in*es ( m]cury weigh v ne>ly "o p\nd avoirdupois4#f ,h5ce1 :5 ! b>ometric column measures ?irty in*es1 ! weight ( ! atmosph]e re/+ on ea* squ>e in* ( surface is ab\t fifte5 p\nds4 7#bd47 ,x is an e/abli%$ prop]ty ( fluids1 t !y press equally 9 all directions2 & air1 l e o!r fluid1 p>ticipates 9 ?is quality4 ,h5ce1 x foll[s1 t :5 ! d[nw>d pressure or weight ( ! atmosph]e is fifte5 p\nds on ! squ>e in*1 ! lat]al1 upw>d1 & oblique pressures are ( ! same am\nt4 ,b1 indep5d5tly ( ! g5]al pr9ciple1 x may be satisfactory to give exp]im5tal pro( ( ?is4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,let f\r glass tubes1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d 7fig4 #aj471 be con/ruct$ ( suffici5t l5g?1 clos$ at "o end1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 & op5 at ! o!r4 ,let ! op5 ends ( ?ree ( !m be b5t1 z repres5t$ 9 ! tubes ,b1 ,c1 ,d4 ,be+ previ\sly fill$ ) m]cury1 let !m all be g5tly inv]t$1 s z to h _! clos$ ends up1 z "h repres5t$4 ,x w be f\nd t ! m]cury w be su/a9$ 9 all1 & t ! diff]5ce ( ! levels 9 all w be ! same4#g ,?us1 ! m]cury is su/a9$ 9 ,a by ! upw>d pressure ( ! atmosph]e2 9 ,b1 by its horizontal or lat]al pressure2 9 ,c1 by its d[nw>d pressure2 ,pg#jdb & 9 ,d1 by its oblique pressure3 &1 z ! diff]5ce ( ! levels is ! same 9 all1 ^! pressures are exactly equal4 7#be47 ,! same arrangem5t by :i* ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e is measur$ by a m]curial column ( equival5t weight1 also supplies ! means ( measur+ ! pressure or ela/icity ( atmosph]ic air1 or any o!r gas or vap\r1 :e!r 9 a m or less compress$ or r>efi$ /ate2 & z in/rum5ts con/ruct$ on ?is pr9ciple are ( consid]able use 9 /eam eng9es1 we %all take ?is occasion to expla9 _! pr9ciple & application4 ,9 ! exp]im5ts describ$ 9 7#ba71 ! space ,d ,b 9 ! top ( ! b>omet]-tube1 f :i* ! m]cury desc5d$1 is a vacuum4 ,if1 h[ev]1 x 7 occupi$ by a quantity ( air 9 a r>efi$ /ate1 or any o!r gas or vap\r1 su* gas or vap\r w\ld press on ! surface ( ! m]cury at ,d1 ) a =ce det]m9$ by its ela/icity4 ,9 t case1 ! atmosph]ic pressure act+ on ! surface ( ! m]cury ,c 9 ! ci/]n1 w\ld be balanc$ by ! comb9$ =ces ( ! weight ( ! m]curial column su/a9$ 9 ! tube1 & ! ela/icity ( ! gas or vap\r 9 ! upp] "p ( x4 ,n[ if we "k ! actual am\nt ( ! atmosph]ic pressure1--t is to say1 ! height ( ! column ( m]cury :i* x w\ld be capable ( su/a9+1--we %\ld !n be able to det]m9e ! pressure ( ! r>efi$ air 9 ! space ,c ,d4 ,= example1 let u suppose t ! b>ometric column1 :5 ,b ,d 7fig4 #i47 is a vacuum1 measures ?irty in*es3 ! atmosph]ic pressure1 !re=e1 w\ld be equal to ! weight ( a column ( m]cury ( t height4 ,let u suppose t ! ela/icity ( ! gas or vap\r occupy+ ! upp] "p ( ! tube ,d ,b causes ! column to fall to ! height ( tw5ty-six in*es3 x is evid5t1 !n1 t ! pressure ( ! air 9 ! top ( ! tube w\ld be equal to ! weight ( a column ( m]cury ( f\r in*es4 ,9 f9e1 to det]m9e ! pressure ( ! r>efi$ gas or vap\r 9 ! top ( ! tube1 x is only necess>y to obs]ve ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! height ( ! column ( m]cury actually su/a9$ 9 ! tube1 & ! column su/a9$ at ! same "t & ,pg#jdc place 9 a common b>omet]3 ! diff]5ce ( ! two w be ! column ( m]cury ^: weight w repres5t ! pressure ( ! vap\r or gas 9 ! top ( ! tube4 7#bf47 ,:5ev] ! air conta9$ 9 any vessel or o!r enclos$ space has by any means _h its pressure r$uc$ s z to be r5d]$ less ?an t ( ! ext]nal air1 ! ext]nal air w h a t5d5cy to ru% into su* vessel or enclos$ space ) a =ce proportionate to ! excess ( ! pressure ( su* ext]nal air ov] t ( ! air )92 & if any communication be op5$ betwe5 ! int]ior ( su* vessel or enclos$ space1 & ! ext]nal air1 ! latt] w ru% 9 until an equilibrium be e/abli%$ betwe5 ! pressures )9 & )\t4 ,x is evid5t t ! =ce ?us obta9$ by dim9i%+ ! pressure ( air )9 a vessel may be appli$ to any me*anical purpose4 ,x is by su* means t wat] is rais$ 9 an ord9>y pump4 ,a portion ( ! air conta9$ betwe5 ! pi/on ( ! pump & ! surface ( ! wat] bel[1 is )drawn by ! action ( ! pi/on1 & ! pressure ( ! air rema9+ "u ! pi/on is !reby dim9i%$4 ,! sup]ior pressure ( ! atmosph]e ^u ! ext]nal surface ( ! wat] 9 ! well !n =ces up a column ( wat] 9 ! pump-b>rel1 & ?is is cont9u$ z ! air is m & m r>efi$ by ! action ( ! pi/on4 ,by :atev] means1 !re=e1 ! air c be :olly or p>tially )drawn f any space1 a me*anical p[] w be !reby develop$1 proportional 9 its am\nt & efficacy to ! quantity ( air s )drawn4 ,if1 h[ev]1 su* air be )drawn by any me*anical process1 su* z by a syr+e1 by a common pump1 or by an air-pump1 ! quantity ( =ce exp5d$ 9 )draw+ x is always equival5t to ! am\nt ( me*anical p[] obta9$ by ! vacuum or p>tial vacuum s produc$4 ,inde$ ! p[] exp5d$ is great] ?an ! p[] s obta9$1 inasmu* z ! friction1 leakage1 c4 ( ! exhau/+ app>atus mu/ be all[$ =4 7#bg47 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 v>i\s o!r means by :i* air may be p>tially expell$ f a vessel besides ! direct application ( me*anical =ce4 ,?us if heat be appli$ to ,pg#jdd ! vessel1 ! air1 z has be5 already expla9$1 w acquire increas$ ela/icity1 & w ru% f ! vessel ) a =ce proportionate to ! excess ( its ela/icity above t ( ! ext]nal air1 & ?is process may be cont9u$ by increas+ ! heat to :i* ! vessel is expos$1 until a v consid]able portion ( ! air has be5 expell$4 ,if ! orifice by :i* ! air has escap$ be !n clos$1 & ! vessel be all[$ to cool1 ! air )91 by hav+ its temp]ature r$uc$ to t ( ! ext]nal air1 w lose all ! ela/icity :i* x _h ga9$ f ! heat1 & w be 9 ! same condition z if an equival5t quantity ( air _h be5 )drawn by any me*anical ag5t4 ,! ext]nal air1 !re=e1 w h a t5d5cy to ru% 9 ) a =ce correspond+ to ! diff]5ce ( pressures4 ,! process ( fill+ !rmomet]s ) m]cury %[s "o use ( produc+ a high degree ( r>efaction by heat4 ,to con/ruct ! in/rum5t x is necess>y to fill ! bulb & a "p ( ! tube ) m]cury2 b ! bore ( ! tube is s small t ! m]cury _c be introduc$ by any ord9>y means4 ,x is !re=e held ov] flame until heat$ to a high temp]ature4 ,! air )9 x gradually increas+ 9 pressure z its temp]ature is rais$1 is =c$ ?r\gh ! small bore ( ! tube1 until ! pressure ( ! air )9 becomes no m ?an equal to ! pressure ( ! ext]nal atmosph]e2 ?is air be+ s r>efi$ t quantity 9 ! bulb be>s a v small proportion to its cont5ts at common temp]atures4 ,! m\? ( ! tube is !n plung$ into m]cury1 & z ! bulb cools1 ! air )9 x loses its ela/icity1 & ! sup]ior pressure ^u ! ext]nal surface =ces ! m]cury into ! tube4 ,?is cont9ues until ! air rema9+ )9 ! bulb has be5 s contract$1 t its pressure comb9$ ) ! weight ( ! m]cury1 %all balance ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! tube is !n rev]s$1 & ! air :i* rema9$ rises 9 a bubble to ! surface1 & escapes4 7#bh47 ,let u n[ return to ! proce$+s ( ,pap94 ,h[ great a p[] w\ld result f su* a ma*9e z he conceiv$1 w be app>5t1 if x be consid]$ t ! unresi/$ atmosph]e ex]cises a pressure ( ab\t fifte5 p\nds on ,pg#jde ea* squ>e in* ( surface expos$ to x1 & t if ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d] imag9$ by ,pap91 _h a diamet] ( only "o foot1 its sup]ficial magnitude w\ld be ab\t #aad squ>e in*es4 ,! pressure ( ! atmosph]e ^u x1 !re=e1 w\ld be #aad times fifte5 p\nds1 or #agaj p\nds4 ,pap9 fir/ propos$ to produce ! vacuum "u ! pi/on by means ( common air pumps1 work$ by a wat]-:eel2 & by su* means he conceiv$ t ! p[] ( a riv]1 /ream1 or wat]fall might be convey$ by pipes to a di/ance4 ,:ile he 0 9 ,engl&1 9 #afhg1 he laid 8 contrivance be=e ! ,royal ,society ( ,london1 b 0 met by objections & difficulties1 ! nature ( :i* he does n expla94 ,x is1 h[ev]1 app>5t1 f :at has be5 already expla9$1 t su* a me?od ( proce$+ w\ld am\nt to a m]e transf] ( p[]1 & w\ld n1 prop]ly speak+1 be itself a mov+ =ce3 ! mov+ p[] w\ld1 9 reality1 be ! =ce ( ! wat] by :i* ! wat]-:eel w\ld be driv52 & ! air-pumps1 tubes1 toge!r ) ! pi/on & cyl9d]1 w\ld be m]ely means ( convey+ ! p[] ( ! wat]-:eel to ! objects to be mov$1 or ! ma*9]y to be driv54 ,pap9 /ates1 t1 long be=e ?is1 he _h attempt$ to expel ! air f 8 cyl9d] by means ( gunp[d]2 b1 not)/&+ all ! precautions :i* he c\ld take1 !re always rema9$ a consid]able quantity2 s mu*1 inde$1 z to deprive ! vacuum ( m ?an half its prop] =ce4 ,at l5g? he adopt$ an exp$i5t = ! production ( a vacuum :i* =ms a mo/ important /ep 9 ! progressive inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e1 & :i* gives to ,pap9's "n a high place 9 ! hi/ory ( t ma*9e4 ,?is me?od is expla9$ 9 ! foll[+ p>agraph ( a "w publi%$ by ,pap9 9 #afie1 at ,cassel1 entitl$ ,recueil de div]ses ,pices t\*ant quelques n\velles ,ma*9es1 p4 #ec4 ,i h endeav\r$1 says he1 to atta9 ?is end 7viz4 ! production ( a vacuum 9 ! cyl9d]7 9 ano!r way4 ,z wat] has ! prop]ty ( ela/icity1 :5 conv]t$ into /eam by heat1 & aft]w>ds ( be+ s completely recond5s$ by cold1 t !re does n rema9 ! lea/ ,pg#jdf appe>ance ( ?is ela/icity1 ,i h ?\ght t x w\ld n be difficult to "w ma*9es 9 :i*1 by means ( a mod]ate heat & at a small co/1 wat] might produce t p]fect vacuum :i* has va9ly be5 s\ght by means ( gunp[d]4 ,?is rem>kable passage is giv5 9 ! "w j cit$1 z an extract f ! ,leipsic ,acts1 ( ,augu/1 #afij4 ,let u pause "h to expla9 m fully ?is important discov]y4 7#bi47 ,we h expla9$ t1 9 its conv]sion into vap\r1 by ! application ( heat1 wat]1 besides acquir+ ! prop]ty ( ela/icity1 und]goes a va/ enl>gem5t ( bulk1 fill+1 "u ord9>y circum/ances1 ab\t #agjj times m space ?an x occupi$ 9 ! liquid =m4 ,?is fact 0 kn[n g5]ally1 ?\gh n ) num]ical accuracy1 by ,pap91 hav+ be5 ! f\ndation ( ! ma*9es previ\sly inv5t$ & publi%$ by ,de ,caus & ,"l ,worce/]2 ! happy idea ( rev]s+ ! process occurr$ to him4 ,if wat] 9 its conv]sion into /eam swell$ into _m hundr$ times its orig9al bulk1 x w\ld necess>ily foll[1 t /eam1 be+ reconv]t$ into wat]1 w\ld %r9k into its primitive dim5sions4 ,pap9 !re=e saw1 t if he c\ld by any means expel ! air f 8 cyl9d] "u ! pi/on1 & replace x by ! pure vap\r ( wat]1 he c\ld cause t vap\r to be reconv]t$ into a comp>atively m9ute quantity ( wat] by depriv+ x ( ! heat :i* su/a9$ x 9 ! /ate ( /eam1 & t by accompli%+ ?is1 ! space 9 ! cyl9d] "u ! pi/on w\ld become a vacuum2 t by su* means1 ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e above ! pi/on w\ld take full effect1 & w\ld urge ! pi/on d[n2 t by introduc+ m /eam "u ! pi/on1 x might be aga9 rais$ by ! ela/ic =ce ( ! /eam1 ! de/ruction ( :i* by cold wat] w\ld aga9 produce ! desc5t ( ! pi/on ) ! same me*anical =ce2 & t 9 ?is way ! alt]nate asc5t & desc5t ( ! pi/on might be cont9u$ indef9itely4 ,9 accordance ) ^! ideas1 ,pap9 con/ruct$ a model consi/+ ( a small cyl9d]1 9 :i* 0 plac$ a solid pi/on2 ,pg#jdg & 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] "u ! pi/on 0 conta9$ 9 a small quantity ( wat]4 ,! pi/on be+ 9 imm$iate contact ) ?is wat]1 s z to exclude ! atmosph]ic air1 on apply+ fire to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 /eam 0 produc$1 ! ela/ic =ce ( :i* rais$ ! pi/on to ! top ( ! cyl9d]2 ! fire be+ !n remov$1 & ! cyl9d] be+ cool$ by ! surr\nd+ air1 ! /eam 0 cond5s$ & reconv]t$ into wat]1 leav+ a vacuum 9 ! cyl9d] into :i* ! pi/on 0 press$ by ! =ce ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! fire be+ appli$ & subsequ5tly remov$1 ano!r asc5t & desc5t 7 accompli%$2 & 9 ! same mann] ! alt]nate motion ( ! pi/on might be cont9u$4 ,pap9 describ$ no o!r =m ( ma*9e by :i* ?is prop]ty c\ld be r5d]$ available 9 practice2 b he /ates g5]ally1 t ! same end may be atta9$ by v>i\s =ms ( ma*9es easy to be imag9$4#h ,,?omas ,,sav]y1 #afih4 7#cj47 ,! discov]y ( ! me?od ( mak+ a vacuum by ! cond5sation ( /eam 0 reproduc$1 be=e #afih1 by ,capta9 ,?omas ,sav]y1 to :om a pat5t 0 grant$ 9 t ye> = a /eam eng9e to be appli$ to ! rais+ ( wat]1 c4 ,sav]y propos$ to comb9e ! ma*9e describ$ by ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/] ) an app>atus = rais+ wat] by suction into a vacuum produc$ by ! cond5sation ( /eam4 ,sav]y appe>s to h be5 ignorant ( ! publication ( ,pap91 & /at$ t 8 discov]y ( ! cond5s+ pr9ciple arose f ! foll[+ circum/ance3-- ,hav+ drunk a flask ( ,flor5ce at a tav]n1 & flung ! empty flask on ! fire1 he call$ = a bas9 ( wat] to wa% 8 h&s4 ,a small quantity :i* rema9$ 9 ! flask began to boil1 & /eam issu$ f its m\?4 ,x occurr$ to him to try :at effect w\ld be produc$ by inv]t+ ! flask & plung+ its m\? 9 ! cold wat]4 ,putt+ on a ?ick glove to def5d 8 h& f ! heat1 he seiz$ ! ,pg#jdh flask1 & ! mom5t he plung$ its m\? 9 ! wat] ! liquid imm$iately ru%$ up into ! flask & fill$ x4 ,sav]y /at$ t ?is circum/ance imm$iately sugge/$ to him ! possibility ( giv+ effect to ! atmosph]ic pressure by creat+ a vacuum 9 ?is mann]4 ,he ?\ght t if1 in/ead ( exhau/+ ! b>rel ( a pump by ! usual labori\s me?od ( a pi/on & suck]1 x 0 exhau/$ by fir/ fill+ x ) /eam1 & !n cond5s+ ! same /eam1 ! atmosph]ic pressure w\ld =ce ! wat] f ! well into ! pump-b>rel1 & into any vessel connect$ ) x1 provid$ t vessel 7 n m ?an ab\t ?irty-f\r feet above ! elevation ( ! wat] 9 ! well4 ,he p]ceiv$ also1 t1 hav+ lift$ ! wat] to ?is height1 he might use ! ela/ic =ce ( /eam 9 ! mann] describ$ by ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/] to raise ! same wat] to a /ill great] elevation1 & t ! same /eam :i* accompli%$ ?is me*anical effect w\ld s]ve1 by its subsequ5t cond5sation1 to reproduce ! vacuum1 & draw up m wat]4 ,x 0 on ?is pr9ciple t ,sav]y con/ruct$ ! fir/ eng9e 9 :i* /eam 0 ev] br\ght into practical op]ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,branca',s ,,eng9e4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,arago1 ,eloge hi/orique de ,james ,watt2 p4 #bb4 #b ,ibid41 p4 #ba4 note4 #c ,f>ey1 ,treatise on ! ,/eam ,eng9e1 p4 #ic4 #d ,arago1 sur les ,ma*9es ,vapeur1 ,annuaire1 #ahbi1 p4 #afe #e ,,spiritus1 brea? or air4 #f ,exactly #aefh oz4 #jih lb4 #g ,?is exp]im5t ) ! tube ,a requires to be v c>efully execut$1 & ! tube %\ld be "o ( small bore4 #h ,recueil de div]ses ,pices t\*ant quelques n\velles ,ma*9es1 p4 #ch4 ,pg#jdi ,illu/ration3 ,,sav]y',s ,,eng9e4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,eng9es ,,( ,,sav]y ,,& ,,newcom54 ,,sav]y',s ,,eng9e4 -- ,,boil]s ,,& ,,_! ,,app5dages4 -- ,,work+ ,,app>atus4 -- ,,mode ,,( ,,op]ation4 -- ,,defects ,,( ,,! ,,eng9e4 -- ,,newcom5 ,,& ,,cawley4 -- ,,atmosph]ic ,,eng9e4 -- ,,accid5tal ,,discov]y ,,( ,,cond5sation ,,by ,,injection4 -- ,,humphrey ,,pott] ,,makes ,,! ,,eng9e ,,"w ,,itself4 -- ,,advantages ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]ic ,,eng9e ,,ov] ,,t ,,( ,,sav]y4 -- ,,x ,,conta9$ ,,no ,,new ,,pr9ciple4 -- ,,its ,,practical ,,sup]iority4 7#ca47 ,! /eam eng9e contriv$ by ,sav]y1 l e o!r :i* has s9ce be5 con/ruct$1 consi/s ( two p>ts1 ess5tially di/9ct4 ,! fir/ is t :i* is employ$ to ,pg#jej g5]ate ! /eam1 :i* is call$ ! boil]2 & ! second1 t 9 :i* ! /eam is appli$ z a mov+ p[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,! =m] app>atus 9 ,sav]y's eng9e consi/s ( two /rong boil]s1 sections ( :i* are repres5t$ at ,d & ,e 9 fig4 #aa42 ,d ! great] boil]1 & ,e ! less4 ,! tubes ,t & ,t communicate ) ! work+ app>atus1 :i* we %all pres5tly describe4 ,a ?9 plate ( metal ,r1 is appli$ closely to ! top ( ! great boil] ,d1 turn+ on a c5tre ,c1 s t by mov+ a lev] appli$ to ! axis ,c on ! outside ( ! top1 ! slid+ plate ,r c be br\ght f ! m\? ( ! "o tube to ! m\? ( ! o!r alt]nately4 ,?is slid+ valve is call$ ! regulator1 s9ce x is by x t ! communications betwe5 ! boil] & two /eam vessels 7h]eaft] describ$7 are alt]nately op5$ & clos$1 ! lev] :i* effects ?is be+ mov$ at int]vals by ! h& ( ! att5dant4 ,two gauge cocks are repres5t$ at ,g1 ,g1 ! use ( :i* is to det]m9e ! dep? ( wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,"o1 ,g1 has its l[] ap]ture a little above ! prop] dep?2 & ! o!r1 ,g1 a little bel[ x4 ,cocks are atta*$ to ! upp] ends ,g1 ,g1 :i* c be op5$ or clos$ at pleasure4 ,! /eam collect$ 9 ! top ( ! boil] press+ on ! surface ( ! wat]1 =ces x up 9 ! tubes ,g1 ,g1 if _! l[] ends be imm]s$4 ,^u op5+ ! cocks ,g1 ,g1 if wat] be =c$ f bo?1 !re is too mu* wat] 9 ! boil]1 s9ce ! m\? ( ,g is bel[ its level4 ,if /eam issue f bo?1 !re is too little wat] 9 ! boil]1 s9ce ! m\? ( ,g is above its level4 ,b if /eam issue f ,g1 & wat] f ,g1 ! wat] 9 ! boil] is at its prop] level4 ,?is +5i\s contrivance = det]m9+ ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] is ! inv5tion ( ,sav]y1 & is us$ 9 _m in/ances at ! pres5t day4 ,! m\? ( ! pipe ,g %\ld be at a level ( a little less ,pg#jea ?an "o ?ird ( ! :ole dep?1 & ! m\? ( ,g at a level little l[] ?an "o ?ird2 = x is requisite t ab\t two ?irds ( ! boil] %\ld be kept fill$ ) wat]4 ,! tube ,i =ms a communication betwe5 ! great] boil] ,d & ! less] or fe$+ boil] ,e1 desc5d+ ne>ly to ! bottom ( x4 ,?is communication c be op5$ & clos$ at pleasure by ! cock ,k4 ,a gauge pipe is ins]t$ simil> to ,g1 ,g1 b ext5d+ ne>ly to ! bottom4 ,f ?is boil] a tube ,f ext5ds1 :i* is cont9u$ to a ci/]n ,c 7fig4 #ab471 & a cock is plac$ at ,m1 :i*1 :5 op5$1 all[s ! wat] f ! ci/]n to fl[ into ! fe$+ boil] ,e1 & :i* is clos$ :5 t boil] is fill$4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ?is ci/]n is suppli$ w be describ$ h]eaft]4 ,let u n[ suppose t ! pr9cipal boil] is fill$ to ! level betwe5 ! gauge pipes1 & t ! subsidi>y boil] is ne>ly full ( wat]1 ! cock ,k & ! gauge cocks ,g ,g be+ all clos$4 ,! fire be+ light$ b5ea? ,d1 & ! wat] boil$1 /eam is produc$1 & is transmitt$ ?r\gh "o or o!r ( ! tubes ,t1 ,t1 to ! work+ app>atus4 ,:5 evaporation has r$uc$ ! wat] 9 ,d bel[ ! level ( ,g1 x w be necess>y to repl5i% ! boil] ,d4 ,?is is effect$ ?us3--,a fire be+ light$ b5ea? ! fe$+ boil] ,e1 /eam is produc$ 9 x above ! surface ( ! wat]1 :i*1 hav+ no escape1 presses on ! surface s z to =ce x up 9 ! pipe ,i4 ,! cock ,k be+ !n op5$1 ! boil+ wat] is =c$ into ! pr9cipal boil] ,d1 into :i* x is all[$ to fl[ until wat] issues f ! gauge cock ,g4 ,:5 ?is takes place1 ! cock ,k is clos$1 & ! fire remov$ f ,e until ! great boil] aga9 wants repl5i%+4 ,:5 ! fe$+ boil] ,e has be5 exhau/$1 x is repl5i%$ f ! ci/]n ,c 7fig4 #ab471 ?r\gh ! pipe ,f1 by op5+ ! cock ,m4 7#cb47 ,we %all n[ describe ! work+ app>atus 9 :i* ! /eam is us$ z a mov+ p[]4 ,let ,v ,v 7fig4 #ab47 be two /eam vessels communicat+ by ! tubes ,t ,t 7m>k$ by ! same lett]s 9 fig4 #aa47 ) ! great] boil] ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,let ,s be a pipe1 call$ ! suction pipe1 desc5d+ into ,pg#jeb ! well or res]voir f :i* ! wat] is to be rais$1 & communicat+ ) ea* ( ! /eam vessels ?r\gh tubes ,d ,d1 by valves ,a ,a1 :i* op5 upw>ds4 ,let ,f be a pipe cont9u$ f ! level ( ! eng9e to :atev] high] level x is int5d$ to elevate ! wat]4 ,! /eam vessels ,v ,v communicate ) ! =ce-pipe ,f by valves ,b ,b1 :i* op5 upw>ds1 ?r\gh ! tubes ,e ,e4 ,ov] ! /eam vessels & on ! =ce-pipe is plac$ a small ci/]n ,c1 already m5tion$1 :i* is kept fill$ ) cold wat] f ! =ce-pipe1 & f ! bottom ( :i* proce$s a pipe t]m9at$ ) a cock ,g4 ,?is is call$ ! cond5s+ pipe1 & c be br\ght alt]nately ov] ea* /eam vessel4 ,f ?is ci/]n ano!r pipe communicates ) ! fe$+ boil] 7fig4 #aa471 by ! cock ,m4#i ,! communication ( ! pipes ,t ,t ) ! boil] c be op5$ & clos$ alt]nately1 by ! regulator ,r 7fig4 #aa471 already describ$4 ,n[ suppose ! /eam vessels & tubes to be all fill$ ) common atmosph]ic air1 & t ! regulator be plac$ s t ! communication betwe5 ! tube ,t & ! boil] be op5$1 ! communication betwe5 ! o!r tube ,t & ! boil] be+ clos$1 /eam w fl[ into ,v ?r\gh ,t4 ,at fir/1 :ile ! vessel ,v is cold1 ! /eam w be cond5s$1 & w fall 9 drops ( wat] on ! bottom & sides ( ! vessel4 ,! cont9u$ supply ( /eam f ! boil] w at l5g? imp>t su* a degree ( heat to ! vessel ,v1 t x w cease to cond5se x4 ,mix$ ) ! heat$ air ,pg#jec conta9$ 9 ! vessel ,v1 x w h an ela/ic =ce great] ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure1 & w !re=e =ce op5 ! valve ,b1 ?r\gh :i* a mixture ( air & /eam w be driv5 until all ! air 9 ! vessel ,v w h pass$ out1 & x w conta9 no?+ b ! pure vap\r ( wat]4 ,:5 ?is has tak5 place1 suppose ! regulator be mov$ s z to close ! communication betwe5 ! tube ,t & ! boil]1 & to /op ! fur!r supply ( /eam to ! vessel ,v2 & at ! same "t let ! cond5s+ pipe ,g be br\ght ov] ! vessel ,v1 & ! cock op5$ s z to let a /ream ( cold wat] fl[ ^u x4 ,?is w cool ! vessel ,v1 & ! /eam ) :i* x is fill$ w be cond5s$ & fall 9 a few drops ( wat]1 leav+ ! int]ior ( ! vessel a vacuum4 ,! valve ,b w be kept clos$ by ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,b ! ela/ic =ce ( ! air betwe5 ! valve ,a & ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! well1 or res]voir1 w op5 ,a1 s t a "p ( ?is air w ru% 91 & occupy ! vessel ,v4 ,! air 9 ! suction pipe ,s1 be+ ?us all[$ an increas$ space1 w be proportionally dim9i%$ 9 its ela/ic =ce1 & its pressure w no long] balance t ( ! atmosph]e act+ on ! ext]nal surface ( ! wat] 9 ! res]voir4 ,?is pressure w1 !re=e1 =ce wat] up 9 ! tube ,s until its weight1 toge!r ) ! ela/ic =ce ( ! air above x1 balances ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,:5 ?is has tak5 place1 ! wat] w cease to asc5d4 ,let u n[ suppose t1 by %ift+ ! regulator1 ! communication is op5$ betwe5 ,t & ! boil]1 s t /eam fl[s aga9 into ,v4 ,! cond5s+ cock ,g be+ remov$1 ! vessel w be aga9 heat$ z be=e1 ! air expell$1 & its place fill$ by ! /eam4 ,! cond5s+ pipe be+ aga9 all[$ to play ^u ! vessel ,v1 & ! fur!r supply ( /eam be+ /opp$1 a vacuum w be produc$ 9 ,v1 & ! atmosph]ic pressure w =ce ! wat] ?r\gh ! valve ,a into ! vessel ,v1 :i* x w ne>ly fill1 a small quantity ( air1 h[ev]1 rema9+ above x4 ,?us f> ! me*anical ag5cy employ$ 9 elevat+ ! wat] is ! atmosph]ic pressure2 & ! p[] ( /eam is no fur!r employ$ ?an 9 ! production ( a vacuum4 ,pg#jed ,b1 9 ord] to cont9ue ! elevation ( ! wat] ?r\gh ! =ce pipe ,f1 above ! level ( ! /eam vessel1 x w be necess>y to use ! ela/ic pressure ( ! /eam4 ,! vessel ,v is n[ ne>ly fill$ by ! wat] :i* has be5 =c$ into x by ! atmosph]e4 ,let u suppose t1 ! regulator be+ %ift$ aga91 ! communication betwe5 ! tube ,t & ! boil] is op5$1 ! cond5s+ cock remov$1 & t /eam fl[s into ,v4 ,at fir/1 com+ 9 contact ) ! cold surface ( ! wat] & t ( ! vessel1 x is cond5s$2 b ! vessel is soon heat$1 & ! wat] =m$ by ! cond5s$ /eam collects 9 a %eet or film ^u ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ,v1 s z to =m a surface z hot z boil+ wat]4#aj ,! /eam !n be+ no long] cond5s$1 presses on ! surface ( ! wat] ) its ela/ic =ce2 & :5 t pressure becomes great] ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure1 ! valve ,b is =c$ op51 & ! wat] issu+ ?r\gh x1 passes ?r\gh ,e into ! =ce-pipe ,f2 & ?is is cont9u$ until ! /eam has =c$ all ! wat] f ,v1 & occupies its place4 ,! fur!r admission ( /eam ?r\gh ,t is once m /opp$ by mov+ ! regulator2 & ! cond5s+ pipe be+ aga9 all[$ to play on ,v1 s z to cond5se ! /eam :i* fills x1 produces a vacuum4 ,into ?is vacuum1 z be=e1 ! atmosph]ic pressure w =ce ! wat]1 & fill ! vessel ,v4 ,! cond5s+ pipe be+ !n clos$1 & /eam admitt$ ?r\gh ,t1 ! wat] 9 ,v w be =c$ by its pressure ?r\gh ! valve ,b & tube ,e into ,f1 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,we h n yet notic$ ! o!r /eam vessel ,v1 :i*1 z f> z we h describ$1 w\ld h rema9$ fill$ ) common atmosph]ic air1 ! pressure ( :i* on ! valve ,a w\ld h prev5t$ ! wat] rais$ 9 ! suction pipe ,s f pass+ ?r\gh x4 ,h[ev]1 ?is is n ! case2 =1 dur+ ! entire process :i* has be5 describ$ 9 ,v1 simil> effects h be5 produc$ 9 ,v1 :i* we h only omitt$ to notice to avoid ! confusion :i* ! two processes might produce4 ,x w be rememb]$1 t aft] ! /eam1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 hav+ fl[$ f ! boil] ,pg#jee ?r\gh ,t1 has bl[n ! air out ( ,v ?r\gh ,b1 ! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil] is clos$4 ,n[ ! same motion ( ! regulator :i* closes ?is1 op5s ! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil]2 = ! slid+ plate ,r 7fig4 #aa47 is mov$ f ! "o tube to ! o!r1 & at ! same "t1 z we h already /at$1 ! cond5s+ pipe is br\ght to play on ,v4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 a vacuum is be+ =m$ 9 ,v by cond5sation1 ! /eam1 fl[+ ?r\gh ,t1 bl[s out ! air ?r\gh ,b1 z already describ$ 9 ! o!r vessel ,v2 & :ile ! air 9 ,s is ru%+ up ?r\gh ,a into ,v1 foll[$ by ! wat] rais$ 9 ,s by ! atmosph]ic pressure1 ! vessel ,v is be+ fill$ ) /eam1 & ! air is completely expell$ f x4 ,! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil] is n[ aga9 op5$1 & ! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil] clos$ by mov+ ! regulator ,r 7fig4 #aa47 f ! tube ,t to ,t2 at ! same "t ! cond5s+ pipe is remov$ f ov] ,v1 & br\ght to play ^u ,v4 ,:ile ! /eam once m expels ! air f ,v ?r\gh ,b1 a vacuum is =m$ by cond5sation 9 ,v1 into :i* ! wat] 9 ,s ru%es ?r\gh ! valve ,a4 ,9 ! mean "t ,v is aga9 fill$ ) /eam4 ,! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil] is n[ clos$1 & t betwe5 ,t & ! boil] is op5$1 & ! cond5s+ pipe remov$ f ,v1 & br\ght to play on ,v4 ,:ile ! /eam f ! boil] =ces ! wat] 9 ,v ?r\gh ,b into ! =ce-pipe ,f1 a vacuum is be+ produc$ 9 ,v1 into :i* wat] is rais$ by ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,?us ea* ( ! vessels ,v ,v is alt]nately fill$ f ,s1 & ! wat] !nce =c$ into ,f4 ,! same /eam :i* =ces ! wat] f ! vessels into ,f1 hav+ done its duty1 is cond5s$1 & br+s up ! wat] f ,s1 by giv+ effect to ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,dur+ ?is process1 two alt]nate motions or adju/m5ts mu/ be con/antly made2 ! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil] mu/ be op5$1 & t betwe5 ,t & ! boil] clos$1 :i* is done by "o motion ( ! regulator4 ,! cond5s+ pipe at ! same "t mu/ be br\ght f ,v to play on ,v1 :i* is done by ! lev] plac$ ^u x4 ,aga9 ,pg#jef ! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil] is to be op5$1 & t betwe5 ,t & ! boil] clos$2 ?is is done by mov+ back ! regulator4 ,! cond5s+ pipe is br\ght f ,v to ,v by mov+ back ! o!r lev]1 & s on alt]nately4 ,= ! cle>ness & conv5i5ce ( description1 "s slight & o!rwise unimportant *anges h be5 made 9 ! position ( ! p>ts4 ,a p]spective view ( ?is eng9e is repres5t$ at ! head ( ?is *apt]4 ,! diff]5t p>ts already describ$ w easily be recognis$4 ,! eng9e ( ,sav]y 0 v cle>ly describ$ 9 a small "w publi%$ 9 ,london 9 #agjb1 entitl$1 ,! ,m9]'s ,fri5d1 or an ,eng9e to raise ,wat] by ,fire describ$1 & ! ,mann] ( ,fix+ x 9 ,m9es2 ) an ,acc\nt ( ! sev]al ,uses x is applicable unto1 & an ,answ] to ! ,objection made aga9/ x2 by ,?omas ,sav]y1 ,g5tleman4 ,?is volume 0 d$icat$ to ,william ,,iii4 7to :om ! eng9e _h be5 exhibit$ at ,hampton ,c\rt palace71 to ! ,royal ,society1 & to ! m9+ adv5tur]s ( ,engl&4 ,! foll[+ are ! uses to :i* ,sav]y propos$ ! eng9e %\ld be appli$3 ,fir/1 to raise wat] = turn+ all sorts ( mills2 second1 supply+ palaces & h\ses ) wat]1 & supply+ means ( ext+ui%+ fire !re9 by ! wat] s rais$2 ?ird1 ! supply+ cities & t[ns ) wat]2 f\r?1 dra9+ f5s or m>%es2 fif?1 = %ips2 six?1 ! dra9age ( m9es4 ,dr4 ,h>ris1 9 8 ,lexicon ,te*nicum1 or ,diction>y ( ,arts & ,sci5ces1 m5tions a ma*9e ( ,sav]y's = propell+ a vessel 9 a calm1 by paddle-:eels plac$ at ! side2 b x does n appe> t ,sav]y contemplat$ ! application ( a /eam eng9e to "w ^! :eels4 ,x is only f scatt]$ passages 9 publications ( ! day t x c be asc]ta9$ to :at ext5t ! eng9es ( ,sav]y 7 practically appli$4 ,9 8 address to ! ,royal ,society1 he speaks ( ! difficulties & exp5se :i* he enc\nt]$ 9 in/ruct+ artisans to make eng9es accord+ to 8 wi%2 b t aft] mu* exp]i5ce ! workm5 _h become su* ma/]s ( ! ?+1 t !y b\nd !mselves to deliv] ! eng9es 'exactly tight & fit = ,pg#jeg s]vice1 & su* z he 7,sav]y7 d>e w>rant !m to e "o t has occasion = !m4' ,9 8 address to ! m9]s ( ,engl& he also says1 t ! frequ5t disord]s & cumb]som5ess ( wat] eng9es !n 9 use enc\rag$ him to inv5t eng9es to "w by ?is new =ce2 t ?\gh !y 7 oblig$ to enc\nt] ! odde/ & almo/ insup]able difficulties1 yet he sp>$ nei!r "t1 pa9s1 nor money1 till he _h conqu]$ !m4 ,9 ,bradley's ,improvem5ts ( ,plant+ & ,g>d5+1 #agah1 ! au?or ?us speaks ( an eng9e erect$ by ,sav]y3-- ,suppos+ ! situation ( a h\se or g>d5 to be a consid]able height above any pond1 riv]1 or spr+1 & t x has at pres5t no o!r conv5i5cy ( wat] ?an :at is br\ght cont9ually by m5 or horses to x4 ,9 ?is case1 ! wond]ful inv5tion ( ! late ,mr4 ,sav]y1 ,f4,r4,s41 = rais+ wat] by fire1 w n only supply ! defect1 by fl++ up z mu* wat] z may be desir$1 b may be ma9ta9$ ) v little tr\ble & v small exp5se4 ,x is n[ ab\t six ye>s s9ce ,mr4 ,sav]y set up "o ( !m = t curi\s g5tleman ,mr4 ,balle1 at ,cambd5 ,h\se1 ,k5s+ton1 ne> ,london1 :i* has succe$$ s well t !re has n be5 any want ( wat] s9ce x has be5 built2 &1 ) ! improvem5ts s9ce made to x1 ,i am apt to believe w be less subject to be out ( ord] ?an any eng9e :atev]4 ,x is rem>kable t1 not)/&+ ! high pressure /eam necess>y = ! op]ation ( ,sav]y's eng9e1 he does n appe> to h adopt$ ! obvi\s exp$i5t ( a safety valve4 ,! safety valve _h be5 previ\sly kn[n1 hav+ be5 inv5t$ ab\t ! ye> #afha1 by ,pap91 = 8 dige/]1 :i* 0 a close boil]1 contriv$ by him = /ew+ meat & dige/+ bones1 by submitt+ !m to a high] temp]ature ?an t ( wat] boil+ 9 an op5 vessel4 ,! safety valve :i* has ev] s9ce be5 us$ = /eam boil]s ( e k9d is a valve :i* op5s outw>ds1 & is fitt$ to an ap]ture 9 ! boil]1 s z to be /eam tight4 ,x is press$ d[n by a weight1 ! am\nt ( :i* is regulat$ by ! maximum pressure to :i* x is int5d$ ! /eam ,pg#jeh %all be limit$4 ,?us1 if ! magnitude ( ! valve be a squ>e in*1 & ! pressure ( ! /eam be limit$ to #aj lbs4 p] squ>e in* above ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 !n ! valve w\ld be load$ ) a weight ( #aj lbs42 b z x 0 f\nd necess>y to v>y f "t to "t ! limit+ pressure ( ! /eam1 or ! load ( ! safety valve1 ^! valves 7 usually con/ruct$ s z to be held d[n by ! pressure ( a lev] hav+ a slid+ weight ^u x4 ,by mov+ ! weight on ! arm ( ! lev]1 ! pressure on ! valve c\ld be increas$ or dim9i%$ at ! discretion ( ! eng9e]4 ,?is contrivance 0 fir/ appli$ to ,sav]y's eng9es1 by ,desaguli]s1 ab\t ! ye> #agag1 be=e :i* ye> ,sav]y di$4 ,x is ju/ly obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,f>ey1 9 8 treatise on ! /eam eng9e1 t1 :5 a comp>ison is made betwe5 ,capta9#aa ,sav]y's eng9e & ^? ( 8 pr$ecessors1 ! result w be 9 e respect fav\rable to 8 "* z an inv5tor1 & z a practical eng9e]2 all ! details ( 8 inv5tion are made out 9 a ma/]ly /yle1 & accid5ts & cont+5cies are provid$ =1 s z to r5d] x a real work+ eng9e2 :]eas ,de ,caus1 ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 ,sir ,samuel ,morl&1 & ,pap91 ?\gh +5i\s philosoph]s1 only produc$ m]e outl9es1 :i* requir$ great lab\r & skill ( subsequ5t inv5tors to fill up1 & make !m suffici5tly complete to be put 9 execution4 ,ab\t ! ye> #agah fur!r improvem5ts 7 made 9 ! con/ruction ( ,sav]y's eng9e1 by ,dr4 ,desaguli]s2 b x is probable t "s ( ^! 7 sugge/$ by ! proce$+s ( ! inv5tors ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 :i* %all pres5tly describe4 7#cc47 ,9 ord] duly to appreciate ! value ( improvem5ts1 x is necess>y fir/ to p]ceive ! defects :i* ^! improvem5ts are design$ to remove4 ,sav]y's /eam eng9e1 consid]+ h[ little 0 kn[n ( ! value & prop]ties ( /eam1 & h[ l[ ! g5]al /&>d ( me*anical k 0 9 8 day1 is c]ta9ly highly ,pg#jei cr$itable to 8 g5ius4 ,nev]!less x _h v consid]able defects1 & 0 f9ally f\nd to be ineffici5t = ! mo/ important purposes to :i* he propos$ apply+ x4 ,at ! "t ( ?is inv5tion1 ! m9es 9 ,engl& _h greatly increas$ 9 dep?1 & ! process ( dra9+ !m _h become bo? exp5sive & difficult2 s mu* s1 t x 0 f\nd 9 _m in/ances t _! produce did n cov] ! co/ ( work+ !m4 ,! dra9age ( ^! m9es 0 ! mo/ important purpose to :i* ,sav]y propos$ to apply 8 /eam eng9e4 ,x has be5 already /at$ t ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e am\nts to ab\t fifte5 p\nds on e squ>e in*4 ,n[1 a column ( wat]1 ^: base is "o squ>e in*1 & ^: height is ?irty-f\r feet1 weighs ab\t fifte5 p\nds4 ,if we suppose t a p]fect vacuum 7 produc$ 9 ! /eam vessels ,v ,v 7fig4 #ab47 by cond5sation1 ! atmosph]ic pressure w\ld fail to =ce up ! wat]1 if ! height ( ! top ( ^! vessels above ! wat] to be rais$ exce$$ ?irty-f\r feet4 ,x is pla91 !re=e1 t ! eng9e _c be m ?an ?irty-f\r feet above ! wat] :i* x is int5d$ to elevate4 ,b 9 fact x _c be s mu*2 = ! vacuum produc$ 9 ! /eam vessels ,v ,v is nev] p]fect4 ,wat]1 :5 n submitt$ to ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 w vaporise at a v l[ temp]ature1 z we %all h]eaft] expla92 & x 0 f\nd t a vap\r possess+ a consid]able ela/icity w\ld1 not)/&+ ! cond5sation1 rema9 9 ! vessels ,v ,v & ! pipe ,s1 & w\ld oppose ! asc5t ( ! wat]4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 ! eng9e c\ld nev] be plac$ ) practical advantage at a great] height ?an tw5ty-six feet above ! level ( ! wat] to be rais$4 7#cd47 ,:5 ! wat] is elevat$ to ! eng9e1 & ! /eam vessels fill$1 if /eam be introduc$ above ! wat] 9 ,v1 x mu/ fir/ balance ! atmosph]ic pressure1 be=e x c =ce ! wat] ?r\gh ! valve ,b4 ,"h1 !n1 is a me*anical pressure ( fifte5 p\nds p] squ>e in* exp5d$1 )\t any wat] be+ rais$ by x4 ,if /eam ( twice t ela/ic =ce be us$1 x w elevate a column 9 ,f ( ?irty-f\r feet 9 height2 & if /eam ( triple ! =ce be us$1 x w raise a column ( sixty-eight feet high1 ,pg#jfj :i*1 add$ to tw5ty-six feet rais$ by ! atmosph]e1 gives a total lift ( n9ety-f\r feet4 ,9 effect+ ?is1 /eam ( a pressure equal to ?ree times t ( ! atmosph]e acts on ! inn] surface ( ! vessels ,v ,v4 ,"o ?ird ( ?is bur/+ pressure is balanc$ by ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e on ! ext]nal surface ( ! vessels2 b an effective pressure ( ?irty p\nds p] squ>e in* /ill rema9s1 t5d+ to bur/ ! vessels4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! app>atus c\ld n be con/ruct$ to be> m ?an ?is ) safety2 &1 !re=e1 9 practice1 ! lift ( su* an eng9e 0 limit$ to ab\t n9ety p]p5dicul> feet4 ,9 ord] to raise ! wat] f ! bottom ( ! m9e by ^! eng9es1 !re=e1 x 0 necess>y to place "o at e n9ety feet ( ! dep?2 s t ! wat] rais$ by "o ?r\gh ! fir/ n9ety feet %\ld be receiv$ 9 a res]voir1 f :i* x 0 to be elevat$ ! next n9ety feet by ano!r1 & s on4 ,besides ?is1 x 0 f\nd t suffici5t /r5g? c\ld n be giv5 to ^? eng9es1 if con/ruct$ ^u a l>ge scale4 ,!y 71 !re=e1 necess>ily v limit$ 9 _! dim5sions1 & 7 incapable ( rais+ ! wat] ) suffici5t spe$4 ,h5ce arose a necessity = sev]al eng9es at ea* level1 :i* greatly increas$ ! exp5se4 7#ce47 ,^!1 h[ev]1 7 n ! only defects ( ,sav]y's eng9es4 ,! consumption ( fuel 0 enorm\s1 ! proportion ( heat wa/$ be+ mu* m ?an :at 0 us$ 9 ei!r =c+ up ! wat]1 or produc+ a vacuum4 ,?is w be v easily und]/ood by att5d+ to ! process ( work+ ! eng9e already describ$4 ,:5 ! /eam is fir/ introduc$ f ! boil] into ! /eam vessels ,v ,v1 prep>atory to ! =mation ( a vacuum1 x is necess>y t x %\ld heat ^! vessels up to ! temp]ature ( ! /eam itself2 = until !n ! /eam w be cond5s$ ! mom5t x ent]s ! vessel by ! cold surface4 ,all ?is heat1 !re=e1 sp5t 9 rais+ ! temp]ature ( ! /eam vessels is wa/$4 ,aga91 :5 ! wat] has asc5d$ & fill$ ! vessels ,v ,v1 & /eam is introduc$ to =ce ?is wat] ?r\gh ,b ,b into ,f1 x is imm$iately cond5s$ by ! cold surface 9 ,v ,v1 & does n ,pg#jfa beg9 to act until a quantity ( hot wat]1 =m$ by cond5s$ /eam1 is collect$ on ! surface ( ! cold wat] :i* fills ^! vessels4 ,h5ce ano!r s\rce ( ! wa/e ( heat arises4 ,:5 ! /eam beg9s to act ^u ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ,v ,v1 & to =ce x d[n1 ! cold surface ( ! vessels is gradually expos$ to ! /eam1 & mu/ be heat$ :ile ! /eam cont9ues its action2 & :5 ! wat] has be5 =c$ out ( ! vessel1 ! vessel itself has be5 heat$ to ! temp]ature ( ! /eam :i* fills x1 all :i* heat is dissipat$ by ! subsequ5t process ( cond5sation4 ,x mu/ ?us be evid5t t ! /eam us$ 9 =c+ up ! ! wat] 9 ,f1 & 9 produc+ a vacuum1 be>s a v small proportion inde$ to :at is consum$ 9 heat+ ! app>atus aft] cond5sation4 7#cf47 ,!re is also ano!r circum/ance :i* increases ! consumption ( fuel4 ,! wat] mu/ be =c$ ?r\gh ,b1 n only aga9/ ! atmosph]ic pressure1 b also aga9/ a column ( sixty-eight feet ( wat]4 ,/eam is !re=e requir$ ( a pressure ( =ty-five p\nds on ! squ>e in*4 ,consequ5tly ! wat] 9 ! boil] mu/ be boil$ "u ?is pressure4 ,t ?is %\ld take place1 x is necess>y t ! wat] %\ld be rais$ to a temp]ature consid]ably above #bab1 ev5 s high z #bge2 & ?us an increas$ heat mu/ be giv5 to ! boil]4 ,indep5d5tly ( ! o!r defects1 ?is int5se heat weak5$ & gradually de/roy$ ! app>atus4 ,sav]y 0 ! fir/ :o sugge/$ ! me?od ( express+ ! p[] ( an eng9e ) ref]5ce to t ( horses4 ,9 ?is comp>ison1 h[ev]1 he suppos$ ea* horse to "w b eight h\rs a day1 :ile ! eng9e works = tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,?is me?od ( express+ ! p[] ( /eam eng9es w be expla9$ h]eaft]4 7#cg47 ,! failure ( ! eng9es propos$ by ,capta9 ,sav]y 9 ! "w ( dra9age1 f ! causes :i* h be5 j m5tion$1 & ! increas+ necessity = effect+ ?is object1 aris+ f ! l>ge prop]ty 9 m9es :i* became e ye> unproductive by be+ flood$1 /imulat$ ! +5uity ,pg#jfb ( me*anics to contrive "s means ( r5d]+ ^? p[]s ( /eam exhibit$ 9 ,sav]y's eng9e available4 ,?omas ,newcom51 ! reput$ inv5tor ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 0 an ironmong]1 or1 accord+ to "s1 a blacksmi?1 9 ! t[n ( ,d>tm\? 9 ,devon%ire4 ,f 8 p]sonal acqua9tance & int]c\rse ) ,dr4 ,hooke1 ! celebrat$ natural philosoph]1 x is probable t he 0 a p]son ( "s education1 & !re=e likely to be above ! position ( a blacksmi?4 ,be+ 9 ! habit ( visit+ ! t9 m9es 9 ,cornwall1 ,newcom5 became acqua9t$ ) ! eng9e inv5t$ by ,sav]y1 & ) ! causes :i* l$ to its ineffici5cy = ! purposes ( dra9age4 ,x has be5 /at$ t ,pap91 ab\t ! ye> #afij1 propos$ ! con/ruction ( an eng9e work+ by ! atmosph]ic pressure act+ on "o side ( a pi/on aga9/ a vacuum produc$ by ! cond5sation ( /eam on ! o!r side4 ,pap9 0 n consci\s ( ! importance ( ?is pr9ciple2 =1 s f> f ev] hav+ attempt$ to apply x to practical purposes1 he probably nev] con/ruct$1 ev5 on a small scale1 any ma*9e illu/rat+ x4 ,on ! contr>y1 he ab&on$ ! project ! mom5t he 0 in=m$ ( ! pr9ciple & /ructure ( ! /eam eng9e ( ,sav]y2 & he !n propos$ an eng9e = rais+ wat]1 act+ by ! expansive =ce ( /eam simil> to ,sav]y's1 b ab&on+ ! me?od ( work+ by a vacuum4 ,?is eng9e is describ$ by ,pap9 9 a "w publi%$ 9 #agjg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,a 7fig4 #ac47 is an oval boil]1 hav+ a safety-valve ,b1 :i* limits ! pressure ( ! /eam4 ,x is connect$ ) a cyl9d] ,c1 by a curv$ pipe hav+ a /op-cock at ,d4 ,a pipe ) a /op-cock ,g op5s f ! top ( ! cyl9d] into ! atmosph]e1 & a safety-valve ,f is plac$ ^u ! cyl9d]4 ,a holl[ copp] pi/on ,h moves freely 9 ! cyl9d]1 & floats ^u ! wat]4 ,o is a funnel ) a valve ,l 9 ! bottom1 op5+ d[nw>ds1 ?r\gh :i* ! cyl9d] ,c may be fill$ ) wat] to ! level ( ! top ( ! funnel4 ,a close air-vessel communicates ) ! cyl9d] ,c by ! curv$ tube1 & has a valve ,k op5+ upw>ds4 ,! =ce-pipe ?r\gh :i* ! wat] is rais$ communicates ,pg#jfc ) ! air-vessel ,i4 ,if ! cock ,d be %ut1 & ! cock ,g op5$1 wat] p\r$ into ! funnel ,o w rise into ! cyl9d] ,c1 ! air :i* fills ! cyl9d] escap+ ?r\gh ! op5 pipe ,g4 ,:5 ! cyl9d] is ?us fill$ ) wat]1 let ! cock ,g be clos$1 & ! cock ,d op5$4 ,! /eam f ! boil]1 aft] heat+ ! metal ( ! cyl9d]1 w =ce ! pi/on d[nw>ds1 & drive ! wat] ?r\gh ! curv$ tube into ! vessel ,i1 f :i* its return is prev5t$ by ! valve ,k1 :i* is clos$ by its weight4 ,! air :i* fill$ ! vessel ,i w !n be compress$1 & by its ela/icity w drive a column ( wat] up ! pipe ,n4 ,aft] ! cont5ts ( ! cyl9d] h be5 ?us dis*>g$ x may be refill$ 9 ! same mann]1 & ! process repeat$4 ,x w be p]ceiv$ t ?is project is no?+ m ?an a reproduction ( ! eng9e ( ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]4 ,9 ! preface to ! "w conta9+ ?is description1 ,pap9 gives an extract f a lett] address$ by him to ,leibnitz 9 #afih1 f :i* x appe>s t he _h ab&on$ 8 idea ( work+ ! pi/on by ! atmosph]ic pressure act+ aga9/ a vacuum1 consid]+ x to be a contrivance inf]ior ,pg#jfd to ! eng9e n[ describ$4 ,we n[ raise wat]1 he says1 by ! =ce ( fire1 9 a m advantage\s mann] ?an t :i* ,i _h publi%$ "s ye>s be=e2 = besides ! suction1 we n[ also use ! pressure :i* ! wat] ex]ts ^u o!r bodies 9 dilat+ itself by heat2 in/ead ( :i* ,i be=e employ$ ! suction only1 ! effects ( :i* are m limit$4 ,f docum5ts :i* h be5 pres]v$ 9 ! ,royal ,society1 x appe>s t ,newcom5 0 acqua9t$ ) ,pap9's writ+s1 & !re=e probably fir/ d]iv$ f !m ! sugge/ion :i* he subsequ5tly realis$ 9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e4 ,among "s pap]s ( ,dr4 ,hooke's h be5 f\nd notes = ! use ( ,newcom51 on ,pap9's me?od ( transmitt+ ! =ce ( a /ream or fall ( wat] to a di/ance by pipes4 ,hooke dissuad$ ,newcom5 f attempt+ any ma*9e on ?is pr9ciple1 :i*1 z fir/ propos$ by ,pap91 0 impracticable4 ,he expos$ ! fallacy ( ,pap9's fir/ project 9 sev]al disc\rses be=e ! ,royal ,society1 & consid]$ 8 improv$ edition ( x1 ?\gh free f fallacy1 z impracticable4 ,pap9's project = produc+ a vacuum "u a pi/on by cond5s+ ! /eam hav+ be5 publi%$ 9 ! ,act ,eruditorum1 9 ,lat91 9 #afij1 & 9 ,fr5*1 at ,cassel1 9 #afie1 & subsequ5tly1 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions1 9 ,engl& 9 #afig1 _c be suppos$ to be unkn[n to ,dr4 ,hooke2 & if kn[n to him1 w\ld probably h be5 communicat$ to ,newcom54 ,dr4 ,hooke di$ 9 #agjc1 "s ye>s be=e ! date ( ,newcom5's inv5tion4 ,john ,cawley1 :o 0 ! associate ( ,newcom5 9 8 exp]im5ts & inquiries1 0 a plumb] & glazi] ( ! same t[n4 ,newcom5 & ,cawley obta9$ a pat5t = ! atmosph]ic eng9e 9 #agje1 9 :i* ,sav]y 0 associat$1 he hav+ previ\sly obta9$ a pat5t = ! me?od ( produc+ a vacuum by ! cond5sation ( /eam1 :i* 0 ess5tial to ,newcom5's contrivance4 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 until ab\t ! ye> #agaa t any eng9e _h be5 con/ruct$ "u ?is pat5t4 ,9 ! latt] end ( t ye>1 accord+ to ,desaguli]s1 ! pat5tees made proposals to dra9 a colli]y at ,griff1 9 ,pg#jfe ,w>wick%ire1 9 :i* "w five hundr$ horses 7 con/antly employ$4 ,?is proposal n be+ accept$1 !y contract$1 9 ! foll[+ ,m>*1 to dra9 wat] = ,mr4 ,back ( ,wolv]hampton1 :]e1 aft] _m labori\s attempts1 !y succe$$ 9 mak+ _! eng9e "w2 b n be+ ei!r philosoph]s to und]/& ! reason1 or ma!maticians en\gh to calculate ! p[] & proportions ( ! p>ts1 !y v luckily1 by accid5t1 f\nd :at !y s\ght =4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,newcom5 resum$ ! old me?od ( rais+ ! wat] f ! m9es by ord9>y pumps1 b conceiv$ ! idea ( work+ ^! pumps by "s mov+ p[] less exp5sive ?an t ( horses4 ,! means :]eby he propos$ effect+ ?is1 0 by connect+ ! end ( ! pump-rod ,d 7fig4 #ad47 by a *a9 ) ! ar* head ,a ( a ,pg#jff work+-beam ,a ,b1 play+ on an axis ,c4 ,! o!r ar* head ,b ( ?is beam 0 connect$ by a *a9 ) ! rod ,e ( a solid pi/on ,p1 :i* mov$ air-tight 9 a cyl9d] ,f4 ,if a vacuum be creat$ b5ea? ! pi/on ,p1 ! atmosph]ic pressure act+ ^u x w press x d[n ) a =ce ( fifte5 p\nds p] squ>e in*2 & ! end ,a ( ! beam be+ ?us rais$1 ! pump-rod ,d w be drawn up4 ,if a pressure equival5t to ! atmosph]e be !n introduc$ bel[ ! pi/on1 s z to neutralise ! d[nw>d pressure1 ! pi/on w be 9 a /ate ( indiff]5ce z to ! ris+ or fall+2 & if 9 ?is case ! rod ,d be made heavi] ?an ! pi/on & its rod1 s z to ov]come ! friction1 x w desc5d1 & elevate ! pi/on aga9 to ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! vacuum be+ aga9 produc$1 ano!r desc5t ( ! pi/on1 & consequ5t elevation ( ! pump-rod1 w take place2 & s ! process may be cont9u$4 ,su* 0 ,newcom5's fir/ conception ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e2 & ! contrivance _h mu*1 ev5 at ! fir/ view1 to recomm5d x4 ,! p[] ( su* a ma*9e w\ld dep5d entirely on ! magnitude ( ! pi/on2 & be+ indep5d5t ( highly ela/ic /eam1 w\ld n expose ! mat]ials to ! de/ructive heat :i* 0 necess>y = work+ ,sav]y's eng9e4 ,suppos+ a p]fect vacuum to be produc$ "u ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d]1 an effective d[nw>d pressure w\ld be obta9$1 am\nt+ to fifte5 times z _m p\nds z !re are squ>e in*es 9 ! section ( ! pi/on4#ab ,?us1 if ! base ( ! pi/on 7 #ajj squ>e in*es1 a pressure equal to #aejj p\nds w\ld be obta9$4 7#ch47 ,9 ord] to accompli% ?is1 two ?+s 7 necess>y3 #a4 ,to make a spe$y & effectual vacuum bel[ ! ,pg#jfg pi/on 9 ! desc5t2 &1 #b4 ,to contrive a c\nt]poise = ! atmosph]e 9 ! asc5t4 ,! cond5sation ( /eam imm$iately pres5t$ itself z ! mo/ effectual means ( accompli%+ ! =m]2 & ! ela/ic =ce ( ! same /eam previ\s to cond5sation an obvi\s me?od ( effect+ ! latt]4 ,no?+ n[ rema9$ to c>ry ! design into execution1 b ! contrivance ( means = ! alt]nate introduction & cond5sation ( ! /eam2 & ,newcom5 & ,cawley 7 accord+ly grant$ a pat5t 9 #agjg1 9 :i* ,sav]y 0 unit$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! pr9ciple ( cond5sation = :i* he _h previ\sly receiv$ a pat5t be+ necess>y to ! project$ ma*9e4 ,we %all n[ describe ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 z fir/ con/ruct$ by ,newcom53-- ,! boil] ,k 7fig4 #ad47 is plac$ ov] a furnace ,i1 ! flue ( :i* w9ds r\nd x1 s z to communicate heat to e "p ( ! bottom ( x4 ,9 ! top1 :i* is hemisph]ical1 two gauge-cocks ,g ,g are plac$1 z 9 ,sav]y's eng9e1 & a puppet valve ,v1 :i* op5s upw>d1 & is load$ at "o p\nd p] squ>e in*2 s t :5 ! /eam produc$ 9 ! boil] exce$s ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e by m ?an "o p\nd on ! squ>e in*1 ! valve ,v is lift$1 & ! /eam escapes ?r\gh x1 & cont9ues to escape until its pressure is suffici5tly dim9i%$1 :5 ! valve ,v aga9 falls into its seat4 ,?is valve p]=ms ! (fice ( ! safety-valve 9 mod]n eng9es4 ,! great /eam-tube is repres5t$ at ,s1 :i* conducts /eam f ! boil] to ! cyl9d]2 & a fe$+ pipe ,t1 furni%$ ) a cock1 :i* is op5$ & clos$ at pleasure1 proce$s f a ci/]n ,l to ! boil]4 ,by ?is pipe ! boil] may be repl5i%$ f ! ci/]n1 :5 ! gauge cock ,g indicates t ! level has fall5 bel[ x4 ,! ci/]n ,l is suppli$ ) hot wat]1 by means :i* we %all pres5tly expla94 7#ci47 ,to und]/& ! me*anism necess>y to "w ! pi/on1 let u consid] h[ ! supply & cond5sation ( /eam mu/ be regulat$4 ,:5 ! pi/on has be5 =c$ to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] by ! atmosph]ic pressure act+ aga9/ a vacuum1 9 ord] to balance t pressure1 ,pg#jfh & enable x to be drawn up by ! weight ( ! pump-rod1 x is necess>y to introduce /eam f ! boil]4 ,?is is accompli%$ by op5+ ! cock ,r 9 ! /eam pipe ,s4 ,! /eam be+ ?us introduc$ f ! boil]1 its pressure balances ! action ( ! atmosph]e ^u ! pi/on1 :i* is imm$iately drawn to ! top ( ! cyl9d] by ! weight ( ! pump-rod ,d4 ,x !n becomes necess>y to cond5se ?is /eam1 9 ord] to produce a vacuum4 ,to accompli% ?is1 ! fur!r supply ( /eam mu/ be cut (f1 :i* is done by clos+ ! cock ,r4 ,! supply ( /eam f ! boil] be+ ?us susp5d$1 ! application ( cold wat] on ! ext]nal surface ( ! cyl9d] becomes necess>y to cond5se ! /eam )9 x4 ,?is 0 done by enclos+ ! cyl9d] )9 ano!r1 leav+ a space betwe5 !m4#ac ,into ?is space cold wat] 0 all[$ to fl[ f a cock ,m plac$ ov] x1 suppli$ by a pipe f ! ci/]n ,n4 ,?is ci/]n is suppli$ ) wat] by a pump ,o1 :i* is work$ by ! eng9e4 ,! cold wat] suppli$ f ,m1 hav+ fill$ ! space betwe5 ! two cyl9d]s1 ab/racts ! heat f ! inn] "o2 & cond5s+ ! /eam1 produces a vacuum1 into :i* ! pi/on is =c$ by ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,prep>atory to ! next desc5t1 ! wat] :i* ?us fills ! space betwe5 ! cyl9d]s1 & :i* is w>m$ by ! heat ab/ract$ f ! /eam1 mu/ be dis*>g$1 9 ord] to give room = a fre% supply ( cold wat] f ,m4 ,an ap]ture1 furni%$ ) a cock1 is accord+ly provid$ 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] is dis*>g$ into ! ci/]n ,l2 & be+ w>m1 is adapt$ = ! supply ( ! boil] ?r\gh ,t1 z already m5tion$4 ,! cock ,r be+ n[ aga9 op5$1 /eam is admitt$ bel[ ! pi/on1 :i*1 z be=e1 asc5ds1 & ! desc5t is aga9 accompli%$ by clos+ ! cock ,r1 & op5+ ! cock ,m1 admitt+ cold wat] betwe5 ! cyl9d]s1 & !reby cond5s+ ! /eam bel[ ! pi/on4 ,! cond5s$ /eam1 ?us r$uc$ to wat]1 w collect ,pg#jfi 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 & resi/ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to provide an exit = x1 :i* is done by a valve op5+ outw>ds into a tube :i* leads to ! fe$+ ci/]n ,l1 into :i* ! cond5s$ /eam is driv54 ,t ! pi/on %\ld cont9ue to be air-tight1 x 0 necess>y to keep a con/ant supply ( wat] ov] x2 ?is 0 done by a cock simil> to ,m1 :i* all[$ wat] to fl[ f ! pipe ,m on ! pi/on4 7#dj47 ,soon aft] ! fir/ con/ruction ( ^! eng9es1 an accid5tal circum/ance sugge/$ to ,newcom5 a mu* bett] me?od ( cond5sation ?an ! application ( cold wat] on ! ext]nal surface ( ! cyl9d]4 ,an eng9e 0 obs]v$ to "w sev]al /rokes ) unusual rapidity1 & )\t ! regul> supply ( ! cond5s+ wat]4 ,^u exam9+ ! pi/on1 a hole 0 f\nd 9 x1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat]1 :i* 0 p\r$ on to keep x air-tight1 fl[$1 & in/antly cond5s$ ! /eam "u x4 ,on ?is sugge/ion ,newcom5 ab&on$ ! ext]nal cyl9d]1 & introduc$ a pipe ,h1 furni%$ ) a cock ,q1 into ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 s t1 on turn+ ! cock1 ! pressure ( ! wat] 9 ! pipe ,h1 f ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! ci/]n ,n1 w\ld =ce ! wat] to rise z a jet into ! cyl9d]1 & w\ld in/antly cond5se ! /eam4 ,?is me?od ( cond5s+ by injection =m$ a v important improvem5t 9 ! eng9e1 & is /ill us$4 7#da47 ,hav+ tak5 a g5]al view ( ! p>ts ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 let u n[ consid] m p>ticul>ly its op]ation4 ,:5 ! eng9e is n work+1 ! weight ( ! pump-rod ,d 7fig4 #ad47 draws d[n ! beam ,a1 & draws ! pi/on to ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 :]e x re/s4 ,let u suppose all ! cocks & valves clos$1 & ! boil] fill$ to ! prop] dep?4 ,! fire be+ light$ b5ea? x1 ! wat] is boil$ until ! /eam acquires suffici5t =ce to lift ! valve ,v4 ,:5 ?is takes place1 ! eng9e may be />t$4 ,= ?is purpose ! regulat+ valve ,r is op5$4 ,! /eam ru%es 91 & is fir/ cond5s$ by ! cold cyl9d]4 ,aft] a %ort "t ! cyl9d] acquires ! temp]ature ( ! /eam1 :i* !n ,pg#jgj ceases to be cond5s$1 & mixes ) ! air :i* fill$ ! cyl9d]4 ,! /eam & heat$ air1 hav+ a great] =ce ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure1 w op5 a valve plac$ at ! end ,x ( a small tube 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 & :i* op5s outw>ds4 ,f ?is 7:i* is call$ ! bl[+ valve#ad7 ! /eam & air ru% 9 a con/ant /ream1 until all ! air has be5 expell$1 & ! cyl9d] is fill$ ) ! pure vap\r ( wat]4 ,?is process is call$ bl[+ ! eng9e prep>atory to />t+ x4 ,:5 x is ab\t to be />t$1 ! eng9e-man closes ! regulator ,r1 & !reby susp5ds ! supply ( /eam f ! boil]4 ,at ! same "t he op5s ! cond5s+ valve ,h#ae2 & !reby ?r[s up a jet ( cold wat] into ! cyl9d]4 ,?is imm$iately cond5ses ! /eam conta9$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 & produces ! vacuum4 7,! atmosph]e _c ent] ! bl[+ valve1 because x op5s outw>ds1 s t no air c ent] to vitiate ! vacuum47 ,! atmosph]ic pressure above ! pi/on n[ takes effect1 & =ces x d[n 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! desc5t be+ complet$1 ! eng9e-man closes ! cond5s+ valve ,h1 & op5s ! regulator1 ,r4 ,by ?is means he /ops ! play ( ! jet )9 ! cyl9d]1 & admits ! /eam f ! boil]4 ,! fir/ effect ( ! /eam is to expel ! cond5s+ wat] & cond5s$ /eam :i* are collect$ 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ?r\gh ! tube ,y1 conta9+ a valve :i* op5s outw>ds 7call$ ! eduction valve71 :i* leads to ! hot ci/]n ,l1 into :i* ?is wat] is !re=e dis*>g$4 ,:5 ! /eam admitt$ ?r\gh ,r ceases to be cond5s$1 x balances ! atmosph]ic pressure above ! pi/on1 & ?us p]mits x to be drawn to ! top ( ! cyl9d] by ! weight ( ! rod ,d4 ,?is asc5t ( ! pi/on is also assi/$ by ! circum/ance ( ! /eam be+ some:at /rong] ?an ! atmosph]e4 ,:5 ! pi/on has rea*$ ! top1 ! regulat+ valve ,r is clos$1 & ! cond5s+ valve ,h op5$1 & ano!r desc5t produc$1 z be=e1 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,pg#jga ,! manipulation necess>y 9 work+ ?is eng9e 01 !re=e1 ! alt]nate op5+ & clos+ ( two valves2 ! regulat+ & cond5s+ valves4 ,:5 ! pi/on rea*$ ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! =m] 0 to be clos$1 & ! latt] op5$2 &1 on rea*+ ! bottom1 ! =m] 0 to be op5$1 & ! latt] clos$4 7#db47 ,! duty ( work+ ! eng9e requir+ no great am\nt ( lab\r1 or skill1 0 usually entru/$ to boys1 call$1 cock boys4 ,x happ5$ t "o ( ! mo/ important improvem5ts :i* has ev] be5 made 9 ! work+ ( /eam eng9es 0 due to ! +5uity ( "o ( ^! boys4 ,x is said t a lad1 nam$ ,humphrey ,pott]1 0 employ$ to "w ! cocks ( an atmosph]ic eng9e1 & be+ tempt$ to escape f ! monoton\s drudg]y to :i* 8 duty conf9$ him1 8 +5uity 0 %>p5$ s z to prompt him to devise "s means by :i* he might indulge 8 disposition to play )\t expos+ himself to ! consequ5ces ( susp5d+ ! p]=mance ( ! eng9e4 ,on obs]v+ ! alt]nate asc5d+ & desc5d+ motion ( ! beam above him1 & consid]+ x 9 ref]5ce to ! lab\r ( 8 own h&s1 9 alt]nately rais+ & l[]+ ! lev]s :i* gov]n$ ! cocks1 he p]ceiv$ a relation :i* s]v$ z a clue to a simple contrivance1 by :i* ! /eam eng9e1 = ! fir/ "t1 became an automaton4 ,:5 ! beam arriv$ at ! top ( its play1 x 0 necess>y to op5 ! /eam valve by rais+ a lev]1 & to close ! injection valve by rais+ ano!r4 ,?is he saw c\ld be accompli%$ by atta*+ /r+s ( prop] l5g? to ^! lev]s1 & ty+ !m to "s "p ( ! beam4 ,^! lev]s requir$ to be mov$ 9 ! opposite direction :5 ! beam atta9$ ! l[e/ po9t ( its play4 ,?is he saw c\ld be accompli%$ by /r+s1 ei!r connect$ ) ! out] arm ( ! beam1 or conduct$ ov] rods or pulleys4 ,9 %ort1 he contriv$ means ( s connect+ ! lev]s :i* gov]n$ ! two cocks by /r+s ) ! beam1 t ! beam op5$ & clos$ ^! cocks ) ! mo/ p]fect regul>ity & c]ta9ty z x mov$ upw>ds & d[nw>ds4 ,besides r5d]+ ! ma*9e indep5d5t ( manual ,pg#jgb sup]9t5d5ce1 ?is process conf]r$ ^u x mu* great] regul>ity ( p]=mance ?an any manual sup]9t5d5ce c\ld ensure4 ,?is contrivance ( ,pott] 0 v soon improv$ by ! sub/itution ( a b>1 call$ a plug frame1 :i* 0 susp5d$ f ! arm ( ! beam1 & :i* c>ri$ ^u x p9s1 by :i* ! arms ( ! lev]s gov]n+ ! cocks 7 /ruck z ! plug-frame asc5d$ & desc5d$1 s z to be op5$ & clos$ at ! prop] times4 ,! eng9e ?us improv$ requir$ no o!r att5dance except to fe$ ! boil] occasionally by ! cock ,t1 & to att5d ! furnace4 7#dc47 ,h[ev] ! m]it ( ! discov]y ( ! physical pr9ciples on :i* ! me*anical application ( /eam dep5ds may be aw>d$1 x mu/ be admitt$ t ! eng9e contriv$ by ,newcom5 & 8 associates1 consid]$ z a practical ma*9e1 0 immeasurably sup]ior to t :i* prec$$ x2 sup]ior1 inde$1 to su* a degree1 t :ile ! "o 0 incapable ( any p]man5tly useful application1 ! o!r soon became a ma*9e ( ext5sive utility 9 ! dra9age ( m9es2 &1 ev5 at ! pres5t "t1 ! atmosph]ic eng9e is n unfrequ5tly us$ 9 pref]5ce to ! mod]n /eam eng9e1 9 di/ricts :]e fuel is abundant & *eap2 ! exp5se ( con/ruct+ & ma9ta9+ x be+ consid]ably less ?an t ( an improv$ /eam eng9e4 ,! l[ pressure ( ! /eam us$ 9 work+ x1 r5d]$ x p]fectly safe4 ,:ile ,sav]y's eng9e1 to "w ) effect1 requir$ t ! /eam conf9$ 9 ! vessels %\ld h a bur/+ pressure am\nt+ to ab\t ?irty p\nds p] squ>e in*1 ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil] & cyl9d] ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e requir$ only a pressure ab\t "o p\nd p] squ>e in*4 ,! high pressure also ( ! /eam us$ 9 ,sav]y's eng9e1 0 necess>ily accompani$1 z we %all pres5tly expla91 by a greatly increas$ temp]ature4 ,! effect ( ?is 01 to weak5 & gradually de/roy ! vessels1 especially ^? :i*1 l ! /eam vessels ,v & ,v 7fig4 #ab471 7 alt]nately heat$ & cool$4 ,besides ^! defects1 ! p[] ( ,sav]y's eng9es 0 ,pg#jgc also v re/rict$1 bo? z to ! quantity ( wat] rais$ & z to ! height to :i* x 0 elevat$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! atmosph]ic eng9e 0 limit$ 9 its p[] only by ! dim5sions ( its pi/on4 ,ano!r consid]able advantage :i* ! atmosph]ic eng9e possess$ ov] t ( ,sav]y1 0 ! facility ) :i* x 0 capable ( driv+ ma*9]y by means ( ! work+-beam4 ,! m]it1 h[ev]1 ( ,newcom5's eng9e1 reg>d$ z an inv5tion1 & ap>t f m]ely practical consid]ations1 mu/ be ascrib$ pr9cipally to its me*anism & comb9ations4 ,we f9d 9 x no new pr9ciple1 & sc>cely ev5 a novel application ( a pr9ciple4 ,! ag5cy ( ! atmosph]ic pressure act+ aga9/ a vacuum1 or p>tial vacuum1 _h be5 long kn[n3 ! me?od ( produc+ a vacuum by ! cond5sation ( /eam _h be5 sugge/$ by ,pap91 & c>ri$ into practical effect by ,sav]y4 ,! me*anical p[] obta9$ f ! direct pressure ( ! ela/ic =ce ( /eam1 us$ 9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e to balance ! atmosph]e dur+ ! asc5t ( ! pi/on1 0 sugge/$ by ,de ,caus & ,"l ,worce/]4 ,! boil]1 gauge pipes1 & ! regulator1 7 all borr[$ f ! eng9e ( ,sav]y4 ,! idea ( us+ ! atmosph]ic pressure aga9/ a vacuum or p>tial vacuum1 to "w a pi/on 9 a cyl9d]1 _h be5 sugge/$ by ,otto ,gu]icke1 an +5i\s ,g]man philosoph]1 :o inv5t$ ! air-pump2 & ?is1 comb9$ ) ! production ( a vacuum by ! cond5sation ( /eam1 0 subsequ5tly sugge/$ by ,pap94 ,! use ( a work+-beam c\ld n h be5 unkn[n4 ,nev]!less1 ! judici\s comb9ation ( ^! scatt]$ pr9ciples mu/ be ackn[l$g$ to des]ve consid]able cr$it4 ,9 fact1 ! me*anism contriv$ by ,newcom5 r5d]$ a ma*9e :i* 0 be=e altoge!r ineffici5t1 highly effici5t3 &1 z obs]v$ by ,tr$gold1 su* a result1 consid]$ 9 a practical s5se1 %\ld be m highly valu$ ?an ! =tuit\s discov]y ( a physical pr9ciple4 ,! me?od ( cond5s+ ! /eam by ! sudd5 injection ( wat]1 & ( expell+ ! air & wat] f ! cyl9d] by ! injection ( /eam1 are two contrivances n be=e 9 use1 :i* are q ess5tial to ! ,pg#jgd effective op]ation ( ! eng9e4 ,^! processes1 :i* are /ill necess>y to ! op]ation ( ! improv$ /eam eng9e1 appe> to be :olly due to ! inv5tors ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,atmosph]ic ,,eng9e4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,?is pipe is repres5t$ z proce$+ f ! =ce-pipe above ! ci/]n ,c1 9 ! p]spective view ( ,sav]y's eng9e at ! head ( ?is *apt]4 #aj ,hot wat] be+ light] ?an cold1 floats on ! surface4 #aa ,capta9 is a title giv5 9 ,cornwall to ! sup]9t5d5t ( ! works connect$ ) a m9e4 #ab ,z ! calculation ( ! p[] ( an eng9e dep5ds on ! numb] ( squ>e in*es 9 ! section ( ! pi/on1 x may be useful to give a rule = comput+ ! numb] ( squ>e in*es 9 a circle4 ,! foll[+ rule w always give ! dim5sions ) suffici5t accuracy3--,multiply ! numb] ( in*es 9 ! diamet] by itself2 divide ! product by #ad1 & multiply ! quoti5t ?us obta9$ by #aa1 & ! result w be ! numb] ( squ>e in*es 9 ! circle4 ,?us1 if !re be #ab in*es 9 ! diamet]1 ?is multipli$ by itself gives #add1 :i* divid$ by #ad gives #aj-d_/dd1 :i* multipli$ by #aa gives #aae1 neglect+ fractions4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 #aae squ>e in*es 9 a circle ^: diamet] is #ab in*es4 #ac ,! ext]nal cyl9d] is n repres5t$ 9 ! diagram4 #ad ,also call$ ! snift+ valve1 f ! peculi> noise made by ! air & /eam escap+ f x4 #ae ,also call$ ! injection valve4 ,pg#jge ,illu/ration3 ,,gre5ock1 ,,9 #ahbd4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,progress ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]ic ,,eng9e4 -- ,,smeaton',s ,,improvem5ts4 -- ,,br9dley1 ,,eng9e] ,,( ,,! ,,bridgewat] ,,canal4 -- ,,inv5ts ,,! ,,self-,,regulat+ ,,fe$]4 -- ,,james ,,watt4 -- ,,8 ,,desc5t ,,& ,,p>5tage4 -- ,,anecdotes ,,( ,,8 ,,boyhood4 -- ,,8 ,,e>ly ,,aquirem5ts4 -- ,,goes ,,to ,,london4 -- ,,returns ,,to ,,glasg[4 -- ,,is ,,appo9t$ ,,in/rum5t-,,mak] ,,to ,,! ,,univ]sity4 -- ,,op5s ,a ,,%op ,,9 ,,glasg[4 -- ,,8 ,,fri5ds ,,& ,,patrons4 -- ,,adam ,,smi?4 -- ,,dr4 ,,black4 -- ,,rob]t ,,simson4 -- ,,pr(essor ,,robison4 -- ,,watt',s ,,p]sonal ,,"*4 -- ,,indu/ri\s ,,& ,,/udi\s ,,habits4 -- ,,8 ,,att5tion ,,fir/ ,,direct$ ,,to ,,/eam4 -- ,,exp]im5ts ,,on ,,high-,,pressure ,,/eam4 -- ,,repairs ,,an ,,atmosph]ic ,,model4 -- ,,exp]im5tal ,,inquiry ,,consequ5t ,,on ,,?is4 -- ,,its ,,results4 -- ,,discov]s ,,! ,,great ,,defects ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]ic ,,eng9e4 -- ,,discov]y ,,by ,,exp]im5t ,,( ,,! ,,expansion ,,:i* ,,wat] ,,und]goes ,,9 ,,evaporation4 -- ,,discov]s ,,! ,,lat5t ,,heat ,,( ,,/eam4 -- ,,is ,,in=m$ ,,by ,,dr4 ,,black ,,( ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,lat5t ,,heat4 7#dd47 ,! atmosph]ic eng9e 0 br\ght to a /ate ( consid]able effici5cy & improvem5t by ,mr4 ,beighton1 9 #agah4 ,f t "t x cont9u$ 9 use )\t any *ange 9 its ,pg#jgf pr9ciple1 & ) little improvem5t 9 its /ructure1 = half a c5tury4 ,al?\gh eng9es ( ?is k9d cont9u$ to be ext5sively con/ruct$1 !y 7 usually execut$ by ord9>y me*anics1 incapable ( apply+ to !m ! j pr9ciples ( practical sci5ce2 &1 consequ5tly1 little att5tion 0 paid to _! proportions4 ,x 0 n until ab\t ! ye> #aggb1 t ,mr4 ,john ,smeaton1 ! celebrat$ eng9e]1 appli$ ! p[]s ( 8 m9d to ! inve/igation ( ?is ma*9e1 z he _h previ\sly done ) su* success to w9d & wat] mills4 ,al?\gh he did n introduce any new pr9ciple into ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 yet x d]iv$ greatly augm5t$ p[] f ! proportions :i* he e/abli%$ = eng9es ( diff]5t magnitudes4 ,9 #agei1 ,mr4 ,james ,br9dley1 ^: "n is s celebrat$ z ! eng9e] ( ! ,duke ( ,bridgewat]'s canal1 obta9$ a pat5t = "s improvem5ts 9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e4 ,he propos$ t ! boil] %\ld be made ( wood & /one1 ) a /ove or fire-place ( ca/ iron )9 x1 s t ! fire %\ld be surr\nd$ on e side by wat]4 ,! *imney 0 to be an iron pipe or tube1 conduct$ ?r\gh ! boil]2 s t ! heat$ air1 9 pass+ f ! fire1 %\ld imp>t a portion ( its heat to ! wat]4 ,he also propos$ a me?od ( fe$+ ! boil]1 :i*1 by self-act+ ma*9]y1 w\ld keep ! wat] 9 ! boil] at a fix$ level1 indep5d5tly ( any att5tion on ! "p ( ! eng9e-man4 ,?is 0 to be accompli%$ by a buoy or float ^u ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 :i* %\ld communicate ) a valve 9 ! fe$-pipe1 s t :5 ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] fell1 ! float or buoy1 fall+ ) x1 w\ld op5 ! valve & supply ! fe$4 ,x is /at$1 9 ! ,biographia ,britannica1 t ,mr4 ,br9dley1 9 #agef1 und]took to erect an eng9e at ,newca/le-"u-,lyne2 b he is said to h be5 disc\rag$ by ! ob/acles :i* 7 ?r[n 9 8 way1 & to h ab&on$ ! /eam eng9e4 ,! int]val betwe5 ! inv5tion ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 & ! amelioration x receiv$ at ! h&s ( ,smeaton1 has be5 r5d]$ memorable by ! adv5t ( "o :o 0 de/9$ to "w a mighty *ange 9 ! condition ,pg#jgg ( ! human race by ! application ( 8 va/ g5ius to ! adaptation ( /eam p[] to ! uses ( life4 7#de47 ,,james ,,watt 0 born at ,gre5ock1 9 ,scotl&1 on ! n9ete5? day ( ,janu>y1 9 ! ye> #agcf4af ,! great-gr&fa!r ( ,watt1 a f>m] 9 ,ab]de5%ire1 0 kill$ 9 "o ( ! battles ( ,montrose4 ,! victori\s p>ty1 n ?9k+ dea? a suffici5t expiation = ! political op9ions 9 support ( :i* he _h f\ght & bl$1 puni%$ him 9 ! p]son ( 8 son1 by confiscat+ 8 little prop]ty4 ,?omas ,watt1 ! son1 ?us depriv$ ( support1 0 receiv$ by di/ant relations1 &1 = a "t1 appli$ himself to /udy1 by :i* he 0 enabl$1 aft] ! re/oration ( tranquillity1 to e/abli% himself at ,gre5ock z a tea*] ( practical ma!matics & navigation4 ,he resid$ 9 ! burgh or b>ony ( ,craw=d's ,dyke1 & atta9$ a position ( suffici5t respectability to be elect$ to ! (fice ( b>on-baillie1 or *ief magi/rate1 & di$ 9 #agcd1 at ! advanc$ age ( n9ety-two ye>s4 ,?omas ,watt _h two sons4 ,! eld]1 ,john1 adopt$ ! pr(ession ( 8 fa!r1 & 0 a tea*] ( ma!matics & navigation at ,glasg[3 he di$ 9 #agcg1 at ! age ( fifty ye>s4 ,! second son1 ,james1 ! fa!r ( ! celebrat$ eng9e]1 01 dur+ a qu>t] ( a c5tury1 treasur] ( ! t[n c\ncil ( ,gre5ock1 & a local magi/rate4 ,he 0 rem>k$ = ! ard5t zeal & enlight5$ _s ) :i* he dis*>g$ 8 public duties4 ,8 bus9ess 0 t ( a %ip-*&l]1 build]1 & g5]al m]*ant2 b1 unhappily1 not)/&+ 8 active indu/ry1 he lo/1 9 ! decl9e ( 8 life1 by unsuccessful comm]cial speculations1 a "p ( ! prop]ty :i* he _h s hon\rably acquir$4 ,he di$ 9 #aghb1 at ! age ( eighty-f\r ye>s4 ,,james ,,watt1 to :om ! _w is s l>gely indebt$ = ! ext5sion & improvem5t ( /eam p[]1 _h f 8 bir? an extremely delicate con/itution4 ,f 8 "m1 ,pg#jgh ^: family "n 0 ,muirhead1 he receiv$ 8 fir/ lessons 9 read+1 & he le>n$ f 8 fa!r writ+ & ari?metic4 ,al?\gh he 0 ent]$ z a pupil 9 ! gramm> s*ool ( ,gre5ock1 yet su* 0 8 delicate /ate ( heal?1 t 8 att5dance !re 0 s int]rupt$ by con/ant indisposition t he c\ld d]ive b little b5efit f ! opportunities ( in/ruction :i* x af=d$4 ,= a great p]iod ( ! ye> he 0 conf9$ to 8 room1 :]e he devot$ himself to /udy )\t ! aid ( in/ruction4 ,x 0 9 ! retirem5t ( ! sick *amb] t ! high intellectual faculties ( ,watt1 :i* 7 de/9$ to produce su* preci\s fruits1 began to unfold !mselves4 ,he 0 too sickly to be subject$ to ! re/ra9ts :i* ! bus9ess ( education usually imposes on *ildr54 ,8 p>5ts1 !re=e1 f\nd x necess>y to leave him at lib]ty to *oose 8 occupations & amusem5ts4 ,! foll[+ anecdotes w %[ ! use he made ( ?is fre$om4 ,a fri5d ( 8 fa!r f\nd ! boy "o day /ret*$ ^u ! he>? trac+ ) *alk v>i\s l9es & angles4 ,:y d y p]mit ?is *ild1 said he1 to wa/e 8 "t s2 :y n s5d him to s*ool8 ,mr4 ,watt repli$1 ,y judge him ha/ily2 be=e y condemn u1 asc]ta9 h[ he is employ$4 ,on exam9+ ! boy1 !n six ye>s ( age1 x 0 f\nd t he 0 engag$ 9 ! solution ( a problem ( ,euclid6 ,hav+ obs]v$ ! t5d5cy ( 8 son's m9d1 ,mr4 ,watt plac$ at 8 disposal a collection ( tools4 ,^! he soon le>n$ to use ) ! greate/ skill4 ,he took to pieces & put toge!r1 aga9 & aga91 all ! *ildr5's toys :i* he c\ld procure2 & he 0 con/antly employ$ 9 mak+ new ones4 ,subsequ5tly he us$ 8 tools 9 con/ruct+ a little electrical ma*9e1 ! sp>ks proce$+ f :i* became a great subject ( amusem5t to all ! playfell[s ( ! poor invalid4 ,?\gh end[$ ) great ret5tive p[]s1 ,watt w\ld probably nev] h figur$ among ! prodigies ( a common s*ool3 he w\ld h be5 sl[ to commit 8 lessons to memory1 f ! repugnance :i* he w\ld feel to repeat l a p>rot any?+ :i* he did n p]fectly ,pg#jgi und]/&4 ,! natural t5d5cy ( 8 m9d to m$itate on :atev] came be=e x1 w\ld give him1 to sup]ficial obs]v]s1 ! appe>ance ( dullness4 ,happily1 h[ev]1 he _h a p>5t :o 0 suffici5tly cle>-sight$1 & :o ent]ta9$ high hopes ( ! gr[+ faculties ( 8 son4 ,m di/ant & less sagaci\s relations 7 n s sangu9e4 ,"o day ,mrs4 ,muirhead1 ! aunt ( ! boy1 reproa*+ him = :at %e conceiv$ to be li/less idl5ess1 desir$ him to take a book & occupy himself usefully4 ,m ?an an h\r has n[ pass$ away1 said %e1 & y h n utt]$ a s+le ^w4 ,d y "k :at y h be5 do+ all ?is "t8 ,y h tak5 (f1 & put on1 repeat$ly1 ! lid ( ! tea-pot2 y h be5 hold+ ! sauc]s & ! spoons ov] ! /eam1 & y h be5 endeav\r+ to cat* ! drops ( wat] =m$ on !m by ! vap\r4 ,is x n a %ame = y to wa/e y\r "t s8 ,mrs4 ,muirhead 0 little aw>e t ?is 0 ! fir/ exp]im5t 9 ! spl5did c>e] ( discov]y :i* 0 subsequ5tly to immortalise h] little nephew4 ,%e did n see1 z we n[ c1 9 ! little boy play+ ) ! tea-pot1 ! great eng9e] prelud+ to ^? discov]ies :i* 7 de/9$ to conf] on mank9d b5efits s ine/imable4 ,"o ( ! social qualities ( m9d :i* 0 rem>kable ?r\gh\t 8 life1 0 ! s+ul> felicity & grace ) :i* he relat$ anecdotes4 ,?is p[] 0 manife/$ ev5 9 8 e>lie/ *ildhood4 ,! foll[+ is an extract f a lett] writt5 by ,mrs4 ,m>ion ,campbell1 8 c\s91 & ! playfell[ ( 8 *ildhood3-- ,he 0 n f\rte5 :5 8 "m br\ght him to ,glasg[ to visit a fri5d ( h]s2 8 bro!r ,john accompani$ him4 ,on ,mrs4 ,watt's return to ,glasg[1 "s weeks aft]1 h] fri5d said1 ',y mu/ take y\r son ,james home2 ,i _c /& ! degree ( excitem5t he keeps me 92 ,i am worn out = want ( sleep4 ,e ev5+ be=e t5 o'clock1 our usual h\r ( retir+ to re/1 he contrives to engage me 9 conv]sation1 !n beg9s "s /rik+ tale1 &1 :e!r humor\s or pa!tic1 ! int]e/ is s ov]p[]+ t ! family all li/5 to him ) brea?less att5tion1 & h\r aft] h\r /rikes unhe$$4' ,pg#jhj ,watt _h a y\ng] bro!r1 ,john1 :o 0 subsequ5tly lo/ by %ipwreck1 9 a voyage f ,scotl& to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?is lad1 hav+ det]m9$ on foll[+ ! bus9ess ( 8 fa!r1 left ,james m completely at lib]ty to *oose 8 own occupation4 ,b su* a *oice 0 difficult = a /ud5t :o comm&$ equal success 9 e ?+ to :i* he direct$ 8 att5tion4 ,! excursions :i* he 0 9 ! habit ( mak+ on ! ,scotti% m\nta9s surr\nd+ ,lo* ,lomond1 naturally direct$ 8 att5tion to botany & m9]alogy1 9 ea* ( :i* he atta9$ consid]able k4 ,8 love ( anecdote & romance 0 likewise gratifi$ by ! sc5]y :i* he enjoy$ 9 ^! walks2 & ! traditions & popul> songs ) :i* !y made him acqua9t$4 ,:5 f ill-heal?1 z con/antly happ5$1 he 0 conf9$ to ! h\se1 he devot$ himself to *emi/ry1 natural philosophy1 & ev5 to m$ic9e & surg]y4 ,9 *emi/ry he acquir$ "s exp]im5tal skill1 & /udi$ ) eag] zeal ! elem5ts ( natural philosophy by ,s'4 ,graves&e4 ,8 own unhappy maladies prompt$ him to read works on surg]y & m$ic9e2 & to su* an ext5t did ! activity ( 8 m9d impel him on ^! subjects1 t he 0 f\nd "o day dissect+1 9 8 room1 ! head ( a *ild1 :o _h di$ ( "s unkn[n disease1 ) a view to asc]ta9 ! cause ( its dea?4 ,9 #agge1 at ! age ( n9ete51 at ! recomm5dation ( ,dr4 ,dick1 pr(essor ( natural philosophy 9 ! univ]sity ( ,glasg[1 he w5t to ,london1 :]e he employ$ himself 9 ! h\se ( ,mr4 ,john ,morgan1 a ma!matical in/rum5t mak]1 9 ,f9* ,lane1 ,cornhill1 to :om he appr5tic$ himself = ?ree ye>s4 ,he rema9$1 h[ev]1 only a ye>1 at ! expiration ( :i* 7probably ow+ to 8 delicate /ate ( heal?7 he 0 releas$ f 8 appr5tice%ip1 & return$ to ,glasg[1 ) ! int5tion ( e/abli%+ himself 9 bus9ess z an optician & ma!matical in/rum5t mak]4 ,9 ! fulfilm5t ( ?is int5tion1 h[ev]1 he 0 ob/ruct$ by ! int]position ( ! ,corporation ( ,trades 9 t t[n1 :o reg>d$ him z an intrud]1 n qualifi$ by ! necess>y appr5tice%ip to c>ry on bus9ess4 ,all means ( conciliation be+ ,pg#jha exhau/$1 ! ,pr(essors ( ! ,univ]sity int]f]$1 & gave him ! use ( ?ree ap>tm5ts )9 ! college1 = c>ry+ on 8 bus9ess1 & likewise appo9t$ him ma!matical in/rum5t mak] to ! ,univ]sity4 ,soon aft]w>ds ! opposition ( ! local trades seems to h giv5 way1 & he op5$ a %op 9 ,glasg[ = ! sale ( ma!matical in/rum5ts4 ,aft] ! celebrity at :i* he has arriv$1 x w be easily believ$ t e trace ( 8 e>li] connection ) ,glasg[ college is c>efully *]i%$4 ,!re are accord+ly pres]v$ at t place little in/rum5ts & pieces ( app>atus ( exquisite workman%ip1 :i* 7 execut$ entirely by ! h& ( ,watt1 at a "t :5 he 0 n 9 a condition to comm& ! aid ( workm5 "u him4 ,at ! "t ( obta9+ ?is appo9tm5t 9 ! ,univ]sity1 ,watt 0 9 8 tw5ty-fir/ ye>4 ,8 natural tal5ts & w9n+ mann]s 7 spe$ily ! means ( ga9+ = him ! e/eem & fri5d%ip ( all ^? em95t p]sons connect$ at ! "t ) t univ]sity ^: reg>d 0 mo/ valu$4 ,among ^! ! e>lie/ ( 8 fri5ds & patrons 7--,,adam ,,smi?1 ! au?or ( ,! ,weal? ( ,nations2 ,,black1 aft]w>ds celebrat$ = 8 *emical discov]ies1 & m especially = 8 !ory ( lat5t heat2 & ,,rob]t ,,simson1 r5d]$ illu/ri\s by 8 works on anci5t geometry4 ,9 releas+ ,watt f ! p]secution ( ! ,glasg[ corporation1 ^! di/+ui%$ p]sons fir/ imag9$ t !y 7 conf]r+ a b5efit m]ely on an indu/ri\s & clev] artisan1 ^: engag+ mann]s won _! reg>d2 b a %ort acqua9tance ) him 0 suffici5t to conv9ce !m h[ sup]ior 8 m9d 0 to 8 position1 & !y conceiv$ t[>ds him ! mo/ lively fri5d%ip4 ,8 %op became ! common r5dezv\s1 ! aft]noon l\nge1 ( all :o 7 mo/ di/+ui%$ = lit]>y & sci5tific atta9m5ts among ! pr(essors & /ud5ts4 ,!re !y met to discuss ! topics ( ! day 9 art1 sci5ce1 & lit]ature4 ,among ^! /ud5ts1 ! "n :i* aft]w>ds atta9$ ! highe/ di/9ctions1 & among ^! di/9ctions1 n ! lea/1 ! la/+ p]sonal fri5d%ip & e/eem ( ,watt himself1 0 ,,robison1 ,pg#jhb ! au?or ( a well kn[n "w on ,me*anics1 & "o ( ! contributors to ! ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,! foll[+ extract f an unpubli%$ manuscript by ,robison himself w %[ at once ! e/imation 9 :i* ,watt 0 held1 & w illu/rate "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ traits ( 8 p]sonal "*3-- ,i _h always1 f my e>lie/ y\?1 a great reli% = ! natural sci5ces1 & p>ticul>ly = ma!matical & me*anical philosophy1 :5 ,i 0 introduc$ by ,drs4 ,simson1 ,dick1 & ,moor1 g5tlem5 em95t = _! ma!matical abilities1 to ,mr4 ,watt4 ,i saw a workman1 & expect$ no m2 b 0 surpris$ to f9d a philosoph] z "y z myself1 & always ready to in/ruct me4 ,i _h ! vanity to ?9k myself a pretty good pr(ici5t 9 my fav\rite /udy1 & 0 r mortifi$ at f9d+ ,mr4 ,watt s mu* my sup]ior4 4 4 4 ,:5ev] any puzzle came 9 ! way ( any ( ! "y /ud5ts1 we w5t to ,mr4 ,watt4 ,he ne$$ only to be prompt$1 = e ?+ became to him ! beg9n+ ( a new & s]i\s /udy1 & we knew t he w\ld n quit x till he _h ei!r discov]$ its insignificancy1 or _h made some?+ ( x4 ,he le>nt ! ,g]man language 9 ord] to p]use ,leupold's ',!atrum ,ma*9>um2' s did ,i1 to "k :at he 0 ab\t4 ,simil> reasons made u bo? le>n ! ,italian language4 99 99 99 ,:5 to 8 sup]iority ( k is add$ ! nave simplicity & c&\r ( ,mr4 ,watt's "*1 x is no wond] t ! atta*m5t ( 8 acqua9tances 0 /rong4 ,i h se5 some?+ ( ! _w1 & am oblig$ to say ,i nev] saw su* ano!r in/ance ( g5]al & cordial atta*m5t to a p]son :om all ackn[l$g$ to be _! sup]ior4 ,b t sup]iority 0 conceal$ "u ! mo/ amiable c&\r1 & a lib]al all[ance ( m]it to e man4 ,mr4 ,watt 0 ! fir/ to ascribe to ! +5uity ( a fri5d ?+s :i* 7 no?+ b 8 own surmises1 foll[$ out & embodi$ by ano!r4 ,i am ! m entitl$ to say ?is1 z ,i h (t5 exp]i5c$ x 9 my own case4 ,watt nev] p]mitt$ ! inquiries :i* arose out ( ^! reunions to int]f]e ) ! dis*>ge ( ! duties ( 8 work%op4 ,!re he pass$ ! day1 devot+ ! ,pg#jhc night to /udy4 ,e inquiry appe>$ to him to be attractive 9 proportion to its difficulty1 & to h *>ms 9 proportion z x 0 remov$ f ! common r\t9e ( 8 bus9ess4 ,z an example ( ?is may be m5tion$ ! fact1 t1 be+ himself s ins5sible to ! *>ms ( music t he c\ld n di/+ui% "o note f ano!r1 he 0 actually induc$ to und]take ! con/ruction ( an organ1 9 :i* he 0 nev]!less completely successful4 ,! in/rum5t he con/ruct$1 z might h be5 expect$1 conta9$ _m improvem5ts 9 its me*anism2 b :at is mu* m rem>kable1 its tone & its musical qualities comm&$ ! admiration ( all ! pr(essional musicians :o he>d x4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ?is in/rum5t ,watt %[$ t vigor\s _s ( inve/igation :i* *>act]is$ all ! subsequ5t lab\rs ( 8 life4 ,he made out ! scale ( temp]am5t by ! aid ( ! ph5om5a ( beats1 ( :i* he c\ld only obta9 a k by a pr(\nd b obscure "w publi%$ by ,dr4 ,rob]t ,smi? ( ,cambridge4 ,! e>lie/ occasion on :i* ! att5tion ( ,watt is said to h be5 call$ to ! ag5cy ( /eam1 0 9 ! ye> #agei1 :5 8 fri5d ,robison ent]ta9$ "s speculations = apply+ t ag5t z a means ( propell+ :eel c>riages2 & he consult$ ,watt on ! subject4 ,no record1 h[ev]1 has be5 pres]v$ ( any exp]im5ts :i* 7 tri$ on ?is occasion2 nor does x appe> t ! inquiry 0 c>ri$ f>!r ?an a v]bal discussion1 su* z habitually took place on o!r subjects ( sci5ce betwe5 ,watt & 8 fri5ds4 7#df47 ,9 #agfb1 ,watt tri$ "s exp]im5ts on ! =ce ( /eam at a high pressure1 conf9$ 9 a close dige/]2 & he !n con/ruct$ a small model to %[ h[ motion c\ld be obta9$ f t p[]4 ,! practicability ( :at has s9ce be5 call$ ! ,high ,pressure ,eng9e1 0 demon/rat$ by him on ?is occasion2 b he did n pursue ! inquiry1 on acc\nt ( ! suppos$ dang] ( work+ ) su* compress$ /eam z 0 requir$4 ,x is usual to provide1 9 ! cab9ets ( exp]im5tal app>atus = ! in/ruction ( ! /ud5ts ( univ]sities1 ,pg#jhd small work+ models ( ! mo/ useful ma*9es4 ,9 ! collection = ! illu/ration ( ! lectures deliv]$ to ! ,natural ,philosophy class 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[ 0 a work+ model ( ,newcom5's atmosph]ic eng9e1 appli$ to a pump = rais+ wat]2 :i*1 h[ev]1 _h nev] be5 f\nd to "w satisfactorily4 ,! ,pr(essor ( ,exp]im5tal ,philosophy ( t day1 ,dr4 ,john ,&]son 7! f\nd] ( ! celebrat$ ,&]sonian ,in/itution71 s5t ?is model 9 #agfc to ,watt's work%op1 to be repair$4 ,its defects soon disappe>$1 & x 0 made to "w to ! satisfaction ( ! pr(essor & /ud5ts4 ,?is simple dis*>ge ( 8 duty1 h[ev]1 did n satisfy ! artisan2 & 8 wont$ activity ( m9d r5d]$ ?is model a subject ( pr(\nd m$itation1 & l$ him into a c\rse ( practical inquiry respect+ x1 :i* =m$ ! comm5cem5t ( a mo/ brilliant c>e] ( me*anical discov]y4 ,! improvem5t--we might almo/ say ! creation--( ! /eam eng9e1 by ?is great man1 mu/ n !re=e be reg>d$1 z s (t5 happ5s ) me*anical discov]ies1 z ! result ( =tuit\s obs]vation1 or ev5 ( a felicit\s mom5t>y inspiration4 ,watt1 on ! o!r h&1 conduct$ 8 inve/igation by a c\rse ( deep ?\ght1 & ( exp]im5ts m>k$ by ! la/ ref9em5t ( delicacy & address4 ,if he _h receiv$ a m ext5d$ & lib]al education1 "o w\ld h ?\ght t he _h adopt$ = 8 guide ! celebrat$ maxim ( ,bacon3-- ,to write1 speak1 m$itate1 or act1 :5 we are n provid$ ) facts to direct our ?\ghts1 is to navigate a coa/ full ( dang]s )\t a pilot1 & to laun* into ! imm5sity ( ! ocean )\t ei!r rudd] or compass4 ,! model :i* he _h repair$1 _h a cyl9d] ( only two in*es diamet]1 & six in*es /roke4 ,aft] he _h put x 9 complete ord]1 he f\nd1 t al?\gh ! boil] 0 mu* l>g] 9 proportion to ! cyl9d] ?an ^? ( real eng9es1 yet1 t x 0 incapable ( supply+ ! cyl9d] ) /eam 9 suffici5t quantity to keep x at "w4 ,to enable x to cont9ue to move1 he f\nd x necess>y to less5 ! quantity ( wat] rais$ by its pump1 s z to ,pg#jhe r$uce ! load on its pi/on v mu* bel[ ! prop] /&>d accord+ to ! common rules = l>ge eng9es4 ,he ascrib$ ! great inf]iority 9 ! p]=mance ( ! model1 comp>$ ) ! p]=mance ( ! l>ge eng9es1 to ! small size ( ! cyl9d]1 & to its mat]ial4 ,! cyl9d] ( ! model 0 brass1 :ile ^? ( l>ge eng9es 7 ( ca/ iron2 & brass be+ a bett] conductor ( heat ?an iron1 he conclud$ t m heat 9 proportion 0 lo/ f ?is cause 9 ! model1 ?an 9 ! l>g] eng9es4 ,he obs]v$ t ! small cyl9d] 0 s heat$ :5 ! /eam 0 admitt$ into x1 t x c\ld n be t\*$ by ! h&2 b1 nev]!less1 t ?is heat contribut$ no?+ to its p]=mance1 inasmu* z be=e ! pi/on desc5d$1 ! cyl9d] requir$ to be cool$4 7#dg47 ,8 fir/ attempt to improve ! eng9e1 0 by us+ a wood5 cyl9d] in/ead ( an iron "o4 ,he accord+ly made a model ) a cyl9d] ( wood1 soak$ 9 l9se$ oil1 & bak$ to dryness4 ,) ?is he made num]\s exp]im5ts1 & f\nd t x requir$ a less quantity ( wat] to be ?r[n into ! cyl9d] to cond5se ! /eam1 & t x 0 work$ ) a less supply ( /eam f ! boil] ?an 0 necess>y ) ! metallic cyl9d]4 ,/ill he f\nd t ! =ce ) :i* ! pi/on desc5d$ 0 consid]ably less ?an t :i* ! atmosph]ic pressure ought to supply1 suppos+ a tol]ably p]fect vacuum to be produc$ "u ! pi/on4 ,?is l$ him to suspect t ! wat] inject$ into ! cyl9d] 0 n p]fectly effectual 9 cond5s+ ! /eam4 ,! exp]im5ts :i* he _h previ\sly made on ! increas$ temp]ature at :i* wat] boils "u pressures great] ?an t ( ! atmosph]e1 l$ him by analogy to ! conclusion t x w\ld boil at l[] temp]atures if x 7 submitt$ to a pressure less ?an ! atmosph]e1 & he 0 aw>e t ,dr4 ,cull5 & o!rs _h !n rec5tly discov]$ t 9 vacuo1 wat] w\ld boil at s l[ a temp]ature z #ajj4 ,^! notions sugge/$ ! probability t ! wat] inject$ into ! cyl9d] be+ heat$ by ! cond5s$ /eam1 might produce vap\r ( a l[ temp]ature ,pg#jhf & r$uc$ pressure "u ! pi/on1 :i* w\ld acc\nt = ! defici5cy he obs]v$ 9 ! p[] ( ! eng9e4 ,no means occurr$ to him by :i* he c\ld asc]ta91 by direct exp]im5t1 ! temp]atures at :i* wat] w\ld boil "u pressures less ?an t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,he s\ght1 h[ev]1 to det]m9e x by ! foll[+ me?od4 ,hav+ asc]ta9$1 by repeat+ & multiply+ ! exp]im5ts :i* he _h tri$ 9 #agfb1 on high-pressure /eam1 he obta9$ a table ( ! temp]atures at :i* wat] boils at v>i\s pressures great] ?an t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,^! results he laid d[n 9 a s]ies =m+ a curve1 ( :i* ! abscissa repres5t$ ! temp]atures1 & ! ord9ates ! pressures4 ,he !n cont9u$ ?is curve1 backw>ds z x 71 & obta9$1 by analogy1 an approximation to ! boil+ temp]atures1 correspond+ to pressures less ?an t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,9 o!r words1 hav+ obta9$ by 8 exp]im5ts a notion1 h[ev] imp]fect1 ( ! law or rule obs]v$ by ! temp]atures at :i* wat] boils at diff]5t pressures great] ?an t ( ! atmosph]e1 he calculat$ by ! same law or rule :at ! pressures w\ld be at diff]5t pressures less ?an t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,apply+ ^! results to ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d] ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 he obta9$ an approximation to ! pressure ( ! vap\r :i* w\ld be produc$ f ! w>m wat] =m$ by ! cold wat] inject$ into ! cyl9d]1 & ! /eam cond5s$ by x2 & he accord+ly f\nd t vap\r1 hav+ a pressure s]i\sly injuri\s to ! p[] ( ! eng9e w\ld be produc$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 unless consid]ably m wat] ( injection 0 ?r[n 9 ?an 0 cu/om>y4 ,x 0 app>5t t ! actual quantity ( /eam usefully employ$ 9 ! cyl9d] at ea* /roke1 0 only ! quantity :i* fill$ ! cyl9d]2 & !re=e1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! quantity ( /eam lo/ by ! imp]fections ( ! ma*9e1 x 0 necess>y to comp>e ! actual quantity ( /eam transmitt$ by ! boil] to ! cyl9d] at ea* /roke1 ) ! quantity :i* w\ld j fill ! cyl9d]4 ,! diff]5ce w\ld ( c\rse be wa/$4 ,b to det]m9e ,pg#jhg ! actual quantity ( /eam suppli$ by ! boil] to ! cyl9d]1 !re 0 no o!r means ?an by obs]v+ ! quantity ( wat] evaporat$ 9 ! boil]4 ,t be+ obs]v$1 x 0 necess>y to "k ! quantity ( /eam :i* t wat] =m$2 & x 0 !re=e necess>y to det]m9e ! quantity or volume ( /eam :i* a giv5 volume ( wat] produc$4 7#dh47 ,on consid]+ m att5tively ! op]ation ( ! ma*9e1 ! foll[+ circum/ances gradually unfold$ !mselves to him4 ,let u suppose ! pi/on at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 & ! space 9 ! cyl9d] bel[ x1 fill$ ) /eam s z to balance ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e above ! pi/on4 ,"u su* circum/ances ! /eam1 z w pres5tly be expla9$1 mu/ h ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]4 ,b t ! /eam %\ld h1 & %\ld ma9ta91 ?is temp]ature1 x 0 evid5tly necess>y t ! inn] surface ( ! cyl9d] 9 contact ) x %\ld h ! same temp]ature3 = if x _h a l[] temp]ature1 x w\ld take heat f ! /eam1 & r$uce ! temp]ature ( ! latt]4 ,n[ ! cyl9d] be+ a mass ( metal1 has a quality 9 virtue ( :i* heat passes freely ?r\gh its dim5sions1 s t its inn] surface c\ld n be ma9ta9$ at a temp]ature m elevat$ ?an t ( its dim5sions ext5d+ f ! inn] surface to ! out] surface4 ,!re=e1 to ma9ta9 ! /eam conta9$ 9 ! cyl9d] at ! prop] temp]ature1 x 0 ess5tial t ! :ole ( ! solid metal compos+ ! cyl9d] %\ld be itself at t temp]ature4 ,?+s be+ 9 ?is /ate1 x 0 requir$ t a vacuum %\ld be produc$ "u ! pi/on to give effect to ! atmosph]ic pressure above x1 by reliev+ x f ! pressure bel[4 ,?is1 inde$1 w\ld appe> to h be5 atta9$ by introduc+ z mu* cold wat] )9 ! cyl9d] z w\ld be suffici5t to reconv]t ! /eam conta9$ 9 x into wat]2 b ,watt f\nd1 9 8 exp]im5ts on ! atmosph]ic model1 t ! pi/on w\ld n desc5d ) ! prop] =ce1 unless a va/ly great] quantity ( wat] 7 introduc$ into ! cyl9d] ?an ! quantity :i* he _h asc]ta9$ to be ,pg#jhh necess>y = ! reconv]sion ( ! /eam into wat]4 ,! cause ( ?is he p]ceiv$ & fully expla9$4 ,if we suppose z mu*1 & no m1 cold wat] introduc$ into ! cyl9d] z w\ld reconv]t ! /eam conta9$ 9 x into wat]1 !n we %\ld h 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] a quantity ( w>m wat] ) a vacuum above x3 b ! entire mass ( metal compos+ ! cyl9d] itself1 :i* 0 previ\sly at ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]1 w\ld /ill be at ! same temp]ature4 ,! w>m wat]1 re/+ 9 contact ) ?is metal 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 w\ld be imm$iately heat$ by x1 & w\ld rise 9 its temp]ature1 :ile ! metal ( ! cyl9d] itself w\ld be some:at l[]$ 9 temp]ature by ! heat :i* x w\ld ?us imp>t to ! w>m wat] conta9$ 9 x4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 z we %all pres5tly expla91 /eam w\ld be produc$ f ! wat]1 :i* w\ld fill ! cyl9d]2 & al?\gh su* /eam w\ld n h a me*anical pressure equal 9 am\nt to ! atmosph]e1 & !re=e w\ld n altoge!r prev5t ! pi/on f desc5d+ if x _h no load to move1 yet x w\ld deprive ! eng9e ( s great a portion ( its legitimate p[] z to r5d] x altoge!r ineffici5t4 ,b ?is defect w\ld be remov$ by ?r[+ into ! cyl9d] a suffici5t quantity ( cold wat]1 n only to de/roy ! /eam conta9$ 9 x1 b also to cool ! entire mass ( metal compos+ ! cyl9d] itself1 until x w\ld be r$uc$ to su* a temp]ature t ! vap\r proce$+ f ! wat] conta9$ 9 x w\ld h s small a pressure t x w\ld n s]i\sly or injuri\sly ob/ruct ! desc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,! pi/on be+ made to desc5d ) su* =ce z to r5d] ! ma*9e practically effici5t1 x w\ld !n be necess>y aga9 to make x asc5d2 & to accompli% ?is1 ,watt f\nd t ! boil] %\ld supply a quantity ( /eam _m times great] ?an 0 necess>y to fill ! cyl9d]4 ,mature reflection on ! circum/ances :i* h be5 j expla9$1 enabl$ him to discov] h[ ?is undue quantity ( /eam 0 r5d]$ necess>y4 ,let x be recollect$1 t :5 ! pi/on has rea*$ ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! :ole mass ( ! cyl9d]1 & ,pg#jhi ! pi/on itself1 are r$uc$ to s l[ a temp]ature t ! vap\r ( wat]1 hav+ ! same temp]ature1 has no pressure suffici5tly great to ob/ruct ! action ( ! ma*9e4 ,:51 9 ord] to make ! pi/on asc5d1 /eam is introduc$ f ! boil] into ! cyl9d] "u ! pi/on1 ?is /eam enc\nt]s1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ! cold surfaces ( ! metal =m+ ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] & ! bottom ( ! pi/on4 ,! fir/ effect ( ?is is to conv]t ! /eam :i* comes f ! boil] into wat]1 an effect :i* is produc$ by t /eam imp>t+ its heat to ! metal ) :i* x comes into contact4 ,?is de/ruction ( /eam cont9ues until ! metal expos$ to contact ) x has be5 heat$ up to ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]4 ,!n1 & n till !n1 ! /eam bel[ ! pi/on w h a pressure equal to t ( ! atmosph]e above x1 & ! pi/on w beg9 to asc5d4 ,z x asc5ds1 h[ev]1 ! sides ( ! cyl9d] :i* x exposes to ! contact ( ! /eam are cold1 & p>tially de/roy ! /eam4 ,/eam1 !re=e1 mu/ be suppli$ f ! boil] to replace ! /eam ?us de/roy$2 nor c ! pi/on rea* ! top ( ! cyl9d] until su* a quantity ( /eam %all h fl[$ f ! boil] into ! cyl9d]1 z %all be suffici5t n only to fill ! cyl9d] "u ! pi/on1 b likewise1 by its cond5sation1 to raise ! :ole mass ( ! cyl9d] & pi/on to ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]4 ,su* 7 ! circum/ances :i* =c$ !mselves ^u ! att5tion ( ,watt1 9 ! c\rse ( repair+1 & subsequ5tly try+1 ! model ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 at ,glasg[4 ,be+ in=m$ g5]ally ( ! uses ( ! eng9e 9 ! dra9age ( m9es1 & ( ! va/ exp5se att5d+ its op]ation1 by reason ( ! quantity ( fuel :i* x consum$1 he saw h[ important any improvem5t w\ld be by :i* ! ext5sive s\rces ( wa/e :i* _h ?us pres5t$ !mselves c\ld be remov$4 ,he saw also1 t all t portion ( /eam :i* 0 exp5d$1 n 9 fill+ ! cyl9d] "u ! pi/on1 b 9 heat+ ! great mass ( metal compos+ ! cyl9d] & pi/on1 f a l[ temp]ature to t ( boil+ wat]1 ^u ea* /roke ( ! pi/on1 0 s mu* heat lo/1 & t ! proportion ( ! fuel exp5d$ 9 evaporat+ ! /eam ?us wa/$ w\ld be sav$1 if by any ,pg#jij exp$i5t he c\ld make ! pi/on desc5d )\t cool+ ! cyl9d]4 ,b 9 ord] to e/imate ! full am\nt ( ?is wa/e1 & to discov] ! mo/ effectual means ( prev5t+ x1 x 0 necess>y to inve/igate ! quantity ( heat necess>y = ! evaporation ( a giv5 quantity ( wat]2 also1 ! quantity ( /eam :i* a giv5 quantity ( wat] w\ld produce1 z well z o!r circum/ances connect$ ) ! temp]ature & pressure ( /eam4 ,he1 !re=e1 appli$ himself to make exp]im5ts ) a view to elucidate ^! que/ions2 & succe$$ 9 obta9+ results :i* l$ to ! discov]y ( "s ( ! mo/ important ( ^? physical ph5om5a1 on ! due application ( :i*1 ! efficacy ( ! /eam eng9e1 :i* he aft]w>ds inv5t$1 dep5d$1 & :i* also =m /rik+ facts 9 ! g5]al physics ( heat4 7#di47 ,! fir/ "q to :i* he direct$ 8 exp]im5ts1 0 ! det]m9ation ( ! ext5t to :i* wat] enl>g$ its volume1 or magnitude1 :5 x pass$ into /eam4 ,to asc]ta9 ?is1 he fill$ a ?9 ,flor5ce flask ) /eam1 ( a pressure equal to ! atmosph]e1 & weigh$ x accurately4 ,! same flask 0 !n fill$ ) wat]1 & weigh$ aga94 ,f9ally1 ! weight ( ! flask itself 0 asc]ta9$4 ,x is evid5t1 t by su* means1 ! exact weight ( ! /eam :i* fill$ ! flask1 & ( ! same bulk ( wat]1 w\ld be obta9$4 ,he f\nd t ! wat] weigh$ ab\t eighte5 hundr$ times m ?an ! /eam2 f :5ce he inf]r$ t ! /eam :i* fill$ ! flask conta9$ ab\t eighte5 hundr$ times less wat] ?an ! flask w\ld conta94#ag ,pg#jia ,hav+ once asc]ta9$ ?is po9t1 he 0 able1 by obs]v+ ! quantity ( wat] evaporat$ 9 ! boil] ( ! atmosph]ic model1 to compute ! volume ( /eam :i* 0 suppli$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,x 0 evid5t1 t = e cubic in* ( wat] evaporat$ 9 ! boil]1 eighte5 hundr$ cubic in*es ( /eam 7 suppli$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,hav+ accurately obs]v$ ! evaporation ( ! boil] = a %ort "t1 & ! numb] ( /rokes made by ! pi/on 9 ! same "t1 he f\nd t ! quantity ( wat] evaporat$ 9 ! boil] w\ld supply ab\t f\r times z mu* /eam z ! cyl9d] w\ld require4 ,he consequ5tly inf]r$1 t ab\t ?ree-f\r?s ( ! /eam produc$ 0 wa/$4 ,! next "q to :i* he direct$ 8 exp]im5ts1 0 to asc]ta9 ! quantity ( cold wat] necess>y to be inject$ into ! cyl9d]1 9 ord] to cond5se ! /eam conta9$ 9 x4 ,to asc]ta9 ?is1 he atta*$ a pipe to a boil]1 by :i* he 0 enabl$ to conduct ! /eam f ! boil] into a glass j> conta9+ cold wat] at fifty-two degrees ( temp]ature4 ,! /eam1 z x pass$ f ! boil] ?r\gh ! pipe1 0 cond5s$ by ! cold wat]1 & cont9u$ to be s cond5s$1 until1 by ! heat :i* x imp>t$ to ! wat]1 ! latt] began to boil1 & w\ld !n cond5se no m /eam4 ,on comp>+ ! wat] 9 ! glass j>1 :5 boil+1 ) ! wat] orig9ally conta9$ 9 x at fifty-two ,pg#jib degrees1 ! quantity 0 f\nd to be increas$ 9 ! proportion ( six to sev51 v ne>ly2 f :i* he inf]r$1 t to r$uce "o ounce ( /eam to wat]1 x 0 necess>y to mix ab\t six ounces ( cold wat] ) x4 ,he 0 fur!r l$ to ! conclusion1 t /eam conta9s a va/ quantity ( heat1 by ! foll[+ exp]im5t4 ,he heat$1 9 a close dige/]1 a quantity ( wat] sev]al degrees above ! common boil+ po9t4 ,:5 ?us heat$1 by op5+ a /op-cock1 he all[$ ! compress$ /eam to escape into a cold vessel2 9 ?ree or f\r seconds1 he f\nd t ! heat ( ! wat] 9 ! dige/] 0 r$uc$ f a v high temp]ature to ! common boil+ po9t2 yet1 t all ! /eam :i* escap$ f x1 & :i* c>ri$ (f ) x ! sup]abundant heat1 =m$ only a few drops ( wat] :5 cond5s$2 f :i* he inf]r$1 t ?is small quantity ( wat]1 9 ! =m ( /eam1 conta9$ z mu* heat z 0 suffici5t to raise all ! wat] 9 ! dige/] f ! boil+ po9t to ! temp]ature at :i* x 0 be=e ! /eam 0 all[$ to escape4 ,hav+ ?us asc]ta9$ ! exact quantity ( cold wat] :i* ought to be inject$ into ! cyl9d] 9 ord] to cond5se ! /eam :i* fill$ ! cyl9d]1 he f\nd1 on comp>+ ! quantity necess>y to be inject$ 9 ord] to enable ! pi/on to desc5d1 t ?is quantity 0 ab\t f\r times z great z t :i* 0 necess>y to cond5se ! /eam4 ,?is l$ him to ! conclusion1 t ab\t f\r times z mu* heat 0 de/roy$ 9 ! cyl9d] z ne$$ to be de/roy$1 if ! object 7 ! m]e cond5sation ( ! /eam4 ,?is result fully corroborat$ ! o!r conclusion1 d$uc$1 f ! proportion :i* he f\nd betwe5 ! quantity ( /eam suppli$ by ! boil] & ! actual cont5ts ( ! cyl9d]4 7#ej47 ,watt 0 =cibly /ruck ) ^! circum/ances1 n only on acc\nt ( _! importance 9 an economical po9t ( view1 :5 _! relation to /eam p[] 0 consid]$1 b /ill m s1 z indicat+ ph5om5a 9 ! physics ( heat altoge!r novel to him4 ,he1 !re=e1 eag]ly s\ght 8 fri5d ,dr4 ,black1 to :om he communicat$ ^! results4 ,!n1 = ! fir/ "t1 he ,pg#jic 0 in=m$1 by ,black1 ( ! !ory ( ,,lat5t ,,heat1 :i* _h rec5tly be5 discov]$ by him1 & ( :i* ^! v ph5om5a =m$ ! basis4 ,"s passages 9 ! works ( ,dr4 ,robison produc$ an errone\s impression1 t a l>ge %>e ( ! m]it ( ! discov]ies ( ,watt :i* h be5 j expla9$ 0 due to ,dr4 ,black1 to ^: in/ructions on ! subject ( lat5t heat ,watt 0 repres5t$ to h ow$ ! k ( ^? facts :i* l$ to 8 pr9cipal inv5tions & improvem5ts4 ,we %all "h give1 9 ! words ( ,watt himself1 8 explanation ( ! circum/ances :i* l$ to ?is error4 ,?is explanation is giv5 9 a lett] address$ by ,watt to ,dr4 ,brew/]1 9 ,may #ahad1 & prefix$ to ! ?ird volume ( ,brew/]'s edition ( ,robison's ,me*anical ,philosophy3-- ,! repres5tations ( fri5ds ^: op9ions ,i highly value induce me to avail myself ( ?is opportunity ( notic+ an error into :i* n only ,dr4 ,robison1 b app>5tly also ,dr4 ,black1 has fall51 9 relation to ! orig9 ( my improvem5ts ^u ! /eam eng9e1 & :i* n hav+ be5 publicly controv]t$ by me1 has1 ,i am in=m$1 be5 adopt$ by almo/ e subsequ5t writ] ^u ! subject ( lat5t heat4 ,dr4 ,robison1 9 ! article ,/eam ,eng9e1 aft] pass+ an encomium ^u me1 dictat$ by ! p>tiality ( fri5d%ip1 qualifies me z ! 'pupil & intimate fri5d ( ,dr4 ,black1'--a description :i* n be+ !re accompani$ ) any inf]5ce1 did n p>ticul>ly /rike me at ! "t ( its fir/ p]usal4 ,he aft]w>ds1 9 ! d$ication to me ( 8 edition ( ,dr4 ,black's lectures ^u *emi/ry1 goes ! l5g? ( suppos+ me to h pr(ess$ to owe my improvem5ts ^u ! /eam eng9e to ! in/ructions & in=mation ,i _h receiv$ f t g5tleman1 :i* c]ta9ly 0 a misappreh5sion2 z1 ?\gh ,i h always felt & ackn[l$g$ my obligations to him = ! in=mation ,i _h receiv$ f 8 conv]sation1 & p>ticul>ly = ! k ( ! doctr9e ( lat5t heat1 ,i nev] did nor c\ld consid] my improvem5ts z orig9at+ 9 ^? communications4 ,he is also mi/ak5 9 8 ass]tion 7p4 #h4 ( ! preface to ! above "w71 t ',i _h att5d$ two c\rses ,pg#jid ( ! doctor's lectures2' =1 un=tunately = me1 ! necess>y avocations ( my bus9ess prev5t$ me f att5d+ 8 or any o!r lectures at college2 & z ,dr4 ,robison 0 himself abs5t f ,scotl& = f\r ye>s at ! p]iod ref]r$ to1 he mu/ h be5 misl$ by errone\s in=mation4 ,9 p4 #ahd4 ( ! lectures1 ,dr4 ,black says1 ',i h ! pleasure ( ?9k+ t ! k we h acquir$ conc]n+ ! nature ( ela/ic vap\rs1 9 consequ5ce ( my =tunate obs]vation ( :at happ5s 9 its =mation & cond5sation1 has contribut$ 9 no inconsid]able degree to ! public good by sugge/+ to my fri5d ,mr4 ,watt ( ,birm+ham1 !n ( ,glasg[1 8 improvem5t on ?is useful eng9e' 7mean+ ! /eam eng9e ( :i* he is !n speak+74 ,!re c be no d\bt f :at foll[s 9 8 description ( ! eng9e1 & f ! v hon\rable m5tion :i* he has made ( me 9 v>i\s p>ts ( 8 lectures1 t he did n mean to less5 any m]it t might atta* to me z an inv5tor2 b1 on ! contr>y1 he 0 always dispos$ to give me fully z mu* praise z ,i des]v$4 ,& 7 t o!rwise d\btful1 x w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 be evid5t f ! foll[+ quotation f a lett] ( 8 to me1 dat$ #ac? ,febru>y #aghc1 :]e1 speak+ ( an int5d$ publication by a fri5d ( m9e1 on subjects connect$ ) ! hi/ory ( /eam1 he says1 ',i ?9k x is v prop] = y to give him a %ort acc\nt ( y\r discov]ies & speculations2 & p>ticul>ly to ass]t cle>ly & fully y\r sole "r to ! hon\r ( ! improvem5ts ( ! /eam eng9e4' ,& 9 a writt5 te/imonial :i* he v k9dly gave me1 on ! occasion ( a trial at law aga9/ a piracy ( my inv5tion 9 #agif-g1 aft] giv+ a %ort acc\nt ( ! inv5tion1 he adds1 ',mr4 ,watt 0 ! sole inv5tor ( ! capital improvem5t & contrivance above m5tion$4' ,"u ?is conviction ( 8 c&\r & fri5d%ip1 x is v pa9ful to me to controv]t any ass]tion or op9ion ( my rev]$ fri5d2 yet1 9 ! pres5t case ,i f9d x necess>y to say1 t he appe>s to me to h fall5 into an error2 & ,i hope1 9 addition to my ass]tion1 to make t appe> by ! %ort hi/ory ,i h giv5 ( my inv5tion1 9 my ,pg#jie notes ^u ,dr4 ,robison's essay1 z well z by ! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! /ate ( my k previ\s to my receiv+ any explanation ( ! doctr9e ( lat5t heat2 & also f t ( ! facts :i* pr9cipally guid$ me 9 ! inv5tion4 ,x 0 kn[n v long be=e my "t1 t /eam 0 cond5s$ by com+ into contact ) cold bodies1 & t x communicat$ heat to !m2 witness ! common /ill1 c4 c4 ,x 0 kn[n1 by "s exp]im5ts ( ,dr4 ,cull5 & o!rs1 t wat] & o!r liquids boil$ 9 vacuo at v l[ heats2 wat] bel[ #ajj4 ,x 0 kn[n to "s philosoph]s t ! capacity or equilibrium ( heat1 z we !n call$ x1 0 mu* small] 9 m]cury & t9 ?an 9 wat]4 ,x 0 also kn[n t evaporation caus$ ! cool+ ( ! evaporat+ liquid1 & bodies 9 contact ) x4 ,i _h myself made exp]im5ts to det]m9e ! foll[+ facts3-- ,fir/1 ! capacities ( heat = iron1 copp]1 & "s sorts ( wood1 comp>atively ) wat]4 ,second1 ! bulk ( /eam comp>$ ) t ( wat]4 ,?ird1 ! quantity ( wat] evaporat$ 9 a c]ta9 boil] by a p\nd ( coals4 ,f\r?1 ! ela/icities ( /eam at v>i\s temp]atures great] ?an t ( boil+ wat]1 & an approximation to ! law :i* x foll[$ at o!r temp]atures4 ,fif?1 h[ mu* wat] 9 ! =m ( /eam 0 requir$ e /roke by a small ,newcom5's eng9e1 ) a wood5 cyl9d] six in*es diamet]1 & twelve in*es /roke4 ,six?1 ! quantity ( cold wat] requir$ 9 e /roke to cond5se ! /eam 9 t cyl9d]1 s z to give x a work+ p[] ( ab\t #g lb4 on ! in*4 ,"h ,i 0 at a loss to und]/& h[ s mu* cold wat] c\ld be heat$ s mu* by s small a quantity ( wat] 9 ! =m ( /eam2 & ,i accord+ly appli$ to ,dr4 ,black1 & !n fir/ und]/ood :at 0 call$ lat5t heat4 ,b ?is !ory1 ?\gh useful 9 det]m9+ ! quantity ( injection necess>y :]e ! quantity ( wat] ,pg#jif evaporat$ by ! boil]1 & us$ by ! cyl9d]1 0 kn[n1 & 9 det]m9+1 by ! quantity & heat ( ! hot wat] emitt$ by ,newcom5's eng9es1 ! quantity ( /eam requir$ to "w !m did n lead to ! improvem5ts ,i aft]w>ds made 9 ! eng9e4 ,^! improvem5ts proce$$ ^u ! old e/abli%$ fact1 t /eam 0 cond5s$ by ! contact ( cold bodies2 & ! lat] kn[n "o1 t wat] boil$ 9 vacuo at heats bel[ #ajj1 & consequ5tly t a vacuum c\ld n be obta9$ unless ! cyl9d] & its cont5ts 7 cool$ e /roke to bel[ t heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,lo* ,,lomond4 ,,footnotes3 #af ,we are indebt$ = _m ( ! anecdotes ( ! life ( ,watt to ! ,eloge ,hi/orique1 rec5tly publi%$ by ,m4 ,arago1 :o 0 furni%$ ) all ! docum5ts & circum/ances relat+ to ?is celebrat$ p]son :i* 7 consid]$ prop] = publication1 by 8 son1 ! pres5t ,james ,watt1 ,esq41 ( ,a/on ,hall1 ne> ,birm+ham1 & to ! notes add$ to ?is memoir by ,mr4 ,muirhead1 a relative ( ,mr4 ,watt4 #ag ,! foll[+ is ! acc\nt ( ^! exp]im5ts giv5 9 ,watt's own words3-- ,x be+ evid5t t !re 0 a great error 9 ,dr4 ,desaguli]'s calculations ( ,mr4 ,beighton's exp]im5ts on ! bulk ( /eam1 a ,flor5ce flask1 capable ( conta9+ ab\t a p\nd ( wat]1 _h ab\t "o ounce ( di/ill$ wat] put into x2 a glass tube 0 fitt$ into its m\?1 & ! jo9+ made tight by lapp+ t "p ( ! tube ) pack?read cov]$ ) glazi]'s putty4 ,:5 ! flask 0 set upright1 ! tube rea*$ d[n ne> to ! surface ( ! wat]1 & 9 t position ! :ole 0 plac$ 9 a t9 reflect+ ov5 be=e a fire until ! wat] 0 :olly evaporat$1 :i* happ5$ 9 ab\t an h\r1 & might h be5 done soon]1 _h ,i n wi%$ ! heat n mu* to exce$ t ( boil+ wat]4 ,z ! air 9 ! flask 0 heavi] ?an ! /eam1 ! latt] asc5d$ to ! top1 & expell$ ! air ?r\gh ! tube4 ,:5 ! wat] 0 all evaporat$1 ! ov5 & flask 7 remov$ f ! fire1 & a bla/ ( cold air 0 direct$ aga9/ "o side ( ! flask1 to collect ! cond5s$ /eam 9 "o place4 ,:5 all 0 cold1 ! tube 0 remov$1 ! flask & its cont5ts 7 weigh$ ) c>e2 & ! flask be+ made hot1 x 0 dri$ by bl[+ into x by bell[s1 & :5 weigh$ aga9 0 f\nd to h lo/ r m ?an f\r gra9s1 e/imat$ at #d-a_/c gra9s4 ,:5 ! flask 0 fill$ ) wat]1 x 0 f\nd to conta9 ab\t #ag-a_/h ounces avoirdupois ( t fluid :i* gave ab\t #ahjj = ! expansion ( wat] conv]t$ into /eam ( ! heat ( boil+ wat]4 ,?is exp]im5t 0 repeat$ ) ne>ly ! same result1 & 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :e!r ! flask _h be5 :olly fill$ ) /eam1 a simil> quantity ( wat] 0 = ! ?ird "t evaporat$2 &1 :ile ! flask 0 /ill cold1 x 0 plac$ inv]t$ ) its m\? 7contract$ by ! tube7 imm]s$ 9 a vessel ( wat]1 :i* x suck$ 9 z x cool$1 until 9 ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e x 0 fill$ to )9 half an ounce measure ( wat]4 ,9 repetitions ( ?is exp]im5t at a lat] date1 ,i simplifi$ ! app>atus by omitt+ ! tube1 & lay+ ! flask ^u its side 9 ! ov51 p>tly clos+ its m\? by a cork1 hav+ a not* on "o side1 & o!rwise proce$+ z has be5 m5tion$4 ,pg#jig ,illu/ration3 ,,glasg[4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,exposition ,,( ,,physical ,,pr9ciples4 -- ,,!rmomet]4 -- ,,me?od ,,( ,,graduat+ ,,x4 -- ,,freez+ ,,& ,,boil+ ,,po9ts4 -- ,,lat5t ,,heat ,,( ,,wat]4 -- ,,quantity ,,( ,,heat ,,necess>y ,,to ,,conv]t ,,ice ,,into ,,wat]4 -- ,,quantity ,,( ,,heat ,,giv5 ,,out ,,by ,,wat] ,,9 ,,be+ ,,conv]t$ ,,into ,,ice4 -- ,,process ,,( ,,boil+4 -- ,,( ,,reconv]sion ,,( ,,/eam ,,into ,,wat]4 -- ,,quantity ,,( ,,heat ,,necess>y ,,to ,,conv]t ,,wat] ,,into ,,/eam4 -- ,,boil+ ,,po9t ,,( ,,wat]4 -- ,,diff]5t ,,9 ,,diff]5t ,,places4 -- ,,dep5ds ,,on ,,! ,,b>omet]4 -- ,,v>ies ,,) ,,! ,,pressure4 -- ,,exp]im5tal ,,pro( ,,( ,,?is4 -- ,,boils ,,at ,,l[] ,,temp]atures ,,?an #bab ,,"u ,,pressures ,,less ,,?an ,,! ,,atmosph]e4 -- ,,sum ,,( ,,lat5t ,,& ,,s5sible ,,heat ,,( ,,/eam ,,always ,,! ,,same4 -- ,,! ,,fuel ,,necess>y ,,to ,,evaporate ,,wat] ,,! ,,same1 ,,:atev] ,,be ,,! ,,temp]ature ,,or ,,pressure ,,at ,,:i* ,,x ,,is ,,evaporat$4 -- ,,me*anical ,,=ce ,,obta9$ ,,by ,,evaporation4 -- ,,?is ,,=ce ,,ne>ly ,,! ,,same ,,"u ,,all ,,circum/ances4 7#ea47 ,we %all pause "h to put ! read] 9 possession ( ! physical & me*anical pr9ciples connect$ ) ! evaporation ( wat] & o!r liquids1 :i* are necess>y to enable him to und]/& ! full ext5t ( ! value & ! m]it ( ! discov]ies ( ,watt1 & to compreh5d ! ,pg#jih /ructure & op]ation ( ! /eam eng9e 9 its improv$ =m1 z x has pass$ to u f 8 h&s4 ,z we %all frequ5tly h occasion to ref] to ! indications ( a !rmomet]1 we %all fir/ expla9 ! pr9ciple ( t in/rum5t z x is commonly us$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! !rmomet] is an in/rum5t us$ = ! purpose ( measur+ & indicat+ ! temp]ature or s5sible heat ( mat]ial sub/ances4 ,heat1 l all o!r physical ag5ts1 c only be measur$ by its effects4 ,"o ( ^! effects be/ suit$ = ?is purpose1 is ! *ange ( dim5sion :i* all bodies und]go 9 consequ5ce ( _! *ange ( temp]ature4 ,9 g5]al1 :5 heat is appli$ to a mat]ial sub/ance1 t sub/ance und]goes an enl>gem5t ( bulk2 & if heat be ab/ract$ f x1 x suff]s a dim9ution ( bulk4 ,?is v>iation ( magnitude is n always 9 ! same proportion z ! increase or dim9ution ( temp]ature2 b x is s :5 appli$ to c]ta9 sub/ances & betwe5 c]ta9 limits4 ,"o ( ! sub/ances ^: expansion & contraction ?r\gh an ext5sive range ( temp]ature has be5 f\nd to be ne>ly uni=m1 & :i* is att5d$ ) o!r conv5i5t qualities = a !rmomet]1 is ! liquid call$ m]cury or quicksilv]4 ,a m]curial !rmomet] is con/ruct$ 9 ! foll[+ way3-- ,a glass tube is made ) a small & uni=m bore3 ^u ! end ( ?is tube1 a bulb is bl[n1 hav+ a magnitude v great comp>$ ) ! bore ( ! tube4 ,let u suppose ?is bulb & a "p ( ! tube to be fill$ ) m]cury4 ,if ! m]cury conta9$ 9 ! bulb be heat$1 x w exp&1 & be+ m susceptible ( expansion ?an ! glass :i* conta9s x1 ! bulb w be too small = its augm5t$ volume3 ! m]cury 9 ! bulb c only1 !re=e1 obta9 room = its increas$ bulk by press+ ! m]cury 9 ! tube upw>ds1 :i* x w accord+ly d4 ,! increase ( volume :i* ! m]cury 9 ! bulb !re=e und]goes1 w be exhibit$ by ! increas$ l5g? ( ! column 9 ! tube4 ,s9ce ! bore ( ! tube is made s exce$+ly m9ute comp>$ ) ! magnitude ( ! bulb1 a v small quantity ( m]cury =c$ ,pg#jii f ! bulb into ! tube1 w cause a consid]able increase ( ! l5g? ( ! column4 ,small degrees ( expansion w !re=e be r5d]$ v app>5t1 & may be accurately measur$4 ,! foll[+ is ! me?od by :i* ! !rmomet] call$ ,fahr5heit's !rmomet] is graduat$4 ,! tube & bulb be+ prep>$ & suppli$ ) m]cury1 z already expla9$1 let ! in/rum5t be plung$ 9 a vessel ( melt+ ice4 ,x w be f\nd t ! m]cury w /& 9 ! tube at a c]ta9 po9t1 f :i* x w n v>y s long z any ice rema9s n completely melt$ 9 ! vessel4 ,let a m>k be made on ! tube1 or on a scale atta*$ to ! tube1 at ! po9t correspond+ to ! top ( ! column3 ! po9t ?us m>k$ is call$ ! freez+ po9t4 ,n[ let ! in/rum5t be imm]s$ 9 a vessel ( boil+ wat]1 ! b>omet] at ! "t hav+ ! height ( ?irty in*es4 ,x w be f\nd t s long z ! wat] is kept boil+1 ! column ( m]cury 9 ! tube w rema9 /ation>y4 ,let ! po9t correspond+ ) ! top ( ! column be m>k$ on ! tube1 or on ! scale atta*$ to x4 ,?is is call$ ! boil+ po9t4 ,let ! space on ! scale betwe5 ! freez+ & boil+ po9ts be n[ divid$ into #ahj equal p>ts3 ea* ( ^! p>ts is call$ a degree4 ,let ! same divisions be cont9u$ ^u ! scale bel[ ! freez+ po9t1 until ?irty-two divisions be tak52 let ! l[e/ division be !n m>k$ #j1 & let ! successive divisions upw>ds f t be numb]$ #a1 #b1 #c1 c4 ,9 l mann]1 let ! same divisions be cont9u$ above ! boil+ po9t1 z f> z ! tube w admit4 ,x is evid5t t1 "u ^! circum/ances1 ! freez+ po9t w be m>k$ by #cb1 & ! boil+ po9t by #bab4 ,x is usual to express ! degrees ( a !rmomet] 9 ! same mann] z ! degrees ( a circle1 by plac+ a small above ! numb]4 ,?us ! freez+ po9t is express$ by #cb1 & ! boil+ po9t by #bab4 ,! reason ! degrees 7 comm5c$ at #cb bel[ ! freez+ po9t 01 because1 :5 ! !rmomet] 0 inv5t$1 t temp]ature 0 suppos$ to be ! l[e/ degree ( cold possible1 be+ t ( a c]ta9 mixture ( ,pg#ajj sn[ & salt4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 has s9ce be5 f\nd to be an error1 v mu* l[] temp]atures be+ obta9$ by v>i\s physical exp$i5ts4 ,! temp]ature ( a body is1 !n1 t elevation to :i* ! !rmomet] w\ld rise :5 imm]s$ 9 t body4 ,?us1 if 9 plung+ ! !rmomet] 9 wat] we f\nd ! m]cury to rise or fall to ! division m>k$ #ajj1 we %\ld !n say1 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 0 #ajj4 ,let u suppose a _s lamp1 or o!r regul> s\rce ( heat1 appli$ to a ba? ( m]cury1 s z to ma9ta9 ! m]cury at a fix$ temp]ature ( #bjj1 & let ano!r vessel1 conta9+ a quantity ( ice at a temp]ature ( #bj be imm]s$ 9 ! m]cury4 ,let a !rmomet] be plac$ 9 ! m]cury1 & ano!r 9 ! ice4 ,! foll[+ effects w !n ensue4 ,! !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 ! ice w be obs]v$ gradually to rise f #bj upw>ds1 until x indicates ! temp]ature ( #cb4 ,x w !n become /ation>y1 & ! ice :i* _h hi!rto rema9$ 9 a solid /ate w beg9 to melt & be conv]t$ into wat]4 ,?is process ( liquefaction w cont9ue = a consid]able "t1 dur+ :i* ! !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 ! ice w con/antly be ma9ta9$ at #cb4 ,at ! mom5t1 h[ev]1 :5 ! la/ portion ( ice is liquefi$1 ! !rmomet] w beg9 aga9 to rise4 ,! co9cid5ce ( ?is asc5t ( ! !rmomet] ) ! completion ( ! liquefaction ( ! ice1 may be v easily obs]v$1 because ! ice be+ light]1 bulk = bulk1 ?an wat]1 w float on ! surface1 & s long z a p>ticle ( x rema9s unmelt$ x w be di/9ctly se54 ,n[ x _c be d\bt$ t1 dur+ ! :ole ( ?is process1 ! m]cury1 suppos$ to be ma9ta9$ at #bjj1 con/antly imp>ts heat to ! ice2 yet1 f ! mom5t ! liquefaction beg9s1 until x is complet$1 no increas$ temp]ature is exhibit$ by ! !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 ! melt+ ice4 ,if dur+ ?is "p ( ! process no heat 7 receiv$ by ! ice f ! m]cury1 ! consequ5ce w\ld be1 t ! application ( ! lamp w\ld cause ! temp]ature ( ! m]cury to rise above #bjj1 :i* may be easily demon/rat$ by )draw+ ! vessel ( ice f ! m]curial ba? dur+ ! process ( liquefaction4 ,! mom5t ,pg#aja x is )drawn1 ! !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 ! m]cury1 in/ead ( rema9+ fix$ at #bjj1 w beg9 to rise1 al?\gh ! action ( ! lamp rema9s ! same z be=e2 f :i* x is evid5t t ! heat :i* n[ causes ! m]cury to rise above #bjj 0 be=e receiv$ by ! melt+ ice4 ,! heat :i* ?us ent]s ice 9 ! process ( liquefaction1 & :i* is n indicat$ by ! !rmomet]1 is = ?is reason call$ lat5t heat4 ,x w be p]ceiv$ t ?is phrase is ! "n ( a fact1 & n ( an hypo!sis4 ,t heat really ent]s ! wat]1 & is conta9$ 9 x1 has be5 e/abli%$ by ! exp]im5ts2 & to decl>e t x is pres5t !re1 is to decl>e an e/abli%$ fact4 ,to call x by ! "n lat5t heat1 is to decl>e ano!r e/abli%$ fact1 viz41 t x is n s5sible to ! !rmomet]4 ,^! facts %[ u t heat is capable ( exi/+ 9 bodies 9 two di/9ct /ates1 9 "o ( :i* x is s5sible to ! !rmomet]1 & 9 ! o!r n4 ,heat :i* is s5sible to ! !rmomet] is call$1 = di/9ction1 s5sible or free heat4 ,x may be "h obs]v$1 t heat :i* is s5sible to ! !rmomet] is also p]ceptible by ! s5ses1 & heat n s5sible to ! !rmomet] is n p]ceptible by ! s5ses4 ,?us1 ice at #cb & wat] at #cb feel equally cold1 & yet we h se5 t ! latt] conta9s consid]ably m heat ?an ! =m]4 ,dr4 ,black1 :o fir/ notic$ ! rem>kable fact to :i* we h n[ allud$1 inf]r$ t ice is conv]t$ into wat] by communicat+ to x a c]ta9 quantity or dose ( heat1 :i* ent]s into comb9ation ) x 9 a mann] analog\s to t :i* takes place :5 bodies comb9e *emically4 ,! heat1 ?us comb9$ ) ! solid ice1 loses its prop]ty ( affect+ ! s5ses or ! !rmomet]1 & ! effects !re=e be> a resemblance to ^? cases ( *emical comb9ation 9 :i* ! con/itu5t elem5ts *ange _! s5sible prop]ties :5 !y =m ! comp\nd4 ,! fact t ! !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 ! ice rema9s /ation>y only z long z ! process ( liquefaction is go+ on1 %[s t ?is absorption ( heat is necess>ily connect$ ) t process1 & t1 7 x n = ! conv]sion ( ,pg#ajb ! solid ice into liquid wat]1 ! heat :i* is s receiv$ w\ld be s5sible1 & w\ld cause ! !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 ! ice to rise4 ,be=e ! "t ( ,black x 0 suppos$ t ! slighte/ addition ( heat w\ld cause solid ice to be conv]t$ into wat]1 & t ! !rmomet] w\ld imm$iately pass f ! freez+ temp]ature to high] degrees4 ,! exp]im5ts above describ$1 h[ev]1 %[ ! falsehood ( su* a supposition4 ,if1 :ile ! m]curial ba?1 9 :i* ! ice is imm]s$1 is ma9ta9$ at ! temp]ature ( #bjj1 ! l5g? ( "t necess>y to complete ! liquefaction ( ! ice be obs]v$1 x w\ld be f\nd t t "t is ab\t tw5ty-eight times ! l5g? ( "t :i* x w\ld take to raise ! liquid wat] f #cb to #cg2 & if x be assum$ t ! same quantity ( heat is imp>t$ to ! ice1 dur+ ! process ( liquefaction1 dur+ ea* m9ute1 z is imp>t$ to ! wat]1 dur+ ea* m9ute1 9 ris+ f #cb to #cg1 x w foll[1 t to liquefy ! ice requires tw5ty-eight times z mu* heat z is necess>y to raise ! wat] f #cb to #cg4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t1 in/ead ( a small quantity ( heat be+ necess>y to melt ! ice1 a v consid]able portion is absorb$ 9 t process4 ,hav+ asc]ta9$ ! rem>kable fact1 t heat is absorb$ 9 a l>ge quantity 9 ! conv]sion ( ice into wat]1 )\t r5d]+ ! body s absorb+ x w>m]1 let u n[ inquire :at ! exact quantity ( heat s absorb$ is4 ,we h already /at$ t1 if ! quantity communicat$ 9 equal times be ! same1 ! heat necess>y to liquefy a giv5 weight ( ice w\ld be tw5ty-eight times z mu* z w\ld be necess>y to raise ! same weight ( wat] f #cb to #cg2 or1 if ! heat necess>y to raise wat] ?r\gh e #e be ! same1 t quantity ( heat w\ld be suffici5t to raise wat] f #cb to #agb3 & h5ce we inf]1 t z mu* heat is absorb$ 9 ! liquefaction ( a giv5 quantity ( ice z w\ld raise ! same quantity ( wat] ?r\gh #adj degrees ( ! !rmometric scale4 7#eb47 ,let u n[ exam9e ! analog\s effects produc$ by ! cont9u$ application ( heat to wat] 9 ! liquid /ate4 ,let a small quantity ( wat] be plac$ 9 a glass flask ( consid]able size1 & !n clos$ s z to prev5t ! escape ,pg#ajc ( any vap\r4 ,let ?is vessel be n[ plac$ ov] ! flame ( a _s lamp1 s z to cause ! wat] x conta9s to boil4 ,= a consid]able "t ! wat] w be obs]v$ to boil1 & app>5tly to dim9i% 9 quantity1 until at l5g? all ! wat] disappe>s1 & ! vessel is app>5tly empty4 ,if ! vessel be n[ remov$ f ! lamp1 & susp5d$ 9 a cool atmosph]e1 ! :ole ( ! int]ior ( its surface w pres5tly appe> to be cov]$ ) a dewy moi/ure2 & at l5g? a quantity ( wat] w collect 9 ! bottom ( x1 equal to t :i* _h be5 9 x at ! comm5cem5t ( ! process4 ,t no wat] has at any p]iod ( ! exp]im5t escap$ f x1 may be easily det]m9$1 by p]=m+ ! exp]im5t ) ! glass flask susp5d$ f ! arm ( a balance1 c\nt]pois$ by a suffici5t weight susp5d$ f ! o!r arm4 ,! equilibrium w be pres]v$ ?r\gh\t1 & ! vessel w be f\nd to h ! same weight1 :5 to all appe>ance x is empty1 z :5 x conta9s ! liquid wat]4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t ! wat] exi/s 9 ! vessel 9 e /age ( ! process1 b t x becomes invisible :5 ! process ( boil+ has cont9u$ = a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t2 & x may be %[n t x w cont9ue to be invisible1 provid$ ! flask be expos$ to a temp]ature consid]ably elevat$4 ,?us1 = example1 if x be susp5d$ 9 a vessel ( boil+ wat]1 ! wat] :i* x conta9s w cont9ue to be invisible2 b ! mom5t x is )drawn f ! boil+ wat]1 & expos$ to ! cold air1 ! wat] w aga9 become visible1 z above m5tion$1 =m+ a dew on ! inn] surface1 & f9ally collect+ 9 ! bottom1 z 9 ! comm5cem5t ( ! exp]im5t4 ,9 fact1 ! liquid has1 by ! process ( boil+1 be5 conv]t$ into vap\r1 or /eam1 :i* is a body simil> 9 its lead+ prop]ties to common air1 &1 l x1 is invisible4 ,x w h]eaft] appe> t x likewise possesses ! prop]ty ( ela/icity1 & o!r me*anical qualities enjoy$ by gases 9 g5]al4 7#ec47 ,aga91 let an op5 vessel be fill$ ) wat] at #fj1 & plac$ 9 a m]curial ba?1 :i* is ma9ta9$1 by a fire or lamp appli$ to x1 at ! temp]ature ( #bcj4 ,place a !rmomet] 9 ! wat]1 & x w be obs]v$ gradually to ,pg#ajd rise z ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is increas$ by ! heat :i* x receives f ! m]cury 9 :i* x is imm]s$4 ,! wat] w /eadily rise 9 ?is mann] until x atta9s ! temp]ature ( #bab2 b "h ! !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 x w become /ation>y4 ,at ! same "t ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! vessel w become agitat$1 & its surface w pres5t ! same appe>ance z if bubbles ( air 7 ris+ f ! bottom1 & issu+ at ! top4 ,a cl\dy vap\r w be giv5 (f 9 l>ge quantities f its surface4 ,?is process is call$ ebullition or boil+4 ,if x be cont9u$ = any consid]able "t1 ! quantity ( wat] 9 ! vessel w be s5sibly dim9i%$2 & at l5g? e p>ticle ( x w disappe>1 & ! vessel w rema9 empty4 ,dur+ ! :ole ( ?is process1 ! !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 ! wat] w rema9 /ation>y at #bab4 ,n[1 x w be ask$1 :at has become ( ! wat]8 ,x _c be imag9$ t x has be5 annihilat$4 ,we %all be able to answ] ?is by adopt+ means to prev5t ! escape ( any p>ticle ( matt] f ! vessel conta9+ ! wat]1 into ! atmosph]e or else:]e4 ,let u suppose t ! top ( ! vessel conta9+ ! wat] is clos$1 ) ! exception ( a neck communicat+ ) a tube1 & let t tube be c>ri$ into ano!r close vessel remov$ f ! ci/]n ( heat$ m]cury1 & plung$ 9 ano!r ci/]n ( cold wat]4 ,su* an app>atus is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,a is a ci/]n ( heat$ m]cury1 9 :i* ! glass vessel ,b1 conta9+ wat]1 is imm]s$4 ,f ! top ( ! vessel ,b proce$s a glass tube ,c1 incl9+ d[nw>ds1 & ent]+ a glass vessel ,d1 :i* is imm]s$ 9 a ci/]n ,e ( cold wat]4 ,if ! process already describ$ be cont9u$ until ! wat] by con/ant ebullition has disappe>$1 z already m5tion$1 ,pg#aje f ! vessel ,b1 x w be f\nd t a quantity ( wat] w be collect$ 9 ! vessel ,d2 & if ?is wat] be weigh$1 x w be f\nd to h exactly ! same weight z ! wat] _h :i* 0 orig9ally plac$ 9 ! vessel ,b4 ,x is1 !re=e1 q app>5t t ! wat] has pass$ by ! process ( boil+ f ! "o vessel to ! o!r2 b1 9 its passage1 x 0 n p]ceptible by ! sight4 ,! tube ,c & ! upp] "p ( ! vessel ,b1 _h ! same appe>ance1 exactly1 z if !y _h be5 fill$ ) atmosph]ic air4 ,t !y are n m]ely fill$ ) atmosph]ic air may1 h[ev]1 be easily prov$4 ,:5 ! process ( boil+ fir/ comm5ces1 x w be f\nd t ! tube ,c is cold1 & ! inn] surface dry4 ,:5 ! process ( ebullition has cont9u$ a %ort "t1 ! tube ,c w become gradually heat$1 & ! inn] surface ( x cov]$ ) moi/ure4 ,aft] a "t1 h[ev]1 ?is moi/ure disappe>s1 & ! tube atta9s ! temp]ature #bab4 ,9 ?is /ate x cont9ues until ! :ole ( ! wat] is dis*>g$ f ! vessel ,b to ! vessel ,d4 7#ed47 ,^! effects are easily expla9$4 ,! wat] 9 ! vessel ,b is incapable ( receiv+ any high] temp]ature ?an #bab1 consi/5tly ) its reta9+ ! liquid =m4 ,small portions1 !re=e1 are con/antly conv]t$ into /eam by ! heat receiv$ f ! surr\nd+ m]cury1 & bubbles ( /eam are =m$ on ! bottom & sides ( ! vessel ,b4 ,^! bubbles1 be+ v mu* light]1 bulk = bulk1 ?an wat]1 rise rapidly ?r\gh ! wat]1 j 9 ! same mann] z bubbles ( air w\ld1 & produce t peculi> agitation at its surface :i* has be5 tak5 z ! ext]nal indication ( boil+4 ,!y escape f ! surface1 & collect 9 ! upp] "p ( ! vessel4 ,! /eam ?us collect$1 :5 x fir/ ent]s ! tube ,c1 is cool$ bel[ ! temp]ature ( #bab by ! surface ( ! tube2 & consequ5tly1 be+ incapable ( rema9+ 9 ! /ate ( vap\r at any l[] temp]ature ?an #bab1 x is reconv]t$ into wat]1 & =ms ! dewy moi/ure :i* is obs]v$ 9 ! comm5cem5t ( ! process on ! int]ior ( ! tube ,c4 ,at l5g?1 h[ev]1 ! :ole ( ! tube ,c is heat$ to ! temp]ature ( #bab1 & ! moi/ure :i* 0 previ\sly collect$ ^u its inn] ,pg#ajf surface is aga9 conv]t$ into /eam4 ,z ! quantity ( /eam evolv$ f ! wat] 9 ,b increases1 x drives be=e x ! /eam previ\sly collect$ 9 ! tube ,c1 & =ces x into ! vessel ,b4 ,"h x enc\nt]s ! inn] surface ( ?is vessel1 :i* is kept con/antly cold by be+ surr\nd$ ) ! cold wat] 9 :i* x is imm]s$2 & ! vap\r1 be+ ?us imm$iately r$uc$ bel[ ! temp]ature ( #bab1 is reconv]t$ into wat]4 ,at fir/ x collects 9 a dew on ! surface ( ! vessel ,d2 b z ?is accumulates1 x drops into ! bottom ( ! vessel1 & =ms a m consid]able quantity4 ,z ! quantity ( wat] is obs]v$ to be gradually dim9i%$ 9 ! vessel ,b1 ! quantity w be f\nd to be gradually increas$ 9 ! vessel ,d2 & if ! op]ation be susp5d$ at any /age ( ! process1 & ! wat] 9 ! two vessels weigh$1 x w be f\nd t ! weight ( ! wat] 9 ,d is exactly equal to ! weight :i* ! wat] 9 ,b has lo/4 7#ee47 ,! demon/ration is1 !re=e1 p]fect1 t ! gradual dim9ution ( ! boil+ wat] 9 ! vessel ,b is produc$ by ! conv]sion ( t wat] into /eam by ! heat4 ,9 ! process fir/ describ$1 :5 ! top ( ! vessel ,b 0 suppos$ to be op51 ?is /eam made its escape into ! air1 :]e x 0 fir/ disp]s$1 & subsequ5tly cool$ 9 sep>ate p>ticles1 & 0 deposit$ 9 m9ute globules ( moi/ure on ! gr\nd & on surr\nd+ objects4 7#ef47 ,9 review+ ?is process1 we are /ruck by ! fact1 t ! cont9u$ application ( heat to ! vessel ,b is incapable ( rais+ ! temp]ature ( ! wat] conta9$ 9 x above #bab4 ,?is pres5ts an obvi\s analogy to ! process ( liquefaction1 & leads to inquiries ( a simil> nature1 :i* are att5d$ ) a l result4 ,we mu/ ei!r inf]1 t ! wat]1 hav+ arriv$ at #bab1 receiv$ no m heat f ! m]cury2 or t su* heat1 if receiv$1 is incapable ( affect+ ! !rmomet]2 or1 f9ally1 t ! /eam :i* passes (f c>ries ?is heat ) x4 ,t ! wat] receive heat f ! m]cury1 w be prov$ by ! fact1 t1 if ! vessel ,b be remov$ f ! m]cury1 o!r ?+s rema9+ z be=e1 ! temp]ature ( ! m]cury w rapidly rise1 & if ! fire be cont9u$1 x w ev5 boil2 b s long z ! ,pg#ajg vessel ,b rema9s imm]s$1 x prev5ts ! m]cury f increas+ 9 temp]ature4 ,x !re=e receives t heat :i* w\ld o!rwise raise ! temp]ature ( ! quicksilv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,if a !rmomet] be imm]s$ 9 ! /eam :i* collects 9 ! upp] "p ( ! vessel ,b1 x w %[ ! same temp]ature 7( #bab7 z ! wat] f :i* x is rais$4 ,! heat1 !re=e1 receiv$ f ! m]cury1 is cle>ly n imp>t$ 9 a s5sible =m to ! /eam1 :i* has ! same temp]ature 9 ! =m ( /eam z x _h 9 ! =m ( wat]4 ,:at has be5 already expla9$ respect+ liquefaction w\ld lead u1 by analogy1 to suspect t ! heat imp>t$ by ! m]cury to ! wat] has become lat5t 9 ! /eam1 & is in/rum5tal to ! conv]sion ( wat] into /eam1 9 ! same mann] z heat has be5 %[n to be in/rum5tal to ! conv]sion ( ice into wat]4 ,z ! fact 0 9 t case detect$ by mix+ ice ) wat]1 s we %all1 9 ! pres5t in/ance1 try x by a l te/1 viz4 by mix+ wat] ) /eam4 ,let ab\t five ounces & a half ( wat]1 at ! temp]ature ( #cb1 be plac$ 9 a vessel ,a 7fig4 #af471 & let ano!r vessel ,b1 9 :i* wat] is kept con/antly boil+ at ! temp]ature ( #bab1 communicate ) ,a by a pipe ,c proce$+ f ! top1 s t ! /eam may be conduct$ f ,b1 & escape f ! m\? ( ! pipe at "s dep? bel[ ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ,a4 ,z ! /eam issues f ! pipe1 x w be imm$iately reconv]t$ into wat] by ! cold wat] :i* x enc\nt]s2 &1 by cont9u+ ?is process1 ! wat] 9 ,a w be gradually heat$ by ! /eam comb9$ ) x & receiv$ ?r\gh ! pipe ,c4 ,if ?is process be cont9u$ until ! wat] 9 ,a is rais$ to ! temp]ature ( #bab1 x w boil4 ,let x !n be weigh$1 & x w be f\nd to weigh six ounces & a half3 f :5ce we inf]1 t "o ounce ( wat] has be5 receiv$ f ! vessel ,b 9 ! =m ( /eam1 & has be5 reconv]t$ into wat] by ! inf]ior temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 ,a4 ,n[1 ?is ounce ( wat] receiv$ 9 ! =m ( /eam into ! vessel ,a _h1 :5 9 t =m1 ! temp]ature ( #bab4 ,x is n[ ,pg#ajh conv]t$ into ! liquid =m1 & /ill reta9s ! same temp]ature ( #bab2 b x has caus$ ! five ounces & a half ( wat] ) :i* x has be5 mix$1 to rise f ! temp]ature ( #cb to ! temp]ature ( #bab1--;& ?is1 )\t los+ any temp]ature itself4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t1 9 return+ to ! liquid /ate1 x has p>t$ ) z mu* heat z is capable ( rais+ five times & a half its own weight ( wat] f #cb to #bab4 ,?is heat 0 comb9$ ) ! /eam1 ?\gh n s5sible to ! !rmomet]2 & 01 !re=e1 lat5t4 ,_h x be5 s5sible 9 ! wat] 9 ,b1 x w\ld h caus$ ! wat] to h ris5 ?r\gh a numb] ( !rmometric degrees1 am\nt+ to five times & a half ! excess ( #bab above #cb2 t is1 ?r\gh five times & a half #ahj2 = x has caus$ five times & a half its own weight ( wat] to receive an equal increase ( temp]ature4 ,b five times & a half #ahj is #iij1 or1 to use r\nd numb]s 7= m9ute accuracy is n "h our object71 #ajjj4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t an ounce ( wat]1 9 pass+ f ! liquid /ate at #bab to ! /ate ( /eam at #bab1 receives z mu* heat z w\ld be suffici5t to raise x ?r\gh #ajjj !rmometric degrees1 if t heat1 in/ead ( becom+ lat5t1 _h be5 s5sible4 7#eg47 ,9 ord] to d]ive all ! k f ^! exp]im5ts :i* !y are capable ( imp>t+1 x w be necess>y to exam9e v c>efully h[ wat] comports itself "u a v>iety ( diff]5t circum/ances4 ,if wat] be boil$ 9 an op5 vessel1 ) a !rmomet] imm]s$1 on diff]5t days1 x w be obs]v$ t ! fix$ temp]ature :i* x assumes 9 boil+ w be subject to a v>iation )9 c]ta9 small limits4 ,?us1 at "o "t1 x w be f\nd to boil at ! temp]ature ( #baj2 :ile1 at o!rs1 ! !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 x w rise to #bac2 &1 on diff]5t occasions1 x w fix itself at diff]5t po9ts )9 ^! limits4 ,x w also be f\nd1 if ! same exp]im5t be p]=m$ at ! same "t 9 di/ant places1 t ! boil+ po9ts w be subject to a l v>iation4 ,n[1 x is natural to inquire :at cause produces ?is v>iation2 & we %all be l$ to ! discov]y ( ! cause1 by exam9+ :at o!r physical effects und]go a simultane\s *ange4 ,pg#aji ,if we obs]ve ! height ( ! b>omet] at ! "t ( mak+ ea* exp]im5t1 we %all f9d a v rem>kable correspond5ce betwe5 x & ! boil+ temp]ature4 ,inv>iably1 :5ev] ! b>omet] /&s at ! same height1 ! boil+ temp]ature w be ! same4 ,?us1 if ! b>omet] /&s at #cj in*es1 ! boil+ temp]ature w be #bab4 ,if ! b>omet] fall to #bi-a_/b in*es1 ! !rmomet] /&s at a small fraction above #baa4 ,if ! b>omet] rise to #cj-a_/b in*es1 ! boil+ temp]ature rises to ne>ly #bac4 ,! v>iation 9 ! boil+ temp]ature is1 !n1 accompani$ by a v>iation 9 ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e indicat$ by ! b>omet]2 & x is con/antly f\nd t ! boil+ po9t w rema9 un*ang$1 s long z ! atmosph]ic pressure rema9s un*ang$1 & t e increase 9 ! "o causes a correspond+ increase 9 ! o!r4 7#eh47 ,f ^! facts x mu/ be inf]r$1 t ! pressure excit$ on ! surface ( ! wat] has a t5d5cy to resi/ its ebullition1 & to make x necess>y1 be=e x c boil1 t x %\ld receive a high] temp]ature2 &1 on ! contr>y1 t e dim9ution ( pressure on ! surface ( ! wat] w give an increas$ facility to ! process ( ebullition1 or w cause t process to take place at a l[] temp]ature4 ,z ^! facts are ( ! utmo/ importance 9 ! !ory ( heat1 x may be useful to v]ify !m by direct exp]im5t4 ,if ! v>iable pressure excit$ on ! surface ( ! wat] by ! atmosph]e be ! cause ( ! *ange 9 ! boil+ temp]ature1 x mu/ happ51 t any *ange ( pressure produc$ by artificial means on ! surface ( ! wat] mu/ likewise *ange ! boil+ po9t1 accord+ to ! same law4 ,?us1 if a pressure consid]ably great] ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure be excit$ on a liquid1 ! boil+ po9t may be expect$ to rise consid]ably above #bab2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 if ! surface ( ! wat] be reliev$ f ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 & be submitt$ to a consid]ably dim9i%$ pressure1 ! wat] w\ld boil bel[ #bab4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,let ,b 7fig4 #ag47 be a /rong sph]ical vessel ( brass1 support$ on a /& ,s1 "u :i* is plac$ a l>ge _s lamp ,l1 or o!r means ( heat+ x4 ,9 ! top ( ?is vessel are ?ree ap]tures1 9 two ( :i* are screw$ a ,pg#aaj !rmomet] ,t1 ! bulb ( :i* ent]s ! holl[ brass sph]e1 & a /op-cock ,c1 :i* may be clos$ or op5$ at pleasure1 to conf9e ! /eam1 or all[ x to escape4 ,9 ! ?ird ap]ture at ! top1 is screw$ a long b>omet] tube1 op5 at bo? ends4 ,! l[] end ( ?is tube ext5ds ne>ly to ! bottom ( ! sph]ical vessel ,b4 ,9 ! bottom ( ?is vessel is plac$ a quantity ( m]cury1 ! surface ( :i* rises to "s height above ! l[] end ( ! tube ,a4 ,ov] ! m]cury is p\r$ a quantity ( wat]1 s z to half fill ! vessel ,b4 ,matt]s be+ ?us arrang$1 ! screws are made tight1 s z to conf9e ! wat]1 & ! lamp is all[$ to act on ! vessel2 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is rais$1 & /eam is produc$1 :i*1 be+ conf9$ )9 ! vessel1 ex]ts its pressure on ! surface ( ! wat]1 & resi/s its ebullition4 ,! pressure ( ! /eam act+ on ! surface ( ! wat] is communicat$ to ! surface ( ! m]cury1 & x =ces a portion ( ! m]cury into ! tube ,a1 :i* pres5tly rises above ! po9t :]e ! tube is screw$ into ! top ( ! vessel ,b4 ,z ! action ( ! lamp cont9ues1 ! !rmomet] ,t exhibits a gradually increas+ temp]ature2 :ile ! column ( m]cury 9 ,a %[s ! =ce ) :i* ! /eam presses on ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ,b1--?is column be+ balanc$ by ! pressure ( ! /eam4 ,?us1 ! temp]ature & pressure ( ! /eam at ! same mom5t may always be obs]v$ by inspect+ ! !rmomet] ,t & ! tube ,a4 ,:5 ! column 9 ! tube ,a has ris5 to ! height ( #cj in*es above ! level ( ! m]cury 9 ! vessel ,b1 !n ! pressure ( ! /eam w be equival5t to d\ble ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 because1 ! tube ,a be+ op5 at ! top1 ! atmosph]e presses on ! ,pg#aaa surface ( ! m]cury 9 x4 ,! !rmomet] ,t w be obs]v$ gradually to rise until x atta9s ! temp]ature ( #bab2 b x w n /op !re1 z x w\ld d if imm]s$ 9 wat] boil$ 9 an op5 vessel4 ,x w1 on ! o!r h&1 cont9ue to rise2 & :5 ! column ( m]cury 9 ,a has atta9$ ! height ( #cj in*es1 ! !rmomet] ,t w h ris5 to #bea1--;be+ #ci above ! ord9>y boil+ po9t4 ,dur+ ! :ole ( ?is process1 ! surface ( ! wat] be+ submitt$ to a con/antly increas+ pressure1 its ebullition is prev5t$1 & x cont9ues to receive heat )\t boil+4 ,t x is ! increas$ pressure :i* resi/s its ebullition1 & causes x to receive a temp]ature above #bab1 may be easily %[n4 ,let ! /op-cock ,c be op5$2 imm$iately ! /eam 9 ,b1 hav+ a pressure consid]ably great] ?an t ( ! atmosph]e1 w ru% out1 & w cont9ue to issue f ,c1 until its pressure is balanc$ by ! atmosph]e4 ,at ! same "t ! column ( m]cury 9 ,a w be obs]v$ rapidly to fall1 & to s9k bel[ ! orifice by :i* x is ins]t$ 9 ! vessel ,b4 ,! !rmomet] ,t w also fall until x atta9s ! temp]ature ( #bab4 ,at t po9t1 h[ev]1 x w rema9 /ation>y2 & ! wat] w n[ be di/9ctly he>d to be 9 a /ate ( rapid ebullition4 ,if ! /op-cock ,c be once m clos$1 ! !rmomet] w beg9 to rise1 & ! column ( m]cury asc5d+ 9 ,a w be aga9 visible4 ,if1 in/ead ( a /op-cock be+ at ,c1 ! ap]ture 7 made to communicate ) a valve1 l ! safety-valve ( a /eam eng9e1 load$ ) a c]ta9 weight1--say at ! rate ( #ae lbs4 on ! squ>e in*1--!n ! !rmomet] ,t1 & ! m]cury 9 ! tube ,a1 w\ld n rise indef9itely z be=e4 ,! !rmomet] w\ld cont9ue to rise till x atta9$ ! temp]ature ( #bea2 & ! m]cury 9 ! tube ,a w\ld rise to ! height ( #cj in*es4 ,at ?is limit ! resi/ance ( ! valve w\ld be balanc$ by ! pressure ( ! /eam2 & z fa/ z ! wat] w\ld h a t5d5cy to produce /eam ( a high] pressure1 ! valve w\ld be rais$ & ! /eam suff]$ to escape2 ! !rmomet] ,t & ! column ( m]cury 9 ,a rema9+ /ation>y dur+ ?is process4 ,if ! valve 7 load$ m heavily1 ! ph5om5a w\ld be ,pg#aab ! same1 only t ! m]cury 9 ,t & ,a w\ld become /ation>y at c]ta9 heights4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 if ! valve 7 load$ at a less pressure ?an #ae lbs4 on ! squ>e in*1 !n ! m]cury 9 ! two tubes w\ld become /ation>y at l[] po9ts4 7#ei47 ,^! exp]im5ts %[ t e increase ( pressure above ! ord9>y pressure ( ! atmosph]e causes an increase 9 ! temp]ature at :i* wat] boils4 ,we %all n[ inquire :e!r a dim9ution ( pressure w produce a correspond+ effect on ! boil+ po9t4 ,?is may be easily accompli%$ by ! aid ( an air pump4 ,let wat] at ! temp]ature ( #bjj be plac$ 9 a glass vessel "u ! receiv] ( an air pump1 & let ! air be gradually )drawn4 ,aft] a few /rokes ( ! pump1 ! wat] w boil2 & if ! m]curial gauge ( ! pump be obs]v$1 x w be f\nd t its altitude w be ab\t #bc-a_/b in*es4 ,?us ! pressure to :i* ! wat] is submitt$ has be5 r$uc$ f ! ord9>y pressure ( ! atmosph]e express$ by ! column ( #cj in*es ( m]cury1 to a dim9i%$ pressure express$ by #bc-a_/b in*es2 & we f9d t ! temp]ature at :i* ! wat] boils has be5 l[]$ f #bab to #bjj4 ,let ! same exp]im5t be repeat$ ) wat] at ! temp]ature ( #ahj1 & x w be f\nd t a fur!r r>efaction ( ! air is necess>y1 b ! wat] w at l5g? boil4 ,if ! gauge ( ! pump be n[ obs]v$1 x w be f\nd to /& at ab\t fifte5 in*es1 %[+1 t at ! temp]ature ( #ahj wat] w boil "u half ! ord9>y pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,^! exp]im5ts may be v>i$ & repeat$2 & x w be always f\nd1 t1 z ! pressure is dim9i%$ or increas$1 ! temp]ature at :i* ! wat] w boil w be also dim9i%$ or increas$4 7#fj47 ,! same effects may be exhibit$ 9 a /rik+ mann] )\t an air pump1 by produc+ a vacuum by ! cond5sation ( /eam4 ,let a small quantity ( wat] be plac$ 9 a ?9 glass flask1 & let x be boil$ by hold+ x ov] a _s lamp4 ,:5 ! /eam is obs]v$ to issue abundantly f ! m\? ( ! flask1 let x be quickly cork$ & remov$ f ! lamp4 ,! process ( boil+ w !n cease1 & ! wat] w become quiesc5t2 b if ! flask be plung$ ,pg#aac 9 a vessel ( cold wat]1 ! wat] x conta9s w aga9 pass into a /ate ( viol5t ebullition1 ?us exhibit+ ! s+ul> fact ( wat] be+ boil$ by cool+ x4 ,?is effect is produc$ by ! cold m$ium 9 :i* ! flask is imm]s$1 caus+ ! /eam above ! surface ( ! wat] 9 x to be cond5s$1 & !re=e reliev+ ! wat] f its pressure4 ,! wat]1 "u ^! circum/ances1 boils at a l[] temp]ature ?an :5 submitt$ to ! pressure ( ! uncond5s$ vap\r4 7#fa47 ,!re is no limit to ! temp]ature to :i* wat] may be rais$1 if x be submitt$ to a suffici5t pressure to resi/ its t5d5cy to take ! vapor\s =m4 ,if a /rong metallic vessel be ne>ly fill$ ) wat]1 s z to prev5t ! liquid f escap+ by any =ce :i* x c ex]t1 ! wat] ?us inclos$ may be heat$ to any temp]ature :atev] )\t boil+2 9 fact1 x may be made r$-hot2 & ! temp]ature to :i* x may be rais$ w h no limit1 except ! /r5g? ( ! vessel conta9+ x1 or ! po9t at :i* ! metal ( :i* x is =m$ may beg9 to s(t5 or to be fus$4 7#fb47 ,! foll[+ table w %[ ! temp]ature at :i* wat] w boil "u diff]5t pressures ( ! atmosph]e correspond+ to ! altitudes ( ! b>omet] betwe5 #bf & #ca in*es4 ,b>omet]4 ,boil+ ,po9t4 #bf in*es #bjdia #bfe #bjegi #bg #bjffg #bge #bjgee #bh #bjhdc #bhe #bjica #bi #bajai #bie #baajg #cj #bab #cje #babhh #ca #bacgf ,f ?is table x appe>s1 t1 = e t5? ( an in* :i* ! b>ometric column v>ies betwe5 ^! limits1 ! boil+ temp]ature *anges by ! fraction ( a degree express$ by ! decimal #agf1 or ne>ly by ! vulg> fraction #a_/f4 7#fc47 ,9 ! exp]im5t already describ$1 by :i* ! lat5t ,pg#aad heat ( /eam 0 det]m9$1 ! wat] 0 suppos$ to be boil$ "u ! ord9>y pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,hav+ se51 h[ev]1 t wat] may boil at diff]5t temp]atures1 "u diff]5t pressures1 ! inquiry pres5ts itself1 :e!r ! heat absorb$ 9 vaporisation at diff]5t temp]atures1 & "u diff]5t pressures1 is subject to any v>iation8 ,exp]im5ts ( ! same nature z ^? already describ$1 in/itut$ ^u wat] 9 a /ate ( ebullition at diff]5t temp]atures1 z well bel[ z above #bab1 h l$ to ! discov]y ( a v rem>kable fact 9 ! !ory ( vap\r4 ,x has be5 f\nd t ! heat absorb$ by vaporisation is always less1 ! high] ! temp]ature at :i* ! ebullition takes place2 & less1 by ! same am\nt z ! temp]ature ( ebullition is increas$4 ,?us1 if wat] boil at #cab1 ! heat absorb$ 9 ebullition w be less by #ajj ?an if x boil$ at #bab2 & aga91 if wat] be boil$ "u a dim9i%$ pressure1 at #aab1 ! heat absorb$ 9 vaporisation w be #ajj m ?an ! heat absorb$ by wat] boil$ at #bab4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t ! actual consumption ( heat 9 ! process ( vaporisation mu/ be ! same1 :atev] be ! temp]ature at :i* ! vaporisation takes place2 = :atev] heat is sav$ 9 ! s5sible =m1 is consum$ 9 ! lat5t =m1 & vice v]s4 ,let u suppose a giv5 weight ( wat] at ! temp]ature ( #cb to be expos$ to any regul> s\rce by :i* heat may be suppli$ to x4 ,if x be "u ! ord9>y atmosph]ic pressure1 ! fir/ #ahj ( heat :i* x receives w raise x to ! boil+ po9t1 & ! next #ajjj w conv]t x into /eam4 ,?us1 9 addition to ! heat :i* x conta9s at #cb1 ! /eam at #bab conta9s #aahj ( heat4 ,b if ! same wat] be submitt$ to a pressure equal to half ! atmosph]ic pressure1 !n ! fir/ #adh ( heat :i* x receives w cause x to boil1 & ! next #ajcb w conv]t x into vap\r4 ,?us1 /eam at ! temp]ature ( #ahj conta9s a quantity ( heat m ?an ! same quantity ( wat] at #cb1 by #ajcb add$ to #adh1 :i* gives a sum ( #aahj4 ,/eam1 !re=e1 rais$ "u ! ord9>y pressure ( ! atmosph]e at #bab1 & /eam rais$ "u half t pressure at #ahj1 conta9 ! same quantity ( heat1--) ?is diff]5ce ,pg#aae only--t ! "o has m lat5t heat1 & less s5sible heat1 ?an ! o!r4 ,f ?is fact1 t ! sum ( ! lat5t & s5sible heats ( ! vap\r ( wat] is con/ant1 x foll[s t ! same quantity ( heat is necess>y to conv]t a giv5 weight ( wat] into /eam1 at :atev] temp]ature1 or "u :atev] pressure1 ! wat] may be boil$4 ,x foll[s1 also1 t1 9 ! /eam eng9e1 equal weights ( high-pressure & l[-pressure /eam are produc$ by ! same consumption ( fuel2 & t1 9 g5]al1 ! consumption ( fuel is proportional to ! quantity ( wat] vaporis$1 :atev] ! pressure ( ! /eam may be4#ah 7#fd47 ,hav+ expla9$ ! conditions "u :i*1 by supply+ heat to wat]1 x is conv]t$ into /eam1 &1 by ab/ract+ heat f /eam1 x may be reconv]t$ into wat]1 let u n[ consid] ! me*anical =ce :i* is develop$ 9 ^! ph5om5a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,let ,a ,b 7fig4 #ah47 be a tube1 or cyl9d]1 ! base ( :i* is equal to a squ>e in*1 & let a pi/on ,p move 9 x s z to be /eam-tight4 ,let x be suppos$1 t "u ?is pi/on !re is1 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 a cubic in* ( wat] betwe5 ! bottom ( ! pi/on & ! bottom ( ! tube2 let ! pi/on be c\nt]balanc$ by a weight ,w act+ ov] a pulley1 :i* w be j suffici5t to c\nt]poise ! weight ( ! pi/on1 s z leave no =ce t5d+ to keep ! pi/on d[n1 except ! =ce ( ! atmosph]e act+ above x4 ,"u ! circum/ances "h suppos$1 ! pi/on be+ 9 contact ) ! wat]1 & all air be+ exclud$1 x w be press$ d[n by ! weight ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* we w suppose to be fifte5 p\nds1 ! magnitude ( ! pi/on be+ a squ>e in*4 ,pg#aaf ,n[ let ! flame ( a lamp be appli$ at ! bottom ( ! tube2 ! wat] "u ! pi/on hav+ its temp]ature !reby gradually rais$1 & be+ submitt$ to no pressure save t ( ! atmosph]e above ! pi/on1 x w beg9 to be conv]t$ into /eam :5 x has atta9$ ! temp]ature ( #bab4 ,accord+ z x is conv]t$ into /eam1 x w cause ! pi/on to asc5d 9 ! tube until all ! wat] has be5 evaporat$4 ,if ! tube 7 con/ruct$ ( suffici5t l5g?1 ! pi/on !n w\ld be f\nd to h ris5 to ! height ( ab\t sev5te5 hundr$ in*es1 or "o hundr$ & =ty-two feet2 s9ce1 z has be5 already expla9$1 wat] pass+ into /eam "u ! ord9>y pressure ( ! atmosph]e und]goes an increase ( bulk 9 ! proportion ( ab\t sev5te5 hundr$ to "o4 ,n[ 9 ?is process1 ! air above ! pi/on1 :i* presses on x ) a =ce equal to fifte5 p\nds1 has be5 rais$ "o hundr$ & =ty-two feet4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t1 by ! evaporation ( a cubic in* ( wat] "u a pressure equal to fifte5 p\nds p] squ>e in*1 a me*anical =ce ( ?is am\nt is develop$4 ,x is evid5t t fifte5 p\nds rais$ "o hundr$ & =ty-two feet successively1 is equival5t to "o hundr$ & =ty-two times fifte5 p\nds rais$ "o foot4 ,n[1 "o hundr$ & =ty-two times fifte5 is two ?\s& "o hundr$ & ?irty1 & !re=e ! =ce ?us obta9$ is equal to two ?\s& "o hundr$ & ?irty p\nds rais$ "o foot high4 ,?is be+ )9 ab\t #aaj p\nds ( a ton1 x may be /at$1 9 r\nd numb]s1 t1 by ! evaporation ( a cubic in* ( wat] "u ^! circum/ances1 a =ce is obta9$ equal to t :i* w\ld raise a ton weight a foot high4 ,! augm5tation ( volume :i* wat] und]goes 9 pass+ into /eam "u ! pressure "h suppos$1 may be easily reta9$ 9 ! memory1 f ! accid5tal circum/ance t a cubic in* ( wat] is conv]t$ into a cubic foot ( /eam1 v ne>ly4 ,a cubic foot conta9s "o ?\s& sev5 hundr$ & tw5ty-eight cubic in*es1--:i* is little diff]5t f ! proportion :i* /eam be>s to wat]1 :5 rais$ "u ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,pg#aag 7#fe47 ,x w1 !re=e1 be an advantage to reta9 9 memory ! foll[+ g5]al facts3-- #a4 ,a cubic in* ( wat] evaporat$ "u ! ord9>y atmosph]ic pressure1 is conv]t$ into a cubic foot ( /eam4 #b4 ,a cubic in* ( wat] evaporat$ "u ! atmosph]ic pressure1 gives a me*anical =ce equal to :at w\ld raise ab\t a ton weight a foot high4 7#ff47 ,let u1 aga91 suppose ! pi/on ,p 7fig4 #bc47 to be re/or$ to its orig9al position1 ) ! liquid wat] b5ea? x2 &1 9 addition to ! weight ( ! atmosph]e :i* be=e press$ x d[n1 let u suppose ano!r weight ( fifte5 p\nds laid ^u x1 s t ! wat] bel[ %all be press$ by d\ble ! weight ( ! atmosph]e4 ,if ! lamp 7 n[ appli$1 & at ! same "t a !rmomet] 7 imm]s$ 9 ! wat]1 x w\ld be f\nd t ! wat] w\ld n beg9 to be conv]t$ into /eam until x atta9$ ! temp]ature ( ab\t #bej4 ,! pi/on w\ld !n beg91 z be=e1 to asc5d1 & ! wat] to be gradually conv]t$ into vap\r4 ,! wat] be+ completely evaporat$1 x w\ld be f\nd t ! pi/on w\ld be rais$ to a height little m ?an half its =m] height1 or #gb feet4 ,! me*anical effect1 !re=e1 ?us obta9$1 w be equival5t to d\ble ! =m] weight rais$ half ! =m] height4 ,9 l mann]1 if ! pi/on 7 load$ ) ?irty p\nds 9 addition to ! atmosph]e1 ! :ole pressure on ! wat] be+ !n ?ree times ! pressure fir/ suppos$1 ! pi/on w\ld be rais$ to some:at m ?an "o ?ird ( its fir/ height by ! evaporation ( ! wat]4 ,?is w\ld give a me*anical =ce equival5t to ?ree times ! orig9al weight rais$ a little m ?an "o ?ird ( ! orig9al height4 ,9 g5]al1 z ! pressure on ! pi/on is increas$1 ! height to :i* ! pi/on w\ld be rais$ by ! evaporation ( ! wat] w be dim9i%$ 9 a proportion some:at less ?an ! proportion 9 :i* ! pressure on ! pi/on is increas$4 ,if ! temp]ature at :i* ! wat] is conv]t$ into /eam "u ^! diff]5t pressures 7 ! same1 !n ! height to :i* ! pi/on w\ld be rais$ by ! evaporation ( ! wat] w\ld be dim9i%$ 9 precisely ,pg#aah ! same proportion z ! pressure on ! pi/on is increas$2 &1 9 t case1 ! :ole me*anical =ce develop$ by ! evaporation ( ! wat] w\ld rema9 exactly ! same "u :atev] pressure ! wat] might be boil$4 ,we %all expla9 h]eaft] ! ext5t to :i* ! v>iation ( temp]ature 9 ! wat] & /eam correspond+ to ! v>iation ( pressure modifies ?is law2 b1 z ! effect ( ! diff]5ce ( temp]atures is n consid]able1 x w be conv5i5t to regi/] 9 ! memory ! foll[+ important practical conclusion3-- 7#fg47 ,a cubic in* ( wat] conv]t$ into /eam w supply a me*anical =ce v ne>ly equal to a ton weight rais$ a foot high2 & ?is =ce w n be subject to consid]able v>iation1 :atev] be ! temp]ature or pressure at :i* ! wat] may be evaporat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,glasg[4 ,,footnotes3 #ah ,! prec$+ p>agraphs1 & "s o!r p>ts ( ! pres5t volume on ! g5]al prop]ties ( ,heat1 are tak5 f my ,treatise on ,heat1 9 ! ,cab9et ,cyclopdia1 to :i* ^? :o desire m detail$ explanation & m copi\s illu/ration %\ld ref]4 ,pg#aai ,illu/ration3 ,,glasg[ ,,college4 ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,,watt ,,f9ds ,,t ,,cond5sation ,,9 ,,! ,,cyl9d] ,,is ,,incompatible ,,) ,a ,,due ,,economy ,,( ,,fuel4 -- ,,conceives ,,! ,,notion ,,( ,,cond5s+ ,,out ,,( ,,! ,,cyl9d]4 -- ,,discov]s ,,sep>ate ,,cond5sation4 -- ,,inv5ts ,,! ,,air-,,pump4 -- ,,sub/itutes ,,/eam ,,pressure ,,= ,,atmosph]ic ,,pressure4 -- ,,inv5ts ,,! ,,/eam ,,case1 ,,or ,,jacket4 -- ,,8 ,,fir/ ,,exp]im5ts ,,to ,,realise ,,^! ,,inv5tions4 -- ,,8 ,,exp]im5tal ,,app>atus4 -- ,,difficulties ,,( ,,br++ ,,! ,,improv$ ,,eng9es ,,into ,,use4 -- ,,watt ,,practises ,,z ,a ,,civil ,,eng9e]4 -- ,,8 ,,p>tn]%ip ,,) ,,roebuck4 -- ,,8 ,,fir/ ,,pat5t4 -- ,,description ,,( ,,8 ,,s+le-,,act+ ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 7#fh47 ,at ! p]iod to :i* we h n[ br\ght ! hi/ory ( ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e1 ,watt _h obta9$1 *iefly by 8 own exp]im5ts1 a suffici5t k ( ! ph5om5a :i* h be5 j expla9$1 to enable him to arrive at ! conclusion t a v small proportion ( ! :ole me*anical effect att5d+ ! evaporation 0 really r5d]$ available by ! atmosph]ic eng9e2 & t1 ,pg#abj !re=e1 ext5sive & injuri\s s\rces ( wa/e exi/$ 9 its ma*9]y4 ,he p]ceiv$ t ! pr9cipal s\rce ( ?is wa/eful exp5diture ( p[] consi/$ 9 ! quantity ( /eam :i* 0 cond5s$ at ea* /roke ( ! pi/on1 9 heat+ ! cyl9d] previ\s to ! asc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,yet1 z x 0 evid5t t t asc5t c\ld n be accompli%$ 9 a cold cyl9d]1 x 0 app>5t t ?is wa/e ( p[] mu/ be inevitable1 unless "s exp$i5t c\ld be devis$1 by :i* a vacuum c\ld be ma9ta9$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 )\t cool+ x4 ,b1 to produce su* a vacuum1 ! /eam mu/ be cond5s$2 &1 to cond5se ! /eam1 its temp]ature mu/ be l[]$ to su* a po9t t ! vap\r proce$+ f x %all h no injuri\s pressure2 yet1 if cond5s$ /eam be conta9$ 9 a cyl9d] at a high temp]ature1 x w return to ! temp]ature ( ! cyl9d]1 recov] its ela/icity1 & resi/ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,hav+ reflect$ on ^! circum/ances1 x became app>5t to ,watt1 t a vice 0 inh]5t 9 ! /ructure ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 :i* r5d]$ a l>ge wa/e ( p[] inevitable2 ?is vice aris+ f ! fact1 t ! cond5sation ( ! /eam 0 incompatible ) ! condition ( ma9ta9+ ! elevat$ temp]ature ( ! cyl9d] 9 :i* t cond5sation took place4 ,x foll[$1 !re=e1 ei!r t ! /eam mu/ be imp]fectly cond5s$1 or t ! cond5sation c\ld n take place 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,x 0 9 #agfe1 t1 pond]+ on ^! circum/ances1 ! happy idea occurr$ to him1 t ! production ( a vacuum c\ld be equally effect$1 ?\gh ! place :]e ! cond5sation ( ! /eam took place 7 n ! cyl9d] itself4 ,he saw1 t if a vessel 9 :i* a vacuum 0 produc$ 7 put into communication ) ano!r conta9+ an ela/ic fluid1 ! ela/ic fluid w\ld ru% into ! vacuum1 & diffuse itself ?r\gh ! two vessels2 b if1 on ru%+ into su* vacuum1 ?is ela/ic fluid1 be+ vap\r1 7 !re cond5s$1 or re/or$ to ! liquid =m1 t !n ! space )9 ! two vessels w\ld be equally r5d]$ a vacuum2--t1 "u su* circum/ances1 "o ( ! vessels might be ma9ta9$ at any temp]ature1 h[ev] high1 :ile ,pg#aba ! o!r might be kept at any temp]ature1 h[ev] l[4 ,?is felicit\s conception =m$ ! fir/ /ep 9 t spl5did c>e] ( inv5tion & discov]y :i* has conf]r$ immortality on ! "n ( ,watt4 ,he us$ to say1 t ! mom5t ! idea ( sep>ate cond5sation occurr$ to him1--t is1 ( cond5s+1 9 "o vessel kept cold1 ! /eam com+ f ano!r vessel kept hot1--all ! details ( 8 improv$ eng9e ru%$ into 8 m9d 9 su* rapid succession1 t1 9 ! c\rse ( a day1 8 inv5tion 0 s complete t he proce$$ to submit x to exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,to expla9 ! fir/ conception ( ?is memorable inv5tion2 let a tube or pipe1 ,s 7fig4 #ai471 be imag9$ to proce$ f ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] ,a ,b to a vessel1 ,c1 hav+ a /op-cock1 ,d1 by :i* ! communication betwe5 ! cyl9d] & ! vessel ,c may be op5$ or clos$ at pleasure4 ,if we suppose ! pi/on ,p at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 & ! space bel[ x fill$ ) /eam1 ! cyl9d] & /eam be+ at ! usual temp]ature1 :ile ! vessel ,c is a vacuum1 & ma9ta9$ at a l[ temp]ature4 ,!n1 on op5+ ! cock ,d1 ! /eam w ru% f ! cyl9d] ,a ,b ?r\gh ! tube ,s1 &1 pass+ into ! cold vessel ,c1 w be cond5s$ by contact ) its cold sides4 ,?is process ( cond5sation w be r5d]$ in/antane\s if a jet ( cold wat] is all[$ to play 9 ! vessel ,c4 ,:5 ! /eam ?us ru%+ into ,c1 has be5 de/roy$1 & ! space 9 ! cyl9d] ,a ,b becomes a vacuum1 !n ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e be+ unob/ruct$1 ! pi/on w desc5d ) ! =ce due to ! excess ( ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e above ! friction4 ,:5 x has desc5d$1 suppose ! /op-cock ,d clos$1 & /eam admitt$ f ,pg#abb ! boil] ?r\gh a prop] cock or valve bel[ ! pi/on1 ! cyl9d] & pi/on be+ /ill at ! same temp]ature z be=e4 ,! /eam on ent]+ ! cyl9d]1 n be+ expos$ to contact ) any surface bel[ its own temp]ature1 w n be cond5s$1 & !re=e w imm$iately cause ! pi/on to rise1 & ! pi/on w h atta9$ ! top ( ! cyl9d] :5 z mu* /eam %all h be5 suppli$ by ! boil] z w fill ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ?is has tak5 place1 suppose ! communication ) ! boil] cut (f1 & ! cock ,d once m op5$3 ! /eam w aga9 ru% ?r\gh ! pipe ,s into ! vessel ,c1 :]e enc\nt]+ ! cold surface & ! jet ( cold wat]1 x w be cond5s$1 & ! vacuum1 z be=e1 w be produc$ 9 ! cyl9d] ,a ,b2 t cyl9d] /ill ma9ta9+ its temp]ature1 ! pi/on w aga9 desc5d1 & s ! process may be cont9u$4 7#fi47 ,hav+ c>ri$ ! inv5tion to ?is po9t1 ,watt saw t ! vessel ,c w\ld gradually become heat$ by ! /eam :i* w\ld be cont9ually cond5s$ 9 x4 ,to prev5t ?is1 z well z to supply a con/ant jet ( cold wat]1 he propos$ to keep ! vessel ,c subm]g$ 9 a ci/]n ( cold wat]1 f :i* a pipe %\ld conduct a jet to play )9 ! vessel1 s z to cond5se ! /eam z x w\ld pass f ! cyl9d]4 ,b "h a difficulty pres5t$ itself1 aga9/ :i* x 0 necess>y to provide4 ,! cold wat] admitt$ ?r\gh ! jet to cond5se ! /eam1 mix$ ) ! cond5s$ /eam itself1 w\ld gradually collect 9 ! vessel ,c1 & at l5g? *oke x4 ,to prev5t ?is1 ,watt propos$ to put ! vessel ,c 9 communication ) a pump ,f1 :i* might be wr\ght by ! eng9e itself1 & by :i* ! wat]1 :i* w\ld collect 9 ! bottom ( ! vessel ,c1 w\ld be con/antly drawn (f4 ,?is pump w\ld be evid5tly r5d]$ ! m necess>y1 s9ce m or less atmosph]ic air1 always comb9$ ) wat] 9 its common /ate1 w\ld ent] ! vessel ,c by ! cond5s+ jet4 ,?is air w\ld be dis5gag$ 9 ! vessel ,c by ! heat ( ! /eam cond5s$ !re92 & x w\ld rise ?r\gh ! tube ,s1 & vitiate ! vacuum 9 ! cyl9d]2--an effect :i* w\ld be r5d]$ ! m injuri\s1 ,pg#abc inasmu* z1 unlike /eam1 ?is ela/ic fluid w\ld be incapable ( be+ cond5s$ by cold4 ,! pump ,f1 !re=e1 by :i* ,watt propos$ to draw (f ! wat] f ! vessel ,c1 might also be made to draw (f ! air1 or ! pr9cipal "p ( x4 ,! vessel ,c 0 subsequ5tly call$ a cond5s]2 &1 f ! circum/ances j adv]t$ to1 ! pump ,f has be5 call$ ! air-pump4 ,^!--namely1 ! cyl9d]1 ! cond5s]1 & ! air-pump--7 ! ?ree pr9cipal p>ts 9 ! inv5tion1 z x fir/ pres5t$ itself to ! m9d ( ,watt--& ev5 be=e x 0 r$uc$ to a model1 or submitt$ to exp]im5t4 ,b1 9 addition to ^!1 o!r two improvem5ts (f]$ !mselves 9 ! v fir/ /age ( its progress4 ,9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 ! pi/on 0 ma9ta9$ /eam-tight 9 ! cyl9d] by supply+ a /ream ( cold wat] above x1 by :i* ! small int]/ices betwe5 ! pi/on & cyl9d] w\ld be /opp$4 ,x is evid5t t ! effect ( ?is wat] z ! pi/on desc5d$ w\ld be to cool ! cyl9d]1 besides :i* any portion ( x :i* might pass betwe5 ! pi/on & cyl9d] & :i* w\ld pass bel[ ! pi/on1 w\ld boil ! mom5t x w\ld fall into ! cyl9d]1 :i* itself w\ld be ma9ta9$ at ! boil+ temp]ature4 ,?is wat]1 !re=e1 w\ld produce /eam1 ! pressure ( :i* w\ld resi/ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,watt p]ceiv$1 t ev5 ?\gh ?is inconv5i5ce 7 remov$ by ! use ( oil or tall[ ^u ! pi/on1 /ill1 t z ! pi/on w\ld desc5d 9 ! cyl9d]1 ! cold atmosph]e w\ld foll[ x2 & w\ld1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 l[] ! temp]ature ( ! cyl9d]4 ,on ! next asc5t ( ! pi/on1 ?is temp]ature w\ld h to be aga9 rais$ to #bab by ! /eam com+ f ! boil]1 & w\ld entail ^u ! ma*9e a proportionate wa/e ( p[]4 ,if ! atmosph]e ( ! eng9e-h\se c\ld be kept heat$ to ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]1 ?is inconv5i5ce w\ld be remov$4 ,! pi/on w\ld !n be press$ d[n by air z hot z ! /eam to be subsequ5tly introduc$ into x4 ,on fur!r consid]ation1 h[ev]1 x occurr$ to ,watt t x w\ld be /ill m advantage\s if ! cyl9d] itself c\ld be ,pg#abd work$ 9 an atmosph]e ( /eam1 hav+ only ! same pressure z ! atmosph]e4 ,su* /eam w\ld press ! pi/on d[n z effectually z ! air w\ld2 & x w\ld h ! fur!r advantage ov] air1 t if any portion ( x leak$ ?r\gh betwe5 ! pi/on & cyl9d]1 x w\ld be cond5s$1 :i* c\ld n be ! case ) atmosph]ic air4 ,he !re=e det]m9$ on surr\nd+ ! cyl9d] by an ext]nal cas+1 ! space betwe5 :i* & ! cyl9d] he propos$ to be fill$ ) /eam suppli$ f ! boil]4 ,! cyl9d] w\ld ?us be enclos$ 9 an atmosph]e ( its own1 indep5d5t ( ! ext]nal air1 & ! vessel s enclos+ x w\ld only require to be a little l>g] ?an ! cyl9d]1 & to h a close cov] at ! top1 ! c5tre ( :i* might be p]=at$ ) a hole to admit ! rod ( ! pi/on to pass ?r\gh1 ! rod be+ made smoo?1 & s fitt$ to ! p]=ation t no /eam %\ld escape betwe5 !m4 ,?is me?od w\ld be att5d$ also ) ! advantage ( keep+ ! cyl9d] & pi/on always heat$1 n only inside b outside2 & ,watt saw t x w\ld be fur!r advantage\s to employ ! pressure ( /eam to drive ! pi/on 9 its desc5t in/ead ( ! atmosph]e1 z its int5sity or =ce w\ld be mu* m manageable2 =1 by increas+ or dim9i%+ ! heat ( ! /eam 9 :i* ! cyl9d] 0 enclos$1 its pressure might be regulat$ at pleasure1 & x might be made to urge ! pi/on ) any =ce t might be requir$4 ,! p[] ( ! eng9e w\ld !re=e be completely "u control1 & indep5d5t ( all v>iations 9 ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 7#gj47 ,?is 0 a /ep :i* totally *ang$ ! "* ( ! ma*9e1 & :i* r5d]$ x a ,,/eam ,,eng9e in/ead ( an ,,atmosph]ic ,,eng9e4 ,n only 0 ! vacuum bel[ ! pi/on n[ produc$ by ! prop]ty ( /eam1 9 virtue ( :i* x is reconv]t$ into wat] by cold2 b ! pressure :i* urg$ ! pi/on into ?is vacuum 0 due to ! ela/icity ( /eam4 ,! ext]nal cyl9d]1 )9 :i* ! work+ cyl9d] 0 enclos$1 0 call$ ,,! ,,jacket1 & is /ill v g5]ally us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 7#ga47 ,! fir/ exp]im5t 9 :i* ,watt attempt$ to ,pg#abe realise1 on a small scale1 8 conceptions1 0 made 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,! cyl9d] ( ! eng9e 0 repres5t$ by a brass syr+e ,a ,b 7fig4 #bj47 an in* & a ?ird 9 diamet]1 & t5 in*es 9 l5g?1 to :i* a top & a bottom ( t9 plate 0 fitt$4 ,/eam 0 convey$ by a pipe1 ,s1 f a small boil] into ! l[] end ( ?is syr+e1 a communication be+ made ) ! upp] end ( ! syr+e by a bran* pipe ,d4 ,= ! great] conv5i5ce ( ! exp]im5t1 x 0 f\nd desirable to inv]t ! position ( ! cyl9d]1 s t ! /eam %\ld press ! pi/on ,p upw>ds in/ead ( d[nw>ds4 ,! pi/on-rod ,r !re=e 0 pres5t$ d[nw>ds4 ,an eduction pipe ,e 0 also ins]t$ 9 ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 :i* 0 c>ri$ to ! cond5s]4 ,! pi/on-rod 0 made holl[1 or r a hole 0 drill$ longitud9ally ?r\gh x1 & a valve 0 fitt$ at its l[] end1 to c>ry (f ! wat] produc$ by ! /eam1 :i* ,pg#abf w\ld be cond5s$ 9 ! cyl9d] 9 ! comm5cem5t ( ! process4 ,! cond5s] us$ 9 ?is exp]im5t op]at$ )\t injection1 ! /eam be+ cond5s$ by ! contact ( cold surfaces4 ,x consi/$ ( two ?9 pipes ,f1 ,g ( t91 t5 or twelve in*es 9 l5g?1 & ! six? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 /&+ beside ea* o!r p]p5dicul>ly1 & communicat+ at ! top ) ! eduction pipe1 :i* 0 provid$ ) a valve op5+ upw>ds4 ,at ! bottom ^! two pipes communicat$ ) ano!r tube ,i ( ab\t an in* 9 diamet]1 by a horizontal pipe1 hav+ 9 x a valve1 ,m1 op5+ t[>ds ,i1 fitt$ ) a pi/on ,k1 :i* s]v$ ! (fice ( ! air-pump1 be+ work$ by ! h&4 ,?is pi/on1 ,k1 _h valves 9 x op5+ upw>ds4 ,^! cond5s+ pipes & air-pump 7 imm]s$ 9 a small ci/]n1 fill$ ) cold wat]4 ,! /eam 0 convey$ by ! /eam-pipe ,s to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 a communication betwe5 ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d] be+ occasionally op5$ by a cock1 ,c1 plac$ 9 ! bran* pipe4 ,! eduction pipe lead+ to ! cond5s] also _h a cock1 ,l1 by :i* ! communication betwe5 ! top ( ! cyl9d] & ! cond5s] might be op5$ & clos$ at pleasure4 ,9 ! comm5cem5t ( ! op]ation1 ! cock ,n admitt+ /eam f ! boil]1 & ! cock ,l op5+ a communication betwe5 ! cyl9d] & ! cond5s]1 & ! cock ,c op5+ a communication betwe5 ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 be+ all op51 /eam ru%$ f ! boil]1 pass+ ?r\gh all ! pipes1 & fill+ ! cyl9d]4 ,a curr5t ( mix$ air & /eam 0 ?us produc$ ?r\gh ! eduction pipe ,e1 ?r\gh ! cond5s+ pipes ,f & ,g1 & ?r\gh ! air-pump ,i1 :i* issu$ f ! valve ,h 9 ! eduction pipe1 & f ! valve 9 ! air-pump pi/on1 all ( :i* op5$ upw>ds4 ,! /eam also 9 ! cyl9d] pass$ ?r\gh ! hole drill$ 9 ! pi/on-rod1 & escap$1 mix$ ) air1 ?r\gh ! valve 9 ! l[] end ( t rod4 ,?is process 0 cont9u$ until all ! air 9 ! cyl9d]1 pipes1 & cond5s]1 0 bl[n out1 & all ^! spaces fill$ ) pure /eam4 ,! cocks ,l1 ,c1 & ,n1 7 !n clos$1 & ! atmosph]ic pressure clos$ ! valve ,h & ! valves 9 ! air-pump pi/on4 ,! cold surfaces cond5s+ ! /eam 9 ,pg#abg ! pipes ,f & ,g1 & 9 ! l[] "p ( ! air-pump1 a vacuum 0 produc$ 9 ^! spaces4 ,! cock ,c be+ n[ clos$1 & ! cocks ,l & ,n be+ op51 ! /eam 9 ! upp] "p ( ! cyl9d] ru%$ ?r\gh ! pipe ,e into ! cond5s]1 :]e x 0 r$uc$ to wat]1 s t a vacuum 0 left 9 ! upp] "p ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! /eam f ! boil] pass+ bel[ ! pi/on1 press$ x upw>ds ) su* =ce1 t x lift$ a weight ( eighte5 p\nds hung f ! end ( ! pi/on-rod4 ,:5 ! pi/on rea*$ ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! cocks ,l & ,n 7 clos$1 & ! cock ,c op5$4 ,all communication betwe5 ! cyl9d] & ! boil]1 z well z betwe5 ! cyl9d] & ! cond5s]1 7 n[ cut (f1 & ! /eam 9 ! cyl9d] circulat$ freely above & bel[ ! pi/on1 by means ( ! op5 tube ,d4 ,! pi/on1 be+ subject to equal =ces upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 w\ld !re=e desc5d by its own weight1 & w\ld rea* ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! air-pump pi/on mean:ile be+ drawn up1 ! air & ! cond5s$ /eam 9 ! tubes ,f & ,g 7 drawn into ! air-pump ,i1 ?r\gh ! op5 horizontal tube at ! bottom4 ,its return 0 /opp$ by ! valve ,m4 ,by ano!r /roke ( ! air-pump1 ?is wat] & air 7 drawn out ?r\gh valves 9 ! pi/on1 :i* op5$ upw>ds4 ,! cock ,c 0 n[ clos$1 & ! cocks ,l & ,n op5$1 prep>atory to ano!r /roke ( ! pi/on4 ,! /eam 9 ! upp] "p ( ! cyl9d] ru%$1 z be=e1 into ! tubes ,f & ,g1 & 0 cond5s$ by _! cold surfaces1 :ile /eam f ! boil] com+ ?r\gh ! pipe ,s1 press$ ! pi/on upw>ds4 ,! pi/on aga9 asc5d$ ) ! same =ce z be=e1 & 9 ! same mann] ! process 0 cont9ually repeat$4 7#gb47 ,! quantity ( /eam exp5d$ 9 ?is exp]im5tal model 9 ! production ( a giv5 numb] ( /rokes ( ! pi/on 0 inf]r$ f ! quantity ( wat] evaporat$ 9 ! boil]2 & on comp>+ ?is ) ! magnitude ( ! cyl9d] & ! weight rais$ by ! pressure ( ! /eam1 ! contrivance 0 prov$ to affect ! economy ( /eam1 z f> z ! imp]fect conditions ( su* a model c\ld h p]mitt$4 ,a l>g] model 0 next con/ruct$1 hav+ an out] cyl9d]1 or /eam case1 surr\nd+ ! work+ cyl9d]1 & ,pg#abh ! exp]im5ts made ) x fully realis$ ,watt's expectations1 & left no d\bt ( ! great advantages :i* w\ld att5d 8 inv5tion4 ,! weights rais$ by ! pi/on prov$ t ! vacuum 9 ! cyl9d] produc$ by ! cond5sation 0 almo/ p]fect2 & he f\nd t :5 he us$ wat] 9 ! boil] :i* by long boil+ _h be5 well cle>$ ( air1 ! weight rais$ 0 n mu* less ?an ! :ole am\nt ( ! pressure ( ! /eam ^u ! pi/on4 ,9 ?is l>g] model1 ! cyl9d] 0 plac$ 9 ! usual position1 ) a work+ lev] & o!r app>atus simil> to t employ$ 9 ! ,atmosph]ic ,eng9e4 7#gc47 ,x 0 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ye> #agfe1 ,watt be+ !n 9 ! tw5ty-n9? ye> ( 8 age1 t he arriv$ at ^! great discov]ies4 ,! exp]im5tal models j describ$1 by :i* 8 inv5tion 0 fir/ r$uc$ to a rude practical te/1 7 fitt$ up at a place call$ ,delft ,h\se1 9 ,glasg[4 ,x w d\btless1 at ! fir/ view1 be a matt] ( surprise t improvem5ts ( su* obvi\s importance 9 ! economy ( /eam p[]1 & capable ( be+ v]ifi$ by te/s s simple1 7 n imm$iately adopt$ :]ev] atmosph]ic eng9es 7 us$4 ,at ! "t1 h[ev]1 ref]r$ to1 ,watt 0 an obscure artisan1 9 a prov9cial t[n1 n !n arriv$ at ! celebrity to :i* x has s9ce atta9$1 & ! facilities by :i* inv5tions & improvem5ts became public 7 mu* less ?an !y h s9ce become4 ,x %\ld also be consid]$ t all great & sudd5 advances 9 ! useful arts are necess>ily oppos$ by ! exi/+ int]e/s ) :i* _! effects are 9 conflict4 ,f ^! causes ( opposition1 accompani$ ) ! usual influ5ce ( prejudice & envy1 ,watt 0 n exempt1 & 0 n !re=e likely sudd5ly to revolutionise ! arts & manufactures ( ! c\ntry by displac+ ! mov+ p[]s employ$ 9 !m1 & sub/itut+ an eng9e1 ! efficacy & p[] ( :i* dep5d$ ma9ly on physical pr9ciples1 !n altoge!r new & b imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,n hav+ ! comm& ( capital1 & f9d+ x impracticable to inspire ^? :o _h1 ) ! same confid5ce 9 ! advantages ( 8 inv5tion :i* he himself felt1 he 0 ,pg#abi unable to take any /ep t[>ds ! con/ruction ( eng9es on a l>ge scale4 ,soon aft] ?is1 he gave up 8 %op 9 ,glasg[1 & devot$ himself to ! bus9ess ( a ,civil ,eng9e]4 ,9 ?is capacity he 0 engag$ to make a survey ( ! riv] ,clyde1 & furni%$ an elaborate & valuable ,report ^u its project$ improvem5ts4 ,he 0 also engag$ 9 mak+ a plan ( ! canal1 by :i* ! produce ( ! ,monkl& ,colli]y 0 int5d$ to be c>ri$ to ,glasg[1 & 9 sup]9t5d+ ! execution ( t "w4 ,besides ^!1 sev]al o!r eng9e]+ ent]prises occupi$ 8 att5tion1 among :i* may be m5tion$1 ! navigable canal across ! i/hmus ( ,cr9an1 aft]w>ds complet$ by ,r5nie2 improvem5ts propos$ 9 ! ports ( ,ayr1 ,glasg[1 & ,gre5ock2 ! con/ruction ( ! bridges at ,hamilton1 & at ,ru!rgl52 & ! survey ( ! c\ntry ?r\gh :i* ! celebrat$ ,cal$onian canal 0 int5d$ to be c>ri$4 ,if1 =getful ( my duties z ! organ ( ?is academy1 says ,m4 ,arago 7^: eloqu5t obs]vations on ! delays ( ?is great inv5tion1 address$ to ! assembl$ memb]s ( ! ,national ,in/itute ( ,france1 we _c =be> to quote71 ,i c\ld ?9k ( mak+ y smile1 r ?an express+ useful tru?s1 ,i w\ld f9d "h matt] = a ludicr\s contra/4 ,i w\ld call to y\r recollection ! au?ors1 :o at our weekly sitt+s dem& ) all _! might & ma9 7 cor et cris7 an opportunity to communicate "s little rem>k--"s small reflection--"s trifl+ note1 conceiv$ & writt5 ! night be=e2 ,i w\ld repres5t !m to y curs+ _! fate1 :5 accord+ to y\r rules1 ! read+ ( _! communication is po/pon$ to ! next meet+1 al?\gh dur+ ?is cruel week1 !y are assur$ t _! important communication is deposit$ 9 our ar*ives 9 a seal$ packet4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,i w\ld po9t out to y ! creator ( a ma*9e1 de/9$ to =m an epo* 9 ! annals ( ! _w1 und]go+ pati5tly & )\t murmur1 ! /upid contempt ( capitali/s1--consci\s ( 8 exalt$ g5ius1 yet /oop+ = eight ye>s to ! common lab\r ( lay+ d[n plans1 tak+ levels1 & all ! t$i\s calculations connect$ ) ! r\t9e ( common eng9e]+4 ,:ile 9 ?is conduct y _c fail to recognise ! s]5ity1 ,pg#acj ! mod]ation1 & ! true mode/y ( 8 "*1 yet su* indiff]5ce1 h[ev] noble may h be5 its causes1 has some?+ 9 x n altoge!r blameless4 ,x is n )\t reason t society visits ) sev]e reprobation ^? :o )draw gold f circulation & ho>d x 9 _! c(f]s4 ,is he less culpable :o deprives 8 c\ntry1 8 fell[ citiz5s1 8 age1 ( treasures a ?\s& times m preci\s ?an ! produce ( ! m9e2 :o keeps to himself 8 immortal inv5tions1 s\rces ( ! mo/ noble & pure/ enjoym5t ( ! m9d1 :o ab/a9s f conf]r+ ^u lab\r ^? p[]s1 by :i* w\ld be multipli$ 9 an inf9ite proportion ! products ( indu/ry1 & by :i*1 ) advantage to civilisation & human nature1 he w\ld smoo? away ! inequalities ( ! conditions ( man4#ai 7#gd47 ,al?\gh ,watt 0 ?us attract$ by pursuits =eign to 8 rec5t inve/igations respect+ ! improvem5t ( /eam p[]1 he nev] lo/ sight ( t object4 ,x 0 n until ! ye> #agfh1 ?ree ye>s aft] 8 great discov]ies1 t any /ep 0 tak5 to enable him to c>ry !m into effect on a l>ge scale4 ,at t "t 8 fri5ds br\ght him into communication ) ,dr4 ,roebuck1 ! proprietor ( ! ,c>ron ,iron ,works1 :o r5t$ ext5sive coal works at ,k9neal f ! ,du*ess ( ,hamilton4 ,watt 0 fir/ employ$ by ,roebuck z a civil eng9e]2 b :5 he made kn[n to him ! improvem5ts he _h project$ 9 ! /eam eng9e1 ,roebuck propos$ to take out a pat5t = an eng9e on ! pr9ciple ( ! model :i* _h be5 fitt$ up at ,delft ,h\se1 & to jo9 ,watt 9 a p>tn]%ip1 = ! con/ruction ( su* eng9es4 ,s5sible ( ! advantages to be d]iv$ f ! influ5ce ( ,roebuck1 & f 8 comm& ( capital1 ,watt agre$ to c$e to him two ?irds ( ! advantages to be d]iv$ f ! inv5tion4 ,a pat5t 0 accord+ly tak5 out on ! fif? ( ,janu>y1 #agfi1 ne>ly f\r ye>s aft] ! inv5tion _h be5 complet$2 & an exp]im5tal eng9e on a l>ge scale 0 con/ruct$ by him1 & fitt$ up at ,k9neal ,h\se4 ,9 ! fir/ trial ?is ma*9e m ?an fulfill$ ,watt's anticipations4 ,its ,pg#aca success 0 complete4 ,9 ! practical details ( its con/ruction1 h[ev]1 "s difficulties 7 /ill enc\nt]$1 ! greate/ ( :i* consi/$ 9 pack+ ! pi/on1 s z to be /eam-tight4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! new eng9e did n admit ( wat] be+ kept ^u ! pi/on1 to prev5t leakage1 z 9 ! old eng9es2 he 0 !re=e oblig$ to h 8 cyl9d]s mu* m accurately bor$1 & m truly cyl9drical1 & to try a great v>iety ( s(t sub/ances = pack+ ! pi/on1 :i* w\ld make x /eam-tight )\t great friction1 & ma9ta9 x s 9 a situation p]fectly dry1 & at ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]4 ,:ile ,watt 0 endeav\r+ to ov]come ^! & o!r difficulties1 9 ! con/ruction ( ! ma*9e1 8 p>tn]1 ,dr4 ,roebuck1 became emb>rass$1 by ! failure ( 8 und]tak+ 9 ! ,borr[/[ness coal & salt works2 & he 0 unable to supply ! means ( prosecut+ ) ! necess>y vig\r ! project$ manufacture ( ! new eng9es4 ,! important results ( ,watt's lab\rs hav+ happily at ?is "t become m publicly kn[n1 ,mr4 ,mat!w ,b\lton1 ^: e/abli%m5t at ,soho1 ne> ,birm+ham1 0 at t "t ! mo/ complete manufactory = metal-"w 9 ,engl&1 & conduct$ ) unexampl$ ent]prise & _s1 propos$ to pur*ase ,dr4 ,roebuck's int]e/ 9 ! pat5t4 ,?is arrangem5t 0 effect$ 9 ! ye> #aggc1 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> ,mr4 ,watt remov$ to ,soho1 :]e a portion ( ! e/abli%m5t 0 allott$ to him1 = ! erection ( a f\nd]y1 & o!r works necess>y to realise 8 inv5tions on a gr& scale4 ,! pat5t :i* _h be5 grant$ 9 #agfi 0 limit$ to a p]iod ( f\rte5 ye>s1 & w\ld consequ5tly expire ab\t ! ye> #aghc4 ,f ! small progress :i* _h hi!rto be5 made 9 ! con/ruction ( eng9es ^u ! new pr9ciple1 & f ! _m difficulties /ill to be enc\nt]$1 & ! l>ge exp5diture ( capital :i* mu/ obvi\sly be incurr$ be=e any return c\ld be obta9$1 x 0 app>5t t unless an ext5sion ( ! pat5t "r c\ld be obta9$1 ,b\lton & ,watt c\ld nev] expect any advantage adequate to ! risk ( _! great ,pg#acb ent]prise4 ,9 ! ye> #aggd an application 0 accord+ly made to p>liam5t = an ext5sion ( ! pat5t1 :i* 0 support$ by ! te/imony ( ,dr4 ,roebuck1 ,mr4 ,b\lton1 & o!rs1 z to ! m]its & probable utility ( ! inv5tion4 ,an ,act 0 accord+ly pass$1 9 #agge1 ext5d+ ! t]m ( ! pat5t until ! ye> #ahjj4 7#ge47 ,! foll[+ ab/ract ( ?is ,act may n be un9t]e/+ at ?is "t1 :5 ! anticipations express$ 9 x h be5 s successfully & ext5sively realis$3-- ,an ,act = ve/+ 9 ,james ,watt1 eng9e]1 8 executors1 adm9i/rators1 & assigns1 ! sole use & prop]ty ( c]ta9 /eam eng9es1 commonly call$ fire eng9es1 ( 8 inv5tion1 ?r\gh\t 8 maje/y's dom9ions1 = a limit$ "t3 ,& :]eas ! said ,james ,watt ha? employ$ _m ye>s1 & a consid]able "p ( 8 =tune1 9 mak+ exp]im5ts ^u /eam eng9es1 commonly call$ fire eng9es1 ) a view to improve ^? v useful ma*9es1 by :i* sev]al v consid]able advantages ov] ! common /eam eng9es are acquir$2 b ^u acc\nt ( ! _m difficulties :i* always arise 9 ! execution ( su* l>ge & complex ma*9es1 & ( ! long "t requisite to make ! necess>y trials1 he c\ld n complete 8 int5tion be=e ! end ( ! ye> #aggd1 :5 he f9i%$ "s l>ge eng9es z specim5s ( 8 con/ruction1 :i* h succe$$1 s z to demon/rate ! utility ( ! said inv5tion3 ,& :]eas1 9 ord] to manufacture ^! eng9es ) ! necess>y accuracy1 & s t !y may be sold at mod]ate prices1 a consid]able sum ( money mu/ be previ\sly exp5d$ 9 erect+ mills & o!r app>atus2 & z sev]al ye>s & repeat$ pro(s w be requir$ be=e any consid]able "p ( ! public c be fully conv9c$ ( ! utility ( ! inv5tion1 & ( _! int]e/ to adopt ! same1 ! :ole t]m grant$ by ! said lett]s pat5t may probably elapse be=e ! said ,james ,watt c receive an advantage adequate to 8 lab\r & inv5tion3 ,& :]eas1 by furni%+ me*anical p[] at mu* less exp5se1 & 9 m conv5i5t =ms1 ?an has hi!rto be5 done1 8 eng9es may be ( great utility1 9 facilitat+ ,pg#acc ! op]ations 9 _m great works & manufactures ( ?is k+dom2 yet x w n be 9 ! p[] ( ! said ,james ,watt to c>ry 8 inv5tion into t complete execution :i* he wi%es1 & s z to r5d] ! same ( ! highe/ utility to ! public ( :i* x is capable1 unless ! t]m grant$ by ! said lett]s pat5t be prolong$1 & 8 prop]ty 9 ! said inv5tion secur$ = su* "t z may enable him to obta9 an adequate recomp5se = 8 lab\r1 "t1 & exp5se3 ,to ! end1 !re=e1 t ! said ,james ,watt may be enabl$ & enc\rag$ to prosecute & complete 8 said inv5tion1 s t ! public may reap all ! advantages to be d]iv$ !refrom 9 _! fulle/ ext5t3 x is enact$1 ,t f & aft] ! pass+ ( ?is ,act1 ! sole privilege & advantage ( mak+1 con/ruct+1 & sell+ ! said eng9es h]e9be=e p>ticul>ly describ$1 )9 ! k+dom ( ,great ,brita91 & 8 maje/y's colonies & plantations abroad1 %all be1 & are h]eby decl>$ to be1 ve/$ 9 ! said ,james ,watt1 8 executors1 adm9i/rators1 & assigns1 = & dur+ ! t]m ( tw5ty-five ye>s1 c4 c4 7#gf47 ,?us protect$ & support$1 ,watt n[ direct$ ! :ole vig\r ( 8 m9d to p]fect ! practical details ( 8 inv5tion1 & ! result 01 ! con/ruction on a l>ge scale ( ! eng9e :i* has s9ce be5 call$ 8 ,,s+le ,,act+ ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,x is necess>y to recollect1 t not)/&+ ! ext5sive & v>i\s application ( /eam p[] 9 ! arts & manufactures1 at ! "t to :i* our n>rative has n[ rea*$1 ! /eam eng9e _h nev] be5 employ$ = any o!r purpose save t ( rais+ wat] by work+ pumps4 ,! motion1 !re=e1 :i* 0 requir$ 0 m]ely an upw>d =ce1 su* z 0 necess>y to elevate ! pi/on ( a pump1 load$ ) ! column ( wat] :i* x rais$4 ,! foll[+ !n is a description ( ! improv$ eng9e ( ,watt1 by :i* su* "w 0 propos$ to be p]=m$3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,9 ! cyl9d] repres5t$ at ,c 7fig4 #ba471 ! pi/on ,p moves /eam-tight4 ,x is clos$ at ! top1 & ! pi/on ,pg#acd rod1 be+ accurately turn$1 runs 9 a /eam-tight coll>1 ,b1 furni%$ ) a /uff+-box1 & is con/antly lubricat$ ) melt$ tall[4 ,a funnel is screw$ into ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ?r\gh :i*1 by op5+ a /op-cock1 melt$ ,pg#ace tall[ is p]mitt$ f "t to "t to fall ^u ! pi/on )9 ! cyl9d]1 s z to lubricate x1 & keep x /eam-tight4 ,two boxes1 ,a ,a1 call$ ! upp] & l[] /eam boxes1 conta9 valves by :i* /eam f ! boil] may be admitt$ & )drawn4 ,^! /eam boxes are connect$ by a tube ( communication ,t1 & !y communicate ) ! cyl9d] at ! top & bottom by %ort tubes repres5t$ 9 ! figure4 ,! upp] /eam box ,a conta9s "o valve1 by :i* a communication ) ! boil] may be op5$ or clos$ at pleasure4 ,! l[] valve box conta9s two valves4 ,! l[] valve ,i communicates ) ! tube ,t1 lead+ to ! cond5s] ,d1 :i* be+ op5$ or clos$1 a communication is made or cut (f at pleasure1 betwe5 ! cyl9d] ,c & ! cond5s] ,d4 ,a second valve1 or upp] valve ,h1 :i* is repres5t$ clos$ 9 ! figure1 may be op5$ s z to make a free communication betwe5 ! cyl9d] ,c & ! tube ,t1 & by t means betwe5 ! cyl9d] ,c1 bel[ ! pi/on & ! space above ! pi/on4 ,! cond5s] ,d is subm]g$ 9 a ci/]n ( cold wat]4 ,at ! side !re ent]s x a tube1 ,e1 gov]n$ by a cock1 :i* be+ op5$ or clos$ to any requir$ ext5t1 a jet ( cold wat] may be all[$ to play 9 ! cond5s]1 & may be regulat$ or /opp$1 at pleasure4 ,?is jet1 :5 play+1 ?r[s ! wat] upw>ds 9 ! cond5s] t[>ds ! m\? ( ! tube ,t1 z wat] issues f ! rose ( a wat]+ pot4 ,! tube ,s proce$s f ! boil]1 & t]m9ates 9 ! /eam box ,a1 s t ! /eam suppli$ f ! boil] con/antly fills t box4 ,! valve ,g is gov]n$ by lev]s1 ^: pivots are atta*$ to ! fram+ ( ! eng9e1 & is op5$ or clos$ at pleasure1 by rais+ or l[]+ ! lev] ,g4 ,! valve ,g1 :5 op51 w !re=e all[ /eam to pass f ! boil] ?r\gh ! %ort tube to ! top ( ! pi/on1 & ?is /eam w also fill ! tube ,t4 ,if ! l[] valve ,h be clos$1 its circulation beyond t po9t w be /opp$2 b if ! valve ,h be op51 ! valve ,i be+ clos$1 !n ! /eam w circulate equally 9 ! cyl9d]1 above & bel[ ! pi/on4 ,if ! valve ,i be op51 !n /eam w ru% ?r\gh ! tube ,t into ! cond5s]2 b ?is escape ( ! /eam w be ,pg#acf /opp$1 if ! valve ,i be clos$4 ,! valve ,h is work$ by ! lev] ,h1 & ! valve ,i by ! lev] ,i4 ,! valve ,g is call$ ! upp] /eam valve1 ,h ! l[] /eam valve1 ,i ! exhau/+ valve1 & ,e ! cond5s+ valve4 ,f ! bottom ( ! cond5s] ,d proce$s a tube lead+ to ! air-pump1 :i* is also subm]g$ 9 ! ci/]n ( cold wat]4 ,9 ?is tube is a valve ,m1 :i* op5s outw>ds f ! cond5s] t[>ds ! air-pump4 ,9 ! pi/on ( ! air-pump ,n is a valve :i* op5s upw>ds4 ,! pi/on-rod ,q ( ! air-pump is atta*$ to a beam ( wood call$ a plug frame1 :i* is connect$ ) ! work+ beam by a flexible *a9 play+ on ! small ar*-head imm$iately ov] ! air-pump4 ,f ! top ( ! air-pump b>rel above ! pi/on proce$s a pipe or passage lead+ to a small ci/]n1 ,b1 call$ ! hot well4 ,! pipe :i* leads to ?is well1 is suppli$ ) a valve1 ,k1 :i* op5s outw>ds f ! air pump b>rel t[>ds ! well4 ,f ! nature ( its con/ruction1 ! valve ,m admits ! fl[ ( wat] f ! cond5s] t[>ds ! air-pump1 b prev5ts its return2 &1 9 l mann]1 ! valve ,k admits ! fl[ ( wat] f ! upp] "p ( ! air-pump b>rel into ! hot well ,b1 b ob/ructs its return4 ,let u n[ consid] h[ ^! valves %\ld be work$ 9 ord] to move ! pi/on upw>ds & d[nw>ds ) ! necess>y =ce4 ,x is 9 ! fir/ place necess>y t all ! air :i* fills ! cyl9d]1 ! tubes & ! cond5s] %all be expell$4 ,to accompli% ?is x is only necess>y to op5 at once ! ?ree valves ,g1 ,h1 & ,i4 ,! /eam !n ru%+ f ! boil] ?r\gh ! /eam-pipe ,s1 & ! op5 valve ,g w pass into ! cyl9d] above ! pi/on1 w fill ! tube ,t1 pass ?r\gh ! l[] /eam valve ,h1 w fill ! cyl9d] ,c bel[ ! pi/on1 & w pass ?r\gh ! op5 valve ,i into ! cond5s]4 ,if ! valve ,e be clos$ s t no jet %all play 9 ! cond5s]1 ! /eam ru%+ into x w be p>tially cond5s$ by ! cold surfaces to :i* x w be expos$2 b if ! boil] supply x ?r\gh ! pipe ,s 9 suffici5t abundance1 x w ru% ) viol5ce ?r\gh ! cyl9d] & all ! passages1 & its pressure 9 ! ,pg#acg cond5s] ,d1 comb9$ ) t ( ! heat$ air ) :i* x is mix$1 w op5 ! valve ,m1 & x w ru% ?r\gh mix$ ) ! air into ! air-pump b>rel ,n4 ,x w press ! valves 9 ! air-pump pi/on upw>ds1 &1 op5+ !m1 w ru% ?r\gh1 & w collect 9 ! air-pump b>rel above ! pi/on4 ,x w !n1 by its pressure1 op5 ! valve ,k1 & w escape into ! ci/]n ,b4 ,?r\gh\t ?is process ! /eam1 :i* mix$ ) ! air fills ! cyl9d]1 cond5s] & air-pumps w be only p>tially cond5s$ 9 ! la/ two1 & x w escape mix$ ) air ?r\gh ! valve ,k1 & ?is process w cont9ue until all ! atmosph]ic air :i* at fir/ fill$ ! cyl9d]1 tubes1 cond5s] & air-pump b>rel %all be expell$ ?r\gh ! valve ,k1 & ^! v>i\s spaces %all be fill$ ) pure /eam4 ,:5 t has happ5$ let u suppose all ! valves clos$4 ,9 clos+ ! valve ,i ! fl[ ( /eam to ! cond5s] w be /opp$1 & ! /eam conta9$ 9 x w spe$ily be cond5s$ by ! cold surface ( ! cond5s]1 s t a vacuum w be produc$ 9 ! cond5s]1 ! cond5s$ /eam fall+ 9 ! =m ( wat] to ! bottom4 ,9 l mann]1 & = l reasons1 a vacuum w be produc$ 9 ! air-pump4 ,! valve ,m1 & ! valves 9 ! air-pump pi/on w be clos$ by _! own weight4 ,by ?is process1 :i* is call$ bl[+ ?r\gh1 ! atmosph]ic air1 & o!r p]man5t gases1 :i* fill$ ! cyl9d]1 tubes1 cond5s] & air-pump are expell$1 & ^! spaces w be a vacuum4 ,! eng9e is !n prep>$ to be />t$1 :i* is effect$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,! upp] /eam valve ,g is op5$1 & /eam all[$ to fl[ f ! boil] ?r\gh ! passage lead+ to ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,?is /eam _c pass to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 s9ce ! l[] /eam valve ,h is clos$4 ,! space 9 ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on be+ !re=e a vacuum1 & ! /eam press+ above x ! pi/on w be press$ d[nw>ds ) a correspond+ =ce4 ,:5 x has arriv$ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] ! /eam valve ,g mu/ be clos$1 & at ! same "t ! valve ,h op5$4 ,! valve ,i lead+ to ! cond5s] be+ also clos$1 ! /eam ,pg#ach :i* fills ! cyl9d] above ! pi/on is n[ admitt$ to circulate ?r\gh ! op5 valve ,h bel[ ! pi/on1 s t ! pi/on is press$ equally upw>ds & d[nw>ds by /eam1 & !re is no =ce to resi/ its movem5t save its friction ) ! cyl9d]4 ,! weight ( ! pump rods on ! opposite end ( ! beam be+ m ?an equival5t to ov]come ?is ! pi/on is drawn to ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 & pu%es be=e x ! /eam :i* is drawn ?r\gh ! tube ,t1 & ! op5 valve ,h1 & passes into ! cyl9d] ,c bel[ ! pi/on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,:5 ! pi/on has ?us arriv$ once m at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 let ! valve ,h be clos$1 & at ! same "t ! valves ,g & ,i op5$1 & ! cond5s+ cock ,e also op5$1 s z to admit ! jet to play 9 ! cond5s]4 ,! /eam :i* fills ! cyl9d] ,c bel[ ! pi/on1 w n[ ru% ?r\gh ! op5 valve ,i into ! cond5s] :i* has be5 hi!rto a vacuum1 & !re enc\nt]+ ! jet1 w be in/antly conv]t$ into wat]1 & a mixture ( cond5s$ /eam & inject$ wat] w collect 9 ! bottom ( ! cond5s]4 ,at ! same "t1 ! /eam proce$+ f ! boil] by ! /eam pipe ,s to ! upp] /eam box ,a1 w pass ?r\gh ! op5 /eam valve ,g to ! top ( ! pi/on1 b _c pass bel[ x because ( ! l[] /eam valve ,h be+ clos$4 ,! pi/on1 ?us act$ ^u above by ! pressure ( ! /eam1 & ! space 9 ! cyl9d] bel[ x be+ a vacuum1 its d[nw>d motion is resi/$ by no =ce b ! friction1 & x is !re=e driv5 to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,dur+ its desc5t ! valves ,g1 ,i1 & ,e rema9$ op54 ,at ! mom5t x arrives at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 all ^! ?ree valves are clos$1 & ! valve ,h op5$4 ,! /eam :i* fills ! cyl9d] above ! pi/on is n[ p]mitt$ to circulate bel[ x1 by ! op5 valve ,h1 & ! pi/on be+ consequ5tly press$ equally upw>ds & d[nw>ds w be drawn upw>ds z be=e by ! prepond]ance ( ! pump rods at ! opposite end ( ! beam4 ,! weight ( ^! rods mu/ also be suffici5tly great to draw ! air-pump pi/on ,n upw>ds4 ,z ?is pi/on rises 9 ! air-pump1 x leaves a vacuum bel[ x into :i* ! wat] & air collect$ 9 ! cond5s] w be drawn ?r\gh ! valve ,m1 :i* op5s outw>ds4 ,:5 ! ,pg#aci air-pump pi/on has arriv$ at ! top ( ! b>rel1 :i* x w d at ! same "t t ! /eam pi/on arrives at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! wat] & ! *ief "p ( ! air or o!r fluids :i* may h be5 9 ! cond5s] w be drawn into ! b>rel ( ! air-pump1 & ! valve ,m be+ clos$ by its own weight1 assi/$ by ! pressure ( ^! fluids !y _c return into ! cond5s]4 ,at ! mom5t ! /eam pi/on arrives at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! valve ,h is clos$1 & ! ?ree valves ,g1 ,i1 & ,e are op5$4 ,! effect ( ?is *ange is ! same z 0 already describ$ 9 ! =m] case1 & ! pi/on w 9 ! same mann] & f ! same causes be driv5 d[nw>ds4 ,! air-pump pi/on w at ! same "t desc5d by ! =ce ( its own weight1 aid$ by ! weight ( ! plug-frame atta*$ to its rod4 ,z x desc5ds1 ! air bel[ x w be gradually compress$ above ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! bottom ( ! b>rel1 until its pressure becomes suffici5tly great to op5 ! valves 9 ! air-pump pi/on4 ,:5 ?is happ5s1 ! valves 9 ! air-pump pi/on1 z repres5t$ on a l>ge scale 9 fig4 #bb41 w be op5$1 & ! air w pass ?r\gh !m above ! pi/on4 ,:5 ! pi/on comes 9 contact ) ! wat] 9 ! bottom ( ! b>rel1 ?is wat] w likewise pass ?r\gh ! op5 valves4 ,:5 ! pi/on has arriv$ at ! bottom ( ! air-pump b>rel1 ! valves 9 x w be clos$ by ! pressure ( ! fluids above !m4 ,! next asc5t ( ! /eam pi/on w draw up ! air-pump pi/on1 & ) x ! fluids 9 ! pump b>rel above x4 ,z ! air-pump ,pg#adj pi/on approa*es ! top ( its b>rel1 ! air & wat] above x w be drawn ?r\gh ! valve ,k into ! hot ci/]n ,b4 ,! air w escape 9 bubbles ?r\gh ! wat] 9 t ci/]n1 & ! w>m wat] w be deposit$ 9 x4 ,! magnitude ( ! op5+ 9 ! cond5s+ valve ,e1 mu/ be regulat$ by ! quantity ( /eam admitt$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,z mu* wat] ought to be suppli$ ?r\gh ! injection valve z w be suffici5t to cond5se ! /eam conta9$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 & also to r$uce ! temp]ature ( ! wat] itself1 :5 mix$ ) ! /eam1 to a suffici5tly l[ degree to prev5t x f produc+ vap\r ( a pressure :i* w\ld injuri\sly affect ! work+ ( ! pi/on4 ,x has be5 %[n1 t five & a half cubic in*es ( ice-cold wat] mix$ ) "o cubic in* ( wat] 9 ! /ate ( /eam w\ld produce six & a half cubic in*es ( wat] at ! boil+ temp]ature4 ,if !n ! cyl9d] conta9$ "o cubic in* ( wat] 9 ! /ate ( /eam1 & only five & a half cubic in*es ( wat] 7 admitt$ ?r\gh ! cond5s+ jet1 suppos+ ?is wat]1 :5 admitt$1 to be at ! temp]ature ( #cb1 !n ! consequ5ce w\ld be t six & a half cubic in*es ( wat] at ! boil+ temp]ature w\ld be produc$ 9 ! cond5s]4 ,/eam w\ld imm$iately arise f ?is1 & at ! same "t ! temp]ature ( ! rema9+ wat] w\ld be l[]$ by ! am\nt ( ! lat5t heat tak5 up by ! /eam s produc$4 ,?is vap\r w\ld rise ?r\gh ! op5 exhau/+ valve ,i1 w\ld fill ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on1 & w\ld impair ! effici5cy ( ! /eam above press+ x d[n4 ,! result ( ! inquiries ( ,watt respect+ ! pressure ( /eam at diff]5t temp]atures1 %[$1 t to give effici5cy to ! /eam act+ ^u ! pi/on x w\ld always be necess>y to r$uce ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 ! cond5s] to #ajj4 ,let u !n see :at quantity ( wat] at ! common temp]ature w\ld be necess>y to produce ^! effects4 ,if ! lat5t heat ( /eam be tak5 at #ajjj1 a cubic in* ( wat] 9 ! /ate ( /eam may be consid]$ = ! purposes ( ?is computation1 z equival5t to "o cubic in* ( wat] at #abab4 ,n[ ! "q is1 h[ _m cubic in*es ( wat] at #fj mu/ be mix$ ) ?is1 9 ord] t ! ,pg#ada mixture may h ! temp]ature ( #ajj8 ,?is w be easily comput$4 ,z ! cubic in* ( wat] at #abab is to be r$uc$ to #ajj1 x mu/ be depriv$ ( #aaab ( its temp]ature4 ,on ! o!r h&1 z _m in*es ( wat] at #fj z are to be add$1 mu/ be rais$ 9 ! same mixture to ! temp]ature ( #ajj1 & !re=e ea* ( ^! mu/ receive #dj ( temp]ature4 ,! numb] ( cubic in*es ( wat] necess>y to be add$ w !re=e be det]m9$ by f9d+ h[ (t5 #dj are conta9$ 9 #aaab4 ,if #aaab be divid$ by #dj1 ! quoti5t w be #bgh4 ,h5ce x appe>s1 t to r$uce ! wat] 9 ! cond5s] to ! temp]ature ( #ajj1 suppos+ ! temp]ature ( ! wat] inject$ to be #fj1 x w be necess>y to supply by ! injection cock v ne>ly tw5ty-eight times z mu* wat] z passes ?r\gh ! cyl9d] 9 ! /ate ( /eam2 & !re=e if x be suppos$ t all ! wat] evaporat$ 9 ! boil] passes ?r\gh ! cyl9d]1 x foll[s t ab\t tw5ty-eight times z mu* wat] mu/ be ?r[n into ! cond5s] z is evaporat$ 9 ! boil]4 ,f ^! circum/ances x w be evid5t t ! cold ci/]n 9 :i* ! cond5s] & air-pump are subm]g$1 mu/ be suppli$ ) a consid]able quantity ( wat]4 ,indep5d5tly ( ! quantity drawn f x by ! injection valve1 z j expla9$1 ! wat] 9 ! ci/]n itself mu/ be kept d[n to a temp]ature ( ab\t #fj4 ,! int]ior ( ! cond5s] & air-pump be+ ma9ta9$ by ! /eam cond5s$ 9 !m at a temp]ature n less ?an #ajj2 ! out] surfaces ( ^! vessels consequ5tly imp>t heat to ! wat] 9 ! cold ci/]n1 & h !re=e a t5d5cy to raise ! temp]ature ( t wat]4 ,to prev5t ?is1 a pump call$ ! cold pump1 repres5t$ at ,l 9 fig4 #ba41 is provid$4 ,by ?is pump wat] is rais$ f any conv5i5t res]voir1 & driv5 ?r\gh prop] tubes into ! cold ci/]n4 ,?is cold pump is wr\ght by ! eng9e1 ! rod be+ atta*$ to ! beam4 ,wat] be+1 bulk = bulk1 heavi] ! l[] its temp]ature1 x foll[s t ! wat] suppli$ by ! cold pump to ! ci/]n w h a t5d5cy to s9k to ! bottom1 press+ upw>ds ! w>m] wat] conta9$ 9 x4 ,a wa/e-pipe is provid$1 by :i* ?is ,pg#adb wat] is dra9$ (f1 & ! ci/]n !re=e ma9ta9$ at ! necess>y temp]ature4 ,f :at has be5 /at$1 x is also evid5t t ! hot well ,b1 into :i* ! w>m wat] is ?r[n by ! air-pump1 w receive consid]ably m wat] ?an is necess>y to fe$ ! boil]4 ,a wa/e-pipe1 to c>ry (f ?is1 is also provid$2 & ! quantity necess>y to fe$ ! boil] is pump$ up by a small pump1 ,o1 ! rod ( :i* is atta*$ to ! beam1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ba41 & :i* is work$ by ! eng9e4 ,! wat] rais$ by ?is pump is conduct$ to a res]voir f :i* ! boil] is f$1 by means :i* w be h]eaft] expla9$4 ,we %all n[ expla9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! ma*9e is made to op5 & close ! valves at ! prop] times4 ,by ref]r+ to ! explanation already giv51 x w be p]ceiv$ t at ! mom5t ! pi/on rea*es ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! upp] /eam valve ,g mu/ be op51 to admit ! /eam to press x d[n2 :ile ! exhau/+ valve ,i mu/ be op5$1 to all[ ! /eam to pass to ! cond5s]2 & ! cond5s+ valve ,e mu/ be op5$1 to let 9 ! wat] necess>y = ! cond5sation ( ! /eam2 & at ! same "t ! l[] /eam valve ,h mu/ be clos$1 to prev5t ! passage ( ! /eam :i* has be5 admitt$ ?r\gh ,g4 ,! valves ,g1 ,i1 & ,e mu/ be kept op51 & ! valve ,h kept clos$1 until ! pi/on arrives at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 :5 x w be necess>y to close all ! ?ree valves1 ,g1 ,i1 & ,e1 & to op5 ! valve ,h1 & ! same effects mu/ be produc$ ea* "t ! pi/on arrives at ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,all ?is is accompli%$ by a sy/em ( lev]s1 :i* are exhibit$ 9 fig4 #ba4 ,! pivots on :i* ^! lev]s play are repres5t$ on ! fram+ ( ! eng9e1 & ! arms ( ! lev]s ,g1 ,h1 & ,i1 communicat+ ) ! correspond+ valves ,g1 ,h1 & ,i1 are repres5t$ opposite a b> atta*$ to ! rod ( ! air-pump1 call$ ! plug frame4 ,?is b> c>ries c]ta9 pegs & det5ts1 :i* act ^u ! arms ( ! sev]al lev]s 9 su* a mann] t1 on ! arrival ( ! beam at ! extremities ( its play upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 ! lev]s are s /ruck t ! valves are op5$ & clos$ at ! prop] ,pg#adc times4 ,x is ne$less to expla9 all ! details ( ?is arrangem5t4 ,let x be suffici5t1 z an example ( all1 to expla9 ! me?od ( work+ ! upp] /eam valve ,g4 ,:5 ! pi/on rea*es ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 a p9 /rikes ! arm ( ! lev] ,g1 & ?r[s x upw>ds3 ?is1 by means ( ! sy/em ( lev]s1 pulls ! arm ( ! valve ,g d[nw>ds1 by :i* ! upp] /eam valve is rais$ out ( its seat1 & a passage is op5$ f ! /eam pipe to ! cyl9d]4 ,! valve is ma9ta9$ 9 ?is /ate until ! pi/on rea*es ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 :5 ! arm ,g is press$ d[nw>ds1 by :i* ! arm ,g is press$ upw>ds1 & ! valve re/or$ to its seat4 ,by simil> me?ods ! lev]s gov]n+ ! o!r ?ree valves1 ,h1 ,i1 & ,e1 are work$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,! valves us$ 9 ^! eng9es 7 ( ! k9d call$ sp9dle valves4 ,!y consi/$ ( a flat circul> plate ( bell metal1 ,a ,b1 fig4 #bc41 ) a r\nd sp9dle pass+ p]p5dicul>ly ?r\gh its c5tre1 & project+ above & bel[ x4 ,?is valve1 hav+ a conical =m1 0 fitt$ v exactly1 by gr9d+ into a correspond+ circul> conical seat1 ,a ,b ,c ,d1 fig4 #bd41 :i* =ms ! passage :i* x is ! (fice ( ! valve to op5 & close4 ,:5 ! valve falls into its seat1 x fits ! ap]ture l a plug1 s z entirely to /op x4 ,! sp9dle plays 9 sockets or holes1 "o above & ! o!r bel[ ! ap]ture :i* ! valve /ops2 ^! holes keep ! valve 9 its prop] position1 s z to cause x to drop exactly into its place4 ,9 ! exp]im5tal eng9e made by ,mr4 ,watt at ,k9neal1 he us$ cocks1 & sometimes slid+ cov]s1 l ! regulator describ$ 9 ! old eng9es2 b ^! he f\nd v soon to become leaky4 ,he 01 !re=e1 oblig$ to *ange !m = ! sp9dle valves j describ$1 :i*1 be+ truly ,pg#add gr\nd1 & accurately fitt$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 7 n s liable to g out ( ord]4 ,^! valves are also call$ puppet clacks1 or button valves4 ,9 ! e>li] eng9es con/ruct$ by ,watt1 ! cond5sation 0 produc$ by ! contact ( cold surfaces1 )\t injection4 ,! reason ( reject+ ! me?od ( cond5s+ by injection 01 d\btless1 to avoid ! injuri\s effects ( ! air1 :i* w\ld always ent] ! cond5s]1 9 comb9ation ) ! wat] ( cond5sation1 & vitiate ! vacuum4 ,x 0 soon f\nd1 h[ev]1 t a cond5s] act+ by cold surfaces )\t injection1 be+ necess>ily compos$ ( n>r[ pipes or passages1 0 liable to incru/ation f bad wat]1 by :i* ! conduct+ p[] ( ! mat]ial ( ! cond5s] 0 dim9i%$2 s t1 :ile its out] surface 0 kept cold by ! wat] ( ! cold ci/]n1 ! inn] surface might1 nev]!less1 be s w>m t a v imp]fect cond5sation w\ld be produc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,soho1 ,,birm+ham4 ,,footnotes3 #ai ,eloge1 p4 #cjh4 ,pg#ade ,illu/ration3 ,,birm+ham4 ,,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,,correspond5ce ,,( ,,watt ,,) ,,smeaton4 -- ,,failure ,,( ,,cond5sation ,,by ,,surface4 -- ,,improvem5ts ,,9 ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,pi/on4 -- ,,me?od ,,( ,,pack+4 -- ,,improvem5ts ,,9 ,,bor+ ,,! ,,cyl9d]s4 -- ,,disadvantages ,,( ,,! ,,new ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,! ,,old ,,eng9es4 -- ,,greatly ,,increas$ ,,economy ,,( ,,fuel4 -- ,,exp$i5ts ,,to ,,=ce ,,! ,,new ,,eng9es ,,into ,,use4 -- ,,correspond5ce ,,) ,,smeaton4 -- ,,effici5cy ,,( ,,fuel ,,9 ,,! ,,new ,,eng9es4 -- ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,expansive ,,action ,,( ,,/eam4 -- ,,watt ,,/ates ,,x ,,9 ,a ,,lett] ,,to ,,dr4 ,,small4 -- ,,its ,,pr9ciple ,,expla9$4 -- ,,me*anical ,,effect ,,result+ ,,f ,,x4 -- ,,comput$ ,,effect ,,( ,,cutt+ ,,(f ,,/eam ,,at ,,diff]5t ,,portions ,,( ,,! ,,/roke4 -- ,,produces ,a ,,v>iable ,,p[]4 -- ,,exp$i5ts ,,= ,,equalis+ ,,! ,,p[]4 -- ,,limitation ,,( ,,! ,,expansive ,,pr9ciple ,,9 ,,watt',s ,,eng9es4 -- ,,its ,,m ,,ext5sive ,,application ,,9 ,,! ,,corni% ,,eng9es4 7#gg47 ,9 a lett] address$ by ,watt to ,smeaton1 dat$ ,april1 #agff1 ,watt ref]s to "s ( ^! practical difficulties :i* he _h to enc\nt]4 ,i h be51 says he1 torm5t$ ) exce$+ly bad heal?1 result+ f ! op]ation ( an anxi\s m9d1 ! natural consequ5ce ( /ak+ ev]y?+ ,pg#adf ^u ! ca/ ( a die2 = 9 t light ,i look ^u e project :i* has n receiv$ ! sanction ( repeat$ success4 ,i h made consid]able alt]ations 9 our eng9e lately1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! cond5s]4 ,t :i* ,i us$ at fir/ 0 liable to be impair$1 f incru/ations f bad wat]2 !re=e we h sub/itut$ "o :i* works by an injection4 ,9 pursu+ ?is idea ,i h tri$ sev]al k9ds1 & h at la/ come to "o1 :i* ,i am n incl9$ to alt]4 ,x consi/s ( a jack-head pump1 %ut at bottom1 ) a common clack bucket1 & a valve 9 ! cov] ( ! pump1 to dis*>ge ! air & wat]4 ,! eduction /eam pipe1 :i* comes f ! cyl9d]1 communicates ) ?is pump bo? above & bel[ ! bucket1 & has valves to prev5t any?+ f go+ back f ! pump to ! eduction pipe4 ,! bucket desc5ds by its own weight1 & is rais$ by ! eng9e :5 ! great pi/on desc5ds1 be+ hung to ! out] end ( ! great lev]3 ! injection is made bo? into ! upp] "p ( ?is pump & into ! eduction pipe1 & op]ates beyond my ideas 9 po9t ( quickness & p]fection4 ,besides ! difficulty aris+ f incru/ation1 ,watt f\nd ! tubulat$ cond5s]s1 & inde$ all o!r exp$i5ts = cond5s+ by cold surfaces1 subject to a fatal objection4 ,!y did n cond5se in/antane\sly1 & al?\gh !y 7 capable ( ultimately effect+ ! cond5sation1 yet t process 0 n complet$ until a great "p ( ! /roke ( ! pi/on 0 made4 ,?us dur+ m or less ( ! /roke ! uncond5s$ /eam resi/$ ! pi/on1 & robb$ ! mov+ p[] ( a "p ( its effect4 ,?is objection has ev] att5d$ cond5sation by surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 7#gh47 ,ano!r s\rce ( difficulty arose f ! necessity ( con/ruct+ ! pi/on & cyl9d] ) great] precision ?an _h be5 usual 9 ! old eng9es4 ,to fit ! cov] to ! cyl9d] s z to be /eam-tight2 to con/ruct ! pi/on rod s z to move ?r\gh x )\t all[+ ! escape ( /eam1 & yet at ! same "t )\t injuri\s friction2 to connect ! pi/on rod ) ! pi/on1 s z to drive ! ,pg#adg latt] ?r\gh ! cyl9d] ) a p]fectly /raight & p>allel motion2 to make su* connection p]fectly c5trical & firm1 & yet to all[ ! pi/on 9 its asc5t to come ne>ly into contact ) ! cov] ( ! cyl9d]--7 all difficulties peculi> to ! new eng9e4 ,9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e ! %ank ( ! pi/on rod 0 r\gh & squ>e1 & ! rod 0 secur$ to ! pi/on by two or f\r bran*es or /ays1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #be4 ,x is evid5t t su* a con/ruction w\ld be inadmissible 9 an eng9e 9 :i* ! pi/on 9 its asc5t mu/ be br\ght ne>ly into contact ) ! close cov] ( ! cyl9d]4 ,besides ?is ! pi/on rod ( an atmosph]ic eng9e might ?r\gh\t its :ole l5g? h any =m :i* 0 mo/ conv5i5t1 & requir$ no o!r prop]ty ?an ! /r5g? necess>y to "w ! beam4 ,9 ! new eng9e1 on ! contr>y1 x 0 necess>y t x %\ld be accurately turn$ & f9ely poli%$1 s z to pass ?r\gh ! hole 9 ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 & be ma9ta9$ 9 x /eam-tight4 ,?is 0 effect$ by a contrivance call$ a /uff+-box ,b1 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bf4 ,a hole is made 9 ! cov] ( ! cyl9d] v little great] 9 magnitude ?an ! diamet] ( ! pi/on rod4 ,above ?is hole is a cup 9 :i*1 ar\nd ! pi/on1 is plac$ a /uff+ ( hemp or t[1 :i* is saturat$ ) oil or melt$ tall[4 ,?is coll> ( hemp is press$ d[n by ano!r piece1 also p]=at$ ) a hole ?r\gh :i* ! pi/on rod plays1 & :i* is screw$ d[n on ! said coll> ( hemp4 7#gi47 ,al?\gh ! imp]fect mann] 9 :i* ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d]s 0 !n =m$ impair$ ! effici5cy ( ! ,pg#adh new eng9es1 yet su* imp]fections 7 n s injuri\s z 9 ! old atmosph]ic eng9es4 ,any imp]fection ( =m ( ! inn] surface ( ! cyl9d] w\ld necess>ily cause m or less /eam or air to escape betwe5 ! pi/on & cyl9d]4 ,9 ! improv$ eng9e ?is /eam pass+ into ! vacuum bel[ ! pi/on w\ld ru% into ! cond5s]1 & be !re cond5s$1 s t its effect 9 resi/+ ! motion ( ! pi/on w\ld necess>ily be trifl+4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 any escape ( air betwe5 ! pi/on & cyl9d] ( an atmosph]ic eng9e w\ld introduce an ela/ic fluid "u ! pi/on1 :i* w\ld injuri\sly affect ! action ( ! ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,to make ! pi/ons move suffici5tly /eam-tight 9 ^! e>ly imp]fect cyl9d]s1 ,watt contriv$ a pack+ =m$ ( a coll> ( hemp1 or t[1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bg4 ,! bottom ( ! pi/on 0 =m$ ( a circul> plate ( a diamet] ne>ly1 b n altoge!r equal to ! int]ior diamet] ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! "p ( ! pi/on above ?is 0 consid]ably less 9 diamet]1 s t ! pi/on 0 surr\nd$ by a circul> groove or *annel two in*es wide1 into :i* hemp or s(t rope1 call$ gasket1 0 run1 s z to =m ! pack+4 ,! top ( ! pi/on 0 plac$ ov] ?is1 hav+ a rim or project+ "p1 :i* ent]$ ! circul> groove & press$ ^u ! pack+1 ! cov] be+ press$ d[nw>ds by screws pass+ ?r\gh ! pi/on4 ,! l[] "p ( ! groove r\nd ! pi/on 0 r\nd$ ) a curve1 s t ! pressure on ! pack+ might =ce ! latt] aga9/ ! inn] surface ( ! cyl9d]4 ,?is pack+ 0 kept suppli$ ) melt$ tall[1 z already describ$1 f ! funnel1 screw$ into ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! metallic edges ( ! pi/on 7 by ?is means prev5t$ f com+ into contact ) ! surface ( ! cyl9d]1 :i* 0 only press$ ^u by ! /uff+ or pack+ project+ beyond ^!4 7#hj47 ,improv$ me?ods ( bor+ soon1 h[ev]1 reliev$ ,pg#adi ! eng9e f a "p ( ^! imp]fections1 & ,watt writes to ,mr4 ,smeaton 9 ! lett] above quot$ z foll[s3-- ,mr4 ,wilk9son has improv$ ! art ( bor+ cyl9d]s2 s t ,i promise1 ^u a #gb in* cyl9d]1 be+ n fur!r di/ant f absolute tru? ?an ! ?ickness ( a ?9 sixp5ce 9 ! wor/ "p4 ,i am lab\r+ to improve ! regulators2 my s*eme is to make !m acute conical valves1 %ut by a weight1 & op5$ by ! =ce ( ! /eam4 ,!y bid fair = success1 & w be tri$ 9 a few days4 ,! p]son "h allud$ to 0 ,mr4 ,john ,wilk9son1 ( ,b]%am ne> ,*e/]1 :o1 ab\t ! ye> #agge1 contriv$ a new ma*9e = accurately bor+ ! insides ( cyl9d]s4 ,! cyl9d] be+ fir/ obta9$ f ! f\nd]y ) a surface z accurate z ! process ( ca/+ w\ld admit1 _h its inn] surface r$uc$ to /ill great] accuracy by ?is ma*9e1 :i* consi/s ( a /raight c5tral b> ext5d$ along ! axis ( ! cyl9d]1 :i* 0 made to revolve sl[ly r\nd x4 ,dur+ ! op]ation ( bor+1 ! bor] or cutt] 0 fitt$ to slide along ?is b>1 :i* be+ p]fectly /raight1 s]v$ z a sort ( rul] to guide ! bor] or cutt] 9 its progress ?r\gh ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ?is mann] ! int]ior surface ( ! cyl9d] 0 r5d]$ n only true & /raight 9 its longitud9al direction1 b also p]fectly circul> 9 its cross section4 ,! grease f\nd to be mo/ eligible = lubrication 0 ! tall[ ( beef or mutton2 b 9 ! e>li] cyl9d]s ?is 0 soon consum$ by reason ( ! imp]fection ( ! bor+1 & ! pi/on be+ left dry ceas$ to be /eam-tight4 ,to prev5t ?is1 ,watt s\ght = "s sub/ance1 :i* :ile x w\ld ?ick5 ! tall[1 & deta9 x ar\nd ! pi/on1 w\ld n be subject to decomposition by heat4 ,black lead du/ 0 us$ = ?is purpose1 b 0 soon f\nd to we> ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ! mean :ile1 h[ev]1 ! improv$ me?od ( bor+ suppli$ cyl9d]s :i* r5d]$ ?is exp$i5t unnecess>y4 ,:5 ! inn] surface ( ! cyl9d] is p]fectly true & smoo?1 ! pack+ ( ! pi/on is soon r5d]$ solid & h>d1 be+ m\ld$ to ! cyl9d] by work+1 s z to fit x p]fectly4 ,:5 by we> x became loose1 x 0 ,pg#aej only necess>y to tight5 ! screws by :i* ! top & bottom ( ! pi/on 7 held toge!r4 ,! pack+ be+ compress$ by ^? means1 0 =c$ outw>ds t[>ds ! surface ( ! cyl9d]1 s z to be r5d]$ /eam-tight4 7#ha47 ,x 0 n until ab\t ! ye> #aggh1 n9e ye>s aft] ! date ( ! pat5t1 & ?irte5 aft] ! inv5tion ( sep>ate cond5sation1 t any impression 0 produc$ on ! m9+ int]e/s by ! advantages :i* 7 pres5t$ to !m by ^! va/ improvem5ts4 ,?is long int]val1 h[ev]1 _h n elaps$ )\t consid]able advantage2 = al?\gh all ! great lead+ pr9ciples ( ! contrivance 7 inv5t$ s e>ly z ! ye> #agfe1 yet ! details ( con/ruction _h be5 9 a /ate ( progressive & cont9u$ improvem5t f ! "t ,watt jo9$ ,dr4 ,roebuck1 9 #agfi1 to ! p]iod n[ adv]t$ to4 ,! advantages :i* ! eng9e (f]$ 9 ! =m 9 :i* x has be5 j describ$1 7 num]\s & important1 z comp>$ ev5 ) ! mo/ improv$ =m ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e2 & x %\ld be rememb]$1 t t ma*9e _h also gone on progressively improv+1 & 0 probably indebt$ = "s ( its ameliorations to h9ts d]iv$ f ! lab\rs ( ,watt1 & to ! adoption ( su* ( 8 exp$i5ts z 7 applicable to ?is imp]fect ma*9e1 & c\ld be adopt$ )\t an infraction ( 8 pat5t4 ,9 ! mo/ improv$ =ms to :i* ! atmosph]ic eng9e _h !n atta9$1 ! quantity ( /eam wa/$ at ea* /roke ( ! pi/on 0 equal to ! cont5ts ( ! cyl9d]4 ,su* eng9es1 !re=e1 consum$ twice ! fuel :i* w\ld be requisite1 if all s\rces ( wa/e c\ld h be5 remov$4 ,9 ,watt's eng9es1 ! /eam consum$ at ea* /roke ( ! pi/on am\nt$ only to #a-a_/d times ! cont5ts ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! wa/e /eam1 !re=e1 p] /roke1 0 only a qu>t] ( :at 0 usefully employ$4 ,! absolute wa/e1 !re=e1 ( ! be/ atmosph]ic eng9es 0 f\r times t ( ! improv$ eng9e1 & consequ5tly ! sav+ ( fuel 9 ! improv$ eng9es am\nt$ to ab\t ?ree eigh?s ( all ! fuel consum$ 9 atmosph]ic eng9es ( ! same p[]4 ,pg#aea 7#hb47 ,b indep5d5tly ( ?is sav+ ( /eam1 :i* w\ld o!rwise be wa/$1 ! p[] ( ,watt's eng9e1 z comp>$ ) ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 0 s mu* augm5t$ t ! =m] w\ld "w aga9/ a resi/ance ( t5 p\nds on ! squ>e in* "u ! same circum/ances 9 :i* ! latt] w\ld n move aga9/ m ?an sev5 p\nds4 ,! cause ( ?is augm5tation ( p[] is easily expla9$4 ,9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e ! temp]ature ( ! cond5s$ /eam c\ld n be r$uc$ bel[ #aeb )\t incurr+ a great] loss ?an w\ld be comp5sat$ by ! advantage to be obta9$ f any high] degree ( cond5sation4 ,n[ /eam rais$ f wat] at #aeb has a pressure ( ne>ly f\r p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,?is pressure1 !re=e1 act$ bel[ ! pi/on resi/+ ! atmosph]ic pressure above4 ,9 ,watt's eng9e1 h[ev]1 ! cond5s] 0 kept at a temp]ature ( ab\t #ajj1 at :i* temp]ature /eam has a pressure ( less ?an "o p\nd p] squ>e in*4 ,a resi/+ =ce ^u ! pi/on ( ?ree p\nds p] squ>e in* 0 !re=e sav$ 9 ,watt's eng9e z comp>$ ) ! atmosph]ic eng9e4 7#hc47 ,besides ^! direct s\rces ( economy1 !re 7 o!r advantages incid5tal to ,watt's eng9e4 ,an atmosph]ic eng9e possess$ v limit$ p[] ( adaptation to a v>y+ load4 ,! mov+ p[] be+ ! atmosph]ic pressure1 0 n "u control1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 0 subject to v>iations f day to day & f h\r to h\r1 accord+ to ! *anges ( ! b>omet]4 ,9 ! fir/ con/ruction ( su* an eng9e1 !re=e1 its p[] be+ necess>ily adapt$ to ! greate/ load :i* x w\ld h to move1 :5ev] ! load ^u its pumps 0 dim9i%$1 ! motion ( ! pi/on 9 desc5d+ w\ld be rapidly accel]at$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! mov+ p[] exce$+ ! resi/ance4 ,by ?is ! ma*9]y w\ld be subject to sudd5 %ocks1 :i* 7 productive ( rapid we>1 & expos$ ! ma*9]y to ! dang] ( fracture4 ,to rem$y ?is inconv5i5ce1 ! foll[+ exp$i5t 0 provid$ 9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e3 :5ev] ! load on ! eng9e 0 mat]ially dim9i%$1 ! quantity ( wat] admitt$ ?r\gh ! injection valve to cond5se ! /eam 0 proportionally ,pg#aeb dim9i%$4 ,an imp]fect cond5sation be+ !re=e produc$1 vap\r rema9$ 9 ! cyl9d] "u ! pi/on1 ! pressure ( :i* resi/$ ! atmosph]e1 & mitigat$ ! =ce ( ! ma*9e4 ,besides ?is1 a cock 0 provid$ 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 call$ an air cock1 by :i* atmosph]ic air c\ld be admitt$ to resi/ ! pi/on :5ev] ! motion 0 too rapid4 ,^! exp$i5ts1 h[ev]1 7 all att5d$ ) a wa/e ( fuel 9 relation to ! "w done by ! eng9e2 = x is evid5t t ! consumption ( /eam 0 necess>ily ! same1 :e!r ! eng9e 0 work+ aga9/ its full load or aga9/ a r$uc$ resi/ance4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! improv$ eng9e ( ,watt1 :5 ! load1 to "w aga9/ :i* ! eng9e ex]t$ its full p[]1 0 dim9i%$1 a cock or valve 0 provid$ 9 ! /eam pipe lead+ f ! boil]1 :i* 0 call$ a ?rottle valve1 by adju/+ :i* ! passage 9 t pipe c\ld be m or less contract$4 ,by regulat+ ?is cock ! supply ( /eam f ! boil] 0 *eck$1 & ! quantity transmitt$ to ! cyl9d] dim9i%$1 s t its effect ^u ! pi/on might be r5d]$ equal to ! am\nt ( ! dim9i%$ resi/ance4 ,by ?is means ! quantity ( /eam transmitt$ to ! cyl9d] 0 r5d]$ exactly proportional to ! "w :i* ! eng9e _h to p]=m4 ,if1 "u su* circum/ances1 ! boil] 0 work$ to its full p[]1 s z to produce /eam z fa/ z x w\ld :5 ! eng9e 0 work+ at full p[]1 !n no sav+ ( fuel w\ld be effect$1 s9ce ! surplus /eam produc$ 9 ! boil] w\ld necess>ily escape at ! safety valve4 ,b 9 su* case ! fireman 0 direct$ to limit ! fuel ( ! furnace until ! dis*>ge at ! safety valve ceas$4 ,by ^! exp$i5ts1 ! actual consumption ( fuel 9 "o ( ^! improv$ eng9es 0 always 9 ! exact proportion ( ! "w :i* x p]=m$1 :e!r x work$ at full p[] or at any degree "u its regul> p[]4 7#hd47 ,not)/&+ ^! & o!r advantages att5d+ ! new eng9es1 ,b\lton & ,watt exp]i5c$ difficulties all b insurm\ntable 9 gett+ !m into use4 ,no manufactory exi/$ 9 ! c\ntry possess+ ma*9]y capable ( ,pg#aec execut+ ) ! necess>y precision ! valves & o!r p>ts :i* requir$ exact execution1 & ! pat5tees 7 compell$ to con/ruct ma*9]y at ,soho = ?is purpose2 & ev5 aft] !y succe$$ 9 gett+ ! cyl9d]s prop]ly bor$1 ! pi/on rods exactly turn$ & poli%$1 ! sp9dle valves con/ruct$ s z to be /eam-tight1 & e o!r arrangem5t complet$ :i* 0 necess>y = ! effici5cy ( ! ma*9e1 ! novelty ( ! eng9e1 & ! difficulty :i* 0 suppos$ to att5d its ma9t5ance 9 good work+ ord]1 =m$ /rong objections to its adoption4 ,to remove su* objections1 great sacrifices 7 necess>y on ! "p ( ,b\lton & ,watt2 & !y accord+ly resolv$ to und]take ! con/ruction ( ! new eng9es )\t any pr(it1 giv+ !m to ! p>ties requir+ _! use at fir/ co/1 on ! condition ( be+ remun]at$ by a small %>e ( :at !y w\ld save 9 fuel4 ,we h no objection1 writes ,mr4 ,b\lton1 to contract ) ! ,c>ron ,company to direct ! mak+ ( an eng9e to return ! wat] = _! mills4 99 99 99 99 ,we d n aim at pr(its 9 eng9e build+1 b %all take our pr(its out ( ! sav+ ( fuel2 s t if we save no?+1 we %all take no?+4 ,our t]ms are z foll[s3 we w make all ! necess>y plans1 sections1 & elevations = ! build+1 & = ! eng9e ) its appurt5ances1 specify+ all ca/ & =g$ iron "w1 & e o!r p>ticul> relative to ! eng9e4 ,we w give all necess>y directions to y\r workm51 :i* !y mu/ implicitly obey4 ,we w execute1 = a /ipulat$ price1 ! valves1 & all o!r p>ts :i* mayrequire exact execution1 at ,soho2 we w see t all ! p>ts are put toge!r1 & set to "w1 prop]ly2 we w keep our own "w 9 repair = "o ye>1 & we h no o!r objection to sev5 ye>s ?an ! inconv5i5ce ( ! di/ance4 ,we w gu>antee t ! eng9e s con/ruct$ %all raise at lea/ #bj1jjj cubic feet ( wat] tw5ty-f\r feet high ) ea* hundr$ weight ( coals burnt4 ,:5 all ?is is done1 a fair & c&id comp>ison %all be made betwe5 x1 & y\r own eng9e1 or any o!r eng9e 9 ,scotl&1 f :i* comp>ison ! am\nt ( sav+s 9 fuel %all be e/imat$1 & t am\nt be+ ,pg#aed divid$ into ?ree p>ts1 we %all be entitl$ to "o ( ^? p>ts1 9 recomp5se = our pat5t lic5ce1 our draw+s1 c4 c4 ,our own %>e ( sav+s %all be e/imat$ 9 money1 accord+ to ! value ( y\r coals deliv]$ "u ! boil]1 & y %all annually pay u t sum1 dur+ tw5ty-five ye>s f ! day y beg9 to "w2 provid$ y cont9ue ! use ( ! eng9e s long4 ,& 9 case y sell ! eng9e1 or remove x to any o!r place1 y mu/ previ\sly give u notice1 = we %all !n be entitl$ to our ?ird ( ! sav+s ( fuel1 accord+ to ! value ( coals at su* new place4 ,?is is a necess>y condition1 o!rwise ! eng9e :i* we make = y at an exp5se ( two ?\s& p\nds may be sold 9 ,cornwall = t5 ?\s& p\nds4 ,su* p>ts ( ! eng9e z we execute at ,soho we w be paid = at a fair price2 ,i conclude1 f all ! obs]vations ,i h _h an opportunity ( mak+1 t our eng9es are f\r times bett] ?an ! common eng9es4 ,9 boil]s1 :i* are a v exp5sive article1 ! sav+s w be 9 proportion to ! sav+s ( coal4 ,if y comp>e our eng9e ) ! common eng9e 7n 9 size1 b 9 p[]71 y w f9d ! orig9al exp5se ( erect+ "o to be ne>ly ! same4 ,mr4 ,wilk9son has bor$ u sev]al cyl9d]s1 almo/ )\t error2 t ( fifty in*es diamet]1 :i* we put up at ,tipton1 does n err ! ?ickness ( an old %ill+ 9 any "p2 s t y mu/ ei!r improve y\r me?od ( bor+1 or we mu/ furni% ! cyl9d] to y4 ,! reluctance ( m9+ companies to rel9qui% ! old eng9es1 ev5 on ^! t]ms1 l$ !m to propose to ,mr4 ,watt to grant !m a lic5ce = ! use ( 8 cond5s]1 to be appli$ to ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 )\t ! introduction ( o!r improvem5ts4 ,su* a proposition 0 made to him by ,mr4 ,smeaton1 9 ! ye> #aggh1 to :i* he return$ ! foll[+ answ]3-- ,i h sev]al times consid]$ ! propriety ( ! application ( my cond5s]s to common eng9es1 & h made exp]im5ts ) t view ^u our eng9e at ,soho1 b h nev] f\nd su* results z w\ld induce me to try ,pg#aee x any :]e else2 &1 9 consequ5ce1 we refus$ to make t application to ,:eal ,virg9 eng9es 9 ,cornwall1 & to "s o!rs2 our reasons 71 t ?\gh x might h enabl$ !m to h gone deep] ) _! pres5t eng9es1 yet1 ! sav+s ( fuel w\ld n h be5 great1 9 comp>ison to ! complete ma*9e4 ,by add+ cond5s]s to eng9es t 7 n 9 good ord]1 our eng9e w\ld h be5 introduc$ into t c\ntry 7:i* we look ^u z our ri*e/ m9e7 9 an unfav\rable po9t ( view1 & )\t su* pr(its z w\ld h be5 satisfactory ei!r to u or to ! adv5tur]s2 & if we _h grant$ ! use ( cond5s]s to "o1 we mu/ h done s to all1 & !reby h curtail$ our pr(its1 & p]haps injur$ our reputation4 ,besides1 :]e a new eng9e is to be erect$1 & to be equally well execut$ 9 po9t ( workman%ip & mat]ials1 an eng9e ( ! same p[] _c be con/ruct$ mat]ially *eap] on ! old plan ?an on ours2 = our boil] & cyl9d] are mu* small]1 & ! build+1 ! lev]1 ! *a9s1 toge!r ) all ! pump & pit "w1 are only ! same4 99 99 99 99 ,we *>ge our pr(its 9 proportion to ! sav+ made 9 fuel by our eng9e1 :5 comp>$ ) a common "o :i* burns ! same k9d ( coals2 we ask "o ?ird ( ^! sav+s to be paid u annually1 or half ye>ly2 ! paym5t be+ r$eemable 9 ! option ( our employ]1 at t5 ye>s' pur*ase2 & :5 ! coals are l[ pric$1 we %\ld also make "s *>ge z eng9e]s4 ,9 all ^! comp>isons our own int]e/ has made u except y\r 7,mr4 ,smeaton7 improv$ eng9es1 unless we 7 all[$ a great] proportion ( ! sav+s4 ,_! ex]tions to improve ! manufacture ( eng9es at ,soho is %[n by ! foll[+ lett] f ,mr4 ,b\lton1 9 ! same correspond5ce to ,mr4 ,smeaton3-- ,we are sy/ematis+ ! bus9ess ( eng9e mak+1 z we h done be=e 9 ! button manufactory2 we are tra9+ up workm51 & mak+ tools & ma*9es to =m ! diff]5t p>ts ( ,mr4 ,watt's eng9es ) m accuracy1 & at a *eap] rate ?an c possibly be done by ! ord9>y me?ods ( work+4 ,our work%op & app>atus w be ( ,pg#aef suffici5t ext5t to execute all ! eng9es :i* are likely to be soon want$ 9 ?is c\ntry2 & x w n be wor? ! exp5se = any o!r eng9e]s to erect simil> works1 = t w\ld be l build+ a mill to gr9d a bu%el ( corn4 ,i c assure y f exp]i5ce1 t our small eng9e at ,soho is capable ( rais+ #ejj1jjj cubic feet ( wat] #a foot high ) e #aab lbs4 ( coals1 & we are 9 hopes ( do+ mu* m4 ,mr4 ,watt's eng9e has a v great advantage 9 m9es1 :i* are cont9ually work+ deep]3 suppose1 = in/ance1 t a m9e is #ej fa?oms deep1 y may h an eng9e :i* w be equal to dra9+ ! wat] :5 ! m9e is work$1 to #ajj fa?oms deep1 & yet y c con/antly adapt ! eng9e to its load1 :e!r x be #ej or #ajj fa?oms1 or any int]m$iate dep?2 & ! consumption ( coals w be less 9 proportion :5 work+ at ! less] ?an at ! great] dep?s2 suppos+ x works1 z our eng9es g5]ally d1 at #aa lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 :5 ! m9e becomes #ajj fa?oms deep4 7#he47 ,! great improvem5t :i* has be5 introduc$ )9 ! la/ half c5tury1 9 ! details ( ,watt's /eam eng9e1 w be r5d]$ manife/ by comp>+ ! effects ( a giv5 weight ( fuel "h suppli$ by ,mr4 ,b\lton ) ! effects :i* ! same weight ( fuel is n[ kn[n to produce 9 ! be/ pump+ eng9es work$ 9 ,cornwall4 ,"o ( ^! eng9es1 9 good work+ ord]1 has be5 kn[n to raise #abe1jjj1jjj lbs4 #a foot high1 by ! combu/ion ( a bu%el ( coals4 ,b ! av]age p]=mance ( ev5 ! be/ eng9es is bel[ ?is am\nt4 ,if we take x at #ij1jjj1jjj1 ?is w be equival5t to ! weight ( ab\t #a-a_/b million cubic feet ( wat]1 a bu%el ( coals be+ #c_/d cwt4 ,x w !re=e foll[ t1 ) ! pres5t eng9es1 "o hundr$ weight ( coals is capable ( rais+ ab\t two million cubic feet ( wat] "o foot high1 be+ a duty f\r times t assign$ to ! e>ly eng9es by ,mr4 ,b\lton4 7#hf47 ,at ! "t t ,watt1 9 conjunction ) ,dr4 ,roebuck1 obta9$ ! pat5t = 8 improv$ eng9e1 ! idea occurr$ to him1 t ! /eam :i* _h impell$ ! pi/on 9 its desc5t ru%$ f ! cyl9d] ) a me*anical =ce mu* m ?an suffici5t to ov]come any resi/ance ,pg#aeg :i* x _h to enc\nt] 9 its passage to ! cond5s]2 & t su* =ce might be r5d]$ available z a mov+ p[]1 9 addition to t already obta9$ f ! /eam dur+ ! /roke ( ! pi/on4 ,?is notion involv$ ! :ole pr9ciple ( ! expansive action ( /eam1 :i* subsequ5tly prov$ to be ( su* importance 9 ! p]=mance ( /eam eng9es4 ,watt 01 h[ev]1 s mu* engross$ at t "t1 & subsequ5tly1 by ! difficulties he _h to enc\nt] 9 ! con/ruction ( 8 eng9es1 t he did n attempt to br+ ?is pr9ciple into op]ation4 ,x 0 n until aft] he _h organis$ t "p ( ! e/abli%m5t at ,soho :i* 0 appropriat$ to ! manufacture ( /eam eng9es1 t he proce$$ to apply ! expansive pr9ciple4 ,s9ce ! date ( ! pat5t :i* he took out = ?is 7#aghb71 0 subsequ5t to ! application ( ! same pr9ciple by ano!r eng9e]1 nam$ ,hornbl[]1 x is "r to /ate1 t ! claim ( ,mr4 ,watt to ?is important /ep 9 ! improvem5t ( ! /eam eng9e1 is e/abli%$ by a lett] address$ by him to ,dr4 ,small1 ( ,birm+ham1 dat$ ,glasg[1 ,may1 #agfi3-- ,i m5tion$ to y a me?od ( /ill d\bl+ ! effect ( ! /eam1 & t tol]ably easy1 by us+ ! p[] ( /eam ru%+ into a vacuum1 at pres5t lo/4 ,?is w\ld d little m ?an d\ble ! effect1 b x w\ld too mu* enl>ge ! vessels to use x all3 x is peculi>ly applicable to :eel eng9es1 & may supply ! want ( a cond5s]1 :]e ! =ce ( /eam only is us$2 = op5 "o ( ! /eam valves1 & admit /eam until "o f\r? ( ! di/ance betwe5 x & ! next valve is fill$ ) /eam1 !n %ut ! valve1 & ! /eam w cont9ue to exp&1 & to press r\nd ! :eel1 ) a dim9i%+ p[]1 end+ 9 "o f\r? ( its fir/ ex]tion4 ,! sum ( ! s]ies y w f9d great] ?an "o half1 ?\gh only "o f\r? ( /eam 0 us$4 ,! p[] w inde$ be unequal1 b ?is c be rem$i$ by a fly1 or by sev]al o!r means4 ,9 #aggf ! eng9e1 :i* _h be5 !n rec5tly erect$ at ,soho1 0 adapt$ to act ^u ! pr9ciple ( expansion4 ,:5 ! pi/on _h be5 press$ d[n 9 ! cyl9d] = a c]ta9 portion ( ! /roke1 ! fur!r supply ( /eam ,pg#aeh f ! boil] 0 cut (f1 by clos+ ! upp] /eam valve1 & ! rema9d] ( ! /roke 0 accompli%$ by ! expansive p[] ( ! /eam :i* _h already be5 introduc$ into ! cyl9d]4 7#hg47 ,to make ?is me?od ( apply+ ! =ce ( /eam intelligible1 "s previ\s explanation ( me*anical pr9ciples w be necess>y4 ,if a body :i* (f]s a c]ta9 resi/ance be urg$ by a c]ta9 mov+ =ce1 ! motion :i* x w receive w dep5d on ! relation betwe5 ! en]gy ( ! mov+ =ce & ! am\nt ( ! resi/ance oppos$ to x4 ,if ! mov+ =ce be precisely equal to ! resi/ance1 ! motion :i* ! body w receive w be p]fectly uni=m4 ,if ! en]gy ( ! mov+ =ce be great] ?an ! resi/ance1 !n its surplus or excess above ! am\nt ( resi/ance w be exp5d$ 9 imp>t+ mom5tum to ! mass ( ! body mov$1 & ! latt] w1 consequ5tly1 cont9ually acquire augm5t$ spe$4 ,! motion ( ! body w1 !re=e1 be 9 ?is case accel]at$4 ,if ! en]gy ( ! mov+ =ce be less 9 am\nt ?an ! resi/ance1 !n all t portion ( ! resi/ance :i* exce$s ! am\nt ( ! mov+ =ce w be exp5d$ 9 depriv+ ! mass ( ! body ( mom5tum1 & ! body w !re=e be mov$ ) cont9ually dim9i%$ spe$ until x be br\ght to re/4 7#hh47 ,:5ev]1 !re=e1 a uni=m motion is produc$ 9 a body1 x may be tak5 z an indication ( ! equality ( ! mov+ =ce to ! resi/ance2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 accord+ z ! spe$ ( ! body is augm5t$ or dim9i%$1 x may be inf]r$ t ! en]gy ( ! mov+ =ce has be5 great] or less ?an ! resi/ance4 ,x is an error to suppose t re/ is ! only condition possible = a body to assume :5 "u ! op]ation ( two or m me*anical =ces :i* are 9 equilibrium4 ,by ! laws ( motion ! /ate ( a body :i* is n "u ! op]ation ( any ext]nal =ce mu/ be ei!r 9 a /ate ( re/ or ( uni=m motion4 ,:i*ev] be its /ate1 x w suff] no *ange if ! body be br\ght "u ! op]ation ( two or m =ces :i* are 9 equilibrium2 = to suppose ,pg#aei su* =ces to produce any *ange 9 ! /ate ( ! body1 :e!r f re/ to motion1 or vice v]s1 or 9 ! velocity ( ! motion :i* ! body may h previ\sly _h1 w\ld be equival5t to a supposition t ! =ces appli$ to ! body be+ 9 equilibrium 7 capable ( produc+ a dynamical effect1 :i* w\ld be a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,?is1 ?\gh n always cle>ly und]/ood by m]e practical m51 or by p]sons sup]ficially in=m$1 is1 9 fact1 among ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( me*anical sci5ce4 7#hi47 ,:5 ! pi/on is at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 & ab\t to comm5ce its motion d[nw>ds1 ! /eam act+ ^u x w h n only to ov]come ! resi/ance aris+ f ! friction ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! eng9e1 b w also h to put 9 motion ! :ole mass ( matt] ( ! pi/on pump rods1 pump pi/ons1 & ! column ( wat] 9 ! pump b>rels4 ,besides imp>t+ to ?is mass ! mom5tum correspond+ to ! velocity ) :i* x w be mov$1 x w also h to enc\nt] ! resi/ance due to ! prepond]ance ( ! weight ( ! wat] & pump rods ov] t ( ! /eam pi/on4 ,! pressure ( /eam1 !re=e1 ^u ! pi/on at ! comm5cem5t ( ! /roke mu/1 9 accordance ) ! me*anical pr9ciples j expla9$1 h a great] =ce ?an is equal to all ! resi/ances :i* x w\ld h to ov]come1 suppos+ ! mass to be mov+ at a uni=m velocity4 ,! mov+ =ce1 !re=e1 be+ great] ?an ! resi/ance1 ! mass1 :5 put 9 motion1 w necess>ily move ) a gradually augm5t$ spe$1 & ! pi/on ( ! eng9e :i* has be5 describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt] w\ld necess>ily move f ! top to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] ) an accel]at$ motion1 hav+ at ! mom5t ( its arrival at ! bottom a great] velocity ?an at any o!r "p ( ! /roke4 ,z ! pi/on & all ! matt] :i* x has put 9 motion mu/ at ?is po9t come to re/1 ! mom5tum ( ! mov+ mass mu/ necess>ily exp5d itself on "s "p ( ! ma*9]y1 & w\ld be s mu* me*anical =ce lo/4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 indep5d5tly ( any consid]ation ( ! expansive pr9ciple1 to :i* we %all pres5tly ref]1 t ! action ( ! ,pg#afj mov+ p[] 9 ! desc5t ( ! pi/on ought to be susp5d$ be=e ! arrival ( ! pi/on at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 9 ord] to all[ ! mom5tum ( ! mass :i* is 9 motion to exp5d itself1 & to all[ ! pi/on to come gradually to re/ at ! t]m9ation ( ! /roke4 ,?us1 if we 7 to suppose t aft] ! pi/on _h desc5d$ ?r\gh ?ree f\r?s ( ! :ole l5g? ( ! cyl9d]1 & _h acquir$ a c]ta9 velocity1 ! /eam above x 7 sudd5ly cond5s$1 s z to leave a vacuum bo? above & bel[ x1 ! pi/on1 be+ !n subject to no impell+ =ce1 w\ld /ill move d[nw>ds1 9 virtue ( ! mom5tum x _h acquir$1 until ! resi/ance w\ld deprive x ( t mom5tum1 & br+ x to re/2 & if ! rema9+ f\r? "p ( ! cyl9d] 7 necess>y = ! accompli%m5t ( ?is1 !n x is evid5t t t "p ( ! /roke w\ld be accompli%$ )\t fur!r exp5diture ( ! mov+ p[]4 ,9 fact1 ?is "p ( ! /roke w\ld be made by ! exp5diture ( t excess ( mov+ p[]1 :i*1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! /roke1 _h be5 employ$ 9 putt+ ! ma*9]y & its load 9 motion1 & 9 subsequ5tly accel]at+ t motion4 ,al?\gh "u su* circum/ances ! resi/ance1 dur+ ! op]ation ( ! mov+ p[]1 %all n h be5 at any "t equal to ! mov+ p[]1 s9ce :ile ! motion 0 accel]at$ x 0 less1 & :ile ret>d$ great] ?an t p[]1 yet z ! :ole mov+ p[] has be5 exp5d$ ^u ! resi/ance1 ! me*anical effect :i* ! mov+ p[] has produc$ "u su* circum/ances w be equal to ! actual am\nt ( t p[]4 ,if 9 an eng9e ( ?is k9d ! /eam 0 n cut (f till ! conclusion ( ! /roke1 a "p ( ! mov+ p[] w\ld be lo/ ^u ^? fix$ po9ts 9 ! ma*9]y :i* w\ld su/a9 ! %ock produc$ by ! in/antane\s cessation ( motion at ! end ( ! /roke4 ,indep5d5tly1 !re=e1 ( any consid]ation ( ! expansive pr9ciple1 x appe>s t1 9 an eng9e ( ?is k9d1 ! /eam ought to be cut (f be=e ! completion ( ! /roke4 ,pg#afa ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 7#ij47 ,to r5d] ! expansive action ( /eam intelligible1 let ,a ,b 7fig4 #bh47 repres5t a cyl9d] ^: area we w suppose1 = ! sake ( illu/ration1 to be a squ>e foot1 & ^: l5g?1 ,a ,b1 %all also be a foot4 ,if /eam ( a pressure equal to ! atmosph]e be suppli$ to ?is cyl9d]1 x w ex]t a pressure ( ab\t "o ton on ! pi/on2 & if su* /eam be uni=mly suppli$ f ! boil]1 ! pi/on w be mov$ f ,a to ,b ) ! =ce ( "o ton1 & t motion w be uni=m if ! pi/on be oppos$ ?r\gh\t ! same space by a resi/ance equal to a ton4 ,:5 ! pi/on has arriv$ at ,b1 let u suppose t ! fur!r supply ( /eam f ! boil] is /opp$ by clos+ ! upp] /eam valve1 & let u also suppose ! cyl9d] to be cont9u$ d[nw>ds s t ,b ,c %all be equal to ,a ,b1 & suppose t ,b ,c has be5 previ\sly 9 communication ) ! cond5s]1 & is !re=e a vacuum4 ,! pi/on at ,b w !n be urg$ ) a =ce ( "o ton d[nw>ds1 & z x desc5ds ! /eam above x w be diffus$ ?r\gh an increas$ volume1 & w consequ5tly acquire a dim9i%$ pressure4 ,we %all1 = ! pres5t1 assume t ?is dim9ution ( pressure foll[s ! law ( ela/ic fluids 9 g5]al2 t x w be decreas$ 9 ! same proportion z ! volume ( ! /eam is augm5t$4 ,:ile ! pi/on1 !re=e1 moves f ,b d[nw>ds x w be urg$ by a cont9ually decreas+ =ce4 ,let u suppose1 t by "s exp$i5t1 x is also subject to a cont9ually decreas+ resi/ance1 & t ?is resi/ance decreases 9 ! same proportion z ! =ce :i* urges ! pi/on4 ,9 t case ! motion ( ! pi/on w\ld cont9ue uni=m4 ,:5 ! pi/on w\ld arrive at ,p1 ! middle ( ! second cyl9d]1 !n ! space occupi$ by ! /eam be+ increas$ 9 ! proportion ( #b to #c1 ! pressure on ! pi/on w\ld be dim9i%$ 9 ! proportion ( #c to #b1 & ! pressure at ,b be+ "o ton1 x w\ld be two-?irds ( a ton at ,p4 ,9 l mann] :5 ! pi/on w\ld arrive at ,c1 ! space occupi$ by ! /eam be+ d\ble t :i* ,pg#afb x occupi$ :5 ! pi/on 0 at ,b1 ! pressure ( ! /eam w\ld be half its pressure at ,b1 & !re=e at ! t]m9ation ( ! /roke1 ! pressure on ! pi/on w\ld be half a ton4 ,if ! space f ,b to ,c1 ?r\gh :i* ! /eam is "h suppos$ to act expansively1 be divid$ into t5 equal p>ts1 ! pressure on ! pi/on at ! mom5t ( pass+ ea* ( ^? divisions w\ld be calculat$ ^u ! same pr9ciple z 9 ! cases n[ m5tion$4 ,aft] mov+ ?r\gh ! fir/ division1 ! volume ( ! /eam w\ld be increas$ 9 ! proportion ( #aj to #aa1 & !re=e its pressure w\ld be dim9i%$ 9 ! proportion ( #aa to #aj4 ,! pressure1 !re=e1 driv+ ! pi/on at ! end ( ! fir/ ( ^! t5 divisions w\ld be #aj_/aa?s ( a ton4 ,9 l mann]1 its pressure at ! second ( ! divisions w\ld be #aj_/ab?s ( a ton1 & ! ?ird #aj_/ac?s ( a ton2 & s on1 z indicat$ 9 ! figure4 ,n[ if ! pressure ( ! /eam ?r\gh ea* ( ^! divisions 7 to cont9ue uni=m1 &1 in/ead ( gradually dim9i%+1 to suff] a sudd5 *ange 9 pass+ f "o division to ano!r1 !n ! me*anical effect produc$ f ,b to ,c w\ld be obta9$ by tak+ a mean or av]age ( ! sev]al pressures ?r\gh\t ea* ( ! t5 divisions4 ,9 ! pres5t case x has be5 suppos$ t ! =ce on ! pi/on at ,b 0 #bbdj p\nds4 ,to obta9 ! pressure 9 p\nds correspond+ to ea* ( ! successive divisions1 x w !re=e only be necess>y to multiply #bbdj by #aj1 & to divide x successively by #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 c4 ,! pressures1 !re=e1 9 p\nds1 at ea* ( ! t5 divisions1 w be z foll[s3-- #a/ #bjcfc #b;d #ahfff #c;d #agbca #d? #afjjj #e? #adicc #f? #adjjj #g? #acagf #h? #abddd #i? #aagij #aj? #aabjj ,if ! mean ( ^! be tak5 by add+ !m toge!r ,pg#afc & divid+ by #aj1 x w be f\nd to be #adih p\nds4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t ! pressures ?r\gh ea* ( ! t5 divisions be+ suppos$ to be uni=m 7:i* h[ev]1 /rictly1 !y are n17 ! me*anical effect ( ! /eam f ,b to ,c w\ld be ! same z if x act$ uni=mly ?r\gh\t t space ^u ! pi/on ) a =ce ( ab\t #aejj p\nds1 be+ r less ?an ?ree-f\r?s ( its :ole effect f ,a to ,b4 ,b x is evid5t t ?is pr9ciple w be equally applicable if ! second cyl9d] _h any o!r proportion to ! fir/4 ,?us x might be twice ! l5g? ( ! fir/2 & 9 t case1 a fur!r me*anical effect w\ld be obta9$ f ! expansion ( ! /eam4 ,! m accurate me?od ( calculat+ ! effect ( ! expansion f ,b to ,c1 w\ld involve m advanc$ ma!matical pr9ciples ?an c\ld prop]ly be introduc$ "h2 b ! result ( su* a computation w\ld be t ! actual av]age effect ( ! /eam f ,b to ,c w\ld be equal to a uni=m pressure ?r\gh t space1 am\nt+ to "o ?\s& five hundr$ & =ty-five p\nds1 be+ great] ?an ! result ( ! above computation1 ! diff]5ce be+ due to ! expansive action ?r\gh ea* ( ! t5 divisions1 :i* 0 omitt$ 9 ! above computation4 7#ia47 ,x is evid5t t ! expansive pr9ciple1 z "h expla9$1 involves ! condition ( a v>iation 9 ! int5sity ( ! mov+ p[]4 ,?us1 if ! /eam act ) a uni=m en]gy on ! pi/on s long z its supply f ! boil] cont9ues1 ! mom5t t supply is /opp$1 by clos+ ! /eam valve1 ! /eam conta9$ 9 ! cyl9d] w fill a gradually increas+ volume by ! motion ( ! pi/on1 & !re=e w act above ! pi/on ) a gradually decreas+ en]gy4 ,if ! resi/ance to ! mov+ p[] produc$ by ! load1 friction1 c4 be n subject to a v>iation correspond+ precisely to su* v>iation 9 ! mov+ p[]1 !n ! consequ5ce mu/ be t ! motion imp>t$ to ! load w cease to be uni=m4 ,if ! en]gy ( ! mov+ p[] at any "p ( ! /roke be great] ?an ! resi/ance1 ! motion produc$ w be accel]at$2 if x be less1 ! motion w be ret>d$2 & if x be at "o "t great]1 & ano!r ,pg#afd "t less1 z w probably happ51 !n ! motion w be alt]nately accel]at$ & ret>d$4 ,?is v>iation 9 ! spe$ ( ! body mov$ w n1 h[ev]1 affect ! me*anical effect produc$ by ! p[]1 provid$ t ! mom5tum imp>t$ to ! mov+ mass be all[$ to exp5d itself at ! end ( ! /roke1 s t ! pi/on may be br\ght to re/ z ne>ly z possible by ! resi/ance ( ! load1 & n by any %ock on any fix$ po9ts 9 ! ma*9e4 ,?is is an object :i*1 consequ5tly1 %\ld be aim$ at ) a view to ! economy ( p[]1 indep5d5tly ( o!r consid]ations connect$ ) ! we> & te> ( ! ma*9]y4 ,s long z ! eng9e is only appli$ to ! op]ation ( pump+ wat]1 great regul>ity ( motion is n ess5tial1 &1 !re=e1 ! v>iation ( spe$ :i* appe>s to be an almo/ inevitable consequ5ce ( any ext5sive application ( ! expansive pr9ciple1 is ( little importance4 ,9 ! pat5t :i* ,watt took out = ! application ( ! expansive pr9ciple1 he specifi$ sev]al me?ods ( produc+ a uni=m effect ^u a uni=m resi/ance1 not)/&+ ! v>iation ( ! en]gy ( ! p[] :i* necess>ily att5d$ ! expansion ( ! /eam4 ,?is he propos$ to accompli% by v>i\s me*anical means1 "s ( :i* _h be5 previ\sly appli$ to ! equalisation ( a v>y+ p[]4 ,"o consi/$ 9 caus+ ! pi/on to act on a lev]1 :i* %\ld h an arm ( v>iable l5g?1 ! l5g? increas+ 9 ! same proportion z ! en]gy ( ! mov+ p[] dim9i%$4 ,?is 0 an exp$i5t :i* _h be5 already appli$ 9 me*anics = ! purpose ( equalis+ a v>y+ p[]4 ,a well-kn[n example ( x is pres5t$ 9 ! ma9-spr+ & fuzee ( a wat*4 ,accord+ z ! wat* goes d[n1 ! ma9-spr+ becomes relax$1 & its =ce is dim9i%$2 b1 at ! same "t1 ! *a9 by :i* x drives ! fuzee acts ^u a :eel or circle1 hav+ a diamet] increas$ 9 ! same proportion z ! en]gy ( ! spr+ is dim9i%$4 ,ano!r exp$i5t consi/$ 9 caus+ ! mov+ p[]1 :5 act+ ) greate/ en]gy1 to lift a weight :i* %\ld be all[$ to desc5d aga91 assi/+ ! pi/on :5 ! en]gy ( ! mov+ =ce 0 dim9i%$4 ,pg#afe ,ano!r me?od consi/$ 9 caus+ ! mov+ =ce1 :5 act+ ) greate/ en]gy1 to imp>t mom5tum to a mass ( in]t matt]1 :i* %\ld be made to re/ore ! same =ce :5 ! mov+ p[] 0 m enfeebl$4 ,we %all n m ?an allude "h to ^! contrivances propos$ by ,watt1 s9ce _! application has nev] be5 f\nd advantage\s 9 cases :]e ! expansive pr9ciple is us$4 7#ib47 ,! application ( ! expansive pr9ciple 9 ! eng9es con/ruct$ by ,b\lton & ,watt1 0 always v limit$1 by reason ( _! conf9+ !mselves to ! use ( /eam hav+ a pressure n mu* exce$+ t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,if ! pr9ciple ( expansion1 z above expla9$1 be att5tively consid]$1 x w be evid5t t ! ext5t ( its application w ma9ly dep5d on ! d5sity & pressure ( ! /eam admitt$ f ! boil]4 ,if ! d5sity & pressure be n consid]able :5 ! /eam is cut (f1 ! ext5t ( its subsequ5t expansion w be proportionally limit$4 ,x 0 9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 t ?is pr9ciple f :i* consid]able economy ( p[] has be5 d]iv$1 0 appli$ ) mu* less advantage by ,mr4 ,watt ?an x has s9ce be5 by o!rs1 :o h adopt$ ! use ( /eam ( mu* high] pressure4 ,9 ! eng9es ( ,b\lton & ,watt1 :]e ! expansive pr9ciple 0 appli$1 ! /eam 0 cut (f aft] ! pi/on _h p]=m$ f "o half to two ?irds ( ! /roke1 accord+ to ! circum/ances "u :i* ! eng9e 0 work$4 ,! decreas+ pressure produc$ by expansion 01 9 ?is case1 especially ) ! l>g] class ( eng9es1 little m ?an w\ld be necess>y to all[ ! mom5tum ( ! mass mov$ to sp5d itself1 be=e ! arrival ( ! pi/on at ! end ( ! /roke4 ,subsequ5tly1 h[ev]1 boil]s produc+ /eam ( mu* high] pressure 7 appli$1 & ! /eam 0 cut (f :5 ! pi/on _h p]=m$ a mu* small] "p ( ! :ole /roke4 ,! great !atre ( ^! exp]im5ts & improvem5ts has be5 ! m9+ di/ricts 9 ,cornwall1 :]e1 in/ead ( work+ ) /eam ( a pressure n mu* exce$+ t ( ! atmosph]e1 x has be5 f\nd advantage\s to use /eam ^: pressure is at lea/ f\r times z great z ,pg#aff t ( ! atmosph]e2 & in/ead ( limit+ its expansion to ! la/ half or f\r? ( ! /roke1 x is cut (f aft] ! pi/on has p]=m$ "o f\r? "p ( ! /roke or less1 all ! rema9d] ( ! /roke be+ accompli%$ by ! expansive p[] ( ! /eam1 & by mom5tum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,bridge ,,ov] ,,! ,,clyde ,,at ,,hamilton1 ,,design$ ,,by ,,watt4 ,pg#afg ,illu/ration3 ,,d\ble-,,act+ ,,eng9e1 ,,z9c ,,works1 ,,city ,,road1 ,,london4 ,,*ap4 ,,vii4 ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,/eam4 -- ,,common ,,/eam4 -- ,,sup]heat$ ,,/eam4 -- ,,law ,,( ,,dalton ,,& ,,gay ,,lussac4 -- ,,law ,,( ,,m>iotte4 -- ,,relation ,,betwe5 ,,temp]ature ,,& ,,pressure ,,( ,,common ,,/eam4 -- ,,effects ,,( ,,! ,,expansion ,,( ,,common ,,/eam4 -- ,,me*anical ,,effects ,,( ,,/eam4 -- ,,me?od ,,( ,,equalis+ ,,! ,,expansive ,,=ce4 -- ,,hornbl[]',s ,,eng9e4 -- ,,woolf',s ,,eng9e4 -- ,,watt',s ,,attempts ,,to ,,ext5d ,,! ,,/eam ,,eng9e ,,to ,,manufactures4 -- ,,pap9',s ,,project$ ,,applications ,,( ,,! ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 -- ,,sav]y',s ,,applications ,,( ,,! ,,eng9e ,,to ,,move ,,ma*9]y4 -- ,,jona?an ,,hull',s ,,application ,,to ,,wat] ,,:eels4 -- ,,/ew>t',s ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,eng9e ,,to ,,mill ,,"w4 -- ,,wa%bor\gh',s ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,fly ,,:eel ,,& ,,crank4 -- ,,watt',s ,,second ,,pat5t4 -- ,,d\ble-,,action ,,valves4 7#ic47 ,s9ce ! application ( ! expansive action ( /eam involves ! consid]ation ( its prop]ties :5 x ceases to be 9 contact ) ! wat] f :i* x 0 produc$1 & likewise ! v>iation ( its pressure 9 diff]5t /ates ( ,pg#afh d5sity & at diff]5t temp]atures1 x is necess>y "h to expla9 "s ( ! mo/ important ( ^! prop]ties ( vap\r4 ,/eam may exi/ 9 two /ates1 di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by ! foll[+ circum/ances3-- #a/4 ,x may be su* t ! ab/raction f x ( any portion ( heat1 h[ev] small1 w cause its p>tial cond5sation4 #b;d4 ,x may be su* z to admit ( ! ab/raction ( heat f x )\t und]go+ any o!r *ange ?an t :i* air w\ld und]go "u l circum/ances1 viz4 a dim9ution ( temp]ature & pressure4 7#id47 ,we %all call1 = di/9ction1 ! =m] ,common ,/eam1 & ! latt] ,sup]heat$ ,/eam4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,to expla9 ! circum/ances out ( :i* ^! prop]ties arise1 let ,b 7fig4 #bi47 be imag9$ to be a vessel fill$ ) wat]1 communicat+ by a pipe & /opcock ) ano!r vessel ,a1 :i* 9 ! comm5cem5t ( ! process may be conceiv$ to be fill$ ) air4 ,let ,d be a pipe & /opcock at ! top ( ?is vessel4 ,if ! vessel ,b be heat$1 & ! two cocks be op5$1 ! /eam proce$+ f ! wat] 9 ,b w bl[ ! air out ( ! vessel ,a ?r\gh ! op5 /opcock ,d1 9 ! same mann] z air is bl[n f a /eam eng9e4 ,:5 ! vessel ,a by ^! means has be5 fill$ ) pure /eam1 let bo? /opcocks be clos$4 ,if ! /eam 9 ,a1 "u ^! circum/ances1 h a pressure ( #ae lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 its temp]ature w be f\nd to be #bac4 ,n[1 if any heat be ab/ract$ f ?is /eam1 its temp]ature w fall1 & a portion ( x w be reconv]t$ into wat]4 ,aga91 suppose ! vessel ,a to be fill$ ) pure /eam :i* has be5 produc$ f ! heat$ wat] 9 ,b1 ! /opcock ,c be+ op54 ,let ! /opcock ,c be !n clos$1 & ! wat] 9 ,b be heat$ to a high] temp]ature1 ! temp]ature & pressure ( ! /eam 9 ,a be+ obs]v$4 ,if ! /opcock ,c be n[ op5$1 ! /eam 9 ,a w be imm$iately obs]v$ to rise to ! m elevat$ temp]ature :i* has be5 imp>t$ to ! wat] 9 ,b1 & at ! same "t x w acquire an increas$ pressure4 ,pg#afi ,! increase ( temp]ature :i* x has receiv$ w\ld ( itself produce an increas$ pressure2 b t ?is is n ! sole cause ( ! augm5t$ pressure 9 ! pres5t case might be prov$ by weigh+ ! vessel ,a4 ,x w\ld be f\nd to h increas$ weight1 :i* c\ld only arise f its hav+ receiv$ f ! wat] 9 ,b an additional quantity ( vap\r4 ,! increas$ pressure !re=e1 :i* ! /eam 9 ,a has acquir$1 is due conjo9tly to its increas$ d5sity & its increas$ temp]ature4 ,9 g5]al1 if ! wat] 9 ! vessel ,b be rais$ or l[]$ 9 temp]ature1 ! /eam 9 ! vessel ,a w rise & fall 9 temp]ature 9 a correspond+ mann]1 always hav+ ! same temp]ature z ! wat] 9 ,b4 ,if ! weight ( ! vessel ,a 7 obs]v$1 x w\ld be f\nd to increase ) e increase ( temp]ature1 & to dim9i% ) e dim9ution ( temp]ature1 prov+ t ! augm5t$ temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 ,b produces an augm5t$ d5sity ( ! /eam 9 ,a4 ,! same pressure w\ld be f\nd always to correspond to ! same temp]ature & d5sity1 s t if ! num]ical am\nt ( any "o ( ! ?ree quantities1 ! temp]ature1 ! pressure1 or ! d5sity1 7 kn[n1 ! o!r two mu/ necess>ily be det]m9$1 ! same temp]ature always correspond+ to ! same pressure1 & vice v]s4 ,& 9 l mann]1 /eam produc$ "u ^! circum/ances ( ! same d5sity _c h diff]5t pressures4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! /eam "h produc$ receives all ! heat :i* x possesses f ! wat] f :i* x is rais$4 ,n[ x is easily demon/rable1 t ?is is ! lea/ quantity ( heat :i* is compatible ) ! /eam ma9ta9+ ! vapor\s =m2 = if ! /opcock ,c be clos$ s z to sep>ate ! /eam 9 ,a f ! wat] 9 ,b1 & t any portion ( heat1 h[ev] small1 be !n ab/ract$ f ! /eam 9 ,a1 "s portion ( ! /eam w be reconv]t$ into wat]4 ,?is !n1 accord+ to ! def9ition already giv51 is ,common ,/eam4 7#ie47 ,let u n[ suppose t ! vessel ,a1 be+ 9 communication ) ! vessel ,b by ! op5 /opcock1 has be5 fill$ ) pure /eam ( any giv5 temp]ature4 ,! /eam :i* x ?us conta9s w be common /eam1 &1 z has be5 ,pg#agj %[n 7#id471 x _c lose any portion ( heat1 h[ev] small1 )\t be+ p>tially cond5s$2 b let ! /opcock ,c be clos$1 & let ! /eam 9 ,a be !n expos$ to any s\rce ( heat by :i* its temp]ature may be rais$ any requir$ numb] ( degrees4 ,f ! /eam ?us obta9$ heat may be ab/ract$ )\t produc+ any cond5sation2 & su* ab/raction ( heat may be cont9u$ )\t produc+ cond5sation1 until ! /eam is cool$ d[n to t temp]ature at :i* x 0 rais$ f ! wat] 9 ,b1 :5 ! /opcock ,c 0 op5$4 ,any fur!r r$uction ( temp]ature w\ld be att5d$ ) cond5sation4 ,if aft] increas+ ! temp]ature ( ! /eam 9 ,a1 ! /opcock ,c be+ %ut s z to r5d] x sup]heat$ /eam1 its pressure be obs]v$1 ! pressure w be f\nd to be increas$1 b n to t am\nt :i* x w\ld h be5 increas$ _h ! /eam 9 ,a be5 rais$ to ! same temp]ature by heat+ ! wat] 9 ,b to t temp]ature1 & keep+ ! /opcock op54 ,9 fact1 its pres5t augm5t$ pressure w be due only to its increas$ temp]ature1 s9ce its d5sity rema9s un*ang$4 ,b if 9 ^! circum/ances ! /opcock ,c be sudd5ly op5$1 ! pressure ( ! /eam 9 ,a w z sudd5ly rise to t pressure :i* 9 common /eam corresponds to its temp]ature2 & if ! vessel ,a 7 weigh$1 x w\ld be f\nd to h increas$ 9 weight1 prov+ t ! /eam conta9$ 9 x has receiv$ increas$ d5sity by an increas$ quantity ( vap\r proce$+ f ! wat] 9 ,a4 ,9 fact1 by op5+ ! /opcock ! /eam :i* 0 be=e sup]heat$ /eam1 has become common /eam4 ,x has ! greate/ d5sity :i* /eam ( t temp]ature c h2 & consequ5tly1 if any heat be ab/ract$ f x1 a p>tial cond5sation w ensue4 ,to r5d] ^! g5]al pr9ciples m intelligible1 let u suppose t ! wat] 9 ,b is rais$ to ! temp]ature ( #bac1 ! /opcock ,c be+ op52 ! vessel ,a w !n be fill$ ) /eam ( ! same temp]ature1 & hav+ a pressure ( #ae lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,?is w be common /eam4 ,if ! /opcock be n[ clos$1 & ! :ole app>atus be expos$ to ! temp]ature ( #bdc2 ! /eam 9 ,a w pres]ve ! same d5sity1 b its pressure w be ,pg#aga increas$ f #ae lbs4 to a little m ?an #af lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,let ! /opcock ,c be !n op5$ & :ile ! temp]ature ( ! /eam 9 ,a %all cont9ue to be #bdc1 ! pressure w sudd5ly rise f #af lbs4 to ab\t #bf lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,! weight ( ! /eam 9 ,a w be at ! same "t increas$ 9 ! same proportion ( #af to #bf z its pressure4 ,! /eam ?us produc$ 9 ,a w !n be common /eam1 & any ab/raction ( heat f x w\ld be att5d$ ) p>tial cond5sation4 7#if47 ,! law1 accord+ to :i* ! pressure ( ela/ic fluids 9 g5]al1 :e!r gases or vap\rs1 increases ) _! temp]ature1 0 simultane\sly discov]$ by ,dalton & ,gay ,lussac4 ,if ! pressure :i* ! gas or vap\r w\ld h at ! temp]ature ( melt+ ice1 7 express$ by #aj1jjj1 !n ! increase ( pressure :i* x w\ld receive = e degree ( temp]ature by :i* x w\ld be rais$1 its volume be+ suppos$ to be pres]v$1 w\ld be express$ by #bjh-a_/c4 ,?us1 if ! pressure ( gas1 or vap\r1 on a surface ( a c]ta9 magnitude at ! temp]ature ( #cb 7 #aj1jjj ounces1 !n ! same gas or vap\r w\ld acquire an additional pressure ( #bjh-a_/c ounces = e degree ( temp]ature :i* w\ld be imp>t$ to x above #cb4 ,?is law is common to all gases & vap\rs4 ,x may be object$ t wat] _c exi/ 9 ! /ate ( vap\r "u ! usual pressures at s l[ a temp]ature z melt+ ice4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n h9d] ! application ( ! above law1 = t law w equally hold good by comput+ ! pressure :i* ! vap\r w\ld h if x 7 a p]man5t gas1 & if x c\ld !re=e exi/ 9 ! ela/ic =m at t l[ temp]ature4 7#ig47 ,ano!r law1 common to all ela/ic fluids1 & ( equal importance ) ! =m]1 0 discov]$ by ,m>iotte4 ,by ?is law x appe>s t e gas or vap\r1 s long z its temp]ature is un*ang$1 w h a pressure directly proportional to its d5sity4 ,if !re=e1 :ile we compress /eam into half its volume1 we c\ld pres]ve its temp]ature unalt]$1 we %\ld increase its pressure 9 a two-fold proportion2 b if ! process ( compression %\ld cause its temp]ature to increase1 ,pg#agb !n its increase ( pressure w be great] ?an its increase ( d5sity1 s9ce x w be due conjo9tly to ! increase ( d5sity & to ! increase ( temp]ature4 ,9 ?is case ! increas$ pressure may be d$uc$ f ! comb9$ application ( ! two laws j expla9$2 t ( ,m>iotte w det]m9e t increase ( pressure :i* is due to ! increase ( d5sity1 & t ( ,dalton & ,gay ,lussac w det]m9e ! fur!r increase ( pressure :i* w be due to ! increase ( temp]ature4 ,! full inve/igation ( ^! effects1 & ! =mul express+ !m1 w be f\nd 9 ! ,app5dix to ?is volume4 7#ih47 ,! fix$ relations :i* exi/ betwe5 ! temp]atures ( common /eam & its pressure & d5sity1 h nev] be5 discov]$ f any g5]al physical pr9ciples4 ,! pressures & ! d5sities h[ev]1 :i* correspond to a great v>iety ( temp]atures ?r\gh\t ! !rmometric scale1 h be5 asc]ta9$ by ext5sive s]ies ( exp]im5ts in/itut$ by philosoph]s ( ?is & o!r c\ntries4 ,f a comp>ison ( ! temp]atures & pressures ?us f\nd by exp]im5t1 empirical =mul h be5 con/ruct$1 :i* exhibit1 ) an approximation suffici5tly close = practice1 ?is relation2 & ^! =mul may accord+ly be us$ = ! computation ( tables exhibit+ ! pressures1 temp]atures1 & d5sities ( common /eam2 & su* tables w h suffici5t num]ical accuracy = all practical purposes4 ,^! =mul1 & ! tables result+ f !m1 w be f\nd 9 ! ,app5dix to ?is volume4 7#ii47 ,x has be5 expla9$1 t to effect ! conv]sion ( wat] into /eam1 x is only necess>y to imp>t to x z mu* heat z1 add$ to ! temp]ature :i* x has1 w\ld1 if x cont9u$ 9 ! liquid =m1 raise x to ! temp]ature ( #abab4 ,?is condition is necess>y1 & suffici5t to effect ! transition ( wat] into vap\r4 ,if1 = example1 z mu* heat 7 imp>t$ to ! wat] evaporat$1 z w\ld ma9ta9 x 9 ! liquid /ate to #acjj1 !n ! /eam s produc$ w\ld be sup]heat$ /eam1 hav+ #hj ( heat m ?an is necess>y to ma9ta9 x 9 ! vapor\s =m4 ,f su* /eam1 !re=e1 #hj ( heat may be ab/ract$ )\t produc+ any cond5sation4 ,pg#agc 7#ajj47 ,common /eam be+ rais$ f wat] at any pressure & temp]ature1 & be+ aft]w>ds sep>at$ f ! wat]1 if ! same /eam be compress$ into a small volume1 or all[$ to exp& into a great] volume1 x w /ill ma9ta9 its quality ( common /eam1 & w h ! same pressure & temp]ature1 :atev] volume x may assume1 z x w\ld h if imm$iately rais$ f wat] at t pressure4 ,?us if /eam be rais$ f wat] "u a pressure ( #cj lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 &1 be+ sep>at$ f ! wat]1 be all[$ to dilate1 until its pressure is r$uc$ to #ae lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 its temp]ature w !n be r$uc$ to #bac1 :i* is t temp]ature :i* x w\ld h if imm$iately rais$ f wat] "u a pressure ( #ae lbs4 p] squ>e in*2 & if any heat be ab/ract$ f su* /eam1 :e!r "u its orig9al pressure1 or "u ! dim9i%$ pressure ( #ae lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 a cond5sation w be produc$1 ! am\nt ( :i* w be ! same1 if ! same quantity ( heat be ab/ract$ f ! /eam4 ,^! are consequ5ces :i* imm$iately fl[ f ! fact1 t ! sum ( ! lat5t & s5sible heats ( /eam is always ! same4#bj ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t suppos+ ! /eam us$ 9 an eng9e to receive no additional heat aft] x leaves ! boil]1 h[ev] x may be *ang$ 9 its d5sity by subsequ5t expansion1 x w /ill reta9 its "* ( common /eam1 & _c lose any portion ( heat1 h[ev] small1 )\t suff]+ p>tial cond5sation4 ,! me*anical =ce also ex]t$ by su* /eam1 aft] expansion1 mu/ be comput$ 9 ! same mann] z if x 7 rais$ imm$iately4 7#aja47 ,if ! law ( ,m>iotte 7 /rictly applicable to /eam1 its me*anical effect w\ld be ! same z has be5 already expla9$ 9 all /ates ( d5sity2 b s9ce its temp]ature w rise & fall z its d5sity is increas$ or dim9i%$1 a correspond+ *ange w be produc$ 9 its ,pg#agd me*anical efficacy4 ,x is !re=e necess>y 9 ! calculation ( ! me*anical effect ( /eam1 :e!r x be us$ at a uni=m pressure )\t ! pr9ciple ( expansion1 or ) ! application ( t pr9ciple to any giv5 ext5t1 to take into acc\nt ! comb9$ op]ation ( ! laws ( ,m>iotte & ,dalton4 ,=mul exhibit+ ! relation betwe5 ! temp]atures1 pressures1 volumes1 & d5sities ( /eam1 & ! me*anical effect produc$ by ! evaporation ( wat]1 :e!r act+ ) or )\t expansion1 toge!r ) ! tables necess>y = ! practical application ( ^!1 w be f\nd 9 ! ,app5dix4 7#ajb47 ,"o ( ! me?ods ( equalis+ ! v>y+ =ce ( exp&+ /eam1 w\ld be to "w x at ! same "t 9 two cyl9d]s connect$ ) ! same beam2 s t :ile its =ce 9 "o w\ld be augm5t$1 its =ce 9 ! o!r w\ld be dim9i%$1 ! comb9ation ( ! two produc+ a uni=m effect4 ,soon aft] ! expansive pr9ciple 0 promulg$ by ,mr4 ,watt1 ?is exp$i5t 0 accord+ly resort$ to by an eng9e] nam$ ,hornbl[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,9 ! ye> #agha1 ,hornbl[] conceiv$ ! notion ( work+ an eng9e ) two cyl9d]s ( diff]5t sizes1 by all[+ ! /eam to fl[ freely f ! boil] until x fills ! small] cyl9d]1 & !n p]mitt+ x to exp& into ! great] "o1 employ+ x ?us to press d[n two pi/ons 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,let ,c1 fig4 #cj41 be ! c5tre ( ! great work+-beam1 c>ry+ two ar* heads1 on :i* ! *a9s ( ! pi/on rods play4 ,! di/ances ( ^! ar* heads f ! c5tre ,c mu/ be 9 ! same proportion z ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d]s1 9 ord] t ! same play ( ! beam may correspond to ,pg#age ! plays ( bo? pi/ons4 ,let ,f be ! /eam-pipe f ! boil]1 & ,g a valve to admit ! /eam above ! less] pi/on4 ,h is a tube by :i* a communication may be op5$ by ! valve ,i1 betwe5 ! top & bottom ( ! less] cyl9d] ,b4 ,k is a tube communicat+ by ! valve ,l1 betwe5 ! bottom ( ! less] cyl9d] ,b & ! top ( ! great] cyl9d] ,a4 ,m is a tube communicat+1 by ! valve ,n1 betwe5 ! top & bottom ( ! great] cyl9d] ,a2 & ,p a tube lead+ to ! cond5s] by ! exhau/+ valve ,o4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ! op]ation1 suppose all ! valves op5$1 & /eam all[$ to fl[ ?r\gh ! eng9e until ! air be completely expell$1 & !n let all ! valves be clos$4 ,to />t ! eng9e1 let ! exhau/+ valve ,o & ! /eam valves ,g & ,l be op5$1 z 9 fig4 #cj4 ,! /eam w fl[ freely f ! boil]1 & press ^u ! less] pi/on1 & at ! same "t ! /eam bel[ ! great] pi/on w fl[ into ! cond5s]1 leav+ a vacuum 9 ! great] cyl9d]4 ,! valve ,l be+ op5$1 ! /eam :i* is "u ! pi/on 9 ! less] cyl9d] w fl[ ?r\gh ,k1 & press on ! great] pi/on1 :i*1 hav+ a vacuum b5ea? x1 w consequ5tly desc5d4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ! motion1 ! less] pi/on is z mu* resi/$ by ! /eam bel[ x1 z x is urg$ by ! /eam above x2 b aft] a "p ( ! desc5t has be5 effect$1 ! /eam bel[ ! pi/on1 9 ! less] cyl9d]1 pass+ into ! great]1 exp&s into an increas$ space1 & !re=e loses "p ( its ela/ic =ce4 ,! /eam above ! less] pi/on reta9+ its full =ce by hav+ a free communication ) ! boil] by ! valve ,g1 ! less] pi/on w be urg$ by a =ce equal to ! excess ( ! pressure ( ?is /eam above ! dim9i%$ pressure ( ! exp&$ /eam bel[ x4 ,z ! pi/ons desc5d1 ! /eam :i* is betwe5 !m is cont9ually increas+ 9 its bulk1 & !re=e decreas+ 9 its pressure1 f :5ce x foll[s1 t ! =ce :i* resi/s ! less] pi/on is cont9ually decreas+1 :ile t :i* presses x d[n rema9s ! same1 & !re=e ! effective =ce :i* impels x mu/ be cont9ually increas+4 ,pg#agf ,on ! o!r h&1 ! =ce :i* urges ! great] pi/on is cont9ually decreas+1 s9ce !re is a vacuum bel[ x1 & ! /eam :i* presses x is cont9ually exp&+ into an increas$ bulk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,impell$ 9 ?is way1 let u suppose ! pi/ons to h arriv$ at ! bottoms ( ! cyl9d]s1 & let ! valves ,g1 ,l1 & ,o1 be clos$1 & ! valves ,i & ,n op5$4 ,no /eam is all[$ to fl[ f ! boil]1 ,g be+ clos$1 nor any all[$ to pass into ! cond5s]1 s9ce ,o is clos$1 & all communication betwe5 ! cyl9d]s is /opp$ by clos+ ,l4 ,by op5+ ! valve ,i1 a free communication is made betwe5 ! top & bottom ( ! less] pi/on ?r\gh ! tube ,h1 s t ! /eam :i* presses above ! less] pi/on w ex]t ! same pressure bel[ x1 & ! pi/on is 9 a /ate ( indiff]5ce4 ,9 ! same mann] ! valve ,n be+ op51 a free communication is made betwe5 ! top & bottom ( ! great] pi/on1 & ! /eam circulates above & bel[ ! pi/on1 & leaves x free to rise4 ,a c\nt]poise atta*$ to ! pump-rods1 9 ?is case1 draws up ! pi/on1 z 9 ,watt's s+le eng9e2 & :5 !y arrive at ! top1 ! valves ,i & ,n are clos$1 & ,g1 ,l1 & ,o1 op5$1 & ! next desc5t ( ! pi/ons is produc$ 9 ! mann] already describ$1 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,! valves are work$ by ! eng9e itself1 by means simil> to "s ( ^? already describ$4 ,by computation1 we f9d ! p[] ( ?is eng9e to be ne>ly ! same z a simil> eng9e on ,watt's expansive pr9ciple4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 appe>1 t any adequate advantage 0 ga9$ by ?is modification ( ! pr9ciple1 s9ce no eng9es ( ?is con/ruction are n[ made4 7#ajc47 ,! use ( two cyl9d]s 0 reviv$ by ,ar?ur ,woolf 9 #ahjd1 :o1 9 ?is & ! succe$+ ye>1 obta9$ pat5ts = ! application ( /eam rais$ "u a high pressure to d\ble-cyl9d] eng9es4 ,! specification ( 8 pat5t /ates1 t he has prov$ by exp]im5t t /eam rais$ ,pg#agg "u a safety-valve load$ ) any giv5 numb] ( p\nds ^u ! squ>e in* w1 if all[$ to exp& into z _m times its bulk z !re are p\nds ( pressure on ! squ>e in*1 h a pressure equal to t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?us1 if ! safety-valve be load$ ) f\r p\nds on ! squ>e in*1 ! /eam1 aft] exp&+ into f\r times its bulk1 w h ! atmosph]ic pressure2 if x be load$ ) #e1 #f1 or #aj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*1 x w h ! atmosph]ic pressure :5 x has exp&$ into #e1 #f1 or #aj times its bulk1 & s on4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 und]/ood 9 ?is case1 t ! vessel into :i* x 0 all[$ to exp& %\ld h ! same temp]ature z ! /eam be=e x exp&s4 ,x is v unacc\ntable h[ a p]son ( ,mr4 ,woolf's exp]i5ce 9 ! practical application ( /eam c\ld be l$ into errors s gross z ^? involv$ 9 ! av]m5ts ( ?is pat5t2 & x is /ill m unacc\ntable h[ ! exp]im5ts c\ld h be5 conduct$ :i* l$ him to conclusions n only incompatible ) all ! e/abli%$ prop]ties ( ela/ic fluids1 b ev5 involv+ 9 !mselves palpable contradiction & absurdity4 ,if x 7 admitt$ t e additional p\nd avoirdupois :i* %\ld be plac$ ^u ! safety-valve w\ld enable /eam1 by its expansion into a proportionally enl>g$ space1 to atta9 a pressure equal to ! atmosph]e1 ! obvi\s consequ5ce w\ld be1 t a physical relation w\ld subsi/ betwe5 ! atmosph]ic pressure & ! p\nd avoirdupois6 ,x is wond]ful t x did n occur to ,mr4 ,woolf1 t1 grant+ 8 pr9ciple to be true at any giv5 place1 x w\ld necess>ily be false at ano!r place1 :]e ! b>omet] w\ld /& at a diff]5t height6 ,?us1 if ! pr9ciple 7 true at ! foot ( a m\nta91 x w\ld be false at ! top ( x2 & if x 7 true 9 fair wea!r1 x w\ld be false 9 f\l wea!r1 s9ce ^! circum/ances w\ld be att5d$ by a *ange 9 ! atmosph]ic pressure1 )\t mak+ any *ange 9 ! p\nd avoirdupois4#ba ,pg#agh 7#ajd47 ,= sev]al ye>s aft] ! ext5sion ( ,watt's fir/ pat5t _h be5 obta9$ f p>liam5t1 he 0 altoge!r engross$ by ! lab\r ( br++ to p]fection ! application ( ! /eam-eng9e to ! dra9age ( m9es1 & 9 surm\nt+ ! num]\s difficulties :i* pres5t$ !mselves to its g5]al adoption1 ev5 aft] its manifold advantages 7 e/abli%$ & admitt$4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ^! ob/acles _h be5 ov]come1 & ! works = ! manufacture ( eng9es = pump+ wat]1 at ,soho1 _h be5 organis$ & br\ght into active op]ation1 he 0 reliev$ f ! pressure ( ^! anxieties1 & 0 enabl$ to turn 8 att5tion to ! f> m ext5sive & important uses ( :i* he _h long be5 impress$ ) ! conviction t ! eng9e 0 capable4 ,8 sagaci\s m9d enabl$ him to p]ceive t ! ma*9e he _h creat$ 0 an infant =ce1 :i* by ! fo/]+ influ5ce ( 8 own g5ius w\ld "o day ext5d its va/ p[] ov] ! arts & manufactures1 ! comm]ce & ! civilisation ( ! _w4 ,fill$ ) su* aspirations1 he address$ 8 att5tion ab\t ! ye> #aggi1 to ! adaptation ( ! /eam-eng9e to move ma*9]y1 & !reby to sup]s$e animal p[]1 & ! natural ag5ts1 w9d & wat]4 ,! idea t /eam 0 capable ( be+ appli$ ext5sively z a prime mov]1 _h prevail$ f a v e>ly p]iod2 & n[ t we h se5 its p[]s s ext5sively br\ght to be>1 x w n be un9t]e/+ to rev]t to ! fa9t traces by :i* its ag5cy 0 sket*$ 9 ! crude speculations ( ! e>ly me*anical inv5tors4 7#aje47 ,pap91 to :om ! cr$it ( discov]+ ! me?od ( produc+ a vacuum by ! cond5sation ( /eam is due1 0 ! e>lie/ & mo/ rem>kable ( ^? projectors4 ,) v limit$ p[]s ( practical application1 he 01 nev]!less1 peculi>ly happy 9 8 me*anical conceptions2 & _h 8 exp]i5ce & opportunities be5 proportionate to ! cle>sight$ "* ( 8 m9d1 he w\ld d\btless h anticipat$ "s ( ! mo/ memorable ( 8 successors 9 ! progressive improvem5t ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,9 8 "w already cit$1 aft] describ+ 8 me?od ( imp>t+ an alt]nate motion to a pi/on by ! atmosph]ic ,pg#agi pressure act+ aga9/ a vacuum produc$ by ! cond5sation ( /eam1 he /at$ t 8 inv5tion1 besides be+ applicable to pump+ wat]1 c\ld be available = r[+ vessels aga9/ w9d & tide1 :i* he propos$ to accompli% 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,paddle-:eels1 su* z h s9ce be5 br\ght into g5]al use1 7 to be plac$ at ! sides1 & atta*$ to a %aft ext5d+ across ! vessel4 ,)9 ! vessel1 & "u ?is %aft1 he propos$ to place sev]al cyl9d]s suppli$ ) pi/ons1 to be work$ by ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,on ! pi/on-rods 7 to be con/ruct$ racks furni%$ ) tee?3 ^! tee? 7 to "w 9 ! tee? ( :eels or p9ions1 plac$ on ! %aft ( ! paddle-:eels4 ,^! p9ions 7 n to be fix$ on ! %aft1 b to be connect$ ) x by a rat*et2 s t :5 !y turn$ 9 "o direction1 !y w\ld revolve )\t caus+ ! %aft to revolve2 b :5 driv5 9 ! o!r direction1 ! cat* ( ! rat*et-:eel w\ld act ^u ! %aft s z to compel ! %aft & paddle-:eels to revolve ) ! motion ( ! p9ion or :eel ^u x4 ,by ?is arrangem5t1 :5ev] ! pi/on ( any cyl9d] 0 =c$ d[n by ! atmosph]ic pressure1 ! rack desc5d+ w\ld cause ! correspond+ p9ion ( ! paddle-%aft to revolve2 & ! cat* ( ! rat*et :eel1 be+ ?us 9 op]ation1 w\ld cause ! paddle-%aft & paddle-:eels also to revolve2 b :5ev] ! pi/on w\ld rise1 ! rack driv+ ! p9ion 9 ! opposite direction1 ! cat* ( ! rat*et :eel w\ld m]ely fall f too? to too?1 )\t driv+ ! paddle-%aft4 ,x is evid5t t by su* an arrangem5t a s+le cyl9d] & pi/on w\ld give an int]mitt+ motion to ! paddle-%aft1 ! motion ( ! :eel be+ cont9u$ only dur+ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on2 b if sev]al cyl9d]s 7 provid$1 !n _! motion might be s manag$1 t :5 "o w\ld be p]=m+ its asc5d+ /roke1 & !re=e giv+ no motion to ! paddle-%aft1 ano!r %\ld be p]=m+ its desc5d+ /roke1 & !re=e driv+ ! paddle-%aft4 ,z ! int]val betwe5 ! arrival ( ! pi/on at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] & ! comm5cem5t ,pg#ahj ( its next desc5t w\ld h be51 9 ! imp]fect ma*9e conceiv$ by ,pap91 mu* long] ?an ! "t ( ! desc5t1 x 0 evid5t t m ?an two cyl9d]s w\ld be necess>y to insure a con/antly act+ =ce on ! paddle-%aft1 &1 accord+ly1 ,pap9 propos$ to use sev]al cyl9d]s4 ,9 addition to ?is1 ,pap9 propos$ to con/ruct a boil] hav+ a fireplace surr\nd$ on e side by wat]1 s t ! heat might be imp>t$ to ! wat] ) su* increas$ rapidity z to enable ! pi/on to make f\r /rokes p] m9ute4 ,^! projects 7 promulg$ 9 #afij1 b x does n appe> t !y 7 ev] r$uc$ to exp]im5t4 7#ajf47 ,sav]y propos$1 9 8 orig9al pat5t1 9 #afih1 to apply 8 /eam eng9e z a g5]al prime mov] = all sorts ( ma*9]y1 by caus+ x to raise wat] to make an artificial fall1 by :i* ov]%ot wat]-:eels might be driv54 ,?is proposal 0 n act$ on dur+ ! lifetime ( ,sav]y1 b x 0 at a subsequ5t p]iod p>tially c>ri$ into effect4 ,mr4 ,jo%ua ,rigley erect$ sev]al /eam eng9es on ?is pr9ciple at ,man*e/]1 & o!r p>ts ( ,lanca%ire1 to impel ! ma*9]y ( "s ( ! e>lie/ manufactories & cotton mills 9 t di/rict4 ,! eng9es usually rais$ ! wat] f sixte5 to tw5ty feet high1 f :5ce x 0 convey$ to an ov]%ot :eel1 to :i* x gave motion4 ,! same wat] 0 repeat$ly elevat$ by ! eng9e1 s t no o!r supply 0 necess>y1 save :at 0 suffici5t to make good ! wa/e4 ,^! eng9es cont9u$ 9 use = "s ye>s1 until sup]s$$ by improv$ ma*9es4#bb 7#ajg47 ,9 #agcf1 ,jona?an ,hulls obta9$ a pat5t = a me?od ( t[+ %ips into or out ( h>b\r aga9/ w9d & tide4 ,?is me?od 0 little m ?an a revival ( t propos$ by ,pap9 9 #afij4 ,! motion1 h[ev]1 0 to be communicat$ to ! paddle-%aft by a rope pass+ ov] a pulley fix$ on an axis1 & 0 to be ma9ta9$ dur+ ! return+ /roke ( ! pi/on by ! desc5t ( a weight :i* 0 elevat$ dur+ ! desc5d+ /roke4 ,!re is no record1 h[ev]1 ( ?is plan1 any m ?an t ( ,pap91 ev] hav+ be5 r$uc$ to exp]im5t4 7#ajh47 ,dur+ ! e>ly "p ( ! la/ c5tury ! ,pg#aha manufactures ( ?is c\ntry _h n atta9$ to su* an ext5t z to r5d] ! mov+ p[] suppli$ by wat] insuffici5t or unc]ta9 to any inconv5i5t degree2 & accord+ly mills1 & o!r works 9 :i* ma*9]y requir$ to be driv5 by a mov+ p[]1 7 usually built along ! /reams ( riv]s4 ,ab\t ! ye> #agej ! g5]al ext5sion ( manufactures1 & _! e/abli%m5t 9 localities :]e wat] p[] 0 n accessible1 call$ ! /eam eng9e into m ext5sive op]ation4 ,9 ! ye> #ageb1 ,mr4 ,*ampion1 ( ,bri/ol1 appli$ ! atmosph]ic eng9e to raise wat]1 by :i* a numb] ( ov]%ot :eels 7 driv54 ,^! 7 appli$ to move ext5sive brass-works 9 t neighb\rhood1 & ?is application 0 cont9u$ = ab\t tw5ty ye>s1 b ultimately giv5 up on acc\nt ( ! exp5se ( fuel & ! improv$ applications ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,ab\t ?is "t ,smeaton appli$ himself ) great activity & success to ! improvem5t ( w9d & wat] mills1 & succe$$ 9 augm5t+ _! useful effect 9 a tw(old proportion ) ! same supply ( wat]4 ,f ! ye> #agej until ! ye> #aghj he 0 engag$ 9 ! con/ruction ( 8 improv$ wat] mills1 :i* he erect$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 & :i* 7 imitat$ s ext5sively t ! improvem5t ( su* mills became g5]al4 ,9 cases :]e a summ] dr\ght susp5d$ ! supply ( wat]1 horse ma*9]y 0 provid$1 ei!r to "w ! mill or to ?r[ back ! wat]4 ,^! improvem5ts necess>ily ob/ruct$ = a "t ! ext5sion ( /eam p[] to mill "w2 b ! increase ( manufactures soon creat$ a dem& = p[] greatly exce$+ :at c\ld be suppli$ by su* limit$ means4 ,9 ! manufacture ( iron1 x is ( great importance to keep ! furnaces cont9ually bl[n1 s t ! heat may nev] be abat$ by day or night4 ,9 ! ext5sive ironworks at ,colebrook ,dale1 sev]al wat]-:eels 7 us$ 9 ! diff]5t op]ations ( ! manufacture ( iron1 especially 9 driv+ ! bl[]s ( ! iron furnaces4 ,^! :eels 7 usually driv5 by ! wat] ( a riv]1 b 9 ! summ] mon?s ! supply became s %ort t x 0 insuffici5t to "w !m all4 ,/eam eng9es 7 accord+ly erect$ to ,pg#ahb return ! wat] = driv+ ^! :eels4 ,?is application ( ! eng9e z an occasional p[] = ! supply ( wat]-:eels hav+ be5 f\nd s effectual1 return+ eng9es 7 soon adopt$ z ! p]man5t & regul> means ( supply+ wat]-:eels4 ,! fir/ attempt ( ?is k9d is record$ to h be5 made by ,mr4 ,oxley1 9 #agfb1 :o con/ruct$ a ma*9e to draw coals out ( a pit at ,h>tley colli]y1 9 ,nor?umb]l&4 ,x 0 orig9ally int5d$ to turn ! ma*9e by a cont9u\s circul> motion receiv$ f ! beam ( ! eng9e2 b t me?od n be+ successful1 ! eng9e 0 appli$ to raise wat] = a :eel by :i* ! ma*9e 0 work$4 ,?is eng9e 0 cont9u$ 9 use = sev]al ye>s1 & ?\gh x 0 at l5g? ab&on$1 on acc\nt ( its defective con/ruction1 x nev]!less e/abli%$ ! practicability ( us+ /eam p[] z a means ( driv+ wat] :eels4#bc 7#aji47 ,9 ! ye> #aggg1 ,mr4 ,john ,/ew>t read a pap] be=e ! ,royal ,society1 describ+ a me?od = obta9+ a cont9u$ circul> motion = turn+ all k9ds ( mills f ! reciprocat+ motion ( a /eam eng9e4 ,he propos$ to accompli% ?is by means ( two endless *a9s pass+ ov] pulleys1 :i* %\ld be mov$ upw>ds & d[nw>ds by ! motion ( ! eng9e1 9 ! mann] ( a w9d[ sa%4 ,! jo9t p9s ( ! l9ks ( ! two *a9s work$ 9 tee? at ! opposite sides ( a cog :eel1 to :i* !y imp>t$ a circul> motion1 fir/ by "o *a91 & !n by ! o!r1 act+ alt]nately on opposite sides ( ! :eel4 ,"o *a9 impell$ x dur+ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on1 & ! o!r dur+ ! asc5t2 b "o ( ^! *a9s always pass$ ov] its pulleys s z to produce no effect on "o side ( ! cog :eel1 :il/ ! o!r *a9 work$ on ! opposite side to turn x r\nd4 ,= ?is purpose ea* *a9 0 provid$ ) a cat*1 to prev5t its circulat+ ov] its pulleys 9 "o direction1 b to all[ x free motion 9 ! o!r4 ,! cog :eel ?us kept 9 revolution might be appli$ to ! axis ( any mill :i* ! eng9e 0 requir$ to "w4 ,?us1 if x 7 appli$ to a fl\r-mill1 ! mill/one itself w\ld p]=m ! (fice ( a fly-:eel to regulate ! int]mission ( ,pg#ahc ! p[]1 & 9 o!r mills a fly-:eel might be add$ = ?is purpose4 ,! h9ts obta9$ by ,mr4 ,/ew>t f ,pap9's contrivance1 be=e m5tion$1 w n fail to be p]ceiv$4 ,9 ,mr4 ,/ew>t's pap] he notices indirectly ! me?od ( obta9+ a cont9u$ circul> motion f a reciprocat+ motion by means ( a crank or w9*1 :i*1 he says1 occurs naturally 9 !ory1 b 9 practice w\ld be impossible1 f ! nature ( ! motion ( ! eng9e1 :i* dep5ds on ! =ce ( ! /eam1 & _c be asc]ta9$ 9 its l5g?4 ,!re=e1 on ! fir/ v>iation1 ! ma*9e w\ld be ei!r brok5 9 pieces or turn$ back4 ,su* an op9ion1 pron\nc$ by a man ( consid]able me*anical k & +5uity1 aga9/ a contrivance :i*1 z w pres5tly appe>1 prov$ 9 practice1 n less ?an 9 !ory1 to be ! mo/ effectual means ( accompli%+ ! end "h pron\nc$ to be impossible1 is suffici5tly rem>kable4 ,x might ca/ "s d\bt on ! ext5t ( ,mr4 ,/ew>t's practical k1 if x did n happ5 to be 9 accordance ) a judgm5t s g5]ally unimpea*able z t ( ,mr4 ,smeaton4 ,?is pap] ( ,mr4 ,/ew>t's 0 ref]r$ by ! c\ncil ( ! ,royal ,society to ,mr4 ,smeaton1 :o rem>k$ ^u ! difficulty aris+ f ! absolute /opp+ ( ! :ole mass ( mov+ p[]1 :5ev] ! direction ( ! motion is *ang$2 & obs]v$1 t al?\gh a fly-:eel might be appli$ to regulate ! motion1 x mu/ be su* a l>ge "o z w\ld n be readily controll$ by ! eng9e itself2 & he consid]$ t ! use ( su* a fly-:eel w\ld be a great] incumbrance to a mill ?an a wat]-:eel to be suppli$ by wat] pump$ up by ! eng9e4 ,?is eng9e]1 illu/ri\s z he 01 n only fell into ! error ( ,mr4 ,/ew>t 9 respect ( ! crank1 b committ$ ! fur!r blund] ( condemn+ ! v exp$i5t :i* has s9ce r5d]$ ! crank effectual4 ,x w pres5tly appe> t ! comb9ation ( ! crank & fly-:eel h be5 ! *ief means ( e/abli%+ ! dom9ion ( ! /eam eng9e ov] manufactures4 7#aaj47 ,9 #aggi1 ,mr4 ,mat!w ,wasbr\gh1 an eng9e] at ,bri/ol1 took out a pat5t = ! application ( a /eam eng9e ,pg#ahd to produce a cont9u\s circul> motion by means ( rat*et :eels1 simil> to ^? previ\sly us$ by ,mr4 ,oxley1 at ,h>tley colli]y2 to :i*1 h[ev]1 ,mr4 ,wasbr\gh add$ a fly-:eel to ma9ta9 & regulate ! motion4 ,sev]al ma*9es 7 con/ruct$ "u ?is pat5t2 & among o!rs1 "o 0 erect$ at ,mr4 ,taylor's saw-mills & block manufactory at ,s\?ampton4 ,9 #aghj1 "o 0 erect$ at ,birm+ham1 :]e ! rat*et "w 0 f\nd to be subject to su* objections1 t "o ( ! p]sons ab\t ! works sub/itut$ = x ! simple crank1 :i* has s9ce be5 inv>iably us$4 ,a pat5t 0 tak5 out = ?is application ( ! crank 9 ! same ye>1 by ,mr4 ,james ,pick>d1 ( ,birm+ham4 ,x w pres5tly appe>1 h[ev]1 t ! sugge/ion ( ?is application ( ! crank 0 d]iv$ f ! proce$+s ( ,watt1 :o 0 at ! same "t engag$ 9 simil> exp]im5ts4 7#aaa47 ,! s+le-act+ /eam eng9e1 z con/ruct$ by ,watt1 0 n adapt$ to produce cont9u\s uni=m motion ( rotation1 = ! foll[+ reasons3-- ,fir/4 ,! effect requir$ 0 t ( an uni=mly act+ =ce4 ,! /eam eng9e1 on ! o!r h&1 suppli$ an int]mitt+ =ce4 ,its op]ation 0 cont9u$ dur+ ! desc5d+ motion ( ! pi/on1 b x 0 susp5d$ dur+ ! asc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,to produce ! cont9u$ effect n[ requir$1 ei!r its pr9ciple ( op]ation %\ld be alt]$1 or "s exp$i5t %\ld be devis$ = ma9ta9+ ! motion ( ! revolv+ %aft dur+ ! asc5t ( ! pi/on1 & ! consequ5t susp5sion ( ! mov+ p[]4 ,secondly4 ,! action ( ! /eam eng9e 0 rectil9e>4 ,x 0 a p[] :i* act$ 9 a /raight l9e1 viz41 9 ! direction ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! motion1 h[ev]1 requir$ to be produc$1 0 a circul> motion--a motion ( rotation ar\nd ! axis or %aft ( ! mill4 ,! /eps by :i* ,watt proce$$ to accompli% ^! objects h be5 record$ by himself z foll[s1 9 8 notes ^u ,dr4 ,robison's article on ! /eam eng9e3-- ,i _h v e>ly turn$ my m9d to ! produc+ ( cont9u$ motion r\nd an axis2 & x w be se51 by ref]5ce to my fir/ specification 9 #agfi1 t ,i !re describ$ ,pg#ahe a /eam :eel1 mov$ by ! =ce ( /eam1 act+ 9 a circul> *annel aga9/ a valve on "o side1 & aga9/ a column ( m]cury1 or "s o!r fluid metal1 on ! o!r side4 ,?is 0 execut$ ^u a scale ( ab\t six feet diamet] at ,soho1 & work$ repeat$ly1 b 0 giv5 up1 z sev]al practical objections 7 f\nd to op]ate aga9/ x2 simil> objections lay aga9/ o!r rotative eng9es1 :i* _h be5 contriv$ by myself & o!rs1 z well z to ! eng9es produc+ rotatory motions by means ( rat*et :eels4 ,hav+ made my s+le reciprocat+ eng9es v regul> 9 _! movem5ts1 ,i consid]$ h[ to produce rotative motions f !m 9 ! be/ mann]2 & among/ v>i\s s*emes :i* 7 subject$ to trial1 or :i* pass$ ?r\gh my m9d1 none appe>$ s likely to answ] ! purpose z ! application ( ! crank1 9 ! mann] ( ! common turn+ la!2 b z ! rotative motion is produc$ 9 t ma*9e by impulse giv5 to ! crank 9 ! desc5t ( ! foot only1 x requires to be cont9u$ 9 its asc5t by ! en]gy ( ! :eel1 :i* acts z a fly2 be+ unwill+ to load my eng9e ) a fly-:eel heavy en\gh to cont9ue ! motion dur+ ! asc5t ( ! pi/on 7or ) a fly-:eel heavy en\gh to equalise ! motion1 ev5 if a c\nt]weight 7 employ$ to act dur+ t asc5t71 ,i propos$ to employ two eng9es1 act+ ^u two cranks fix$ on ! same axis1 at an angle ( #abj to "o ano!r1 & a weight plac$ ^u ! circumf]5ce ( ! fly-:eel at ! same angle to ea* ( ! cranks1 by :i* means ! motion might be r5d]$ ne>ly equal1 & only a v light fly-:eel w\ld be requisite4 ,?is _h occurr$ to me v e>ly2 b my att5tion be+ fully employ$ 9 mak+ & erect+ eng9es = rais+ wat]1 x rema9$ 9 petto until ab\t ! ye> #aggh or #aghi1 :5 ,mr4 ,wasbr\gh erect$ "o ( 8 rat*et-:eel eng9es at ,birm+ham1 ! frequ5t breakages & irregul>ities ( :i* recall$ ! subject to my m9d1 & ,i proce$$ to make a model ( my me?od1 :i* answ]$ my expectations2 b hav+ neglect$ to take out a pat5t1 ! inv5tion 0 communicat$ by a workman employ$ to ,pg#ahf make ! model1 to "s ( ! p ab\t ,mr4 ,wasbr\gh's eng9e1 & a pat5t 0 tak5 out by !m = ! application ( ! crank to /eam eng9es4 ,?is fact ! said workman confess$1 & ! eng9e] :o direct$ ! works ackn[l$g$ x2 b said1 nev]!less1 t ! same idea _h occurr$ to him prior to 8 he>+ ( m9e1 & t he _h ev5 made a model ( x be=e t "t2 :i* might be a fact1 z ! application to a s+le crank 0 suffici5tly obvi\s4 ,9 ^! circum/ances1 ,i ?\ght x bett] to endeav\r to accompli% ! same end by o!r means1 ?an to ent] into litigation2 & if successful1 by demoli%+ ! pat5t1 to lay ! matt] op5 to e body4 ,accord+ly1 9 #agha1 ,i inv5t$ & took out a pat5t = sev]al me?ods ( produc+ rotative motions f reciprocat+ ones2 among/ :i* 0 ! me?od ( ! sun-&-planet :eels4 ,?is contrivance 0 appli$ to _m eng9es1 & possesses ! great advantage ( giv+ a d\ble velocity to ! fly-:eel2 b is p]haps m subject to we>1 & to be brok5 "u great /ra9s1 ?an a simple crank1 :i* is n[ m commonly us$1 al?\gh x requires a fly-:eel ( f\r times ! weight1 if fix$ ^u ! fir/ axis2 my application ( ! d\ble eng9e to ^! rotative ma*9es r5d]$ ! c\nt]weight unnecess>y1 & produc$ a m regul> motion4 7#aab47 ,watt's second pat5t "h ref]r$ to1 0 dat$ #be? ,octob]1 #agha1 & 0 entitl$ ,a pat5t = c]ta9 new me?ods ( apply+ ! vibrat+ or reciprocat+ motions ( /eam or fire eng9es to produce a cont9u$ rotative or circul> motion r\nd an axis or c5tre1 & !reby to give motion to ! :eels ( mills & o!r ma*9es4 ,all ! me?ods specifi$ 9 ?is pat5t 7 int5d$ to be work$ by ! s+le-act+ eng9e1 already describ$1 a c\nt]weight be+ appli$ to impel ! ma*9]y dur+ ! return+ /roke ( ! eng9e1 :i* weight w\ld be elevat$ dur+ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,!re 7 five diff]5t exp$i5ts propos$ 9 ! specification = produc+ a rotatory motion2 b1 ( ^! five1 two only 7 ev] appli$ 9 practice4 ,pg#ahg 7#aac47 ,suppose a rod or b> atta*$ by a p9 or jo9t at ! upp] extremity to ! work+ end ( ! beam ( ! eng9e1 & by a simil> p9 or jo9t at ! l[] extremity to an iron :eel fix$ on ! extremity ( ! axis ( ! fly-:eel4 ,"o half ( ?is :eel is =m$ ( a solid semicircle ( ca/ iron1 :ile ! o!r half is con/ruct$ ( op5 spokes1 s z to be z light z is consi/5t ) /r5g?4 ,! position ( ! :eel on ! axis is su* t dur+ ! return+ /roke ( ! pi/on1 :5 ! op]ation ( ! /eam is susp5d$1 ! heavy semicircle ( ! :eel w be desc5d+1 & by its weight w draw d[n ! connect+ b>1 & !reby draw d[n ! work+ end ( ! beam1 & draw up ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! pi/on desc5ds & is driv5 by ! p[] ( ! /eam1 ! heavy semicircle ( ! above-m5tion$ :eel w be drawn upw>ds1 & 9 ! same way ! motion w be cont9u$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 7#aad47 ,! second me?od ( produc+ a rotatory motion1 :i* 0 subsequ5tly cont9u$ = _m ye>s 9 practical op]ation1 0 t :i* 0 call$ ! ,sun-&-planet ,:eels4 ,a too!d :eel ,a 7fig4 #cb471 call$ ! sun :eel1 0 fix$ on ! axle ( ! fly-:eel1 to :i* rotation 0 to be imp>t$4 ,! :eel ,b1 call$ ! planet :eel1 hav+ an equal diamet]1 0 fa/5$ on ! end ,i ( ! connect+ rod ,h ,i1 s z to be incapable ( revolv+4 ,dur+ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on1 ! work+ end ( ! beam 0 drawn upw>ds1 & ! end ,i ( ! connect+ rod travell$ f ,c to ,d1 ?r\gh ! dott$ semicircle ,c ,i ,d4 ,! :eel ,b n be+ capable ( revolv+ on ! c5tre ,i1 w\ld1 dur+ ?is motion1 drive ! sun :eel ,a4 ,dur+ ! asc5t ( ! /eam pi/on1 ! work+ end ( ! beam w\ld desc5d1 & ! c5tre ,i ( ,pg#ahh ! planet :eel ,b w\ld be driv5 d[nw>ds f ,d to ,c1 ?r\gh ! o!r dott$ semicircle1 & w\ld consequ5tly cont9ue to drive ! sun :eel r\nd 9 ! same direction4 ,?is contrivance1 al?\gh 9 ! ma9 inf]ior to ! m simple "o ( ! crank1 is n )\t "s advantages2 among o!rs1 x gives to ! sun :eel d\ble ! velocity :i* w\ld be communicat$ by ! crank2 = 9 ! crank "o revolution only on ! axle is produc$ by "o revolution ( ! crank1 b 9 ! sun-&-planet :eel1 two revolutions ( ! sun :eel are produc$ by "o ( ! planet :eel2 ?us a d\ble velocity is obta9$ f ! same motion ( ! beam4 ,?is w be evid5t f consid]+ t :5 ! planet :eel is 9 its highe/ position1 its l[e/ too? is engag$ ) ! highe/ too? ( ! sun :eel2 z ! planet :eel passes f ! highe/ position1 its tee? drive ^? ( ! sun :eel be=e !m1 & :5 x comes into ! l[e/ position1 ! highe/ too? ( ! planet :eel is engag$ ) ! l[e/ ( ! sun :eel3 b !n half ( ! sun :eel has roll$ (f ! planet :eel1 &1 !re=e1 ! too? :i* 0 engag$ ) x 9 its highe/ position1 mu/ n[ be di/ant f x by half ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel1 & mu/1 !re=e1 be aga9 9 ! highe/ position2 s t :ile ! planet :eel has be5 c>ri$ f ! top to ! bottom1 ! sun :eel has made a complete revolution4 ,?is advantage ( giv+ an increas$ velocity may be obta9$ also by ! crank1 by plac+ too!d :eels on its axle4 ,indep5d5tly ( ! great] exp5se att5d+ ! con/ruction ( ! sun-&-planet :eel1 its liability to g out ( ord]1 & ! rapid we> ( ! tee?1 & o!r objections1 r5d]$ x inf]ior to ! crank1 :i* has entirely sup]s$$ x4 7#aae47 ,al?\gh by ^! contrivances ,watt succe$$ 9 obta9+ a cont9u\s circul> motion f ! reciprocat+ motion ( ! /eam eng9e1 ! ma*9e 0 /ill "o ( int]mitt+1 in/ead ( cont9u\s action4 ,! exp$i5t ( a c\nt]weight1 elevat$ dur+ ! desc5d+ /roke1 & giv+ back ! p[] exp5d$ on x 9 ! int]val ( ! return+ /roke1 did n satisfy ! ,pg#ahi fa/idi\s me*anical ta/e ( ,watt4 ,he soon p]ceiv$ t all :i* he propos$ to accompli% by ! application ( two cyl9d]s & pi/ons work+ alt]nately1 c\ld be atta9$ ) great] simplicity & effect by a s+le cyl9d]1 if he c\ld devise means by :i* ! pi/on might be impell$ by /eam upw>ds z well z d[nw>ds4 ,to accompli% ?is1 x 0 only necess>y to ?r[ ! l[] end ( ! cyl9d] into alt]nate communication ) ! boil]1 :ile ! upp] end w\ld be put into communication ) ! cond5s]4 ,if1 = example1 dur+ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on1 ! upp] end ( ! cyl9d] communicat$ ) ! boil]1 & ! l[] end ) ! cond5s]2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 dur+ ! asc5t ( ! pi/on1 ! l[] end communicat$ ) ! boil]1 & ! upp] end ) ! cond5s]2 !n ! pi/on w\ld be driv5 cont9ually1 :e!r upw>ds or d[nw>ds1 by ! p[] ( /eam act+ aga9/ a vacuum4 ,watt obta9$ 8 ?ird pat5t = ?is contrivance1 on ! #ab? ( ,m>*1 #aghb4 ,?is *ange 9 ! pr9ciple ( ! ma*9e involv$ sev]al o!r *anges 9 ! details ( its me*anism4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 7#aaf47 ,x 0 necess>y1 9 ! fir/ place1 to provide means = admitt+ & )draw+ ! /eam at ei!r end ( ! cyl9d]4 ,= ?is purpose let ,b & ,b 7fig4 #cc47 be two /eam-boxes1 ,b ! upp]1 & ,b ! l[]1 communicat+ respectively ) ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d] by prop] passages ,d ,d4 ,let two valves be plac$ 9 ,b1 "o1 ,s1 above ! passage ,d1 & ! o!r1 ,c1 bel[ x2 & 9 l mann] two o!r valves 9 ! l[] valve-box1 ,b1 "o1 ,s1 above ! passage ,d1 & ! o!r1 ,c1 bel[ x4 ,above ! valve ,s 9 ! upp] /eam-box is an op5+ at :i* ! /eam-pipe f ! boil] ent]s1 & bel[ ! valve ,c is ano!r op5+1 at :i* ent]s ! exhau/+-pipe lead+ to ! cond5s]4 ,9 l mann]1 above ! valve ,s 9 ! l[] /eam-box ent]s a /eam-pipe lead+ f ! boil]1 & bel[ ! valve ,c ent]s an exhau/+-pipe lead+ to ,pg#aij ! cond5s]4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t /eam c always be admitt$ above ! pi/on by op5+ ! valve ,s1 & bel[ x by op5+ ! valve ,s2 &1 9 l mann]1 /eam c be )drawn f ! cyl9d] above ! pi/on1 & all[$ to pass to ! cond5s]1 by op5+ ! valve ,c1 & f bel[ x by op5+ ! valve ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,suppos+ ! pi/on ,p to be at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 & ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on to be fill$ ) pure /eam1 let ! valves ,s & ,c be op5$1 ! valves ,c & ,s be+ clos$ z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #cd4 ,/eam f ! boil] w1 !re=e1 fl[ 9 ?r\gh ! op5 valve ,s1 & w press ! pi/on d[nw>ds1 :ile ! /eam t has fill$ ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on w pass ?r\gh ! op5 valve ,c into ! exhau/+-pipe lead+ to ! cond5s]1 & be+ cond5s$ w leave ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on a vacuum4 ,! pi/on w1 !re=e1 be press$ d[nw>ds by ! action ( ! /eam above x1 z 9 ! s+le-act+ eng9e4 ,hav+ arriv$ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 let ! valves ,s & ,c be bo? clos$1 & ! valves ,s & ,c be op5$1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #cd4 ,/eam w n[ be admitt$ ?r\gh ! op5 valve ,s & ?r\gh ! passage ,d bel[ ! pi/on1 :ile ! /eam :i* has j driv5 ! pi/on d[nw>ds1 fill+ ! cyl9d] above ! pi/on1 w be drawn (f ?r\gh ! op5 valve ,c1 & ! exhau/+-pipe1 into ! cond5s]1 leav+ ! cyl9d] above ! pi/on a vacuum4 ,! pi/on w1 !re=e1 be press$ upw>ds by ! action ( ! /eam bel[ x1 aga9/ ! vacuum above x1 & w asc5d ) ! same =ce z t ) :i* x _h desc5d$4 ,?is alt]nate action ( ! pi/on upw>ds & d[nw>ds may evid5tly be cont9u$ by op5+ & clos+ ! valves alt]nately 9 pairs4 ,:5ev] ! pi/on is at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #cc41 ! valves ,s & ,c1 t is1 ! upp] /eam-valve & ! l[] exhau/+-valve1 are op5$1 & ! valves ,c & ,s1 t is1 ! upp] exhau/+-valve & ! l[] /eam-valve1 are clos$2 & ,pg#aia :5 ! pi/on has arriv$ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #cd41 ! valves ,c & ,s1 t is1 ! upp] exhau/+-valve & ! l[] /eam-valve1 are op5$1 & ! valves ,s & ,c1 t is1 ! upp] /eam-valve & ! l[] exhau/+-valve1 are clos$4 ,if ^! valves1 z has be5 "h suppos$1 be op5$ & clos$ at ! mom5ts at :i* ! pi/on rea*es ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 x is evid5t t !y may be all work$ by a s+le lev] connect$ ) !m by prop] me*anism4 ,:5 ! pi/on arrives at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ?is lev] w\ld be made to op5 ! valves ,s & ,c1 & at ! same "t to close ! valves ,s & ,c2 & :5 x arrives at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 x w\ld be made to close ! valves ,s & ,c1 & to op5 ! valves ,s & ,c4 ,if1 h[ev]1 x be desir$ to cut (f ! /eam be=e ! arrival ( ! pi/on at ! t]m9ation ( its /roke1 :e!r upw>ds or d[nw>ds1 !n ! /eam-valves mu/ be clos$ be=e ! arrival ( ! pi/on at ! end ( its /roke2 & z ! exhau/+-valve ought to be left op5 until ! /roke is complet$1 ^! valves ought to be mov$ at diff]5t times4 ,9 t case sep>ate lev]s %\ld be provid$ = ! diff]5t valves4 ,we %all1 h[ev]1 return aga9 to ! subject ( ! valves :i* regulate ! admission ( /eam to ! cyl9d] & its escape to ! cond5s]4 7#aag47 ,x w be rememb]$ t 9 ! s+le-act+ eng9e ! process ( cond5sation 0 susp5d$ :ile ! pi/on asc5d$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 & !re=e ! play ( ! jet ( cold wat] 9 ! cond5s] 0 /opp$ dur+ ?is int]val4 ,9 ! d\ble-act+ eng9e1 h[ev]1 ! fl[ ( /eam f ! cyl9d] to ! cond5s] is cont9u$1 :e!r ! pi/on asc5ds or desc5ds1 & !re=e a con/ant cond5sation ( /eam mu/ be produc$4 ,! cond5s+ jet1 !re=e1 does n 9 ?is case1 z 9 ! =m]1 play ) int]vals ( int]mission4 ,a con/ant jet ( cold wat] mu/ be ma9ta9$ 9 ! cond5s]4 ,x w pres5tly appe> t 9 ! d\ble-act+ eng9e appli$ to manufactures1 ! motion ( ! pi/on 0 subject to m or less v>iation ( spe$1 & ! quantity ( /eam ,pg#aib admitt$ to ! cyl9d] 0 subject to a correspond+ *ange4 ,! quantity ( /eam1 !re=e1 drawn into ! cond5s] 0 subject to v>iation1 & requir$ a consid]able *ange 9 ! quantity ( cold wat] admitt$ ?r\gh ! jet to cond5se x4 ,to regulate ?is1 ! valve or cock by :i* ! wat] 0 admitt$ into ! cond5s] 0 work$ 9 ! d\ble-act+ eng9e by a lev] furni%$ ) an index1 by :i* ! quantity ( cond5s+ wat] admitt$ into ! cond5s] c\ld be regulat$4 ,?is index play$ ^u a graduat$ ar*1 by :i* ! eng9e-man 0 enabl$ to regulate ! supply4 ,illu/ration3 ,,hea?field ,,h\se1 ,,ne> ,,birm+ham1 ,,! ,,resid5ce ,,( ,,watt4 ,,footnotes3 #bj ,^! effects are expla9$ 9 my ,treatise on ,heat2 & !y h lately be5 v]ifi$ by exp]im5ts made ) locomotive eng9es by ,m4 de ,pamb\r1 :o f\nd t ! /eam rais$ f ! boil] ( a locomotive eng9e1 "u a pressure ( above #ej lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 0 9 ! /ate ( common /eam z x issu$ f ! *imney at a v dim9i%$ pressure & at a l[] pressure4 #ba ,x is /range t ?is absurdity has be5 repeat$ly giv5 z unque/ionable fact 9 v>i\s encyclopdias1 z well z 9 by f> ! great] numb] ( treatises expressly on ! subject4 #bb ,f>ey1 ,treatise on ! ,/eam ,eng9e1 p4 #abb4 #bc ,f>ey on ! ,/eam ,eng9e1 p4 #big4 ,pg#aic ,illu/ration3 ,,d\ble-,,act+ ,,eng9e4--,,city ,,saw-,,mills4 ,,*ap4 ,,viii4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,connect+ ,,! ,,pi/on-,,rod ,,& ,,beam ,,9 ,,! ,,d\ble-,,act+ ,,eng9e4 -- ,,rack ,,& ,,sector4 -- ,,p>allel ,,motion4 -- ,,connect+ ,,rod ,,& ,,crank4 -- ,,fly-,,:eel4 -- ,,?rottle-,,valve4 -- ,,gov]nor4 -- ,,con/ruction ,,& ,,op]ation ,,( ,,! ,,d\ble-,,act+ ,,eng9e4 -- ,,ecc5tric4 -- ,,cocks ,,& ,,valves4 -- ,,s+le-,,clack ,,valve4 -- ,,d\ble-,,clack ,,valve4 -- ,,conical ,,valves4 -- ,,slide ,,valves4 -- ,,murray',s ,,slides4 -- ,,! ,d ,,valve4 -- ,,seaw>d',s ,,slides4 -- ,,s+le ,,cock4 -- ,,f\r-,,way ,,cock4 -- ,,pi/ons4 -- ,,common ,,hemp-,,pack$ ,,pi/on4 -- ,,woolfe',s ,,pi/on4 -- ,,metallic ,,pi/ons4 -- ,,c>twright',s ,,eng9e4 -- ,,c>twright',s ,,pi/on4 -- ,,b>ton',s ,,pi/on4 7#aah47 ,9 ! s+le-act+ eng9e1 ! =ce ( ! pi/on act$ on ! beam only dur+ its desc5t2 & ?is =ce 0 transmitt$ f ! pi/on to ! beam1 z we h se51 by a flexible *a91 ext5d$ f ! end ( ! pi/on-rod1 ,pg#aid & play+ ^u ! ar* head ( ! beam4 ,9 ! d\ble-act+ eng9e1 h[ev]1 ! =ce ( ! /eam press+ ! pi/on upw>ds mu/ likewise be transmitt$ to ! beam1 s z to drive ! latt] upw>ds :ile ! pi/on asc5ds4 ,?is action c\ld n be accompli%$ by a *a9 connect+ ! pi/on ) ! ar* head ( ! beam4 ,:]e ! me*anical action to be transmitt$ is a pull1 & n a pu%1 a flexible *a91 cord1 or /rap1 is suffici5t2 b if a pu% or ?ru/ is requir$ to be transmitt$1 !n ! flexibility ( ! m$ium ( me*anical communication af=d$ by a *a9 r5d]s x inapplicable4 ,9 ! d\ble-act+ eng9e1 dur+ ! desc5t1 ! pi/on-rod /ill pulls ! beam d[n2 & s f> a *a9 connect+ ! pi/on-rod ) ! beam w\ld be suffici5t to transmit ! action ( ! "o to ! o!r2 b 9 ! asc5t1 ! beam no long] pulls up ! pi/on-rod1 b is pu%$ up by x4 ,a *a9 f ! pi/on-rod to ! ar* head1 z describ$ 9 ! s+le-act+ eng9e1 w\ld fail to transmit ?is =ce4 ,if su* a *a9 7 us$ ) ! d\ble eng9e1 :]e !re is no c\nt]weight on ! opposite end ( ! beam1 ! consequ5ce w\ld be1 t 9 ! asc5t ( ! pi/on ! *a9 w\ld slack51 & ! beam w\ld /ill rema9 depress$4 ,x is !re=e necess>y t "s o!r me*anical connection be contriv$ betwe5 ! pi/on-rod & ! beam1 ( su* a nature t 9 ! desc5t ! pi/on-rod may pull ! beam d[n1 & may pu% x up 9 ! asc5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,watt fir/ propos$ to effect ?is by atta*+ to ! end ( ! pi/on-rod a /raight rack1 fac$ ) tee?1 :i* %\ld "w 9 correspond+ tee? rais$ on ! ar* head ( ! beam1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ce4 ,if 8 improv$ /eam eng9es requir$ no fur!r precision ( op]ation & con/ruction ?an ! atmosph]ic eng9es1 ?is might h be5 suffici5t2 b 9 ^! eng9es x 0 indisp5sably necess>y t ! pi/on-rod %\ld be guid$ ) a smoo? & ev5 motion ?r\gh ! /uff+-box 9 ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 o!rwise any %ake or irregul>ity w\ld cause x to "w loose 9 ! /uff+-box1 & ei!r to admit ! air1 or to let ! /eam escape4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 ! motion ( ,pg#aie ! rack & too!d ar* head 7 inadmissible1 s9ce x 0 impossible by su* means to imp>t to ! pi/on-rod t smoo? & equable motion :i* 0 requisite4 ,ano!r contrivance :i* occurr$ to ,watt 01 to atta* to ! top ( ! pi/on-rod a b>1 :i* %\ld ext5d above ! beam1 & to use two *a9s or /raps1 "o ext5d+ f ! top ( ! b> to ! l[] end ( ! ar* head1 & ! o!r f ! bottom ( ! b> to ! upp] end ( ! ar* head4 ,by su* means ! latt] /rap w\ld pull ! beam d[n :5 ! pi/on w\ld desc5d1 & ! =m] w\ld pull ! beam up :5 ! pi/on w\ld asc5d4 ,^! contrivances1 h[ev]1 7 sup]s$$ by ! celebrat$ me*anism s9ce call$ ! ,p>allel ,motion1 "o ( ! mo/ +5i\s me*anical comb9ations connect$ ) ! hi/ory ( ! /eam eng9e4 7#aai47 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! object 0 to connect by "s inflexible means ! end ( ! pi/on-rod ) ! extremity ( ! beam1 & s to contrive ! me*anism1 t :ile ! end ( ! beam w\ld move alt]nately up & d[n 9 "p ( a circle1 ! end ( ! pi/on-rod connect$ ) ! beam %\ld move up & d[n 9 a /raight l9e4 ,if ! end ( ! pi/on-rod 7 fa/5$ ^u ! end ( ! beam by a pivot )\t any o!r connection1 x is evid5t t1 be+ mov$ up & d[n 9 ! ar* ( a circle1 x w\ld be drawn to ! left & ! "r alt]nately1 & w\ld consequ5tly ei!r be brok5 or b5t1 or w\ld "w loose 9 ! /uff+-box4 ,in/ead ( connect+ ! end ( ! rod imm$iately ) ! end ( ! beam by a pivot1 ,watt propos$ to connect !m by c]ta9 moveable rods1 s arrang$ t1 z ! end ( ! beam w\ld move up & d[n 9 ! circul> ar*1 ! rods w\ld s accommodate !mselves to t motion1 t ! end connect$ ) ! pi/on-rod %\ld n be di/urb$ f its rectil9e> c\rse4 ,to expla9 ! pr9ciple ( ! me*anism call$ ! p>allel motion1 let u suppose t ,o ,p 7fig4 #cf47 is a rod or lev] moveable on a c5tre ,o1 & t ! end ,p ( ?is rod %all move ?r\gh a circul> ar* ,p ,p ,p ,p a v]tical plane1 & let its play be limit$ by two /ops ,s1 :i* %all prev5t its asc5t above ! po9t ,p1 & its desc5t bel[ ,pg#aif ! po9t ,p4 ,let ! position ( ! rod & ! limitation ( its play be su* t ! /raight l9e ,a ,b drawn ?r\gh ,p & ,p1 ! extreme positions ( ! lev] ,o ,p1 %all be a v]tical l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,let o be a po9t on ! o!r side ( ! v]tical l9e ,a ,b1 & let ! di/ance ( ,o to ! "r ( ,a ,b be ! same z ! di/ance ( o to ! left ( ,a ,b4 ,let o p be a rod equal 9 l5g? to ,o ,p1 mov+ l ,o ,p on ! c5tre o1 s t its ,pg#aig extremity p %all play upw>ds & d[nw>ds ?r\gh ! ar* p p p p1 its play be+ limit$ 9 l mann] by /ops s4 ,n[1 let u suppose t ! ends ,p p ( ^! two rods are jo9$ by a l9k ,p p1 ! connection be+ made by a pivot1 s t ! angles =m$ by ! l9k & ! rods %all be capable ( *ang+ _! magnitude4 ,?is l9k w make ! motion ( "o rod dep5d on t ( ! o!r1 s9ce x w pres]ve _! extremities ,p p always at ! same di/ance f ea* o!r4 ,if1 !re=e1 we suppose ! rod ,o ,p to be mov$ to ! position ,o ,p1 its extremity ,p trac+ ! ar* ,p ,p ,p ,p1 ! l9k connect+ ! rods w at ! same "t drive ! extremity p ( ! rod o p ?r\gh ! ar* p p p p s t :5 ! extremity ( ! "o rod arrives at ,p1 ! extremity ( ! o!r rod w arrive at p4 ,by ?is arrangem5t1 9 ! simultane\s motion ( ! rods1 :e!r upw>ds or d[nw>ds1 ?r\gh ! circul> ar*es to :i* _! play is limit$1 ! extremities ( ! l9k jo9+ !m w deviate f ! v]tical l9e ,a ,b 9 opposite directions4 ,at ! limits ( _! play1 ! extremities ( ! l9k w always be 9 ! l9e ,a ,b2 b 9 all int]m$iate positions1 ! l[] extremity ( ! l9k w be to ! "r ( ,a ,b1 & its upp] extremity to ! left ( ,a ,b4 ,s f> z ! d]angem5t ( ! l[] extremity ( ! l9k is conc]n$1 ! matt] compos+ ! l9k w\ld be transf]r$ to ! "r ( ,a ,b1 & s f> z ! upp] extremity ( ! l9k is conc]n$1 ! matt] compos+ x w\ld be transf]r$ to ! left ( ,a ,b4 ,by ! comb9$ effects ( ^! contr>y d]angem5ts ( ! extremities ( ! l9k f ! v]tical l9e1 x might be expect$ t a po9t w\ld exi/1 9 ! middle ( ! l9k1 :]e ! two contr>y d]angem5ts w\ld neutralise ea* o!r1 & :i* po9t w\ld !re=e be expect$ to be di/urb$ nei!r to ! "r nor to ! left1 b to be mov$ upw>ds & d[nw>ds 9 ! v]tical l9e ,a ,b4 ,su* is ! pr9ciple ( ! p>allel motion2 & 9 fact ! middle po9t ( ! l9k w move = all practical purposes accurately 9 ! v]tical l9e ,a ,b1 provid$ t ! angul> play ( ! lev]s ,o ,p & o p does n exce$ a c]ta9 ,pg#aih limit1 )9 :i*1 9 practice1 _! motion may always be re/ra9$4 ,to trace ! motion ( ! middle po9t ( ! l9k m m9utely1 let ,p ,p ,p ,p be f\r positions ( ! lev] ,o ,p1 & let p p p p be ! f\r correspond+ positions ( ! lev] o p4 ,9 ! positions ,o ,p o p1 ! l9k w take ! position ,p p1 9 :i* ! entire l9k w be v]tical1 & its middle po9t x w !re=e be 9 ! v]tical l9e ,a ,b4 ,:5 ! "o rod takes ! position ,o ,p1 ! o!r rod w h ! position o p2 & ! l9k w h ! position ,p p4 ,! middle po9t ( ! l9k w be at x1 :i* w be f\nd to be on ! v]tical l9e ,a ,b4 ,?us "o half ( ! l9k ,p x w be to ! left ( ! v]tical l9e ,a ,b2 :ile ! o!r half1 p x1 w be to ! "r ( ! v]tical l9e2 ! d]angem5t f ! v]tical l9e affect+ ea* half ( ! l9k 9 contr>y directions4 ,aga91 tak+ ! "o rod 9 ! position ,o ,p1 ! correspond+ position ( ! o!r rod w be o p1 & ! position ( ! l9k w be ,p p4 ,if ! middle po9t ( ! l9k 9 ?is position be tak51 x w be f\nd to be at x1 on ! v]tical l9e ,a ,b2 &1 z be=e1 "o half ( ! l9k ,p x w be ?r[n to ! left ( ! v]tical l9e1 :ile ! o!r half p x1 w be ?r[n to ! "r ( ! v]tical l9e4 ,f9ally1 let ! "o rod be 9 its l[e/ position1 ,o ,p1 :ile ! o!r rod %all take ! correspond+ position1 o p4 ,! direction ( ! l9k ,p p w n[ co9cide ) ! v]tical l9e2 & its middle po9t x w !re=e be ^u t l9e4 ,! previ\s d]angem5t ( ! extremities ( ! rod1 to ! "r & to ! left1 are n[ r$ress$1 & all ! p>ts ( ! rod h assum$ ! v]tical position4 ,x is pla91 !re=e1 t by su* means ! alt]nate motion ( a po9t su* z ,p or p1 upw>ds & d[nw>ds 9 a circul> ar*1 may be made to produce ! alt]nate motions ( ano!r po9t x1 upw>ds & d[nw>ds 9 a /raight l9e4 7#abj47 ,al?\gh ! guidance ( ! air-pump rod 9 a true v]tical l9e is n s necess>y z t ( ! /eam pi/on1 ,pg#aii & z ! air-pump pi/on is always br\ght d[n by its own weight & t ( its rod1 ! connection ( ! air-pump pi/on-rod ) ! beam1 by any contrivance ( ! k9d n[ describ$1 0 n s necess>y4 ,nev]!less1 by a slight addition to ! me*anical contrivance :i* has be5 j describ$1 ,watt obta9$ ! means ( at once pres]v+ ! true rectil9e> motion ( bo? pi/on-rods4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,let ! lev] repres5t$ by ,o ,p 9 fig4 #cf4 be conceiv$ to be prolong$ to twice its l5g?1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #cg41 s t ,o ,p %all be twice ,o ,p4 ,let ! po9ts ,p p be connect$ by a l9k z be=e4 ,let a l9k ,p x1 equal 9 l5g? to ! l9k ,p p be atta*$ to ! po9t ,p1 & let ! extremity x ( ?is l9k be connect$ ) ! po9t p by ano!r l9k1 equal 9 l5g? to ,p ,p1 by pivots at x & p1 s t ! figure ,p ,p x p %all be a jo9t$ p>allelogram1 ! angles ( :i* w be capable ( alt]+ _! magnitude ) e *ange ( position ( ! rods o p & ,o ,p4 ,?us1 :5 ! rod ,o ,p desc5ds1 ! angles ( ! p>allelogram at ,p & x w be dim9i%$ 9 magnitude1 :ile ! angles at ,p & p w be increas$ 9 magnitude4 ,n[1 let a l9e be conceiv$ to be drawn f ,o to x4 ,x is evid5t t t l9e w pass ?r\gh ! middle po9t ( ! l9k p ,p1 = ! triangle ,o ,p x is 9 all respects simil> to ! great] triangle ,o ,p x only on half ! scale1 s t e side ( ! "o is ,pg#bjj half ! correspond+ side ( ! o!r4 ,!re=e ,p x is half ! l5g? ( ,p x2 b ,p x 0 made equal to ,p p1 & !re=e p x is half ( ,p p1 t is to say1 x is ! middle po9t ( ,p p4 ,x has be5 already %[n1 t 9 ! alt]nate motion ( ! rods o p1 ,o ,p 9 asc5d+ & desc5d+1 ! po9t x is mov$ upw>ds & d[nw>ds 9 a true v]tical l9e4 ,n[ s9ce ! triangle ,o ,p x is 9 all respects simil> to ,o ,p x1 & subject to a simil> motion dur+ ! asc5t & desc5t ( ! rods1 x is app>5t t ! po9t x mu/ be subject to a motion 9 all respects simil> to t :i* affects ! po9ts x1 except t ! po9t x w move ?r\gh d\ble ! space4 ,9 fact1 ! pr9ciple ( ! me*anism is precisely simil> to t ( ! common pantograph1 :]e two rods are s connect$ z t ! motion ( ! "o gov]ns ! motion ( ! o!r1 s t :atev] l9e or figure may be describ$ by "o1 a simil> l9e or figure mu/ be describ$ by ! o!r4 ,s9ce1 !n1 ! po9t x is mov$ upw>ds & d[nw>ds 9 a v]tical /raight l9e1 ! po9t x w also be mov$ 9 a v]tical /raight l9e ( d\ble ! l5g?4 ,if su* an arrangem5t ( me*anism z has be5 "h describ$ c be connect$ ) ! beam ( ! /eam eng9e1 s t :ile ! po9t x is atta*$ to ! top ( ! /eam pi/on1 & ! space ?r\gh :i* x asc5ds & desc5ds %all be equal to ! l5g? ( ! /roke ( t pi/on1 ! po9t x %all be atta*$ to ! rod ( ! air-pump pi/on1 ! /roke ( ! latt] be+ half t ( ! /eam pi/on1 !n ! po9ts x & x w guide ! motion ( ! two pi/ons s z to pres]ve !m 9 true v]tical /raight l9es4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ^! ideas are r$uc$ to practice admits ( easy explanation3 let ! po9t ,o be ! c5tre ( ! great work+ beam1 & let ,o ,p be ! arm ( ! beam on ! side ( ! /eam cyl9d]4 ,let ,p be a pivot ^u ! beam1 at ! middle po9t betwe5 its c5tre ,o & its extremity ,p2 & let ! l9ks ,p p1 ,p x1 & ,p p be jo9t$ toge!r1 z already describ$4 ,let ! po9t or pivot o be atta*$ to "s "p ( ! fix$ fram+ ( ! eng9e or eng9e h\se1 & let ! rod o p1 equal to half ! arm ( ! beam1 be atta*$ by a pivot to ! corn] ( ! p>allelogram at ,pg#bja p4 ,let ! end ( ! /eam pi/on-rod be atta*$ to ! corn] ( ! p>allelogram x1 & let ! end ( ! air-pump be atta*$ to ! middle po9t x ( ! l9k ,p p2 by :i* arrangem5t x is evid5t t ! rectil9e> motion ( ! two pi/on-rods w be r5d]$ compatible ) ! alt]nate circul> motions ( ! po9ts ,p & ,p on ! beam4 ,among ! _m me*anical inv5tions produc$ by ! f]tile g5ius ( ,watt1 !re is none :i* has excit$ su* univ]sal1 su* unqualifi$1 & su* m]it$ admiration z t ( ! p>allel motion4 ,x is inde$ impossible1 ev5 = an eye unaccu/om$ to view me*anical comb9ations1 to behold ! beam ( a /eam eng9e mov+ ! pi/ons1 ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( ! p>allel motion1 )\t an in/9ctive feel+ ( pleasure at ! unexpect$ fulfilm5t ( an end by means hav+ s little app>5t connection ) x4 ,:5 ?is feel+ 0 express$ to ,watt himself1 by ^? :o fir/ beheld ! p]=mance ( ?is exquisite me*anism1 he exclaim$ ) 8 usual vivacity1 t he himself1 :5 he fir/ beheld 8 own contrivance 9 action1 0 affect$ by ! same s5se ( pleasure & surprise at its regul>ity & precision4 ,he said1 t he receiv$ f x ! same species ( enjoym5t t usually accompanies ! fir/ view ( ! successful inv5tion ( ano!r p]son4 ,among ! p>ts compos+ ! /eam eng9e1 y h d\btless1 says ,m4 ,arago1 obs]v$ a c]ta9 articulat$ p>allelogram4 ,at ea* asc5t & desc5t ( ! pi/on1 its angles op5 & close ) ! sweetness--,i _h almo/ said ) ! grace--:i* *>ms y 9 ! ge/ures ( a consummate actor4 ,foll[ ) y\r eye alt]nately ! progress ( its successive *anges1 & y w f9d !m subject to ! mo/ curi\s geometrical conditions4 ,y w see1 t ( ! f\r angles ( ! jo9t$ p>allelogram1 ?ree describe circul> ar*es1 b ! f\r? :i* holds ! pi/on-rod is mov$ ne>ly 9 a /raight l9e4 ,! imm5se utility ( ?is result /rikes me*anicians ) ev5 less =ce ?an ! simplicity ( ! means by :i* ,watt has atta9$ x4 ,! p>allel motion1 ( :i* !re are sev]al o!r v>ieties1 dep5d+1 h[ev]1 g5]ally ^u ! same ,pg#bjb pr9ciple1 =m$ "p ( a pat5t :i* ,mr4 ,watt obta9$ 9 ! ye> #aghd1 ano!r "p ( :i* pat5t 0 = a locomotive eng9e1 by :i* a c>riage 0 to be propell$ on a road4 ,9 a lett] to ,mr4 ,smeaton dat$ #bb;d ,octob]1 9 ! same ye>1 ,watt says1-- ,i h lately contriv$ sev]al me?ods ( gett+ entirely rid ( all ! *a9s & circul> ar*es ab\t ! great lev]s ( /eam eng9es1 & nev]!less mak+ ! pi/on-rods asc5d & desc5d p]p5dicul>ly1 )\t any slid+ motions or "r-l9$ guides1 m]ely by comb9ations ( motions ab\t c5tres2 & ) ?is fur!r advantage1 t !y answ] equally well to pu% upw>ds z to pull d[nw>ds1 s t ?is me?od is applicable to our d\ble eng9es :i* act bo? 9 ! asc5t & desc5t ( _! pi/ons4 ,a rotative eng9e ( ?is species ) ! new motion :i* is n[ at "w 9 our manufactory 7b mu/ be s5t away v soon7 answ]s admirably4 ,x has co/ mu* bra9 "w to contrive prop] work+ ge> = ^! d\ble eng9es1 b ,i h at la/ done x tol]ably well1 by means ( ! circul> valves1 plac$ 9 an inv]t$ position1 s z to be op5$ by ! =ce ( ! /eam2 & !y are kept %ut by ! work+ ge>4 ,we h erect$ an eng9e at ,messrs4 ,goodwyne & ,co4's brew]y1 ,ea/ ,smi?field1 ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 7#aba47 ,by ! contrivance :i* has be5 expla9$ above1 ! =ce ( ! pi/on 9 asc5d+ & desc5d+ w\ld be convey$ to ! work+ end ( ! beam2 & ! next problem :i* ,watt _h to solve 01 to produce by ! =ce ex]t$ by ! work+ end ( ! beam 9 asc5d+ & desc5d+ a cont9u\s motion ( rotation4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance he propos$ to accompli% ?is by a crank plac$ ^u ! axle to :i* rotation 0 to be imp>t$1 & driv5 by a rod connect+ x ) ! work+ end ( ! beam4 ,let ,k 7fig4 #ch47 be ! c5tre1 to :i* motion is to be imp>t$ by ! work+ end ,h ( ! beam4 ,on ! axle ,k suppose a %ort lev] ,k ,i to be fix$ s t :5 ,k ,i is turn$ r\nd ! c5tre ,k1 ! axle mu/ turn ) x4 ,let an iron rod1 ! weight ( :i* %all balance ! pi/on & pi/on-rod at ! o!r end ( ! beam1 be connect$ by jo9ts ) ! work+ end ,h ( ! beam1 & ! extremity ,i ( ! ,pg#bjc lev] ,k ,i4 ,z ! end ,h ( ! beam is mov$ upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 ! lev] ,k ,i w be turn$ r\nd ! c5tre ,k1 tak+ successively ! positions repres5t$ by fa9t l9es 9 ! figure2 & ?us a motion ( cont9u$ rotation w be imp>t$ to ! axle ,k4 ,?is simple & effectual exp$i5t ( produc+ a cont9u$ rotatory motion by a crank 0 ab&on$ by ,watt1 z already expla9$1 by reason ( a pat5t hav+ be5 obta9$ ^u in=mation ( 8 exp]im5ts surreptiti\sly procur$4 ,to avoid litigation1 he !re=e sub/itut$ = ! crank ! sun & planet :eel already describ$2 b at ! expiration ( ! pat5t1 :i* re/rict$ ! use ( ! crank1 ! sun & planet :eel 0 discont9u$ 9 ,watt's eng9e1 & ! crank re/or$4 7#abb47 ,:e!r ! crank or ! sun & planet :eel be us$1 !re is /ill a difficulty 9 ! ma9t5ance ( a regul> motion ( rotation4 ,9 ! v>i\s positions :i* ! crank & connect+ rod assume ?r\gh\t a complete revolution1 !re are two 9 :i* ! mov+ p[] loses all influ5ce 9 impell+ ! crank4 ,^! positions are ^? :i* ! crank assumes :5 ! pi/on is at ! top & bottom ( ! ,pg#bjd cyl9d]1 & is j ab\t to *ange ! direction ( its motion4 ,:5 ! pi/on is at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! pivot ,i 7fig4 #ch471 by :i* ! connect+ rod ,h ,i is atta*$ to ! end ( ! crank1 is imm$iately ov] ! axle ,k ( ! crank1 & "u ! pivot ,h1 :i* jo9s ! upp] end ( ! connect+ rod ) ! beam4 ,9 fact1 9 ?is position ! connect+ rod & crank are 9 ! same /raight l9e1 ext5d+ f ! end ( ! beam to ! axle ( ! crank4 ,! /eam1 on ent]+ ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on1 & press+ x upw>ds1 w\ld produce a correspond+ d[nw>d =ce on ! connect+ rod at ,h1 :i* w\ld be cont9u$ along ! connect+ rod & crank to ! axle ,k4 ,x is evid5t t su* a =ce c\ld h no t5d5cy to turn ! crank r\nd1 b w\ld exp5d its :ole en]gy 9 press+ ! axle ,k d[nw>ds4 ,! o!r position 9 :i* ! p[] loses its effect ^u ! crank is :5 ! pi/on is at ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ?is case1 ! work+ end ( ! beam w be at ! l[e/ po9t ( its play1 & ! crank-p9 ,i w be imm$iately bel[ ! axle ,k2 s t ,k w be plac$ imm$iately betwe5 ,h & ,i4 ,:5 ! /eam presses on ! top ( ! pi/on1 x w exp5d its =ce 9 draw+ ! end ,h ( ! connect+ rod upw>ds1 by :i* ! crank-p9 ,i w likewise be drawn upw>ds4 ,x is evid5t t ?is =ce c h no effect 9 turn+ ! crank r\nd1 b w exp5d its :ole en]gy 9 produc+ an upw>d /ra9 on ! axle ,k4 ,if ! crank 7 absolutely at re/ 9 ei!r ( ! positions above describ$1 x is app>5t t ! eng9e c\ld n be put 9 motion by ! /eam2 b if ! eng9e has be5 previ\sly 9 motion1 !n ! mass ( matt] =m+ ! crank1 & ! axle on :i* ! crank is =m$1 hav+ already _h a motion ( rotation1 w h a t5d5cy to pres]ve ! mom5tum x has receiv$1 & ?is t5d5cy w be suffici5t to ?r[ ! crank ,k ,i out ( ei!r ( ^? critical positions :i* h be5 describ$4 ,hav+ once escap$ ^! dead po9ts1 !n ! connect+ rod =m+ an angle1 h[ev] obtuse or acute1 ) ! crank1 ! pressure or pull ^u ! =m] w h a t5d5cy to produce rotation 9 ! latt]4 ,z ! crank revolves1 h[ev]1 ! influ5ce ,pg#bje ( ! connect+ rod ^u x w v>y accord+ to ! angle =m$ by ! connect+ rod & crank4 ,:5 t angle is a "r angle1 !n ! effect ( ! connect+ rod on ! crank is greate/1 s9ce ! =ce ^u x has ! advantage ( ! :ole lev]age ( ! crank2 b accord+ z ! angle =m$ by ! crank & connect+ rod becomes m or less acute or obtuse 9 ! successive attitudes :i* !y assume 9 ! revolution ( ! crank1 ! influ5ce ( ! connect+ rod ov] ! crank v>ies1 *ang+ f no?+ at ! two dead po9ts already describ$1 to ! full effect produc$ 9 ! two positions :]e !y are at "r angles4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is v>y+ lev]age1 by :i* ! =ce ) :i* ! connect+ rod is driv5 by ! /eam is transmitt$ to ! axle on :i* ! crank revolves1 a correspond+ v>iation ( spe$ w\ld necess>ily be produc$ 9 ! motion imp>t$ to ! crank4 ,! spe$ at ! dead po9ts w\ld be lea/1 be+ due altoge!r to ! mom5tum already imp>t$ to ! revolv+ mass ( ! crank & axle2 & x w\ld gradually increase & be greate/ at ! po9ts :]e ! effect ( ! crank on ! connect+ rod is greate/4 ,al?\gh ?is *ange ( spe$ w\ld n affect ! actual me*anical efficacy ( ! ma*9e1 & al?\gh ! same quantity ( /eam w\ld p]=m ! same "w at ! v>y+ velocity z x w\ld d if ! velocity 7 regulat$1 yet ?is v>iation ( spe$ w\ld be incompatible ) ! purposes to :i* x 0 n[ propos$ t ! /eam eng9e %\ld be appli$ 9 manufactures4 ,9 ^! a regul> uni=m motion %\ld be imp>t$ to ! ma9 axle4 7#abc47 ,"o ( ! exp$i5ts :i* ,watt propos$ = ! atta9m5t ( ?is end 01 by plac+ two cranks on ! same axle1 9 diff]5t positions1 to be work$ by diff]5t cyl9d]s1 s t :ile "o crank %\ld be at its dead po9ts1 ! o!r %\ld be 9 ! attitude mo/ fav\rable = its action4 ,?is exp$i5t has s9ce1 z we %all see1 be5 c>ri$ into effect 9 /eam vessels2 b "o m simple & effici5t pres5t$ itself 9 ! use ( a fly-:eel4 ,on ! ma9 axle driv5 by ! crank ,watt plac$ a l>ge :eel ( metal1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #dc41 call$ a fly-:eel4 ,?is :eel be+ well con/ruct$1 & nicely balanc$ on its ,pg#bjf axle1 0 subject to v little resi/ance f friction2 any mov+ =ce :i* x w\ld receive x w\ld !re=e reta91 & w\ld be ready to imp>t su* mov+ =ce to ! ma9 axle :5ev] t axle ceas$ to be driv5 by ! p[]4 ,:5 ! crank1 !re=e1 is 9 ^? positions 9 :i* ! action ( ! p[] ^u x is mo/ effici5t1 a portion ( ! en]gy ( ! p[] is exp5d$ 9 increas+ ! velocity ( ! mass ( matt] compos+ ! fly-:eel4 ,z ! crank approa*es ! dead po9ts1 ! effect ( ! mov+ p[] ^u ! axle & ^u ! crank is gradually enfeebl$1 & at ^! po9ts vani%es altoge!r4 ,! mom5tum :i* has be5 imp>t$ to ! fly-:eel !n comes into play1 & c>ries =w>d ! axle & crank out ( ! dead po9ts ) a velocity v little less ?an t :i* x _h :5 ! crank 0 9 ! mo/ fav\rable position = receiv+ ! action ( ! mov+ p[]4 ,by ?is exp$i5t1 ! motion ( revolution receiv$ by ! axle f ! /eam pi/on is subject to no o!r v>iation ?an j ! am\nt ( *ange ( mom5tum 9 ! great mass ( ! fly-:eel1 :i* is suffici5t to extricate ! crank twice 9 e revolution f ! me*anical dilemma to :i* its peculi> =m exposes x2 & ?is *ange ( velocity may be r$uc$ to z small an am\nt z c be requisite by giv+ ! necess>y weight & magnitude to ! fly-:eel4 7#abd47 ,by su* arrangem5ts ! motion imp>t$ to ! ma9 axle ,k w\ld be uni=m1 provid$ t ! mov+ p[] ( ! eng9e be always proportionate to ! load :i* x drives4 ,b 9 ! g5]al application ( ! /eam eng9e to manufactures x 0 evid5t t ! am\nt ( ! resi/ance to :i* any giv5 ma*9e w\ld be subject mu/ be liable to v>iation4 ,if1 = example1 ! eng9e drive a cotton-mill1 x w h to imp>t motion to all ! sp9n+ frames 9 t mill4 ,! op]ation ( "o or m ( ^! may f "t to "t be susp5d$1 & ! mov+ p[] w\ld be reliev$ f a correspond+ am\nt ( resi/ance4 ,if1 "u su* circum/ances1 ! en]gy ( ! mov+ p[] rema9$ ! same1 ! velocity ) :i* ! ma*9es w\ld be driv5 w\ld be subject to v>iation1 be+ increas$ :5ev] ! op]ation ( any portion ( ! ma*9es usually ,pg#bjg driv5 by x is susp5d$2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 dim9i%$ :5 any increas$ numb] ( ma*9es are br\ght into op]ation4 ,9 f9e1 ! spe$ w\ld v>y ne>ly 9 ! inv]se proportion ( ! load driv51 increas+ z ! load is dim9i%$1 & vice v]s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 suppos+ t no *ange took place 9 ! am\nt ( ! load driv5 by ! eng9e1 & t ! same numb] ( ma*9es ( :atev] k9d w\ld h to be cont9ually driv51 ! motion imp>t$ to ! ma9 axle w\ld /ill be subject to v>iation by ! *anges inevitable to ! mov+ p[]4 ,! pi/on ( ! eng9e be+ subject to an unv>i$ resi/ance1 a uni=m motion c\ld only be imp>t$ to x1 by ma9ta9+ a correspond+ uni=mity 9 ! impell+ p[]4 ,?is w\ld require a uni=m supply ( /eam f ! boil]1 :i* w\ld fur!r imply a uni=m rate ( evaporation 9 ! boil]1 unless means 7 provid$ 9 ! admission ( /eam f ! boil] to ! cyl9d] to prev5t any excess ( /eam :i* might be produc$ 9 ! boil] f rea*+ ! cyl9d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,?is end 0 atta9$ by a contrivance aft]w>ds call$ ! ?rottle-valve4 ,an axis ,a ,b 7figs4 #ci1 #dj47 0 plac$ across ! /eam pipe 9 a r+ ( ca/-iron ,d ,e1 ( prop] ?ickness4 ,on ?is axis 0 fa/5$ a ?9 circul> plate ,t1 ( ne>ly ! same diamet] z ! /eam pipe4 ,on ! out] end ,b ( ?is axle 0 plac$ a %ort lev] or h&le ,b ,c1 by :i* x c\ld be turn$4 ,:5 ! circul> plate ,t 0 turn$ into su* a position z to be at "r angles to ! l5g? ( ! tube1 x /opp$ ! passage )9 ! tube altoge!r1 s t no /eam c\ld pass f ! boil] to ! eng9e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! h&le 0 turn$ ?r\gh a f\r? ( a revolution f ?is position1 !n ! circul> plate ,t _h its plane 9 ! direction ( ! l5g? ( ! tube1 s t its edge w\ld be pres5t$ t[>ds ! curr5t ( /eam fl[+ f ! boil] to ! cyl9d]4 ,9 t position ! passage )9 ! tube ,pg#bjh w\ld be necess>ily unob/ruct$ by ! ?rottle-valve4 ,9 int]m$iate positions ( ! valve1 z t repres5t$ 9 figs4 #ci1 #dj41 ! passage might be left m or less op5$1 s t /eam f ! boil] might be admitt$ to ! cyl9d] 9 any regulat$ quantity accord+ to ! position giv5 to ! lev] ,b ,c4 ,a view ( ! ?rottle-valve tak5 by a section across ! /eam pipe is exhibit$ 9 fig4 #dj41 & a section ( x ?r\gh ! axis ( ! /eam pipe is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ci4 ,! =m ( ! valve is su*1 t1 if accurately con/ruct$1 ! /eam 9 pass+ f ! boil] w\ld h no effect by its pressure to alt] any position :i* might be giv5 to ! valve2 & any slight inaccuracy ( =m :i* might give a t5d5cy to ! /eam to alt] ! position w\ld be easily c\nt]act$ by ! friction ( ! valve ^u its axle4 ,! latt] might be regulat$ at pleasure4 ,by ?is exp$i5t1 h[ev] ! evaporation ( wat] 9 ! boil] might v>y )9 practical limits1 ! supply ( /eam to ! cyl9d] w\ld be r5d]$ regul> & uni=m4 ,if ! boil] became too active1 & produc$ m /eam ?an 0 necess>y to move ! eng9e ) its load at ! requisite spe$1 !n ! ?rottle-valve 0 %ift$ s z to contract ! passage & limit ! supply ( /eam4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! process ( evaporation 9 ! boil] 0 relax$1 !n ! ?rottle-valve 0 plac$ ) its edge m direct$ t[>ds ! /eam4 ,indep5d5tly ( ! boil]1 if ! load on ! eng9e 0 light5$1 !n ! same supply ( /eam to ! cyl9d] w\ld unduly accel]ate ! motion4 ,9 ?is case1 likewise1 ! p>tial clos+ ( ! ?rottle-valve w\ld limit ! supply ( /eam & regulate ! motion2 & if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! increase ( load ^u ! eng9e r5d]$ necess>y an increas$ supply ( /eam1 !n ! op5+ ( ! ?rottle-valve w\ld accompli% ! purpose4 ,by ^! means1 !re=e1 a uni=m motion might be ma9ta9$1 provid$ ! vigilance ( ! eng9e-man 0 suffici5t = ! due managem5t ( ! lev] ,b ,c1 & provid$ t ! furnace "u ! boil] 0 kept 9 suffici5t activity to supply ! greate/ am\nt ( /eam :i* w\ld be necess>y ,pg#bji = ! ma9t5ance ( a uni=m motion ) ! ?rottle-valve fully op5$4 7#abe47 ,watt1 h[ev]1 soon p]ceiv$ t ! prop] manipulation ( ! lev] ,b ,c w\ld be impracticable ) any degree ( vigilance & skill :i* c\ld be obta9$ f ! p]sons employ$ to att5d ! eng9e4 ,he1 !re=e1 adapt$ to ?is purpose a beautiful application ( a piece ( me*anism1 :i* _h be5 previ\sly us$ 9 ! regulation ( mill-"w1 & :i* has s9ce be5 well kn[n by ! "n ( ! ,gov]nor1 & has always be5 des]v$ly a subject ( mu* admiration4 ,! gov]nor is an app>atus by :i* ! axle ( ! fly-:eel is made to regulate ! ?rottle-valve1 s t ! mom5t t ! axle beg9s to increase its velocity1 x %ifts ! position ( ! ?rottle-valve1 s z to limit ! supply ( /eam f ! boil]1 & !reby to *eck ! increase ( spe$4 ,& on ! o!r h&1 :5ev] ! velocity ( ! axle is dim9i%$1 ! lev] ,b ,c is mov$ 9 ! contr>y direction1 s z to op5 m fully ! passage = ! /eam1 & accel]ate ! motion ( ! eng9e4 ,a small groov$ :eel ,a ,b 7fig4 #da47 is atta*$ to a v]tical sp9dle support$ 9 pivots or sockets ,c & ,d1 9 :i* x is capable ( revolv+4 ,an endless cord works 9 ! groove ,a ,b1 & is c>ri$ ov] prop] pulleys to ! axle ( ! fly-:eel1 :]e x likewise works 9 a groove4 ,:5 ?is cord is prop]ly tight5$ ! motion ( ! fly-:eel w give motion to ! :eel ,a ,b1 s t ! velocity ( ! "o w be subject to all ! *anges incid5tal to ! velocity ( ! o!r4 ,by ?is means ! spe$ ( ! groov$ :eel ,a ,b may be consid]$ z repres5t+ ! spe$ ( ! fly-:eel1 & ( ! ma*9]y :i* ! axle ( ! fly-:eel drives4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,x is evid5t t ! same end might be atta9$ by sub/itut+ = ! groov$ :eel ,a ,b a too!d :eel1 :i* might be connect$ by o!r too!d :eels1 & prop] %afts1 & axles ) ! axle ( ! fly-:eel4 ,a r+ or coll> ,e is plac$ on ! upright sp9dle1 s z to be capable ( mov+ freely upw>ds & d[nw>ds4 ,to ?is r+ are atta*$ by pivots two %ort lev]s1 ,e ,f1 ! ,pg#baj pivots or jo9ts at ,e all[+ ^! lev]s to play ^u !m4 ,at ,f ^! lev]s are jo9$ by pivots to o!r lev]s ,f ,g1 :i* cross ea* o!r at ,h1 :]e an axle or p9 passes ?r\gh !m1 & atta*es !m to ! upright sp9dle ,c ,d4 ,^! int]sect+ lev]s are capable1 h[ev]1 ( play+ on ?is axle or p9 ,h4 ,to ! ends ,g ( ^! lev]s are atta*$ two heavy balls ( metal ,i4 ,! lev]s ,f ,g pass ?r\gh slits 9 a metallic ar* atta*$ to ! upright sp9dle1 s z to be capable ( revolv+ ^u x4 ,if ! balls ,i are drawn outw>ds f ! v]tical axis1 x is evid5t t ! ends ,f ( ! lev]s w be drawn d[n1 & !re=e ! pivots ,e likewise drawn d[n4 ,9 fact1 ! angles ,e ,f ,h w become m acute1 & ! angle ,f ,e ,f m obtuse4 ,by ^! means ! slid+ r+ ,e w be drawn d[n4 ,to ?is slid+ r+ ,e1 & imm$iately above x1 is atta*$ a groov$ coll>1 :i* slides on ! v]tical sp9dle upw>ds & d[nw>ds ) ! r+ ,e4 ,9 ! groov$ coll> are ins]t$ ! prongs ( a =k ,k1 =m$ at ! end ( ! lev] ,k ,l1 ! fulcrum or pivot ( ! lev] be+ at ,l4 ,by ?is arrangem5t1 :5 ! div]g5ce ( ! balls ,i causes ! coll> ,e to be drawn d[n1 ! =k ,k1 ^: prongs are ins]t$ 9 ! groove ( t coll>1 is likewise drawn d[n2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 :51 by reason ( ! balls ,i fall+ t[>ds ! ,pg#baa v]tical sp9dle1 ! coll> ,e is rais$1 ! =k ,k is likewise rais$4 ,! asc5t & desc5t ( ! =k ,k necess>ily produce a contr>y motion 9 ! o!r end ,n ( ! lev]4 ,?is end is connect$ by a rod1 or sy/em ( rods1 ) ! end ,m ( ! %ort lev] :i* works ! ?rottle-valve ,t4 ,by su* means ! motion ( ! balls ,i1 t[>ds or f ! v]tical sp9dle1 produces 9 ! ?rottle-valve a correspond+ motion2 & !y are s connect$ t ! div]g5ce ( ! balls ,i w cause ! ?rottle-valve to close1 :ile _! desc5t t[>ds ! v]tical sp9dle w cause x to op54 ,^! arrangem5ts be+ compreh5d$1 let u suppose t1 ei!r by reason ( a dim9i%$ load ^u ! eng9e or an increas$ activity ( ! boil]1 ! spe$ has a t5d5cy to increase4 ,?is w\ld imp>t increas$ velocity to ! groov$ :eel ,a ,b1 :i* w\ld cause ! balls ,i to revolve ) an accel]at$ spe$4 ,! c5trifugal =ce :i* att5ds _! motion w\ld !re=e give !m a t5d5cy to move f ! axle1 or to div]ge4 ,?is w\ld cause1 by ! means already expla9$1 ! ?rottle-valve ,t to be p>tially clos$1 by :i* ! supply ( /eam f ! boil] to ! cyl9d] w\ld be dim9i%$1 & ! en]gy ( ! mov+ p[]1 !re=e1 mitigat$4 ,! undue increase ( spe$ w\ld !reby be prev5t$4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ei!r by an increase ( ! load1 or a dim9i%$ activity 9 ! boil]1 ! spe$ ( ! ma*9e 0 less5$1 a correspond+ dim9ution ( velocity w\ld take place 9 ! groov$ :eel ,a ,b4 ,?is w\ld cause ! balls ,i to revolve ) less spe$1 & ! c5trifugal =ce produc$ by _! circul> motion w\ld be dim9i%$4 ,?is =ce be+ ?us no long] able fully to c\nt]act _! gravity1 !y w\ld fall t[>ds ! sp9dle1 :i* w\ld cause1 z already expla9$1 ! ?rottle-valve to be m fully op5$4 ,?is w\ld produce a m ample supply ( /eam to ! cyl9d]1 by :i* ! velocity ( ! ma*9e w\ld be re/or$ to its prop] am\nt4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 7#abf47 ,! pr9ciple :i* r5d]s ! gov]nor s p]fect a regulator ( ! velocity ( ! ma*9e is difficult to be ,pg#bab expla9$ )\t hav+ rec\rse to ! aid ( ! te*nical language ( ma!matical physics4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ?is in/rum5t is ( su* great practical importance1 & has attract$ su* g5]al admiration1 x may be wor? :ile "h to attempt to r5d] intelligible ! me*anical pr9ciples :i* gov]n its op]ation4 ,let ,s 7fig4 #db47 be ! po9t ( susp5sion ( a common p5dulum ,s ,p1 & let ,p ,o ,p be ! ar* ( its vibration1 s t ! ball ,p %all sw+ or vibrate alt]nately to ! ea/ & to ! we/ ( ! l[e/ po9t ,o1 ?r\gh ! ar*es ,o ,p & ,o ,p4 ,x is a prop]ty ( su* an in/rum5t t1 provid$ ! ar* 9 :i* x vibrates be n consid]able 9 magnitude1 ! "t ( its vibration w be ! same :e!r ! ar* be long or %ort4 ,?us1 = example1 if ! p5dulum1 in/ead ( vibrat+ 9 ! ar* ,p ,p1 vibrat$ 9 ! ar* p p1 ! "t :i* x w\ld take to p]=m its vibrations w\ld be ! same4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! magnitude ( ! ar* ( vibration be increas$1 !n a v>iation w take place 9 ! "t ( vibration2 b unless ! ar* ( vibration be consid]ably increas$1 ?is v>iation w n be great4 ,n[ let x be suppos$ t :ile ! p5dulum ,p ,p cont9ues to vibrate ea/ & we/ ?r\gh ! ar* ,p ,p1 x %all receive su* an impulse f nor? & s\? z w\ld1 if x 7 n 9 a /ate ( previ\s vibration1 cause x to vibrate betwe5 nor? & s\?1 9 an ar* simil> to ! ar* ,p ,p4 ,?is second vibration betwe5 nor? & s\? ,pg#bac w\ld n prev5t ! cont9uance ( ! o!r vibration betwe5 ea/ & we/2 b ! ball ,p w\ld be at ! same "t affect$ by bo? vibrations4 ,:ile1 9 virtue ( ! vibration f ea/ to we/1 ! ball w\ld sw+ f ,p to ,p1 x w\ld1 9 virtue ( ! o!r vibration1 ext5d its motion t[>ds ! nor? to a di/ance f ! l9e ,w ,e equal to half a vibration1 & w return f t di/ance aga9 to ! position ,p4 ,:ile return+ f ,p to ,p1 its second vibration w c>ry x t[>ds ! s\? to an equal di/ance on ! s\!rn side ( ,w ,e1 & x w return aga9 to ! position ,p4 ,if ! comb9ation ( ^! two motions or vibrations be att5tively consid]$1 x w be p]ceiv$ t ! effect on ! ball w be a circul> motion1 precisely simil> to ! circul> motion ( ! balls ( ! gov]nor already describ$4 ,n[ ! "t ( vibration ( ! p5dulum ,s ,p betwe5 ea/ & we/ w n 9 any way be affect$ by ! second vibration1 :i* x is suppos$ to receive betwe5 nor? & s\?1 & !re=e ! "t ! p5dulum takes 9 mov+ f ,p to ,p & back aga9 f ,p to ,p w be ! same :e!r x %all h simultane\sly or n ! o!r vibration betwe5 nor? & s\?4 ,h5ce x foll[s t ! "t ( revolution ( ! circul> p5dulum w be equal to ! "t ( simil> vibrations ( ! same p5dulum1 if1 in/ead ( hav+ a circul> motion1 x 7 all[$ to vibrate 9 ! mann] ( a common p5dulum4 ,if ?is po9t be und]/ood1 & if x also be rememb]$ t ! "t ( vibration ( a common p5dulum is necess>ily ! same :e!r ! ar* ( vibration be small or great1 x w be easily p]ceiv$ t ! revolv+ p5dulum or gov]nor w h ne>ly ! same "t ( revolution :e!r x revolve 9 a l>ge circle or a small "o3 9 o!r words1 :e!r ! balls revolve at a great] or a less di/ance f ! c5tral sp9dle or axis4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is to be und]/ood only approximately4 ,:5 ! angle ( div]g5ce ( ! balls is z consid]able z x usually is 9 gov]nors1 ! "t ( revolution at diff]5t di/ances f ! axis w !re=e be subject to "s v>iation1 b to a v small "o4 ,pg#bad ,! c5trifugal =ce 7:i* is ! "n giv5 9 me*anics to t influ5ce :i* makes a body revolv+ 9 a circle fly f ! c5tre7 dep5ds conjo9tly on ! velocity ( revolution1 & on ! di/ance ( ! revolv+ body f ! c5tre ( ! circle4 ,if ! velocity ( revolution be ! same1 !n ! c5trifugal =ce w increase 9 ! same proportion z ! di/ance ( ! revolv+ body f ! c5tre4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! di/ance ( ! revolv+ body f ! c5tre rema9 ! same1 ! c5trifugal =ce w increase 9 ! same proportion z ! squ>e ( ! "t ( vibration dim9i%es1 or1 9 o!r words1 x w increase 9 ! same proportion z ! squ>e ( ! numb] ( revolutions p] m9ute4 ,x foll[s f ?is1 !re=e1 t ! great] is ! div]g5ce ( ! balls ( ! gov]nor1 & ! m rapidly !y revolve1 ! great] w be _! c5trifugal =ce4 ,n[ ?is c5trifugal =ce1 if x 7 n c\nt]balanc$1 w\ld give ! balls a con/ant t5d5cy to rec$e f ! c5tre2 b f ! con/ruction ( ! app>atus1 ! fur!r !y are remov$ f ! c5tre ! great] w be ! effect ( _! gravitation 9 resi/+ ! c5trifugal =ce4 ,x is evid5t t ! ball at ,p w h a great] t5d5cy to fall by gravitation t[>ds ,o ?an x w\ld h at p1 because ! acclivity ( ! ar* desc5d+ t[>ds ,o at ,p is great] ?an its acclivity at p4 ,! gravitation1 !re=e1 or t5d5cy ( ! ball to fall t[>ds ! c5tral axis be+ great] at ,p ?an at p x w be able to resi/ a great] c5trifugal =ce4 ,?is increas$ c5trifugal =ce1 :i* ! ball w\ld h revolv+ at ! di/ance ,p above :at x w\ld h at ! di/ance p1 is produc$ p>tly by ! great] di/ance ( ! ball f ! c5tral axis1 & p>tly by ! great] velocity ( its motion4 ,b x w be evid5t t ! "t ( its revolution may nev]!less be ! same1 or ne>ly ! same1 at bo? di/ances4 ,if x %\ld appe> t ! actual velocity ( its motion ( revolution at ,p be great] ?an its velocity at p1 9 ! same proportion z ! circles 9 :i* !y revolve1 !n x is evid5t t ! "t ( revolution w\ld be z mu* increas$ by ! great] space :i* ,p w h to travel ov]1 z x w h to be ,pg#bae dim9i%$ by ! great] spe$ ) :i* t space is trav]s$4 ,! "t ( revolution1 !re=e1 may be ! same1 or ne>ly ! same1 9 bo? cases4 ,if ?is explanation be compreh5d$1 x w n be difficult to apply x to ! actual case ( ! gov]nor4 ,if a sudd5 increase ( ! en]gy ( ! mov+ p[]1 or a dim9ution ( ! load1 %\ld give ! ma*9e an increas$ velocity1 !n ! increas$ spe$ ( ! balls ( ! gov]nor w give !m an increas$ c5trifugal =ce1 :i* = ! mom5t w be great] ?an ! t5d5cy ( _! gravitation to make !m fall t[>ds ! v]tical axis4 ,?is c5trifugal =ce1 !re=e1 prevail+1 ! balls w rec$e f ! axis2 b z !y rec$e1 _! gravitation t[>ds ! v]tical axis w1 z has be5 already expla9$1 be increas$1 & w become equal to ! c5trifugal =ce produc$ by ! increas$ velocity1 provid$ t velocity d n exce$ a c]ta9 limit4 ,:5 ! balls1 by div]g+1 get su* increas$ gravitation z to balance ! c5trifugal =ce1 !n !y w cont9ue to revolve at a fix$ di/ance f ! v]tical axis4 ,:5 ?is happ5s1 ! "t ( ! revolution mu/ be ne>ly ! same z x 0 be=e _! increas$ div]g5ce2 9 o!r words1 ! proportion ( ! mov+ p[] to ! load w be s re/or$ by ! action ( ! lev]s ( ! gov]nor on ! ?rottle-valve t ! ma*9e w move at its =m] velocity1 or ne>ly s4 ,! pr9ciple on :i* ! gov]nor acts1 z j expla9$1 necess>ily supposes tempor>y dis>rangem5ts ( ! spe$4 ,9 fact1 ! gov]nor1 /rictly speak+1 does n ma9ta9 a uni=m velocity1 b re/ores x aft] x has be5 di/urb$4 ,:5 a sudd5 *ange ( motion ( ! eng9e takes place1 ! gov]nor be+ imm$iately affect$ w cause a correspond+ alt]ation 9 ! ?rottle-valve2 & ?is w n m]ely correct ! *ange ( motion1 b x w1 z x 71 ov]do x1 & w cause a d]angem5t ( spe$ ( ! opposite k9d4 ,?us if ! spe$ be sudd5ly increas$ to an undue am\nt1 !n ! gov]nor be+ affect$ w fir/ close ! ?rottle-valve too mu*1 s z to r$uce ! spe$ bel[ ! prop] limit4 ,?is second error w aga9 affect ! gov]nor 9 ! contr>y way1 & ! spe$ ,pg#baf w aga9 be increas$ r too mu*4 ,9 ?is way a succession ( alt]ations ( effect w ensue until ! gov]nor settles d[n into t position 9 :i* x w ma9ta9 ! eng9e at ! prop] spe$4 ,to prev5t ! inconv5i5ce :i* w\ld att5d any excess ( su* v>iations1 ! gov]nor is made to act ) great delicacy on ! ?rottle-valve1 s t ev5 a consid]able *ange 9 ! div]g5ce ( ! balls %all n produce too mu* alt]ation 9 ! op5+ ( t valve3 ! /eam 9 ! boil] %\ld h at lea/ #b lbs4 p] squ>e in* pressure m ?an is g5]ally requir$ 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,?is excess is necess>y to af=d scope = t ext5t ( v>iation ( ! p[] :i* x is ! duty ( ! ?rottle-valve to regulate4 ,! gov]nor is usually s adju/$ z to make ?irty-six revolutions p] m9ute1 :5 9 uni=m motion2 b if ! motion is increas$ to ! rate ( ?irty-n9e revolutions1 ! balls w fly to ! utmo/ ext5t all[$ !m1 be+ ! limitation ( ! grooves 9 :i* _! rods move2 & if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! spe$ be dim9i%$ to ?irty-f\r revolutions p] m9ute1 !y w collapse to ! l[e/ ext5t ( _! play4 ,! duty ( ! gov]nor1 !re=e1 is to correct small] casual d]angem5ts ( ! velocity2 b if any p]man5t *ange to a consid]able ext5t be made ei!r 9 ! load driv5 by ! ma*9e or 9 ! mov+ p[] suppli$ to x f ! boil]1 !n a p]man5t *ange is necess>y to be made 9 ! connection betwe5 ! gov]nor & ! ?rottle-valve1 s z to r5d] ! gov]nor capable ( regulat+ ^? small] *anges to :i* ! spe$ ( ! ma*9e is liable4 7#abg47 ,hav+ ?us expla9$ ! pr9cipal me*anical contrivances provid$ by ,watt = ! ma9t5ance & regulation ( ! rotatory motion to be produc$ by 8 d\ble-act+ /eam eng9e1 let u n[ consid] ! ma*9e z a :ole1 & inve/igate ! process ( its op]ation4 ,a section ( ?is eng9e is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #dc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,/eam is suppli$ f ! boil] to ! cyl9d] by ! /eam pipe ,s4 ,! ?rottle-valve ,t 9 t pipe1 ne> ! cyl9d]1 is regulat$ by a sy/em ( lev]s connect$ ) ,pg#bag ! gov]nor4 ,! pi/on ,p is accurately fitt$ 9 ! /eam cyl9d] ,c by pack+1 z already describ$ 9 ! s+le-act+ eng9e4 ,?is pi/on1 z x moves1 divides ! cyl9d] into two comp>tm5ts1 betwe5 :i* !re is no communication by :i* /eam or any o!r ela/ic fluid c pass4 ,! upp] /eam box ,b is divid$ into ?ree comp>tm5ts by ! two valves4 ,above ! upp] /eam valve ,v is a comp>tm5t communicat+ ) ! /eam pipe2 bel[ ! upp] exhau/+ valve ,e is ano!r comp>tm5t communicat+ ) ! eduction pipe :i* leads to ! cond5s]4 ,by ! valves ,v & ,e a communication may be op5$ or clos$ betwe5 ! boil] on ! "o h&1 or ! cond5s] on ! o!r1 & ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! cont9uation ,s ( ! /eam pipe leads to ! l[] box ,b1 :i*1 l ! upp]1 is divid$ into ?ree comp>tm5ts by two valves ,v & ,e4 ,! upp] comp>tm5t communicates ) ! /eam pipe1 & !reby ) ! boil]2 & ! l[] comp>tm5t communicates ) ! eduction pipe1 & !reby ) ! cond5s]4 ,by means ( ! two valves ,v & ,e1 a communication may be op5$ or clos$ betwe5 ! /eam pipe on ! "o h&1 or ! exhau/+ pipe on ! o!r1 & ! l[] "p ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! f\r valves ,v1 ,e1 ,v1 & ,e are connect$ by a sy/em ( lev]s ) a h&le or spann] m1 :i*1 be+ driv5 d[nw>ds or upw>ds1 is capable ( op5+ or clos+ ! valves 9 pairs1 9 ! mann] already describ$ 7#aaf474 ,! cond5s]s1 ! air-pump1 & ! hot-wat] pump1 are 9 all respects simil> to ^? already describ$ 9 ! s+le-act+ eng9e1 except t ! cond5s+ jet is gov]n$ by a lev] ,i1 by :i* x is all[$ to play cont9ually 9 ! cond5s]1 & by :i* ! quantity ( wat] admitt$ ?r\gh x is regulat$4 ,! cold-wat] pump ,n is work$ by ! eng9e z already describ$ 9 ! s+le-act+ eng9e1 & supplies ! ci/]n 9 :i* ! air-pump & cond5s] are subm]g$1 s z to keep d[n its temp]ature to ! prop] limit4 ,on ! air-pump rod ,r are two p9s prop]ly plac$1 s z to /rike ! spann] m1 upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 at ! prop] times1 :5 ! pi/on approa*es ! t]m9ation ( ! /roke at ! top or bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! pump ,l ,pg#bah conducts ! w>m wat] drawn by ! air-pump f ! cond5s] to a prop] res]voir = fe$+ ! boil]4 ,! v]tical motion ( ! pi/on-rod 9 a /raight l9e is r5d]$ compatible ) ! circul> motion ( ! end ( ! beam by ! p>allel motion already describ$4 ,! po9t b1 on ! beam1 moves upw>ds & d[nw>ds 9 a circul> ar*1 ( :i* ! axis ( ! beam is ! c5tre4 ,9 l mann] ! po9t d ( ! rod d c moves upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 9 a simil> ar* ( :i* ! fix$ pivot c is ! c5tre4 ,! jo9t or b> d b1 :i* jo9s ^! two pivots1 w be mov$ s t its middle po9t e w asc5d & desc5d ne>ly 9 a /raight l9e1 z has be5 already expla9$ 7#abj472 ,pg#bai opposite ?is po9t e is atta*$ ! pi/on-rod ( ! air-pump1 :i* is accord+ly guid$ upw>ds & d[nw>ds by ?is means4 ,! jo9t$ p>allelogram b d g f is atta*$ to ! beam by pivots2 &1 z has be5 expla9$ 7#abj471 ! po9t g w be mov$ upw>ds & d[nw>ds 9 a /raight l9e1 ?r\gh twice ! space ?r\gh :i* ! po9t e is mov$4 ,to ! po9t g ! rod ( ! /eam pi/on is atta*$4 ,?us1 ! rods ( ! /eam pi/on & air-pump are mov$ by ! same sy/em ( jo9t$ b>s1 & mov$ ?r\gh spaces :i* are 9 ! proportion ( two to "o4 ,al?\gh ?is sy/em ( jo9t$ rods =m+ ! p>allel motion1 appe>s 9 ! figure to consi/ only ( "o p>allelogram b d g f1 & "o rod c d1 call$ ! radius rod1 x is1 9 fact1 d\ble1 a simil> p>allelogram & radius rod be+ atta*$ to correspond+ po9ts1 & 9 ! same mann] on ! o!r side ( ! beam2 b f ! view giv5 9 ! cut1 ! "o set ( rods hides ! o!r4 ,! two sy/ems ( rods ?us atta*$ to opposite sides ( ! beam at sev]al in*es asund]1 are connect$ by cross rods1 ! ends ( :i* =m ! pivots or jo9ts1 & ext5d betwe5 ! p>allelograms4 ,! ends ( ^! rods are only visible 9 ! figure4 ,x is to ! middle ( "o ( ^! rods1 ! end ( :i* is repres5t$ at e1 t ! air-pump pi/on-rod is atta*$2 & x is to ! middle ( ano!r1 ! end ( :i* is repres5t$ at g1 t ! /eam pi/on-rod is atta*$4 ,^! two pi/on-rods1 !re=e1 are driv51 n imm$iately by ei!r ( ! p>allelograms =m+ ! p>allel motion1 b by ! b>s ext5d+ betwe5 !m4 ,to ! work+ end ( ! beam ,h is atta*$ a rod ( ca/-iron ,o1 call$ ! connect+ rod1 ! l[] end ( :i* is atta*$ to ! crank by a pivot4 ,! weight ( ! connect+ rod is s made1 t x %all balance ! weight ( ! pi/on-rods ( ! air-pump & cyl9d] on ! o!r side ( ! beam2 & ! weight ( ! pi/on-rod ( ! cold-wat] pump ,n ne>ly balances ! weight ( ! pi/on-rod ( ! hot-wat] pump ,l4 ,?us1 s f> z ! weights ( ! ma*9]y are conc]n$1 ! eng9e is 9 equilibrium1 & ! pi/on w\ld re/ 9 any position indiff]5tly 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! axis ( ! fly-:eel on :i* ! crank is =m$ is ,pg#bbj squ>e 9 ! middle "p1 :]e ! fly-:eel is atta*$ to x1 b has cyl9drical necks at ea* end1 :i* re/ 9 sockets or be>+s support$ by ! fram+ ( ! ma*9e1 9 :i* sockets ! axis revolves freely4 ,on ! axle ( ! crank is plac$ ! fly-:eel1 & connect$ ) its axle is ! gov]nor ,q1 :i* regulates ! ?rottle-valve ,t 9 ! mann] already describ$4 ,let u n[ suppose ! eng9e to be 9 full op]ation4 ,! pi/on be+ at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! spann] m w be rais$ by ! l[] p9 on ! air-pump rod1 & ! upp] /eam valve ,v1 & ! l[] exhau/+ valve ,e1 w be op5$1 :ile ! upp] exhau/+ valve ,e & ! l[] /eam valve ,v are clos$4 ,/eam w1 !re=e1 be admitt$ above ! pi/on1 & ! /eam :i* fill$ ! cyl9d] bel[ x w be drawn (f to ! cond5s]1 :]e x w be conv]t$ into wat]4 ,! pi/on w1 !re=e1 be urg$ by ! pressure ( ! /eam above x to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,z x approa*es t limit1 ! spann] m w be /ruck d[nw>ds by ! upp] p9 on ! air-pump rod1 & ! valves ,v & ,e w be clos$1 & at ! same "t ! l[] /eam valve ,v & ! upp] exhau/+ valve ,e w be op5$4 ,/eam w1 !re=e1 be admitt$ bel[ ! pi/on1 :ile ! /eam above x w be drawn (f into ! cond5s]1 & conv]t$ into wat]4 ,! pressure ( ! /eam1 !re=e1 bel[ ! pi/on w urge x upw>ds1 & 9 ! same mann] ! motion w be cont9u$4 ,:ile ?is process is go+ on 9 ! cyl9d] & ! cond5s]1 ! wat] =m$ 9 ! cond5s] w be gradually drawn (f by ! op]ation ( ! air-pump pi/on1 9 ! same mann] z expla9$ 9 ! s+le-act+ eng9e2 & at ! same "t ! hot wat] ?r[n into ! hot well by ! air-pump pi/on w be c>ri$ (f by ! hot-wat] pump ,l4 ,su* are ! *ief circum/ances att5d+ ! cont9uance ( ! op]ation ( ! d\ble-act+ eng9e4 ,x is only necess>y "h to recall :at has be5 already expla9$ respect+ ! op]ation ( ! fly-:eel4 ,! comm5cem5t ( ! motion ( ! pi/on f ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d] is produc$1 n by ! pressure ( ! /eam ^u x upw>ds or d[nw>ds1 :i* mu/1 = ! reasons ,pg#bba already expla9$1 be entirely ineffici5t2 b by ! mom5tum ( ! fly-:eel1 :i* extricates ! crank f ^? positions 9 :i* ! mov+ p[] _c affect x4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! motion ( ! crank affects ! connect+ rod at ! dead po9ts produces an effect ( great importance 9 ! op]ation ( ! eng9e4 ,:5 ! crank-p9 is approa*+ ! l[e/ po9t ( its play1 & !re=e ! pi/on approa*+ ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! motion ( ! crank-p9 becomes ne>ly horizontal1 & consequ5tly its effect 9 draw+ ! connect+ rod & ! work+ end ( ! beam d[nw>ds & ! pi/on upw>ds1 is extremely small4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is is1 t z ! pi/on approa*es ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 its motion becomes v rapidly ret>d$2 & z ! motion ( ! crank-p9 at its l[e/ po9t is actually horizontal1 ! pi/on is br\ght to a /ate ( re/ by ?is gradually ret>d$ motion at ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,9 l mann]1 :5 ! crank-p9 moves f its dead po9t upw>ds1 its motion at fir/ is v ne>ly horizontal1 & consequ5tly its effect 9 driv+ ! work+ end ( ! beam upw>ds1 & ! pi/on d[nw>ds1 is at fir/ v small1 b gradually accel]at$4 ,! effect ( ?is ^u ! pi/on is1 t x arrives at & dep>ts f ! top ( ! /roke ) a v sl[ motion1 be+ absolutely br\ght to re/ at t po9t4 ,! same effect is produc$ :5 ! pi/on arrives at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,?is ret>dation & susp5sion ( ! motion ( ! pi/on at ! t]m9ation ( ! /roke af=ds "t = ! process ( cond5sation to be effect$1 s t :5 ! mov+ p[] ( ! /eam ^u ! pi/on c come into action1 ! cond5sation %all be suffici5tly complete4 ,z ! pi/on approa*es ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 & its motion becomes sl[1 ! work+ ge> is made to op5 ! l[] exhau/+ valve2 ! /eam enclos$ 9 ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on1 & :i* has j driv5 ! pi/on upw>ds1 presses ) an ela/ic =ce ( #ag lbs4 p] squ>e in* on e "p ( ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d]1 :ile ! uncond5s$ vap\r 9 ! cond5s] presses ) a =ce ( ab\t #b lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,! /eam1 !re=e1 w h a t5d5cy to ru% f ! cyl9d] to ! ,pg#bbb cond5s] ?r\gh ! op5 exhau/+ valve1 ) an excess ( pressure am\nt+ to #ae lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 :ile ! pi/on pauses at ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,?is process goes on1 & :5 ! pi/on has desc5d$ by ! motion ( ! fly-:eel1 a suffici5t di/ance f ! top ( ! cyl9d] to call ! mov+ =ce ( ! /eam into action1 ! exhau/ion w be complete1 & ! pressure ( ! uncond5s$ vap\r 9 ! cyl9d] w become ! same z 9 ! cond5s]4 ,! pressure ( /eam 9 ! cyl9d]1 & ( uncond5s$ vap\r 9 ! cond5s]1 v>ies1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 9 diff]5t eng9es1 & !re=e ! am\nt "h assign$ to !m mu/ be tak5 m]ely z an example4 ,! size ( ! valves by :i* ! /eam is all[$ to pass f ! cyl9d] to ! cond5s] %\ld be su* z to cause ! cond5sation to take place 9 a suffici5tly %ort "t1 to be complet$ :5 ! /eam impell+ ! pi/on is call$ into action4 ,watt1 9 ! con/ruction ( 8 eng9es1 made ! exhau/ion-valves ) a diamet] :i* 0 "o fif? ( ! diamet] ( ! cyl9d]1 & !re=e ! actual magnitude ( ! ap]ture = ! escape ( ! /eam 0 "o tw5ty-fif? ( ! magnitude ( ! cyl9d]2 b ! sp9dle ( ! valve dim9i%$ ?is s t ! available space = ! escape ( /eam did n exce$ "o tw5ty-sev5? ( ! magnitude ( ! cyl9d]4 ,?is 0 f\nd to produce a suffici5tly rapid cond5sation4 ,x 0 usual to make ! /eam valves ( ! same magnitude z ! exhau/+ valves1 b ! fl[ ( /eam ?r\gh ! =m] 0 resi/$ by ! ?rottle-valve1 :ile no ob/ruction 0 oppos$ to its passage ?r\gh ! latt]4 ,! rapidity ) :i* ! cyl9d] mu/ be exhau/$ by ! cond5s] w1 h[ev]1 dep5d ^u ! velocity ) :i* ! pi/on is mov$ 9 x4 ,! magnitude1 !re=e1 ( ! exhau/+ valves :i* w\ld be suffici5t = an eng9e :i* acts ) a sl[ motion w\ld be too small :]e a rapid motion is requir$4 ,9 ! s+le-act+ /eam eng9e1 :]e ! mov+ =ce always act$ d[nw>ds on ! pi/on1 ! pressure ^u ,pg#bbc all ! jo9ts ( ! ma*9]y by :i* ! =ce ( ! pi/on 0 convey$ to ! work+ p>ts1 always took place 9 ! same direction1 & consequ5tly :atev] might be ! me*anical connection by :i* ! sev]al jo9ts 7 =m$1 ! p9s by :i* !y 7 connect$1 mu/ always come to a be>+ 9 _! respective sockets1 h[ev] loosely !y may h be5 fitt$4 ,= ! same reason1 h[ev]1 t ! ar* head & *a9 7 ab&on$ z a means ( connect+ ! /eam pi/on ) ! beam1 & ! p>allel motion sub/itut$1 x 0 also necess>y 9 ! d\ble-act+ eng9e1 :]e all jo9ts :atev] 7 driv5 alt]nately 9 opposite directions1 to fit ! connect+ p9s ) ! greate/ accuracy 9 _! sockets1 & to ab&on all connection ( ! p>ts by *a9s4 ,if any s5sible loos5ess 0 left 9 ! jo9ts1 a viol5t j]k w\ld be produc$ e "t ! motion ( ! pi/on 0 rev]s$4 ,any loos5ess ei!r 9 ! pivots or jo9ts ( ! p>allel motion ( ! work+ beam1 ! connect+ rod1 or crank1 w\ld1 at e *ange ( /roke1 be s accumulat$ z to produce ^u ! ma*9]y ! effects ( p]cussion1 & w\ld consequ5tly be att5d$ ) ! dang] ( /ra9+ & break+ ! moveable p>ts ( ! me*anism4 ,to secure1 !re=e1 ! necess>y accuracy ( ! jo9ts1 ,watt contriv$ t e jo9t 9 ! eng9e %\ld admit ( ! size ( ! socket be+ exactly adapt$ to ! size ( ! p91 s z always to make a good fitt+ by clos+ ! socket ^u ! p91 :5 any loos5ess w\ld be produc$ by we>4 ,) ?is view1 all ! jo9ts 7 fitt$ ) sockets made ( brass or gun-metal1 capable ( adju/m5t4 ,ea* socket 0 compos$ ( two pieces1 accurately fitt$ into a cell or groove1 9 :i* "o ( ! brasses c be mov$ t[>ds ! o!r by means ( a w$ge or screw4 ,ea* brass has 9 x a semi-cyl9drical cavity1 & ! two cavities be+ oppos$ to ea* o!r1 =m a socket = ! jo9t-p94 ,"o ( ! two brasses c always be tight5$ r\nd t p91 s z to enclose x tight betwe5 ! two semi-cyl9drical cavities1 & to prev5t any loos5ess tak+ place4 ,! brasses1 & o!r p>ts ( su* a jo9t1 are repres5t$ ,pg#bbd 9 fig4 #dd4 ,^! jo9ts /ill cont9ue to be us$ 9 ! eng9es z n[ con/ruct$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,! motion ( ! work+ beam1 & ! pump-rods :i* x drives1 & ( ! connect+ rod1 ought1 if ! :ole 7 con/ruct$ ) p]fect precision1 to take place 9 ! same or p>allel v]tical planes2 b ?is supposes a p]fection ( execution :i* c\ld h>dly h be5 expect$ 9 ! e>ly manufacture ( su* eng9es1 :atev] may h be5 atta9$ by improvem5ts :i* h be5 s9ce made4 ,9 ! details ( con/ruction1 ,watt saw t !re w\ld be a liability to lat]al /ra91 ow+ to ! planes ( ! diff]5t motions n be+ truly v]tical & truly p>allel1 & t if a provision 7 n made = su* lat]al motion1 ! ma*9]y w\ld be subject to con/ant /ra9 9 its jo9ts & rapid we>4 ,he provid$ aga9/ ?is by con/ruct+ ! ma9 jo9ts by :i* ! great work+ lev] 0 connect$ ) ! pi/ons & connect+ rod1 s z to =m univ]sal jo9ts1 giv+ fre$om ( motion lat]ally z well z v]tically4 ,! great lev]1 or work+ beam1 0 s call$ f be+ orig9ally made f a beam ( oak4 ,x is n[1 h[ev]1 univ]sally con/ruct$ ( ca/-iron4 ,! connect+ rod is also made ( ca/-iron1 & atta*$ to ! beam & to ! crank by axles or pivots4 ,! me*anism by :i* ! f\r valves are op5$ & clos$1 is subject to consid]able v>iation 9 diff]5t eng9es4 ,!y h be5 describ$ above z be+ op5$ & clos$ simultane\sly by a s+le lev]4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 !y are op5$ alt]nately 9 pairs by two di/9ct lev]s driv5 by two p9s atta*$ to ! air-pump rod4 ,"o p9 /rikes ! lev]1 :i* op5s & closes ! upp] /eam valve1 & l[] exhau/+ valve2 ! o!r /rikes t :i* op5s & closes ! l[] /eam valve & upp] exhau/+ valve4 ,s9ce ! date ( ! e>li] d\ble-act+ eng9es1 con/ruct$ by ,b\lton & ,watt1 a great v>iety ( me*anical exp$i5ts h be5 practis$ = work+ ! valves1 by :i* ! /eam is admitt$ to & )drawn f ! ,pg#bbe cyl9d]4 ,we %all "h describe a few ( ^! me?ods3-- 7#abh47 ,! me?od ( work+ ! valves by p9s on ! air-pump rod driv+ lev]s connect$ ) ! valves has be51 9 almo/ all mod]n d\ble-act+ ma*9es1 sup]s$$ by an app>atus call$ an ecc5tric1 by :i* ! motion ( ! axle ( ! fly-:eel is made to op5 & close ! valves at ! prop] times4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,an ecc5tric is a metallic circle atta*$ to a revolv+ axle1 s t ! c5tre ( ! circle %all n co9cide ) ! c5tre r\nd :i* ! axle revolves4 ,let u suppose t ,g 7fig4 #de471 is a squ>e revolv+ %aft4 ,let a circul> plate ( metal ,b ,d1 hav+ its c5tre at ,c1 h a squ>e hole cut 9 x1 correspond+ to ! %aft ,g1 & let ! %aft ,g pass ?r\gh ?is squ>e ap]ture1 s t ! circul> plate ,b ,d %all be fa/5$ ^u ! %aft1 & capable ( revolv+ ) x z ! %aft revolves4 ,! c5tre ,c ( ! circul> plate ,b ,d w be c>ri$ r\nd ! c5tre ,g ( ! revolv+ %aft1 & w describe r\nd x a circle1 ! radius ( :i* w be ! di/ance ( ! c5tre ,c ( ! circul> plate f ! c5tre ( ! %aft4 ,su* circul> plate s plac$ ^u a %aft1 & revolv+ ) x1 is an ecc5tric4 ,let ,e ,f be a metallic r+1 =m$ ( two semicircles ( metal screw$ toge!r at ,h1 s z to be capable1 by ! adju/m5t ( ! screws1 ( hav+ ! circul> ap]ture =m$ by ! r+ enl>g$ & dim9i%$ )9 c]ta9 ,pg#bbf small limits4 ,let ?is circul> ap]ture be suppos$ to be equal to ! magnitude ( ! ecc5tric ,b ,d4 ,to ! circul> r+ ,e ,f let an arm ,l ,m be atta*$4 ,if ! r+ ,e ,f be plac$ ar\nd ! ecc5tric ,b ,d1 & t ! screws ,h be s adju/$ z to all[ ! ecc5tric ,b ,d to revolve )9 ! r+ ,e ,f1 !n :ile ! ecc5tric revolves1 ! r+ n p>tak+ ( its revolution1 ! arm ,l ,m w be alt]nately driv5 to ! "r & to ! left1 by ! motion ( ! c5tre ,c ( ! ecc5tric z x revolves r\nd ! c5tre ,g ( ! axle4 ,:5 ! c5tre ,c ( ! ecc5tric is 9 ! same horizontal l9e ) ! c5tre ,g1 & to ! left ( x1 !n ! position ( ,l ,m w be t :i* is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #de42 b :51 aft] half a revolution ( ! ma9 axle1 ! c5tre ,c ( ! ecc5tric is ?r[n on ! o!r side ( ! c5tre ,g1 !n ! po9t ,m w be transf]r$ to ! "r1 to a di/ance equal to twice ! di/ance ,c ,g4 ,?us z ! ecc5tric ,b ,d revolves )9 ! r+ ,e ,f1 t r+1 toge!r ) ! arm ,l ,m1 w be alt]nately driv51 "r & left1 ?r\gh a space equal to twice ! di/ance betwe5 ! c5tre ( ! ecc5tric & ! c5tre ( ! revolv+ %aft4 ,if we suppose a not* =m$ at ! extremity ( ! arm ,l ,m1 :i* is capable ( embrac+ a lev] ,n ,m1 moveable on a pivot at ,n1 ! motion ( ! ecc5tric w\ld give to su* a lev] an alt]nate motion f "r to left1 & vice v]s4 ,if we suppose ano!r lev] ,n ,o connect$ ) ,n ,m1 & at "r angles to x1 =m+ :at is call$ a bell-crank1 !n ! alt]nate motion receiv$ by ,m1 f "r to left1 w\ld give a correspond+ motion to ! extremity ,o ( ! lev] ,n ,o1 upw>ds & d[nw>ds4 ,if ?is la/ po9t ,o 7 atta*$ to a v]tical arm or %aft1 x w\ld imp>t to su* arm or %aft an alt]nate motion upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 ! ext5t ( :i* w\ld be regulat$ by ! l5g? ( ! lev]s respectively4 ,by su* a contrivance ! revolution ( ! fly-:eel %aft is made to give an alt]nate v]tical motion ( any requir$ ext5t to a v]tical %aft plac$ ne> ! cyl9d]1 :i* may be s connect$ ) ! valves z to op5 & close !m4 ,s9ce ! upw>d & d[nw>d motion ( ?is v]tical %aft is gov]n$ by ! alt]nate motion ( ! c5tre ,pg#bbg ,c to ! "r & to ! left ( ! c5tre ,g1 x is evid5t t by ! adju/m5t ( ! ecc5tric ^u ! fly-:eel %aft1 ! valves may be op5$ & clos$ at any requir$ position ( ! fly-:eel & crank1 & !re=e at any requir$ position ( ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,su* is ! contrivance by :i* ! valves1 :atev] =m may be giv5 to !m1 are n[ almo/ univ]sally work$ 9 d\ble-act+ /eam eng9es4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hav+ describ$ ! g5]al /ructure & op]ation ( ! /eam eng9e z improv$ by ,watt1 we %all n[ expla91 9 a m detail$ mann]1 "s p>ts ( its ma*9]y :i* h be5 v>i\sly con/ruct$1 & 9 :i* m or less improvem5ts h be5 made4 ,,( ,,! ,,cocks ,,& ,,valves4 7#abi47 ,9 ! /eam eng9e1 z well z 9 e o!r ma*9e 9 :i* fluids act1 x is necess>y to op5 or close1 occasionally1 ! tubes or passages ?r\gh :i* ^! fluids move4 ,! in/rum5ts by :i* ?is is accompli%$ are call$ cocks or valves4 ,cocks or valves may be classifi$ by ! mann] 9 :i* !y are op5$3 #a/1 !y may be op5$ by a motion simil> to ! lid ( a box ^u its h+es2 #b;d1 !y may be op5$ by be+ rais$ directly upw>ds1 9 ! same mann] z ! lid ( a pot or kettle2 #c;d1 !y may be op5$ by a slid+ motion1 l t ( ! sa% ( a w9d[ or ! lid ( a box :i* slides 9 grooves2 #d?1 !y may be op5$ by a motion ( revolution1 9 ! same mann] z ! cock ( a be]-b>rel is op5$ or clos$4 ,! t]m valve is m prop]ly appli$ to ! fir/ & second ( ^! classes2 ! ?ird class are usually call$ slides1 & ! f\r? cocks4 7#acj47 ,! s+le clack valve is ! mo/ simple example ( ! fir/ class4 ,x is usually con/ruct$ by atta*+ to a plate ( metal l>g] ?an ! ap]ture :i* ! valve is int5d$ to /op1 a piece ( lea!r1 & to ! "u side ( ?is lea!r ano!r piece ( metal small] ?an ! ap]ture4 ,! lea!r ,pg#bbh ext5d+ on "o side beyond ! l>g] metallic plate1 & be+ flexible1 =ms ! h+e on :i* ! valve plays4 ,su* a valve is usually clos$ by its own weight1 & op5$ by ! pressure ( ! fluid :i* passes ?r\gh x4 ,x is also held clos$ m firmly by ! pressure ( ! fluid ^: return x is int5d$ to ob/ruct4 ,an example ( ?is valve occurs 9 ! /eam eng9e1 9 ! passage betwe5 ! cond5s] & ! air-pump4 ,! ap]ture :i* x /ops is !re a seat incl9$ at an angle ^: incl9ation is su* z to r5d] ! weight ( ! valve suffici5t to close x4 ,9 cases :]e ! valve is expos$ to heat1 z 9 ! example j m5tion$1 :]e x is cont9ually 9 contact ) ! hot wat] fl[+ f ! cond5s] to ! air-pump1 ! use ( lea!r is inadmissible1 & 9 t case ! metallic surface ( ! valve is gr\nd smoo? to fit its seat4 ,! ext5t to :i* su* a valve %\ld be capable ( op5+1 ought to be su* t ! ap]ture produc$ by x %all be equal to ! ap]ture :i* x /ops4 ,?is w be effect$ if ! angle ?r\gh :i* x rises be ab\t #cj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,! valve by :i* ! air & wat] collect$ 9 ! bottom ( ! air-pump are admitt$ to pass ?r\gh ! air-pump pi/on is a d\ble clack1 consi/+ ( two semicircul> plates1 hav+ ! h+es on ! diamet]s ( ^! semicircles1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #df4 7#aca47 ,( ! valves :i* are op5$ by a motion p]p5dicul> to _! seat1 ! mo/ simple is a flat metallic plate1 made l>g] ?an ! orifice :i* x is int5d$ to /op1 & gr\nd s z to re/ 9 /eam-tight contact ) ! surface surr\nd+ ! ap]ture4 ,su* a valve is usually guid$ 9 its p]p5dicul> motion by a sp9dle pass+ ?r\gh its c5tre1 & slid+ 9 holes made 9 cross b>s ext5d+ above & bel[ ! seat ( ! valve4 ,! conical /eam-valves1 :i* h be5 already describ$ 7#aaf471 usually call$ sp9dle-valves1 are ! mo/ common ( ?is class4 ,! be/ angle to be giv5 to ! conical seat is f\nd 9 practice to be #de4 ,) a less incl9ation ! valve has a t5d5cy to be fa/5$ 9 its seat1 & a great] incl9ation w\ld cause ! top ( ! valve to occupy ,pg#bbi unnecess>y space 9 ! valve-box4 ,! area1 or transv]se section ( ! valve-box1 %\ld be r m ?an d\ble ! magnitude ( ! upp] surface ( ! valve1 9 ord] to all[ a suffici5tly free passage = ! /eam1 & ! play ( ! valve %\ld be su* z to all[ x to rise f its seat to a height n less ?an "o f\r? ( ! diamet] ( its upp] surface4 ,! valves com+ "u ?is class are sometimes =m$ z sph]es or hemisph]es re/+ 9 a conical seat1 & 9 su* cases !y are g5]ally clos$ by _! own weight1 & op5$ by ! pressure ( ! fluid :i* passes ?r\gh !m4 7#acb47 ,"o ( ! advantages att5d+ ! use ( slides1 comp>$ ) ! o!r =m ( valves1 is ! simplicity ) :i* ! same slide may be made to gov]n sev]al passages1 s t a s+le motion ) a slide may p]=m ! (fice ( two or m motions imp>t$ to indep5d5t valves4 ,9 mo/ mod]n eng9es ! passage ( ! /eam to & f ! cyl9d] is gov]n$ by slides ( v>i\s =ms1 "s ( :i* we %all n[ expla94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4 7#acc47 ,9 figs4 #dg4 & #dh4 is repres5t$ a slide-valve contriv$ by ,mr4 ,murray ( ,le$s4 ,a ,b is a /eam-tight case atta*$ to ! side ( ! cyl9d]2 ,e ,f is a rod1 :i* receives an alt]nate motion1 upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 f ! ecc5tric1 or f :atev] o!r "p ( ! eng9e is int5d$ to move ! slide4 ,?is rod1 pass+ ?r\gh a /uff+-box1 moves ! slide ,g upw>ds & d[nw>ds4 ,s is ! m\? ( ! /eam pipe com+ f ! boil]2 ,t is ! m\? ( a tube or pipe lead+ to ! cond5s]2 ,h is a passage lead+ to ! top1 & ,i to ! bottom1 ( ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ! position ( ! slide repres5t$ 9 fig4 #dg41 ! /eam com+ f ! boil] ?r\gh ,s passes ?r\gh ! space ,h to ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 :ile ! /eam f ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] passes ?r\gh ! space ,i into ! tube ,t1 & goes to ! cond5s]4 ,:5 ! rod ,pg#bcj ,e ,f is rais$ to ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #dh41 !n ! passage ,h is ?r[n into communication ) ! tube ,t1 :ile ! passage ,i is made to communicate ) ! tube ,s4 ,/eam1 !re=e1 passes f ! boil] ?r\gh ,i bel[ ! pi/on1 :ile ! /eam :i* 0 above ! pi/on1 pass+ ?r\gh ,h into ,t1 goes to ! cond5s]4 ,?us ! s+le slide ,g p]=ms ! (fice ( ! f\r valves describ$ 9 7#aaf474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4 7#acd47 ,! slide ,g has always /eam ( a full pressure beh9d x1 :ile ! /eam 9 front ( x escap+ to ! cond5s]1 ex]ts b little pressure ^u x4 ,x is !re=e always =cibly press$ aga9/ ! surfaces 9 contact ) :i* x moves1 & is !reby ma9ta9$ /eam-tight4 ,inde$ ?is pressure w\ld rapidly we> ! rubb+ surfaces1 unless !y 7 made suffici5tly ext5sive1 & h>d5$ s z to resi/ ! effects ( ! friction4 ,:]e fre% wat] is us$1 z 9 l& boil]s1 ! slide may be made ( h>d5$ /eel2 & 9 ! case ( m>9e boil]s1 x may be con/ruct$ ( gun-metal4 ,9 ?is & all o!r contrivances 9 :i* ! ap]tures by :i* ! /eam is admitt$ to & )drawn f ! pi/on are remov$ to any consid]able di/ance f ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 !re is a wa/e ( /eam1 = ! /eam consum$ at ea* /roke ( ! pi/on is n only t :i* w\ld fill ! capacity ( ! cyl9d]1 b also ! /eam :i* fills ! passage betwe5 ! slide ,g & ! top or bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,any arrangem5t :i* w\ld ?r[ ! passages ,h & ,i on ! o!r side ( ! slide ,g1 t is1 betwe5 ,s & ,g1 in/ead ( be+1 z !y are1 betwe5 ,g & ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 w\ld remove ?is defect4 ,?is is accompli%$ by a slide1 :i* is usually call$ ! ,d valve1 because1 be+ semi-cyl9drical 9 its =m1 & holl[1 its cross section resembles ! lett] ,d4 ,?is slide1 :i* is t :i* at pres5t is 9 mo/ g5]al use1 is repres5t$ 9 figs4 #di1 #ej42 ,e is ! rod by :i* ! slide is mov$1 pass+ ,pg#bca ?r\gh a /uff+-box ,f2 ,g ,g is ! slide repres5t$ by a v]tical section1 a a be+ a passage 9 x ext5d+ f ! top to ! bottom2 ,s is ! m\? ( ! great /eam pipe com+ f ! boil]2 ,p is ! pipe lead+ to ! cond5s]2 ,t ,h is a holl[ space =m$ 9 ! slide always 9 communication ) ! /eam pipe ,s1 & consequ5tly always fill$ ) /eam f ! boil]4 ,a transv]se section ( ! slide & cyl9d] is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ea41 :]e a repres5ts ! top ( ! passage m>k$ a 9 fig4 #di4 ,9 ! position ( ! slide repres5t$ 9 fig4 #di41 ! /eam fill+ ! space ,t ,h has access to ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 b is exclud$ f ! bottom4 ,! /eam :i* 0 bel[ ! pi/on1 pass+ up ! passage a1 escapes ?r\gh ! tube ,p to ! cond5s]4 ,:5 ! pi/on has desc5d$1 ! rod ,e moves ! slide d[nw>ds1 s z to give x ! position repres5t$ 9 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,! /eam 9 ,t ,h has n[ access to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 :ile ! /eam above ! pi/on pass+ ?r\gh ,p escapes to ! cond5s]4 ,9 ?is way ! op]ation ( ! pi/on is cont9u$ & ! /eam consum$ at ea* /roke only exce$s ! capacity ( ! cyl9d] by :at is necess>y to fill ! passages betwe5 ! slide & ! cyl9d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,9 a slide con/ruct$ 9 ?is mann]1 ! /eam fill+ ! space ,t ,h has a t5d5cy to press ! slide back1 s z to break ! contact ( ! rubb+ surfaces1 & !reby to cause ! /eam to leak f ! space ,t ,h to ! back ( ! slide4 ,?is is c\nt]act$ by ! pack+ x1 at ! back ( ! slide4 ,9 eng9es ( v long /roke1 ! ext5t ( ! rubb+ surfaces ( slides ( ?is k9d r5d]s x difficult to keep ,pg#bcb !m 9 /eam-tight contact & to insure _! uni=m we>4 ,9 su* cases1 !re=e1 sep>ate slides1 ^u ! same pr9ciple1 are provid$ at ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 mov$1 h[ev]1 by a s+le rod ( communication4 7#ace47 ,9 slides1 z we h "h describ$ !m1 ! same motion :i* admits /eam to ei!r end ( ! cyl9d]1 )draws x f ! o!r end4 ,su* an arrangem5t is only compatible ) ! op]ation ( a cyl9d] :i* works )\t expansion2 = 9 su* a cyl9d] ! full fl[ ( /eam to ! pi/on is only int]rupt$ = a mom5t dur+ ! *ange ( position ( ! slide4 ,b if ! /eam act expansively1 x w\ld be necess>y to move ! slide1 s z to /op its fl[ to "o end ( ! cyl9d]1 )\t at ! same "t ob/ruct+ ! escape ( /eam f ! o!r end to ! cond5s]4 ,x w\ld !re=e be necess>y t ! slide %\ld close ! passage lead+ to ! cyl9d] at "o end1 )\t at ! same "t ob/ruct+ ! communication betwe5 ! passage f ! cyl9d] to ! cond5s] at ! o!r end4 ,on ! arrival ( ! pi/on1 h[ev]1 at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 x w\ld be necess>y imm$iately to put ! l[] passage to ! cyl9d] 9 communication ) ! /eam pipe1 & ! upp] passage 9 communication ) ! cond5s]4 ,?is w\ld necess>ily suppose two motions ( ! slide z well z "s modifications 9 its l5g?4 ,let ! l5g? ( ! slide be su* t :5 ! passage to ! top ( ! cyl9d] is /opp$1 ! l[] "p ( ! slide %all n rea* ! passage to ! l[] "p ( ! cyl9d]2 & let su* a provision be made 9 ! me*anism by :i* ! rod ,e gov]n+ ! slide is driv5 t x %all receive two motions dur+ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on1 ! fir/ to be imp>t$ to x at ! mom5t ! /eam is to be cut (f1 & ! second j be=e ! t]m9ation ( ! /roke4 ,let ! position ( ! slide1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! /roke1 be repres5t$ 9 fig4 #eb41 & let x be requir$ t ! /eam %all be cut (f at "o half ( ! /roke4 ,:5 ! pi/on has made half ! /roke1 ! rod gov]n+ ! slide is mov$ d[nw>ds1 s z to ?r[ ! slide into ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ec4 ,! passage betwe5 ! /eam pipe & ! cyl9d] is ,pg#bcc n[ /opp$ at bo? ends2 b ! passage f ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] to ! cond5s] rema9s op54 ,dur+ ! rema9d] ( ! /roke1 !re=e1 ! /eam 9 ! cyl9d] works expansively4 ,z ! pi/on approa*es ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ano!r motion is imp>t$ to ! rod gov]n+ ! slide1 by :i* ! latt] is ?r[n into ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ed4 ,/eam n[ fl[s bel[ ! pi/on :ile ! /eam above x passes to ! cond5s]4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 by two motions successively imp>t$ to ! slide dur+ ! asc5t ( ! pi/on1 ! /eam may be cut (f at half /roke2 & x is evid5t t by regulat+ ! "t at :i* ^! motions are giv5 to ! slide1 ! /eam may be work$ expansively1 to any requir$ ext5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,x is easy to conceive v>i\s me*anical means by :i*1 9 ! same eng9e1 ! po9t at :i* ! /eam is cut (f may be regulat$ at pleasure4 ,9 cases :]e ! motion ( ! pi/on is v rapid1 z 9 locomotive eng9es1 x is desirable t ! passages to & f ! cyl9d] %\ld be op5$ v sudd5ly4 ,?is is difficult to be accompli%$ ) any =m ( slide consi/+ ( a s+le ap]ture2 b if1 in/ead ( admitt+ ! /eam to ! cyl9d] by a s+le ap]ture1 ! same magnitude ( op5+ 7 divid$ among sev]al ap]tures1 !n a proportionally less ext5t ( motion 9 ! slide w\ld cle> ! passage = ! /eam1 & consequ5tly great] sudd5ness ( op5+ w\ld be effect$4 ,pg#bcd ,! great advantages 9 ! economy ( fuel result+ f ! application ( ! expansive pr9ciple h1 ( late ye>s =c$ !mselves on ! att5tion ( eng9e]s1 & consid]able improvem5ts h be5 made 9 its application1 especially 9 ! case ( m>9e eng9es us$ = long voyages1 9 :i* ! economy ( fuel has become an object ( ! la/ importance4 ,! me*anism by :i* expansive slides are mov$1 is made capable ( adju/m5t1 s t ! "p ( ! /roke at :i* ! /eam is cut (f1 c be alt]$ at pleasure4 ,! work+ p[] ( ! eng9e1 !re=e1 in/ead ( be+ controll$ by ! ?rottle-valve1 is regulat$ by ! great] or less ext5t to :i* ! expansive pr9ciple is appli$4 ,/eam ( ! same pressure is admitt$ to ! cyl9d] 9 all cases2 b x is cut (f at a great] or less portion ( ! /roke1 accord+ to ! p[] :i* ! eng9e is requir$ to ex]t4 ,! la/ degree ( p]fection has be5 conf]r$ on ?is pr9ciple by connect+ ! gov]nor ) ! me*anism by :i* ! slide is mov$1 s t ! gov]nor in/ead ( act+ on ! ?rottle-valve1 is made to act ^u ! slide4 ,by ?is means :51 by reason ( any dim9ution ( ! resi/ance1 ! motion ( ! eng9e is accel]at$1 ! balls ( ! gov]nor div]g+ %ift ! cam or lev] :i* gov]ns ! slide1 s t ! /eam is cut (f aft] a %ort] portion ( ! /roke1 ! expansive pr9ciple is br\ght into great] play1 & ! quantity ( /eam admitt$ to ! cyl9d] at ea* /roke is dim9i%$4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! resi/ance to ! ma*9e be increas$1 s z to dim9i% ! velocity ( ! eng9e1 !n ! balls collaps+ ! lev]s ( ! gov]nor %ift ! cam :i* moves ! slides1 s z to increase ! portion ( ! /roke made by ! pi/on be=e ! /eam is cut (f1 & !reby to increase ! am\nt ( me*anical p[] develop$ 9 ! cyl9d] at ea* /roke4 ,! ext5t to :i* ! expansive pr9ciple is capable ( be+ appli$1 m especially 9 m>9e eng9es1 has be5 hi!rto limit$ by ! necessity ( us+ /eam ( v high pressure1 :5ev] ! /eam is cut (f aft] ! pi/on has p]=m$ only a small "p ( ! /roke4 ,a me?od1 h[ev]1 is n[ 7,m>*1 #ahdj7 "u exp]im5tal trial1 by ,pg#bce ,messrs4 ,maudsley & ,field1 by :i* ! expansive pr9ciple may be appli$ to any requir$ ext5t )\t rais+ ! /eam 9 ! boil] above ! usual pressure ( f ?ree to five p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,?is me?od consi/s 9 ! use ( a pi/on ( great magnitude4 ,! =ce urg+ ! pi/on is ?us obta9$ n by an excessive pressure on a limit$ surface1 b by a mod]ate pressure diffus$ ov] a l>ge surface4 ,! entire mov+ =ce act+ on ! pi/on be=e ! /eam is cut (f1 is consid]ably great] ?an ! resi/ance2 b dur+ ! rema9d] ( ! /roke ?is =ce is gradually enfeebl$ until ! pi/on is br\ght to ! extremity ( its play4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 7#acf47 ,mr4 ,samuel ,seaw>d1 ( ! firm ( ,messrs4 ,seaw>ds1 eng9e]s1 has contriv$ an improv$ sy/em ( slides1 = :i* he has obta9$ a pat5t4 ,a section ( ,seaw>d's slides is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ee4 ,! /eam pipe proce$+ f ! boil] to ! cyl9d] is repres5t$ at ,a ,a1 & x communicates ) passages ,s & ,s lead+ to ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,^! passages are =m$ 9 nozzles ( iron or o!r h>d metal ca/ ^u ! side ( ! cyl9d]4 ,^! nozzles pres5t a smoo? face outw>ds1 ^u :i* ! slides ,b ,b1 also =m$ ) smoo? faces1 play4 ,! slides ,b ,b are atta*$ by knuckle-jo9ts to rods ,e ,e1 :i* move ?r\gh /uff+-boxes1 & ! ,pg#bcf connection ( ^! rods ) ! slides is su* t ! slides h play s z to deta* _! surfaces easily f ! smoo? surfaces ( ! nozzles :5 n press$ aga9/ ^! surfaces4 ,! /eam 9 ! /eam pipe ,a ,a w press aga9/ ! backs ( ! slides ,b ,b1 & keep _! faces 9 /eam-tight contact ) ! smoo? surfaces ( ! nozzles4 ,^! slides may be op5$ or clos$ by prop] me*anism at any po9t ( ! /roke4 ,:5 /eam is to be admitt$ to ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! upp] slide is rais$ & ! passage ,s op5$2 & :5 x is to be admitt$ to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! l[] slide is rais$ & ! passage ,s op5$2 & its communication to ! top or bottom ( ! cyl9d] is /opp$ by ! l[]+ ( ^! slides respectively4 ,on ! o!r side ( ! cyl9d] are provid$ two passages ,c ,c lead+ to a pipe ,g1 :i* is cont9u$ to ! cond5s]4 ,on ?is pipe are ca/ nozzles ( iron or o!r metal pres5t+ smoo? faces t[>ds ! cyl9d]1 & hav+ passages ,d ,d communicat+ betwe5 ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d] respectively & ! pipe ,g ,g lead+ to ! cond5s]4 ,two slides b b'1 hav+ smoo? faces turn$ f ! cyl9d]1 & press+ ^u ! faces ( ! nozzles ,d ,d1 are gov]n$ by rods play+ ?r\gh /uff+-boxes1 9 ! same mann] z already describ$4 ,! faces ( ^! slides be+ turn$ f ! cyl9d]1 ! /eam 9 ! cyl9d] hav+ free communication ) !m1 has a t5d5cy to keep !m by its pressure 9 /eam-tight contact ) ! surfaces 9 :i* ! ap]tures lead+ to ! cond5s] are =m$4 ,^! two slides may be op5$ or clos$ :5ev] x is necess>y4 ,:5 ! pi/on comm5ces its desc5t1 ! upp] /eam slide is rais$1 s z to op5 ! passage ,s1 & admit /eam above ! pi/on2 & ! l[] exhau/+ slide b is also rais$1 s z to all[ ! /eam bel[ ! pi/on to escape ?r\gh ,g to ! cond5s]1 ! o!r two passages ,s & ,c be+ clos$ by _! respective slides4 ,! slide :i* gov]ns ,s is l[]$ at t "p ( ! /roke at :i* ! /eam is int5d$ to be cut (f1 ! o!r slides rema9+ un*ang$2 & :5 ! pi/on has rea*$ ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! l[] /eam slide op5s ! passage ,s1 & ,pg#bcg ! upp] exhau/+ slide op5s ! passage ,c2 & at ! same "t ! l[] exhau/+ slide closes ! passage ,c4 ,/eam be+ admitt$ bel[ ! pi/on ?r\gh ,s1 & at ! same "t ! /eam above x be+ drawn away to ! cond5s] ?r\gh ! op5 passage ,c & ! tube ,g1 ! pi/on asc5ds4 ,:5 x has rea*$ t po9t at :i* ! /eam is int5d$ to be cut (f1 ! slide :i* gov]ns ,s is l[]$1 ! o!r slides rema9+ unalt]$1 & ! upw>d /roke is complet$ 9 ! same mann] z ! d[nw>d4 ,^! f\r slides may be gov]n$ by a s+le lev]1 or !y may be mov$ by sep>ate means4 ,f ! small spaces betwe5 ! sev]al slides & ! body ( ! cyl9d]1 x w be evid5t t ! wa/e ( /eam by ?is contrivance w be v small4 ,9 ! slide valves commonly us$1 ! pack+ ( hemp at ! back ( ! slide1 by :i* ! pressure necess>y to keep ! slide 9 /eam-tight contact is obta9$1 requires con/ant att5tion f ! eng9e-man :ile ! eng9e is at "w4 ,any neglect ( ?is w produce a correspond+ loss 9 ! p[] ( ! eng9e2 & accord+ly x is f\nd t 9 _m cases :]e eng9es "w ineffici5tly1 ! defect is ow+ ei!r to ignorance or want ( att5tion on ! "p ( ! eng9e-man 9 ! pack+ ( ! slides4 ,9 ,seaw>d's slides no hemp pack+ is us$1 nor is any att5tion on ! "p ( ! eng9e-man requir$ aft] ! slides are fir/ adju/$4 ,! slides receive ! pressure necess>y to keep !m 9 /eam-tight contact ) ! surfaces ( ! nozzles f ! /eam itself1 :i* acts beh9d !m4 ,! eduction & /eam slides be+ indep5d5t ( ea* o!r1 !y may be adju/$ s t ! eng9e %all "w expansively 9 any requir$ degree2 & ?is may be accompli%$ ei!r by work+ ! slides by sep>ate me*anism1 or by a s+le ecc5tric4 ,"o ( ! advantages claim$ by ! pat5tees = ^! slides is1 t ! eng9es are secur$ f ! accid5ts :i* arise f ! accumulation ( wat] )9 ! /eam cyl9d]4 ,if su* a circum/ance %\ld occur1 ! action ( ! pi/on w press ! wat] aga9/ ! faces ( ! /eam ,pg#bch slides1 & ! play all[$ to !m by _! connection ) ! rods :i* move !m p]mits _! faces to be rais$ f ! surfaces ( ! nozzles1 s t ! wat] collect$ 9 ! cyl9d] %all be driv5 into ! /eam pipe1 & s5t back f !nce to ! boil]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 7#acg47 ,( ! cocks or valves :i* are op5$ & clos$ by ! motion ( an axis pass+ ?r\gh _! c5tre1 ! ?rottle-valve1 :e!r work$ by h& or by ! gov]nor1 is an example4 ,b ! mo/ common =m = cocks is t ( a cyl9drical or slightly conical plug 7fig4 #ef471 ins]t$ 9 an ap]ture ( correspond+ magnitude pass+ across ! pipe or passage :i* ! cock is int5d$ to op5 or close4 ,"o or m holes are pi]c$ transv]sely 9 ! cock1 & :5 ! cock is turn$ s t ^! holes run 9 ! direction ( ! tube1 ! passage ?r\gh ! tube is op5$2 b :5 ! passage ?r\gh ! cock is plac$ at "r angles to ! tube1 !n ! sides ( ! tube /op ! ends ( ! passage 9 ! cock1 & ! passage ?r\gh ! tube is ob/ruct$4 ,! simple cock is design$ to op5 or close ! passage ?r\gh a s+le tube4 ,:5 ! cock is turn$1 z 9 fig4 #eg41 s t ! passage ?r\gh ! cock %all be at "r angles to ! l5g? ( ! tube1 !n ! passage ?r\gh ! tube is /opp$2 b :5 ! cock is turn$ f t position ?r\gh a qu>t] ( a revolution1 z 9 fig4 #eh41 !n ! passage ?r\gh ! cock takes ! direction ( ! passage ?r\gh ! tube1 & ! cock is op5$1 & ! passage ?r\gh ! tube unob/ruct$4 ,9 su* a cock ! passage may be m or less ?rottl$ by ,pg#bci adju/+ ! position ( ! cock1 s t a "p ( ! op5+ 9 x %all be cov]$ by ! side ( ! tube4 7#ach47 ,x is sometimes requir$ to put "o tube or passage alt]nately 9 communication ) two o!rs4 ,?is is accompli%$ by a two-way cock4 ,9 ?is cock ! passage is curv$1 op5+ usually at po9ts on ! surface ( ! cock1 at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,su* a cock has already be5 describ$1 & its use illu/rat$ 9 ! description ( ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]'s eng9e 7#ag472 ! two-way cock1 z repres5t$ at ,k & ,r 7fig4 #d471 be+ ! means by :i* /eam & wat] are alt]nately suppli$ to ! two =c+ vessels4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 7#aci47 ,:5 x is requir$ to put f\r passages alt]nately 9 communication by pairs1 a f\r-way cock is us$4 ,su* a cock has two curv$ passages 7fig4 #ei471 ea* simil> to ! curv$ passage 9 ! two-way cock4 ,let ,s ,c ,b ,t be ! f\r tubes :i* x is requir$ to ?r[ alt]nately into communication by pairs4 ,:5 ! cock is 9 ! position fig4 #ei41 ! tube ,s communicates ) ,t1 & ! tube ,c ) ,b4 ,by turn+ ! cock ?r\gh a qu>t] ( a revolution1 z 9 fig4 #fj41 ! tube ,s is made to communicate ) ,b1 & ! tube ,c ) ,t2 & if ! cock cont9ue to be turn$ at int]vals ?r\gh a qu>t] ( a revolution1 ^! *anges ( communication w cont9ue to be alt]nately made4 ,x is evid5t t ?is may be accompli%$ by turn+ ! cock cont9ually 9 ! same direction4 ,! f\r-way cock is sometimes us$ z a sub/itute = ! valves or slides 9 a d\ble-act+ /eam eng9e to conduct ! /eam to & f ! cyl9d]4 ,if ,s repres5t a pipe conduct+ /eam f ! boil]1 ,c t :i* leads to ! cond5s]1 ,t ! tube :i* leads to ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 & ,b t :i* leads to ! bottom1 !n :5 ! cock is 9 ! position 7fig4 #ei471 /eam w\ld fl[ f ! boil] to ,pg#bdj ! top ( ! pi/on1 :ile ! /eam bel[ x w\ld be drawn (f to ! cond5s]2 & 9 ! position 7fig4 #fj471 /eam w\ld fl[ f ! boil] to ! bottom ( ! pi/on1 :ile ! /eam above x w\ld be drawn (f to ! cond5s]4 ,?us by turn+ ! cock ?r\gh a qu>t] ( a revolution t[>ds ! t]m9ation ( ea* /roke1 ! op]ation ( ! ma*9e w\ld be cont9u$4 ,"o ( ! disadvantages :i* is insep>able f ! use ( a f\r-way cock = ?is purpose is ! loss ( ! /eam at ea* /roke1 :i* fills ! tubes betwe5 ! cock & ! ends ( ! cyl9d]4 ,?is disadvantage c\ld only be avoid$ by ! sub/itution ( two two-way cocks 7#ach47 in/ead ( a f\r-way cock4 ,a two-way cock at ! top ( ! cyl9d] w\ld op5 an alt]nate communication betwe5 ! cyl9d] & /eam pipe1 & ! cyl9d] & cond5s]1 :ile a simil> (fice w\ld be p]=m$ by ano!r two-way cock at ! o!r end4 ,! friction on cocks ( ?is description is m ?an on o!r valves2 b ?is is 9 "s degree comp5sat$ by ! great simplicity ( ! in/rum5t4 ,:5 ! cock is truly gr\nd into its seat1 be+ slightly conical 9 its =m1 ! pressure ( ! /eam has a t5d5cy to keep ! surfaces 9 contact2 b ?is pressure also increases ! friction1 & has a t5d5cy to we> ! seat ( ! cock into an elliptical %ape4 ,consequ5tly1 su* cocks require to be occasionally gr\nd & refitt$4 7#adj47 ,! f\r-way cock1 z above describ$1 admits ! /eam to "o end ( ! pi/on at ! same mom5t t x /ops x at ! o!r end4 ,x w\ld !re=e be inapplicable :]e /eam is work$ expansively4 ,a slight modification1 h[ev]1 analog\s to t already describ$ 9 ! slides1 w adapt x to expansive action4 ,?is w be accompli%$ by giv+ to "o ( ! passages ?r\gh ! cock "o ap]ture l>g] ?an ! o!r1 & work+ ! cock s t ?is passage %all always be us$ to conduct /eam to ! cyl9d]2 also by enl>g+ bo? ap]tures ( ! o!r passage1 & us+ x always to conduct /eam f ! cyl9d]4 ,! effect ( su* an arrangem5t w be readily und]/ood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,let ! position ( ! cock at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,pg#bda desc5d+ /roke be repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fa4 ,/eam fl[s f ,s ?r\gh ,t to ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 :ile x escapes f ,b ?r\gh ,c f ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! pi/on has arriv$ at t po9t at :i* ! /eam is to be cut (f1 let ! cock be %ift$ to ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fb4 ,! passage ( /eam f ! boil] is n[ /opp$1 b ! escape ( /eam f ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ,c cont9ues1 & ! cock is ma9ta9$ 9 ?is position until ! pi/on approa*es ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 :5 x is fur!r %ift$ to ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fc4 ,/eam n[ fl[s f ,s ?r\gh ,b to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 :ile ! /eam f ! top ( ! cyl9d] escapes ?r\gh ,c to ! cond5s]4 ,:5 ! pi/on has arriv$ at t po9t :]e ! /eam is to be cut (f1 ! cock is %ift$ to ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fd4 ,! communication betwe5 ! /eam & ! bottom ( ! pi/on is n[ /opp$1 :ile ! communication betwe5 ! top ( ! cyl9d] & ! cond5s] is /ill op54 ,dur+ ! next d\ble /roke ( ! pi/on ! position ( ! cock is simil>ly *ang$1 b 9 ! contr>y direction1 & 9 ! same way ! motion is cont9u$4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! cock1 in/ead ,pg#bdb ( be+ mov$ con/antly 9 ! same direction1 z 9 ! case ( ! common f\r-way cock1 w require to be mov$ alt]nately 9 opposite directions4 ,,pi/ons4 7#ada47 ,! (fice ( a pi/on be+ to divide a cyl9d] into two comp>tm5ts by a movable p>tition :i* %all ob/ruct ! passage ( any fluid f "o comp>tm5t to ! o!r1 x is evid5t t ! two conditions :i* su* an in/rum5t ought to fulfil are1 fir/1 t ! contact ( its sides ) ! surface ( ! cyl9d] %all be s close & tight ?r\gh\t its entire play t no /eam or o!r fluid c pass betwe5 !m2 secondly1 t x %all be s free f friction1 not)/&+ ?is necess>y tightness1 t x %all n absorb any injuri\s quantity ( ! mov+ p[]4 ,s9ce1 h[ev] accurately ! surfaces ( ! pi/on & cyl9d] may be con/ruct$1 !re w always be 9 practice m or less imp]fection ( =m1 x is evid5t t ! contact ( ! surface ( ! pi/on ) ! cyl9d] ?r\gh\t ! /roke c only be ma9ta9$ by giv+ to ! circumf]5ce ( ! pi/on suffici5t ela/icity to accommodate itself to su* inequalities ( =m4 ,! sub/ance1 :atev] x may be1 us$ = ?is purpose1 & by :i* ! pi/on is surr\nd$1 is call$ pack+4 ,9 /eam pi/ons ! mat]ial us$ = pack+ mu/ be su* z is capable ( resi/+ ! unit$ effects ( heat & moi/ure4 ,h5ce lea!r & o!r animal sub/ances are inapplicable4 ,! pack+ us$ = /eam pi/ons is !re=e ( two k9ds1 vegetable pack+1 usually hemp1 or metallic pack+4 ,! common hemp-pack$ pi/on has be5 already 9 "p describ$ 7#gi474 ,! bottom ( ! pi/on is a circul> plate j s mu* less 9 diamet] ?an ! cyl9d] z is suffici5t to all[ its free motion 9 asc5d+ & desc5d+4 ,a little above its l[e/ po9t ?is plate beg9s gradually to dim9i% 9 ?ickness1 until its diamet] is r$uc$ to f "o to two in*es less ?an t ( ! cyl9d]1 leav+ !re=e ar\nd ,pg#bdc x a holl[ space1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fe4 ,! cov] ( ! pi/on is a plate simil>ly =m$1 be+ 9 l mann] gradually r$uc$ 9 ?ickness d[nw>ds1 s z to correspond ) ! l[] plate4 ,9 ! holl[ space :i* ?us surr\nds ! pi/on a pack+ ( unspun hemp or s(t rope1 call$ gasket1 is introduc$ by w9d+ x r\nd ! pi/on s z to r5d] x an ev5 & compact mass4 ,:5 ! space is ?us fill$ up1 ! top ( ! pi/on is atta*$ to ! bottom by screws4 ,! curv$ =m ( ! space )9 :i* ! hemp5 pack+ is conf9$ is su* t :5 ! screws are tight5$1 t "p ( ! pack+ :i* is ne>e/ to ! top & bottom ( ! pi/on is =c$ aga9/ ! cyl9d]1 s z to produce ^u ! two p>allel r+s z mu* pressure z is necess>y to r5d] x /eam-tight4 ,:5 by use ! pack+ is worn d[n s z to produce leakage1 ! cov] ( ! cyl9d] mu/ be remov$1 & ! screws connect+ ! top & bottom ( ! pi/on tight5$3 ?is w =ce out ! pack+ & r5d] ! pi/on /eam-tight4 ,?is pack+ is lubricat$ by melt$ tall[ let d[n ^u ! pi/on f ! funnel ins]t$ 9 ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 furni%$ ) a /op-cock to prev5t ! escape ( /eam4 ,! l[] end ( ! pi/on-rod is =m$ slightly conical1 ! ?icke/ "p ( ! cone be+ d[nw>d4 ,x is pass$ up ?r\gh ! pi/on1 & a nut or w$ge betwe5 ! top & bottom is ins]t$ s z to secure ! pi/on 9 its position ^u ! rod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,! process ( remov+ ! top ( ! cyl9d] = ! purpose ( tight5+ ! screws 9 ! pi/on is "o ( s labori\s a nature1 t ! m5 entru/$ ) ! sup]9t5d5ce ( ^! ma*9es are tempt$ to all[ ! eng9e to "w not)/&+ injuri\s leakage at ! pi/on1 r ?an incur ! lab\r ( tight5+ ! screws z (t5 z x is necess>y to d s4 ,to avoid ?is inconv5i5ce1 ! foll[+ me?od ( ,pg#bdd tight5+ ! pack+ ( ! pi/on )\t remov+ ! lid ( ! cyl9d]1 0 contriv$ by ,woolf4 ,! head ( ea* ( ! screws 0 =m$ into a too!d p9ion1 & z ^! screws 7 plac$ at equal di/ances f ! c5tre ( ! pi/on1 ^! sev]al p9ions 7 driv5 by a l>ge too!d :eel1 revolv+ on ! pi/on-rod z an axis4 ,by su* an arrangem5t x is evid5t t if any "o ( ! screws be turn$1 a l motion w be imp>t$ to all ! o!rs ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! l>ge c5tral :eel4 ,woolf accord+ly =m$1 on ! head ( "o ( ! screws1 a squ>e end4 ,:5 ! pi/on 0 br\ght to ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ?is squ>e end ent]$ an ap]ture made 9 ! "u side ( ! cov] ( ! cyl9d]4 ,?is ap]ture 0 cov]$ by a small circul> piece screw$ into ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 :i* 0 capable ( be+ remov$ s z to r5d] ! squ>e head ( ! screw accessible4 ,:5 ?is 0 done1 a prop] key be+ appli$ to ! squ>e head ( ! screw1 x 0 turn$2 & by be+ turn$1 all ! o!r screws 7 9 l mann] mov$4 ,9 ?is way1 in/ead ( hav+ to remove ! cov] ( ! cyl9d]1 :i* 9 l>ge cyl9d]s 0 att5d$ ) great lab\r & loss ( "t1 ! pack+ 0 tight5$ by m]ely unscrew+ a piece 9 ! top ( ! cyl9d] n mu* great] 9 magnitude ?an ! head ( "o ( ! screws4 ,?is me?od 0 fur!r simplifi$ by caus+ ! great circul> :eel already describ$ to move ^u ! pi/on-rod1 n z an axis1 b z a screw1 ! ?read be+ cut ^u a "p ( ! pi/on-rod :i* work$ 9 a correspond+ female screw cut ^u ! c5tral plate4 ,by su* means1 ! screw ^: head 0 let into ! cov] ( ! cyl9d] :i* turn$1 w\ld cause ?is circul> plate to be press$ d[nw>ds by ! =ce ( ! screw con/ruct$ on ! pi/on-rod4 ,?is circul> plate ?us press$ d[nw>ds1 act$ ^u p9s or plugs :i* press$ toge!r ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d] 9 ! same mann] z !y 7 press$ toge!r by ! screws connect+ !m z already describ$4 ,,metallic ,,pi/ons4 7#adb47 ,! notion ( con/ruct+ a pi/on s z to move /eam-tight 9 ! cyl9d] )\t ! use ( pack+ ( vegetable ,pg#bde matt] 0 fir/ sugge/$ by ! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,c>twright1 a g5tleman well kn[n = o!r me*anical inv5tions4 ,a pat5t 0 grant$ 9 #agig = a new =m ( /eam eng9e1 9 :i* he propos$ to use ! vap\r ( alcohol to "w ! pi/on in/ead ( ! /eam ( wat]3 & s9ce ! pr9ciple ( ! eng9e exclud$ ! use ( lubrication by oil or tall[1 he sub/itut$ a pi/on =m$ ( metallic r+s press$ aga9/ ! surface ( ! cyl9d] by spr+s1 s z to be ma9ta9$ 9 /eam-tight contact ) x1 indep5d5tly ei!r ( pack+ or lubrication4 ,al?\gh ! eng9e = :i* ?is =m ( pi/on 0 int5d$ nev] came into practical use1 yet x is s simple & elegant 9 its /ructure1 & =ms a l9k s int]e/+ 9 ! hi/ory ( ! /eam eng9e1 t "s explanation ( x ought n to be omitt$ 9 ?is "w4 ,! /eam-pipe f ! boil] is repres5t$ cut (f at ,b 7fig4 #ff472 ,t is a sp9dle-valve1 = admitt+ /eam above ! pi/on1 & ,r is a sp9dle-valve 9 ! pi/on2 ,d is a curv$ pipe =m+ a communication betwe5 ! cyl9d] & ! cond5s]1 :i* is ( v peculi> con/ruction4 ,c>twright propos$ effect+ a cond5sation )\t a jet1 by expos+ ! /eam to contact ) a v l>ge quantity ( cold surface4 ,= ?is purpose1 he =m$ 8 cond5s] by plac+ two cyl9d]s ne>ly equal 9 size1 "o )9 ! o!r1 all[+ ! wat] ( ! cold ci/]n 9 :i* !y 7 plac$ to fl[ ?r\gh ! inn] cyl9d]1 & to surr\nd ! out] "o4 ,?us1 ! ?9 space betwe5 ! two cyl9d]s =m$ ! cond5s]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,! air-pump is plac$ imm$iately "u ! cyl9d]1 & ! cont9uation ( ! pi/on-rod works its pi/on1 :i* is solid & )\t a valve4 ,f is ! pipe f ! cond5s] to ! air-pump1 ?r\gh :i* ! cond5s$ /eam is drawn (f ?r\gh ! valve ,g on ! asc5t ( ! pi/on1 & on ! desc5t ?is is =c$ ?r\gh a tube into a hot well ,h1 = ! purpose ( fe$+ ! boil] ?r\gh ! fe$-pipe ,i4 ,9 ! top ( ! hot well ,h is a valve :i* op5s inw>ds1 & is kept clos$ by a ball float+ on ! surface ( ! liquid4 ,! pressure ( ! cond5s$ air above ! surface ( ! liquid 9 ,h =ces x ?r\gh ,i into ! boil]4 ,:5 ! air accumulates 9 too great a degree ,pg#bdf 9 ,h1 ! surface ( ! liquid is press$ s l[ t ! ball falls & op5s ! valve1 & all[s x to escape4 ,! air 9 ,h is t :i* is pump$ f ! cond5s] ) ! liquid1 & f :i* x 0 dis5gag$4 ,let u suppose ! pi/on at ! top ( ! cyl9d]3 x /rikes ! tail ( ! valve ,t1 & raises x1 :ile ! /em ( ! pi/on-valve ,r /rikes ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 & is press$ into its seat4 ,a free communication is at ! same "t op5 betwe5 ! cyl9d]1 bel[ ! pi/on & ! cond5s]1 ?r\gh ! tube ,d4 ,! pressure ( ! /eam ,pg#bdg ?us admitt$ above ! pi/on act+ aga9/ ! vacuum bel[ x1 w cause its desc5t4 ,on arriv+ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! tail ( ! pi/on-valve ,r w /rike ! bottom1 & x w be lift$ f its seat1 s t a communication w be op5$ ?r\gh x ) ! cond5s]4 ,at ! same mom5t1 a project+ spr+ ,k1 atta*$ to ! pi/on-rod1 /rikes ! /em ( ! /eam-valve ,t1 & presses x into its seat4 ,?us :ile ! fur!r admission ( /eam is cut (f1 ! /eam above ! pi/on fl[s into ! cond5s]1 & ! pi/on be+ reliev$ f all pressure1 is drawn up by ! mom5tum ( ! fly-:eel1 :i* cont9ues ! motion x receiv$ f ! desc5d+ =ce4 ,on ! arrival ( ! pi/on aga9 at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! valve ,t is op5$ & ,r clos$1 & ! pi/on desc5ds z be=e1 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,! me*anism by :i* motion is communicat$ f ! pi/on to ! fly-:eel is peculi>ly elegant4 ,on ! axis ( ! fly-:eel is a small :eel ) tee?1 :i* "w 9 ! tee? ( ano!r l>g] :eel ,l4 ,?is :eel is turn$ by a crank1 :i* is work$ by a cross-piece atta*$ to ! end ( ! pi/on-rod4 ,ano!r equal-too!d :eel ,m is turn$ by a crank1 :i* is work$ by ! o!r end ( ! cross-arm atta*$ to ! pi/on-rod4 ,"o ( ! peculi>ities ( ?is eng9e is1 t ! liquid :i* is us$ = ! production ( /eam 9 ! boil] circulates ?r\gh ! ma*9e )\t ei!r dim9ution or admixture ) any o!r fluid1 s t ! boil] nev] wants m fe$+ ?an :at c be suppli$ f ! hot well ,h4 ,?is circum/ance =ms an important feature 9 ! ma*9e1 z x all[s ( ard5t spirits be+ us$ 9 ! boil] in/ead ( wat]1 :i*1 s9ce !y boil at l[ heats1 promis$ a sav+ ( fuel4 ,! inv5tor propos$ t ! eng9e %\ld be us$ z a /ill1 z well z a me*anical p[]1 9 :i* case ! :ole ( ! fuel w\ld be sav$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 7#adc47 ,t "p ( ,c>twright's pi/on :i* 9 ! common pi/on is occupi$ by ! pack+ ( gasket1 already expla9$ 7#ada471 0 fill$ by a numb] ( r+s1 "o plac$ )9 & above ano!r1 & divid$ into ?ree or f\r ,pg#bdh segm5ts4 ,two r+s ( brass 7 made ( ! full size ( ! cyl9d]1 & s gr\nd z to fit ! cyl9d] ne>ly /eam-tight4 ,^! 7 cut into sev]al segm5ts ,a ,a ,a 7fig4 #fg471 & 7 plac$ "o above ! o!r1 s z to fill ! space betwe5 ! top & bottom plates ( ! pi/on4 ,! divisions ( ! segm5ts ( ! "o r+ 7 made to fit betwe5 ! divisions ( ! o!r4 ,)9 ^! ano!r s]ies ( r+s1 ,b ,b ,b1 7 plac$1 simil>ly con/ruct$1 s z to fit )9 ! fir/ s]ies 9 ! same mann] z ! fir/ s]ies 7 made to fit )9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! jo9ts ( ! upp] s]ies ( ea* set ( r+s are exhibit$ 9 ! plan 7fig4 #fg472 ! places ( ! jo9ts ( ! l[] s]ies are %[n by dott$ l9es2 ! position ( ! r+s ( ea* s]ies "o above ! o!r is %[n 9 ! section 7fig4 #fh474 ,! jo9ts ( ! inn] s]ies ( r+s are s plac$ z to lie betwe5 ^? ( ! out] s]ies1 to prev5t ! escape ( /eam :i* w\ld take place by "o cont9u$ jo9t f top to bottom ( ! pack+4 ,! segm5ts into :i* ! r+s are divid$ are press$ outw>ds by /eel spr+s 9 ! =m ( ! lett] ,v1 ! spr+s :i* act ^u ! out] s]ies ( segm5ts abutt+ ^u ! inn] s]ies1 & ^? :i* act on ! inn] s]ies abutt+ ^u ! solid c5tre ( ! pi/on3 ^! spr+s are repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 7#add47 ,an improv$ =m 0 giv5 to ! metallic pi/on by ,b>ton4 ,b>ton's pi/on consi/s ( a solid cyl9d] ( ca/ iron1 repres5t$ at ,a 9 section 9 fig4 #fi41 & 9 plan 9 ,pg#bdi fig4 #gj4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ?is is a conical hole1 increas+ 9 magnitude d[nw>ds1 to receive ! pi/on-rod1 9 :i* ! latt] is secur$ by a cross-p9 ,b4 ,a deep groove1 squ>e 9 its section1 is =m$ ar\nd ! pi/on1 s t :ile ! top & bottom ( ! pi/on =m circles equal 9 magnitude to ! section ( ! cyl9d]1 ! int]m$iate "p ( ! body ( ! pi/on =ms a circle less ?an ! =m] by ! dep? ( ! groove4 ,let a r+ ( brass1 ca/ iron1 or ca/ /eel1 be made to correspond 9 magnitude & =m ) ?is groove1 & let x be divid$ z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #gj41 into f\r segm5ts ,c ,c ,c ,c1 & f\r correspond+ angul> pieces ,d ,d ,d ,d4 ,let ! groove :i* surr\nds ! pi/on be fill$ by ! f\r segm5ts ) ! f\r w$ge-l angul> pieces )9 !m1 & let ! latt] be urg$ aga9/ ! =m] by eight spiral spr+s1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fi4 & fig4 #gj4 ,^! spr+s w abut aga9/ ! solid c5tre by ! pi/on1 & w urge ! segm5ts ,c aga9/ ! cyl9d]4 ,! spiral spr+s :i* urge ! w$ges are conf9$ 9 _! action by /eel p9s :i* pass ?r\gh _! c5tre1 & by be+ ,pg#bej conf9$ 9 cyl9drical cavities work$ into ! w$ges & into correspond+ p>ts ( ! solid c5tre ( ! pi/on1 z ! segm5ts ,c we>1 ! spr+s urge ! w$ges outw>ds1 & ! po9ts ( ! latt] protrud+1 are gradually worn d[n s z to fill up ! spaces left betwe5 ! segm5ts1 & ?us to complete ! out] surface ( ! pi/on4 ,v>i\s o!r =ms ( metallic pi/ons h be5 propos$1 b z !y d n diff] mat]ially 9 pr9ciple f ^? we h j describ$1 x w n be necess>y "h to describe !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,eng9e ,,at ,,! ,,city ,,saw ,,mills4 ,pg#bea ,illu/ration3 ,,furnace ,,at ,,! ,,city ,,saw ,,mills4 ,,*ap4 ,,ix4 ,,con/itu5ts ,,( ,,coal4 -- ,,process ,,( ,,combu/ion4 -- ,,heat ,,evolv$ ,,9 ,,x4 -- ,,=m ,,& ,,/ructure ,,( ,,boil]4 -- ,,waggon ,,boil]4 -- ,,furnace4 -- ,,me?od ,,( ,,fe$+ ,,x4 -- ,,combu/ion ,,( ,,gas ,,9 ,,flues4 -- ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,grate ,,& ,,a%-,,pit4 -- ,,magnitude ,,( ,,heat+ ,,surface ,,( ,,boil]4 -- ,,/eam-,,space ,,& ,,wat]-,,space ,,9 ,,boil]4 -- ,,position ,,( ,,flues4 -- ,,me?od ,,( ,,fe$+ ,,boil]4 -- ,,level ,,gauges4 -- ,,self-,,regulat+ ,,fe$]s4 -- ,,/eam-,,gauge4 -- ,,b>omet]-,,gauge4 -- ,,indicator4 -- ,,c\nt]4 -- ,,safety-,,valve4 -- ,,fusible ,,plugs4 -- ,,self-,,regulat+ ,,damp]4 -- ,,self-,,regulat+ ,,furnace4 -- ,,p[] ,,& ,,duty ,,( ,,eng9es4 -- ,,horse-,,p[] ,,( ,,/eam ,,eng9es4 -- ,,evaporation ,,proportional ,,to ,,horse-,,p[]4 -- ,,s\rces ,,( ,,loss ,,( ,,p[]4 -- ,,abs5ce ,,( ,,good ,,practical ,,rules ,,= ,,p[]4 -- ,,common ,,rules ,,foll[$ ,,by ,,eng9e ,,mak]s4 -- ,,duty ,,di/+ui%$ ,,f ,,p[]4 -- ,,duty ,,( ,,boil]s4 -- ,,proportion ,,( ,,/roke ,,to ,,diamet] ,,( ,,cyl9d]4 -- ,,duty ,,( ,,eng9es4 -- ,,corni% ,,sy/em ,,( ,,inspection4 -- ,,its ,,good ,,effects4 -- ,,hi/orical ,,detail ,,( ,,! ,,duty ,,( ,,corni% ,,eng9es4 7#ade47 ,! ma*9]y :i* has be5 expla9$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 consi/+ ( ! cyl9d] ) its passages & valves1 ! pi/on-rod1 p>allel motion1 beam1 connect+-rod & crank1 toge!r ) ! cond5s]1 air-pump1 & o!r app5dages1 hav+ no s\rce ( mov+ p[] 9 !mselves1 mu/ be reg>d$ z m]e in/rum5ts by :i* ! me*anical effect develop$ by ! furnace & ! boil] is transmitt$ to ! work+ po9t & s ,pg#beb modifi$ z to be adapt$ to ! uses to :i* ! ma*9e is appli$4 ,! boil] is at once a magaz9e 9 :i* ! mov+ p[] is /or$ 9 suffici5t quantity to supply ! dem&s ( ! eng9e & an app>atus 9 :i* t p[] is fabricat$4 ,! me*anical effect evolv$ 9 ! conv]sion ( wat] into /eam by heat1 is ! process by :i* ! p[] ( ! /eam-eng9e is produc$1 & space is provid$ 9 ! boil]1 capaci\s en\gh to conta9 z mu* /eam z is necess>y = ! eng9e1 besides a suffici5t quantity ( wat] to cont9ue t supply undim9i%$1 not)/&+ ! con/ant drafts made ^u x by ! cyl9d]3 ev5 ! wat] itself1 f ! evaporation ( :i* ! me*anical p[] is produc$1 ought to be reg>d$ z an in/rum5t by :i* ! effect ( ! heat ( ! combu/ible is r5d]$ me*anically effici5t1 inasmu* z ! same heat1 appli$ n only to o!r liquids b ev5 to solids1 w\ld likewise be productive ( me*anical effects4 ,! boil] & its furnace are !re=e p>ts ( ! /eam-eng9e1 ! con/ruction & op]ation ( :i* are entitl$ to especial att5tion4 7#adf47 ,,coal1 ! combu/ible almo/ univ]sally us$ 9 /eam-eng9es1 is a sub/ance1 ! pr9cipal con/itu5ts ( :i* are c>bon & hydrog51 occasionally mix$ ) sulphur 9 a small proportion1 & e>?y incombu/ible matt]4 ,9 diff]5t sorts ( coal ! proportions ( ^! con/itu5ts v>y1 b 9 coal ( good quality ab\t ?ree qu>t]s ( ! :ole weight ( ! combu/ible is c>bon4 ,:5 c>bon is heat$ to a temp]ature ( ab\t #gjj 9 an atmosph]e ( pure oxyg51 x w comb9e *emically ) t gas1 & ! product w be ! gas call$ c>bonic acid4 ,! volume ( c>bonic acid produc$ by ?is comb9ation1 w be exactly equal to t ( ! oxyg5 comb9$ ) ! c>bon1 & !re=e ! weight ( a giv5 volume ( ! gas w be increas$ by ! weight ( c>bon :i* ent]s ! comb9ation4 ,x is f\nd t two p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 comb9$ ) ?ree ( c>bon1 =m c>bonic acid4 ,! weight ( ! c>bonic acid1 !re=e1 produc$ 9 ! combu/ion1 w be great] ?an ! weight ( ! oxyg51 bulk = bulk1 9 ! proportion ( five to two1 ! volume be+ ! same & ! gases be+ ,pg#bec comp>$ at ! same temp]atures & "u equal pressures4 ,9 ?is comb9ation heat is evolv$ 9 v l>ge quantities4 ,?is effect arises f ! heat previ\sly lat5t 9 ! c>bon & oxyg5 be+ r5d]$ s5sible 9 ! process ( combu/ion4 ,! c>bonic acid proce$+ f ! combu/ion is by su* means rais$ to a v high temp]ature1 & ! c>bon dur+ ! process acquires a heat s int5se z to become lum9\s2 no flame1 h[ev]1 is produc$4 ,hydrog51 heat$ to a temp]ature ( ab\t #ajjj1 9 contact ) oxyg5 w comb9e ) ! latt]1 & a great evolution ( heat w att5d ! process2 ! gases w be r5d]$ lum9\s1 & flame w be produc$4 ,! product ( ?is process w be wat]1 :i* be+ expos$ to ! int5se heat ( combu/ion1 w be imm$iately conv]t$ into /eam4 ,hydrog5 comb9es ) eight times its own weight ( oxyg51 produc+ n9e times its own weight ( wat]4 ,hydrog5 gas is1 h[ev]1 n usually dis5gag$ f coal 9 a simple =m1 b comb9$ *emically ) a c]ta9 portion ( c>bon1 ! comb9ation be+ call$ c>burett$ hydrog54 ,pure hydrog5 burns ) a v fa9tly lum9\s blue flame1 b c>burett$ hydrog5 gives t bright flame occasionally hav+ an orange or r$di% t+e1 :i* is se5 to issue f burn+ coals3 ?is is ! gas us$ = illum9ation1 be+ expell$ f ! coal by ! process ( cok+1 & conduct$ to ! v>i\s burn]s ?r\gh prop] pipes4 ,! sulphur1 :i* 9 a v small proportion is conta9$ 9 coals1 is also combu/ible1 & comb9es 9 ! process ( combu/ion ) oxyg51 =m+ sulphur\s acid3 x is also sometimes evolv$ 9 comb9ation ) hydrog51 =m+ sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,atmosph]ic air consi/s ( two gases1 azote & oxyg51 mix$ toge!r 9 ! proportion ( f\r to "o2 five cubic feet ( atmosph]ic air consi/+ ( f\r cubic feet ( azote & "o ( oxyg54 ,any combu/ible w comb9e ) ! oxyg5 conta9$ 9 atmosph]ic air1 if rais$ to a temp]ature some:at high] ?an t :i* is necess>y to cause its combu/ion 9 an atmosph]e ( pure oxyg54 ,if coals1 !re=e1 or o!r fuel expos$ to atmosph]ic ,pg#bed air1 be rais$ to a suffici5tly high temp]ature1 _! combu/ible con/itu5ts w comb9e ) ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]ic air1 & all ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion w ensue4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 t ! combu/ion %\ld be cont9u$1 & %\ld be c>ri$ on ) quickness & activity1 x is necess>y t ! c>bonic acid1 & o!r products1 %\ld be remov$ f ! combu/ible z !y are produc$1 & fre% portions ( atmosph]ic air br\ght into contact ) x2 o!rwise ! combu/ible w\ld soon be surr\nd$ by an atmosph]e compos$ *iefly ( c>bonic acid to ! exclusion ( atmosph]ic air1 & !re=e ( uncomb9$ oxyg51 & consequ5tly ! combu/ion w\ld cease1 & ! fuel be ext+ui%$4 ,to ma9ta9 ! combu/ion1 !re=e1 a curr5t ( atmosph]ic air mu/ be con/antly c>ri$ ?r\gh ! fuel3 ! quantity & =ce ( ?is curr5t mu/ dep5d on ! quantity & quality ( ! fuel to be consum$4 ,x mu/ be su* t x %all supply suffici5t oxyg5 to ! fuel to ma9ta9 ! combu/ion1 & n m ?an suffici5t1 s9ce any excess w\ld be att5d$ ) ! effect ( absorb+ ! heat ( combu/ion1 )\t contribut+ to ! ma9t5ance ( t effect4 ,heat is communicat$ f body to body 9 two ways1 by radiation & by contact4 ,rays ( heat issue f a heat$ body1 & are disp]s$ ?r\gh ! surr\nd+ space 9 a mann]1 & accord+ to laws1 simil> to ^? :i* gov]n ! radiation ( light4 ,! heat ?us radiat$ meet+ o!r bodies is imp>t$ to !m1 & p5etrates !m ) m or less facility accord+ to _! physical qualities4 ,a heat$ body also br\ght into contact ) ano!r body ( l[] temp]ature1 communicates heat to t o!r body1 & w cont9ue to d s until ! temp]ature ( ! two bodies 9 contact %all be equalis$4 ,heat proce$s f fuel 9 a /ate ( combu/ion 9 bo? ^! ways3 ! heat$ fuel radiates heat 9 all directions ar\nd x1 & ! heat ?us radiat$ w be imp>t$ to all p>ts ( ! furnace :i* are expos$ to ! fuel4 ,! gases1 :i* are ! products ( ! combu/ion1 escape f ! fuel at a v high temp]ature1 & consequ5tly1 9 acquir+ t temp]ature !y absorb a consid]able ,pg#bee quantity ( ! heat ( combu/ion4 ,b besides ! gases actually =m$ 9 ! process ( combu/ion1 ! azote =m+ f\r fif?s ( ! air c>ri$ ?r\gh ! fuel to support ! combu/ion1 absorbs heat f ! combu/ible1 & rises into ! upp] "p ( ! furnace at a high temp]ature4 ,^! v>i\s gases1 if conduct$ directly to ! *imney1 w\ld c>ry (f ) !m a consid]able quantity ( ! heat4 ,provision %\ld !re=e be made to keep !m 9 contact ) ! boil] su* a l5g? ( "t z w enable !m to imp>t su* a portion ( ! heat :i* !y h absorb$ f ! fuel1 z w /ill leave !m at a temp]ature suffici5t1 & n m ?an suffici5t1 to produce ! necess>y draft 9 ! *imney4 7#adg47 ,! =ms ( boil] :i* h be5 propos$ z ! mo/ conv5i5t = ! atta9m5t ( all ^! requisite purposes h be5 v v>i\s4 ,if /r5g? alone 7 consid]$1 ! sph]ical =m w\ld be ! be/2 & ! e>ly boil]s 7 v ne>ly hemisph]es1 plac$ on a slightly concave base4 ,! =m adopt$ by ,watt1 call$ ! waggon boil]1 consi/s ( a semi-cyl9drical top1 flat p]p5dicul> sides1 flat ends1 & a slightly concave bottom4 ,! /eam int5d$ to be us$ 9 boil]s ( ?is description did n exce$ ! pressure ( ! ext]nal atmosph]e by m ?an f #c to #e lbs4 p] squ>e in*2 & ! flat sides & ends1 ?\gh unfav\rable to /r5g?1 c\ld be con/ruct$ suffici5tly /rong = ?is purpose4 ,9 a boil] ( ?is sort1 ! air & smoke pass+ ?r\gh ! flues t are c>ri$ r\nd x1 are 9 contact at "o side only ) ! boil]4 ,! brickwork1 or o!r mat]ials =m+ ! flue1 mu/ !re=e be non-conductors ( heat1 t !y may n absorb any consid]able portion ( heat f ! air pass+ 9 contact ) !m4 ,a boil] ( ?is =m is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ga4 ,! grate & a "p ( ! flues are r5d]$ visible by ! removal ( a portion ( ! surr\nd+ masonry 9 :i* ! boil] is set4 ,! int]ior ( ! boil] is also %[n by cutt+ (f "o half ( ! semi-cyl9drical ro(4 ,a longitud9al v]tical section is %[n 9 fig4 #gb41 & a cross section 9 fig4 #gc4 ,a horizontal section tak5 above ! level ( ! grate1 & bel[ ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 %[+ ,pg#bef ! c\rse ( ! flues1 is giv5 9 fig4 #gd4 ,! correspond+ p>ts 9 all ! figures are m>k$ by ! same lett]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,! door by :i* fuel is introduc$ ^u ! grate is repres5t$ at ,a1 & ! door lead+ to ! a%-pit at ,b4 ,! fire b>s at ,c slope d[nw>ds f ! front at an angle ( ab\t #be1 giv+ a t5d5cy to ! fuel to move f ! front t[>ds ! back ( ! grate4 ,! a%-pit ,d is con/ruct$ ( su* a magnitude1 =m1 & dep?1 z to admit a curr5t ( atmosph]ic air to ! grate-b>s1 suffici5t to su/a9 ! combu/ion4 ,! =m ( ! a%-pit is usually wide bel[1 contract+ t[>ds ! top4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,! fuel :5 introduc$ at ! fire-door ,a1 %\ld be laid on t "p ( ! grate ne>e/ to ! fire-door1 call$ ! dead plates3 !re x is submitt$ to ! process ( cok+1 by :i* ! gases & volatile matt] :i* x conta9s are expell$1 & be+ c>ri$ by a curr5t ( air1 admitt$ ,pg#beg ?r\gh small ap]tures 9 ! fire-door ov] ! burn+ fuel 9 ! h9d] "p ( ! grate1 !y are burnt4 ,:5 ! fuel 9 front ( ! grate has be5 ?us cok$1 x is pu%$ back1 & a fre% fe$ introduc$ 9 front4 ,! coal ?us pu%$ back soon becomes vividly ignit$1 & by cont9u+ ?is process1 ! fuel spread ov] ! grate is ma9ta9$ 9 ! mo/ active /ate ( combu/ion at ! h9d] "p ( ! grate4 ,by su* an arrangem5t1 ! smoke produc$ by ! combu/ion ( ! fuel may be burnt be=e x ent]s ! flues4 ,! flame & heat$ air proce$+ f ! burn+ fuel aris+ f ! grate1 & ru%+ t[>ds ! back ( ! furnace1 passes ov] ! fire-bridge ,e1 & is c>ri$ ?r\gh ! flue ,f :i* passes "u ! boil]4 ,?is flue 7! cross section ( :i* is %[n 9 fig4 #gc41 by ! d>k %ade put "u ! boil]7 is v ne>ly equal 9 wid? to ! bottom ( ! boil]1 ! space at ! bottom ( ! boil]1 ne> ! corn]s1 be+ only :at is suffici5t to give ! weight ( ! boil] support on ! masonry =m+ ! ,pg#beh sides ( ! flue4 ,! bottom ( ! boil] be+ concave1 ! flame & heat$ air z !y pass along ! flue rise to ! upp] "p by ! effects ( _! high temp]ature1 & lick ! bottom ( ! boil] f ! fire-bridge at ,e to ! fur!r end ,g4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,at ,g ! flue rises to ,h1 & turn+ to ! side ( ! boil] at ,i ,i1 conducts ! flame 9 contact ) ! side f ! back to ! front2 x !n passes ?r\gh ! flue ,k across ! front1 & returns to ! back by ! o!r side ,pg#bei flue ,l4 ,! side flue is repres5t$1 /ripp$ ( ! masonry1 9 fig4 #ga41 & also appe>s 9 ! plan 9 fig4 #gd41 & 9 ! cross section 9 fig4 #gc4 ,! c\rse ( ! air is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #gd4 by ! arr[s4 ,f ! flue ,l ! air is conduct$ into ! *imney at ,m4 ,by su* an arrangem5t1 ! flame & heat$ air proce$+ f ! grate are made to circulate r\nd ! boil]1 & ! l5g? & magnitude ( ! flues ?r\gh :i* x is conduct$ %\ld be su*1 t :5 x %all arrive at ! *imney its temp]ature %all be r$uc$1 z ne>ly z is consi/5t ) ! ma9t5ance ( draught 9 ! *imney1 to ! temp]ature ( ! wat] ) :i* x is 9 contact4 ,! me?od ( fe$+ ! furnace1 :i* has be5 describ$ above1 is "o :i*1 if conduct$ ) skill & c>e1 w\ld produce a mu* m p]fect combu/ion ( ! fuel ?an w\ld att5d ! common me?od ( fill+ ! grate f ! back to ! front ) fre% fuel1 :5ev] ! furnace is f$4 ,?is me?od1 h[ev]1 is r>ely obs]v$ 9 ! managem5t ( ! furnace4 ,x requires ! con/ant att5tion ( ! /ok]s 7su* is ! "n giv5 to ^? :o fe$ ! furnaces74 ,! fuel mu/ be suppli$1 n 9 l>ge quantities1 & at di/ant int]vals1 b 9 small quantities & m frequ5tly4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! m common practice is to all[ ! fuel on ! grate to be 9 a great degree burn$ away1 & !n to heap on a l>ge quantity ( fre% fuel1 cov]+ ov] ) x ! burn+ fuel f ! back to ! front ( ! grate4 ,:5 ?is is done1 ! heat ( ! ignit$ coal act+ ^u ! fre% fuel introduc$1 expels ! gases comb9$ ) x &1 mix$ ) ^!1 a quantity ( c>bon1 9 a /ate ( m9ute division1 =m+ an opaque black smoke4 ,?is is c>ri$ ?r\gh ! flues & drawn up ! *imney4 ,! consequ5ce is1 t n only a quantity ( solid fuel is s5t out ( ! *imney unconsum$1 b ! hydrog5 & o!r gases also escape unburn$1 & a proportional wa/e ( ! combu/ible is produc$2 besides :i*1 ! nuisance ( an atmosph]e fill$ ) smoke ensues4 ,su* effects are visible to all :o obs]ve ! *imneys ( /eam-vessels1 :ile ! eng9e is 9 op]ation4 ,:5 ! furnaces are ?us fill$ ) fre% fuel1 a l>ge volume ( ,pg#bfj d5se black smoke is obs]v$ to issue f ! *imney4 ,?is gradually subsides z ! fuel on ! grate is ignit$1 & does n reappe> until a fre% fe$ is introduc$4 ,?is me?od ( fe$+1 by :i* ! furnace w\ld be made to consume its own smoke1 & ! combu/ion ( ! fuel be r5d]$ complete1 is n h[ev] free f c\nt]act+ effects4 ,9 ord9>y furnaces ! fe$ c only be introduc$ by op5+ ! fire-doors1 & dur+ ! "t ! fire-doors are op5$ a volume ( cold air ru%es 91 :i* pass+ ?r\gh ! furnace is c>ri$ ?r\gh ! flues to ! *imney4 ,su* is ! effect ( ?is 9 l[]+ ! temp]ature ( ! flues1 t 9 _m cases ! loss ( heat occasion$ is great] ?an any economy ( fuel obta9$ by ! complete consumption ( smoke4 ,v>i\s me?ods1 h[ev]1 may be adopt$ by :i* fuel may be suppli$ to ! grate )\t op5+ ! fire-doors1 & )\t di/urb+ ! supply ( air to ! fire4 ,a hopp] built into ! front ( ! furnace1 ) a moveable bottom or valve1 by :i* coals may be all[$ to drop 9 f "t to "t ^u ! front ( ! grate1 w\ld accompli% ?is4 7#adh47 ,9 ord] to secure ! combu/ion ( ! gases evolv$ f ! coals plac$ 9 ! front ( ! grate1 x is necess>y t a supply ( atmosph]ic air %\ld be admitt$ ) !m ov] ! burn+ fuel4 ,?is is effect$ by small ap]tures or regulators1 provid$ 9 ! fire-doors1 gov]n$ by slid+-plates1 by :i* !y may be op5$ or clos$ to any requir$ ext5t4 ,a pat5t has rec5tly be5 grant$ to ,mr4 ,williams1 "o ( ! directors ( ! ,city ( ,dubl9 ,/eam ,navigation ,company1 = a me?od ( consum+ ! unburn$ gases :i* escape f ! grate1 & are c>ri$ ?r\gh ! flues4 ,?is me?od consi/s 9 introduc+ into ! flue tubes plac$ 9 a v]tical position1 ! l[] ends ( :i* be+ ins]t$ 9 ! bottom ( ! flue are made to communicate ) ! a%-pit1 & ! upp] ends ( :i* are clos$4 ,! sides & tops ( ^! tubes are pi]c$ ) small holes1 ?r\gh :i* atmosph]ic air drawn f ! a%-pit issues 9 jets4 ,! oxyg5 suppli$ by ?is air imm$iately comb9es ) ! c>burett$ hydrog51 :i* ,pg#bfa hav+ escap$ f ! furnace unburn$ is c>ri$ ?r\gh ! flues at a suffici5t temp]ature to ent] into comb9ation ) ! oxyg5 admitt$ ?r\gh holes 9 ! tubes4 ,a numb] ( jets ( flame ?us proce$ f ^! holes1 hav+ an appe>ance simil> to ! flame ( a gas-lamp4 ,x is evid5t t su* tubes mu/ be ineffici5t unless !y are plac$ 9 ! flues s ne> ! furnace1 t ! temp]ature ( ! unburn$ gases %all be suffici5tly high to produce _! combu/ion4 7#adi47 ,! magnitude ( ! grate & a%-pit mu/ be det]m9$ by ! rate at :i* ! evaporation is requir$ to be conduct$ 9 ! boil] & ! quality ( ! fuel4 ,x mu/ be a matt] ( regret1 t ! proportions ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( /eam-eng9es1 ) _! boil]s & furnaces1 h n be5 det]m9$ by any exact or satisfactory exp]im5ts2 & ^? :o project & manufacture ! eng9es !mselves1 are n less 9 ignorance on ^? po9ts ?an o!rs4 ,) coals ( ! common quality a c]ta9 av]age proportion mu/ exi/ betwe5 ! necess>y magnitude ( ! grate-surface & ! quantity ( wat] to be evaporat$ 9 a giv5 "t 9 ! boil]4 ,b :at t proportion is = any giv5 quality ( fuel1 is at pres5t unasc]ta9$4 ,ea* eng9e-mak] foll[s 8 own rule1 & ! rule ?us foll[$ is 9 mo/ cases a matt] ( b>e conjecture1 unsupport$ by any exp]im5tal evid5ce4 ,"s eng9e-mak]s w all[ a squ>e foot ( grate-surface = e cubic foot ( wat] p] h\r1 :i* is expect$ to be evaporat$ 9 ! boil]2 o!rs all[ only half a squ>e foot3 & practice v>ies betwe5 ^! limits4 ,bitum9\s coals :i* melt & cake1 & :i* burn ) mu* flame & smoke1 mu/ be spread m ?9ly on ! grate ?an o!r descriptions ( fuel1 o!rwise a consid]able quantity ( combu/ible gases w\ld be dismiss$ into ! flues unburnt4 ,su* coals !re=e1 o!r circum/ances be+ ! same1 require a l>g] portion ( grate-surface2 & ! same may be said ( coals :i* produce cl9k]s 9 _! combu/ion1 & =m lumps ( vitrifi$ matt] on ! grate1 by :i* ! spaces betwe5 ! grate-b>s are spe$ily clos$ up4 ,:5 su* fuel is us$1 ! grate-b>s require to be frequ5tly rak$ ,pg#bfb out1 o!rwise ! spaces betwe5 !m be+ ob/ruct$1 ! draught w\ld become insuffici5t = ! due combu/ion ( ! fuel4 ,to facilitate ! rak+ out ( ! grate1 ! b>s are plac$ ) _! ends t[>ds ! fire-door3 !y are usually made ( ca/-iron1 f two to two in*es & a half wide on ! upp] surface1 ) int]vals ( ne>ly half an in* betwe5 !m4 ,! b>s tap] d[nw>ds1 _! "u surfaces be+ mu* n>r[] ?an _! upp]1 ! spaces betwe5 !m ?us wid5+1 to facilitate ! fall ( ! a%es betwe5 !m4 ,! grate-b>s slope d[nw>ds f ! front to ! back4 ,! height ( ! c5tre ( ! bottom ( ! boil]1 above ! front ( ! grate1 is usually ab\t two feet1 & ab\t ?ree feet above ! back ( x4 ,! concave bottom ( ! boil]1 h[ev]1 br+s its surfaces at ! slide clos] to ! grate4 7#aej47 ,betwe5 ! evaporat+ p[] ( ! boil]1 & ! magnitude ( surface x exposes to ! action ( ! furnace1 !re is a relation :i*1 l t ( ! grate surface1 has nev] be5 asc]ta9$ by any c]ta9 or satisfactory exp]im5tal inve/igation2 mu* less h ! diff]5t degrees ( effici5cy att5d+ diff]5t p>ts ( ! boil]-surface be5 det]m9$4 ,t "p ( ! surface ( ! boil] imm$iately ov] & ar\nd ! grate1 is expos$ to ! imm$iate radiation ( ! burn+ fuel1 & is !re=e probably ! mo/ effici5t 9 ! production ( /eam4 ,! t5d5cy ( flame & heat$ air to rise1 w\ld naturally br+ !m 9 ! flues into clos] contact ) ^? p>ts ( ! boil]-surface :i* are horizontal 9 _! position1 & :i* =m ! tops ( ! flues1 ?an ) ^? :i* are lat]al or v]tical 9 _! position1 & :i* =m ! sides ( ! flues4 ,9 a boil] con/ruct$ l t already describ$1 ! flue-surface !re=e1 :i* w\ld be mo/ effici5t1 w\ld be ! concave bottom ( ! boil] ext5d+ f ! fire-bridge to its remote end4 ,9 "s boil]s1 especially ^? 9 :i* /eam ( high pressure is produc$1 ! =m is cyl9drical1 ! middle flue be+ =m$ into an elliptical tube ! great] axis ( :i* is horizontal f end to end ( ! boil]4 ,x seems d\btful1 h[ev]1 ,pg#bfc :e!r 9 su* a boil] ! heat produces any useful effect on ! wat] bel[ ! flue1 ! wat] above be+ always at a high] temp]ature1 & !re=e light] ?an t bel[1 & consequ5tly no curr5ts be+ e/abli%$ betwe5 ! upp] & l[] /rata ( ! wat]4 ,x 0 consid]$ by ,mr4 ,watt1 b we are n aw>e on :at exp]im5tal gr\nds1 t f eight to t5 squ>e feet ( heat+ surface 7 suffici5t to produce ! evaporation ( "o cubic foot ( wat] p] h\r4 ,! practice ( eng9e-mak]s s9ce t "t has be5 to increase ! all[ance ( heat+ surface = ! same rate ( evaporation4 ,eng9e-build]s h v>i$ v mu* 9 ?is respect1 "s all[+ twelve1 fifte51 & ev5 eighte5 squ>e feet ( surface = ! same rate ( evaporation4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 /ill be borne 9 m9d1 t :e!r ?is increas$ all[ance did or did n produce ! actual evaporation imput$ to x1 has n be51 z f> z we are in=m$1 ev] accurately asc]ta9$4 ,! production ( a giv5 rate ( evaporation by a mod]ate heat diffus$ ov] a l>g] surface1 r ?an by a fi]c] temp]ature conf9$ to a small] surface1 is att5d$ ) _m practical advantages4 ,! plates ( ! boil] act$ ^u by ! fire are less expos$ to oxydisation1 & ! boil] w be proportionally m durable4 7#aea47 ,besides pres5t+ to ! action ( ! fire a suffici5t surface to produce /eam at ! requir$ rate1 ! capacity ( ! boil] mu/ be proportion$ to ! quantity ( wat] to be evaporat$4 ,! space )9 ! boil] is appropriat$ to a tw(old purpose3 #a/1 ,to conta9 ! wat] to be evaporat$2 #b;dly1 ,to conta9 a quantity ( ready made /eam = ! supply ( ! cyl9d]4 ,if ! space appropriat$ to ! /eam did n be> a consid]able proportion to ! magnitude ( ! cyl9d]1 ! mom5t>y expansion ( ! /eam pass+ to ! cyl9d] f ! boil] at ea* /roke w\ld r$uce ! pressure ( ! /eam 9 a great proportion1 & unless ! pressure 9 ! boil] 7 consid]ably great] ?an t :i* ! /eam is int5d$ to h 9 ! cyl9d]1 ! pressure 9 ! latt] w\ld be r$uc$ bel[ ! prop] am\nt4 ,! proportion ( ! ,pg#bfd /eam space 9 ! boil] to ! magnitude ( ! cyl9d] has be5 v v>i\sly e/imat$1 nor c x be said t any practical rule ( a g5]al k9d has be5 adopt$4 ,x is held by "s t ! /eam-space w be suffici5t if x conta9 five times ! quantity ( /eam consum$ at ea* /roke1 :ile o!rs ma9ta9 t x %\ld conta9 at lea/ t5 times t quantity1 & op9ions v>y betwe5 ^! limits4 7#aeb47 ,! proportion ( wat]-space 9 ! boil] to its evaporat+ p[] %\ld also be regulat$1 s t ! introduction ( ! fe$ at a comp>atively l[ temp]ature may n unduly *ill ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,suppos+ ! fe$ to be introduc$ 9 a l[ pressure boil] at ! temp]ature ( #ajj1 & t ! necess>y temp]ature )9 ! boil] be #bbe1 ! quantity ( wat] x conta9s %\ld be ab\t five times ! quantity evaporat$1 & !re=e also five times ! quantity introduc$ ?r\gh ! fe$ p] h\r4 ,= e cubic foot ( wat] p] h\r !re=e1 int5d$ to be evaporat$ by ! boil]1 wat]-space = five cubic feet %\ld be provid$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 "r to repeat t ?is 7l almo/ e o!r s call$ rule7 is ! result n ( any exact g5]al calculation1 b "o d$uc$ f ! cu/om :i* has obta9$ among ! manufactur]s ( /eam-eng9es4 7#aec47 ,! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] %\ld always be above ! range ( ! flues4 ,:5 ! heat$ air 9 ! flues acts ^u a "p ( ! boil] )9 :i* wat] is conta9$1 ! wat] )9 receiv+ an increas$ temp]ature becomes1 bulk = bulk1 light] ?an ! /rata ( wat] above x1 & asc5ds4 ,x is replac$ by ! desc5d+ /rata1 :i*1 9 _! turn receiv+ increas$ temp]ature1 rise to ! surface2 or if ! action ( ! heat conv]t ! wat] into /eam1 ! bubbles ( /eam rise to ! surface1 fre% portions ( wat] cont9ually com+ into contact ) ! boil]-plates on :i* ! heat$ air or flame acts4 ,by ?is process ! boil]-plates are cont9ually cool$1 ei!r by be+ successively wa%$ by wat] at a l[] temp]ature1 or by ! heat tak5 f !m becom+ lat5t 9 ! /eam bubbles =m$ 9 contact ) !m4 ,b if ! heat act ,pg#bfe ^u a "p ( ! boil] conta9+ /eam )9 x1 :i* /eam be+ a sl[ recipi5t ( heat1 & no curr5ts be+ e/abli%$1 nor any ph5om5on produc$ 9 :i* heat is r5d]$ lat5t1 ! heat ( ! fire communicat$ to ! boil]-plates accumulates 9 !m1 & raises _! temp]ature to an injuri\s degree4 ,! plates may by ?is means be s(t5$1 s z to cause ! boil] to bur/1 or ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! expansion ( ! highly heat$ plates ?us expos$ to fire 9 contact ) /eam & t ( ! plates :i* are cool$ by contact ) wat]1 may cause ! jo9+s ( ! boil]-plates to op51 & ! boil] to leak4 ,by :atev] means1 !re=e1 ! boil] be f$1 c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! evaporation %\ld n be all[$ to r$uce ! level ( ! wat] 9 x bel[ ! highe/ flue4 7#aed47 ,z ! wat] by :i* ! boil] is f$ mu/ always h a mu* l[] temp]ature ?an t at :i* ! boil] is ma9ta9$1 ! supply ( ! fe$ w h a con/ant t5d5cy to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! wat]1 & ?is t5d5cy w be det]m9$ by ! proportion betwe5 ! magnitude ( ! fe$ & ! quantity ( wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,s9ce x is requisite t ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] %all n suff] any consid]able *ange1 x is evid5t t ! magnitude ( ! fe$ mu/ be equal to ! quantity ( wat] evaporat$4 ,if x 7 less1 ! level ( ! wat] w\ld cont9ually fall by reason ( ! excess ( ! evaporation ov] ! fe$2 & if x 7 great]1 ! level w\ld rise by ! accumulation ( wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,if !re=e ! quantity ( wat]-space all[$ 9 ! boil] be five times ! volume ( wat] evaporat$ p] h\r1 ! quantity introduc$ by ! fe$ p] h\r1 :e!r cont9u\sly or at int]vals1 mu/ be ( ! same am\nt4 ,s9ce ! process ( evaporation is cont9u\s1 ! v>iation ( level ( wat] 9 ! boil] w be entirely dep5d5t on ! int]vals betwe5 ! successive fe$s4 ,if ! fe$ be cont9u\s1 & always equal to ! evaporation1 !n ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] w und]go no *ange2 b if :ile ! evaporation is cont9u\s ! fe$ be made at int]vals1 !n ! *ange ( level ( wat] 9 ! boil] z ,pg#bff well z its *ange ( temp]ature1 w be subject to a v>iation proportional to ! int]vals betwe5 ! successive fe$s4 ,x is manife/1 !re=e1 t ! fe$ %\ld ei!r be un9t]rupt$ or be suppli$ at %ort int]vals1 s t ! *ange ( level & temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] %\ld n be consid]able4 7#aee47 ,diff]5t me?ods h be51 f "t to "t1 sugge/$ = indicat+ ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,we h already m5tion$ ! two gauge-pipes us$ 9 ! e>li] /eam-eng9es 7#ca471 & :i* are /ill g5]ally cont9u$4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s o!r me?ods :i* m]it our att5tion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,a weight ,f 7fig4 #ge471 half imm]s$ 9 ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 is support$ by a wire1 :i*1 pass+ /eam-tight ?r\gh a small hole 9 ! top1 is connect$ by a flexible /r+1 or *a91 pass+ ov] a :eel ,w1 ) a c\nt]poise ,a1 :i* is j suffici5t to balance ,f :5 half imm]s$4 ,if ,f be rais$ above ! wat]1 ,a be+ light] w no long] balance x1 & ,f w desc5d pull+ up ,a1 & turn+ ! :eel ,w4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ,f be plung$ deep] 9 ! wat]1 ,a w m ?an balance x1 & w pull x up1 s t ! only position 9 :i* ,f & ,a w balance ea* o!r is1 :5 ,f is half imm]s$4 ,! :eel ,w is s adju/$1 t :5 two p9s plac$ on its rim are 9 ! horizontal position1 ! wat] is at its prop] level4 ,consequ5tly x foll[s1 t if ! wat] rise above ?is level1 ! weight ,f is lift$ & ,a falls1 s t ! p9s come into ano!r position4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! level ( ! wat] fall1 ,f falls & ,a rises1 s t ! p9s assume a diff]5t position4 ,?us1 9 g5]al1 ! position ( ! p9s becomes an indication ( ! quantity ( wat] 9 ! boil]4 7#aef47 ,ano!r me?od is to place a glass tube 7fig4 #gf471 ) "o end ,t ent]+ ! boil] above ! prop] level1 & ! o!r end ,t ent]+ x bel[ ! prop] level4 ,x mu/ ,pg#bfg be evid5t t ! wat] 9 ! tube w always /& at ! same level z ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 s9ce ! l[] "p has a free communication ) t wat]1 :ile ! surface is submitt$ to ! pressure ( ! same /eam z ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,?is & ! la/-m5tion$ gauge h ! advantage ( address+ ! eye ( ! eng9e] at once1 )\t any adju/m5t2 :]eas ! gauge-cocks mu/ be bo? op5$1 :5ev] ! dep? is to be asc]ta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,^! gauges1 h[ev]1 require ! frequ5t att5tion ( ! eng9e-man2 & x becomes desirable ei!r to f9d "s m effectual means ( awak5+ t att5tion1 or to r5d] ! supply ( ! boil] indep5d5t ( any att5tion4 ,9 ord] to en=ce ! att5tion ( ! eng9e-man to repl5i% ! boil] :5 p>tially exhau/$ by evaporation1 a tube 0 sometimes ins]t$ at ! l[e/ level to :i* x 0 int5d$ t ! wat] %\ld be p]mitt$ to fall4 ,?is tube 0 conduct$ f ! boil] into ! eng9e-h\se1 :]e x t]m9at$ 9 a m\?-piece or :i/le1 s t :5ev] ! wat] fell bel[ ! level at :i* ?is tube 0 ins]t$ 9 ! boil]1 ! /eam w\ld ru% ?r\gh x1 & issu+ ) great velocity at ! m\?-piece1 w\ld summon ! eng9e] to 8 duty ) a call t w\ld r\se him ev5 f sleep4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4 7#aeg47 ,9 ! mo/ effectual ( ^! me?ods1 ! task ( repl5i%+ ! boil] %\ld /ill be execut$ by ! eng9e]2 & ! utmo/ t ! boil] itself 0 made to d1 0 to give due notice ( ! necessity = ! supply ( wat]4 ,! consequ5ce 01 among o!r inconv5i5ces1 t ! level ( ! wat] 0 subject to con/ant v>iation4 ,to rem$y ?is a me?od has be5 inv5t$1 by :i* ,pg#bfh ! eng9e is made to fe$ its own boil]4 ,! pipe ,g 7fig4 #gg471 :i* leads f ! hot wat] pump1 t]m9ates 9 a small ci/]n ,c 9 :i* ! wat] is receiv$4 ,9 ! bottom ( ?is ci/]n1 a valve ,v is plac$1 :i* op5s upw>ds1 & communicates ) a fe$-pipe1 :i* desc5ds into ! boil] bel[ ! level ( ! wat] 9 x4 ,! /em ( ! valve ,v is connect$ ) a lev] turn+ on ! c5tre ,d1 & load$ ) a weight ,f dipp$ 9 ! wat] 9 ! boil] 9 a mann] simil> to t describ$ 9 fig4 #ge41 & balanc$ by a c\nt]poise ,a 9 exactly ! same way4 ,:5 ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] falls1 ! float ,f falls ) x1 & pull+ d[n ! arm ( ! lev] raises ! valve ,v1 & lets ! wat] desc5d into ! boil] f ! ci/]n ,c4 ,:5 ! boil] has ?us be5 repl5i%$1 & ! level rais$ to its =m] place1 ,f w aga9 be rais$1 & ! valve ,v clos$ by ! weight ,a4 ,9 practice1 h[ev]1 ! valve ,v adju/s itself by means ( ! effect ( ! wat] on ! weight ,f1 s z to p]mit ! wat] f ! fe$+-ci/]n ,c to fl[ 9 a cont9u$ /ream1 j suffici5t 9 quantity to supply ! consumption f evaporation1 & to ma9ta9 ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] con/antly ! same4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! boil] is made to repl5i% itself1 or1 m prop]ly speak+1 x is made to receive su* a supply1 z t x nev] wants repl5i%+1 an effect :i* no ef=t ( att5tion on ! "p ( an eng9e-man c\ld produce4 ,b ?is is n ! only good effect produc$ by ?is contrivance4 ,a "p ( ! /eam :i* orig9ally left ! boil]1 & hav+ dis*>g$ its duty 9 mov+ ! pi/on1 0 cond5s$ & reconv]t$ into wat]1 & lodg$ by ! air-pump 9 ! hot well 7fig4 #gg471 is "h aga9 re/or$ to ! s\rce f :i* x came1 br++ back all ! unconsum$ portion ( its heat prep>atory to be+ once m put 9 circulation ?r\gh ! ma*9e4 ,! entire quantity ( hot wat] pump$ into ! ci/]n ,c1 is n always necess>y = ! boil]4 ,a wa/e-pipe may be provid$ = c>ry+ (f ! surplus1 :i* may be turn$ to any purpose = :i* x may be requir$2 or x may be dis*>g$ into a ci/]n to cool1 prep>atory to ,pg#bfi be+ re/or$ to ! cold ci/]n1 9 case wat] = ! supply ( t ci/]n be n suffici5tly abundant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4 7#aeh47 ,ano!r me?od ( arrang+ a self-regulat+ fe$] is %[n 9 fig4 #gh4 ,a is a holl[ ball ( metal atta*$ to ! end ( a lev]1 ^: fulcrum is at ,b4 ,! o!r arm ( ! lev] ,c is connect$ ) ! /em ( a sp9dle-valve1 communicat+ ) a tube :i* receives wat] f ! fe$+-ci/]n4 ,?us1 :5 ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] subsides1 ! ball ,a prepond]at+ ov] ! weight ( ! opposite arm1 ! lev] falls1 ! arm ,c rises & op5s ! valve1 & admits ! fe$+ wat]4 ,?is app>atus w evid5tly act 9 ! same mann] & on ! same pr9ciples z t already describ$4 ,pg#bgj ,! m\? ( ! tube by :i* ! fe$ is introduc$ %\ld be plac$ at t "p ( ! boil] :i* is ne>e/ ! end ( ! flues :i* issue into ! *imney4 ,by su* means ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 contact ) ^? flues w be l[e/ at ! place :]e ! temp]ature ( ! heat$ air int5d$ to act ^u x is also l[e/4 ,! diff]5ce ( ! temp]atures w !re=e be great] ?an x w\ld be if ! po9t ( ! boil] conta9+ wat] ( a high] temp]ature 0 left 9 contact ) ?is "p ( ! flue4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 7#aei47 ,x is necess>y to h a ready me?od ( asc]ta9+ at all times ! pressure ( ! /eam :i* is us$ 9 work+ ! eng9e4 ,= ?is purpose a b5t tube conta9+ m]cury is ins]t$ into "s "p ( ! app>atus1 :i* has free communication ) ! /eam4 ,let ,a ,b ,c 7fig4 #gi47 be su* a tube4 ,! pressure ( ! /eam =ces ! m]cury d[n 9 ! leg ,a ,b1 & up 9 ! leg ,b ,c4 ,if ! m]cury 9 bo? legs be at exactly ! same level1 ! pressure ( ! /eam mu/ be exactly equal to t ( ! atmosph]e2 because ! /eam pressure on ! m]cury 9 ,a ,b balances ! atmosph]ic pressure on ! m]cury 9 ,b ,c4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! level ( ! m]cury 9 ,b ,c be above ! level ( ! m]cury 9 ,b ,a1 ! pressure ( ! /eam w exce$ t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! excess ( its pressure above t ( ! atmosph]e may be f\nd by obs]v+ ! diff]5ce ( ! level ( ! m]cury 9 ! tubes ,b ,c & ,b ,a1 all[+ a pressure ( "o p\nd on ea* squ>e in* = e two in*es 9 ! diff]5ce ( ! levels4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! level ( ! m]cury 9 ,b ,c %\ld fall bel[ its level 9 ,a ,b1 ! atmosph]ic pressure w ,pg#bga exce$ t ( ! /eam1 & ! quantity ( ! excess may be asc]ta9$ exactly 9 ! same way4 ,if ! tube be glass1 ! diff]5ce ( levels ( ! m]cury w\ld be visible2 b x is mo/ commonly made ( iron2 & 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! level1 a ?9 wood5 rod ) a float is ins]t$ 9 ! op5 end ( ,b ,c1 s t ! portion ( ! /ick )9 ! tube indicates ! di/ance ( ! level ( ! m]cury f its m\?4 ,a bulb or ci/]n ( m]cury might be sub/itut$ = ! leg ,a ,b1 z 9 ! common b>omet]4 ,?is in/rum5t is call$ ! /eam-gauge4 ,if ! /eam-gauge be us$ z a measure ( ! /r5g? ( ! /eam :i* presses on ! pi/on1 x ought to be on ! same side ( ! ?rottle-valve 7:i* is regulat$ by ! gov]nor7 z ! cyl9d]2 = if x 7 on ! same side ( ! ?rottle-valve ) ! boil]1 x w\ld n be affect$ by ! *anges :i* ! /eam may und]go 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! ?rottle-valve1 :5 p>tially clos$ by ! ag5cy ( ! gov]nor4 ,= boil]s 9 :i* /eam ( v high pressure is us$1 z 9 ^? ( locomotive eng9es1 a /eam-gauge1 con/ruct$ on ! above pr9ciple1 w\ld h inconv5i5t or impracticable l5g?4 ,9 su* boil]s ! pressure ( ! /eam is equal to f\r or five times t ( ! atmosph]e1 to indicate :i* ! column ( m]cury 9 ! /eam-gauge w\ld be f\r or five feet 9 height4 ,9 su* cases a !rmomet]-gauge may be us$ ) advantage4 ,! pr9ciple ( ?is gauge is f\nd$ on ! fact1 t betwe5 ! pressure & temp]ature ( /eam produc$ 9 contact ) wat] !re is a fix$ relation1 ! same temp]ature always correspond+ to ! same pressure4 ,if1 !re=e1 a !rmomet] be imm]s$ 9 ! boil] :i* %all %[ ! temp]ature ( ! /eam1 a scale may be atta*$ to x1 on :i* %all be engrav$ ! correspond+ pressures4 ,su* gauges are n[ v g5]ally us$ on locomotive eng9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4 7#afj47 ,! =ce ) :i* ! pi/on is press$ dep5ds on two ?+s1 #a/1 ! actual /r5g? ( ! /eam :i* presses on x2 &1 #b;dly1 on ! actual /r5g? ( ! vap\r :i* resi/s x4 ,= al?\gh ! vacuum produc$ by ! me?od ( sep>ate cond5sation be mu* m p]fect ?an ,pg#bgb :at _h be5 produc$ 9 ! atmosph]ic eng9es1 yet /ill "s vap\r ( a small degree ( ela/icity is f\nd to be rais$ f ! hot wat] 9 ! bottom ( ! cond5s] be=e x c be extract$ by ! air-pump4 ,"o ( ^! pressures is indicat$ by ! /eam-gauge already describ$2 b /ill1 be=e we c e/imate ! =ce ) :i* ! pi/on desc5ds1 x is necess>y to asc]ta9 ! =ce ( ! vap\r :i* rema9s uncond5s$1 & resi/s ! motion ( ! pi/on4 ,ano!r gauge1 call$ ! b>omet]-gauge1 is provid$ = ?is purpose4 ,a glass tube ,a ,b 7fig4 #hj471 m ?an ?irty in*es long & op5 at bo? ends1 is plac$ 9 an upright or v]tical position1 hav+ ! l[] end ,b imm]s$ 9 a ci/]n ( m]cury ,c4 ,to ! upp] end is atta*$ a metal tube1 :i* communicates ) ! cond5s]1 9 :i* a con/ant vacuum1 or r high degree ( r>efaction1 is su/a9$4 ,! same vacuum mu/ !re=e exi/ 9 ! tube ,a ,b1 above ! level ( ! m]cury1 & ! atmosph]ic pressure on ! surface ( ! m]cury 9 ! ci/]n ,c w =ce ! m]cury up 9 ! tube ,a ,b1 until ! column :i* is susp5d$ 9 x is equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! atmosph]ic pressure & ! pressure ( ! uncond5s$ /eam4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! column ( m]cury su/a9$ 9 ?is in/rum5t & 9 ! common b>omet]1 w det]m9e ! /r5g? ( ! uncond5s$ /eam1 all[+ a =ce proportional to "o p\nd p] squ>e in* = e two in*es ( m]cury 9 ! diff]5ce ( ! two columns4 ,9 a well-con/ruct$ eng9e :i* is 9 good ord]1 !re is v little diff]5ce betwe5 ! altitude 9 ! b>omet]-gauge & ! common b>omet]4 ,to compute ! =ce ) :i* ! pi/on desc5ds1 ?us becomes a v simple ari?metical process4 ,fir/1 asc]ta9 ! diff]5ce ( ! levels ( ! m]cury 9 ! /eam-gauge2 ?is gives ! excess ( ! /eam pressure above ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,!n f9d ! height ( ! m]cury 9 ! b>omet]-gauge2 ?is gives ! excess ( ! atmosph]ic pressure above ! uncond5s$ /eam4 ,h5ce1 if ^! two heights be add$ toge!r1 we %all obta9 ! ,pg#bgc excess ( ! impell+ =ce ( ! /eam f ! boil]1 on ! "o side ( ! pi/on1 above ! resi/ance ( ! uncond5s$ /eam on ! o!r side3 ?is w give ! effective impell+ =ce4 ,n[1 if "o p\nd be all[$ = e two in*es ( m]cury 9 ! two columns j m5tion$1 we %all h ! numb] ( p\nds ( impell+ pressure on e squ>e in* ( ! pi/on4 ,!n1 if ! numb] ( squ>e in*es 9 ! section ( ! pi/on be f\nd1 & multipli$ by ! numb] ( p\nds on ea* squ>e in*1 ! =ce ) :i* x moves w be obta9$4 ,f :at we h /at$ x appe>s t1 9 ord] to e/imate ! =ce ) :i* ! pi/on is urg$1 x is necess>y to ref] to bo? ! b>omet] & ! /eam-gauge4 ,?is d\ble computation may be obviat$ by mak+ "o gauge s]ve bo? purposes4 ,if ! end ,c ( ! /eam-gauge 7fig4 #gi471 in/ead ( communicat+ ) ! atmosph]e 7 cont9u$ to ! cond5s]1 we %\ld h ! pressure ( ! /eam act+ ^u ! m]cury 9 ! tube ,b ,a1 & ! pressure ( ! uncond5s$ vap\r :i* resi/s ! pi/on act+ on ! m]cury 9 ! tube ,b ,c4 ,h5ce ! diff]5ce ( ! levels ( ! m]cury 9 ! tubes w\ld at once indicate ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! =ce ( ! /eam & t ( ! uncond5s$ vap\r1 :i* is ! effective =ce ) :i* ! pi/on is urg$4 7#afa47 ,b ^! me?ods ( det]m9+ ! effective =ce by :i* ! pi/on is urg$1 c only be reg>d$ z approximations1 & n v p]fect ones4 ,if ! cond5sation ( /eam on "o side ( ! pi/on 7 in/antane\sly effect$1 or ! uncond5s$ vap\r 7 ( ! same t5sion dur+ ! :ole /roke2 & if1 besides ?is1 ! pressure ( /eam on ! pi/on 7 ( uni=m int5sity f ! beg9n+ to ! end ( ! /roke1 !n ! /eam & b>omet] gauges tak5 toge!r w\ld become an accurate index ( ! effective =ce ( /eam on ! pi/on3 b su* is n ! case4 ,:5 ! /eam is fir/ admitt$ ?r\gh ! /eam-valve x acts on ! pi/on ) a pressure :i* is fir/ slightly dim9i%$1 & aft]w>ds a little increas$1 until x arrives at t "p ( ! /roke at :i* ! /eam-valve is clos$1 aft] :i* ! pressure is dim9i%$4 ,! ,pg#bgd pressure1 !re=e1 urg+ ! pi/on is subject to v>iation2 b ! pressure ( ! uncond5s$ vap\r on ! o!r side ( ! pi/on is subject to /ill great] *ange4 ,at ! mom5t ! exhau/+-valve is op5$1 ! pi/on is reliev$ f ! pressure ^u x by ! comm5cem5t ( ! cond5sation2 b ?is process dur+ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on is gradual1 & ! vacuum is r5d]$ m & m p]fect1 until ! pi/on has ne>ly atta9$ ! limit ( its play4 ,^! v>iations1 bo? z well ( ! =ce urg+ ! pi/on z ( ! =ce resi/+ x1 are su* z n to be capable ( be+ accurately measur$ by a m]curial column1 s9ce !y w\ld produce oscillations 9 su* a column1 :i* w\ld r5d] any obs]vations ( its mean height impracticable4 ,to measure ! mean effici5t =ce ( ! pi/on1 tak+ into acc\nt ^! circum/ances1 ,mr4 ,watt inv5t$ an in/rum5t1 :i*1 l all 8 me*anical inv5tions1 has answ]$ its purpose p]fectly1 & is /ill 9 g5]al use4 ,?is in/rum5t1 call$ an indicator1 consi/s ( a cyl9d] ( ab\t #a-c_/d in* 9 diamet]1 & #h in*es 9 l5g?4 ,x is bor$ ) great accuracy1 & fitt$ ) a solid pi/on mov+ /eam-tight 9 x ) v little friction4 ,! rod ( ?is pi/on is guid$ 9 ! direction ( ! axis ( ! cyl9d] ?r\gh a coll> 9 ! top1 s z n to be subject to friction 9 any "p ( its play4 ,at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] is a pipe gov]n$ by a /op-cock & turn$ 9 a screw1 by :i* ! in/rum5t may be screw$ on ! top ( ! /eam-cyl9d] ( ! eng9e4 ,9 ?is position1 if ! /op-cock ( ! indicator be op5$1 a free communication w be made betwe5 ! cyl9d] ( ! indicator & t ( ! eng9e4 ,! pi/on-rod ( ! indicator is atta*$ to a spiral spr+1 :i* is capable ( ext5sion & compression1 & :i* by its ela/icity is capable ( measur+ ! =ce :i* ext5ds or compresses x 9 ! same mann] z a spr+ /eel-y>d or balance4 ,if a scale be atta*$ to ! in/rum5t at any po9t on ! pi/on-rod to :i* an index might be atta*$1 !n ! position ( t index ^u ! scale w\ld be gov]n$ by ! position ( ! indicator-pi/on 9 its cyl9d]4 ,if any =ce press$ ! indicator-pi/on upw>ds1 s z to compress ! spr+1 ,pg#bge ! index w\ld rise ^u ! scale2 & if1 on ! o!r h&1 a =ce press$ ! indicator-pi/on d[nw>ds1 !n ! spiral spr+ w\ld be ext5d$1 & ! index on ! pi/on-rod desc5d ^u ! scale4 ,9 ea* case ! =ce ( ! spr+1 :e!r compress$ or ext5d$1 w\ld be equal to ! =ce urg+ ! indicator-pi/on1 & ! scale might be s divid$ z to %[ ! am\nt ( ?is =ce4 ,n[1 let ! in/rum5t be suppos$ to be screw$ ^u ! top ( ! cyl9d] ( a /eam-eng9e1 & ! /op-cock op5$ s z to leave a free communication betwe5 ! cyl9d] ( ! indicator bel[ its pi/on & ! cyl9d] ( ! /eam-eng9e above ! /eam-pi/on4 ,at ! mom5t ! upp] /eam-valve is op5$1 ! /eam ru%+ 9 ^u ! /eam-pi/on w also pass into ! indicator1 & press ! indicator-pi/on upw>ds3 ! index ^u its pi/on-rod w po9t ^u ! scale to ! am\nt ( pressure ?us ex]t$4 ,z ! /eam-pi/on desc5ds1 ! indicator-pi/on w v>y its position ) ! v>y+ pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! cyl9d]1 & ! index on ! pi/on-rod w play ^u ! scale1 s z to %[ ! pressure ( ! /eam at ea* po9t dur+ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,if x 7 possible to obs]ve & record ! v>y+ position ( ! index on ! pi/on-rod ( ! indicator1 & to ref] ea* ( ^! v>y+ positions to ! correspond+ po9t ( ! desc5d+ /roke1 we %\ld !n be able to decl>e ! actual pressure ( ! /eam at e po9t ( ! /roke4 ,b x is evid5t t su* an obs]vation w\ld n be practicable4 ,a me?od1 h[ev]1 0 contriv$ by ,mr4 ,s\!rn1 an assi/ant ( ,messrs4 ,b\lton & ,watt1 by :i* ?is is p]fectly effect$4 ,a squ>e piece ( pap]1 or c>d1 is /ret*$ ^u a bo>d1 :i* slides 9 grooves =m$ 9 a frame4 ,?is frame is plac$ 9 a v]tical position ne> ! indicator1 s t ! pap] may be mov$ 9 a horizontal direction backw>ds & =w>ds1 ?r\gh a space ( f\rte5 or fifte5 in*es4 ,in/ead ( an index a p5cil is atta*$ to ! indicator ( ! pi/on-rod3 ?is p5cil is lightly press$ by a spr+ aga9/ ! pap] above m5tion$1 & z ! pap] is mov$ 9 a horizontal direction ,pg#bgf "u ! p5cil1 w\ld trace ^u ! pap] a l9e4 ,if ! p5cil 7 /ation>y ?is l9e w\ld be /raight & horizontal1 b if ! p5cil 7 subject to a v]tical motion1 ! l9e trac$ on ! pap] mov$ "u ! p5cil horizontally w\ld be a curve1 ! =m ( :i* w\ld dep5d on ! v]tical motion ( ! p5cil4 ,! bo>d ?us support+ ! pap] is put into connexion by a light cord c>ri$ ov] pulleys ) "s "p ( ! p>allel motion1 by :i* x is alt]nately mov$ to ! "r & to ! left4 ,z ! pi/on asc5ds or desc5ds1 ! :ole play ( ! bo>d 9 ! horizontal direction w !re=e repres5t ! l5g? ( ! /roke1 & e fractional "p ( t play w correspond to a proportional "p ( ! /roke ( ! /eam-pi/on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,! app>atus be+ ?us arrang$1 let u suppose ! /eam-pi/on at ! top ( ! cyl9d] comm5c+ its desc5t4 ,z x desc5ds1 ! p5cil atta*$ to ! indicator pi/on-rod v>ies its height accord+ to ! v>y+ pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,at ! same "t ! pap] is mov$ uni=mly "u ! p5cil1 & a curv$ l9e is trac$ ^u x f "r to left4 ,:5 ! pi/on has rea*$ ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! upp] exhau/+-valve is op5$1 & ! /eam drawn (f to ! cond5s]4 ,! indicator-pi/on be+ imm$iately reliev$ f a "p ( ! pressure act+ ^u x desc5ds1 & ) x ! p5cil also desc5ds2 b at ! same "t ! /eam-pi/on has begun to asc5d1 & ! pap] to return f left to "r "u ! p5cil4 ,:ile ! /eam-pi/on cont9ues to asc5d1 ! cond5sation becomes m & m p]fect1 & ! vacuum 9 ! cyl9d]1 & !re=e also 9 ! indicator1 be+ gradually increas$ 9 p[]1 ! atmosph]ic pressure above ! indicator-pi/on presses x d[nw>ds & /ret*es ! spr+4 ,! p5cil mean:ile1 ) ! pap] mov+ "u x f "r to left1 traces a second curve4 ,z ! =m] curve %[$ ! actual pressure ( ! /eam impell+ ! pi/on 9 its desc5t1 ?is latt] w %[ ! pressure ( ! uncond5s$ /eam rais+ ! pi/on 9 its asc5t1 & a comp>ison ( ! two w exhibit ! effective =ce on ! pi/on4 ,fig4 #ha4 repres5ts su* a diagram z w\ld be ,pg#bgg produc$ by ?is in/rum5t4 ,a ,b ,c is ! curve trac$ by ! p5cil dur+ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on1 & ,c ,d ,e t dur+ its asc5t4 ,a is ! position ( ! p5cil at ! mom5t ! pi/on comm5ces its desc5t1 ,b is its position at ! middle ( ! /roke1 & ,c at ! t]m9ation ( ! /roke4 ,on clos+ ! upp] /eam-valve & clos+ ! exhau/+-valve1 ! indicator-pi/on be+ gradually reliev$ f ! pressure ( ! /eam ! p5cil desc5ds1 & at ! same "t ! pap] mov+ f left to "r1 ! p5cil traces ! curve ,c ,d ,e1 ! gradual desc5t ( ?is curve %[+ ! progressive increase ( ! vacuum4 ,z ! atmosph]ic pressure con/antly acts above ! pi/on ( ! indicator1 its position w be det]m9$ by ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! atmosph]ic pressure & ! pressure ( ! /eam bel[ x2 & !re=e ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! heights ( ! p5cil at correspond+ po9ts 9 ! asc5d+ & desc5d+ /roke1 w express ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! pressure ( ! /eam impell+ ! pi/on 9 ! asc5t & resi/+ x 9 ! desc5t at ^! po9ts4 ,?us at ! middle ( ! /roke1 ! l9e ,b ,d w express ! ext5t to :i* ! spr+ gov]n+ ! indicator-pi/on w\ld be /ret*$ by ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! =ce ( /eam impell+ ! pi/on at ! middle ( ! desc5d+ /roke1 & ! =ce ( /eam resi/+ x at ! middle ( ! asc5d+ /roke4 ,! =ce !re=e measur$ by ! l9e ,b ,d w be ! effective =ce on ! pi/on at t po9t2 & ! same may be said ( e "p ( ! diagram produc$ by ! indicator4 ,! :ole me*anical effect produc$ by ! /roke ( ! pi/on be+ compos$ ( ! aggregate ( all its v>y+ effects ?r\gh\t ! /roke1 ! det]m9ation ( its am\nt ,pg#bgh is a matt] ( easy calculation by ! measurem5t ( ! diagram suppli$ by ! indicator4 ,let ! horizontal play ( ! p5cil f ,a to ,c be divid$ into any propos$ numb] ( equal p>ts1 say t53 at ! middle ( ! /roke1 ,b ,d expresses ! effective =ce on ! pi/on1 & if ?is be consid]$ to be uni=m ?r\gh ! t5? "p ( ! /roke1 z f f to g1 !n ! numb] ( p\nds express$ by ,b ,d multipli$ by ! t5? "p ( ! /roke express$ 9 p>ts ( a foot1 w be ! me*anical effect ?r\gh t "p ( ! /roke express$ 9 p\nds' weight rais$ "o foot4 ,9 l mann] m n w express ! effective =ce on ! pi/on aft] ?ree f\r?s ( ! /roke h be5 p]=m$1 & if ?is be multipli$ by a t5? "p ( ! /roke z be=e1 ! me*anical effect simil>ly express$ w be obta9$2 & ! same process be+ appli$ to any successive t5? "p ( ! /roke1 & ! num]ical results ?us obta9$ be+ add$ toge!r1 ! :ole effect ( ! /roke w be obta9$1 express$ 9 p\nds' weight rais$ "o foot4 7#afb47 ,by means ( ! indicator1 ! actual me*anical effect produc$ by ea* /roke ( ! eng9e c be obta9$1 & if ! actual numb] ( /rokes made 9 any giv5 "t be kn[n1 ! :ole effect ( ! mov+ p[] w\ld be det]m9$4 ,an in/rum5t call$ a c\nt] 0 also contriv$ by ,watt1 to be atta*$ ei!r to ! work+ beam or to any o!r reciprocat+ "p ( ! eng9e4 ,?is in/rum5t consi/$ ( a tra9 ( :eel-"w ) gov]n+ h&s or indices mov$ ^u divid$ dials1 l ! h& ( a clock4 ,a record ( ! /rokes 0 pres]v$ by means precisely simil> to ^? by :i* ! h&s ( a clock or "t-piece indicat$ & record$ ! numb] ( vibrations ( ! p5dulum or balance-:eel4 7#afc47 ,to secure ! boil] f accid5ts aris+ f ! /eam conta9$ 9 x acquir+ an undue pressure1 a safety-valve is us$1 simil> 9 pr9ciple to ^? adopt$ 9 ! e>ly eng9es4 ,?is valve is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ga4 at ,n4 ,x is a conical valve1 kept d[n by a weight slid+ on a rod ^u x4 ,:5 ! pressure ( ! /eam ov]comes ! =ce ( ?is weight1 x raises ! valve & escapes1 be+ c>ri$ (f ?r\gh ! tube4 ,pg#bgi ,) a view to ! economy ( heat1 ?is wa/e /eam tube is sometimes conduct$ into ! fe$+ ci/]n1 :]e ! /eam c>ri$ (f by x is cond5s$1 & heats ! fe$+ wat]4 ,! magnitude ( ! safety-valve %\ld be su* t1 :5 op51 /eam %\ld be capable ( pass+ ?r\gh x z rapidly z x is g5]at$ 9 ! boil]4 ,! sup]ficial magnitude1 !re=e1 ( su* valves mu/ be proportional to ! evaporat+ p[] ( ! boil]4 ,9 l[ pressure boil]s ! /eam is g5]ally limit$ to five or six p\nds' pressure p] squ>e in*1 & consequ5tly ! load ov] ! safety-valve 9 p\nds w\ld be f\nd by multiply+ ! sup]ficial magnitude ( its smalle/ "p by ^! numb]s4 ,9 boil]s 9 :i* ! /eam is ma9ta9$ at a high] pressure1 x w\ld be inconv5i5t to place ^u ! safety-valve ! necess>y weight4 ,9 su* cases a lev] is us$1 ! %ort] arm ( :i* presses d[n ! valve1 & ! long] arm is held d[n by a weight capable ( adju/m5t1 s t ! pressure on ! valve may be regulat$ at discretion4 ,two safety-valves %\ld be provid$ on all boil]s1 "o ( :i* %\ld be lock$ up1 s t ! p]sons 9 c>e ( ! eng9e %\ld h no p[] to increase ! load ^u x4 ,9 su* case1 h[ev]1 x is necess>y t a h&le connect$ ) ! valve %\ld project outside ! box conta9+ x1 s t x may always be possible = ! eng9e] to asc]ta9 t ! valve is n lock$ 9 its seat1 a circum/ance :i* is liable to happ54 ,sometimes also two safety-valves are provid$1 "o load$ a little heavi] ?an ! o!r4 ,! escape ( /eam f ! light] valve 9 ?is case gives notice to ! eng9e-man ( ! gr[+ increase ( pressure1 & w>ns him to *eck ! production ( /eam4 ,! lev] by :i* ! safety-valve is held d[n is sometimes act$ on by a spiral spr+1 capable ( be+ s adju/$ z to produce any requir$ pressure on ! valve4 ,?is arrangem5t is adopt$ 9 locomotive eng9es1 :]e /eam ( v high pressure is us$2 & 9 su* cases also !re are always provid$ two su* valves1 "o ( :i* _c be increas$ 9 its pressure4 ,! pipe by :i* ! boil] is f$ ) wat] w ,pg#bhj necess>ily act z a safety-valve1 = :5 ! pressure ( ! /eam increases 9 an undue degree1 x w press ! wat] 9 ! boil] up ?r\gh ! fe$-pipe1 s z to dis*>ge x into ! fe$-ci/]n1 a circum/ance :i* w\ld imm$iately give notice ( ! int]nal /ate ( ! boil]4 ,! /eam-gauge1 already describ$ 7fig4 #gi471 w\ld also act z a safety-valve2 = if ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil] %\ld be s augm5t$ z to bl[ ! m]cury out ( ! /eam-gauge1 ! /eam w\ld !n issue ?r\gh ! gauge1 & ! pressure ( ! boil] be r$uc$1 provid$ t ! magnitude ( ! tube =m+ ! /eam-gauge 7 suffici5t = ?is purpose4 7#afd47 ,9 high pressure boil]s :i* are expos$ to extreme temp]atures & pressures1 & :i* are !re=e subject to dang] ( explosion1 a plug ( metal is sometimes ins]t$1 :i* is capable ( be+ fus$ at a temp]ature above :i* ! boil] %\ld n be p]mitt$ to be rais$4 ,if ! pressure ( /eam increase beyond ! prop] limit1 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] & /eam w und]go a correspond+ increase2 & if ! metal ( ! plug be capable ( be+ fus$ at su* a temp]ature1 ! plug w fall out ( ! boil]1 & ! /eam & wat] w issue f x4 ,v>i\s alloys ( metal are fusible at temp]atures suffici5tly l[ = ?is purpose4 ,an alloy compos$ ( "o "p ( lead1 ?ree ( t91 & five ( bismu?1 w fuse at ! common temp]ature ( boil+ wat]2 & alloys ( ! same metals1 9 v>i\s proportions1 w fuse at diff]5t temp]atures f #bjj to #djj4 ,al?\gh fusible plugs may be us$1 9 addition to o!r means ( insur+ safety1 !y ought n to be exclusively reli$ on at ! ord9>y work+ pressure ( ! boil]4 ,! fusible plug ought to be capable ( m ?an resi/+ ! pressure2 b if x be s1 its po9t ( fusion w\ld be "o at :i* ! /eam w\ld h a pressure ( at lea/ two atmosph]es above its work+ pressure4 ,! plug w\ld !re=e be capable ( be+ fus$ only z soon z ! /eam w\ld acquire a pressure ( #cj lbs4 p] in* above its regul> work+ pressure4 ,:5 a boil] ceases to be work$1 & ! furnace has be5 ext+ui%$1 ! space )9 x appropriat$ to /eam ,pg#bha w be left a vacuum by ! cond5sation ( ! /eam ) :i* x 0 previ\sly fill$4 ,! ext]nal pressure ( ! atmosph]e act+ on ! boil] w\ld1 "u su* circum/ances1 h a t5d5cy to cru% x inw>ds4 ,to prev5t ?is1 a safety-valve is provid$1 op5+ inw>ds1 & balanc$ by a weight suffici5t to keep x clos$ until x be reliev$ f ! pressure ( ! /eam bel[4 ,a l>ge ap]ture clos$ by a flange secur$ ) screws1 repres5t$ at ,o 9 fig4 #ga41 call$ ! man-hole1 is provid$ to admit p]sons into ! boil] = ! purpose ( clean+ or repair+ its int]ior4 7#afe47 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! gov]nor regulates ! supply ( /eam f ! boil] to ! cyl9d]1 proportion+ ! quantity to ! "w to be done1 & !reby su/a9+ a uni=m motion1 has be5 already expla9$ 7p4 #abe474 ,s9ce !n ! consumption ( /eam 9 ! eng9e is subject to v>iation1 ow+ to ! v>i\s quantities ( "w x may h to p]=m1 x is evid5t t ! production ( /eam 9 ! boil] %\ld be subject to a proportional v>iation4 ,= o!rwise1 "o ( two effects w\ld ensue3 ! boil] w\ld ei!r fail to supply ! eng9e ) /eam1 or /eam w\ld accumulate 9 ! boil] f be+ produc$ 9 too great abundance1 & w\ld escape at ! safety-valve1 & ?us be wa/$4 ,9 ord] to v>y ! production ( /eam 9 proportion to ! dem&s ( ! eng9e1 x is necess>y to /imulate or mitigate ! furnace1 z ! evaporation is to be augm5t$ or dim9i%$4 ,! activity ( ! furnace mu/ dep5d on ! curr5t ( air :i* is drawn ?r\gh ! grate-b>s1 & ?is w dep5d on ! magnitude ( ! space af=d$ = ! passage ( t curr5t ?r\gh ! flues4 ,a plate call$ a damp] is accord+ly plac$ ) its plane at "r angles to ! flue1 s t by rais+ & l[]+ x 9 ! same mann] z ! sa% ( a w9d[ is rais$ or l[]$1 ! space all[$ = ! passage ( air ?r\gh ! flue may be regulat$4 ,?is plate might be regulat$ by ! h&1 s t by rais+ or l[]+ x ! draught might be increas$ or dim9i%$1 & a correspond+ effect produc$ on ! ,pg#bhb evaporation 9 ! boil]3 b ! =ce ( ! fire is r5d]$ uni=mly proportional to ! rate ( evaporation by ! foll[+ arrangem5t1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( ! eng9e]4 ,! column ( wat] su/a9$ 9 ! fe$-pipe 7figs4 #ga1 #gb47 repres5ts by its weight ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! pressure ( /eam )9 ! boil] & t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,if ! eng9e consumes /eam fa/] ?an ! boil] produces x1 ! /eam conta9$ 9 ! boil] acquires a dim9i%$ pressure1 & consequ5tly ! column ( wat] 9 ! fe$-pipe w fall4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! boil] produce /eam fa/] ?an ! eng9e consumes x1 ! accumulation ( /eam 9 ! boil] w cause an increas$ pressure on ! wat] x conta9s1 & !reby increase ! height ( ! column ( wat] su/a9$ 9 ! fe$-pipe4 ,?is column !re=e necess>ily rises & falls ) e v>iation 9 ! rate ( evaporation 9 ! boil]4 ,a holl[ float ,p is plac$ ^u ! surface ( ! wat] ( ?is column2 a *a9 connect$ ) ?is float is c>ri$ upw>ds1 & pass$ ov] two pulleys1 aft] :i* x is c>ri$ d[nw>ds ?r\gh an ap]ture lead+ to ! flue :i* passes beside ! boil]3 to ?is *a9 is atta*$ ! damp]4 ,by su* an arrangem5t x is evid5t t ! damp] w rise :5 ! float ,p falls1 & w fall :5 ! float ,p rises1 s9ce ! weight ( ! damp] is s adju/$1 t x w only balance ! float ,p :5 ! latt] re/s on ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,:5ev] ! evaporation ( ! boil] is insuffici5t1 x is evid5t f :at has be5 /at$1 t ! float ,p w fall & ! damp] w rise1 & w af=d a great] passage = air ?r\gh ! flue4 ,?is w /imulate ! furnace1 w augm5t its heat+ p[]1 & w !re=e increase ! rate ( evaporation 9 ! boil]4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! production ( /eam 9 ! boil] be m ?an is requisite = ! supply ( ! eng9e1 ! float w be rais$ & ! damp] let d[n1 s z to contract ! flue1 to dim9i% ! draught1 to mitigate ! fire1 & !re=e to *eck ! evaporation4 ,9 ?is way ! excess1 or defect1 ( evaporation 9 ! boil] is made to act ^u ! fire1 s z to r5d] ! heat proce$+ f ! combu/ion z ne>ly z possible proportional to ! wants ( ! eng9e4 ,pg#bhc 7#aff47 ,! me?od ( fe$+ ! furnace by h& ?r\gh ! fire-door be+ subject to ! d\ble objection ( admitt+ m cold air ov] ! fuel ?an is necess>y = its combu/ion1 & ! impracticability ( insur+ t regul> att5dance on ! "p ( ! /ok]s1 direct$ ! att5tion ( eng9e]s to ! con/ruction ( self-regulat+ furnaces4 ,! mo/ effectual ( ^!1 & t :i* has come into mo/ g5]al use1 0 inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,william ,brunton ( ,birm+ham4 ,! advantages propos$ to be atta9$ by him 7 ^? express$ 9 8 pat5t3-- ,fir/1 ,i put ! coal ^u ! grate by small quantities1 & at v %ort int]vals1 say e two or ?ree seconds4 #b;dly1 ,i s dispose ( ! coals ^u ! grate1 t ! smoke evolv$ mu/ pass ov] t "p ( ! grate ^u :i* ! coal is 9 full combu/ion1 & is !reby consum$4 #c;dly1 ,z ! introduction ( coal is uni=m 9 %ort spaces ( "t1 ! introduction ( air is also uni=m1 & requires no att5tion f ! fireman4 ,z x respects economy3 #a/1 ,! coal is put ^u ! fire by an app>atus driv5 by ! eng9e1 & s contriv$ t ! quantity ( coal is proportion$ to ! quantity ( "w :i* ! eng9e is p]=m+2 & ! quantity ( air admitt$ to consume ! smoke is regulat$ 9 ! same mann]4 #b;dly1 ,! fire-door is nev] op5$1 except+ to clean ! fire2 ! boil]1 ( c\rse1 is n expos$ to t cont9ual irregul>ity ( temp]ature :i* is unavoidable 9 ! common furnace1 & :i* is f\nd exce$+ly injuri\s to boil]s4 #c;dly1 ,! only att5tion requir$ is to fill ! coal-receiv] e two or ?ree h\rs1 & clean ! fire :5 necess>y4 #d?ly1 ,! coal is m completely consum$ ?an by ! common furnace1 z all ! effect ( :at is t]m$ /irr+ up ! fire 7by :i* no inconsid]able quantity ( coal is pass$ into ! a%-pit71 is atta9$ )\t mov+ ! coal ^u ! grate4 ,a circul> grate is plac$ on a v]tical revolv+ %aft2 on ! l[] "p ( ?is %aft1 "u ! a%-pit1 is plac$ a too!d :eel driv5 by a p9ion4 ,?is p9ion is plac$ on ano!r v]tical %aft1 :i* asc5ds above ! boil]2 & ,pg#bhd on ! o!r end ( ?is is plac$ a bevell$ :eel driv5 by a p9ion4 ,?is p9ion is atta*$ to a %aft1 :i* takes its motion f ! axis ( ! fly-:eel1 or any o!r revolv+ %aft connect$ ) ! eng9e4 ,a con/ant motion ( revolution is !re=e imp>t$ to ! circul> grate1 & its velocity be+ proportional to t ( ! eng9e1 w necess>ily be also proportional to ! quantity ( fuel :i* ought to be consum$4 ,?r\gh t "p ( ! boil] :i* is ov] ! fire-grate a v]tical tube or op5+ is made directly ov] t "p ( ! furnace :i* is mo/ di/ant f ! flues4 ,ov] ?is op5+ a hopp] is plac$1 :i* conta9s ! fuel by :i* ! boil] is to be f$2 & 9 ! bottom ( ?is hopp] is a slid+ valve1 capable ( be+ op5$ or clos$1 s z to regulate ! quantity ( fuel suppli$ to ! fire-grate4 ,! fuel dropp+ 9 9 small quantities ?r\gh ?is op5 valve falls on ! grate1 & is c>ri$ r\nd by x1 s z to leave a fre% portion ( ! grate to receive succe$+ fe$s4 ,! coals admitt$ ?r\gh ! hopp] are previ\sly brok5 to a prop] size2 & 9 "s =ms ( ?is app>atus !re are two roll]s1 at a regulat$ di/ance asund]1 ! surfaces ( :i* are =m$ into blunt angul> po9ts1 & :i* are kept 9 sl[ revolution by ! eng9e4 ,betwe5 ^! roll]s ! coals mu/ pass be=e !y rea* ! valve ?r\gh :i* ! furnace is f$1 & !y are ?us brok5 & r$uc$ to a regulat$ size4 ,! valve :i* regulates ! op5+ ?r\gh :i* ! fe$ is admitt$1 is connect$ by *a9s & pulleys ) ! self-regulat+ damp] already describ$1 s t 9 proportion z ! damp] is rais$1 ! valve gov]n+ ! fe$ may be op5$4 ,?us1 :ile ! quantity ( air admitt$ by ! damp] is increas$ accord+ to ! dem&s ( ! eng9e1 ! quantity ( fuel admitt$ = ! fe$ is increas$ by op5+ ! valve 9 ! bottom ( ! hopp] 9 ! same proportion4 ,ap]tures are also provid$ 9 ! front ( ! grate1 gov]n$ by regulators1 by :i* ! quantity ( air necess>y & suffici5t to produce ! combu/ion ( ! gas evolv$ f ! fuel is admitt$1 ^! op5+s be+ also connect$ ) ! self-regulat+ damp]4 ,a consid]able portion ( ! heat imp>t$ to ! wat] ,pg#bhe 9 ! boil] escapes by radiation f ! surface ( ! boil]1 /eam-pipes1 & o!r p>ts ( ! ma*9]y 9 contact ) ! /eam & hot wat]4 ,! effects ( ?is are r5d]$ v app>5t 9 m>9e eng9es1 :]e a l>ge quantity ( wat] is f\nd to be cond5s$ 9 ! great /eam-pipes lead+ f ! boil] to ! cyl9d]4 ,9 /ation>y l& boil]s ?is loss ( heat is usually dim9i%$1 & 9 "s cases 9 a great degree remov$1 by surr\nd+ ! boil] ) non-conduct+ sub/ances4 ,9 "s cases ! boil] is built r\nd 9 brick "w4 ,9 ,cornwall1 :]e ! economy is reg>d$ p]haps to a great] ext5t ?an else:]e1 ! boil] & /eam-pipes are surr\nd$ ) a pack+ ( sawdu/1 :i* be+ almo/ a non-conductor ( heat1 is imp]vi\s to ! heat proce$+ f ! surfaces ) :i* x is 9 contact1 & consequ5tly conf9es all ! heat )9 ! boil]4 ,9 m>9e boil]s x has be5 ! practice rec5tly to clo! ! boil] & /eam-pipes ) a coat+ ( felt1 :i* is att5d$ ) a simil> effect4 ,:5 ^! rem$ies are prop]ly appli$1 ! loss ( heat proce$+ f ! radiation ( ! boil] is r$uc$ to an extremely small am\nt4 ,! eng9e-h\ses ( "s ( ! ,corni% eng9es1 :]e ! boil] g5]ates /eam at a v high temp]ature1 are nev]!less frequ5tly ma9ta9$ at a l[] temp]ature ?an ! ext]nal air1 & on ent]+ !m !y h 9 a great degree ! effect ( a cave4 7#afg47 ,all me*anical action is measur$ by ! am\nt ( =ce ex]cis$1 or resi/ance ov]come1 & ! space ?r\gh :i* t =ce has act$1 or ?r\gh :i* ! resi/ance has be5 mov$4 ,! gross am\nt ( me*anical action develop$ by ! mov+ p[] ( an eng9e1 is exp5d$ p>tly on mov+ ! eng9e itself1 & p>tly on ov]com+ ! resi/ance on :i* ! eng9e is int5d$ to act4 ,t "p ( ! me*anical en]gy ( ! mov+ p[] :i* is exp5d$ on ! resi/ance or load :i* ! eng9e moves exclusively1 & ( ! p[] exp5d$ on mov+ ! eng9e itself1 is call$ ! useful effect ( ! ma*9e4 ,! gross effect1 !re=e1 exce$s ! useful effect by ! ,pg#bhf am\nt ( p[] sp5t 9 mov+ ! eng9e1 or :i* may be wa/$ or de/roy$ 9 any way by ! eng9e4 ,x is usual to express & e/imate all me*anical effect :atev] by nature ( ! resi/ance ov]come1 by an equival5t weight rais$ a c]ta9 height4 ,?us1 if an eng9e ex]ts a c]ta9 p[] 9 driv+ a mill1 9 draw+ a c>riage on a road1 or 9 propell+ a vessel on wat]1 ! resi/ance aga9/ :i* x has to act mu/ be equal to a def9ite am\nt ( weight4 ,if a c>riage be drawn1 ! traces are /ret*$ by ! tractive p[]1 by ! same t5sion t w\ld be giv5 to !m if a c]ta9 weight 7 app5d$ to !m4 ,if ! paddle-:eels ( a boat are made to revolve1 ! wat] opposes to !m a resi/ance equal to t :i* w\ld be produc$1 if in/ead ( mov+ ! wat] ! :eel _h to raise "s c]ta9 weight4 ,9 any case1 !re=e1 weight becomes ! expon5t ( ! en]gy ( ! resi/ance aga9/ :i* ! mov+ p[] acts4 ,b ! am\nt ( me*anical effect dep5ds conjo9tly on ! am\nt ( resi/ance1 & ! space ?r\gh :i* t resi/ance is mov$4 ,! quantity ( ?is effect1 !re=e1 w be increas$ 9 ! same proportion1 :e!r ! quantity ( resi/ance or ! space ?r\gh :i* t resi/ance is mov$ be augm5t$4 ,?us1 a resi/ance ( "o hundr$ p\nds1 mov$ ?r\gh two feet1 is me*anically equival5t to a resi/ance ( two hundr$ p\nds mov$ ?r\gh "o foot1 or ( f\r hundr$ p\nds mov$ ?r\gh six in*es4 ,to simplify1 !re=e1 ! expression ( me*anical effect1 x is usual to r$uce x inv>iably to a c]ta9 weight rais$ "o foot4 ,if ! resi/ance "u consid]ation be equival5t to a c]ta9 weight rais$ ?r\gh t5 feet1 x is always express$ by t5 times ! am\nt ( t weight rais$ ?r\gh "o foot4 ,x has also be5 usual 9 ! expression ( me*anical effect1 to take ! p\nd weight z ! unit ( weight1 & ! foot z ! unit ( l5g?1 s t all me*anical effect :atsoev] is express$ by a c]ta9 numb] ( p\nds rais$ "o foot4 7#afh47 ,! gross effect ( ! mov+ p[] 9 a /eam-eng9e1 is ! :ole me*anical =ce develop$ by ! evaporation ,pg#bhg ( wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,a "p ( ?is effect is lo/ by ! p>tial cond5sation ( ! /eam be=e x acts ^u ! pi/on1 & by ! imp]fect cond5sation ( x subsequ5tly3 ano!r portion is exp5d$ on ov]com+ ! friction ( ! diff]5t mov+ p>ts1 & 9 act+ aga9/ ! resi/ance :i* ! air opposes to ! ma*9e4 ,if ! motion be subject to sudd5 %ocks1 a portion ( ! p[] is !n lo/ by ! de/ruction ( mom5tum :i* su* %ocks produce4 ,b if ^? p>ts ( ! ma*9e :i* h a reciprocat+ motion be1 z !y ought to be1 br\ght gradually to re/ at ea* *ange ( direction1 !n no p[] is absorb$ 9 ?is way4 7#afi47 ,! useful effect ( an eng9e is v>i\sly d5om9at$ accord+ to ! relation "u :i* x is consid]$4 ,if x be ref]r$ to ! "t dur+ :i* x is produc$1 x is call$ ,,p[]4 7#agj47 ,if x be ref]r$ to ! fuel1 by ! combu/ion ( :i* ! evaporation has be5 effect$1 x is call$ ,,duty4 7#aga47 ,:5 /eam-eng9es 7 fir/ br\ght into use1 !y 7 commonly appli$ to "w pumps = mills :i* _h be5 previ\sly work$ or driv5 by horses4 ,9 =m+ _! contracts1 ! fir/ /eam-eng9e build]s f\nd !mselves call$ ^u to supply eng9es capable ( execut+ ! same "w z 0 previ\sly execut$ by "s c]ta9 numb] ( horses4 ,x 0 !re=e conv5i5t1 & inde$ necess>y1 to be able to express ! p]=mance ( ^! ma*9es by comp>ison ) ! animal p[] to :i* manufactur]s1 m9]s1 & o!rs1 _h be5 s long accu/om$4 ,:5 an eng9e1 !re=e1 0 capable ( p]=m+ ! same "w 9 a giv5 "t z any giv5 numb] ( horses ( av]age /r5g? usually p]=m$1 x 0 said to be an eng9e ( s _m horses' p[]4 ,/eam-eng9es _h be5 9 use = a consid]able "t be=e ?is t]m _h acquir$ any settl$ or uni=m mean+1 & ! nom9al p[] ( eng9es 0 accord+ly v arbitr>y4 ,at l5g?1 h[ev]1 ! use ( /eam-eng9es became m ext5d$1 & ! confusion & inconv5i5ce aris+ out ( all que/ions respect+ ! p]=mance ( eng9es1 r5d]$ x necess>y t "s fix$ ,pg#bhh & def9ite mean+ %\ld be assign$ to ! t]ms by :i* ! p[]s ( ?is ma*9e 7 express$4 ,to h ab&on$ ! t]m horse-p[]1 :i* _h be5 s long 9 use1 w\ld h be5 obvi\sly inconv5i5t2 nor c\ld !re be any objection to its cont9uance1 provid$ all eng9e-mak]s1 & all ^? :o us$ eng9es1 c\ld be br\ght to agree ^u "s /&>d by :i* ! unit ( horse-p[] might be def9$4 ,! p]=mance ( a horse ( av]age /r5g? work+ = eight h\rs a day 0 !re=e select$ z a /&>d1 or unit1 ( /eam-eng9e p[]4 ,smeaton e/imat$ t su* an animal1 s work+1 0 capable ( p]=m+ a quantity ( "w equal 9 its me*anical effect to #bb1iaf lbs4 rais$ "o foot p] m9ute1 :ile ,desaguli]s e/imat$ ! same p[] at #bg1ejj lbs4 rais$ ?r\gh ! same height 9 ! same "t4 ,! discrepancy betwe5 ^! e/imates probably arose f _! be+ made f ! p]=mances ( diff]5t classes ( horses4 ,messrs4 ,b\lton & ,watt caus$ exp]im5ts to be made ) ! /rong horses us$ 9 ! brew]ies 9 ,london1 & f ! result ( ^! trials !y assign$ #cc1jjj lbs4 rais$ "o foot p] m9ute1 z ! value ( a horse's p[]4 ,?is is ! unit ( eng9e-p[] n[ univ]sally adopt$2 & :5 an eng9e is said to be ( s _m horses' p[]1 :at is meant is1 t t eng9e1 9 good work+ ord] & prop]ly manag$1 is capable ( mov+ a resi/ance equal to #cc1jjj lbs4 ?r\gh "o foot p] m9ute4 ,?us an eng9e ( t5 horse-p[] is "o t w\ld raise #ccj1jjj lbs4 weight "o foot p] m9ute4 ,:e!r ?is e/imate ( an av]age horse's p[] be correct or n1 9 ref]5ce to ! actual "w :i* ! animal is capable ( execut+1 is a matt] ( no pres5t importance 9 its application to /eam-p[]4 ,! /eam-eng9e is no long] us$ to replace ! p[] ( horses1 & !re=e no contracts are bas$ ^u su* a comp>ison4 ,! t]m horse-p[]1 !re=e1 z appli$ to /eam-eng9es1 mu/ be und]/ood to h no ref]5ce :atev] to ! actual animal p[]1 b mu/ be tak5 z a t]m hav+ no o!r mean+ ?an ! expression ( ! ability ( ! ,pg#bhi ma*9e to move ! am\nt ( resi/ance above m5tion$ ?r\gh "o foot p] m9ute4 7#agb47 ,x has be5 already expla9$ 7#fg47 t ! conv]sion ( a giv5 volume ( wat] into /eam is productive ( a c]ta9 def9ite am\nt ( me*anical =ce1 ?is am\nt dep5d+ on ! pressure "u :i* ! wat] is evaporat$1 & ! ext5t to :i* ! expansive pr9ciple is us$ 9 work+ ! /eam4 ,x is evid5t t ?is am\nt ( me*anical effect is a major limit1 :i* _c be exce$$ by ! p[] ( ! eng9e4 ,if ! /eam be n work$ expansively1 !n ! :ole p[] ( ! wat]1 transmitt$ 9 ! =m ( /eam f ! boil] to ! work+ ma*9]y1 w be a matt] ( easy calculation1 :5 ! pressure at :i* ! /eam is work$ is kn[n4 ,a table1 exhibit+ ! me*anical p[] ( a cubic foot ( wat] conv]t$ into /eam at v>i\s pressures1 express$ 9 an equival5t numb] ( p\nds' weight rais$ "o foot high1 is giv5 9 ! ,app5dix to ?is volume4 ,:]e mu* accuracy is s\ght =1 ! pressure at :i* ! /eam is us$ mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt2 b by ref]5ce to ! table x w be se51 t :5 /eam is work$ )\t expansion1 its me*anical effect v>ies v little ) ! pressure4 ,x may !re=e be assum$1 z has be5 already /at$1 t = e cubic in* ( wat] transmitt$ 9 ! =m ( /eam to ! cyl9d]s1 a =ce is produc$1 repres5t$ by a ton weight rais$ a foot high4 ,n[1 z #cc1jjj lbs4 is v ne>ly #ae tons1 x foll[s t #ae cubic in*es ( wat] conv]t$ into /eam p] m9ute1 or #ijj cubic in*es p] h\r1 w produce a me*anical =ce equal to "o horse4 ,if1 !re=e1 to #ijj cubic in*es be add$ ! quantity ( wat] p] h\r necess>y to move ! eng9e itself1 indep5d5tly ( its load1 we %all obta9 ! quantity ( wat] p] h\r :i* mu/ be suppli$ by ! boil] to ! eng9e = ea* horse-p[]1 & ?is w be ! same :atev] may be ! magnitude or proportions ( ! cyl9d]4 7#agc47 ,! quantity ( p[] exp5d$ 9 work+ ! eng9e itself1 indep5d5tly ( t requir$ to move its load1 w be less 9 proportion to ! degree ( p]fection :i* ,pg#bij may be atta9$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! eng9e1 & to ! ord] 9 :i* x is kept :ile work+4 ,eng9es v>y "o f ano!r s mu* 9 ^! respects1 t x is sc>cely possible to lay d[n any g5]al rules = ! quantity ( p[] to be all[$ ov] & above :at is necess>y to move ! load4 ,! means :]eby me*anical p[] is exp5d$ 9 work+ ! eng9e may be enum]at$ z foll[s3-- ,fir/4 ,/eam 9 pass+ f ! boil] to ! cyl9d] is liable to lose its temp]ature by ! radiation ( ! /eam-pipes & o!r passages ?r\gh :i* x is conduct$4 ,s9ce ! /eam produc$ 9 ! boil] is 9 contact ) wat]1 x w be common /eam 7#id471 & consequ5tly ! lea/ loss ( heat w cause a p>tial cond5sation4 ,to :atev] ext5t ?is cond5sation may be c>ri$1 a proportional loss ( p[]1 9 ref]5ce to ! heat obta9$ f ! fuel1 w be entail$ ^u ! eng9e4 ,x has be5 said t ! =ce necess>y to move ! /eam f ! boil] to ! cyl9d] ?r\gh passages m or less contract$1 subject to ! friction ( ! pipes & tubes ?r\gh :i* x moves1 %\ld be tak5 into acc\nt 9 e/imat+ ! p[]1 & a correspond+ d$uction made4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! case3 ! /eam hav+ pass$ into ! cyl9d] rema9s common /eam1 its pressure be+ dim9i%$ by reason ( ! =ce exp5d$ 9 ?us mov+ x f ! boil] to ! cyl9d]4 ,b its me*anical efficacy at ! r$uc$ pressure is n s5sibly diff]5t f ! efficacy :i* x _h 9 ! boil]4 ,if at ! r$uc$ pressure its volume 7 ! same1 !n a loss ( effect w\ld be su/a9$ equival5t to ! diff]5ce ( ! pressures2 b its volume be+ augm5t$ 9 v ne>ly ! same proportion z its pressure is dim9i%$1 ! me*anical efficacy ( a giv5 weight ( /eam 9 ! cyl9d] w be s5sibly ! same z 9 ! boil]4 ,second4 ,! radiation ( heat f ! cyl9d] & its app5dages1 w cause a p>tial cond5sation ( /eam1 & !reby produce a dim9i%$ me*anical effect4 ,?ird4 ,! /eam1 :i* at ea* /roke ( ! pi/on fills ! passages betwe5 ! /eam-valves & ! pi/on1 at ! ,pg#bia mom5t ! latt] comm5ces ! /roke w be ineffici5t4 ,if x 7 possible = ! pi/on to come into /eam-tight contact ) ea* end ( ! cyl9d]1 & t ! /eam-valve %\ld be 9 imm$iate contact ) ! side or top ( ! pi/on1 !n ! :ole ( ! /eam :i* w\ld pass ?r\gh ! /eam-valve w\ld be effici5t2 b z "s space1 h[ev] small1 mu/ rema9 betwe5 ! pi/on & ! ends ( ! cyl9d]1 & betwe5 ! side ( ! cyl9d] & ! /eam-valve1 !re w always be a volume ( /eam be>+ a s5sible proportion to ! magnitude ( ! cyl9d]1 :i* at ea* /roke ( ! pi/on w be ineffici5t4 ,?is volume ( /eam is call$ ! cle>ance4 ,f\r?4 ,s9ce ! pi/on mu/ move 9 /eam-tight contact ) ! cyl9d]1 x mu/ h a def9ite am\nt ( friction ) ! sides ( ! cyl9d] by :atev] means x may be pack$4 ,?is friction w produce a correspond+ resi/ance to ! mov+ p[]4 ,fif?4 ,! v>i\s jo9ts ( ! ma*9]y :]e /eam is conta9$ are subject to leakage1 & :atev] am\nt ( /eam %all ?us escape mu/ be plac$ to ! acc\nt ( p[] lo/4 ,six?4 ,:5 ! eduction-valve is op5$ to admit ! /eam to ! cond5s]1 a c]ta9 =ce is requir$ to expel ! /eam f ! cyl9d]4 ,?is =ce reacts ^u ! pi/on1 & c\nt]acts to a proportional ext5t ! mov+ p[] ( ! /eam on ! o!r side4 ,besides ?is ! wat] 9 ! cond5s] _c be conv5i5tly r$uc$ bel[ ! temp]ature ( ab\t #ajj1 & at ?is temp]ature /eam has a pressure ( ab\t #a lb4 p] squ>e in*4 ,?is vap\r w cont9ue to fill ! cyl9d]1 & w resi/ ! mov+ p[] :i* impels ! pi/on4 ,sev5?4 ,p[] mu/ be provid$ = op5+ & clos+ ! valves or slides1 = work+ ! air-pump1 hot-wat] pump1 & cold-wat] pump1 & f9ally to ov]come ! friction on ! j\rnals & c5tres ( ! p>ts ( ! p>allel motion1 ! ma9 axle ( ! beam1 ! connect+ rod1 crank1 & fly-:eel axle4 ,x w be app>5t h[ v mu* ^! s\rces ( resi/ances mu/ v>y 9 diff]5t eng9es1 & h[ r\gh ,pg#bib an approximation any g5]al e/imate mu/ be ( _! gross am\nt4 7#agd47 ,!re are _m circum/ances :i* ob/ruct ! practical application ( any /&>d ( eng9e-p[]3 ! magnitude ( furnace1 & ! ext5t ( heat+ surface necess>y to produce any requir$ rate ( evaporation 9 ! boil]1 are unasc]ta9$2 ea* eng9e-mak] has 8 own rule 9 ^! matt]s1 & all ! rules are equally unsupport$ by any exp]im5tal te/ entitl$ to respect4 ,?us ! circum/ances t gov]n ! rate ( evaporation 9 ! boil] may be reg>d$ z almo/ :olly unkn[n4 ,b suppos+ ! rate ( evaporation to be asc]ta9$1 ! am\nt ( p[] absorb$ by ! cond5sation ( /eam on its passage to ! cyl9d]1 ! imp]fect cond5sation ( ! same /eam aft] x has work$ ! pi/on1 ! friction ( ! v>i\s mov+ p>ts ( ! ma*9]y1 &1 above all1 ! diff]5ce ( effect ( ^! losses ( p[] 9 eng9es con/ruct$ on diff]5t scales ( magnitude1 are absolutely unkn[n4 ,we are1 !re=e1 n plac$ 9 a condition to assign any ?+ m ?an a g5]al acc\nt ( :at has be5 ! practice ( eng9e-mak]s 9 con/ruct+ eng9es :i* are nom9ally ( a c]ta9 p[]4 ,9 common l[-pressure eng9es ( ! l>g] k9d1 to :i* class alone we at pres5t ref]1 x has be5 usual1 ) ! same fuel & "u l circum/ances1 to all[ f #aj to #ah squ>e feet ( heat+ surface 9 ! boil] = e nom9al horse-p[] ( ! eng9e4 ,)9 ^! wide limits ! practice ( eng9e-mak]s has v>i$4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 to be suppos$1 t ! boil] ) #ah squ>e feet ( surface p] horse-p[] has ! same evaporat+ p[] z t :i* has b #aj4 ,?is diff]5ce1 !re=e1 am\nts to no?+ m ?an diff]5t manufactur]s ( /eam-eng9es putt+ into circulation boil]s hav+ p[]s really diff]5t :ile !y are nom9ally ! same4 ,! magnitude ( ! cyl9d] is regulat$ by ! nom9al p[] ( ! eng9e1 & x is usual s to regulate ! evaporat+ p[] ( ! boil]1 t ! pi/on %all move at ! av]age rate ( #bjj feet p] m9ute4 ,?is be+ assum$1 x is cu/om>y to all[ ab\t #bb squ>e in*es ( pi/on ,pg#bic surface = e nom9al horse-p[] ( ! eng9e4 ,if ?is p[] 7 9 con=mity to ! /&>d already def9$1 ?is am\nt ( surface mov$ at #bjj feet p] m9ute w\ld be impell$ by a pressure am\nt+ to #g-a_/b lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,! safety-valve ( ! boil] ( su* eng9es is usually load$ at f #d to #e lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 & consequ5tly ! /eam 9 ! boil] w h a pressure ( f #ai to #bj lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! effective pressure on ! pi/on be really only #g-a_/b lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 ! pressure exp5d$ 9 ov]com+ ! friction ( ! eng9e1 & ! loss consequ5t on ! p>tial cond5sation ( /eam on "o side & its imp]fect cond5sation on ! o!r1 w\ld am\nt to f #ab to #ac lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 or ne>ly d\ble ! assum$ useful effect ( ! eng9e4 ,messrs4 ,maudslay & ,field are accu/om$ to all[ an evaporation ( t5 gallons1 or #af cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r1 = ea* nom9al horse-p[] ( ! eng9e4 ,!y also all[ ab\t #bb squ>e in*es ( pi/on surface p] nom9al horse-p[]1 ! pi/on be+ suppos$ to move at ! rate ( #bjj feet p] second4#bd ,! quantity ( grate surface necess>y 9 proportion to ! p[] ( ! eng9e1 has be5 equally unasc]ta9$1 & eng9e-mak]s v>y 9 _! practice f half a squ>e foot to "o squ>e foot p] nom9al horse-p[]4 ,! proportion :i* ! magnitude ( ! heat+ surface ( ! boil]1 & ! fire surface ( ! grate be>s to ! evaporat+ p[] ( ! boil]1 has n be5 det]m9$ by exp]im5t1 nor1 s f> z we are in=m$1 by any well-asc]ta9$ practical results4 ,! e/imates or r conjectures ( eng9e-mak]s1 ( ! evaporation necess>y to produce "o horse-p[]1 v>y f "o to two cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r4 ,x has be5 ,pg#bid already %[n t ! evaporation ( #ijj cubic in*es1 or little m ?an half a cubic foot p] h\r1 evolves a gross me*anical effect repres5t+ "o horse-p[]2 f :i* x appe>s1 t if ! evaporation ( ! boil]s ( /eam eng9es 7 :at eng9e]s suppose !m to be1 ! gross me*anical p[] produc$ 9 !m = e nom9al horse-p[] ( ! eng9e v>ies 9 actual am\nt f ! p[] ( two to t ( f\r horses4 ,! above e/imates mu/ be und]/ood z ref]r+ to d\ble-act+ /eam eng9es above ?irty-horse p[]4 ,! circum/ances att5d+ ! p]=mance ( s+le-act+ eng9es appli$ to ! dra9age ( m9es1 h be5 asc]ta9$ ) mu* great] precision4 ,?is has be5 ma9ly ow+ to a spirit$ sy/em ( g5]al inspection1 :i* has be5 e/abli%$ 9 ,cornwall1 to :i* we %all h]eaft] m p>ticul>ly adv]t4 7#age47 ,9 express+ ! duty ( eng9es1 x w\ld h be5 desirable t ! duty ( ! boil] %\ld h be5 sep>at$ f t ( ! eng9e4 ,! duty ( a boil] is e/imat$ by ! volume ( wat] evaporat$ by a giv5 quantity ( fuel1 indep5d5tly ( ! "t :i* su* evaporation may take4 ,! duty1 !re=e1 w be express$ by ! numb] ( cubic feet ( wat] evaporat$1 divid$ by ! numb] ( bu%els ( coal necess>y = t evaporation1 suppos+ ! bu%el ( coal to be ! unit ( fuel4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! duty ( an eng9e or boil] is entirely di/9ct f1 & indep5d5t (1 its p[]4 ,"o boil] may be great] ?an ano!r 9 p[] to any ext5t1 :ile x may be equal to or less ?an x 9 duty4 ,a bu%el ( coals may evaporate ! same numb] ( cubic feet ( wat] "u two boil]s1 b may take twice z great a "t to produce su* evaporation "u "o ?an "u ! o!r4 ,9 su* a case ! p[] ( "o boil] w be d\ble t ( ! o!r1 :ile _! duty w be ! same4 ,9 l mann]1 a bu%el ( coals consum$ 9 work+ two eng9es may produce ! same useful effect1 b x may produce t useful effect 9 ! "o 9 half ! "t x takes to produce x 9 ! o!r4 ,9 t case ! duty ( ! eng9es w be ! same1 b ! p[] ( ! "o w be d\ble t ( ! o!r4 ,pg#bie ,9 f9e1 p[] has ref]5ce to "t1--duty1 to fuel4 ,! m rapidly ! eng9e produces its me*anical effect1 ! great] its p[] w be1 :atev] may be ! fuel consum$ 9 work+ x4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 ! great] ! useful effect produc$ by a giv5 weight ( fuel1 ! great] w be ! duty1 h[ev] long ! "t may be :i* ! fuel may take to produce ! useful effect4 7#agf47 ,! proportion ( ! /roke to ! diamet] ( ! cyl9d] mu/ be det]m9$ by ! velocity int5d$ to be giv5 to ! pi/on4 ,) ! same capacity ( cyl9d]1 & ! same evaporation 9 ! boil]1 ! velocity ( ! pi/on w augm5t z ! magnitude ( its diamet] is dim9i%$4 ,! proportion ( ! diamet] to ! /roke ( ! cyl9d] is v v>i\s4 ,9 eng9es us$ = /eam-vessels ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d] v little exce$s its diamet]4 ,9 l& eng9es1 h[ev]1 ! proportion ( ! l5g? to ! diamet] is great]4 ,x is ma9ta9$ by "s t ! proportion ( ! diamet] & l5g? ( ! cyl9d] %\ld be su* z to r5d] its surface expos$ to ! cool+ ( ! ext]nal air1 ! smalle/ possible4 ,tr$gold has ma9ta9$ t s9ce1 dur+ ! /roke1 ! /eam is gradually expos$ to contact ) ! surface ( ! cyl9d] f ! top to ! bottom1 ! mean surface expos$ 9 contact ) /eam be+ half t ( ! entire cyl9d]1 ! proportion ( ! diamet] to ! /roke %\ld be su* t ! surface ( half ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d]1 add$ to ! magnitude ( ! top & bottom1 %all be a m9imum4 ,if ?is pr9ciple be admitt$1 !n ! be/ proportion ( ! diamet] to ! /roke w\ld be t ( "o to two1 ! l5g? ( ! /roke be+ twice ! diamet] ( ! cyl9d]2 b s9ce ! :ole surface ( ! cyl9d] is con/antly expos$ to ! cool+ effects ( ! air1 & s9ce 9 ! int]vals ( ! /roke !re is no s5sible *ange ( ! temp]ature ( ! surface1 ! loss ( heat by cool+ w 9 effect be ! same1 especially 9 d\ble-act+ eng9es1 z if ! cyl9d] 7 con/antly fill$ ) /eam4 ,if ?is be admitt$1 !n ! object %\ld be to give ! cyl9d] su* a proportion1 t its entire surface1 includ+ ! top & bottom1 %all be a m9imum4 ,pg#bif ,! proportion giv5 by ?is condition w\ld be v ne>ly t :i* is obs]v$ 9 ! cyl9d]s ( m>9e eng9es1 viz4 t ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d] %\ld be equal to its diamet]4 ,if 9 a l[-pressure eng9e ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! cyl9d] be tak5 at #ag lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 !n ! volume ( /eam w be ab\t fifte5 hundr$ times t ( ! wat] :i* produces x4 ,= e cubic foot ( wat]1 !re=e1 9 ! effective evaporation ( ! boil]1 #aejj cubic feet ( /eam w be pass$ ?r\gh ! cyl9d]4 ,if x be int5d$ t ! motion ( ! pi/on %all be at ! rate ( #be /rokes p] m9ute1 or #aejj /rokes p] h\r1 !n ! capacity ( t portion ( ! cyl9d] betwe5 ! /eam-valve & ! pi/on at ! end ( ! /roke1 mu/ consi/ ( half z _m cubic feet z !re are cubic feet p] h\r evaporat$ 9 ! boil]4 ,if ! /eam1 !re=e1 be cut (f at half /roke1 ! numb] ( cubic feet ( space 9 ! cyl9d] w be equal to ! numb] ( cubic feet ( wat] effectively evaporat$ by ! boil]2 & if a cubic foot ( wat] effectively evaporat$ be tak5 z ! measure ( a horse-p[]1 !n !re w\ld be z _m cubic feet 9 ! capacity ( ! cyl9d] z is equal to ! nom9al p[] ( ! eng9e4 7#agg47 ,! duty ( eng9es v>ies accord+ to _! =m & magnitude1 ! circum/ances "u :i* !y are work$1 & ! purposes to :i* !y are appli$4 ,9 d\ble-act+ eng9es work+ )\t expansion1 ! coal consum$ p] nom9al horse-p[] p] h\r v>ies f #g to #ab lbs4 ,an exam9ation ( ! /eam-logs ( sev]al gov]nm5t /eam]s made by me a few ye>s s9ce1 gave1 z ! av]age ( consumption ( fuel at t "t ( ! be/ class ( m>9e eng9es1 ab\t #h lbs4 p] nom9al horse-p[] p] h\r4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 no acc\nt c\ld be obta9$ ( ! actual evaporation ( wat] 9 ! boil]1 nor1 ) ! necess>y degree ( precision1 ( ! quantity & pressure ( ! /eam :i* pass$ ?r\gh ! cyl9d]s1 ?is e/imate mu/ be reg>d$ z an approximation subject to sev]al causes ( error4 ,! "q ( ! duty ( boil]s & eng9es appli$ to ! ,pg#big g5]al purposes ( manufactures & navigation1 is "o :i* has n yet be5 satisfactorily inve/igat$2 & x 7 mu* to be desir$ t ! proprietors ( su* eng9es %\ld comb9e to e/abli% a /rict analysis ( _! p]=mance 9 ref]5ce to _! consumption ( fuel1 _! evaporation ( wat]1 & _! useful effects4 ,! results ( su* an inve/igation1 if prop]ly conduct$1 w\ld p]haps t5d m to ! improvem5t ( ! /eam eng9e ?an any discov]ies 9 sci5ce1 or inv5tions 9 me*anical detail likely to be made 9 ! pres5t /age ( ! progress ( t ma*9e4 7#agh47 ,a /rict inve/igation ( ?is k9d has be5 = _m ye>s c>ri$ on respect+ ! p]=mance ( ! /eam eng9es us$ = ! dra9age ( ! m9es 9 ,cornwall2 & x has be5 att5d$ ) effects ! mo/ b5eficial to ! int]e/s ( ^? conc]n$ 9 !m4 ,! eng9es to :i* ?is important inquiry has be5 appli$ be+ us$ = ! purpose ( pump+1 are g5]ally s+le-act+ eng9es1 9 :i* /eam is us$ expansively to a great ext5t4 ,! /eam is produc$ "u a v high pressure 9 ! boil]1 & be+ admitt$ to ! cyl9d] is cut (f aft] a small portion ( ! entire /roke has be5 made1 ! rema9d] ( ! /roke be+ produc$ by ! expansion ( ! /eam4 ,ab\t ! ye> #ahaa1 a numb] ( ! proprietors ( ! pr9cipal ,corni% m9es agre$ to e/abli% ?is sy/em ( inspection1 "u ! managem5t & direction ( ,capta9 ,joel ,lean1 & to publi% mon?ly reports4 ,9 ^! reports 7 /at$ ! foll[+ p>ticul>s3--#a4 ,! load p] squ>e in* on ! pi/on2 #b4 ,! consumption ( coal 9 bu%els2 #c4 ,! numb] ( /rokes made by ! eng9e2 #d4 ,! l5g? ( ! /rokes 9 ! pumps2 #e4 ,! load 9 p\nds2 #f4 ,! duty ( ! eng9e1 express$ by ! numb] ( p\nds rais$ "o foot high by ! consumption ( a bu%el ( coals2 #g4 ,! numb] ( /rokes p] m9ute2 #h4 ,! diamet] & /roke ( ! cyl9d]1 & a g5]al description ( ! eng9e4 ,:5 ^! reports 7 comm5c$1 ! numb] ( eng9es br\ght "u inspection 0 tw5ty-"o4 ,9 ! ye> #ahac x increas$ to tw5ty-n9e2 9 #ahad to ?irty-two2 9 #ahbj ! numb] report$ ^u increas$ ,pg#bih to =ty2 9 #ahbh ! numb] 0 fifty-sev52 & 9 #ahcf x 0 sixty-"o4 ,?is gradual increase 9 ! numb] ( eng9es br\ght "u ?is sy/em ( inspection1 0 produc$ by ! good effects :i* att5d$ x4 ,^! b5eficial consequ5ces 7 manife/$1 n only 9 ! improv$ p]=mance ( ! same eng9es1 b 9 ! gradually improv$ effici5cy ( ^? :i* 7 aft]w>ds con/ruct$4 ,! foll[+ table tak5 f ! /atem5t ( ! duty ( ,corni% eng9es by ,?omas ,lean & bro!r1 lately publi%$ by ! ,briti% ,association1 w %[ 9 a /rik+ mann] ! improvem5t ( ! ,corni% eng9es1 f ! comm5cem5t ( ?is sy/em ( inspection to ! pres5t "t4 ,! duty is express$ by ! numb] ( p\nds rais$ "o foot high by ! consumption ( a bu%el ( coals4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,no4 ( ,av]age ,duty ( ! ,av]age ,duty ( ! be/ ,ye>s4,eng9es4 ,:ole4 ,eng9e4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- #ahab #ba #ai1cjj1jjj #ahac #bi #ai1ejj1jjj #bf1djj1jjj #ahad #cb #bj1fjj1jjj #cb1jjj1jjj #ahae #ce #bj1ejj1jjj #bh1gjj1jjj #ahaf #ce #bc1jjj1jjj #cb1djj1jjj #ahag #ce #bf1ejj1jjj #da1fjj1jjj #ahah #cf #be1djj1jjj #ci1cjj1jjj #ahai #dj #bf1cjj1jjj #dj1jjj1jjj #ahbj #df #bh1gjj1jjj #da1cjj1jjj #ahba #de #bh1bjj1jjj #db1hjj1jjj #ahbb #eb #bh1ijj1jjj #db1ejj1jjj #ahbc #eb #bh1bjj1jjj #db1ajj1jjj #ahbd #di #bh1cjj1jjj #dc1ejj1jjj #ahbe #ef #cb1jjj1jjj #de1djj1jjj #ahbf #ea #cj1ejj1jjj #de1bjj1jjj #ahbg #ea #cb1ajj1jjj #ei1gjj1jjj #ahbh #eg #cg1ajj1jjj #gf1hjj1jjj #ahbi #ec #da1gjj1jjj #gg1jjj1jjj #ahcj #ef #dc1cjj1jjj #gh1jjj1jjj #ahca #eh #dc1djj1jjj #ga1ajj1jjj #ahcb #ei #de1jjj1jjj #he1jjj1jjj #ahcc #ef #df1fjj1jjj #hd1cjj1jjj #ahcd #eb #dg1hjj1jjj #ij1ijj1jjj #ahce #ea #dg1hjj1jjj #ia1gjj1jjj #ahcf #fa #df1fjj1jjj #he1djj1jjj #ahcg #eh #dg1jjj1jjj #hg1bjj1jjj #ahch #fa #dh1gjj1jjj #hd1bjj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,pg#bii ,z an example ( ! b5eficial effects produc$ ^u ! effici5cy ( an individual eng9e by ! fir/ application ( ?is sy/em ( inspection1 ! case ( ! ,/ray ,p>k eng9e may be m5tion$4 ,?is eng9e1 con/ruct$ by ,b\lton & ,watt1 _h a sixty in* cyl9d]1 & :5 fir/ report$ 9 #ahaa1 its duty am\nt$ to #af1jjj1jjj p\nds4 ,aft] hav+ be5 report$ on = ?ree ye>s1 its duty 0 f\nd to h increas$ to #cb1jjj1jjj2 ?is e/imate be+ tak5 f ! av]age result ( twelve mon?s' p]=mance4 ,its duty 0 d\bl$ 9 less ?an ?ree ye>s4 ,x w appe>1 by inspection ( ! duties regi/]$ 9 ! prec$+ table1 t ! augm5tation ( ! effici5cy ( ! eng9es has n be5 ! effect ( any great or sudd5 improvem5t1 b has r result$ f ! comb9ation ( a great numb] ( small improvem5ts 9 ! details ( ! op]ation ( ^! ma*9es4 ,9 ^! improvem5ts m is due to ! successful application ( practical exp]i5ce ?an to any new pr9ciples develop$ by sci5tific rese>*4 ,mr4 ,john ,taylor1 9 8 ,records ( ,m9+1 has trac$ ! successive improvem5ts on :i* ! increas$ duty ( eng9es dep5ds1 & has connect$ ^! improvem5ts ) _! causes 9 ! ord] ( _! dates4 ,! foll[+ results1 abridg$ f 8 e/imates1 may n be un9t]e/+3-- ,9 #agfi1 soon aft] ! date ( ! e>lie/ discov]ies ( ,mr4 ,watt1 b be=e !y _h come into practical application1 ,smeaton comput$ t ! av]age duty ( fifte5 atmosph]ic eng9es1 work+ at ,newca/le-on-,tyne1 0 #e1eij1jjj4 ,! duty ( ! be/ ( ^! eng9es 0 #g1ddj1jjj1 & t ( ! wor/ #c1bbj1jjj4 ,9 #aggb1 ,smeaton comm5c$ 8 improvem5ts on ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 & rais$ ! duty to #i1dej1jjj4 ,9 #aggf1 ,watt obta9$ a duty ( #ba1fjj1jjj4 ,at ?is "t ,smeaton ackn[l$g$ t ,watt's eng9es gave a duty am\nt+ to d\ble t ( 8 own4 ,9 #aggh-gi1 ,watt report$ a duty ( #bc1djj1jjj4 ,f #aggi to #aghh1 ,watt introduc$ ! application ( expansion1 & rais$ ! duty to #bf1fjj1jjj4 ,pg#cjj ,9 #agih1 an eng9e by ,b\lton & ,watt1 erect$ at ,h]l&1 0 report$ z giv+ a duty ( #bg1jjj1jjj4 ,?is eng9e1 :i* 0 probably ! be/ :i* at t "t _h ev] be5 erect$1 attract$ ! p>ticul> att5tion ( ,mr4 ,watt1 :o1 on visit+ ,cornwall1 w5t to see x1 & _h _m exp]im5ts tri$ ) x4 ,x 0 "u ! c>e ( ,mr4 ,murdock1 ! ag5t ( ,messrs4 ,b\lton & ,watt 9 ,cornwall4 ,:5 ,mr4 ,watt inspect$ x he pron\nc$ x p]fect1 & t fur!r improvem5t c\ld n be expect$4 ,h[ s+ul> an in/ance ?is ( ! impossibility1 ev5 ( ! mo/ sagaci\s1 to =esee ! results ( me*anical improvem5t6 ,9 tw5ty ye>s aft]w>ds ! av]age duty ( ! be/ eng9e 0 ne>ly #dj1jjj1jjj1 & 9 =ty ye>s x 0 above #hd1jjj1jjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,boil] ,,manufactory4 ,,footnotes3 #bd ,if #bb squ>e in*es ( pi/on surface be all[$ to repres5t a horse-p[]1 ! p[] ( an eng9e may always be comput$ by divid+ ! squ>e ( ! diamet] ( ! pi/on express$ 9 in*es by #bh4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 to f9d ! diamet] ( pi/on :i* w\ld correspond to any giv5 p[]1 multiply ! numb] ( horses' p[] by #bh1 & take ! squ>e root ( ! product4 ,^! rules1 h[ev]1 _c be appli$ if ! pi/on be suppos$ to move ) any o!r velocity2 s9ce1 9 t case1 ! same am\nt ( pi/on surface w\ld cease to repres5t a horse-p[]1 unless ! effective pressure on ! pi/on 7 at ! same "t *ang$4 ,pg#cja ,illu/ration3 ,,watt',s ,,*apel ,,9 ,,h&swor? ,,*ur*4 ,,*ap4 ,x4 ,,notice ,,( ,,! ,,life ,,( ,,mr4 ,,watt4 -- ,,8 ,,fri5ds ,,& ,,associates ,,at ,,birm+ham4 -- ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,! ,,copy+ ,,press4 -- ,,heat+ ,,by ,,/eam4 -- ,,dry+ ,,l95 ,,by ,,/eam4 -- ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,wat]4 -- ,,fir/ ,,m>riage ,,( ,,watt4 -- ,,dea? ,,( ,,8 ,,fir/ ,,wife4 -- ,,8 ,,second ,,m>riage4 -- ,,dea? ,,( ,,8 ,,y\ng] ,,son4 -- ,,extracts ,,f ,,8 ,,lett]s4 -- ,,"* ,,( ,,watt ,,by ,,"l ,,br\gham4 -- ,,by ,,sir ,,walt] ,,scott4 -- ,,by ,,"l ,,jeffrey4 -- ,,occupation ,,( ,,8 ,,old ,,age4 -- ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,ma*9e ,,= ,,copy+ ,,sculpture4 -- ,,8 ,,la/ ,,days4 -- ,,monum5ts4 7#agi47 ,hav+ br\ght ?is hi/orical analysis ( ! inv5tion & application ( ! /eam eng9e to ! date ( ! decease ( ! illu/ri\s man1 to ! p[]s ( ^: m9d ! _w /&s indebt$ = ! b5efits conf]r$ ^u ,pg#cjb mank9d by t ma*9e1 x w p]haps n be deem$ an improp] digression 9 ?is "w1 to devote "s pages to a notice ( ! pr9cipal lab\rs ( ! same m9d 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( art & sci5ce1 & to circum/ances connect$ ) 8 p]sonal hi/ory & ! close ( 8 life1 :i* _c fail to possess g5]al int]e/4 ,at ! p]iod :5 ,watt1 hav+ connect$ himself 9 p>tn]%ip ) ,b\lton1 w5t to reside at ,soho1 ne> ,birm+ham1 a numb] ( p]sons1 "s ( :om h s9ce atta9$ great celebrity by _! discov]ies & _! works1 & all ( :om 7 devot$ to inquiries connect$ ) ! arts & sci5ces1 resid$ 9 t neighb\rhood4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ ,,prie/ley1 ^: discov]ies 9 physical sci5ce h r5d]$ 8 "n immortal2 ,,d>w91 ! philosoph] & poet2 ,,)]+1 a di/+ui%$ physician & botani/2 ,,keir1 a *emi/1 :o publi%$ a translation ( ,macqu]1 ) annotations2 ,,galton1 ! orni?ologi/2 & ,,edgewor?1 ^: inve/igations respect+ :eel$ c>riages & o!r subjects1 h r5d]$ him well kn[n4 ,a society 0 =m$ by ^! & o!r individuals1 ( :i* ,b\lton & ,watt 7 lead+ memb]s1 ! meet+s ( :i* 7 held mon?ly on ! ev5+ ( full moon1 & :i* 0 !nce call$ ! ,lun> ,society4 ,at ! meet+s ( ?is society1 subjects connect$ ) ! arts & sci5ces 7 discuss$1 & out ( ^? discussions occasionally arose sugge/ions n unatt5d$ ) important & advantage\s consequ5ces4 ,at "o ( ^! meet+s1 ,d>w9 /at$ t he _h discov]$ a p5 =m$ ) two quills1 by means ( :i*1 at a s+le op]ation1 an orig9al & a copy ( a lett] might be produc$4 ,watt almo/ in/antly obs]v$ t he ?\ght he c\ld f9d a bett] exp$i5t1 & t he w\ld turn x 9 8 m9d t night4 ,by ! next morn+ ! ,,copy+ ,,press 0 inv5t$1 = :i* he aft]w>ds obta9$ a pat5t4 ,?is ma*9e1 :i* is n[ s g5]ally us$ 9 c\nt+-h\ses1 consi/s ( a roll+-press1 by :i* a leaf ( ?9 pap]1 previ\sly damp$1 is press$ ^u ! lett] to be copi$4 ,! writ+1 ( :i* ! ink is n yet q dry1 leaves its impression ^u ! ?9 pap] ?us press$ ^u ,pg#cjc x1 & ! copy tak5 9 ?is mann] is read ?r\gh ! semi-transp>5t pap]4 ,if a lett] be writt5 ) ink suitable = ?is purpose1 a copy may be tak5 at any "t )9 sev]al h\rs aft] ! lett] is writt54 ,! me?od ( heat+ ap>tm5ts & build+s by /eam1 :i* has s9ce be5 improv$ & br\ght into ext5sive use1 0 likewise br\ght =w>d by ,watt4 ,al?\gh ?is contrivance _h be5 previ\sly po9t$ out by ,sir ,hugh ,platt ab\t ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 & by ,colonel ,cooke 9 #agde1 yet ^! sugge/ions rema9$ b>r54 ,mr4 ,watt gave detail$ me?ods ( heat+ build+s by /eam#be2 & also inv5t$ a ma*9e = dry+ l95 by /eam1 a description ( :i* he communicat$ to ,dr4 ,brew/]1 :i* 0 read 9 ,decemb]1 #ahbd1 be=e ! ,society = promot+ ,useful ,arts 9 ,scotl&4#bf ,b ! circum/ance1 exclusive ( ^? connect$ ) ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e1 :i* is by f> ! mo/ memorable 9 ! c>e] ( ,watt1 is ! %>e :i* he _h 9 ! discov]y ( ! composition ( wat]4 ,z ?is circum/ance has rec5tly excit$ mu* int]e/1 & l$ to "s controv]sy1 we %all "h /ate1 z di/9ctly z possible1 ! lead+ facts connect$ ) x4 ,wat]1 :i* 0 s long held to be a simple elem5t1 has1 9 mod]n times1 be5 prov$ to be a sub/ance consi/+ ( two a]i=m bodies or gases *emically comb9$4 ,^! two gases are ^? call$ 9 *emi/ry oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,if eight gra9s weight ( oxyg5 be mix$ ) "o gra9 weight ( hydrog51 & ! mixture be submitt$ to su* effects z w\ld cause ! *emical comb9ation ( ^! two airs1 x w\ld be conv]t$ into n9e gra9s weight ( pure wat]4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 n9e gra9s weight ( pure wat] be submitt$ to any conditions :i* w\ld sep>ate its con/itu5t p>ts1 ! result w\ld be eight gra9s weight ( oxyg5 gas1 & "o gra9 weight ( hydrog5 gas4 ,!re are a v>iety ( me?ods 9 physics by :i* ^! effects w\ld be ,pg#cjd produc$4 ,x w be suffici5t "h to /ate "o me?od ( produc+ ea* ( ! above *anges4 ,if eight gra9s weight ( oxyg5 be inclos$ 9 a /rong vessel ) "o gra9 weight ( hydrog51 all o!r sub/ances be+ exclud$1 & ! mixture be inflam$1 an explosion w take place1 ! gases w disappe>1 & a small quantity ( wat] w be ! only sub/ance rema9+ 9 ! vessel4 ,if ?is wat] be weigh$1 x w be f\nd to weigh exactly n9e gra9s4 ,x is kn[n t ! metals h a /rong attraction = oxyg5 gas1 & ?is attraction is promot$ by elevat+ _! temp]ature4 ,if a glass tube be fill$ ) iron wire heat$ to r$ness1 & to "o end ( ?is tube a small vessel ( boil+ wat] be atta*$1 ! /eam evolv$ f ! wat] w =ce its way ?r\gh ! spaces betwe5 ! r$-hot wires 9 ! tube1 & w\ld be expect$ to issue f ! remote end2 b if ! sub/ance issu+ f ! remote end ( ! tube be exam9$1 x w be f\nd to be n /eam1 b hydrog5 gas4 ,if ! quantity ( ?is gas be asc]ta9$ by weight1 & also ! quantity ( weight lo/ by ! vessel ( wat] at ! o!r end ( ! tube1 x w be f\nd t ! loss ( weight ( ! wat] by evaporation w be n9e times ! weight ( ! hydrog5 :i* has issu$ f ! remote end ( ! tube4 ,if ! weight ( ! tube ) ! wire conta9$ 9 x be next asc]ta9$1 x w be f\nd to be increas$ by eight times ! weight ( ! hydrog5 :i* has issu$ f its remote end4 ,f ?is x foll[s t ! weight ( ! hydrog5 :i* has escap$ f ! tube1 add$ to ! increase ( weight :i* has be5 giv5 to ! wire 9 ! tube1 makes up ! :ole weight ( ! wat] evaporat$4 ,if ! wire 9 ! tube be next exam9$1 x w be f\nd t x has suff]$ oxydation1 or1 9 o!r words1 t a new sub/ance has be5 =m$ 9 x call$ ! oxyde ( iron1--su* sub/ance be+ a *emical comp\nd =m$ ( oxyg5 gas & iron4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t 9 ?is process ! vap\r ( ! wat]1 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! tube1 has be5 decompos$1 & t1 hav+ giv5 up to ! iron its oxyg51 ! hydrog5 ,pg#cje alone escap$ f ! o!r end2 & = e n9e gra9s weight ( /eam :i* pass$ ?r\gh ! tube1 eight gra9s ( oxyg5 h be5 comb9$ ) ! iron1 & "o gra9 ( hydrog5 has escap$ f ! end ( ! tube4 ,su* are ! class ( effects on :i* ! mod]n discov]y ( ! composition ( wat] has be5 bas$4 ,! m]it ( t discov]y has be5 %>$ betwe5 ! celebrat$ ,engli% *emi/1 ,,cav5di%1 & ! n less celebrat$ ,fr5* *emi/1 ,,lavoisi]1 ! *ief m]it1 h[ev]1 be+ ascrib$ to ! =m]4 ,we %all n[ briefly /ate ! facts :i* l$ to ?is discov]y1 ) _! dates1 :i* w necess>ily %[ ! %>e :i* ,watt _h 9 x4 ,:5 pure hydrog5 gas is burn$ 9 an atmosph]e ( common air1 ! process :i* takes place is n[ kn[n to be no?+ m ?an ! *emical comb9ation ( ! hydrog5 ) eight times its own weight ( oxyg5 tak5 f ! atmosph]e1 & ! product ( ! combu/ion is a quantity ( wat] n9e times ! weight ( ! hydrog5 consum$4 ,9 ! ye> #aggf1 ,macqu]1 a well-kn[n *emi/ ( t day1 hav+ held a sauc] ( :ite porcela9 ov] a flame ( hydrog5 :i* 0 burn+ at ! m\? ( a bottle1 obs]v$ t no smoke 0 produc$ & no soot deposit$ on ! sauc]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he f\nd t aft] ! lapse ( "s "t drops ( a cle> pellucid liquid 7 p]ceptible on ! sauc]3 ?is liquid he submitt$ to analysis1 & f\nd x to be pure wat]4 ,macqu] m5tion$ ?is fact )\t comm5t or inf]5ce4 ,x did n occur to him t ! wat] ?us produc$ ^u ! sauc] 0 a sub/ance :i* conta9$ ! hydrog51 :i* disappe>$ ^u combu/ion f ! bottle4 ,on ! #ah? ( ,april1 #agha1 ,mr4 ,w>ltire address$ a lett] to ,dr4 ,prie/ley1 dat$ ,birm+ham1 :i* lett] is publi%$ 9 ,dr4 ,prie/ley's ,exp]im5ts on ,air1 pr9t$ at ,birm+ham 9 #agha1 9 :i* ,w>ltire in=ms ,prie/ley t he _h fir$ a mixture ( hydrog5 & common air 9 close glass vessels1 & t1 al?\gh previ\sly to fir+ ! mixture ! vessels 7 clean & dry1 a dewy deposit 0 ,pg#cjf obs]v$ aft]w>ds on _! sides4 ,9 fact1 wat] 0 pres5t :i* 0 n pres5t be=e4 ,! mixture 0 9 ?is case fir$ by pass+ an electric sp>k ?r\gh ! vessel2 & x is n[ kn[n t ! effect produc$ 0 ! comb9ation ( ! hydrog51 :i* =m$ "p ( ! mixture ( airs 9 ! vessel ) ! oxyg51 :i* also =m$ "p ( ! same mixture4 ,x appe>s1 f expressions 9 ,w>ltire's lett]1 t ! same exp]im5t _h be5 previ\sly made by ,prie/ley1 & ! same result obs]v$ by him4 ,! inf]5ce d$uc$ f ?is by ,w>ltire1 & app>5tly acquiesc$ 9 by ,prie/ley1 01 t :5ev] hydrog5 0 fir$ 9 atmosph]ic air1 ! moi/ure1 :i* is always m or less su/a9$ 9 ! latt]1 0 deposit$2 b nei!r ( ^! *emi/s p]ceiv$ ! real cause ( ! production ( ! wat]4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( #aghc1 & n lat] ?an ! #ba/ ( ,april1 ?is exp]im5t ( ,w>ltire & ,prie/ley 0 repeat$ by ,cav5di%1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t1 in/ead ( explod+ ! mixture ( hydrog5 & common air1 ,cav5di% explod$ a mixture ( hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,he obs]v$ t wat] 0 pres5t aft] ! explosion1 b inf]r$ no?+4 ,9 a publi%$ pap] dat$ ,april1 #aghc1 ,prie/ley ann\nc$ a fur!r & mo/ important result ( 8 exp]im5ts4 ,?is 01 t 9 exam9+ ! weight ( wat] produc$ by ! explosion ( a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 t weight 0 f\nd to be precisely equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! two gases1 :i* disappe>$ 9 ! process4 ,imm$iately on obs]v+ ?is1 ,prie/ley1 be+ !n1 z has be5 already /at$1 ,watt's ne> neighb\r1 communicat$ to ! latt] :at he _h obs]v$2 ^u :i* ,watt imm$iately1 viz4 by a lett] dat$ ! #bf? ( ! same mon?1 decl>$ t ! inevitable consequ5ce :i* foll[$ f ,prie/ley's obs]vations 01 t wat] 0 a sub/ance comp\nd$ ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 depriv$ ( ,pg#cjg a quantity ( heat :i* 0 previ\sly lat5t 9 !m4#bg ,! lett] conta9+ ?is inf]5ce 0 communicat$ imm$iately by ,prie/ley to ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 !n ,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society1 to be laid be=e t body2 & x is accord+ly pr9t$ ) its prop] date 9 ! #gd? volume ( ! ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,ab\t two mon?s aft] ! date ( ,mr4 ,watt's lett] j quot$1 ,lavoisi] made exp]im5ts on ! combu/ion ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 & read a memoir be=e ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 ,p>is1 9 :i* 8 views ( ! =mation ( wat] by ! comb9ation ( ^! gases 7 develop$4 ,?is pap]1 by ,lavoisi]1 0 aft]w>ds pr9t$ 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy 9 ! ye> #aghd4 ,! exp]im5ts are !re /at$ to h be5 made 9 ! mon? ( ,june1 #aghc2 & x is /at$ t ,sir ,*>les ,blagd51 :o 0 pres5t at ! exp]im5ts1 told ,lavoisi] t ,mr4 ,cav5di% _h already burn$ ! same gases 9 close vessels1 & obta9$ a v s5sible quantity ( wat]4 ,on ! #ae? ( ,janu>y1 #aghd1 ! celebrat$ pap] by ,cav5di%1 entitl$ ,exp]im5ts on ,air1 0 read be=e ! ,royal ,society1 & 9 ?is pap] ! composition ( wat] by ! union ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 is expla9$4 ,9 a controv]sy :i* aft]w>ds ensu$ on ! respective ,pg#cjh claims ( ,cav5di% & ,lavoisi] to cr$it = ! discov]y ( ! composition ( wat]1 ,sir ,*>les ,blagd5 /at$ t he _h told ,lavoisi]1 9 ,june1 #aghc1 m ?an ,lavoisi] ackn[l$g$1 t he _h n only told him t wat] 0 produc$ by ! combu/ion ( ! gases1 b t 8 in=mation embrac$ ! :ole !ory ( ! composition ( wat]4 ,?is decl>ation ( ,blagd5 0 subsequ5t 9 date to ,janu>y1 #aghd1 & !re is no evid5ce ( any explanation ( ?is !ory1 v]bal or o!rwise1 hav+ be5 giv5 by ,cav5di%1 or any o!r p]son1 antec$5t to ,april1 #aghc4 ,f ?is brief /atem5t ( ! facts & dates x w appe> t ! m]it ( ! discov]y ( ! ,,fact1 t ! weight ( wat] result+ f ! combu/ion ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 is equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 :i* disappe> 9 ! combu/ion1 is due to ,prie/ley2 & t ! m]it ( ! ,,inf]5ce f t fact1 t wat] is a comp\nd body1 ^: con/itu5ts are oxyg5 & hydrog51 is due to ,watt4#bh ,:e!r ^? :o subsequ5tly d$uc$ ! same inf]5ce1 & promulgat$ ! same !ory1 7 or 7 n in=m$ ( ,mr4 ,watt's solution ( ! ph5om5on1 or :at cr$it may be due to any p]son1 h[ev] em95t1 :o at any "t po/]ior to ,mr4 ,watt's lett] to ,prie/ley1 ass]t$ t !y _h1 at a "t antec$5tly to t1 made ! same inf]5ce )\t hav+ publi%$ x1 or communicat$ x 9 su* a mann] z to e/abli% _! claim ^u rational & cr$ible evid5ce1 are que/ions :i* we %all n "h discuss1 be+ cont5t$ ) e/abli%+ ! "r ( ,mr4 ,watt to ! m]it ( ! discov]y ( ! ,,!ory :i* expla9$ ! ,,fact discov]$ by ,prie/ley4 ,ev5 9 8 decl9+ ye>s1 aft] he _h )drawn f ! active pursuits ( 8 bus9ess1 ! lea/ excitem5t 0 suffici5t to call into play ! slumb]+ p[]s ( 8 inv5tive g5ius4 ,no object c\ld pres5t itself to 8 notice ,pg#cji )\t receiv+ f t g5ius adaptation 9 =m & con/ruction to useful purposes4 ,z an example ( ?is re/less activity ( m9d ! foll[+ anecdote may be m5tion$3-- ,a company at ,glasg[ _h erect$ on ! "r bank ( ! ,clyde ext5sive build+s & p[]ful eng9es = supply+ wat] to ! t[n4 ,aft] ?is exp5se x 0 f\nd t a s\rce ( wat]1 ( v sup]ior quality1 exi/$ on ! left bank ( ! riv]4 ,to *ange ! site ( ! e/abli%m5t1 aft] ! exp5se :i* _h be5 incurr$ 9 its erection c\ld n be contemplat$1 & !y !re=e propos$ to c>ry across ! bottom ( ! riv] a flexible suction pipe1 ! m\? ( :i* %\ld t]m9ate 9 ! s\rce f :i* ! pure wat] 0 to be d]iv$4 ,?is pipe 0 to be support$ by a floor+ con/ruct$ ^u ! b$ ( ! riv]2 b x 0 soon app>5t t ! con/ruction ( su* a floor+ on a %ift+ & muddy bottom1 full ( inequalities1 & "u sev]al feet dep? ( wat] w\ld require a great] exp5diture ( capital ?an c\ld ) propriety be af=d$4 ,9 ?is difficulty ! ag$ me*anician1 = :om ,glasg[ itself _h be5 ! e>lie/ /age ( pr(essional lab\r1 0 appli$ to1 & in/antly solv$ ! problem4 ,8 att5tion is said to h be5 attract$ by a lob/] :i* _h be5 s]v$ at table3 he set himself ab\t to contrive h[1 by me*anism1 he c\ld make an app>atus ( iron ) jo9ts :i* %\ld h all ! flexibility ( ! tail ( ! lob/]4 ,he !re=e propos$ t an articulat$ suction-pipe1 capable ( accommodat+ itself to all ! inequalities & to ! possible *anges ( ! b$ ( ! riv]1 %\ld be c>ri$ across x2 t ?is flexible pipe %\ld be two feet 9 diamet]1 & "o ?\s& feet 9 l5g?4 ,?is project ! company accord+ly caus$ to be execut$ aft] ! plans & draw+s ( ,watt ) ! mo/ complete success4#bi ,pg#caj ,among ! less prom95t1 ?\gh n less useful s]vices r5d]$ by ,watt to 8 c\ntry1 may be m5tion$ ! introduction ( ! use ( *lor9e 9 blea*+4 ,t inv5tion ( ,b]?ollet 0 introduc$ into ,engl& by ,watt aft] 8 visit to ,p>is at ! close ( ! ye> #aghf4 ,he con/ruct$ all ! necess>y app>atus = x1 direct$ its erection1 & sup]9t5d$ its fir/ p]=mances4 ,he !n left x to 8 wife's fa!r1 ,mr4 ,macgregor1 to c>ry on ! processes4 ,:5 ! prop]ties ( ! gases began to occupy ! att5tion ( *emi/s1 attempts 7 made to apply !m z a means ( cur+ diseases ( ! lungs4 ,dr4 ,b$does pursu$ ?is inquiry ) great activity1 & e/abli%$1 ?r\gh ! means ( private subscription1 at ,clifton1 an in/itution 9 :i* ?is me?od ( cure 0 c>efully inve/igat$4 ,! ,pneumatic ,in/itution 7= s x 0 call$7 has be5 r5d]$ celebrat$ = hav+ at its head ,humphry ,davy1 j !n comm5c+ 8 sci5tific c>e]4 ,among its f\nd]s 0 also numb]$ ,james ,watt4 ,n cont5t1 h[ev]1 ) af=d+ ! in/itution ! sanction ( 8 "n1 he design$ & caus$ to be con/ruct$1 at ,soho1 ! app>atus us$ = mak+ ! gases & adm9i/]+ !m to ! pati5ts4 ,z ! exalt$ p[]s ( ! m9d ( ,watt1 unfold$ 9 8 num]\s me*anical & philosophical inv5tions & discov]ies1 h comm&$ ! admiration & respect ( 8 species1 ! affection & love ( 8 fell[ m5 w\ld n h be5 less conciliat$1 _h ! qualities ( 8 he>t1 z develop$ 9 8 private & p]sonal relations1 be5 z well kn[n z ! products ( 8 g5ius4 ,9 ! ye> #agfd1 ,watt be+ !n 9 ! tw5ty-n9? ye> ( 8 age1 m>ri$ 8 c\s91 ,miss ,mill]4 ,at ?is "t he _h fall5 into a /ate ( despond5cy f 8 disappo9tm5ts1 :i* produc$ a s]i\s attack ( n]v\s illness4 ,! accompli%m5ts & sup]ior und]/&+1 ! mildness ( temp] & goodness ( disposition ( 8 wife1 soon re/or$ him to heal?4 ,( ?is m>riage f\r *ildr51 two sons & two daught]s1 7 ! issue4 ,two ( ^! *ildr5 di$ 9 infancy2 ano!r1 a daught]1 0 m>ri$ to ,mr4 ,mill] ( ,glasg[2 & ! f\r? is ! ,pg#caa pres5t ,mr4 ,james ,watt4 ,9 ,septemb]1 #aggc1 :ile h] husb& 0 engag$ 9 ! design ( ! ,cal$onian canal 9 ! ,nor? ( ,scotl&1 ,mrs4 ,watt di$ 9 *ild-b$ ( a fif? *ild1 :o 0 /ill-born3 ,w\ld t ,i might "h transcribe1 says ,m4 ,arago1 9 all _! simple beauty1 "s l9es ( ! j\rnal 9 :i* he daily record$ 8 inmo/ ?\ghts1 8 fe>s1 8 hopes6 ,w\ld t y c\ld see him1 aft] ?is heavy affliction1 paus+ on ! ?re%old ( t home1 :]e ',,8 ,,k9d ,,welcom]' await$ him no m2 unable to summon c\rage to ent] ^? rooms :]e he 0 nev] m to meet ',,! ,,com=t ,,( ,,8 ,,life6' ,possibly1 s fai?ful a picture ( a v deep sorr[ might at la/ put to sil5ce ^? ob/9ate !ori/s1 :o1 )\t be+ /ruck by ! ?\s&s ( in/ances to ! contr>y1 d yet refuse qualities ( ! he>t to e man ^: intellect has be5 fo/]$ by ! f]tile1 sublime1 & imp]i%able tru?s ( ! exact sci5ces6 ,aft] ! lapse ( "s ye>s ,watt m>ri$ ,miss ,macgregor1 a p]son :o is repres5t$ to h possess$ qualities ( m9d :i* r5d]$ h] a companion e way suitable to h] husb&4 ,?is lady surviv$ ,watt1 & di$ 9 #ahcb at an advanc$ age4 ,two *ildr5 7 ! issue ( ?is second m>riage4 ,9 ! ye> #ahjj ! ext5d$ pat5t "r1 :i* _h be5 grant$ to ,b\lton & ,watt = _! improv$ eng9e1 expir$1 & at ?is "t ,mr4 ,watt retir$ altoge!r f bus9ess4 ,he 0 succe$$ by 8 two sons1 ! pres5t ,mr4 ,james ,watt1 & ,gregory1 "o ( ! *ildr5 ( 8 second m>riage4 ,! works at ,soho cont9u$ to be conduct$ by ! pres5t ,mr4 ,b\lton1 ! son ( ! p>tn] ( ,mr4 ,watt1 & ! two ,messrs4 ,watt4 ,9 #ahjd ,gregory ,watt di$ at ! age ( tw5ty-sev51 ( a disease ( ! *e/4 ,?is afflict+ ev5t 0 deeply felt by ,mr4 ,watt2 b he did n s9k "u x into t /ate ( despond5cy 9 :i* he has be5 repres5t$ to h fall5 by ,m4 ,arago4 ,on ! contr>y1 he cont9u$ to %[ ! same activity ( m9d :i* _h *>act]is$ 8 :ole ,pg#cab life2 nor did he lose t int]e/ :i* he always took 9 ! pursuit ( lit]ature & 9 society4 ,! /ate ( 8 feel+s "u ?is affliction is %[n by ! foll[+ extracts f lett]s writt5 by him at t "t1 :i* h be5 publi%$ by ,mr4 ,muirhead4 ,hea?field1 ,janu>y #bf?1 #ahje4 99 99 ,i1 p]haps1 h said too mu* to y & ,mrs4 ,campbell on ! /ate ( my m9d4 ,i1 !re=e1 ?9k x necess>y to say t ,i am n l[ spirit$2 & 7 y "h1 y w\ld f9d me z *e]ful 9 ! company ( my fri5ds z usual2 my feel+s = ! loss ( poor ,gregory are n passion1 b a deep regret t su* 0 8 & my lot4 ,i "k t all m5 mu/ die1 & ,i submit to ! decrees ( nature1 ,i hope ) due rev]5ce to ! ,dispos] ( ,ev5ts4 ,yet "o /imulus to ex]tion is tak5 away1 &1 someh[ or o!r1 ,i h lo/ my reli% = my usual avocations4 ,p]haps "t may rem$y t 9 "s measure2 mean:ile1 ,i d n neglect ! means ( amusem5t :i* are 9 my p[]4 ,hea?field1 ,april #h?1 #ahje4 99 99 ,x is r mortify+ to see h[ easily ! want ( ev5 ! be/ ( u is disp5s$ ) 9 ! _w2 b x is v well x %\ld be s4 ,we "h1 h[ev]1 _c help feel+ a t]rible blank 9 our family4 ,:5 ,i look at my son's books1 8 writ+s & draw+s1 ,i always say to myself1 :]e are ! m9d t conceiv$ ^! ?+s1 & ! h&s t execut$ !m8 ,9 ! c\rse ( nature1 he %\ld h said s ( m9e2 b x 0 o!rwise ord]$1 & our sorr[ is unavail+4 ,z ,catullus says3-- ---- ',nunc x1 p] it] t5ebricosum1 ,illuc1 unde negant r$ire quemquam4 ,at vobis male sit1 mal t5ebr ,orci1 qu omnia bella devoratis6' ,b ,catullus 0 a hea!n2 let u hope t he 7,g47 is n[ rejoic+ 9 ano!r & a bett] _w1 free f our c>es1 griefs1 & infirmities4 ,"s "o has said1 ,i %all n :olly die2 & ,gregory's "n1 8 m]its & virtues1 w live at lea/ z long z ^? d :o knew him4 ,y are n1 f ?is1 to conceive t we give way to grief2 on ! contr>y1 y w f9d u z *e]ful z we ought to be1 & z mu* dispos$ to enjoy ! fri5ds we h left z ev]2 b we %\ld approa* to brutes if we _h no regrets4 ,mr4 ,watt1 at ! date ( ^! lett]s1 _h ent]$ on 8 sev5tie? ye>1 a p]iod aft] :i* great m5tal ex]tions are r>ely made4 ,pg#cac ,9 ! summ] ( #ahai1 symptoms ( indisposition manife/$ !mselves :i* soon r5d]$ ,watt aw>e ( 8 approa*+ dissolution4 ,i am v s5sible1 said he to 8 afflict$ fri5ds1 ( ! atta*m5t y %[ me1 & ,i ha/5 to ?ank y = x1 z ,i am n[ come to my la/ illness4 ,he di$ on ! #be? ( ,augu/1 #ahai4 ,8 rema9s 7 deposit$ 9 ! *ur* ( ,h&swor?1 ne> 8 e/ate ( ,hea?field4 ,8 son has rais$ ov] 8 grave a ,go?ic *apel1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* is plac$ a /atue by ,*antrey4 ,! p]sonal "* ( ,watt c\ld n fail to excite ! admiration & ! love ( ^? di/+ui%$ p]sons1 ^: pride & happ9ess x 0 to be admitt$ to a %>e 9 ! fri5d%ip ( ! great eng9e]4 ,among ^! 7 reckon$ "s ( ! m5 :o w leave ^u ! pres5t age ! deepe/ & mo/ la/+ impressions ( _! g5ius1 & su* p]sons h bequea!d to po/]ity ! s5tim5ts ) :i* he inspir$ !m4 ,we _c "h d m ju/ice to ! p]sonal "* ( ! subject ( ?is notice ?an by repeat+ ! portraiture ( x :i* has be5 giv5 by ?ree ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ ( 8 fri5ds1 & ( ! mo/ illu/ri\s m5 ( ! pres5t age4 ,at a meet+ conv5$ 9 #ahbd1 = erect+ a monum5t to ,watt1 ,"l ,br\gham pron\nc$ a spee*1 f :i* we extract ! foll[+ obs]vations3-- ,i _h ! happ9ess ( kn[+ ,mr4 ,watt1 = _m ye>s1 9 ! int]c\rse ( private life2 & ,i w take ^u me to be> a te/imony 9 :i* all :o _h t gratification ,i am sure w jo91 t !y :o only knew 8 public m]it1 prodigi\s z t 01 knew b half 8 wor?4 ,^? :o 7 admitt$ to 8 society w readily all[ t any?+ m pure1 m c&id1 m simple1 m scrupul\sly lov+ ( ju/ice1 ?an ! :ole habits ( 8 life & conv]sation1 prov$ him to be1 0 nev] kn[n 9 society4 ,"o ( ! mo/ a/oni%+ circum/ances 9 ?is truly great man1 0 ! v]satility ( 8 tal5ts4 ,8 accompli%m5ts 7 s v>i\s1 ! p[]s ( 8 m9d 7 s va/1 & yet ( su* univ]sal application1 t x 0 h>d to say :e!r we %\ld mo/ admire ! extraord9>y grasp ( 8 und]/&+1 or ! accuracy ( nice rese>* ) :i* he c\ld br+ x to be> ^u ! mo/ m9ute objects ( inve/igation4 ,i =get ( :om x 0 said1 t 8 m9d resembl$ ! trunk ( an elephant1 :i* c pick up ,pg#cad /raws1 & te> up trees by ! roots4 ,mr4 ,watt1 9 "s sort1 resembl$ ! greate/ & mo/ celebrat$ ( 8 own inv5tions1 ( :i* we are at a loss :e!r mo/ to wond] at ! p[] ( grappl+ ) ! mightie/ objects1 or ( h&l+ ! mo/ m9ute2 s t1 :ile no?+ seems too l>ge = its grasp1 no?+ seems too small = ! delicacy ( its t\*1 :i* c cleave rocks1 & p\r =? riv]s f ! b[els ( ! e>?1 &1 ) p]fect exactness1 ?\gh n ) great] ease1 fa%ion ! head ( a p91 or /rike ! impress ( "s curi\s die4 ,n[1 ^? :o knew ,mr4 ,watt1 _h to contemplate a man ^: g5ius c\ld create su* an eng9e1 & indulge 9 ! mo/ ab/ruse speculations ( philosophy1 & c\ld at once pass f ! mo/ sublime rese>*es ( geology & physical a/ronomy1 ! =mation ( our globe1 & ! /ructure ( ! univ]se1 to ! manufacture ( a ne$le or a nail2 :o c\ld discuss1 9 ! same conv]sation1 & ) equal accuracy1 if n ) ! same consummate skill1 ! mo/ =bidd+ details ( art & ! elegances ( classical lit]ature1 ! mo/ ab/ruse bran*es ( sci5ce & ! niceties ( v]bal criticism4 ,!re 0 "o quality 9 ,mr4 ,watt :i* mo/ hon\rably di/+ui%$ him f too _m inv5tors1 & 0 wor?y ( all imitation--he 0 n only entirely free f jeal\sy1 b he ex]cis$ a c>eful & scrupul\s self-d5ial1 & 0 anxi\s n to appe>1 ev5 by accid5t1 z appropriat+ to himself t :i* he ?\ght belong$ to o!rs4 ,i h he>d him refuse ! hon\r univ]sally ascrib$ to him1 ( be+ ! inv5tor ( ! /eam eng9e1 & call himself simply its improv]2 ?\gh1 9 my m9d1 to d\bt 8 "r to t hon\r1 w\ld be z inaccurate z to "q ,sir ,isaac ,newton's claim to 8 greate/ discov]ies1 because ,desc>tes 9 ma!matics1 & ,galileo 9 a/ronomy & me*anics1 _h prec$$ him2 or to d5y ! m]its ( 8 illu/ri\s successor1 because galvanism 0 n 8 discov]y1 ?\gh1 be=e 8 "t1 x _h rema9$ z useless to sci5ce z ! in/rum5t call$ a /eam eng9e 0 to ! arts be=e ,mr4 ,watt4 ,! only jeal\sy ,i h kn[n him to betray1 0 ) respect to o!rs1 9 ! nice adju/m5t he 0 fond ( giv+ to ! claims ( inv5tors4 ,ju/ly priz+ sci5tific discov]y above all o!r possessions1 he deem$ ! title to x s sacr$1 t y might he> him argu+ by ! h\r to settle disput$ rights2 & if y ev] p]ceiv$ 8 temp] ruffl$1 x 0 :5 "o man's inv5tion 0 claim$ by1 or giv5 to ano!r2 or :5 a clumsy adulation press$ ^u himself t :i* he knew to be n 8 own4 ,9 ! preface to ! ,mona/]y ,sir ,walt] ,scott speaks ( ,watt 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3-- ,!re 7 assembl$ ab\t half a score ( our nor!rn lights4 99 99 ,amid/ ?is company /ood ,mr4 ,watt1 ! man ^: g5ius discov]$ ! means ( multiply+ our national res\rces to a degree1 p]haps1 ev5 beyond 8 own /up5d\s p[]s ( calculation & comb9ation2 br++ ! treasures ( ! abyss to ! summit ( ! e>?--giv+ ! feeble arm ( man ! mom5tum ( an ,afrite--comm&+ manufactures to arise z ! rod ( ! prophet produc$ wat] 9 ! des]t--af=d+ ! means ( disp5s+ ) t "t & tide :i* wait = no man--& ( sail+ )\t t w9d :i* defi$ ! comm& & ?reats ( ,x]xes himself4 ,?is pot5t comm&] ( ! elem5ts--?is abridg] ( "t & space--?is magician1 ^: cl\dy ,pg#cae ma*9]y has produc$ a *ange on ! _w1 ! effects ( :i*1 extraord9>y z !y are1 are1 p]haps1 only n[ beg9n+ to be felt--0 n only ! mo/ pr(\nd man ( sci5ce--! mo/ successful comb9] ( p[]s1 & calculator ( numb]s1 z adapt$ to practical purposes--0 n only "o ( ! mo/ g5]ally well in=m$1 b "o ( ! be/ & k9de/ ( human be+s4 ,!re he /ood1 surr\nd$ by ! little b& ,i h m5tion$ ( nor!rn lit]ati1 m5 n less t5aci\s1 g5]ally speak+1 ( _! own fame & _! own op9ions1 ?an ! national regim5ts are suppos$ to be jeal\s ( ! high "* :i* !y h won ^u s]vice4 ,me?9ks ,i yet see & he> :at ,i %all nev] see or he> aga94 ,9 8 eighty-second ye>1 ! al]t1 k9d1 b5evol5t old man1 _h 8 att5tion alive to e "o's "q1 8 in=mation at e "o's comm&4 ,8 tal5ts & fancy ov]fl[$ on e subject4 ,"o g5tleman 0 a deep philologi/--he talk$ ) him on ! orig9 ( ! alphabet1 z if he _h be5 coeval ) ,cadmus2 ano!r a celebrat$ critic--y w\ld h said ! old man _h /udi$ political economy & belles lettres all 8 life4 ,( sci5ce x is unnecess>y to speak--x 0 8 own di/+ui%$ walk4 ,& yet1 ,capta9 ,clutt]buck1 :5 he spoke ) y\r c\ntryman1 ,j$$iah ,clei%bo?am1 y w\ld h sworn he _h be5 coeval ) ,clav]se & ,burley1 ) ! p]secutors & p]secut$1 & c\ld numb] e %ot ! dragoons _h fir$ at ! fugitive ,cov5ant]s4 ,9 fact1 we discov]$ t no novel ( ! lea/ celebrity escap$ 8 p]usal1 & t ! gift$ man ( sci5ce 0 z mu* addict$ to ! productions ( y\r native c\ntry1 9 o!r words1 z %ameless & ob/9ate a p]us] ( novels1 z if he _h be5 a v mill9]'s appr5tice ( eighte54 ,9 ! ,ed9burgh newspap]1 call$ ! ,scotsman1 ( ! #d? ,septemb]1 #ahai1 imm$iately aft] ! decease ( ,watt1 ! foll[+ sket* 0 publi%$ f ! p5 ( ,"l ,jeffrey3-- ,?is "n =tunately ne$s no commemoration ( ours2 = he t bore x surviv$ to see x cr[n$ ) undisput$ & un5vi$ hon\rs2 & _m g5]ations w probably pass away be=e x %all h ga!r$ 'all its fame4' ,we h said t ,mr4 ,watt 0 ! great improv] ( ! /eam eng9e2 b1 9 tru?1 z to all t is admirable 9 its /ructure1 or va/ 9 its utility1 he %\ld r be describ$ z its inv5tor4 ,x 0 by 8 inv5tions1 t its action 0 s regulat$ z to make x capable ( be+ appli$ to ! f9e/ & mo/ delicate manufactures1 & its p[] s increas$1 z to set weight & solidity at defiance4 ,by 8 admirable contrivance1 x has become a ?+ /up5d\s alike = its =ce & its flexibility--= ! prodigi\s p[] :i* x c ex]t1 & ! ease1 & precision1 & ductility ) :i* x c be v>i$1 di/ribut$1 & appli$4 ,! trunk ( an elephant1 t c pick up a p9 or r5d an oak1 is z no?+ to x4 ,x c engrave a seal1 & cru% masses ( obdurate metal be=e x--draw out1 )\t break+1 a ?read z f9e z gossam]1 & lift a %ip ( w> l a bauble 9 ! air4 ,x c embroid] musl91 & =ge an*ors--cut /eel into rib&s1 & impel load$ vessels aga9/ ! fury ( ! w9ds & waves4 ,pg#caf ,x w\ld be difficult to e/imate ! value ( ! b5efits :i* ^! inv5tions h conf]r$ ^u ?is c\ntry4 ,!re is no bran* ( indu/ry t has n be5 indebt$ to !m2 &1 9 all ! mo/ mat]ial1 !y h n only wid5$ mo/ magnific5tly ! field ( its ex]tions1 b multipli$ a ?\s& fold ! am\nt ( its productions4 ,x is our improv$ /eam eng9e t has f\ght ! battles ( ,europe1 & exalt$ & su/a9$1 ?r\gh ! late trem5d\s conte/1 ! political greatness ( our l&4 ,x is ! same great p[] :i* n[ enables u to pay ! int]e/ ( our debt1 & to ma9ta9 ! ardu\s /ruggle 9 :i* we are /ill engag$ 7#ahai71 ) ! skill & capital ( c\ntries less oppress$ ) taxation4 ,b ^! are poor & n>r[ views ( its importance4 ,x has increas$ indef9itely ! mass ( human com=ts & enjoym5ts1 & r5d]$ *eap & accessible all ov] ! _w ! mat]ials ( weal? & prosp]ity4 ,x has arm$ ! feeble h& ( man1 9 %ort1 ) a p[] to :i* no limits c be assign$2 complet$ ! dom9ion ( m9d ov] ! mo/ refractory qualities ( matt]2 & laid a sure f\ndation = all ^? future miracles ( me*anic p[] :i* are to aid & rew>d ! lab\rs ( aft] g5]ations4 ,x is to ! g5ius ( "o man1 too1 t all ?is is ma9ly ow+2 & c]ta9ly no man ev] be/[$ su* a gift on 8 k9d4 ,! bless+ is n only univ]sal1 b unb\nd$2 & ! fabl$ inv5tors ( ! pl\gh & ! loom1 :o 7 deifi$ by ! err+ gratitude ( _! rude contempor>ies1 conf]r$ less important b5efits on mank9d ?an ! inv5tor ( our pres5t /eam eng9e4 ,?is w be ! fame ( ,watt ) future g5]ations2 & x is suffici5t = 8 race & 8 c\ntry4 ,b to ^? to :om he m imm$iately belong$1 :o liv$ 9 8 society & enjoy$ 8 conv]sation1 x is n1 p]haps1 ! "* 9 :i* he w be mo/ frequ5tly recall$--mo/ deeply lam5t$--or ev5 mo/ highly admir$4 ,indep5d5tly ( 8 great atta9m5ts 9 me*anics1 ,mr4 ,watt 0 an extraord9>y1 & 9 _m respects a wond]ful man4 ,p]haps no individual 9 8 age possess$ s mu* & su* v>i$ & exact in=mation--_h read s mu*1 or rememb]$ :at he _h read s accurately & well4 ,he _h inf9ite quickness ( appreh5sion1 a prodigi\s memory1 & a c]ta9 rectify+ & me?odis+ p[] ( und]/&+1 :i* extract$ some?+ preci\s out ( all t 0 pres5t$ to x4 ,8 /ores ( miscellane\s k 7 imm5se2 & yet less a/oni%+ ?an ! comm& he _h at all times ov] !m4 ,x seem$ z if e subject t 0 casually />t$ 9 conv]sation ) him1 _h be5 t :i* he _h be5 la/ occupi$ 9 /udy+ & exhau/+2--su* 0 ! copi\sness1 ! precision1 & ! admirable cle>ness ( ! in=mation :i* he p\r$ out ^u x )\t ef=t or hesitation4 ,nor 0 ?is promptitude & compass ( k conf9$ 9 any degree to ! /udies connect$ ) 8 ord9>y pursuits4 ,t he %\ld h be5 m9utely & ext5sively skill$ 9 *emi/ry & ! arts1 & 9 mo/ ( ! bran*es ( physical sci5ce1 might p]haps h be5 conjectur$2 b x c\ld n h be5 inf]r$ f 8 usual occupations1 & probably is n g5]ally kn[n1 t he 0 curi\sly le>n$ 9 _m bran*es ( antiquity1 metaphysics1 m$ic9e1 & etymology2 & p]fectly at home 9 all ! details ( ar*itecture1 music1 & law4 ,he 0 well acqua9t$1 too1 ) mo/ ( ! mod]n languages1 & famili> ) _! mo/ rec5t lit]ature4 ,nor 0 x at all extraord9>y to he> ! great me*anician & eng9e] detail+ & exp\nd+1 = h\rs toge!r1 ,pg#cag ! metaphysical !ories ( ! ,g]man logicians1 or criticis+ ! measures or ! matt] ( ! ,g]man poetry4 ,8 a/oni%+ memory 0 aid$1 no d\bt1 9 a great measure1 by a /ill high] & r>] faculty--by 8 p[] ( dige/+1 & arrang+ 9 its prop] place1 all ! in=mation he receiv$2 & ( ca/+ aside & reject+1 z x 7 in/9ctively1 :atev] 0 wor?less or immat]ial4 ,e conception t 0 sugge/$ to 8 m9d seem$ in/antly to take its place among its o!r ri* furniture1 & to be cond5s$ into ! smalle/ & mo/ conv5i5t =m4 ,he nev] appe>$1 !re=e1 to be at all incumb]$ or p]plex$ ) ! v]biage ( ! dull books he p]us$1 or to ! idle talk to :i* he li/5$2 b to h at once extract$1 by a k9d ( intellectual al*emy1 all t 0 wor?y ( att5tion1 & to h r$uc$ x1 = 8 own use1 to its true value & to its simple/ =m4 ,& ?us x (t5 happ5$1 t a great deal m 0 le>n$ f 8 brief & vigor\s acc\nt ( ! !ories & argum5ts ( t$i\s writ]s1 ?an an ord9>y /ud5t c\ld ev] h d]iv$ f ! mo/ pa9ful /udy ( ! orig9als2 & t errors & absurdities became manife/ f ! m]e cle>ness & pla9ness ( 8 /atem5t ( !m1 :i* might h delud$ & p]plex$ mo/ ( 8 he>]s )\t t invaluable assi/ance4 ,x is ne$less to say t1 ) ^? va/ res\rces1 8 conv]sation 0 at all times ri* & in/ructive 9 no ord9>y degree3 b x 01 if possible1 /ill m pleas+ ?an wise2 & _h all ! *>ms ( famili>ity ) all ! sub/antial treasures ( k4 ,no man c\ld be m social 9 8 _s1 less assum+ or fa/idi\s 9 8 mann]s1 or m k9d & indulg5t t[>d all :o approa*$ him4 ,he r lik$ to talk1--at lea/ 9 8 latt] ye>s2 b ?\gh he took a consid]able %>e ( ! conv]sation1 he r>ely sugge/$ ! topics on :i* x 0 to turn1 b readily & quietly took up :atev] 0 pres5t$ by ^? ar\nd him1 & a/oni%$ ! idle & b>r5 prop\nd]s ( an ord9>y !me by ! treasures :i* he drew f ! m9e !y _h unconsci\sly op5$4 ,he g5]ally seem$1 inde$1 to h no *oice or pr$ilection = "o subject ( disc\rse r ?an ano!r2 b all[$ 8 m9d1 l a great cyclopdia1 to be op5$ at any lett] 8 associates might *oose to turn up1 & only endeav\r$ to select f 8 inexhau/ible /ores1 :at might be be/ adapt$ to ! ta/e ( 8 pres5t he>]s4 ,z to _! capacity he gave himself no tr\ble2 & inde$ su* 0 8 s+ul> tal5t = mak+ all ?+s pla91 cle>1 & intelligible1 t sc>cely any "o c\ld be aw>e ( su* a defici5cy 9 8 pres5ce4 ,8 talk1 too1 ?\gh ov]fl[+ ) in=mation1 _h no resemblance to lectur+ or solemn disc\rs+1 b1 on ! contr>y1 0 full ( colloquial _s & pleasantry4 ,he _h a c]ta9 quiet & grave hum\r :i* ran ?r\gh mo/ ( 8 conv]sation2 & a ve9 ( temp]ate jocul>ity1 :i* gave inf9ite ze/ & effect to ! cond5s$ & inexhau/ible in=mation :i* =m$ its ma9 /aple & *>act]i/ic4 ,!re 0 a little air ( affect$ te/9ess1 & a tone ( pret5d$ rebuke & contradiction1 ) :i* he us$ to address 8 y\ng] fri5ds1 t 0 always felt by !m z an ende>+ m>k ( 8 k9dness & famili>ity2 & priz$1 accord+ly1 f> beyond all ! solemn complim5ts t ev] proce$$ f ! lips ( au?ority4 ,8 voice 0 deep & p[]ful1 ?\gh he commonly spoke 9 a l[ & some:at monoton\s tone1 :i* h>monis$ admirably ) ! weight & brevity ( 8 obs]vations1 & set (f to ! greate/ advantage ! pleasant ,pg#cah anecdotes1 :i* he deliv]$ ) ! same grave br[1 & ! same calm smile play+ sob]ly on 8 lips4 ,!re 0 no?+ ( ef=t1 inde$1 or impati5ce1 any m ?an ( pride or levity1 9 8 demean\r2 & !re 0 a f9] expression ( repos+ /r5g?1 & mild self-possession 9 8 mann]1 ?an we ev] recollect to h met ) 9 any o!r p]son4 ,he _h 9 8 "* ! utmo/ abhorr5ce = all sorts ( =w>dness1 p>ade1 & pret5sions2 &1 inde$1 nev] fail$ to put all su* impo/ures out ( c\nt5ance1 by ! manly pla9ness & hone/ intrepidity ( 8 language & deportm5t4 ,9 8 temp] & dispositions1 he 0 n only k9d & affectionate1 b g5]\s1 & consid]ate ( ! feel+s ( all ar\nd him2 & gave ! mo/ lib]al assi/ance & enc\ragem5t to all "y p]sons :o %[$ any indications ( tal5t1 or appli$ to him = patronage or advice4 ,8 heal?1 :i* 0 delicate f 8 y\? upw>ds1 seem$ to become firm] z he advanc$ 9 ye>s2 & he pres]v$1 up almo/ to ! la/ mom5t ( 8 exi/5ce1 n only ! full comm& ( 8 extraord9>y intellect1 b all ! alacrity ( _s & ! social gaiety :i* _h illum9$ 8 happie/ days4 ,8 fri5ds 9 ?is "p ( ! c\ntry nev] saw him m full ( intellectual vig\r & colloquial animation--nev] m delightful or m in/ructive--?an 9 8 la/ visit to ,scotl& 9 autumn #ahag4 ,inde$1 x 0 aft] t "t t he appli$ himself1 ) all ! ard\r ( e>ly life1 to ! inv5tion ( a ma*9e = me*anically copy+ all sorts ( sculpture & /atu>y2 & di/ribut$ among 8 fri5ds "s ( its e>lie/ p]=mances1 z ! productions ( a "y arti/ j ent]+ on 8 eighty-?ird ye>4 ,?is happy & useful life came1 at la/1 to a g5tle close4 ,he _h suff]$ "s inconv5i5ce ?r\gh ! summ]2 b 0 n s]i\sly indispos$ till )9 a few weeks ( 8 dea?4 ,he !n became p]fectly aw>e ( ! ev5t :i* 0 approa*+2 & ) 8 usual tranquillity & b5evol5ce ( nature1 seem$ only anxi\s to po9t out to ! fri5ds ar\nd him1 ! _m s\rces ( consolation :i* 7 af=d$ by ! circum/ances "u :i* x 0 ab\t to take place4 ,he express$ 8 s9c]e gratitude to ,provid5ce = ! l5g? ( days ) :i* he _h be5 bless$1 & 8 exemption f mo/ ( ! infirmities ( age2 z well z = ! calm & *e]ful ev5+ ( life t he _h be5 p]mitt$ to enjoy1 aft] ! hon\rable lab\rs ( ! day _h be5 conclud$4 ,& ?us1 full ( ye>s & hon\rs1 9 all calmness & tranquillity1 he yield$ up 8 s\l )\t pang or /ruggle2 & pass$ f ! bosom ( 8 family to t ( 8 ,god4 ,! ,engli% nation has ev] %[n itself ins5sible to ! claims ( g5ius & high intellectual end[m5ts1 except :]e ! results h be5 br\ght directly to be> 9 /atesman%ip or w>4 ,( ?is inability to appreciate ! highe/ ord] ( intellectual excell5ce ,watt af=ds a /rik+ example4 ,:5 x 0 sugge/$ to ! ,briti% gov]nm5t by ^? bett] capable ?an t gov]nm5t 0 ( appreciat+ ! g5ius ( ?is great man1 t ! nation w\ld d itself hon\r by erect+ a spl5did monum5t at 8 own ,pg#cai co/ to him to :om x 0 s deeply indebt$ = ! ext5sion ( its res\rces & ! augm5tation ( its p[]1 ! reply 0 t su* a measure c\ld n be adopt$ z x might be drawn into a prec$5t 9 l cases !reaft]6 ,a prec$5t 9 l cases66 ,:5 w ! "t arrive :5 ! _w w produce a l case8 ,! monum5t :i* has be5 erect$ 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey 0 9 fact rais$ by private subscription1 ! nation hav+ ?us /igmatis$ itself ?r\gh ! act ( its gov]nm5t ) ! ev]la/+ disgrace ( refus+ ! hon\r propos$ to x4 ,! o!r /atues & monum5ts :i* h be5 erect$ to ?is great man1 h be5 = ! mo/ "p rais$ by ! filial piety & ! nev]-dy+ affection & v5]ation ( ! pres5t ,mr4 ,james ,watt4 ,a /atue has be5 pres5t$ by him to ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[1 & plac$ 9 "o ( ! halls ( t college4 ,! inhabitants ( ,gre5ock h also erect$ a m>ble /atue ( ,watt1 = :i*1 & = a libr>y1 a build+ has be5 erect$ at ! exp5se ( ab\t #c1ejjl4 :i* has be5 defray$ by ,mr4 ,james ,watt4 ,a colossal bronze /atue has be5 erect$ on a h&some granite p$e/al1 /&+ at "o ( ! corn]s ( ,george ,squ>e1 ,glasg[4 ,! monum5t 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey1 erect$ by ! subscription rais$ at ! public meet+ already allud$ to1 is a colossal /atue ( ,c>r>a m>ble1 by ,*antrey4 ,watt 0 elect$ a fell[ ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh 9 #aghd2 ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,london 9 #aghe2 a memb] ( ! ,batavian ,society 9 #aghg2 & a correspond+ memb] ( ! ,in/itut ( ,france 9 #ahjh4 ,! degree ( ,doctor ( ,laws 0 conf]r$ ^u him by ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[1 9 #ahjf2 & 9 #ahad1 ! highe/ sci5tific hon\r :i* c be atta9$ by a philosoph]1 0 conf]r$ on him by ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ! ,in/itut ( ,france1 :o nom9at$ him "o ( its eight =eign associates4 ,on ! p$e/al ( ! monum5t 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey is engrav$ ! foll[+ inscription f ! p5 ( ,"l ,br\gham3-- ,pg#cbj ,,n ,,to ,,p]petuate ,a ,,"n ,,:i* ,,mu/ ,,endure ,,:ile ,,! ,,peaceful ,,arts ,,fl\ri%1 ,,b ,,to ,,%[ ,,t ,,mank9d ,,h ,,le>n$ ,,to ,,hon\r ,,^? ,,:o ,,be/ ,,des]ve ,,_! ,,gratitude1 ,,! ,,k+ ,,8 ,,m9i/]s1 ,,& ,,_m ,,( ,,! ,,nobles ,,& ,,common]s ,,( ,,! ,,realm ,,rais$ ,,?is ,,monum5t ,,to ,,james ,,watt1 ,,:o ,,direct+ ,,! ,,=ce ,,( ,,an ,,orig9al ,,g5ius1 ,,e>ly ,,ex]cis$ ,,9 ,,philosophic ,,rese>* ,,to ,,! ,,improvem5t ,,( ,,! ,,/eam ,,eng9e1 ,,enl>g$ ,,! ,,res\rces ,,( ,,8 ,,c\ntry1 ,,increas$ ,,! ,,p[] ,,( ,,man1 ,,& ,,rose ,,to ,,an ,,em95t ,,place ,,among ,,! ,,mo/ ,,illu/ri\s ,,foll[]s ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,! ,,real ,,b5efactors ,,( ,,! ,,_w4 ,,born ,,at ,,gre5ock ,,mdccxxxvi4 ,,di$ ,,at ,,hea?field ,,9 ,,/af=d%ire ,,mdcccxix4 ,illu/ration3 ,,watt',s ,,*apel ,,9 ,,h&swor? ,,*ur*4 ,,footnotes3 #be ,see ,bu*anan on ! ,economy ( ,fuel & ,managem5t ( ,heat1 especially z x relates to heat+ & dry+ by means ( ,/eam4 #bf ,see ,brew/]'s ,ed9burgh ,encyclopdia1 article ,,/eam-,,dry+ ,,ma*9e4 #bg ,! foll[+ are ! words 9 :i* ,watt makes ?is rem>kable ann\ncem5t to ,prie/ley3-- ,let u n[ consid] :at obvi\sly happ5s 9 ! deflagration ( ! inflammable 7hydrog57 & dephlogi/icat$ air 7oxyg574 ,^! two k9ds ( air unite ) viol5ce2 !y become r$ hot1 & ^u cool+1 totally disappe>4 ,:5 ! vessel is cool$1 a quantity ( wat] is f\nd 9 x equal to ! weight ( ! air employ$4 ,?is wat] is !n ! only rema9+ product ( ! process2 & wat]1 light1 & heat are all ! products4 ,are we n !n au?oris$ to conclude1 t wat] is compos$ ( dephlogi/icat$ air 7oxyg57 & phlogi/on 7hydrog571 depriv$ ( "p ( _! lat5t or elem5t>y heat2 t dephlogi/icat$ or pure air 7oxyg57 is compos$ ( wat] depriv$ ( its phlogi/on 7hydrog571 & unit$ to elem5t>y heat & light2 & t ! latt] are conta9$ 9 x 9 a lat5t /ate1 s z n to be s5sible to ! !rmomet] or to ! eye2 & if light be only a modification ( heat1 or a circum/ance att5d+ x1 or a compon5t "p ( ! inflammable air 7hydrog571 !n pure or dephlogi/icat$ air 7oxyg57 is compos$ ( wat] depriv$ ( its phlogi/on 7hydrog571 & unit$ to elem5t>y heat4 #bh ,^? :o desire to inve/igate ?is controv]sy m 9 detail w f9d v full in=mation on ! subject 9 ! ,translation ( ,arago's ,eloge1 ) notes & app5dix by ,j4 ,p4 ,muirhead1 ,esq4 ,murray1 ,london1 #ahci4 #bi ,an acc\nt ( ?is rem>kable app>atus1 accompani$ by an engrav+ made f a draw+ suppli$ by ,watt1 0 communicat$ by ,sir ,john ,robison to ! ,ed9burgh ,philosophical ,j\rnal 9 #ahbj4 ,see vol4 iii1 p4 #fj4 ,pg#cba ,illu/ration ,,*ap4 ,,xi4 ,,locomotive ,,eng9es ,,on ,,railways4 ,,non-,,cond5s+ ,,eng9es4 -- ,,leupold',s ,,eng9e4-,,treve?ick ,,& ,,vivian4 -- ,,effects ,,( ,,railway ,,transport4 -- ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,locomotive ,,eng9e4 -- ,,bl5k9sop4 -- ,,messrs4 ,,*apman4 -- ,,walk+ ,,eng9e4 -- ,,mr4 ,,/eph5son',s ,,eng9es ,,at ,,kill+wor?4 -- ,,liv]pool ,,& ,,man*e/] ,,railway4 -- ,,exp]im5tal ,,trial4 -- ,,! ,,rocket4 -- ,,! ,,sansp>eil4 -- ,,! ,,novelty4 -- ,,subsequ5t ,,improvem5ts ,,9 ,,! ,,locomotive ,,eng9e4 -- ,,l>dn]',s ,,exp]im5ts ,,9 #ahcb4 -- ,,adoption ,,( ,,brass ,,tubes4 -- ,,mr4 ,,boo?',s ,,report4 -- ,,detail$ ,,description ,,( ,,! ,,mo/ ,,improv$ ,,locomotive ,,eng9es4 -- ,,p[] ,,( ,,locomotive ,,eng9es4 -- ,,evaporation ,,( ,,boil]s4 -- ,,l>dn]',s ,,exp]im5ts ,,9 #ahch4 -- ,,resi/ance ,,to ,,railway ,,tra9s4 -- ,,re/rictions ,,on ,,gradi5ts4 -- ,,comp5sat+ ,,effect ,,( ,,gradi5ts4 -- ,,exp]im5t ,,) ,,! ,,hecla4 -- ,,me?ods ,,( ,,surm\nt+ ,,/eep ,,incl9ations4 7#ahj47 ,9 ! v>i\s modifications ( ! /eam eng9e :i* we h hi!rto consid]$1 ! pressure introduc$ on "o side ( ! pi/on d]ives its efficacy ei!r :olly or p>tially f ! vacuum produc$ by cond5sation on ! o!r side4 ,?is always requires a cond5s+ app>atus1 & a con/ant & abundant supply ( cold wat]4 ,an eng9e ( ?is k9d mu/ !re=e necess>ily h consid]able dim5sions & weight1 & is inapplicable to uses 9 :i* a small & light ma*9e only is admissible4 ,if ! cond5s+ app>atus be disp5s$ )1 ! pi/on w always be resi/$ by a =ce equal to ! atmosph]ic ,pg#cbb pressure1 & ! only "p ( ! /eam pressure :i* w be available z a mov+ p[]1 is t "p by :i* x exce$s ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,h5ce1 9 eng9es :i* d n "w by cond5sation1 /eam ( a mu* high] pressure ?an t ( ! atmosph]e is indisp5sably necess>y1 & su* eng9es are !re=e call$ high-pressure eng9es4 ,we are n1 h[ev]1 to und]/& t e eng9e1 9 :i* /eam is us$ ( a pressure exce$+ t ( ! atmosph]e1 is :at is meant by an high-pressure eng9e2 = 9 ! ord9>y eng9es 9 common use1 con/ruct$ on ,watt's pr9ciple1 ! safety-valve is load$ ) f #c to #e lbs4 on ! squ>e in*2 & 9 ,woolf's eng9es1 ! /eam is produc$ "u a pressure ( #dj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*4 ,^! w\ld !re=e be m prop]ly call$ cond5s+ eng9es ?an l[-pressure eng9es2 a t]m q inapplicable to ^? ( ,woolf4 ,9 fact1 by high-pressure eng9es is meant eng9es 9 :i* no vacuum is produc$1 &1 !re=e1 9 :i* ! pi/on works aga9/ a pressure equal to t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,9 ^! eng9es ! :ole ( ! cond5s+ app>atus1 viz4 ! cold-wat] ci/]n1 cond5s]1 air-pump1 cold-wat] pump1 c41 are disp5s$ )1 & no?+ is reta9$ except ! boil]1 cyl9d]1 pi/on1 & valves4 ,consequ5tly1 su* an eng9e is small1 light1 & *eap4 ,x is portable also1 & may be mov$1 if necess>y1 along ) its load1 & is !re=e well adapt$ to locomotive purposes4 7#aha47 ,high-pressure eng9es 7 "o ( ! e>lie/ =ms ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,! contrivance1 :i* is obscurely describ$ 9 ! article already quot$ 7#g471 f ! ,c5tury ( ,inv5tions1 is a high-pressure eng9e2 = ! p[] !re allud$ to is ! ela/ic =ce ( /eam work+ aga9/ ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,newcom51 9 #agje1 appli$ ! work+-beam1 cyl9d]1 & pi/on to ! atmosph]ic eng9e2 & ,leupold1 ab\t #agbj1 comb9$ ! work+-beam & cyl9d] ) ! high-pressure pr9ciple1 & produc$ ! e>lie/ high-pressure eng9e work$ by a cyl9d] & pi/on4 ,! foll[+ is a description ( ,leupold's eng9e3-- ,pg#cbc ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,a 7fig4 #hb47 is ! boil]1 ) ! furnace b5ea? x2 ,c ,c are two cyl9d]s ) solid pi/ons ,p ,p1 connect$ ) ! work+-beams ,b ,b1 to :i* are atta*$ ! pump-rods ,r ,r1 ( two =c+ pumps ,f ,f1 :i* communicate ) a great =ce-pipe ,s2 ,g is a f\r-way cock 7#ff47 already describ$4 ,9 ! position 9 :i* x /&s 9 ! figure1 ! /eam issues f bel[ ! pi/on ,p into ! atmosph]e1 & ! pi/on is desc5d+ by its own weight2 /eam f ! boil] is at ! same "t press+ up ! pi/on ,p1 ) a =ce equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! pressure ( ! /eam & t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?us ! pi/on ,r ( ! =c+-pump is be+ drawn up1 & ! pi/on ,p is =c+ ! pi/on ,r d[n1 & !reby driv+ wat] into ! =ce-pipe ,pg#cbd ,s4 ,on ! arrival ( ! pi/on ,p at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] ,c1 & ,p at ! top ( ! cyl9d] ,c1 ! position ( ! cock is *ang$ z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #hc4 ,! /eam1 :i* has j press$ up ! pi/on ,p1 is all[$ to escape into ! atmosph]e1 :ile ! /eam1 pass+ f ! boil] bel[ ! pi/on ,p1 presses x up1 & ?us ,p asc5ds by ! /eam pressure1 & ,p desc5ds by its own weight4 ,by ^! means ! pi/on ,r is =c$ d[n1 driv+ be=e x ! wat] 9 ! pump-cyl9d] into ! =ce-pipe ,s1 & ! pi/on ,r is drawn up to all[ ! o!r pump-cyl9d] to be re-fill$2 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,a valve is plac$ 9 ! bottom ( ! =ce-pipes1 to prev5t ! wat] :i* has be5 driv5 into x f return+4 ,?is valve op5s upw>ds2 &1 consequ5tly1 ! weight ( ! wat] press+ ^u x only keeps x m effectually clos$4 ,on ea* desc5t ( ! pi/on1 ! pressure transmitt$ to ! valve act+ upw>ds be+ great] ?an ! weight ( ! wat] re/+ ^u x1 =ces x op51 & an increas$ quantity ( wat] is introduc$4 7#ahb47 ,f ! date ( ! improvem5t ( ,watt until ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury1 non-cond5s+ eng9es 7 altoge!r neglect$ 9 ^! c\ntries4 ,9 ! ye> #ahjb1 ,messrs4 ,treve?ick & ,vivian con/ruct$ ! fir/ non-cond5s+ eng9e ( ?is k9d :i* 0 ev] br\ght into ext5sive practical use 9 ?is k+dom4 ,a section ( ?is ma*9e1 made by a v]tical plane1 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #hd4 ,! boil] ,a ,b is a cyl9d] ) flat circul> ends4 ,! fire-place is con/ruct$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,a tube ent]s ! cyl9drical boil] at "o end2 &1 proce$+ onw>ds ne> ! o!r extremity1 is turn$ & recurv$1 s z to be c>ri$ back p>allel to ! direction 9 :i* x ent]$4 ,x is ?us conduct$ out ( ! boil]1 at ano!r "p ( ! same end at :i* x ent]$4 ,"o ( ! ends ( ?is tube communicates ) ! *imney ,e1 :i* is c>ri$ upw>ds z repres5t$ 9 ! figure4 ,! o!r m\? is furni%$ ,pg#cbe ) a door2 & 9 x is plac$ ! grate1 :i* is =m$ ( horizontal b>s1 divid+ ! tube into two p>ts2 ! upp] "p =m+ ! fire-place1 & ! l[] ! a%-pit4 ,! fuel is ma9ta9$ 9 a /ate ( combu/ion1 on ! b>s1 9 t "p ( ! tube repres5t$ at ,c ,d2 & ! flame is c>ri$ by ! draught ( ! *imney r\nd ! curv$ flue1 & issues at ,e into ! *imney4 ,! flame is ?us conduct$ ?r\gh ! wat]1 s z to expose ! latt] to z mu* heat z possible4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,a section ( ! cyl9d] is repres5t$ at ,f1 imm]s$ 9 ! boil]1 except a few in*es ( ! upp] end1 :]e ! f\r-way cock ,g is plac$ = regulat+ ! admission ( ! /eam4 ,a tube is repres5t$ at ,h1 :i* leads f ?is f\r-way cock into ! *imney2 s t ! wa/e /eam1 aft] work+ ! pi/on1 is c>ri$ (f ?r\gh ?is tube1 & passes into ! *imney4 ,! upp] end ( ! pi/on-rod is furni%$ ) a cross-b>1 :i* is plac$ 9 a direction at "r angles to ! l5g? ( ! boil]1 & also to ! ,pg#cbf pi/on-rod4 ,?is b> is guid$ 9 its motion by slid+ on two iron p]p5dicul> rods fix$ to ! sides ( ! boil]1 & p>allel to ea* o!r4 ,to ! ends ( ?is cross-b> are jo9$ two connect+ rods1 ! l[] ends ( :i* "w two cranks fix$ on an axis ext5d+ across & b5ea? ! boil]1 & imm$iately "u ! c5tre ( ! cyl9d]4 ,?is axis is su/a9$ 9 be>+s =m$ 9 ! legs :i* support ! boil]1 & ^u its extremity is fix$ ! fly-:eel z repres5t$ at ,b4 ,a l>ge-too!d :eel is plac$ on ?is axis2 :i*1 be+ turn$ ) ! crank$ axle1 communicates motion to o!r :eels2 & ?r\gh !m1 to any ma*9]y :i* ! eng9e may be appli$ to move4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,z ! f\r-way cock is repres5t$ 9 ! figure1 ! /eam passes f ! boil] ?r\gh ! curv$ passage ,g above ! pi/on1 :ile ! /eam bel[ ! pi/on is c>ri$ (f ?r\gh a tube :i* does n appe> 9 ! figure1 by :i* x is conduct$ to ! tube ,h1 & !nce to ! *imney4 ,! /eam1 !re=e1 :i* passes above ! pi/on presses x d[nw>ds2 :ile ! pressure upw>ds does n exce$ t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! pi/on w !re=e desc5d ) a =ce dep5d+ on ! excess ( ! pressure ( ! /eam produc$ 9 ! boil] above ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,:5 ! pi/on has arriv$ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! cock is made to assume ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #he4 ,?is effect is produc$ by ! motion ( ! pi/on-rod4 ,! /eam n[ passes f above ! pi/on1 ?r\gh ! tube ,h1 into ! *imney1 :ile ! /eam f ! boil] is conduct$ ?r\gh ano!r tube bel[ ! pi/on4 ,! pressure above ! pi/on1 9 ?is case1 does n exce$ t ( ! atmosph]e2 :ile ! pressure bel[ x w be t ( ! /eam 9 ! boil]4 ,! pi/on w !re=e asc5d ) ! diff]5ce ( ^! pressures4 ,on ! arrival ( ! pi/on at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! f\r-way cock is aga9 turn$ to ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #he41 & ! pi/on aga9 desc5ds2 & 9 ! same mann] ! process is cont9u$4 ,a safety-valve is plac$ on ! boil] at ,v1 load$ ) a weight ,w1 proportionate ,pg#cbg to ! /r5g? ( ! /eam ) :i* x is propos$ to "w4 ,9 ! eng9es n[ describ$1 ?is valve 0 frequ5tly load$ at ! rate ( f #fj to #hj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*4 ,z ! boil]s ( high-pressure eng9es 7 consid]$ m liable to accid5ts f bur/+ ?an ^? 9 :i* /eam ( a l[] pressure 0 us$1 great] precautions 7 tak5 aga9/ su* effects4 ,a second safety-valve 0 provid$1 :i* 0 n left 9 ! p[] ( ! eng9e-man4 ,by ?is means he _h a p[] to dim9i% ! pressure ( ! /eam1 b c\ld n increase x beyond ! limit det]m9$ by ! valve :i* 0 remov$ f 8 int]f]5ce4 ,! greate/ cause ( dang]1 h[ev]1 arose f ! wat] 9 ! boil] be+ consum$ by evaporation fa/] ?an x 0 suppli$2 & !re=e fall+ bel[ ! level ( ! tube conta9+ ! furnace4 ,to gu>d aga9/ accid5ts aris+ f ?is circum/ance1 a hole 0 bor$ 9 ! boil]1 at a c]ta9 dep?1 bel[ :i* ! wat] %\ld n be all[$ to fall2 & 9 ?is hole a plug ( metal 0 sold]$ ) lead1 or ) "s o!r metal1 :i* w\ld fuse at t temp]ature :i* w\ld expose ! boil] to dang]4 ,?us1 9 ! ev5t ( ! wat] be+ exhau/$1 s t its level w\ld fall bel[ ! plug1 ! heat ( ! furnace w\ld imm$iately melt ! sold]1 & ! plug w\ld fall out1 af=d+ a v5t = ! /eam1 )\t all[+ ! boil] to bur/4 ,! m]curial /eam-gauge1 already describ$1 0 also us$ z an additional security4 ,:5 ! =ce ( ! /eam exce$$ ! l5g? ( ! column ( m]cury :i* ! tube w\ld conta91 ! m]cury w\ld be bl[n out1 & ! tube w\ld give v5t to ! /eam4 ,! wat] by :i* ! boil] 0 repl5i%$ 0 =c$ into x by a pump work$ by ! eng9e4 ,9 ord] to economise ! heat1 ?is wat] 0 conta9$ 9 a tube ,t1 :i* surr\nd$ ! pipe ,h4 ,z ! wa/e /eam1 aft] work+ ! pi/on1 pass$ (f ?r\gh ,h1 x imp>t$ a portion ( its heat to ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! tube ,t1 :i* 0 ?us w>m$ to a c]ta9 temp]ature be=e x 0 =c$ into ! boil] by ! pump4 ,?us a "p ( ! heat1 :i* 0 orig9ally ,pg#cbh c>ri$ f ! boil] 9 ! =m ( /eam1 0 return$ aga9 to ! boil] ) ! wat] ) :i* x 0 f$4 ,x is evid5t t eng9es con/ruct$ 9 ?is mann] may be appli$ to all ! purposes to :i* ! cond5s+ eng9es are applicable4 7#ahc47 ,two ye>s aft] ! date ( ! pat5t ( ?is eng9e1 its inv5tor con/ruct$ a ma*9e ( ! same k9d = ! purpose ( mov+ c>riages on railroads2 & appli$ x successfully1 9 ! ye> #ahjd1 on ! railroad at ,m]?yr ,tydvil1 9 ,s\? ,wales4 ,x 0 9 pr9ciple ! same z t already describ$4 ,! cyl9d] h[ev] 0 9 a horizontal position1 ! pi/on-rod work+ 9 ! direction ( ! l9e ( road3 ! extremity ( ! pi/on-rod1 by means ( a connect+ rod1 work$ cranks plac$ on ! axletree1 on :i* 7 fix$ two cogg$ :eels3 ^! work$ 9 o!rs1 by :i* _! motion 0 communicat$ f9ally to cogg$ :eels fix$ on ! axle ( ! h9d :eels ( ! c>riage1 by :i* ?is axle 0 kept 9 a /ate ( revolution4 ,! h9d :eels be+ fix$ on ! axletree1 & turn+ ) x1 7 caus$ likewise to revolve2 & s long z ! weight ( ! c>riage did n exce$ t :i* ! friction ( ! road 0 capable ( propell+1 ! c>riage w\ld ?us be mov$ =w>ds4 ,on ?is axle 0 plac$ a fly-:eel to cont9ue ! rotatory motion at ! t]m9ation ( ea* /roke4 ,! =e :eels are describ$ z be+ capable ( turn+ l ! =e :eels ( a c>riage1 s z to guide ! vehicle4 ,! projectors appe> to h contemplat$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ! use ( ?is c>riage on common roads2 b t notion seems to h be5 ab&on$1 & its use 0 only adopt$ on ! railroad be=e m5tion$4 ,on ! occasion ( its fir/ trial1 x drew aft] x z _m c>riages z conta9$ t5 tons ( iron a di/ance ( n9e miles2 :i* /age x p]=m$ )\t any fre% supply ( wat]1 & travell$ at ! rate ( five miles an h\r4 7#ahd47 ,capital & skill h ( late ye>s be5 direct$ ) extraord9>y en]gy to ! improvem5t ( inl& transport2 & ?is important in/rum5t ( national weal? & civilisation has receiv$ a proportionate impulse4 ,effects are n[ witness$1 :i*1 _h !y be5 n>rat$ a few ye>s ,pg#cbi s9ce1 c\ld only h be5 admitt$ into ! pages ( fiction or volumes ( romance4 ,:o c\ld h cr$it$ ! possibility ( a pond]\s eng9e ( iron1 load$ ) "s hundr$ pass5g]s1 9 a tra9 ( c>riages ( correspond+ magnitude1 & a l>ge quantity ( wat] & coal1 tak+ flight f ,man*e/] & arriv+ at ,liv]pool1 a di/ance ( above ?irty miles1 9 little m ?an an h\r8 ,& yet ?is is a matt] ( daily & almo/ h\rly occurr5ce4 ,! rapidity ( transport ?us atta9$ is n less wond]ful ?an ! weights transport$4 ,its capabilities 9 ?is respect f> transc5d ! exig5cies ev5 ( ! two greate/ comm]cial m>ts 9 ,great ,brita94 ,loads1 v>y+ f fifty to "o hundr$ & fifty tons1 are transport$ at ! av]age rate ( fifte5 miles an h\r2 & 9 "o in/ance we h se5 a load--we %\ld r say a c>go--( waggons1 convey+ m]*&ise to ! am\nt ( two hundr$ & ?irty tons gross1 transport$ f ,liv]pool to ,man*e/] at ! av]age rate ( twelve miles an h\r4 ,! a/oni%m5t ) :i* su* p]=mances mu/ be view$1 might be qualifi$1 if ! art ( transport by /eam on railways _h be5 matur$1 & _h atta9$ t full /ate ( p]fection :i* su* an art is always capable ( receiv+ f long exp]i5ce1 aid$ by great sci5tific k1 & ! unb\nd$ application ( capital4 ,b su* is n ! pres5t case4 ,! art ( con/ruct+ locomotive eng9es1 s f> f hav+ atta9$ a /ate ( maturity1 has n ev5 em]g$ f its infancy4 ,s complete 0 ! ignorance ( its p[]s :i* prevail$1 ev5 among eng9e]s1 previ\s to ! op5+ ( ! ,liv]pool railway1 t ! transport ( heavy goods 0 reg>d$ z ! *ief object ( ! und]tak+1 & its pr9cipal s\rce ( rev5ue4 ,! incr$ible spe$ ( transport1 effect$ ev5 9 ! v fir/ exp]im5ts 9 #ahcj1 bur/ ^u ! public1 & on ! sci5tific _w1 ) all ! effect ( a new & unlook$-= ph5om5on4 ,on ! un=tunate occasion :i* depriv$ ?is c\ntry ( ,mr4 ,huskisson1 ! w\nd$ body ( t /atesman 0 transport$ a di/ance ( ab\t fifte5 miles 9 tw5ty-five m9utes1 be+ at ! rate ( ?irty-six miles an h\r4 ,! rev5ue ( ! road aris+ f pass5g]s s9ce its op5+1 ,pg#ccj has1 contr>y to all t 0 =ese51 be5 ne>ly d\ble t :i* has be5 d]iv$ f m]*&ise4 ,s great 0 ! want ( exp]i5ce 9 ! con/ruction ( eng9es1 t ! company 0 at fir/ ignorant :e!r !y %\ld adopt l>ge /eam eng9es fix$ at diff]5t /ations on ! l9e1 to pull ! c>riages f /ation to /ation1 or travell+ eng9es to drag ! loads ! entire di/ance4 ,hav+ decid$ on ! latt]1 !y h1 ev5 to ! pres5t mom5t1 lab\r$ "u ! disadvantage ( ! want ( t k :i* exp]i5ce alone c give4 ,! eng9es h be5 con/antly v>i$ 9 _! weight & proportions1 9 _! magnitude & =m1 z ! exp]i5ce ( ea* successive mon? has indicat$4 ,z defects became manife/ !y 7 rem$i$2 improvem5ts sugge/$ 7 adopt$2 & ea* ye> produc$ eng9es ( su* increas$ p[] & effici5cy1 t _! pr$ecessors 7 ab&on$1 n because !y 7 worn out1 b because !y _h be5 out/ripp$ 9 ! rapid m>* ( improvem5t4 ,add to ?is1 t only "o species ( travell+ eng9e has be5 effectively tri$2 ! capabilities ( o!rs rema9 /ill to be develop$2 & ev5 t =m ( eng9e :i* has receiv$ ! advantage ( a c\rse ( exp]im5ts on s gr& a scale to c>ry x t[>ds p]fection1 is f> %ort ( ?is po9t1 & /ill has defects1 _m ( :i*1 x is obvi\s1 "t & exp]i5ce w remove4 ,if1 !n1 ! locomotive eng9e1 subject ?us to all ! imp]fections insep>able f a novel contrivance--) ! re/rictions on ! free application ( skill & capital1 aris+ f ! nature ( ! monopolies grant$ to railway companies--) ! disadvantage ( v limit$ exp]i5ce1 ! great p>5t ( practical improvem5t1 hav+ be5 submitt$ to exp]im5ts hi!rto only on a limit$ scale1 & conf9$ almo/ to "o =m ( ma*9e2--if1 "u su* disadvantages1 su* effects h be5 produc$ z are n[ daily witness$ by ! public1 :at may n be look$ = f ?is extraord9>y p[] :5 ! ent]prise ( ! c\ntry %all be m unfett]$--:5 great] fields ( exp]i5ce are op5$--:5 "t1 +5uity1 & capital h remov$ or dim9i%$ exi/+ imp]fections1 & h br\ght to light new & m p[]ful pr9ciples8 ,?is is n m]e speculation ,pg#cca on ab/ract possibilities1 b ref]s to :at is 9 actual progress4 ,! po9ts ( greate/ weal? & population--! c5tres ( l>ge/ capital & mo/ active indu/ry ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry--w soon be connect$ by l9es ( railway2 & v>i\s exp]im5ts are propos$1 ) m or less prospect ( success1 = ! application ( /eam eng9es on /one roads :]e ! int]c\rse is n suffici5t to r5d] railways pr(itable4 ,! important comm]cial & political effects att5d+ su* increas$ facility & spe$ 9 ! transport ( p]sons & goods1 are too obvi\s to require any v ext5d$ notice "h4 ,a "p ( ! price 7& 9 _m cases a consid]able "p7 ( e article ( necessity or luxury1 consi/s ( ! co/ ( transport+ x f ! produc] to ! consum]2 & consequ5tly e abatem5t or sav+ 9 ?is co/ mu/ produce a correspond+ r$uction 9 ! price ( e article transport$2 t is to say1 ( e ?+ :i* is necess>y = ! subsi/5ce ( ! poor1 or = ! enjoym5t ( ! ri*--( e com=t1 & ( e luxury ( life4 ,! b5efit ( ?is w ext5d1 n to ! consum] only1 b to ! produc]3 by l[]+ ! exp5se ( transport ( ! produce1 :e!r ( ! soil or ( ! loom1 a less quantity ( t produce w be sp5t 9 br++ ! rema9d] to m>ket1 & consequ5tly a great] surplus w rew>d ! lab\r ( ! produc]4 ,! b5efit ( ?is w be felt ev5 m by ! agriculturi/ ?an by ! manufactur]2 because ! proportional co/ ( transport ( ! produce ( ! soil is great] ?an t ( manufactures4 ,if two hundr$ qu>t]s ( corn be necess>y to raise f\r hundr$1 & "o hundr$ m be requir$ to br+ ! f\r hundr$ to m>ket1 !n ! net surplus w be "o hundr$4 ,b if by ! use ( /eam c>riages ! same quantity c be br\ght to m>ket ) an exp5diture ( fifty qu>t]s1 !n ! net surplus w be increas$ f "o hundr$ to "o hundr$ & fifty qu>t]s2 & ei!r ! pr(it ( ! f>m]1 or ! r5t ( ! l&lord1 mu/ be increas$ by ! same am\nt4 ,b ! agriculturi/ w\ld n m]ely be b5efit$ by an increas$ return f ! soil already "u cultivation4 ,any ,pg#ccb r$uction 9 ! co/ ( transport+ ! produce to m>ket w\ld call into cultivation tracts ( inf]ior f]tility1 ! returns f :i* w\ld n at pres5t repay ! co/ ( cultivation & transport4 ,?us l& w\ld become productive :i* is n[ wa/e1 & an effect w\ld be produc$ equival5t to add+ s mu* f]tile soil to ! pres5t ext5t ( ! c\ntry4 ,x is well kn[n1 t l& ( a giv5 degree ( f]tility w yield increas$ produce by ! increas$ application ( capital & lab\r4 ,by a r$uction 9 ! co/ ( transport1 a sav+ w be made :i* may enable ! agriculturi/ to apply to tracts already "u cultivation ! capital ?us sav$1 & !reby increase _! actual production4 ,n only1 !re=e1 w\ld su* an effect be att5d$ ) an increas$ ext5t ( cultivat$ l&1 b also ) an increas$ degree ( cultivation 9 t :i* is already productive4 ,x has be5 said1 t 9 ,great ,brita9 !re are above a million ( horses engag$ 9 v>i\s ways 9 ! transport ( pass5g]s & goods1 & t to transport ea* horse requires z mu* l& z w\ld1 ^u an av]age1 support eight m54 ,if ?is quantity ( animal p[] 7 displac$ by /eam eng9es1 & ! means ( transport drawn f ! b[els ( ! e>?1 in/ead ( be+ rais$ ^u its surface1 !n1 suppos+ ! above calculation correct1 z mu* l& w\ld become available = ! support ( human be+s z w\ld suffice = an additional population ( eight millions2 or1 :at am\nts to ! same1 w\ld increase ! means ( support ( ! pres5t population by ab\t "o ?ird ( ! pres5t available means4 ,! l& :i* n[ supports horses = transport w\ld !n support m51 or produce corn = food4 ,! objection t a quantity ( l& exi/s 9 ! c\ntry capable ( support+ horses alone1 & t su* l& w\ld be ?r[n out ( cultivation1 sc>cely des]ves notice "h4 ,! exi/5ce ( any consid]able quantity ( su* l& is extremely d\btful4 ,:at is ! soil :i* w fe$ a horse & n fe$ ox5 or %eep1 or produce food = man8 ,b ev5 if x be admitt$ t !re exi/s 9 ! c\ntry a small portion ( su* l&1 t portion _c exce$1 nor inde$ equal1 :at w\ld be suffici5t = ! numb] ( horses ,pg#ccc :i* mu/ aft] all cont9ue to be employ$ = ! purposes ( pleasure1 & 9 a v>iety ( cases :]e /eam mu/ necess>ily be inapplicable4 ,x is to be rememb]$1 also1 t ! displac+ ( horses 9 "o ext5sive occupation1 by dim9i%+ _! price mu/ necess>ily increase ! dem& = !m 9 o!rs4 ,! r$uction 9 ! co/ ( transport ( manufactur$ articles1 by l[]+ _! price 9 ! m>ket1 w /imulate _! consumption4 ,?is obs]vation applies ( c\rse n only to home b to =eign m>kets4 ,9 ! latt] we already 9 _m bran*es ( manufactures comm& a monopoly4 ,! r$uc$ price :i* we %all atta9 by *eapness & facility ( transport w /ill fur!r ext5d & increase our advantages4 ,! necess>y consequ5ce w be1 an increas$ dem& = manufactur+ population2 & ?is increas$ population aga9 react+ on ! agricultural int]e/s1 w =m an increas$ m>ket = t species ( produce4 ,s int]wov5 & complicat$ are ! fibres :i* =m ! texture ( ! highly civilis$ & artificial community 9 :i* we live1 t an effect produc$ on any "o po9t is in/antly transmitt$ to ! mo/ remote & app>5tly unconnect$ p>ts ( ! sy/em4 ,! two advantages ( increas$ *eapness & spe$1 besides ext5d+ ! am\nt ( exi/+ traffic1 call into exi/5ce new objects ( comm]cial int]c\rse4 ,= ! same reason t ! r$uc$ co/ ( transport1 z we h %[n1 calls new soils into cultivation1 x also calls into exi/5ce new m>kets = manufactur$ & agricultural produce4 ,! great spe$ ( transit :i* has be5 prov$ to be practicable1 mu/ op5 a comm]ce betwe5 di/ant po9ts 9 v>i\s articles1 ! nature ( :i* does n p]mit !m to be pres]v$ s z to be fit = use beyond a c]ta9 "t4 ,su* are1 = example1 _m species ( vegetable & animal food1 :i* at pres5t are conf9$ to m>kets at a v limit$ di/ance f ! gr[] or fe$]4 ,! tru? ( ?is obs]vation is manife/$ by ! effects :i* h foll[$ ! int]c\rse by /eam on ! ,iri% ,*annel4 ,! we/]n t[ns ( ,engl& h become m>kets = a prodigi\s quantity ( ,iri% produce1 :i* x _h be5 previ\sly ,pg#ccd impossible to export4 ,if animal food be transport$ alive f ! gr[] to ! consum]1 ! di/ance ( ! m>ket is limit$ by ! p[] ( ! animal to travel1 & ! co/ ( its support on ! road4 ,x is only p>ticul> species ( cattle :i* be> to be c>ri$ to m>ket on common roads & by horse c>riages4 ,b ! peculi> nature ( a railway1 ! magnitude & weight ( ! loads :i* may be transport$ on x1 & ! prodigi\s spe$ :i* may be atta9$1 r5d] ! transport ( cattle1 ( e species1 to almo/ any di/ance1 bo? easy & *eap4 ,9 process ( "t1 :5 ! railway sy/em becomes ext5d$1 ! metropolis & popul\s t[ns w !re=e become m>kets1 n z at pres5t to di/ricts )9 limit$ di/ances ( !m1 b to ! :ole c\ntry4 ,! moral & political consequ5ces ( s great a *ange 9 ! p[]s ( transition ( p]sons & intellig5ce f place to place are n easily calculat$4 ,! conc5tration ( m9d & ex]tion :i* a great metropolis always exhibits1 w be ext5d$ 9 a consid]able degree to ! :ole realm4 ,! same effect w be produc$ z if all di/ances 7 less5$ 9 ! proportion 9 :i* ! spe$ & *eapness ( transit are increas$4 ,t[ns at pres5t remov$ "s /ages f ! metropolis1 w become its suburbs2 o!rs1 n[ at a day's j\rney1 w be remov$ to its imm$iate vic9ity2 bus9ess w be c>ri$ on ) z mu* ease betwe5 !m & ! metropolis1 z x is n[ betwe5 di/ant po9ts ( ! metropolis itself4 ,let ^? :o disc>d speculations l ^! z wild & improbable1 recur to ! /ate ( public op9ion1 at no v remote p]iod1 on ! subject ( /eam navigation4 ,)9 ! memory ( p]sons :o h n yet pass$ ! m]idian ( life1 ! possibility ( trav]s+ by ! /eam eng9e ! *annels & seas t surr\nd & int]sect ^! isl&s1 0 reg>d$ z ! dream ( en?usia/s4 ,nautical m5 & m5 ( sci5ce reject$ su* speculations ) equal incr$ulity1 & ) little less ?an scorn = ! und]/&+ ( ^? :o c\ld = a mom5t ent]ta9 !m4 ,yet we h witness$ /eam eng9es trav]s+ n ^! *annels & seas alone1 b sweep+ ! face ( ! wat]s r\nd e coa/ 9 ,europe4 ,! ,pg#cce seas :i* int]pose betwe5 our ,asiatic dom9ions & ,egypt1 & ^? :i* sep>ate our own %ores f our ,we/ ,indian possessions1 h (f]$ an equally ineffectual b>ri] to its p[]s1 & ! e/abli%m5t ( a regul> /eam communication betwe5 ! capitals ( ! ,old & ,new ,_w has ceas$ to be a "q ( practicability1 hav+ become m]ely "o ( comm]cial pr(it4 ,if /eam be n us$ z ! only means ( connect+ ! mo/ di/ant po9ts ( our planet1 x is n because x is inadequate to ! accompli%m5t ( t end1 b because ! supply ( ! mat]ial1 f :i* at ! pres5t mom5t x d]ives its p[]s1 is re/rict$ by local & accid5tal circum/ances4#cj ,we propose 9 ! pres5t *apt] to lay be=e our read]s "s acc\nt ( ! means :]eby ! effects above ref]r$ to h be5 produc$2 ( ! mann] & degree 9 :i* ! public h avail$ !mselves ( ^! means2 & ( ! improvem5ts ( :i* !y seem to u to be susceptible4 7#ahe47 ,x is a s+ul> fact1 t 9 ! hi/ory ( ?is inv5tion consid]able "t & great +5uity 7 va9ly exp5d$ 9 attempt+ to ov]come a difficulty1 :i* 9 ! end turn$ out to be purely imag9>y4 ,to compreh5d di/9ctly ! mann] 9 :i* a :eel c>riage is propell$ by /eam1 suppose t a p9 or h&le is atta*$ to ! spoke ( ! :eel at "s di/ance f its c5tre1 & t a =ce is appli$ to ?is p9 9 su* a mann] z to make ! :eel revolve4 ,if ! tire ( ! :eel & ! surface ( ! road 7 absolutely smoo? & free f friction1 s t ! face ( ! tire w\ld slide )\t resi/ance ^u ! road1 !n ! effect ( ! =ce ?us appli$ w\ld be m]ely to cause ! :eel to turn r\nd1 ! c>riage be+ /ation>y1 ! surface ( ! tire slipp+ or slid+ ^u ! road z ! :eel is made to revolve4 ,b if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! pressure ( ! face ( ! tire ^u ! road is su* z to produce betwe5 !m su* a degree ( adhesion z w r5d] x impossible = ! :eel to slide or slip ^u ! road by ,pg#ccf ! =ce :i* is appli$ to x1 ! consequ5ce w be1 t ! :eel c only turn r\nd 9 ob$i5ce to ! =ce :i* moves x by caus+ ! c>riage to advance1 s t ! :eel w roll ^u ! road1 & ! c>riage w be mov$ =w>d1 ?r\gh a di/ance equal to ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel1 ea* "t x p]=ms a complete revolution4 ,x is obvi\s t bo? ( ^! effects may be p>tially produc$2 ! adhesion ( ! :eel to ! road may be insuffici5t to prev5t slipp+ altoge!r1 & yet x may be suffici5t to prev5t ! :eel f slipp+ z fa/ z x revolves4 ,"u su* circum/ances ! c>riage w\ld advance & ! :eel w\ld slip4 ,! progressive motion ( ! c>riage dur+ "o complete revolution ( ! :eel w\ld be equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! complete circumf]5ce ( ! :eel & ! portion ?r\gh :i* 9 "o revolution x has slipp$4 ,:5 ! con/ruction ( travell+ /eam eng9es fir/ engag$ ! att5tion ( eng9e]s1 & = a consid]able p]iod aft]w>ds1 a notion 0 impress$ ^u _! m9ds t ! adhesion betwe5 ! face ( ! :eel & ! surface ( ! road mu/ necess>ily be ( v small am\nt1 & t 9 e practical case ! :eels ?us driv5 w\ld ei!r slip altoge!r1 & produce no advance ( ! c>riage1 or t a consid]able portion ( ! impell+ p[] w\ld be lo/ by ! p>tial slipp+ or slid+ ( ! :eels4 ,x is s+ul> t x %\ld nev] h occurr$ to ! _m +5i\s p]sons :o = sev]al ye>s 7 engag$ 9 su* exp]im5ts & speculations1 to asc]ta9 by exp]im5t ! actual am\nt ( adhesion 9 any p>ticul> case betwe5 ! :eels & ! road4 ,_h !y done s1 we %\ld probably n[ h f\nd locomotive eng9es 9 a m advanc$ /ate ?an t to :i* !y h atta9$4 ,to rem$y ?is imag9>y difficulty1 ,messrs4 ,treve?ick & ,vivian propos$ to make ! ext]nal rims ( ! :eels r\gh & unev51 by surr\nd+ !m ) project+ heads ( nails or bolts1 or by cutt+ transv]se grooves on !m4 ,!y propos$1 9 cases :]e consid]able elevations 7 to be asc5d$1 to cause claws or nails to project f ! surface dur+ ! asc5t1 s z to take hold ( ! road4 ,pg#ccg ,9 sev5 ye>s aft] ! con/ruction ( ! fir/ locomotive eng9e by ^! eng9e]s1 ano!r locomotive eng9e 0 con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,bl9k5sop1 ( ,middleton ,colli]y1 ne> ,le$s4 ,he obta9$ a pat5t1 9 #ahaa1 = ! application ( a rack-rail4 ,! railroad ?us1 in/ead ( be+ compos$ ( smoo? b>s ( iron1 pres5t$ a l9e ( project+ tee?1 l ^? ( a cog-:eel1 :i* /ret*$ along ! entire di/ance to be travell$4 ,! :eels on :i* ! eng9e roll$ 7 furni%$ ) correspond+ tee?1 :i* work$ 9 ! tee? ( ! railroad1 &1 9 ?is way1 produc$ a progressive motion 9 ! c>riage4 ,! next contrivance = ov]com+ ?is fictiti\s difficulty1 0 t ( ,messrs4 ,*apman1 :o1 9 ! ye> #ahab1 obta9$ a pat5t = work+ a locomotive eng9e by a *a9 ext5d+ along ! middle ( ! l9e ( railroad1 f ! "o end to ! o!r4 ,?is *a9 0 pass$ once r\nd a groov$ :eel "u ! c5tre ( ! c>riage2 s t1 :5 ?is groov$ :eel 0 turn$ by ! eng9e1 ! *a9 be+ incapable ( slipp+ ^u x1 ! c>riage 0 consequ5tly advanc$ on ! road4 ,9 ord] to prev5t ! /ra9 f act+ on ! :ole l5g? ( ! *a91 its l9ks 7 made to fall ^u upright =ks plac$ at c]ta9 int]vals1 :i* betwe5 ^? int]vals su/a9$ ! t5sion ( ! *a9 produc$ by ! eng9e4 ,friction-roll]s 7 us$ to press ! *a9 into ! groove ( ! :eel1 s z to prev5t x f slipp+4 ,?is contrivance 0 soon ab&on$1 = ! v obvi\s reason t a prodigi\s loss ( =ce 0 incurr$ by ! friction ( ! *a94 ,! foll[+ ye>1 #ahac1 produc$ a contrivance ( s+ul> +5uity1 = ov]com+ ! suppos$ difficulty aris+ f ! want ( adhesion betwe5 ! :eels & ! road4 ,?is 0 no o!r ?an a pair ( me*anical legs & feet1 :i* 7 made to walk & propel 9 a mann] some:at resembl+ ! feet ( an animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,a sket* ( ^! propell]s is giv5 9 fig4 #hf4 ,a is ! c>riage mov+ on ! railroad1 ,l & ,l are ! legs1 ,f & ,f ! feet4 ,! foot ,f has a jo9t at ,o1 :i* corresponds to ! ankle2 ano!r jo9t is plac$ at ,k1 :i* corresponds to ! knee2 & a ?ird is plac$ at ,l1 :i* corresponds to ,pg#cch ! hip4 ,simil> jo9ts are plac$ at ! correspond+ lett]s 9 ! o!r leg4 ,! knee-jo9t ,k is atta*$ to ! end ( ! pi/on ( ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! pi/on1 :i* is horizontal1 is press$ outw>ds1 ! leg ,l presses ! foot ,f aga9/ ! gr\nd1 & ! resi/ance =ces ! c>riage ,a onw>ds4 ,z ! c>riage proce$s1 ! angle ,k at ! knee becomes l>g]1 s t ! leg & ?igh take a /raight] position2 & ?is cont9ues until ! pi/on has rea*$ ! end ( its /roke4 ,at ! hip ,l !re is a %ort lev] ,l ,m1 ! extremity ( :i* is connect$ by a cord or *a9 ) a po9t ,s1 plac$ ne> ! %9 ( ! leg4 ,:5 ! pi/on is press$ into ! cyl9d]1 ! knee ,k is drawn t[>ds ! eng9e1 & ! cord ,m ,s is made to lift ! foot ,f f ! gr\nd2 to :i* x does n return until ! pi/on has arriv$ at ! extremity ( ! cyl9d]4 ,on ! pi/on be+ aga9 driv5 out ( ! cyl9d]1 ! foot ,f1 be+ plac$ on ! road1 is press$ backw>ds by ! =ce ( ! pi/on-rod at ,k2 b ! friction ( ! gr\nd prev5t+ its backw>d motion1 ! re-action causes ! eng9e to advance3 & 9 ! same mann] ?is process is cont9u$4 ,atta*$ to ! ?igh at ,n1 above ! knee1 by a jo9t1 is a horizontal rod ,n ,r1 :i* works a rack ,r4 ,?is rack has b5ea? x a cog-:eel4 ,?is cog-:eel acts 9 ano!r rack bel[ x4 ,by ^! means1 :5 ! knee ,k is driv5 f ! eng9e1 ! rack ,r is mov$ backw>ds2 b ! cog-:eel act+ on ! o!r rack b5ea? x1 w move ! latt] 9 ! contr>y direction4 ,! rack ,r be+ !n mov$ 9 ! ,pg#cci same direction ) ! knee ,k1 x foll[s t ! o!r rack w always be mov$ 9 a contr>y direction4 ,! l[] rack is connect$ by ano!r horizontal rod ) ! ?igh ( ! leg ,l ,f1 imm$iately above ! knee at ,n4 ,:5 ! pi/on is =c$ inw>ds1 ! knee ,k w ?us be =c$ backw>ds2 & :5 ! pi/on is =c$ outw>ds1 ! knee ,k w be drawn =w>ds4 ,x !re=e foll[s1 t ! two knees ,k & ,k are press$ alt]nately backw>ds & =w>ds4 ,! foot ,f1 :5 ! knee ,k is drawn =w>d1 is lift$ by ! means already describ$ = ! foot ,f4 ,x w be app>5t1 f ?is description1 t ! piece ( me*anism "h exhibit$ is a contrivance d]iv$ f ! motion ( ! legs ( an animal1 & resembl+ 9 all respects ! =e legs ( a horse4 ,x is h[ev] to be reg>d$ r z a specim5 ( great +5uity ?an z a contrivance ( practical utility4 7#ahf47 ,x 0 ab\t ?is p]iod t ! important fact 0 fir/ asc]ta9$ t ! adhesion or friction ( ! :eels ) ! rails on :i* !y mov$ 0 amply suffici5t to propel ! eng9e1 ev5 :5 dragg+ aft] x a load ( great weight2 & t 9 su* case1 ! progressive motion w\ld be effect$ )\t any slipp+ ( ! :eels4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is fact r5d]$ totally useless all ! contrivances = giv+ :eels a pur*ase on ! road1 su* z racks1 *a9s1 feet1 c4 ,! exp]im5t by :i* ?is 0 det]m9$ appe>s to h be5 fir/ tri$ on ! ,wylam railroad2 :]e x 0 prov$1 t :5 ! road 0 level1 & ! rails clean1 ! adhesion ( ! :eels 0 suffici5t1 9 all k9ds ( wea!r1 to propel consid]able loads4 ,by manual lab\r x 0 fir/ asc]ta9$ h[ mu* weight ! :eels ( a common c>riage w\ld ov]come )\t slipp+ r\nd on ! rail1 & hav+ f\nd ! proportion :i* t bore to ! weight1 !y !n asc]ta9$ t ! weight ( ! eng9e w\ld produce suffici5t adhesion to drag aft] x on ! railroad ! requisite numb] ( waggons4#ca ,9 #ahad1 an eng9e 0 con/ruct$ at ,kill+wor?1 by ,mr4 ,/eph5son1 hav+ two cyl9d]s ) a cyl9drical ,pg#cdj boil]1 & work+ two pair ( :eels1 by cranks plac$ at "r angles2 s t :5 ! "o 0 9 full op]ation1 ! o!r 0 at its dead po9ts4 ,by ^! means ! propell+ p[] 0 always 9 action4 ,! cranks 7 ma9ta9$ 9 ?is position by an endless *a91 :i* pass$ r\nd two cogg$ :eels plac$ "u ! eng9e1 & :i* 7 fix$ on ! same axles on :i* ! :eels 7 plac$4 ,! :eels 9 ?is case 7 fix$ on ! axles1 & turn$ ) !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,?is eng9e is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #hg41 ! sides be+ op51 to r5d] ! int]ior me*anism visible4 ,a ,b is ! cyl9drical boil]2 ,c ,c are ! work+ cyl9d]s2 ,d ,e are ! cogg$ :eels fix$ on ! axle ( ! :eels ( ! eng9e1 & surr\nd$ by ! endless *a94 ,^! :eels be+ equal 9 magnitude1 p]=m _! revolutions 9 ! same "t2 s t1 :5 ! crank ,f desc5ds to ! l[e/ po9t1 ! crank ,g rises f ! l[e/ po9t to ! horizontal position ,d2 &1 aga91 :5 ! crank ,f rises f ! l[e/ po9t to ! horizontal position ,e1 ! o!r crank rises to ! highe/ po9t2 & s on4 ,a v beautiful contrivance 0 adopt$ 9 ?is eng9e1 by :i* x 0 susp5d$ on spr+s ( /eam4 ,small cyl9d]s1 repres5t$ at ,h1 are screw$ by flanges to "o side ( ! boil]1 & project )9 x a few in*es2 !y h free communication at ! top ) ! wat] or /eam ( ! boil]4 ,solid pi/ons are repres5t$ at ,i1 :i* move /eam-tight 9 ^! ,pg#cda cyl9d]s2 ! cyl9d]s are op5 at ! bottom1 & ! pi/on-rods are screw$ on ! c>riage ( ! eng9e1 ov] ! axle ( ea* pair ( :eels1 ! pi/ons be+ pres5t$ upw>ds4 ,z ! eng9e is repres5t$ 9 ! figure1 x is support$ on f\r pi/ons1 two at ea* side4 ,! pi/ons are press$ ^u by ! wat] or /eam :i* occupies ! upp] *amb] ( ! cyl9d]2 & ! latt] be+ ela/ic 9 a high degree1 ! eng9e has all ! advantage ( spr+ susp5sion4 ,! defect ( ?is me?od ( support+ ! eng9e is1 t :5 ! /eam loses t am\nt ( ela/icity necess>y = ! support ( ! ma*9e1 ! pi/ons are =c$ into ! cyl9d]s1 & ! bottoms ( ! cyl9d]s be> ^u !m4 ,all spr+ susp5sion is !n lo/4 ,?is mode ( susp5sion has consequ5tly s9ce be5 laid aside4 ,9 an eng9e subsequ5tly con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,/eph5son1 = ! ,kill+wor? railroad1 ! mode adopt$ ( connect+ ! :eels by an endless *a9 & cog-:eels 0 ab&on$2 & ! same effect 0 produc$ by connect+ ! two cranks by a /raight rod4 ,all su* contrivances1 h[ev]1 h ?is great defect1 t1 if ! =e & h9d :eels be n con/ruct$ ) dim5sions accurately equal1 !re mu/ necess>ily be a slipp+ or dragg+ on ! road4 ,! nature ( ! ma*9]y requires t ea* :eel %\ld p]=m its revolution exactly 9 ! same "t2 & consequ5tly1 9 do+ s1 mu/ pass ov] exactly equal l5g?s ( ! road4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eels be n accurately equal1 t :eel :i* has ! less] circumf]5ce mu/ be dragg$ along s mu* ( ! road z t by :i* x falls %ort ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! great] :eel2 or1 on ! o!r h&1 ! great] :eel mu/ be dragg$ 9 ! opposite direction1 to comp5sate = ! same diff]5ce4 ,z no me*anism c accompli% a p]fect equality 9 f\r1 mu* less 9 six1 :eels1 x may be assum$ t a great portion ( t dragg+ effect is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! pr9ciple ( ?is ma*9e2 & ev5 7 ! :eels1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 accurately con/ruct$1 x is n possible t _! we> c\ld be s exactly uni=m z to cont9ue equal4 7#ahg47 ,! next /imulus :i* ! progress ( ?is ,pg#cdb inv5tion receiv$1 proce$$ f ! great national "w und]tak5 at ,liv]pool1 by :i* t t[n & ! ext5sive comm]cial m>t ( ,man*e/] 7 connect$ by a d\ble l9e ( railway4 ,:5 ?is project 0 und]tak51 x 0 n decid$ :at mov+ p[] x might be mo/ exp$i5t to adopt z a means ( transport on ! propos$ road3 ! *oice lay betwe5 horse p[]1 fix$ /eam eng9es1 & locomotive eng9es2 b ! fir/1 = _m obvi\s reasons1 0 at once reject$ 9 fav\r ( "o or o!r ( ! la/ two4 ,! /eam eng9e may be appli$1 by two di/9ct me?ods1 to move waggons ei!r on a turnpike road or on a railway4 ,by ! "o me?od ! /eam eng9e is fix$1 & draws ! c>riage or tra9 ( c>riages t[>ds x by a *a9 ext5d+ ! :ole l5g? ( road on :i* ! eng9e works4 ,by ?is me?od ! l9e ( road ov] :i* ! transport is conduct$ is divid$ into a numb] ( %ort int]vals1 at ! extremity ( ea* ( :i* an eng9e is plac$4 ,! waggons or c>riages1 :5 drawn by any eng9e to its own /ation1 are deta*$1 & connect$ ) ! extremity ( ! *a9 work$ by ! next /ation>y eng9e2 & ?us ! j\rney is p]=m$1 f /ation to /ation1 by sep>ate eng9es4 ,by ! o!r me?od ! same eng9e draws ! load ! :ole j\rney1 travell+ ) x4 ,! ,directors ( ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] railroad1 :5 t "w 0 advanc$ t[>ds its completion1 employ$1 9 ! spr+ ( ! ye> #ahbi1 ,messrs4 ,/eph5son & ,lock1 & ,messrs4 ,walk] & ,ra/rick1 exp]i5c$ eng9e]s1 to visit ! diff]5t railways1 :]e practical in=mation respect+ ! comp>ative effects ( /ation>y & locomotive eng9es 0 likely to be obta9$2 & f ^! g5tlem5 !y receiv$ reports on ! relative m]its1 accord+ to _! judgm5t ( ! two me?ods4 ,! p>ticul>s ( _! calculations are giv5 at l>ge 9 ! valuable "w ( ,mr4 ,ni*olas ,wood on railways2 to :i* we ref] ! read]1 n only on ?is1 b on _m o!r subjects connect$ ) ! locomotive /eam eng9e1 into :i* x w\ld be =eign to our object to ent]4 ,! result ( ! comp>ison ( ! two sy/ems 01 t ! capital ,pg#cdc necess>y to be advanc$ to e/abli% a l9e ( /ation>y eng9es 0 consid]ably great] ?an t :i* 0 necess>y to e/abli% an equival5t p[] 9 locomotive eng9es2 t ! annual exp5se by ! /ation>y eng9es 0 likewise great]2 & t1 consequ5tly1 ! exp5se ( transport by ! latt] 0 great]1 9 a l proportion4 ,! subjo9$ table exhibits ! results num]ically3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,exp5se ( tak+ a ,annual ,ton ( ,goods ,capital4 ,exp5se4 a ,mile4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - s4 d4 s4 d4 ,locomotive eng9es #eh1jjj #j #j #be1eag #h #b #jafd p5ny ,/ation>y eng9es #aba1dif #g #j #db1jca #af #e #jbfi ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,locomotive sy/em less #fc1dif #g #j #af1ead #h #c #jaje ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,on ! score ( economy1 !re=e1 ! sy/em ( locomotive eng9es 0 entitl$ to a pref]5ce2 b !re 7 o!r consid]ations :i* conspir$ ) ?is to decide ! *oice ( ! ,directors 9 its fav\r4 ,an accid5t occurr+ 9 any "p ( a road work$ by /ation>y eng9es mu/ necess>ily produce a total susp5sion ( "w along ! entire l9e4 ,! mo/ vigilant & active att5tion on ! "p ( e workman1 h[ev] employ$1 9 e "p ( ! l9e1 w\ld !re=e be necess>y2 b1 indep5d5tly ( ?is1 accid5ts aris+ f ! fracture or d]angem5t ( any ( ! *a9s1 or f ! susp5sion ( ! work+ ( any ( ! fix$ eng9es1 w\ld be equally injuri\s1 & w\ld effectually /op ! int]c\rse along ! l9e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 locomotive eng9es an accid5t c\ld only affect ! p>ticul> tra9 ( c>riages drawn by ! eng9e to :i* ! accid5t might occur2 & ev5 !n ! difficulty c\ld be rem$i$ by hav+ a supply ( sp>e eng9es at conv5i5t /ations along ! l9e4 ,x is true t ! probability ( accid5t is1 p]haps1 less 9 ! /ation>y ?an 9 ! locomotive sy/em2 b ! injuri\s consequ5ces1 :5 accid5t does happ51 are prodigi\sly great] 9 ! =m]4 ,! "o sy/em1 says ,mr4 ,walk]1 is l a *a9 ext5d+ f ,liv]pool to ,man*e/]1 ! failure ,pg#cdd ( a s+le l9k ( :i* w\ld de/roy ! :ole2 :ile ! o!r is l a numb] ( %ort & unconnect$ *a9s1 ! de/ruction ( any "o ( :i* does n int]f]e ) ! effect ( ! o!rs1 & ! loss ( :i* may be suppli$ ) facility4 ,! decision ( ! ,directors 01 !re=e1 9 fav\r ( locomotive eng9es2 & _! next measure 0 to devise "s means by :i* ! inv5tive g5ius ( ! c\ntry might be /imulat$ to supply !m ) ! be/ possible =m ( eng9es = ?is purpose4 ,) ?is view1 x 0 propos$ & c>ri$ into effect to (f] a prize = ! be/ locomotive eng9e :i* might be produc$ "u c]ta9 propos$ conditions1 & to appo9t a "t = a public trial ( ! claims ( ! c&idates4 ,a premium ( five hundr$ p\nds 0 accord+ly (f]$ = ! be/ locomotive eng9e to run on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] railway2 "u ! condition t x %\ld produce no smoke2 t ! pressure ( ! /eam %\ld be limit$ to fifty p\nds on ! in*2 & t x %\ld draw at lea/ ?ree times its own weight1 at ! rate ( n less ?an t5 miles an h\r2 t ! eng9e %\ld be support$ on spr+s1 & %\ld n exce$ fifte5 feet 9 height4 ,precautions 7 also propos$ aga9/ ! consequ5ces ( ! boil] bur/+2 & o!r matt]s n necess>y to m5tion m p>ticul>ly "h4 ,?is proposal 0 ann\nc$ 9 ! spr+ ( #ahbi1 & ! "t ( trial 0 appo9t$ 9 ! foll[+ ,octob]4 ,! eng9es :i* und]w5t ! trial 71 ! ,rocket1 con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,/eph5son2 ! ,sansp>eil1 by ,hackwor?2 & ! ,novelty1 by ,messrs4 ,brai?waite & ,ericson4 ,( ^!1 ! ,rocket obta9$ ! premium4 ,a l9e ( railway 0 select$ = ! trial1 on a level piece ( road ab\t two miles 9 l5g?1 ne> a place call$ ,ra9hill1 betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/]2 ! di/ance betwe5 ! two /ations 0 a mile & a half1 & ! eng9e _h to travel ?is di/ance backw>ds & =w>ds t5 times1 :i* made altoge!r a j\rney ( ?irty miles4 ,! ,rocket p]=m$ ?is j\rney twice3 ! fir/ "t 9 #b h\rs #ad m9utes & #h seconds2 & ! second "t 9 #b h\rs #f m9utes & #di seconds4 ,its spe$ at diff]5t p>ts ( ! j\rney v>i$3 its greate/ rate ( motion 0 ,pg#cde r above #bi miles an h\r2 & its lea/1 ab\t #aa-a_/b miles an h\r4 ,! av]age rate ( ! "o j\rney 0 #ac-d_/aj miles an h\r2 & ( ! o!r1 #ad-b_/bj miles4 ,?is 0 ! only eng9e :i* p]=m$ ! complete j\rney propos$1 ! o!rs hav+ be5 /opp$ f accid5ts :i* occurr$ to !m 9 ! exp]im5t4 ,! ,sansp>eil p]=m$ ! di/ance betwe5 ! /ations eight times1 travell+ #bb-a_/b miles 9 #a h\r #cg m9utes & #af seconds4 ,! greate/ velocity to :i* ?is eng9e atta9$ 0 some?+ less ?an #bc miles p] h\r4 ,! ,novelty _h only pass$ twice betwe5 ! /ations :5 ! jo9ts ( ! boil] gave way1 & put an end to ! exp]im5t4 7#ahh47 ,! great object to be atta9$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ^! eng9es 01 to comb9e ) suffici5t lightness ! greate/ possible heat+ p[]4 ,! fire necess>ily acts on ! wat] 9 two ways3 fir/1 by its radiant heat2 & second1 by ! curr5t ( heat$ air :i* is c>ri$ by ! draught ?r\gh ! flues1 & f9ally passes into ! *imney4 ,to accompli% ?is object1 !re=e1 x is necess>y to expose to bo? ^! s\rces ( heat ! greate/ possible quantity ( surface 9 contact ) ! wat]4 ,^! ends 7 atta9$ by ! foll[+ admirable arrangem5t 9 ! ,rocket3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,?is eng9e is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #hh4 ,x is support$ on f\r :eels2 ! pr9cipal "p ( ! weight be+ ?r[n on "o pair1 :i* are work$ by ! eng9e4 ,! boil] consi/s ( a cyl9d] six feet 9 l5g?1 ) flat ends2 ! *imney issues f "o end1 & to ! o!r end is atta*$ a squ>e box ,b1 ! bottom ( :i* is furni%$ ) ! grate on :i* ! fuel is plac$4 ,?is box is compos$ ( two cas+s ( iron1 "o conta9$ )9 ! o!r1 hav+ betwe5 !m a space ab\t ?ree in*es 9 bread?2 ! magnitude ( ! box be+ ?ree feet 9 l5g?1 two feet 9 wid?1 & ?ree feet 9 dep?4 ,! cas+ :i* surr\nds ! box communicates ) ! l[] "p ( ! boil] by a pipe m>k$ ,c2 & ! same cas+ at ! top ( ! box communicates ) ! upp] "p ( ! boil] by ano!r pipe m>k$ ,d4 ,:5 wat] is admitt$ into ! boil]1 !re=e1 x fl[s freely1 ?r\gh ! pipe ,c1 into ! cas+ :i* ,pg#cdf surr\nds ! furnace or fire-box1 & fills ?is cas+ to ! same level z t :i* x has 9 ! boil]4 ,:5 ! eng9e is at "w1 ! boil] is kept ab\t half fill$ ) wat]2 &1 consequ5tly1 ! cas+ surr\nd+ ! furnace is completely fill$4 ,! /eam :i* is g5]at$ 9 ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! cas+ f9ds its exit ?r\gh ! pipe ,d1 & escapes into ! upp] "p ( ! boil]4 ,a section ( ! eng9e1 tak5 at "r angles to its l5g?1 is repres5t$ at fig4 #hi4 ,?r\gh ! l[] "p ( ! boil] pass a numb] ( copp] tubes ( small size1 :i* communicate at "o end ) ! fire-box1 & at ! o!r ) ! *imney1 & =m a passage = ! heat$ air f ! furnace to ! *imney4 ,! ignit$ fuel spread on ! grate at ! bottom ( ! fire-box disp]ses its heat by radiation1 & acts 9 ?is mann] on ! :ole surface ( ! cas+ surr\nd+ ! fire-box2 & ?us raises ! temp]ature ( ! ?9 %ell ( wat] conta9$ 9 t cas+4 ,! *ief ,pg#cdg "p ( ! wat] 9 ! cas+1 be+ l[] 9 its position ?an ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 acquires a t5d5cy to asc5d :5 heat$1 & passes into ! boil]2 s t a con/ant circulation ( ! heat$ wat] is ma9ta9$1 & ! wat] 9 ! boil] mu/ necess>ily be kept at ne>ly ! same temp]ature z ! wat] 9 ! cas+4 ,! air :i* passes ?r\gh ! burn+ fuel1 & :i* fills ! fire-box1 is c>ri$ by ! draught ?r\gh ! tubes :i* ext5d ?r\gh ! l[] "p ( ! boil]2 & z ^! tubes are surr\nd$ on e side ) ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! boil]1 ?is air transmits its heat ?r\gh ^! tubes to ! wat]4 ,x f9ally issues into ! *imney1 & rises by ! draught4 ,! p[] ( ?is furnace mu/ necess>ily dep5d on ! p[] ( draught 9 ! *imney2 & to increase ?is1 & at ! same "t to dispose ( ! wa/e /eam aft] x has work$ ! pi/on1 ?is /eam is c>ri$ (f by a pipe ,l1 :i* passes f ! cyl9d] to ! *imney1 & escapes !re 9 a jet :i* is turn$ upw>ds4 ,by ! velocity ) :i* x issues f ?is jet1 & by its great comp>ative levity1 x produces a /rong curr5t upw>ds 9 ! *imney1 & ?us gives =ce to ! draught ( ! furnace4 ,9 fig4 #hi4 ! grate-b>s are repres5t$ at ! bottom ( ! fire-box at ,f4 ,!re are two cyl9d]s1 "o ( :i* works ea* :eel2 "o only appe>+ 9 ! draw+ fig4 #hh41 ! o!r be+ conceal$ by ! eng9e4 ,! spokes :i* ^! cyl9d]s "w are plac$ at "r angles on ! :eels2 ! :eels be+ fix$ on a common axle1 ) :i* !y turn4 ,9 ?is eng9e1 ! surface ( wat] surr\nd+ ! fire-box1 expos$ to ! action ( radiant heat1 am\nt$ to tw5ty squ>e feet1 :i* receiv$ heat f ! surface ( six squ>e feet ( burn+ fuel on ! b>s4 ,! surface expos$ to ! action ( ! heat$ air am\nt$ to #aah squ>e feet4 ,! eng9e drew aft] x ano!r c>riage1 conta9+ fuel & wat]2 ! fuel us$ 0 coke1 = ! purpose ( avoid+ ! production ( smoke4 7#ahi47 ,! ,sansp>eil ( ,mr4 ,hackwor? is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ij42 ! horizontal section be+ exhibit$ 9 fig4 #ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,! draught ( ! furnace is produc$ 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! ,rocket1 by eject+ ! wa/e /eam com+ f ,pg#cdh ! cyl9d] into ! *imney2 ! boil]1 h[ev]1 diff]s consid]ably f t ( ! ,rocket4 ,a recurv$ tube passes ?r\gh ! boil]1 some:at simil> to t already describ$ 9 ! e>ly eng9e ( ,messrs4 ,treve?ick & ,vivian4 ,9 ! horizontal section 7fig4 #ia471 ,d expresses ! op5+ ( ! furnace at ! end ( ! boil]1 beside ! *imney4 ,! grate-b>s appe> at ,a1 support+ ! burn+ fuel2 & a curv$ tube pass+ ?r\gh ! boil]1 & t]m9at+ 9 ! *imney1 is express$ at ,b1 ! direction ,pg#cdi ( ! draught be+ indicat$ by ! arr[2 ,c is a section ( ! *imney4 ,! cyl9d]s are plac$1 z 9 ! ,rocket1 on ea* side ( ! boil]2 ea* work+ a sep>ate :eel1 b act+ on spokes plac$ at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,! tube 9 :i* ! grate & flue are plac$ dim9i%es 9 diamet] z x approa*es ! *imney4 ,at ! m\? :]e ! grate 0 plac$1 its diamet] 0 two feet2 & x 0 gradually r$uc$1 s t1 at ! *imney1 its diamet] 0 only fifte5 in*es4 ,! grate-b>s ext5d$ five feet into ! tube4 ,! surface ( wat] expos$ to ! radiant heat ( ! fire 0 sixte5 squ>e feet2 & t expos$ to ! action ( ! heat$ air & flame 0 ab\t sev5ty-five squ>e feet4 ,! magnitude ( ! grate1 or %eet ( burn+ fuel :i* radiat$ heat1 0 t5 squ>e feet4 7#aij47 ,! ,novelty1 ( ,messrs4 ,brai?waite & ,ericson1 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ib42 & a section ( ! g5]ator & boil] is exhibit$ 9 fig4 #ic42 ! correspond+ p>ts 9 ! two figures are m>k$ by ! same lett]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,a is ! g5]ator or receiv] conta9+ ! /eam :i* works ! eng9e2 ?is communicates ) a l[] g5]ator ,b1 :i* ext5ds 9 a horizontal direction ! entire l5g? ( ! c>riage4 ,)9 ! g5]ator ,a is conta9$ ! furnace ,f1 :i* communicates 9 a tube ,c1 c>ri$ up ?r\gh ! g5]ator1 & t]m9at$ at ! top by slid+ %utt]s1 :i* exclude ! air1 & :i* are only op5$ to supply fuel to ! grate ,f4 ,bel[ ! grate ! furnace is n op51 z usual1 to ! atmosph]e1 b communicates1 ,pg#cej by a tube ,e1 ) a bell[s ,d2 :i* is work$ by ! eng9e1 & :i* =ces a con/ant /ream ( air1 by ! tube ,e1 ?r\gh ! fuel on ,f1 s z to keep t fuel 9 vivid combu/ion4 ,! heat$ air conta9$ 9 ! furnace ,f is driv5 on1 by ! same =ce1 ?r\gh a small curv$ tube m>k$ e1 :i* circulates l a worm 7z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ic47 ?r\gh ! horizontal g5]ator or receiv]2 &1 tap]+ gradually1 until r$uc$ to v small dim5sions1 x f9ally issues into ! *imney ,g4 ,! air 9 pass+ along ?is tube1 imp>ts its heat to ! wat] by :i* ! tube is surr\nd$1 & is br\ght to a consid]ably r$uc$ temp]ature :5 dis*>g$ into ! *imney4 ,! cyl9d]1 :i* is repres5t$ at ,k1 works "o pair ( :eels1 by means ( a bell-crank1 ! o!r pair1 :5 necess>y1 be+ connect$ ) !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,9 ?is eng9e1 ! magnitude ( ! surface ( burn+ fuel on ! grate-b>s is less ?an two squ>e feet2 ! surface expos$ to radiant heat is n9e & a half squ>e feet2 & ! surface ( wat] expos$ to heat$ air is ab\t ?irty-?ree squ>e feet4 ,! sup]iority ( ! ,rocket may be attribut$ *iefly to ! great] quantity ( surface ( ! wat] :i* is expos$ to ! action ( ! fire4 ,) a less ext5t ( grate-b>s ?an ! ,sansp>eil1 9 ! proportion ( ?ree to five1 x exposes a great] surface ( wat] to radiant heat1 9 ! proportion ( f\r to ?ree2 & a great] surface ( wat] to heat$ air1 9 ! proportion ( m ?an ?ree to two4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! ,rocket1 comp>$ ) ! ,sansp>eil1 consum$ fuel1 9 ! evaporation ( a giv5 quantity ( wat]1 ,pg#cea 9 ! proportion ( elev5 to tw5ty-eight4 ,! sugge/ion ( us+ ! tubes to conduct ?r\gh ! wat] ! heat$ air to ! *imney is due to ,mr4 ,boo?1 treasur] ( ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway ,company4 7#aia47 ,! object to be effect$ 9 ! boil]s ( ^! eng9es is1 to keep a small quantity ( wat] at an excessive temp]ature1 by means ( a small quantity ( fuel kept 9 ! mo/ active /ate ( combu/ion4 ,to accompli% ?is1 x is necess>y1 fir/1 s to %ape ! boil]1 furnace1 & flues1 t ! wat] %all be 9 contact ) z ext5sive a surface z possible1 e "p ( :i* is act$ on1 ei!r imm$iately1 by ! heat radiat+ f ! fire1 or m$iately1 by ! air :i* has pass$ ?r\gh ! fire1 & :i* f9ally ru%es into ! *imney3 &1 secondly1 t su* a =cible draught %\ld be ma9ta9$ 9 ! furnace1 t a quantity ( heat %all be extricat$ f ! fuel1 by combu/ion1 suffici5t to ma9ta9 ! wat] at ! necess>y temp]ature1 & to produce ! /eam ) suffici5t rapidity4 ,to accompli% ^! objects1 !re=e1 ! *amb] conta9+ ! grate %\ld be completely surr\nd$ by wat]1 & %\ld be bel[ ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,! magnitude ( ! surface expos$ to radiation %\ld be z great z is consi/5t ) ! :ole magnitude ( ! ma*9e4 ,! comp>ative advantage :i* ! ,rocket possess$ 9 ^! respects ov] ! o!r eng9es w be evid5t on inspection4 ,9 ! next place1 x is necess>y t ! heat1 :i* is absorb$ by ! air pass+ ?r\gh ! fuel1 & keep+ x 9 a /ate ( combu/ion1 %\ld be transf]r$ to ! wat] be=e ! air escapes into ! *imney4 ,air be+ a bad conductor ( heat1 to accompli% ?is x is necess>y t ! air 9 ! flues %\ld be expos$ to z great an ext5t ( surface 9 contact ) ! wat] z possible4 ,no contrivance c be less adapt$ = ! atta9m5t ( ?is end ?an "o or two l>ge tubes trav]s+ ! boil]1 z 9 ! e>lie/ locomotive eng9es3 ! body ( air :i* pass$ ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ^! tubes _h no contact ) _! surface1 &1 consequ5tly1 pass$ into ! *imney at ne>ly ! same temp]ature z t :i* x _h :5 x quitt$ ! fire4 ,! only portion ( air :i* imp>t$ its heat to ! wat] ,pg#ceb 0 t portion :i* pass$ next to ! surface ( ! tube4 ,sev]al me?ods sugge/ !mselves to increase ! surface ( wat] 9 contact ) a giv5 quantity ( air pass+ ?r\gh x4 ,?is w\ld be accompli%$ by caus+ ! air to pass betwe5 plates plac$ ne> ea* o!r1 s z to divide ! curr5t into ?9 /rata1 hav+ betwe5 !m /rata ( wat]1 or x might be made to pass betwe5 tubes diff]+ slightly 9 diamet]1 ! wat] pass+ ?r\gh an inn] tube1 & be+ also 9 contact ) ! ext]nal surface ( ! out] tube4 ,su* a me?od w\ld be simil> 9 pr9ciple to ! /eam-jacket us$ 9 ,watt's /eam eng9es1 or to ! cond5s] ( ,c>twright's eng9e already describ$4 ,b1 consid]+ ! facility ( con/ruct+ small tubes1 & ( plac+ !m 9 ! boil]1 t me?od1 p]haps1 is1 on ! :ole1 ! be/ 9 practice2 al?\gh ! %ape ( a tube1 geometrically consid]$1 is mo/ unfav\rable = ! exposure ( a fluid conta9$ 9 x to its surface4 ,! air :i* passes f ! fire-*amb]1 be+ subdivid$ z x passes ?r\gh ! boil] by a great numb] ( v small tubes1 may be made to imp>t all its excess ( heat to ! wat] be=e x issues into ! *imney4 ,?is is all :i* ! mo/ ref9$ contrivance c effect4 ,! ,rocket eng9e 0 trav]s$ by tw5ty-five tubes1 ea* ?ree in*es 9 diamet]2 & ! pr9ciple has s9ce be5 c>ri$ to a mu* great] ext5t4 ,! ab/raction ( a great quantity ( heat f ! air be=e x rea*es ! *imney is att5d$ ) "o consequ5ce1 :i*1 at fir/ view1 w\ld pres5t a difficulty app>5tly insurm\ntable2 ! *imney w\ld1 9 fact1 lose its p[] ( draught4 ,?is difficulty1 h[ev]1 0 remov$ by us+ ! wa/e /eam1 :i* _h pass$ f ! cyl9d] aft] work+ ! eng9e1 = ! purpose ( produc+ a draught4 ,?is /eam 0 urg$ ?r\gh a jet pres5t$ upw>ds 9 ! *imney1 & driv5 out ) su* =ce 9 t direction z to create a suffici5t draught to "w ! furnace4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! pr9ciple ( draught 9 ! ,novelty is totally di/9ct f ?is3 9 t eng9e ! draught is produc$ by a bell[s work$ by ! eng9e4 ,! "q1 z f> z relates to ^! two me?ods1 is1 :e!r m p[] ,pg#cec is lo/ 9 supply+ ! /eam ?r\gh ! jet1 z 9 ! ,rocket1 or 9 work+ ! bell[s1 z 9 ! ,novelty4 ,! =ce requisite to impel ! /eam ?r\gh ! jet mu/ be ex]t$ by ! return+ /roke ( ! pi/on1 &1 consequ5tly1 mu/ rob ! work+ effect to an equival5t am\nt4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! p[] requisite to "w ! bell[s 9 ! ,novelty mu/ be subduct$ f ! available p[] ( ! eng9e4 ,! =m] me?od has be5 hi!rto f\nd to be ! m effectual & economical4 ,! importance ( ^! details w be und]/ood1 :5 x is consid]$ t ! only limit to ! atta9m5t ( spe$ by locomotive eng9es is ! p[] to produce1 9 a giv5 "t1 a c]ta9 quantity ( /eam4 ,ea* /roke ( ! pi/on causes "o revolution ( ! :eels1 & consumes f\r cyl9d]s full ( /eam3 consequ5tly1 a cyl9d] ( /eam corresponds to a c]ta9 numb] ( feet ( road travell$ ov]3 h5ce x is t ! production ( a rapid & abundant supply ( heat1 & ! imp>t+ ( t heat quickly & effectually to ! wat]1 is ! key to ! solution ( ! problem to con/ruct an eng9e capable ( rapid motion4 ,! me?od ( subdivid+ ! flue into tubes 0 c>ri$ mu* fur!r by ,mr4 ,/eph5son aft] ! con/ruction ( ! ,rocket2 &1 inde$1 ! pr9ciple 0 s obvi\s1 x is only surpris+ t1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 tubes ( small] diamet] ?an ?ree in*es 7 n us$4 ,9 eng9es s9ce con/ruct$1 ! numb] ( tubes v>y f n9ety to "o hundr$ & tw5ty1 ! diamet] be+ r$uc$ to two in*es or less2 & 9 "s in/ances tubes h be5 introduc$1 ev5 to ! numb] ( "o hundr$ & fifty1 ( "o & a half in* diamet]4 ,9 ! ,meteor1 tw5ty squ>e feet are expos$ to radiation1 & "o hundr$ & ?irty-n9e to ! contact ( heat$ air2 9 ! ,arr[1 tw5ty squ>e feet to radiation1 & "o hundr$ & =ty-five to ! contact ( heat$ air4 ,! sup]ior economy ( fuel ga9$ by ?is means w be app>5t by inspect+ ! foll[+ table1 :i* exhibits ! consumption ( fuel :i* 0 requisite to convey a ton weight a mile 9 ea* ( f\r eng9es1 express+ also ! rate ( ! motion3-- ,pg#ced ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,av]age ,rate ( ,consumption ( ,coke ,eng9es4 ,spe$ 9 ,miles p] 9 ,p\nds p] ,ton ,h\r4 p] ,mile4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,no4 #a4 ,rocket #ad #bda #b4 ,sansp>eil #ae #bdg #c4 ,phnix #ab #adb #d4 ,arr[ #ab #abe ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- 7#aib47 ,s9ce ! p]iod at :i* ?is railway 0 op5$ = ! actual purposes ( transport1 ! locomotive eng9es h be5 9 a /ate ( progressive improvem5t4 ,sc>cely a mon? has pass$ )\t sugge/+ "s *ange 9 ! details1 by :i* fuel might be economis$1 ! production ( /eam r5d]$ m rapid1 ! we> ( ! eng9e r5d]$ sl[]1 ! proportionate /r5g? ( ! diff]5t p>ts improv$1 or "s o!r desirable end obta9$4 ,eng9es con/ruct$ 9 ! =m ( ! ,rocket1 7 subject to two pr9cipal defects4 ,! cyl9d]s1 be+ plac$ outside ! eng9e1 7 expos$ to ! cold ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* produc$ a wa/e ( heat m or less consid]able by cond5sation4 ,! po9ts at :i* ! p[] ( ! /eam to turn ! :eels 0 appli$1 be+ at ! extremities ( ! axle & on ! ext]ior ( ! :eel1 a consid]able /ra9 0 produc$1 ow+ to ! di/ance ( ! po9t ( application ( ! p[] f ! c5tre ( resi/ance4 ,if x 7 possible t ! impell+ p[] c\ld act 9 draw+ ! tra9 at all times ) equal en]gy on bo? sides ( ! eng9e1 !n no injuri\s /ra9 w\ld be produc$2 b f ! relative position ( ! po9ts on ! opposite :eels to :i* x 0 necess>y to atta* ! connect+ rods1 x 0 inevitable t1 at ! mom5t :5 "o ( ! pi/ons ex]ts its full p[] 9 driv+ ! :eel1 ! o!r pi/on mu/ be altoge!r inactive4 ,! impell+ p[]1 !re=e1 at alt]nate mom5ts ( "t1 act$ on opposite :eels1 & on ea* ( !m at ! greate/ possible di/ance f ! c5tre ( ! axle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4 7#aic47 ,! next /ep 9 ! improvem5t ( ! ma*9e 0 made ) a view to remove ^! two defects4 ,! cyl9d]s 7 transf]r$ f ! ext]ior ( ! eng9e to ! ,pg#cee int]ior ( ! cas+ call$ ! smoke-box1 ,b1 fig4 #id41 :i* supports ! *imney1 & :i* receives ! heat$ air issu+ f ! tubes :i* trav]se ! boil]4 ,?us plac$1 ! cyl9d]s are always ma9ta9$ z hot z ! air :i* issues f ! flues1 & all cond5sation ( /eam by _! exposure is prev5t$4 ,! pi/on-rods are likewise br\ght clos] toge!r1 & ne>] ! c5tre ( ! eng9e3 ! connect+ rods1 no long] atta*$ to ! :eels1 are made to act ^u two cranks con/ruct$ ^u ! axle ( ! :eels1 & plac$ at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,f ! position ( ^! cranks1 "o w\ld always be at its dead po9t :5 ! o!r is 9 full action4 ,! action ( ! /eam ^u !m w\ld1 !re=e1 be g5]ally unequal2 b ?is w\ld n produce ! same /ra9 z :5 ! connect+ rods are atta*$ to po9ts ^u ! ext]ior ( ! :eels1 ow+ to ! cranks be+ con/ruct$ on ! axle at po9ts s mu* ne>] its c5tre4 ,by ?is means x 0 f\nd t ! work+ ( ! ma*9e 0 m ev51 & productive ( mu* less /ra91 ?an 9 ! arrangem5t adopt$ 9 ! ,rocket1 & ! e>li] eng9es4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a s]i\s disadvantage 0 incurr$ by a d\ble-crank$ axle4 ,! weakness necess>ily aris+ f su* a =m ( axle c\ld only be remov$ by great ?ickness ,pg#cef & weight ( metal2 & ev5 ?is precaution1 at fir/1 did n prev5t _! occasional fracture4 ,! =g+ ( !m 01 h[ev]1 subsequ5tly mu* improv$3 ! cranks1 in/ead ( be+ =m$ by b5d+ ! metal :5 s(t5$ by heat1 7 made by cutt+ ! squ>e ( ! crank out ( ! solid metal2 & n[ x r>ely happ5s t "o ( ^! axles fails4 ,! adoption ( small] tubes1 & a great] numb] ( !m1 ) a view m p]fectly to extract ! heat f ! air 9 pass+ to ! *imney1 r5d]$ a m =cible draft necess>y4 ,?is 0 accompli%$ by ! adoption ( a m contract$ bla/-pipe lead+ f ! eduction-pipes ( ! cyl9d]s & pres5t$ up ! *imney4 ,a repres5tation ( su* a bla/-pipe1 ) ! two tubes lead+ f ! cyl9d]s & unit+ toge!r ne> ! po9t1 :i* is pres5t$ up ! *imney1 is giv5 at p p 9 fig4 #ajd4 ,! eng9e ?us improv$ is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #id4 ,a repres5ts ! cyl9drical boil]1 ! l[] half ( :i* is trav]s$ by tubes1 z describ$ 9 ! ,rocket4 ,!y are usually f eighty to "o hundr$ 9 numb]1 & ab\t an in* & a half 9 diamet]2 ! boil] is ab\t sev5 feet 9 l5g?2 ! fire-*amb] is atta*$ to "o end ( x1 at ,f1 z 9 ! ,rocket1 & simil> 9 con/ruction3 ! cyl9d]s are ins]t$ 9 a *amb] at ! o!r end1 imm$iately "u ! *imney4 ,! pi/on-rods are support$ 9 ! horizontal position by guides2 & connect+ rods ext5d f !m1 "u ! eng9e1 to ! two cranks plac$ on ! axle ( ! l>ge :eels4 ,! effects ( an inequality 9 ! road are c\nt]act$ by spr+s1 on :i* ! eng9e re/s2 ! spr+s be+ bel[ ! axle ( ! great :eels1 & above t ( ! less4 ,! /eam is suppli$ to ! cyl9d]s1 & )drawn1 by means ( ! common slid+ valves1 :i* are work$ by an ecc5tric :eel plac$ on ! axle ( ! l>ge :eels ( ! c>riage4 ,! motion is communicat$ f ?is ecc5tric :eel to ! valve by slid+ rods4 ,! /& is plac$ = ! att5dant at ! end ( ! eng9e1 next ! fire-place ,f2 & two lev]s ,l project f ! end :i* communicate ) ! valves by means ( rods1 by :i* ! eng9e is gov]n$ s z to rev]se ! motion4 ,pg#ceg ,! :eels ( ^! eng9es h be5 commonly con/ruct$ ( wood ) /rong iron ties1 furni%$ ) flanges adapt$ to ! rails4 ,b ,mr4 ,/eph5son aft]w>d sub/itut$1 9 "s in/ances1 :eels ( iron ) holl[ spokes4 ,! eng9e draws aft] x a t5d] c>riage conta9+ ! fuel & wat]2 &1 :5 c>ry+ a light load1 is capable ( p]=m+ ! :ole j\rney f ,liv]pool to ,man*e/] )\t a fre% supply ( wat]4 ,:5 a heavy load ( m]*&ise is drawn1 x is usual to take 9 wat] at ! middle ( ! trip4 7#aid47 ,9 review+ all t has be5 /at$1 x w be p]ceiv$ t ! effici5cy ( ! locomotive eng9es us$ on ?is railway is ma9ly ow+ to ?ree circum/ances3 #a/1 ,! unlimit$ p[] ( draft 9 ! furnace1 by project+ ! wa/e /eam into ! *imney2 #b;d1 ,! almo/ unlimit$ ab/raction ( heat f ! air pass+ f ! furnace1 by arrangem5t ( tubes trav]s+ ! boil]2 &1 #c;d1 ,keep+ ! cyl9d]s w>m1 by imm]s+ !m 9 ! *amb] "u ! *imney4 ,!re are _m m9or details :i* might be notic$ ) approbation1 b ^! con/itute ! ma9 features ( ! improvem5ts4 ,! successive introduction ( improvem5ts 9 ! eng9es1 "s ( :i* we h m5tion$1 0 accompani$ by correspond+ accessions to _! practical p[]1 & to ! economy ( fuel4 ,9 ! spr+ ( ! ye> #ahcb1 ,i made sev]al exp]im5ts on ! ,man*e/] ,railway1 ) a view to det]m9e1 9 ! actual /ate ( ! locomotive eng9es at t "t1 _! p[]s ) respect to ! am\nt ( load & ! economy ( fuel1 f :i* ,i select ! foll[+ z examples3-- ,i4 ,on ,saturday1 ! #e? ( ,may1 ! eng9e call$ ! ,victory took #bj waggons ( m]*&ise1 weigh+ gross #ib tons #ai cwt4 #a qr41 toge!r ) ! t5d] conta9+ fuel & wat]1 ( ! weight ( :i* ,i h no acc\nt1 f ,liv]pool to ,man*e/] 7#cj miles71 9 #a h4 #cd m94 #de sec4 ,! tra9 /opp$ to take 9 wat] half-way1 = #aj m9utes1 ,pg#ceh n includ$ 9 ! above-m5tion$ "t4 ,on ! incl9$ plane ris+ #a 9 #if1 & ext5d+ #a-a_/b mile1 ! eng9e 0 assi/$ by ano!r eng9e call$ ! ,samson1 & ! asc5t 0 p]=m$ 9 #i m9utes4 ,at />t+1 ! fire-place 0 well fill$ ) coke1 & ! coke suppli$ to ! t5d] accurately weigh$4 ,on arriv+ at ,man*e/]1 ! fire-place 0 aga9 fill$1 & ! coke rema9+ 9 ! t5d] weigh$4 ,! consumption 0 f\nd to am\nt to #ibi p\nds net weight1 be+ at ! rate ( "o ?ird ( a p\nd p] ton p] mile4 ,spe$ on ! level 0 #ah miles an h\r2 on a fall ( #d feet 9 a mile1 #ba-a_/b miles an h\r2 fall ( #f feet 9 a mile1 #be-a_/b miles an h\r2 on ! rise ov] ,*atmoss1 #h feet 9 a mile1 #ag-e_/h miles an h\r2 on level gr\nd %elt]$ f ! w9d1 #bj miles an h\r4 ,! w9d 0 mod]ate1 b direct ahead4 ,! work+ :eels slipp$ ?ree times on ,*atmoss1 & ! tra9 0 ret>d$ f #b to #c m9utes4 ,! eng9e1 on ?is occasion1 0 n exam9$ be=e or aft] ! j\rney1 b 0 presum$ to be 9 good work+ ord]4 ,,ii4 ,on ,tuesday1 ! #h? ( ,may1 ! same eng9e p]=m$ ! same j\rney1 ) #bj waggons1 weigh+ gross #ij tons #g cwt4 #b qrs41 exclusive ( ! unasc]ta9$ weight ( ! t5d]4 ,! "t ( ! j\rney 0 #a h4 #da m94 ,! consumption ( coke #ajdj lbs4 net weight1 e/imat$ z be=e4 ,rate ( spe$3-- ,level #ag-e_/h miles p] h\r4 ,fall ( #d feet 9 a mile #bb ---- #f #bb-a_/b ,rise ( #h #ae ,on ?is occasion !re 0 a high w9d ahead on ! qu>t]1 & ! connect+ rod work$ hot1 ow+ to hav+ be5 key$ too tight4 ,on arriv+ at ,man*e/]1 ,i caus$ ! cyl9d]s to be op5$1 & f\nd t ! pi/ons 7 ,pg#cei s loose1 t ! /eam blew ?r\gh ! cyl9d]s ) great viol5ce4 ,by ?is cause1 !re=e1 ! ma*9e 0 robb$ ( a "p ( its p[] dur+ ! j\rney2 & ?is circum/ance may expla9 ! slight decrease 9 spe$1 & increase 9 ! consumption ( fuel1 ) a light] load1 9 ?is j\rney1 comp>$ ) t p]=m$ on ! #e? ( ,may4 ,! ,victory weighs #h tons #b cwt41 ( :i* #e tons #d cwt4 re/ on ! draw+ :eels4 ,! cyl9d]s are #aa in*es diamet]1 & #af in*es /roke1 & ! diamet] ( ! draw+ :eels is #e feet4 ,,iii4 ,on ! #bi? ( ,may1 ! eng9e call$ ! ,samson 7weigh+ #aj tons #b cwt41 ) #ad-;in* cyl9d]s1 & #af-;in* /roke2 :eels #d feet #f in*es diamet]1 bo? pairs be+ work$ by ! eng9e2 /eam #ej lbs4 pressure1 #acj tubes7 0 atta*$ to #ej waggons1 lad5 ) m]*&ise2 net weight ab\t #aej tons2 gross weight1 includ+ waggons1 #bbc tons #f cwt4 ,! t5d] weigh$ #g tons1 mak+ a gross load 7includ+ ! eng9e7 ( #bdj tons #h cwt4 ,! eng9e ) ?is load travell$ f ,liv]pool to ,man*e/] 7#cj miles7 9 #b h\rs & #dj m941 exclusive ( delays ^u ! road = wat]+1 c42 be+ at ! rate ( ne>ly #ab miles an h\r4 ,! spe$ v>i$ accord+ to ! incl9ations ( ! road4 ,^u a level1 x 0 #ab miles an h\r2 ^u a desc5t ( #f feet 9 a mile1 x 0 #af miles an h\r2 ^u a rise ( #h feet 9 a mile1 x 0 ab\t #i miles an h\r4 ,! wea!r 0 calm1 ! rails v wet2 b ! :eels did n slip1 ev5 9 ! sl[e/ spe$1 except at />t+1 ! rails be+ at t place soil$ & greasy ) ! slime & dirt to :i* !y are always expos$ at ! /ations4 ,! coke consum$ 9 ?is j\rney1 exclusive ( :at 0 rais$ 9 gett+ up ! /eam1 0 #agfb lbs41 be+ at ! rate ( a qu>t] ( a p\nd p] ton p] mile4 7#aie47 ,! great orig9al co/1 & ! heavy exp5se ( keep+ ! eng9es us$ on ! railway 9 repair1 h press$ sev]ely on ! res\rces ( ! und]tak+4 ,"o ( ! be/ ,pg#cfj con/ruct$ ( ! lat] eng9es co/s orig9ally #aejjl4 & sometimes m4 ,! orig9al co/1 h[ev]1 is f> f be+ ! pr9cipal s\rce ( exp5se3 ! we> & te> ( ^! ma*9es1 & ! occasional fracture ( ^? p>ts on :i* ! greate/ /ra9 has be5 laid1 h greatly exce$$ :at ! directors _h anticipat$4 ,al?\gh ?is s\rce ( exp5se mu/ be 9 "p attribut$ to ! eng9es n hav+ yet atta9$ t /ate ( p]fection1 9 ! proportion & adju/m5t ( _! p>ts1 ( :i* !y are susceptible1 & to :i* exp]i5ce alone c lead1 yet !re are "s obvi\s defects :i* dem& att5tion4 ,! heads ( ! boil]s are flat1 & =m$ ( iron1 simil> to ! mat]ial ( ! boil]s !mselves4 ,! tubes :i* trav]se ! boil] 71 until rec5tly1 copp]1 & s ins]t$ into ! flat head or end z to be wat]-tight4 ,:5 ! boil] 0 heat$1 ! tubes 7 f\nd to exp& 9 a great] degree ?an ! o!r p>ts ( ! boil]2 :i* frequ5tly caus$ !m ei!r to be loos5$ at ! extremities1 s z to cause leakage1 or to b5d f want ( room = expansion4 ,! necessity ( remov+ & refa/5+ ! tubes caus$1 !re=e1 a con/ant exp5se4 ,x w be recollect$ t ! fire-place is situat$ at "o end ( ! boil]1 imm$iately bel[ ! m\?s ( ! tubes3 a p[]ful draft ( air1 pass+ ?r\gh ! fire1 c>ries ) x a%es & c9d]s1 :i* are driv5 viol5tly ?r\gh ! tubes1 & especially ! l[] ones1 situat$ ne> ! fuel4 ,^! tubes are1 by ?is means1 subject to rapid we>1 ! c9d]s cont9ually act+ ^u _! int]ior surface4 ,aft] a %ort "t x becomes necess>y to replace s+le tubes1 accord+ z !y are f\nd to be worn1 by new ones2 & x n unfrequ5tly happ5s1 :5 ?is is neglect$1 t tubes bur/4 ,aft] a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t ! eng9es require new tub+4 ,?is we> ( ! tubes might possibly be avoid$ by con/ruct+ ! fire-place 9 a l[] position1 s z to be m remov$ f _! m\?s2 or1 /ill m effectually1 by int]pos+ a cas+ ( metal1 :i* might be fill$ ) wat]1 betwe5 ! fire-place & ^? tubes :i* are ! mo/ expos$ to ! c9d]s & a%es4 ,! unequal expansion ( ! tubes ,pg#cfa & boil]s appe>s to be an incurable defect1 if ! pres5t =m ( ! eng9e be reta9$4 ,if ! fire-place & *imney c\ld be plac$ at ! same end ( ! boil]1 s t ! tubes might be recurv$1 ! unequal expansion w\ld !n produce no injuri\s effect2 b x w\ld be difficult to clean ! tubes1 if !y 7 expos$1 z !y are at pres5t1 to ! c9d]s4 ,! next s\rce ( exp5se arises f ! we> ( ! boil]-heads1 :i* are expos$ to ! action ( ! fire4 ,a consid]able improvem5t 0 subsequ5tly introduc$ into ! me?od ( tub+1 by sub/itut+ brass = copp] tubes4 ,i am n aw>e t ! cause ( ?is improvem5t has be5 discov]$2 b x is c]ta91 :atev] be ! cause1 t brass tubes are subject to consid]ably sl[] we> ?an copp] ones4 7#aif47 ,! exp5se ( locomotive p[] hav+ s f> exce$$ :at 0 anticipat$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! und]tak+1 x 0 ?\ght advisable1 ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! ye> #ahcd1 to in/itute an inquiry into ! causes :i* produc$ ! discrepancy betwe5 ! e/imat$ & actual exp5ses1 ) a view to ! discov]y ( "s practical means by :i* !y c\ld be r$uc$4 ,! directors ( ! company1 = ?is purpose1 appo9t$ a sub-committee ( _! own body1 assi/$ by ,mr4 ,boo?1 _! treasur]1 to inquire & report respect+ ! causes ( ! am\nt ( ?is item ( _! exp5diture1 & to asc]ta9 :e!r any & :at measures c\ld be devis$ = ! atta9m5t ( great] economy4 ,a v able & satisfactory report 0 made by ?is committee1 or1 to speak m correctly1 by ,mr4 ,boo?4 ,x appe>s t1 previ\s to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! railway1 ,messrs4 ,walk] & ,ra/rick1 eng9e]s1 7 employ$ by ! company to visit v>i\s places :]e /eam p[] 0 appli$ on railways1 = ! purpose ( =m+ an e/imate ( ! probable comp>ative exp5se ( work+ ! railway by locomotive & by fix$ p[]4 ,^! eng9e]s recomm5d$ ! adoption ( locomotive p[]2 & _! e/imate 01 t ! transport might be effect$ at ! rate ( #bgh ( a p5ny1 or v little m ?an a f>?+ p] ton p] mile4 ,9 ! ye> ,pg#cfb #ahcc1 five ye>s aft] ?is inve/igation took place1 x 0 f\nd t ! actual co/ 0 #fbe ( a p5ny1 or some?+ m ?an a halfp5ny1 p] ton p] mile1 be+ consid]ably above d\ble ! e/imat$ rate4 ,mr4 ,boo? v prop]ly direct$ 8 inquiries to asc]ta9 ! cause ( ?is discrepancy1 by comp>+ ! v>i\s circum/ances assum$ by ,messrs4 ,walk] & ,ra/rick1 9 mak+ _! e/imate1 ) ^? "u :i* ! transport 0 actually effect$4 ,! fir/ po9t ( diff]5ce :i* he obs]v$ 0 ! spe$ ( transport3 ! e/imate 0 f\nd$ on an assum$ spe$ ( t5 miles an h\r1 & x 0 /at$ t a f\r-fold spe$ w\ld require an addition ( #ej p] c5t4 to ! p[]1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt we> & te>4 ,n[1 ! actual spe$ ( transport be+ d\ble ! spe$ assum$ 9 ! /atem5t1 ,mr4 ,boo? holds x to be necess>y to add #be p] c5t4 on t score4 ,! next po9t ( diff]5ce is 9 ! am\nt ( ! loads3 ! e/imate is f\nd$ ^u ! assumption1 t e eng9e %all />t ) its full complem5t ( load1 & t ) ?is x %all g ! :ole di/ance4 ,! facts1 h[ev]1 are1 says ,mr4 ,boo?1 t1 in/ead ( a full load ( pr(itable c>riage f ,man*e/]1 ab\t half ! waggons come back empty2 &1 in/ead ( ! tonnage be+ convey$ ! :ole way1 _m ?\s& tons are convey$ only half ! way2 also1 in/ead ( ! daily "w be+ uni=m1 x is extremely fluctuat+4 ,x is fur!r rem>k$1 t 9 ord] to accompli% ! transport ( goods f ! bran*es & f int]m$iate places1 eng9es are despat*$ sev]al times a-day1 f bo? ends ( ! l9e1 to cle> ! road2 ! object ( ?is arrangem5t be+ r to lay ! f\ndation ( a b5eficial int]c\rse 9 future1 ?an ) a view to any imm$iate pr(it4 ,mr4 ,boo? makes a r\gh e/imate ( ! disadvantages aris+ f ^! circum/ances1 by /at+ !m at #cc p] c5t4 9 addition to ! orig9al e/imate4 ,! next po9t ( diff]5ce is ! fuel4 ,9 ! orig9al e/imate1 coal is assum$ z ! fuel1 & x is tak5 at ! price ( five %ill+s & t5-p5ce p] ton3 n[ ! act ( p>liam5t =bids ! use ( coal :i* w\ld produce smoke2 ! company h1 !re=e1 be5 oblig$ to use coke1 at ,pg#cfc sev5te5 %ill+s & sixp5ce a ton4#cb ,tak+ coke1 !n1 to be equival5t to coal1 ton = ton1 ?is w\ld add #afb to ! orig9al e/imate4 ,^! sev]al discrepancies be+ all[$ =1 & a proportional am\nt be+ add$ to ! orig9al e/imate1 ! am\nt w\ld be rais$ to #fja ( a p5ny p] ton p] mile1 :i* is )9 "o =tie? ( a p5ny ( ! actual co/4 ,?is diff]5ce is consid]$ to be suffici5tly acc\nt$ = by ! we> & te> produc$ by ! v rapid motion1 m especially :5 x is consid]$ t _m ( ! eng9es 7 con/ruct$ be=e ! eng9e] 0 aw>e ( ! great spe$ t w\ld be requir$4 ,:at1 !n1 says ,mr4 ,boo?1 9 ! ,report already allud$ to1 is ! result ( ^! opposite & mutually c\nt]act+ circum/ances8 & :at is ! pres5t position ( ! company 9 respect ( _! mov+ p[]8 ,simply1 t !y are /ill 9 a c\rse ( exp]im5t1 to asc]ta9 practically ! be/ con/ruction1 & ! mo/ durable mat]ials1 = eng9es requir$ to transport great] weights1 & at great] velocities1 ?an _h1 till v rec5tly1 be5 consid]$ possible2 & :i*1 a few ye>s ago1 x _h n ent]$ into ! imag9ation ( ! mo/ d>+ & sangu9e inv5tor to conceive3 & f>!r1 t ^! exp]im5ts h necess>ily be5 made1 n ) ! calm delib]ation & quiet pace :i* a salut>y caution recomm5ds1--mak+ good ea* /ep 9 ! progress ( discov]y be=e advanc+ ano!r /age1--b amid/ ! bu/le & responsibilities ( a l>ge & increas+ traffic2 ! directors be+ altoge!r ignorant ( ! "t ea* eng9e w\ld la/ be=e x w\ld be laid up z ineffici5t1 b compell$ to h eng9es1 :e!r good or bad2 be+ aw>e ( v>i\s defects & imp]fections1 :i* x 0 impossible at ! "t to rem$y1 yet oblig$ to keep ! ma*9es 9 motion1 "u all ! disadvantages ( heavy repairs1 con/antly go+ on dur+ ! night1 9 ord] t ! requisite numb] ( eng9es might be ready = ! morn+'s "w4 ,nei!r is ?is great exp]im5t yet complete2 x is /ill go+ =w>d4 ,b ! mo/ prom95t difficulties h be5 9 a great measure surm\nt$1 ,pg#cfd & y\r committee conceive t !y are w>rant$ 9 expect+1 t ! exp5diture 9 ?is dep>tm5t w1 ere long1 be mat]ially r$uc$1--m especially :5 !y consid] ! relative p]=mances ( ! eng9es at ! pres5t "t1 comp>$ ) :at x 0 two ye>s ago4 ,9 ! half ye> end+ #ca/ ,decemb]1 #ahca1 ! six be/ eng9es p]=m$ z foll[s3-- ,miles4 ,planet #i1ihf ,m]cury #aa1jdj ,jupit] #aa1fah ,saturn #aa1ghf ,v5us #ab1hej ,etna #h1gfd ------------ ,mak+ 9 all #ff1jdd ------------ ,9 ! half ye> end+ #ca/ ,decemb]1 #ahcc1 ! six be/ eng9es p]=m$ z foll[s3-- ,miles4 ,jupit] #af1egb ,saturn #ah1fgh ,sun #ad1eeb ,etna #ag1gfc ,ajax #aa1fgh ,firefly #ae1fjh ------------ ,mak+ 9 all #ie1hea ------------ 7#aig47 ,s9ce ! date to :i* ! prec$+ obs]vations ref]1 ! locomotive eng9e has und]gone sev]al improvem5ts 9 detail ( consid]able importance2 among :i*1 ! addition ( a ?ird pair ( :eels des]ves to be p>ticul>ly m5tion$4 ,an eng9e support$ on ?ree pair ( :eels has great security 9 ! ev5t ( ! fracture ( any "o ( ! axles1--! rema9+ axles & :eels be+ suffici5t = ! support ( ! ma*9e4 ,connect$ ) ?is *ange is ano!r1 recomm5d$ by ,mr4 ,rob]t ,/eph5son1 by :i* ! flanges are remov$ f ! driv+ :eels1 ^? ^u ! rema9+ pairs ( :eels be+ suffici5t to keep ! eng9e 9 its position ^u ! rails4 ,we %all n[ describe a locomotive eng9e simil> 9 con/ruction to ^? almo/ ,pg#cfe univ]sally us$ at pres5t on railroads1 z well 9 ?is k+dom z 9 o!r c\ntries4#cc ,! ext]nal appe>ance ( ! eng9e & t5d] is %[n 9 ! engrav+ at ! head ( ?is *apt]4 ,9 fig4 #ig4 is exhibit$ a v]tical section ( ! eng9e made by a plane c>ri$ ?r\gh its l5g?2 & 9 fig4 #ih4 is exhibit$ a correspond+ section ( its t5d]1--! t5d] be+ suppos$ to be jo9$ on to ! eng9e at ! "p :]e ! connect+ po9ts appe> to be brok5 9 ! draw+4 ,9 fig4 #ii4 is exhibit$ ! plan ( ! work+ ma*9]y1 includ+ ! cyl9d]s1 pi/ons1 ecc5trics1 c4 :i* are "u ! boil]1 by ! op]ation ( :i* ! eng9e is driv54 ,fig4 #ajj4 repres5ts ! t5d]1 also tak5 9 plan4 ,9 fig4 #aja4 is repres5t$ an elevation ( ! h9d] end ( ! eng9e next ! fire-box2 & 9 fig4 #ajb4 is repres5t$ a cross v]tical section ?r\gh ! fire-box1 & at "r angles to ! l5g? ( ! eng9e1 %[+ ! int]ior ( ! boil] above & beside ! fire-box1 ! rivets & bolts connect+ ! int]nal & ext]nal fire-boxes1 ! regulator1 /eam funnel1 & /eam dome4 ,9 fig4 #ajc4 is repres5t$ an elevation ( ! front ( ! eng9e next ! smoke-box1 %[+ ! cyl9d] cov]s ,w1 buff]s ,t1 c42 & 9 fig4 #ajd4 is repres5t$ a section ( ! int]ior ( ! smoke-box1 made by a v]tical plane at "r angles to ! eng9e1 %[+ ! tube plate =m+ ! =emo/ end ( ! boil]1 ! bran*es ,s ( ! /eam-pipe lead+ to ! cyl9d]s1 ! bla/-pipe p1 ! cyl9d]s ,h1 & ! *imney ,g4 ,! same lett]s ( ref]5ce are plac$ at correspond+ p>ts 9 ! diff]5t figures4 ,! boil]1 z has be5 expla9$ 9 ! eng9es already describ$1 is a cyl9d] plac$ ^u its side1 ! section ( :i* is exhibit$ at ,a1 fig4 #ig4 ,! fire-box consi/s ( two cas+s ( metal1 "o )9 ! o!r4 ,! fire-grate is repres5t$ at ,d4 ,! tubes by :i* ! products ( combu/ion are ,pg#cff drawn f ! fire-box to ! smoke-box ,f are repres5t$ at ,e4 ,^u ! smoke-box is erect$ ! *imney ,g4 ,9 ! eng9e f :i* ?is draw+ has be5 tak51 & :i* 0 us$ on ! ,london & ,birm+ham ,railway1 ! boil] is a cyl9d] #g-a_/b feet long1 & #c-a_/b feet 9 diamet]4 ,x is =m$ ( wr\ght-iron plates #e_/af ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 ov]lapp+ ea* o!r1 & b\nd toge!r by iron rivets #g_/h ( an in* 9 diamet] & #a-c_/d in* ap>t4 ,"o ( ^! rivets1 z x jo9s two plates1 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ie4 ,! boil] is clo!d ) a bo>d+ ( wood a1 an in* 9 ?ickness1 & b\nd r\nd by iron hoops screw$ toge!r at ! bottom4 ,wood be+ a sl[ conductor ( heat1 ?is cov]+ has ! effect ( keep+ ! boil] w>m1 & *eck+ ! cond5sation ( /eam :i* w\ld o!rwise be produc$ by ! rapid motion ( ! eng9e ?r\gh ! cold air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,! ext]nal fire-box1 ,b ,b1 is a cas+ ne>ly squ>e 9 its plan1 be+ f\r feet wide outside1 & ?ree feet sev5 & a half in*es long1 measur$ 9 ! direction ( ! boil]4 ,x is con/ruct$ ( wr\ght-iron plates1 simil> to ^? ( ! boil]4 ,?is box desc5ds ab\t two feet bel[ ! boil]1 ! top be+ semi-cyl9drical1 z se5 9 fig4 #ajb41 ( a some:at great] diamet] ?an ! boil]1 & conc5trical ) x4 ,! front ( ! fire-box next ! end ( ! boil] has a circul> op5+ equal 9 size to ! end ( ! boil]4 ,to ! edge ( ?is op5+ ! boil] is fa/5$ by angle irons1 & rivets 9 ! mann] repres5t$ 9 fig4 #if4 ,^! rivets are se5 9 section 9 fig4 #ig4 ,! int]nal fire-box ,c1 fig4 #ig41 is simil> 9 %ape to ! ext]nal1 only x is flat at ! top1 & close e :]e except at ! bottom4 ,betwe5 x & ! ext]nal fire-box an op5 space ( ?ree in*es & a half is left all r\nd1 & on ! side next ! boil] ?is space is increas$ to f\r in*es4 ,?is int]nal fire-box is made ( copp] plates1 #g_/af ,pg#cfg ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 e :]e except next ! boil]1 :]e ! ?ickness is #g_/h4 ,z ! sides & front ( ! ext]nal fire-box1 & all ! surfaces b\nd+ ! int]nal fire-box1 are flat1 _! =m is unfav\rable = ! resi/ance ( pressure4 ,adequate means are1 !re=e1 provid$ = /r5g!n+ !m4 ,! plates =m+ ! int]nal fire-box are b5t outw>ds ne> ! bottom1 until !y are br\ght into contact ) ^? ( ! ext]nal fire-box1 to :i* !y are atta*$ by copp] rivets1 z repres5t$ at f 9 fig4 #ig4 ,! plates =m+ ! b\nd+ surfaces ( ! two fire-boxes are fa/5$ toge!r by /ays repres5t$ at k 9 figs4 #ig4 & #ajb4 ,^! /ays1 :i* are ( copp]1 h a screw cut ^u !m ?r\gh _! :ole l5g?1 & holes are made ?r\gh ! plates ( bo? fire-boxes tapp$ ) correspond+ ?reads4 ,! copp] screws are !n pass$ ?r\gh !m1 & rivets =m$ on _! heads )9 & )\t1 z se5 9 fig4 #ajb4 ,^! screw rivets connect all p>ts ( ! plat+ ( ! two fire-boxes :i* are oppos$ to ea* o!r3 !y are plac$ at ab\t f\r in*es ap>t ov] ! sides & back ( ! int]nal fire-place & t "p ( ! front :i* is bel[ ! boil]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,,longitud9al ,,v]tical ,,section ,,( ,a ,,locomotive ,,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,,longitud9al ,,v]tical ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,t5d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,,plan ,,( ,,! ,,work+ ,,ma*9]y ,,( ,a ,,locomotive ,,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,,plan ,,( ,,! ,,t5d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,,elevation ,,( ,,! ,,h9d] ,,end ,,( ,a ,,locomotive ,,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,,cross ,,v]tical ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,eng9e ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,fire-,,box4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,,elevation ,,( ,,! ,,=emo/ ,,end ,,( ,,! ,,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,,cross ,,v]tical ,,section ,,( ,,eng9e ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,smoke-,,box4 ,z ! top ( ! int]nal fire-box _c be /r5g!n$ by /ays ( ?is k9d1 ribs ( wr\ght-iron1 :i* are se5 9 _! l5g? at l1 9 fig4 #ig41 & ( :i* an end view is se5 9 fig4 #ajb41 are atta*$ by bolts to x4 ,^! ribs are holl[$ out1 z se5 9 fig4 #ig41 betwe5 bolt & bolt1 9 ord] to break _! contact ) ! ro( ( ! fire-box1 & all[ a m free passage to ! heat ?r\gh x4 ,if !y 7 9 cont9u\s contact ) ! fire-box1 ! metal compos+ !m w\ld become m highly heat$1 & w\ld soon we> out1 besides int]cept+ heat f ! wat]4 ,?is "p ( ! fire-box is subject to rapid we>1 unless c>e be tak5 t ! level ( ! wat] be pres]v$ at its prop] height 9 ! boil]4 ,ev5 :5 ! boil] is prop]ly fill$1 ! dep? ( wat] above ! ro( ( ! fire-box is n consid]able1 & on ! lea/ neglect ! ro( may be expos$ to ! contact ( /eam1 9 :i* case x w soon be de/roy$4 ,to prev5t accid5ts aris+ f ?is cause1 a lead5 plug1 ,pg#cfh repres5t$ at m1 figs4 #ig4 & #ajb41 is ins]t$ 9 ! ro( ( ! int]nal fire-box4 ,if ! wat] be all[$ to subside1 ?is plug w melt out be=e ! copp] is v injuri\sly heat$1 & ! /eam ru%+ out at ! ap]ture w cause ! fire to be ext+ui%$4 ,copp] fire-boxes are almo/ univ]sally us$2 b sometimes1 f ! consid]ation ( *eapness1 ! int]nal fire-box is con/ruct$ ( iron4 ,9 ! plat+ :i* =ms ! back ( ! ext]nal fire-box1 an oval ap]ture is =m$1 z repres5t$ 9 ! back view ( ! eng9e1 fig4 #aja41 = ! fire-door g4 ,! plat+ ( ! int]nal fire-box ar\nd ?is ap]ture is b5t at "r angles to meet t ( ! ext]nal fire-box1 to :i* x is fa/5$ by a r[ ( copp] rivets4 ,! fire-door is =m$ ( two plates ( wr\ght-iron1 rivet$ toge!r ) a space ( n9e in*es & a half betwe5 !m4 ,! air betwe5 ^! plates be+ an imp]fect conductor ( heat1 keeps ! out] plate ( ! fire-door at a mod]ate temp]ature4 ,9 t "p ( ! surface ( ! int]nal fire-box :i* =ms ! end ( ! boil]1 holes are made to receive ! extremities ( ! tubes1 by :i* ! air proce$+ f ! fire is drawn to ! smoke-box at ! remote end ( ! boil]4 ,^! tubes are repres5t$ 9 longitud9al section at ,e1 fig4 #ig41 & _! ends are se5 9 ! surface ( ! int]nal fire-box 9 fig4 #ajb41 & 9 ! remote end ( ! boil] :]e !y t]m9ate 9 ! smoke-box 9 fig4 #ajd4 ,^! tubes are =m$ ( ! be/ roll$ brass1 & _! ?ickness 9 ! eng9e1 to :i* we n[ ref]1 is #a_/ac ( an in*4 ,aft] ! brass plat+ is b5t into ! =m ( a tube1 & be+ ov]lapp$1 is prop]ly sold]$ toge!r1 & ! edges smoo!d (f1 ! tubes are made p]fectly cyl9drical by be+ drawn ?r\gh a circul> /eel die4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,! tube-plates 7z ^? p>ts ( ! boil] ends 9 :i* ! tubes are ins]t$ are call$7 are bor$ ) holes 9 correspond+ positions1 truly cyl9drical1 & correspond+ 9 magnitude to ! tubes1 s t ! tubes1 :5 pass$ into !m1 w be j 9 contact ) !m4 ,! l5g? ( ! tubes is s regulat$1 t :5 ext5d+ f end to end ( ! boil]1 & pass+ ?r\gh ! holes1 !y %all ,pg#cfi project at ea* end a little beyond ! holes4 ,! mann] ( fa/5+ !m s z to be wat]-tight is z foll[s3--,a /eel hoop or f]rule1 made slightly conical1 a section ( :i* is exhibit$ at ,c4 fig4 #aje41 ! small] end ( :i* is a little less ?an ! int]nal diamet] ( ! tube1 b :i* increases t[>ds ! out] end1 is driv5 9 z repres5t$ 9 ! figure4 ,x acts z a w$ge1 & =ces ! tube into close contact ) ! edges ( ! hole 9 ! tube-plate4 ,:5 p>ticul> tubes 9 a boil] are worn out1 & require to be replac$1 _! removal is easily effect$4 ,x is only necess>y to cut ! /eel f]rule on ! inside1 & to b5d x (f f contact ) ! tube1 by :i* means x c be loos5$ & )drawn1 & ! tube remov$4 ,9 ! eng9e to :i* ?is description ref]s !re 7 "o hundr$ & tw5ty-f\r tubes1 ! ext]nal diamet] ( :i* 0 #a-e_/h in*4 ,! di/ance betwe5 tube & tube 0 #c_/d ( an in*4 ,! numb] ( tubes v>y 9 diff]5t eng9es1 "s hav+ s _m z "o hundr$ & fifty1 :ile ! numb] 9 "s is less ?an n9ety4 ,! evaporat+ p[] ( an eng9e greatly dep5ds on ! prop] numb] & magnitude ( its tubes2 & ! exp]i5ce :i* eng9e]s h _h on railways h l$ !m gradually to increase ! numb] ( tubes1 & dim9i% _! magnitude4 ,9 ! ,rocket1 already m5tion$ z hav+ ga9$ ! prize on ! op5+ ( ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway1 ! numb] ( tubes 0 tw5ty-f\r1 & _! diamet] ?ree in*es2 b 9 all ! eng9es subsequ5tly made _! numb] 0 augm5t$1 & _! diamet] dim9i%$4 ,! practical inconv5i5ce :i* limits ! size ( ! tubes is _! liability to become *ok$ by c9d]s & a%es1 :i* get w$g$ 9 !m :5 !y are too small1 & !reby ob/ruct ! draft1 & dim9i% ! evaporat+ p[] ( ! boil]4 ,! tubes n[ 9 use1 ( ab\t an in* & a ,pg#cgj half int]nal diamet]1 n only require to be cle>$ ( ! a%es & c9d]s1 :i* get fa/5$ 9 !m aft] ea* j\rney1 b x is necess>y ?r\gh\t a j\rney ( any l5g? t ! tubes %\ld be pick$ & clean$ by op5+ ! fire door at conv5i5t int]vals4 ,! sub/itution ( brass = copp] tubes1 :i* has be5 already m5tion$ z s great an improvem5t 9 ! con/ruction ( locomotive eng9es1 is ascrib$ to ,mr4 ,dixon1 :o sugge/$ !m 9 #ahcc1 be+ !n ! resid5t eng9e] ( ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway4 ,!y are said to la/ six or eight times z long z copp] tubes ( ! same dim5sions4 ,:5 tubes fail1 !y are usually de/roy$ by ! pressure ( ! wat] cru%+ !m inw>ds3 ! wat] ent]s ?r\gh ! r5t made 9 ! tube1 & fl[+ ^u ! fire ext+ui%es x4 ,:5 a s+le tube ?us fails ^u a j\rney1 ! eng9e1 not)/&+ ! accid5t1 may g5]ally be made to "w to ! end ( its j\rney by plugg+ ! ends ( ! brok5 tube ) h>d wood2 ! wat] 9 contact ) :i* w prev5t ! fire f burn+ x away4 ,tubes ( ! dim5sions "h ref]r$ to weigh ab\t sixte5 p\nds1 & lose f six to sev5 p\nds be=e !y are worn out4 ,_! co/ is ab\t "o p\nd ea*4 ,! tubes act z /ays1 connect+ ! ends ( ! boil] to /r5g!n !m4 ,besides ^!1 !re are rods ( wr\ght iron ext5d$ f end to end ( ! boil] above ! ro( ( ! int]nal fire-place4 ,^! rods are repres5t$ at o 9 _! l5g? 9 fig4 #ig41 & an end view ( !m is se5 9 fig4 #ajb4 ,! smoke-box ,f1 fig4 #ig4 #ajd41 conta9+ ! cyl9d]s1 /eam-pipe1 & bla/-pipe1 is f\r feet wide1 & two feet long4 ,x is =m$ ( wr\ght iron plates1 half an in* ?ick on ! side next ! boil]1 & a qu>t] ( an in* else:]e4 ,! plates are rivet$ 9 ! same mann] z ^? ( ! fire-box already describ$4 ,f ! top ( ! smoke-box1 :i*1 l ! fire-box1 is semi-cyl9drical1 z se5 9 elevation 9 fig4 #ajc41 & 9 section fig4 #ajd41 rises ! *imney ,g1 fifte5 in*es diamet]1 & =m$ ( #a_/h in* iron plates1 rivet$ & b\nd r\nd by hoops4 ,x is flang$ to ! top ( ! ,pg#cga smoke-box1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ajd4 ,ne> ! bottom ( ! smoke-box ! work+ cyl9d]s are plac$1 side by side1 9 a horizontal position1 ) ! slide valves upw>ds4 ,9 ! top ( ! ext]nal fire-box a circul> ap]ture is =m$ fifte5 in*es 9 diamet]1 & ^u ?is ap]ture is plac$ ! /eam-dome ,t 7figs4 #ig4 #aja1 #ajb47 two feet high1 & atta*$ ar\nd ! circul> ap]ture by a flange & screw secur$ by nuts4 ,?is /eam dome is made ( brass #c_/h in* ?ick4 ,9 /ation>y boil]s1 :]e magnitude is n limit$1 x has be5 already expla9$1 t ! space all[$ = /eam is suffici5tly l>ge to secure ! complete sep>ation ( ! vap\r f ! spray :i* is mix$ ) x :5 x issues imm$iately f ! wat]4 ,9 locomotive boil]s suffici5t space _c be all[$ = ?is1 & ! sep>ation ( ! wat] f ! /eam is effect$ by ! arrangem5t "h repres5t$4 ,a funnel-%ap$ tube d 7figs4 #ig4 #ajb471 ) its wide end upw>ds1 rises into ! /eam-dome1 & rea*es ne>ly to ! top ( x4 ,?is funnel b5ds t[>ds ! back ( ! fire-box1 & is atta*$ by a flange & screws to ! great /eam-pipe ,s1 :i* trav]ses ! :ole l5g? ( ! boil]4 ,! /eam ris+ f ! boil] fills ! /eam-dome ,t1 & desc5ds 9 ! funnel-%ap$ tube d4 ,! space x has ?us to trav]se enables ! /eam to dis5gage itself almo/ completely f ! prim+4 ,! wid] "p ( ! great /eam-pipe a is flang$ & screw$ at ! h9d] end to a correspond+ ap]ture 9 ! back plate ( ! fire-box4 ,?is op5+ is cov]$ by a circul> plate1 secur$ by screws1 hav+ a /uff+-box 9 its c5tre1 ( ! same k9d z is us$ = ! pi/on-rods ( /eam-cyl9d]s4 ,?r\gh ?is /uff+-box ! sp9dle a ( ! regulator passes1 & to its end is atta*$ a w9* h1 by :i* ! sp9dle a is capable ( be+ turn$4 ,?is w9* is limit$ 9 its play to a qu>t] ( a revolution4 ,! o!r end ( ! sp9dle a is atta*$ to a plate e se5 edgeways 9 fig4 #ig41 & ! face ( :i* is se5 9 fig4 #ajb43 ?is circul> plate e is p]=at$ ) two ap]tures some:at less ?an quadrants4 ,t "p ( ! plate1 !re=e1 :i* rema9s n pi]c$ =ms two solid pieces some:at great] ?an quadrants4 ,?is plate is gr\nd s z to move 9 /eam-tight ,pg#cgb contact ) a fix$ plate "u x1 :i* t]m9ates at ! wide end ( ! conical m\? ( ! /eam-pipe ,s4 ,?is fix$ circul> plate is likewise pi]c$ ) two ne>ly quadrantal ap]tures1 correspond+ ) ^? 9 ! movable plate e4 ,:5 ! movable plate e is turn$ r\nd by ! w9* h1 ! ap]tures 9 x may be made to correspond ) ^? ( ! fix$ circul> plate on :i* x moves1 9 :i* position ! /eam-pipe ,s communicates ) ! funnel d by ! two quadrantal ap]tures ?us op54 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! w9* h be mov$ f ?is position ?r\gh a qu>t] revolution1 !n ! quadrantal op5+s 9 ! movable plate w be br\ght ov] ! solid p>ts ( ! fix$ plate on :i* x moves1 & ^! solid p>ts be+ a little m ?an quadrants1 :ile ! op5+s are a little less1 all communication betwe5 ! /eam-pipe ,s & ! funnel d w be /opp$1 = 9 ?is case ! quadrantal op5+s 9 ! fix$ & movable plates respectively w be /opp$ by ! solid p>ts ( ^! plates4 ,x w be evid5t t z ! w9* h ( ! regulator is mov$ f ! =m] position to ! latt]1 9 e int]m$iate position ! ap]ture communicat+ betwe5 ! funnel d & ! /eam-pipe ,s w be less 9 magnitude ?an ! complete quadrant4 ,x w 9 fact be compos$ ( two op5+s hav+ ! =m ( sectors ( a circle less ?an a quadrant1 & ^! sectors may be made ( any magnitude1 h[ev] small1 until ! op5+ is altoge!r clos$4 ,by su* means ! admission ( /eam f ! boil] to ! /eam-pipe ,s may be regulat$ by ! w9* h4 ,! /eam be+ admitt$ to ! /eam-pipe passes ?r\gh x to ! front end ( ! boil]1 & ! pipe be+ enclos$ )9 ! boil] ! temp]ature ( ! /eam is ma9ta9$4 ,! /eam-pipe pass+ ?r\gh ! tube-plate at ! front end ( ! boil] is c>ri$ to a small di/ance f ! tube-plate 9 ! same direction1 :]e x is flang$ on to a cross horizontal pipe proce$+ to ! "r & to ! left z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ajd4 ,?is cross pipe is itself flang$ to two curv$ /eam-pipes ,s 7fig4 #ajd471 by :i* ! /eam is conduct$ to ! valve-boxes ,v ,v4 ,! l[] ends ( ^! curv$ arms are flang$ on to ! valve-boxes ( ! two cyl9d]s ,pg#cgc at ! ends ne>e/ to ! boil]4 ,! op5+ ( "o ( ^! is exhibit$ 9 ! "r h& cyl9d] 9 fig4 #ii4 ,by ^! pipes ! /eam is conduct$ into ! valve-boxes or /eam-*e/s1 f :i* x is admitt$ by slide-valves to ! cyl9d]s to "w ! pi/ons 9 ! same mann] z has be5 already describ$ 9 ! l>ge /ation>y eng9es4 ,on ! upp] sides ( ! cyl9d]s are =m$ ! /eam-*e/s or valve-boxes1 :i* are exhibit$ at ,u 7figs4 #ig4 #ii4 #ajd474 ,^! are made ( ca/-iron half an in* ?ick1 & are bolt$ to ! upp] side ( ea* cyl9d]4 ,at ! front end !y are also secur$ by bolts to ! smoke-box1 & at ! h9d] end are atta*$ to ! tube-plate4 ,^! valve-boxes communicate ) ! passages m & n fig4 #ii4 lead+ to ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d]3 ^! are call$ ! /eam-ports4 ,!y also communicate ) a passage o lead+ to ! m\? ( a curv$ horizontal pipe p connect+ ! front ends ( ! two cyl9d]s1 z se5 9 figs4 #ii4 #ajd4 ,^! curv$ pipes unite 9 a s+le v]tical pipe p1 call$ ! bla/-pipe1 se5 9 figs4 #ig4 #ajd43 ?is v]tical pipe becomes gradually small t[>ds ! top1 & t]m9ates a little above ! base ( ! funnel or *imney ,g4 ,9 ! valve-box is plac$ ! slide-valve v to :i* is atta*$ ! sp9dle l4 ,?is sp9dle moves ?r\gh a /uff+-box k1 & is work$ by ge>+1 :i* w be describ$ h]eaft]4 ,accord+ to ! position giv5 to ! slide1 a communication may be op5$ betwe5 ! /eam-*e/1 or ! wa/e-port1 & ei!r end ( ! cyl9d]s4 ,?us :5 ! slide is 9 ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ig4 ! /eam-*e/ communicates ) ! front end ( ! cyl9d]1 :ile ! wa/e-port communicates ) ! h9d] end4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! sp9dle l be+ press$ =w>d1 move ! slide to its extreme opposite position1 ! /eam-port n w\ld communicate ) ! wa/e-port o1 :ile ! /eam-*e/ w\ld communicate ) ! /eam-port m1 /eam w\ld1 !re=e1 be admitt$ to ! h9d] end ( ! cyl9d]1 :ile ! =emo/ end w\ld communicate ) ! wa/e-port4 ,x w be p]ceiv$ t ?is arrangem5t is precisely simil> to t ( ! slide-valves already describ$ 7#acc474 ,! slide-valve is repres5t$ on a l>g] scale 9 fig4 #ajf41 :]e ,a is ! h9d] /eam-port1 ,pg#cgd ,b ! =emo/ /eam-port1 & ,c ! wa/e-port4 ,! surfaces ,d1 sep>at+ ! /eam-ports f ! wa/e-ports1 are call$ ! b>s3 !y are plan$ p]fectly smoo?1 s t ! surfaces ,f & ,g ( ! slide-valve1 also plan$ p]fectly smoo?1 may move 9 /eam-tight contact ) !m4 ,^! surfaces are kept 9 contact by ! pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! /eam-*e/1 by :i* ! slide-valve is always press$ d[n4 ,9 its middle position1 z repres5t$ by ! dott$ l9es 9 ! figure1 bo? ! /eam-ports are /opp$ by ! slide-valve1 s t at t mom5t no /eam is admitt$ to ei!r end ( ! cyl9d]4 ,on ei!r side ( ?is int]m$iate position ! slide has an in* & a half play1 :i* is suffici5t to op5 successively ! two /eam-ports4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,! cyl9d]s are ins]t$ at "o end 9 ! plate ( ! smoke-box1 & at ! o!r 9 ! tube-plate ( ! boil]4 ,!y are clos$ at ei!r end by ca/ iron cov]s1 ne>ly an in* ?ick1 flang$ on by bolts & screws4 ,9 ! cov] ( ! cyl9d] atta*$ to ! tube-plate is a /uff+-box1 9 :i* ! pi/on rod plays4 ,! metallic pi/ons us$ 9 locomotive eng9es d n diff] mat]ially f ^? already describ$1 & !re=e ne$ n be "h p>ticul>ly notic$4 ,f _! horizontal position !y h a t5d5cy to we> unequally 9 ! cyl9d]s1 _! weight press+ !m on "o side only2 b f _! small magnitude ?is effect is f\nd to be imp]ceptible 9 practice4 ,9 ! eng9e "h describ$ ! /roke ( ! pi/on is eighte5 in*es1 & ?is is ! mo/ usual l5g? ( /roke 9 locomotive eng9es4 ,! pi/on1 9 its play1 comes at ei!r end )9 ab\t half an in* ( ! inn] surface ( ! cov]s ( ! cyl9d]s1 ?is space be+ all[$ to prev5t collision4 ,9 ! =emo/ cov] ( ! cyl9d] is ins]t$ a cock q 7fig4 #ig4 #ii471 by :i* any wat] :i* may collect 9 ! cyl9d] by cond5sation or prim+ may be dis*>g$4 ,a cock r 7fig4 #ig471 communicat+ ) a small tube proce$+ f ! bran*es ( ! wa/e pipe p 7fig4 #ajd471 is likewise provid$ to dis*>ge f t pipe any wat] :i* may be ,pg#cge collect$ 9 x4 ,aft] ! /eam has be5 admitt$ to "w ! pi/on ?r\gh ! slide-valve1 & has be5 dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! wa/e-port by %ift+ t valve1 x passes ?r\gh ! pipe p into ! bla/-pipe p1 f ! m\? ( :i* x issues1 ) great =ce1 up ! funnel ,g4 ,:5 ! motion ( ! eng9e is rapid1 ! /eam f ! two cyl9d]s proce$s 9 an almo/ un9t]rupt$ curr5t f ! bla/-pipe1 & causes a /rong draft up ! *imney4 ,! heat$ air :i* passes f ! m\?s ( ! tubes into ! smoke-box is drawn up by ?is curr5t1 & a correspond+ draft is produc$ 9 ! fire-box4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,! pi/on-rods ,y t]m9ate 9 a =k1 by :i* !y are atta*$ to cross heads ,z1 ! ends ( :i* are conf9$ by guide-b>s ,a1 9 :i* !y are all[$ to play backw>ds & =w>ds ?r\gh a space equal to ! /roke ( ! pi/on4 ,to ^! cross heads ,z1 betwe5 ! prongs ( ! =k 9 :i* ! pi/on t]m9ates1 are atta*$ ! =emo/ ends ( ! connect+ rods ,b4 ,^! rods are1 !re=e1 driv5 backw>ds & =w>ds by ! motion imp>t$ to ! cross head ,z by ! pi/on-rods ,y4 ,! connect+ rods ,b are atta*$ at ! h9d] ends to two cranks =m$ ^u ! axles ,c ( ! driv+ :eels ,d4 ,^! two cranks are =m$ ^u ! axles precisely at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,! left-h& crank is repres5t$ 9 its horizontal position1 9 fig4 #ii41 & ! "r-h& crank is se5 9 its v]tical position4 ,a crank$ axle is repres5t$ on a l>g] scale 9 fig4 #ajg41 & ! two cranks are se5 9 a position oblique to ! plane ( ! figure4 ,z ?is axle is ! in/rum5t by :i* ! impell+ =ce is convey$ to ! load1 & z x has to support a great portion ( ! weight ( ! eng9e1 x is con/ruct$ ) great /r5g? & precision4 ,x is made all 9 "o ,pg#cgf piece1 & ( ! be/ wr\ght iron call$ ,back ,b>r[1 or scrap iron4 ,9 ! eng9e "h describ$ its extreme l5g? is six feet & a half1 & its diamet] is five in*es4 ,at ! c5tre "p ,a x is cyl9drical1 & is increas$ to five in*es & a qu>t] at ,c1 :]e ! cranks are =m$4 ,! sides ,d ( ! cranks are f\r in*es ?ick1 & ! crank p9s ,b1 :i* are truly cyl9drical1 are five in*es diamet]1 & ?ree in*es 9 l5g?1 ! brasses at ! extremities ( ! connect+ rods :i* play ^u !m hav+ a correspond+ magnitude4 ,! di/ance f ! c5tre ( ! crank-p9s ,b to ! c5tre ( ! axle ,a mu/ be exactly equal to half ! /roke ( ! pi/on1 & is1 !re=e1 9 ?is case precisely n9e in*es4 ,^u ! p>ts ,f1 :i* are sev5 in*es & a half long1 ! great driv+ :eels are firmly fa/5$1 s z to be prev5t$ f turn+ or %ak+ ^u ! axle4 ,! axle projects beyond ! :eels at ,g1 :]e x is r$uc$ to ?ree in*es & an eigh? diamet]4 ,^! project+ p>ts ,g are five in*es long1 hav+ coll>s at ! out] ends4 ,brasses are fix$ at ! outside frame ( ! eng9e :i* re/ ^u ^! projections ,g ( ! axle1 & ^u ^! brasses ! weight ( ! eng9e is support$4 ,! entire axle is accurately turn$ 9 a la!1 & ea* ( ! crank-p9s ,b is likewise turn$ by susp5d+ ! axle on c5tres correspond+ ) ! c5tres ( ! crank-p9s1 & made on /rong ca/ iron arms1 :i* are firmly fix$ on ! ends ( ! axle1 & project beyond ! cranks s z to balance ! axle1 & enable x to turn r\nd on ! c5tre ( ! crank-p94 ,! axle is by su* means made p]fectly true1 & ! cranks are made ( exactly ! prop] l5g?1 & precisely at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,! corn]s ( ! cranks are *amp]$ (f1 z %[n 9 ! figure1 & ! ends ( ! cyl9drical p>ts well r\nd$ out4 ,! /r5g? & accuracy ( con/ruction indisp5sable 9 ^! crank$ axles1 9 ord] to make !m execute _! "w1 r5d] !m v exp5sive4 ,^? :i* are "h describ$ co/ ab\t #ejl4 ea*4 ,:5 prop]ly con/ruct$1 h[ev]1 !y are seldom brok51 b are sometimes b5t :5 ! eng9e escapes f ! rails4 ,! prop] motion to admit & )draw ! /eam f ,pg#cgg ei!r end ( ! cyl9d] is imp>t$ to ! slide-valves by ecc5trics1 9 a mann] & on a pr9ciple s simil> to t already describ$ 9 l>ge /ation>y eng9es1 t x w n be necess>y "h to ent] into any detail$ explanation ( ! app>atus = communicat+ ?is motion1 :i* is exhibit$ 9 plan & section 9 figs4 #ig4 #ii4 ,! ecc5trics are atta*$ to ! crank$ axles at ,e ,e4 ,! ecc5tric ,e imp>ts motion by a rod e to a lev] h1 =m$ on an axle ext5d+ across ! frame ( ! eng9e4 ,?is conveys motion to ano!r lev] l1 project+ f ! same axle4 ,?is lev] l is jo9t$ to horizontal l9ks m1 :i* at ! =emo/ ends are atta*$ to ! sp9dle l1 by :i* ! slide is driv54 ,by ^! means ! motion receiv$ by ! ecc5tric f ! great work+ axle conveys to ! sp9dle l an alt]nate movem5t backw>ds & =w>ds1 & ! po9ts at :i* x is rev]s$ w be regulat$ by ! position giv5 to ! ecc5tric ^u ! great axle4 ,! ecc5tric is =m$ 9 two sep>ate semicircles1 & is key$ on to ! great axle1 & consequ5tly any position may be giv5 to x :i* may be requir$4 ,! position to be giv5 to ! ecc5trics %\ld be su* t !y %all be at "r angles to _! respective cranks1 & !y %\ld be fix$ a qu>t] ( a revolution beh9d ! cranks s z to move ! slides to t ext5t 9 advance ( ! pi/ons1 s9ce by ! position ( ! lev]s h & l1 ! motion ( ! ecc5tric becomes rev]s$ be=e x rea*es ! valve sp9dle4 ,! p]=mance ( ! eng9e is mat]ially affect$ by ! position ( ! ecc5trics on ! work+ axle4 ,! slide %\ld beg9 to uncov] ! /eam-port a little be=e ! comm5cem5t ( ! /roke ( ! pi/on1 9 ord] t ! /eam impell+ ! pi/on %\ld be %ut (f1 & ! /eam ab\t to impel x 9 ! contr>y direction admitt$ be=e ! t]m9ation ( ! /roke4 ,?r\gh ?is small space ! /eam1 !re=e1 mu/ act 9 opposition to ! motion ( ! pi/on4 ,?is is call$ ! lead ( ! slide1 & ! ext5t g5]ally giv5 to x is ab\t a qu>t] ( an in*4 ,?is is accompli%$ by fix+ ! ecc5trics n precisely at "r angles to ! respective cranks1 b a little 9 advance ( t position4 ,! introduction ( ! /eam to ,pg#cgh ! pi/on be=e ! t]m9ation ( ! /roke has ! effect ( br++ x gradually to re/ at ! end ( ! /roke1 & !reby dim9i%+ ! j]k or %ock produc$ by ! rapid *ange ( motion4 ,9 /ation>y eng9es1 :]e ! reciprocations ( ! eng9e are sl[1 ! necessity = ?is provision does n arise2 b 9 locomotive eng9es 9 :i* ! motion ( ! pi/on is *ang$ f f\r to six times 9 a second1 x becomes necess>y4 ,! /eam admitt$ to ! pi/on be=e ! t]m9ation ( ! /roke acts z a spr+-cu%ion to assi/ 9 *ang+ its motion1 & if x 7 n appli$1 ! pi/on c\ld n be kept tight ^u ! pi/on-rod4 ,ano!r advantage :i* is produc$ by all[+ "s lead to ! slide is t ! wa/e /eam :i* has j impell$ ! pi/on beg9s to make its escape ?r\gh ! wa/e-port be=e ! comm5cem5t ( ! next /roke1 s t :5 ! impell+ /eam beg9s to produce ! return+ /roke1 !re is less wa/e /eam on ! o!r side ( ! pi/on to resi/ x4 ,:5 ! motion ( ! eng9e is v rapid1 ! resi/ance ( ! wa/e /eam1 z x escapes f ! bla/-pipe to ! pi/on1 has be5 g5]ally suppos$ to be v consid]able1 ?\gh we are n aw>e ( any direct exp]im5ts by :i* its am\nt has be5 asc]ta9$4 ,9 ! acc\nt ( ! locomotive eng9e :i* has be5 "h describ$1 suppli$ by ,mr4 ,/eph5son = ! la/ edition ( ,tr$gold on ! ,/eam ,eng9e1 he /ates1 t ! av]age resi/+ pressure ( ! wa/e /eam ?r\gh\t ! /roke is #f lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 :5 runn+ at ! usual rate ( f #be to #bh miles an h\r1 & t at great] velocities ?is negative pressure has be5 f\nd to increase to m ?an d\ble t am\nt4 ,no exp]im5ts are1 h[ev]1 cit$ f :i* ?is inf]5ce has be5 drawn4 ,x has be5 also ?\ght t ! pressure ( /eam ^u ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d]1 at high velocities1 is consid]ably bel[ ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil]2 b ?is has n be51 s f> z we are in=m$1 asc]ta9$ by any satisfactory exp]im5tal te/4 ,mr4 ,/eph5son likewise /ates1 t ?is loss ( pressure1 causes ! negative pressure or resi/ance ( ! wa/e /eam to am\nt to ,pg#cgi f #cj to #dj p] c5t4 ( ! positive pressure ^u ! pi/on :5 ! eng9e is runn+ v fa/1 & t !re=e ! p[] ( ! eng9e is dim9i%$ ne>ly "o half4 ,b x w be p]ceiv$ t besides ! unc]ta9ty :i* att5ds ! e/imate ( ! actual am\nt ( pressure on ! pi/on comp>$ ) ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil]1 ! inf]5ce "h drawn does n appe> to be compatible ) :at has be5 already prov$ respect+ ! me*anical effect ( /eam4 ,no *ange ( pressure :i* may take place betwe5 ! boil] & ! cyl9d] c affect ! practical efficacy ( ! /eam4 ,z ! /eam passes ?r\gh ! eng9e1 :atev] *ange ( pressure x may be subject to1 x /ill rema9s common /eam2 & ?\gh its pressure may be dim9i%$1 its volume be+ increas$ 9 a ne>ly equal proportion1 its me*anical effect w rema9 ! same4 ,! p[] ( ! eng9e1 !re=e1 e/imat$ z x ought to be1 by ! :ole me*anical effect produc$1 w n be alt]$ o!rwise ?an by ! effect ( ! increas$ resi/ance produc$ by ! bla/-pipe4 ,:at t resi/ance is1 we repeat1 has n1 s f> z we "k1 be5 asc]ta9$ by direct exp]im5t1 & !re are circum/ances att5d+ x :i* r5d] x probable t1 ev5 at high velocities1 x is less 9 am\nt ?an ,mr4 ,/eph5son's e/imate4 ,! position ( ! ecc5trics :i* is necess>y to make ! pi/ons drive ! eng9e =w>d mu/ be directly ! rev]se ( t :i* w\ld cause !m to drive ! eng9e backw>ds4 ,to be able1 !re=e1 to rev]se ! motion ( ! eng9e1 x w\ld only be necess>y to be able to rev]se ! position ( ! ecc5trics1 :i* may be accompli%$ by ei!r ( two exp$i5ts4 ,fir/1 ,! ecc5trics may be capable ( revolv+ on ! great work+ axle1 & also ( slid+ ^u x ?r\gh a small space4 ,_! revolution on ! axle may be *eck$ by lett+ a p9 atta*$ to a coll> fa/5$ on ! axle fall into a hole on ! side ( ! ecc5tric4 ,su* a p9 w drive ! ecc5tric r\nd ) ! axle1 & ! position ( ?is p9 & ! hole w det]m9e ! position ( ! ecc5tric ) ref]5ce to ! crank4 ,at a %ort di/ance ,pg#chj on ! o!r side ( ! ecc5tric may be a correspond+ coll> ) a p9 9 ! opposite position4 ,by mov+ ! ecc5tric longitud9ally on ! axle1 ! =m] p9 may be )drawn f ! hole1 & ! latt] all[$ to fall into ! hole on ! o!r side4 ,prop] me*anism may be provid$ by :i* ! position ( ! ecc5tric may ?us be rev]s$ 9 ref]5ce to ! crank1 & by su* means ! motion ( ! eng9e may be rev]s$4 ,secondly1 ,suppos+ ! ecc5trics :i* drive ! eng9e =w>d to be immovably fix$ ^u ! axle1 two o!r ecc5trics may be provid$ atta*$ to o!r p>ts ( ! same axle1 & hav+ a position exactly ! rev]se ) ref]5ce to ! cranks4 ,prop] me*anism may be provid$1 by :i* ei!r or bo? pairs ( ecc5trics may be ?r[n 9 or out ( ge>4 ,su* are ! means adopt$ 9 ! eng9e :i* has be5 already describ$4 ,! ecc5trics = driv+ ! eng9e backw>ds are plac$ outside ! cranks at ,f ,f4 ,a h& lev] w fig4 #aja4 is provid$1 by :i* ! eng9e man may ?r[ ei!r pair ( ecc5trics into or out ( ge>1 s z to make ! eng9e "w ei!r backw>ds or =w>ds4 ,illu/ration3 #ajh4 ,illu/ration3 #aji4 ,illu/ration3 #aaj4 ,z all ! mov+ p>ts ( ! eng9e require to be con/antly lubricat$ ) oil to dim9i% ! friction1 & keep !m cool1 oil-cups = ?is purpose are fix$ ^u !m4 ,9 "s eng9es ^! oil-cups are atta*$ sep>ately to all ! mov+ p>ts3 9 o!rs !y are plac$ ne> ea* o!r 9 a r[ on ! boil]1 & communicate by small tubes ) ! sev]al p>ts requir$ to be lubricat$4 ,"o ( ^! is requisite = ea* end ( ! connect+ rods1 = ea* ( ! guides ( ! pi/on-rods1 = ! pi/on-rod itself1 ! sp9dle ( ! slide-valve1 & o!r p>ts4 ,an elevation ( "o ( ^! oil-cups is %[n 9 fig4 #ajh41 a v]tical section 9 fig4 #aji41 & horizontal plan 9 fig4 #aaj4 ,! cup ,a is made ( brass ) a cov] ,b4 ,?is cov] has a piece project+ f x turn+ ^u a p9 9 a socket ,c at ! side ( ! cup ,a1 & squ>e at ! end1 re/+ ^u a small spr+ at ! bottom ( ! socket to hold x ei!r op5 or %ut4 ,9 ! bottom ( ! ,pg#cha cup is ins]t$ an iron tube ,d ext5d+ ne>ly to ! top4 ,?is tube projects f ! bottom ( ! cup1 :]e x is tapp$ = ! purpose ( fix+ ! cup on ! "p ( ! eng9e :i* x is int5d$ to lubricate4 ,! hole into :i* ! cup is screw$ communicates ) ! rubb+ surface1 & "s cotton ?read is pass$ ?r\gh ! tube dipp+ into ! oil 9 ! cup at ! "o end & t\*+ ! mov+ "p at ! o!r4 ,?is ?read acts z a siphon1 & con/antly drops oil on ! rubb+ surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,! t5d] is a c>riage atta*$ beh9d ! eng9e & close to x1 c>ry+ coke = ! supply ( ! furnace1 & wat] = ! boil]4 ,! coke is conta9$ 9 ! space ,r1 7fig4 #ih4 #ajj47 surr\nd$ by a tank ,i conta9+ wat] to fe$ ! boil]4 ,! fe$ = ! boil] is conduct$ f ! tank ?r\gh a pipe desc5d+ d[nw>ds & 9 a curv$ direction1 ,p ,q1 fig4 #ih41 & connect$ ) a horizontal pipe ,k1 fig4 #ig4 ,a cock is provid$ at ,p1 by :i* ! supply ( wat] to ?is pipe may be cut (f at pleasure4 ,ano!r cock is provid$ at t1 fig4 #ig41 :]e ! curv$ pipe jo9s ! horizontal pipe by :i* ! quantity ( wat] suppli$ to ,k may be regulat$ by op5+ ! cock m or less fully4 ,! h&le ( ?is cock rises ?r\gh ! floor ( ! eng9e1 s t ! eng9e] may regulate x at discretion4 ,! pipe ,k be+ conduct$ "u ! eng9e1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ig41 t]m9ates 9 a v]tical pipe1 ( great] diamet]1 conta9+ two valves1 bo? ( :i* op5 upw>ds1 & betwe5 ^! valves to ?is v]tical pipe is atta*$ a =ce-pump1 by :i* ! wat] is drawn f ! horizontal pipe ,k into ! v]tical pipe ,k1 & f ! latt] is driv5 into a deliv]y-pipe by :i* x is =c$ into ! boil]4 ,! details ( ! int]ior ( ?is fe$-pump are repres5t$ on a l>g] scale 9 fig4 #aaa4 ,! extremity ( ! horizontal pipe ,k is repres5t$ 9 section at ,h1 :]e x is jo9$ on by a screw to ! bottom ( ! v]tical pipe :i* is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ig4 at ,k1 & :i* is "h repres5t$ 9 section4 ,! v]tical pipe1 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ig4 consi/s ( sev]al p>ts screw$ toge!r by nuts & bolts pass+ ?r\gh flanges4 ,! l[e/ piece ,i is atta*$ by a flange to ! piece ,l3 )9 ^! is conta9$ ! valve ,q re/+ 9 a seat made conical1 s t ! ball ,pg#chb :i* =ms ! valve %all re/ 9 wat]-tight contact ) x4 ,! ball is turn$ & gr\nd to an accurate sph]e1 & :atev] position x assumes ^u its seat its contact w be p]fect4 ,x is guid$ 9 its upw>d & d[nw>d motion by sev]al v]tical b>s :i* conf9e x1 & :i* are unit$ at ! top1 s z to limit ! upw>d motion ( ! ball4 ,a screw ,v is ins]t$ 9 ! bottom ( ! piece ,i1 by remov+ :i* access c be obta9$ to ! valve4 ,! piece ,l is secur$ to ! %ort pipe ,g by nuts & bolts pass$ ?r\gh a flange4 ,! pipe ,g is ca/ ^u ! end ( ! fe$-pump ,a4 ,on ! =emo/ end ( ?is fe$-pump is con/ruct$ a /uff+-box ,c ( ! usual =m1 hav+ a gl& ,d =c$ aga9/ pack+ by nuts & screws ,e4 ,! plung] ,b is turn$ s z to be truly cyl9drical1 & moves 9 wat]-tight contact ?r\gh ! gl& ,d4 ,! plung] n be+ 9 contact ) ! inn] surface ( ! pump-b>rel ,a1 ! latt] ne$ n be gr\nd4 ,! horizontal rod by :i* ! plung] ,b is driv5 is atta*$ at its =emo/ extremity to an arm :i* projects f ! rod ( ! /eam-pi/on1 & consequ5tly ?is plung] is mov$ ?r\gh a space equal to ! /roke ( ! /eam-pi/on4 ,9 ?is case t space is eighte5 in*es4 ,! ,pg#chc upp] end ( ! v]tical tube ,g is atta*$ by screws & a flange to a piece ,p conta9+ a valve ,r simil> 9 all respects to ! l[] valve ,q1 & l x op5+ upw>ds4 ,a screw ,v is introduc$ at ! top by :i* access may be obta9$ to ?is valve4 ,?is screw also presses on ! cr[n ( ! guides ( ! valve1 s z to hold x d[n by regulat$ pressure4 ,at ! side ( ?is upp] piece ,p is ins]t$ a horizontal tube ,m connect$ ) ! end ( ! deliv]y-pipe ,n4 ,?is latt] is cont9u$ to ! boil] ) :i* x communicates at ! fire-box4 ,:5 ! plung] ,b is drawn out ( ! pump-b>rel ,a1 ! sph]ical valve ,q be+ reliev$ f its d[nw>d pressure is rais$1 & wat] passes f ! pipe ,h ?r\gh ! valve ,q into ! v]tical pipe ,g2 ! l[] valve ,q !n closes & /ops ! return ( ! wat]4 ,! plung] ,b return+ into ! pump-b>rel ,a !n =ces ! wat] aga9/ ! upp] valve ,r & drives x ?r\gh ! deliv]y-tube ,n1 f :i* its return is prev5t$ by ! valve ,r4 ,:5 ! deliv]y-tube ,n is fill$ ) wat] ?r\gh\t its :ole l5g?1 e /roke ( ! plung] w evid5tly drive into ! boil] a volume ( wat] equal to ! magnitude ( a "p ( ! plung] eighte5 in*es 9 l5g?4 ,until )9 ! la/ few ye>s1 locomotive eng9es 7 support$ on only f\r :eels2 !y are1 h[ev]1 n[ almo/ univ]sally support$ on six1 ! driv+ :eels be+ 9 ! middle4 ,to give great] security to ! position ( ! eng9e betwe5 ! rails x is usual to con/ruct flanges on ! tires ( all ! six :eels4 ,mr4 ,/eph5son1 h[ev]1 has be5 9 ! practice ( con/ruct+ ! driv+ :eels )\t flanges1 & ) tires truly cyl9drical1 dep5d+ on ! flanges ( ! two pairs ( small] :eels to ma9ta9 ! eng9e betwe5 ! rails4 ,! :eels ( ! eng9e "h describ$ are con/ruct$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,! driv+ :eels ,d are fix$ on ! crank$ axle ,c1 & are five feet 9 diamet]4 ,! o!r :eels ,l ,m1 ! "o be+ plac$ imm$iately beh9d ! smoke-box1 & ! o!r imm$iately beh9d ! fire-box1 are ea* ?ree feet six in*es 9 diamet]1 & h a flange ^u _! tires1 :i* runn+ on ! ,pg#chd inside ( ea* rail keeps ! eng9e betwe5 ! rails4 ,ea* pair ( ^! small :eels1 l ! driv+-:eels1 is fix$ ^u _! axle4 ,! axles are #c-e_/h in*es diamet]1 & project beyond ! :eels1 ! project+ "p support+ ! frame ( ! eng9e & turn+ 9 brasses4 ,^u ^! brasses re/ spr+s1 :i* be> ! :ole weight ( ! eng9e4 ,^! spr+s hav+ no?+ betwe5 !m & ! road b ! :eels & axles int]cept & equalise ! sudd5 %ocks produc$ by ! rapid motion ^u ! road4 ,:5 an eng9e is requir$ = ! transport ( v heavy loads1 su* z ^? ( m]*&ise1 ! adhesion ( "o pair ( work+ :eels is f\nd to be insuffici5t1 &1 9 su* cases1 "o ( ! two pairs ( :eels ,l ,m is made ( ! same diamet] z ! :eels :i* are plac$ ^u ! work+ axle1 & a b> is atta*$ to po9ts on ! outside ( ! :eels at equal di/ances f _! c5tre1 connect+ !m 9 su* a mann] t any =ce appli$ to make "o pair ( :eels revolve mu/ necess>ily imp>t ! same motion to ! o!r pair4 ,by su* means ! =ce ( ! /eam is made to drive bo? pairs ( :eels1 & consequ5tly a proportionally increas$ adhesion is obta9$4 ,! velocity :i* an eng9e is capable ( imp>t+ to ! load :i* x draws dep5ds ^u ! rate at :i* ! pi/ons are capable ( be+ mov$ 9 ! cyl9d]s4 ,by e motion ( ea* pi/on backw>ds & =w>ds "o revolution ( ! driv+ :eels is produc$1 & by ea* revolution ( ! driv+ :eels1 suppos+ !m n to slip ^u ! rails1 ! load is driv5 ?r\gh a di/ance ^u ! road equal to _! circumf]5ce4 ,z ! two cyl9d]s "w toge!r1 x foll[s1 t a quantity ( /eam suffici5t to fill f\r cyl9d]s suppli$ by ! boil] to ! eng9e w move ! tra9 ?r\gh a di/ance equal to ! circumf]5ce ( ! driv+ :eels2 & 9 accompli%+ ?is1 ea* pi/on mu/ move twice f end to end ( ! cyl9d]2 ea* cyl9d] mu/ be twice fill$ ) /eam f ! boil]2 & t /eam mu/ be twice dis*>g$ f ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! bla/-pipe into ! *imney4 ,pg#dja ,if ! driv+ :eels be five feet 9 diamet] _! circumf]5ce w be fifte5 feet sev5 in*es4 ,to drive a tra9 ) a velocity ( ?irty miles an h\r1 x w be necess>y t ! eng9e %\ld be propell$ ?r\gh a space ( =ty-five feet p] second4 ,to accompli% ?is ) five-feet :eels !y mu/ be !re=e made to revolve at ! rate ( v ne>ly ?ree revolutions p] second2 & z ea* revolution requires two motions ( ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d]1 x foll[s t ea* pi/on mu/ move ?ree times =w>ds & ?ree times backw>ds 9 ! cyl9d] 9 a second2 t /eam mu/ be admitt$ six times p] second f ! /eam-*e/ to ea* cyl9d]1 & dis*>g$ six times p] second f ea* cyl9d] into ! bla/-pipe4 ,! motion1 !re=e1 ( ea* pi/on1 suppos+ x to be uni=m1 mu/ divide a second into six equal p>ts1 & ! puffs ( ! bla/-pipe 9 ! *imney mu/ divide a second into twelve equal p>ts4 ,! motion ( ! slides & o!r reciprocat+ p>ts ( ! ma*9]y mu/ consequ5tly correspond4 ,?is motion ( ! reciprocat+ p>ts ( ! ma*9]y be+ f\nd to be injuri\s to x1 & to produce v rapid we>1 attempts h be5 made to rem$y ! defect1 & to obta9 great] spe$ ) an equal or dim9i%$ rate ( motion ( ! pi/on1 by ! adoption ( driv+ :eels ( great] diamet]1 & on sev]al ( ! great l9es ( railway ! magnitude ( ! :eels = ! pass5g]-eng9es h be5 increas$ to five feet & a half & six feet diamet]2 b su* eng9es h n be5 suffici5tly long 9 use to af=d gr\nds = =m+ a practical e/imate ( _! effects4 ,exp]im5ts ( a mu* bold] description h1 h[ev]1 be5 tri$ on "o ( ! great l9es ( railway by ! adoption ( driv+ :eels ( mu* great] diamet]4 ,9 "s cases _! magnitude has be5 increas$ ev5 to t5 feet2 b f v>i\s exp]im5ts to :i* ^! eng9es h be5 submitt$ by myself & o!rs1 z well z f ! exp]i5ce :i* appe>s to be obta9$ f ! results ( _! ord9>y "w1 x does n appe> t any advantages h att5d$ !m1 & !y h be5 accord+ly = ! mo/ "p ab&on$4 ,! pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil] is limit$ by two safety-valves1 ,pg#djb repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ig4 at ,n & ,o4 ,! valve at ,n is "u ! control ( ! eng9e]1 b ! valve at ,o is inaccessible to him4 ,! /ructure ( ! safety-vale repres5t$ at ,n is exhibit$ on a l>g] scale 9 fig4 #aab41 :i* repres5ts its section1 & fig4 #aac41 :i* %[s a plan ( ! valve-seat ) ! valve remov$4 ,! valve ,a1 :i* is made ( brass1 is mitr$ r\nd ! edge at an angle ( #de1 & has a sp9dle1 or /alk ,b1 ca/ ^u x1 project+ d[nw>ds f ! middle ( x4 ,! valve-seat ,c is also made ( brass1 & ca/ ) a flange at ! bottom to atta* x to ! boil]4 ,! mitr$ surface ( ! valve is gr\nd into ! valve-seat1 s z to re/ 9 /eam-tight contact ) x4 ,across ! valve-seat1 :i* is two & a half in*es 9 diamet]1 is ca/ a ?9 piece ,d1 se5 9 plan 9 fig4 #aac4 & 9 section 9 fig4 #aab4 :i* ext5ds f ! top to ! bottom1 & has a longitud9al hole ?r\gh x1 9 :i* ! sp9dle ,b ( ! valve works3 by ?is hole x is guid$ :5 x rises f its seat4 ,a projection ,e is ca/ ^u ! seat ( ! valve1 9 :i* a /&>d ,f is ins]t$4 ,?is /&>d is =k$ at ! top1 & receives ! end ( a lev] ,g1 :i* turns 9 x ^u a c5tre4 ,a rod ,h is jo9t$ to ?is lev] by ano!r p9 at ?ree in*es f ! =m]1 & ! l[] end ( ?is rod1 gr\nd to a po9t1 presses ^u ! c5tre ( ! valve ,a4 ,at ! o!r end ( ! lev]1 :i* is brok5 (f 9 fig4 #aab41 at a di/ance ( ?ree feet f ! c5tre p91 ins]t$ 9 ! =k ( ! pill> ,f1 ! rod ( a common spr+-balance w1 fig4 #aja41 is atta*$ by a f+]-nut n4 ,! bottom ( ?is spr+-balance is secur$ on to ! fire-box4 ,?is balance is screw$ up by ! f+]-nut on ! valve-lev] until ! requir$ pressure on ! lev] is produc$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! rod ,h1 ?is pressure be+ g5]ally fifty p\nds p] squ>e in* above ! atmosph]e4 ,:5 ! pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! boil] exce$s ?is1 ! valve ,a is rais$ f its seat1 & ! /eam escapes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,x is evid5t t ! slid+ weight by :i* ! pressure ,pg#djc ( ! safety-valve is sometimes regulat$ 9 /ation>y eng9es w\ld n be admissible 9 a locomotive eng9e1 s9ce ! motion ( ! eng9e w\ld con/antly jolt x up & d[n1 & cause ! /eam to escape4 ,"o ( ! disadvantages att5d+ ! use ( ! spr+-valve is t x _c be op5$ to let ! /eam escape )\t increas+ its =ce1 s t ! /eam1 :5 escap+1 mu/ really h a great] pressure ?an t to :i* ! valve has be5 previ\sly adju/$4 ,! long] ! lev] is1 ! great] w be ?is diff]5ce ( pressure1 inasmu* z a giv5 elevation ( ! p9 gov]n+ ! rod ,h w\ld cause a proportionally great] motion 9 t end ( ! lev] atta*$ to ! spr+4 ,! second safety-valve ,o is enclos$ 9 a case1 s t x is inaccessible1 & its purpose is to limit ! p[] ( ! eng9e] to increase ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil]4 ,?is valve is simil> 9 con/ruction to ! =m]1 b in/ead ( be+ held d[n by a lev]1 is press$ ^u by sev]al small elliptical spr+s plac$ "o above ano!r ov] ! valve1 & held d[n by a screw :i* turns 9 a frame ,y1 fix$ into ! valve-seat4 ,by ?is screw ! pressure on ! valve c be adju/$ to any requir$ degree2 & if ! op5 safety-valve be screw$ d[n to a great] pressure1 ! /eam w beg9 to escape f ?is second valve4 ,also 9 ! case :]e ! boil] produces surplus /eam fa/] ?an its escape c be effect$ at ! valve ,n1 ! pressure w sometimes be increas$ until ! valve ,o is op5$1 & its escape w take place f bo? valves4 ,! :ole weight ( ! eng9e be>s ^u ^? p>ts ( ! six axles ,r1 fig4 #ii41 :i* project beyond ! :eels4 ,boxes are =m$ 9 :i* ^! p>ts ( ! axles turn1 & ?r\gh ! m$ium ( :i* ! weight ( ! eng9e re/s ^u !m4 ,ov] ^! boxes are con/ruct$ oil or grease cups1 by means ( :i* ! axles are con/antly lubricat$4 ,x is usual to lubricate ! axles ( ! eng9e itself ) oil3 ! axles ( ! t5d]1 & o!r coa*es & waggons1 are lubricat$ ) a mixture ( oil & tall[4 ,9 ! middle ( ! box 9 :i* ! axle turns1 & betwe5 ! two oil-cups1 is ca/ a socket1 9 :i* ! end ( ! sp9dle on ,pg#djd :i* ! spr+ presses re/s4 ,! spr+s are compos$ ( a numb] ( /eel-plates1 laid1 9 ! usual mann]1 "o above ! o!r1 increas+ 9 l5g? upw>ds4 ,9 ! eng9e "h describ$1 ! plates =m+ ! spr+s ( ! driv+ :eels are ?irte5 9 numb]1 ea* ( :i* is f\r in*es 9 wid?1 & #e_/af?s ( an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,! spr+s ^u ! o!r :eels are ?ree in*es 9 wid?4 ,! spr+s ( ! driv+ :eels are bel[ ! axle1 :ile ^? ( ! small] :eels are above x4 ,buff]s ,d are plac$ beh9d ! t5d]1 :i* act ^u a spr+ ,c 7fig4 #ajj471 to break ! collision1 :5 ! waggons or c>riages /rike ^u ! t5d]1 & simil> buff]s are atta*$ to all pass5g]-coa*es4 ,"s ( ^! buff]s are con/ruct$ ) a sy/em ( spr+s simil> to ,c1 b m ela/ic1 & comb9$ 9 great] numb] "u ! fram+ ( ! c>riage1 s t a consid]able play is all[$ to !m4 ,9 "s cases ! rods ( ! buff]s are made to act ^u /rong spiral spr+s ins]t$ 9 ! sides ( ! fram+ ( ! c>riage4 ,?is arrangem5t gives great] play to ! buff]s2 & z e coa* 9 a tra9 has sev]al buff]s1 ! comb9$ effect ( ^! is su*1 t a consid]able %ock giv5 to ei!r end ( ! tra9 may be r5d]$ h>mless by be+ sp5t ^u ! ela/icity ( ^! sev]al sy/ems ( spr+s4 ,9 ord] to give notice ( ! approa* ( a tra91 a /eam-:i/le ,z1 fig4 #ig4 #aja41 is plac$ imm$iately above ! fire-box at ! back ( ! eng9e4 ,?is is an app>atus compos$ ( two small hemisph]es ( brass1 sep>at$ "o f ! o!r by a small space4 ,/eam is made to pass ?r\gh a holl[ space con/ruct$ 9 ! l[] hemisph]e1 & escapes f a v n>r[ circul> op5+ r\nd ! edge ( t hemisph]e1 ru%+ up ) a =ce proportionate to its pressure4 ,! edge ( ! upp] hemisph]e pres5t$ d[nw>ds enc\nt]s ?is /eam1 & an effect is produc$ simil> to ! action ( air 9 organ pipes4 ,a %rill :i/le is produc$1 :i* c be he>d at a v consid]able di/ance1 &1 diff]+ f all ord9>y s\nds1 x nev] fails to give timely notice ( ! approa* ( a tra94 ,! wat] tank ,i1 fig4 #ih4 #ajj41 :i* is con/ruct$ on ! t5d]1 is =m$ ( wr\ght-iron plates #a_/h ( an in* ?ick1 ,pg#dje rivet$ at ! corn]s by angle iron already describ$4 ,?is tank is #i feet long1 #f-c_/d feet wide1 & #b-a_/d feet deep4 ,! top is cov]$ ) a bo>d ,k1 & a rais$ plat=m ,n is con/ruct$ beh9d1 divid$ into ?ree p>ts1 cov]$ ) leads1 :i* op5 on h+es4 ,! middle lid cov]s an op5+ to ! tank by :i* wat] is let 93 ! lids at ei!r side cov] boxes 9 :i* are conta9$ ! tools necess>y to be c>ri$ ) ! eng9e4 ,! curv$ pipe ,p1 fig4 #ih41 lead+ f ! bottom ( ! tank to ! pipe ,q1 is ( copp]4 ,! pipe ,q1 connect+ ! latt] ) ! fe$-pipe ,k1 fig4 #ii41 is sometimes =m$ ( lea!r or ,india-rubb] clo?1 hav+ a spiral spr+ on ! inside to prev5t x f collaps+4 ,x is necess>y t ?is pipe ,q %\ld h a p[] ( yield+ to a suffici5t degree to accommodate itself to ! inequalities ( motion betwe5 ! eng9e & t5d]4 ,a metal pipe is sometimes us$1 suppli$ ) a d\ble ball & socket1 & a telescopic jo9t1 hav+ suffici5t play to all[ = ! lat]al & longitud9al inequalities ( motion ( ! eng9e & t5d]4 ,! weight ( an eng9e1 su* z t "h describ$1 suppli$ ) its prop] quantity ( wat] & fuel1 is ab\t #ab tons3 ! t5d]1 :5 empty1 weighs ab\t #c-a_/d tons2 & :5 fill$ ) wat] & fuel its weight is #g tons4 ,! tank conta9s #gjj gallons ( wat]1 & ! t5d] is capable ( c>ry+ ab\t #hjj weight ( coke4 ,?is supply is suffici5t = a trip ( f ?irty to =ty miles ) an ord9>y load4 7#aih47 ,x is n usual to express ! p[] ( locomotive eng9es 9 ! same mann] z t ( o!r eng9es by ! t]m horse-p[]4 ,inde$1 until ! actual am\nt ( resi/ance oppos$ to ^! ma*9es1 "u ! v>i\s circum/ances 9 :i* !y are work$1 %all be asc]ta9$ ) "s degree ( precision1 x is impossible t _! p[] or effici5cy c be e/imat$ ) any tol]able degree ( approximation4 ,! quantity ( wat] evaporat$1 & pass$ 9 /eam ?r\gh ! cyl9d]s1 supplies a major limit to ! p[] ex]t$2 b ev5 ?is necess>y elem5t = ! calculation ( ! efficacy ( ^! ma*9es has n be5 asc]ta9$ by a suffici5tly ext5sive c\rse ( obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,mr4 ,/eph5son /ates1 t ! eng9e :i* ,pg#djf has be5 "h describ$ is capable ( evaporat+ #gg cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r1 :ile ! e>ly locomotives c\ld only evaporate #af cubic feet p] h\r4 ,?is evaporation1 h[ev]1 is inf]ior to t :i* ,i h asc]ta9$ myself to be produc$ by eng9es 9 regul> op]ation on "s ( ! nor!rn railways4 ,9 an exp]im5t made 9 ,july1 #ahci1 ) ! ,hecla eng9e1 ,i f\nd t ! evaporation 9 a trip ( n9ety-five miles1 f ,liv]pool to ,birm+ham1 0 at ! rate ( #icb cubic feet p] h\r1 & 9 return+ ! same di/ance x 0 at ! rate ( #heg cubic feet p] h\r1 giv+ a mean ( #hi cubic feet p] h\r ne>ly4 ,! ,hecla weigh$ #ab tons2 & its dim5sions & proportions correspond$ v ne>ly ) ^? ( ! eng9e above describ$4 ,9 a c\rse ( exp]im5ts :i* ,i made ^u ! eng9es !n 9 use on ! ,gr& ,junction ,railway 9 ! autumn ( #ahch ,i f\nd t ! ord9>y evaporat+ p[] ( ^! eng9es v>i$ f eighty to eighty-five cubic feet p] h\r4 ,eng9es ( mu* great] dim5sions1 & consequ5tly ( great] evaporat+ p[]1 are us$ on ! ,great ,we/]n ,railway4 ,9 ! autumn ( #ahch exp]im5ts 7 made ^u ^! eng9es by ,mr4 ,ni*olas ,wood & myself1 :5 we f\nd t ! mo/ p[]ful eng9e on t l9e1 ! ,nor? ,/>1 draw+ a load ( #aaj-a_/b tons gross1 eng9e & t5d] inclusive1 at #cj-a_/b miles an h\r1 evaporat$ #bjj cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r4 ,! same eng9e draw+ a load ( #aid-a_/b tons at #ah-a_/b miles an h\r evaporat$ #ada cubic feet p] h\r1 & :5 draw+ #de tons at #ch-a_/b miles an h\r evaporat$ #aih cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r4 ,x has be5 already %[n t a cubic foot ( wat] evaporat$ p] h\r produces a gross am\nt ( me*anical =ce v little less ?an two-horse p[]1 & consequ5tly ! gross am\nt ( me*anical p[] evolv$ 9 ^! cases by ! evaporation ( ! locomotive boil]s w be v ne>ly twice z _m horse-p[] z !re are cubic feet ( wat] evaporat$ p] h\r4 ,?us ! evaporation ( ! ,hecla1 9 ! exp]im5ts made 9 ,july1 #ahci1 gave a gross p[] ( ab\t "o hundr$ & eighty horses1 :ile ! evaporation ( ! ,nor? ,/> gave a p[] ( ab\t f\r hundr$ horses4 ,9 /ation>y eng9es ab\t half ! gross ,pg#djg p[] evolv$ 9 ! evaporation is all[$ = wa/e1 friction1 & o!r s\rces ( resi/ance n connect$ ) ! load4 ,:at quantity %\ld be all[$ = ?is 9 locomotive eng9es is n yet asc]ta9$1 & !re=e x is impossible to /ate :at proportion ( ! :ole evaporation is to be tak5 z repres5t+ ! useful horse-p[]4 7#aii47 ,! great uni=mity ( resi/ance produc$ by ! traction ( c>riages ^u a railway is su* z to r5d] ! application ( /eam p[] to t purpose extremely advantage\s4 ,s f> z ?is resi/ance dep5ds on me*anical defects1 x is probably r5d]$ z uni=m z is practicable1 & 9 proportion to ! quantity ( load c>ri$ is r$uc$ to z small an am\nt z x is likely to atta9 "u any practicable circum/ances4 ,until a rec5t p]iod ?is resi/ance 0 ascrib$ altoge!r1 or ne>ly s1 to me*anical causes4 ,! inequalities ( ! road-surface1 ! friction ( ! axles ( ! :eels 9 _! be>+s1 & ! v>i\s s\rces ( resi/ance due to ! ma*9]y ( ! eng9e1 be+ ! pr9cipal ( ^! resi/ances1 7 = ! mo/ "p indep5d5t ( ! spe$ ) :i* ! tra9 0 mov$2 & x 0 accord+ly assum$ 9 all calculations respect+ ! p[] ( locomotive eng9es t ! resi/ance w\ld be practically ! same :atev] might be ! spe$ ( ! tra94 ,x _h be5 well und]/ood t s f> z ! atmosph]e might (f] resi/ance to ! mov+ p[] ?is w\ld be dep5d5t on ! spe$1 & w\ld increase 9 a v high ratio ) ! spe$2 b x 0 consid]$ t ! "p ( ! resi/ance due to ?is cause =m$ a fraction ( ! :ole am\nt s insignificant t x might be fairly disreg>d$ 9 practice1 or consid]$ z a "p ( ! actual comput$ resi/ance tak5 at an av]age spe$4 ,x has be51 until a late p]iod1 accord+ly assum$ t ! total am\nt ( resi/ance to railway tra9s :i* ! locomotive eng9es h _h to ov]come 0 ab\t ! two hundr$ & fiftie? "p ( ! gross weight ( ! load drawn3 "s eng9e]s e/imat$ x at a two hundr$ & tw5tie?2 o!rs at a two hundr$ & fiftie?2 o!rs at a ?ree hundr$ & ?irtie? "p ( ! load2 & ! two hundr$ & fiftie? "p ( ! gross load drawn may p]haps be ,pg#djh consid]$ z a mean betwe5 ^! mu* v>y+ e/imates4 ,:at ! exp]im5ts 71 if any1 on :i* ^! r\gh e/imates 7 bas$1 has nev] appe>$4 ,ea* eng9e] =m$ 8 own valuation ( ?is effect1 b none produc$ ! exp]im5tal gr\nds ( _! op9ion4 ,x has be5 said t ! tra9s run d[n ! eng9e1 or t ! draw+ *a9s connect+ ! eng9e slack5 9 desc5d+ an incl9ation ( sixte5 feet 9 a mile1 or #a_/ccj4 ,num]\s exp]im5ts1 h[ev]1 made by myself1 z well z ! con/ant exp]i5ce n[ daily obta9$ on railways1 %[ t ?is is a fallaci\s op9ion1 except at velocities s l[ z are nev] practis$ on railways4 7#bjj47 ,9 ! autumn ( #ahch a c\rse ( exp]im5ts 0 comm5c$ at ! sugge/ion ( "s ( ! proprietors ( ! ,great ,we/]n ,railway ,company1 ) a view to det]m9e v>i\s po9ts connect$ ) ! /ructure & ! work+ ( railways4 ,a "p ( ^! exp]im5ts 7 int5d$ to det]m9e ! mean am\nt ( ! resi/+ =ce oppos$ to ! mov+ p[]1 & ?is "p 0 conduct$ by me4 ,aft] hav+ tri$ v>i\s exp$i5ts = det]m9+ ! mean am\nt ( resi/ance to ! mov+ p[]1 ,i f\nd t no me?od gave satisfactory results except "o f\nd$ on obs]v+ ! motion ( tra9s by gravity d[n /eep incl9$ planes4 ,:5 a tra9 ( waggons or coa*es is plac$ ^u an incl9$ plane s /eep t x %all desc5d by its gravity )\t any mov+ p[]1 its motion1 :5 x proce$s f a /ate ( re/1 w be gradually accel]at$1 & if ! resi/ance to t motion 01 z x has be5 commonly suppos$ to be1 uni=m & indep5d5t ( ! spe$1 ! desc5t w\ld be uni=mly accel]at$3 9 o!r words1 ! increase ( spe$ w\ld be proportional to ! "t ( ! motion4 ,:atev] velocity ! tra9 w\ld ga9 9 ! fir/ m9ute1 x w\ld acquire twice t velocity at ! end ( ! second m9ute1 ?ree times t velocity at ! end ( ! ?ird m9ute1 & s on2 & ?is increase ( velocity w\ld cont9ue to foll[ ! same law1 h[ev] ext5d$ ! plane might be4 ,t su* w\ld be ! law :i* ! desc5d+ motion ( a tra9 w\ld foll[ _h always be5 suppos$1 up to ! "t ( ! exp]im5ts n[ ref]r$ to2 & x 0 ev5 ma9ta9$ by "s t ,pg#dji su* a law 0 9 /rict con=mity ) exp]im5ts made ^u railways & duly report$4 ,! fir/ exp]im5ts in/itut$ by me at ! "t j ref]r$ to af=d$ a complete refutation ( ?is doctr9e4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! accel]ation 0 n uni=m1 b t ) e increase ( spe$ ! accel]ation 0 less5$4 ,?us if a c]ta9 spe$ 7 ga9$ by a tra9 9 "o second :5 mov+ at five miles an h\r1 a mu* less spe$ 0 ga9$ 9 "o second :5 mov+ t5 miles an h\r1 & a comp>atively small spe$ 0 ga9$ 9 ! same "t :5 mov+ at fifte5 miles an h\r1 & s on4 ,9 fact1 ! augm5tation ( ! rate ( accel]ation appe>$ to dim9i% 9 a v rapid proportion z ! spe$ increas$3 ?is sugge/$ to me ! probability t a suffici5tly great increase ( spe$ w\ld de/roy all accel]ation1 & t ! tra9 w\ld at l5g? move at a uni=m velocity4 ,9 effect1 s9ce ! mov+ p[] :i* impels a tra9 d[n an incl9$ plane ( uni=m incl9ation is t fraction ( ! gross weight ( ! tra9 :i* acts 9 ! direction ( ! plane1 ?is mov+ p[] mu/ be necess>ily inv>iable2 & z any accel]ation :i* is produc$ mu/ arise f ! excess ( ?is mov+ p[] ov] ! resi/ance oppos$ to ! motion ( ! tra91 f :atev] causes t resi/ance may arise1 :5ev] accel]ation ceases1 ! mov+ =ce mu/ necess>ily be equal to ! resi/ance2 & !re=e1 :5 a tra9 desc5ds an incl9$ plane ) a uni=m velocity1 ! gross resi/ance to ! motion ( ! tra9 mu/ be equal to ! gross weight ( ! tra9 resolv$ 9 ! direction ( ! plane2 or1 9 o!r words1 x mu/ be equal to t fraction ( ! :ole weight ( ! tra9 :i* is express$ by ! incl9ation ( ! plane4 ,?us if x be suppos$ t ! plane falls at ! rate ( "o foot 9 "o hundr$1 !n ! =ce impell+ ! tra9 d[nw>ds w be equal to ! hundr$? "p ( ! weight ( ! tra94 ,s long z ! resi/ance to ! motion ( ! tra9 cont9ues to be less ?an ! hundr$? "p ( its weight1 s long w ! motion ( ! tra9 be accel]at$2 & ! m ! hundr$? "p ( ! weight exce$s ! resi/ance1 ! m rapid w ! accel]ation be2 & ! less ! hundr$? "p ( ! weight ,pg#daj exce$s ! resi/ance1 ! less rapid w ! accel]ation be4 ,if x be true t ! am\nt ( resi/ance increases ) ! increase ( spe$1 !n a spe$ may at l5g? be atta9$ s great t ! am\nt ( resi/ance to ! motion ( ! tra9 w be equal to ! hundr$? "p ( ! weight4 ,:5 t happ5s1 ! mov+ p[] ( a hundr$? "p ( ! weight ( ! tra9 be+ exactly equal to ! resi/ance to ! motion1 !re is no excess ( p[] to produce accel]ation1 & !re=e ! motion ( ! tra9 w be uni=m4 ,f\nd$ on ^! pr9ciples1 a va/ numb] ( exp]im5ts 7 made on planes ( diff]5t incl9ations1 & ) loads ( v>i\s magnitudes2 & x 0 f\nd1 9 g5]al1 t :5 a tra9 desc5d$ an incl9$ plane1 ! rate ( accel]ation gradually dim9i%$1 & at l5g? became uni=m2 t ! uni=m spe$ ?us atta9$ dep5d$ on ! weight1 =m1 & magnitude ( ! tra9 & ! incl9ation ( ! plane2 t ! same tra9 on diff]5t incl9$ planes atta9$ diff]5t uni=m spe$s--on ! /eep] planes a great] spe$ be+ atta9$4 ,f su* exp]im5ts x foll[$1 contr>y to all t _h be5 previ\sly suppos$1 t ! am\nt ( resi/ance to railway tra9s _h a dep5d5ce on ! spe$2 t ?is dep5d5ce 0 ( great practical importance1 ! resi/ance be+ subject to v consid]able v>iation at diff]5t spe$s1 & t ?is s\rce ( resi/ance arises f ! atmosph]e :i* ! tra9 enc\nt]s4 ,?is 0 r5d]$ obvi\s by ! diff]5t am\nt ( resi/ance to ! motion ( a tra9 ( coa*es & to t ( a tra9 ( l[ waggons ( equal weight4 ,! =m] editions ( ?is "w hav+ be5 publi%$ be=e ! discov]y :i* has result$ f ^! exp]im5ts1 ! av]age am\nt ( resi/ance to railway tra9s1 !re /at$1 & ! conclusions d$uc$ !refrom1 7 9 con=mity ) :at 0 !n kn[n4 ,x 0 /at$ t ! resi/ance to ! mov+ p[] 0 practically indep5d5t ( ! spe$1 & on level rails 0 at ! av]age rate ( ab\t sev5 p\nds & a half p] ton4 ,?is am\nt w\ld be equival5t to ! gravitation ( a load d[n an incl9$ plane fall+ #a_/cjj1 & consequ5tly 9 asc5d+ su* a plane ! mov+ p[] w\ld h to enc\nt] twice ,pg#daa ! resi/ance oppos$ to x on a level4 ,z x 0 g5]ally assum$ t a locomotive-eng9e c\ld n advantage\sly v>y its tractive p[] beyond ?is limit1 x 0 !re=e inf]r$ t gradi5ts 7z incl9ations are call$7 ought n to be con/ruct$ ( great] /eepness ?an #a_/cjj4 ,x 0 suppos$ t 9 desc5d+ gradi5ts m /eep ?an ?is ! tra9 w\ld be accel]at$ & w\ld require ! use ( ! brake to *eck its motion1 :ile 9 asc5d+ su* planes ! eng9e w\ld be requir$ to ex]t m ?an twice ! ord9>y tractive p[] requir$ on level rails4 ,z ! resi/ance produc$ by ! air 0 n tak5 into consid]ation1 no di/9ction 0 made betwe5 heavy tra9s ( goods pres5t+ a frontage & magnitude be>+ a small proportion to _! gross weight & light] tra9s ( pass5g]-coa*es pres5t+ great frontage & great magnitude 9 proportion to _! weight4 ,! result ( ! exp]im5ts above expla9$ leads to inf]5ces altoge!r at v>iance ) ^? :i* h be5 giv5 9 =m] editions ( ! pres5t "w1 & :i* 7 !n univ]sally admitt$ by railway eng9e]s4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! results ( ^! exp]im5ts %[ t l[ gradi5ts on railways are n att5d$ ) ! advantage\s effects :i* h be5 hi!rto ascrib$ to !m2 t1 on ! contr>y1 ! resi/ance produc$ by /eep] gradi5ts c be comp5sat$ by slack5+ ! spe$1 s t ! p[] %all be reliev$ f z mu* atmosph]ic resi/ance by ! dim9ution ( velocity z is equal to ! increas$ resi/ance produc$ by ! gravity ( ! plane :i* is asc5d$4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 9 desc5d+ ! plane ! spe$ may be increas$ until ! resi/ance produc$ by ! atmosph]e is increas$ to ! same am\nt z t by :i* ! tra9 is reliev$ ( resi/ance by ! declivity d[n :i* x moves4 ,?us1 on gradi5ts1 ! incl9ation ( :i* is conf9$ )9 practical limits1 ! resi/ance to ! mov+-p[] may be pres]v$ uni=m1 or ne>ly s1 by v>y+ ! velocity4 7#bja47 ,! s]ies ( exp]im5ts :i* h e/abli%$ ^! g5]al conclusions h n yet be5 suffici5tly ext5d$ & v>i$ to supply a correct practical e/imate ( ! limit :i* x w\ld be mo/ advantage\s to impose ^u ! ,pg#dab gradi5ts ( railways2 b x is c]ta9 t railways may be laid d[n1 )\t practical disadvantage1 ) gradi5ts consid]ably /eep] ?an ^? to :i* x has be5 hi!rto ! practice to recomm5d z a limit4 ,! pr9ciple ( comp5sation by v>i$ spe$ be+ admitt$1 x w foll[ t ! "t ( transit betwe5 t]m9us & t]m9us ( a l9e ( railway laid d[n ) gradi5ts1 v>y+ f tw5ty to ?irty feet a mile1 w be practically ! same z x w\ld be on a l9e ( ! same l5g? con/ruct$ ^u a dead level2 & n only w ! "t ( transport be equal1 b ! quantity ( mov+ p[] exp5d$ w n be mat]ially diff]5t4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! circum/ances ( ! transport 9 ! two cases w be m]ely t1 on ! undulat+ l9e1 a v>y+ velocity w be imp>t$ to ! tra9 & a v>y+ resi/ance oppos$ to ! mov+ p[]2 :ile on ! level l9e ! tra9 w\ld be mov$ at a uni=m spe$1 & ! eng9e work$ aga9/ a uni=m resi/ance4 ,^! conclusions h be5 abundantly confirm$ by ! exp]im5ts made 9 la/ ,july ) ! ,hecla eng9e above ref]r$ to4 ,! l9e ( railway betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,birm+ham on :i* ! exp]im5t 0 made ext5d$ ov] a di/ance ( n9ety-five miles1 & ! gradi5ts on :i* ! effects 7 obs]v$ v>i$ f a level to ?irty feet p] mile1 a great portion ( ! l9e be+ a dead level4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! uni=m spe$ ) :i* ! tra9 asc5d$ & desc5d$ ! sev]al gradi5ts1 & also ! mean ( ! asc5t & desc5t 9 ea* case1 z well z ! spe$ ^u ! level p>ts ( ! l9e3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,spe$4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,gradi5t4 ,asc5d+4 ,desc5d+4 ,mean4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,"o 9 ,miles p] h\r4,miles p] h\r4 #agg #bbbe #dacb #cagh #bfe #bdhg #ciac #cbjj #ccj #bebf #cgjg #caaf #djj #bfhg #cfge #caha #ecb #bgce #cdcj #cjhb #eij #bgcg #ccaf #cjba #fej #bijc #cbeh #cjhj ---------------- ,level #cjic ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,pg#dac ,f ?is table x is app>5t t ! gradi5ts d possess ! comp5sat+ p[] ) respect to spe$ already m5tion$4 ,! discrepancies exi/+ among ! mean values ( ! spe$ are only :at may be fairly ascrib$ to casual v>iations 9 ! mov+ p[]4 ,! exp]im5t 0 made "u fav\rable circum/ances3 little di/urbance 0 produc$ f ! atmosph]e2 ! day 0 q calm4 ,9 ! same exp]im5t x 0 f\nd t ! wat] evaporat$ v>i$ v ne>ly 9 proportion to ! v>y+ resi/ance1 & ! am\nt ( t evaporation may be tak5 z af=d+ an approximation to ! mean am\nt ( resi/ance4 ,tak+ ! trip to & f ,birm+ham ov] ! di/ance ( #aij miles1 ! mean evaporation p] mile 0 #ccf cubic feet ( wat]4 ,! volume ( /eam produc$ by ?is quantity ( wat] w be det]m9$ approximately by calculat+ ! numb] ( revolutions ( ! driv+ :eels necess>y to move ! eng9e "o mile4 ,! driv+ :eels be+ #e feet 9 diamet]1 _! circumf]5ce 0 #aeg feet1 & consequ5tly 9 pass+ ov] a mile !y w\ld h revolv$ #ccfc times4 ,s9ce ea* revolution consumes f\r cyl9d]s full ( /eam1 ! quantity ( /eam suppli$ by ! boil] to ! cyl9d]s p] mile w be f\nd by multiply+ ! cont5ts ( ! cyl9d] by f\r times #ccfc1 or #acdeb4 ,! cyl9d]s ( ! ,hecla 7 #ab-a_/b in*es diamet]1 & #ah in*es 9 l5g?1 & consequ5tly _! cont5ts 7 #abh cubic feet = ea* cyl9d]3 ?is be+ multipli$ by #acdeb gives #agbahf or #agbb cubic feet ( /eam p] mile4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t suppos+ ! prim+ ei!r no?+ or insignificant1 :i* 0 consid]$ to be ! case 9 ^! exp]im5ts1 #ccf cubic feet ( wat] produc$ #agbb cubic feet ( /eam1 ( ! d5sity work$ 9 ! cyl9d]s4 ,! ratio1 !re=e1 ( ! volume ( ?is /eam to t ( ! wat] produc+ x1 0 #agbb to #ccf1 or #eabe to #a4 ,! pressure ( /eam ( ?is d5sity w\ld be #ede p\nds p] squ>e in*4#cd ,su*1 !re=e1 0 ! limit ( ! av]age total pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! cyl9d]s4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t ! safety-valve ( ! boil] 0 screw$ d[n to #fj p\nds p] squ>e ,pg#dad in* above ! atmosph]ic pressure1 :i* 0 !re=e ! major limit ( ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil]2 b z ! actual pressure 9 ! boil] mu/ h be5 less ?an ?is am\nt1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! pressure 9 ! cyl9d] & boil] c\ld n be asc]ta9$4 ,?is diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 w\ld produce no effect on ! mov+ p[] ( ! /eam1 s9ce ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! cyl9d]s obta9$ by ! above calculation is q indep5d5t ( ! pressure 9 ! boil]1 or ( any s\rce ( error except :at might arise f prim+4 ,! pressure ( #ede p\nds p] squ>e in*1 calculat$ above1 be+ ! total pressure ( ! /eam on ! pi/ons1 let #ade p\nds be d$uct$ f x1 to repres5t ! atmosph]ic pressure aga9/ :i* ! pi/on mu/ act1 & ! rema9+ #dj p\nds p] squ>e in* w repres5t ! :ole available =ce draw+ ! tra9 & ov]com+ all ! resi/ances aris+ f ! ma*9]y ( ! eng9e1 includ+ t ( ! bla/-pipe4 ,! magnitude ( a #ab-a_/b in* pi/on be+ #abbg squ>e in*es1 ! total area ( ! two pi/ons w\ld be #bdeb squ>e in*es1 & ! pressure ^u ea* ( #dj p\nds p] in* w\ld give a total =ce ( #ihaf on ! two pi/ons4 ,s9ce ?is =ce mu/ act ?r\gh a space ( ?ree feet1 :ile ! tra9 is impell$ ?r\gh a space ( #aeg feet1 x mu/ be r$uc$ 9 ! proportion ( #c to #aeg1 to obta9 its effect at ! po9t ( contact ( ! :eels ^u ! rails3 ?is w give #ahge p\nds z ! total =ce ex]t$ 9 ! direction ( ! motion ( ! tra94 ,! gross weight ( ! tra9 be+ #hj tons1 includ+ ! eng9e & t5d]1 ?is w\ld give a gross mov+ =ce along ! road ( ab\t #bcd p\nds p] ton ( ! gross load1 ?is =ce be+ und]/ood to include all ! resi/ances due to ! eng9e4 ,?is resi/ance corresponds to ! gravitation ( a plane ris+ at ! rate ( #a_/ie1 & !re=e x appe>s t su* w\ld be ! incl9ation ( ! plane by ! gravitation ( :i* ! gross resi/ance w\ld be d\bl$1 in/ead ( su* incl9ation be+ ab\t #a_/cjj1 z has be5 hi!rto suppos$4 ,s9ce ! rem>kable & unexpect$ results ( ?is s]ies ( exp]im5ts became kn[n v>i\s circum/ances 7 br\ght to light1 :i* 7 be=e unnotic$1 & :i* ,pg#dae abundantly confirm !m4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ ! fact1 t 9 desc5d+ ! ,madeley plane1 on ! ,gr& ,junction ,railway1 :i* falls = above ?ree miles at ! rate ( tw5ty-n9e feet a mile1 ! /eam c nev] be entirely cut (f4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 to ma9ta9 ! necess>y spe$ 9 desc5d+1 ! p[] ( ! eng9e is always necess>y4 ,z ?is plane greatly exce$s t :i* w\ld be suffici5t to cause ! free motion ( ! tra9 d[n x1 ! p[] ( ! eng9e exp5d$ 9 desc5d+ x1 besides all t "p ( ! gravitat+ p[] ( ! plane :i* exce$s ! resi/ance due to friction & o!r me*anical causes mu/ be work$ aga9/ ! atmosph]e4 ,?is e/imate ( ! resi/ance is also 9 con=mity ) ! results ( a v>iety ( exp]im5ts made by me ) tra9s ( diff]5t magnitudes d[n incl9$ planes ( v>i\s incl9ations4 7#bjb47 ,9 lay+ out a l9e ( railway ! disposition ( ! gradi5ts %\ld be su* z to pres]ve among !m z uni=m a "* z is practicable1 = ! weight & p[] ( ! eng9e mu/ necess>ily be regulat$ by ! g5]al /eepness ( ! gradi5ts4 ,?us if ^u a railway :i* is g5]ally level1 l t betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/]1 "o or two incl9$ planes ( a v /eep "* occur1 z happ5s ^u t l9e1 !n ! eng9e :i* is con/ruct$ to "w ^u ! g5]al gradi5ts ( ! road is unfit to draw ! same load up ^? incl9ations :i* =m an exception to ! g5]al "* ( ! gradi5ts4 ,9 su* cases "s extraord9>y means mu/ g5]ally be provid$ = surm\nt+ ^? exceptionable incl9ations4 ,sev]al exp$i5ts h be5 propos$ = ?is purpose1 among :i* ! foll[+ may be m5tion$3-- #a4 ,^u arriv+ at ! foot ( ! plane ! load is divid$1 & ! eng9e c>ries x up 9 sev]al successive trips1 desc5d+ ! plane unload$ aft] ea* trip4 ,! objection to ?is me?od is ! delay :i* x occasions--a circum/ance :i* is incompatible ) a l>ge transport ( pass5g]s4 ,f :at has be5 /at$1 x w\ld be necess>y1 :5 ! eng9e is fully load$ on a level1 to divide its load into two or m p>ts1 to be successively ,pg#daf c>ri$ up :5 ! incl9e rises #eb feet p] mile4 ,?is me?od has be5 practis$ 9 ! transport ( m]*&ise occasionally1 :5 heavy loads 7 c>ri$ on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] l9e1 ^u ! ,ra9hill incl9e4 #b4 ,a subsidi>y or assi/ant locomotive eng9e may be kept 9 con/ant read9ess at ! foot ( ea* incl9e1 = ! purpose ( aid+ ! diff]5t tra9s1 z !y arrive1 9 asc5d+4 ,! objection to ?is me?od is ! co/ ( keep+ su* an eng9e ) its boil] cont9ually prep>$1 & its /eam up4 ,x is necess>y to keep its fire cont9ually light$1 :e!r employ$ or n2 o!rwise1 :5 ! tra9 w\ld arrive at ! foot ( ! incl9e1 x %\ld wait until ! subsidi>y eng9e 0 prep>$ = "w4 ,9 cases :]e tra9s w\ld />t & arrive at /at$ times1 ?is objection1 h[ev]1 w\ld h less =ce4 ,?is me?od is at pres5t g5]ally adopt$ on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] l9e4 #c4 ,a fix$ /eam-eng9e may be erect$ on ! cre/ ( ! incl9e1 s z to communicate by ropes ) ! tra9 at ! foot4 ,su* an eng9e w\ld be capable ( draw+ up "o or two tra9s toge!r1 ) _! locomotives1 accord+ z !y w\ld arrive1 & no delay ne$ be occasion$4 ,?is me?od requires t ! fix$ eng9e %\ld be kept con/antly prep>$ = "w1 & ! /eam cont9ually up 9 ! boil]4 #d4 ,9 work+ on ! level1 ! communication betwe5 ! boil] & ! cyl9d] 9 ! locomotives may be s re/ra9$ by p>tially clos+ ! ?rottle-valve1 z to cause ! pressure ^u ! pi/on to be less 9 a consid]able degree ?an ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil]4 ,if "u su* circum/ances a suffici5t pressure ^u ! pi/on c be obta9$ to draw ! load on ! level1 ! ?rottle-valve may be op5$ on approa*+ ! incl9$ plane1 s z to ?r[ on ! pi/on a pressure increas$ 9 ! same proportion z ! previ\s pressure 9 ! boil] 0 great] ?an t ^u ! pi/on4 ,if ! fire be suffici5tly active to keep up ! supply ( /eam 9 ?is mann] dur+ ! asc5t1 & if ! rise be n great] 9 proportion ?an ! p[] ?us obta9$1 ! locomotive w draw ! load up ! incl9e )\t fur!r assi/ance4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 to be obs]v$1 t 9 ?is case ,pg#dag ! load ^u ! eng9e mu/ be less ?an ! am\nt :i* ! adhesion ( its work+ :eels ) ! railroad is capable ( draw+2 = ?is adhesion mu/ be adequate to ! traction ( ! same load up ! incl9e1 o!rwise1 :atev] increase ( p[] might be obta9$ by op5+ ! ?rottle-valve1 ! draw+ :eels w\ld revolve )\t caus+ ! load to advance4 ,?is me?od has be5 g5]ally practis$ ^u ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] l9e 9 ! transport ( pass5g]s2 &1 inde$1 x is ! only me?od yet discov]$ :i* is consi/5t ) ! exp$ition necess>y = t species ( traffic4 ,9 ! practice ( ?is me?od consid]able aid may be d]iv$ also by susp5d+ ! supply ( fe$+ wat] to ! boil] dur+ ! asc5t4 ,x w be recollect$ t a res]voir ( cold wat] is plac$ 9 ! t5d] :i* foll[s ! eng9e1 & t ! wat] is driv5 f ?is res]voir into ! boil] by a =c+ pump1 :i* is work$ by ! eng9e itself4 ,?is pump is s con/ruct$ t x w supply z mu* cold wat] z is equal to ! evaporation1 s z to ma9ta9 con/antly ! same quantity ( wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,b x is evid5t1 on ! o!r h&1 t ! supply ( ?is wat] has a t5d5cy to *eck ! rate ( evaporation1 s9ce 9 be+ rais$ to ! temp]ature ( ! wat] ) :i* x mixes x mu/ absorb a consid]able portion ( ! heat suppli$ by ! fire4 ,) a view to accel]ate ! production ( /eam1 !re=e1 9 asc5d+ ! incl9es1 ! eng9e man may susp5d ! action ( ! =c+ pump1 & !reby /op ! supply ( cold wat] to ! boil]2 ! evaporation w g on ) increas$ rapidity1 & ! exhau/ion ( wat] produc$ by x w be repaid by ! =c+ pump on ! next level1 or /ill m effectually on ! next desc5d+ incl9e4 ,inde$ ! fe$+ pump may be made to act 9 desc5d+ an incl9e1 if necess>y1 :5 ! action ( ! eng9e itself is susp5d$1 & :5 ! tra9 desc5ds by its own gravity1 9 :i* case x w p]=m ! "p ( a brake ^u ! desc5d+ tra94 #e4 ,! me*anical connexion betwe5 ! pi/on ( ! cyl9d] & ! po9ts ( contact ( ! work+ :eels ) ! road may be s alt]$1 ^u arriv+ at ! incl9e1 z to ,pg#dah give ! pi/on a great] p[] ov] ! work+ :eels4 ,?is may be done 9 an inf9ite v>iety ( ways1 b hi!rto no me?od has be5 sugge/$ suffici5tly simple to be applicable 9 practice2 & ev5 7 any means sugge/$ :i* w\ld accompli% ?is1 unless ! int5sity ( ! impell+ p[] 7 at ! same "t increas$1 x w\ld necess>ily foll[ t ! spe$ ( ! motion w\ld be dim9i%$ 9 exactly ! same proportion z ! p[] ( ! pi/on ov] ! work+ :eels w\ld be increas$4 ,?us1 on ! incl9$ plane1 :i* rises fifty-five feet p] mile1 ^u ! ,liv]pool l9e1 ! spe$ w\ld be dim9i%$ to ne>ly "o f\r? ( its am\nt ^u ! level4 ,illu/ration ,,footnotes3 #cj ,"s ( ! prec$+ obs]vations on inl& transport1 z well z o!r p>ts ( ! pres5t *apt]1 appe>$ 9 articles writt5 by me 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review = ,octob]1 #ahcb1 & ,octob]1 #ahcd4 #ca ,wood on ,railroads1 #b;d edit4 #cb ,! co/ ( coke has ris5 consid]ably s9ce ! date ( ?is report4 #cc ,i am indebt$ to ! enl>g$ edition ( ,tr$gold on ! ,/eam ,eng9e1 publi%$ by ,mr4 ,weale1 = ! draw+s ( ?is eng9e4 ,! details ( ! ma*9e are v fully giv5 9 t "w1 ! description ( !m be+ suppli$ by ,mr4 ,/eph5son himself4 #cd ,see ,table ( ,pressures1 ,temp]atures1 & ,volumes1 9 app5dix4 ,pg#dai ,illu/ration ,,*ap4 ,,xii4 ,,locomotive ,,eng9es ,,on ,,turnpike ,,roads4 ,,railways ,,& ,,/one ,,roads ,,comp>$4 -- ,,mr4 ,,gurney',s ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 -- ,,conv5i5ce ,,& ,,safety ,,( ,,/eam ,,c>riages4 -- ,,hancock',s ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 -- ,,ogle',s ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 -- ,,treve?ick',s ,,inv5tion4 -- ,,dr4 ,,*ur*',s ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 7#bjc47 ,we h hi!rto conf9$ our obs]vations on /eam-p[]1 z a means ( transport by l&1 to its application on railways4 ,b mod]n speculation has n /opp$ !re2 v>i\s attempts h be5 made1 & att5d$ ) m or less success1 to "w /eam-c>riages on common roads4 ,! m]e practicability ( ?is project _h long be5 reg>d$ z v que/ionable2 b en\gh has be5 done to %[ t ! only d\bt :i* c att5d x1 is z to :e!r x c be pr(itably resort$ to1 z a means ( transport1 & ?is "q ,pg#dbj has be5 mat]ially affect$ by ! rec5t ext5sion ( railways4 ,9 comp>+ ! effect ( a /one road ) an iron railway1 !re are two circum/ances :i* give great sup]iority & advantage to ! latt]3 fir/1 ! resi/ance oppos$ by a railway to ! mov+ p[]1 no matt] :at t mov+ p[] may be1 is consid]ably less 9 proportion to ! load ?an on a /one road4 ,! av]age resi/ance on a good level /one road1 to ! motion ( c>riages drawn at ! spe$ usually atta9$ by ! application ( horse-p[]1 may be tak5 at ab\t a ?irty-six? "p ( ! load1 :ile ! resi/ance to a load drawn ^u a railway at ! same spe$ probably does n am\nt to a t5? "p ( ?is resi/ance4 ,?us ! mov+ p[]1 :atev] x may be1 w\ld produce on a railway t5 times ! useful effect :i* x w\ld produce on a /one road2 secondly1 ! resi/ance :i* is oppos$ to ! mov+ p[] on a level railway is mu* m uni=m ?an on a /one road1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! mov+ p[] is less subject$ to j]ks & inequalities4 ,?is r5d]s ! application ( inanimate p[] m easy on ! railway4 ,^? inequalities ( surface :i* increase ! am\nt ( resi/ance on /one roads z comp>$ ) railways also produce a jolt+ motion 9 ! c>riage1 to c\nt]act :i*1 ! use ( spr+s become necess>y4 ,^! spr+s r5d] ! motion ( t "p ( ! c>riage :i* re/s ^u !m diff]5t f t "p ( ! c>riage :i* supports !m2 & 9 ! application ( /eam-ma*9]y x becomes necess>y s to connect ! mov+ p[] ) ! :eels t ! ma*9]y may h "o motion1 & ! :eels :i* are put 9 me*anical connexion ) t ma*9]y1 & driv5 by x1 %all h ano!r motion4 ,?is1 x is true1 is ! case ) locomotive eng9es on railways2 b ow+ to ! great] smoo?ness & equality ( ! railway surface ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! motion ( ! c>riage body susp5d$ on spr+s & t ( ! :eels is mu* less ?an x w\ld be on a /one road4 ,b besides ! great] smoo?ness ( railways comp>$ ) /one roads1 ! latt] h ano!r disadvantage1 ! effects ( :i* h probably be5 exagg]at$ by ^? :o are oppos$ to ?is application ( /eam-p[]4 ,"o ( ! ,pg#dba laws ( adhesion long s9ce develop$ by exp]im5t1 & e/abli%$ z a pr9ciple ( practical sci5ce1 is t ! adhesion is great] betwe5 surfaces ( ! same ?an betwe5 surfaces ( a diff]5t k9d4 ,?us betwe5 two metals ( ! same k9d1 ! adhesion correspond+ to any giv5 pressure is great] ?an betwe5 two metals ( diff]5t k9ds2 betwe5 two metals ( any sort ! adhesion is great] ?an betwe5 metal & /one1 or betwe5 metal & wood4 ,h5ce1 ! :eels ( /eam-c>riages runn+ on a railroad h a great] adhesion ) ! road1 & !re=e (f] a great] resi/ance to slip r\nd )\t ! advance ( ! c>riage1 ?an :eels w\ld (f] on a turnpike road2 = on a railroad ! iron tire ( ! :eel re/s 9 contact ) ! iron rail1 :ile on a common road ! iron tire re/s 9 contact ) ! surface ( /one1 or :atev] mat]ial ! road may be compos$ (4 ,besides ?is1 ! du/ & loose matt] :i* necess>ily collect on a common road1 :5 press$ betwe5 ! :eels & ! solid base ( ! road1 act some:at 9 ! mann] ( roll]s1 & give ! :eels a great] facility to slip ?an if ! road 7 swept clean1 & ! :eels re/$ 9 imm$iate contact ) its h>d surface4 ,! tru? ( ?is obs]vation is illu/rat$ on ! railroads !mselves1 :]e ! adhesion is f\nd to be dim9i%$ :5ev] ! rails are cov]$ ) any extrane\s matt]1 su* z du/ or moi/ clay4 ,al?\gh ! adhesion ( ! :eels ( a c>riage ) a common road1 h[ev]1 be less ?an ^? ( ! :eels ( a /eam-c>riage ) a railroad1 yet /ill ! actual adhesion on turnpike roads is great] 9 am\nt ?an has be5 g5]ally suppos$1 & is q suffici5t to propel c>riages draw+ aft] !m loads ( l>ge am\nt4 ,! relative facility ) :i* c>riages are propell$ on railroads & turnpike-roads equally affects any mov+ p[]1 :e!r t ( horses or /eam eng9es2 & :e!r loads be propell$ by ! "o p[] or ! o!r1 ! railroad1 z comp>$ ) ! turnpike-road1 w always possess ! same proportionate advantage2 & a giv5 am\nt ( p[]1 :e!r ( ! "o k9d or ! o!r1 w always p]=m a quantity ( "w less 9 ! same proportion on a ,pg#dbb turnpike-road ?an on a rail-road4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! exp5se ( orig9al con/ruction1 & ( ma9ta9+ ! repairs ( a rail-road1 is to be plac$ aga9/ ! c]ta9 facility :i* x (f]s to draught4 ,9 ! attempts :i* h be5 made to adapt locomotive eng9es to turnpike-roads1 ! projectors h aim$ at ! accompli%m5t ( two objects3 fir/1 ! con/ruction ( light] & small] eng9es2 &1 secondly1 increas$ p[]4 ,^! ends1 x is pla91 c only be atta9$1 ) our pres5t k1 by ! production ( /eam ( v high temp]ature & pressure1 s t ! smalle/ volume ( /eam %all produce ! greate/ possible me*anical effect4 ,! me?ods ( propell+ ! c>riage h be5 9 g5]al simil> to t us$ 9 ! railroad eng9es1 viz4 ei!r by cranks plac$ on ! axles1 ! :eels be+ fix$ ^u ! same axles1 or by connect+ ! pi/on rods ) ! spokes ( ! :eels4 ,9 "s c>riages1 ! boil] & mov+ p[]1 & ! body ( ! c>riage :i* be>s ! pass5g]s1 are plac$ on ! same :eels4 ,9 o!rs1 ! eng9e is plac$ on a sep>ate c>riage1 & draws aft] x ! c>riage :i* transports ! pass5g]s1 z is always ! case on railways4 ,! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 ! /eam eng9es us$ on railways1 & ^? adapt$ to propel c>riages on turnpike roads1 is 9 ! /ructure ( ! boil]4 ,9 ! latt] x is ess5tial t1 :ile ! p[] rema9s undim9i%$1 ! boil] %\ld be light] & small]4 ,! accompli%m5t ( ?is has be5 attempt$ by v>i\s contrivances = s di/ribut+ ! wat] z to expose a consid]able quantity ( surface 9 contact ) x to ! action ( ! fire3 spread+ x 9 ?9 lay]s on flat plates2 ins]t+ x betwe5 plates ( iron plac$ at a small di/ance asund]1 ! fire be+ admitt$ betwe5 ! int]m$iate plates2 divid+ x into small tubes1 r\nd :i* ! fire has play2 introduc+ x betwe5 ! surfaces ( cyl9d]s plac$ "o )9 ano!r1 ! fire be+ admitt$ betwe5 ! alt]nate cyl9d]s1--h all be5 resort$ to by diff]5t projectors4 7#bjd47 ,fir/ & mo/ prom95t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! application ( /eam to ! propell+ ( c>riages on turnpike roads /&s ! "n ( ,mr4 ,goldswor?y ,gurney1 a m$ical ,pg#dbc g5tleman1 & sci5tific *emi/1 ( ,cornwall4 ,9 #ahbb1 ,mr4 ,gurney succe$$ ,dr4 ,?ompson z lectur] on *emi/ry at ! ,surrey ,in/itution2 &1 9 consequ5ce ( ! results ( "s exp]im5ts on heat1 8 att5tion 0 direct$ to ! project ( work+ /eam-c>riages on common roads2 & he subsequ5tly devot$ 8 ex]tions 9 p]fect+ a /eam-eng9e capable ( atta9+ ! end he _h 9 view4 ,! mi/ake :i* s long prevail$ 9 ! application ( locomotives on railroads1 & :i*1 z we h %[n1 mat]ially ret>d$ ! progress ( t inv5tion1 0 %>$ by ,mr4 ,gurney4 ,)\t r$uc+ ! "q to ! te/ ( exp]im5t1 he took = grant$1 9 8 fir/ attempts1 t ! adhesion ( ! :eels ) ! road 0 too slight to propel ! c>riage4 ,he 0 assur$1 he says1 by em95t eng9e]s1 t ?is 0 a po9t settl$ by actual exp]im5t4 ,x is /range1 h[ev]1 t a p]son ( 8 quickness & sagacity did n inquire aft] ! p>ticul>s ( ^! actual exp]im5ts4 ,s1 h[ev]1 x 02 &1 tak+ = grant$ ! inability ( ! :eels to propel1 he wa/$ mu* lab\r & skill 9 ! contrivance ( lev]s & propell]s1 :i* act$ on ! gr\nd 9 a mann] some:at resembl+ ! feet ( horses1 to drive ! c>riage =w>d4 ,aft] v>i\s fruitless attempts ( ?is k9d1 ! exp]i5ce acquir$ 9 ! trials to :i* !y gave rise at la/ =c$ ! tru? ^u 8 notice1 & he f\nd t ! adhesion ( ! :eels 0 n only suffici5t to propel ! c>riage heavily lad5 on level roads1 b 0 capable ( caus+ x to asc5d all ! hills :i* occur on ord9>y turnpike-roads4 ,9 ?is mann] x asc5d$ all ! hills betwe5 ,london & ,b>net1 ,london & ,/anmore1 ,/anmore ,hill1 ,brockley ,hill1 & m\nt$ ,old ,highgate ,hill1 ! la/ at "o po9t ris+ "o foot 9 n9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,! boil] ( ,mr4 ,gurney's eng9e is s con/ruct$1 t !re is no "p ( x 9 :i* metal expos$ to ! action ( ! fire is out ( contact ) wat]4 ,if x be consid]$ h[ rapidly ! action ( an int5se furnace de/roys metal :5 wat] is n pres5t to prev5t ! heat f accumulat+1 ! advantage ( ?is circum/ance w be appreciat$4 ,9 ! boil] ( ,mr4 ,gurney1 ! grate-b>s ,pg#dbd !mselves are tubes fill$ ) wat]1 & =m1 9 fact1 a "p ( ! boil] itself4 ,?is boil] consi/s ( ?ree /rong metal cyl9d]s plac$ 9 a horizontal position "o above ! o!r4 ,a section1 made by a p]p5dicul> or v]tical plane1 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #aad4 ,! ends ( ! ?ree cyl9d]s j m5tion$ are repres5t$ at ,d1 ,h1 & ,i4 ,9 ! side ( ! l[e/ cyl9d] ,d are ins]t$ a r[ ( tubes1 a gr\nd plan ( :i* is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #aae4 ,^! tubes1 proce$+ f ! side ( ! l[e/ cyl9d] ,d1 are incl9$ ,pg#dbe slightly upw>ds1 = a reason :i* ,i %all pres5tly expla94 ,f ! nature ( ! section1 only "o ( ^! tubes is visible 9 fig4 #aad4 at ,c4 ,! o!r extremities ( ^! tubes at ,a are connect$ ) ! same numb] ( upright tubes1 "o ( :i* is %[n at ,e4 ,! upp] extremities ,g ( ^! upright tubes are connect$ ) ano!r set ( tubes ,k1 equal 9 numb]1 proce$+ f ,g1 incl9+ slightly upw>ds1 & t]m9at+ 9 ! second cyl9d] ,h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,an end view ( ! boil] is exhibit$ 9 fig4 #aaf41 :]e ! ?ree cyl9d]s are express$ by ! same lett]s4 ,betwe5 ! cyl9d]s ,d & ,h !re are two tubes ( communication ,b1 & two simil> tubes betwe5 ! cyl9d]s ,h & ,i4 ,f ! nature ( ! section ^! appe> only z a s+le tube 9 fig4 #aad4 ,f ! top ( ! cyl9d] ,i proce$s a tube ,n1 by :i* /eam is conduct$ to ! eng9e4 ,x w be p]ceiv$ t ! space ,f is enclos$ on e side by a grat+ ( tubes1 :i* h free communication ) ! cyl9d]s ,d & ,h1 :i* cyl9d]s h also a free communication ) ea* o!r by ! tubes ,b4 ,x foll[s1 ,pg#dbf !re=e1 t if wat] be suppli$ to ! cyl9d] ,i1 x w desc5d ?r\gh ! tubes1 & fir/ fill+ ! cyl9d] ,d & ! tubes ,c1 w gradually rise 9 ! tubes ,b & ,e1 w next fill ! tubes ,k & ! cyl9d] ,h4 ,! grat+ ( wat]-pipes ,c ,e ,k =ms ! furnace1 ! pipes ,c be+ ! fire-b>s1 & ! pipes ,e & ,k be+ ! back & ro( ( ! /ove4 ,! fire-door1 = ! supply ( fuel1 appe>s at ,m1 fig4 #aaf4 ,! flue issu+ betwe5 ! tubes ,f is conduct$ ov] ! tubes ,k1 & ! flame & hot air are c>ri$ (f ?r\gh a *imney4 ,t portion ( ! heat ( ! burn+ fuel1 :i* 9 o!r furnaces de/roys ! b>s ( ! grate1 is "h exp5d$ 9 heat+ ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! tubes ,c4 ,! radiant heat ( ! fire acts ^u ! tubes ,k1 =m+ ! ro( ( ! furnace1 on ! tube ,e at ! back ( x1 & p>tially on ! cyl9d]s ,d & ,h1 & ! tubes ,b4 ,! draft ( hot air & flame pass+ into ! flue at ,a acts ^u ! po/]ior surfaces ( ! tubes ,e1 & ! upp] sides ( ! tubes ,k1 & f9ally passes into ! *imney4 ,z ! wat] 9 ! tubes ,c ,e ,k is heat$1 x becomes specifically light] ?an wat] ( a less temp]ature1 & consequ5tly acquires a t5d5cy to asc5d4 ,x passes1 !re=e1 rapidly into ,h4 ,mean:ile ! cold] portions desc5d1 & ! incl9$ positions ( ! tubes ,c & ,k give play to ?is t5d5cy ( ! heat$ wat]1 s t a prodigi\sly rapid circulation is produc$1 :5 ! fire beg9s to act ^u ! tubes4 ,:5 ! wat] acquires su* a temp]ature t /eam is rapidly produc$1 /eam-bubbles are con/antly =m$ 9 ! tubes surr\nd+ ! fire2 & if ^! rema9$ /ation>y 9 ! tubes1 ! action ( ! fire w\ld n only decompose ! /eam1 b r5d] ! tubes r$ hot1 ! wat] n pass+ ?r\gh !m to c>ry (f ! heat4 ,b ! incl9$ position ( ! tubes1 already notic$1 effectually prev5ts ?is injuri\s consequ5ce4 ,a /eam-bubble1 :i* is =m$ ei!r 9 ! tubes ,c or ,k1 hav+ a t5d5cy to asc5d proportional to its lightness z comp>$ ) wat]1 necess>ily ru%es upw>ds2 if 9 ,c t[>ds ,a1 & if 9 ,k t[>ds ,h4 ,b ?is motion ( ! /eam is also aid$ by ! rapid circulation ( ! wat] :i* is cont9ually ma9ta9$ ,pg#dbg 9 ! tubes1 o!rwise x might be possible1 not)/&+ ! levity ( /eam comp>$ ) wat]1 t a bubble might rema9 9 a n>r[ tube )\t ris+4 ,to br+ ! matt] to ! te/ ( exp]im5t1 ,i h connect$ two cyl9d]s1 su* z ,d & ,h1 by a sy/em ( glass tubes1 su* z repres5t$ at ,c ,e ,k4 ,! rapid & con/ant circulation ( ! wat] 0 !n made evid5t3 bubbles ( /eam 7 =m$ 9 ! tubes1 x is true2 b !y pass$ ) great rapidity into ! upp] cyl9d]1 & rose to ! surface1 s t ! glass tubes nev] acquir$ a high] temp]ature ?an t ( ! wat] :i* pass$ ?r\gh !m4 ,e "p ( ! boil] be+ cyl9drical1 x has ! =m :i*1 me*anically consid]$1 is mo/ fav\rable to /r5g?1 & :i*1 )9 giv5 dim5sions1 conta9s ! greate/ quantity ( wat]4 ,x is also free f ! defects aris+ f unequal expansion1 :i* are f\nd to be mo/ injuri\s 9 tubul> boil]s4 ,! tubes ,c & ,k c freely exp& 9 ! direction ( _! l5g?1 )\t be+ loos5$ at _! jo9ts1 & )\t /ra9+ any "p ( ! app>atus2 ! tubes ,e1 be+ %ort1 are subject to a v slight degree ( expansion2 & x is obvi\s t ! long tubes1 ) :i* !y are connect$1 w yield to ?is )\t suff]+ a /ra91 & )\t caus+ any "p ( ! app>atus to be loos5$4 ,:5 wat] is conv]t$ into /eam1 any =eign matt] :i* may be comb9$ ) x is dis5gag$1 & is deposit$ on ! bottom ( ! vessel 9 :i* ! wat] is evaporat$4 ,all boil]s1 !re=e1 require occasional cleans+1 to prev5t ! cru/ ?us =m$ f accumulat+2 & ?is op]ation1 = obvi\s reasons1 is att5d$ ) peculi> difficulty 9 tubul> boil]s4 ,9 ! case be=e u1 ! cru/ ( deposit$ matt] w\ld ga!r & ?ick5 9 ! tubes ,c & ,k1 & if n remov$1 w\ld at l5g? *oke !m4 ,b besides ?is1 x w\ld be att5d$ ) a /ill worse effect2 =1 be+ a bad conductor1 x w\ld int]cept ! heat 9 its transit f ! fire to ! wat]1 & w\ld cause ! metal ( ! tube to become unduly heat$4 ,mr4 ,gurney ( c\rse =esaw ?is inconv5i5ce1 & contriv$ an +5i\s *emical me?od ( remov+ x1 by occasionally inject+ ,pg#dbh ?r\gh ! tubes su* an acid z w\ld comb9e ) ! deposit1 & c>ry x away4 ,?is me?od 0 effectual2 & al?\gh its practical application 0 f\nd to be att5d$ ) difficulty 9 ! h&s ( common workm51 ,mr4 ,gurney 0 p]suad$ to adh]e to x by ! late ,dr4 ,wolla/on1 until exp]i5ce prov$ ! impossibility ( gett+ x effectually p]=m$1 "u ! circum/ances 9 :i* boil]s are commonly us$4 ,mr4 ,gurney !n adopt$ a me?od ( remov+ ! deposit by me*anical means4 ,opposite ! m\?s ( ! tubes1 & on ! o!r side ( ! cyl9d]s ,d & ,h1 are plac$ a numb] ( holes1 :i*1 :5 ! boil] is 9 use1 are /opp$ by pieces ( metal screw$ into !m4 ,:5 ! tubes require to be clean$1 ^! /opp]s are remov$1 & an iron scrap] is introduc$ ?r\gh ! holes into ! tubes1 :i*1 be+ pass$ backw>ds & =w>ds1 removes ! deposit4 ,9 ^! eng9es ! draught ?r\gh ! furnace 0 produc$ by project+ ! wa/e /eam up ! *imneys z is practis$ 9 railway eng9es2 a me?od s p]fectly effectual1 t x is unlikely to be sup]s$$ by any o!r4 ,! objection :i* has be5 urg$ aga9/ x 9 locomotive eng9es1 work+ on turnpike-roads1 is1 t ! noise :i* x produces has a t5d5cy to fright5 horses4 ,9 ! eng9es on ! ,liv]pool road1 ! /eam is all[$ to pass directly f ! eduction pipe ( ! cyl9d] to ! *imney1 & x !re escapes 9 puffs correspond+ ) ! alt]nate motion ( ! pi/ons1 & produces a noise1 :i*1 al?\gh att5d$ ) no inconv5i5ce on ! railroad1 w\ld p]haps be objectionable on turnpike-roads4 ,9 ! eng9e us$ 9 ,mr4 ,gurney's /eam-c>riage1 ! /eam :i* passes f ! cyl9d]s is conduct$ to a receptacle1 :i* he calls a bl[+ box4 ,?is box s]ves ! same purpose z ! upp] *amb] ( a smi?'s bell[s4 ,x receives ! /eam f ! cyl9d]s 9 alt]nate puffs1 b lets x escape into ! *imney 9 a cont9u$ /ream by a numb] ( small jets4 ,regul> draught is by ?is means produc$1 & no noise is p]ceiv$4 ,ano!r exit = ! /eam is also provid$1 by :i* ! conductor is enabl$ to increase or dim9i%1 or to susp5d altoge!r1 ! draught ,pg#dbi 9 ! *imney1 s z to adapt ! int5sity ( ! fire to ! exig5cies ( ! road4 ,?is is a great conv5i5ce 9 practice2 because on "s roads a draught is sc>cely requir$1 :ile on o!rs a p[]ful bla/ is indisp5sable4 ,connect$ ) ?is bl[+ box is ano!r app>atus ( consid]able practical importance4 ,! pipe ?r\gh :i* ! fe$+ wat] is conduct$ f ! tank is c>ri$ ?r\gh ?is bl[+ box1 )9 :i* x is coil$ 9 a spiral =m1 s t an ext5sive ?read ( ! wat] is expos$ to ! heat ( ! wa/e /eam :i* has escap$ f ! cyl9d]s1 & :i* is enclos$ 9 ?is bl[+ box4 ,9 pass+ ?r\gh ?is pipe ! fe$+ wat] is rais$ f ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ab\t #fj to ! temp]ature ( #bab4 ,fuel is ?us economis$ & weight dim9i%$2 b !re is ano!r /ill great] advantage att5d+ ?is process4 ,! fe$+ wat] 9 ! worm j m5tion$1 :ile x takes up ! heat f ! surr\nd+ /eam 9 ! bl[+ box1 cond5ses a "p ( ! wa/e /eam1 :i* is !nce conduct$ to ! tank1 f :i* ! fe$+ wat] is pump$4 ,:5 /eam is g5]at$ s rapidly z is necess>ily ! case 9 locomotive boil]s1 x rises ) great viol5ce 9 num]\s bubbles f ! bottom ( ! boil] to ! surface ( ! wat]1 & puts ! liquid into a /ate ( foam+ turbul5ce n unlike ! sea 9 a /orm4 ,z ! /eam ru%es f ! surface into ! upp] "p ( ! boil]1 "u ^! circum/ances1 x c>ries ) x a spray by :i* wat] is scatt]$ 9 m9ute subdivision among ! /eam1 & floats !re l ! spray :i* rises f ! base ( a cascade4 ,if ! /eam be conduct$ imm$iately to ! cyl9d] f ! boil] 9 ?is /ate1 x w c>ry ) x ! wat] :i* is ?us susp5d$ 9 x1 :i* w pass ?r\gh ! cyl9d]1 & f9ally be driv5 into ! atmosph]e ^u ! return+ /roke ( ! pi/on4 ,! hot wat] ?us c>ri$ (f possesses none ( ! me*anical prop]ties ( /eam1 & is :olly ineffici5t z a mov+ p[]1 & is !re=e an ext5sive s\rce ( ! wa/e ( heat4 ,9 e boil]1 "s means %\ld be provid$ = ! sep>ation ( ! wat] ?us susp5d$ 9 ! /eam1 be=e ! /eam is conduct$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ord9>y boil]s1 ! l>ge space :i* ,pg#dcj rema9s above ! surface ( ! wat] s]ves ?is purpose4 ,! /eam be+ !re subject to no agitation or di/urbance1 ! wat] me*anically susp5d$ 9 x desc5ds by its own gravity1 & leaves pure /eam 9 ! upp] "p4 ,9 ! small tubul> boil]s1 ?is has be5 a matt]1 h[ev]1 ( great] difficulty4 ,! contract$ space 9 :i* ! ebullition takes place causes ! wat] to be mix$ ) ! /eam 9 a great] quantity ?an c\ld happ5 9 common boil]s2 & ! want ( ! same /eam-room r5d]s ! sep>ation ( ! wat] f ! /eam a matt] ( "s difficulty4 ,^! inconv5i5ces h be5 attempt$ to be ov]come by v>i\s contrivances4 ,i h already describ$ ! rapid & regul> circulation effect$ by ! arrangem5t ( ! tubes4 ,by ?is a regul>ity 9 ! curr5ts is e/abli%$1 :i* has a t5d5cy to dim9i% ! mixture ( wat] ) ! /eam4 ,9 addition to ?is1 a me?od ( sep>ation is provid$ 9 ! vessel ,i1 :i* is a /rong iron cyl9d] ( "s magnitude1 plac$ out ( ! imm$iate influ5ce ( ! fire4 ,a p>tial sep>ation ( ! /eam f ! wat] takes place 9 ! cyl9d] ,h2 & ! /eam ) ! wat] me*anically susp5d$ 9 x1 te*nically call$ moi/ /eam1 rises into ! sep>ator ,i4 ,"h1 be+ free f all agitation & curr5ts1 & be+1 9 fact1 quiesc5t1 ! p>ticles ( wat] fall to ! bottom1 :ile ! pure /eam rema9s at ! top4 ,?is sep>ator1 !re=e1 s]ves all ! purposes ( ! /eam-room above ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! l>ge plate boil]s4 ,! dry /eam is ?us collect$ & ready = ! supply ( ! eng9e ?r\gh ! tube ,n1 :ile ! wat]1 :i* is dis5gag$ f x1 is collect$ at ! bottom ( ! sep>ator1 & is conduct$ ?r\gh ! tube ,t to ! l[e/ vessel ,d1 to be aga9 circulat$ ?r\gh ! boil]4 ,! pi/ons ( ! eng9e "w on ! axles ( ! h9d :eels ( ! c>riage :i* be>s ! eng9e1 by cranks1 z 9 ! locomotives on ! ,man*e/] railway1 s t ! axle is kept 9 a con/ant /ate ( rotation :ile ! eng9e is at "w4 ,! :eels plac$ on ?is axle are n p]man5tly fix$ or key$ ^u x1 z 9 ! ,man*e/] locomotives2 b !y are capable ( turn+ ^u x 9 ! same mann] z ord9>y c>riage :eels4 ,imm$iately )9 ,pg#dca ^! :eels !re are fix$ ^u ! axles two project+ spokes or lev]s1 :i* revolve ) ! axle1 & :i* take ! position ( two opposite spokes ( ! :eel4 ,^! may be occasionally atta*$ to ! :eel or deta*$ f x2 s t !y are capable ( compell+ ! :eels to turn ) ! axle1 or leav+ ! axle free to turn indep5d5tly ( ! :eel1 or ! :eel indep5d5t ( ! axle1 at ! pleasure ( ! conductor4 ,x is by ^! lev]s t ! eng9e is made to propel ei!r or bo? ( ! :eels4 ,if bo? pairs ( spokes are ?r[n into connexion ) ! :eels1 ! crank %aft or axle w cause bo? :eels to turn ) x1 & 9 t case ! op]ation ( ! c>riage is precisely ! same z ^? ( ! locomotives already describ$ ^u ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] l9e2 b ?is is r>ely f\nd to be necess>y1 s9ce ! adhesion ( "o :eel ) ! road is g5]ally suffici5t to propel ! c>riage1 & consequ5tly only "o pair ( ^! fix$ lev]s are us$1 & ! c>riage propell$ by only "o ( ! two h9d :eels4 ,! =e :eels ( ! c>riage turn ^u a pivot simil> to ^? ( a f\r-:eel$ coa*4 ,! position ( ^! :eels is *ang$ at pleasure by a p9ion & circul> rack1 :i* is mov$ by ! conductor1 & 9 ?is mann] ! c>riage is guid$ ) precision & facility4 ,! =ce ( traction necess>y to propel a c>riage ^u common roads mu/ v>y ) ! v>iable quality ( ! road1 & consequ5tly ! propell+ p[]1 or ! pressure ^u ! pi/ons ( ! eng9e1 mu/ be susceptible ( a correspond+ v>iation2 b a /ill great] v>iation becomes necess>y f ! undulations & hills :i* are ^u all ord9>y roads4 ,?is necess>y *ange 9 ! int5sity ( ! impell+ p[] is obta9$ by re/ra9+ ! /eam 9 ! boil] by ! ?rottle-valve1 z already describ$ 9 ! locomotive eng9es on ! railroad4 ,?is pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 is c>ri$ mu* fur!r 9 ! pres5t case4 ,! /eam 9 ! boil] maybe at a pressure ( f #ajj to #bjj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*2 :ile ! /eam on ! work+ pi/on may n exce$ #cj or #dj lbs4 on ! in*4 ,?us an imm5se increase ( p[] is always at ! comm& ( ! conductor2 s t :5 a hill is enc\nt]$1 or a r\gh piece ( road1 ,pg#dcb he is enabl$ to lay on p[] suffici5t to meet ! exig5cy ( ! occasion4 ,! two difficulties :i* h be5 always appreh5d$ 9 ! practical work+ ( /eam-c>riages ^u common roads are1 fir/1 ! comm& ( suffici5t p[] = hills & r\gh pieces ( road2 &1 secondly1 ! appreh5d$ insuffici5cy ( ! adhesion ( ! :eels ) ! road to propel ! c>riage4 ,! =m] ( ^! difficulties has be5 met by all[+ /eam ( v great pressure to be con/antly ma9ta9$ 9 ! boil] ) p]fect safety4 ,z to ! second1 all exp]im5ts t5d to %[ t !re is no gr\nd = ! supposition t ! adhesion ( ! :eels is 9 any case insuffici5t = ! purposes ( propulsion4 ,mr4 ,gurney /ates1 t he has succe$$ 9 driv+ c>riages ?us propell$1 up consid]able hills on ! turnpike roads ab\t ,london4 ,he made a j\rney to ,b>net ) only "o :eel atta*$ to ! axle1 :i* 0 f\nd suffici5t to propel ! c>riage up all hills ^u t road4 ,! same c>riage1 ) only "o propell+ :eel1 also w5t to ,ba?1 & surm\nt$ all ! hills betwe5 ,cran=d ,bridge & ,ba?1 go+ & return+4 ,a d\ble /roke ( ! pi/on produces "o revolution ( ! propell+ :eels1 & causes ! c>riage to move ?r\gh a space equal to ! circumf]5ce ( ^? :eels4 ,x w !re=e be obvi\s1 t ! great] ! diamet] ( ! :eels1 ! bett] adapt$ ! c>riage is = spe$2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 :eels ( small] diamet] are bett] adapt$ = p[]4 ,9 fact1 ! propell+ p[] ( an eng9e on ! :eels w be 9 ! inv]se proportion ( _! diamet]4 ,9 c>riages design$ to c>ry great weights at a mod]ate spe$1 small] :eels w be us$2 :ile 9 ^? int5d$ = ! transport ( pass5g]s at consid]able velocities1 :eels ( at lea/ #e feet diamet] are mo/ advantage\s4 7#bje47 ,among ! num]\s popul> prejudices to :i* ?is new inv5tion has giv5 rise1 "o ( ! mo/ mis*iev\s 9 its effects & mo/ gl>+ 9 its falsehood1 is ! notion t c>riages ?us propell$ are m injuri\s to roads ?an c>riages drawn by horses4 ,?is error has be5 successfully expos$ 9 ! evid5ce tak5 be=e ! committee ( ! ,pg#dcc ,h\se ( ,commons ^u /eam c>riages4 ,x is !re demon/rat$1 n only t c>riages ?us propell$ d n we> a turnpike road m rapidly ?an ^? drawn by horses1 b t1 on ! o!r h&1 ! we> by ! feet ( horses is f> m rapid & de/ructive ?an any :i* c\ld be produc$ by ! :eels ( c>riages4 ,/eam c>riages admit ( hav+ ! tires ( ! :eels broad1 s z to act ^u ! road m 9 ! mann] ( roll]s1 & !reby to give consi/5cy & firmness to ! mat]ial ( :i* ! road is compos$4 ,! driv+ :eels be+ prov$ n to slip ^u ! road1 d n produce any effects m injuri\s ?an ! ord9>y roll+ :eels2 consequ5tly ! we> occasion$ by a /eam c>riage ^u a road1 is n m ?an t produc$ by a c>riage drawn by horses1 ( an equival5t weight & ! same or equal tires2 b ! we> produc$ by ! p\nd+ & digg+ ( horses' feet 9 draught is _m times great] ?an t produc$ by ! we> ( any c>riage4 ,^? :o /ill h d\bts ^u ?is subject1 if !re be any su* p]sons1 w be fully satisfi$ by ref]r+ to ! evid5ce :i* accompanies ! report ( ! committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 pr9t$ 9 ,octob]1 #ahca4 ,! weight ( ma*9]y necess>y = /eam c>riages is sometimes urg$ z an objection to _! practical utility4 ,mr4 ,gurney /ates1 t1 by successive improvem5ts 9 ! details ( ! ma*9]y1 ! weight ( 8 c>riages1 )\t los+ any ( ! propell+ p[]1 may be r$uc$ to #ce cwt41 exclusive ( ! load1 & fuel & wat]3 b ?9ks t x is possible to r$uce ! weight /ill fur!r4 ,a /eam c>riage con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,gurney1 weigh+ #ce cwt41 work+ = #h h\rs1 is f\nd1 accord+ to 8 /atem5t1 to d ! "w ( ab\t #cj horses4 ,he calculates t ! weight ( 8 propell+ c>riage1 :i* w\ld be capable ( draw+ #ah p]sons1 w\ld be equal to ! weight ( #d horses2 & ! c>riage 9 :i* ^! p]sons w\ld be drawn w\ld h ! same weight z a common /age coa* capable ( c>ry+ ! same numb] ( p]sons4 ,?us ! weight ( ! :ole--! propell+ c>riage & ! c>riage = pass5g]s tak5 toge!r--w\ld be ! same ,pg#dcd ) ! weight ( a common /age coa*1 ) #d horses inclusive4 ,!re are two me?ods ( apply+ locomotives ^u common roads to ! transport ( pass5g]s or goods2 ! "o is by caus+ ! locomotive to c>ry1 & ! o!r to draw ! load2 & diff]5t projectors h adopt$ ! "o & ! o!r me?od4 ,ea* is att5d$ ) its advantages & disadvantages4 ,if ! same c>riage transport ! eng9e & ! load1 ! weight ( ! :ole w be less 9 proportion to ! load c>ri$2 also a great] pressure may be produc$ on ! :eels by :i* ! load is propell$4 ,x is also ?\ght t a great] facility 9 turn+ & guid+ ! vehicle1 great] safety 9 desc5d+ ! hills1 & a sav+ 9 ! orig9al co/1 w be obta9$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! pass5g]s are plac$ 9 ! same c>riage ) ! eng9e1 !y are necess>ily m expos$ to ! noise ( ! ma*9]y & to ! heat ( ! boil] & furnace4 ,! dang] ( explosion is s slight1 t1 p]haps1 x sc>cely des]ves to be m5tion$2 b /ill ! appreh5sion ( dang] on ! "p ( ! pass5g]s1 ev5 ?\gh gr\ndless1 %\ld n be disreg>d$4 ,?is appreh5sion w be obvi\sly remov$ or dim9i%$ by transf]r+ ! pass5g]s into a c>riage sep>ate f ! eng9e2 b ! greate/ advantage ( keep+ ! eng9e sep>ate f ! pass5g]s is ! facility :i* x af=ds ( *ang+ "o eng9e = ano!r 9 case ( accid5t or d]angem5t on ! road1 9 ! same mann] z horses are *ang$ at ! diff]5t /ages3 or1 if su* an accid5t occur 9 a place :]e a new eng9e _c be procur$1 ! load ( pass5g]s may be c>ri$ =w>d by horses1 until x is br\ght to "s /ation :]e a locomotive may be obta9$4 ,!re is also an advantage aris+ f ! circum/ance1 t :5 ! eng9es are "u repair1 or 9 process ( clean+1 ! c>riages = pass5g]s are n necess>ily idle4 ,?us ! same numb] ( c>riages = pass5g]s w n be requir$ :5 ! eng9e is us$ to draw z :5 x is us$ to c>ry4 ,9 case ( a v p[]ful eng9e be+ us$ to c>ry great loads1 x w\ld be q impracticable to place ! eng9e ,pg#dce & loads on f\r :eels1 ! pressure be+ su* z no turnpike road c\ld be>4 ,9 ?is case x w\ld be indisp5sably necess>y to place a "p ( ! load at lea/ ^u sep>ate c>riages to be drawn by ! eng9e4 ,9 ! comp>ison ( c>riages propell$ by /eam ) c>riages drawn by horses1 !re is no respect 9 :i* ! advantage ( ! =m] is s app>5t z ! safety af=d$ to ! pass5g]4 ,/eam p[] is "u ! mo/ p]fect control1 & a c>riage ?us propell$ is capable ( be+ guid$ ) ! mo/ admirable precision4 ,x is also capable ( be+ /opp$ almo/ sudd5ly1 :atev] be its spe$3 x is capable ( be+ turn$ )9 a space consid]ably less ?an t :i* w\ld be necess>y = f\r-horse coa*es4 ,9 turn+ %>p corn]s1 !re is no dang]1 ) ! mo/ ord9>y c>e on ! "p ( ! conductor4 ,on ! o!r h&1 horse p[]1 z is well kn[n1 is "u v imp]fect control1 especially :5 horses are us$ adapt$ to t spe$ :i* at pres5t is g5]ally consid]$ necess>y = ! purposes ( travell+4 ,! dang] ( be+ run away ) & ov]turn$1 says ,mr4 ,f>ey1 9 8 evid5ce be=e ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 is greatly dim9i%$ 9 a /eam coa*4 ,x is v difficult to control f\r su* horses z c draw a heavy /age coa* t5 miles an h\r1 9 case !y are fright5$ or *oose to run away2 &1 = su* quick travell+1 !y mu/ be kept 9 t /ate ( c\rage t !y are always incl9$ to run away1 p>ticul>ly d[n hill1 & at %>p turns 9 ! road4 ,/eam p[] has v little correspond+ dang]1 be+ p]fectly controllable1 & capable ( hav+ its p[] rev]s$1 to ret>d 9 go+ d[n hill4 ,x mu/ be c>elessness t w\ld occasion ! ov]turn+ ( a /eam c>riage4 ,! *ance ( break+ d[n has be5 hi!rto consid]able1 b x w n be m ?an 9 /age coa*es :5 ! "w is truly proportion$ & prop]ly execut$4 ,! risk f explosion ( ! boil] is ! only new cause ( dang]1 & t ,i consid] n equival5t to ! dang] f horses4 ,t ! risk ( accid5t f explosion is extremely slight1 may be prov$ by ! fact t ! railway betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] has n[ be5 9 op]ation = ab\t t5 ,pg#dcf ye>s1 & t o!r railways m ext5sive 9 l5g? h be5 work$ = a consid]able "t1 & t no in/ance has ev] yet occurr$ ( an accid5t to pass5g]s f ! explosion ( a boil]4 ,g5]ally ^! ma*9es1 :5 !y fail1 are att5d$ ) no o!r effect ?an ! ext9ction ( ! fire1 by ! wat] ( ! boil] fl[+ 9 ^u x4 ,i am n aw>e ( m ?an "o in/ance1 9 :i* a s]i\s accid5t has be5 produc$ by explosion2 & 9 t in/ance1 ! suff]]s 7 only ! eng9e] & /ok]4 ,9 ! /eam-eng9e ( ,mr4 ,gurney1 ! c>riage is drawn aft] ! eng9e1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #aag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah4 7#bjf47 ,9 ! boil] to be us$ 9 ! /eam c>riage project$ by ,mr4 ,walt] ,hancock1 ! subdivision ( ! wat] is accompli%$ by divid+ a case or box by a numb] ( ,pg#dcg ?9 plates ( metal1 l a galvanic batt]y1 ! wat] be+ all[$ to fl[ betwe5 e alt]nate pair ( plates1 at ,e1 fig4 #aah41 & ! int]m$iate spaces ,h =m+ ! flue ?r\gh :i* ! flame & hot air are propell$4 ,9 fact1 a numb] ( ?9 plates ( wat] are expos$ on bo? sides to ! mo/ int5se action ( flame & heat$ air2 s t /eam ( a high pressure is produc$ 9 great abundance & ) consid]able rapidity4 ,! plates =m+ ! boil] are bolt$ toge!r by /rong iron ties1 ext5d+ across ! boil]1 at "r angles to ! plates1 z repres5t$ 9 ! figure4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! plates is two in*es4 ,!re are t5 flat *amb]s ( ?is k9d = wat]1 & int]m$iately betwe5 !m t5 flues4 ,"u ! flues is ! fire-place1 or grate1 conta9+ six squ>e feet ( fuel 9 vivid combu/ion4 ,! *amb]s are all fill$ to ab\t two ?irds ( _! dep? ) wat]1 & ! o!r ?ird is left = /eam4 ,! wat] *amb]s1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole s]ies1 communicate ) ea* o!r bo? at top & bottom1 & are held toge!r by two l>ge bolts4 ,by releas+ ^! bolts1 at any "t1 ! *amb]s fall asund]2 & by screw+ !m up !y may be all made tight aga94 ,! wat] is suppli$ to ! boil] by a =c+-pump1 & ! /eam issues f ! c5tre ( "o ( ! flues at ! top4 ,^! boil]s are con/ruct$ to be> a pressure ( #djj or #ejj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*2 b ! av]age pressure ( ! /eam on ! safety valve is f #fj to #ajj4 ,!re are #ajj squ>e feet ( surface 9 contact ) ! wat] expos$ to ! fire4 ,! /ages :i* su* an eng9e p]=ms are eight miles1 at ! end ( :i* a fre% supply ( fuel & wat] are tak5 94 ,x requires ab\t two bu%els ( coke = ea* /age4 ,! /eam c>riage ( ,mr4 ,hancock diff]s f t ( ,mr4 ,gurney 9 ?is--t 9 ! =m] ! pass5g]s & eng9e are all plac$ on ! same c>riage4 ,! boil] is plac$ beh9d ! c>riage2 & !re is an eng9e-h\se betwe5 ! boil] & ! pass5g]s1 ! latt] be+ plac$ 9 ! =e "p ( ! vehicle2 s t all ! ma*9]y is beh9d !m4 ,! c>riages are adapt$ to c>ry #ad ,pg#dch pass5g]s1 & weigh1 exclusive ( _! load1 ab\t #c-a_/b tons1 ! tires ( ! :eels be+ ab\t #c-a_/b in*es 9 bread?4 ,mr4 ,hancock /ates1 t ! con/ruction ( 8 boil] is ( su* a nature1 t1 ev5 9 ! case ( bur/+1 no dang] is to be appreh5d$1 nor any o!r inconv5i5ce ?an ! /oppage ( ! c>riage4 ,he /ates t1 :ile travell+ ab\t n9e miles an h\r1 & work+ ) a pressure ( ab\t #ajj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*1 load$ ) ?irte5 pass5g]s1 ! c>riage 0 sudd5ly /opp$4 ,at fir/ ! cause ( ! accid5t 0 n app>5t2 b1 on op5+ "o ( ! cocks ( ! boil]1 x 0 f\nd t x conta9$ nei!r /eam nor wat]4 ,fur!r exam9ation prov$ t ! boil] _h bur/4 ,on unscrew+ ! bolts1 x 0 f\nd t !re 7 sev]al l>ge holes 9 ! plates ( ! wat]-*amb]1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] _h fl[$ on ! fire1 b nei!r noise nor explosion1 nor any dang]\s consequ5ces1 ensu$4 7#bjg47 ,mr4 ,na?aniel ,ogle ( ,s\?ampton obta9$ a pat5t = a locomotive c>riage1 & work$ x = "s "t exp]im5tally2 b z 8 op]ations d n appe> to h be5 cont9u$1 ,i suppose he 0 unsuccessful 9 fulfill+ ^? conditions1 )\t :i* ! ma*9e c\ld n be work$ ) economy & pr(it4 ,9 8 evid5ce be=e a committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 he has ?us describ$ 8 contrivance3-- ,! base ( ! boil] & ! summit are compos$ ( cross pieces1 cyl9drical )9 & squ>e )\t2 !re are holes bor$ ?r\gh ^! cross pieces1 & ins]t$ ?r\gh ! :ole is an air tube4 ,! inn] hole ( ! l[] surface1 & ! "u hole ( ! upp] surface1 are r l>g] ?an ! o!r ones4 ,r\nd ! air tube is plac$ a small cyl9d]1 ! coll> ( :i* fits r\nd ! l>g] ap]ture on ! inn] surface ( ! l[] frame1 & ! "u surface ( ! upp] frame-"w4 ,^! are bo? drawn toge!r by screws f ! top2 ^! cross pieces are unit$ by connect+ pieces1 ! :ole /rongly bolt$ toge!r2 s t we obta91 9 "o t5? ( ! space1 & ) "o t5? ( ! weight1 ! same heat+ surface & p[] z is n[ obta9$ 9 o!r & l[-pressure boil]s1 ) incalculably ,pg#dci great] safety4 ,our pres5t exp]im5tal boil] conta9s #bej sup]ficial feet ( heat+ surface 9 ! space ( #c feet #h in*es high1 #c feet long1 & #b feet #d in*es broad1 & weighs ab\t #h cwt4 ,we supply ! two cyl9d]s ) /eam1 communicat+ by _! pi/ons ) a crank axle1 to ! ends ( :i* ei!r "o or bo? :eels are affix$ z may be requir$4 ,"o :eel is f\nd to be suffici5t1 except "u v difficult circum/ances1 & :5 ! elevation is ab\t "o foot 9 six to impel ! vehicle =w>d4 ,! cyl9d]s ( :i* ! boil] is compos$ are s small z to be> a great] pressure ?an c\ld be produc$ by ! quantity ( fire b5ea? ! boil]2 & if any "o ( ^! cyl9d]s %\ld be injur$ by viol5ce1 or any o!r way1 x w\ld become m]ely a safety valve to ! re/4 ,we nev]1 ) ! greate/ pressure1 bur/1 r5t1 or injur$ our boil]2 & x has n once requir$ clean+1 aft] hav+ be5 9 use twelve mon?s4 ,dr4 ,*ur* ( ,birm+ham has obta9$ a succession ( pat5ts = contrivances connect$ ) a locomotive eng9e = /one roads2 & a company1 consi/+ ( a consid]able numb] ( individuals1 possess+ suffici5t capital1 has be5 =m$ 9 ,birm+ham1 = c>ry+ into effect 8 designs1 & work+ c>riages on 8 pr9ciple4 ,! pres5t boil] ( ,dr4 ,*ur* is =m$ ( copp]4 ,! wat] is conta9$ betwe5 two %eets ( copp]1 unit$ toge!r by copp] nails1 9 a mann] resembl+ ! way 9 :i* ! clo? =m+ ! top ( a mattress or cu%ion is unit$ ) ! clo? :i* =ms ! bottom ( x1 except t ! nails or p9s1 :i* b9d ! %eets ( copp]1 are mu* clos] toge!r4 ,! wat]1 9 fact1 seems to be quilt$ or padd$ 9 betwe5 two %eets ( ?9 copp]4 ,?is d\ble %eet ( copp] is =m$ into an oblong rectangul> box1 ! int]ior ( :i* is ! fire-place & a%-pit1 & ov] ! end ( :i* is ! /eam-*e/4 ,! great ext5t ( surface expos$ to ! imm$iate action ( ! fire causes /eam to be produc$ ) great rapidity4 ,v>i\s o!r projects = ! application ( /eam eng9es on common roads 7 9 a /ate ( progressive improvem5t1 ,pg#ddj :5 ! great] advantages att5d+ railways 7 consid]$ s manife/1 t consid]able d\bts 7 rais$1 :e!r1 suppos+ ! problem ( ! application ( ! /eam eng9e on common roads to be successfully solv$1 x c\ld ev] be att5d$ ) ! same economy & effect1 z by ! adoption ( a railway4 ,among ! projects :i* promis$ a successful issue1 may be m5tion$ ! locomotive eng9es contriv$ by ,messrs4 ,maudslay & ,field1 by ,colonel ,mac]oni1 & by ,mr4 ,scott ,russell4 ,^! & o!rs h1 h[ev]1 be5 ab&on$1 ma9ly1 we believe1 f ! impression1 t :]ev] traffic c exi/1 suffici5tly ext5sive to r5d] ! application ( /eam p[] pr(itable1 a railway mu/ always sup]s$e a common road2 & t1 ev5 9 ! limit$ traffic to be expect$ on bran*es to ! great railways1 horse p[] appli$ to railways w\ld be att5d$ ) m economy ?an /eam p[] appli$ on /one roads4 ,illu/ration ,pg#dda ,illu/ration ,,*ap4 ,,xiii4 ,,/eam ,,navigation4 ,,=m ,,& ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,m>9e ,,eng9es4 -- ,,effects ,,( ,,sea ,,wat] ,,9 ,,boil]s4 -- ,,rem$ies ,,= ,,!m4 -- ,,bl[+ ,,out4 -- ,,indicators ,,( ,,saltness4 -- ,,seaw>d',s ,,indicator4 -- ,,8 ,,me?od ,,( ,,bl[+ ,,out4 -- ,,field',s ,,br9e ,,pumps4 -- ,,tubul> ,,cond5s]s ,,appli$ ,,by ,,mr4 ,,watt4 -- ,,hall',s ,,cond5s]s4 -- ,,copp] ,,boil]s4 -- ,,process ,,( ,,/ok+4 -- ,,m>9e ,,boil]s4 -- ,,means ,,( ,,economis+ ,,fuel4 -- ,,coat+ ,,m>9e ,,boil]s ,,) ,,felt4 -- ,,numb] ,,& ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,furnaces ,,& ,,flues4 -- ,,h[>d',s ,,eng9e4 -- ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,expansive ,,pr9ciple ,,9 ,,m>9e ,,eng9es4 -- ,,rec5t ,,improvem5ts ,,( ,,messrs4 ,,maudslay ,,& ,,field4 -- ,,humphrys' ,,eng9e4 -- ,,common ,,paddle-,,:eel4 -- ,,fea!r+ ,,paddles4 -- ,,morgan',s ,,:eels4 -- ,,! ,,split ,,paddle4 -- ,,proportion ,,( ,,p[] ,,to ,,tonnage4 -- ,,improv$ ,,effici5cy ,,( ,,m>9e ,,eng9es4 -- ,,iron ,,/eam-,,vessels4 -- ,,/eam-,,navigation ,,to ,,india4 7#bjh47 ,among ! _m ways 9 :i* ! /eam-eng9e has m9i/]$ to ! advancem5t ( civilisation & ! social progress ( ! human race1 !re is none m ,pg#ddb important or m int]e/+ ?an its application to navigation4 ,be=e x l5t its giant p[]s to ! propulsion ( %ips1 locomotion ov] ! wat]s ( ! deep 0 att5d$ ) s mu* dang] & unc]ta9ty t1 z a common prov]b1 x became ! type & ! repres5tative ( e ?+ :i* 0 prec>i\s & p]il\s4 ,! application1 h[ev]1 ( /eam to navigation has rescu$ ! m>9] & ! voyag] f _m ( ! dang]s ( w9d & wat]2 & ev5 9 its pres5t /ate1 putt+ out ( view its probable improvem5t1 x has r5d]$ all voyages ( mod]ate l5g? z safe1 & v ne>ly z regul>1 z j\rneys ov]-l&4 ,z a means ( transport by sea1 ! application ( ?is p[] may be consid]$ z e/abli%$2 & x is n[ receiv+ improvem5ts by :i* its ext5sion to ! longe/ class ( ocean voyages is a "q n ( practicability1 b m]ely ( pr(it4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! /eam-eng9e is r5d]$ an in/rum5t = ! propulsion ( vessels mu/ 9 its g5]al features be s famili> to e "o z to require b %ort explanation4 ,a %aft is c>ri$ across ! vessel1 be+ cont9u$ on ei!r side beyond ! timb]s3 to ! extremities ( ?is %aft1 on ! outside ( ! vessel1 are fix$ a pair ( :eels con/ruct$ l und]%ot wat]-:eels1 hav+ atta*$ to _! rims a numb] ( flat bo>ds call$ paddle-bo>ds4 ,z ! :eels revolve1 ^! paddle-bo>ds /rike ! wat]1 driv+ x 9 a direction contr>y to t 9 :i* x is int5d$ ! vessel %\ld be propell$4 ,! mov+ =ce imp>t$ to ! wat] ?us driv5 backw>ds is necess>ily accompani$ by a re-action ^u ! vessel ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! paddle-%aft1 by :i* ! vessel is propell$ =w>ds4 ,on ! paddle-%aft two cranks are con/ruct$1 simil> to ! cranks already describ$ on ! axle ( ! driv+ :eels ( a locomotive eng9e4 ,^! cranks are plac$ at "r angles to ea* o!r1 s t :5 ei!r is 9 its highe/ or l[e/ position ! o!r %all be horizontal4 ,!y are driv5 by two /eam-eng9es1 :i* are plac$ 9 ! hull ( ! vessel bel[ ! paddle-%aft4 ,9 ! e>li] /eam-boats a s+le /eam-eng9e 0 us$1 & 9 t case ! unequal action ( ! eng9e on ! crank 0 equalis$ by a fly-:eel4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 has be5 long ,pg#ddc s9ce ab&on$ 9 ,european vessels1 & ! use ( two eng9es is n[ almo/ univ]sal4 ,by ! relative position ( ! cranks x w be se51 t :5 ei!r crank is at its dead po9ts1 ! o!r w be 9 ! positions mo/ fav\rable to its action1 & 9 all int]m$iate positions ! relative effici5cy ( ! cranks w be su* z to r5d] _! comb9$ action v ne>ly uni=m4 ,! /eam-eng9es us$ to impel vessels may be ei!r cond5s+ eng9es1 simil> to ^? ( ,watt1 & su* z are us$ 9 manufactures g5]ally1 or !y may be non-cond5s+ & high-pressure eng9es1 simil> 9 pr9ciple to ^? us$ on railways4 ,l[-pressure cond5s+ eng9es are1 h[ev]1 univ]sally us$ = m>9e purposes 9 ,europe & to "s ext5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ! latt] c\ntry1 h[ev]1 high-pressure eng9es are also 9 pretty g5]al use1 on riv]s :]e lightness is a matt] ( importance4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! p>ts ( a m>9e eng9e diff]s 9 "s respects f t ( a l& eng9e4 ,! limitation ( space1 :i* is unavoidable 9 a vessel1 r5d]s great] compactness necess>y4 ,! paddle-%aft on :i* ! cranks to be driv5 by ! eng9e are con/ruct$ be+ v little bel[ ! deck ( ! vessel1 ! beam & connect+ rod c\ld n be plac$ 9 ! position 9 :i* !y usually are 9 l& eng9es1 )\t c>ry+ ! ma*9]y to a consid]able elevation above ! deck4 ,?is is done 9 ! /eam-boat eng9es us$ on ! ,am]ican riv]s2 b x w\ld be inadmissible 9 /eam-boats 9 g5]al1 & m especially 9 sea-go+ /eam]s4 ,! connect+ rods1 !re=e1 in/ead ( be+ pres5t$ d[nw>ds t[>ds ! cranks :i* !y drive1 mu/1 9 /eam-vessels1 be pres5t$ upw>ds1 & ! impell+ =ce receiv$ f bel[4 ,if1 "u ^! circum/ances1 ! beam 7 9 ! usual position above ! cyl9d] & pi/on-rod1 x mu/ necess>ily be plac$ betwe5 ! eng9e & ! paddle-%aft4 ,?is w\ld require a dep? = ! ma*9]y :i* w\ld be incompatible ) ! magnitude ( ! vessel4 ,! beam1 !re=e1 ( m>9e eng9es1 in/ead ( be+ above ! cyl9d] & pi/on1 is plac$ bel[ !m4 ,to ! top ( ! ,pg#dde pi/on-rods cross pieces are atta*$ ( great] l5g? ?an ! diamet] ( ! cyl9d]s1 s t _! extremities %all project beyond ! cyl9d]s4 ,to ! ends ( ^! cross pieces are atta*$ by jo9ts ! rods ( a p>allel motion3 ^! rods are c>ri$ d[nw>ds1 & are connect$ ) ! ends ( two beams bel[ ! cyl9d]1 & plac$ on ei!r side ( x4 ,! opposite ends ( ^! beams are connect$ by ano!r cross piece1 to :i* is atta*$ a connect+ rod1 :i* is cont9u$ upw>ds to ! crank-p91 to :i* x is atta*$1 & :i* x drives4 ,?us ! beam1 p>allel motion1 & connect+ rod ( a m>9e eng9e1 is simil> to t ( a l& eng9e1 only t x is turn$ upside d[n2 & 9 consequ5ce ( ! impossibility ( plac+ ! beam directly ov] ! pi/on-rod1 two beams & two sy/ems ( p>allel motion are provid$1 "o on ea* side ( ! eng9e1 act$ ^u by1 & act+ on ! pi/on-rod & crank by cross pieces4 ,! proportion ( ! cyl9d]s diff]s f t usually obs]v$ 9 l& eng9es1 = l reasons4 ,! l5g? ( ! cyl9d] ( l& eng9es is g5]ally great] ?an its diamet]1 9 ! proportion ( ab\t two to "o4 ,! cyl9d]s ( m>9e eng9es are1 h[ev]1 commonly con/ruct$ ) a diamet] v little less ?an _! l5g?4 ,9 proportion1 !re=e1 to _! p[] _! /roke is %ort]1 :i* inf]s a correspond+ %ortness ( crank & a great] limitation ( play ( all ! mov+ p>ts 9 ! v]tical direction4 ,! valves & ! ge>+ by :i* !y are work$1 ! air-pump1 ! cond5s]1 & o!r p>ts ( ! m>9e eng9es1 d n mat]ially diff] f ^? already describ$ 9 l& eng9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,^! arrangem5ts ( a m>9e eng9e w be m cle>ly und]/ood by ref]5ce to fig4 #aai4ce1 9 :i* is repres5t$ a longitud9al section ( a m>9e eng9e ) its boil] z plac$ 9 a /eam-vessel4 ,! sleep]s ( oak1 support+ ! eng9e1 are repres5t$ at ,x1 ! base ( ! eng9e be+ secur$ to ^! by bolts pass+ ?r\gh !m ,pg#ddf & ! bottom timb]s ( ! vessel2 ,s is ! /eam-pipe lead+ f ! /eam-*e/ 9 ! boil] to ! slides c1 by :i* x is admitt$ to ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! cond5s] is repres5t$ at ,b1 & ! air-pump at ,e4 ,! hot well is se5 at ,f1 f :i* ! fe$ is tak5 = ! boil]2 ,l is ! pi/on-rod connect$ by ! p>allel motion a ) ! beam ,h1 work+ on a c5tre ,k1 ne> ! base ( ! eng9e4 ,! o!r end ( ! beam ,i drives ! connect+ rod ,m1 :i* ext5ds upw>ds to ! crank :i* x works ^u ! paddle-%aft ,o4 ,q ,r is ! fram+ by :i* ! eng9e is support$4 ,! beam "h exhibit$ is %[n on dott$ l9es z be+ on ! fur!r side ( ! eng9e4 ,a simil> beam simil>ly plac$1 & mov+ on ! same axis1 mu/ be und]/ood to be at ?is side connect$ ) ! cross head ( ! pi/on 9 l mann] by a p>allel motion1 & ) a cross piece atta*$ to ! l[] end ( ! connect+ rod & to ! opposite beam4 ,! ecc5tric :i* works ! slides is plac$ ^u ! paddle %aft ,o1 & ! connect+ arm :i* drives ! slides may be easily deta*$ :5 ! eng9e requires to be /opp$4 ,! section ( ! boil]1 grate1 & flues1 is repres5t$ at ,w ,u4 ,! safety-valve y is enclos$ b5ea? a pipe c>ri$ up beside ! *imney1 & is inaccessible to ! eng9e-man2 h are ! cocks = bl[+ ! salt$ wat] f ! boil]2 & ,i ,i ! fe$-pipe4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! eng9e-room ( a /eam-vessel is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #abj4 ,! nature ( ! effect requir$ to be produc$ by m>9e eng9es does n r5d] ei!r necess>y or possible t great regul>ity ( action :i* is indisp5sable 9 a /eam-eng9e appli$ to ! purposes ( manufacture4 ,! agitation ( ! surface ( ! sea w cause ! imm]sion ( ! paddle-:eels to be subject to great v>iation1 & ! resi/ance produc$ by ! wat] to ! eng9e w und]go a correspond+ *ange4 ,! gov]nor1 !re=e1 & o!r p>ts ( ! app>atus1 contriv$ = giv+ to ! eng9e t great regul>ity requir$ 9 manufactures1 are omitt$ 9 nautical eng9es1 & no?+ is introduc$ save :at is ,pg#ddg necess>y to ma9ta9 ! ma*9e 9 its full work+ effici5cy4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,to save space1 m>9e boil]s are con/ruct$ s z to produce ! necess>y quantity ( /eam )9 ! smalle/ possible dim5sions4 ,) ?is view a m ext5sive surface 9 proportion to ! capacity ( ! boil] is expos$ to ! action ( ! fire4 ,! flues1 by :i* ! flame & heat$ air are conduct$ to ! *imney1 are s con/ruct$ t ! heat may act ^u ! wat] on e side 9 ?9 oblong %ells or plates4 ,?is is accompli%$ by con/ruct+ ! flues s z to trav]se ! boil] backw>ds & =w>ds sev]al times be=e !y t]m9ate ,pg#ddh 9 ! *imney4 ,su* an arrangem5t r5d]s ! exp5se ( ! boil]s great]1 b _! /eam-produc+ p[] is proportionally augm5t$1 & exp]im5ts made by ,mr4 ,watt1 at ,birm+ham1 h prov$ t su* boil]s ) ! same consumption ( fuel w produce1 z comp>$ ) common l& boil]s1 an increas$ evaporation 9 ! proportion ( ab\t ?ree to two4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,! =m & arrangem5t ( ! wat]-spaces & flues 9 m>9e boil]s may be collect$ f ! sections ( ! boil]s us$ 9 "s ( ! gov]nm5t /eam]s1 exhibit$ 9 figs4 #aba1 #abb1 #abc4 ,a section made by a horizontal plane pass+ ?r\gh ! flues is exhibit$ 9 fig4 #aba4 ,! furnaces ,f communicate 9 pairs ) ! flues ,e1 ! air foll[+ ! c\rse ?r\gh ! flues repres5t$ by ! arr[s4 ,! flue ,e passes to ! back ( ! boil]1 !n returns to ! front1 !n to ! back aga91 & is f9ally c>ri$ back to ! front1 :]e x communicates at ,c ) ! curv$ flue ,b1 repres5t$ 9 ! transv]se v]tical section1 fig4 #abb4 ,?is curv$ flue ,b f9ally t]m9ates 9 ! *imney ,a4 ,!re are 9 ?is case ?ree indep5d5t boil]s1 ea* work$ by two furnaces communicat+ ) ! same sy/em ( flues2 & 9 ! curv$ flues ,b1 fig4 #abb41 by :i* ! air is f9ally conduct$ ?r\gh ! *imney1 are plac$ ?ree indep5d5t ,pg#ddi damp]s1 by means ( :i* ! furnace ( ea* boil] c be regulat$ indep5d5tly ( ! o!r1 & by :i* ea* boil] may be sep>ately deta*$ f communication ) ! *imney4 ,! lett]s ( ref]5ce 9 ! horizontal section1 fig4 #aba41 correspond ) ^? 9 ! transv]se v]tical section1 fig4 #abb41 ,e repres5t+ ! comm5cem5t ( ! flues1 & ,c _! t]m9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,a longitud9al section ( ! boil] made by a v]tical plane ext5d+ f ! front to ! back is giv5 9 fig4 #abc41 :]e ,f1 z be=e1 is ! furnace1 ,g ! grate-b>s slop+ d[nw>ds f ! front to ! back1 ,h ! fire-bridge1 ,c ! comm5cem5t ( ! flues1 & ,a ! *imney4 ,an elevation ( ! front ( ! boil] is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #abd41 %[+ two ( ! fire-doors clos$1 & ! o!r two remov$1 display+ ! position ( ! grate-b>s 9 front4 ,small op5+s are also provid$1 clos$ by prop] doors1 by :i* access c be _h to ! "u side ( ! flues betwe5 ! f\ndation timb]s ( ! eng9e = ! purpose ( clean+ !m4 ,ea* ( ^! boil]s c be work$ indep5d5tly ( ! o!rs4 ,by ?is means1 :5 at sea1 ! eng9e may be work$ by any two ( ! ?ree boil]s1 :ile ! ?ird is be+ clean$ & put 9 ord]4 ,9 all sea-go+ /eam]s multiple boil]s are at pres5t provid$ = ?is purpose4 ,9 ! boil]s "h repres5t$ ! flues are all ^u ! same level1 w9d+ backw>ds & =w>ds )\t pass+ "o above ! o!r4 ,9 o!r boil]s1 h[ev]1 ! flues1 ,pg#dej aft] pass+ backw>ds & =w>ds ne> ! bottom ( ! boil]1 turn upw>ds & pass backw>ds & =w>ds ?r\gh a level ( ! wat] ne>] its surface1 f9ally t]m9at+ 9 ! *imney4 ,m heat+ surface is ?us obta9$ ) ! same capacity ( boil]4 ,! mo/ =midable difficulty :i* has be5 enc\nt]$ 9 ! application ( ! /eam-eng9e to sea-voyages has aris5 f ! necessity ( supply+ ! boil] ) sea-wat] in/ead ( pure fre% wat]4 ,! sea-wat] is inject$ into ! cond5s] = ! purpose ( cond5s+ ! /eam1 & x is !nce1 mix$ ) ! cond5s$ /eam1 conduct$ z fe$+ wat] into ! boil]4 7#bji47 ,sea-wat] holds1 z is well kn[n1 c]ta9 alkal9e sub/ances 9 solution1 ! pr9cipal ( :i* is muriate ( soda1 or common salt4 ,t5 ?\s& gra9s ( pure sea-wat] conta9 two hundr$ & tw5ty gra9s ( common salt1 ! rema9+ +r$i5ts be+ ?irty-?ree gra9s ( sulphate ( soda1 =ty-two gra9s ( muriate ( magnesia1 & eight gra9s ( muriate ( lime4 ,! heat :i* conv]ts pure wat] into /eam does n at ! same "t evaporate ^? salts :i* ! wat] holds 9 solution4 ,z a consequ5ce x foll[s1 t z ! evaporation 9 ! boil] is cont9u$1 ! salt1 :i* 0 held 9 solution by ! wat] :i* has be5 evaporat$1 rema9s 9 ! boil]1 & ent]s into solution ) ! wat] rema9+ 9 x4 ,! quantity ( salt conta9$ 9 sea-wat] be+ consid]ably less ?an t :i* wat] is capable ( hold+ 9 solution1 ! process ( evaporation = "s "t is att5d$ ) no o!r effect ?an to r5d] ! wat] 9 ! boil] a /rong] solution ( salt4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ?is process be cont9u$1 ! quantity ( salt reta9$ 9 ! boil] hav+ con/antly an increas+ proportion to ! quantity ( wat]1 x mu/ at l5g? r5d] ! wat] 9 ! boil] a saturat$ solution--t is1 a solution conta9+ z mu* salt z at ! actual temp]ature x is capable ( hold+ 9 solution4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! evaporation be cont9u$ beyond ?is po9t1 ! salt dis5gag$ f ! wat] evaporat$ in/ead ( ent]+ into solution ) ! wat] rema9+ 9 ! boil] w be precipitat$ 9 ! =m ( s$im5t2 & if ! process be cont9u$ 9 ! ,pg#dea same mann]1 ! boil] w\ld at l5g? become a m]e salt-pan4 ,b besides ! deposition ( salt s$im5t 9 a loose =m1 "s ( ! con/itu5ts ( sea-wat] hav+ an attraction = ! iron ( ! boil]1 collect ^u x 9 a scale or cru/ 9 ! same mann] z e>?y matt]s held 9 solution by spr+-wat] are obs]v$ to =m & become incru/$ on ! inn] surface ( l&-boil]s & ( common cul9>y vessels4 ,! coat+ ( ! inn] surface ( a boil] by incru/ation & ! collection ( salt s$im5t 9 its l[] p>ts1 are att5d$ ) effects highly injuri\s to ! mat]ials ( ! boil]4 ,! cru/ & s$im5t ?us =m$ )9 ! boil] are almo/ non-conductors ( heat1 & plac$1 z !y are1 betwe5 ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! boil] & ! metallic plates :i* =m x1 !y ob/ruct ! passage ( heat f ! out] surface ( ! plates 9 contact ) ! fire to ! wat]4 ,! heat1 !re=e1 accumulat+ 9 ! boil]-plates s z to give !m a mu* high] temp]ature ?an ! wat] )9 ! boil]1 has ! effect ( s(t5+ !m1 & by ! unequal temp]ature :i* w ?us be imp>t$ to ! l[] plates :i* are incru/$1 comp>$ ) ! high] p>ts :i* may n be s1 an unequal expansion is produc$1 by :i* ! jo9ts & seams ( ! boil] are loos5$ & op5$1 & leaks produc$4 ,^! injuri\s effects c only be prev5t$ by ei!r ( two me?ods2 fir/1 by s regulat+ ! fe$ ( ! boil] t ! wat] x conta9s %all n be suff]$ to rea* ! po9t ( saturation1 b %all be s limit$ 9 its degree ( saltness t no injuri\s incru/ation or deposit %all be =m$2 secondly1 by ! adoption ( "s me?od by :i* ! boil] may be work$ ) fre% wat]4 ,?is end c only be atta9$ by cond5s+ ! /eam by a jet ( fre% wat]1 & work+ ! boil] cont9ually by ! same wat]1 s9ce a supply ( fre% wat] suffici5t = a boil] work$ 9 ! ord9>y way c\ld nev] be comm&$ at sea4 7#baj47 ,! me?od by :i* ! saltness ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] is mo/ commonly prev5t$ f exce$+ a c]ta9 ,pg#deb limit has be5 to dis*>ge f ! boil] into ! sea a c]ta9 quantity ( ov]-salt$ wat]1 & to supply its place by sea-wat] introduc$ into ! cond5s] ?r\gh ! injection-cock = ! purpose ( cond5s+ ! /eam1 ?is wat] be+ mix$ ) ! /eam s cond5s$1 & be+1 !re=e1 a weak] solution ( salt ?an common sea-wat]4 ,to effect ?is1 cocks call$ bl[-(f cocks1 are usually plac$ 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! boil]1 :]e ! ov]-salt$1 & !re=e heavi]1 p>ts ( ! wat] collect4 ,! pressure ( ! /eam & incumb5t weight ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] =ce ! l[] /rata ( wat] out ?r\gh ^! cocks2 & ?is process1 call$ bl[+ out1 is1 or ought to be1 practis$ at su* int]vals z w prev5t ! wat] f becom+ ov] salt$4 ,:5 ! salt$ wat] has be5 bl[n out 9 ?is mann]1 ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] is re/or$ by a fe$ ( correspond+ quantity4 ,?is process ( bl[+ out1 on ! due & regul> obs]vance ( :i* ! pres]vation & effici5cy ( ! boil] ma9ly dep5d1 is too (t5 left at ! discretion ( ! eng9e]1 :o is1 9 mo/ cases1 n ev5 suppli$ ) ! prop] means ( asc]ta9+ ! ext5t to :i* ! process %\ld be c>ri$4 ,x is commonly requir$ t ! eng9e] %\ld bl[ out a c]ta9 portion ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] e two h\rs1 re/or+ ! level by a fe$ ( equival5t am\nt2 b x is evid5t t ! suffici5cy ( ! process f\nd$ on su* a rule mu/ ma9ly dep5d on ! supposition t ! evaporation proce$s always at ! same rate1 :i* is f> f be+ ! case ) m>9e boil]s4 ,an indicator1 by :i* ! saltness ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] w\ld always be exhibit$1 ought to be provid$1 & ! process ( bl[+ out %\ld be regulat$ by ! indications ( t in/rum5t4 ,to bl[ out m frequ5tly ?an is necess>y is att5d$ ) a wa/e ( fuel2 = hot wat] is ?us dis*>g$ into ! sea :ile cold wat] is introduc$ 9 its place1 & consequ5tly all ! heat necess>y to produce ! diff]5ce ( ! temp]atures ( ! wat] bl[n out & ! fe$ introduc$ is lo/4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! process ( bl[+ out be obs]v$ less frequ5tly ?an is necess>y1 !n m or less incru/ation & deposit ,pg#dec may be produc$1 & ! injuri\s effects already describ$ ensue4 ,z ! specific gravity ( wat] hold+ salt 9 solution is increas$ ) e increase ( ! /r5g? ( ! solution1 any =m ( hydromet] capable ( exhibit+ a visible indication ( ! specific gravity ( ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! boil] w\ld s]ve ! purpose ( an indicator1 to %[ :5 ! process ( bl[+ out is necess>y1 & :5 x has be5 c>ri$ to a suffici5t ext5t4 ,! application ( su* in/rum5ts1 h[ev]1 w\ld be att5d$ ) "s practical difficulties 9 ! case ( sea-boil]s4 ,! temp]ature at :i* a solution ( salt boils "u a giv5 pressure v>ies consid]ably ) ! /r5g? ( ! solution2 ! m conc5trat$ ! solution is1 ! high] w be its boil+ temp]ature "u ! same pressure4 ,a comp>ison1 !re=e1 ( a /eam-gauge atta*$ to ! boil]1 & a !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 x1 %[+ ! pressure & ! temp]ature1 w\ld always indicate ! saltness ( ! wat]2 & x w\ld n be difficult s to graduate ^! in/rum5ts z to make !m at once %[ ! degree ( saltness4 ,if ! application ( ! !rmomet] be consid]$ to be att5d$ ) practical difficulty1 ! diff]5ce ( pressures "u :i* ! salt wat] ( ! boil] & fre% wat] ( ! same temp]ature boil1 might be tak5 z an indication ( ! saltness ( ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 & x w\ld n be difficult to con/ruct ^u ?is pr9ciple a self-regi/]+ in/rum5t1 :i* w\ld n only indicate b record f h\r to h\r ! degree ( saltness ( ! wat]4 ,a small vessel ( di/ill$ wat] be+ imm]s$ 9 ! wat] ( ! boil] w\ld always h ! temp]ature ( t wat]1 & ! /eam produc$ f x communicat+ ) a /eam-gauge1 ! pressure ( su* /eam w\ld be indicat$ by t gauge1 :ile ! pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! boil] "u :i* pressure ! salt$ wat] boils might be indicat$ by ano!r gauge4 ,! diff]5ce ( ! pressures indicat$ by ! two gauges w\ld ?us become a te/ by :i* ! saltness ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] w\ld be measur$4 ,! two pressures might be made to act on opposite ends ( ! same column ( ,pg#ded m]cury conta9$ 9 a siphon tube1 & ! diff]5ce ( ! levels ( ! two surfaces ( ! m]cury w\ld ?us become a measure ( ! saltness ( ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,a self-regi/]+ in/rum5t f\nd$ on ?is pr9ciple =m$ "p ( ! self-regi/]+ /eam-log :i* ,i propos$ to introduce into /eam-vessels "s "t s9ce4 7#baa47 ,! ,messrs4 ,seaw>d ( ,limeh\se h adopt$1 9 "s ( _! rec5tly con/ruct$ eng9es1 a me?od ( indicat+ ! saltness ( ! wat]1 & ( measur+ ! quantity ( salt$ wat] or br9e dis*>g$1 by bl[+ out4 ,a glass-gauge1 simil> 9 =m to t already describ$ 9 l& eng9es 7#aef471 is provid$ to indicate ! position ( ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,9 ?is gauge two hydromet] balls are provid$1 ! weight ( :i* 9 proportion to _! magnitude is su* t !y w\ld bo? s9k to ! bottom 9 a solution ( salt ( ! same /r5g? z common sea-wat]4 ,:5 ! quantity ( salt exce$s #e_/cb p>ts ( ! :ole weight ( ! wat]1 ! light] ( ! two balls w float to ! top2 & :5 ! /r5g? is fur!r increas$ until ! proportion ( salt exce$s #f_/cb p>ts ( ! :ole1 !n ! heavi] ball w float to ! top4 ,! actual quantity ( salt held 9 solution by sea-wat] 9 its ord9>y /ate is #a_/cb "p ( its :ole weight2 & :5 by evaporation ! proportion ( salt 9 solution has become #i_/cb p>ts ( ! :ole1 !n a deposition ( salt comm5ces4 ,) an indicator su* z t above describ$1 ! asc5t ( ! light] hydromet] ball gives notice ( ! necessity = bl[+ out1 & ! asc5t ( ! heavi] may be consid]$ z indicat+ ! approa* ( an injuri\s /ate ( saltness 9 ! boil]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,! ord9>y me?od ( bl[+ out ! salt$ wat] f a boil] is by a pipe hav+ a cock 9 x lead+ f ! boil] ?r\gh ! bottom ( ! %ip1 or at a po9t l[ d[n at its side4 ,:5ev] ! eng9e] consid]s t ! wat] 9 ! boil] has become s salt$ t ! process ( bl[+ out %\ld comm5ce1 he op5s ! cock communicat+ by ?is pipe ) ! sea1 & suff]s an indef9ite & unc]ta9 quantity ( wat] to escape4 ,9 ?is way he dis*>ges1 accord+ to ! magnitude ( ! boil]1 f two to six tons ,pg#dee ( wat]1 & repeats ?is at int]vals ( f two to f\r h\rs1 z he may consid] to be suffici5t4 ,if1 by obs]v+ ?is process1 he prev5ts ! boil] f gett+ incru/$ dur+ ! voyage1 he consid]s 8 duty to be effectually dis*>g$1 =gett+ t he may h bl[n out _m times m wat] ?an is necess>y = ! pres]vation ( ! boil]1 & !reby produc$ a correspond+ & unnecess>y wa/e ( fuel4 ,9 ord] to limit ! quantity ( wat] dis*>g$1 ,messrs4 ,seaw>d h adopt$ ! foll[+ me?od4 ,9 fig4 #abe4 is repres5t$ a transv]se section ( a "p ( a /eam-vessel2 ,w is ! wat]-l9e ( ! boil]1 ,b is ! m\? ( a bl[-(f pipe1 plac$ ne> ! bottom ( ! boil]4 ,?is pipe rises to ,a1 & turn+ 9 ! horizontal direction1 ,a ,c is conduct$ to a tank ,t1 :i* conta9s exactly a ton ( wat]4 ,?is pipe communicates ) ! tank by a cock ,d1 gov]n$ by a lev] ,h4 ,:5 ?is lev] is mov$ to ,d1 ! cock ,d is op51 & :5 x is mov$ to ,k1 ! cock ,d is clos$4 ,f ! same tank !re proce$s ano!r pipe ,e1 :i* issues f ! side ( ! ,pg#def vessel into ! sea gov]n$ by a cock ,f1 :i* is likewise put 9 connection ) ! lev] ,h1 s t x %all be op5$ :5 ! lev] ,h is drawn to ! position ,f1 ! cock ,d be+ clos$ 9 all positions ( ! lev] betwe5 ,k & ,f4 ,?us1 :5ev] ! cock ,f communicat+ ) ! sea is op51 ! cock ,d communicat+ ) ! boil] is clos$1 & vice v]s1 bo? cocks be+ clos$ :5 ! lev] is 9 ! int]m$iate position ,k4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! boil] _c1 by any neglect 9 bl[+ (f1 be left 9 communication ) ! sea1 nor c m ?an a ton ( wat] be dis*>g$ except by ! imm$iate act ( ! eng9e]4 ,! injuri\s consequ5ces are ?us prev5t$ :i* sometimes ensue :5 ! bl[-(f cocks are left op5 by any neglect on ! "p ( ! eng9e]4 ,:5 x is necess>y to bl[ (f1 ! eng9e] moves ! lev] ,h1 to ! position ,d4 ,! pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! boil] on ! surface ( ! wat] ,w =ces ! salt$ wat] or br9e up ! pipe ,b ,a1 & ?r\gh ! op5 cock ,c into ! tank1 & ?is cont9ues until ! tank is fill$3 :5 t takes place1 ! lev] is mov$ f ! position ,d to ! position ,f1 by :i* ! cock ,d is clos$1 & ! cock ,f op5$4 ,! wat] 9 ! tank fl[s ?r\gh ! pipe ,e into ! sea1 air be+ admitt$ ?r\gh ! valve ,v1 plac$ at ! top ( ! tank1 op5+ inw>ds4 ,a second ton ( br9e is dis*>g$ by mov+ ! lev] back to ! position ,d1 & subsequ5tly return+ x to ! position ,f2 & 9 ?is way ! br9e is dis*>g$ ton by ton1 until ! supply ( wat] f ! fe$ :i* replaces x has caus$ bo? ! balls 9 ! indicator to s9k to ! bottom4 7#bab47 ,a diff]5t me?od ( pres]v+ ! requisite fre%ness ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] has be5 adopt$ by ,messrs4 ,maudslay & ,field1 & introduc$ ) success into ! ,great ,we/]n & o!r /eam-vessels4 ,pumps call$ br9e-pumps are put into communication ) ! l[] "p ( ! boil]1 & s con/ruct$ z to draw ! br9e !refrom1 & drive x into ! sea4 ,^! br9e-pumps are work$ by ! eng9e1 & _! op]ation is con/ant4 ,! fe$-pumps are likewise work$ by ! eng9e1 & !y be> su* a proportion to ! br9e-pumps t ! quantity ( salt dis*>g$ 9 a giv5 "t 9 ! br9e is equal to ! quantity ( salt ,pg#deg introduc$ 9 solution by ! wat] ( ! fe$-pumps4 ,by ?is means ! same actual quantity ( salt is con/antly ma9ta9$ 9 ! boil]1 & consequ5tly ! /r5g? ( ! solution rema9s inv>iable4 ,if ! br9e dis*>g$ by ! br9e-pumps conta9s #e_/cb p>ts ( salt :ile ! wat] introduc$ by ! fe$-pumps conta9s only #a_/cb "p1 !n x is evid5t t five cubic feet ( ! fe$+ wat] w conta9 no m salt ?an is conta9$ 9 "o cubic foot ( br9e4 ,"u su* circum/ances ! br9e-pumps w\ld be s con/ruct$ z to dis*>ge #a_/e ( ! wat] introduc$ by ! fe$-pumps1 s t #d_/e ( all ! wat] introduc$ into ! boil] w\ld be evaporat$1 & r5d]$ available = work+ ! eng9e4 ,to save ! heat ( ! br9e1 a me?od has be5 adopt$ 9 ! m>9e eng9es con/ruct$ by ,messrs4 ,maudslay & ,field simil> to "o :i* has be5 long practis$ 9 /eam-boil]s1 & 9 v>i\s app>atus = ! w>m+ ( build+s4 ,! curr5t ( heat$ br9e is conduct$ f ! boil] ?r\gh a tube :i* is conta9$ 9 ano!r1 ?r\gh :i* ! fe$ is introduc$4 ,! w>m curr5t ( br9e1 !re=e1 z x passes out1 imp>ts a consid]able portion ( its heat to ! cold fe$ :i* comes 92 & x is f\nd t by ?is exp$i5t ! br9e dis*>g$ into ! sea may be r$uc$ to a temp]ature ( ab\t #ajj4 ,?is exp$i5t is s effectual t :5 ! app>atus is prop]ly con/ruct$1 & kept 9 a /ate ( effici5cy1 x may be reg>d$ z ne>ly a p]fect prev5tive aga9/ ! incru/ation1 & ! deposition ( salt 9 ! boil]s1 & is n att5d$ ) any consid]able wa/e ( fuel4 7#bac47 ,ab\t ! ye> #aggf1 ,mr4 ,watt inv5t$ a tubul> cond5s]1 ) a view to cond5se ! /eam drawn (f f ! cyl9d] )\t ! process ( injection4 ,?is app>atus consi/$ ( a numb] ( small tubes connect+ ! top & bottom ( ! cond5s]1 arrang$ 9 a mann] n v diff]5t f t ( ! tubes :i* trav]se ! boil] ( a locomotive eng9e4 ,^! tubes 7 cont9ually surr\nd$ by cold wat]1 & ! /eam1 z x escap$ f ! cyl9d] pass+ ?r\gh !m1 0 cond5s$ by _! cold surfaces1 & collect$ 9 ! =m ( wat] 9 a res]voir bel[1 f ,pg#deh :5ce x 0 drawn (f by a pump 9 ! same mann] z 9 eng9es :i* cond5s$ by injection4 ,"o ( ! advantages propos$ by ?is exp$i5t 01 t no atmosph]ic air w\ld be introduc$ into ! cond5s]1 z is always ! case :5 cond5sation by injection is practis$4 ,cold wat]1 :i* is inject$1 has always comb9$ ) x m or less common air4 ,:5 ?is wat] is mix$ ) ! cond5s$ /eam1 ! elevation ( its temp]ature dis5gages ! air comb9$ ) x1 & ?is air circulat+ to ! cyl9d]1 vitiates ! vacuum4 ,"o ( ! purposes = :i* ! air-pump 9 cond5s+ /eam-eng9es 0 provid$1 & f :i* x took its "n1 0 to draw (f ?is air4 ,if1 h[ev]1 a tubul> cond5s] c\ld be made to act ) ! necess>y effici5cy1 no injection wat] w\ld be introduc$ = cond5sation1 & ! pump w\ld h no o!r duty except to remove ! small quantity ( wat] produc$ by ! cond5s$ /eam4 ,t wat] be+ subsequ5tly c>ri$ back to ! boil] by ! fe$-pumps1 a con/ant sy/em ( circulation w\ld be ma9ta9$1 & ! boil] w\ld nev] require any fre% supply ( wat]1 except :at might be necess>y to make good ! wa/e by leakage & o!r causes4 ,?is contrivance has be5 ( late ye>s reviv$ by ,mr4 ,samuel ,hall ( ,bas=d1 ne> ,nott+ham1 ) a view to sup]s$e 9 m>9e eng9es ! necessity ( us+ sea-wat] 9 ! boil]s4 ,mr4 ,hall proposes to make m>9e boil]s ) fre% wat] to cond5se ! /eam )\t injection1 by a tubulat$ cond5s]1 & to provide by ! di/illation ( sea-wat] ! small quantity ( fre% wat] :i* w\ld be necess>y to make good ! wa/e4 ,^! cond5s]s h be5 introduc$ into sev]al /eam-vessels3 9 "s !y h be5 cont9u$1 & 9 o!rs ab&on$1 & v>i\s op9ions are ent]ta9$ ( _! efficacy4 ,i h n be5 able to obta9 ! results ( any satisfactory exp]im5ts on !m1 & _c !re=e =m a judgm5t ( _! usefulness4 ,mr4 ,watt ab&on$ ^! cond5s]s f f9d+ t ! cond5sation ( ! /eam 0 n suffici5tly sudd51 & t consequ5tly at ! comm5cem5t ( ! /roke ! pi/on 0 subject to a resi/ance :i* ,pg#dei injuri\sly dim9i%$ ! am\nt ( ! mov+ p[]1 :]eas cond5sation by jet 0 almo/ in/antane\s1 & ! effici5cy ( ! pi/on ?r\gh\t ! entire /roke 0 m uni=m4 ,mr4 ,watt also f\nd t a fur collect$ ar\nd ! tubes ( ! cond5s]1 s z to ob/ruct ! free passage ( heat f ! /eam to ! wat] ( ! cold ci/]n2 & t1 consequ5tly1 ! effici5cy ( ! cond5s] 0 gradually impair$1 & c\ld only be re/or$ by frequ5t cleans+4 ,x is /at$ by ,mr4 ,hall t a vacuum is pres]v$ 9 8 cond5s]s z p]fect z t :i* is ma9ta9$ 9 ! ord9>y cond5s]s by injection4 ,x is object$1 on ! o!r h&1 t )\t ! injection wat] & ! air :i* accompanies x be+ introduc$ into 8 cond5s]s1 ,mr4 ,hall uses z l>ge & p[]ful an air-pump z ^? :i* are us$ 9 eng9es ( equal p[] cond5s+ by injection2 t1 consequ5tly1 ! vacuum :i* is ma9ta9$ is produc$1 n z x ought to be altoge!r by ! cond5sation ( /eam1 b by ! air-pump draw+ (f ! uncond5s$ /eam4 ,to :atev] ext5t ?is may be true1 ! efficacy ( ! ma*9e1 z indicat$ by ! b>omet]-gauge1 is only app>5t2 s9ce z mu* p[] is necess>y to pump away any portion ( uncond5s$ vap\r z is obta9$ by ! vacuum produc$ by ! abs5ce ( t vap\r4 ,a tubul> cond5s] ( ! =m propos$ by ,mr4 ,hall is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #abf42 a is ! upp] "p ( ! cond5s] to :i* /eam is admitt$ f ! slide aft] hav+ work$ ! pi/on2 k is ! section ( a ?9 plate1 =m+ ! top ( ! cond5s]1 p]=at$ ) small holes1 9 :i* ! tubes are ins]t$ s z to be /eam-tight & wat]-tight4 ,wat] is admitt$ to fl[ ar\nd ^! tubes betwe5 ! top k & ! bottom d ( ! cond5s]1 s z to keep !m con/antly at a l[ temp]ature4 ,! /eam passes f a ?r\gh ! tubes to ! l[] *amb] f ( ! cond5s]1 :]e x is r$uc$ to wat] by ! cold to :i* x has be5 expos$4 ,a supply ( cold wat] is con/antly pump$ ?r\gh ! cond5s]1 s z to keep ! tubes at a l[ temp]ature4 ,! air-pump g is ( ! usual con/ruction1 hav+ valves 9 ! pi/on op5+ upw>ds1 & ,pg#dfj simil> valves 9 ! cov] ( ! pump also op5+ upw>ds4 ,! wat] =m$ by ! cond5s$ /eam 9 f is drawn ?r\gh ! foot-valve1 & aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! pi/on-valves1 is dis*>g$ by ! up-/roke ( ! pi/on into ! hot well4 ,any air1 or o!r p]man5t gas1 :i* may be admitt$ by leakage ?r\gh ! tubes ( ! cond5s]1 or by any o!r means1 is likewise drawn out by ?is pump1 & :5 drawn into ! hot well is c>ri$ f !nce to ! fe$+ app>atus ( ! boil]1 to :i* x is transf]r$ by ! fe$-pump4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,a provision is likewise made by :i* ! /eam escap+ at ! safety-valve is cond5s$ & c>ri$ away to ! fe$+ ci/]n4 7#bad47 ,"o ( ! rem$ies propos$ = ! evil consequ5ces aris+ f incru/ation is ! sub/itution ( copp] = iron boil]s4 ,! attraction :i* produces ! adhesion ( ! calc>e\s matt] held 9 solution by salt wat] to ! surface ( iron has no exi/5ce 9 copp]1 & all ! sal9e & o!r alkal9e matt] precipitat$ 9 ! boil+ wat] 9 ,pg#dfa copp] boil]s is susp5d$ 9 a loose =m1 & c>ri$ (f by ! process ( bl[+ out4 ,besides ! injury aris+ f ! deposition ( salt & ! incru/ation on ! inn] surface ( boil]s1 an evil ( a =midable k9d att5ds ! accumulation ( soot mix$ ) salt 9 ! flues1 :i* proce$s f ! leaks4 ,9 ! seams ( ! boil] !re are num]\s ap]tures1 ( dim5sions s small z to be incapable ( be+ r5d]$ /an* by any practicable means1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] )9 ! boil] filt]s1 & ! salt :i* x c>ries ) x mixes ) ! soot1 =m+ a comp\nd :i* rapidly corrodes ! boil]s4 ,?is process ( corrosion 9 ! flues takes place n less 9 copp] ?an 9 iron boil]s4 ,9 cleans+ ! flues ( a copp] boil]1 ! salt & soot :i* 0 ?r[n out ^u ! iron-plates :i* =m$ ! floor+ ( ! eng9e-room1 hav+ rema9$ !re = "s "t1 left beh9d x a p]man5t appe>ance ( copp] on ! iron floor+1 aris+ f ! precipitation ( ! copp] :i* _h comb9$ ) ! soot & salt 9 ! flues4#cf ,9 ?is case ! leaks f :5ce ! salt proce$$ 7 f\nd1 on c>eful exam9ation1 s unimportant1 t ! usual means to /an* !m c\ld n be resort$ to )\t ! risk ( increas+ ! evil4 7#bae47 ,9 ! application ( ! /eam-eng9e to ! propulsion ( vessels 9 voyages ( great ext5t1 ! economy ( fuel acquires an importance great] ?an t :i* app]ta9s to x 9 l&-eng9es1 ev5 9 localities ! mo/ remov$ f coal-m9es1 & :]e its exp5se is greate/4 ,! practical limit to /eam-voyages be+ det]m9$ by ! greate/ quantity ( coals :i* a /eam-vessel c c>ry1 e exp$i5t by :i* ! effici5cy ( ! fuel c be increas$ becomes a means1 n m]ely ( a sav+ ( exp5se1 b ( an increas$ ext5sion ( /eam-p[] to navigation4 ,mu* att5tion has be5 be/[$ on ! augm5tation ( ! duty ( eng9es 9 ! m9+ di/ricts ( ,cornwall1 :]e ! "q ( _! effici5cy is m]ely a "q ( economy1 b f> great] c>e %\ld be giv5 to ?is subject :5 ! practicability ( ma9ta9+ int]c\rse by /eam betwe5 di/ant po9ts ( ! globe w p]haps dep5d on ! effect produc$ by a giv5 quantity ,pg#dfb ( fuel4 ,s long z /eam-navigation 0 conf9$ to riv] & *annel transport1 & to coa/+ voyages1 ! spe$ ( ! vessel 0 a p>am\nt consid]ation1 at :atev] exp5diture ( fuel x might be obta9$2 b s9ce /eam-navigation has be5 ext5d$ to ocean-voyages1 :]e coals mu/ be transport$ suffici5t to keep ! eng9e 9 op]ation = a long p]iod ( "t )\t a fre% relay1 great] att5tion has be5 be/[$ ^u ! means ( economis+ x4 ,mu* ( ! effici5cy ( fuel mu/ dep5d on ! managem5t ( ! fires1 & !re=e on ! skill & c>e ( ! /ok]s4 ,=m]ly ! effici5cy ( firem5 0 det]m9$ by ! abundant production ( /eam1 & s long z ! /eam 0 evolv$ 9 sup]abundance1 h[ev] x might h bl[n (f to wa/e1 ! duty ( ! /ok] 0 consid]$ z well p]=m$4 ,! regulation ( ! fires accord+ to ! dem&s ( ! eng9e 7 n ?\ght (1 & :e!r mu* or little /eam 0 want$1 ! duty ( ! /ok] 0 to urge ! fires to _! extreme limit4 ,s9ce ! resi/ance oppos$ by ! action ( ! paddle-:eels ( a /eam-vessel v>ies ) ! /ate ( ! wea!r1 ! consumption ( /eam 9 ! cyl9d]s mu/ und]go a correspond+ v>iation2 & if ! production ( /eam 9 ! boil]s be n proportion$ to ?is1 ! eng9es w ei!r "w ) less effici5cy ?an !y might d "u ! actual circum/ances ( ! wea!r1 or m /eam w be produc$ 9 ! boil]s ?an ! cyl9d]s c consume1 & ! surplus w be dis*>g$ to wa/e ?r\gh ! safety-valves4 ,! /ok]s ( a m>9e eng9e1 !re=e1 to p]=m _! duty ) effici5cy1 & obta9 f ! fuel ! greate/ possible effect1 mu/ dis*>ge ! functions ( a self-regulat+ furnace1 su* z has be5 already describ$3 !y mu/ regulate ! =ce ( ! fires by ! am\nt ( /eam :i* ! cyl9d]s are capable ( consum+1 & !y mu/ take c>e t no unconsum$ fuel is all[$ to be c>ri$ away f ! a%-pit4 7#baf47 ,until )9 a few ye>s ( ! pres5t "t ! heat radiat$ f e "p ( ! surface ( ! boil] 0 all[$ to g to wa/e1 & to produce injuri\s effects on ^? p>ts ( ! vessel to :i* x 0 transmitt$4 ,?is evil1 ,pg#dfc h[ev]1 has be5 lately remov$ by coat+ ! boil]s1 /eam-pipes1 c4 ( /eam-vessels ) felt1 by :i* ! escape ( heat f ! surface ( ! boil] is v ne>ly1 if n altoge!r1 prev5t$4 ,?is felt is atta*$ to ! boil]-surface by a ?ick cov]+ ( :ite & r$ lead4 ,?is exp$i5t 0 fir/ appli$ 9 ! ye> #ahah to a private /eam-vessel ( ,mr4 ,watt's call$ ! ,cal$onia1 & x 0 subsequ5tly adopt$ 9 ano!r vessel1 ! ma*9]y ( :i* 0 con/ruct$ at ,soho1 call$ ! ,james ,watt4 ,! economy ( fuel dep5ds 9 a consid]able degree on ! arrangem5t ( ! furnaces1 & ! me?od ( fe$+ !m4 ,9 g5]al ea* boil] is work$ by two or m furnaces communicat+ ) ! same sy/em ( flues4 ,:ile ! furnace is f$1 ! door be+ op51 a /ream ( cold air ru%es 91 pass+ ov] ! burn+ fuel & l[]+ ! temp]ature ( ! flues3 ?is is an evil to be avoid$4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 if ! furnaces be f$ at di/ant int]vals1 !n ea* furnace w be unduly heap$ ) fuel1 a great quantity ( smoke w be evolv$1 & ! combu/ion ( ! fuel w be proportionally imp]fect4 ,! process ( cok+ 9 front ( ! grate1 :i* w\ld insure a complete combu/ion ( ! fuel1 has be5 already describ$ 7#adg474 ,a frequ5t supply ( coals1 h[ev]1 laid c>efully on ! front "p ( ! grate1 & gradually pu%$ backw>ds z ea* fre% fe$ is introduc$1 w\ld require ! fire-door to be frequ5tly op5$1 & cold air to be admitt$4 ,x w\ld also require great] vigilance on ! "p ( ! /ok]s ?an c g5]ally be obta9$ 9 ! circum/ances 9 :i* !y "w4 ,9 /eam-vessels ! furnaces are !re=e f$ less frequ5tly1 fuel introduc$ 9 great] quantities1 & a less p]fect combu/ion produc$4 ,:5 sev]al furnaces are con/ruct$ "u ! same boil]1 communicat+ ) ! same sy/em ( flues1 ! process ( fe$+1 & consequ5tly op5+ "o ( !m1 ob/ructs ! due op]ation ( ! o!rs1 = ! curr5t ( cold air :i* is ?us admitt$ into ! flues *ecks ! draft & dim9i%es ! effici5cy ( ! furnaces 9 op]ation4 ,x 0 =m]ly ! practice 9 vessels exce$+ "o hundr$ horse-p[]1 to place f\r furnaces "u ea* boil]1 communicat+ ) ! same sy/em ( flues4 ,su* an arrangem5t ,pg#dfd 0 f\nd to be att5d$ ) a bad draft 9 ! furnaces1 & !re=e to require a great] quantity ( heat+ surface to produce ! necess>y evaporation4 ,?is entail$ ^u ! ma*9]y ! occupation ( m space 9 ! vessel 9 proportion to its p[]2 x has !re=e be5 m rec5tly ! practice to give a sep>ate sy/em ( flues to ea* pair ( furnaces1 or1 at mo/1 to e ?ree furnaces4 ,:5 ?ree furnaces communicate ) a common flue1 two w always be 9 op]ation1 :ile ! ?ird is be+ cle>$ out2 b if ! same quantity ( fire 7 divid$ among two furnaces1 !n ! cle>+ out ( "o w\ld ?r[ out ( op]ation half ! entire quantity ( fire1 & dur+ ! process ! evaporation w\ld be injuri\sly dim9i%$4 ,x is f\nd by exp]i5ce1 t ! side plates ( furnaces are liable to m rapid de/ruction ?an _! ro(s1 ow+1 probably1 to a great] liability to deposit4 ,furnaces1 !re=e1 %\ld n be made n>r[] ?an a c]ta9 limit4 ,great dep? f front to back is also att5d$ ) practical inconv5i5ce1 z x r5d]s fir+ tools ( consid]able l5g?1 & a correspond+ ext5t ( /ok+ room necess>y4 ,x is recomm5d$1 by ^? :o h _h mu* practical exp]i5ce 9 /eam-vessels1 t furnaces six feet 9 dep? f front to back %\ld n be less ?an ?ree feet 9 wid?1 to af=d means ( fir+ ) z little injury to ! side plates z possible1 & ( keep+ ! fires 9 ! condition necess>y = ! production ( ! greate/ effect4 ,! tops ( ! furnaces almo/ nev] decay1 & seldom are subject to an alt]ation ( figure1 unless ! level ( ! wat] be all[$ to fall bel[ !m4#cg 7#bag47 ,a =m ( m>9e eng9e 0 "s ye>s s9ce propos$ & pat5t$ by ,mr4 ,?omas ,h[>d1 possess+ mu* novelty & +5uity1 & hav+ pret5sions to a v extraord9>y economy ( fuel1 9 addition to ! advantages claim$ by ,mr4 ,hall4 ,9 ,mr4 ,h[>d's eng9es1 ! /eam1 z 9 ,mr4 ,hall's1 is con/antly reproduc$ f ! same wat]1 s t pure or di/ill$ wat] may be us$2 b ,mr4 ,h[>d disp5ses altoge!r ) ! use ( a boil]4 ,a quantity ( m]cury is plac$ 9 a %all[ wr\ght-iron vessel ov] a coke fire1 by :i* x is ma9ta9$ at a ,pg#dfe temp]ature v>y+ f #djj to #ejj4 ,! surface expos$ to ! fire 0 comput$ at ?ree f\r?s ( a squ>e foot = ea* horse-p[]4 ,! upp] surface ( ! m]cury 0 cov]$ by a v ?9 plate ( iron 9 contact ) x1 & s contriv$ z to pres5t ab\t f\r times z mu* surface z t expos$ b5ea? ! fire4 ,adjac5t to ?is a vessel ( wat] 0 plac$1 ma9ta9$ ne>ly at ! boil+ po9t1 & communicat+ by a nozzle & valve ) ! *amb] imm$iately above ! m]cury4 ,at int]vals correspond+ to ! motion ( ! pi/on a small quantity ( wat] 0 inject$ f ?is vessel1 & ?r[n ^u ! plate ( iron re/+ ^u ! hot m]cury4 ,f ?is x receiv$ n only ! heat necess>y to conv]t x into common /eam1 b to give x ! qualities ( highly sup]heat$ /eam4 ,9 fact1 ! /eam ?us produc$ _h a temp]ature consid]ably above t :i* correspond$ to its pressure1 & 01 !re=e1 capable ( be+ depriv$ ( m or less ( its heat )\t be+ cond5s$4 7#id47 ,! quantity ( wat] inject$ into ! /eam-*amb] 0 regulat$ by ! p[] at :i* ! eng9e 0 int5d$ to be work$4 ,! fire 0 suppli$ ) air by a bl[] subject to exact regulation4 ,! /eam ?us produc$ 0 conduct$ to a *amb] surr\nd+ ! work+ cyl9d]1 & ?is *amb] itself 0 enclos$ by ano!r space ?r\gh :i* ! air f ! furnace pass$ be=e x rea*$ ! flue4 ,by ?is contrivance ! air imp>t$ its r$undant heat to ! /eam1 z ! latt] pass$ to ! cyl9d]1 & rais$ its temp]ature to ab\t #djj1 ! pressure1 h[ev]1 n exce$+ #be lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,! valves1 gov]n+ ! admission ( /eam to ! pi/on1 7 adapt$ = expansive action4 ,! vacuum on ! opposite side 0 ma9ta9$ by cond5sation 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,! cond5s] 0 a copp] vessel plac$ 9 a ci/]n ( cold wat]1 & ! /eam 0 admitt$ to x f ! cyl9d] by an eduction pipe 9 ! usual way4 ,a jet 0 introduc$ f an adjac5t vessel fill$ ) di/ill$ wat]1 & ! cond5s+ wat] & cond5s$ /eam 7 pump$ f ! cond5s] z 9 common eng9es4 ,! w>m wat] ?us pump$ out ( ! ,pg#dff cond5s] 0 drawn ?r\gh a copp] worm1 c>ri$ ) _m coils ?r\gh a ci/]n ( cold wat]1 s t :5 x arriv$ at ! end ( ?is pipe x 0 r$uc$ ne>ly to ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! pipe 0 ?us br\ght to ! vessel ( di/ill$ wat] already m5tion$1 & ! wat] suppli$ by x replac$4 ,! wat] admitt$ to ! cond5s] ?r\gh ! cond5s+ jet be+ purg$ ( air1 a small air-pump 0 suffici5t1 s9ce x _h only to exhau/ ! cond5s] & tubes at />t+1 & to remove ! air :i* might be admitt$ by leakage4 ,mr4 ,h[>d /at$ t ! cond5sation took place z rapidly & p]fectly z 9 ! be/ eng9es ( ! common k9d4 ,an eng9e ( ?is con/ruction 0 9 ! spr+ ( #ahce plac$ 9 ! gov]nm5t /eam] call$ ! ,comet4 ,x 0 /at$1 t ?\gh ! ma*9]y 0 n advantage\sly con/ruct$1 a "p ( ! eng9e be+ old1 & n made expressly = a boil] ( ?is k9d1 ! vessel p]=m$ a voyage f ,falm\? to ,lisbon1 9 :i* ! consumption ( fuel did n exce$ a ?ird ( h] =m] consumption :5 work$ by ,b\lton & ,watt's eng9es1 ! =m] consumption ( coals be+ ab\t eight hundr$ p\nds p] h\r1 & ! consumption ( ,mr4 ,h[>d's eng9e be+ less ?an two hundr$ & fifty p\nds ( coke p] h\r4 ,! advantages claim$ = ?is contrivance 7 ! foll[+3 fir/1 ! small space & weight occupi$ by ! ma*9]y1 aris+ f ! abs5ce ( a boil]2 second1 ! dim9i%$ consumption ( fuel2 ?ird1 ! r$uc$ size ( ! flues2 f\r?1 ! removal ( ! injuri\s effects aris+ f deposit & incru/ation2 fif?1 ! abs5ce ( smoke4 7#bah47 ,! me?od by :i* ! greate/ quantity ( practical effect c be obta9$ f a giv5 quantity ( fuel mu/1 h[ev]1 ma9ly dep5d on ! ext5d$ application ( ! expansive pr9ciple4 ,?is has be5 ! means by :i* an extraord9>y am\nt ( duty has be5 obta9$ f ! ,corni% eng9es4 ,! difficulty ( ! application ( ?is pr9ciple 9 m>9e eng9es has aris5 f ! objections ent]ta9$ 9 ,europe to ! use ( /eam ( high pressure "u ! circum/ances 9 :i* ! eng9e mu/ be work$ at sea4 ,to apply ! expansive pr9ciple1 x is necess>y t ! mov+ p[] at ! comm5cem5t ( ! /roke %all consid]ably exce$ ! ,pg#dfg resi/ance1 its =ce be+ gradually att5uat$ till ! completion ( ! /roke1 :5 x w at l5g? become less ?an ! resi/ance4 ,?is condition may1 h[ev]1 be atta9$ ) /eam ( limit$ pressure1 if ! eng9e be con/ruct$ ) a suffici5t quantity ( pi/on-surface4 ,?is me?od ( r5d]+ ! expansive pr9ciple available at sea1 & compatible ) l[-pressure /eam1 has rec5tly be5 br\ght into op]ation by ,messrs4 ,maudslay & ,field4 ,_! improvem5t consi/s 9 adapt+ two /eam-cyl9d]s 9 "o eng9e1 9 su* a mann] t ! /eam %all act simultane\sly on bo? pi/ons1 caus+ !m to asc5d & desc5d toge!r4 ,! pi/on-rods are bo? atta*$ to ! same horizontal cross-head1 :]eby _! comb9$ action is appli$ to "o crank by means ( a connect+ rod plac$ betwe5 ! pi/ons4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,a section ( su* an eng9e1 made by a plane pass+ ?r\gh ! two pi/on-rods ,p ,p & cyl9d]s1 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #abg4 ,! pi/on-rods are atta*$ to a cross-head ,c1 ,pg#dfh :i* asc5ds & desc5ds ) !m4 ,?is cross-head drives upw>ds & d[nw>ds an axle ,d1 to :i* ! l[] end ( ! connect+ rod ,e is atta*$4 ,! o!r end ( ! connect+ rod drives ! crank-p9 ,f1 & imp>ts revolution to ! paddle-%aft ,g4 ,a rod ,h conveys motion by means ( a beam ,i to ! rod ,k ( ! air-pump ,e4 7#bai47 ,connect$ ) ?is1 & 9 ! same pat5t1 ano!r improvem5t is includ$1 consi/+ ( ! application ( a holl[ wr\ght-iron fram+ c>ri$ across ! vessel above ! ma*9]y1 to support ! :ole ( ! be>+s ( ! crank-%aft4 ,a plan ( ?is1 includ+ ! cyl9d]s & paddle-:eel1 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #abh4 ,! advantages propos$ by ^! improvem5ts are simplicity ( con/ruction1 m direct action on ! crank1 economy ( space & weight ( mat]ial1 comb9$ ) increas$ area ( ! pi/on1 :]eby a giv5 evaporat+ p[] ( ! boil] is r5d]$ productive1 by ext5d$ application ( ! expansive pr9ciple1 ( a great] mov+ p[] ?an 9 =m] arrangem5ts4 ,consequ5tly1 "u l circum/ances1 great] p[] & economy ( fuel is obta9$1 ) ! fur!r advantage at sea1 t :5 ! eng9e is r$uc$ 9 its spe$1 ei!r by ! vessel be+ deeply lad5 ) coal1 z is ! case at ! comm5cem5t ( a long sea voyage1 or by head w9ds1 m /eam may be giv5 to ! cyl9d]s1 & consequ5tly m spe$ imp>t$ to ! vessel1 all ! /eam produc$ 9 ! boil] be+ usefully employ$4 7#bbj47 ,ano!r improvem5t1 hav+ ! same objects1 & analog\s to ! prec$+1 has be5 likewise pat5t$ by ,messrs4 ,maudslay & ,field4 ,?is consi/s 9 ! adoption ( a cyl9d] ( great] diamet]1 hav+ two pi/on-rods ,p ,p1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #abi41 ( consid]able l5g?1 connect$ at ! top by a cross-head ,c4 ,f ?is cross-head is c>ri$ d[nw>ds ! connect+ rod ,d1 :i* drives ! crank-p9 ,e1 & !reby works ! paddle-%aft ,s4 ,9 ?is case ! paddle-%aft is ext5d$ imm$iately above ! pi/on1 & ! d\ble pi/on-rod has suffici5t l5g? to be above ! paddle-%aft :5 ! pi/on is at ! bottom ( its /roke4 ,?is improvem5t is int5d$ to be appli$ m p>ticul>ly = eng9es = riv] navigation1 ! advantages result+ f ,pg#dfi x be+ t a paddle-%aft plac$ at a giv5 height f ! bottom ( ! vessel w be enabl$ to receive a long] /roke ( pi/on ?an by any o!r arrangem5t n[ 9 use4 ,a m ,pg#dgj compact & firm connection ( ! cyl9d] ) ! crank-%aft be>+s is effect$ by x1 & a cyl9d] ( mu* great] diamet] may be appli$ by :i* ! expansive action ( /eam may be m fully br\ght into play2 & a m direct action ( ! /eam-p[] on ! crank ) a less weight ( mat]ials & a great] economy ( space may be obta9$ ?an by any ( ! arrangem5ts ( m>9e eng9es hi!rto us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abi4 7#bba47 ,mr4 ,francis ,humphrys has obta9$ a pat5t = a =m ( m>9e eng9e1 by :i* "s simplification ( ! ma*9]y is atta9$1 & ! same p[] compris$ )9 m limit$ dim5sions4 ,9 ?is eng9e !re is atta*$ to ! pi/on ( ! cyl9d]1 in/ead ( a pi/on-rod1 a holl[ cas+ ,d ,d 7fig4 #acj471 :i* moves ?r\gh a /uff+-box ,g1 con/ruct$ 9 a mann] simil> to ! /uff+-box ( a pi/on-rod4 ,9 ! figure1 ?is cas+ is pres5t$ 9 section1 b ,pg#dga its =m is t ( a long n>r[ slit1 or op5+1 r\nd$ at ei!r end z exhibit$ 9 ! plan 7fig4 #aca7 ( ! cyl9d]-cov]4 ,! crank ,c is driv5 by ! o!r end ( ! connect+ rod ,h1 ! crank-%aft be+ imm$iately above ! c5tre ( ! pi/on & ! connect+ rod pass+ ?r\gh ! oblong op5+ ,d1 & desc5d+ into ! holl[ pi/on-rod x is atta*$ to an axis ,i at ! bottom ( ! pi/on4 ,a box or cov] ,k ,k encloses ! cross-piece or axis ,i ) its be>+s1 & is ,pg#dgb atta*$ s z to be /eam-tight to ! bottom ( ! pi/on4 ,a holl[ space ,l ,l is ca/ 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] = ! reception ( ! box ,k ,k1 :5 ! pi/on is at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! =ce by :i* ! pi/on is driv5 9 its asc5t & desc5t is communicat$ to ! connect+ rod1 n1 z usual1 ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( a pi/on-rod1 b directly f ! pi/on itself by ! cross-p9 ,i1 & f !nce to ! crank ,c1 :i* x drives )\t ! int]v5tion ( beams1 cross-heads1 or any simil> app5dage4 ,! slide-valves regulat+ ! admission & eduction ( /eam are repres5t$ at a2 ! rod ( ! air-pump is %[n at d1 be+ work$ by a crank plac$ on ! c5tre ( ! great crank %aft4#ch 7#bbb47 ,to obta9 f ! mov+ p[] its full am\nt ( me*anical effect 9 propell+ ! vessel1 x w\ld be necess>y t its =ce %\ld propel1 by con/antly act+ aga9/ ! wat] 9 a horizontal direction1 & ) a motion contr>y to ! c\rse ( ! vessel4 ,no sy/em ( me*anical propell]s has1 h[ev]1 yet be5 contriv$ capable ( p]fectly accompli%+ ?is4 ,pat5ts h be5 grant$ = _m +5i\s me*anical comb9ations to imp>t to ! propell+ surfaces su* angles z appe>$ to ! respective contriv]s mo/ advantage\s4 ,9 mo/ ( ^! ! me*anical complexity has =m$ a fatal objection4 ,no "p ( ! ma*9]y ( a /eam-vessel is s liable to become d]ang$ at sea z ! paddle-:eels2 &1 !re=e1 t simplicity ( con/ruction :i* is compatible ) ^? repairs :i* are possible on su* em]g5cies is q ess5tial = safe practical use4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,! ord9>y paddle-:eel1 z has be5 already /at$1 is a :eel revolv+ ^u a %aft driv5 by ! eng9e1 & c>ry+ ^u its circumf]5ce a numb] ( flat bo>ds1 call$ paddle-bo>ds1 :i* are secur$ by nuts & braces 9 a fix$ position2 & t position is su* t ! planes ,pg#dgc ( ! paddle-bo>ds div]ge ne>ly f ! c5tre ( ! %aft on :i* ! :eel turns4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is arrangem5t is t ea* paddle-bo>d c only act 9 t direction :i* is mo/ advantage\s = ! propulsion ( ! vessel :5 x arrives ne> ! l[e/ po9t ( ! :eel4 ,9 fig4 #acb4 let ,o be ! %aft on :i* ! common paddle-:eel revolves2 ! position ( ! paddle-bo>ds are repres5t$ at ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 c42 ,x1 ,y repres5ts ! wat] l9e1 ! c\rse ( ! vessel be+ suppos$ to be f ,x to ,y2 ! arr[s repres5t ! direction 9 :i* ! paddle-:eel revolves4 ,! :eel is imm]s$ to ! dep? ( ! l[e/ paddle-bo>d1 s9ce a less degree ( imm]sion w\ld r5d] a portion ( ! surface ( ea* paddle-bo>d me*anically useless4 ,9 ! position ,a ! :ole =ce ( ! paddle-bo>d is effici5t = propell+ ! vessel2 b z ! paddle ent]s ! wat] 9 ! position ,h1 its action ^u ! wat]1 n be+ horizontal1 is only p>tially effective = propulsion3 a "p ( ! =ce :i* drives ! paddle is exp5d$ 9 depress+ ! wat]1 & ! rema9d] 9 driv+ x contr>y to ! c\rse ( ! vessel1 &1 !re=e1 by its re-action produc+ a c]ta9 propell+ effect4 ,! t5d5cy1 h[ev]1 ( ! paddle ent]+ ! wat] at ,h1 is to =m a holl[ or tr\gh1 :i* ! wat]1 by its ord9>y prop]ty1 has a cont9ual t5d5cy to fill up4 ,aft] pass+ ! l[e/ po9t ,a1 z ! paddle approa*es ! position ,b1 :]e x ,pg#dgd em]ges f ! wat]1 its action aga9 becomes oblique1 a "p only hav+ a propell+ effect1 & ! rema9d] hav+ a t5d5cy to raise ! wat]1 & ?r[ up a wave & spray beh9d ! paddle-:eel4 ,x is evid5t t ! m deeply ! paddle-:eel becomes imm]s$1 ! great] w be ! proportion ( ! propell+ p[] ?us wa/$ 9 elevat+ & depress+ ! wat]2 & if ! :eel 7 imm]s$ to its axis1 ! :ole =ce ( ! paddle-bo>ds1 on ent]+ & leav+ ! wat]1 w\ld be lo/1 no "p ( x hav+ a t5d5cy to propel4 ,if a /ill deep] imm]sion take place1 ! paddle-bo>ds above ! axis w\ld h a t5d5cy to ret>d ! c\rse ( ! vessel4 ,:5 ! vessel is1 !re=e1 9 prop] trim1 ! imm]sion %\ld n exce$ nor fall %ort ( ! dep? ( ! l[e/ paddle2 b = v>i\s reasons x is impossible 9 practice to ma9ta9 ?is fix$ imm]sion3 ! agitation ( ! surface ( ! sea1 caus+ ! vessel to roll1 w necess>ily produce a great v>iation 9 ! imm]sion ( ! paddle-:eels1 "o becom+ frequ5tly imm]s$ to its axle1 :ile ! o!r is rais$ altoge!r out ( ! wat]4 ,also ! draught ( wat] ( ! vessel is liable to *ange1 by ! v>iation 9 h] c>go2 ?is w necess>ily happ5 9 /eam]s :i* take long voyages4 ,at />t+ !y are heavily lad5 ) fuel1 :i* z !y proce$ is gradually consum$1 :]eby ! vessel is light5$4 7#bbc47 ,to remove ?is defect1 & economise z mu* z possible ! propell+ effect ( ! paddle-bo>ds1 x w\ld be necess>y s to con/ruct !m t !y may ent] & leave ! wat] edgeways1 or z ne>ly s z possible2 su* an arrangem5t w\ld be1 9 effect1 equival5t to ! process call$ fea!r+1 z appli$ to o>s4 ,any me*anism :i* w\ld p]fectly accompli% ?is w\ld cause ! paddles to "w 9 almo/ p]fect sil5ce1 & w\ld v ne>ly remove ! inconv5i5t & injuri\s vibration :i* is produc$ by ! action ( ! common paddles4 ,b ! con/ruction ( fea!r+ paddles is att5d$ ) great difficulty1 "u ! peculi> circum/ances 9 :i* su* :eels "w4 ,any me*anism s complex t x c\ld n be easily repair$ :5 d]ang$1 ) su* eng9e]+ implem5ts & skill ,pg#dge z c be obta9$ at sea1 w\ld be att5d$ ) great objections2 & ! effici5cy ( its propell+ action w\ld n comp5sate = ! dang]s :i* mu/ att5d ^u ! helpless /ate ( a /eam]1 depriv$ ( h] propell+ ag5ts4 ,fea!r+ paddle-bo>ds mu/ necess>ily h a motion indep5d5tly ( ! motion ( ! :eel1 s9ce any fix$ position :i* c\ld be giv5 to !m1 ?\gh x might be mo/ fav\rable to _! action 9 "o position w\ld n be s 9 _! :ole c\rse ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,?us ! paddle-bo>d :5 at ! l[e/ po9t %\ld be 9 a v]tical position1 or s plac$ t its plane1 if cont9u$ upw>ds1 w\ld pass ?r\gh ! axis ( ! :eel4 ,9 o!r positions1 h[ev]1 z x passes ?r\gh ! wat]1 x %\ld pres5t its upp] edge1 n t[>ds ! axle ( ! :eel1 b t[>ds a po9t above ! highe/ po9t ( ! :eel4 ,! precise po9t to :i* ! edge ( ! paddle-bo>d %\ld be direct$ is capable ( ma!matical det]m9ation4 ,b x w v>y accord+ to circum/ances1 :i* dep5d on ! motion ( ! vessel4 ,! progressive motion ( ! vessel1 indep5d5tly ( ! w9d or curr5t1 mu/ obvi\sly be sl[] ?an ! motion ( ! paddle-bo>ds r\nd ! axle ( ! :eel2 s9ce x is by ! diff]5ce ( ^! velocities t ! re-action ( ! wat] is produc$ by :i* ! vessel is propell$4 ,! proportion1 h[ev]1 betwe5 ! progressive spe$ ( ! vessel & ! rotative spe$ ( ! paddle-bo>ds is n fix$3 x w v>y ) ! %ape & /ructure ( ! vessel1 & ) its dep? ( imm]sion2 nev]!less x is ^u ?is proportion t ! mann] 9 :i* ! paddle-bo>ds %\ld %ift _! position mu/ be det]m9$4 ,if ! progressive spe$ ( ! vessel 7 ne>ly equal to ! rotative spe$ ( ! paddle-bo>ds1 ! latt] %\ld s %ift _! position t _! upp] edges %\ld be pres5t$ to a po9t v little above ! highe/ po9t ( ! :eel4 ,?is is a /ate ( ?+s :i* c\ld only take place 9 ! case ( a /eam] ( a small draught ( wat]1 %allop-%ap$1 & s con/ruct$ z to suff] little resi/ance f ! fluid4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! great] ! dep? ( imm]sion1 & ! less f9e ! l9es ( ! ,pg#dgf vessel1 ! great] w be ! resi/ance 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! wat]1 & ! great] w be ! proportion :i* ! rotative spe$ ( ! paddle-bo>ds w be> to ! progressive spe$ ( ! vessel4 ,9 ?is latt] case ! indep5d5t motion ( ! paddle-bo>ds %\ld be su* t _! edges1 :ile 9 ! wat]1 %all be pres5t$ t[>ds a po9t consid]ably above ! highe/ po9t ( ! paddle-:eel4 ,a va/ numb] ( +5i\s me*anical contrivances h be5 inv5t$ & pat5t$ = accompli%+ ! object j expla9$4 ,"s ( ^! h fail$ f ! circum/ance ( _! inv5tors n cle>ly und]/&+ :at precise motion x 0 necess>y to imp>t to ! paddle-bo>d3 o!rs h fail$ f ! complexity ( ! me*anism by :i* ! desir$ effect 0 produc$4 7#bbd47 ,9 ! ye> #ahbi a pat5t 0 grant$ to ,elijah ,gall[ay = a paddle-:eel ) movable paddles1 :i* pat5t 0 pur*as$ by ,mr4 ,william ,morgan1 :o made v>i\s alt]ations 9 ! me*anism1 n v mat]ially dep>t+ f ! pr9ciple ( ! inv5tion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,?is paddle-:eel is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #acc4 ,! contrivance may be %ortly /at$ to consi/ 9 caus+ ! :eel :i* be>s ! paddles to revolve on "o c5tre1 & ! radial arms :i* move ! paddles to revolve on ano!r c5tre4 ,let ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ,i ,k ,l be ! polygonal circumf]5ce ( ! paddle-:eel1 =m$ ( /raight b>s1 securely connect$ toge!r at ! extremities ( ! spokes or radii ( ! :eel :i* turns on ! %aft :i* is work$ by ! eng9e2 ! c5tre ( ?is :eel be+ at ,o4 ,s f> ?is :eel is simil> to ! common paddle-:eel2 b ! paddle-bo>ds are n1 z 9 ! common :eel1 fix$ at ,a ,b ,c1 c41 s z to be always direct$ to ! c5tre ,o1 b are s plac$ t !y are capable ( turn+ on axles :i* are always horizontal1 s t !y c take any angle ) respect to ! wat] :i* may be giv5 to !m4 ,f ! c5tres1 or ! l9e jo9+ ! pivots on :i* ^! paddle-bo>ds turn1 !re proce$ %ort arms ,k1 firmly fix$ to ! paddle-bo>ds at an angle ( ab\t #abj4 ,on a motion giv5 to ?is arm ,k1 x w !re=e give a correspond+ angul> motion to ! paddle-bo>d1 s z to make x turn on its pivots4 ,at ,pg#dgg ! extremities ( ! sev]al arms m>k$ ,k is a p9 or pivot1 to :i* ! extremities ( ! radial arms ,l are sev]ally atta*$1 s t ! angle betwe5 ea* radial arm ,l & ! %ort paddle-arm ,k is capable ( be+ *ang$ by any motion imp>t$ to ,l2 ! radial arms are connect$ at ! o!r end ) a c5tre1 r\nd :i* !y are capable ( revolv+4 ,n[1 s9ce ! po9ts ,a ,b ,c1 c41 :i* are ! pivots on :i* ! paddle-bo>ds turn1 are mov$ 9 ! circumf]5ce ( a circle1 ( :i* ! c5tre is ,o1 !y are always at ! same di/ance f t po9t2 consequ5tly !y w cont9ually v>y _! di/ance f ! o!r c5tre ,p4 ,?us1 :5 a paddle-bo>d arrives at t po9t ( its revolution at :i* ! c5tre r\nd :i* x revolves lies precisely betwe5 x & ! c5tre ,o1 its di/ance f ! =m] c5tre is less ?an 9 any o!r position4 ,z x dep>ts f t po9t1 its di/ance f t c5tre gradually increases until x arrives at ! opposite po9t ( its revolution1 :]e ! c5tre ,o is exactly betwe5 x & ! =m] c5tre2 !n ! di/ance ( ! paddle-bo>d f ! =m] c5tre is greate/4 ,pg#dgh ,?is con/ant *ange ( di/ance betwe5 ea* paddle-bo>d & ! c5tre ,p is accommodat$ by ! v>iation ( ! angle betwe5 ! radial arm ,l & ! %ort paddle-bo>d arm ,k2 z ! paddle-bo>d approa*es ! c5tre ,p ?is gradually dim9i%es2 & z ! di/ance ( ! paddle-bo>d increases1 ! angle is likewise augm5t$4 ,?is *ange 9 ! magnitude ( ! angle1 :i* ?us accommodates ! v>y+ position ( ! paddle-bo>d ) respect to ! c5tre ,p1 w be obs]v$ 9 ! figure4 ,! paddle-bo>d ,d is ne>e/ to ,p2 & x w be obs]v$ t ! angle conta9$ betwe5 ,l & ,k is !re v acute2 at ,e ! angle betwe5 ,l & ,k increases1 b is /ill acute2 at ,g x increases to a "r angle2 at ,h x becomes obtuse2 & at ,k1 :]e x is mo/ di/ant f ! c5tre ,p1 x becomes mo/ obtuse4 ,x aga9 dim9i%es at ,k1 & becomes a "r angle betwe5 ,a & ,b4 ,n[ ?is cont9ual %ift+ ( ! direction ( ! %ort arm ,k is necess>ily accompani$ by an equival5t *ange ( position 9 ! paddle-bo>d to :i* x is atta*$2 & ! position ( ! second c5tre ,p is1 or may be1 s adju/$ t ?is paddle-bo>d1 z x ent]s ! wat] & em]ges f x1 %all be su* z %all be mo/ advantage\s = propell+ ! vessel1 & !re=e att5d$ ) less ( t vibration :i* arises *iefly f ! alt]nate depression & elevation ( ! wat]1 ow+ to ! oblique action ( ! paddle-bo>ds4 7#bbe47 ,9 ! ye> #ahcc1 ,mr4 ,field1 ( ! firm ( ,maudslay & ,field1 con/ruct$ a paddle-:eel ) fix$ paddle-bo>ds1 b ea* bo>d be+ divid$ into sev]al n>r[ slips arrang$ "o a little beh9d ! o!r1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #acd4 ,^! divid$ bo>ds he propos$ to arrange 9 su* cycloidal curves t !y mu/ all ent] ! wat] at ! same place 9 imm$iate succession1 avoid+ ! %ock produc$ by ! entrance ( ! common bo>d4 ,^! split paddle-bo>ds are z effici5t 9 propell+ :5 at ! l[e/ po9t z ! common paddle-bo>ds1 & :5 !y em]ge ! wat] escapes simultane\sly f ea* n>r[ bo>d1 & is n ?r[n up1 z is ! case ) common paddle-bo>ds4#ci ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,pg#dgi ,! !oretical effect ( ?is :eel is ! same z t ( ! common :eel1 & exp]i5ce alone1 ! result ( :i* has n yet be5 obta9$1 c prove its effici5cy4 ,! numb] ( b>s1 or sep>ate p>ts into :i* ea* paddle-bo>d is divid$1 has be5 v v>i\s4 ,:5 fir/ introduc$ by ,mr4 ,gall[ay ea* bo>d 0 divid$ into six or sev5 p>ts3 ?is 0 subsequ5tly r$uc$1 & 9 ! m rec5t :eels ( ?is =m con/ruct$ = ! gov]nm5t vessels ! paddle-bo>ds consi/ only ( two p>ts1 com+ z ne> to ! common :eel z is possible1 )\t altoge!r ab&on+ ! pr9ciple ( ! split paddle4 7#bbf47 ,to obta9 an approximate e/imate ( ! ext5t to :i* /eam-p[] is applicable to long sea-voyages1 x w\ld be necess>y to inve/igate ! mutual relation :i*1 9 ! exi/+ /ate ( ?is application ( /eam-p[]1 exi/s betwe5 ! capacity or tonnage ( ! vessel1 ! magnitude1 weight1 & p[]1 ( ! ma*9]y1 ! available /[age = fuel1 & ! av]age spe$ atta9able 9 all ,pg#dhj wea!rs1 z well z ! g5]al purposes to :i* ! vessel is to be appropriat$1 :e!r = ! transport ( goods or m]*&ise1 or m]ely = despat*es & pass5g]s1 or = bo? ( ^! comb9$4 ,t portion ( ! capacity ( ! vessel :i* is appropriat$ to ! mov+ p[] consi/s ( ! space occupi$ by ! ma*9]y & ! fuel4 ,! di/ribution ( x betwe5 ^! mu/ ma9ly dep5d on ! l5g? ( ! voyage :i* ! vessel mu/ make )\t receiv+ a fre% supply ( coals4 ,if ! trips be %ort1 & frequ5t relays ( fuel c be obta9$1 !n ! space allott$ to ! ma*9]y may be> a great] proportion to t assign$ to ! fuel2 b 9 proportion z ea* un9t]rupt$ /age ( ! voyage is increas$1 a great] /ock ( coals w be necess>y1 & a proportionally less space left = ! ma*9]y4 ,o!r ?+s be+ ! same1 !re=e1 /eam-vessels int5d$ = long sea-voyages mu/ be less p[]ful 9 proportion to _! tonnage4 ,x w be app>5t t e improvem5t :i* takes place 9 ! application ( ! /eam-eng9e to navigation w modify all ^! data on :i* su* an inve/igation mu/ dep5d4 ,e increas$ effici5cy ( fuel1 f :atev] cause x may be d]iv$1 w ei!r increase ! useful tonnage ( ! vessel1 or increase ! l5g? ( ! voyage ( :i* x is capable4 ,v>i\s improvem5ts h be5 & are /ill 9 progress1 by :i* ?is effici5cy has und]gone cont9ual augm5tation1 & voyages may n[ be accompli%$ ) mod]ate economy & pr(it1 to :i* a few ye>s s9ce m>9e eng9es c\ld n be appli$ ) p]man5t advantage4 ,! av]age spe$ ( /eam-vessels has also und]gone a gradual increase by su* improvem5ts4 ,dur+ ! f\r ye>s end+ ,june1 #ahcd1 x 0 f\nd t ! av]age rate ( /eam+ obta9$ f fifty-"o voyages made by ! ,admiralty /eam]s betwe5 ,falm\? & ,corfu1 exclusive ( /oppages1 0 sev5 miles & a qu>t] an h\r direct di/ance betwe5 port & port4 ,! vessels :i* p]=m$ ?is voyage v>i$ f #cej to #gjj tons measur$ burd51 & 7 provid$ ) eng9es v>y+ f #ajj to #bjj horse-p[]1 ) /[age = coals v>y+ f #hj to #bdj tons4 ,! proportion ( ! p[] to ! ,pg#dha tonnage v>i$ f "o horse to ?ree tons to "o horse to f\r tons4 ,?us ! ,,mess5g] _h a p[] ( #bjj horses & measur$ #gcj tons2 ! ,,flam] _h a p[] ( #abj horses1 & measur$ #ejj tons2 ! ,,columbia _h a p[] ( #abj horses1 & measur$ #cfj tons4 ,9 g5]al x may be assum$ t = ! %orte/ class ( trips1 su* z ^? ( ! ,*annel /eam]s1 ! proportion ( ! p[] to ! tonnage %\ld be ab\t "o horse = e two tons2 b = ! long] class ( voyages1 ! proportion ( p[] to tonnage %\ld be ab\t "o horse-p[] to f ?ree to f\r tons measur$ tonnage4 ,^! data1 h[ev]1 mu/ be receiv$ z v r\gh approximations1 subject to consid]able modifications 9 _! application to p>ticul> vessels4 ,we h already /at$ t ! nom9al horse-p[] is itself extremely indef9ite2 & if1 z is n[ cu/om>y 9 ! long] class ( voyages1 ! /eam be work$ expansively1 !n ! nom9al p[] almo/ ceases to h any def9ite relation to ! actual p]=mance ( ! vessel4 ,x is usual to calculate ! horse-p[] by assum+ a uni=m pressure ( /eam ^u ! pi/on1 &1 consequ5tly1 by exclud+ ! consid]ation ( ! effect ( expansion4 ,! mo/ c]ta9 te/ ( ! am\nt ( me*anical p[] ex]t$ by ! ma*9]y w\ld be obta9$ f ! quantity ( wat] actually transmitt$ 9 ! =m ( /eam f ! boil] to ! cyl9d]4 ,b ! effect ( ?is w\ld also be influ5c$ by ! ext5t to :i* ! expansive pr9ciple has be5 br\ght into op]ation4 ,f ! report$ p]=mances ( ! l>g] class ( /eam-%ips )9 ! la/ few ye>s1 x w\ld appe> t ! av]age spe$ has be5 increas$ s9ce ! e/imate above m5tion$1 :i* 0 obta9$ 9 #ahcd2 & on comp>+ ! consumption ( fuel ) ! actual p]=mance1 x w\ld appe> t ! effici5cy ( fuel has also be5 consid]ably augm5t$4 ,no ext5sive c\rse ( accurate exp]im5ts or obs]vations h1 h[ev]1 be5 obta9$ f :i* correct inf]5ces may be drawn ( ! probable limits to :i* /eam-navigation1 9 its pres5t /ate1 is capable ( be+ ext5d$4 ,! jeal\sy ( rival companies has ob/ruct$ ! inquiries ( ^? :o1 solicit\s m ,pg#dhb = ! g5]al advancem5t ( ! art ?an = ! success ( individual ent]prises1 h direct$ _! att5tion to ?is "q2 & x is h>dly to be expect$ t suffici5tly correct & ext5sive data c be obta9$ = ?is purpose4 7#bbg47 ,increas$ facility 9 ! ext5sion & application ( /eam-navigation is expect$ to arise f ! sub/itution ( iron = wood1 9 ! con/ruction ( vessels4 ,hi!rto iron /eam]s h be5 *iefly conf9$ to riv]-navigation2 b !re appe>s no suffici5t reason :y _! use %\ld be ?us limit$4 ,= sea-voyages !y (f] _m advantages2 !y are n half ! weight ( vessels ( equal tonnage con/ruct$ ( wood2 &1 consequ5tly1 ) ! same tonnage !y w h less draught ( wat]1 & !re=e less resi/ance to ! propell+ p[]2 or1 ) ! same draught ( wat] & ! same resi/ance1 !y w c>ry a proportionally heavi] c>go4 ,! nature ( _! mat]ial r5d]s !m m /iff & unyield+ ?an timb]2 & !y d n suff] t effect :i* is call$ hogg+1 :i* arises f a slight alt]ation :i* takes place 9 ! figure ( a timb] vessel 9 roll+1 accompani$ by an alt]nate op5+ & clos+ ( ! seams4 ,iron vessels h ! fur!r advantage ( be+ m pro( aga9/ fracture ^u rocks4 ,if a timb] vessel /rike1 a plank is brok51 & a *asm op5$ 9 h] _m times great] ?an ! po9t ( rock :i* produces ! concussion4 ,if an iron vessel /rike1 %e w ei!r m]ely receive a d+e1 or be pi]c$ by a hole equal 9 size to ! po9t ( rock :i* %e enc\nt]s4 ,"s examples ( ! /r5g? ( iron vessels 7 giv5 by ,mr4 ,macgregor ,laird1 9 8 evid5ce be=e ! ,committee ( ! ,commons on ,/eam ,navigation1 among :i* ! foll[+ may be m5tion$3--,an iron vessel1 call$ ! ,,alburkah1 9 "o ( _! exp]im5tal trials got agr\nd1 & lay ^u h] an*or3 9 a wood5 vessel ! an*or w\ld probably h pi]c$ h] bottom2 9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! bottom 0 only d+$4 ,an iron vessel1 built = ! ,iri% ,inl& ,navigation ,company1 0 be+ t[$ across ,l\gh ,d]g 9 a gale ( w9d1 :5 ! t[+ rope broke1 & %e 0 driv5 ^u rocks1 on :i* %e bump$ = a consid]able "t ,pg#dhc )\t any injury4 ,a wood5 vessel w\ld 9 ?is case h gone to pieces4 ,a fur!r advantage ( iron vessels 7:i* 9 w>m climates is des]v+ ( consid]ation7 is _! great] coolness & p]fect fre$om f v]m94 ,iron /eam-vessels on a v l>ge scale are n[ 9 prep>ation 9 ! ports ( ,liv]pool & ,bri/ol1 int5d$ = long sea-voyages4 ,! l>ge/ vessel ( ?is description :i* has yet be5 project$ is /at$ to be 9 prep>ation = ! voyage betwe5 ,bri/ol & ,new ,york1 by ! company :o h e/abli%$ ! /eam-%ip call$ ! ,great ,we/]n1 ply+ betwe5 ^! places4 ,sev]al projects = ! ext5sion ( /eam-navigation to voyages ( consid]able l5g? h lately be5 ent]ta9$ bo? by ! public & by ! legislature1 & h imp>t$ to e attempt to improve /eam-navigation increas$ int]e/4 ,a committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons collect$ evid5ce & made a report 9 ! la/ session 9 fav\r ( an exp]im5t to e/abli% a l9e ( /eam-communication betwe5 ,great ,brita9 & ,india4 ,two r\tes h be5 sugge/$ by ! committee1 ea* be+ a cont9uation ( ! l9e ( ,admiralty /eam-packets already e/abli%$ to ,malta & ! ,ionian ,isles4 ,"o ( ! r\tes propos$ is ?r\gh ,egypt1 ! ,r$ ,sea1 & across ! ,indian ,ocean to ,bombay1 or "s ( ! o!r presid5cies2 ! o!r across ! nor? "p ( ,syria to ! banks ( ! ,euphrates1 by t riv] to ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 & f !nce to ,bombay4 ,ea* ( ^! r\tes w be att5d$ ) peculi> difficulties1 & 9 bo? a long sea-voyage w be enc\nt]$4 ,9 ! r\te by ! ,r$ ,sea x is propos$ to e/abli% /eam]s betwe5 ,malta & ,alex&ria 7eight hundr$ & sixty miles74 ,a /eam] ( f\r hundr$ tons' burd5 & "o hundr$ horse-p[] w\ld p]=m ?is voyage1 ^u an av]age ( all wea!rs incid5t to ! situation1 9 f five to six days1 consum+ t5 tons ( coal p] day4 ,b x is probable t x might be f\nd m advantage\s to e/abli% a high] ratio betwe5 ! p[] & ! tonnage4 ,f ,alex&ria ! transit might be effect$ by l& across ! i/hmus to ,suez--a j\rney ( f f\r to five days--by c>avan & camels2 or ! transit might be made ei!r ,pg#dhd by l& or wat] f ,alex&ria to ,cairo1 a di/ance ( "o hundr$ & sev5ty-?ree miles2 & f ,cairo to ,suez1 n9ety-?ree miles1 across ! des]t1 9 ab\t five days4 ,at ,suez w\ld be a /ation = /eam]s1 & ! ,r$ ,sea w\ld be trav]s$ 9 ?ree runs or m4 ,if necess>y1 /ations = coals might be e/abli%$ at ,cosseir1 ,judda1 ,mo*a1 & f9ally at ,ad5 or at ,socatra--an isl& imm$iately beyond ! m\? ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean2 ! run f ,suez to ,cosseir w\ld be ?ree hundr$ miles--some:at m ?an twice ! di/ance f ,liv]pool to ,dubl94 ,f ,cosseir to ,judda1 f\r hundr$ & fifty miles2 f ,judda to ,mo*a1 five hundr$ & sev5te5 miles2 & f ,mo*a to ,socatra1 six hundr$ & ?irty-two miles4 ,x is evid5t t all ?is w\ld1 )\t difficulty1 9 ! mo/ unfav\rable wea!r1 fall )9 ! pres5t p[]s ( /eam-navigation4 ,if ! t]m9us ( ! passage be ,bombay1 ! run f ,socatra to ,bombay w be twelve hundr$ miles1 :i* w\ld be f six to eight days' /eam+4 ,! :ole passage f ,alex&ria to ,bombay1 all[+ ?ree days = delay betwe5 ,suez & ,bombay1 w\ld be tw5ty-six days3 ! "t f ,bombay to ,malta w\ld !re=e be ab\t ?irty-?ree days2 & add+ f\rte5 days to ?is = ! transit f ,malta to ,engl&1 we %\ld h a total ( =ty-sev5 days f ,london to ,bombay1 or ab\t sev5 weeks4 ,if ! t]m9us propos$ 7 ,calcutta1 ! c\rse f ,socatra w\ld be "o ?\s& two hundr$ & fifty miles s\?-ea/ to ! ,maldives1 :]e a /ation = coals w\ld be e/abli%$4 ,?is di/ance w\ld be equal to t f ,socatra to ,bombay4 ,f ! ,maldives1 a run ( f\r hundr$ miles w\ld rea* ! s\!rn po9t ( ,ceylon1 call$ ! ,po9t de ,galle1 :i* is ! be/ h>b\r 7,bombay except$7 9 ,briti% ,india3 f ! ,po9t de ,galle1 a run ( six hundr$ miles w rea* ,madras1 & f ,madras to ,calcutta w\ld be a run ( ab\t six hundr$ miles4 ,! voyage f ,london to ,calcutta w\ld be p]=m$ 9 ab\t sixty days4 ,at a c]ta9 season ( ! ye> !re exi/s a p[]ful physical oppon5t to ! transit f ,india to ,suez3 f ,pg#dhe ! middle ( ,june until ! end ( ,septemb]1 ! s\?-we/ monsoon bl[s ) unabat$ =ce across ! ,indian ,ocean1 & m p>ticul>ly betwe5 ,socatra & ,bombay4 ,?is w9d is s viol5t z to leave x b>ely possible = ! mo/ p[]ful /eam-packet to make head aga9/ x1 & ! voyage c\ld n be accompli%$ )\t s]i\s we> & te> ^u ! vessels dur+ ^! mon?s4 ,! att5tion ( p>liam5t has !re=e be5 direct$ to ano!r l9e ( communication1 n liable to ?is difficulty3 x is propos$ to e/abli% a l9e ( /eam]s f ,bombay ?r\gh ! ,p]sian ,gulf to ! ,euphrates4 ,! run f ,bombay to a place call$ ,muscat1 on ! s\!rn %ore ( ! gulf1 w\ld be eight hundr$ & =ty miles 9 a nor?-we/ direction1 & !re=e n oppos$ to ! s\?-we/ monsoon4 ,f ,muscat to ,bassidore1 a po9t ^u ! nor!rn coa/ ( ! /rait at ! m\? ( ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 w\ld be a run ( two hundr$ & fifty-five miles2 f ,bassidore to ,bu%ire1 ano!r po9t on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 w\ld be a run ( ?ree hundr$ miles2 & f ,bu%ire to ! m\? ( ! ,euphrates1 w\ld be "o hundr$ & tw5ty miles4 ,x is evid5t t ! longe/ ( ^! runs w\ld (f] no m difficulty ?an ! passage f ,malta to ,alex&ria4 ,f ,bussora1 ne> ! m\? ( ! ,euphrates1 to ,bir1 a t[n ^u its left bank ne> ,aleppo1 w\ld be "o ?\s& "o hundr$ & =ty-?ree miles1 ?r\gh\t :i* !re are no physical ob/acles to ! riv]-navigation :i* may n be ov]come4 ,"s difficulties arise f ! wild & savage "* ( ! tribes :o occupy its banks4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ?\ght t by prop] measures1 & secur+ ! co-op]ation ( ! pa*a ( ,egypt1 any s]i\s ob/ruction f ?is cause may be remov$4 ,f ,bir1 by ,aleppo1 to ,sc&]oon1 a port ^u ! ,m$it]ranean1 opposite ,cyprus1 is a l&-j\rney1 said to be att5d$ ) "s difficulty1 b n ( great l5g?2 & f ,sc&]oon to ,malta is ab\t ! same di/ance z betwe5 ! latt] place & ,alex&ria4 ,x is calculat$ t ! "t f ,london to ,bombay by ! ,euphrates--suppos+ ! passage to be successfully ,pg#dhf e/abli%$--w\ld be a few days %ort] ?an by ,egypt & ! ,r$ ,sea4 ,:i*ev] ( ^! c\rses may be adopt$1 x is cle> t ! difficulties1 s f> z ! p[]s ( ! /eam eng9e are conc]n$1 lie 9 ! "o case betwe5 ,socatra & ,bombay1 or betwe5 ,socatra & ! ,maldives1 & 9 ! o!r case betwe5 ,bombay & ,muscat4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 has already be5 enc\nt]$ & ov]come on f\r sev]al voyages by ! ,,hugh ,,l9dsay /eam] f ,bombay to ,suez3 t vessel enc\nt]$ a /ill long] run on ^! sev]al trips1 by go+1 n to ,socatra1 b to ,ad51 a po9t on ! coa/ ( ,arabia1 ne> ! ,/raits ( ,babel ,m&eb1 be+ a run ( "o ?\s& six hundr$ & =ty-"o miles1 :i* %e p]=m$ 9 t5 days & n9ete5 h\rs4 ,! same trip has s9ce be5 repeat$ly made by o!r /eam]s2 &1 9 ! pres5t improv$ /ate ( /eam navigation1 no insurm\ntable ob/acles are oppos$ to _! passage4 ,illu/ration ,,footnotes3 #ce ,?is cut is tak5 f ! plate ( ! eng9e ( ! ,r$ ,rov]1 manufactur$ by ,b\lton & ,watt1 giv5 9 ! la/ edition ( ,tr$gold on ! ,/eam ,eng9e4 #cf ,app5dix ,i41 on ,m>9e ,boil]s1 by ,j4 ,d9n52 ,tr$gold on ! ,/eam ,eng9e1 second edition4 #cg ,tr$gold on ! ,/eam ,eng9e1 ,app5dix1 ,i4 p4 #aga4 #ch ,eng9es on a v l>ge scale con/ruct$ ^u ?is pr9ciple are said to be 9 process ( con/ruction = an iron /eam-vessel ( great tonnage1 :i* is 9 prep>ation = ! ,new ,york passage4 ,x is said t ! cyl9d]s ( ^! eng9es w be "o hundr$ & tw5ty in*es 9 diamet]4 #ci ,a pat5t 0 subsequ5tly tak5 out = ^! by ,mr4 ,gall[ay4 ,mr4 ,field did n p]sev]e 9 its use at ! "t he inv5t$ x4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 m g5]ally adopt$ s9ce ! date ( ,gall[ay's pat5t4 ,pg#dhg ,illu/ration ,,*ap4 ,,xiv4 ,,am]ican ,,/eam ,,navigation4 ,,/eam ,,navigation ,,fir/ ,,e/abli%$ ,,9 ,,am]ica4 -- ,,circum/ances ,,:i* ,,l$ ,,to ,,x4 -- ,,fit* ,,& ,,rumsey4 -- ,,/ev5s ,,( ,,hobok54 -- ,,liv+/one ,,& ,,fulton4 -- ,,exp]im5ts ,,on ,,! ,,se9e4 -- ,,fulton',s ,,fir/ ,,boat4 -- ,,! ,,hudson ,,navigat$ ,,by ,,/eam4 -- ,,ext5sion ,,& ,,improvem5t ,,( ,,riv] ,,navigation4 -- ,,spe$ ,,( ,,am]ican ,,/eam]s4 -- ,,diff]5ce ,,betwe5 ,,!m ,,& ,,european ,,/eam]s4 -- ,,sea-,,go+ ,,am]ican ,,/eam]s4 -- ,,am]ican ,,paddle-,,:eels4 -- ,,lake ,,/eam]s4 -- ,,! ,,missisippi ,,& ,,its ,,tribut>ies4 -- ,,/eam]s ,,navigat+ ,,x4 -- ,,_! ,,/ructure ,,& ,,ma*9]y4 -- ,,new ,,orleans ,,h>b\r4 -- ,,/eam ,,tugs4 7#bbh47 ,! cr$it ( hav+ af=d$ ! fir/ practical solution ( ! problem to apply ! /eam eng9e to ! propulsion ( %ips1 und\bt$ly belongs to ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,! geographical "* ( _! va/ c\ntry1 n less ?an ! sangu9e & ent]pris+ _s ( ! nation1 contribut$ to ?is4 ,a coa/ ( f\r ?\s& miles 9 ext5t1 /ret*+ f ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce to ! emb\*ures ( ! ,mississippi1 ind5t$ & ,pg#dhh s]rat$ 9 e "p ) natural h>b\rs & %elt]$ bays1 & fr+$ ) isl&s =m+ s\nds--capes1 & promontories enclos+ arms ( ! sea1 9 :i* ! wat]s are free f ! roll ( ! ocean1 & take ! placid "* ( lakes1--riv]s ( impos+ magnitude1 navigable = vessels ( ! l>ge/ class1 = _m hundr$s & 9 "s in/ances = _m ?\s&s ( miles1 af=d+ access to ! inn]mo/ population ( an empire1 ^: area va/ly exce$s ! :ole ,european cont95t1--*a9s ( lakes compos$ ( ! mo/ ext5sive bodies ( fre% wat] 9 ! kn[n _w1--& ?is ext5sive cont95t peopl$ by races c>ry+ ) !m ! habits & feel+s toge!r ) mu* ( ! skill & k ( ! mo/ civiliz$ p>ts ( ! globe1 end[$ also ) t inext+ui%able _s ( ent]prise :i* ev] belongs to an emigrant p1--=m a comb9ation ( circum/ances m ?an suffici5t to acc\nt = ! fact ( ?is nation snat*+ f ,engl&1 ! p>5t ( ! /eam eng9e1 ! hon\r ( fir/ br++ into practical op]ation "o ( ! mo/ important--if inde$ x be n altoge!r ! mo/ important--( ! _m applications ( t ma*9e to ! uses ( life4 ,! circum/ances :i* r5d]$ ^! ext5sive tracts ( inl& & coa/ navigation em95tly suit$ to ! application ( /eam p[]1 =m$ s _m ob/ructions & difficulties to ! application ( o!r m ord9>y means ( locomotion on wat]4 ,! %elt]$ bays & s\nds :i* (f]$ a smoo? & undi/urb$ surface to ! action ( ! infant /eam] argu$ ! abs5ce ( t elem5t :i* gave effect to ! sails & rigg+ ( ! w9d-propell$ %ip1 & ! rapid curr5ts ( ! gigantic /reams =m$ by ! dra9age ( ?is great cont95t1 ?\gh facilitat+ access to ! coa/1 r5d]$ ! o> p[]less 9 ! asc5t4 7#bbi47 ,! fir/ great discov]y ( ,watt _h sc>cely be5 realiz$ 9 practice by ! con/ruction ( ! s+le-act+ /eam-eng9e1 :5 ! speculative & ent]pris+ ,am]icans conceiv$ ! project ( apply+ x z a mov+ p[] 9 _! inl& navigation4 ,s e>ly z ! ye> #aghc ,pg#dhi ,fit* & ,rumsey made attempts to apply ! s+le-act+ eng9e to ! propulsion ( vessels1 & _! failure is said to h aris5 m f ! inh]5t defects ( t ma*9e 9 ref]5ce to ?is application ( x1 ?an f any want ( +5uity or me*anical skill on _! p>ts4 ,9 #agia1 ,john ,/ev5s ( ,hobok5 comm5c$ 8 exp]im5ts on /eam navigation1 :i* 7 cont9u$ = sixte5 ye>s2 dur+ a "p ( ?is p]iod he 0 assi/$ by ,liv+/one 7:o 0 subsequ5tly in/rum5tal 9 advanc+ ! views ( ,fulton71 & by ,roosevelt4 ,^! projectors _h1 at t "t also1 ! assi/ance & advice ( ,brunel1 s9ce s celebrat$ = ! inv5tion ( ! block ma*9]y1 & ! con/ruction ( ! ,?ames ,tunnel4 ,_! proce$+s 7 int]rupt$ by ! appo9tm5t ( ,liv+/one z ,am]ican ,m9i/] at ,p>is1 "u ! ,consul> ,gov]nm5t4 ,at ,p>is1 ,liv+/one met ,fulton1 :o _h be5 previ\sly engag$ 9 simil> speculations1 & be+ /ruck ) 8 me*anical skill1 & ! s\ndness ( 8 views1 jo9$ him 9 caus+ a s]ies ( exp]im5ts to be made1 :i* 7 accord+ly c>ri$ on at ,plombires1 & subsequ5tly on a /ill m ext5sive scale on ! ,se9e1 ne> ,p>is4 ,hav+ by ?is c\rse ( exp]im5ts obta9$ pro(s ( ! effici5cy ( ,fulton's projects1 suffici5t to satisfy ! m9d ( ,liv+/one1 he agre$ to obta9 = ,fulton ! funds necess>y to con/ruct a /eam boat on a l>ge scale1 to be work$ ^u ! ,hudson4 ,x 0 decid$1 9 ord] to give ! project ! be/ *ance ( success1 to obta9 ! ma*9]y f ,bolton & ,watt4 ,9 #ahjc1 ,fulton accord+ly made draw+s ( ! eng9es int5d$ = ?is fir/ /eam]1 :i* 7 s5t to ,soho1 ) an ord] = _! con/ruction4 ,fulton1 mean:ile1 repair$ to ,am]ica1 to sup]9t5d ! con/ruction ( ! boat4 ,! delays incid5tal to ^! proce$+s ret>d$ ! completion ( ! boat & ma*9]y until ! ye> #ahjg1 :5 all 0 complet$1 & ! fir/ successful exp]im5t made at ,new ,york4 ,! vessel 0 plac$1 = regul> "w1 to ply betwe5 ,new ,york & ,albany1 9 ! beg9n+ ( #ahjh2 &1 f t "t to ! pres5t1 ?is riv] has be5 ! !atre ( ! mo/ ,pg#dij rem>kable s]ies ( exp]im5ts on locomotion on wat] :i* has ev] be5 pres5t$ 9 ! hi/ory ( navigation4 7#bcj47 ,! =m & arrangem5t ( ?is fir/ m>9e eng9e 01 9 _m respects1 simil> to t :i* is /ill g5]ally us$ = m>9e purposes4 ,! cold wat] ci/]n 0 ab&on$1 & an increas$ cond5s+ p[] obta9$ by enl>g+ ! cond5s]4 ,x 0 usual to make ! cond5s] half ! diamet] ( ! cyl9d]1 & half its l5g?1 & !re=e "o eigh? ( its capacity4 ,! cond5s]1 h[ev]1 0 n[ made ( ! same diamet] z ! cyl9d]1 be+ /ill half its l5g?2 its capacity !re=e1 in/ead ( be+ only an eigh?1 0 half ( ! cyl9d]2 ! cond5s+ jet 0 admitt$ by a pipe pass+ ?r\gh ! bottom ( ! vessel4 ,z 9 ! pres5t m>9e eng9es1 two work+ beams 7 provid$1 "o at ei!r side ( ! cyl9d]2 b 9 ord] to provide aga9/ ! difficulties :i* might arise 9 ! adaptation ( ma*9]y made at ,birm+ham to a vessel made at ,new ,york1 beams 7 con/ruct$ 9 ! =m ( an inv]t$ 1 ! work+ arms be+ tw(old1 "o horizontal & ! o!r v]tical1 s t ! connect+ rod might be c>ri$ f ! crank1 ei!r d[nw>ds1 to ! end ( ! horizontal arm1 or horizontally1 to ! end ( ! v]tical arm4 ,9 fact !re 0 a *oice1 to use ei!r a /raight beam1 or a bell-crank4 ,! latt] 0 t :i* 0 adopt$ 9 ?is in/ance4 ,! paddle-%aft1 driv5 by ! crank1 pass$ across ! vessel1 & _h ! paddle-:eels key$ ^u x z at pres5t2 & 9 ord] to equalise ! effect ( ! eng9e spur :eels 7 also plac$ on ! paddle-%aft1 by :i* p9ions 7 driv51 plac$ ^u an axle1 :i* c>ri$ a fly-:eel4 ,! spe$ atta9$ by ?is /eam boat1 :5 x fir/ began to ply ^u ! riv]1 did n exce$ f\r miles an h\r1 b by a s]ies ( improvem5ts its rate ( motion 0 soon increas$ to six miles an h\r4 ,9 ! /eam boats subsequ5tly con/ruct$ by ,fulton a great] spe$ 0 atta9$2 b 9 ! late/ vessels built by him he did n exce$ a spe$ ( n9e miles an h\r1 :i* he consid]$ to be ! greate/ t c\ld be advantage\sly obta9$4 ,:ile ,fulton 0 mak+ 8 plans1 & engag$ 9 ! ,pg#dia con/ruction ( 8 fir/ boat1 ,mr4 ,/ev5s ( ,hobok51 already m5tion$1 0 engag$ 9 a l project1 & complet$ a vessel1 to be propell$ by a /eam eng9e1 )9 a few weeks aft] ! fir/ successful voyage ( ,fulton4 ,/ev5s 0 likewise completely successful2 b ! exclusive privilege ( navigat+ ! ,hudson by /eam hav+ be5 grant$ to ,fulton by an act ( ,congress1 ,/ev5s 0 compell$ to select ano!r !atre = 8 op]ations1 & he accord+ly s5t 8 /eam boat by sea to ,philadelphia1 to navigate ! ,delaw>e1 ?us secur+ = himself ! hon\r ( hav+ made ! fir/ sea voyage by /eam4 ,fulton did n long reta9 ! monopoly ( ! /eam navigation ( ! ,hudson4 ,=tunately = ! progress ( /eam navigation1 ! act conf]r+ ^u him t privilege 0 decl>$ uncon/itutional2 & ! navigation ( t noble riv] 0 ?r[n op5 to ! _s & ent]prise ( ,am]ican g5ius4 ,! numb] ( pass5g]s convey$ ^u x became enorm\s beyond all prec$5t1 & inducem5ts ( ! /ronge/ k9d 7 accord+ly held out to ! improvem5t ( its navigation4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ,new ,york & ,albany1 asc]ta9$ by a late survey to be "o hundr$ & tw5ty-five geographical miles by wat]1 _h be5 p]=m$ by ,fulton's boats occasionally 9 fifte5 or sixte5 h\rs1 be+ at ! rate ( ab\t eight miles an h\r1 includ+ /oppages4 ,x became a great object to increase ! spe$ ( ?is trip1 s t x might at all times ( ! ye> be p]=m$ betwe5 sunrise & sunset4 ,rob]t ,l4 ,/ev5s1 ! son ( ! p]son ( t "n already m5tion$1 imm$iately aft] ! abolition ( ,fulton's monopoly1 plac$ on ! riv] a vessel :i* _h be5 built = ! ,delaw>e1 :i* easily p]=m$ ! passage 9 twelve h\rs1 be+ at ! rate ( ne>ly t5 & a half geographical miles an h\r4 ,by ?is increase ( spe$ ! improv$ boats s entirely monopolis$ ! day "w ^u ! riv]1 t ! =m] /eam]s 7 ei!r conv]t$ into /eam tugs to draw b>ges lad5 ) goods1 or us$ = night trips betwe5 ,new ,york & ,albany4 ,9 ! night trips ! sav+ ( "o or two h\rs 0 immat]ial1 x be+ suffici5t t ! vessel :i* left ! "o port at night %\ld rea* ! o!r 9 ! morn+4 ,pg#dib ,! riv] ,hudson rises ne> ,lake ,*ampla91 ! ea/]nmo/ ( ! great *a9 ( lakes or inl& seas :i* ext5d f ea/ to we/ across ! nor!rn b\nd>y ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! riv] foll[s ne>ly a /raight c\rse s\?w>ds = two hundr$ & fifty miles1 & empties itself into ! sea at ,new ,york4 ,! influ5ce ( ! tide is felt z f> z ,albany1 above :i* ! /ream beg9s to contract4 ,al?\gh ?is riv] 9 magnitude & ext5t is by no means equal to sev]al o!rs :i* int]sect ! ,/ates1 x is nev]!less r5d]$ an object ( great int]e/ by reason ( ! importance & ext5t ( its trade4 ,! produce ( ! /ate ( ,new ,york & t ( ! banks ( ! great ,lakes ,ont>io & ,erie are transport$ by x to ! capital2 & "o ( ! mo/ ext5sive & popul\s di/ricts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is suppli$ ) ! necess>y imports by its wat]s4 ,a l>ge fleet ( vessels is con/antly engag$ 9 its navigation2 nor is ! t>dy b picturesque sail+ vessel z yet exclud$ by ! m rapid /eam]s4 ,! curr5t ( ! ,hudson is said to av]age ne>ly ?ree miles an h\r2 b z ! ebb & fl[ ( ! tide are felt z f> z ,albany1 ! passage ( ! /eam]s betwe5 t place & ,new ,york may be reg>d$ z equally affect$ by curr5ts 9 bo? directions1 or ne>ly s4 ,! passage !re=e1 :e!r 9 asc5d+ or desc5d+ ! riv]1 is made ne>ly 9 ! same "t4 7#bca47 ,! preval5ce ( smoo? wat] navigation1 :e!r on ! surfaces ( riv]s or 9 %elt]$ bays & s\nds1 has inve/$ ! problem ( /eam navigation 9 ,am]ica ) conditions s entirely di/9ct & diff]5t f ^? "u :i* ! same problem pres5ts itself to ! ,european eng9e]1 t any comp>ison ( ! p]=mance ( vessels1 :e!r ) reg>d to spe$ or ! absorption ( p[] 9 ! two cases1 mu/ be utt]ly fallaci\s4 ,9 ,europe a /eam] is almo/ inv>iably a vessel design$ to enc\nt] ! agitat$ surface ( an op5 sea1 & is accord+ly con/ruct$ ^u pr9ciples ( suitable /r5g? & /ability4 ,x is likewise suppli$ ) rigg+ & ) sails1 to be us$ 9 aid ( ! me*anical p[]1 & mann$ & comm&$ by exp]i5c$ seam52 9 fact1 x is a comb9ation ( a nautical & me*anical /ructure4 ,9 ,am]ica1 on ! o!r h&1 ,pg#dic ) ! exception ( ! vessels :i* navigate ! great nor!rn lakes1 ! /eam]s are /ructures exclusively me*anical1 be+ design$ = smoo? wat]4 ,!y require no o!r /r5g? or /ability ?an t :i* is suffici5t to enable !m to float & to be> a progressive motion ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,_! m\ld is conceiv$ ) an exclusive view to spe$2 !y are !re=e sl5d] & weak 9 _! build1 ( great l5g? 9 proportion to _! wid?1 & hav+ a v small draught ( wat]4 ,9 fact1 !y approa* 9 _! =m to t ( a ,?ames :]ry on a v l>ge scale4 ,! position & =m ( ! ma*9]y is likewise affect$ by ^! conditions4 ,)\t ! necessity ( be+ protect$ f a r\gh sea1 x is plac$ on ! deck 9 an elevat$ position4 ,! cyl9d]s ( l>ge diamet] & %ort /roke inv>iably us$ 9 ,europe are unkn[n 9 ,am]ica1 & ! proportions are rev]s$1 a small diamet] & /roke ( great l5g? be+ inv>iably adopt$4 ,x is r>ely t two eng9es are us$4 ,a s+le eng9e1 plac$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! deck1 ) a cyl9d] f =ty to sixty in*es' diamet]1 & f eight to t5 foot /roke1 drives paddle-:eels f tw5ty-"o to tw5ty-five feet 9 diamet]1 produc+ f tw5ty-five to ?irty revolutions p] m9ute4 ,! great magnitude ( ! paddle-:eels & ! velocity imp>t$ to !m enable !m to p]=m ! (fice ( fly-:eels1 & to c>ry ! eng9e r\nd its c5tres1 n h[ev] )\t a p]ceptible inequality ( motion1 :i* gives to ! ,am]ican /eam] an effect l t ( a r[ boat advanc+ by />ts ) ea* /roke ( ! pi/on4 ,! l5g? ( /roke adopt$ 9 ^! eng9es enables !m to apply ) great effect ! expansive pr9ciple1 :i* is almo/ univ]sally us$1 ! /eam be+ g5]ally cut (f at half /roke4 ,! /eam]s :i* navigate ! ,hudson are vessels ( consid]able magnitude1 spl5didly fitt$ up = ! accommodation ( pass5g]s2 !y v>y f "o hundr$ & eighty to two hundr$ & =ty feet 9 l5g?1 & f tw5ty to ?irty feet 9 wid? ( beam4 ,9 ! foll[+ table is giv5 ! p>ticul>s ( n9e /eam]s ply+ on ?is riv]1 tak5 f ,pg#did ! "w ( ,mr4 ,/ev5son1 & f ! pap] ( ,mr4 ,r5wick1 ins]t$ 9 ! la/ edition ( ,tr$gold3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,l5g? ,bread? ,draft ,dra9 ,l5g? ,names4 ( ( ( ( ( ,deck4 ,beam4 ,wat]4 ,:eel4 ,paddles4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,ft4 ,ft4 ,ft4 ,ft4 ,ft4 ,dewit ,cl9ton #bcj #bh #ee #ba #acg ,*ampla9 #ahj #bg #ee #bb #ae ,erie #ahj #bg #ee #bb #ae ,nor? ,am]ica #bjj #cj #e #ba #ac ,indep5d5ce #adh #bf ---- ---- ---- ,albany #bab #bf ---- #bde #ad ,swall[ #bcc #bbe #cge #bd #aa ,ro*e/] #bjj #be #cge #bce #aj ,utica #bjj #ba #ce #bb #ie ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,dep? ,numb] ,dra9 ,l5g? ,numb] ,"p ( ,names4 ( ( ( ( ( ,/roke ,paddles ,eng9es ,cyl9d] ,/roke ,revs at :i* x is cut (f4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,94 ,94 ,ft4 ,dewit ,cl9ton #cf #a #fe #aj #bi #c_/d ,*ampla9 #cd #b #dd #aj #bge #a_/b ,erie #cd #b #dd #aj #bge #a_/b ,nor? ,am]ica #cj #b #dde #h #bd #a_/b ,indep5d5ce ---- #a #dd #aj ,albany #cj #a #fe ---- #ai ,swall[ #cj #a #df ---- #bg ,ro*e/] #bd #a #dc #aj #bh ,utica #bd #a #ci #aj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,none ( ^! vessels h ei!r ma/s or rigg+1 & consequ5tly nev] d]ive any propell+ p[] except f ! eng9es3 !y are nei!r mann$ nor comm&$ by p]sons hav+ any k ( navigation3 ! works t are visible above _! decks are ! beam & fram+ ( ! eng9e1 & ! *imneys4 ,! eng9es us$ = /eam]s on ! ,hudson1 & o!r great riv]s & bays on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,am]ica1 are mo/ commonly cond5s+ eng9es1 b !y nev]!less "w ) /eam ( v high pressure1 be+ seldom less ?an tw5ty-five p\nds p] squ>e in*1 & sometimes z mu* z fifty4 ,by ref]5ce to ! prec$+ table x w be se51 t ! velocity ( ! pi/on greatly exce$s ! limit g5]ally obs]v$ 9 ,europe4 ,x is cu/om>y 9 ,european m>9e eng9es to limit ! spe$ ( ! pi/on to ab\t two hundr$ & tw5ty feet p] m9ute4 ,ev5 ! pi/on ( a locomotive eng9e does n mu* exce$ ! rate ( ?ree hundr$ feet p] m9ute4 ,9 ! ,am]ican /eam]s1 h[ev]1 ! pi/ons commonly move at ! rate ( f five to six hundr$ feet p] m9ute1 :ile ! circumf]5ce ( ! paddle-:eels are driv5 at ! rate ( f tw5ty to tw5ty-two miles an h\r4 ,pg#die ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,! hulls ( ^! boats are =m$ ) a p]fectly flat bottom & p]p5dicul> sides1 r\nd$ at ! angles1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ace4 ,at ! b[1 or cutwat]1 !y are made v %>p1 & ! deck projects to a great di/ance ov] ! sides4 ,! weight ( ! ma*9]y is di/ribut$ ov] an ext5sive surface ( ! bottom ( ?is feeble /ructure1 by means ( a frame-"w ( sub/antial c>p5try to :i* x is atta*$4 ,at ! height ( f f\r to six feet above ! wat]-l9e is plac$ ! deck1 :i* is a plat=m1 hav+ ! %ape ( a v elongat$ ellipse4 ,! extremities ( its long] axis are support$ by ! /]npo/ & ! cutwat]1 & its sides exp& 9 g5tle curves on ei!r h& to a consid]able di/ance beyond ! limits ( ! hull2 ^? p>ts ( ! deck ?us ov]hang+ ! wat] are call$ ! :eel gu>ds4 ,b5ea? ! fir/ deck is ! saloon1 or d9+-room1 :i* also1 z is usual 9 ,european /eam]s1 =ms ! g5tlem5's sleep+-room4 ,x usually ext5ds f end to end ( ! vessel4 ,! middle ( ! fir/ deck is occupi$ by ! eng9e1 boil]s1 furnaces1 & *imneys1 ( :i* latt] !re are g5]ally two4 ,betwe5 ! *imneys & ! /]n1 above ! fir/ deck1 is con/ruct$ ! ladies' cab91 :i* is cov]$ by ! second deck1 call$ ! prom5ade deck4 ,! great l5g? ( ^! boats & ! elevation ( ! cab9s r5d] x impossible = a /e]sman at ! /]n to see ahead1 & !y are1 consequ5tly1 /e]$ f ! b[2 ! :eel plac$ !re communicat+ ) ! helm at ! /]n1 by *a9s or rods c>ri$ along ! sides ( ! boat4 ,until a rec5t p]iod1 ! :eel 0 connect$ ) ! /]n by ropes1 b "s fatal accid5ts1 produc$ by fire1 ,pg#dif 9 :i* ^! ropes 7 burnt1 & ! /e]sman lo/ all p[] to guide ! vessel1 caus$ metal rods or *a9s to be sub/itut$4 7#bcb47 ,! paddle-:eels univ]sally us$ 9 ,am]ican /eam-boats are =m$1 z if by ! comb9ation ( two or m common paddle-:eels1 plac$ "o outside ! o!r1 on ! same axle1 b s t ! paddle bo>ds ( ea* may h an int]m$iate position betwe5 ^? ( ! adjac5t "o1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #acf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acf4 ,! spokes1 :i* are bolt$ to ca/-iron flanges1 are ( wood4 ,^! flanges1 to :i* !y are s bolt$1 are key$ ^u ! paddle %aft4 ,! out] extremities ( ! spokes are atta*$ to circul> b&s or hoops ( iron1 surr\nd+ ! :eel2 & ! paddle bo>ds1 :i* are =m$ ( h>d wood1 are bolt$ to ! spokes4 ,! :eels ?us con/ruct$1 sometimes consi/ ( ?ree1 & n unfrequ5tly f\r1 indep5d5t circles ( paddle bo>ds1 plac$ "o beside ! o!r1 & s adju/$ 9 _! position1 t ! bo>ds ( no two divisions %all correspond4 ,! great magnitude ( ! paddle-:eels1 & ! circum/ance ( ! navigation be+ c>ri$ on1 = ! mo/ "p1 9 smoo? wat]1 h r5d]$ unnecess>y1 9 ,am]ica1 ! adoption ( any ( ^? exp$i5ts = neutralis+ ! effects ( ! oblique action ( ! paddles1 :i* h be5 tri$1 b hi!rto ) s little success1 9 ,europe4 7#bcc47 ,sea-go+ /eam]s are n num]\s 9 ,am]ica1 ! *ief ( !m be+ ^? :i* ply betwe5 ,new ,york & ,provid5ce1 & betwe5 ,new ,york & ,*>le/on4 ,^! vessels1 h[ev]1 d n resemble ! sea-go+ /eam]s ( ,europe z closely z might be expect$2 & to ^? :o are accu/om$ to ! latt]1 ! sea-go+ ,pg#dig /eam]s ( ,am]ica c h>dly be reg>d$ z safe means ( transport4 ,9 ! foll[+ ,table is giv5 ! dim5sions ( five ( ^! vessels1 all ply+ betwe5 ,new ,york & ,provid5ce3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,l5g? ,bread? ,draft ,diamet] ,l5g? ,names4 ( ( ( ( ,deck4 ,beam4 ,:eel4 ,paddles4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,ft4 ,ft4 ,ft4 ,ft4 ,ft4 ,provid5ce #ahj #bg #i ---- ---- ,lex+ton #bjg #ba ---- #bc #i ,n>ragansett #baj #bf #e #be #aa ,massa*usetts #bjj #bie #he #bb #aj ,rhode ,isl& #baj #bf #fe #bd #aa ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,dep? ,numb] ,diamet] ,l5g? ,numb] ,"p ( ,names4 ( ( ( ( ( ,/roke ,paddles ,eng9es ,cyl9d] ,/roke ,revs at :i* x is cut (f4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,94 ,94 ,ft4 ,provid5ce ---- #a #aj #fe ,lex+ton #cj #a #aa #dh #bd ,n>ragansett #cj #a #fj #ab #b #a_/b ,massa*usetts #bh #b #dd #h #bf ,rhode ,isl& #cj #a #aa #fj #ba ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,! ,n>ragansett1 ! f9e/ ( ^! vessels1 is built ( oak1 /r5g!n$ by diagonal /raps or ties ( iron1 by :i* h] timb]s are connect$2 %e is driv5 by a cond5s+ eng9e1 & has two boil]s1 expos+ ab\t ?ree ?\s& squ>e feet ( surface to ! fire4 ,! /eam is ma9ta9$ at a pressure ( f tw5ty to tw5ty-five lbs4 p] squ>e in*3 ! cyl9d] is horizontal4 ,! cab9s ( ^! sea-boats are ( great magnitude1 & af=d excell5t accommodation = pass5g]s1 conta9+ g5]ally f\r hundr$ b]?s4 ,9 ! ,massa*usetts ! *ief cab9 is "o hundr$ & sixty feet long1 tw5ty-two feet wide1 & twelve feet 9 height1 its va/ ext5t be+ un9t]rupt$ by pill>s or any o!r ob/ruction4 ,i h d9$1 says ,mr4 ,/ev5son1 ) "o hundr$ & sev5ty-five p]sons 9 ?is cab91 &1 not)/&+ ?is num]\s assembly1 ! tables1 :i* 7 arrang$ 9 two p>allel r[s1 ext5d+ f "o end ( ! cab9 to ! o!r1 7 f> f be+ fully occupi$1 ! att5dance 0 good1 & e ?+ 0 conduct$ ) p]fect regul>ity & ord]4 ,!re are "o hundr$ & twelve fix$ b]?s rang$ r\nd ?is cab91 & "o hundr$ tempor>y b]?s c be erect$ 9 ! middle ( ! floor3 besides ^! !re are sixty fix$ b]?s 9 ! ladies' cab91 & sev]al tempor>y sleep+ ,pg#dih places c be erect$ 9 x also4 ,! cab9 ( ! ,massa*usetts is by no means ! l>ge/ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,"s /eam]s h cab9s upw>ds ( "o hundr$ & sev5ty-five feet 9 l5g?4 ,^? l>ge saloons are light$ by ,arg& lamps1 susp5d$ f ! ceil+1 & _! appe>ance1 :5 brilliantly light$ up & fill$ ) company1 is v rem>kable4 ,! pass5g]s g5]ally arrange !mselves 9 p>ties at ! num]\s small tables into :i* ! l>ge tables are conv]t$ aft] d9n]1 & engage 9 diff]5t amusem5ts4 ,! sc5e resembles mu* m ! c(fee-room ( "s great hotel ?an ! cab9 ( a float+ vessel4 7#bcd47 ,no?+ has excit$ m surprise among eng9e]s & o!rs int]e/$ 9 /eam navigation 9 ,europe1 ?an ! /atem5ts :i* h be5 s g5]ally & s confid5tly made ( ! spe$ atta9$ by ,am]ican /eam]s4 ,?is a/oni%m5t is due to sev]al causes1 ! *ief ( :i* is ! omission ( all notice ( ! great diff]5ce betwe5 ! /ructure & op]ation ( ! ,am]ican /eam]s & ! nature ( ! navigation 9 :i* !y are engag$1 comp>$ ) ! /ructure & op]ation (1 & ! navigation 9 :i* ,european /eam]s are employ$3 z well might ! p]=mance ( a ,?ames :]ry1 or "o ( ! fly-boats on ! nor!rn canals1 be comp>$ ) t ( ! ,great ,we/]n1 or ! ,briti% ,que54 ,! /atem5ts allud$ to all h ref]5ce to /eam]s navigat+ ! ,hudson betwe5 ,new ,york & ,albany1 ! =m & /ructure ( :i* we h already describ$2 & d\btless ! greate/ spe$ ev] atta9$ on ! surface ( wat] has be5 exhibit$ 9 ! passages ( ^! vessels4 ,mr4 ,/ev5son /ates1 t exclusive ( ! "t lo/ 9 /oppages1 ! voyage betwe5 ,new ,york & ,albany is usually made 9 t5 h\rs4 ,dr4 ,r5wick1 h[ev]1 :o has probably m ext5sive opportunities ( obs]vation1 /ates1 t ! av]age "t1 exclusive ( /oppages1 is t5 h\rs & a half4 ,! di/ance be+ #abeah geographical miles1 ! av]age rate w\ld !re=e be #aa-i_/aj miles p] h\r4 ,if x be obs]v$ t ! av]age rate ( "s ( ! be/ sea-go+ /eam]s 9 ,europe obta9$ f exp]im5ts ,pg#dii & obs]vations made by myself1 m ?an ?ree ye>s ago1 %[$ a rate ( /eam+ little less ?an t5 geographical miles p] h\r1 & t s9ce t "t consid]able improvem5ts 9 /eam navigation h be5 made1 & fur!r1 t ^! p]=mances 7 made "u exposure to all ! disadvantages ( an op5 sea1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m & ! p]=mance ( ! ,am]ican riv] /eam]s w cease to create a/oni%m5t4 ,dr4 ,r5wick /ates t he made1 9 a boat call$ ! ,new ,philadelphia1 "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable passages ev] p]=m$4 ,he left ,new ,york at five 9 ! aft]noon1 ) ! fir/ ( ! flood1 & l&$ at ,catskill1 di/ant #ieh geographical miles f ,new ,york1 at a qu>t] be=e twelve4 ,pass5g]s 7 l&$ & tak5 9 at sev5 int]m$iate po9ts3 ! rate1 includ+ /oppages1 0 !re=e #adb miles p] h\r2 & if half an h\r be all[$ = /oppages1 ! actual av]age rate ( motion w\ld be fifte5 miles & ?ree qu>t]s an h\r4 ,z ! curr5t1 :i* 9 ?is case 0 ) ! c\rse ( ! vessel1 did n exce$ ?ree miles & a half an h\r1 ! absolute velocity ?r\gh ! wat] w\ld h be5 some:at "u twelve miles an h\r4 ,?is spe$ is ne>ly ! same z ! spe$ obta9$ f tak+ ! av]age "t ( ! voyages betwe5 ,new ,york & ,albany at t5 h\rs & a half2 x w\ld !re=e appe> t ! great spe$ atta9$ 9 ?is trip mu/ h be5 *iefly1 if n altoge!r1 ow+ to ! effect ( ! curr5t4 7#bce47 ,! /eam]s :i* navigate ! great nor!rn lakes diff] s little 9 _! con/ruction & appe>ance f ! ,european /eam-boats1 t x w n be necess>y "h to devote any consid]able space to an acc\nt ( !m4 ,^! vessels 7 introduc$ on ! lakes at ab\t ! same "t t /eam]s 7 fir/ introduc$ on ! ,clyde4 ,^! /eam]s are /rongly built vessels1 suppli$ ) sails & rigg+1 & propell$ by p[]ful eng9es4 ,! l>ge/ 9 #ahcg1 :5 ,mr4 ,/ev5son visit$ ! ,/ates1 0 ! ,james ,madison4 ,?is vessel 0 "o hundr$ & eighty-"o feet 9 l5g? on ! deck1 ?irty feet 9 bread? ( beam1 & twelve feet six in*es 9 dep? ( hold3 h] draught ( wat] 0 t5 feet1 & h] measur$ capacity sev5 hundr$ ,pg#ejj tons4 ,%e ply$ betwe5 ,buffalo on ,lake ,erie & ,*icago on ,lake ,mi*igan1 a di/ance ( n9e hundr$ & fifty miles4 ,! sev]e /orms & =midable sea enc\nt]$ on ! lakes r5d] necess>y = ! navigation1 vessels 9 all respects z /rong & p[]ful z ^? :i* navigate ! op5 ocean4 7#bcf47 ,by f> ! mo/ rem>kable & important ( all ! ,am]ican riv]s is ! ,mississippi & its tribut>ies4 ,t "p ( ! ,am]ican cont95t :i* ext5ds f ! s\!rn %ores ( ! great nor!rn lakes to ! nor!rn %ores ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 is wat]$ by ^! great /reams4 ,! ma9 /ream ( ! ,mississippi has its f\nta9s 9 ! tract ( c\ntry ly+ nor? ( ! ,ill9ois & ea/ ( ,lake ,mi*igan1 9 latitude =ty-?ree degrees4 ,at ab\t latitude ?irty-n9e degrees1 a little nor? ( ,/4 ,l\is1 x receives ! wat]s ( ! ,miss\ri1 & fur!r s\?1 at ! latitude ( ?irty-sev5 degrees1 ! ,ohio fl[s into x1 aft] trav]s+ five degrees ( longitude & f\r ( latitude1 & w9d+ its way f ! ,alleghany range ?r\gh sev]al ( ! /ates1 & =m+ a navigable communication ) num]\s important t[ns ( ! ,union1 among :i* may be m5tion$ ,pittsburg1 ,c9c9nati1 ,frank=t1 ,lex+ton1 & ,l\isville4 ,! ma9 /ream ( ! ,mississippi1 aft] receiv+ ! wat]s ( ! ,arkansas1 & num]\s o!r m9or tribut>ies1 fl[s into ! ,gulf ( ,mexico by f\r m\?s4 ,! ma9 /ream ( ! ,mississippi1 indep5d5tly ( its tribut>ies1 =ms an unbrok5 c\rse ( inl& navigation = a di/ance ( ne>ly two ?\s& ?ree hundr$ miles4 ,its wid?1 ?r\gh a di/ance ( "o ?\s& "o hundr$ miles f its m\?1 is n less ?an half a mile1 & its av]age dep? a hundr$ feet4 ,! ,ohio1 its *ief ea/]n tribut>y1 fl[+ into x at a di/ance ( ab\t a ?\s& miles f its m\?1 trav]ses also ab\t ! same ext5t ( c\ntry1 & is navigable ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( t ext5t4 ,?is riv] also has sev]al navigable tribut>ies ( consid]able ext5t1 among :i* may be m5tion$ ! ,musk+um1 navigable = "o hundr$ & tw5ty miles2 ! ,miami1 navigable = sev5ty-five miles2 ! ,scioto1 navigable = "o hundr$ & tw5ty ,pg#eja miles2 ! ,t5nessee1 navigable = two hundr$ & fifty miles2 ! ,cumb]l&1 navigable = f\r hundr$ & =ty miles2 ! ,k5tucky1 navigable = "o hundr$ & ?irty miles2 & ! ,gre5 ,riv]1 navigable = "o hundr$ & fifty miles4 ,! total l5g? ( ! ,ohio & its tribut>ies is e/imat$ at above sev5 ?\s& miles4 7#bcg47 ,/eam-boats 7 introduc$ on ! ,mississippi ab\t ! ye> #ahab1 ! p]iod ( _! fir/ introduction 9 ,europe2 & _! increase has be5 rapid beyond all prec$5t4 ,9 ! ye> #ahca !re 7 "o hundr$ & n9ety-eight /eam]s ply+ on its wat]s2 & ! numb] 9 #ahcg am\nt$ to ne>ly f\r hundr$4 ,^! vessels are built *iefly on ! banks ( ! ,ohio1 at ! t[ns ( ,pittsburg & ,c9c9nati1 at di/ances ( ab\t two ?\s& miles f ! m\? ( ! riv] !y are int5d$ to navigate4 7#bch47 ,^! /eam]s1 :i* are decid$ly inf]ior to ^? :i* navigate ! ea/]n wat]s1 are g5]ally ( a heavy build1 fitt$ to c>ry goods z well z pass5g]s1 & v>y f "o hundr$ to sev5 hundr$ tons bur!n4 ,_! draught ( wat] is also great] ?an t ( ! ea/]n riv] /eam]s--v>y+ f six to eight feet4 ,! hull1 at ab\t five feet f ! wat] l9e1 is cov]$ ) a deck1 "u :i* is ! hold1 9 :i* ! heavy "p ( ! c>go is /[$4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ?is deck ! eng9es are plac$1 ! boil]s & furnaces occupy+ a space ne>] to ! b[1 ne> :i* two *imneys are plac$4 ,! fire-doors ( ! furnaces are pres5t$ t[>ds ! b[1 & expos$ s z to increase ! draught4 ,t "p ( ! fir/ deck :i* ext5ds f ! ma*9]y to ! /]n is ! place allott$ to ! crew & ! deck pass5g]s1 & is describ$ z be+ fil?y & inconv5i5t 9 ! extreme4 ,a second deck is con/ruct$1 :i* ext5ds f ! *imneys ne> ! b[ to ! /]n ( ! vessel4 ,on ?is is =m$ ! great cab9 or saloon1 :i* ext5ds f ! *imneys to )9 ab\t ?irty feet ( ! /]n1 :]e x is divid$ by a p>tition f ! ladies' cab91 :i* occupies ! rema9+ space4 ,^! pr9cipal cab9s are surr\nd$ by a gall]y ab\t ?ree feet 9 wid?1 f :i*1 at conv5i5t ,pg#ejb places1 an asc5t is suppli$ by /airs to ! highe/ deck1 call$ ! hurricane or prom5ade deck4 7#bci47 ,! eng9es by :i* ^! boats are propell$ are totally diff]5t f ! ma*9]y already describ$ z us$ 9 ! ea/]n /eam]s4 ,!y are inv>iably non-cond5s+ eng9es1 work$ by /eam ( extremely high pressure2 ! boil]s are !re=e tubul>1 & ! cyl9d]s small 9 diamet]1 b g5]ally hav+ a long /roke4 ,! pressure ( /eam us$ 9 ^! ma*9es is su* z is nev] us$ 9 ,european eng9es1 ev5 :5 work$ on railways4 ,a pressure ( "o hundr$ p\nds p] in* is "h consid]$ extremely mod]ate4 ,! capta9 ( "o ( ^! boats1 ply+ betwe5 ,pittsburg & ,/4 ,l\is1 told ,mr4 ,/ev5son t "u ord9>y circum/ances 8 safety valves 7 load$ ) a pressure equal to "o hundr$ & ?irty-eight p\nds p] squ>e in*1 b t ! /eam 0 occasionally rais$ z high z "o hundr$ & fifty p\nds to enable ! vessel to pass p>ts ( ! riv] 9 :i* !re is a /rong curr5t2 & he add$1 by way ( consolation1 t ?is pressure 0 nev] exce$$ except on extraord9>y occasions6 ,! dim5sions & p[] ( ! ,mississippi /eam]s may be collect$ f ^? ( ! ,/4 ,l\is1 a boat :i* 0 ply+ on t riv] 9 #ahcg4 ,t vessel measur$ two hundr$ & fifty feet on deck1 & _h tw5ty-eight feet bread? ( beam4 ,h] draught ( wat] 0 eight feet1 & h] measur$ capacity "o ?\s& tons4 ,%e 0 propell$ by two eng9es ) ?irty-in* cyl9d]s1 & t5 feet /roke2 ! safety valve be+ load$ at "o hundr$ p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,! paddle :eels ( ^! vessels are atta*$ to ! paddle %aft1 9 su* a mann] z to be ?r[n into & out ( ge>1 at discretion1 by ! eng9e]1 s t ! paddle %aft may revolve )\t driv+ ! :eels3 by ?is exp$i5t ! p[] ( ! eng9e is us$ to fe$ ! boil]s :ile ! vessel /ops at ! sev]al /ations4 ,! vessel is !re=e /opp$1 n1 z is usually ! case1 by /opp+ ! eng9es1 b by ?r[+ ! :eels out ( connection ) ! paddle %aft4 ,! eng9es cont9ue to "w1 b _! ,pg#ejc p[] is exp5d$ 9 =c+ wat] into ! boil]4 ,by ?is exp$i5t ! activity ( ! eng9es may1 )9 practical limits1 be v>i$ ) ! resi/ance ! vessel has to enc\nt]4 ,9 work+ aga9/ a /rong curr5t1 ! fe$ may be cut (f f ! boil]s1 & ! production ( /eam1 & consequ5tly ! p[] ( ! eng9es1 !reby /imulat$1 :ile ?is susp5sion ( ! fe$ may be comp5sat$ at ! next /ation4 ,! /oppages to take 9 goods & pass5g]s1 & = relays ( fuel1 are frequ5t4 ,! lib]ty :i* !y take ) _! vessels on ^! occasions1 says ,mr4 ,/ev5son1 is some:at amus+3 ,i _h a good example ( ?is on bo>d a l>ge vessel1 call$ ! ,ont>io4 ,%e 0 /e]$ close 9 %ore among/ /ones & /umps ( trees1 :]e %e lay = "s h\rs to take 9 goods3 ! additional weight increas$ h] draught ( wat]1 & caus$ h] to heel a good deal2 & :5 h] eng9es 7 put 9 motion1 %e actually crawl$ into ! deep wat] on h] paddle :eels3 ! /eam _h be5 got up to an enorm\s pressure to enable h] to get (f1 & ! volume ( /eam dis*>g$ f ! escapem5t pipe at e half /roke ( ! pi/on made a %>p s\nd almo/ l ! dis*>ge ( fire-arms1 :ile e timb] 9 ! vessel seem$ to tremble1 & ! :ole /ructure actually groan$ "u ! %ocks4 ,besides ! /eam]s us$ = ! navigation ( ! ,mississippi1 innum]able /eam tugs are con/antly employ$ 9 t[+ vessels betwe5 ! port ( ,new ,orleans & ! op5 sea ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,be=e ! inv5tion ( /eam navigation1 ?is s\!rn capital ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates lab\r$ "u ! disadvantage ( possess+ almo/ ! only bad & inconv5i5t h>b\r 9 ! va/ range ( coa/ by :i* ! c\ntry is b\nd$4 ,new ,orleans lies at a di/ance ( ab\t "o hundr$ miles f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,! =ce ( ! /ream1 ! frequ5cy ( %oals1 & ! w9d+ c\rse ( ! *annel r5d]$ x sc>cely possible = a sail+ vessel to pass betwe5 ! port & ! sea ) ! same w9d4 ,! an*orage 0 e :]e bad1 & great difficulty & risk att5d$ ! moor+ ( l>ge vessels to ! banks4 ,! /eam eng9e has1 h[ev]1 ov]come all ,pg#ejd ^! difficulties1 & r5d]$ ! mo/ objectionable h>b\r ( ! ,union a safe & good seaport1 p]fectly easy ( approa* & ( egress at all times2 a small /eam tug w take 9 t[ sev]al l>ge %ips1 & c>ry !m ) safety & exp$ition to ! (f+1 :]e x w dismiss !m on _! voyage1 & take back vessels :i* may h arriv$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,great ,,we/]n ,,(f ,,new ,,york4 ,pg#eje ,,app5dix4 ,on ! ,relation betwe5 ! ,temp]ature1 ,pressure1 & ,d5sity ( ,common ,/eam4 ,!re is a fix$ relation betwe5 ! temp]ature & pressure ( common /eam1 :i* has n yet be5 asc]ta9$ by !ory4 ,v>i\s empirical =mul h be5 propos$ to express x1 d]iv$ f tables ( temp]atures & correspond+ pressures :i* h be5 f\nd$ on exp]im5ts & complet$ by int]polation4 ,! foll[+ =mula1 propos$ by ,m4 ,biot1 repres5ts ) great accuracy ! relation betwe5 ! temp]ature & pressure ( common /eam1 ?r\gh\t all t "p ( ! !rmometric scale to :i* exp]im5ts h be5 ext5d$4 ,let a #eifacaccjbei log4 a#a #jhbcdjfhhaic #a log4 b#a #jacjigcdbie log4 a#b #jgdaajieahcg log4 b#b #jjbabeajehc ,! relation betwe5 ! temp]ature t ) ref]5ce to ! c5tesimal !rmomet]1 & ! pressure p 9 millimtres ( m]cury at ! temp]ature ( melt+ ice1 w !n be express$ by ! foll[+ =mula3-- log4 p a a#a;b#abj t a#b;b#bbj t4 7#a47 ,=mul h1 h[ev]1 be5 propos$1 :i*1 ?\gh n applicable to ! :ole scale ( temp]atures1 are m manageable 9 _! practical application ?an ! prec$+4 ,= pressures less ?an an atmosph]e1 ,s\!rn propos$ ! foll[+ =mula1 :]e ! pressure is int5d$ to be express$ ,pg#ejf 9 p\nds p] squ>e in*1 & ! temp]ature 9 ref]5ce to ,fahr5heit's !rmomet]1-- p #jjdidh 77#eac t7 _/ #aeegbef7eac 4 7#b47 t #aeegbef 77p #jjdidh7 #eac7a_/7eac7 ,! foll[+ =mula 0 propos$ by ,tr$gold1 :]e p expresses ! pressure 9 in*es ( m]cury3-- p 77#ajj t7 _/ #agg7f4 ,?is 0 aft]w>ds modifi$ by ,mellet1 & repres5ts ) suffici5t accuracy exp]im5ts f #a to #d atmosph]es4 ,let p repres5t p\nds p] squ>e in*1 & t ! temp]ature by ,fahr5heit's !rmomet]1-- p 77#ajc t7 _/ #bjaah7f 4 7#c47 t #bjaah p#a_/f #ajc ,m4 de ,pamb\r has propos$ ! foll[+ =mula1 also applicable ?r\gh ! same limits ( ! scale3-- p 77#ihhjf t7 _/ #aihefb7f 4 7#d47 t #aihefb p#a_/f #ihhjf ,,mm4 ,dulong & ,arago h propos$ ! foll[+ =mula = all pressures betwe5 #d & #ej atmosph]es3-- p 7#jbfgic #jjjfgehe t7#e 4 7#e47 t #adgifa p#a_/e #cifdd ,x 0 ab\t ! ye> #ahja1 t ,dalton1 at ,man*e/]1 & ,gay-,lussac1 at ,p>is1 in/itut$ a s]ies ( exp]im5ts on gase\s bodies1 :i* conduct$ !m to ! discov]y ( ! law m5tion$ 9 art4 7#if471 p4 #aga4 ,^! philosoph]s f\nd t all gases :atev]1 & all vap\rs rais$ f liquids by heat1 z well z all mixtures ( gases & vap\rs1 are subject to ! same quantity ( expansion betwe5 ! temp]atures ( melt+ ice & boil+ wat]2 & by exp]im5ts subsequ5tly made by ,dulong & ,petit1 ?is uni=mity ( expansion has be5 prov$ to ext5d to all temp]atures :i* c come "u practical inquiries4 ,dalton f\nd t #ajjj cubic in*es ( air at ! temp]ature ( melt+ ice dilat$ to #acbe cubic in*es if rais$ to ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]4 ,accord+ to ,gay-,lussac1 ! increas$ volume 0 #acge cubic in*es4 ,! latt] det]m9ation has be5 subsequ5tly f\nd to be ! m correct "o4#dj ,pg#ejg ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t = an increase ( temp]ature f #cb to #bab1 am\nt+ to #ahj1 ! increase ( volume is #cge p>ts 9 #ajjj2 & s9ce ! expansion is uni=m1 ! increase ( volume = #a w be f\nd by divid+ ?is by #ahj1 :i* w give an increase ( #bjh-a_/c p>ts 9 #ajj1jjj = ea* degree ( ! common !rmomet]4 ,to r$uce ! expression ( ?is important & g5]al law to ma!matical language1 let v be ! volume ( an ela/ic fluid at ! temp]ature ( melt+ ice1 & let nv be ! increase :i* t volume w\ld receive by be+ rais$ "o degree ( temp]ature "u ! same pressure4 ,let ,v be its volume at ! temp]ature ,t4 ,!n we %all h ,v v nv 7,t #cb7 v 7#a n 7,t #cb774 ,if ,v be its volume at any o!r temp]ature ,t1 & "u ! same pressure1 we %all h1 9 l mann]1 ,v v 7#a n 7,t #cb774 ,h5ce we obta9 ,v_/,v 7#a n 7,t #cb77 _/ 7#a n 7,t #cb772 7#f47 :i* expresses ! relation betwe5 ! volumes ( ! same gas or vap\r "u ! same pressure & at any two temp]atures4 ,! co-effici5t n1 z expla9$ 9 ! text1 has ! same value = ! same gas or vap\r ?r\gh\t ! :ole !rmometric scale4 ,b x is /ill m rem>kable t ?is con/ant has ! same value = all gases & vap\rs4 ,x is a numb]1 !re=e1 :i* mu/ h "s ess5tial relation to ! gase\s or ela/ic /ate ( fluid matt]1 indep5d5t ( ! peculi> qualities ( any p>ticul> gas or vap\r4 ,! value ( n1 accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,gay-,lussac1 is #jjjbjhc1 or #a_/dhj4 ,to r$uce ! law ( ,m>iotte1 expla9$ 9 7#ig47 p4 #aga41 to ma!matical language1 let ,v1 ,v be ! volumes ( ! same gas or vap\r "u diff]5t pressures ,p1 ,p1 b at ! same temp]ature4 ,we %all !n h ,,vp ,v,p4 7#g47 ,if x be requir$ to det]m9e ! relation betwe5 ! volumes ( ! same gas or vap\r1 "u a *ange ( bo? temp]ature & pressure1 let ,v be ! volume at ! temp]ature ,t & "u ! pressure ,p1 & let ,v be ! volume at ! temp]ature ,t & "u ! pressure ,p4 ,let v be ! volume at ! temp]ature ,t & "u ! pressure ,p4 ,by =mula 7#g47 we h ,,vp v,p2 ,pg#ejh & by =mula 7#f47 we h 7,v_/v7 7#a n7,t #cb77 _/ 7#a n7,t #cb77 ,elim9at+ v1 we %all obta9 7,v_/,v7 7,p_/,p7 7#a n7,t #cb77 _/ 7#a n7,t #cb772 or1 7,,vp_/,v,p7 7#a n7,t #cb77 _/ 7#a n7,t #cb772 7#h47 :i* is ! g5]al relation betwe5 ! volumes1 pressures1 & temp]atures ( ! same gas or vap\r 9 two diff]5t /ates4 ,to apply ?is g5]al =mula to ! case ( ! vap\r ( wat]1 let ,t #bab4 ,x is kn[n by exp]im5t t ! correspond+ value ( ,p1 express$ 9 p\nds p] squ>e in*1 is #adgjf2 & t ,v1 express$ 9 cubic in*es1 ! wat] evaporat$ be+ tak5 z a cubic in*1 is #agjj4 ,if1 !n1 we take #jjjbjhc z ! value ( n1 we %all h by 7#h471 ,,vp #agjj #adgjf 7#a #jjjbjhc 7,t #cb77 _/ 7#a #jjjbjhc #ahj7 #ahahc7a #jjjbjhc 7,t #cb774 7#i47 ,if1 by means ( ?is =mula 7#i471 & any ( ! =mul 7#a471 7#b471 7#c471 7#d471 7#e471 ,t 7 elim9at$1 we %\ld obta9 a =mula betwe5 ,v & ,p1 :i* w\ld enable u to compute ! enl>gem5t ( volume :i* wat] und]goes 9 pass+ into /eam "u any propos$ pressure4 ,b su* a =mula w\ld n be suitable = practical computations4 ,by ! =mul 7#a47 to 7#e471 a table ( pressures & correspond+ temp]atures may be comput$2 & ^! be+ kn[n1 ! =mula 7#i47 w be suffici5t = ! computation ( ! correspond+ values ( ,v1 or ! enl>gem5t ( volume :i* wat] und]goes 9 pass+ into /eam4 ,9 ! foll[+ table1 ! temp]atures correspond+ to pressures f #a to #bdj lbs4 p] squ>e in* are giv5 by computation f ! =mul 7#b47 to 7#e471 & ! volumes ( /eam produc$ by an unit ( volume ( wat] z comput$ f ! =mula 7#i474 ,! me*anical effect is obta9$ by multiply+ ! pressure 9 p\nds by ! expansion ( a cubic in* ( wat] 9 pass+ into /eam express$ 9 feet1 & is !re=e ! numb] ( p\nds :i* w\ld be rais$ "o foot by ! evaporation ( a cubic in* ( wat] "u ! giv5 pressure4 ,pg#eji ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,volume ( ,me*anical ,total pressure ! ,/eam ,effect ( 9 ,p\nds ,correspond+ comp>$ to a ,cubic ,in* p] ,squ>e ,temp]ature4 ! ,volume ( ,wat] ,in*4 ( ! evaporat$ ,wat] t 9 ,p\nds has rais$ ,"o produc$ x4 ,foot4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #a #ajbi #bjhfh #agci #b #abfa #ajhgd #ahab #c #adaj #gdcg #ahei #d #aebc #efhe #ahie #e #afad #dfag #aibd #f #afib #chig #aidh #g #agei #ccgf #aifi #h #ahbj #bihc #aihi #i #ahgd #bfgd #bjjf #aj #aibd #bdbf #bjbb #aa #aigj #bbba #bjcf #ab #bjac #bjej #bjej #ac #bjec #aijd #bjfc #ad #bjia #aggh #bjgd #ae #babh #affi #bjhf #af #bafc #aegc #bjig #ag #baif #adhh #bajg #ah #bbbg #adaa #baag #ai #bbef #acdc #babf #bj #bbhe #abha #bace #ba #bcab #abbe #badd #bb #bcch #aagd #baeb #bc #bcfc #aabg #bafj #bd #bchg #ajhd #bafh #be #bdaj #ajdd #bage #bf #bdcc #ajjg #bahb #bg #bdee #igc #bahi #bh #bdgf #ida #baif #bi #bdif #iaa #bbjb #cj #beaf #hhc #bbji #ca #becf #heg #bbae #cb #beee #hcc #bbba #cc #begc #haj #bbbf #cd #beia #ghh #bbcb #ce #bfji #gfg #bbch #cf #bfbf #gdh #bbdc #cg #bfdc #gbi #bbdh #ch #bfei #gab #bbec #ci #bfge #fie #bbei #dj #bfia #fgi #bbfd #da #bgjf #ffd #bbfh #db #bgba #fdi #bbgc #dc #bgcf #fce #bbgh #dd #bgej #fbb #bbhb #de #bgfd #faj #bbhg #df #bggh #eih #bbia #dg #bgib #ehf #bbif #dh #bhje #ege #bcjj #di #bhai #efd #bcjd #ej #bhcb #eed #bcjh #ea #bhdd #edd #bcab #eb #bheg #ecd #bcaf #ec #bhfi #ebe #bcbj #ed #bhha #eaf #bcbd #ee #bhic #ejh #bcbg #ef #bije #ejj #bcca #eg #biag #dib #bcce #eh #bibi #dhd #bcci #ei #bidb #dgg #bcdc #fj #bief #dgj #bcdg #fa #bifi #dfc #bcea #fb #biha #def #bcee #fc #biib #ddi #bcei #fd #cjjc #ddc #bcfb #fe #cjac #dcg #bcfe #ff #cjbd #dca #bcfi #fg #cjcd #dbe #bcgb #fh #cjdd #dai #bcge #fi #cjed #dad #bcgh #gj #cjfd #djh #bchb #ga #cjgd #djc #bche #gb #cjhd #cih #bchh #gc #cjic #cic #bcia #gd #cajc #chh #bcid #ge #caab #chc #bcig #gf #cabb #cgi #bdjj #gg #caca #cgd #bdjc #gh #cadj #cgj #bdje #gi #cadi #cff #bdjh #hj #caeh #cfb #bdaa #ha #cafg #ceh #bdad #hb #cagf #ced #bdag #hc #cahd #cej #bdai #hd #caic #cdf #bdbb #he #cbja #cdb #bdbe #hf #cbaj #cci #bdbg #hg #cbah #cce #bdcj #hh #cbbf #ccb #bdcb #hi #cbce #cbh #bdce #ij #cbdc #cbe #bdch #ia #cbea #cbb #bddj #ib #cbei #cai #bddc #ic #cbfg #caf #bdde #id #cbge #cac #bddh #ie #cbhb #caj #bdej #if #cbij #cjg #bdec #ig #cbih #cjd #bdee #ih #ccje #cja #bdeg #ii #ccac #bih #bdfj #ajj #ccbj #bie #bdfb #aaj #ccib #bga #bdhf #abj #cdeh #bea #bejg #acj #ceba #bcc #bebg #adj #cegi #bah #bede #aej #cfcd #bje #befa #afj #cfhg #aic #begg #agj #cgcf #ahc #beic #ahj #cghd #agd #bfjh #aij #chbi #aff #bfbb #bjj #chgc #aeh #bfcf #baj #ciae #aea #bfej #bbj #ciee #ade #bffc #bcj #ciid #adj #bfge #bdj #djca #acd #bfhg ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,pg#eaa ,9 ! abs5ce ( any direct me?od ( det]m9+ ! g5]al relation betwe5 ! pressure & volume ( common /eam1 empirical =mul express+ x h be5 propos$ by diff]5t ma!maticians4 ,! late ,pr(essor ,navi] propos$ ! foll[+3--,let ,s express ! volume ( /eam into :i* an unit ( volume ( wat] is conv]t$ "u ! pressure ,p1 ?is pressure be+ express$ 9 kilogrammes p] squ>e mtre4 ,!n ! relation betwe5 ,s & ,p w be ,s a_/7b m,p71 :]e a #ajjj1 b #jji1 & m #jjjjjdhd4 ,?is =mula1 h[ev]1 does n agree ) exp]im5t at pressures less ?an an atmosph]e4 ,m4 de ,pamb\r1 !re=e1 proposes ! foll[+ *anges 9 ! values ( its co-effici5ts3--,let ,p express ! pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e foot2 & let a #ajjjj b #jdbbg m #jjjbeh1 & ! =mula w be accurate = all pressures4 ,= pressures above two atmosph]es ! foll[+ values give m accuracy to ! calculation3-- a #ajjjj b #adba m #jjjbc4 ,9 ^! inve/igations ,i %all adopt ! foll[+ modifi$ =mula4 ,! symbols ,s & ,p reta9+ _! signification1 we %all h ,s a_/7b ,p7 7#aj47 :]e a #chgeifi b #afd4 ,^! values ( a & b w be suffici5tly accurate = practical purposes = all pressures1 & may be us$ 9 ref]5ce to l[-pressure eng9es ( e =m1 z well z = high-pressure eng9es :i* "w expansively4 ,:5 ! pressure is n less ?an #cj p\nds p] squ>e in*1 ! foll[+ values ( a & b w be m accurate3-- a #dcdghbf b #fah4 ,on ! ,expansive ,action ( ,/eam4 ,! inve/igation ( ! effect ( ! expansion ( /eam :i* has be5 giv5 9 ! text1 is int5d$ to convey to ^? :o are n conv]sant ) ! pr9ciples & language ( analysis1 "s notion ( ! nature ( t me*anical effect to :i* ! advantages att5d+ ! expansive pr9ciple are due4 ,we %all n[1 h[ev]1 expla9 ^! effects m accurately4 ,pg#eab ,! dynamical effect produc$ by any me*anical ag5t is express$ by ! product ( ! resi/ance ov]come & ! space ?r\gh :i* t resi/ance is mov$4 ,let ,p ! pressure ( /eam express$ 9 p\nds p] squ>e foot4 ,s ! numb] ( cubic feet ( /eam ( t pressure produc$ by ! evaporation ( a cubic foot ( wat]4 ,e ! me*anical effect produc$ by ! evaporation ( a cubic foot ( wat] express$ 9 p\nds rais$ "o foot4 ,!n we %all h ,e ,,ps2 & if ,w be a volume ( wat] evaporat$ "u ! pressure ,p1 ! me*anical effect produc$ by x w be ,,wps4 ,by 7#aj47 we h ,,sp a b,s4 ,h5ce1 = ! me*anical effect ( a cubic foot ( wat] evaporat$ "u ! pressure ,p we h ,e a b,s4 7#aa47 ,let a cubic foot ( wat] be evaporat$ "u ! pressure ,p1 & let x produce a volume ( /eam ,s ( t pressure4 ,let ?is /eam aft]w>ds be all[$ to exp& to ! increas$ volume ,s & ! dim9i%$ pressure ,p2 & let x be requir$ to det]m9e ! me*anical effect produc$ dur+ ! expansion ( ! /eam f ! volume ,s to ! volume ,s4 ,let ,e ! me*anical effect produc$ by ! evaporation ( ! wat] "u ! pressure ,p )\t expansion4 ,e ! me*anical effect produc$ dur+ ! expansion ( ! /eam4 ,e ! me*anical effect :i* w\ld be produc$ by ! evaporation "u ! pressure ,p )\t expansion4 ,e ! total me*anical effect produc$ by ! evaporation "u ! pressure ,p & subsequ5t expansion4 ,?us we h ,e ,e ,e4 ,let s be any volume ( ! /eam dur+ ! process ( expansion1 p ! correspond+ pressure1 & e ! me*anical effect produc$ by ! expansion ( ! /eam4 ,we h !n by 7#aj47 p 7a_/s7 b2 de 7ads_/s7 bds4 ,h5ce by integrat+ we obta9 e a log4 s bs ,c2 ,pg#eac :i*1 tak5 betwe5 ! limits s ,s & s ,s1 becomes ,e a log4 ,s_/,s b7,s ,s74 7#ab47 ,b by 7#aa47 we h ,e a b,s1 ,e a b,s2 ,e ,e b7,s ,s72 ,e a log4 ,s_/,s ,e ,e2 ,e ,e ,e a log4 ,s_/,s ,e4 7#ac47 ,or1 ,e a 7#a log4 ,s_/,s7 b,s4 7#ad47 ,h5ce x appe>s t ! me*anical effect ( a cubic foot ( wat] evaporat$ "u ! pressure ,p may be increas$ by ! quantity a log4 ,s_/,s1 if x be fir/ evaporat$ "u ! great] pressure ,p1 & subsequ5tly exp&$ to ! less] pressure ,p4 ,! log>i?ms 9 ^! =mul are hyp]bolic4 ,to apply ^! pr9ciples to ! actual case ( a d\ble act+ /eam eng9e1 ,let ,l ! /roke ( ! pi/on 9 feet4 ,a ! area ( ! pi/on 9 squ>e feet4 n ! numb] ( /rokes ( ! pi/on p] m9ute4 #bn ,,al ! numb] ( cubic feet ( space ?r\gh :i* ! pi/on moves p] m9ute4 ,let c,l,a ! cle>age1 or ! space betwe5 ! /eam valve & ! pi/on at ea* end ( ! /roke4 ,! volume ( /eam admitt$ ?r\gh ! /eam valve at ea* /roke ( ! eng9e w be #bn ,,al7#a c74 ,let ,v ! mean spe$ ( ! pi/on 9 feet p] m9ute1 #bn,l ,v4 ,! volume ( /eam admitt$ to ! cyl9d] p] m9ute w !re=e be ,,va 7#a c71 ! "p ( x employ$ 9 work+ ! pi/on be+ ,,va4 ,let ,w ! wat] 9 cubic feet admitt$ p] m9ute 9 ! =m ( /eam ?r\gh ! /eam valve4 ,s ! numb] ( cubic feet ( /eam produc$ by a cubic foot ( wat]4 ,pg#ead ,h5ce we %all h ,,ws ,,va 7#a c72 ,s 7,,va7#a c77_/,w4 7#ae47 ,s9ce by 7#aj47 we h ,p a_/,s b2 ,p ,wa_/7,,va7#a c77 b4 7#af47 ,by :i* ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! cyl9d] w be kn[n1 :5 ! effective evaporation1 ! diamet] ( ! cyl9d]1 & spe$ ( ! pi/on1 are giv54 ,if x be requir$ to express ! me*anical effect produc$ p] m9ute by ! action ( /eam on ! pi/on1 x is only necess>y to multiply ! pressure on ! surface ( ! pi/on by ! space p] m9ute ?r\gh :i* ! pi/on moves4 ,?is w give ,,vap ,w7a_/7#a c77 ,v,ab2 7#ag47 :i* expresses ! :ole me*anical effect p] m9ute 9 p\nds rais$ "o foot4 ,if ! /eam be work$ expansively1 let x be cut (f aft] ! pi/on has mov$ ?r\gh a "p ( ! /roke express$ by e4 ,! volume ( /eam ( ! undim9i%$ pressure ,p admitt$ p] m9ute ?r\gh ! valve w\ld !n be ,,va 7e c72 & ! ratio ( ?is volume to t ( ! wat] produc+ x be+ express$ by ,s1 we %\ld h ,s 7,,va7e c77_/,w4 ,! f9al volume into :i* ?is /eam is subsequ5tly exp&$ be+ ,,va7#a c71 its ratio to t ( ! wat] w be ,s 7,,va 7#a c77_/,w4 ,! pressure ,p1 till ! /eam is cut (f1 w be ,p ,wa _/ 7,,va7e c77 b4 7#ah47 ,! me*anical effect ,e produc$ p] m9ute by ! /eam ( full pressure w be ,e ,p,a,ve ,wae _/ 7e c7 ,a,vbe2 & ! effect ,e p] m9ute produc$ by ! expansion ( ! /eam w by 7#ab47 be ,pg#eae ,e ,wa log47#a c7 _/ 7e c7 b,v,a7#a e74 ,h5ce ! total effect p] m9ute w be ,e ,wa 7e_/7e c77 log47#a c_/e c7 b,v,a4 7#ai47 ,if ! eng9e "w )\t expansion1 e #a2 ,e 7 ,wa_/7#a c77 b,v,a1 7#bj47 z be=e2 & ! effect p] m9ute ga9$ by expansion w !re=e be ,e ,e ,wa 7e_/7e c77 7#a_/7a c77 log47#a c_/e c72 7#ba47 :i* !re=e repres5ts ! quantity ( p[] ga9$ by ! expansive action1 ) a giv5 evaporat+ p[]4 ,9 ^! =mul ! total effect ( ! /eam is consid]$ )\t ref]5ce to ! nature ( ! resi/ances :i* x has to ov]come4 ,^! resi/ances may be enum]at$ z foll[s3-- #a4 ,! resi/ance produc$ by ! load :i* ! eng9e is requir$ to move4 #b4 ,! resi/ance produc$ by ! vap\r :i* rema9s uncond5s$ if ! eng9e be a cond5s+ eng9e1 or ( ! atmosph]ic pressure if ! eng9e d n cond5se ! /eam4 #c4 ,! resi/ance ( ! eng9e & its ma*9]y1 consi/+ ( ! friction ( ! v>i\s mov+ p>ts1 ! resi/ances ( ! fe$ pump1 ! cold wat] pump1 c4 ,a "p ( ^! resi/ances are ( ! same am\nt1 :e!r ! eng9e be load$ or n1 & "p are increas$1 9 "s proportion dep5d+ on ! load4 ,:5 ! eng9e is ma9ta9$ 9 a /ate ( uni=m motion1 ! sum ( all ^! resi/ances mu/ always be equal to ! :ole effect produc$ by ! /eam on ! pi/on4 ,! p[] exp5d$ on ! fir/ alone is ! useful effect4 ,let ,r ! pressure p] squ>e foot ( ! pi/on surface1 :i* balances ! resi/ances produc$ by ! load4 m,r ! pressure p] squ>e foot1 :i* balances t "p ( ! friction ( ! eng9e :i* is proportional to ! load4 r ! pressure p] squ>e foot1 :i* balances ! sum ( all ^? resi/ances t are n proportional to ! load4 ,! total resi/ance1 !re=e1 be+ ,r m,r r1 :i*1 :5 ! mean motion ( ! pi/on is uni=m1 mu/ be equal to ! mean pressure on ! pi/on4 ,! total me*anical effect ,pg#eaf mu/ !re=e be equal to ! total resi/ance multipli$ by ! space ?r\gh :i* t resi/ance is driv54 ,h5ce we %all h ,r7#a m7 r,,va ,wa7e_/7e c77 log47#a c_/e c7 ,v,ab2 ,,rva7#a m7 ,wa7e_/7e c77 log47#a c_/e c7 ,,va7b r74 ,= brevity1 let e a7e_/7e c77 log47#a c_/e c72 ,,rva7#a m7 ,we ,,va7b r74 7#bb47 ,by solv+ ?is = ,,va1 we obta9 ,,va ,we_/7,r7#a m7 b r72 ,,rva ,we,r_/7,r7#a m7 b r74 7#bc47 ,?is quantity ,,rva1 be+ ! product ( ! resi/ance ,,ra1 ( ! load r$uc$ to ! surface ( ! pi/on1 multipli$ by ! space ?r\gh :i* ! pi/on is mov$1 w be equal to ! load itself multipli$ by ! space ?r\gh :i* x is mov$4 ,?is be+1 9 fact1 ! useful effect ( ! eng9e1 let x be express$ by ,u1 & we %all h ,u ,we,r_/7,r7#a m7 b r74 7#bd47 ,or by 7#bb471 ,u7#a m7 ,we ,,va7b r74 7#be47 ,! value ( ! useful effect obta9$ f ^! =mul w be express$ 9 p\nds1 rais$ "o foot p] m9ute1 ,w be+ ! effective evaporation 9 cubic feet p] m9ute1 ,a ! area ( ! pi/on 9 squ>e feet1 & ,v ! space p] m9ute ?r\gh :i* x is mov$1 9 feet4 ,s9ce a resi/ance am\nt+ to #cc1jjj p\nds mov$ ?r\gh "o foot p] m9ute is call$ "o-horse p[]1 x is evid5t t ! horse p[] ,h ( ! eng9e is no?+ m ?an ! useful effect p] m9ute ref]r$ to a l>g] unit ( weight or resi/ance2 t is to #cc1jjj p\nds in/ead ( "o p\nd4 ,h5ce we %all h ,h ,u_/#ccjjj4 7#bf47 ,s9ce ! useful effect express$ 9 7#bd47 & 7#be47 is t due to a numb] ( cubic feet ( wat]1 express$ by ,w1 we %all obta9 ! effect due to "o cubic foot ( wat]1 by divid+ ,u by ,w4 ,if1 !re=e1 ,u be ! effect produc$ by ! effective evaporation ( a cubic foot ( wat]1 we %all h ,pg#eag ,u ,u_/,w4 7#bg47 ,if ! quantity ( fuel consum$ p] m9ute be express$ by ,f1 ! effect produc$ by ! unit ( fuel1 call$ ! ,,duty ( ! eng9e1 w1 = l reason1 be ,d ,u_/,f4 7#bh47 ,if ! fuel be express$ 9 hundr$weights ( coal1 !n ,d w express ! numb] ( p\nds' weight rais$ "o foot by a hundr$weight ( coal4 ,by solv+ 7#bd47 & 7#be47 = ,w1 we obta9 ,w ,u7,r7#a m7 b r7_/,re1 7#bi47 ,w 7#a_/;e7,u7#a m7 ,,va7b r74 7#cj47 ,by elim9at+ ,u1 by 7#bf471 we %all h ,w #ccjjj ,h7,r7#a m7 b r7_/,re1 7#ca47 ,w 7#a_/;e7#ccjjj ,h7#a m7 ,,va7b r74 7#cb47 ,! evaporation necess>y p] horse p[] p] m9ute w be f\nd by putt+ ,h #a 9 ^! =mul4#da ,x w be obs]v$ t ! quantities ,a & ,v1 ! area ( ! cyl9d] & ! spe$ ( ! pi/on1 ent] all ^! =mul z factors ( ! same product4 ,o!r ?+s1 !re=e1 be+ ! same1 ! spe$ ( ! pi/on w be always inv]sely z ! area ( ! cyl9d]4 ,9 fact1 ,,va is ! volume ( /eam p] m9ute employ$ 9 work+ ! pi/on1 & if ! pi/on be increas$ or dim9i%$ 9 magnitude1 its spe$ mu/ be inv]sely ,pg#eah v>i$ by ! necessity ( be+ /ill mov$ ?r\gh ! same numb] ( cubic feet by ! same volume ( /eam4 ,x has be5 already /at$ 9 ! text1 t no satisfactory exp]im5ts h yet be5 made1 by :i* ! num]ical value ( ! quantity r c be exactly kn[n4 ,9 eng9es ( diff]5t magnitudes & p[]s1 ?is resi/ance be>s v diff]5t proportions to ! :ole p[] ( ! ma*9e4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 ! l>g] & m p[]ful ! eng9e1 ! less t proportion w be4 ,t "p ( ?is resi/ance :i* arises f ! reaction ( ! uncond5s$ vap\r on ! pi/on is v v>iable1 ow+ to ! m or less p]fect action ( ! cond5s+ app>atus1 ! velocity ( ! pi/on1 & ! magnitude & =m ( ! /eam passages4 ,m4 de ,pamb\r /ates1 t1 by exp]im5ts made ) indicators1 ! mean am\nt ( ?is resi/ance 9 ! cyl9d] is #b-a_/b lbs4 p] squ>e in* m ?an 9 ! cond5s]1 & t ! pressure 9 ! latt] be+ usually #a-a_/b lb4 p] squ>e in*1 ! mean am\nt ( ! pressure ( ! cond5s$ vap\r 9 ! cyl9d] is ab\t #d lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,eng9e]s1 h[ev]1 g5]ally consid] ?is e/imate to be above ! tru? 9 well-con/ruct$ eng9es1 :5 9 good work+ ord]4 ,9 cond5s+ l[ pressure eng9es ( =ty horse p[] & upw>ds1 work+ ) an av]age load1 x is g5]ally consid]$ t ! resi/ance produc$ by ! friction ( ! ma*9e & ! =ce necess>y to "w ! pumps may be tak5 at ab\t #b lbs4 p] squ>e in* ( pi/on surface4 ,?us ! :ole resi/ance repres5t$ by r 9 ! prec$+ =mul1 z appli$ to ! l>g] class ( l[ pressure eng9es1 may be consid]$ z be+ "u #f lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 or #hfd lbs4 p] squ>e foot1 ( ! pi/on4 ,x is necess>y1 h[ev]1 to repeat1 t ?is e/imate mu/ be reg>d$ z a v r\gh approximation2 & z repres5t+ ! mean value ( a quantity subject to great v>iation1 n only 9 "o eng9e comp>$ ) ano!r1 b ev5 9 ! same eng9e comp>$ ) itself at diff]5t times & 9 diff]5t /ates4 ,9 ! same class ( eng9es1 ! magnitude ( ! cle>age is g5]ally ab\t a tw5tie? "p ( ! capacity ( ! cyl9d]1 s t c #jje4 ,t "p ( ! resi/ance :i* is proportional to ! load1 & on :i* ! value ( m 9 ! prec$+ =mul dep5ds1 is /ill m v>iable1 & dep5ds s mu* on ! =m1 magnitude1 & ! arrangem5t ( its p>ts1 t no g5]al rule c be giv5 = its value4 ,x mu/1 9 fact1 be det]m9$ 9 e p>ticul> case4 ,9 ! practical application ( ! prec$+ =mul 9 cond5s+ eng9es we %all h ,pg#eai a #chgeifi b #afd c #jje2 e #chgeifi7;e_/7e #jje7 log4#aje_/7;e #jje774 ,9 eng9es :i* "w )\t cond5sation1 & !re=e ) high pressure /eam1 we %all h a #dcdghbf b #fah c #jje e #dcdghbf7;e_/7e #jje7 log4#aje_/7;e #jje77 ,to facilitate computation1 ! values ( e correspond+ to all values ( e1 f e #aj to e #ij1 are giv5 9 ! foll[+ table3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,cond5s+,non-cond5s+ ,cond5s+,non-cond5s+ ,eng9es ,eng9es ,eng9es ,eng9es e e4 e4 e e4 e4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- #aj #ajabfbfe #aaceijbi #ea #eiffcfg #ffibgjh #aa #iiefhfg #aaafijjh #eb #eijchcg #ffbbefe #ab #igicacf #ajihecdd #ec #ehdbbhh #feecebe #ac #ifcdibf #ajhjghge #ed #eghafic #fdheeeb #ad #idhbjbi #ajfcfcfd #ee #egbbjbd #fdahfai #ae #iccdbai #ajdgjefj #ef #effcbea #fcebfic #af #iaiabea #ajcajahf #eg #efjecec #fbhggde #ag #ijebhhh #ajaedigh #eh #eedhbig #fbbcgdb #ah #hiahhif #ajjjdfge #ei #edibjfd #fafjffb #ai #hghijdc #iheijad #fj #edcffbh #fjihdgh #bj #hffcabj #igaggfj #fa #echaifi #fjcgaff #ba #hedjiah #iehjfhb #fb #ecbhjfe #eigffii #bb #hdbbbdb #iddgeei #fc #ebgdhif #eiagjeg #bc #hcjfiaf #icahaic #fd #ebbbddd #ehehbai #bd #haidggj #iaibcif #fe #eagjfhd #ehjjaei #be #hjhefdd #ijfiihd #ff #eaaifje #egdbhfj #bf #gigicib #hiejgif #fg #ejfiahf #efhfcjd #bg #ghgehgj #hhcdfgd #fh #ejaidaj #efcjdfi #bh #gggdieb #hgbadfh #fi #digjbfc #eegecdj #bi #gfgfead #hfaajdh #gj #dibagbg #eebjhid #cj #gehjddg #hejcbhd #ga #dhgcgij #edfgaba #ca #gdhffdj #hcihjef #gb #dhbfdcd #edadjjj #cb #gcidiij #hbiebej #gc #dggifdh #ecfaeai #cc #gcjedjg #haidgfj #gd #dgccdag #ecjifei #cd #gbaghjg #hjifdif #ge #dfhggbh #ebehdjh #ce #gacbjig #hjjjceb #gf #dfdbefi #ebjggea #cf #gjdhbjf #gijfbdi #gg #deigibh #eaegfgf #cg #fiffjeh #ghadajj #gh #deecgid #eajhagj #ch #fhheehe #ggbchcb #gi #deajaee #ejeibah #ci #fhjfgbj #gfcecfe #hj #ddffiii #ejajhjh #dj #fgbidjh #gedhfdb #ha #ddbdcag #difbica #da #ffecegh #gdfcehj #hb #dchbjif #diaeefi #db #fegiahg #gchjacb #hc #dcdjccb #dhfhgbj #dc #fejfagd #gbihbcj #hd #dbiijaj #dhbbcfh #dd #fdcddia #gbaghbb #he #dbehabj #dggfejj #de #fcfdjii #gachheh #hf #dbagfeh #dgcaaac #df #fbididd #gjfabhe #hg #daggfac #dfhfaib #dg #fbbfihi #fihejeh #hh #dacgigd #dfdagbh #dh #fafjaij #fiajabf #hi #djihgcg #deiggac #di #fjideaj #fhcfdej #ij #djeihic #deedadj #ej #fjbiiaf #fgfciib ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,pg#ebj ,9 eng9es :i* "w )\t expansion we h e a_/7#a c74 ,= cond5s+ eng9es )\t expansion1 we %all !n h e #chgeifi_/aje #cfiacii2 7#cc47 & = non-cond5s+ eng9es1 e #dcdghbf_/aje #dadjghg4 7#cd47 ,z ! diamet]s ( ! cyl9d]s ( eng9es are g5]ally express$ 9 in*es1 ! correspond+ areas ( ! pi/ons express$ 9 squ>e feet are giv5 9 ! foll[+ table1 s t ! values ( ,a may be readily f\nd3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,diam4 ,area4 ,diam4 ,area4 ,diam4 ,area4 ,diam4 ,area4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,in*es4 ,sq4feet4,in*es4 ,sq4feet4,in*es4 ,sq4feet4,in*es4 ,sq4feet4 #aj #jede #dh #abeff #hf #djcci #abd #hchfc #aa #jffj #di #acjie #hg #dabhc #abe #hebba #ab #jghe #ej #acfce #hh #dbbcg #abf #hfeij #ac #jibb #ea #adahf #hi #dcbjb #abg #hgigj #ad #ajfi #eb #adgdh #ij #ddagi #abh #hicfa #ae #abbg #ec #aecba #ia #deaff #abi #ijgfc #af #acif #ed #aeijd #ib #dfafd #acj #ibage #ag #aegf #ee #afdii #ic #dgagc #aca #iceii #ah #agfg #ef #agajd #id #dhaic #acb #iejcc #ai #aifi #eg #aggba #ie #dibbd #acc #ifdgi #bj #bahb #eh #ahcdh #if #ejbfe #acd #igice #ba #bdje #ei #ahihf #ig #eacah #ace #iidjb #bb #bfdj #fj #aifce #ih #ebchb #acf #ajjhhj #bc #bhhe #fa #bjbie #ii #ecdef #acg #ajbcfi #bd #cadb #fb #bjiff #ajj #ededb #ach #ajchfi #be #cdji #fc #bafdh #aja #eefch #aci #ajechj #bf #cfhg #fd #bbcdj #ajb #efgde #adj #ajfija #bg #cigf #fe #bcjdd #ajc #eghfc #ada #ajhdcd #bh #dbgf #ff #bcgeh #ajd #ehiib #adb #ajiigg #bi #dehg #fg #bddhd #aje #fjacb #adc #aaaecb #cj #diji #fh #bebbj #ajf #fabhc #add #aacjig #ca #ebda #fi #beifg #ajg #fbdde #ade #aadfgd #cb #eehe #gj #bfgbe #ajh #fcfag #adf #aafbfa #cc #eidj #ga #bgdid #aji #fdhja #adg #aaghei #cd #fcje #gb #bhbgd #aaj #feiie #adh #aaidfh #ce #ffha #gc #bijfe #aaa #fgbja #adi #abajhh #cf #gjfi #gd #bihfg #aab #fhdag #aej #abbgai #cg #gdfg #ge #cjfhj #aac #fifdd #aea #abdcfa #ch #ghgf #gf #caejc #aad #gjhhb #aeb #abfjac #ci #hbif #gg #cbcch #aae #gbaca #aec #abgfgf #dj #hgbg #gh #ccahc #aaf #gccia #aed #abicea #da #iafh #gi #cdjci #aag #gdffb #aee #acajcf #db #ifba #hj #cdijg #aah #geidd #aef #acbgcb #dc #ajjhe #ha #ceghe #aai #ggbcf #aeg #acddci #dd #ajeei #hb #cffgd #abj #ghedj #aeh #acfaeg #de #aajde #hc #cgegd #aba #gihed #aei #acghhf #df #aaeda #hd #chdhe #abb #haahj #afj #acifbf #dg #abjdh #he #cidjf #abc #hbeaf #afa #adacgg ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,pg#eba ,! practical application ( ! prec$+ =mul w be %[n by ! foll[+ examples4 ,,examples4 #a4 ,a #cf-;in* cyl9d] ) #e-a_/b feet /roke is suppli$ by a boil] evaporat+ effectively #fj cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r1 & ! pi/on makes #bj /rokes p] m9ute )\t expansion2-- :at is ! p[] ( ! eng9e & ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! cyl9d]8 ,let x be assum$ t r #f #add #hfd & m #ja4 ,s9ce ! eng9e is a cond5s+ eng9e1 we h b #afd & e #cfiacii4 ,by ! =mul 7#be47 & 7#bf47 we h ,h ,we ,,va7b r7_/#ccjjj7a m72 & s9ce by ! data we h ,w #a ,a #gjfi ,v #bn,l #dj #ee #bbj1 ! =mula1 by ^! sub/itutions1 becomes ,h 7#cfiacii #bbj #ajbh #gjfi7 _/ 7#ccjjj #aa72 ,h #egf4 ,s9ce e #a1 ! pressure ,p ( /eam 9 ! cyl9d]1 by 7#ah471 is ,p 7,we_/,,va7 b4 ,!re=e ,p 7#cfiacii_/aeeeah7 #afd #bbaj2 :i* be+ ! pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e foot1 ! pressure p] squ>e in* w be #ae-a_/c lbs4 #b4 ,to f9d ! effective evaporation necess>y to produce a p[] ( #hj horses ) ! same eng9e4 ,also1 f9d ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! cyl9d]1 ! spe$ ( ! pi/on be+ ! same4 ,by ! =mula 7#cb471 ) ! above sub/itutions1 we h ,w 7#ccjjj #hj #aa #bbj #gjfi #ajbh7_/cfiacii #abb4 ,! evaporat+ p[] w\ld !re=e be only increas$ #bb p] c5t41 :ile ! work+ p[] ( ! eng9e w\ld be increas$ ne>ly #dj p] c5t4 ,! pressure ,p 9 ! cyl9d] w be giv51 by 7#ah471 z be=e4 ,p 7#abb #cfiacii7_/aeeeah #afd #bgcb2 :i* is equival5t to #ai lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,pg#ebb #c4 ,:at mu/ be ! diamet] ( a cyl9d] to "w ) a p[] ( a hundr$ horses1 suppli$ by a boil] evaporat+ effectively #gj cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r1 ! mean spe$ ( ! pi/on be+ #bdj feet p] m9ute1 & ! /eam be+ cut (f at half /roke8 ,also1 :at w be ! full pressure ( /eam on ! pi/on8 ,tak+1 z 9 ! =m] examples1 m #ja1 b #afd1 & r #hfd1 we %all h ,h #ajj ,w #g_/f ,v #bdj1 & by ! column = cond5s+ eng9es1 9 table1 p4 #eai1 we h e #fjbiiaf1 :]e e #jej4 ,mak+ ^! sub/itutions 9 ,we #ccjjj ,h 7#a m7 ,,va 7b r71 we %all h 7#g_/f7 #fjbiiaf #ccjjjjj #aa #bdj #ajbh ,a4 ,:5ce we f9d ,a #ach2 & by ! table1 p4 #ebj1 ! correspond+ diamet] ( ! cyl9d] w be #ej-a_/c in*es4 ,if ,p be ! full pressure ( ! /eam1 we %all h1 by 7#ah471 ,p 7,wa_/,,va7e c77 b4 ,mak+ 9 ?is ! prop] sub/itutions1 we h ,p 77#g_/f7 #chgeifi7 _/ 7#bdj #ach #jee7 #afd #bcah2 :i* be+ 9 p\nds p] squ>e foot1 ! pressure p] squ>e in* w be #af-a_/aj lbs4 ,,footnotes3 #dj ,m4 de ,pamb\r /ates t ! increas$ volume is #acfd cubic in*es4 #da ,=mul equival5t to "s ( ! prec$+ are giv51 ) num]\s o!rs1 by ,m4 de ,pamb\r1 9 8 ,!ory ( ! ,/eam ,eng9e4 ,^! ma!matical details conta9 no?+ new 9 pr9ciple1 be+ m]ely ! application ( ! kn[n pr9ciples ( g5]al me*anics to ?is p>ticul> ma*9e4 ,m4 de ,pamb\r objects aga9/ ! me?ods ( calculat+ ! practical effects ( /eam eng9es g5]ally adopt$ by eng9e]s 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,_! e/imates ( ! loss ( p[] by friction1 imp]fect cond5sation1 & o!r causes1 are1 z ,i h /at$ 9 ?is volume1 vague1 & c be reg>d$ at be/ z v r\gh approximations2 b1 subject to ! re/rictions "u :i* _! me?ods ( calculation are always appli$1 !y are by no means s defective z ,m4 de ,pamb\r supposes4 ,he proves :at he consid]s to be _! inaccuracy1 by apply+ !m 9 cases 9 :i* !y are nev] int5d$ to be appli$ by ,engli% eng9e]s4 ,^? :o desire to r$uce to g5]al algebraical =mul ! effects ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( /eam eng9es w1 h[ev]1 f9d ! volume ( ,m4 de ,pamb\r ( consid]able use4 ,pg#ebc ,,index4 ,air1 ela/icity (1 #bh2 ,may be p>tially expell$ f a vessel by ! application ( heat1 #dd4 ,am]ica1 /eam navigation fir/ e/abli%$ 91 #dhg2 ,circum/ances :i* l$ to x1 #dhh2 ,fit* & ,rumsey1 _! attempts to apply ! s+le-act+ eng9e to ! propulsion ( vessels1 #dhi2 ,/ev5s ( ,hobok5 comm5ces exp]im5ts on /eam navigation1 #dhi2 ,exp]im5ts ( ,liv+/one & ,fulton1 #dhi2 ,fulton's fir/ boat1 #dij2 ,! ,hudson navigat$ by /eam1 #dia2 ,ext5sion & improvem5t ( riv] navigation1 #dib2 ,am]ican /eam]s1 #did2 ,diff]5ce betwe5 !m & ,european /eam]s1 #did2 ,/eam]s on ! ,hudson1 #did2 ,am]ican paddle-:eels1 #die2 ,sea-go+ ,am]ican /eam]s1 #dif2 ,spe$ atta9$ by ,am]ican /eam]s1 #dig2 ,lake /eam]s1 #dii2 ,! ,mississippi & its tribut>ies1 #dii2 ,/eam-boats navigat+ x1 #ejj2 ,_! /ructure & ma*9]y1 #ejj2 ,new ,orleans ,h>b\r1 #ejc2 ,/eam tugs1 #ejc4 ,atmosph]e1 #ch2 ,weight (1 #ci4 ,atmosph]ic air1 me*anical prop]ties (1 #ch2 ,composition (1 #bec4 ,atmosph]ic eng9e1 ,?omas ,newcom5 ! reput$ inv5tor (1 #fb2 ,description (1 z fir/ con/ruct$ by ,newcom51 #fg2 ,! op]ation ( consid]$1 #fi2 ,n unfrequ5tly us$ 9 pref]5ce to ! mod]n /eam eng9e1 #gb2 ,advantages :i* x possess$ ov] ,sav]y's1 #gc2 ,consid]ably improv$ by ,beighton1 #ge2 ,john ,smeaton inve/igates ?is ma*9e1 #gf2 ,br9dley obta9s a pat5t = improvem5ts 91 #gf2 ,appli$ by ,*ampion ( ,bri/ol to raise wat]1 #aha2 ,possess$ b limit$ p[] ( adaptation to a v>y+ load1 #aea2 ,exp$i5t to rem$y ?is1 #aea2 ,work+-beam1 cyl9d]1 & pi/on appli$ to by ,newcom51 #cbb4 ,atmosph]ic pressure r5d]$ available z a me*anic ag5t by ,d5is ,pap91 #ch2 ,means ( measur+ ! =ce (1 #ci2 ,! idea ( us+ aga9/ a vacuum or p>tial vacuum to "w a pi/on 9 a cyl9d]1 sugge/$ by ,otto ,gu]icke1 #gc4 ,b>omet] gauge1 #bgb4 ,b>ton's pi/on1 #bdh4 ,beighton1 8 improvem5t ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 #ge4 ,black1 ,dr41 8 doctr9e ( lat5t heat1 #ic4 ,blasco de ,g>ay1 8 contrivance to propel vessels1 #af2 ,! contrivance (1 probably id5tical ) t ( ,h]o1 #ag4 ,bl9k5sop1 8 locomotive eng9e1 #ccg4 ,bl[+-box1 #dbi4 ,bl[+ out1 ,seaw>d's me?od (1 #ded4 ,bl[-(f cocks1 #deb4 ,boil]1 =ms (1 mo/ conv5i5t1 #bee2 ,! waggon boil] adopt$ by ,watt1 #bee2 ,furnace1 #bef2 ,me?od ( fe$+1 #beg2 ,combu/ion ( gas 9 flues1 #bfj2 ,mr4 ,williams's me?od ( consum+ ! unburn$ gases :i* escape f ! grate1 & are c>ri$ ?r\gh ! flues1 #bfj2 ,con/ruction ( grate & a%-pit1 #bfa2 ,magnitude ( heat+ surface ( boil]1 #bfb2 ,capacity (1 mu/ be proportion$ to ! quantity ( wat] to be evaporat$1 #bfc2 ,wat]-space & /eam-space 9 boil]1 #bfc2 ,proportion ( wat]-space 9 ! boil]1 h[ to be regulat$1 #bfd2 ,position ( flues1 #bfd2 ,me?od ( fe$+1 #bfe2 ,! magnitude ( ! fe$ %\ld be equal to ! quantity ( wat] evaporat$1 #bfe2 ,diff]5t me?ods = indicat+ ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 #bff2 ,level guages1 #bff2 ,self-regulat+ fe$]1 #bfg2 ,ano!r me?od ( arrang+1 #bfi2 ,/eam gauge1 #bgj2 ,!rmomet] gauge1 #bga2 ,b>omet] gauge1 #bgb2 ,! indicator to measure ! mean effici5t =ce ( ! pi/on inv5t$ by ,watt1 #bgd2 ,! c\nt] contriv$ by ,watt1 #bgh2 ,safety valve1 #bgi2 ,fusible plugs us$ 9 high pressure boil]s1 #bhj2 ,self-regulat+ damp]1 #bha2 ,self-regulat+ furnace inv5t$ by ,brunton1 #bhc2 ,duty ( a boil]1 #bid2 ,boil]s ( locomotive eng9es1 #cea2 ,con/ruction ( ! boil] ( ,gurney's /eam c>riage1 #dbc2 ,all boil]s require occasional cleans+1 #dbg2 ,gurney's me?od ( remov+ cru/ ( deposit$ matt] 9 boil]s1 #dbg2 ,! boil] ( ,dr4 ,*ur*'s eng9e =m$ ( copp]1 #dci2 ,boil]s 9 m>9e eng9es1 #ddi2 ,effects ( sea-wat] 91 #dej2 ,rem$ies = !m1 #dea2 ,sub/itution ( copp] = iron1 #dfj2 ,exp$i5t ( coat+ boil]s ) felt1 appli$ by ,watt1 #dfc4 ,boo?1 ,mr41 8 report on locomotive eng9es1 #cfa4 ,b\lton & ,watt's exp]im5ts on ! horse p[] ( eng9es1 #bhh4 ,branca1 ,giovanni1 8 ma*9e = propell+ a :eel by a bla/ ( /eam1 #bb4 ,br9dley 7,james7 obta9s a pat5t = improvem5ts 9 atmosph]ic eng9e1 #gf2 ,und]took to erect an eng9e at ,newca/le-"u-,lyne1 #gf2 ,disc\rag$ by ! ob/acles ?r[n 9 8 way1 #gf4 ,br\gham1 ,"l1 8 sket* ( ,watt's "*1 #cac2 ,inscription f ! p5 (1 on ,watt's monum5t 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey1 #cbj4 ,buff]s1 #djd4 ,c>twright's eng9e to use ! vap\r ( alcohol to "w ! pi/on1 #bde2 ,8 pi/on1 #bdg4 ,cawley & ,newcom5 obta9 a pat5t = ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 #fd4 ,*ampion applies atmosph]ic eng9e to raise wat]1 #aha4 ,*apman1 ,messrs41 _! locomotive eng9e1 #ccg4 ,*lor9e introduc$ 9 blea*+ by ,watt1 #caj4 ,*ur*1 ,dr41 8 /eam eng9e1 #dci2 ,! boil] =m$ ( copp]1 #dci4 ,coals1 ! virtues & p[]s :i* /eam has conf]r$ ^u1 #f2 ,! am\nt ( lab\r a bu%el ( p]=ms by means ( ! /eam eng9e1 comp>$ ) horse p[]1 #g2 ,con/itu5ts (1 #beb2 ,process ( combu/ion1 #beb4 ,coal m9es1 appreh5sions z to ! possibility ( ! exhau/ion ( gr\ndless1 #h4 ,cocks1 friction on1 #bdj4 ,cocks & valves1 #bbg4 ,combu/ion ( gas 9 flues1 #bfj4 ,cond5sation by injection1 accid5tal discov]y (1 #fi4 ,cond5sation 9 ! cyl9d] incompatible ) a due economy ( fuel1 #abj4 ,cond5s+ pr9ciple1 circum/ance :i* l$ to ,sav]y's discov]y (1 #dg4 ,cond5s+ pipe 9 ,sav]y's eng9e1 #eb4 ,cond5s+ out ( ! cyl9d]1 #abj4 ,cond5s+ jet1 #aia4 ,conical /eam valves1 #bbh4 ,conv]sion ( ice into wat]1 #ajc2 ,( wat] into /eam1 #aje4 ,copy+ press inv5t$ by ,watt1 #cjb4 ,corni% sy/em ( inspection1 #big4 ,corni% eng9es1 improvem5t (1 #bih2 ,hi/orical detail ( ! duty (1 #bii4 ,cyl9d]s1 ,wilk9son's ma*9e = accurately bor+ ! insides (1 #adi4 ,d valve1 #bcj4 ,dalton & ,gay-,lussac1 law (1 relat+ to ! pressure ( ela/ic bodies1 #aga4 ,dixon1 ,mr4 ,! sub/itution ( brass = copp] tubes 9 locomotive eng9es ascrib$ to him1 #cgj4 ,d\ble clack-valve1 #bbh4 ,ecc5tric1 #bbe2 ,two exp$i5ts to rev]se ! position (1 #cgi4 ,effect ( an eng9e1 #bhe4 ,ela/ic fluids4 ,! law accord+ to :i* ! pressure (1 increases ) _! temp]ature1 discov]$ by ,dalton & ,gay-,lussac1 #aga4 ,evaporation ( wat] & o!r liquids1 physical & me*anical pr9ciples connect$ )1 #ig4 ,expansion ( common /eam1 effects (1 #agc4 ,expansive action ( /eam1 #aei2 ,/at$ by ,watt 9 a lett] to ,dr4 ,small1 #aeg2 ,its pr9ciple expla9$1 #aeh2 ,me*anical effect result+ f x1 #afa2 ,comput$ effect ( cutt+ (f /eam at diff]5t portions ( ! /roke1 #afb2 ,involves ! condition ( a v>iation 9 ! int5sity ( ! mov+ p[]1 #afc2 ,exp$i5ts = equalis+ ! p[]1 #afd2 ,! expansive pr9ciple 9 ! eng9es con/ruct$ by ,b\lton & ,watt1 limit$1 #afe2 ,its m ext5sive application 9 ! ,corni% eng9es1 #afe2 ,me?ods ( equalis+1 #agd2 ,description ( ,hornbl[]'s eng9e = ?is purpose1 #agd4 ,expansive pr9ciple1 application ( 9 m>9e eng9es1 #dff4 ,f>ey on ! /eam eng9e1 quotation f1 relative to ,sav]y's eng9e1 #eh2 ,8 evid5ce be=e ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 #dce4 ,field1 con/ruction ( 8 split paddle1 #dgh4 ,fit* & ,rumsey1 _! attempts to apply ! s+le-act+ eng9e to ! propulsion ( vessels1 #dhi4 ,flues1 position (1 #bfd4 ,fluids1 ( two k9ds1 #be2 ,me*anical prop]ties (1 #be2 ,ela/ic1 #bg2 ,exp]im5tal pro( t !y press equally 9 all directions1 #da4 ,fly-:eel1 #bje4 ,f\r-way cock1 #bci2 ,disadvantages (1 #bdj4 ,fuel1 means ( economis+1 9 m>9e furnaces1 #dfc4 ,fulton & ,liv+/one1 _! exp]im5ts 9 /eam navigation1 #dhi4 ,fulton's fir/ boat1 #dij4 ,furnace1 self-regulat+1 inv5t$ by ,brunton1 #bhc4 ,fusible plugs us$ 9 high-pressure boil]s1 #bhj4 ,gall[ay1 8 paddle-:eel describ$1 #dgf4 ,gas1 ela/icity (1 #bh4 ,gay-,lussac & ,dalton1 law (1 relat+ to ! pressure ( ela/ic bodies1 #aga4 ,gov]nor1 adaptation (1 #bji4 ,gradi5ts1 re/rictions on1 #daa2 ,disposition (1 %\ld be uni=m1 #dae4 ,great ,we/]n ,railway1 ,dr4 ,l>dn]'s exp]im5ts on1 #djh4 ,griff1 proposals to dra9 a colli]y at1 m5tion$ by ,desaguli]s1 #fd4 ,gurney's /eam c>riage1 #dbc2 ,con/ruction ( ! boil] (1 #dbc2 ,8 me?od ( remov+ cru/ ( deposit$ matt] 9 boil]s1 #dbg2 ,8 exp]im5ts on common roads1 #dcb4 ,hall1 8 cond5s]s describ$1 #deh4 ,hancock1 8 /eam c>riage1 #dcf2 ,9 :at mann] x diff]s f t ( ,gurney1 #dcg4 ,h>ris1 ,dr41 m5tions ,sav]y's eng9e 9 8 ,lexicon ,te*nicum1 #ef4 ,heat1 effects ( ^u wat]1 #bi2 ,wa/e ( 9 atmosph]ic eng9e1 #hi2 ,an exam9ation ( ! analog\s effects produc$ by ! cont9u$ application (1 to wat] 9 ! liquid /ate1 #ajb2 ,radiation (1 #bed4 ,heat+ by /eam br\ght =w>d by ,watt1 #cjc4 ,hecla1 exp]im5ts ) !1 #dab4 ,h]o ( ,alex&ria1 description ( 8 ma*9e1 #ab4 ,high pressure eng9es describ$1 #cba2 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ =ms ( ! /eam eng9e1 #cbb2 ,obscurely describ$ 9 ! ,c5tury ( ,inv5tions1 #cbb2 ,con/ruction ( ! fir/1 by ,messrs4 ,treve?ick & ,vivian1 #cbd4 ,hooke exposes ! fallacy ( ,pap9's project1 #fd4 ,horse c>riages comp>$ ) /eam1 #dce4 ,horse p[] ( /eam eng9es1 #bhh2 ,smeaton's e/imation (1 #bhh2 ,b\lton & ,watt's exp]im5ts on1 #bhh4 ,h[>d's description ( 8 m>9e eng9e1 #dfd4 ,hudson1 !1 navigat$ by /eam1 #dia4 ,hull1 ,jona?an1 8 application ( ! /eam eng9e to wat] :eels1 #ahj4 ,humphrey4 ,8 m>9e eng9e describ$1 #dgj4 ,huskisson1 ,mr41 dea? (1 #cbi4 ,hydrog51 #bec4 ,india1 /eam navigation to1 #dhc4 ,indicator inv5t$ by ,watt1 #bgd4 ,jeffrey1 ,"l2 8 sket* ( ! "* ( ,watt1 #cae4 ,k9neal1 description ( ,watt's exp]im5tal eng9e at1 #aca4 ,lake /eam]s1 #dii4 ,l>dn]'s1 ,dr41 exp]im5ts on ! ,man*e/] ,railway 9 #ahcb1 #ceg2 ,8 exp]im5ts 9 #ahch1 #djf2 ,exp]im5ts on ! ,great ,we/]n ,railway1 #djh4 ,leupold's eng9e1 description (1 #cbc4 ,level gauges1 #bff4 ,l951 ma*9e = dry+ by /eam1 inv5t$ by ,watt1 #cjc4 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] railroad1 effects ( ! introduction ( /eam transport on1 #cbi2 ,want ( exp]i5ce 9 ! con/ruction ( ! eng9es1 #cbi2 ,dea? ( ,mr4 ,huskisson1 #cbi2 ,proce$+s ( ! directors1 #cdb2 ,premium (f]$ by !m = ! be/ eng9e1 #cdd2 ,exp]im5tal trial1 #cdd4 ,liv+/one & ,fulton1 exp]im5ts ( 9 /eam navigation1 #dhi4 ,locomotive eng9e1 hi/ory (1 #cbh2 ,bl9k5sop's eng9e1 #ccg2 ,*apman's eng9e1 #ccg2 ,walk+ eng9e1 #ccg2 ,mr4 ,/eph5son's eng9e at ,kill+wor?1 #cci2 ,defect (1 #cda2 ,description ( ! ,rocket1 #cde2 ,! ,sansp>eil1 #cdg2 ,! ,novelty1 #cdi2 ,sup]iority ( ! ,rocket1 #cej2 ,subsequ5t improvem5ts 9 ! locomotive eng9e1 #ceb2 ,table1 %[+ ! economy ( fuel ga9$ by subdivid+ ! flue into tubes1 #ced2 ,eng9es con/ruct$ 9 ! =m ( ! ,rocket subject to two pr9cipal defects1 #ced2 ,^! defects rem$i$1 #cee2 ,improv$ by ! adoption ( a m contract$ bla/ pipe1 #cef2 ,dr4 ,l>dn]'s exp]im5ts 9 #ahcb1 #ceg2 ,adoption ( brass tubes1 #cfa2 ,mr4 ,boo?'s report1 #cfa2 ,detail$ description ( ! mo/ improv$ locomotive eng9es1 #cfd2 ,sub/itution ( brass = copp] tubes ascrib$ to ,mr4 ,dixon1 #cgj2 ,mr4 ,/eph5son con/ruct$ ! driv+ :eels )\t flanges1 #chc2 ,pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil] limit$ by two safety- valves1 #djb2 ,buff]s1 #djd2 ,/eam :i/le1 #djd2 ,wat] tank1 #djd2 ,p[] ( locomotive eng9es1 #dje2 ,evaporation ( boil]s1 #djf2 ,dr4 ,l>dn]'s exp]im5ts 9 #ahch1 #djf2 ,resi/ance to railway tra9s1 #djg2 ,dr4 ,l>dn]'s exp]im5ts on ! ,great ,we/]n ,railway1 #djh2 ,re/riction on gradi5ts1 #daa2 ,exp]im5t ) ! ,hecla1 #dab2 ,disposition ( gradi5ts %\ld be uni=m1 #dae2 ,me?od ( surm\nt+ /eep incl9ations1 #dae2 ,/eam c>riages on common roads1 #dai2 ,diff]5ce betwe5 /eam eng9es on railways & ^? us$ to propel c>riages on turnpike roads1 #dbb2 ,gurney's /eam c>riage1 #dbc2 ,con/ruction ( ! boil] (1 #dbc2 ,escape ( /eam f ! eng9es on ! ,liv]pool road1 #dbh2 ,bl[+-box1 #dbi2 ,sep>ator1 #dcj2 ,difficulties 9 ! practical work+ ( /eam c>riages ^u common roads1 #dcb2 ,gurney's exp]im5ts on common roads1 #dcb2 ,prejudice aga9/ locomotive eng9es on common roads1 #dcb2 ,n m de/ructive to roads ?an c>riages drawn by horses1 #dcc2 ,report ( ! committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 #dcc2 ,weight ( /eam c>riages1 #dcc2 ,two me?ods ( apply+ locomotives ^u common roads1 #dcd2 ,horse c>riages comp>$ )1 #dce2 ,f>ey's evid5ce be=e ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 #dce2 ,risk ( accid5t f explosion extremely slight1 #dce2 ,hancock's /eam c>riage1 #dcf2 ,9 :at mann] x diff]s f t ( ,gurney1 #dcg2 ,ogle's /eam c>riage1 #dch2 ,8 evid5ce be=e ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 #dci2 ,dr4 ,*ur*'s /eam eng9e1 #dci2 ,! boil] ( =m$ ( copp]1 #dci4 ,lun> ,society1 ,b\lton & ,watt lead+ memb]s 91 #cjb4 ,m>9e eng9es1 =m & arrangem5t (1 #dda2 ,diff]5ce betwe5 m>9e & l& eng9es1 #ddc2 ,eng9e-room1 arrangem5t (1 #ddf2 ,boil]s 91 #ddi2 ,effects ( sea-wat] on boil]s1 #dej2 ,rem$ies = !m1 #dea2 ,bl[-(f cocks1 #deb2 ,indicators ( saltness1 #deb2 ,seaw>d's indicator1 #ded2 ,8 me?od ( bl[+ out1 #ded2 ,me?od ( ,maudslay & ,field to pres]ve fre%ness ( wat] 9 ! boil]1 #def2 ,br9e pumps1 #deg2 ,tubul> cond5s]s appli$ by ,mr4 ,watt1 #deg2 ,hall's cond5s]s1 #deh2 ,sub/itution ( copp] = iron boil]s1 #dfa2 ,process ( /ok+1 #dfb2 ,m>9e furnaces1 #dfc2 ,exp$i5t ( coat+ boil]s ) felt appli$ by ,watt1 #dfc2 ,means ( economis+ fuel1 #dfc2 ,description ( ,h[>d's eng9e1 #dfd2 ,application ( ! expansive pr9ciple 9 m>9e eng9es1 #dff2 ,rec5t improvem5ts ( ,messrs4 ,maudslay & ,field1 #dfg2 ,humphrey's eng9e1 #dgj2 ,common paddle-:eel1 #dgb2 ,defect (1 #dgd2 ,fea!r+ paddles1 #dgd2 ,gall[ay's paddle-:eel1 #dgf2 ,field's split paddle1 #dgh2 ,proportion ( p[] to tonnage1 #dhj2 ,iron /eam vessels1 #dhb4 ,m>iotte's law relat+ to pressure1 #aga4 ,maudslay & ,field1 _! me?od to pres]ve ! requisite fre%ness ( wat] 9 ! boil]1 #def2 ,br9e pumps1 #deg2 ,rec5t improvem5ts ( 9 m>9e eng9es1 #dff4 ,metallic pi/ons1 #bdd2 ,c>twright's eng9e1 #bde2 ,an improv$ =m giv5 to by ,b>ton1 #bdh4 ,mill "w1 ,/ew>t's application ( ! /eam eng9e to1 #ahb4 ,m9es1 ! dra9age (1 ,watt endeav\rs to br+ to p]fection ! application ( ! /eam eng9e to1 #agh4 ,mississippi & its tribut>ies1 #dii2 ,/eam-boats on1 #ejj2 ,_! /ructure & ma*9]y1 #ejj4 ,morl&1 ,sir ,samuel1 8 application ( /eam to raise wat]1 #cd2 ,! reput$ inv5tor ( sev]al +5i\s contrivances1 #cd2 ,8 "w 9 ,fr5* ^u ! rais+ ( wat]1 #ce2 ,extract f x1 #ce2 ,evelyn's acc\nt ( 8 visit to1 #cf4 ,murray's slide-valve1 #bbi4 ,newcom51 ,?omas1 ! reput$ inv5tor ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 #fb2 ,8 acqua9tance ) ,dr4 ,hooke1 #fb2 ,acqua9t$ ) ,pap9's writ+s1 #fd2 ,! m]its ( 8 eng9e ascrib$ pr9cipally to its me*anism & comb9ations1 #gc2 ,obta9s ) ,cawley a pat5t = ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 #fd2 ,resumes ! old me?od ( rais+ wat] f m9es by ord9>y pumps1 #fe2 ,! means propos$ to effect ?is1 #ff2 ,fir/ conception ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 #ff2 ,description ( 8 con/ruction ( atmosph]ic eng9e1 #fg2 ,sugge/ion ( a bett] me?od ( cond5sation ?an ! application ( cold wat] on ! ext]nal surfaces ( ! cyl9d]1 #fi2 ,he ab&ons ! ext]nal cyl9d]1 #fi2 ,appli$ ! work+-beam1 cyl9d]1 & pi/on to ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 #cbb4 ,new ,orleans ,h>b\r1 #ejc4 ,novelty1 description ( !1 a locomotive eng9e1 #cdi4 ,ogle1 8 /eam c>riage1 #dch2 ,8 evid5ce be=e ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 #dci4 ,otto ,gu]icke1 8 sugge/ion relative to atmosph]ic pressure1 #gc4 ,oxley made ! fir/ attempt to drive wat]-:eels by ! /eam eng9e1 #ahb4 ,paddle-:eel describ$1 #dgb2 ,defect (1 #dgd2 ,fea!r+ paddles1 #dgd2 ,gall[ay's paddle-:eel1 #dgf2 ,field's split paddle1 #dgh4 ,paddle-:eels ( ,am]ican /eam]s1 #die4 ,pap91 ,d5is1 conceiv$ ! idea ( r5d]+ atmosph]ic pressure available z a me*anical ag5t1 #cg2 ,description ( 8 contrivance1 #cg2 ,8 discov]y ( cond5sation ( /eam1 #de2 ,quotation f 8 "w relative to ?is discov]y1 #de2 ,explanation ( ?is important discov]y1 #df2 ,discov]s ! me?od ( produc+ a vacuum by ! cond5sation ( /eam1 #agh2 ,8 project$ applications ( ! /eam eng9e1 #agh2 ,8 proposition = ! con/ruction ( an eng9e work+ by atmosph]ic pressure1 #fb2 ,ab&ons ! project :5 in=m$ ( ! pr9ciple & /ructure ( ,sav]y's eng9e1 #fb2 ,8 eng9e describ$1 #fb2 ,?is project no?+ m ?an a reproduction ( ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]'s eng9e1 #fc2 ,! fallacy ( 8 project expos$ by ,hooke1 #fd2 ,8 project = produc+ a vacuum "u a pi/on by cond5s+ ! /eam1 publi%$ 9 ! ,act ,eruditorum1 #fd4 ,p>allel motion1 #aie4 ,physical sci5ce1 ! rapid progress (1 #h4 ,pi/ons1 #bdb2 ,! common hemp-pack$1 #bdb2 ,woolf's me?od ( tight5+ ! pack+ (1 )\t remov+ ! lid ( ! cyl9d]1 #bdd2 ,?is me?od fur!r simplifi$1 #bdd2 ,metallic1 #bdd2 ,c>twright's eng9e1 #bde2 ,c>twright's pi/on1 #bdg2 ,inv5tion ( ! indicator by ,watt to measure ! mean effici5t =ce (1 #bgd4 ,pi/on rod & beam1 me?ods ( connect+ 9 ! d\ble- act+ eng9e1 #aic4 ,pneumatic in/itution at ,clifton1 ,watt "o ( ! f\nd]s (1 #caj4 ,pott]1 ,humphrey1 8 contrivance = work+ ! valves1 #ga2 ,improv$ by ! sub/itution ( a plug-frame1 #gb4 ,p[]1 proportion (1 to tonnage 9 m>9e eng9es1 #dhj4 ,p[] & duty ( /eam eng9es1 #bhg4 ,prie/ley1 ,watt's lett] to1 relative to ! composition ( wat]1 #cjg4 ,pump1 an illu/ration ( =ce atta9$ by a vacuum1 #dc4 ,puppet clacks1 or button valves1 #add4 ,rack & ,sector1 #aid4 ,railways1 spe$ ( coa*es on1 comp>$ ) t ( /age- coa*es on a common road1 #g4 ,railway transport1 effects (1 #cbh4 #ccj4 ,railways & /one roads comp>$1 #dbj4 ,riv] navigation1 ext5sion & improvem5t (1 #dib4 ,rocket1 description ( !1 a locomotive eng9e1 #cde2 ,eng9es con/ruct$ 9 ! =m (1 subject to two pr9cipal defects1 #ced2 ,^! defects rem$i$1 #cee2 ,improv$ by ! adoption ( a m contract$ bla/-pipe1 #cef4 ,roebuck1 ,dr41 ,watt's p>tn]%ip )1 #acj4 ,rotatory motion1 me?od ( produc+ by sun & planet :eels1 #ahg4 ,safety-valve n adopt$ by ,sav]y1 #eg2 ,inv5t$ by ,pap91 #eg2 ,description (1 #eg2 ,fir/ appli$ to ,sav]y's eng9e by ,desaguli]s1 #eh4 ,sansp>eil1 description ( !1 a locomotive eng9e1 #cdg4 ,sav]y1 ,?omas1 obta9s a pat5t = an eng9e to raise wat]1 #dg2 ,circum/ance :i* l$ to 8 discov]y ( ! cond5s+ pr9ciple1 #dg2 ,an acc\nt ( 8 eng9e1 #di2 ,description ( ! work+ app>atus 9 :i* ! /eam is us$ z a mov+ p[]1 #ea2 ,8 eng9e describ$ 9 a "w entitl$ ,! ,m9]'s ,fri5d1 #ef2 ,m5tion$ by ,dr4 ,h>rison 9 8 ,lexicon ,te*nicum1 #ef2 ,quotation f 8 address to ! ,royal ,society1 #ef2 ,quotation f 8 address to ! ,m9]s ( ,engl&1 #eg2 ,m5tion$ by ,bradley 9 8 ,improvem5ts ( ,plant+ & ,g>d5+1 #eg2 ,! safety-valve n adopt$ by him1 #eg2 ,! safety-valve fir/ appli$ to 8 eng9e by ,desaguli]s1 #eh2 ,f>ey on ! /eam eng9e quot$1 #eh2 ,fur!r ,improvem5ts made by ,desaguli]s1 #eh2 ,defects ( 8 eng9e1 #ei2 ,8 eng9e appli$ to ! dra9age ( m9es1 #ei2 ,fur!r defects (1 #fj2 ,! fir/ to sugge/ ! me?od ( express+ ! p[] ( an eng9e ) ref]5ce to t ( horses1 #fa2 ,failure ( 8 eng9e 9 ! "w ( dra9age1 #fa2 ,! t5d5cy ( high pressure to weak5 & gradually de/roy ! vessels1 #gb2 ,! p[] ( 8 eng9es re/rict$1 #gc2 ,! atmosph]ic eng9e sup]ior to1 #gc2 ,! boil]1 guage-pipes1 & regulator borr[$ f 8 eng9e1 #gc2 ,proposes to apply 8 eng9e z a prime mov] = all sorts ( ma*9]y1 #ahj4 ,scott1 ,sir ,walt]1 8 sket* ( ! "* ( ,watt1 #cad4 ,sculpture1 ,watt's inv5tion ( ma*9e = copy+1 #cah4 ,sea-go+ ,am]ican /eam]s1 #dif4 ,sea-wat]1 effects ( ^u boil]s1 #dej4 ,seaw>d's slides1 #bce2 ,indicator ( saltness1 #ded2 ,8 me?od ( bl[+ out1 #ded4 ,self-regulat+ damp]1 #bha2 ,furnace1 #bhc4 ,sep>ator1 #dcj4 ,s+le-act+ eng9e1 description ( ,watt's1 #acc4 #add4 ,s+le clack-valve1 #bbg4 ,s+le cock1 #bch4 ,slide-valves1 #bbi2 ,t contriv$ by ,mr4 ,murray1 #bbi4 ,smeaton1 ,john1 inve/igates ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 #gf2 ,applies himself to ! improvem5t ( w9d & wat] mills1 #aha2 ,8 e/imate ( ! horse p[] ( eng9es1 #bhh4 ,solomon ,de ,caus1 description ( ! app>atus (1 #ag2 ,m4 ,arago claims = him a %>e ( ! hon\r ( ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e1 #ba2 ,republi%$1 ) additions1 ! "w ( ,isaac ,de ,caus1 #bb4 ,som]set1 ,edw>d1 ,m>quis ( ,worce/]4 ,inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e ascrib$ to him1 #bc2 ,description ( 8 contrivance1 #bc2 ,8 ,c5tury ( ,inv5tions1 #bd2 ,brief acc\nt ( 8 eng9e describ$ 9 ?is "w1 #ca2 ,8 contrivance comp>$ ) t ( ,de ,caus1 #cc2 ,_m ( 8 inv5tions h be5 reproduc$ & br\ght into g5]al use1 #cd4 ,/eam _c be appli$ imm$iately to any useful purpose1 b requires ! int]position ( me*anism1 #aa2 ,ela/ic =ce (1 recognis$ by ! anci5ts only 9 vague & g5]al t]ms1 #ad2 ,! p[] (1 =m]ly made to m9i/] to ! objects ( sup]/ition1 m5tion$ by ,arago1 #ae2 ,anecdote %[+ ! k :i* ! anci5ts _h ( ! me*anical =ce (1 #ae2 ,! discov]y ( ! cond5sation (1 by ,pap91 #de2 ,me*anical p[] obta9$ f ! direct pressure ( ! ela/ic =ce (1 sugge/$ by ,de ,caus & ,"l ,worce/]1 #gc2 ,lat5t heat (1 #ajg2 ,! me*anical =ce ( consid]$1 #aae2 ,watt's e>ly exp]im5ts on1 #hg2 ,discov]y ( ! expansive action (1 #aeg2 ,expansive action ( /at$ by ,watt 9 a lett] to ,dr4 ,small1 #aeg2 ,its pr9ciple expla9$1 #aeh2 ,me*anical effect result+ f x1 #afa2 ,prop]ties (1 #afh2 ,common & sup]-heat$ /eam1 #afh2 ,pressure & temp]ature (1 #aga2 ,relation betwe5 ! temp]atures ( common /eam & its pressure & d5sity1 #agb2 ,effects ( ! expansion ( common /eam1 #agc2 ,me*anical effects (1 #agc2 ,me?ods ( equalis+ ! v>y+ =ce ( exp&+ /eam1 #agd2 ,me?od ( produc+ a vacuum by ! cond5sation (1 discov]$ by ,pap91 #agh2 ,appli$ to move ma*9]y1 #agi2 ,/eam guage1 #bgj2 ,heat+ by /eam br\ght =w>d by ,watt1 #cjc2 ,a ma*9e = dry+ l95 by1 inv5t$ by ,watt1 #cjc2 ,mode ( escape (1 f ! eng9es on ! ,liv]pool road1 #dbi4 ,/eam case or jacket1 inv5t$ by ,watt1 #abd4 ,/eam eng9e1 a subject ( popul> int]e/1 #c2 ,! effects :i* x has produc$ ^u ! well-be+ ( ! human race consid]$1 #d2 ,pres5ts peculi> claims ^u ! att5tion ( ! p ( ,great ,brita91 #e2 ,! exclusive (fspr+ ( ,briti% g5ius1 #e2 ,! virtues & p[]s :i* x has conf]r$ ^u coals1 #f2 ,wat] ! means ( call+ ^! p[]s into activity1 #f2 ,us$ 9 ! dra9age ( ,corni% m9es1 #g2 ,comp>ison ( its p[] ) human lab\r1 #h2 ,inve/igation ( ! orig9 (1 #aj2 ,a comb9ation ( a great v>iety ( contrivances & ! production ( sev]al inv5tions1 #ab2 ,be=e ! discov]ies ( ,james ,watt 0 ( extremely limit$ p[]1 #ab2 ,inv5tion (1 ascrib$ to ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 #bc2 ,acc\nt ( ,sav]y's1 #di2 ,f>ey quot$1 #eh2 ,improvem5ts made by ,desaguli]s1 #eh2 ,appli$ to ! dra9age ( m9es1 #ei2 ,humphrey ,pott]'s contrivance1 #gb2 ,advantages ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e ov] t ( ,sav]y1 #gc2 ,progress ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 #ge2 ,description ( ,pap9's eng9e1 #fb2 ,smeaton's improvem5ts1 #gf2 ,fir/ exp]im5ts ( ,watt & subsequ5t improvem5ts1 #hc2 ,watt's exp]im5ts on ! =ce ( /eam at high pressure1 #hc2 ,watt discov]s ! great defects ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 #he2 ,wa/e ( heat 9 atmosph]ic eng9e1 #hi2 ,dr4 ,black's !ory ( lat5t heat1 #ic2 ,description ( ,watt's exp]im5tal eng9e at ,k9neal1 #aca2 ,description ( 8 s+le-act+ eng9e1 #acc2 ,disadvantages ( ! atmosph]ic comp>$ ) ! old eng9e1 #aej2 ,exp$i5ts to =ce ! atmosph]ic eng9es into use1 #aeb2 ,watt's ex]tions to improve ! manufacture (1 at ,soho1 #aee2 ,effici5cy ( fuel 9 ! new eng9es1 #aef2 ,hornbl[]'s eng9e1 #age2 ,woolf's eng9e1 #agf2 ,watt endeav\rs to br+ to p]fection ! application (1 to ! dra9age ( m9es1 #agh2 ,pap9's project$ application (1 #agh2 ,sav]y propos$ to apply 8 /eam eng9e z a prime mov] = all sorts ( ma*9]y1 #ahj2 ,jona?an ,hull's application (1 to wat]-:eels1 #ahj2 ,/eam eng9e us$ = driv+ wat] :eels1 #ahb2 ,fir/ attempt ( ?is k9d made by ,oxley1 #ahb2 ,/ew>t's application (1 to mill "w1 #ahb2 ,wasbr\gh's application ( ! fly-:eel & crank1 #ahc2 ,reasons :y ,watt's s+le-act+ eng9e 0 n adapt$ to produce cont9u\s uni=m motion ( rotation1 #ahd2 ,watt's second pat5t1 #ahf2 ,valves ( d\ble-act+ eng9e1 #ahi2 ,cond5s+ jet1 #aia2 ,me?ods ( connect+ ! pi/on-rod & beam 9 ! d\ble- act+ eng9e1 #aic2 ,rack & sector1 #aid2 ,p>allel motion1 #aie2 ,connect+ rod & crank1 #bjb2 ,fly-:eel1 #bje2 ,?rottle-valve1 #bjg2 ,adaptation ( ! gov]nor1 #bji2 ,d\ble-act+ eng9e consid]$ z a :ole1 #baf2 ,process ( its op]ation inve/igat$1 #bag2 ,! ecc5tric1 #bbe2 ,cocks & valves1 #bbg2 ,s+le clack-valve1 #bbg2 ,d\ble clack-valve1 #bbh2 ,conical /eam-valves1 #bbh2 ,slide-valves1 #bbi2 ,murray's slide-valve1 #bbi2 ,d valve1 #bcj2 ,seaw>d's slides1 #bce2 ,s+le cock1 #bch2 ,f\r-way cock1 #bci2 ,pi/ons1 #bdb2 ,gross effect & useful effect ( eng9es1 #bhe2 ,p[] & duty (1 #bhg2 ,horse p[] (1 #bhh2 ,! means :]eby me*anical p[] is exp5d$ 9 work+ ! eng9es enum]at$1 #bij2 ,common rules foll[$ by eng9e mak]s1 #bib2 ,duty ( eng9es1 #bid2 ,duty di/+ui%$ f p[]1 #bie2 ,proportion ( /roke to diamet] ( cyl9d]1 #bie2 ,corni% sy/em ( inspection1 #big2 ,improvem5t ( ! ,corni% eng9es1 #bih2 ,hi/orical detail ( ! duty ( ,corni% eng9es1 #bii2 ,high-pressure eng9es1 #cba2 ,leupold's eng9e describ$1 #cbc2 ,con/ruction ( ! fir/ high-pressure eng9e by ,messrs4 ,treve?ick & ,vivian1 #cbd2 ,fir/ application ( ! /eam eng9e to propel c>riages on railroads1 #cbh2 ,computation ( h[ mu* corn c\ld be sav$ by ! sub/itution ( /eam eng9es = horse p[]1 #ccb2 ,m>9e eng9es1 =m & arrangem5t (1 #dda2 ,diff]5ce betwe5 m>9e & l& eng9es1 #ddc2 ,mr4 ,h[>d's pat5t eng9e describ$1 #dfd2 ,humphrey's eng9e describ$1 #dgj4 ,/eam navigation to ,india1 #dhc2 ,fir/ e/abli%$ 9 ,am]ica1 #dhg2 ,circum/ances :i* l$ to x1 #dhh2 ,attempts ( ,fit* & ,rumsey to apply ! s+le-act+ eng9e to ! propulsion ( vessels1 #dhi2 ,/ev5s ( ,hobok5 comm5ces exp]im5ts 91 #dhi2 ,exp]im5ts ( ,liv+/one & ,fulton1 #dhi2 ,fulton's fir/ boat1 #dij2 ,! ,hudson navigat$ by /eam1 #dia2 ,ext5sion & improvem5t ( riv] navigation1 #dib2 ,am]ican /eam]s1 #did2 ,diff]5ce betwe5 !m & ,european /eam]s1 #did2 ,/eam]s on ! ,hudson1 #did2 ,sea-go+ ,am]ican /eam]s1 #dif2 ,spe$ atta9$ by ,am]ican /eam]s1 #dig2 ,lake /eam]s1 #dii2 ,/eam-boats on ! ,mississippi1 #ejj4 ,/eam tugs1 #ejc4 ,/eep incl9ations1 me?od ( surm\nt+1 #dae4 ,/eph5son1 8 locomotive eng9e at ,kill+wor?1 #cci2 ,defect (1 #cda2 ,con/ruct$ ! driv+ :eels )\t flanges1 #chc4 ,/ev5s1 ( ,hobok51 comm5ces exp]im5ts on /eam navigation1 #dhi4 ,/ew>t1 8 application ( ! /eam eng9e to mill "w1 #ahb4 ,/ok+1 process (1 #dfb4 ,/uff+-box1 contrivance (1 #adg4 ,sun & planet :eels1 me?od ( produc+ rotatory motion1 #ahg4 ,!rmomet]s1 ! process ( fill+ describ$1 #dd2 ,explanation ( ! pr9ciple (1 #ih2 ,con/ruction ( m]curial !rmomet]1 #ih2 ,me?od ( graduat+1 #ii4 ,!rmomet] gauge1 #bgj4 ,?rottle-valve1 description (1 #bjg4 ,tr$gold1 8 rem>k relative to ,newcom5's eng9e1 #gc4 ,treve?ick & ,vivian's eng9e describ$1 #cbe4 ,vacuum1 =ce obta9$ by a1 #dc2 ,! pump an illu/ration ( ?is1 #dc4 ,valves ( d\ble-act+ eng9e1 #ahi4 ,wasbr\gh1 8 application ( ! fly-:eel & crank1 #ahc4 ,wat]1 a p9t (1 ! me*anical =ce produc$ by its evaporation1 #f2 ,! alt]nate decomposition & recomposition (1 by magnetism & electricity1 analog\s to vaporisation & cond5sation1 #h2 ,! fix$ temp]ature :i* x assumes 9 boil+ subject to v>iation1 #ajh2 ,exp]im5ts to illu/rate ?is1 #aji2 ,table to %[ ! temp]ature at :i* x w boil "u diff]5t pressures ( ! atmosph]e1 #aac2 ,me*anical =ce ( a cubic in* (1 conv]t$ into /eam1 #aah2 ,discov]y ( ! composition (1 #cjc2 ,! m]it ( ?is discov]y %>$ betwe5 ,cav5di%1 ,lavoisi]1 & ,watt1 #cje2 ,lat5t heat (1 #aja2 ,conv]sion ( ice into1 #ajc4 ,wat] tank1 #djd4 ,wat]-:eels1 /eam eng9e us$ = turn+1 #ahb4 ,watt 7,james71 bir? (1 #gg2 ,8 infancy1 #gh2 ,anecdotes respect+1 #gh2 ,8 boyhood1 #gi2 ,goes to ,london1 #hj2 ,returns to ,glasg[1 #hj2 ,appo9t$ ma!matical in/rum5t-mak] to ! univ]sity1 #ha2 ,adam ,smi? "o ( 8 e>lie/ fri5ds & patrons1 #ha2 ,also ,black & ,rob]t ,simson1 #ha2 ,extract f an unpubli%$ manuscript ( ,robison respect+ ! "* (1 #hb2 ,8 fir/ exp]im5ts on /eam1 #hc2 ,obs]ves defects ( atmosph]ic eng9e1 #hd2 ,8 fir/ attempt to improve x1 by us+ a wood5 in/ead ( an iron cyl9d]1 #he2 ,8 me?od to asc]ta9 ! temp]atures at :i* wat] w\ld boil "u pressures less ?an t ( ! atmosph]e1 #hf2 ,8 e>ly exp]im5ts on /eam1 #hg2 ,8 notice ( ! wa/e ( heat 9 atmosph]ic eng9es1 #hi2 ,8 exp]im5ts to det]m9e ! ext5t to :i* wat] enl>g$ its volume :5 x pass$ into /eam1 #ij2 ,discov]s ! lat5t heat ( /eam1 #ia2 ,le>ns ! !ory ( lat5t heat1 #ic2 ,8 lett] to ,dr4 ,brew/]1 expla9+ ! circum/ances :i* l$ to ! error t a l>ge %>e ( ! m]it ( 8 discov]ies 7 due to ,black1 #ic2 ,f9ds t cond5sation 9 ! cyl9d] is incompatible ) a due economy ( fuel1 #abj2 ,conceives ! notion ( cond5s+ out ( ! cyl9d]1 #abj2 ,discov]s sep>ate cond5sation1 #aba2 ,inv5ts ! air-pump1 #abb2 ,sub/itutes /eam pressure = atmosph]ic pressure1 #abc2 ,inv5ts ! /eam case or jacket1 #abd2 ,8 fir/ exp]im5ts to realise ^! inv5tions1 #abe2 ,8 exp]im5tal app>atus1 #abf2 ,difficulties ( br++ ! improv$ eng9es into use1 #abh2 ,practises z a civil eng9e]1 #abi2 ,makes a survey ( ! riv] ,clyde1 #abi2 ,8 p>tn]%ip ) ,dr4 ,roebuck1 #acj2 ,8 fir/ pat5t1 #acj2 ,description ( 8 exp]im5tal eng9e at ,k9neal1 #aca2 ,removes to ,soho1 #aca2 ,ab/ract ( ! act ( p>liam5t = ! ext5sion ( 8 pat5t1 #acb2 ,description ( 8 s+le-act+ eng9e1 #acc-add2 ,8 cond5s] work$ by an injection1 #adf2 ,objections att5d+ cond5sation by surface1 #adf2 ,improvem5ts 9 con/ruction ( pi/on1 #adg2 ,effect$ by a contrivance call$ a /uff+-box1 #adg2 ,me?od ( pack+1 #adh2 ,improv$ me?ods ( bor+ ! cyl9d]1 #adi2 ,8 lett] to ,smeaton on ?is subject1 #adi2 ,us$ black-lead du/ = ! purpose ( lubrication1 #adi2 ,?is f\nd to we> ! cyl9d]1 #adi2 ,disadvantages ( ! atmosph]ic comp>$ ) ! old eng9es1 #aej2 ,greatly increas$ economy ( fuel1 #aea2 ,exp$i5ts to =ce ! atmosph]ic eng9es into use1 #aeb2 ,8 correspond5ce ) ,b\lton1 #aec2 ,8 correspond5ce ) ,smeaton1 #aed2 ,ex]tions to improve ! manufacture ( eng9es at ,soho1 #aee2 ,effici5cy ( fuel 9 ! new eng9es1 #aef2 ,endeav\rs to br+ to p]fection ! application ( ! /eam eng9e to ! dra9age ( m9es1 #agh2 ,! reasons :y 8 s+le-act+ eng9e 0 n adapt$ to produce cont9u\s uni=m motion ( rotation1 #ahd2 ,8 notes ^u ,dr4 ,robison's article on ! /eam eng9e1 #ahd2 ,8 second pat5t1 #ahf2 ,8 ?ird pat5t1 #ahi2 ,8 application ( ! fly-:eel1 #bje2 ,8 application ( ! ?rottle-valve1 #bjg2 ,8 adaptation ( ! gov]nor1 #bji2 ,8 d\ble-act+ eng9e consid]$ z a :ole1 #baf2 ,inve/igation ( ! process ( its op]ation1 #bag2 ,ecc5tric1 #bbe2 ,cocks & valves1 #bbg2 ,s+le clack-valve1 #bbg2 ,d\ble clack-valve1 #bbh2 ,conical /eam-valve1 #bbh2 ,slide-valves1 #bbi2 ,! waggon boil] adopt$ by him1 #bbe2 ,inv5ts ! indicator1 #bgd2 ,! c\nt] contriv$ by him1 #bgh2 ,! ,lun> ,society 9 :i* ,watt & ,b\lton 7 lead+ memb]s1 #cjb2 ,inv5ts ! copy+ press1 #cjb2 ,8 fri5ds & associates at ,birm+ham1 #cjb2 ,me?od ( heat+ by /eam br\ght =w>d by him1 #cjc2 ,8 inv5tion ( a ma*9e = dry+ l95 by /eam1 #cjc2 ,8 %>e 9 ! discov]y ( ! composition ( wat]1 #cjc2 ,8 lett] to ,prie/ley on ?is subject1 #cjg2 ,anecdote ( 8 inv5tive g5ius1 #cji2 ,introduces ! use ( *lor9e 9 blea*+1 #caj2 ,"o ( ! f\nd]s ( ! ,pneumatic in/itution at ,clifton1 #caj2 ,8 fir/ m>riage1 #caj2 ,private life (1 #caa2 ,dea? ( 8 fir/ wife1 #caa2 ,8 second m>riage1 #caa2 ,he retires f bus9ess1 #caa2 ,dea? ( 8 y\ng] son1 #caa2 ,extracts f 8 lett]s1 #cab2 ,8 dea?1 #cac2 ,"* (1 by ,"l ,br\gham1 #cac2 ,by ,sir ,walt] ,scott1 #cad2 ,by ,"l ,jeffrey1 #cae2 ,occupation ( 8 old age1 #cah2 ,inv5tion ( ma*9e = copy+ sculpture1 #cah2 ,8 la/ days1 #cah2 ,monum5ts1 #cai2 ,inscription on ! monum5t 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey f ! p5 ( ,"l ,br\gham1 #cai2 ,8 application ( tubul> cond5s]s1 #deg2 ,8 exp$i5t = coat+ boil]s ) felt1 #dfc4 ,wilk9son1 8 ma*9e = accurately bor+ ! insides ( cyl9d]s1 #adi4 ,williams's me?od ( consum+ ! unburn$ gases :i* escape f ! grate1 & are c>ri$ ?r\gh ! flues1 #bfj4 ,woolf's eng9e1 #agf2 ,woolf's pi/on1 #bdc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ri*mond ,,bridge4 ,,london3 ,pr9t$ by ,a4 ,,spottiswoode1 ,new-,/reet-,squ>e4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s endnote3 ,orig9al spell+ & gramm> has mo/ly be5 reta9$4 ,= example1 ! =ms ,cyclopo$ia1 cyclopdia1 ,encyclopdia1 ,encyclopo$ia1 guage1 & gauge are all reta9$4 ,figures 7 mov$ f )9 p>agraphs to betwe5 p>agraphs4 ,footnotes 7 re-index$ & mov$ to ! ends ( *apt]s4 ,an entry = ! ,,index 0 ins]t$ into ! ,table ( ,cont5ts4 ,9 ! ,table ( ,cont5ts1 *ang$ ,,mm4 ,dulong & ,arrago to ,,mm ,dulong & ,arago4 ,also ,bl9k9sop to ,bl9k5sop4 ,also ,wasbor\gh's to ,wasbr\gh's4 ,figs4 #d1 #e & #f are all 9 "o image4 ,two tubes 9 ,fig4 #d 7 incorrectly label$ ,t'2 "o ( ^! has be5 cross$ out & *ang$ to ,t4 ,bo? tubes 9 ,fig4 #f 7 incorrectly label$ ,g4 ,"o ( ^! 0 cross$ out & replac$ by ,g'4 ,note also t ,figs4 #d1 #e1 #f are repeat$ 9 ! text on diff]5t pages2 ?is feature has be5 reta9$4 ,page #aj3 x s already to x is already4 ,page #dc3 ,?u if heat *ang$ to ,?us if heat4 ,page #de3 _h a diamet] ( only "o squ>e foot *ang$ to _h a diamet] ( only "o foot4 ,page #dg3 imm$ate to imm$iate4 ,page #ea3 a a level to a level4 ,also1 comma remov$ f ,a gauge1 pipe is ins]t$4 ,page #ec3 proportionably to proportionally4 ,page #gi3 ,a p>agraph beg9n+ ,he 0 n f\rte5 conta9s ?ree d\ble quotation m>ks2 ?is is presumably an error4 ,possibly !re %\ld be two d\ble quotation m>ks & two s+le quotation m>ks4 ,page #hj3 ,s'4 ,graves&e is reta9$1 al?\gh ?is probably ref]s to a p]son kn[n z 's ,graves&e4 ,page #ajc3 gases n g5]al to gases 9 g5]al4 ,page #abb3 comma remov$ f process may1 be cont9u$4 ,page #abc3 two ?9 pipes ,f ,g ( t9 to two ?9 pipes ,f1 ,g ( t94 ,page #agb3 empyrical to empirical4 ,page #ahg1 ,fig4 #cb43 ,! text ref]s to end ,i ( ! connect+ rod1 b ?is 0 label$ ,l on ! ,figure4 ,?is ,l has be5 cross$ out & replac$ by ,i4 ,page #bhe3 ,9 surr\nd+ ! boil] ) iron-conduct+ sub/ances1 *ang$ iron- to non-4 ,page #cjh3 exeitem5t to excitem5t4 ,page #cfb3 acompli% to accompli%4 ,!re 7 sev]al ext5d$ quotations1 = example beg9n+ on page #cab1 9 :i* ea* l9e began ) a quotation m>k1 ) end+ quotation m>ks at ! end ( ea* p>agraph4 ,9 ?is edition1 ^! passages h be5 m>k$ by ind5tation1 & all b ! fir/ & la/ quotation m>ks f ea* p>agraph 7 remov$4 ,page #cff3 ,figs4 #ig-ajd appe>$ orig9ally betwe5 pages #che & #cii1 z full-page pr9ts4 ,num]ically1 h[ev]1 !y belong betwe5 ,figs4 #if & #aje--!re=e betwe5 pages #cff & #cfi4 ,!re=e1 !y h be5 mov$ to a location betwe5 two p>agraphs on page #cfg4 ,page #cfh3 rivett$ to rivet$4 ,page #dai3 ,,trevi!ck',s ,,inv5tion *ang$ to ,,treve?ick',s ,,inv5tion1 9 ! *apt] head+4 ,h[ev]1 ! ref]5ces to ,treve?ick occur 9 a previ\s *apt]1 ar\nd page #cbd4 ,page #dfh3 ,p]iod add$ to end s5t5ce 444 pi/on is at ! bottom ( its /roke4 ,page #dij3 ,p]iod add$ to end s5t5ce 444 !re=e "o eigh? ( its capacity4 ,pages #did1 #dig3 l>ge data tables 7 split into two pieces ea*4 ,page #eje3 ,! log>i?m orig9ally giv5 z log x #ahbcdjfhhaic1 :]e #a repres5ts a num]al "o ) a horizontal l9e ov] x1 is h]e9 *ang$ to log x #jhbcdjfhhaic - #a1 z t is ! mean+ ( ?is conv5tion4 ,page #eac =mul are hyb]bolic to =mul are hyp]bolic4 ,9 ! ,app5dix1 pp #eje-ebb1 ma!matical v>iables su* z a1 p1 t1 etc4 7 orig9ally italiciz$4 ,9 ^! text file v]sions1 italiciz$ v>iables h be5 remov$ f ?is section ( ! book4 ,?is rule has two un=tunate exceptions3 ,e1 ,e1 ,e'1 & ,e' on pp #eab-eae are diff]5t v>iables1 & h be5 reta9$4 ,italics h be5 remov$ f tables ?r\gh\t ! "w4 ,! tables on page #did & #dig 7 divid$ into two p>ts1 bett] to fit ! wid? con/ra9ts ( ?is =mat4 ,mo/ ( ! tables w n look good unless view$ ) a monospace font1 su* z ,c\ri] ,new or ,lucida ,console4