,,transcriber',s ,,note3 ,words that were printed in italics are marked with 4 ,printing and spelling errors have been corrected4 ,a list of these corrections can be found at the end of the document4 ,inconsistencies in spelling1 hyphenation and between the ,list of ,illustrations and the actual titles of ,plates have not been corrected4 ,,smithsonian ,,institution----,,bureau ,,of ,,ethnology4 ,,art ,,in ,,shell ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,americans4 ,,by ,,william ,h4 ,,holmes4 ,,contents4 ,page4 ,introductory #ahe ,implements and utensils #ahi ,unworked shells #ahi ,vessels #aib ,spoons #aih ,knives #bja ,celts #bjc ,scrapers #bje ,agricultural implements #bjg ,fishing appliances #bjg ,weapons #baj ,tweezers #baa ,ornaments #bac ,pins #bac ,beads #bai ,perforated shells #bai ,discoidal beads #bba ,massive beads #bbc ,tubular beads #bbf ,runtees #bbh ,beads as ornaments #bcj ,beads as currency #bcd ,mnemonic use of beads #bdj ,pendants #bee ,perforated plates #bfd ,engraved gorgets #bfg ,the cross #bfh ,the scalloped disk #bgc ,the bird #bhj ,the spider #bhf ,the serpent #bhi ,the human face #bic ,the human figure #big ,,illustrations4 ,page4 ,,plate ,,xxi4--,natural shells as vessels #aib ,,xxii4--,vessels artificially shaped #aid ,,xxiii4--,vessel with engraved surface #aif ,,xxiv4--,spoons #bjj ,,xxv4--,celts #bjd ,,xxvi4--,cutting and scraping implements #bjf ,,xxvii4--,weapons1 agricultural implements1 etc4 #bjh ,,xxviii4--,fishing appliances #baj ,,xxix4--,manufacture of pins and beads #bad ,,xxx4--,pins1 ,atlantic coast forms #baf ,,xxxi4--,pins1 ,pacific coast forms #bah ,,xxxii4--,beads1 perforated shells #bbj ,,xxxiii4--,beads1 discoidal in form #bbb ,,xxxiv4--,beads1 massive in form #bbd ,,xxxv4--,beads1 tubular in form #bbf ,,xxxvi4--,beads1 ,runtees #bbh ,,xxxvii4--,the wampum belt in treaties #bdj ,,xxxviii4--,wampum belts #bdb ,,xxxix4--,wampum belts #bdd ,,xl4--,wampum belt #bdf ,,xli4--,wampum belt #bdh ,,xlii4--,wampum belt #bej ,,xliii4--,the ,penn belt #beb ,,xliv4--,strings of wampum #bed ,,xlv4--,ancient pendant ornaments #bef ,,xlvi4--,plain pendants1 ,atlantic coast forms #beh ,,xlvii4--,plain pendants1 ,pacific coast forms #bfj ,,xlviii4--,plain pendants1 ,pacific coast forms #bfb ,,xlix4--,plain pendants1 ,pacific coast forms #bfd ,l4--,perforated plates #bff ,,li4--,engraved gorgets1 the cross #bfh ,,lii4--,engraved gorgets1 the cross #bgj ,,liii4--,engraved gorgets1 the cross #bgb ,,liv4--,engraved gorgets1 scalloped disks #bgd ,,lv4--,engraved gorgets1 scalloped disks #bgf ,,lvi4--,engraved gorgets1 scalloped disks #bgh ,,lvii4--,scalloped disks1 etc4 #bhj ,,lviii4--,engraved gorgets1 the bird1 etc4 #bhb ,,lix4--,engraved gorgets1 the bird1 etc4 #bhd ,,lx4--,engraved gorgets1 the bird #bhf ,,lxi4--,engraved gorgets1 the spider #bhh ,,lxii4--,engraved gorgets1 the rattlesnake #bij ,,lxiii4--,engraved gorgets1 the rattlesnake #bij ,,lxiv4--,engraved gorgets1 the rattlesnake #bib ,,lxv4--,engraved gorgets1 the rattlesnake #bib ,,lxvi4--,the serpent #bib ,,lxvii4--,engraved gorgets1 the human face #bid ,,lxviii4--,engraved gorgets1 the human face #bid ,,lxix4--,engraved gorgets1 the human face #bif ,,lxx4--,engraved gorgets1 the human face #bif ,,lxxi4--,engraved gorgets1 the human figure #bih ,,lxxii4--,engraved gorgets1 the human figure #bih ,,lxxiii4--,engraved gorgets1 the human figure #cjj ,,lxxiv4--,engraved gorgets1 the human figure #cjj ,,lxxv4--,engraved gorgets1 the human figure #cjb ,,lxxvi4--,the human figure #cjb ,,lxxvii4--,sculptured frogs #cjd ,,art ,,in ,,shell ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,americans4 ,,by ,,william ,h4 ,,holmes4 ,,introductory4 ,the student will find scattered throughout a wide range of archologic literature frequent but casual mention of works of art in shell4 ,individual uses of shell have been dwelt upon at considerable length by a few authors1 but up to this time no one has undertaken the task of bringing together in one view the works of primitive man in this material4 ,works of ancient peoples in stone1 clay1 and bronze1 in all countries1 have been pretty thoroughly studied1 described1 and illustrated4 ,stone would seem to have the widest range1 as it is employed with almost equal readiness in all the arts4 ,clay is widely used and takes a foremost place in works of utility and taste4 ,metals are too intractable to be readily employed by primitive peoples1 and until a high grade of culture is attained are but little used4 ,animal substances of compact character1 such as bone1 horn1 ivory1 and shell1 are also restricted in their use1 and the more destructible substances1 both animal and vegetable1 however extensively employed1 have comparatively little archologic importance4 ,all materials1 however1 are made subservient to man and in one way or another become the agents of culture2 under the magic influence of his genius they are moulded into new forms which remain after his disappearance as the only records of his existence4 ,each material1 in the form of convenient natural objects1 is applied to such uses as it is by nature best fitted1 and when artificial modifications are finally made1 they follow the suggestions of nature1 improvements being carried forward in lines harmonious with the initiatory steps of nature4 ,had the materials placed at the disposal of primitive peoples been as uniform as are their wants and capacities1 there would have been but little variation in the art products of the world2 but the utilization of a particular material in the natural state gives a strong bias to artificial products1 and its forms and functions impress themselves upon art products in other materials4 ,thus unusual resources engender unique arts and unique cultures4 ,such a result1 ,i apprehend1 has in a measure been achieved in ,north ,america4 ,in a broad region at one time occupied by the mound-building tribes we observe a peculiar and an original effort--an art distinctive in the material employed1 in the forms developed1 and to some extent in the ideas represented4 ,it is an age of shell1 a sort of supplement to the age of stone4 ,it is not my intention here to attempt at extended discussion of the bearings of this art upon the various interesting questions of anthropologic science1 but rather to present certain of its phases in the concrete1 to study the embodiment of the art of the ancient ,american in this one material1 and to present the results in a tangible manner1 not as a catalogue of objects1 but as an elementary part of the whole body of human art1 illustrating a particular phase of the evolution of culture4 ,this paper is to be regarded simply as an outline of the subject1 to be followed by a more exhaustive monograph of the art in shell of all the ancient ,american peoples4 ,art had its beginning when man first gathered clubs from the woods1 stones from the river bed1 and shells from the sea-shore for weapons and utensils4 ,in his hands these simple objects became modified by use into new forms1 or were intentionally altered to increase their convenience4 ,this was the infancy1 the inception of culture--a period from which a tedious but steady advance has been made until the remarkable achievements of the present have been reached4 ,rude clubs have become weapons of curious construction and machinery of marvelous complication1 and the pebbles and shells are the prototypes of numerous works in all materials4 ,rude rafts which served to cross primeval rivers have become huge ships1 and the original house of bark and leaves is represented by palaces and temples1 glittering with light and glowing with color4 ,the steps which led up to these results are by no means clear to us2 they have not been built in any one place or by any one people4 ,nations have risen and fallen1 and have given place to others that in turn have left a heap of ruins4 ,we find it impossible to trace back through the historic ages into and beyond the prehistoric shadows1 the pathway to culture followed by any one people4 ,the necessity for groping increases with every backward step1 and we pick up one by one the scattered links of a chain that has a thousand times been broken4 ,so far our information is meager and fragmentary1 and centuries of research will be required to round up our knowledge to such a fullness as to enable us to rehabilitate the ancient races1 a result to be reached only by an exhaustive comparative study of the art products of all peoples and of all ages4 ,by collecting the various relics of art in shell ,i shall be able to add a fragment to this great work4 ,destructible in their character these relics are seldom preserved from remote periods1 and it is only by reason of their inhumation with the dead that they appear among antiquities at all4 ,a majority of such objects1 taken from graves and tumuli1 known to post-date even the advent of the white race in ,north ,america1 are so far decayed that unless most carefully handled they crumble to powder4 ,it is impossible to demonstrate the great antiquity of any of these relics4 ,many of those obtained from the shell heaps of the ,atlantic coast are doubtless very ancient1 but we cannot say with certainty that they antedate the discovery more than a few hundred years4 ,specimens obtained from the mounds of the ,mississippi ,valley have the appearance of great antiquity1 but beyond the internal evidence of the specimens themselves we have no reliable data upon which to base an estimate of time4 ,the age of these relics is rendered still less certain by the presence of intrusive interments1 which place side by side works of very widely separated periods4 ,the antiquity of the relics themselves is not1 however1 of first importance2 the art ideas embodied in them have a much deeper interest4 ,the tablets upon which the designs are engraved may be never so recent1 yet the conceptions themselves have their origin far back in the forgotten ages4 ,deified ancestors and mythical creatures that were in the earlier stages rudely depicted on bark and skins and rocks were1 after a certain mastery over materials had been achieved1 engraved on tablets of flinty shell2 and it is probable that in these rare objects we have1 if not a full representation of the art of the ancient peoples1 at least a large number of their most important works1 in point of execution as well as of conception4 ,man in his most primitive condition must have resorted to the sea-shore for the food which it affords4 ,weapons or other appliances were not necessary in the capture of mollusks2 a stone to break the shell1 or one of the massive valves of the shells themselves1 sufficed for all purposes4 ,the shells of mollusks probably came into use as utensils at a very early date1 and mutually with products of the vegetable world afforded natural vessels for food and water4 ,for a long period the idea of modifying the form to increase the convenience may not have been suggested and the natural shells were used for whatever purpose they were best fitted4 ,in time1 however1 by accidental suggestions it would be found that modifications would enhance their usefulness1 and the breaking away of useless parts and the sharpening of edges and points would be resorted to4 ,farther on1 as it became necessary to carry them from point to point1 changes would be made for convenience of transportation4 ,perforations which occur naturally in some species of shell1 would be produced artificially1 and the shells would be strung on vines or cords and suspended about the neck2 in this way1 in time1 may have originated the custom of wearing pendants for personal ornament4 ,following this would be the transportation of such articles to distant places by wandering tribes1 exchanges would take place with other tribes1 and finally a trade would be developed and a future commerce of nations be inaugurated4 ,results similar to the foregoing would spring doubtless from the employment of substances other than shell1 but that material most closely associated with the acquisition of food would come first prominently into use4 ,the farther these useful articles were carried from the source of supply the greater the value that would attach to them1 and far inland the shell of the sea might easily become an object of unusual consideration4 ,having an origin more or less shrouded in mystery1 it would in time become doubly dear to the heart of the superstitious savage1 perhaps an object of actual veneration1 or at least one of such high esteem that it would be treasured by the living and buried with the dead4 ,the material so plentiful on the sea-shore that it was thought of only as it proved useful for vessels and implements1 became a valued treasure in the interior2 its functions were gradually enlarged and differentiated2 it was worked into varied shapes1 such as pendants for the ears1 beads for the neck1 pins for the hair1 and elaborate gorgets for the breast2 it served its turn as fetich and charm2 and was frequently used in the ceremonial jugglery of the mystic dance4 ,the slightest modification of these relics by the hand of man attracts our attention1 and from that infant stage of the art until the highest and most elaborate forms are reached they have the deepest interest to the student of human progress4 ,,implements ,,and ,,utensils4 ,,unworked ,,shells4 ,some writers have suggested that the ancient peoples of the interior districts must have held shells from the sea in especial esteem1 not only on account of their rarity1 but also by reason of some sacred properties that had1 from the mystery of their origin1 become attached to them4 ,it would appear1 however1 that shells were valued chiefly for their utility and beauty1 and that fresh water as well as marine varieties were constantly employed4 ,in their unworked state1 for their beauty alone1 they are treasured by peoples in all grades of culture1 from the savage up through the barbarian stages to the most civilized state4 ,as they are most conveniently shaped for utensils and implements1 they have been of great service in the arts1 and were thus of the greatest importance to primitive peoples4 ,it must not be supposed that the natural shells found in graves were always destined for use in an unworked state1 but they should doubtless in many cases be regarded as highly-valued raw material intended for use in the manufacture of articles of utility and taste1 in the tempering of potter's clay1 or in effecting exchanges with neighboring tribes4 ,as vessels for food and drink1 and as cups for paint1 many species are most conveniently shaped4 ,good examples may be found in the ,haliotis1 so plentiful on the ,pacific coast1 the ,helcioniscus of the ,pacific islands1 the ,pattelid of ,central and ,south ,america1 or the ,pecten of many seas4 ,in their natural state they have a twofold interest to us--as utensils they are the forerunners of many more elaborate forms that have been evolved in more advanced stages of culture1 and in their distribution they give us important insight into the commerce and migrations of their aboriginal owners4 ,pectens4--,the ,pectens are very widely distributed1 and on account of their beauty of form and color have been in great favor with all peoples4 ,they figure in the heraldic devices of the ,middle ,ages and in the symbolic paintings of the ancient ,mexicans4 ,they have been employed extensively by the ancient inhabitants of ,america as ornaments and rattles1 and many examples exhumed from graves1 mounds1 and refuse heaps appear to have been used as utensils1 cups for paint1 and vessels for food and drink4 ,they are especially plentiful in the cemeteries of the ancient ,californians1 from which ,schumacher and ,bowers have made excellent collections1 and specimens may be found in the great museums of the country4 ,a very good example of this shell 7,janira dentata7#a is shown in ,fig4 #c1 ,plate ,,xxi1 which represents a paint cup from ,santa ,barbara1 ,cal4 ,this cup is still partially filled with dark1 purplish1 indurated paint4 ,some were receptacles for asphaltum1 while others1 which are quite empty1 were employed probably for domestic purposes4 ,the species chiefly used on the ,atlantic coast are the ,pecten irradians and ,p4 concentricus4 ,on the ,pacific coast the ,pecten caurinus and ,p4 hastatus are employed by the ,makah and other ,indians for rattles1 and it is probable that some of the rudely perforated specimens found in our collections were intended for the same purpose4 ,clams4--,clams formed a very important part of the food of the ancient seaboard tribes1 and the emptied shells have been utilized in a great variety of ways4 ,the valves of many species are large and deep1 and are available for cups and dishes1 and as such are not scorned even by the modern clam-baker1 who1 like the ancient inhabitant1 makes periodical visits to the sea-shore to fish and feast4 ,they were also used as knives1 scrapers1 and hoes1 and in historic times have been extensively used in the manufacture of wampum4 ,the hard-shell clam1 ,venus mercenaria1 on account of the purplish color of portions of the valves1 has been most extensively used for this purpose4 ,a southern variety1 the ,mercenaria prparca1 is much larger and furnishes excellent dishes4 ,the soft-shell clam1 ,mya arenaria1 has been an important article of food1 but the valves are not serviceable in the arts4 ,the hen clam1 ,mactra ponderosa1 which has large handsome valves1 has also been used to some extent for utensils4 ,on the ,pacific coast the large clam1 ,pachydesma crassatelloides1 is known also to be similarly used4 ,unios4--,shells of the great family of the ,unios have always held an important place in the domestic and mechanical arts of the savages of ,north ,america4 ,their chalky remains are among the most plentiful relics of the mounds and other ancient burial-places1 and they come from kitchen middens and the more recent graves with all the pearly delicacy of the freshly emptied shell4 ,the valves of many varieties of these shells are well adapted to the use of man4 ,not large enough for food vessels1 they make most satisfactory spoons and cups1 and are frequently found to retain portions of the pigments left from the last toilet of the primeval warrior and destined for use in the spirit land4 ,it is probable1 however1 that they were much more frequently employed as knives and scrapers1 and as such have played their part in the barbaric feast of the primitive village1 or have assisted in the bloody work of scalp-taking and torture4 ,they are pretty generally distributed over the country1 and their occurrence in the mounds will probably have but little importance in the study of artificial distribution4 ,very little trouble has been taken by explorers and writers to identify the numerous species collected4 ,haliotis4--,the ,haliotis affords one of the best examples of the varied uses to which the natural shell has been applied by savage peoples4 ,recent explorations conducted by the government exploring parties in ,california have brought to the notice of archologists and the world the existence of a new field of research--the burial-places of the ancient tribes of the ,pacific coast4 ,many of the interments of this region are probably post-,columbian4 ,several species of this beautiful shell were used and are taken from the graves in great numbers1 the pearly lusters being almost perfectly preserved4 ,many were used as paint-cups1 and still retain dark pigments1 probably ochers2 one of these1 a fine example of the ,haliotis californianus1 is shown in ,fig4 #d1 ,plate ,,xxi4 ,some had contained food1 and in a few cases still retained the much-esteemed chia seed1 while in others were found asphaltum1 which was employed by these peoples in a variety of arts1 the rows of eyes in the ,haliotis usually being stopped with it1 and in one case1 as shown in a specimen in the ,national ,museum1 it has been used to deepen a cup by building up a rim around the edge of a shallow shell4 ,many others are quite empty1 and doubtless served as bowls1 dishes1 and spoons1 or were ready at hand for the manufacture of implements and ornaments4 ,buried with the dead1 they were designed to serve the purposes for which they were used in life4 ,this shell probably formed as important a factor in the commerce of these tribes as did the large conchs of the ,atlantic coast in that of the mound-builders and their neighbors4 ,in recent times they are known to have a high value attached to them1 and ,professor ,putnam states#b that a few years ago a horse could be had in exchange for a single shell of the ,haliotis rufescens4 ,this species is a great favorite toward the south1 and the ,haliotis ,kamschatkana1 which furnishes a dark greenish nacre1 is much used farther north4 ,the rougher and more homely oyster-shell has also enjoyed the favor of the mound-building tribes1 and has probably served many useful purposes1 such as would only be suggested to peoples unacquainted with the use of metal4 ,many species of the ,fissurella and ,dentalium shells were in common use1 advantage being taken of the natural perforations for stringing1 the latter being quite extensively used for money on the ,pacific slope4 ,in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,xxi1 a cut is given of a ,mytilus shell paint-cup from an ancient ,peruvian grave4 ,it is copied from ,plate #hc of the ,necropolis of ,ancon4#c ,it is represented as still containing red paint1 probably cinnabar4 ,a great variety of the larger univalve sea-shells were used in the unaltered state1 the ,busycons probably taking the most important place1 species of the ,strombus1 the ,cassis1 the ,nautilus and ,fasciolaria following in about the order named4 ,the ,busycon perversum has been more extensively used than any other shell1 and consequently its distribution in one form or other is very wide4 ,it is obtained along the ,atlantic and ,gulf coasts from ,massachusetts to ,mexico1 and within the ,united ,states it is artificially distributed over the greater part of the ,atlantic slope4 ,the uses to which this shell has been put by the ancient ,americans are so numerous and varied that ,i shall not attempt to enumerate them here4 ,they are1 however1 pretty thoroughly brought out in the subsequent pages of this paper4 ,from the employment of shells in their complete state their modification for convenience is but a slight step1 and when once suggested is easily accomplished--holes are bored1 handles are carved or added1 margins are ground down1 useless parts are broken away1 and surfaces are polished4 ,the columell are removed from the large univalves1 and the parts used for a great variety of purposes4 ,the mechanical devices employed have been very simple1 such as flint implements for cutting1 and rough stones for breaking and grinding4 ,hand-drills were at first used for perforating2 but later mechanically revolving drills were devised4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxi--,,shell ,,vessels4 #a4 ,from a plate in ,de ,bry4 #b4 ,from a ,peruvian grave4 #c4 ,pecten1 ,california grave4 7#a_/a7 #d4 ,haliotis1 ,california grave4 7#c_/d7 ,,vessels4 ,i shall not attempt to take up the various classes of objects in shell in the order of their development1 as it would be hard to say whether food utensils1 weapons1 or ornaments were first used4 ,it is also difficult to distinguish weapons proper from implements employed in the arts1 such as celts1 knives1 hammers1 etc41 as it is probable they were all variously used according to the needs of their possessors4 ,having briefly treated of natural vessels1 it seems convenient to go on with vessels shaped by art4 ,early explorers in many portions of the ,american continent record1 in their writing1 the use by the natives of shells of various kinds as vessels4 ,we have in this case historic evidence which bears directly upon prehistoric customs4 ,indeed1 it is not impossible that the very shells used by the natives first encountered by ,europeans1 are the identical ones exhumed so recently from burial places1 as many of the finer specimens of shell objects have associated with them articles of undoubted ,european manufacture4 ,a notice of the earliest recorded use of these objects naturally introduces the prehistoric use4 ,with many nations that were bountifully supplied with convenient earthen and stone vessels1 as well perhaps as others of the hard shells of fruits1 the sea-shell was nevertheless a favorite vessel for drinking4 ,herrera describes the use of silver1 gold1 shell1 and gourd cups at the banquets of the elegant monarch ,montezuma ,,ii1 who sometimes drank out of cocoas and natural shells richly set with jewels4 ,other authors make similar statements4 ,clavigero says that beautiful sea-shells or naturally formed vessels1 curiously varnished1 were used4 ,in many of the periodical feasts of the ,florida ,indians shells were in high favor1 and it is related how at a certain stage of one of the dances two men came in1 each bearing very large conch-shells full of black drink1 which was an infusion of the young leaves of the cassine 7probably ,ilex ,cassine1 ,l474 ,after prolonged ceremonies1 this drink was offered to the king1 to the whites present1 and then to the entire assembly4#d ,it is a remarkable fact that a similar custom has been noticed among the ,moquis of ,arizona4 ,lieutenant ,bourke witnessed the snake dance of that tribe a few years ago1 and states that in front of the altar containing the snakes was a covered earthen vessel1 which contained four large sea-shells and a liquid of some unknown composition1 of which the men who handled the snakes freely drank4 ,vessels thus associated with important ceremonial customs of savages would naturally be of first importance in their sepulchral rites4 ,de ,bry1 in the remarkable plates of his ,brevis ,narratio1 furnishes two instances of such use4 ,plate #ai shows a procession of nude females who scatter locks of their hair upon a row of graves1 on each of which has been placed a large univalve shell1 probably containing food or drink for the dead1 and in ,plate #dj we have another illustration of this custom1 the shell being placed on the heap of earth raised above the grave of a departed chieftain4 ,in ,plate ,,xxi1 ,fig4 #a1 an outline of the shell represented is given2 it resembles most nearly the pearly nautilus1 but1 being drawn by the artist from memory or description1 we are at liberty to suppose the shell actually used was a large ,busycon from the neighboring coast1 probably more or less altered by art4 ,haywood1 ,hakluyt1 ,tonti1 ,bartram1 ,adair1 and others mention the use of shells for drinking vessels1 and in much more recent times ,indians are known to have put them to a similar use4 ,on account of the rapidity with which they decay1 we can know nothing of surface deposits of shells by prehistoric or even by comparatively recent peoples4 ,it is only through the custom of burying valued articles with the dead that any of these relics are preserved to us4 ,when we consider the quantity of such objects necessarily destroyed by time1 exposure1 and use1 we marvel at the vast numbers that must have been1 within a limited period of years1 carried inland4 ,in the more recent mounds there may be found specimens obtained by the ,indians through the agency of white traders1 but the vast majority were derived doubtless from purely aboriginal sources4 ,many instances could be cited to show that the whites have engaged in the trade in shells4 ,kohl1 in speaking of early trade with the ,ojibways of ,lake ,superior1 states that when the traders exhibited a fine large shell and held it to the ears of the ,indians1 these latter were astonished1 saying they heard the roaring of the ocean in it1 and paid for such a marvelous shell furs to the value of #cj or #dj1 and even more4#e ,cabea de ,vaca#f traded in sea-shells and hearts of sea-shells among the ,charruco ,indians of the ,gulf coast nearly three hundred and fifty years ago4 ,the form of vessel of most frequent occurrence is made by removing the whorl1 columella1 and about one-half of the outer shell of the large univalves4 ,the body of the lower whorl is cut longitudinally1 nearly opposite the lip and parallel with it4 ,the spire is divided on the same plane1 a little above the apex1 giving a result well illustrated in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,a very convenient and capacious bowl is thus obtained1 the larger specimens having a capacity of a gallon or more4 ,the work of dividing the shell and removing neatly the interior parts must have been one of no little difficulty1 considering the compactness of the shell and the rudeness of the tools4 ,for nomadic peoples these vessels would have a great superiority over those of any other material1 as they were not heavy and could be transported without danger of breaking4 ,in the manufacture of these vessels the ,busycon perversum seems to have been a great favorite2 this may be the result of the less massive character of the shell1 which permits more ready manipulation4 ,the spines are less prominent and the walls more uniform in thickness than in shells of most other varieties found along the ,atlantic seaboard4 ,specimens of the ,strombus1 ,cassis1 and ,fasciolaria were occasionally used4 ,the specimen illustrated in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xxii1 is from a mound at ,ritcherville1 ,ind41 and is now in the ,national ,museum at ,washington4 ,it is made from a ,busycon perversum1 and is ten and one-half inches in length by six and one-half in width at the most distended part4 ,the body and spire have been cut in the manner described above1 and the interior whorl and columella have been skillfully taken out4 ,the rim is not very evenly cut1 but is quite smooth4 ,the outer surface of the shell has been well polished1 but is now worn and scarred by use4 ,the substance of the shell is very well preserved4 ,a second example1 now in the national collection1 is from an ancient mound at ,naples1 ,ill4 ,it is very similar to the preceding1 being made from the same species of shell4 ,it is eleven inches in length by seven in width4 ,the body of the shell is well preserved1 the apex1 however1 being broken away4 ,a small specimen1 also in the ,national ,museum1 was obtained from a mound at ,nashville1 ,tenn41 by ,professor ,powell4 ,it is three and a half inches in length1 and very shallow1 being but a small portion of the lower whorl of a ,busycon4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxii--,,vessels4 #a4 ,shell vessel made from a ,busycon perversum1 ,ind4 7#b_/e7 #b4 ,earthen vessel made in imitation of shell1 ,mo4 7#c_/d7 ,among the more recent acquisitions to the national collection are two very fine specimens of these ,busycon vessels4 ,one of these was obtained from a mound at ,east ,dubuque1 ,ill4 ,it is eleven inches in length by seven in width at the widest part2 the exterior surface is highly polished2 the interior is less so1 having suffered somewhat from decay2 the beak is very long and slender1 and has been used as a handle4 ,the whole vessel has a dipper-like appearance4 ,the finest example of these vessels yet brought to my notice was obtained from a mound at ,harrisburg1 ,ark41 by ,dr4 ,palmer1 in ,october1 #ahhb4 ,it differs from the other specimens described in having an elaborate ornamental design engraved on the exterior surface4 ,in shape it corresponds pretty closely to the first specimen figured1 no part of the spire1 however1 being cut away2 the interior parts have been removed1 as usual4 ,the surface is quite smooth1 and the ridges on the inner surface of the spire are neatly rounded and polished4 ,its length is eleven inches1 and its width seven4 ,plate ,,xxiii is devoted to the illustration of this specimen4 ,the entire exterior surface1 from apex to base1 is covered with a design of engraved lines and figures1 which are applied in such a manner as to accord remarkably well with the expanding spiral of the shell4 ,the upper surface of the spire is unusually flat1 and has been ground quite smooth4 ,it will be seen by reference to ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,xxiii1 that a series of lines1 interrupted at nearly regular intervals by short cross lines and rectangular intaglio figures1 has been carried from the apex outward toward the lip4 ,another series of lines begins on the upper margin next the inner lip of the shell1 passes around the circumference of the upper surface1 and extends downward over the carina1 covering1 as shown in the other figure1 the entire body of the vessel1 excepting the extreme point of the handle4 ,the base of the shell1 which is perforated1 has a small additional group of lines4 ,the lines of the principal series are1 on the more expanded portion of the body of the shell1 about eight inches long1 and are interrupted by two rows of short lines and two rows of incised rectangular figures4 ,the space between the latter contains the most interesting feature of the design4 ,three arrow-head shaped figures1 two inches in length by one and one-half in width1 are placed1 one near the outer lip1 another near the inner lip1 and the third in the middle of the body1 a little below the center4 ,these figures are neatly cut and symmetrical1 and resemble a barbed and blunt-pointed arrow-head4 ,near the center of each is a small circle1 which gives the figure a close resemblance to a variety of perforated stone implements1 one specimen of which has been found near ,osceola1 ,ark4 ,whatever may be the significance of this design1 and it is undoubtedly significant1 it is at least a very remarkable piece of work and a highly successful effort at decoration4 ,the pottery of this region which is generally highly decorated with painted and incised lines1 contains nothing of a character similar to this1 and it is probable that what ,i have come to consider a rule in such matters applies in this case2 the design on the shell is significant or ideographic1 that on the pottery is purely ornamental4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxiii--,,engraved ,,vessel4 ,harrisburg1 ,ark4 ,for the purpose of showing the very wide distribution of vessels made from large seashells1 especially the ,busycon perversum1 ,i introduce here descriptions of most of the specimens heretofore reported4 ,dr4 ,rau1 in his paper on ancient aboriginal trade in ,north ,america1 states that in the collection of ,colonel ,jones1 of ,brooklyn1 there is a vessel formed from a ,cassis which is eight and a half inches long1 and has a diameter of seven inches where its periphery is widest4 ,it was obtained from a stone grave near ,clarksville1 ,habersham ,county1 ,georgia4#g ,two fine specimens of the ,cassis flammea were taken from mounds in ,nacoochee ,valley1 ,georgia4 ,they were nearly ten inches in length and about seven inches in diameter4 ,the interior whorls and columell had been removed1 so that they answered the purpose of drinking cups or receptacles of some sort4#h ,from a stone grave mound near ,franklin1 on the ,big ,harpeth ,river1 ,prof4 ,joseph ,jones took two large sea-shells1 one of which was much decayed4 ,the interior surface of these shells had been painted red1 and the exterior had been marked with three large circular spots4#i ,in the grave of a child1 near the grave just mentioned1 the following relics were found3 ,four large sea-shells1 one on each side of the skeleton1 another at the foot1 and the fourth1 a large specimen1 with the interior apartments cut out and the exterior surface carved1 covered the face and forehead of the skull4#aj ,in a small mound opposite the city of ,nashville1 ,tenn41 ,professor ,jones found a large sea-conch4 ,the interior portion or spiral of which had been carefully cut out2 it was probably used as a drinking vessel1 or as the shrine of an idol as in a case observed by ,dr4 ,troost4#aa ,two large shells of ,busycon1 from which the columell had been removed1 were obtained from the ,lindsley mounds1 sixty miles east of ,nashville1 by ,professor ,putnam4#ab ,professor ,wyman1 writing of the mounds of ,eastern ,tennessee1 says that among the implements are well-preserved cups or dishes1 made of the same species of shell ,busycon perversum as the preceding1 but of much more gigantic size than those now found4 ,one of them measures a foot in length1 though the beak has been broken off4 ,when entire its length could not have been less than fourteen or fifteen inches4 ,these shells probably came from the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and found their way into ,tennessee as articles of traffic4 ,the dishes are made in the same way1 and not to be distinguished from those found in ,florida at the time of the first visit of the ,europeans1 or from those1 as will be seen further1 found in the ancient burial mounds4 ,the great similarity in the style and make of these dishes renders it quite probable that they were manufactured in ,florida4#ac ,a number of similar dishes1 made from the same shell1 were obtained from mounds at ,cedar ,keys1 ,florida1 by ,professor ,wyman4#ad ,francis ,cleveland1 ,c4 ,e41 who1 in #ahbh1 had charge of the excavation known as the deep cut on the ,ohio ,canal1 informed ,colonel ,whittlesey that at the depth of twenty-five feet in the alluvium several shells belonging to the species ,busycon perversum were taken out4#ae ,dr4 ,drake1 writing of the ,cincinnati mounds1 mentions several large marine shells1 belonging1 perhaps1 to the genus ,buccinum1 cut in such a way as to serve for domestic utensils1 and nearly converted into a state of chalk4#af ,mr4 ,atwater states that several marine shells1 probably ,buccinum1 cut in such a manner as to be used for domestic utensils1 were found in a mound on the ,little ,miami ,river1 ,warren ,county1 ,ohio4#ag ,a ,cassis of large size1 from which the inner whorls and columella had been removed to adapt it for use as a vessel1 was found in ,clark's mound1 on ,paint ,creek1 ,scioto ,valley1 ,ohio4#ah ,this specimen is eleven and a half inches in length by twenty-four in circumference at the largest part4 ,it is further stated that fragments of these and other shells are found in the tumuli and upon the altars of the mound-builders4 ,in digging the ,ohio and ,erie ,canal1 there was found1 near ,portsmouth1 its southern terminus on the ,ohio ,river1 a cluster of five or six large shells1 which appeared to have been thus carefully deposited by the hand of man4 ,they were about three feet beneath the surface4 ,the columell of some large shells1 probably the ,strombus gigas1 were also discovered4#ai ,several large marine shells were found in a mound near ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich4 ,they were all hollowed out1 apparently for carrying or storing water1 and in one case perforated at the upper edge on opposite sides for suspension by a cord or thong4#bj ,mr4 ,farquharson mentions a vessel made from a ,busycon perversum1 obtained from a mound near ,davenport1 ,iowa4 ,the shell has been cut through about an inch above the center2 it is thirteen inches in length by seven in width1 and has a capacity of nearly two pints4#ba ,he also describes a large specimen of ,cassis from a mound in ,muscatine ,county1 ,iowa4#bb ,long1 in his expedition from ,pittsburgh to the ,rocky ,mountains in #ahai1 speaks of a large shell which seems to have been reverenced as a kind of oracle4 ,this may have been one of the large1 brilliantly-colored fossil ,baculites so common in the upper ,missouri region4 ,his description will be given in full in treating of the sacerdotal uses of shells4 ,in the ,naturalist for ,october1 #ahgi1 ,mr4 ,frey describes a sea-shell drinking vessel1 somewhat modified by art1 having a length of four and one-half inches4 ,this1 with other relics1 among which were many shell beads1 was found in an ancient grave in eastern ,new ,york1 probably in the ,mohawk ,valley4 ,these vessels of shell have also served as models for the primitive potter4 ,the ancient peoples of the middle ,mississippi district were extremely skillful in the reproduction of natural objects in clay1 and it is not surprising that they should imitate the form of the shell4 ,in the ,peabody ,museum is an earthen vessel copied from a shell vessel of the class just described1 the characteristic features being all well imitated4 ,it is about nine inches wide1 eleven long and four deep4 ,it is neatly made1 and ornamented with the red and white designs peculiar to the pottery of this region4 ,it was taken from one of the ,stanley mounds1 ,saint ,francis ,river1 ,ark4 ,a small earthen vessel made in imitation of these shell vessels is illustrated in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,it is of the ordinary blackish ware so common in the middle ,mississippi district4 ,the general shape of the shell is well represented2 the sides1 however1 are nearly symmetrical and the spire is represented by a central node1 surrounded by four inferior nodes4 ,it is four inches wide and five and one-half long4 ,three others represent shell vessels1 somewhat less closely1 the spires and beaks being added to the opposite sides of ordinary cups4 ,,spoons4 ,as domestic utensils bivalve shells have held a place hardly inferior in importance to that of the large univalves4 ,marine and fluviatile varieties have been used indiscriminately1 and generally in the natural state1 but occasionally altered by art to enhance their beauty or add to their convenience4 ,the artificial utensils do not1 however1 present a very great variety of form1 the alteration consisting chiefly in the carving out of a kind of handle1 by which device hot food could be eaten without danger of burning the fingers4 ,the handle1 which may be seen in all stages of development1 is produced by cutting away portions of the anterior and basal margins of the shell1 leaving the salient angle projecting2 this angle is then undercut from the opposite sides so that it is connected with the body of the valve by a more or less restricted neck4 ,the outer edge of the handle is frequently ornamented with notches1 and in a few cases a round perforation has been made near the anterior tip for the purpose of suspension4 ,in one case a rude design of small circular depressions has been added to the upper surface4 ,in the finished implement the hinge1 ligament1 and teeth have been cut away1 the thick dorsal margin carefully ground down1 leaving a smooth1 neat edge1 and the anterior point1 which was presented to the lips in eating or drinking1 was well rounded and polished4 ,the whole surface of the shell in the more finished specimens has been most carefully dressed4 ,altogether1 the fashioning of these spoons must be regarded as a very ingenious performance for savages1 and has cost much more labor than would the attachment of a handle1 for which purpose it is not improbable the lateral notches may at times have been used4 ,our collections furnish no examples of marine univalves worked in this manner2 a few slightly altered specimens1 however1 have been reported4 ,nearly all the specimens of carved spoons that have come to my notice are made from a few species of ,unio4 ,it is a curious fact that most of these utensils have been made from the left valve of the shell1 which gives such a position to the handle that they are most conveniently used by the right hand1 thus indicating right-handedness on the part of these peoples4 ,in the national collection there are two left-handed specimens1 one from ,nashville1 ,tenn41 and one from ,union ,county1 ,ky4 ,professor ,putnam states that he has examined over thirty of these shell-spoons now in the museum ,peabody1 and all are made from the right left valves of ,unionid1 and so shaped as to be most conveniently used with the right hand4#bc ,by reference to ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xxiv1 the probable manner of grasping and using the spoon will be seen4 ,it will also be observed that the left valve of the shell is used to make the right-handed spoon1 supposing of course that the point of the spoon is presented to the lips1 the hinge corner being much less convenient for that purpose4 ,in regard to the use of these objects1 which have occasionally been taken for ornaments1 it should be mentioned that very many of them have been found within earthen vessels placed in the graves with the dead4 ,the vessels1 in all probability1 were the receptacles of food1 the spoons being so placed that they could be used by the dead as they had been used by the living4 ,the specimen shown in ,fig4 #c1 ,plate ,,xxiv1 was obtained by ,professor ,powell1 from a mound near ,nashville1 ,tenn4 ,it is made from the left valve of a very delicate specimen of the ,unio ovatus1#bd and has been finished with more than usual care4 ,the entire rim is artificially shaped1 the natural shell being much reduced1 and six notches ornament the outside of the handle4 ,the bowl of the spoon is nearly four inches in length and two and one-half in width4 ,eight other specimens were obtained from the same locality by ,professor ,powell4 ,all are made from the ,unio ovatus1 one only being left-handed4 ,all are inferior in finish to the specimen illustrated4 ,the handles of a number are rudimentary1 and the margins and surfaces are but slightly worked4 ,the spoon illustrated in ,fig4 #d1 ,plate ,,xxiv1 is made from the left valve of a ,unio alatus 787 and was obtained from a mound at ,madisonville1 ,ohio4 ,it is an unusually well-finished and handsome specimen1 and notwithstanding its fragile character1 is well preserved4 ,a portion of the point has1 unfortunately1 been broken away4 ,the handle is ornamented with four shallow notches1 the anterior point being neatly rounded and perforated for suspension4 ,the edges of the utensil have been carefully finished1 and both the inner and outer surfaces have been ground down and polished so that all the natural markings are obliterated1 and the surface shows the pearly marbling of the foliation4 ,this specimen is figured in an interesting paper1#be prepared by ,mr4 ,charles ,f4 ,low1 as an ornament1 this use being suggested by its finish and decoration2 but as it was found in what was presumably a food vessel1 and at the same time resembles so closely the spoons of other localities1 ,i take the liberty of classifying it with them4 ,one of the most interesting collections of these utensils was made in ,union ,county1 ,ky41 by ,s4 ,s4 ,lyon4 ,our information in regard to this lot of specimens is1 unfortunately1 quite meager1 as ,mr4 ,lyon's report gives them but casual mention4 ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,xxiv1 illustrates the finest of these specimens on a scale of one-half4 ,the shell used is a large specimen of ,unio ovatus1 the bowl of the spoon being about four inches long and three wide4 ,as the right valve has been used1 the utensil is left-handed4 ,the handle is ornamented with two marginal notches2 the basal point is long and spine-like1 and is deeply undercut4 ,the anterior point is beak-like in shape1 the nicely made perforation holding1 in relation to it1 the position of an eye1 which1 together with the comb-like notches above1 gives a pretty close resemblance to a bird's head4 ,the point of the spoon is broken away4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxiv--,,shell ,,spoons4 #a4 ,manner of grasping spoon4 #b4 ,from a mound in ,kentucky4 7#a_/b7 #c4 ,from a mound near ,nashville4 7#a_/a7 #d4 ,from a mound in ,ohio4 7#a_/a7 ,the seven remaining spoons from this locality have a variety of handles1 all of which are notched on the outer margin1 while a few only are deeply undercut2 all have been made from the left valve of the ,unio ovatus 787 and are of medium size and ordinary finish4 ,another specimen in the national collection comes from ,henderson ,county1 ,ky4 ,the shell used is the ,unio ovatus2 the handle is notched on the outer margin1 but is only slightly under-cut2 the thick margin of the shell about the hinge has not been removed4 ,a spoon made from the left valve of a ,unio silignoidens 787 has recently been obtained from a mound at ,osceola1 ,ark42 it is but slightly worked1 having a series of small notches cut in the basal margin1 toward the front4 ,the ,natural ,history ,museum of ,new ,york contains a specimen of this class1 labeled as coming from ,georgia4 ,it has a rounded handle1 without either perforation or notches4 ,the ,peabody ,museum contains a very superior collection1 consisting of specimens from several localities4 ,six of these1 made from ,unionid1 mostly from the ,unio ovatus1 were obtained from one of the ,bowling mounds near ,nashville1 ,tenn42 others crumbled on being handled and were lost4 ,several others were obtained in the same region4#bf ,two more were found in an earthen vessel between two skeletons1 in one of the ,lindsley mounds at ,lebanon1 sixty miles east of ,nashville4#bg ,in a stone-cist mound on the ,big ,harpeth ,river1 ,prof4 ,joseph ,jones found a few large fresh-water mussel-shells1 which were much altered by time4 ,these mussel-shells appeared from their shape to have been artificially carved1 and to have been used as ornaments and also as spoons or cups for dipping up food and drink4#bh ,three fine specimens have recently been obtained from graves at ,harrisburg1 ,ark4 ,they are but slightly worked as compared with the more elaborate specimens4 ,the hinge1 teeth1 and ligaments have been ground down and a portion of the postero-dorsal margin removed1 leaving the posterior point and basal margin projecting for a handle4 ,the surfaces are well smoothed4 ,the general outline of the shell is subtriangular2 it is three inches wide by four and one-half in length and is probably made from the ,unio cuneatus4 ,beverly gives a plate illustrating two ,virginia ,indians1 man and wife1 at dinner2 on the mat by the woman is a ,cockle-,shell1 which they sometimes use instead of a ,spoon4 ,the ,spoons which they eat with1 do generally hold half a ,pint2 and they laugh at the ,english for using small ones1 which they must be forc'd to carry so often to their ,mouths1 that their ,arms are in ,danger of being tir'd1 before their ,belly4#bi ,,knives4 ,from a very early date shells must have been employed quite extensively by the ancient ,americans as implements1 as weapons for war and the chase1 as appliances for fishing1 as agricultural implements1 and as knives1 gougers1 scrapers1 perforators1 etc41 in a variety of arts4 ,it is a noteworthy fact1 however1 that our collections do not abound in objects of these classes1 and our literature furnishes but little information on the subject4 ,our interest lies chiefly in such of these objects as have been shaped by the hand of man1 but to illustrate their use we will find it instructive to study the various ways in which the natural shells have been employed4 ,in this manner we may trace the origin and development of artificial forms4 ,as we have seen in the early modification of food utensils the beginning of the art of cutting and shaping shell1 which in time led to the manufacture of objects of taste1 and probably proved an important step in the evolution of native ,american art1 so in this convenient and workable material1 as employed in the mechanical arts1 we witness the inception of many important human industries1 and in the rude machines constructed from shell probably behold the prototypes of numerous works in stone and metal4 ,it cannot be supposed that such of these objects as we do possess are of very ancient date1 as the material is not sufficiently enduring4 ,it is also improbable that such objects would1 as a rule1 be so frequently deposited in graves1 as food vessels or objects of personal display1 and objects not so deposited must soon have disappeared4 ,the early explorers of the ,american coast make occasional mention of the employment of shells in the various arts4 ,as many of these notices are interesting1 and have an important bearing upon the subject under consideration1 ,i will present a number of them here4 ,among a majority of the ,american ,indians1 knives of stone1 obsidian1 jasper1 and flint were in general use1 but it would seem that shells artificially shaped and sharpened were also sometimes used for shaping objects in wood and clay1 in preparing food1 in dressing game1 and in human butchery4 ,strachey informs us1 in volume ,,vi of the ,hakluyt ,society1 that when the omnipotent ,powhatan would punish any notorious enemy or trespasser1 he causeth him to be tyed to a tree1 and with muscle shells or reedes the executioner cutteth off his joints one after another1 ever casting what is cutt off into the fier2 then doth he proceede with shells and reedes to case the skyn from his head and face4#cj ,such knives were also used by ,powhatan's women for cutting off their hair4#ca ,a number of authors mention the use of shells as scalping-knives4 ,kalm1 speaking of the ,indians of ,new ,jersey1 says that instead of knives1 they were satisfied with little sharp pieces of flint or quartz1 or else some other hard kind of a stone1 or with a sharp shell1 or with a piece of bone1 which they had sharpened4#cb ,the ,indians encountered by ,henry ,hudson during his first voyage1 in making him welcome1 killed a fat dog1 and skinned it in great haste with shells which they had4#cc ,beverly asserts that before the ,english supplied the ,virginia ,indians with metallic tools1 their ,knives were either sharpen'd ,reeds1 or ,shells1 and their ,axes sharp ,stones bound to the end of a ,stick1 and glued in with ,turpentine4 ,by the help of these they made their ,bows of the ,locust ,tree4#cd ,drake1 in his ,world ,encompassed1 speaking of some of the southern tribes of ,south ,america1 probably the ,patagonians1 says that their hatchetts and knives are made of mussel-shells1 being great and a foot in length1 the brickle part whereof being broken off1 they grind them by great labor to a fine edge and very sharpe1 and as it seemeth1 very durable4#ce 99 99 99 ,their working tools1 which they use in cutting these things and such other1 are knives made of most huge and monstrous mussell shells 7the like whereof have not been seen or heard of lightly by any travelers1 the meate thereof being very savourie and good in eating71 which1 after they have broken off the thinne and brittle substance of the edge1 they rub and grind them upon stones had for the purpose1 till they have tempered and set such an edge upon them1 that no wood is so hard but they will cut it at pleasure with the same4#cf ,according to ,sproat1 shell knives were used by the ,indians of ,vancouver's ,island in carving the curious wooden images placed over graves4#cg ,ancient shell knives are very rarely found in collections4 ,such specimens as have come to my notice could as well be classed as scrapers or celts4 ,we will probably not be far wrong in concluding that such implements were used for scraping and digging as well as for cutting4 ,as a rule1 knives proper were simply sharpened bivalve shells4 ,the scrapers so frequently mentioned were doubtless often the same1 but probably more frequently portions of the lower whorl of the large univalves4 ,,celts4 ,implements of this class are generally made from the lower part of large univalves4 ,they were probably used in a variety of ways1 with handles and without4 ,the spine-like base of the shell forms the shaft1 the blade being cut from the broadly expanded wall of the lower whorl4 ,nearly all the specimens in the national collection have been obtained in this way4 ,in ,plate ,,xxv three very fine examples are figured4 ,the specimen illustrated in ,fig4 #a is more than usually well fashioned1 and is extremely massive1 having the proportions and almost the weight of typical stone celts4 ,it is five inches in length1 two and three-fourths in width1 and nearly one inch through at the thickest part4 ,the edge is even and sharp1 and but slightly rounded2 the beveled faces are quite symmetrical1 and meet at an angle of about #ce2 the faces are curved slightly1 following the original curvature of the shell1 and the sides are evenly dressed and taper gently toward the upper end which shows some evidence of battering4 ,the surface of the specimen is slightly chalky from decay4 ,it has been made from a ,strombus gigas1 or some equally massive shell4 ,it was collected at ,orange ,bluff1 ,fla41 by ,t4 ,s4 ,barber4 ,a profile view of the same specimen is presented in ,fig4 #b4 ,the specimen shown in ,fig4 #c was found in ,madison ,county1 ,ky41 and is the only one in the national collection from the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,it was obtained from a mound1 but in what relation to the human remains ,i have not learned4 ,it is fashioned much like the specimen just described2 it is one and a half inches in width at the upper end1 and two inches wide near the cutting edge4 ,it has also been made from a very massive shell4 ,fig4 #d illustrates a specimen from ,st4 ,michael's ,parish1 ,barbadoes1 ,west ,indies4 ,it is made from the basal portion of a ,busycon perversum4 ,the handle is curved and neatly rounded1 and the edge is beveled or sharpened on the inside only4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxv--,,shell ,,celts4 #a4 ,orange ,bluff1 ,fla4 7#c_/d7 #b4 ,orange ,bluff1 ,fla4 7#c_/d7 #c4 ,madison ,county1 ,ky4 7#c_/d7 #d4 ,barbadoes1 ,w4 ,i4 7#c_/d7 ,in the national collection there are about twenty of these objects2 six are from ,tampa1 ,fla42 four of these are fragmentary2 the remaining two are short and triangular1 and have been made1 one from a ,busycon perversum1 the other from a ,busycon or ,strombus4 ,the cutting edge is wide and well sharpened4 ,two are from ,cedar ,keys1 ,fla41 and are made from thin-walled specimens of the ,busycon perversum4 ,the larger is six and one-half inches in length by three in width toward the base2 the other is about one-half as large4 ,both are rudely made1 and show the effects of use4 ,five came from ,east ,pass1 ,choctawhatchie ,bay1 ,fla4 ,two of them are fragmentary2 one of the entire specimens is very well made1 and has a regularly beveled1 oblique edge1 while another is remarkable in having a curiously worn edge1 which is deeply serrated by use or weathering4 ,the majority of these specimens are from ancient shell heaps4 ,three are from ,st4 ,michael's ,parish1 ,barbadoes1 ,west ,indies1 one of which has already been described4 ,professor ,wyman1 in the ,naturalist for ,october1 #ahfh1 illustrates two of these celt-like implements from the fresh-water shell heaps near ,st4 ,johns1 ,fla4 ,one is made from a triangular piece cut from a ,busycon carica1 so as to comprise a portion of the rostrum1 which serves as a handle1 and a portion of a swollen part of the body1 which terminates in the cutting edge of the tool4 ,the sides and apex are smoothed and rounded1 while the base is regularly rounded and ground to an edge like that of a gouge1 but with the bevel on the inside4 ,this author states that another specimen1 obtained at ,old ,enterprise1 shows clearly that it was detached from the shell by first cutting a groove and then breaking off the fragment4 ,he also gives two views of a small shell celt which1 from the exterior markings and the thick ridge on the inside1 is thought to have been cut from the base of a ,strombus gigas4 ,the broad end is ground to a blunt edge like that seen in most of the stone chisels from the other ,states1 and the other is ground to a blunt point4 ,these implements are frequently mentioned by early explorers4 ,in ,plate #ab of the ,admiranda ,narratio1 an ,indian is represented#ch with a shell implement1 scraping away the charred portions from the interior of a canoe which is being hollowed out by fire4 ,the same implement was employed for removing the bark from the tree trunks used4 ,catlin1 in speaking of the ,klahoquat ,indians of ,vancouver's ,island1 says that a species of mussel-shell of a large size1 found in the various inlets where fresh and salt water meet1 are sharpened at the edge and set in withes of tough wood1 forming a sort of adze1 which is used with one hand or both1 according to its size2 and the flying chips show the facility with which the excavation is made in the soft and yielding cedar1 no doubt designed and made for infant man to work and ride in4#ci ,wood1 speaking of the ,indians of ,new ,england1 says that their ,cannows be made either of ,pine-trees1 which before they were acquainted with ,english tooles1 they burned hollow1 scraping them smooth with ,clam-shels and ,oyster-shels1 cutting their out-sides with stone-hatchets4#dj ,the method of hafting these implements1 when used for axes and adzes1 was doubtless the same as that employed for stone implements of similar shapes4 ,this is illustrated in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,xxvii1 the handle being securely fastened by cords or sinews4 ,it will be seen that but one of the specimens mentioned comes from the interior1 and that from ,madison ,county1 ,ky4 ,,scrapers4 ,the great majority of the scraping implements obtained from the mounds1 graves1 and shell heaps are simply valves of ,unio or clam-shells1 unaltered except by use2 yet there is a widely distributed class of worked specimens1 which have been altered by making a rough perforation near the center of the valve1 and by the grinding down and notching of the edges4 ,a very fine specimen is illustrated in ,fig4 #c1 ,plate ,,xxvi4 ,it is formed of the left valve of a ,unio tuberculosus4 ,it was taken from a mound at ,madisonville1 ,ohio1 and is now in the national collection4 ,a similar specimen from the same locality is illustrated in an account of the exploration conducted by the ,scientific and ,literary ,society of ,madisonville4#da ,i have seen four other fine specimens from the same locality2 all are made of the shell of the ,unio tuberculosus 7874 ,it will be seen by reference to ,fig4 #c that the posterior point of the shell is much worn1 as if by use1 while at the opposite end1 near the hinge1 the margin has been slightly notched4 ,the large specimen1 figured in the ,madisonville pamphlet1 as well as all other examples from this locality1 are also much worn at the posterior end1 and slightly notched on the anterior margin4 ,the perforations are roughly made1 and nearly one-half an inch in diameter4 ,i have carefully examined all the specimens of this class within my reach1 probably twenty-five in all1 most of which are in the national collection1 and ,i find them all very much alike4 ,they are from two to five inches in length1 have rude central perforations1 and are worn by use at the posterior point1 and notched on the anterior margin4 ,the blunting of one end by use calls for no explanation1 but the purpose of the perforation is a little obscure4 ,it may have been used for convenience in transportation1 but more probably for attaching a handle4 ,on discovering that a notch had in all cases been made at the upper end1 ,i became convinced that the latter use was intended4 ,whether the supposed handle has been long or short1 or attached longitudinally or transversely1 ,i am unable to determine4 ,in ,plate ,,xxvi1 ,figs4 #d and #e1 two methods of hafting are illustrated4 ,if used for striking1 the long handle would be the more suitable1 but if for scraping1 dressing skins1 scaling fish1 or shaping wood or clay1 the handle suggested in ,fig4 #e would be the most convenient4 ,the clam-shell agricultural implements1 so frequently mentioned by explorers along the ,atlantic coast1 were attached to handles in the manner of hoes or adzes1 as shown in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,it is possible that the specimens under consideration may have been hafted in this manner4 ,a perforated valve of a ,unio gibbosus1 which has probably been used as a knife or scraper1 is shown in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,it was obtained from a cave near ,nashville1 and is now in the national collection4 ,another interesting variety of shell implement is shown in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xxvi4 ,it was obtained from the ,oconee ,river1 near ,milledgeville1 ,ga41 and is made from the left valve of a ,unio vericosus4 ,its perfect state of preservation indicates that it is of quite recent manufacture4 ,a deep1 sharply cut groove encircles the beak and hinge of the shell1 and the posterior margins are considerably worn4 ,a few shallow lines have been engraved on the smooth convex surface of the valve4 ,the position of the groove suggests the method of hafting shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #f1 ,plate ,,xxvi1 represents a perforated ,pecten1 which may have been used as an implement or as part of a rattle4 ,it was collected by ,mr4 ,webb on the west coast of ,florida4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxvi--,,shell ,,implements4 #a4 ,scraper1 ,georgia4 7#a_/a7 #b4 ,probable manner of hafting4 #c4 ,implement from a mound1 ,ohio4 7#a_/a7 #d4 ,probable manner of hafting4 #e4 ,probable manner of hafting4 #f4 ,perforated ,pecten1 ,florida4 7#a_/b7 ,,agricultural ,,implements4 ,the first explorers of the ,atlantic seaboard found many of the tribes cultivating the soil to a limited extent1 corn being the chief product4 ,the methods and appliances were exceedingly primitive1 and the implements employed1 whether wood1 bone1 stone1 or shell1 possess but little interest to art4 ,unworked shells1 lashed to rude handles1 served all the purposes as well as if wrought out in the most fanciful manner4 ,the large1 firm valves of clam-shells were most frequently used1 as the following extracts will show4 ,before the ,indians learned of the ,english the use of a more convenient instrument1 they tilled their corn with hoes made of these shells1 to which purpose they are well adapted by their size4#db ,a further reference to this shell is found in ,wood's ,new ,england ,prospect3 ,the first plowman was counted little better than a ,juggler3 the ,indians seeing the plow teare up more ground in a day1 than their ,clamme shels could scrape up in a month1 desired to see the workemanship of it1 and viewing well the coulter and share1 perceiving it to be iron1 told the plowman1 hee was almost ,abamocho1 almost as cunning as the ,devill4#dc ,and again the same author says3 ,an other work is their planting of corne1 wherein they exceede our ,english husband-men1 keeping it so cleare with their ,clamme shell-hooes1 as if it were a garden rather than a corne-field1 not suffering a choking weede to advance his audacious head above their infant corne1 or an undermining worme to spoile his spurnes4#dd ,other writers make but the most casual mention of this subject4 ,de ,bry gives1 in ,plate ,,xxi1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 a picture in which a number of natives are engaged in cultivating their fields4 ,in ,fig4 #c1 ,plate ,,xxvii1 ,i give an enlarged cut of one of the implements employed2 the original drawing has probably been made from memory by the artist1 and the cut serves no purpose except to give an idea of the general shape of the implement and to suggest the manner of hafting1 if indeed the implement is not made wholly from a crooked stick4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxvii--,,shell ,,implements4 #a4 ,shell implement1 ,tennessee4 #b4 ,probable manner of hafting celt4 #c4 ,implement illustrated in ,de ,bry4 #d4 ,shell club-head1 ,florida4 #e4 ,shell implement1 ,peru4 ,,fishing ,,appliances4 ,the use of shell in the manufacture of fishing implements seems to have been almost unknown among the tribes of the ,atlantic coast1 and with the exception of a few pendant-like objects1 resembling plummets or sinkers of stone1 nothing has been obtained from the ancient burial mounds of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,hooks of shell1 however1 are very plentiful in the ancient burial-places of the ,pacific coast1 and are frequently so well shaped as to excite our admiration4 ,hooks and other fishing apparatus1 in whole or in part made of shell1 are extensively employed by the present natives of the ,pacific islands and among the numerous tribes of the northwest coast1 although bone and ivory are in much higher favor for these purposes4 ,we cannot say with certainty for what purpose the various sinker-like objects of shell were used4 ,in all cases they are so perforated or grooved as to be suspended by a string2 but it is the custom of all savage peoples to employ very heavy pendants as ornaments for the ears or for suspension about the neck1 and where stone could be secured for such ordinary uses as the sinking of nets or lines1 it seems improbable that objects of shell1 which form superb ornaments1 would be so employed4 ,that hooks were used to some extent by the ,atlantic coast ,indians is proved by the association of bone hooks with other ancient relics4 ,i am not aware that their use has been noticed by early writers1 who describe at length1 however1 the capture of fish by means of arrows1 spears1 and nets4 ,the ancient ,mexican manuscripts contain many drawings showing the use of nets in fishing1 but the use of hooks and lines is not suggested4 ,in the absence of positive proof as to the exact manner in which the plummet-like objects were utilized1 ,i shall for the present follow the custom of the best authors and classify the heavier specimens as sinkers4 ,the smaller specimens will be described as pendant ornaments4 ,in ,fig4 #h1 ,plate ,,xxviii1 a very handsome specimen from a refuse heap on ,blennerhasset ,island1 ,ohio ,river1 is shown4 ,it has been cut from the columella of a ,busycon perversum1 the reverse whorl being indicated by the well-preserved spiral groove1 and was suspended by means of a small1 well-made perforation near the upper end4 ,the surface is weathered and chalky with age4 ,another specimen1 from the same locality1 differs but slightly from this2 the perforated end is broken away2 the surface is deeply weathered1 and the more compact lamin stand out in high relief4 ,two specimens from ,sarasota ,bay1 ,fla41 resemble these very closely in shape and size2 instead of a perforation1 however1 they are grooved near the upper end4 ,they are made from the columell of the ,busycon perversum4 ,one of them is shown in ,fig4 #i1 ,plate ,,xxviii4 ,it is possible that a number of the small shells usually supposed to be perforated for use as ornaments have been used for sinkers4 ,one such specimen1 collected by ,professor ,velie in ,florida1 is preserved in the national collection4 ,it is made from an almost entire specimen of a small but compact univalve--a dextral-whorled ,busycon or a ,strombus4 ,a shallow groove has been cut near the basal point for the purpose of attaching a line4 ,a fourth specimen1 from ,florida1 is represented by a cast presented by ,professor ,velie2 it is three inches in length and nearly one inch in diameter1 and has been derived from the columella of a ,busycon perversum4 ,it has a broad groove near the upper end1 with a long1 sloping shoulder1 the body being somewhat conical below4 ,other specimens of similar character have recently been added to the national collection4 ,a grooved specimen of medium size was obtained from a mound at ,madisonville1 ,ohio1 and is figured by the explorers4#de ,a few smaller specimens come from ,new ,york1 and others from ,kentucky1 but they were probably intended for ornaments1 and as such ,i prefer to class them4 ,from the ,pacific coast we have a large number of examples1 one of the finest being illustrated in ,fig4 #g1 ,plate ,,xxviii4 ,it is a flattish1 somewhat pear-shaped pendant1 and has a neatly cut groove near the upper end4 ,it was collected by ,bowers on the island of ,santa ,rosa1 ,cal41 and was probably made from a ,pachydesma or ,amiantis4 ,a new-looking specimen from ,santa ,barbara1 carved from a flat bit of pearly ,haliotis1 represents a fish1 the mouth1 gills1 body1 and tail being distinctly shown4 ,it may have been used as a bait4 ,by far the most interesting examples of fishing implements of ancient date have been obtained from graves in ,california2 these are well represented in the collections made by ,schumacher and ,bowers4 ,a number of specimens may be seen in the ,national ,museum2 one sinker from this collection has already been described4 ,fish-hooks1 however1 constitute the great majority of the specimens1 and many of them are of such unprecedented forms that they have been mistaken for ornaments4 ,the marked peculiarity consists in the great width of the body of the hook1 and the deeply involuted character of the barbless point1 making it seem impossible that a fish should be impaled at all4 ,it may be that this hook was intended only as a contrivance for securing bait1 and that the fish1 having swallowed this1 was unable to disgorge it1 and in this way was secured by the fisherman4 ,in ,plate ,,xxviii1 three of these hooks are illustrated4 ,the method of fastening them to the line is not well known1 and the form does not suggest it1 except in a few cases in which the shaft is enlarged slightly at the upper end4 ,the head is never perforated1 but is frequently pointed1 and may have been inserted in a head of some other material and secured by means of asphaltum4 ,the fact that portions of this material still adhere to the upper part of the shaft confirms this conjecture4 ,none of these hooks are barbed4 ,similar hooks of bone1 exhibited in the national collection1 have barbs on the outside1 near the point4 ,hooks resembling these are used by some tribes to secure the ends of strings of beads4 ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,putnam has described a number of these hooks which belong to the ,peabody ,museum4 ,the largest is two and three-fourths inches in length and one inch wide at the middle of the shank4 ,these came from ,san ,clemente1 ,san ,miguel1 and ,santa ,cruz islands1 and the mainland about ,santa ,barbara1 and are accompanied by stone implements used in their manufacture4#df ,the natives of ,tahiti had fish-hooks made of mother-of-pearl1 and every fisherman made them for himself4 ,they generally served for the double purpose of hook and bait4 ,the shell is first cut into square pieces1 by the edge of another shell1 and wrought into a form corresponding with the outline of the hook by pieces of coral1 which are sufficiently rough to perform the office of a file2 a hole is then bored in the middle2 the drill being no other than the first stone they pick up that has a sharp corner2 this they fix into the end of a piece of bamboo and turn it between the hands like a chocolate mill2 when the shell is perforated1 and the hole sufficiently wide1 a small file of coral is introduced1 by the application of which the hook is in a short time completed1 few costing the artificer more time than a quarter of an hour4#dg ,the specimens illustrated are made from the thicker portions of species of the ,haliotis or of the valves of the dark purplish ,mytilus californianus4 ,they are handsome objects1 their surfaces being well rounded and polished4 ,in the collection there are specimens which illustrate very well the process of manufacture4 ,a series of these is given in ,plate ,,xxviii4 ,fig4 #a shows a small fragment broken out roughly from the shell1 probably by a stone or shell implement4 ,fig4 #b shows a similar specimen in which an irregular perforation has been made4 ,in ,fig4 #c we see a considerable advance toward completion2 the hole has been enlarged by rubbing or filing with some small implement1 and the outline approximates that of the finished hook4 ,figs4 #d1 #e1 and #f represent typical examples of the completed hooks4 ,these range in size from one-half to three inches in length1 the width being but slightly less4 ,the skill acquired in the manufacture of such objects of use is of the greatest importance in the development of art4 ,it is only through the mastery of material thus engendered that the arts of taste become possible4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxviii--,,shell ,,fishing ,,appliances4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,manufacture of hooks4 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,hooks from graves1 ,california4 #g4 ,pendant or sinker1 ,california4 #h1 #i4 ,pendants1 ,atlantic slope4 7#a_/a7 ,,weapons4 ,it would hardly seem at first glance that shells or shell substance could be utilized for weapons to any advantage4 ,a close examination1 however1 of some of the more massive varieties will convince us that they could be made available4 ,the specific gravity of some varieties1 such as the ,strombus and ,busycon1 is equal to that of moderately compact stone1 and with their long1 sharp beaks they would1 with little modification1 certainly make formidable weapons4 ,dr4 ,charles ,rau seems to have been the first to call attention to the use of shells as club-heads by the tribes of ,florida4 ,in his valuable paper on the archological collections of the ,national ,museum he gives a very good description1 which ,i copy in full3 ,it further appears that the ,florida ,indians applied shells of the ,busycon perversum as clubs or casse-tetes by adapting them to be used with a handle1 which was made to pass transversely through the shell4 ,this was effected by a hole pierced in the outer wall of the last whorl in such a manner as to be somewhat to the left of the columella1 while a notch in the outer lip1 corresponding to the hole1 confined the handle or stick between the outer edge of the lip and the inner edge of the columella4 ,the anterior end of the canal1 broken off until the more solid part was reached1 was then brought to a cutting edge nearly in the plane of the aperture4 ,a hole was also made in the posterior surface of the spire behind the carina in the last whorl1 evidently for receiving a ligature by means of which the shell was more firmly lashed to the handle4#dh ,mention of these objects is also made by ,knight in a recent pamphlet1 the method of hafting being illustrated4#di ,professor ,wyman1 in the ,naturalist for #ahgh1 describes and illustrates an object of this class1 made from a ,busycon1 which he is inclined to regard as one of the conch-shells said to have been used by the ,indians for trumpets4 ,it is presumably from one of the shell heaps on the ,st4 ,johns ,river1 ,fla4#ej ,in ,fig4 #d1 ,plate ,,xxvii1 ,i illustrate one of the ,national ,museum specimens4 ,the posterior point is much reduced by grinding1 the apex and nodes are somewhat battered1 and the whole surface of the shell is worn and discolored4 ,there are about a dozen specimens in the ,national collection2 in nearly all cases they are made from heavy walled specimens of the ,busycon perversum1 and range from three to eight inches in length4 ,they are described as coming from three localities1 ,st4 ,johns ,river1 ,clearwater ,river1 and ,sarasota ,bay1 ,fla4 ,all were probably obtained from shell heaps1 and although ancient1 two of the specimens still retain rude and insignificant-looking handles of wood4 ,it will be seen from the foregoing that shells have actually been employed as weapons1 a use1 however1 which would probably never have been suggested but for the great scarcity of stone along the southern coast4 ,,tweezers4 ,a rather novel use of shells by the ancient ,indians is mentioned by early writers4 ,the two valves of small mussels or clams were made to do service as tweezers for pulling out their hair4 ,adair1 speaking of the ,choctaws1 says that both sexes pluck all the hair off their bodies with a kind of tweezers1 made formerly of clam shells4#ea ,strachey states that shells were used by the ,virginian ,indians for cutting hair4 ,beverly says of the ,virginia ,indians that they pull their ,beards up by the ,roots with ,muscle-shells1 and both ,men and ,women do the same by the other ,parts of their ,body for ,cleanliness sake4#eb ,heckewelder states that ,before the ,europeans came into the country their apparatus for performing this work consisted of a pair of mussel-shells1 sharpened on a gritty stone1 which answered the purpose very well1 being somewhat like pincers4#ec ,fig4 #e1 ,plate ,,xxvii1 reproduced from a plate in the ,necropolis of ,ancon#ed represents two small ,mytilus shells pierced at the beak and bound together with a cord4 ,they were found in one of the ancient graves of ,peru1 and may have been used for a similar purpose4 ,,ornaments4 ,,pins4 ,having studied the application of shell material to the various utilitarian arts1 ,i turn to the consideration of what may1 with more or less propriety1 be called the arts of taste4 ,the skill acquired by the primitive artisan in shaping the homely spoon or the rude celt served a good purpose in the more elegant arts1 and opened the way to a new and unique field for the development and display of the remarkable art instincts of these savages4 ,it probably required no great skill and no very extended labor to fashion the various utensils and implements of the outer walls of the univalves or the thin valves of clams and mussels2 but to cut out1 grind down1 and polish the columell of the large conchs required a protracted effort and no little mechanical skill4 ,of the various objects shaped from the columell1 beads are probably the most important2 but a large class of pin-shaped articles naturally come first1 as they consist of entire or nearly entire columell dressed down to the desired shape4 ,the use of these objects is still problematical4 ,as they are found in most cases deposited with human remains1 they were doubtless highly valued4 ,they must have served a definite purpose in well-established and wide-spread customs1 as they are found distributed over a district almost co-extensive with that occupied by other shell vestigia of marine origin4 ,let us first study the process of manufacture4 ,a considerable number of the larger species of marine univalves have been brought into requisition4 ,various species of ,busycon1 ,strombus1 and ,fasciolaria offer almost equal facilities2 the former1 however1 seems to have been decidedly the favorite1 the ,busycon perversum having furnished at least three-fourths of the columns used4 ,this result may be attributed1 however1 to the fact that1 for reasons already mentioned1 the perversum was so universally employed for vessels1 the axes extracted from these being then ready for further manipulation4 ,the outer case of the shell being somewhat fragile it is probable that the sea has very frequently broken it away1 leaving the dismantled columella to be washed ashore in a shape convenient for manufacture or for inland trade4 ,if the demand for these objects was very great1 it is to be presumed that on shores where they abound these shells were broken open and the columns extracted for purposes of traffic4 ,the ,state of ,tennessee is found to be the great store-house of these as well as other ancient objects of shell4 ,this is probably owing to two causes3 first1 that far inland1 where they were difficult to procure1 and very costly1 they were highly esteemed1 and hence consecrated to the use of the dead2 and1 second1 the conditions under which they were buried had much to do with preserving them from rapid decay1 while on the coast or when exposed to the atmosphere they soon disappeared4 ,an interesting series of specimens illustrating the various stages of manufacture of articles from the columella is presented in ,plate ,,xxix4 ,in ,fig4 #a a section of a ,busycon perversum is given4 ,the position of the columella and its relations to the exterior parts may be clearly seen4 ,the reverse whorl of the spire will be noticed1 and the consequent sinistral character of the groove4 ,fig4 #b illustrates the extracted columella in its untrimmed state4 ,a similar specimen is shown in ,fig4 #c1 ,plate ,,xxxi4 ,it was obtained from the site of an old ,indian lodge on the island of ,martha's ,vineyard4 ,this1 with a number of smaller specimens1 may be seen in the ,national ,museum4 ,they show no signs of use1 and were probably destined for manufacture into pins or beads4 ,columell in this state are very frequently found in the mounds and graves of the interior ,states2 a majority probably belong to the ,busycons1 but a considerable number are derived from the ,strombid4 ,a few specimens of large size may be seen in the national collection4 ,fig4 #c represents a roughly dressed pin1 of a type peculiar to the ,pacific coast4 ,fig4 #d illustrates a completed pin of the form most common in the middle ,mississippi province4 ,fig4 #e shows a rather rare form of pin1 pointed at both ends4 ,bone pins of this form are quite common4 ,fig4 #f represents a nearly symmetrical cylinder4 ,fig4 #g illustrates the manner of dividing the cylinders into sections for beads4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxix--,,manufacture ,,of ,,implements ,,and ,,ornaments4 #a4 ,section of ,busycon perversum4 #b4 ,roughly trimmed columella4 #c4 ,headless pin1 western form4 #d4 ,tennessee form4 #e4 ,pin pointed at both ends4 #f4 7,omitted47 #g4 ,manner of cutting into beads4 #h4 ,derivation of a celt from ,busycon4 #i4 ,derivation of ornaments from ,haliotis4 #aj4 ,derivation of ornaments from ,busycon4 #aa4 ,bead with cylindrical1 countersunk perforation4 #ab4 ,bead with conical perforation4 #ac4 ,bead with bi-conical perforation4 #ad4 ,bead imperfectly perforated4 ,in #ahha some very important additions to the ,national ,museum were made1 from the mounds of ,tennessee4 ,these include a great wealth of objects in shell4 ,from the ,mc,mahan mound at ,sevierville1 ,tenn41 there are a dozen shell pins1 all made from the ,busycon perversum4 ,the entire specimens range from three to six inches in length2 two are fragmentary1 having lost their points by decay4 ,in shape these objects are quite uniform1 being1 however1 as a rule1 more slender in the shaft than the average pin4 ,the heads range from one-half to one inch in length1 and are generally less than one inch in diameter4 ,they are somewhat varied in shape1 some being cylindrical1 others being conical above4 ,the shaft is pretty evenly rounded1 but is seldom symmetrical or straight4 ,it is rarely above one-half an inch in diameter1 and tapers gradually to a more or less rounded point4 ,the groove of the canal shows distinctly in all the heads1 and may often be traced far down the shaft4 ,in a number of cases the surface retains the fine polish of the newly-finished object1 but it is usually somewhat weathered1 and frequently discolored or chalky4 ,these specimens were found in the mounds along with deposits of human remains1 and generally in close proximity to the head2 this fact suggests their use as ornaments for the hair4 ,two illustrations are given in ,plate ,,xxx4 ,fig4 #a represents a fine example1 six and a quarter inches in length4 ,the head is deeply grooved1 and is apparently cut from the middle part of the columella1 the shaft being formed from the spine-like basal point4 ,the spiral canal1 which is clearly defined1 makes but one revolution in the entire length of the pin4 ,in ,fig4 #e a somewhat similar specimen is represented4 ,two fine specimens come from a mound on ,fain's ,island1 ,tennessee ,river4 ,the larger one is made from the columella of some heavy shell1 probably the ,strombus gigas4 ,the head is cylindrical1 and the shaft large1 but imperfect4 ,the smaller is a little more than two inches in length1 the head being small and conical1 and the point more than usually blunt4 ,another specimen was obtained from a mound at ,taylor's ,bend1 near ,dandridge1 ,tenn4 ,the head is almost spherical1 and the point broken off2 the whole surface is new looking and highly polished4 ,a number of bone pins pointed at both ends were obtained from ,fain's ,island1 besides many perforators and other well-made implements of bone4 ,prof4 ,c4 ,c4 ,jones describes#ee a number of shell pins without mentioning localities1 stating1 however1 that such pins have been obtained from a mound on the ,chattahoochie ,river1 below ,columbus1 ,ga4 ,he publishes illustrations of two varieties4 ,one1 of the ordinary type1 is five and a half inches in length1 one inch of that distance being occupied by the head1 which is an inch and a quarter in diameter4 ,the shank is an inch and a half in circumference1 and1 while tapering somewhat1 is quite blunt at the point4 ,the other is of somewhat rare occurrence1 being pointed at both ends4 ,an example of this variety is given in ,fig4 #d1 ,plate ,,xxx4 ,they are usually small and short1 seldom exceeding three inches in length4 ,in the national collection there are ten fine pins1 obtained by ,c4 ,l4 ,stratton from a mound on the ,french ,broad ,river1 fifteen miles above ,knoxville1 ,tenn4 ,four only are made from the ,busycon perversum4 ,the largest specimen has a very large1 cylindrical head1 with an extremely deep groove4 ,the shaft has been at least five inches long1 and is nearly one-half an inch in diameter4 ,another fine specimen is five inches long1 very slender1 and nearly symmetrical4 ,a small1 almost headless pin1 not quite one and a half inches in length1 is peculiar in having a longitudinal perforation4 ,it has probably been strung as a bead4 ,a fourth specimen is five and three-quarters inches in length4 ,the head is well rounded above1 and the shaft tapers gradually to a slender symmetrical point4 ,the other specimens from the same locality are in an advanced stage of decay1 the points being entirely destroyed4 ,the ,peabody ,museum contains a large number of very fine specimens of this class4 ,the most important of these were obtained from the ,brakebill1 ,lick ,creek1 and ,turner mounds of ,tennessee1 by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,o4 ,dunning4 ,the largest of these is upward of six inches in length4 ,an unusually symmetrical and well-preserved specimen from the ,lick ,creek mound is nearly seven inches in length4 ,one specimen only in this collection differs from the type already described2 this has been made from a dextral-whorled shell2 the head is somewhat spherical1 but is unusual in having an umbonate projection at the top4 ,it is illustrated in ,fig4 #f1 ,plate ,,xxx4 ,another small pin1 which is about one and one-half inches in length1 has a poorly defined head1 and would seem useless for the purposes ordinarily suggested for the larger specimens4 ,a recent collection from ,pikeville1 ,tenn41 includes a number of specimens made from the spike-like base of the ,busycon perversum4 ,they are roughly finished1 and taper to a point at both ends4 ,the larger ones are six inches in length and nearly one inch in diameter4 ,all are perforated longitudinally4 ,this perforation is neatly made and about one-eighth of an inch in diameter4 ,in one specimen which has been broken open two perforations may be seen running almost parallel with each other1 as if they had been bored from opposite ends and had failed to meet4 ,the length of these perforations is quite remarkable1 and it is difficult to understand how1 with the primitive tools at the disposal of these people1 a uniform diameter could be given throughout4 ,one of these objects is shown in ,fig4 #c1 ,plate ,,xxx4 ,other ,states besides ,tennessee have furnished a limited number of shell pins4 ,their occurrence in a mound near ,columbus1 ,ga41 has already been mentioned4 ,the national collection contains a fine specimen from ,macon1 ,ga41 collected by ,j4 ,c4 ,plant4 ,the ,peabody ,museum has a number from mounds on the ,saint ,francis ,river1 ,ark4 ,one of these is illustrated in ,fig4 #h1 ,plate ,,xxx4 ,they differ from the pins heretofore described1 being in all cases unsymmetrical4 ,the shaft is flat and somewhat curved1 and joins the mushroom-shaped head near one edge4 ,this results from the peculiar shape of the portion of the shell from which the pin is derived1 the head being cut from the peripheral ridge and the shaft from the body below or the shoulder above4 ,two specimens of this class have recently been obtained from a mound at ,osceola1 ,ark4 ,a profile view of one is shown in ,fig4 #aj1 ,plate ,,xxx4 ,a pin of this class1 from a burial mound at ,black ,hammock1 ,fla41 is described and illustrated by ,professor ,wyman4#ef ,from the fact of its being perforated at the point1 he regards it as a pendant ornament4 ,he states that it is cut from the suture1 where a whorl joins the preceding one4 ,in this respect it resembles the specimens from ,arkansas4 ,it is made from a ,busycon perversum4 ,in the ,national ,museum we have two specimens from ,florida4 ,one of these1 from ,pensacola1 is illustrated in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,xxx1 and is of the ordinary form4 ,the other is a short1 broad-headed specimen1 illustrated in ,fig4 #g1 ,plate ,,xxx4 ,in the ,peabody ,museum are two small specimens of the ordinary type1 from a mound near ,jamestown1 ,va4 ,one of these1 a small1 pointed variety1 is given in ,fig4 #i1 ,plate ,,xxx4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxx--,,pins--,,eastern ,,forms4 ,in ,volume ,,vi of ,schoolcraft's ,indian ,tribes1 a pin1 probably of shell1 is shown in a plate illustrating relics from ,south ,carolina4 ,a few localities have furnished bone1 stone1 and clay pins similar to these in shape4 ,specimens of the latter may be found both in the ,national and ,peabody museums4 ,they were probably intended as stoppers for bottle-shaped earthen vessels4 ,bone pins are generally headless1 and have in most cases been intended as implements for perforating and for sewing4 ,mr4 ,schumacher found a pin-like object of bone on the island of ,san ,clemente1 ,cal4 ,it resembles the shell pins pretty closely1 having a somewhat spherical head4 ,it is figured by ,professor ,putnam in a recent work4#eg ,as already stated1 the exact uses to which these pins were applied by the mound-building tribes are unknown2 various uses have been suggested by archologists4 ,the favorite idea seems to be that they were hair-pins1 used by the savages to dress and ornament the hair4 ,it would seem that many of them are too clumsy for such use1 although when new they must have been very pretty objects4 ,the shorter and headless varieties would certainly be quite useless4 ,similar objects of bone or ivory1 often tastefully carved1 are used by the natives of ,alaska for scratching the head1 although it seems improbable that this should have been their most important function4 ,professor ,dall suggests that some of the shell pins may have been used as were the blood-pins of the ,indians of the northwest coast4 ,when game is killed by an arrow or bullet1 the pin is inserted in the wound1 and the skin drawn and stitched over the flat head1 so that the much valued blood may be prevented from escaping4 ,a small1 very tastefully carved specimen of these pins is given in ,plate ,,xxxi1 ,fig4 #d4 ,it was obtained from the ,indians of ,oregon4 ,a similar specimen comes from ,san ,miguel ,island1 ,cal4 ,it is possible that they may have served some purpose in the arts or games of the ancient peoples2 yet when we come to consider the very great importance given to ornaments by all barbarians1 we return naturally to the view that they were probably designed for personal decoration4 ,from the ,pacific coast we have shell pins of a very different type4 ,they also are made from the columell of large marine univalves1 and were probably used as ornaments1 doubtless to a great extent as pendants4 ,these objects have been obtained in great numbers from the ancient graves of the ,california coast1 at ,santa ,barbara1 at ,dos ,pueblos1 and on the neighboring islands of ,santa ,clara1 ,santa ,catalina1 ,san ,clemente1 and ,santa ,rosa4 ,professor ,dall is of the opinion that the shell mostly used is the ,purpura crispata1 the smaller specimens probably being derived from the ,mitra maura4 ,such a very concise description of these objects is given by ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,putnam in a recent paper that ,i beg leave to quote it here1 omitting his references to figures3 ,a columella was ground down to the required size and shape1 and made into a pendant by boring a hole through the larger end4 ,in order to make this pendant still more attractive1 the spiral groove is filled with asphaltum1 or a mixture of that material and a red pigment4 ,sometimes the spiral groove was so nearly1 or even wholly1 obliterated in the process of grinding the columella into shape as to make it necessary to enlarge or even recut the groove in order to make a place for the much-loved asphaltum4 ,another form1 made from another shell1 is described1 the whorls of which are loose and open1 so that a natural tube exists throughout the length of the spire2 at the same time the spiral groove in the central portion is very narrow2 consequently it has to be artificially enlarged for the insertion of the asphaltum1 which thus winds spirally about the shell4 ,as the natural orifice at the large end of the shell seems to have been too large for properly adjusting and confining the ornament as desired1 this difficulty was overcome by inserting a small shell of ,dentalium1 or by making a little plug of shell1 which is carefully fitted and bored4#eh ,the national collection contains upward of fifty of these pins1 which come from ancient graves at ,santa ,barbara and ,dos ,pueblos1 ,cal41 and from the islands of ,santa ,cruz and ,san ,miguel4 ,these vary in length from one to five inches1 the well-finished specimens seldom reaching one half an inch in diameter4 ,at the upper end they round off somewhat abruptly to an obtuse point1 but taper to a sharp point at the lower end1 something like a cigar4 ,two fine examples are shown in ,figs4 #a and #b1 ,plate ,,xxxi4 ,all show the spiral groove1 and nearly all have portions of the asphaltum remaining4 ,the columell from which they are made may be to some extent naturally perforated1 but are certainly not sufficiently so to permit the ready passage of a cord4 ,the points are seldom sharp1 and are often broken off4 ,a bit of ,dentalium inserted into the perforation and set with asphaltum helps to enforce the point and to guard against further breakage4 ,the larger specimens are seldom perforated transversely at either end1 while the smaller ones are almost always perforated at the larger end1 which is slightly flattened4 ,a good example is shown in ,fig4 #e1 ,plate ,,xxxi4 ,a peculiar bulb-pointed specimen is illustrated in ,fig4 #f1 ,plate ,,xxxi4 ,the bulb is made from the upper end of the columella4 ,there are six of these pins in the collection4 ,the consideration of these pins leads naturally to the presentation of other classes of objects manufactured from the columell of marine univalves among which beads are the most numerous and important4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxxi--,,pins--,,pacific ,,coast ,,forms4 #a4 ,shell pin from ,san ,miguel ,island4 #b4 ,shell pin from ,dos ,pueblos1 ,cal4 #c4 ,an untrimmed columella4 #d4 ,bone pin from ,oregon4 #e4 ,shell pin from ,san ,miguel ,island4 #f4 ,shell pin from ,san ,miguel ,island4 7#a_/a7 ,,beads4 ,i shall not attempt within the limits of this paper to give more than an outline of this important division of my subject4 ,the use of beads seems to have been almost universal with peoples of all times and of all grades of culture1 and the custom of wearing them is a relic of barbarism that promises to be carried a long way into the future4 ,all suitable natural objects have been brought into requisition--animal1 vegetable1 and mineral4 ,shells from the sea1 precious stones from the mountains1 and fruits from the forest have been utilized2 and claws of birds1 teeth of animals1 and even the nails of the human hand have been worked into ornaments to gratify the barbaric vanity of the untutored savage4 ,the flinty substance of the shells of mollusks has been a favorite material at all times and with all peoples4 ,especially is this true of the shell-loving natives of ,north ,america1 among whom shell beads have been in use far back into the prehistoric ages1 and who to-day1 from ,oregon to ,florida1 burden themselves to discomfort with multiple strings of their favorite ornament2 and this1 too1 without reference to their value as money or their service as charms4 ,on the necks of brawny and unkempt savages ,i have seen necklaces made of the highly glazed ,oliva1 or of the iridescent nacre of the pearly ,haliotis1 that would not shame a regal wardrobe1 and have marveled at the untaught appreciation of beauty displayed4 ,beads made of shell may have three divisions based upon derivation1 and three based upon function4 ,first1 they consist of all smaller varieties of natural shells1 pierced for suspension1 or only slightly altered1 to add to beauty or convenience2 second1 they are made of the shells of bivalves and the outer walls of univalves2 or1 third1 of the columell of the larger univalves cut to the desired sizes1 and shaped and polished to suit the savage taste4 ,as to function1 they may be classed as personal ornaments1 as money1 and as material for mnemonic records4 ,,perforated ,,shells4 ,under this head ,i shall examine briefly the manner of piercing or altering the smaller varieties of shells preparatory to stringing4 ,the multitudes of perforated shells exhumed from the graves of our ancient tribes afford a fruitful field of study1 and our large collections of more recent specimens serve to illustrate the manner in which they were employed4 ,in ,plate ,,xxxii illustrations are given showing the various methods of manipulation and perforation4 ,in ,north ,america the ,marginella1 the ,oliva1 and the ,cyprea seem to lead in importance4 ,fig4 #a represents an ,oliva1 the apex of which has been broken away and the rough edge ground down1 producing a passage for a thread1 which may be introduced through the natural aperture below4 ,this is a common method of perforation in many widely separated districts1 and with a considerable variety of shells4 ,the specimen figured is from a mound in ,cocke ,county1 ,tenn4 ,it is an ,oliva literata from the ,atlantic coast4 ,fig4 #b shows a very usual method of treating small univalves4 ,the most prominent part of the lower whorl is ground down until the wall is quite thin1 and a small round hole is then drilled through it4 ,the specimen illustrated is a large ,olivella biplicata1 obtained from the island of ,santa ,rosa1 ,cal4 ,figs4 #c and #d illustrate specimens from ,mexico4 ,some thin-bladed implement1 probably of stone1 has been used to saw a slit or notch in the first convolution of the shell near the inner lip4 ,fig4 #c has one of these perforations1 and ,fig4 #d has two4 ,the shell is the ,oliva literata1 from the ,atlantic coast4 ,fig4 #e is simply one-half of an ,olivella biplicata with the interior parts extracted4 ,it is made by cutting the shell longitudinally and drilling a central perforation4 ,the specimen figured is from ,san ,miguel ,island1 ,cal4 ,fig4 #f illustrates the manner of breaking out a disk preparatory to making a bead4 ,this disk1 when perforated1 is frequently used by the ,indians of the ,pacific coast without additional finish4 ,fig4 #g shows two examples of beads made from small specimens of the ,olivella biplicata2 both extremities are ground off1 leaving a rather clumsy cylinder4 ,the originals are from graves on the island of ,santa ,rosa4 ,such beads are frequently worn at the present time4 ,one of the specimens shown in ,fig4 #h is from a grave in ,monroe ,county1 ,new ,york1 and the other is from a mound in ,perry ,county1 ,ohio4 ,the shell is the ,marginella conoidalis1 which has a wide distribution in the ancient burial-places of the ,atlantic slope4 ,in making the perforation the shoulder is often ground so deeply as to expose the entire length of the interior spiral4 ,fig4 #i represents a perforated ,cerrithidea sacrata1 from ,santa ,rosa ,island1 ,cal4 ,the method of perforating employed is a usual one with small shells of this form4 ,similar specimens come from many parts of the ,united ,states4 ,beads of this and the preceding variety are said to have constituted the original wampum of the ,atlantic seaboard4 ,fig4 #aj illustrates a rude bead made from the spire of a univalve1 probably a small specimen of ,busycon perversum4 ,most of the body of the shell has been removed and a perforation made near the border4 ,three of these specimens were found in a burial mound at ,murphysboro1 ,ill4 ,fig4 #aa illustrates a perforated ,cyprea from the ,pacific coast4 ,this is a recent specimen1 which illustrates an ancient as well as a modern method of perforation4 ,fig4 #ab shows a rather peculiar method of treating ,cyprea shells by the tribes of the ,pacific coast and the ,pacific islands4 ,the prominent part of the back is cut or ground away1 and the columella is partially or wholly removed1 a passage the full size of the natural aperture being thus secured4 ,this is also an ancient as well as a modern method of treatment4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxxii--,,perforated ,,shell ,,beads4 7#a_/a7 ,small bivalve shells are prepared for stringing by drilling one or more holes in the center or near the margin1 according to the manner in which they are to be strung4 ,such beads have been in almost universal use by primitive peoples1 both ancient and modern4 ,shells with natural perforations1 such as the ,fissurellas and ,dentalia1 are extensively employed by the west coast peoples1 and foreign varieties of the latter have been largely imported by ,europeans1 and from very early times have been used by the tribes of all sections4 ,the natural perforation of the ,fissurella is often artificially enlarged1 and additional perforations are made near the margin4 ,examples may be seen in ,plate ,,xlix4 ,i shall include under the head of beads all small objects having a central or nearly central perforation1 made for the purpose of stringing them in numbers4 ,in shape1 they range from straw-like cylinders1 three1 four1 and even five inches long1 with longitudinal perforations1 to thin1 button-like disks1 two or more inches in diameter4 ,in general the cylinders are made from the columell of univalves1 and the disks from the outer walls of the same1 or from the shells of bivalves4 ,of course1 there are forms that fall under no classification1 such as disks with perforations parallel with the faces1 or cylindrical forms with transverse perforations1 while many small1 pendant-like objects1 of varied shapes1 are strung with the beads1 and might be classed with them2 but these are exceptions1 and can be described along with the classified objects most nearly resembling them4 ,the grinding down and the perforating of natural shells is easily accomplished1 so that any savage could afford to decorate his person with this jewelry in profusion4 ,but the class of beads illustrated in ,plates ,,xxxiii1 ,,xxxiv1 and ,,xxxv could not have been made without the expenditure of much time and labor1 and doubtless owe their existence1 in a measure1 to mercenary motives4 ,as they were made from the walls or columell of massive shells1 they must have been broken or cut out1 ground smooth about the edges1 and perforated2 this1 too1 with most primitive tools4 ,,discoidal ,,beads4 ,in shape discoidal beads range from the concavo-convex sections of the curved walls of the shell to totally artificial outlines1 in such forms as doubly-convex disks1 cylinders1 and spheroids4 ,in size the disks vary from very minute forms1 one-tenth of an inch in diameter and one-thirtieth of an inch in thickness1 to two inches in diameter and nearly one-half an inch in thickness4 ,the thickness of the finished beads is governed in a great measure by the thickness of the shell from which they are manufactured4 ,the ,venus mercenaria of the ,atlantic coast and the heavier ,unios of the ,mississippi ,valley give a general thickness of from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch1 while others1 such as the heavy clams of the ,pacific1 are very much thicker4 ,the walls of univalves1 especially near the base1 are often extremely heavy1 while the smaller varieties of shells furnish specimens of wafer-like thinness4 ,in ,plate ,,xxxiii a series of beads of this class is given1 beginning with the smaller disks and ending with those of large1 though not the largest1 size4 ,in ,fig4 #a ,i present two views of a minute disk1 obtained1 with many others of similar shape and size1 from a mound on ,lick ,creek1 ,tenn4 ,the perforations in these specimens1 as well as in most of those that follow1 are bi-conical1 and sufficiently irregular in form to indicate that they are hand-made4 ,beads of this general appearance have been found in a multitude of graves and mounds1 distributed over a large part of ,north as well as of ,south ,america4 ,a vast majority of these beads are doubtless of aboriginal make1 as they are found in the oldest mounds4 ,fig4 #b represents a minute form from ,santa ,cruz ,island1 ,cal4 ,the peripheral surface is ornamented with a net-work of incised lines4 ,fig4 #c illustrates a small cylindrical bead1 with large perforation1 from a mound near ,prairie du ,chien1 ,wis4 ,it was found1 with a number of others1 near the neck of the skeleton of a child4 ,fig4 #d represents a small spheroidal bead from the great mound near ,sevierville1 ,tenn42 it is neatly made and well preserved4 ,figs4 #e and #f illustrate specimens of roughly finished concavo-convex disks1 much used by both ancient and modern tribes of ,california1 ,arizona1 and ,new ,mexico4 ,i essayed at one time to purchase a long necklace of these homely ornaments from a ,navajo ,indian in ,arizona1 but soon discovered that it was beyond my reach1 as my best mule was hardly considered a fair exchange for it4 ,these beads are made from the ,oliva chiefly1 but to some extent from small bivalves4 ,this bead is not common in the mounds of the ,mississippi ,valley1 but is used by many modern savages4 ,it seems to be the form called1 by the ,indians of ,virginia1 roenoke1 which1 according to ,beverly1 is made of the cockle-shell1 broken into small bits1 with rough edges1 and drilled through in the same manner as beads4 ,fig4 #g represents a smoothly cut bead of medium size1 said to have been obtained from a grave at ,lynn1 ,mass4 ,it has been cut from the curved wall of some large univalve1 and is very similar to modern specimens in use over a greater part of the ,united ,states4 ,fig4 #h belongs to a necklace brought from the northwest coast1 and is very much like the specimen shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,fig4 #i is a well-made specimen from ,sevierville1 ,tenn4 ,the sides are ground perfectly flat and the edges are well rounded4 ,the shell is very compact1 and well preserved1 and bears a close resemblance to bone or ivory4 ,fig4 #aj represents a thin1 fragile disk1 from a mound in ,southern ,illinois4 ,it is made of a ,unio1 and separates into thin sheets or flakes1 like mica4 ,figs4 #aa and #ab illustrate two compact1 nearly symmetrical specimens from a mound at ,paint ,rock ,ferry1 ,tenn4 ,fig4 #ac is from the same locality1 and is hemispherical in shape4 ,fig4 #ad represents a button-like disk1 with large conical perforation1 from a mound at ,paint ,rock ,ferry1 ,tenn4 ,it has probably been made from the wall of a large marine univalve4 ,the fine specimen shown in ,fig4 #ae comes from a mound in ,cocke ,county1 ,tenn41 and is unusually well preserved4 ,it is very compact1 having the appearance of ivory1 and has probably been made from the basal portion of a large univalve4 ,the perforation is extremely large1 and is conical1 having been bored entirely from one side4 ,figs4 #af and #ag represent two fine specimens from ,california4 ,they are nearly symmetrical1 the faces being flat or slightly convex4 ,the smaller one has been coated with some dark substance--the result1 probably1 of decay--which has broken away in places1 exposing the chalky shell4 ,the edges are ornamented with shallow lines or notches4 ,such disks1 when used as ornaments1 probably formed the central piece of a necklace1 or were fixed singly to the hair1 ears1 or costume4 ,as long as these larger specimens retained the color and iridescence of the original shell1 they were extremely handsome ornaments1 but in their present chalky and discolored state they are not prepossessing objects4 ,this plate will serve as a sort of key for reference in the study of beads of this class1 as the specimens are typical4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxxiii--,,discoidal ,,beads4 7#a_/a7 ,,massive ,,beads4 ,beads made from the columell of univalves have generally a number of distinguishing characteristics4 ,they are large and massive1 and rarely symmetrical in outline1 being sections of roughly dressed columns4 ,they are somewhat cylindrical1 and often retain the spiral groove as well as other portions of the natural surface4 ,in cases where the form is entirely artificial they may be distinguished by the sinuous character of the foliation4 ,the perforation is nearly always with the axis of the bead1 and is in most cases bi-conical4 ,in ,plate ,,xxix a series of cuts is given which illustrates the various methods of perforation and shows very distinctly the differences between the rude work of savages and the mechanically perfect work of modern manufacturers4 ,beads of this class are more decidedly aboriginal in character than those of any other group1 and are without doubt of very ancient origin4 ,they are widely distributed1 and have been found in graves and mounds covering an area outlined by ,massachusetts1 ,canada ,west1 ,minnesota1 ,missouri1 and the ,gulf and ,atlantic coasts4 ,figs4 #a1 #f1 #g1 #aa1 and #ad of ,plate ,,xxxiv represent typical specimens of this class4 ,in every case they are considerably altered by decay1 rarely retaining any of the original polish4 ,all come from ancient burial mounds1 some of the interments of which probably antedate1 while others post-date1 the coming of the whites4 ,the bead shown in ,fig4 #a is made from the columella of a ,busycon perversum4 ,it is a rude1 tapering cylinder1 with rounded ends and deep spiral groove4 ,the perforation is bi-conical and somewhat irregular4 ,this1 with many similar beads1 made of both dextral and sinistral shells1 was associated with human remains in the great mound at ,sevierville1 ,tenn4 ,the bead illustrated in ,fig4 #f has been made from the column of some dextral whorled shell4 ,it was obtained from a mound on ,lick ,creek1 ,east ,tenn4 ,it is a typical specimen of average size1 and illustrates very well the large collection of this class of relics made by ,dr4 ,troost4 ,fig4 #g was obtained from a mound at ,franklin1 ,tenn4 ,it is cut from the columella of a ,busycon perversum1 and is of the usual form1 being a heavy1 short cylinder1 rounded at the ends until it is somewhat globular4 ,the perforation is very large1 and has been made almost entirely from one end4 ,the surface is much weathered1 the firmer lamin being distinctly relieved4 ,other specimens from the same locality are much smaller4 ,fig4 #aa is from a grave in an ancient cemetery at ,swanton1 ,vt41 and is similar to the preceding1 having been cut1 however1 if correctly represented1 from a dextral whorled shell4 ,the cut is copied from a paper by ,g4 ,h4 ,perkins4#ei ,fig4 #ad illustrates a very large specimen of these beads from the ,lick ,creek ,mound1 ,east ,tenn4 ,the surface is encrusted1 stained1 and decayed4 ,it has been made from the broad beak of a ,strombus or dextral whorled ,busycon4 ,the perforation is symmetrical and bi-conical4 ,specimens upwards of two inches in length and one and one-fourth in width come from the same place4 ,the larger perforations are three-eighths of an inch in diameter at the ends and quite small in the middle4 ,fig4 #ab represents a large bead of symmetrical outline1 made from the columella of a ,busycon perversum4 ,the shape is artificial1 with the exception of a small portion of the spiral canal4 ,the surface retains much of the original polish1 but exfoliation has commenced on one side4 ,the perforation is about three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter at the ends and one-sixteenth in the middle4 ,there is a slight offset where the perforations meet4 ,it is from a burial mound at ,harrisburg1 ,ark4 ,the bead shown in ,fig4 #i is one of a large number obtained from a mound at ,east ,st4 ,louis1 ,ill4 ,it is a symmetrical1 well-polished cylinder4 ,the small portion of the spiral groove which remains indicates that it is derived from a ,busycon perversum4 ,the perforation is neatly made and doubly conical in shape4 ,the symmetry1 finish1 and fine condition of this bead lead to the suspicion that it may be of recent manufacture4 ,its form is by no means a common one among ancient mound relics4 ,the bead represented in ,fig4 #aj is described and illustrated by ,squier and ,davis4#fj ,this1 with many similar specimens1 was taken from a mound in the ,ohio ,valley4 ,it is made from the columella of some marine univalve1 and is well wrought and symmetrical4 ,fig4 #e is a flattish1 highly polished bead from ,monroe ,county1 ,new ,york4 ,the material1 which resembles ivory1 may have been obtained from the tusk of some animal4 ,it is slightly concave on one side and convex on the other4 ,the perforation is neatly made and of uniform diameter throughout4 ,in ,fig4 #d ,i present a bead of unusual shape2 it is made from the basal portion of some heavy univalve4 ,the axis and perforation are at right angles to the plane of lamination4 ,the middle portion of the bead has been excavated1 producing a form resembling a labret or lip-block1 in common use by many tribes4 ,it is from a mound on ,french ,broad ,river1 ,tenn4 ,we have a bead of similar shape1 but which has a lateral perforation1 from a mound at ,nashville1 ,tenn4 ,fig4 #b illustrates a spheroidal bead obtained from an ancient grave on ,santa ,rosa ,island1 ,cal4 ,the form is unusually symmetrical and the perforation neatly made1 being small1 doubly conical1 and slightly countersunk at one end4 ,the surface is smooth and retains a little of the original purplish hue of the shell1 probably a ,hennites giganteus4 ,others of the same shape from this locality exhibit like characteristics4 ,a few similar specimens come from ,san ,miguel ,island4 ,another large specimen from this locality is shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,it is somewhat flat1 and is quite wide in the middle portion1 tapering rapidly towards the ends4 ,the perforation is small and regular4 ,the lines of foliation are distinctly marked1 but are not sufficiently characteristic to indicate the part of the shell from which the bead is derived4 ,pearls4--,two of the most remarkable beads in the national collection are illustrated in ,figs4 #c and #ac4 ,the latter is an enormous pearl1 probably derived from the ,haliotis ,californianus4 ,it is somewhat pear-shaped1 the base being rounded and the apex a little bent4 ,the transverse section is subtriangular4 ,having been buried for an unknown period in the soil or sand1 it has suffered greatly from decay1 and has probably lost considerably by exfoliation4 ,the thin1 chalky lamell come away readily in concentric scales1 exposing the iridescent nacre beneath4 ,the perforation is about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter1 and seems to pass through a natural cavity in the interior of the pearl4 ,the smaller specimen given in ,fig4 #c is in many respects1 similar to the large one4 ,another1 of about the same size as ,fig4 #c bears quite a marked resemblance to a lima bean1 and is pierced laterally1 giving a button like appearance4 ,these specimens were obtained from graves on ,san ,miguel ,island1 by ,stephen ,bowers4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxxiv--,,massive ,,beads ,,and ,,pearls4 7#a_/a7 ,,tubular ,,beads4 ,in ,plate ,,xxxv ,i have arranged a number of cylindrical beads1 together with a few others of unclassified form4 ,figs4 #a and #b illustrate the most common form of the ancient wampum1 the white example being made from the columella of a small univalve1 and the dark one from the purple portion of a ,venus mercenaria4 ,the specimens represented belong to the celebrated ,penn belt1 preserved in the rooms of the ,historical ,society of ,pennsylvania4 ,it is not known positively that beads of this particular shape were employed in pre-,columbian times2 but it is certainly one of the earliest historical forms1 and one which has been manufactured extensively by the ,indians as well as by the whites4 ,they may be found both in very old and in very recent graves1 in widely separated parts of the ,united ,states and ,british ,america1 and have always formed an important part of the stock of the ,indian trader4 ,figs4 #c and #d represent a very large class of ,pacific coast forms4 ,these are from the island of ,san ,miguel4 ,they are simple white cylinders1 with somewhat irregular bi-conical perforations4 ,many examples may be found which taper slightly toward the ends4 ,they are coated with a rusty-looking deposit1 which breaks away easily1 exposing the chalky substance of the shell4 ,they range from one-half to three inches in length1 and from one-eighth to three-eighths in diameter4 ,they are probably made from the thick valves of the ,pachydesma crassatelloides or the ,amiantis callosa4 ,they were probably used as beads for the neck and as pendant ornaments for the ears4 ,the longer specimens may have been worn in the nose4 ,it is also said that beads of this class were used as money4 ,fig4 #e illustrates a very long1 tubular bead found at ,piscataway1 ,md4 ,it has been made from the columella of some large univalve4 ,it is four and a half inches long and one-fourth of an inch in diameter4 ,the surface is smooth1 but a little uneven1 and the ends taper slightly4 ,the perforation which has apparently been made from both ends1 as there is an offset near the middle1 is quite regular1 though slightly enlarged near the ends4 ,a large number of beads of the class illustrated in ,fig4 #f1 ,plate ,,xxxv1 were obtained from the ancient graves of ,san ,miguel ,island1 ,cal4 ,they have been made from one of the large bivalve shells of the ,pacific coast1 probably the ,pachydesma crassatelloides4 ,the curvature of the bead is the result of the natural curve of the valve from which it is fashioned4 ,the larger specimens are nearly five inches in length4 ,in the middle portion they are three-eighths of an inch in diameter4 ,they taper gradually towards the ends to the size of the perforation1 which averages about one-sixteenth of an inch4 ,the curvature of the bead is so great that there has been much difficulty in making the perforations from opposite ends meet1 and none of the larger specimens will permit the passage of a wire1 although the perforations lap considerably and water passes through quite freely4 ,it will be observed that the surface of these objects is coated with a dark1 rough film1 which1 when broken away1 exposes the natural shell4 ,such beads may have been used as nose ornaments1 but more probably formed parts of some composite ornament for the neck or ear4 ,fig4 #g represents a bone nose ornament obtained from the ,pai-,ute ,indians by ,professor ,powell4 ,its shape is not unlike that of the curved bead just described4 ,the large rude bead given in ,fig4 #h is made from the thick lip or rim of the ,haliotis ,californianus4 ,this1 with a number of similar specimens1 was obtained from an ancient grave at ,dos ,pueblos1 ,cal4 ,the perforations are all large and symmetrical4 ,in one case the hole has been reduced at the ends by inserting small bits of shell1 through which minute passages have been made4 ,in ,figs4 #i and #aj ,i give two illustrations of a bead of rather remarkable form4 ,a large number of similar specimens have been brought from ,dos ,pueblos1 ,la ,patera1 and the islands of ,san ,miguel and ,santa ,cruz4 ,they are made from the hinge of the ,hennites giganteus1 a large bivalve1 having a delicate purplish tinge4 ,the shape results from the form of the hinge2 the curve is the natural curve of the shell2 and the notch near the middle of the convex side is the natural pit1 often somewhat altered by art to add to the appearance or to assist in completing the perforation4 ,the holes are generally very small1 and have been made with much difficulty1 owing to the curvature of the bead4 ,where by accident the perforation has become enlarged at the end1 it has been bushed by setting in a small piece of shell4 ,the specimen figured is perforated near the end for suspension1 no longitudinal perforation having been attempted4 ,fig4 #aa shows one of these beads in an unfinished state1 the portion of the hinge used being roughly broken out and slightly rounded4 ,we have in the national collection specimens of this class in all stages of manufacture4 ,professor ,haldeman has described and illustrated a number of similar beads4 ,he describes the rounded notch near the middle as artificial1 and considers it a device to help out the perforation or facilitate the stringing4 ,professor ,putnam1 in the same work1#fa states that the notches were subsequently filled with asphaltum even with the surface of the shell4 ,the curved bead illustrated in ,fig4 #ab is made from a ,dentalium indianorum 787 by removing the conical point4 ,these shells1 either entire or in sections1 are much used by the ,indians of the northwest1 both as ornaments and as a medium of exchange4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxxv--,,beads4 #a1 #b4 ,beads from the ,penn ,belt4 #c1 #d4 ,pacific coast forms4 #e4 ,bead from ,maryland4 #f4 ,a ,pacific coast form4 #g4 ,a ,pai-,ute nose ornament 7bone74 #h4 ,bead made from a ,haliotis4 #i1 #aj1 #aa4 ,beads made from hinge of ,hennites4 #ab4 ,bead made from a ,dentalium4 #ac4 ,bead from mound1 ,tenn4 7#a_/a7 ,,runtees4 ,in ,plate ,,xxxvi ,i present a number of illustrations of a class of relics which have occasionally been mentioned in literature1 and which are represented to some extent in our collections4 ,as these objects resemble beads rather more closely than pendants1 ,i shall refer to them in this place1 although ,mr4 ,schoolcraft considers them badges of honor or rank1 and treats them as gorgets4 ,he describes them as consisting of a circular piece of flat shell1 from one and a half to two inches in diameter1 quartered with double lines1 having the devices of dots between them4 ,this kind was doubly perforated in the plane of the circle4#fb ,in ,notes on the ,iroquois1 by the same author1 we have a much fuller description4 ,he says that this article is generally found in the form of an exact circle1 rarely a little ovate4 ,it has been ground down and repolished1 apparently1 from the conch4 ,its diameter varies from three-fourths of an inch to two inches2 thickness1 two-tenths in the center1 thinning out a little towards the edges4 ,it is doubly perforated4 ,it is figured on the face and its reverse1 with two parallel latitudinal and two longitudinal lines crossing in its center1 and dividing the area into four equal parts4 ,its circumference is marked with an inner circle1 corresponding in width to the cardinal parallels4 ,each division of the circle thus quartered has five circles1 with a central dot4 ,the latitudinal and longitudinal bands or fillets have each four similar circles and dots1 and one in its center1 making thirty-seven4 ,the number of these circles varies1 however1 on various specimens4 ,in the one figured there are fifty-two4#fc ,figs4 #a and #b are copied from ,plate #be of ,schoolcraft4 ,the smaller was obtained from an ancient grave at ,upper ,sandusky1 ,ohio1 and the larger from an ,indian cemetery at ,onondaga1 ,n4 ,y4 ,others have been found at ,jamesville1 ,lafayette1 and ,manlius1 in the latter ,state4 ,the ,indians1 according to ,mr4 ,schoolcraft1 have no traditions respecting this class of objects1 and we are quite in the dark as to their significance or the manner in which they were used4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,beauchamp1 of ,baldwinsville1 ,n4 ,y41 has very kindly sent me sketches of two of these objects4 ,the originals were obtained from an ancient village site at ,pompey1 ,n4 ,y4 ,one is almost a duplicate of the smaller specimen copied from ,schoolcraft1 but the other1 which is illustrated in ,fig4 #d1 ,plate ,,xxxvi1 presents some novel features4 ,the central portion of the face is occupied by a rosette-like design1 which consists of six sharply oval figures that radiate from the center like the spokes of a wheel4 ,these rays are ornamented with a series of oblique lines1 arranged in couplets4 ,the margin is encircled by a narrow band1 similarly figured4 ,mr4 ,beauchamp expresses the opinion that these specimens are of ,european origin4 ,the specimen shown in ,fig4 #c belongs to a necklace now in the national collection4 ,this necklace was obtained from the ,indians of ,new ,mexico by ,lieutenant ,whipple1 and consists of three of these shell ornaments1 together with about fifty small porcelain beads4 ,the shell beads are strung at regular intervals4 ,the specimen illustrated is ornamented with a design in minute conical pits1 arranged precisely as are the circlets in the crosses and encircling bands of the ,new ,york and ,ohio specimens4 ,the edges and surfaces are much worn by use4 ,the substance of the shell is well preserved1 and has an ivory-like appearance although in the specimen shown in the cut the lamination of the shell is distinctly seen4 ,the perforations in these three specimens are quite symmetrical1 and suggest the use of machinery4 ,the method of perforation is identical in all these specimens1 and will be readily understood by reference to the two sections given in ,figs4 #e and #f4 ,all of these specimens are nearly circular2 but the regularity of the outline is in some cases marred by shallow notches produced by wear at the perforations4 ,this wear has been accelerated by the abrasion of the small beads with which the disks have probably been strung4 ,it will be noticed that there is quite a close resemblance between these objects and the runtees of the early writers4 ,beverly gives an illustration of an ,indian boy who is described as wearing a necklace of these runtees1 which are made of the ,conch ,shell1 as the ,peak is1 only the ,shape is flat and like a ,cheese1 and drill'd ,edge-ways4#fd ,a portion of this illustration is copied in ,fig4 #e1 ,plate ,,xxxvi4 ,it will be seen by reference to this cut that the manner of stringing corresponds with the method in which the objects under consideration would have to be strung4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxxvi--,,runtees4 #a4 ,new ,york4 #b4 ,new ,york4 #c4 ,arizona4 #d4 ,new ,york4 #e1 #f4 ,sections4 #g4 ,manner of wearing4 7#a_/a7 ,it is probable that the signification of the designs engraved upon these ornaments will remain forever a matter of conjecture4 ,it cannot be affirmed that the cross1 which occurs on the faces of most of the specimens1 has any particular significance1 although it may represent the points of the compass4 ,that it may have some emblematic meaning is1 however1 not impossible4 ,i have counted the number of circlets on all of the specimens with which ,i am acquainted4 ,the result is shown in the following table3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,in the cross4 ------------------------- ,in the ,total4 ,longitudinal ,transverse circle1 exclusive arm4 arm4 of cross4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,no4 #a 7,fig4 #a7 #aj #i #bc #da ,no4 #b 7,fig4 #c7 #aj #ab #bg #dh ,no4 #c 7,fig4 #b7 #aa #i #bc #db ,no4 #d;,a #i #i #bj #cg ,no4 #e;,a #ab #aa #bi #ea ,no4 #f;,b #i #i #bj #cg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,a ,schoolcraft3 ,notes on ,iroquois1 p4 #bcc4 ,b ,from sketch by ,mr4 ,beauchamp4 ,the central circlet having been counted with each arm of the cross1 the total number of circlets in each specimen will be one less than the sum of the three columns4 ,these circlets may be numerals4 ,the design may be significant of some rank1 the badge of a secret order1 or the totem of a clan4 ,the general arrangement of the figures upon the face of these disks suggests an incipient calendar4 ,these beads are doubtless ,american in origin1 as nothing of a similar form1 so far as ,i can learn1 occurs in ,european countries4 ,the fact that they are found in widely separated localities indicates that they were probably used in trade since the advent of the whites4 ,this is possibly some form of bead held in high esteem by tribes of the ,atlantic coast when first encountered by the whites who have taken up its manufacture for purposes of trade4 ,,beads ,,as ,,ornaments4 ,i have already spoken casually of the use of beads for personal ornament1 but it will probably be better to enlarge a little upon the subject at this point4 ,beads are generally found in the graves of ancient peoples in a loose or disconnected state1 the strings on which they were secured having long since decayed4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 with certainty1 restore the ancient necklaces and other composite ornaments2 but we can form some idea of their character by a study of the objects of which they were made and the positions held by these objects at the period of exhumation4 ,much can also be learned by a study of the ornaments of modern peoples in similar stages of culture4 ,as a rule1 the combinations in the pendant ornaments of the ancient ,american seem to have been quite simple4 ,being without glass1 and practically without metals1 they had few of the resources of the modern savage4 ,their tastes were simple and congruous1 not having been disturbed by the debasing influence of foreign innovation1 which is the cause of so much that is tawdry and incongruous in the art of modern barbarians4 ,a curious example of a modern necklace is given by ,professor ,haldeman1#fe who had in his possession an ,abyssinian necklace composed of ,european beads1 cowries 7,cyprea shell71 a triangular plate of glass1 two small copper coins1 small spheric brass buttons1 cornelian1 date-seeds1 numerous cloves pierced through the sides1 a fragment of wood1 a bit of cane1 and an ,arab phylactery4 ,something can be learned of the practices of the ancient ,americans in the use of beads and pendant ornaments generally1 by a study of the remains of their paintings and sculptures--such1 for instance1 as may be found in the ,goldsborough manuscripts or the superb lithographs of ,waldeck1 examples of which are given in ,plate ,,xlv4 ,in a number of cases necklaces of the mound-builders have been found upon the necks of skeletons1 just as they were placed at the time of burial4 ,captain ,atwater in describing the contents of a mound at ,marietta1 ,ohio1 makes the statement that on the breast of a skeleton lay a stone ornament1 with two perforations1 one near each end1 through which passed a string1 by means of which it was suspended around the wearer's neck4 ,on the string1 which was made of sinew1 and very much injured by time1 were placed a great many beads made of ivory or bone4#ff ,a similar necklace is described by ,mr4 ,matson1 in the ,ohio ,centennial ,report1 p4 #abg4 ,it was found on the skeleton of a little girl1 and was so made as to be larger in the center of the neck in front1 tapering almost to a point at the middle of the back4 ,on page #abi of the same volume much more varied uses of bead ornaments are suggested4 ,mr4 ,matson describes four skeletons1 on each of which shell beads were found4 ,in three cases they had been placed about the neck only2 in the fourth1 nearly thirty yards of beads had been used4 ,there were four strands about the neck1 crossing over on the breast and back and passing down between the legs4 ,strings passed down the legs to the feet1 and were also found along the arms and around the wrists4 ,the arrangement of the various parts of a necklace or string of pendants is found to be much alike the world over1 consisting of a strand of beads1 small toward the ends and increasing in size toward the middle1 where a central bead or pendant of peculiar form or unusual size is placed4 ,the practices of modern barbarians in the employment of beads as ornaments are extremely varied4 ,they are employed in dressing the hair1 in head-dresses and plumes1 and pendants to these2 as pendants to the hair1 ears1 nose1 and lips2 as necklaces and bracelets2 as belts for the waist and sashes to be thrown across the shoulders2 and as anklets and pendent ornaments to all parts of the costume4 ,father ,rasles1 writing of the ,abnaki ,indians of ,canada in #agbc1 says3 ,if you wish to see him in all his finery1 you will find he has no other ornaments but beads2 these are a kind of shell or stone1 which they form into the shape of little grains1 some white and others black1 which they string together in such a way as to represent different showy figures with great exactness4 ,it is with these beads that our ,indians bind up and plait their hair on their ears and behind2 they make of them pendants for the ears1 collars1 garters1 large sashes of five or six inches in breadth1 and on these kinds of ornaments they pride themselves much more than a ,european would on all his gold and jewelry4#fg ,it is related of the ,new ,england ,indians that more than a hundred years ago1 they hung strings of money about their necks and wrists1 as also upon the necks and wrists of their wives and children4 ,they also curiously make girdles1 of one1 two1 three1 four1 and five inches thickness1 and more1 of this money2 which1 sometimes1 to the value of ten pounds or more1 they wear about their middle1 and as a scarf about their shoulders and breasts4 ,yea1 the princes make rich caps and aprons1 or small breeches of these beads1 thus curiously strung into many forms and figures2 their black and white finely mixed together4#fh ,it is further recorded that the ,new ,england ,indians wore ear-rings and nose-jewels2 bracelets on their arms and legs1 rings on their fingers1 necklaces made of highly polished shells found in their rivers and on their coasts4 ,the females tied up their hair behind1 worked bands round their heads and ornamented them with shells and feathers1 and wore strings of beads round several parts of their bodies4 ,round their moccasins they had shells and turkey spurs1 to tinkle like little bells as they walked4#fi ,the ,indian women of the ,new ,netherlands also gave great attention to personal decoration4 ,one writer states that they ornamented the lower border of their skirts with great art1 and nestle the same with strips1 which are tastefully decorated with wampum4 ,the wampum with which one of these skirts is ornamented is frequently worth from one to three hundred guilders4 99 99 99 ,their head-dress forms a handsome and lively appearance4 ,around their necks they wear various ornaments1 which are also decorated with wampum4 ,those they esteem as highly as our ladies do their pearl necklaces4 ,they also wear bead hand-bands1 or bracelets1 curiously wrought1 and interwoven with wampum4 ,their breasts appear about half covered with an elegantly wrought dress4 ,they wear beautiful girdles1 ornamented with their favorite wampum1 and costly ornaments in their ears4#gj ,smith states1 in writing of ,powhatan1 that he found him reclining proudly upon a ,bedstead a foote high1 upon tenne or twelve ,mattes1 richly hung with manie ,chaynes of great ,pearles1 about his necke1 and covered with a great ,couvering of ,rahaughcums1#ga and the young women who surrounded him wore a great ,chaine of white ,beades over their shoulders4#gb ,the following is from ,wood1 whose quaint and graphic descriptions of the ,new ,england ,indians are always interesting3 ,but a ,sagamore with a ,humberd in his eare for a pendant1 a black hawk on his occiput for his plume1 ,mowhackees for his gold chaine1 a good store of ,wampompeage begirting his loynes1 his bow in his hand1 his quiver at his back1 with six naked ,indian spatterlashes at his heels for his guard1 thinkes himselfe little inferior to the great ,cham2 he will not stick to say he is all one with ,king ,charles4 ,hee thinkes hee can blow down ,castles with his breath and conquer kingdomes with his conceit4#gc ,du ,pratz1 in speaking of the ,louisiana ,indians1 says3 ,the women's ear-rings are made of the center part of a large shell called bingo1 which is about the thickness of one's little finger1 and there is a hole in the ear about that size for holding it4#gd ,lewis and ,clark found the ,shoshone ,indians of the ,upper ,missouri using shells of the pearl oyster to decorate the collars of their fur tippets4 ,the children wore beads around their necks2 grown persons suspended them in little bunches from the ears1 and the collars of the men were formed either of sea-shells from the southwest or from twisted grass with porcupine quills4#ge ,among the ,carrier ,indians of the ,northwest both sexes perforate their noses1 and from them the men often suspend an ornament consisting of a piece of an oyster shell or a small piece of brass or copper4 ,the women1 particularly those who are young1 run a wooden pin through their noses1 upon each end of which they fix a kind of shell bead1 which is about an inch and a half long1 and nearly the size of the stem of a common clay pipe4 ,these beads they obtain from their neighbors1 the ,at-e-ns1 who purchase them from another tribe that is said to take them from the sea-shore1 where they are reported to be found in plenty4 ,it is also stated of the same ,indians that the young women and girls wear a parcel of ,european beads1 strung together and tied to a lock of hair directly behind each ear4 ,the men have a sort of collar of the shell beads already mentioned1 which they wind about their heads or throw around their necks4#gf ,the absurd extreme to which this passion for ornament is carried is well illustrated by an example given by ,swan1 who1 speaking of the tribes north of the ,columbia ,river1 says that some of these girls ,i have seen with the whole rim of their ears bored full of holes1 into each of which would be inserted a string of these shells that reached to the floor1 and the whole weighing so heavy that1 to save their ears from being pulled off1 they were obliged to wear a band across the top of the head4#gg ,when1 however1 beads are found in the graves in quantity1 by thousands or tens of thousands1 we shall probably have to attribute to them other than ornamental uses4 ,captain ,tom1 of the ,nishinam tribe of ,california1 according to ,powers1#gh had nearly a half bushel of shell beads and trinkets4 ,one string of these1 worn by his wife on special occasions1 contained sixteen hundred pieces2 but these treasures were hoarded because of their value as money rather than as ornaments4 ,the wampum belts used by many of the tribes of ,indians are known to contain enormous numbers of beads4 ,one of the historical belts kept by the ,onondagas among their treasures contains nearly ten thousand beads4 ,the famous belt of ,william ,penn has about three thousand4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 in his ,prehistoric ,times1 expresses surprise at the great number of beads sometimes found1 instancing the ,grave ,creek mound of ,virginia1 which contained between three and four thousand4 ,this number will1 however1 appear very insignificant when compared with a collection such as the costume of the great ,king ,philip could have furnished4 ,drake relates that ,philip had a coat made all of wampampeag1 which1 when in need of money1 he cuts to pieces1 and distributes it plentifully among the ,nipmoog sachems and others1 as well to the eastward as southward1 and all round about4#gi ,by adding to this store of beads the contents of two belts1 one of which was nine inches in breadth1 and so long that when placed upon the shoulders it reached to the ankles1 we conclude that the greatest collection ever taken from a prehistoric mound could not compare for a moment with the treasure of this one historic chieftain4 ,a great deal of art is shown in the stringing and mounting of beads4 ,the simplest form is a single strand1 a twisted string of vegetable fiber1 a strip of buckskin1 or a bit of sinew being passed through the perforations4 ,again1 rows of strands are placed side by side and fastened at intervals in such a manner as to keep them approximately parallel1 or the beads when long are put on equidistant cross strands1 the longitudinal strands serving to keep them in place2 they are also woven into the fabric by being mounted upon one of the strands before twisting4 ,it is also a very usual practice to sew them on strips of cloth or buckskin1 patterns being produced by using beads of different colors4 ,the manner of stringing in the manufacture of belts will be given in detail under ,mnemonic ,uses of ,beads4 ,,beads ,,as ,,currency4 ,it will probably be impossible to prove that the prehistoric peoples of ,north ,america employed a medium of exchange in a manner corresponding to our use of money4 ,it is a well-known fact1 however1 that a currency of shell beads was in general use throughout the ,atlantic coast region very early in the historic period4 ,of all objects within the reach of savage peoples1 shells1 either in their natural forms or in fragments artificially fashioned for convenience of use1 are the best adapted for such a purpose4 ,in examining the contents of ancient cemeteries and mounds where all objects of value were to some extent deposited1 we find no other relics that could have been conveniently used for such a purpose4 ,it is not probable that objects subject to rapid decay1 such as wood1 fruits1 and seeds1 could ever have come into general use for money1 although such objects are employed to some extent by savages in different parts of the world4 ,the unlimited supply or easy manufacture of these objects would be against their use for this purpose1 whereas the difficulty of shaping and perforating the flinty substance of shells would prevent such a plentiful production as to destroy the standard of value4 ,objects and substances having a fairly uniform value1 resulting from their utilitarian attributes1 have been employed by primitive peoples as standards of value2 as1 for instance1 cattle1 in ancient ,rome2 salt1 in ,assyria2 tin1 in ,britain1 and cocoa1 in ,mexico4 ,but such mediums of exchange are local in use4 ,with these articles this function is only accidental4 ,the utilization of shells for money would naturally originate from the trade arising from their use as utensils and ornaments in districts remote from the source of supply4 ,yielding in the worked state a limited supply1 and at the same time filling a constant demand1 they formed a natural currency1 their universal employment for purposes of ornament giving them a fixed and uniform value4 ,they have undoubtedly been greatly prized by the ancient peoples1 but on the part of the open-handed savage they were probably valued more as personal ornaments than as a means of gratifying avaricious propensities4 ,lewis ,h4 ,morgan1 who had access to all the sources of information on the subject1 says that wampum has frequently been called the money of the ,indian2 but there is no sufficient reason for supposing that they ever made it an exclusive currency1 or a currency in any sense1 more than silver or other ornaments4 ,all personal ornaments1 and most other articles of personal property1 passed from hand to hand at a fixed value2 but they appear to have had no common standard of value until they found it in our currency4 ,if wampum had been their currency it would have had a settled value1 to which all other articles would have been referred4 ,there is no doubt that it came nearer to a currency than any other species of property among them1 because its uses were so general1 and its transit from hand to hand so easy1 that everyone could be said to need it4 ,yet he admits that the use of wampum reaches back to a remote period upon this continent2 and further1 that it was an original ,indian notion which prevailed among the ,iriquois as early at least as the formation of the ,league4 ,he goes on to state that the primitive wampum of the ,iriquois consisted of strings of a small fresh-water spiral shell called in the ,seneca dialect ,ote ko-1 the name of which has been bestowed upon the modern wampum4#hj ,loskiel says that before the ,europeans came to ,north ,america1 the ,indians used to make strings of wampom chiefly of small pieces of wood of equal size1 stained either black or white4 ,few were made of muscle1 which were esteemed very valuable and difficult to make2 for1 not having proper tools1 they spent much time in finishing them1 and yet their work had a clumsy appearance4#ha ,hutchinson is of the opinion that the ,indians resident northeastward of the province of ,new ,york had originally no knowledge of this sort of money or medium of trade4#hb ,the great body of our historical evidence goes to show1 however1 that a currency of shell was in use among the ,atlantic coast tribes when first encountered by the ,europeans4 ,thomas ,morton1 in speaking of the ,indians of ,new ,england as far back as #afcj1 says that they have a kinde of beads in steede of money to buy withal such things as they want1 which they call wampampeak2 and it is of two sorts1 the one is white and the other is a violet coloure4 ,these are made of the shells of fishe2 the white with them is as silver with us1 the other as our gould1 and for these beads they buy and sell1 not only amongst themselves1 but even with us4 ,we have used to sell them any of our commodities for this wampampeak1 because we know we can have beaver again from them for it3 and these beads are current in all parts of ,new ,england1 from one end of the coast to the other1 and although some have endeavoured by example to have the like made1 of the same kinde of shels1 yet none has ever1 as yet1 obtained to any perfection in the composure of them1 but the ,savages have found a great difference to be in the one and the other2 and have knowne the counterfett beads from those of their owne making and doe slight them4#hc ,according to ,roger ,williams also1 the ,indians of ,new ,england1 as far back as his observations extend1 were engaged in the manufacture of shell money as a well-established industry4 ,it seems altogether impossible that such a custom should have been successfully introduced by the ,english1 as the ,indian is well known to be averse to anything like labor excepting in his traditional occupations of war and the chase1 and if the whites had introduced it1 would certainly have looked to them for a supply by means of trade in skins and game rather than apply himself to a new and strange art4 ,roger ,williams says that they that live upon the ,sea side generally make of it1 and as many as they will4 ,the ,indians bring downe all their sorts of ,furs1 which they take in the countrey1 both to the ,indians and to the ,english for this ,indian ,money3 this ,money the ,english1 ,french and ,dutch1 trade to the ,indians1 six hundred miles in severall ports 7north and south from ,new ,england7 for their ,furres1 and whatsoever they stand in need of from them4 ,their methods were also aboriginal1 another indication that the art was not of ,european introduction2 and ,williams states that before ever they had awle blades from ,europe1 they made shift to bore their shell money with stones4#hd ,that wampum was also manufactured farther south we learn from ,lindstrm1 who is writing of the ,indians of ,new ,sweden3 ,their money is made of shells1 white1 black1 and red1 worked into beads1 and neatly turned and smoothed2 one person1 however1 cannot make more in a day than the value of six or eight stivers4 ,when these beads are worn out1 so that they cannot be strung neatly1 and even on one thread1 they no longer consider them good4 ,their way of stringing them is to rub the whole thread full of them on their noses2 if they find it slides smooth and even1 like glass beads1 then they are considered good1 otherwise they break and throw them away4#he ,although ,beverly did not write until the beginning of the eighteenth century1 his statements are probably based upon accurate information4 ,speaking of the ,virginia ,indians1 he says that they had nothing which they reckoned riches before the ,english went among them1 except ,peak1 ,roenoke1 and such-like trifles made out of the ,cunk ,shell4 ,these past with them instead of ,gold and ,silver1 and serv'd them both for ,money and ,ornament4 ,it was the ,english alone that taught them first to put a value on their ,skins and ,furs1 and to make a ,trade of them4#hf ,from ,lawson1 who wrote in #agad1 but whose statements deserve consideration1 we also learn that the money of the ,carolina ,indians is all made of shells which are found on the coast of ,carolina1 which are very large and hard so that they are very difficult to cut4 ,some ,english smiths have tried to drill this sort of shell-money1 and thereby thought to get an advantage2 but it proved so hard that nothing could be gained4#hg ,speaking of its use and value in ,new ,york1 he remarks that an ,englishman could not afford to make so much of this wampum for five or ten times the value2 for it is made out of a vast great shell1 of which that country affords plenty2 where it is ground smaller than the small end of a tobacco pipe1 or a large wheat straw4 99 99 99 ,this the ,indians grind on stones and other things until they make it current1 but the drilling is the most difficult to the ,englishman1 which the ,indians manage with a nail stuck in a cane or reed4 ,thus they roll it continually on their thighs with their right hand1 holding the bit of shell with their left2 so1 in time1 they drill a hole quite through it which is a very tedious work2 but especially in making their ronoak1 four of which will scarce make one length of wampum4 ,the ,indians are a people that never value their time1 so that they can afford to make them1 and never need to fear the ,english will take the trade out of their hands4 ,this is the money with which you may buy skins1 furs1 slaves1 or anything the ,indians have2 it being their mammon 7as our money is to us7 that entices and persuades them to do anything1 and part with everything they possess1 except their children for slaves4 ,as for their wives1 they are often sold and their daughters violated for it4 ,with this they buy off murders2 and whatsoever a man can do that is ill1 this wampum will quit him of and make him1 in their opinion1 good and virtuous1 though never so black before4#hh ,adair confirms the statements made by these writers1 and adds emphasis to the fact that the shell beads had1 among the ,cherokees and other southern ,indians1 a fixed value as currency4 ,with these they bought and sold at a stated current rate1 without the least variation for circumstances either of time or place2 and now they will hear nothing patiently of loss or gain1 or allow us to heighten the price of our goods1 be our reasons ever so strong1 or though the exigencies and changes of time may require it4#hi ,we find plentiful evidence in the stories of the early ,spanish adventurers that beads made from sea shells were held in high esteem by the ,indians of the south1 but1 so far as ,i am aware1 there is no statement indicating that they formed a well-regulated medium of exchange4 ,in regard to the manufacture of wampum by the whites1 the following quotations will be instructive3 ,many people at ,albany make the wampum of the ,indians1 which is their ornament and their money1 by grinding some kinds of shells and muscles2 this is a considerable profit to the inhabitants4#ij ,besides the ,europeans1 many of the native ,indians come annually down to the sea shore1 in order to catch clams1 proceeding with them afterwards in the manner ,i have just described4 ,the shells of these clams are used by the ,indians as money1 and make what they call their wampum3 they likewise serve their women as an ornament1 when they intend to appear in full dress4 ,these wampums are properly made of the purple parts of the shells1 which the ,indians value more than the white parts4 ,a traveller1 who goes to trade with the ,indians1 and is well stocked with them1 may become a considerable gainer2 but if he take gold coin1 or bullion1 he will undoubtedly be a loser2 for the ,indians1 who live farther up the country1 put little or no value upon these metals which we reckon so precious1 as ,i have frequently observed in the course of my travels4 ,the ,indians formerly made their own wampums1 though not without a deal of trouble3 but at present the ,europeans employ themselves that way2 especially the inhabitants of ,albany1 who get a considerable profit by it4 ,in the sequel ,i intend to relate the manner of making wampum4#ia ,the article was highly prized as an ornament1 and as such constituted an article of trafic between the sea-coast and the interior tribes4 99 99 99 ,the old wampum was made by hand1 and was an exceedingly rude article4 ,after the discovery1 the ,dutch introduced the lathe in its manufacture1 polished and perforated it with exactness1 and soon had the monopoly of the trade4 ,the principal place of its manufacture was at ,hackensak1 in ,new ,jersey4 ,the principal deposit of sea shells was ,long ,island1 where the extensive shell banks left by the ,indians1 on which it is difficult to find a whole shell1 show the immense quantities that were manufactured4#ib ,the name wampum is often applied to shell beads indiscriminately1 but frequently has a more restricted significance1 referring to the small cylindrical varieties used in strings and belts4 ,it was known first in ,new ,england as wampumpeag1 wampompeage1 peag1 wompam and wampum2 the ,dutch of ,new ,sweden knew it as seawan1 sewant1 and seawant1 while on the ,virginia coast1 it was called peak1 a roughly made discoidal variety being known as ronoak or roenoke1 and heavy flattish beads pierced edgeways were called runtees4 ,it is probable that all of these names are ,american in origin1 although there is some difference of opinion as to their derivation4 ,loskiel says that wampom is an ,iroquois word meaning muscle1 but according to ,morgan1 who is probably the best modern authority on this subject1 the word wampum is not ,iroquois in origin but ,algonkin1 as it was first known in ,new ,england as wampumpeage4 ,roger ,williams1 speaking of the money of the ,new ,england ,indians1 probably the ,narragansetts 7,algonkin71 says that their white they call ,wompam 7which signifies white72 their black ,suckanhock 7,scki1 signifying black74 ,in another place he gives the word wompi for white4 ,wood mentions two varieties of beads known in ,new ,england wampompeage and mowhackees4 ,the latter is probably derived from mowsu1 which1 according to ,williams1 also signifies black4 ,it would seem that we have but little evidence of the ancient use of shell money amongst the tribes of the ,mississippi ,valley or the ,pacific coast2 yet we are not without proofs that it came into use at a very early date throughout the entire ,west1 and even today the custom is by no means obsolete4 ,the ancient burial places of the ,pacific coast are found to contain large quantities of beads precisely similar to those now used as money by the coast tribes4 ,lewis and ,clark1 speaking of traffic among the ,indians of the ,columbia ,river1 state that shell beads are held in very high esteem by these people1 and that to procure them they will sacrifice their last article of clothing or their last mouthful of food4 ,independently of their fondness for them as an ornament these beads are the medium of trade by which they obtain from the ,indians still higher up the river1 robes1 skins1 chappeled bread1 bear grass4#ic ,the ,dentalium shell has always been the favorite currency of the peoples of the ,northwest and is highly valued1 especially by the inland tribes4 ,it is frequently found in ancient graves at great distances from the sea-shore4 ,a few specimens have been found in burial places in the ,ohio ,valley1 but we have no means of determining the source from which they were derived4 ,as the modern use of this currency has but little archologic interest1 ,i will not enlarge upon the subject here4 ,for further information the reader is referred to the following authors3 ,j4 ,k4 ,lord1 ,the ,naturalist in ,british ,columbia1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bj to #bf2 ,r4 ,e4 ,c4 ,stearns in the ,american ,naturalist1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,no4 #a1 and in proceedings of the ,california ,academy of ,sciences1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #aac2 ,w4 ,h4 ,pratt in proceedings of the ,davenport ,academy of ,natural ,sciences1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,part ,i1 p4 #ch2 and ,stephen ,powers in ,vol4 #c1 ,contributions to ,north ,american ,ethnology1 pp4 #ba1 #bd1 #cj4 ,,mnemonic ,,use ,,of ,,beads4 ,one of the most remarkable customs practiced by the ,american ,indians is found in the mnemonic use of wampum4 ,this custom had in it a germ of great promise1 one which must in time have become a powerful agent in the evolution of art and learning4 ,it was a nucleus about which all the elements of culture could arrange themselves4 ,i shall not at present undertake to divest the custom of adventitious features such as have been introduced by contact with ,european influence4 ,yet there is no reason to fear that any of the important or essential features have been derived from outside sources4 ,it is not possible from any known records to demonstrate the great antiquity of this use of wampum4 ,it does not seem probable1 however1 that a custom so unique and so wide-spread could have grown up within the historic period2 nor is it probable that a practice foreign to the genius of tradition-loving races could have become so well established and so dear to their hearts in a few generations4 ,mnemonic records are known to have come into use among many nations at a very early stage of culture4 ,picture writing as developed in the north is but another form of mnemonic record1 a fact1 a thought1 a verse of a song being associated with an ideographic design1 more or less suggestive of the subject4 ,the ,peruvians had their quipus1 in which the record was made by associating things to be remembered with knots made in cords of different colors1 each combination having a fixed association4 ,the ,mexicans had gone further and had achieved a system of picture writing that was very unique and curious1 in which a phonetic element had already made its appearance1 while the ,mayas could boast the discovery of a true phonetic system with an alphabet of twenty-seven sounds4 ,the mnemonic use of wampum is one which1 ,i imagine1 might readily develop from the practice of gift giving and the exchange of tokens of friendship1 such mementos being preserved for future reference as reminders of promises of assistance or protection4 ,in time the use of such mementos would develop into a system capable of recording affairs of varied and complicated nature2 particular facts or features of treaties would be assigned to particular objects1 or portions of objects4 ,with this much accomplished1 but one step was necessary to the attainment of a hieroglyphic system--the permanent association of a single object or sign with a particular idea4 ,the wampum records of the ,iroquois were generally in the form of belts1 the beads being strung or woven into patterns formed by the use of different colors4 ,by association simply they were made to record history1 laws1 treaties1 and speeches--a fact1 a law1 a stipulation1 or a declaration being talked into a particular part or pattern of the design with which it was ever afterwards associated1 thus giving additional permanency to tradition and bringing it one step further forward in the direction of written records4 ,such records were1 of course1 quite useless without the agency of an interpreter4 ,among the ,iroquois1 according to ,morgan1 one of the ,onondaga sachems was made hereditary keeper of wampum1 whose duty it was to be thoroughly versed in its interpretation4 ,but knowledge of the contents of these records was not confined to the keeper1 or even to the sachems4 ,at a certain season each year the belts were taken from the treasure-house and exposed to the whole tribe1 while the history and import of each was publicly recited4 ,this custom is kept up to the present day4 ,it is recorded by ,ruttenber that among the ,mohicans a certain sachem had charge of the bag of peace which contained the wampum belts and strings used in establishing peace and friendship with the different nations4#id ,aside from records wampum was used in the form of strings and belts for a variety of purposes2 some of them were probably mnemonic1 others only partially so1 being based either upon its association with the name of some chief or clan1 or upon a semi-sacred character resulting from its important uses4 ,it was employed in summoning councils1 and the messenger who journeyed from tribe to tribe found in it a well recognized passport4 ,when a council was called it was presented by the delegates from the various tribes as their credentials2 it was used in the ceremony of opening and closing councils1 as was also the calumet2 it assisted in solemnizing oaths and in absolving from them2 white1 it was a messenger of peace2 black1 it threatened war1 and covered with clay1 it expressed grief4 ,white wampum was the ,iroquois emblem of purity and faith1 it was hung around the neck of the white dog before it was burned2 it was used before the periodical religious festivals for the confession of sins1 no confession being regarded as sincere unless recorded with white wampum2 further than this1 it was the customary offering in condonation of murder1 although the purple was sometimes employed4 ,six strings was the value of a life1 or the quantity sent in condonation1 for the wampum was rather sent as a regretful confession of the crime1 with a petition for forgiveness1 than as the actual price of blood4#ie ,we readily recognize the influence of the ,christian missionary in a number of these symbolic uses of wampum4 ,the literature of wampum would fill a volume1 but ,i forbear presenting more than will give an outline of the subject1 confining myself to such quotations as will serve to show clearly the extent and importance of this ancient custom and its attendant practices4 ,the method of handling the belts of wampum in the presence of ceremonial assemblies is extremely interesting1 and cannot be better presented than in the words of eye-witnesses4 ,the following is quoted from ,brice1 who is describing a council held in the ,muskingum ,valley in #agfd3 ,an ,indian council1 on solemn occasions1 was always opened with preliminary forms1 sufficiently wearisome and tedious1 but made indispensable by immemorial custom1 for this people are as much bound by their conventional usages as the most artificial children of civilization4 ,the forms were varied1 to some extent1 according to the imagination of the speaker1 but in all essential respects they were closely similar throughout the tribes of the ,algonkin and ,iroquois lineage4 ,they run somewhat as follows1 each sentence being pronounced with great solemnity1 and confirmed by the delivery of a wampum belt3 ',brothers1 with this belt ,i open your ears that you may hear2 ,i remove grief and sorrow from your hearts2 ,i draw from your feet the thorns that pierced them as you journeyed thither2 ,i clean the seats of the council-house1 that you may sit at ease2 ,i wash your head and body1 that your spirits may be refreshed2 ,i condole with you on the loss of the friends who have died since we last met2 ,i wipe out any blood which may have been spilt between us4' ,this ceremony1 which1 by the delivery of so many belts of wampum1 entailed no small expense1 was never used except on the most important occasions2 and at the councils with ,colonel ,bouquet the angry warriors seem wholly to have dispensed with it4 99 99 99 ,and his memory was refreshed by belts of wampum1 which he delivered after every clause in his harangue1 as a pledge of the sincerity and truth of his words4 ,these belts were carefully preserved by the hearers as a substitute for written records1 a use for which they were the better adapted1 as they were often worked in hieroglyphics expressing the meaning they were designed to preserve4 ,thus at a treaty of peace the principal belt often bore the figure of an ,indian and a white man holding a chain between them4#if ,from an account of a council held by the ,five ,nations at ,onondaga nearly two hundred years ago1 to which the governor of ,canada sent four representatives1 ,i make the following extract3 ,during the course of the proceedings ,cannehoot1 a ,seneca sachem1 presented a proposed treaty between the ,wagunhas and the ,senecas1 speaking as follows3 ',we come to join the two bodies into one4 99 99 99 ,we come to learn wisdom of the ,senecas 7giving a belt74 ,we by this belt wipe away the tears from the eyes of your friends1 whose relations have been killed in the war4 ,we likewise wipe the paint from your soldiers' faces 7giving a second belt74 ,we throw aside the ax which ,yonondio put into our hands by this third belt4' ,a red marble sun is presented--a pipe made of red marble4 ',yonondio is drunk2 we wash our hands clean from his actions 7giving a fourth belt74 99 99 99 ,we have twelve of your nation prisoners2 they shall be brought home in the spring 7giving a belt to confirm the promise74 ,we will bring your prisoners home when the strawberries shall be in blossom1 at which time we intend to visit ,corlear 7the governor of ,new ,york71 and see the place where wampum is made4' ,the belts were accepted by the ,five ,nations1 and their acceptance was a ratification of the treaty4 ,a large belt was also given to the messengers from ,albany as their share4 ,a wampum belt sent from ,albany was1 in the same manner1 hung up and afterwards divided4#ig ,this indicates a most extravagant use of belts2 but since it is probable that as many were received in return this was a matter of little importance4 ,the great profusion of wampum used in some of the later treaties is a matter of surprise4 ,in a council held between four ,indian ambassadors from ,new ,england and the ,french thirty-six fine large belts were given by the ambassadors to thank them that their people had not been treated with hostility4#ih ,the appendix to the second volume of ,proud's ,history of ,pennsylvania contains the journals of ,frederick ,christian ,post1 who was sent by ,governor ,denny1 in #ageh1 to make a treaty with the ,alleghany ,indians2 and in delivering the governor's answer to the chiefs1 on his second visit in the same year1 after proposing to them to unite in a treaty of peace which had lately been concluded with the ,indians at ,easton1 and producing sundry belts1 one of which was marked with figures representing the ,english and the ,indians delivering the peace-belt to one of the commissioners1 he proceeds to say3 ',brethren on the ,ohio1 if you take the belts we just now gave you1 as we do not doubt you will1 then by this belt'--producing another and using their figurative style of speech--',i make a road for you1 and invite you to come to ,philadelphia1 to your first old council-fire1 which we rekindle up again1 and remove disputes1 and renew the first old treaties of friendship4 ,this is a clear and open road for you2 therefore1 fear nothing1 and come to us with as many as can be of the ,delawares1 ,shawanese1 or the ,six ,nations2 we will be glad to see you2 we desire all tribes and nations of ,indians who are in alliance with you may come4' ,whereupon a large white belt1 with the figure of a man at each end and streaks of black representing the road from the ,ohio to ,philadelphia1 was then given to them4#ii ,lafitau1 whose statements are considered unusually trustworthy1 as they were based chiefly on personal observation of the ,indian tribes of ,canada1 gives the following very instructive account of the mnemonic use of wampum3 ,all affairs are conducted by means of branches strings and necklaces belts of porcelain wampum which with them take the place of compacts1 written agreements1 and contracts4 99 99 99 ,the shell1 which is used for affairs of state1 is worked into little cylinders of a quarter of an inch in length and large in proportion4 ,they are distributed in two ways1 in strings and in belts4 ,the strings are composed of cylinders threaded without order one after another1 like the beads of a rosary2 the beads are usually quite white1 and are used for affairs of little consequence1 or as a preparation for other more considerable presents4#ajj ,the belts are large bands1 in which little white and purple cylinders are disposed in rows1 and tied down with small thongs of leather1 which makes a very neat fabric4 ,the length and size and color are proportioned to the importance of the affair4 ,the usual belts are of eleven rows of a hundred and eighty beads each4 ,the 'fisk1' or public treasure1 consists principally of these belts1 which1 as ,i have said1 with them1 take the place of contracts1 of public acts1 and of annals or registers4 ,for the savages1 having no writing or letters1 and therefore finding themselves soon forgetting the transactions that occur among them from time to time1 supply this deficiency by making for themselves a local memory by means of words which they attach to these belts1 of which each one refers to some particular affair1 or some circumstance1 which it represents while it exists4 ,they are so much consecrated to this use that besides the name ,gaonni1 which is their name for the kind of belts most used1 they bestow that of ,garihona1 which means a transaction2 that of ,gaouenda1 voice or word1 and of ,gaianderenfera1 which means grandeur or nobility2 because all the affairs dignified by these belts are the endowment and province of the agoanders or nobles4 ,it is they who furnish them2 and it is among them that they are redivided when presents are made to the village1 and when replies to the belts of their ambassadors are sent4 ,the agoanders and the ancients have1 besides this1 the custom of looking over them often together1 and of dividing among themselves the care of noting certain ones1 which are particularly assigned to them2 so that in this way they do not forget anything4 ,their wampum would soon be exhausted if it did not circulate2 but in almost all affairs1 either within or without1 the law requires a reply1 word for word1 that is to say1 for one belt one must give another1 to be of about the same value1 observing1 however1 a slight difference in the number of beads1 which must be proportioned to the rank of the persons or nations with which they treat4 ,they do not believe that any transaction can be concluded without these belts4 ,whatever proposition is made to them1 or reply given them1 by word of mouth alone1 the affair falls through1 they say1 and they let it fall through very effectually1 as though there had been no question about it4 ,europeans little informed or little concerned about their usages have slightly inconvenienced them on this point in retaining their belts without giving them a similar response4 ,to avoid the inconvenience which might arise from this they acquired the style of giving only a small quantity1 excusing themselves on the plea that their wampum was exhausted2 and they supplied the rest with packages of deer-skin1 in return for which they were given trinkets of small value1 so that transactions between the ,europeans and them have become a sort of trade4 ,although all the savage nations of ,america make various kinds of ornaments of shells1 ,i believe that it is only those of ,north ,america who employ them in transactions4 ,i cannot even affirm that all of these do4#aja ,a very complete account of wampum is given by ,loskiel1 from whose work the following extract is made3 ,four or six strings joined in one breadth1 and fastened to each other with fine thread1 make a belt of wampom1 being about three or four inches wide1 and three feet long1 containing1 perhaps1 four1 eight1 or twelve fathom of wampom1 in proportion to its required length and breadth4 ,this is determined by the importance of the subject which these belts are intended either to explain or confirm1 or by the dignity of the persons to whom they are to be delivered4 ,everything of moment transacted at solemn councils1 either between the ,indians themselves or with ,europeans1 is ratified and made valid by strings and belts of wampom4 ,formerly1 they used to give sanction to their treaties by delivering a wing of some large bird2 and this custom still prevails among the more western nations1 in transacting business with the ,delawares4 ,but the ,delawares themselves1 the ,iroquois1 and the nations in league with them1 are now sufficiently provided with handsome and well-wrought strings and belts of wampom4 ,upon the delivery of a string1 a long speech may be made and much said upon the subject under consideration1 but when a belt is given few words are spoken2 but they must be words of great importance1 frequently requiring an explanation4 ,whenever the speaker has pronounced some important sentence1 he delivers a string of wampom1 adding1 ',i give this string of wampom as a confirmation of what ,i have spoken'2 but the chief subject of his discourse he confirms with a belt4 ,the answers given to a speech thus delivered must also be confirmed by strings and belts of wampom1 of the same size and number as those received4 ,neither the colour nor the other qualities of wampom are a matter of indifference1 but have an immediate reference to those things which they are meant to confirm4 ,the brown or deep violet1 called black by the ,indians1 always means something of severe or doubtful import2 but the white is the colour of peace4 ,thus1 if a string or belt of wampom is intended to confirm a warning against evil1 or an earnest reproof1 it is delivered in black4 ,when a nation is called upon to go to war1 or war declared against it1 the belt is black1 or marked with red1 called by them1 the colour of blood1 having in the middle the figure of an hatchet in white wampom4 99 99 99 ,they refer to them as public records1 carefully preserving them in a chest made for that purpose4 ,at certain seasons they meet to study their meaning1 and to renew the ideas of which they were an emblem or confirmation4 ,on such occasions they sit down around the chest1 take out one string or belt after the other1 handing it about to every person present1 and that they may all comprehend its meaning1 repeat the words pronounced on its delivery in their whole convention4 ,by these means they are enabled to remember the promises reciprocally made by the different parties2 and it is their custom to admit even the young boys1 who are related to the chiefs1 to their assemblies2 they become early acquainted with all the affairs of the ,state2 thus the contents of their documents are transmitted to posterity1 and cannot be easily forgotten4#ajb ,it is to be presumed that if a treaty or a promise were broken1 the belt would be released from its office and in the same form1 or worked into another1 could again be used4 ,otherwise the records1 if properly kept1 would in time become extremely cumbersome4 ,the repudiation of a treaty and of the wampum which accompanied it is recorded by ,brice4 ,it was at a council held at ,miami1 in #agij1 between ,mr4 ,gamelin and a number of tribes4 ,mr4 ,gamelin in beginning his speech presented each nation with strings of wampum1 but the ,indians were displeased with the treaty1 and after consultation returned the wampum1 saying3 ',from all quarters we receive speeches from the ,americans and not one is alike4 ,we suppose that they intend to deceive us4 ,then take back your branches of wampum4' ,the ,pottawatomies were better pleased with the speeches and accepted the wampum4#ajc ,another good example which illustrates the manner of canceling treaties1 confirmed by wampum1 is given by ,mr4 ,gilpin3 ,when ,washington1 then but a youth of twenty-one1 was intrusted by the colonial governor of ,virginia with a mission to the western wilds of ,pennsylvania1 where the ,french from ,canada were then penetrating and had already established1 as was believed1 four posts within our limits and were seeking to unite the natives in alliance against us1 99 99 99 he found that such an alliance had indeed been formed4 ,he found that they had exchanged with the ,french1 as its symbol1 a wampum belt on which four houses were rudely embroidered--the representations of the posts which were to be defended1 even at the risk of war4 ,influenced by his remonstrances1 the ,indian sachems consented to withdraw from the alliance2 but they declared that the belt of wampum must be returned before the agreement could be abolished2 and one of the sachems repaired to the ,french commander in order to restore to him the token of the warlike compact1 and to proclaim the intention of the red men to take no part in the impending struggle4#ajd ,heckewelder relates that it once happened that war messengers endeavored to persuade and compel a nation to accept the belt by laying it on the shoulders or thigh of the chief1 who1 however1 after shaking it off without touching it with his hands1 afterwards1 with a stick1 threw it after them1 as if he threw a snake or toad out of his way4#aje ,it is remarkable that other objects were not more frequently used for mnemonic records4 ,we can only explain the partiality shown to wampum on the supposition that the idea of value was not entirely lost sight of and that importance was attached to a record which in itself merited preservation4 ,yet instances of the use of other objects are often met with4 ,parkman states that the figures on wampum belts of the ,iroquois were for the most part simply mnemonic4 ,so also were those carved in wooden tables1 or painted on bark or skin1 to preserve in memory the songs of war1 hunting1 or magic4#ajf ,at one of the councils at ,onondaga in #afij1 a treaty was pledged and recorded in wampum by all the contracting parties but the ,new ,england colonies1 which sent a wooden model of a fish as a token of their adherence to the terms of the treaty4#ajg ,hunter1 speaking of the manners and customs of the ,osages1 states that they use significant emblems1 such as the wing of the swan and wild goose1 wampum1 and pipes1 in overtures for peace1 while arrows1 war clubs1 and black and red painting1 are used as indications or declarations of war4 ,any article1 such as a skin painted black1 or the wing of a raven1 represents the death of friends1 and when colored or striped with red1 that of enemies4 ,amongst the ,canada ,indians when peace was conceded1 a reddened hatchet was buried as a symbol of the oblivion of all past hostility between the contracting parties4 ,a mutual exchange of neck ornaments sealed the treaty after its terms were debated and determined4 ,but all was not yet over1 for the chiefs on each side proffered and accepted presents of rare articles1 such as calumets of peace1 embroidered deer skins1 c4 ,this kind of ceremonial barter being terminated to their mutual satisfaction1 or otherwise1 the conference broke up4#ajh ,gumilla says that the ,oronoco ,indians ratify their treaties with sticks which they give reciprocally1#aji and the ,araucanians1 according to ,molina1 carry in their hands1 when they conclude a peace1 the branches of a tree1 regarded as sacred by them1 which they present to each other4#aaj ,i have already enumerated the various kinds of beads and shown the sources from which they were derived and the uses to which they were applied4 ,i have yet to describe the manner in which they are strung or combined in strings and belts4 ,the beads chosen as most convenient for stringing or weaving into fabrics were small cylinders from one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch in diameter1 and from one-quarter to one-half an inch in length4 ,white strings or belts were sufficient for the expression of simple ideas or the association of simple facts1 but the combinations of colors in patterns rendered it possible to record much more complicated affairs4 ,in belts used for mnemonic purposes the colors were generally arranged without reference to the character of the facts or thoughts to be intrusted to them1 but in a few cases the figures are ideographic1 and are significant of the event to be memorized4 ,strings cannot be utilized in this way4 ,wampum in strings4--,from ,mr4 ,beauchamp's notes ,i have compiled the following brief account of the use of strings of wampum among the modern ,iroquois4 ,six strings of purple beads united in a cluster represent the six nations4 ,when the tribes meet the strands are arranged in a circle1 which signifies that the council is opened4 ,the ,onondagas are represented by seven strings1 which contain a few white beads2 the ,cayugas by six strands1 all purple1 and the ,tuscaroras by seven strands1 nearly all purple4 ,the ,mohawks have six strings1 on which there are two purple beads to one white4 ,these are illustrated in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,xliv4 ,there are four strings in the ,oneida cluster2 these contain two purple to one white bead4 ,the ,senecas have four strings1 with two purple beads to one white4 ,the three nations which were brothers are represented by similar clusters4 ,when a new chief is installed the address delivered on the occasion is talked into ten very long strings of white wampum4 ,three strings1 mostly white1 represent the name of the new chief4 ,one of these clusters is shown in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xliv4#aaa ,when a chief dies he is mourned on ten strings of black wampum4 ,if he has merely lost his office1 six short strings are used4 ,according to ,mr4 ,beauchamp1 possession of beads gives authority1 and they are also used as credentials1 or1 as the ,indians express it1 ,chief's wampum all same as your letter4 ,such of these strings as remain in existence are still in use among the ,iroquois1 and are considered very precious by them1 being made of antique hand-made beads4 ,in the literature relating to our ,indian tribes we find occasional reference to the use of strings of wampum in ways that indicate that they were invested with certain protective and authoritative qualities1 doubtless from their association with the name of some chief1 clan1 or tribe4 ,it is recorded that on one occasion ,logan1 the ,mingo chief1 saved a captive white from torture by rushing through the circle of ,indians and throwing a string of wampum about the prisoner's neck4 ,through the virtue of this string he was enabled to lead him away and adopt him into his family4 ,a somewhat different use is mentioned by ,pike1 to whom a ,chippewa chief made a speech1 during which he presented his pipe to ,mr4 ,pike to bear to the ,sioux4 ,attached to the pipe were seven strings of wampum1 which signified that authority was given by seven chiefs of the ,chippewa to conclude peace or make war4#aab ,wampum belts4--,in the manufacture of belts a great deal of skill and taste have been shown4 ,the large figured varieties were intricate in design and extremely pleasing in color4 ,belts of wampum beads were probably used simply as a part of the costume long before they became the vehicles of tradition1 and beads were doubtless used in other parts of the costume in a similar manner4 ,it is said that in ,new ,england they were made by the women2 in later times it is probable that the whites engaged to some extent in their manufacture4 ,mr4 ,morgan gives such a good account of the details of belt making that ,i beg leave to quote him in full3 ,in making a belt no particular pattern was followed2 sometimes they are of the width of three fingers and three feet long1 in other instances as wide as the hand and over three feet in length2 sometimes they are all of one color1 in others variegated1 and in still others woven with the figures of men to symbolize1 by their attitudes1 the objects or events they were designed to commemorate4 ,the most common width was three fingers1 or the width of seven beads1 the length ranging from two to six feet4 ,in belt making1 which is a simple process1 eight strands or cords of bark thread are first twisted1 from filaments of slippery elm1 of the requisite length and size2 after which they are passed through a strip of deer-skin to separate them at equal distances from each other in parallel lines4 ,a piece of splint is then sprung in the form of a bow1 to which each end of the several strings is secured1 and by which all of them are held in tension1 like warp threads in a weaving machine4 ,seven beads1 these making the intended width of the belt1 are then run upon a thread by means of a needle1 and are passed under the cords at right angles1 so as to bring one bead lengthwise between each cord and the one next in position4 ,the thread is then passed back again along the upper side of the cords and again through each of the beads2 so that each bead is held firmly in its place by means of two threads1 one passing under and one above the cords4 ,this process is continued until the belt reaches its intended length1 when the ends of the cords are tied1 the end of the belt covered and afterward trimmed with ribbons4 ,in ancient times both the cords and the thread were of sinew4#aac ,in another place ,mr4 ,morgan states that belts were also made by covering one side of a deer-skin belt with beads1 probably by sewing them on2#aad a method which is everywhere common in the use of glass beads in modern work1 but is not noticed in any of the mnemonic belts now extant4 ,it is a remarkable as well as a lamentable fact that none of the great collections of the country can boast the possession of a wampum belt4 ,considering their importance in our early history1 and the great numbers that at one time must have been in existence1 this is rather extraordinary4 ,i have taken considerable pains to collect accurate representations of a number of examples of the ancient belts for this work1 and am only sorry that ,i am unable to present them in color--the only method by which they can be adequately shown4 ,as those which have come to my notice represent but a few localities1 ,i shall insert descriptions of a number from regions as remote as possible4 ,there is1 however1 great uniformity in design and method of construction2 the result1 probably1 of their international character4 ,from ,heckewelder ,i quote the following3 ,their belts of wampum are of different dimensions1 both as to the length and breadth4 ,white and black wampum are the kinds they use2 the former denoting that which is good1 as peace1 friendship1 good-will1 c42 the latter the reverse2 yet occasionally the black also is made use of on peace errands1 when the white cannot be procured2 but previous to its being produced for such purpose1 it must be daubed all over with chalk1 white clay1 or anything which changes the color from black to white4 99 99 99 ,a black belt with the mark of a hatchet made on it with red paint is a war belt1 which1 when sent to a nation1 together with a twist or roll of tobacco1 is an invitation to join in a war4 99 99 99 ,roads from one friendly nation to another are generally marked on the belt by one or two rows of white wampum interwoven in the black1 and running through the middle1 and from end to end4 ,it means that they are on good terms1 and keep up a friendly intercourse with each other4#aae ,a belt accepted by the ,indians of ,western ,pennsylvania from the ,french in a treaty which secured to the latter four forts within ,english territory had embroidered upon it four houses1 pictographic representations of the forts4 ,another example of the belts used in ,pennsylvania1 upwards of a century ago1 is described in ,beatty's ,journal4 ,the ,delawares1 in explaining to ,beatty a former treaty with ,sir ,william ,johnson1 showed a large belt of wampum of friendship which ,sir ,william ,johnson had given them4 ,on each edge of this were several rows of black wampum1 and in the middle were several rows of white wampum4 ,in the middle of the belt was a figure of a diamond1 in white wampum1 which they called the council fire4 ,the white streak they called the path from him to them and them to him4#aaf ,loskiel states that the ,indian women are very dexterous in weaving the strings of wampom into belts1 and marking them with different figures1 perfectly agreeing with the different subjects contained in the speech4 ,these figures are marked with white wampom upon black1 and with black upon the white belts4 ,for example1 in a belt of peace1 they very dexterously represent1 in black wampom1 two hands joined4 ,the belt of peace is white1 a fathom long and a hand's breadth4#aag ,in ,plate ,,xxxvii ,i present a fac-simile reproduction of a plate from the well known work of ,lafitau1#aah in which we have a graphic yet highly conventional representation of a council or treaty in which wampum belts were used4 ,it is probably drawn from description and is far from truthful in detail4 ,the more important facts are1 however1 very clearly presented4 ,no information is given either of the people or the locality4 ,the scene is laid in the middle of a broad featureless plain1 the monotony of which is broken by three highly conventionalized trees4 ,the parties to the treaty are ranged in two rows1 placed1 face to face4 ,the chief who speaks stands at the farther end holding a belt in his right hand4 ,three other belts lie upon the mat at his feet1 while a fifth is shown on a large scale in the foreground4 ,the patterns can not be clearly made out1 but in a general way resemble very closely the designs woven into the belts of the ,iroquois4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxxvii--,,use ,,of ,,wampum ,,belts ,,in ,,indian ,,council4 ,facsimile of a plate in ,lafitau4 ,the small belt shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,xxxviii1 is probably one of the most recent examples4 ,the cut is copied from ,plate #a of the ,fifth ,annual ,report of the ,regents of the ,university of ,new ,york on the condition of the ,state ,cabinet of ,natural ,history1 p4 #gb4 ,the beads of which it is composed formerly belonged to the celebrated ,mohawk chief1 ,joseph ,brant4 ,they were afterwards purchased from his daughter by ,mr4 ,morgan4 ,in #ahej they were taken to ,tonawanda1 in the ,state of ,new ,york1 and made into this belt4 ,the trimmings are apparently of ribbons1 and the symmetry and uniformity of the whole work give it a new look not noticeable in the other specimens4 ,the design consists of a row of dark diamond-shaped figures upon a white ground4 ,it is now preserved in the ,state ,cabinet of ,natural ,history at ,albany4 ,a belt of unusual form is shown in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,xxxviii4 ,it was kindly lent by ,mrs4 ,e4 ,a4 ,smith1 of ,jersey ,city1 by whom it was obtained from the ,mohawks4 ,it is #bf inches 7#bea beads7 in length and in width varies from three inches 7#aa beads7 at one end to about one inch 7#e beads7 at the other4 ,it is bifurcated at the wide end1 five rows having been omitted from the middle of the belt for about one-third of the length4 ,near the middle of the belt one row of beads is dropped from each side4 ,between this and the smaller end at nearly equal intervals it is twice depleted in a like manner4 ,the beads are quite irregular in shape and size1 but rather new looking and are strung in the usual manner1 the longitudinal strings being buckskin and the transverse small cords of vegetable fiber4 ,the ends and edges are all neatly finished by wrapping the marginal strings with a thin fillet of buckskin4 ,the figures are in white beads upon a ground of purple4 ,the form of this belt indicates that it has been adapted to some particular use1 the placing of cords at the corners and shoulders suggesting its attachment in a fixed position to some part of the person or costume4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxxviii--,,wampum ,,belts4 #a4 ,mohawk ,belt4 #b4 ,mohawk ,belt4 ,in ,plates ,,xxxix1 ,,xl1 ,,xli and ,,xlii1 ,i present a series of illustrations of the wampum belts belonging to the ,onondagas4 ,they are preserved as a most precious treasure by these people at their agency in ,onondaga ,county1 ,new ,york4 ,the drawings were made by ,mr4 ,trill from a series of minute photographs made from the original belts by ,general ,j4 ,s4 ,clark1 of ,auburn1 ,new ,york4 ,these were obtained for me by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,m4 ,beauchamp1 of ,baldwinsville1 ,new ,york1 who has also very kindly furnished many of the facts embodied in the following descriptions4#aai ,these belts are made in the usual manner1 and present a great variety of shapes1 sizes1 and designs4 ,their full history has never been obtained by the whites1 and it is not probable that the ,indians themselves have preserved a very full account of their origin and significance4 ,they are all ancient1 and1 judging by their appearance1 must date far back in the history of the ,league4 ,many of them are quite fragmentary1 and fears are entertained that they will gradually fall to pieces and be lost4 ,it is to be hoped that measures will be taken to have them preserved at least in the form of accurate chromo-lithographs4 ,mr4 ,beauchamp states that they are yearly wasting away1 as a little wampum is annually cast into the fire at the burning of the white dog1 and these belts are the source of supply4 ,the small belt presented in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xxxix1 is somewhat fragmentary1 an unknown number of beads having been lost from the ends4 ,it is seven rows wide and at present two hundred beads long4 ,the design consists of a series of five double diamonds worked in dark wampum upon white4 ,at one end a few rows of an additional figure remain1 and at the other a small white cross is worked upon a ground of dark beads4 ,the number of figures may be significant of the number of parties to a treaty4 ,fig4 #b represents a well preserved belt1 seven rows in width and about three hundred and twenty in length4 ,the ground is of dark wampum1 on which are worked five hexagonal figures of white wampum4 ,for a short space at the ends alternate rows are white4 ,as was suggested in regard to the preceding belt1 the figures in this may represent the parties to a treaty4 ,the belt shown in ,fig4 #c differs from the others in being pictographic4 ,it is also quite perfect1 although the character of the beads indicates considerable age4 ,it is seven rows in width and three hundred and fifty beads in length4 ,the figures are white1 on a dark ground1 and consist of a cross near one end1 connected by a single row of beads with the head of the figure of a man toward the other end4 ,beneath the feet of the elementary man the figure of a diamond is worked4 ,the cross is probably significant of the mission of the man who comes from a long distance to the lodge or council of the red man4 ,this is probably a ,french belt4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xxxix--,,wampum ,,belts ,,belonging ,,to ,,the ,,onondagas4 ,the remnant of a very handsome belt is shown in ,plate ,,xl4 ,considerable wampum has been lost from both ends1 but the design appears to be nearly perfect1 and consists of a trowel or heart-shaped figure in the center with two rectangular figures on the right and two on the left4 ,these are in white upon a dark ground4 ,mr4 ,beauchamp states that it is said to be very old1 and is thought to represent the formation of the ,iroquois league and to signify one heart for all the nations4 ,he doubts its great antiquity as the beads are too regular for hand-made cylinders4 ,the belt is thirty-eight rows wide and about two hundred beads in length4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xl--,,wampum ,,belt ,,belonging ,,to ,,the ,,onondagas4 ,the large elaborately figured belt shown in ,plate ,,xli is almost perfect4 ,the lateral margins are white2 a broad notched band of dark wampum occupies the middle of this belt2 through this from end to end runs a chain of white diamonds1 sixteen in number1 which may represent ,states or nations4 ,it is forty-five rows wide and two hundred and forty beads long4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xli--,,wampum ,,belt ,,belonging ,,to ,,the ,,onondagas4 ,the magnificent belt shown in ,plate ,,xlii1 is probably the finest example in existence4 ,it is fifteen rows wide and six hundred and fifty in length1 making the enormous total of nine thousand seven hundred and fifty beads4 ,mr4 ,beauchamp believes that this belt1 or one like it1 has been described as representing the formation of the ,league4 ,from ,webster's#abj statement1 that it was made by ,george ,washington1 he surmises that it is a belt memorizing a covenant between the ,indians and the government4 ,in the center is a house which has three gables and three compartments4 ,next the house on either side are two pictographic men1 who appear to stand beneath protecting arms which pass over their heads1 connect with the house1 and grasp the hands of the first personages immediately on the right and left4 ,in all there are fifteen figures of men1 two being connected with the house2 of the others1 six stand on the right and seven on the left of the central group4 ,it is suggested by ,mr4 ,beauchamp that these figures may represent the thirteen colonies4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xlii--,,wampum ,,belt ,,belonging ,,to ,,the ,,onondagas4 ,six other belts are shown in the photographs procured by ,general ,price4 ,one of them is thirteen rows wide and two hundred and fifty beads in length4 ,the light ground is decorated with groups of triple chevrons4 ,this belt is somewhat fragmentary4 ,another is forty-nine rows wide1 being the widest example known4 ,the original length cannot be determined1 but at present it is two hundred and forty beads in length1 and hence contains about twelve thousand beads4 ,the pattern is simple1 consisting of a dark ground notched at the edges with triangular figures of white4 ,as the four remaining belts of this fine collection have no features of especial interest1 they need not be described here4 ,the remarkable belt shown in ,plate ,,xliii has an extremely interesting1 although a somewhat incomplete1 history attached to it4 ,it is believed to be the original belt delivered by the ,leni-,lenape sachems to ,william ,penn at the celebrated treaty under the elm tree at ,shackamaxon in #afhb4 ,although there is no documentary evidence to show that this identical belt was delivered on that occasion1 it is conceded on all hands that it came into the possession of the great founder of ,pennsylvania at some one of his treaties with the tribes that occupied the province ceded to him4 ,up to the year #aheg this belt remained in the keeping of the ,penn family4 ,in ,march1 #aheg1 it was presented to the ,pennsylvania ,historical ,society by ,granville ,john ,penn1 a great grandson of ,william ,penn4 ,mr4 ,penn1 in his speech on this occasion1#aba states that there can be no doubt that this is the identical belt used at the treaty1 and presents his views in the following language3 ,in the first place1 its dimensions are greater than of those used on more ordinary occasions1 of which we have one still in our possession--this belt being composed of eighteen strings of wampum--which is a proof that it was the record of some very important negotiation4 ,in the next place1 in the center of the belt1 which is of white wampum1 are delineated in dark-colored beads1 in a rude but graphic style1 two figures--that of an ,indian grasping with the hand of friendship the hand of a man evidently intended to be represented in the ,european costume1 wearing a hat2 which can only be interpreted as having reference to the treaty of peace and friendship which was then concluded between ,william ,penn and the ,indians1 and recorded by them in their own simple but descriptive mode of expressing their meaning1 by the employment of hieroglyphics4 ,then the fact of its having been preserved in the family of the founder from that period to the present time1 having descended through three generations1 gives an authenticity to the document which leaves no doubt of its genuineness2 and as the chain and medal which were presented by the ,parliament to his father1 the admiral1 for his naval services1 have descended amongst the family archives unaccompanied by any written document1 but is recorded on the journals of the ,house of ,commons1 equal authenticity may be claimed for the wampum belt confirmatory of the treaty made by his son with the ,indians2 which event is recorded on the page of history1 though1 like the older relic1 it has been unaccompanied in its descent by any document in writing4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xliii--,,the ,,penn ,,belt4 7#a_/d7 ,it will be seen1 by reference to the accompanying illustration1 that beside the two figures of men there are three oblique bands of dark wampum1 one on the left and two on the right4 ,the one next the central group on the right is somewhat broken1 and consists of two long bands and one short one4 ,it is probable that these bands were used to record1 by association1 some important features of the treaty in which the belt was used4 ,the beads are strung upon cords made of sinew or vegetable fibre1 while the longitudinal fillets are of buckskin4 ,this belt may be seen at the rooms of the ,historical ,society of ,pennsylvania4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xliv--,,strings ,,of ,,wampum4 #a4 ,name of ,new ,chief4 #b4 ,mohawk4 ,,pendants4 ,it would probably be vain to attempt to determine how pendant ornaments first came into use1 whether from some utilitarian practice or through some superstitious notion4 ,it matters not1 however1 whether the first pendant was an implement1 a utensil1 or a fetichitic talisman2 it has developed by slow stages into an ornament upon which has been lavished the best efforts of culture and skill4 ,the simple gorget of shell suspended upon the naked breast of the preadamite is the prototype of many a costly jewel and many a princely decoration4 ,with the ,american savage it was a guardian spirit1 invested with the mystery and the power of the sea1 and among the more cultured tribes became in time the receptacle of the most ambitious efforts of a phenomenal art4 ,the important place the gorget has taken in ornament and as a means of displaying personal aggrandizement has made it a most powerful agent in the evolution of the arts of taste4 ,as a rule the larger and more important pendants are employed as gorgets1 but vast numbers of the smaller specimens are strung with beads at intervals along the strings1 attached as auxiliary pendants to the larger gorgets1 suspended from the nose1 ears1 and wrists1 or form tinkling borders to head-dresses and garments4 ,these pendants consist either of entire shells1 or of parts of shells1 pierced or grooved to facilitate suspension4 ,the purely artificial forms are infinitely varied4 ,the character of the shell1 however1 has much to do with the form of the finished ornaments1 deciding their thickness and often their outline4 ,in size they range from extremely minute forms to plates six or more inches in diameter4 ,the perforations1 in position and number1 are greatly varied1 but as a rule the larger discoidal pendants will be found to have two marginal perforations for suspension4 ,these nicely-polished shell-disks afforded tempting tablets for the primitive artist1 and retain many specimens of his work as an engraver4 ,the engraved specimens1 however1 should be treated separately1 according to the class of design which they contain4 ,plain pendants need but a brief notice1 and may be treated together as one group1 with such subdivisions only as may be suggested by their form1 their derivation1 or their geographical distribution4 ,plain pendants4--,it will be unnecessary to cite authorities to show that our ancient peoples were fond of pendant ornaments1 and wore them without stint1 but to illustrate the manner in which they were used and the methods of combining them with other articles of jewelry in necklaces1 bracelets1 c41 ,i shall refer briefly to the literature of the period of ,american discovery4 ,the inhabitants of ,mexico are said to have been very simple in the matter of dress1 but displayed much vanity in their profuse employment of personal ornament4 ,besides feathers and jewels1 with which they adorned their clothes1 they wore pendants to the ears1 nose1 and lips1 as well as necklaces1 bracelets1 and anklets4 ,the ear ornaments of the poor were shells1 pieces of crystal1 amber1 and other brilliant stones1 but the rich wore pearls1 emeralds1 amethysts1 or other gems1 set in gold4#abb ,the priestly personages so graphically delineated in the ancient ,aztec manuscripts are as a rule loaded down with pendant ornaments4 ,in traveling north along the west coast of ,mexico the ,friar ,niza encountered ,indians who wore many large shells of mother of pearl about their necks1 and farther up toward ,cibola the inhabitants wore pearl shells upon their foreheads2#abc and ,cabea de ,vaca when among the pueblos of ,new ,mexico noticed beads and corals that came from the ,south ,sea4 ,ornaments made from marine shells are found in many of the ancient ruins to-day4 ,they are also highly valued by the modern ,indians of this region4 ,in the earliest accounts of the ,indians of the ,atlantic coast we find frequent mention of the use of pendants and gorgets1 and the manner of wearing them as ornaments4 ,beverly1 after having described beads made of a shell resembling the ,english buglas1 says that they also make runtees of the same shell1 and grind them as smooth as peak4 ,these are either large like an oval ,bead1 drill'd the length of the ,oval1 or else they are circular and flat1 almost an ,inch over1 and one ,third of an ,inch thick1 and drill'd edgeways4 ,of this ,shell they also make round ,tablets of about four ,inches ,diameter1 which they polish as smooth as the other1 and sometimes they etch or grave thereon ,circles1 ,stars1 a half ,moon1 or any other ,figure suitable to their ,fancy4 ,these they wear instead of ,medals before or behind their ,neck1 and use the ,peak1 ,runtees1 and ,pipes for ,coronets1 ,bracelets1 ,belts1 or long ,strings hanging down before the ,breast1 or else they lace their ,garments with them1 and adorn their ,tomahawks1 and every other thing that they value4#abd ,the ,pipes here spoken of were probably long1 heavy cylindrical beads4 ,in referring to this class of ornaments1 ,lafitau says3 ,the collars which the savages sometimes wear around the neck are about a foot in diameter1 and are not different from those which one now sees on some antiques1 on the necks of statues of barbarians4 ,the northern savages wear on the breast a plate of hollow shell1 as long as the hand1 which has the same effect as that which was called ,bulla among the ,romans4#abe ,wood1 speaking of the ,indians of ,northern ,new ,england1 in #afcd1 says3 ,although they be thus poore1 yet is there in them the sparkes of naturall pride1 which appeares in their longing desire after many kinds of ornaments1 wearing pendants in their eares1 as formes of birds1 beasts1 and fishes carved out of bone1 shels1 and stone1 with long bracelets of their curious wampompeag and mowhackees1 which they put about their necks and loynes4#abf ,kalm says of the ,indians of ,lorette1 near ,quebec1 ,canada1 that round their necks they have a string of violet wampums1 with little white wampums between them4 ,these wampums are small1 of the figure of oblong pearls1 and made of the shells which the ,english call clams4 ,at the end of the wampum strings many of the ,indians wear a large ,french silver coin1 with the king's effigy1 on their breasts2 others have a large shell on the breast1 of a fine white colour1 which they value very high1 and is very dear2 others1 again1 have no ornament at all round the neck4#abg ,pendants of metal and medals of ,european manufacture soon replaced in a great measure the primitive gorgets of shell2 and early in the history of the tribes a heterogeneous collection of native beads1 silver crosses1 and traders' medals1 ornamented the breasts of the simple savages4 ,in studying the habits and customs of our native peoples we look with a great deal of interest upon the earliest historical records1 but generally find it prudent to remember that the personal equation was unusually large in those days1 and in studying the illustrations given in the works of early writers we must make due allowance for the well-known tendency to exaggerate as well as for the fact that the artist has more frequently drawn from descriptions than from sketches made on the spot4 ,in ,plate ,,xlv two examples are given which seem to me to be trustworthy1 as they agree with the descriptions given1 and are in a general way characteristic of the ,american aborigines4 ,fig4 #a is reproduced1 original size1 from ,plate #b1 ,volume ,,ii1 of ,lafitau1 and shows a broad necklace ornamented with figures that resemble arrow heads4 ,from this1 by means of a cord1 is suspended a large circular disk with concave front1 which undoubtedly represents a shell gorget4 ,in front of this and suspended from the necklace are two long strands of beads of various sizes and shapes1 which give completeness to a very tasteful ornament4 ,in the same plate is a pretty fair drawing of a native in costume4 ,he is represented wearing a necklace similar to the one just described4 ,an enlarged drawing of this ornament is given in ,fig4 #b4 ,in ,fig4 #c ,i reproduce a necklace from a plate in ,de ,bry1 which consists of a string of beads with two large disks that look more like metal than shell4 ,a similar ornament is shown in ,fig4 #d1 but with figured disks and secondary pendants4 ,it is copied from the ,codex of the ,vatican4 ,a common form of necklace among the ancient ,aztecs consisted of small univalve shells suspended from a string4 ,one of these1 with other pendants1 is shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,it is also copied from the ,vatican ,codex4 ,others of a much more complex nature may be found in the same manuscript4 ,of even greater interest are the beautiful necklaces1 with their pendants1 found in the sculptures of ,mexico and ,yucatan4#abh ,three of these are shown in ,figs4 #f1 #g1 and #h4 ,one has a disk with human features engraved upon it1 another has a cross with equal arms1 and another a ,t-shaped cross4 ,all have more or less auxiliary ornamentation4 ,in ,fig4 #i ,i present a bracelet of beads and pendants from ,peru which illustrates one of the simpler uses of pendants4 ,i have not learned whether the parts of this ornament were originally arranged as given in the cut or not2 the original stringing may have been somewhat different4 ,the beads are mostly of shell1 and are of a variety of colors1 white1 red1 yellow1 and gray4 ,the discoidal and cylindrical forms are both represented4 ,the former range from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch in diameter2 the latter are one-eighth of an inch in thickness and three-eighths in length4 ,the larger pendants1 made of whitish shell1 are carved to represent some life form1 probably a bird2 a large perforation near the upper end passes through the head1 two oblique notches with deep lines at the sides1 define the wings1 and a series of notches at the wide end represent the tail4 ,two smaller pendants are still simpler in form1 while another1 with two nearly central perforations and notched edges1 resembles a button4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xlv--,,ancient ,,pendants4 #a1 #b4 ,necklaces1 from ,lafitau4 #c4 ,from ,de ,bry4 #d1 #e4 ,from ,mexican ,paintings4 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,from ancient sculptures4 #i4 ,bracelet from a ,peruvian grave4 ,eastern forms4--,the great number of elaborately carved and engraved gorgets of shell found among the antiquities of the ,atlantic slope1 all of which need careful descriptions1 so overshadow the simple forms illustrated in ,plate ,,xlvi1 that only a brief description of the latter need be given4 ,rudeness of workmanship and simplicity of form do not in any sense imply greater antiquity or a less advanced state of art4 ,the simpler forms of plain pendants constituted the every-day jewelry of the average people and1 like beads1 were probably used freely by all who desired to do so4 ,many forms are found--circular1 oval1 rectangular1 triangular1 pear-shaped1 and annular4 ,the more ordinary forms are found in mounds and graves in all parts of the country2 other forms are more restricted geographically1 and probably exhibit features peculiar to the works of a particular clan1 tribe1 or group of tribes4 ,even these simple forms may have possessed some totemic or mystic significance2 it is not impossible that the plainer disks may have had significant figures painted upon them4 ,such of the forms as are found to have definite geographic limits become of considerable interest to the archologist4 ,in method of manufacture they do not differ from the most ordinary implements or beads1 the margins being trimmed1 the surfaces polished and the perforations made in a precisely similar manner4 ,in ,plate ,,xlvi ,i present a number of plain circular disks4 ,the larger specimens are often as much as four or even five inches in diameter and the smaller fraternize with beads1 as ,i have shown in ,plate ,,xlv4 ,figs4 #a and #b are from a mound at ,paint ,rock ,ferry1 ,tenn4 ,they are neat1 moderately thin1 concavo-convex disks1 with smooth surfaces and rounded edges4 ,the first has two perforations at the upper edge1 while the other has similarly placed but much smaller ones1 besides a small central perforation surrounded by an incised circle4 ,the national collection contains similar specimens from most of the ,atlantic ,states2 they differ from the larger discoidal beads only in the method of perforation4 ,a typical specimen of this class1 four and a half inches in diameter1 is shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,it was associated with the remains of a number of children in a mound in ,hardin ,county1 ,ohio4 ,disks of this class were usually suspended upon the breast with the concave side out4 ,that many of the specimens described were suspended in this way is indicated by the character of the abrasion produced by the cords4 ,on the concave side the cord of suspension has worn deep grooves between the perforations1 and on the opposite or convex side similar grooves extend obliquely upward from the holes toward the margin of the disk1 indicating the passage of the cord upward and outward around the neck of the wearer4 ,a large white disk1 similar to the one just described1 was obtained from a grave at ,accotink1 ,va4 ,it is five inches in diameter and has one central and three marginal perforations4 ,it is made from a ,busycon perversum1 and is neatly shaped and well polished4 ,a fine specimen two inches in diameter was obtained from a mound on the ,french ,broad ,river1 ,tenn41 and1 with many other similar specimens1 is now in the national collection4 ,the central perforation is often very much enlarged4 ,a number of specimens1 recently sent to the ,national ,museum1 from a mound in ,auglaize ,county1 ,ohio1 show several stages of this enlargement4 ,one specimen five inches across has a perforation nearly one inch in diameter1 while in another the perforation is enlarged until the disk has become a ring4 ,these gorgets show evidences of long use1 the surfaces and edges being worn and the perforations much extended in the manner described above4 ,they have been derived from the ,busycon perversum4 ,in ,fig4 #d ,i illustrate an annular gorget from a mound in ,alexander ,county1 ,ill4 ,it was found associated with ornaments of copper by the side of a human skull1 and is hence supposed to have been an ear ornament4 ,it is fragmentary and has suffered greatly from decay1 the surface being mostly covered with a dark film of decomposed shell substance1 which when broken away1 exposes the chalky surface of the shell4 ,these shell rings1 so far as ,i can learn1 have been found in the ,states of ,ohio and ,illinois only4 ,rectangular pendants are much more rare4 ,the national collection contains one rude specimen from ,texas4 ,it is about two inches wide by two and a half long1 and is made from the base of some large dextral-whorled shell4 ,a similar but much more finished specimen comes from ,georgia1 and is preserved in the ,new ,york ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,a large keystone-shaped gorget with rounded corners was obtained from an ancient burial place at ,beverly1 ,canada4 ,it is illustrated in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #a4 ,the small pendant shown in ,fig4 #e is given by ,schoolcraft in ,notes on the ,iroquois4 ,it represents rudely the human figure1 and is ornamented with eight perpendicular and four or five transverse dots4 ,it was found on the site of an old fort near ,jamesville1 ,n4 ,y4 ,in the same work ,mr4 ,schoolcraft illustrates another small pendant1 which is reproduced in ,fig4 #f4 ,the body is heart-shaped1 the perforation being made through a rectangular projection at the upper end4 ,it was found at ,onondaga1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the small pendant presented in ,fig4 #g is from ,west ,bloomfield1 ,n4 ,y4 ,it has been suspended by means of a shallow groove near the upper end4 ,it is made from the basal point of a dextral-whorled shell4 ,the handsome little pendant shown in ,fig4 #h was found with similar specimens in ,monroe ,county1 ,new ,york--probably on some ancient village site4 ,it is well preserved and has been made from the columella of a dextral-whorled shell4 ,an ornamental design1 consisting of lines and dots1 is engraved upon the face4 ,a small1 deeply countersunk perforation has been made near the upper end4 ,these objects have apparently been strung with beads1 as the perforations show evidence of such abrasion as beads would produce4 ,many of the ,new ,york specimens have a new look1 and their form suggests the possibility of civilized influence4 ,they are certainly more recent than the western and southern specimens4 ,a small cylindrical pendant is illustrated in ,fig4 #i4 ,a large1 neat perforation has been made at the upper end1 and the middle portion of the body is ornamented by a series of encircling grooves4 ,this specimen has been made from a large ,unio and was obtained from a mound in ,union ,county1 ,ky4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xlvi--,,pendant ,,ornaments--,,eastern ,,forms4 ,western forms4--,in variety of form the plain pendants of the ,california coast excel all others4 ,specimens from the graves are generally well preserved1 not having lost their original iridescence1 although so much decayed as to suffer considerably from exfoliation4 ,as indicated by the present well preserved condition of these shell ornaments1 they are probably not of very ancient date2 indeed it is highly probable that many of them are post-,columbian4 ,cabrillo visited the island of ,santa ,rosa in #aedb and found a numerous and thriving people4 ,in #ahaf only a small remnant of the inhabitants remained1 and these were removed to the main-land by ,catholic priests4 ,their destruction is attributed to both war and famine4 ,the history of the other islands is doubtless somewhat similar4 ,articles made from shell are found to resemble each other very closely1 whether from the islands or the main-land4 ,all probably belong to the same time1 and although the peoples of the islands are said to have spoken a different language from those of the main-land1 their arts were apparently pretty much the same4 ,they do not differ1 as far as works in shell are concerned1 from the modern tribes of the main-land4 ,there is also a noticeable resemblance between the art of the ancient ,california ,islanders and that of the present inhabitants of the great ,pacific archipelagoes4 ,the record of many of the specimens obtained from these islands seems to be very incomplete1 scarcely more being known than the fact that they were obtained from the ancient graves4 ,since1 however1 they are almost exclusively ornaments belonging probably to a single period1 detailed accounts of their methods of occurrence would not add greatly to their value4 ,in previous chapters vessels1 hooks1 and beads made of the ,haliotis have been described1 and the high estimation in which they are everywhere held briefly noted4 ,the variety of ways in which this shell is utilized is indeed remarkable and the multitude of forms into which it is worked for ornament is a matter of surprise4 ,all are neatly and effectively worked1 and evince no little skill and taste on the part of the makers4 ,the ,haliotis is not the only shell used1 but it has no rival in point of beauty4 ,bivalve shells are utilized to a considerable extent1 many tasteful things being made from the ,fissurella1 the ,mytilus1 the ,pachydesma1 and the ,pecten4 ,the perforations are generally neatly made and are more numerous than in similar eastern specimens2 besides those for suspension there are frequently many others for the attachment of secondary pendants and for fastening to the costume4 ,many specimens are ornamented with edgings of notches and crossed lines but very few have been found on which significant characters have been engraved1 and we look in vain for parallels to the curious designs characteristic of the gorgets of the mound-builders4 ,a glance at the numerous examples given in ,plates ,,xlvii1 ,,xlviii1 and ,,xlix will give a good idea of the multiplicity of forms into which these ornaments are wrought4 ,a rather remarkable group of pendants is represented by ,fig4 #a4 ,they are characterized by a deep scallop at the left1 with a long curved hook-like projection above4 ,they take their form from the shape of the lip of the ,haliotis1 from which they are made--the hook being the upper point of the outer lip where it joins the body1 and the scallop the line of the suture4 ,the body of the ornament is formed from the lip of the shell4 ,in size they vary to some extent with the shells from which they are derived4 ,the body is at times quite oval and again slender and hooked like the blade of a sickle4 ,the perforations are generally very numerous1 a fact that indicates their use as central pieces for composite pendants4 ,it is apparent that the wearers thought more of the exquisite coloring of these ornaments than of the outline or surface finish4 ,this is only one of many instances that prove the innate and universal appreciation of beauty of color by savage peoples4 ,in ,fig4 #b a fine example of the subtriangular or keystone-shaped pendants is presented4 ,the edges are very neatly cut and the corners slightly rounded4 ,the back is ground smooth1 but on the front the original surface of the shell is preserved1 the colors being extremely rich and brilliant4 ,a single perforation has been drilled near the upper end4 ,it is made from a ,haliotis rufescens1 and was obtained from the island of ,santa ,rosa4 ,the handsome specimen shown in ,fig4 #c was obtained from a grave on the island of ,san ,miguel4 ,it has suffered much from decay4 ,there are four neatly made perforations near the center4 ,it has apparently been cut from the same shell as the preceding4 ,fig4 #d is a small keystone-shaped specimen having two perforations4 ,fig4 #e represents a small1 delicate specimen of rectangular shape1 having two minute perforations4 ,this1 as well as the preceding1 was obtained from a grave on the island of ,san ,miguel4 ,fig4 #f illustrates a small oval1 wafer-like specimen1 the edges of which have been ornamented with a series of crossed lines4 ,it has three neat perforations on the line of the longer axis4 ,it is from the island of ,santa ,cruz4 ,fig4 #g represents a small button-like disk with a central perforation2 the margin is ornamented with a series of radiating lines4 ,it was obtained from ,santa ,barbara4 ,a pendant of very peculiar form is shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,the oval body has three marginal projections1 all of which are perforated2 there is also a perforation near the center4 ,the surface retains a heavy coating of some dark substance1 which gives the ornament much the appearance of corroded metal4 ,it was obtained from ,san ,miguel ,island4 ,in a number of cases advantage has been taken of the natural perforations of the shell1 both to give variety to the outline of small pendants and to save the labor of making artificial perforations4 ,a very handsome little specimen is shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,the two indentations above and below represent two of the natural perforations of the shell2 artificial perforations are made in each of the four corners or wings4 ,it was also obtained from the island of ,san ,miguel4 ,fig4 #aj represents a leaf-shaped pendant with notched edges and a single perforation4 ,it comes from the island of ,santa ,cruz4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xlvii--,,plain ,,pendants--,,pacific ,,coast ,,forms4 7#a_/a7 ,the examples given are typical of the very large class of ornaments derived from the ,haliotid4 ,the striking specimens shown in ,plate ,,xlviii are1 with one exception1 made from shells of this class4 ,the two sickle-shaped pendants illustrated in ,figs4 #a and #b are made from the broadened inner lip of the ,haliotis californianus 7874 ,in one a single perforation has been made near the upper end2 in the other there are two1 one near each end4 ,the faces have been neatly dressed and the corners ornamented with minute notches4 ,they are from graves on ,santa ,cruz ,island4 ,two exquisite specimens1 also from ,santa ,cruz ,island1 are presented in ,figs4 #c and #d4 ,they have been cut from the body of a ,haliotis splendens 7871 and finished with much care4 ,two perforations have been made near the upper margin1 which is arched or curved while the lower is nearly straight4 ,the edges are neatly notched4 ,although somewhat altered by exposure these objects are still very pretty4 ,a very neat1 well preserved little pendant is shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,the specimen presented in ,fig4 #f is peculiar in having a series of five perforations1 one near the middle and the others near the ends4 ,the example given in ,fig4 #g has two perforations1 one at each end4 ,these are all made from species of the ,haliotis4 ,the specimen presented in ,fig4 #h is made from the lip of a ,cyprea spadicea with very little change except the carefully made perforation4 ,it is from the island of ,san ,miguel4 ,the idea of beautifying ornaments made from the ,haliotis and other shells by notching the edges may have been suggested by the natural notches characteristic of the ,cypreas4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xlviii--,,pendant ,,ornaments ,,of ,,the ,,pacific ,,coast4 #a-g4 ,pendants made of the ,haliotis4 7#a_/a7 #h4 ,pendant made of a ,cyprea4 7#a_/a7 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c1 ,plate ,,xlix1 illustrate a group of small1 delicate1 ladle-shaped pendants4 ,the perforation for suspension is at the upper end of the handle and the body has an oval or circular perforation1 which is often so enlarged as to leave only a narrow ring1 like the rim of an eyeglass4 ,the specimen shown in ,fig4 #c has two lobes1 with a large perforation or opening in each4 ,in one instance the handle is quite wide at the upper end and ornamented by two deep lateral notches4 ,the edges of these specimens are nearly always adorned with notches or crossed lines4 ,all are fashioned from the ,haliotis1 and although considerably stained are still well enough preserved to show the pearly lusters of that shell4 ,circular and oval disks are also numerous and vary much in finish2 some have a great number of perforations or indentations1 and nearly all are neatly notched around the margins4 ,examples are given in ,figs4 #d and #e4 ,the national collection contains a number of rings and pieces of rings made from the valves of a large clam1 probably a ,pectunculus1 one example of which is shewn in ,fig4 #f4 ,the convex back of the shell is ground off until a marginal ring only remains4 ,a perforation is made near the angle of the beak4 ,the shell is from the ,california coast1 but the rings were collected mostly if not entirely from ,arizona and ,new ,mexico4 ,it is not impossible that the tribes of the interior procured these articles from white traders1 as they are known to have secured other shell ornaments in this way4 ,the natives of the ,california coast were not slow in taking advantage of natural forms to aid their art or to save labor4 ,the shells of the ,fissurellid as well as of the ,haliotid have been in great favor4 ,they have been used as beads and pendants in their natural state or the natural perforations have been enlarged until only a ring has been left1 or the margin and sides have been ground down until nothing of the original form or surface remained4 ,two of these forms are shown in ,figs4 #g and #h4 ,they are from graves on ,san ,miguel ,island1 and are made from the ,lucupina crenulata2 others come from ,santa ,cruz ,island2 and probably also from the adjoining islands as well as from the main-land4 ,rings are also made from other shells4 ,examples made from the ,acma mitra and ,cyprea spadicea are shown in ,figs4 #i1 #aj1 and #aa4 ,they come from ,san ,miguel4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xlix--,,plain ,,pendants--,,pacific ,,coast ,,forms4 7#a_/a7 ,,perforated ,,plates4 ,we find that pendant gorgets grade imperceptibly into another group of objects1 the use or significance of which have not be fully determined4 ,these objects are more frequently made of stone or copper1 but good examples in shell have been found4 ,as a rule they take the form of thin oblong plates which exhibit great variety of outline4 ,the perforations are peculiar1 and have not been designed for ordinary suspension1 but are placed near the middle of the specimen as if for fixing it to the person or costume by means of cords4 ,many theories have been advanced in attempting to determine their use4 ,they have been classed as gorgets1 badges of authority1 shuttles1 armor plates1 wrist protectors1 and as implements for sizing sinews and twisting cords4 ,objects of this class in stone have been frequently illustrated and described4 ,they are made of many varieties of stone1 some of which seem to have been selected on account of their beauty4 ,they have been neatly shaped and often well-polished4 ,the edges are occasionally notched and the surfaces ornamented with patterns of incised lines4 ,the perforations vary from one to four1 the greater number of specimens1 however1 having only two4 ,in the early days of mound exploration objects of this class were even greater enigmas1 if possible1 than they are to-day4 ,even the material of which a number of them were formed remained for a long time undetermined4 ,schoolcraft has published an illustration of a large specimen from the ,grave ,creek ,mound1 ,va4 ,this drawing is reproduced in ,fig4 #c1 ,plate ,l4 ,the original was six inches long1 one and three-tenths inches wide1 and three-tenths of an inch in thickness4 ,he expresses the opinion that it was one of those ancient badges of authority formerly in such general use among the ,indians4#abi ,another specimen1 very much like the last in size and shape1 but made of shell1 supposed at the time of discovery to be ivory1 was found associated with human remains in the ,grave ,creek ,mound4 ,it is described by ,mr4 ,tomlinson in the ,american ,pioneer1#acj and the cut given in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #d1 is copied from that work4 ,a remarkable specimen of this class is given in ,fig4 #e4 ,it is made from the body of a large ,busycon perversum1 and is nine and a half inches long by three inches in width at the widest part4 ,the concave surface has been highly polished1 but is now somewhat roughened by weathering2 the back has been slightly ground to take off the rougher ridges of growth2 the edges are even and rounded and in many places quite thin4 ,the peculiarity of its shape is such as to give it very much the appearance of the sole of a sandal4 ,the perforations are three in number1 one being near the middle and the others near the broader end1 about one and a half inches apart2 they are very neatly made and are slightly bi-conical and a little countersunk4 ,there appears to be no evidence whatever of abrasion by use4 ,it was found associated with human remains in a mound at ,sharpsburg1 ,mercer ,county1 ,ohio4 ,a similar specimen from the same locality is nearly nine inches in length1 and lacks but a little of three and a half inches in width4 ,as in the specimen illustrated1 one perforation is placed near the middle and two others near the broader end4 ,this specimen is highly polished on the broader part of the back1 and is evenly smoothed on the concave side4 ,it bears evidence of considerable use1 and the two holes are much worn by a string or cord1 which1 passing from one hole to the other on the concave side of the plate1 gradually worked a deep groove between them4 ,on the back or convex side1 the perforations show no evidence of wear4 ,the central perforation is not worn on either side4 ,the letter of ,mr4 ,whitney1 transmitting this relic to the ,national ,museum1 states that there were in the mound about ten pairs of the shell sandals of different sizes1 and made to fit the right and left feet4 ,from the latter remark ,i should infer that some were made from dextral and others from sinistral shells2 the two described are made from the ,busycon perversum4 ,an extremely fine specimen1 much like the preceding1 was exhumed from an ancient mound in ,hardin ,county1 ,ohio4 ,it was found on the head of a skeleton which occupied a sitting posture near the center of the mound4 ,it is nine inches in length by three and one-half inches in width1 and in shape resembles the sole of a moccasin1 being somewhat broader and less pointed than the specimen presented in ,fig4 #e4 ,it had been placed upon the skull with the wider end toward the back1 but whether laid there as a burial offering simply or as constituting a part of the head-dress of the dead savage we have no means of determining4 ,the perforations are three in number1 and are placed similarly to those in the specimen illustrated in ,fig4 #e4 ,two other skeletons had similar plates associated with them1 which differed from the one described in size only1 the smaller one being less than six inches in length4 ,lithographs of two of these specimens are given by ,mr4 ,matson1 in whose very excellent report they were first described4#aca ,the gorget presented in ,fig4 #a of this plate is copied from ,schoolcraft4#acb ,it was taken1 along with many other interesting relics1 from one of the ossuaries at ,beverly1 ,canada ,west4 ,it is formed from some large sea shell1 and is three inches in width by three and three-fourths inches in length4 ,its perforations are four in number1 and are so placed as to be conveniently used either for suspension by a single cord or for fixing firmly by means of two or more cords4 ,it seems to hold a middle place between pendants proper and the pierced tablets under consideration4#acc ,the unique specimen given in ,fig4 #b is from ,cedar ,keys1 ,florida1 but whether from a grave or a shell-heap ,i am at present unable to state4 ,in its perforations1 which are large and doubly conical1 it resembles very closely the typical tablet of stone4 ,the outline is peculiar2 being rounded at the top1 it grows broader toward the base like a celt1 and terminates at the outer corners in well-rounded points1 the edge between being ornamented with a series of notches or teeth4 ,it has been cut from the wall of a ,busycon perversum1 and is sharply curved4 ,the surface is roughened by time1 but there is no evidence of wear by use either in the perforations or in the notches at the base4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,l--,,perforated ,,plates4 #a4 ,ornament from ,beverly1 ,c4 ,w4 #b4 ,ornament from ,florida4 #c1 #d4 ,objects from the ,grave ,creek ,mound1 ,va4 #e4 ,perforated plate from ,ohio4 ,in studying these remarkable specimens the fact that they so seldom show marks of use presents itself for explanation4 ,dr4 ,charles ,rau1 whose opinions in such matters are always worthy of consideration1 remarks that at first sight one might be inclined to consider them as objects of ornament1 or as badges of distinction2 but this view is not corroborated by the appearance of the perforations1 which exhibit no trace of that peculiar abrasion produced by constant suspension4 ,the classification of the tablets as 'gorgets1' therefore1 appears to be erroneous4#acd ,the same argument could1 however1 be brought with equal force against their use for any of the other purposes suggested4 ,the perforations1 if not used for suspension or attachment1 would be subject to wear from any other use to which they could be put4 ,but1 as we have already seen1 one of the specimens in shell exhibits well-defined evidence of wear1 and that of such a character as to indicate the passage of a cord between the perforations in a position that would produce abrasion between the holes on the concave side of the plate1 but would leave the back entirely unworn4 ,this peculiar result could only be produced by attachment in a fixed position1 concave side out1 to some object perforated like the plate1 the cord passing directly through both4 ,the perforations of pendants necessarily show wear on both sides2 a like result would follow from the use of these plates in any of the other ways mentioned4 ,those made of shell could not1 on account of their warped shape1 be used for shuttles2 besides1 they show no evidence of marginal wear1 such as would result from this use4 ,the fact1 too1 that the material had to be brought from the distant sea-shore would seem to render it too rare and precious to be employed in the ordinary arts when wood1 stone1 and bone would serve the purpose as well4 ,owing to the carelessness or negligence of collectors we have but little information in regard to their relation to the human remains with which they were deposited4 ,such facts as we have1 however1 tend1 ,i believe1 to show that they were used for personal decoration4 ,again1 the material of which they are formed is1 on account of its beauty1 especially adapted for ornament1 and for this use it has been almost exclusively reserved by peoples as distant from the sea as were the ancient peoples of the ,ohio ,valley4 ,,engraved ,,gorgets4 ,it has already been suggested that the simpler forms of pendants with plain surfaces may have had particular significance to their possessors1 as insignia1 amulets1 or symbols1 or that they may have received painted designs of such a character as to give significance to them4 ,for ornament the natural or plainly polished surface of the shell possessed sufficient beauty to satisfy the most fastidious taste--a beauty that could hardly be enhanced by the addition of painted or incised figures4 ,but we find that many of the larger gorgets obtained from the mounds and graves of a large district have designs of a most interesting nature engraved upon them1 which are so remarkable in conception and execution as to command our admiration4 ,such is the character of these designs that we are at once impressed with the idea that they are not products of the idle fancy1 neither is it possible that they had no higher office than the gratification of barbarian vanity4 ,i have given much time to their examination1 and1 day by day1 have become more strongly impressed with the belief that no single design is without its significance1 and that their production was a serious art which dealt with matters closely interwoven with the history1 mythology and polity of a people gradually developing a civilization of their own4 ,although these objects were worn as personal ornaments they probably had specialized uses as insignia1 amulets1 or symbols4 ,as insignia1 they were badges of office or distinction4 ,the devices engraved upon them were derived from many sources and were probably sometimes supplemented by numeral records representing enemies killed1 prisoners taken1 or other deeds accomplished4 ,as amulets1 they were invested with protective or remedial attributes and contained mystic devices derived from dreams1 visions1 and many other sources4 ,as symbols they possessed1 in most cases1 a religious character1 and were generally used as totems of clans4 ,they were inscribed with characters derived chiefly from mythologic sources4 ,a few examples contain geometric designs which may have been time-symbols1 or they may have indicated the order of ceremonial exercises4 ,that these objects should be classed under one of these heads and not as simple ornaments engraved with intricate designs for embellishment alone is apparent when we consider the serious character of the work1 the great amount of labor and patience shown1 the frequent recurrence of the same design1 the wide distribution of particular forms1 the preservation of the idea in all cases1 no matter what shortcomings occur in execution or detail1 and the apparent absence of all lines1 dots1 and figures not essential to the presentation of the conception4 ,in describing these gorgets ,i have arranged them in groups distinguished by the designs engraved upon them4#ace ,they are presented in the following order3 ,the ,cross1 ,the ,scalloped ,disk1 ,the ,bird1 ,the ,spider1 ,the ,serpent1 ,the ,human ,face1 ,the ,human ,figure3 and to these ,i append ,the ,frog1 which is found in ,arizona only1 and although carved in shell does not appear to have been used as a pendant1 as no perforations are visible4 ,within the ,united ,states ancient tablets containing engraved designs are apparently confined to the ,atlantic slope1 and are not found to any extent beyond the limits of the district occupied by the stone-grave peoples4 ,early explorers along the ,atlantic coast mention the use of engraved gorgets by a number of tribes4 ,modern examples may be found occasionally among the ,indians of the northwest coast as well as upon the islands of the central ,pacific4 ,,the ,,cross4 ,the discoverers and early explorers of the ,new ,world were filled with surprise when they beheld their own sacred emblem1 the cross1 mingling with the pagan devices of the western barbarian4 ,writers have speculated in vain--the mystery yet remains unsolved4 ,attempts to connect the use of the cross by prehistoric ,americans with its use in the ,east have signally failed1 and we are compelled to look on its occurrence here as one of those strange coincidences so often found in the practices of peoples totally foreign to each other4 ,if written history does not establish beyond a doubt the fact that the cross had a place in our aboriginal symbolism1 we have but to turn to the pages of the great archologic record1 where we find that it occupies a place in ancient ,american art so intimately interwoven with conceptions peculiar to the continent that it cannot be separated from them4 ,it is found associated with other prehistoric remains throughout nearly the entire length and breadth of ,america4 ,i have the pleasure of presenting a few new examples of this emblem1 obtained from the district at one time occupied by the mound-builders4 ,the examples are carved in shell or engraved upon disks of shell which have been employed as pendant gorgets4 ,in the study of these particular relics1 one important fact in recent history must be kept constantly in mind4 ,the first explorers were accompanied by ,christian zealots1 who spared no effort to root out the native superstitions and introduce a foreign religion1 of which the cross was the all-important symbol4 ,this emblem was generally accepted by the savages as the only tangible feature of a new system of belief that was filled with subtleties too profound for their comprehension4 ,as a result1 the cross was at once introduced into the regalia of the natives2 at first probably in a ,european form and material attached to a string of beads in precisely the manner that they had been accustomed to suspend their own trinkets and gorgets2 but soon1 no doubt1 delineated or carved by their own hands upon tablets of stone and copper and shell1 in the place of their own peculiar conceptions4 ,from the time of ,la ,salle down to the extinction of the savage in the middle ,mississippi province1 the cross was kept constantly before him1 and its presence may thus be accounted for in such remains as post-date the advent of the whites4 ,year after year articles of ,european manufacture are being discovered in the most unexpected places1 and we shall find it impossible to assign any single example of these crosses to a prehistoric period1 with the assurance that our statements will not some day be challenged4 ,it is certainly unfortunate that the ,american origin of any work of art resembling ,european forms must rest forever under a cloud of suspicion4 ,as long as a doubt exists in regard to the origin of a relic1 it is useless to employ it in a discussion where important deductions are to be made4 ,at the same time it should not be forgotten that the cross was undoubtedly used as a symbol by the prehistoric nations of the ,south1 and consequently that it was probably also known in the ,north4 ,a great majority of the relics associated with it in ancient mounds and burial places are undoubtedly aboriginal4 ,in the case of the shell gorgets1 the tablets themselves belong to an ,american type1 and are highly characteristic of the art of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,a majority of the designs engraved upon them are also characteristic of the same district4 ,we find at rare intervals designs that are characteristically foreign2 these1 whether ,mexican or ,european1 are objects of special interest and merit the closest possible examination4 ,that the design under consideration1 as well as every other engraved upon these tablets1 is symbolic or otherwise significant1 ,i do not for a moment doubt2 but the probabilities as to the ,european or ,american origin of the symbol of the cross found in this region are pretty evenly balanced4 ,in its delineation there is certainly nothing to indicate its origin4 ,by reference to ,plate ,,liii it will be seen that in all the examples given it is a simple and symmetrical cross1 which might be duplicated a thousand times in the religious art of any country4 ,a study of the designs associated with the cross in these gorgets is instructive1 but does not lead to any definite result4 ,in one case the cross is inscribed upon the back of a great spider2 in another it is surrounded by a rectangular framework of lines1 looped at the corners1 and guarded by four mysterious birds1 while in others it is without attendant characters2 but the workmanship is purely aboriginal4 ,i have not seen a single example of engraving upon shell that suggested a foreign hand1 or a design1 with the exception of this one1 that could claim a ,european derivation4 ,some very ingenious theories have been elaborated in attempting to account for the presence of the cross among ,american symbols4 ,brinton believes that the great importance attached to the points of the compass--the four quarters of the heavens--by savage peoples has given rise to the sign of the cross4 ,with others the cross is a phallic symbol1 derived1 by some obscure process of evolution1 from the veneration accorded to the reciprocal principle in nature4 ,it is also frequently associated with sun-worship1 and is recognized as a symbol of the sun--the four arms being remaining rays left after a gradual process of elimination4 ,whatever is finally determined in reference to the origin of the cross as a religious symbol in ,america will probably result from the exhaustive study of the history1 language1 and art of the ancient peoples1 combined with a thorough knowledge of the religious conceptions of modern tribes1 and when these sources of information are all exhausted it is probable that the writer who asserts more than a probability will overreach his proofs4 ,such delineations of the cross as we find embodied in ancient aboriginal art represent only the final stages of its evolution1 and it is not to be expected that its origin can be traced through them4 ,in one instance1 however1 a direct derivation from nature is suggested4 ,the ancient ,mexican pictographic manuscripts abound in representations of trees1 conventionalized in such a manner as to resemble crosses2 these apparently take an important part in the scenes depicted4 ,by a comparison of these curious trees with the remarkable cross in the ,palenque tablet1 ,i have been led to the belief that they must have a common significance and origin4 ,the analogies are indeed remarkable4 ,the tree-cross in the paintings is often the central figure of a group in which priests offer sacrifice1 or engage in some similar religious rite4 ,the cross holds the same relation in the ,palenque group4 ,the branches of these cross-shaped trees terminate in clusters of symbolic fruit1 and the arms of the cross are loaded down with symbols which1 although highly conventionalized1 have not yet entirely lost their vegetable character4 ,the most remarkable feature1 however1 is not that the crosses resemble each other in these respects1 but that they perform like functions in giving support to a symbolic bird which is perched upon the summit4 ,this bird appears to be the important feature of the group1 and to it1 or the deity which it represents1 the homage or sacrifice is offered4 ,these analogies go still farther2 the bases of the cross in the tablet and of the crosses in the paintings are made to rest upon a highly conventionalized figure of some mythical creature4 ,a consideration of these facts seems to me to lead to the conclusion that the myths represented in all of these groups are identical1 and that the cross and cross-like trees have a common origin4 ,whether that origin is in the tree on the one hand or in a cross otherwise evolved on the other ,i shall not attempt to say4 ,the gorget presented in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,li1 belongs to the collection of ,mr4 ,f4 ,m4 ,perrine1 and was obtained from a mound in ,union ,county1 ,ill4 ,it is a little more than three inches in diameter and has been ground down to a uniform thickness of about one-twelfth of an inch4 ,the surfaces are smooth and the margin carefully rounded and polished4 ,near the upper edge are two perforations for suspension4 ,the cord used passed between the holes on the concave side1 wearing a shallow groove4 ,on the convex side1 or back1 the cord marks extend upward and outward1 indicating the usual method of suspension about the neck4 ,the cross which occupies the center of the concave face of the disk1 is quite simple4 ,it is partially inclosed on one side by a semicircular line1 and at present has no other definition than that given by four triangular perforations which separate the arms4 ,the face of the cross is ornamented with six carelessly drawn incised lines1 which interlace in the center1 as shown in the cut--three extending along the arm to the right and three passing down the lower arm to the inclosing line4 ,i have not been able to learn anything of the character of the interments with which this specimen was associated4 ,fig4 #b of the same plate represents a large shell cross1 the encircling rim of which has been broken away4 ,the perforations are still intact4 ,the cross is quite plain4 ,this specimen is very much decayed1 and came to the ,national ,museum inside of a skull obtained from a grave at ,charleston1 ,mo4 ,beyond this there is no record of the specimen4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,li--,,shell ,,gorgets--,,the ,,cross4 #a4 ,from a mound1 ,union ,county1 ,ill4 #b4 ,from ,charleston1 ,mo4 7#a_/a7 ,in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,lii1 ,i present a large fragment of a circular shell ornament1 on the convex surface of which a very curious ornamental design has been engraved4 ,the design1 inclosed by a circle1 represents a cross such as would be formed by two rectangular tablets or slips1 slit longitudinally and interlaced at right angles to each other4 ,between the arms of the cross in the spaces inclosed by the circular border line are four annular nodes1 having small conical depressions in the center4 ,these nodes have been relieved by cutting away portions of the shell around them4 ,in the center of the cross is another small node or ring similarly relieved4 ,the lines are neat and deeply incised4 ,the edge of the shell has been broken away nearly all around4 ,the accompanying cut represents the ornament natural size--one and a half inches in diameter and one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness4 ,it was obtained from a mound on ,fain's ,island1 ,tennessee4 ,the small gorget presented in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,lii1 is of inferior workmanship and the lines and dots seem to have a somewhat haphazard arrangement4 ,the cross1 which may or may not be significant1 consists of two shallow irregular grooves which cross each other at right angles near the center of the disk and terminate near the border4 ,there are indications of an irregular1 somewhat broken1 concentric line near the margin4 ,a number of shallow conical pits have been drilled at rather irregular intervals over most of the surface4 ,one pair of perforations seems to have been broken away and others drilled1 one of the latter has also been broken out4 ,a triangular fragment is lost from the lower margin of the disk4 ,this specimen was obtained from a mound on ,lick ,creek1 ,east ,tennessee1 by ,mr4 ,dunning4 ,the gorget shown in ,fig4 #c contains a typical example of the cross of the mound-builder4 ,the cut was made from a pencil sketch and is probably not quite accurate in detail4 ,the border of the disk is plain1 with the exception of the usual perforations at the top4 ,the cross is inclosed in a carelessly drawn circle1 and the spaces between the arms1 which in other crosses are entirely cut out1 or are filled with rays or other figures1 are here decorated with a pattern of crossed lines4 ,the lines which define the arms of the cross intersect in the middle of the disk4 ,the square figure thus produced in the center contains a device that is probably significant4 ,a doubly-curved or ,s-shaped incised line1 widened at the ends1 extends obliquely across the square from the right upper to the left lower corner4 ,this figure appears to be an elementary or unfinished form of the device found in the center of many of the more elaborate disks4 ,intersected by a similar line it would form a cross like that upon the back of one of the spiders shown in ,plate ,,lxi1 or somewhat more evenly curved1 it would resemble the involuted figure in the center of the circular disks given in ,plate ,,liv4 ,this specimen was obtained from a mound on ,lick ,creek1 ,tenn41 and is now in the ,peabody ,museum4 ,in ,fig4 #d a large copper disk from an ,ohio mound is represented4 ,the specimen is eight inches in diameter1 is very thin1 and has suffered greatly from corrosion4 ,a symmetrical cross1 the arms of which are five inches in length1 has been cut out of the center4 ,two concentric lines have been impressed in the plate1 one near the margin and the other touching the ends of the cross4 ,it is now in the ,natural ,history ,museum at ,new ,york4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lii--,,the ,,cross ,,of ,,the ,,mound-,,builders4 #a4 ,shell gorget1 ,fain's ,island1 ,tenn4 #b4 ,shell gorget1 ,lick ,creek1 ,tenn4 #c4 ,shell gorget1 ,lick ,creek1 ,tenn4 #d4 ,copper plate1 ,ohio4 ,in ,plate ,,liii ,i present a large number of crosses1 most of which have been obtained from the mounds1 or from ancient graves1 within the district occupied by the mound-builders4 ,eight are engraved upon shell gorgets 7illustrations of which are given in the accompanying plates71 one is cut in stone1 three are painted upon pottery1 and four are executed in copper4 ,with two exceptions they are inclosed in circles1 and are hence symmetrical ,greek crosses1 the ends being rounded to conform to the circle2 the remaining two 7,figs4 #ad and #ae7 represent forms of the ,latin cross1 and resemble the crosses attached to the rosaries of the ,catholic priesthood4 ,a silver cross similar to the last given was obtained from a mound in ,ohio4 ,the plate itself is instructive1 and may be presented without further remark4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,liii--,,the ,,cross4 ,,scalloped ,,disks4 ,in making a hasty classification of the many engraved gorgets1 ,i have found it convenient to place in one group a numerous and somewhat extraordinary class of designs which have been engraved upon scalloped disks4 ,like the cross1 the symbol here represented is one that cannot with certainty be referred to an original4 ,the general shape of the disks is such as to suggest to most minds a likeness to the sun1 the scallops being suggestive of the rays4 ,as this orb is known to be an object of first importance in the economy of life--the source of light and heat--it is naturally an object of veneration among many primitive peoples4 ,it is well known that the barbarian tribes of ,mexico and ,south ,america had well-developed systems of sun-worship1 and that they employed symbols of many forms1 some of which still retained a likeness to the original1 while others had assumed the garb of animals or fanciful creatures4 ,these facts being known1 it seems natural that such a symbol as the one under consideration should be referred to the great original which it suggests4 ,the well-known fact that the district from which these gorgets come1 was1 at the time of discovery by the whites1 inhabited by a race of sun-worshipers--the ,natchez--gives to this assumption a shadow of confirmation4 ,so far as ,i am aware1 however1 no one has ventured a positive opinion in regard to their significance1 but such suggestions as have been made incline toward the view indicated above4 ,i feel the great necessity of caution in such matters1 and while combating the idea that the designs are ornamental or fanciful only1 ,i am far from attributing to them any deeply mysterious significance4 ,they may in some way or other indicate political or religious station1 or they may even be cosmogenic1 but the probabilities are much greater that they are time symbols4 ,before venturing further1 however1 it will be well to describe one of these disks1 a typical example of which is presented in ,plate ,,liv4 ,the specimen chosen as a type of these rosette-like disks was obtained from a mound near ,nashville1 ,tenn41 by ,professor ,powell4 ,it was found near the head of a skeleton1 which was much decayed1 and had been so disturbed by recent movements of the soil as to render it difficult to determine its original position4 ,the shell used is apparently a large specimen of the ,busycon perversum1 although the lines of growth are not sufficiently well preserved to permit a positive determination of the species4 ,the substance of the shell is well preserved2 the surface was once highly polished1 but is now pitted and discolored by age4 ,the design is engraved on the concave surface as usual1 and the lines are accurately drawn and clearly cut4 ,the various concentric circles are drawn with geometric accuracy around a minute shallow pit as a center4 ,these circles divide the surface into five parts--a small circle at the center surrounded by four zones of unequal width4 ,the central circle is three-eighths of an inch in diameter1 and is surrounded by a zone one-half an inch in width1 which contains a rosette of three involuted lines2 these begin on the circumference of the inner circle in three small equidistant perforations1 and sweep outward to the second circle1 making upwards of half a revolution4 ,these lines are somewhat wider and more deeply engraved than the other lines of the design4 ,in many specimens they are so deeply cut in the middle part of the curve as to penetrate the disk1 producing crescent-shaped perforations4 ,the second zone is one-fourth of an inch in width1 and in this1 as in all other specimens1 is quite plain4 ,the third zone is one-half an inch in width1 and exhibits some very interesting features4 ,placed at almost equal intervals we find six circular figures1 each of which incloses a circlet and a small central pit2 the spaces between the circular figures are thickly dotted with minute conical pits1 somewhat irregularly placed2 the number of dots in each space varies from thirty-six to forty1 which gives a total of about two hundred and thirty4 ,the outer zone is subdivided into thirteen compartments1 in each of which a nearly circular figure or boss has been carved1 the outer edges of which form the scalloped outline of the gorget4 ,two medium sized perforations for suspension have been made near the inner margin of one of the bosses next the dotted zone2 these show slight indications of abrasion by the cord of suspension4 ,these perforations1 as well as the three near the center1 have been bored mainly from the convex side of the disk4 ,whatever may be the meaning of this design1 we cannot fail to recognize the important fact that it is significant--that an idea is expressed4 ,were the design ornamental1 we should expect variation in the parts or details of different specimens resulting from difference of taste in the designers2 if simply copied from an original example for sale or trade to the inhabitants we might expect a certain number of exact reproductions2 but in such a case1 when variations did occur1 they would hardly be found to follow uniform or fixed lines2 there would also be variation in the relation of the parts of the conception as well as in the number of particular parts2 the zones would not follow each other in exactly the same order2 particular figures would not be confined to particular zones2 the rays of the volute would not always have a sinistral turn1 or the form of the tablet be always circular and scalloped4 ,it cannot be supposed that of the whole number of these objects at one time in use1 more than a small number have been rescued from decay1 and these have been obtained from widely scattered localities and doubtless represent centuries of time1 yet no variants appear to indicate a leading up to or a divergence from the one particular type4 ,a design of purely ornamental character1 even if executed by the same hand1 could not1 in the nature of things1 exhibit the uniformity in variation here shown4 ,fancy1 unfettered by ideas of a fixed nature1 such as those pertaining to religious or sociologic customs1 would vary with the locality1 the day1 the year1 or the life4 ,i have examined upwards of thirty of these scalloped disks1 the majority of which are made of shell4 ,i shall not attempt to describe each specimen1 but shall call attention to such important variations from the type as may be noticed4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,liv--,,scalloped ,,shell ,,disk4 ,nashville1 ,tenn4 7#a_/a7 ,in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,lv1 we have a well-preserved disk which has four involute lines1 the others having three only2 these lines are deeply cut and1 for about one-third of their length1 penetrate the shell1 producing four crescent-shaped perforations4 ,the circles in the third or dotted zone are neatly made and evenly spaced1 and inclose circlets and conical pits4 ,the dots in the intervening spaces are closely and irregularly placed1 and in number range from forty to forty-five1 giving a total of about three hundred and forty4 ,other features are as usual4 ,the specimen was obtained from a stone grave in ,kane's ,field1 near ,nashville1 ,tenn41 and is now in the ,peabody ,museum4 ,it is possible that the specimen presented in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,lv1 should not be placed in this group2 but as there are many points of resemblance to the type1 it may be described here4 ,at first sight it appears that one of the outer zones is lacking1 but it will be seen that through some unknown cause the two have been merged together1 alternating bosses of the outer line being carried across both zones4 ,the whole design has been carelessly laid out and rudely engraved4 ,the lines of the involute are arranged in four groups of two each and occupy an unusually wide belt4 ,there are near the margin two sets of perforations for suspension4 ,the specimen was obtained from the ,brakebill mound1 near ,knoxville1 ,tenn41 and is in an advanced stage of decay4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lv--,,shell ,,disks4 #a4 ,from a mound near ,nashville4 7#a_/a7 #b4 ,from the ,brakebill ,mound4 7#a_/a7 ,tennessee4 ,in ,plate ,,lvi1 ,fig4 #d1 ,i present a small specimen1 which has the appearance of being unfinished4 ,the zones are all defined1 but1 with the exception of the outer1 which has thirteen bosses1 are quite plain4 ,the lines are deeply but rudely cut4 ,it was obtained from a stone grave at ,oldtown1 ,tenn41 and is now in the ,peabody ,museum4 ,besides the type specimen already presented1 there may be seen in the ,national ,museum two very good examples1 from a mound near ,franklin1 ,tenn4 ,the smaller is about three inches in diameter and is nearly circular2 it has suffered much from decay1 but nearly all the design can be made out4 ,the lines of the involute penetrate the disk producing short crescent-shaped perforations2 the circles in the dotted zone are seven in number and inclose the usual circlets and conical pits2 the dots in the intervening spaces are too obscure to be counted4 ,the specimen has sixteen marginal scallops4 ,the larger specimen is somewhat fragmentary1 portions being broken away from opposite sides4 ,it is nearly four and a half inches in diameter1 and the design has been drawn and engraved with more than ordinary precision4 ,the central circle incloses a perforated circlet1 and the involute lines are long and shallow4 ,the dotted zone has seven circles with inclosed circlets and pits4 ,the outer zone contains fifteen oval figures4 ,another example of these shell disks is illustrated by ,professor ,putnam1 in the eleventh annual report of the ,peabody ,museum1 page #caj4 ,it is said to have been found near ,nashville1 ,tenn41 although its pedigree is not well established4 ,according to ,professor ,putnam1 it is made from the shell of a ,busycon1 and is apparently in a very good state of preservation4 ,it is about four inches in diameter and is inscribed with the usual design1 a central circle and dot surrounded by a triple involute and three concentric zones4 ,the narrow inner zone is plain1 as usual2 the middle dotted zone has six circles with central dots1 the spaces between being closely dotted1 and the outer zone contains thirteen of the oval figures1 the outer edges of which form the scalloped margin of the disk4 ,the perforations for suspension are placed as usual near the inner margin of the outer zone in the spaces between the oval figures4 ,a fine example of engraved disks has been figured by ,dr4 ,joseph ,jones1 from whose work the illustrations given in ,figs4 #a and #b1 ,plate ,,lvi1 have been taken4 ,as his description is one of the first given and quite graphic1 ,i make the following quotation3 ,in a carefully constructed stone sarcophagus1 in which the face of the skeleton was looking toward the setting sun1 a beautiful shell ornament was found resting upon the breast-bone of the skeleton4 ,this shell ornament is #d4d inches in diameter1 and it is ornamented on its concave surface1 with a small circle in the center1 and four concentric bands1 differently figured1 in relief4 ,the first band is filled by a triple volute2 the second is plain1 while the third is dotted1 and has nine small round bosses carved at unequal distances upon it4 ,the outer band is made up of fourteen small elliptical bosses1 the outer edges of which give to the object a scalloped rim4 ,this ornament on its concave figured surface had been covered with red paint1 much of which was still visible4 ,the convex smooth surface is highly polished and plain1 with the exception of three concentric marks4 ,the material out of which it is formed was evidently derived from a large flat sea-shell4 99 99 99 ,the form of the circles or 'suns' carved upon the concave surface is similar to that of the paintings on the high rocky cliffs on the banks of the ,cumberland and ,harpeth4 99 99 99 ,this ornament1 when found1 lay upon the breast-bone1 with the concave surface uppermost1 as if it had been worn in this position suspended around the neck1 as the two holes for the thong or string were in that portion of the border which pointed directly to the chin or central portion of the lower jaw of the skeleton4 ,the marks of the thong by which it was suspended are manifest upon both the anterior and posterior surfaces1 and in addition to this the paint is worn off from the circular space bounded below by the two holes4#acf ,fig4 #b represents the back or convex side of the disk1 the long curved lines indicate the laminations of the shell1 and the three narrow crescent-shaped figures near the center are perforations resulting from the deep engraving of the three lines of the volute on the concave side4 ,the stone grave in which this ornament was found occupied the summit of a mound on the banks of the ,cumberland ,river opposite ,nashville1 ,tennessee4 ,professor ,jones1 also represents in the same work1 page #aji1 a large fragment of a similar ornament which has apparently had seven circlets in the dotted zone and thirteen marginal bosses4 ,this specimen1 which is three and one-half inches in diameter1 was exhumed by ,dr4 ,grant1 from a small rock mound near ,pulaski1 ,giles ,county1 ,tennessee4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lvi--,,scalloped ,,shell ,,disks4 #a4 ,nashville1 ,tenn4 #b4 ,nashville1 ,tenn4 7reverse74 #c4 ,nashville1 ,tenn4 #d4 ,oldtown1 ,tenn4 #e4 ,nashville1 ,tenn4 #f4 ,pulaski1 ,tenn4 ,prof4 ,c4 ,c4 ,jones describes a number of stone disks containing designs which evidently belong to the class under consideration4 ,he inclines to the opinion that they were designed for some sacred office1 and suggests that they were used as plates to offer food to the sun god4 ,the specimen of which ,i present an outline in ,fig4 #c1 ,plate ,,lvii1 is figured by ,mr4 ,jones1 and his description is as follows3 ,it is circular in form1 eleven inches and a half in diameter1 an inch and a quarter in thickness1 and weighing nearly seven pounds4 ,it is made of a close-grained1 sea-green slate1 and bears upon its surface the stains of centuries4 ,between the rim1 which is scalloped1 and the central portion1 are two circular depressed rings1 running parallel with the circumference and incised to the depth of a tenth of an inch4 ,this circular basin1 nearly eight inches in diameter1 is surrounded by a margin or rim a little less than two inches in width1 traversed by the incised rings and beveled from the center toward the edge4 ,the lower surface or bottom of the plate is flat1 beveled upward1 however1 as it approaches the scalloped edge1 which is not more than a quarter of an inch in thickness4 99 99 99 ,the use of these plates from the ,etowah ,valley may1 we think1 be conjectured with at least some degree of probability4 ,it is not likely that they were employed for domestic or culinary purposes4 ,their weight1 variety1 the care evidenced in their construction1 and the amount of time and labor necessarily expended in their manufacture1 forbid the belief that they were intended as ordinary dishes from which the daily meal was to be eaten1 and suggest the impression that they were designed to fulfill a more unusual and important office4 ,the common vessels from which the natives of this region ate their prepared food were bowls and pans fashioned of wood and baked clay1 calabashes1 pieces of bark1 and large shells4 ,flat platters1 made of an admixture of clay and pounded shells1 well kneaded and burnt1 were ordinarily employed for baking corn-cakes and frying meat2 but it does not anywhere appear that ornamental stone plates were in general use4#acg ,this specimen1 or one identical with it1 is in the possession of the ,natural ,history ,museum in ,new ,york4 ,it was plowed up in #ahei on the lower terrace of a large mound near ,cartersville1 ,ga4 ,other specimens somewhat similar to the one described by ,professor ,jones have been obtained from the same region1 two of which are now in the ,national ,museum4 ,one of these from a mound on the ,warrior ,riv4 is made of gray slate1 and is about eight inches in diameter4 ,it is smooth1 symmetrical1 and doubly convex4 ,there are three shallow1 irregular lines near the border1 and the periphery is ornamented with twenty-one scallops4 ,another specimen1 a cut of which has already been published by ,dr4 ,rau in ,the ,archological ,collection of the ,national ,museum1 p4 #cg1 is illustrated in ,plate ,,lvii1 ,fig4 #a4 ,it is nearly one-half an inch in thickness1 and about ten inches in diameter4 ,a single incised line runs parallel with the circumference1 which is ornamented with nine rather irregularly placed notches4 ,the stone disk1 of which an outline is given in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,lvii1 was obtained from the ,lick ,creek mound1 in ,east ,tennessee4 ,its resemblance to the shell disks is so striking that it must be regarded as having a similar origin if not a similar use4 ,the division into zones is the same as in the shell disks2 the outer is divided into twelve lobes1 and the cross in the center takes the place of the involute rosette with its central circle4 ,the fact that this particular design is engraved on heavy plates of stone as well as upon shell gorgets is sufficient proof that its origin cannot be attributed to fancy alone4 ,i have seen at the ,national ,museum a curious specimen of stone disk1 which should be mentioned in this place1 although there is not sufficient assurance of its genuineness to allow it undisputed claim to a place among antiquities4 ,it is a perfectly circular1 neatly-dressed sandstone disk1 twelve inches in diameter and one-half an inch in thickness4 ,upon one face we see three marginal incised lines1 as in the example just described1 while on the other there is a well-engraved design which represents two entwined or rather knotted rattlesnakes4 ,an outline of this curious figure is given in ,plate ,,lxvi4 ,within the circular space inclosed by the bodies of the serpents is a well-drawn hand in the palm of which is placed an open eye2 this would probably have been omitted by the artist had he fully appreciated the skeptical tendencies of the modern archologist4 ,the margin of the plate is divided into seventeen sections by small semicircular indentations4 ,this object is said to have been obtained from a mound near ,carthage1 ,ala4 ,the reverse is shown in ,fig4 #d1 ,plate ,,lvii4 ,a similar specimen from a mound near ,lake ,washington1 ,mississippi1 is described by ,mr4 ,anderson4#ach ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lvii--,,scalloped ,,disks4 #a4 ,stone1 ,warrior ,river1 ,ala4 #b4 ,stone1 ,lick ,creek ,mound1 ,tenn4 #c4 ,stone1 ,etowah1 ,valley1 ,ga4 #d4 ,stone1 ,carthage1 ,ala4 #e4 ,stone1 ,sun symbol1 ,uxmal4 ,the short time at my disposal has barely permitted me to collect the facts1 and ,i shall have to leave it to the future or to others to follow out fully the suggestions here presented4 ,i had expected to find some uniformity in the numbers or ratios of the various zones1 circles1 and dots1 and by that means possibly to have arrived at some conclusion as to their significance4 ,i have already shown that certain elements of the design are fixed in position and number1 while others vary1 and the following table is presented that these facts may be made apparent4 ,the list is quite incomplete4 ,it will be seen by reference to the fourth column that the involute symbol of the inner zone is1 with one exception1 divided into three parts4 ,the second zone is not given in the table1 as it is always plain4 ,the third or dotted zone contains circlets which range from six to nine1 while the dots1 which have been counted in a few cases only1 have a wide range1 the total number in some cases reaching three hundred and forty4 ,the bosses of the outer zone range from thirteen to eighteen4 ,the examples in stone seem to have a different series of numbers4 ,the student will hardly fail to notice the resemblance of these disks to the calendars or time symbols of ,mexico and other southern nations of antiquity4 ,there is1 however1 no absolute identity with southern examples4 ,the involute design in the center resembles the ,aztec symbol of day1 but is peculiar in its division into three parts1 four being the number almost universally used4 ,the only division into three that ,i have noticed occurs in the calendar of the ,muyscas1 in which three days constitute a week4 ,the circlets and bosses of the outer zones gives them a pretty close resemblance to the month and year zones of the southern calendars4 ,my suggestion that these objects may be calendar disks will not seem unreasonable when it is remembered that time symbols do very often make their appearance during the early stages of barbarism4 ,they are the result of attempts to fix accurately the divisions of time for the regulation of religious rites1 and among the nations of the south constituted the great body of art4 ,no well-developed calendar is known among the wild tribes of ,north ,america1 the highest achievements in this line consisting of simple pictographic symbols of the years1 but there is no reason why the mound-builders should not have achieved a pretty accurate division of time resembling1 in its main features1 the systems of their southern neighbors4 ,column headers3 ,a ,illustrated in-- ,b ,collection4 ,c ,locality4 ,d ,divisions of involute4 ,e ,circlets in #b;d zone4 ,f ,bosses in marginal zone4 ,g ,dots in #b;d zone4 ,h ,peculiar features4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,shell4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,h ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,pl4 ,,liv ,n4 ,m41 #cbjfj,tenn4 #c #f #ac #cdj787,three central perforations4 ,pl4 ,,lv1 #a ,p4 ,m41 #aebdg do #d #h #ad ,pl4 ,,lvi1 #a;,j4 ,jones do #c #i #ad ,three incisions4 ,pl4 ,,lvi1 #c,p4 ,m41 #aahja do #c #f #ac ,pl4 ,,lvi1 #d,p4 ,m41 #aeifi do #c ,plain#ac ,unfinished 787 ,p4 ,m41 #aehif do #c #h #ag ,p4 ,m4 do #c #f #af ,p4 ,m41 #aeijf do #c #h #ac #ajj787,two central perforations4 ,p4 ,m41 #aehce do #c #f #ad #bej787 ,p4 ,m41 #aeiaf do #c #f #ah ,three crescent perforations4 ,n4 ,m41 #aiigf do #c #g #f ,n4 ,m41 #aiige do #c #g #ae #bhj787 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,stone4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,pl4 ,,lvii1#a,n4 ,m41 #iccd ,ga4 ,plain #i ,pl4 ,,lvii1#b,p4 ,m41 #bifb do do #ab ,cross in center4 ,pl4 ,,lvii1#c,n4 ,y4 ,nat4 do do #bd ,hist4 ,m4 ,n4 ,m41 #iccb do do #ba ,pl4 ,,lxvi ,n4 ,m4 ,ala4 do #ag ,serpent1 obverse4 ,anderson ,miss4 do #ah ,serpent1 center4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,n4 ,m41 ,national ,museum4 ,p4 ,m41 ,peabody ,museum4 ,,the ,,bird4 ,with all peoples the bird has been a most important symbol4 ,possessing the mysterious power of flight1 by which it could rise at pleasure into the realms of space1 it naturally came to be associated with the phenomena of the sky--the wind1 the storm1 the lightning1 and the thunder4 ,in the fervid imagination of the red man it became the actual ruler of the elements1 the guardian of the four quarters of the heavens4 ,as a result the bird is embodied in the myths1 and is a prominent figure in the philosophy of many savage tribes4 ,the eagle1 which is an important emblem with many civilized nations1 is found to come much nearer the heart of the superstitious savage2 its plumes are the badge of the successful warrior2 its body a sacred offering to his deities1 or an object of actual veneration4 ,the swan1 the heron1 the woodpecker1 the paroquet1 the owl1 and the dove were creatures of unusual consideration2 their flight was noted as a matter of vital importance1 as it could bode good or evil to the hunter or warrior who consulted it as an oracle4 ,the dove1 with the ,hurons1 is thought to be the keeper of the souls of the dead1 and the ,navajos are said to believe that four white swans dwell in the four quarters of the heavens and rule the winds4 ,the storm-bird of the ,dakotas dwells in the upper air1 beyond the range of human vision1 carrying upon its back a lake of fresh water2 when it winks its eyes there is lightning2 when it flaps its wings we hear the thunder2 and when it shakes out its plumage the rain descends4 ,myths like this abound in the lore of many peoples1 and the story of the mysterious bird is interwoven with the traditions which tell of their origin4 ,a creature which has sufficient power to guide and rule a race is constantly embodied in its songs1 its art1 and its philosophy4 ,thus highly regarded by the modern tribes1 it must have been equally an object of consideration among prehistoric races4 ,we know that the ,natchez and the ,creeks included the bird among their deities1 and by the relics placed within his sepulchers we know that it held an important place in the esteem of the mound-builder4 ,our prehistoric peoples seem to have taken special delight in carving its form in wood and stone1 in modeling it in clay1 in fashioning it in copper and gold1 and in engraving it upon shell4 ,one of the most interesting of all the specimens preserved to us is illustrated in ,plate ,,lviii4 ,the design with which this relic is embellished possesses no little artistic excellence1 and doubtless embodies some one of the many charming myths of the heavens4 ,i am perfectly well aware that a scientific writer should guard against the tendency to indulge in flights of fancy1 but as the myths of the ,american aborigines are highly poetical1 and abound in lofty rhetorical figures1 there can be no good reason why their graphic art should not echo some of these rhythmical passages4 ,to the thoughtful mind it will be apparent that1 although this design is not necessarily full of occult mysteries1 every line has its purpose and every figure its significance4 ,yet of these very works one writer has ventured the opinion that they do but express the individual fancy of those by whom they were made2 that they are even without indications of any intelligent design or pictographic idea4 ,i do not assume to interpret these designs2 they are not to be interpreted4 ,besides1 there is no advantage to be gained by an interpretation4 ,we have hundreds of primitive myths within our easy reach that are as interesting and instructive as these could be4 ,all ,i desire is to elevate these works from the category of trinkets to what ,i believe is their rightful place--the serious art of a people with great capacity for loftier works4 ,what the gorgets themselves were1 or of what particular value to their possessors1 aside from simple ornament1 must be1 in a measure1 a matter of conjecture4 ,they were hardly less than the totems of clans1 the insignia of rulers1 or the potent charms of a priesthood4 ,the gorget in question is unfortunately without a pedigree4 ,it reached the ,national ,museum through the agency of ,mr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,williams1 and is labeled ,mississippi4 ,on its face1 however1 there is sufficient evidence to establish its aboriginal origin4 ,the form of the object1 the character of the design and the evident age of the specimen1 all bespeak the mound-builder4 ,it was in all probability obtained from one of the multitude of ancient sepulchers that abound in the ,state of ,mississippi4 ,the disk is four and a quarter inches in diameter1 and is made from a large1 heavy specimen of the ,busycon perversum4 ,it has been smoothly dressed on both sides1 but is now considerably stained and pitted4 ,the design has in this case been engraved upon the convex side1 the concave surface being plain4 ,the perforations are placed near the margin and are considerably worn by the cord of suspension4 ,in the center is a nearly symmetrical cross of the ,greek type inclosed in a circle one and one-fourth inches in diameter4 ,the spaces between the arms are emblazoned with groups of radiating lines4 ,placed at regular intervals on the outside of the circle are twelve pointed pyramidal rays ornamented with transverse lines4 ,the whole design presents a remarkable combination of the two symbols1 the cross and the sun4 ,surrounding this interesting symbol is another of a somewhat mysterious nature4 ,a square framework of four continuous parallel lines1 symmetrically looped at the corners1 incloses the central symbol1 the inner line touching the tips of the pyramidal rays4 ,outside of this again are the four symbolic birds placed against the side of the square opposite the arms of the cross4 ,these birds1 or rather birds' heads1 are carefully drawn after what1 to the artist1 must have been a well recognized model4 ,the mouth is open and the mandibles long1 slender1 and straight4 ,the eye is represented by a circlet which incloses a small conical pit intended to represent the iris1 a striated and pointed crest springs from the back of the head and neck1 and two lines extend from the eye1 down the neck1 to the base of the figure4 ,in seeking an original for this bird we find that it has perhaps more points of resemblance to the ivory-billed woodpecker than to any other species4 ,it is not impossible1 however1 that the heron or swan may have been intended4 ,that some particular bird served as a model is attested by the fact that other specimens1 from mounds in various parts of ,tennessee1 exhibit similar figures4 ,i have been able to find six of these specimens1 all of which vary to some extent from the type described1 but only in detail1 workmanship1 or finish4 ,the specimen presented in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,lix1 was obtained by ,mr4 ,cross from a stone grave on ,mr4 ,overton's farm near ,nashville1 ,tenn4 ,professor ,putnam1 who secured it from ,mr4 ,cross1 has published a cut of it in the ,eleventh ,annual ,report of the ,peabody ,museum4 ,it is made from a large marine shell1 probably a ,busycon1 and is represented natural size both by ,mr4 ,putnam and myself4 ,the design is essentially the same as that shown in the type specimen1 but is much more rudely executed4 ,a circlet with a central pit takes the place of the cross and sun4 ,the looped rectangular figure has but two lines and the birds' heads are not so full of character as those on the other specimens2 they resemble the heads of chicks with a few pin-feathers sprouting from the back and top of the head rather than full-fledged birds4 ,the design is engraved on the concave side4 ,the perforations are much worn4 ,this specimen is now in the ,peabody ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lviii--,,shell ,,gorget--,,the ,,bird4 ,mississippi4 7#a_/a7 ,the same collection contains a large fragment of another small disk about two inches in diameter4 ,the central part seems to be plain1 but the looped figure1 which has four lines1 resembles very closely that engraved on the other plates4 ,it is mentioned by ,professor ,putnam1 on page #cji of the ,eleventh ,annual ,report of the ,peabody ,museum4 ,it is said to have been found on the surface in ,humphrey ,county1 ,tennessee4 ,a much larger specimen1 which resembles my type specimen very closely1 is shown in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,lix4 ,it was obtained by ,professor ,putnam and ,dr4 ,curtis from a stone grave on ,mrs4 ,williams' farm1 ,cumberland ,river1 ,tennessee4 ,it is nearly circular1 and about two and a half inches in diameter4 ,a small piece has been lost from the upper margin4 ,it is neatly made and quite smooth1 and the lines of the design are clearly and evenly engraved4 ,the small cross in the center is inclosed by a plain narrow zone1 and is defined by four triangular perforations between the arms4 ,in this respect it resembles other shell crosses found within the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,surrounding the plain zone are eight pyramidal rays with cross-bars2 in this feature1 and in the drawing of the looped square and the birds' heads1 there is but little variation from the type specimen4 ,the surface upon which the engraving is made seems to be slightly convex4 ,another specimen of this class was obtained from a stone grave near ,gray's mound1 at ,oldtown1 ,tenn4 ,it is shown in ,fig4 #c1 ,plate ,,lix4 ,the design is very much like that of the type specimen1 from which it differs in having four large perforations near the center4 ,although the engraved design which once occupied the central space is almost totally effaced1 one or two of the tips of the pyramidal rays may be detected4 ,it is probable that the four round perforations correspond to the four triangular ones by which the arms of the cross in the preceding example are defined4 ,the perforations for suspension are near one margin1 and seem to be very much worn by use4 ,the whole object is fragile from decay4 ,this specimen is also in the ,peabody ,museum4 ,one more very imperfect specimen obtained from a stone grave in the ,cumberland ,valley is nearly five inches in diameter and very irregular in outline4 ,barely enough of the engraved design remains to show that it belongs to the class under consideration4 ,it will be observed that the specimens of this class obtained from ,tennessee are confined to a limited area4 ,it thus seems especially unfortunate that so little is known of the history of the type specimen given in ,plate ,,lviii1 as without assurance of the correctness of the statement that it is from ,mississippi we cannot make use of it to show geographical distribution4 ,in reference to this point1 however1 we have a few very interesting facts which make the occurrence of specimens in localities as widely separated as the ,cumberland ,river and ,mississippi seem inconsequential4 ,i refer now to two specimens described by ,dr4 ,abbott in ,primitive ,industry4 ,one of these is a remarkable slate knife1 the striking features of which are a series of etchings and deeply incised lines of perhaps no meaning4 ,taken in order1 it will be noticed that at the back of the knife are four short lines at uniform distances apart1 and a fifth near the end of the implement4 ,besides these are fifteen shorter parallel lines near the broader end of the knife and about the middle of the blade4 ,a series of five zigzag lines are also cut on the opposite end of the blade4 99 99 99 ,more prominent than the numerous lines to which reference has been made1 are the clearly defined1 unmistakable birds' heads1 placed midway between the two series of lines4 99 99 99 ,did we not learn from the writings of ,heckewelder1 that the ,lenap had 'the turkey totem1' we might suppose that this drawing of such bird heads originated with the intrusive southern ,shawnees1 who1 at one time1 occupied lands in the ,delaware ,valley1 and who are supposed by some writers to have been closely related to the earliest inhabitants of the ,southern and ,southwestern ,states4 ,inasmuch as we shall find that1 not only on this slate knife1 but upon a bone implement also1 similar heads of birds are engraved1 it is probable that the identity of the design is not a mere coincidence1 but that it must be explained either in accordance with the statements of ,heckewelder1 or be considered as the work of southern ,shawnees after their arrival in ,new ,jersey4 ,in the latter event1 the theory that these disks were the work of a people different from and anterior to the ,indians found in the ,cumberland ,valley at the time of the discovery of that region by the whites is1 apparently1 not sustained by the facts4#aci ,a cut of the bone implement referred to above is reproduced from ,dr4 ,abbott's work1 in ,plate ,,lix1 ,fig4 #d4 ,it has probably been made from a portion of a rib of some large mammal and is thought to be somewhat fragmentary4 ,the narrow portion has been cut or ground away to some extent1 and the edges are quite smoothly polished4 ,near the end of this handle-like portion1 there is a countersunk perforation1 and upon the concave side of the wider part there are rudely outlined the heads of two birds4#adj ,these resemble somewhat closely the heads depicted on the other specimen described by ,dr4 ,abbott4 ,the specimens referred to are both from ,new ,jersey1 and are probably surface finds4 ,although the heads represented on these specimens do certainly in some respects suggest that of the turkey1 the characters are not sufficiently pronounced to make it impossible that some other bird was intended1 so that the original in the mind of the ancient artist may have been the same as that from which the examples on shell were drawn4 ,in comparing the northern examples with those of ,tennessee ,i observe another feature that is more conclusive as to the identity of origin than the rather obscure resemblance of the birds' heads delineated4 ,i have not had the opportunity of examining the specimen illustrated in ,fig4 #d2 but in the cut given by ,dr4 ,abbott a rather indefinite figure can be traced which has a striking resemblance to the looped rectangle characteristic of the designs on shell4 ,this resemblance could hardly be owing to accident1 and if the peculiar figure mentioned is actually found in conjunction with the birds' heads upon the ,new ,jersey specimen1 it will certainly be safe to conclude that the bone1 stone1 and shell objects belonged to the same people1 and that they constituted the totems of the same clan1 or were the insignia of corresponding offices or orders4#ada ,as bearing upon the question of the species of bird represented in the preceding specimens1 ,i present in ,plate ,,lx an illustration published by ,dr4 ,rau in the ,smithsonian ,report for #ahgg4 ,this remarkable ornament 7represented in ,fig4 #c7 was obtained from a mound in ,manatee ,county1 ,florida4 ,it is a thin blade of gold1 pointed at one end and terminating at the other in a highly conventionalized representation of a bird's head1 the general characteristics of which are much like those of the examples engraved upon shell4 ,the crest is especially characteristic1 and1 as pointed out by ,dr4 ,rau1 suggests a prototype in the ivory-billed woodpecker1 an inhabitant of the ,gulf ,states4 ,the significance of the looped figure which forms so prominent a feature in the designs in question has not been determined4 ,i would offer the suggestion1 however1 that1 from the manner of its occurrence1 it may represent an inclosure1 a limit1 or boundary4 ,it may be well to point out the fact that a similar looped rectangle occurs several times in the ancient ,mexican manuscripts4 ,one example1 from the ,vienna ,codex1#adb is presented in ,fig4 #e1 ,plate ,,lix4 ,it is not a little remarkable that a cross occupies the inclosed area in all these examples4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lix--,,the ,,bird4 #a4 ,shell gorget from stone grave1 ,tenn4 #b4 ,shell gorget from stone grave1 ,tenn4 #c4 ,shell gorget from stone grave1 ,tenn4 #d4 ,bone implement1 ,n4 ,j4 #e4 ,design from ,aztec painting4 ,i shall close this very hasty review of the bird in the art of the ,mound ,builders by presenting the remarkable example of shell carving shown in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,lx4 ,like so many of the ,national ,museum specimens1 it is practically without a record--a stray4 ,it is labeled ,b4 ,pybas1 ,tuscumbia1 ,ala4 ,it is old and fragmentary1 the shell substance being1 however1 quite well preserved4 ,it is the right-hand half of a gorget which represents an eagle's head in profile4 ,the skill of the ancient artist is shown to great advantage2 nothing can be found1 even in the most elaborately carved pipes1 equal to the treatment of this remarkable head4 ,to overcome the difficulty of cutting the flinty and massive shell was no small triumph for a people still in the stone age4 ,to conceive and execute such a graphic work is a still more marvelous achievement4#adc ,the lines of the mandibles and protruding tongue are strongly and correctly drawn4 ,the eye and the markings of the head are executed in smooth1 deeply incised lines1 and are conventionalized in a manner peculiar to the ,american aborigines4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lx--,,the ,,bird4 #a4 ,fragment of shell gorget1 ,alabama4 7#a_/a7 #b4 ,gold ornament1 ,florida4 7#a_/b7 #c4 ,head of ivory-billed-woodpecker4 ,,the ,,spider4 ,among insects the spider is perhaps best calculated to attract the attention of the savage4 ,the tarantula is in many respects a very extraordinary creature1 and is endowed with powers of the most deadly nature1 which naturally places it along with the rattlesnake in the category of creatures possessing supernatural attributes4 ,its curiously constructed house with the hinged door and smoothly plastered chamber must ever elicit the admiration of the beholder4 ,but the spider1 which spins a web and projects in mid-air a gossamer structure of marvelous symmetry and beauty1 and builds an ambush from which to spring upon his prey1 was probably one of the first instructors of adolescent man1 and must have seemed to him a very deity4 ,it is not strange1 therefore1 that the spider appears in the myths of the savages4 ,with the great ,shoshone family1 according to ,professor ,powell1 the spider was the first weaver1 and taught that important art to the fathers4 ,the ,cherokees1 in their legend of the origin of fire1 represent a portion of it as having been brought with them and sacredly guarded4 ,others say that after crossing wide waters they sent back for it to the ,man of ,fire from whom a little was conveyed over by a spider in his web4#add ,the spider occurs but rarely in aboriginal ,american art1 occasionally it seems1 however1 to have reached the dignity of religious consideration and to have been adopted as a totemic device4 ,had a single example only been found we would not be warranted in giving it a place among religious symbols4 ,four examples have come to my notice2 these are all engraved on shell gorgets and are illustrated in ,plate ,,lxi4 ,two are from ,illinois1 one from ,missouri1 and the other from ,tennessee4#ade ,the example shown in ,fig4 #a was obtained by ,mr4 ,croswell from a mound near ,new ,madrid1 ,mo4 ,it is described as a circular ornament1 three inches in diameter1 that had1 apparently1 been cut from a ,busycon4 ,mr4 ,croswell says that the convex face was entirely plain1 but the concave side bears the figure of a tarantula1 or large spider1 very skillfully engraved1 the body being formed by a circle inclosing a cross1 showing beyond doubt its sacred and symbolic character4 ,this ornament1 when found1 lay on the breast-bone of a skeleton1 with the concave or ornamented side uppermost4 ,two holes in the upper part were evidently intended for the thong or string by which it had been suspended from the neck4 ,a circumstance that renders this relic still more interesting is the fact that two other shell ornaments1 bearing precisely similar devices1 have recently been found in ,illinois within seven miles of this city1 thus proving that the figures were not a mere fanciful invention1 but had some symbolic meaning4#adf ,the disk thus briefly described by ,mr4 ,croswell is so much like the example shown in ,fig4 #c that ,i shall not describe it further1 but shall refer to its peculiarities in the descriptions of others that follow4 ,the handsome gorget illustrated in ,fig4 #c was obtained from a mound in ,saint ,clair ,county1 ,illinois1 seven miles from the city of ,saint ,louis4 ,it was found upon the breast of a skeleton1 and was very much discolored and quite fragile from decay1 but no part of the design1 which is engraved upon the concave side1 has been obliterated4 ,near the margin and parallel with it three lines have been engraved4 ,the spider is drawn with considerable fidelity to nature and covers nearly the entire disk1 the legs1 mandibles1 and abdomen reaching to the outer marginal line4 ,as in the specimen described above1 the thorax is placed in the center of the disk1 and is represented by a circle2 within this a cross has been engraved1 the ends of which have been enlarged on one side1 producing a form much used in heraldry1 but one very rarely met with in aboriginal ,american art4 ,the head is somewhat heart-shaped and is armed with palpi and mandibles1 the latter being ornamented with a zigzag line and prolonged to the marginal lines of the disk4 ,the eyes are represented by two small circles with central dots4 ,the legs are correctly placed in four pairs upon the thorax1 and are very graphically drawn4 ,the abdomen is large and heart-shaped1 and is ornamented with a number of lines and dots1 which represent the natural markings of the spider4 ,the perforations for suspension are placed near the posterior extremity of the abdomen4 ,it will be observed that this is also the case with the three other specimens4 ,having described this specimen somewhat carefully1 it will be unnecessary to give a detailed description of the very similar specimen shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,the latter was found in a stone grave in ,saint ,clair ,county1 ,illinois1 and does not differ in any essential feature from either of the other specimens1 one of which was found near by1 and the other about one hundred miles farther south4 ,in reference to the cross it has been suggested that it may have been derived from the well-defined cross found upon the backs of some species of the genus ,atta1 but there appears to be good reason for believing otherwise4 ,the cross here shown has a very highly conventionalized character1 quite out of keeping with the realistic drawing of the insect1 and1 what is still more decisive1 it is identical with forms found upon many other objects4 ,the conclusion is that the cross here1 as elsewhere1 has a purely symbolic character4 ,spider gorgets are also mentioned by ,a4 ,j4 ,conant in the ,kansas ,city ,review1 ,vol4 ,i1 page #djj1 and in his work on the ,commonwealth of ,missouri1 page #if1 but no details are given4 ,it is probable that the objects referred to by ,mr4 ,conant are the same as those more definitely placed by ,prof4 ,hilder4 ,the specimen shown in ,fig4 #d was obtained from a mound on ,fain's ,island1 ,tennessee4 ,the disk is somewhat more convex on the front than is indicated in the engraving4 ,it is two and a half inches in diameter1 and is quite thin and fragile1 although the surface has not suffered much from decay4 ,the margin is ornamented with twenty-four very neatly made notches or scallops4 ,immediately inside the border on the convex side are two incised circles1 on the outer of which two small perforations for suspension have been made2 inside of these1 and less than half an inch from the margin1 is a circle of seventeen sub-triangular perforations1 the inner angle of each being much rounded4 ,inside of this again is another incised circle1 about one and one-fourth inches in diameter1 which incloses the highly conventionalized figure of an insect resembling a spider4 ,in a general way--in the number and arrangement of the parts--this figure corresponds pretty closely to the very realistic spiders of the three other disks2 in detail however1 it is quite unlike them4 ,it is much more highly conventionalized--the natural markings of the body being nearly all omitted1 and the legs being without joints and square at the tips4 ,the cross does not appear on the body1 but its place is taken by a large conical perforation1 made entirely from the convex side4 ,the central segment of the body is round1 as in the other cases2 to this the four pairs of legs are attached4 ,without reference to the other specimens1 it would be difficult to distinguish the anterior from the posterior extremity1 and even with this aid we cannot be quite certain4 ,the larger extremity is somewhat triangular in outline and is ornamented with two cross lines and two eyes4 ,were it not for the fact that these eyes resemble so closely those found in the other specimens ,i should call this the posterior extremity1 as the opposite end terminates in a pair of well-shaped mandibles1 the triangular space between them being cut quite through the disk4 ,the section of the body between this and the central circle also resembles the head1 which suggests the conclusion either that the eyes are misplaced or that1 as drawn1 they are only intended to represent the bright spots of the insect's body4 ,the rarity of these spider gorgets makes it seem rather remarkable that specimens should occur in localities so widely separated as ,fain's ,island and ,saint ,louis1 but the races inhabiting this entire region1 are known to have had many arts in common1 and besides this it is not impossible that the same tribe or clan may1 at different times1 have occupied both of these localities4 ,the marked differences in the design and execution of these specimens1 however1 indicate a pretty wide distinction in the time or art of the makers4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxi--,,spider ,,gorgets4 #a4 ,from a mound1 ,missouri4 #b4 ,from a stone-grave1 ,illinois4 #c4 ,from a mound1 ,illinois4 #d4 ,from a mound1 ,tennessee4 7#a_/a7 ,,the ,,serpent4 ,the serpent has had a fascination for primitive man hardly surpassed by its reputed power over the animals on which it preys4 ,in the minds of nearly all savages it has been associated with the deepest mysteries and the most potent powers of nature4 ,no other creature has figured so prominently in the religious systems of the world1 few of which are free from it2 and as art1 in a great measure1 owes its existence to an attempt to represent or embellish objects which are supposed to be the incarnations of spirits1 the serpent is an important element in all art4 ,wherever the children of nature have wandered its image may be found engraved upon the rocks1 or painted or sculptured upon monuments of their own construction4 ,it is found in a thousand forms2 beginning with those so realistic that the species can be determined1 we may pass down through innumerable stages of variation until all semblance of nature is lost4 ,beyond this it becomes embodied in the conventional forms of art or looks back from its obscure place in an alphabet through a perspective of metamorphism as marvelous as that visible to the creature itself could it view the course of its evolution from the elements of nature4 ,so well is the serpent known as a religious symbol among the ,american peoples that it seems hardly necessary to present examples of the curiously interesting myths relating to it4 ,we are not surprised to find the bird1 the wolf1 or the bear placed among representatives of the ,great ,spirit1 and hence to find them embodied in art2 but it would be a matter of surprise if the serpent were ever absent4 ,with the mound-builders it seems to have been of as much importance as to other divisions of the red race1 ancient or modern4 ,it is of very frequent occurrence among the designs engraved upon gorgets of shell1 a multitude of which have been thus dedicated to the serpent-god4 ,it is a well-known fact that the rattlesnake is the variety almost universally represented1 and we find that these engravings on shell present no exception to this rule4 ,from a very early date in mound exploration these gorgets have been brought to light1 but the coiled serpent engraved upon their concave surfaces is so highly conventionalized that it was not at once recognized4 ,professor ,wyman appears to have been the first to point out the fact that the rattlesnake was represented2 others have since made brief allusion to this fact4 ,two examples only have been illustrated2 one by ,professor ,jones1#adg who regards it as being without intelligent design1 and the other by ,dr4 ,rau1#adh who does not suggest an interpretation4 ,among the thirty or forty specimens that ,i have examined1 the engraving of the serpent is1 with one exception1 placed upon the concave side of the disk1 which is1 as usual1 cut from the most distended part of the ,busycon perversum1 or some similar shell4 ,the great uniformity of these designs is a matter of much surprise4 ,at the same time1 however1 there is no exact duplication2 there are always differences in position1 detail1 or number of parts4 ,the serpent is always coiled1 the head occupying the center of the disk4 ,with a very few exceptions the coil is sinistral4 ,the head is so placed that when the gorget is suspended it has an erect position1 the mouth opening toward the right hand4 ,as at first glance it will be somewhat difficult for the reader to make out clearly the figure of the serpent1 even with the well defined lines of the drawing before him1 ,i will present the description pretty much in the order in which the design revealed itself to me in my first attempt to decipher it4 ,the saucer-like disks are almost circular1 the upper edge being mostly somewhat straightened--the result of the natural limit of the body of the shell above4 ,all are ground down to a fairly uniform thickness of from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch4 ,the edges are evenly rounded and smooth4 ,two small holes for suspension occur near the rim of the straighter edge1 and generally on or near the outline of the engraved design1 which covers the middle portion of the plate4 ,the diameter ranges from one to six inches4 ,to one who examines this design for the first time it seems a most inexplicable puzzle2 a meaningless grouping of curved and straight lines1 dots and perforations4 ,we notice1 however1 a remarkable similarity in the designs1 the idea being radically the same in all specimens1 and the conclusion is soon reached that there is nothing haphazard in the arrangements of the parts and that every line must have its place and purpose4 ,the design is in all cases inclosed by two parallel border lines1 leaving a plain belt from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch in width around the edge of the disk4 ,all simple lines are firmly traced1 although somewhat scratchy1 and are seldom more than one-twentieth of an inch in width or depth4 ,in studying this design the attention is first attracted by an eye-like figure near the left border4 ,this is formed of a series of concentric circles1 the number of which varies from three in the most simple to twelve in the more elaborate forms4 ,the diameter of the outer circle of this figure varies from one-half to one inch4 ,in the center there is generally a small conical depression or pit4 ,the series of circles is partially inclosed by a looped band one-eighth of an inch in width1 which opens downward to the left2 the free ends extending outward to the border line1 gradually nearing each other and forming a kind of neck to the circular figure4 ,this band is in most cases occupied by a series of dots or conical depressions varying in number from one to thirty4 ,the neck is decorated in a variety of ways2 by dots1 by straight and curved lines1 and by a cross-hatching that gives a semblance of scales4 ,a curious group of lines occupying a crescent-shaped space at the right of the circular figure and inclosed by two border lines1 must receive particular attention4 ,this is really the front part of the head--the jaws and the muzzle of the creature represented4 ,the mouth is always clearly defined and is mostly in profile1 the upper jaw being turned abruptly upward1 but1 in some examples1 an attempt has been made to represent a front view1 in which case it presents a wide ,v-shaped figure4 ,it is1 in most cases1 furnished with two rows of teeth1 no attempt having been made to represent a tongue4 ,the spaces above and below the jaws are filled with lines and figures1 which vary much in the different specimens2 a group of plume-like figures1 extends backward from the upper jaw to the crown1 or otherwise this space is occupied by an elongated perforation4 ,the body is represented encircling the head in a single coil1 which appears from beneath the neck on the right1 passes around the front of the head1 and terminates at the back in a pointed tail with well defined rattles4 ,it is engraved to represent the well-known scales and spots of the rattlesnake1 the conventionalized figures being quite graphic4 ,in the group of specimens represented in ,plate ,,lxiv areas of cross-hatched lines1 representing scales1 alternate with circular figures1 containing two or three concentric circles and a central dot4 ,in some cases one or more incised bands cross the body in the upper part of the curve4 ,the examples shown in ,plate ,,lxv have many distinctive features4 ,the markings of the body consist of alternating areas of scales and chevrons or of chevrons alone4 ,these figures are interrupted in the upper part of the coil by a number of lines which cross the body at right angles4 ,the body is in many cases nearly severed from the rim of the disk by four oblong perforations1 which follow the border line of the design4 ,in most cases three other perforations occur about the head2 one represents the mouth1 one defines the forehead and upper jaw1 and the third is placed against the throat4 ,these may be intended merely to define the form more clearly4 ,the curious plume-like figures that occur upon the heads of both varieties may indicate the natural or reputed markings of the animal represented4 ,it is possible that the group shown in this plate may be intended to represent the common yellow rattlesnake1 the ,crotalus horridus1 of the ,atlantic slope1 the characteristic markings of which are alternating light and dark chevrons1 while the diamond rattlesnake1 the ,crotalus adamanteus1 of the ,southern ,states may have served as a model for the other group4 ,in ,plate ,,lxii ,i present two of these rattlesnake gorgets4 ,the specimens shown in ,fig4 #a is from ,georgia and is the smallest example that has come to my notice4 ,it is represented natural size4 ,the design is quite obscure1 but enough remains to show that it does not differ essentially from the type already presented4 ,there appear to be no holes for suspension1 but it is probable that two of the oblong perforations upon the border of the design had been used for that purpose4 ,the handsome specimen given in ,fig4 #b was obtained from the great mound at ,sevierville1 ,tenn41 and is in a very good state of preservation4 ,it is a deep1 somewhat oval plate1 made from a ,busycon perversum4 ,the surface is nicely polished and the margins neatly beveled4 ,the marginal zone is less than half an inch wide and contains at the upper edge two perforations1 which have been considerably abraded by the cord of suspension4 ,four long curved slits or perforations almost sever the central design from the rim2 the four narrow segments that remain are each ornamented with a single conical pit4 ,the serpent is very neatly engraved and belongs to the chevroned variety4 ,the eye is large and the neck is ornamented with a single rectangular intaglio figure4 ,the mouth is more than usually well defined4 ,the upper jaw is turned abruptly upward and is ornamented with lines peculiar to this variety of the designs4 ,the body opposite the perforations for suspension is interrupted by a rather mysterious cross band1 consisting of one broad and two narrow lines4 ,as this is a feature common to many specimens it probably has some important office or significance4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxii--,,rattlesnake ,,gorgets4 #a4 ,shell gorget from ,georgia4 7#a_/a7 #b4 ,mc,mahan ,mound1 ,tenn4 7#a_/a7 ,in ,plate ,,lxiii ,i present two of the best examples of these serpent gorgets yet brought to light4 ,they were obtained from the ,mc,mahan ,mound1 at ,sevierville1 ,tenn41 in #ahga1 and are in an excellent state of preservation4 ,both are made from large heavy specimens of the ,busycon perversum4 ,the example given in ,fig4 #a is but slightly altered by decomposition1 the translucency of the shell being still perceptible4 ,the back retains the strongly marked ridges of growth4 ,the interior has been highly polished1 but is now somewhat marked1 apparently by some fine textile fabric which has been buried with it and has1 in decaying1 left its impress upon the smooth surface of the shell4 ,the design is very much like the type described1 but has some peculiar features about the neck and under the head of the serpent4 ,the specimen shown in ,fig4 #b may be regarded as a type of these gorgets1 and is the one chiefly used in the general description given on a preceding page4 ,it is six inches long by five wide1 and has been neatly dressed and polished on both sides4 ,as every detail is clearly and correctly shown in the cut ,i shall not describe it farther4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxiii--,,rattlesnake ,,gorgets4 #a4 ,mc,mahan ,mound1 ,tenn4 #b4 ,mc,mahan ,mound1 ,tenn4 7#c_/d7 ,for convenience of comparison ,i have arranged two plates of outlines4 ,the specimen shown in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,lxiv1 is almost identical with the one last mentioned in size and shape4 ,this1 with the similar but somewhat smaller specimen given in ,fig4 #b1 is also from the ,mc,mahan ,mound4 ,figs4 #c and #d are outlines of the specimens already given in ,plate ,,lxiii4 ,the fine specimen shown in ,fig4 #e is from the ,brakebill ,mound1 near ,knoxville1 ,tenn41 and is now in the ,peabody ,museum4 ,it is five inches in length and a little more than four and one-half in width4 ,it is very much like the ,sevierville specimens and is made of the same species of shell4 ,the markings of the space beneath the head are peculiar1 and in some other details it differs from the other specimens4 ,fig4 #f illustrates a large specimen now in the ,national ,collection4 ,it is also from ,tennessee1 and resembles the preceding examples quite closely4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxiv--,,rattlesnake ,,gorgets4 #a4 ,mc,mahan ,mound4 #b4 ,mc,mahan ,mound4 #c4 ,mc,mahan ,mound4 #d4 ,mc,mahan ,mound4 #e4 ,brakebill ,mound4 #f4 ,williams ,island4 ,tennessee4 ,the specimens illustrated in ,plate ,,lxv represent a somewhat different type of design1 but are found associated with the others4 ,the three shown in ,figs4 #b1 #f1 and #g belong to the ,peabody ,museum1 and are from mounds in ,east ,tennessee4 ,the others are in the ,national ,collection1 and come from the same region4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxv--,,rattlesnake ,,gorgets4 #a4 ,mc,mahan ,mound4 #b4 ,lick ,creek ,mound4 #c4 ,mc,mahan ,mound4 #d4 ,mc,mahan ,mound4 #e4 ,green ,county ,mound4 #f4 ,lick ,creek ,mound4 ,tennessee4 ,it was my intention to pursue this study somewhat further1 and the illustrations presented in ,plate ,,lxvi were partially prepared for the purpose of instituting comparisons between these northern forms and others of the south1 but the time at my disposal will not permit of it4 ,fig4 #a is an outline of a rattlesnake gorget1 probably from ,georgia1 which is preserved in the ,natural ,history ,museum of ,new ,york4 ,it is four inches in length by three and one-half in width4 ,the same specimen is figured by ,jones in ,plate ,,xxx of his ,antiquities of the ,southern ,indians4 ,fig4 #b represents a large specimen from ,tennessee1 which is now preserved in the ,national ,collection4 ,the design is placed upon the gorget somewhat differently from the other specimens1 the mouth of the serpent being near the top and the neck below at the right4 ,there is also a dotted belt at the right of the head which is not found in any of the specimens described4 ,figs4 #c and #d represent drawings of serpents' heads found in the ancient city of ,chimu1 ,peru4#adi ,fig4 #e is copied from one of the codices of ,goldsborough1 and is a very spirited representation of a plumed and spotted rattlesnake4 ,the tablet shown in ,fig4 #f has already been described under scalloped disks4 ,the remarkable plumed and feathered serpent given in ,fig4 #g is painted upon the rocks at ,lake ,nijapa1 ,nicaragua4#aej ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxvi--,,the ,,serpent4 #a4 ,shell gorget1 ,georgia4 #b4 ,shell gorget1 ,tennessee4 #c1 #d4 ,painting1 ,peru4 #e4 ,from an ,aztec painting4 #f4 ,stone disk1 ,carthage1 ,ala4 #g4 ,painted on rock1 ,nicaragua4 ,,the ,,human ,,face4 ,a very important group of shell ornaments represent1 more or less distinctly1 the human face4 ,by a combination of engraving and sculpture a rude resemblance to the features is produced4 ,the objects are generally made from a large pear-shaped section of the lower whorl of heavy marine univalves4 ,the lower portion1 which represents the neck and chin1 is cut from the somewhat restricted part near the base of the shell1 while the broad outline of the head reaches the first suture of the noded shoulder of the body whorl4 ,the simplest form is represented by a specimen from a mound at ,sevierville1 ,tenn4 ,it is a plain1 pear-shaped fragment1 with evenly dressed margin and two perforations1 which take the position of the eyes4 ,a sketch of this is presented in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,lxix4 ,similar specimens have been obtained from mounds in other ,states4 ,a little further advance is made when the surface of the most convex part is ground away1 with the exception of a low vertical ridge1 which represents the nose4 ,further on a boss or node appears below the nose1 which takes the place of the mouth1 as seen in ,fig4 #b4 ,from the elementary stages exhibited in these specimens a gradual advance is made by the addition of details and the elaboration of all the features4 ,a corona encircles the head1 the ears are outlined 7,fig4 #e1 ,plate ,,lxx71 the eyes are elaborated by adding one or more concentric circles or ovals1 brows are placed above1 and groups of notched and zigzag lines extend downward upon the cheeks4 ,the node at the mouth is perforated or cut in intaglio in circular or oblong figures1 and the chin is embellished by a variety of incised designs4 ,illustrations of the various forms are given in ,plates ,,lxix and ,,lxx4 ,these objects are especially numerous in the mounds of ,tennessee1 but their range is quite wide1 examples having been reported from ,kentucky1 ,virginia1 ,illinois1 ,missouri1 and ,arkansas1 and smaller ones of a somewhat different type from ,new ,york4 ,in size they range from two to ten inches in length1 the width being considerably less4 ,they are generally found associated with human remains in such a way as to suggest their use as ornaments for the head or neck4 ,there are1 however1 no holes for suspension except those made to represent the eyes1 and these1 so far as ,i have observed1 show no abrasion by a cord of suspension4 ,their shape suggests the idea that they may have been used as masks1 and as such may have been placed upon the faces of the dead in the same manner that metal masks were used by some oriental nations4 ,among the large number of interesting objects of shell obtained from the ,mc,mahan ,mound at ,sevierville1 ,tenn41 were a number of these shell masks4 ,in the notes of the collector they are mentioned as having been found on the breast or about the heads of skeletons4 ,the example shown in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,lxvii1 is a medium-sized1 rather plain specimen from the above-named locality4 ,it is seven and one-fourth inches long and nearly six inches wide1 and has been made from a ,busycon perversum4 ,the margins are much decayed1 and the convex surface is pitted and discolored4 ,the inside is smooth1 and has a slight design rudely engraved upon it4 ,of a very different type is the specimen shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,it is new looking1 and well preserved4 ,the slightly translucent surface is highly polished1 and the engraved lines are quite fresh looking4 ,it was collected by ,j4 ,d4 ,lucas1 and is labeled ,aquia ,creek1 ,va4 ,it is five and one-half inches in length by five in width1 and is apparently made from some dextral-whorled shell4 ,the outline is somewhat rectangular1 the upper surface being pretty well rounded and ornamented with a corona of incised lines1 which are arranged in six groups of four each4 ,inside of these a single incised line runs parallel with the edge1 from temple to temple4 ,the eyes are represented by small circles with small central pits1 and the lids are indicated by long1 pointed ellipses4 ,from each of the eyes a group of three zigzag lines extends downward across the cheek1 terminating near the edge of the plate1 opposite the mouth4 ,these lines may be interpreted in two ways3 ,first1 if the object is a mourning mask1 made with especial reference to its use in burial1 they may signify tears1 since1 in the pictographic language of many tribes1 tears are represented by lines descending from the eyes1 and1 with other nations1 running water is symbolized by curved or zigzag lines2 in the second place1 these lines may represent figures painted upon the face during the period of mourning1 or they may simply represent the characteristic lines of the painting or tattooing of the clan or tribe to which the deceased belonged4 ,it is not at all improbable that these objects were further embellished by painted designs which have been obliterated4 ,the nose is represented by a flat ridge1 which terminates abruptly below1 the nostrils being indicated by two small excavations4 ,the mouth is represented by an oval node1 in which a horizontal groove has been made4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxvii--,,the ,,human ,,face4 #a4 ,mask-like ornament1 ,tennessee4 7#a_/b74 #b4 ,mask-like ornament1 ,virginia4 7#c_/d74 ,the most elaborately engraved example of these masks yet brought to the notice of the public is shown in ,plate ,,lxviii4 ,it was obtained by ,mr4 ,lucien ,carr from a large mound1 known as the ,ely ,mound1 near ,rose ,hill1 ,lee ,county1 ,virginia1 and is described and illustrated by that gentleman in the tenth annual report of the ,peabody ,museum4#aea ,wishing to present this fine specimen to the best advantage possible1 ,i have had a large cut made from a photograph furnished by ,professor ,putnam1 curator of the ,peabody ,museum4 ,parts of the design which were obscure ,i have strengthened1 following the guidance of such fragments of lines as were still traceable1 or by simply duplicating the lines of the opposite side1 as these designs are in all cases bi-symmetrical4 ,having described a great number of relics exhumed from this mound1 ,mr4 ,carr goes on to say that the most interesting of the articles taken from this grave was an engraved shell made from the most dilated portion of the ,strombus gigas1 and carved on the convex side into the likeness of a human face4 ,it measures #ach millimeters in length1 by #abj in breadth4 ,it is perforated with three holes1 the two upper of which are surrounded with circles1 and represent eyes2 between these is a raised ridge of shell1 in place of the nose1 and below this is a third hole1 which is just above a series of lines that were probably intended as the mouth4 ,four lines1 parallel to each other during three-fourths of their length1 begin at the outer corner of the eye and are zigzaged to the lower jaw1 where they are drawn to a point4 ,the concave side of the shell is perfectly plain1 and still preserves its high polish1 though the right portion of the face on the carved or convex side shows the sad effects of time and exposure4 ,although ,i have not had an opportunity of examining this specimen closely1 ,i am inclined to the opinion1 judging by its outlines1 that the shell from which it was made has been sinistrally whorled1 and hence a ,busycon perversum4 ,i should also prefer to consider the hole beneath the nose as representing the mouth1 as it certainly does in many other cases1 and the peculiar figure--the three vertical lines which extend downward from the hole and the two banded figures that cross them at right angles--as a representation of some painted or tattooed design characteristic of the builders of the mound4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxviii--,,shell ,,mask4 ,virginia4 7#a_/b7 ,other examples of these objects are represented in ,plate ,,lxix4 ,of especial interest ,i may mention the specimen shown in ,fig4 #d1 obtained1 with other similar examples1 by ,professor ,putnam1 from the ,lick ,creek mound1 in ,east ,tennessee4 ,the perforations which represent the eyes are surrounded by two concentric circles1 and the zigzag lines beneath are supplemented by two sets of pendant figures formed of notched lines1 the two longer of which extend down the sides of the nose1 the others being connected with the lower margin of the eye4 ,in one example four parallel lines pass from the mouth downward over the chin4 ,fig4 #c represents a specimen from the ,brakebill ,mound1 ,east ,tennessee4 ,the mouth is not indicated1 and the nose is but slightly relieved4 ,each eye1 however1 is inclosed by a figure which extends downward over the cheek1 terminating in three sharp points4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxix--,,the ,,human ,,face4 #a4 ,mc,mahan ,mound1 ,tenn4 #b4 ,mc,mahan ,mound1 ,tenn4 #c4 ,brakebill ,mound1 ,tenn4 #d4 ,lick ,creek ,mound1 ,tenn4 #e4 ,aquia ,creek1 ,va4 #f4 ,mound1 ,ely ,county1 ,va4 ,so far as the specimens at hand show1 this peculiar embellishment of the eyes and mouth is characteristic of ,virginia and ,east ,tennessee4 ,a small specimen from ,georgia1 now preserved in the ,natural ,history ,museum at ,new ,york1 has a somewhat similar ornamentation of the eyes4 ,this specimen is shown in ,fig4 #f1 ,plate ,,lxx4 ,in ,fig4 #h of the same plate we have the representation of a face modeled in clay1 on which a number of incised lines1 similar to those engraved on shell1 have been drawn4 ,the crown of notches is also present4 ,the specimen has been illustrated by ,professor ,jones4#aeb ,it is now in the museum of ,natural ,history at ,new ,york1 and was probably obtained from the ,etowah ,valley1 ,georgia4 ,examples in stone are also numerous1 and show certain features in common with those in shell4 ,fig4 #i is from ,northern ,ohio1 and is carved from a nodule of iron ore4 ,the very beautiful little head shown in ,figs4 #a and #b is from a cave at ,mussel ,shoals1 ,ala4 ,it is made of shell1 and is somewhat altered by decay4 ,the crown is peculiarly notched1 and resembles a very common ,mexican form4 ,the notch in the middle of the forehead can be traced to a division in the head-dress noticed in the more elaborately carved ,mexican specimens4 ,the example shown in ,figs4 #c and #d is copied from a rather rude cut given by ,schoolcraft1 who describes it as follows3 ,this well-sculptured article was discovered in the valley of the ,kasauda ,creek1 ,onondaga ,county4 ,the material is a compact piece of sea-shell4 ,it still preserves in a considerable degree the smoothness and luster of its original finish4 99 99 99 ,at the angle of the temples are two small orifices for suspending it around the neck4 ,the entire article is finished with much skill and delicacy4#aec ,the very rude specimen presented in ,fig4 #g is from a mound at ,franklin1 ,tenn4 ,it seems to have been some natural form1 but slightly changed by art4 ,a somewhat similar specimen from a mound in ,tennessee may be seen in the ,peabody ,museum4 ,the cut presented in ,fig4 #e is taken from ,jones's ,antiquities of ,tennessee1 page #dh4 ,the specimen was obtained from the stone grave of a child at the foot of a mound near ,nashville1 ,tenn4 ,it has diamond-shaped eyes1 a feature of very rare occurrence in the art of this region4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxx--,,the ,,human ,,face4 #a1 #b4 ,shell ornament from a cave1 ,alabama4 7#a_/a7 #c1 #d4 ,shell ornament from ,new ,york4 7#a_/a7 #e4 ,shell ornament1 stone grave1 ,tennessee4 #f4 ,shell ornament from ,georgia4 7#a_/a7 #g4 ,shell ornament from ,tennessee4 7#a_/a7 #h4 ,face modeled in clay1 ,georgia4 #i4 ,face carved in iron ore1 ,ohio4 ,,the ,,human ,,figure4 ,i now come to a class of works which are new and unique1 and in more than one respect are the most important objects of aboriginal art yet found within the limits of the ,united ,states4 ,these relics are four in number1 and come from that part of the mound-building district occupied at one time by the stone grave peoples--three from ,tennessee and one from ,missouri4 ,similar designs are not found in other materials1 and1 indeed1 nothing at all resembling them can be found1 so far as ,i know1 either in stone or in clay4 ,if such have been painted or engraved on less enduring materials they are totally destroyed4 ,i shall first describe the specimens themselves1 and subsequently dwell at some length upon their authenticity1 their significance1 and their place in art4 ,first1 ,i present1 in ,plate ,,lxxi1 a shell gorget on which is engraved a rather rude delineation of a human figure4 ,the design occupies the concave side of a large shell disk cut from a ,busycon perversum4 ,near the upper margin are the usual holes for suspension4 ,the engraved design fills the central portion of the plate and is inclosed by two approximately parallel lines1 between which and the edge of the shell there is a plain belt three-fourths of an inch wide4 ,a casual observer would probably not recognize any design whatever in the jumble of half obliterated lines that occupies the inclosed space4 ,it will first be noticed that a column about three-fourths of an inch in width stands erect in the center of the picture2 from this spring a number of lines1 forming serpentine arms1 which give the figure as much the appearance of an octopus crowded into a collector's alcohol jar as of a human creature4 ,a little study will convince one1 however1 that the central column represents the human body1 and the tangle of lines surrounding it will be found to represent the arms1 legs1 hands1 feet1 and their appendages--no line within the border being without its office4 ,the upper extremity of the body is occupied by a circle one-eighth of an inch in diameter1 which represents the eye4 ,the head is not distinguished from the body by any sort of constriction for the neck1 but has evidently been crowned by a rude aurora-like crest similar to that found in so many aboriginal designs4 ,this does not appear in the engraving given1 as it1 as well as other features1 was so nearly obliterated as to escape observation until the idea was suggested by the study of other similar designs4 ,the mouth is barely suggested1 being represented by three shallow lines placed so low on the trunk that they occupy what should be the chest4 ,from the side of the head a number of lines1 probably meant for plumes1 extend across the bordering lines almost to the edge of the shell2 below this are two perforated loops1 which seem to take the place of ears2 the one on the right is doubly perforated and has a peculiar extension1 in a bent or elbowed line1 across the border4 ,the arms are attached to the sides of the body near the middle in a haphazard sort of way and are curiously double jointed2 they terminate1 however1 in well-defined hands against the right and left borders1 the thumb and fingers being1 in each case1 distinctly represented4 ,the legs and feet are at first exceedingly hard to make out1 but when once traced are as clear as need be4 ,the body terminates abruptly below within an inch of the base of the inclosed space4 ,one leg extends directly downward1 the foot resting upon the border line2 the other extends backward from the base of the trunk and rests against the border line at the right2 the legs have identical markings1 which probably represent the costume4 ,each foot terminates in a single well-defined talon or claw1 which folds upward against the knee4 ,this is a most interesting feature1 and one which this design possesses in common with the three other drawings of the human figure found in ,tennessee4 ,the spaces between the various members of the figure are filled in with ornamental appendages1 which seem to be attached to the hands and feet1 and probably represent plumes4 ,the numerous perforations in this specimen are worthy of attention3 within the border line there are twenty-six1 which vary from one-fourth to one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter4 ,they are placed mostly at the joints of the figure or at the junction of two or more lines4 ,such perforations are of frequent occurrence in this class of gorgets and may have had some particular significance to their possessors4 ,this specimen was found in the great mound at ,sevierville1 ,tenn41 upon the breast of a skeleton1 and is now in the ,national ,collection4 ,it has suffered considerably from decay1 the surface being deeply furrowed1 pitted1 and discolored4 ,the holes are much enlarged and the lines in places are almost obliterated4 ,i began the study of this design with the thought that1 in reference to this specimen at least1 ,professor ,jones was right1 and that the confused group of lines might be the meaningless product of an idle fancy1 but ended by being fully satisfied that no single line or mark is without its place or its significance4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxxi--,,shell ,,gorget--,,the ,,human ,,figure4 ,mc,mahan ,mound1 ,tennessee4 7#b_/c7 ,after having examined this design so critically1 it will be an easy matter to interpret that engraved upon the tablet illustrated in ,plate ,,lxxii4 ,although found in widely separated localities1 and engraved in a somewhat different style1 they are identical in type1 and exhibit but slight differences in detail4 ,at the top of the plate we have the two doubly conical perforations for suspension1 but the double border line is not completed above1 being interrupted by the plumes from the head4 ,the head itself is decorated with the usual crown of radiating lines1 a small circle with a central pit represents the eye1 and below this is a well-defined mouth with a double row of teeth4 ,extending to the right from the mouth is an appendage consisting of one straight and two interrupted lines1 which may be a part of the costume1 or1 since it issues from the mouth1 may possibly symbolize speech4 ,the body1 which is short and straight1 is divided vertically into three parts2 the central space contains a large conical perforation1 and is covered with a lace-work of lines2 the lateral spaces are ornamented with rows of buttons or scales1 which consist of meagerly outlined circles with central dots4 ,the curiously folded arms have precisely the same relative positions as the corresponding members in the other specimen1 and the fingers touch the bordering line on the right and left1 the thumb being turned backward against the elbow4 ,the legs are represented in a manner that suggests a sitting posture1 the rounded knees coming in front of and joining the base of the body2 in position and decoration they repeat the other specimen4 ,the feet1 or the rounded extremities that represent them1 rest upon the border line1 as in the case previously described1 and terminate in upturned talons that are long1 curved1 and jointed1 and terminate in square or blunt tips4 ,plume-like appendages are attached to the arms and legs1 and fill the spaces not occupied by the members of the body2 these plumes or pendants are always represented by folded bands or fillets which are ornamented on one side with dots4 ,a plume attached to the left side of the head is represented by two curved lines1 which reach to the edge of the shell4 ,there are five perforations1 two for suspension1 two at the sides of the face1 and one near the middle of the trunk4 ,this specimen is in a very perfect state of preservation1 the surface being smooth and but little stained4 ,it is somewhat pear-shaped1 resembling in this respect the mask-like gorgets previously described4 ,it is about seven inches in height and five in width1 and has been made from a very thick and compact shell1 probably a ,busycon4 ,it was obtained from a mound in ,meigs ,county1 ,tennessee1 and is preserved in the ,peabody ,museum4 ,in mechanical execution this specimen is much superior to the preceding one2 the edges and surface of the shell are nicely dressed1 although the lines of the design are indifferently cut4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxxii--,,shell ,,gorget--,,the ,,human ,,figure4 ,mound1 ,tennessee4 7#c_/d7 ,another unique shell gorget is presented in ,plate ,,lxxiii4 ,it was obtained from a mound in ,southeastern ,missouri1 and is now in the possession of ,professor ,potter1 of ,saint ,louis4 ,the disk is about four and a half inches in diameter1 and was originally nearly circular1 but the edges are now much decayed and battered4 ,a cut with a brief description is given by ,mr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,conant in his recent work1 ,foot-prints of ,vanished ,races1 page #ie4 ,my cut is made from a photograph obtained from ,professor ,putnam1 of the ,peabody ,museum4 ,this is probably the same photograph used by ,mr4 ,conant4 ,the engraved design is of a totally distinct type from the last1 and evinces a much higher grade of skill in the artist4 ,it is encircled by six nearly parallel lines1 which occupy about half an inch of the border of the disk4 ,portions of these still remain1 the inner one being nearly entire4 ,between this and the second line are two perforations for suspension4 ,the idea first suggested by a glance at the engraved design is that it strongly resembles the work of the ancient ,mexicans1 and the second idea of many archologists will probably be that there may be a doubt of its genuineness4 ,setting this question aside for the present1 let us examine the engraving in detail4 ,placing the plate so that the two perforations are at the left1 we have the principal figure in an upright posture4 ,this figure apparently represents a personage of some importance1 as he is decked from head to foot with a profusion of ornaments and symbols4 ,he is shown in profile with the arms extended in action1 and the feet separated as if in the act of stepping forward4 ,the head is large1 occupying about one-third of the height of the design4 ,the elaborate head-dress fills the upper part of the inclosed space1 pendant plumes descend to the shoulders before and behind1 and circular ornaments are attached to the hair and the ear4 ,the conventionalized eye is lozenge or diamond shaped1 with a small conical pit for the pupil4 ,the profile shows a full forehead1 a strong nose1 and a prominent chin4 ,two lines extend across the cheek from the bridge of the nose to the base of the ear4 ,in and projecting from the mouth is a symbolic figure1 the meaning of which can only be conjectured4 ,the shoulders and body are but meagerly represented4 ,from the waist a peculiar apron-like object is suspended1 which reaches to the knees2 it may be a part of the costume or a priestly symbol4 ,the legs and feet are dwarfed1 but quite well outlined4 ,there are encircling bands at the knees and ankles1 and a fan-like extension of the costume1 somewhat resembling the tail of a bird1 descends between the legs4 ,attached to the back1 is a figure of a rather extraordinary character4 ,similar figures may be seen in some of the ,mexican paintings1 and seem to represent a contrivance for carrying burdens1 in which at times elfish figures are accommodated4 ,the right arm is extended forward1 and the hand grasps a singular shaft1 with which a blow is aimed at the severed head of a victim1 which is held face downward by the left hand of the standing figure4 ,the severed head still retains the plumed cap1 from which a long pendant descends in front of the face4 ,the eye is lozenge-shaped4 ,a zigzag line crosses the cheek from the ear to the bridge of the nose1 and a curious symbolic figure is represented as issuing from the mouth4 ,the shaft held in the right hand seems to issue from a circular figure1 doubtless of symbolic character1 which occupies the space in front of the head of the standing figure4 ,it is possible that the figure which issues from the mouth of the victim represents the point of this mystic shaft which has penetrated the head1 although we should have to allow some inaccuracies in the drawing if this were the case4 ,any one at all familiar with the curious pictographic manuscripts of the ancient ,mexicans will see at a glance that we have here a sacrificial scene1 in which a priest seems to be engaged in the sacrifice of a human being4 ,in the extraordinary manuscripts of the ancient ,aztecs we have many parallels to this design4 ,so closely does it approach the ,aztec type that1 although no duplicate can be found in any of the codices1 there is not a single idea1 a single member or ornament that has not its analogue in the ,mexican manuscripts4 ,to make this clear to every one ,i present1 in ,plate ,,lxxv1 ,fig4 #d1 a single example for comparison4 ,this one is selected from the manuscript of ,m4 ,de ,fjervry1 preserved at ,budapest1 ,hungary4#aed ,fortunately for the credit of this ,missouri relic we do not find its duplicate--there are only family resemblances2 there are similar plumes1 with similar ornaments and pendants1 similar costume and attitudes2 there are similar features and similar symbols2 but there is no absolute identity1 except in motive and conception4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxxiii--,,shell ,,gorget--,,the ,,human ,,figure4 ,missouri4 7#a_/a7 ,among the multitude of works of art collected within the last decade very few will be found to surpass in interest the fragment of a shell gorget from the ,mc,mahan ,mound1 at ,sevierville1 ,tenn4 ,the disk1 when entire1 has been nearly five inches in diameter4 ,a little more than one-third had crumbled away1 and the remaining portion was only preserved by the most careful handling1 and by immediate immersion in a thin solution of glue4 ,this specimen is the first of the kind ever brought to light in this country1 and must certainly be regarded as the highest example of aboriginal art ever found north of ,mexico4 ,the design1 as in the other cases1 has been engraved on the convex surface of a polished shell disk1 and represents two human figures1 plumed and winged and armed with eagles' talons1 engaged in mortal combat4 ,as in the last specimen described1 this has1 at first sight1 an exotic look1 bearing certainly in its conception a general resemblance to the marvelous bas-reliefs of ,mexico and ,central ,america2 but the resemblance goes no further1 and we are at liberty to consider it a northern work sui generis4 ,the design has apparently covered the entire tablet1 leaving no space for encircling lines4 ,the two figures are in profile and face each other in a fierce onset4 ,of the right-hand figure only the body1 one arm1 and one leg remain4 ,the left-hand figure is almost complete2 the outline of the face1 one arm1 and one foot being obliterated4 ,the right hand is raised above the head in the act of brandishing a long double-pointed knife4 ,at the same time this doughty warrior seems to be receiving a blow in the face from the right hand of the other combatant1 in which is clutched a savage-looking blade1 with a curved point4 ,the hands are vigorously drawn1 the joints are correctly placed1 and the thumb presses down upon the outside of the forefinger in its natural effort to tighten and secure the grasp4 ,two bands encircle the wrists and probably represent bracelets4 ,the arms and shoulders are plain4 ,the head is decorated with a single plume1 which springs from a circular ornament placed over the ear2 an angular figure extends forward from the base of this plume and probably represents what is left of the head-dress proper2 forward of this1 on the very edge of the crumbling shell1 is one-half of the lozenge-shaped eye1 the dot intended to represent the pupil being almost obliterated4 ,it is certainly a great misfortune that both faces are completely gone2 their exact character must remain conjectural4 ,a neat pendant ornament is suspended upon the well-formed breast1 and a broad belt encircles the waist1 beneath which1 covering the abdomen1 is a design that suggests the scales of a coat of mail4 ,the legs are well-defined and perfectly proportioned2 the left knee is bent forward and the foot is planted firmly on the ground1 while the right is thrown gracefully back against the rim at the left4 ,double belts encircle the knees and ankles4 ,the legs terminate in wonderfully well-drawn eagle's feet1 armed with vigorously curved talons4 ,a very interesting feature of the design is the highly conventionalized wing1 which is attached to the shoulder behind1 and fills the space beneath the uplifted arm4 ,a broad many-feathered tail is spread out like a fan behind the legs4 ,the right hand figure1 so far as seen1 is an exact duplicate of the left4 ,a design of undetermined significance occupies the space between the figures beneath the crossed arms2 it may represent conventionalized drapery1 but is more probably symbolic in its character4 ,the heads have probably been a little too large for good proportion1 but the details of the anatomy are excellent4 ,the muscles of the shoulder1 the breast and nipple1 the waist1 the buttock1 and the calves of the legs are in excellent drawing4 ,the whole group is most graphically presented4 ,a highly ideal design1 it is made to fill a given space with a directness of execution and a unity of conception that is truly surprising4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxxiv--,,engraved ,,gorget--,,fighting ,,figures4 ,tennessee4 7#a_/a7 ,let us turn for a moment from this striking effort of the mound-builders to the early efforts of other peoples in the engraver's art4 ,here are the drawings of the ,troglodytes of ,france1 scintillations of paleolithic genius1 which appear as a flash of light in the midst of a midnight sky4 ,they are truly remarkable4 ,the clear-cut lines that shadow forth the hairy mammoth suggest the graphic and forcible work of the ,parisian of to-day4 ,the rude ,esquimaux of our own time engraves images of a great variety of natural objects on his ornaments and implements of ivory in a manner that commands our admiration4 ,but these shell tablets have designs of a much higher grade4 ,they not only represent natural objects with precision1 but they delineate conceptions of mythical creatures of composite character for which nature affords no model4 ,in execution the best of these tablets will not compare with the wonderful works in stucco and stone of ,palenque1 or the elaborate sculptures of the ,aztecs1 but they are1 like them1 vigorous in action and complete in conception4 ,in case the authenticity of these relics be questioned1 the facts in regard to them1 so far as known1 are here presented for reference4 ,as to the two specimens from ,sevierville1 ,tenn4 7,plates ,,lxxi and ,,lxxii71 the shadow of a doubt cannot be attached to them4 ,were there no record whatever of the time or place of discovery1 the evidence upon the faces of the relics themselves would show satisfactorily that they are genuine4 ,they were taken from the great mound1 which ,i have called the ,mc,mahan ,mound1 at ,sevierville1 ,tenn4 ,this mound was opened in #ahha by one of our most experienced collectors1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,palmer4 ,the specimens when found were in a very advanced stage of decay1 pitted1 discolored1 and crumbling1 and had to be handled with the utmost care to prevent total disintegration4 ,they were dried by the collector1 immersed in a weak solution of glue1 and forwarded immediately to the ,national ,museum at ,washington4 ,in this mound a multitude of relics were found1 a large number being of shell1 many of which are figured and described in this paper4 ,these two gorgets1 as well as many others of more ordinary types were found on or near the breasts of skeletons1 and it is highly probable that they were suspended about the necks of the dead just as they had been worn by the living4 ,by accurately ascertaining the authenticity of one of these specimens we establish1 so far as need be1 the genuineness of all of the same class4 ,if one is genuine that is sufficient2 the others may or may not be so1 without seriously effecting the questions at issue1 yet the occurrence of duplicate or closely related specimens in widely separated localities furnishes confirmatory evidence of no little importance4 ,i do not wish to be understood as casting a doubt upon any of the four specimens described1 as ,i am thoroughly convinced that there is no cause for suspicion4 ,the ,missouri gorget1 which has already been described and figured1 was obtained by unknown persons in ,southeastern ,missouri4 ,several years back it came into the hands of ,colonel ,whitley1 and from him it was obtained by its present owner1 ,professor ,potter1 of ,saint ,louis4 ,there has never been a question as to its genuineness1 and according to ,professor ,hilder1 who saw it shortly after its discovery1 the appearance and condition of the specimen were such that it could not have been of fraudulent manufacture4 ,it was chalky and crumbling from decay1 the lines of the design bearing equal evidence with the general surface of the shell of great age4 ,beside this1 even if it were possible to produce such a condition in a recently carved shell1 there existed no motive for such an attempt4 ,nothing was to be made by it2 no benefit could accrue to the perpetrator to reward him for his pains1 and1 further1 there was no precedent1 there was extant nothing that could serve as a model for such a work4 ,in ,plate ,,lxxv ,i have arranged a number of figures for convenience of comparison1 ,figs4 #a1 #c1 #e1 and #f1 being outlines of the four examples just described4 ,in regard to the restored part of the outline in ,fig4 #a1 ,i wish to say that my only object in filling out the figure on the right was to secure as far as possible the full effect of the complete original4 ,observing that all that remains of the right hand figure--the arm1 the body1 the leg and foot1 is a duplicate of the left1 it is safe to conclude that the design has been approximately bi-symmetrical1 slight discrepancies probably occurring in the details of head and arm1 in the expression of face1 or in the character of the weapon4 ,it is much to be regretted that the faces are totally destroyed4 ,in ,fig4 #b ,i present a group of two figures from the so-called sacrificial stone found in the ,plaza ,mayor1 city of ,mexico4 ,it seems to represent the submission of one warrior or ruler to his victorious opponent1 and is one of many designs that might be presented to illustrate the analogies of the ,tennessee relic with the interesting works of the far ,south4 ,there is what might be called a family resemblance1 a similarity in idea and action1 but little analogy of detail4 ,the northern work is by far the more spirited1 and is apparently superior in all the essentials of artistic excellence4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxxv--,,the ,,human ,,figure4 #a4 ,shell gorget1 ,mc,mahan ,mound1 ,tenn4 #b4 ,sculptured in stone1 ,mexico4 #c4 ,shell gorget1 mound1 ,missouri4 #d4 ,figure from an ,aztec painting4 #e4 ,shell gorget1 ,mc,mahan ,mound1 ,tenn4 #f4 ,shell gorget1 ,lick ,creek ,mound1 ,tenn4 ,in the composite character of the personages represented this picture finds no parallel4 ,composite figures are of frequent occurrence in ,peruvian art1 as in the running figures sculptured on the great monolith at ,tiahuanuco1 or the mythical combats of the gods of the earth and sea painted on the pottery of ,chimu4 ,they are also found in the manuscripts of the ancient ,mexicans1 as well as in the paintings of the modern ,pueblos of ,new ,mexico 7,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,lxxvi71 and in the totemic art of the ,haidahs 7,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,lxxvi74 ,the most frequent combinations are of birds with men1 the inspiration of the work in all cases being derived from the mythology of the people4 ,the wearing of masks has doubtless given rise to many such conceptions1 and where the head alone of the human creature has undergone metamorphosis1 we may suspect that a mask has originated the conception2 but the ,tennessee example appears to be the only one in which wings are added independently of the arms or in which bird's feet are attached to the otherwise perfect human creature4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxxvi--,,composite ,,figures4 #a4 ,design on ,zui war-shield1 painting4 #b4 ,thunder-bird of the ,haidahs1 painting4 ,and now we come to the question of the origin of these objects1 and especially of the example most closely resembling ,mexican work4 ,the ,missouri gorget is in many respects quite isolated from known works of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,must it be regarded as an exotic1 as an importation from the ,south1 or does it belong to the soil from which it was exhumed8 ,in order to answer this question we must not only determine its relations to the art of ,mexico1 but we must know just what affinities it has to the art of the mound-builders4 ,in the first place1 gorgets of shell are a marked characteristic of the personal embellishment of the northern peoples4 ,they may have been in use among the ,aztecs1 but do not appear among southern antiquities1 and no evidence can be derived from history4 ,this gorget belongs1 in its general character as an ornament1 to the ,north4 ,it is circular in form1 it has two small perforations near the margin for suspension1 and is made from the wall of a large univalve4 ,the design occupies the central portion of the convex side of the disk and is inclosed by a number of incised lines4 ,in all of these features1 together with its technical execution and its manner of inhumation1 it is identical with the well-known work of the mound-builders4 ,these analogies could hardly occur if it were an exotic4 ,it is true1 however1 as we have already seen1 that the design itself has a closer affinity to ,mexican art than to that of the ,north4 ,it represents a sacrificial scene1 and has many parallels in the paintings and sculpture of the ,south1 whereas no such design is known in the art of any nation north of ,mexico4 ,the engravings of the mound-builders represent legendary creatures derived from the myths of the fathers1 and in this respect have their parallels in the bird-man of the ,haidahs1 the war-god of the ,zuis1 and the mythical deities of other countries2 but they are never illustrative of the customs or ceremonies of the peoples themselves4 ,as an ornament this ,missouri gorget is a member of a great family that is peculiarly northern1 but the design engraved upon it affiliates with the art of ,mexico1 and so close and striking are the resemblances1 that accident cannot account for them1 and we are forced to the conclusion that it must be the offspring of the same beliefs and customs and the same culture as the art of ,mexico4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,lxxvii--,,frogs1 ,,arizona4 ,carved from pectunculus shells4 7#a_/a7 ,,footnotes3 #a ,i am greatly indebted to ,prof4 ,w4 ,h4 ,dall1 of the ,coast ,survey1 for assistance in the identification of ,pacific coast varieties4 #b ,putnam3 in ,surveys ,west of the #ajjth ,meridian1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #bea4 #c ,reiss and ,stbel3 ,necropolis of ,ancon1 ,peru1 ,plate #hc4 #d ,de ,bry3 ,collectio ,pars #b4 ,brevis ,narratio1 #aeia1 ,plate #bi4 #e ,kohl3 ,kitschi-,gami1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahf1 ,rau1 trans4 #f ,cabea de ,vaca3 ,relation et ,naufrages4 ,paris1 #ahcg1 p4 #aba4 ,spanish ed41 #aeee4 #g ,rau1 in ,smithsonian ,report for #ahgb1 p4 #cgf4 #h ,jones3 ,antiquities of the ,southern ,indians1 p4 #bcc4 #i ,jones3 ,aboriginal ,remains of ,tennessee1 p4 #ei4 #aj ,ibid41 p4 #fj4 #aa ,ibid41 p4 #de4 #ab ,putnam1 in ,eleventh ,annual ,report1 ,peabody ,museum1 p4 #cee4 #ac ,wyman1 in ,third ,annual ,report1 ,peabody ,museum1 p4 #g4 #ad ,wyman1 in ,third ,annual ,report1 ,peabody ,museum1 p4 #h4 #ae ,foster3 ,prehistoric ,races of the ,united ,states1 p4 #gh4 #af ,since the shell here named is quite small it is probable that the specimens found were ,busycons4 #ag ,long's ,expedition to the ,rocky ,mountains1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cfa4 #ah ,atwater1 in ,transactions ,american ,antiquarian ,society1 ,vol4 ,i4 #ai ,squier and ,davis3 ,ancient ,monuments of the ,mississippi ,valley1 p4 #bhc4 #bj ,ibid41 p4 #bhd4 #ba ,farquharson1 in ,proceedings of the ,am4 ,association1 #ahge1 page #bif4 #bb ,ibid41 p4 #big4 #bc ,putnam1 in ,eleventh ,annual ,report1 ,peabody ,museum1 p4 #bce4 #bd ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,charles ,a4 ,white1 of the ,geological ,survey1 for the identification of the numerous specimens of ,unionid mentioned in this paper4 #be ,archological ,explorations by the ,literary and ,scientific ,society of ,madisonville1 #ahgi4 #bf ,putnam1 in ,eleventh ,annual ,report1 ,peabody ,museum1 p4 #ccd4 #bg ,ibid41 p4 #cdd4 #bh ,jones3 ,antiquities of ,tennessee1 p4 #fd4 #bi ,beverly3 ,history of ,virginia1 #agbb1 pl4 #aj1 p4 #aed4 #cj ,strachey1 in ,hakluyt ,society ,publications1 vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #eb4 #ca ,ibid41 vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #fg4 #cb ,kalm's ,travels1 ,london1 #aggb1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #cda4 #cc ,collections ,new ,york ,historical ,society1 vol4 ,i1 #bnd series1 p4 #aih4 #cd ,beverly3 ,history of ,virginia1 #agbb1 p4 #aig4 #ce ,drake1 in ,hakluyt ,society ,publications1 vol4 ,,xvi1 p4 #gd4 #cf ,ibid41 p4 #gh4 #cg ,sproat's ,savage ,life1 p4 #hf4 #ch ,de ,bry3 ,collectio ,pars #a4 ,admiranda ,narratio1 ,plate #ab4 #ci ,catlin3 ,indians of the ,rocky ,mountains and ,andes1 page #aja4 #dj ,wood3 ,new ,england ,prospect1 p4 #ajb4 #da ,archological ,explorations by the ,literary and ,scientific ,society of ,madisonville1 ,ohio1 ,part ,i1 p4 #ag4 #db ,mass4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #aic4 #dc ,wood3 ,new ,england ,prospect1 p4 #hg4 #dd ,wood3 ,new ,england ,prospect1 p4 #ajf4 #de ,archological ,explorations by the ,literary and ,scientific ,society1 part ,,ii1 p4 #ch1 fig4 #ca4 #df ,putnam1 in ,explorations ,west of the #ajjth ,meridian1 vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #bbc4 #dg ,cook3 ,voyage ,around the ,world1 #aggj1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bah4 #dh ,rau3 ,archological ,collection of the ,national ,museum1 page #fg4 #di ,knight3 ,savage ,weapons at the ,centennial ,exhibition1 page #aj4 #ej ,wyman3 ,american ,naturalist for ,october1 #ahgh1 p4 #dec4 #ea ,adair3 ,history of the ,american ,indians1 p4 #f4 #eb ,beverly3 ,history of ,virginia1 p4 #adj4 #ec ,heckewelder's ,indian ,nations1 p4 #bje4 #ed ,reiss and ,stbel3 ,necropolis of ,ancon1 ,plate #hc1 fig4 #ag-a_/b4 #ee ,jones3 ,antiquities of the ,southern ,indians1 pp4 #bcd1 #eah4 #ef ,wyman1 in the ,american ,naturalist1 ,november1 #ahfh1 ,plate ,x1 p4 #dee4 #eg ,putnam1 in ,surveys ,west of the #ajjth ,meridian1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #bcj4 #eh ,putnam1 in ,surveys ,west of the #ajjth ,meridian1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #bei4 #ei ,perkins1 on ,an ,ancient ,burial-,ground in ,swanton1 ,vt41 ,proceedings of the ,american ,association1 #ahgc4 #fj ,squier and ,davis3 ,ancient ,monuments of the ,mississippi ,valley1 p4 #bcb4 #fa ,putnam1 in ,surveys ,west of the #ajjth ,meridian1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #bff4 #fb ,schoolcraft3 ,history of the ,indian ,tribes1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #gi1 ,plate #be4 #fc ,schoolcraft3 ,notes on the ,iroquois1 p4 #bcc4 #fd ,beverly3 ,history of ,virginia1 p4 #ade1 ,plate ,,vi4 #fe ,haldeman1 in ,surveys ,west of the #ajjth ,meridian1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #bfc4 #ff ,atwater3 ,western ,antiquities1 p4 #hf4 ,in the early days of mound exploration shell was usually mistaken for bone or ivory4 #fg ,kip3 ,jesuit ,missions1 p4 #be4 #fh ,collections of the ,massachusetts ,historical ,society1 #agid1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #bca1 #bcb4 #fi ,worsley3 ,a ,view of the ,american ,indians1 p4 #fe4 #gj ,collections of the ,new ,york ,historical ,society1 #ahda2 vol4 ,i1 #bnd ,series1 p4 #aid4 #ga ,thought to be raccoon skins4 #gb ,smith3 ,true ,relation of ,virginia1 pp4 #cc1 #cd4 #gc ,wood3 ,new ,england ,prospect1 p4 #gd4 #gd ,du ,pratz3 ,history of ,louisiana1 p4 #cfd4 #ge ,lewis and ,clark3 ,expedition up the ,missouri1 c41 p4 #ecg4 #gf ,harmon's ,journal1 p4 #bhg4 #gg ,swan3 ,the ,northwest ,coast1 p4 #aeh4 #gh ,powers3 ,contributions to ,north ,american ,ethnology1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bfc4 #gi ,drake3 ,book of ,indians1 p4 #bg4 #hj ,morgan1 in ,fifth ,annual ,report on the ,new ,york ,state ,cabinet of ,natural ,history1 pp4 #ga1 #gc4 #ha ,loskiel3 ,mission of the ,united ,brethren1 ,latrobe trans41 p4 #cd4 #hb ,hutchinson3 ,history of ,mass41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #djf4 #hc ,thomas ,morton1 in ,historical ,tracts1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bi4 #hd ,williams3 ,a ,key into the ,language of ,america1 p4 #add4 #he ,penna3 ,historical ,society1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #aca4 #hf ,beverly3 ,history of ,virginia1 p4 #aie4 #hg ,lawson3 ,history of ,north ,carolina2 ,raleigh reprint1 #ahfj1 p4 #cae4 #hh ,on this point1 however1 the author quoted is apparently at fault1 as there is abundance of proof that the whites often engaged successfully in the manufacture of this shell money4 #hi ,adair3 ,history of the ,american ,indians1 p4 #agj4 #ij ,kalm's ,travels1 ,london1 #aggb1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ajj4 #ia ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aij1 #aia4 #ib ,ruttenber3 ,indian ,tribes of the ,hudson ,river1 p4 #bf4 #ic ,lewis and ,clark3 ,expedition up the ,missouri1 p4 #gc4 #id ,ruttenber3 ,indian ,tribes of the ,hudson ,river1 page #dc4 #ie ,morgan1 in ,fifth ,annual ,report on the condition of the ,new ,york ,state ,cabinet of ,natural ,history1 page #gc4 #if ,brice3 ,history of ,fort ,wayne1 #ahfh1 page #bh4 #ig ,events in ,indian ,history1 ,lancaster1 ,pa41 #ahda1 page #adc4 #ih ,history and description of ,new ,france1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #bef4 #ii ,penn1 in ,memoirs ,hist4 ,soc4 ,penn'a1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #bbb4 #ajj ,in order to make the authors meaning quite clear1 a free translation has been given of such words as porcelaine1 branches1 colliers1 etc41 as his use of them is somewhat confusing4 #aja ,lafitau3 ,moeurs des ,sauvages ,ameriquains1 #agbd1 tom4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ejb-'c and #ejf-'g4 #ajb ,loskiel3 ,missions of the ,united ,brethren4 ,trans4 by ,la ,trobe1 ,book ,i1 p4 #bf4 #ajc ,brice3 ,history of ,fort ,wayne1 p4 #aah4 #ajd ,gilpin1 in ,memoirs of the ,hist4 ,soc4 of ,penna4 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #bdh4 #aje ,heckewelder3 ,indian ,nations1 #ahgf1 p4 #aaj4 #ajf ,parkman3 ,jesuits in ,north ,america1 p4 xxxiii4 #ajg ,events in ,indian ,history1 ,lancaster1 ,pa41 #ahda1 p4 #adc4 #ajh ,hunter3 ,indian ,manners and ,customs1 p4 #aib4 #aji ,gumilla3 ,histoire de ,orinoque1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ia4 #aaj ,molina3 ,history of ,chili1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aai4 #aaa ,from an original sketch by ,mr4 ,beauchamp4 #aab ,pike3 ,travels through the ,western ,territories of ,n4 ,a41 #ahje-'g1 p4 #ajc4 #aac ,morgan1 in ,fifth ,annual ,report on the ,condition of the ,new ,york ,state ,cabinet of ,natural ,history1 #aheb1 p4 #gb4 #aad ,morgan3 ,league of the ,iroquois1 p4 #chg4 #aae ,heckewelder3 ,indian ,nations1 #ahgf1 pp4 #ajh-'i-'aj4 #aaf ,beatty3 ,journal of ,two ,months ,tour1 #agfh1 p4 #fg4 #aag ,loskiel3 ,missions of the ,united ,brethren4 ,trans1 by ,la ,trobe1 #agid4 ,book ,i1 p4 #bf4 #aah ,lafitau3 ,moeurs des ,sauvages ,ameriquains1 ,tome ,,ii1 p4 #cad4 #aai ,mr4 ,beauchamp has published many interesting facts in regard to these belts in the ,american ,antiquarian1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #c4 #abj ,present chief of the ,onondagas4 #aba ,the proceedings attending the presentation are fully recorded in the ,memoirs of the ,historical ,society of ,pennsylvania1 volume iii1 page #bjg4 ,a full size lithographic illustration of the belt printed in color is also given4 #abb ,clavigero3 ,history of ,mexico1 ,trans4 by ,cullen1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #dcg4 #abc ,davis3 ,spanish ,conquest of ,new ,mexico1 p4 #aba4 #abd ,beverly3 ,history of ,virginia1 p4 #aif4 #abe ,lafitau3 ,moeurs des ,sauvages ,ameriquains1 p4 #fa4 #abf ,wood3 ,new ,england ,prospect1 p4 #gd4 #abg ,kalm3 ,travels in ,north ,america1 #aggb1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cbj4 #abh ,vide ,kingsborough1 ,waldeck1 ,bancroft1 c4 #abi ,schoolcraft1 in ,trans4 ,am4 ,eth4 ,soc41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,plate #a4 #acj ,tomlinson1 in ,the ,american ,pioneer1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bjj4 #aca ,matson1 in ,ohio ,centennial ,report1 p4 #aca4 #acb ,schoolcraft3 ,history of the ,indian ,tribes1 c41 part ,i1 plate ,,xix4 #acc ,the ossuaries here mentioned are in the township of ,beverly1 twenty miles from ,dundas1 at the head of ,lake ,ontario4 ,they are situated in a primitive forest1 and were discovered upwards of thirty years ago through the uprooting of a tree4 ,large numbers of skeletons had been deposited longitudinally in trenches1 with many implements1 utensils1 and ornaments4 ,two brass kettles were found in one of the graves4 7,schoolcraft3 ,red ,races of ,america1 p4 #cbf47 #acd ,rau3 ,archological ,collection of the ,national ,museum1 p4 #cc4 #ace ,the handsome illustrations presented in the accompanying plates were mostly drawn by ,miss ,kate ,c4 ,osgood1 who has no superior in this class of work4 #acf ,jones3 ,aboriginal ,remains of ,tennessee1 pp4 #db-c4 #acg ,jones3 ,antiquities of the ,southern ,indians1 pp4 #cgc-e4 #ach ,anderson1 in the ,cincinnati ,quarterly ,journal of ,science1 ,october1 #ahge1 p4 #cgh4 #aci ,abbott3 ,primitive ,industry1 pp4 #gj1 #gb1 and #gc4 #adj ,ibid41 p4 #bjg4 #ada ,since this paragraph has been in type ,i have seen the specimen1 and find that the looped figure is clearly defined4 #adb ,kingsborough3 vol4 ,,ii1 ,plate #bj4 #adc ,let any one who thinks lightly of such a work undertake1 without machinery or well-adapted appliances1 to cut a groove or notch even1 in a moderately compact specimen of ,busycon1 and he will probably increase his good opinion of the skill and patience of the ancient workman if he does nothing else4 #add ,e4 ,g4 ,squier3 ,serpent ,symbol1 page #fi1 quoting ,,mss4 of ,j4 ,h4 ,payne4 #ade ,i am very much indebted to ,prof4 ,f4 ,f4 ,hilder1 of ,saint ,louis1 for photographs of three of these specimens as well as for much information in regard to their history4 #adf ,croswell1 in ,transactions ,academy of ,science of ,saint ,louis1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ecg4 #adg ,jones3 ,antiquities of the ,southern ,indian1 plate ,,xxx4 #adh ,archological ,collection of the ,national ,museum1 p4 #fi4 #adi ,squier3 ,peru1 p4 #ahf4 #aej ,bancroft3 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 vol4 ,,iv41 p4 #cg4 #aea ,carr1 in ,tenth ,annual ,report ,peabody ,museum1 p4 #hg4 #aeb ,jones3 ,antiquities of the ,southern ,indians1 p4 #dcj4 #aec ,schoolcraft3 ,notes on the ,iroquois1 p4 #bce4 #aed ,kingsborough1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pl4 #bb4 ,,index4 ,abbott1 ,c4 ,c41 describes bird totems #bhd ,adair1 ,james1 describes shell tweezers #bab 1 on use of shell money #bcg ,agricultural implements4 7,see ,implements47 ,amiantis shells1 ,manufacture of beads from #bbf ,art1 ,antiquity of shell works of #ahg 1 ,burial of shell works of #ahg 1 ,evolution of #ahe1 #aib1 #bjb1 #baj1 #bac1 #bbe 1 ,inception of #ahf 1 ,materials employed in #ahe1 #ahh 1 ,preservation of shell works of #ahf ,asphaltum used by ,california ,indians #aia1 #bji1 #bah ,atwater1 ,caleb1 describes shell necklace #bca vessel #aig ,beads of other materials #bai1 #bcb1 #bce shell #bai 1 ,classification of #bai discoidal in form #bba 1 ,kinds of1 used in belts #bdg 1 ,manner of stringing #bcd1 #bcf1 #bdd1 #bdh 1 ,manufacture of #bcf 1 by whites #bch massive in form #bbc 1 ,mnemonic use of #bdj1 #bed or ,runtees #bbh 1 ,perforated #bai tubular in form #bbf used as money #bai1 #bcc ornaments #bai1 #bcj1 #bcd ,beatty1 ,charles1 describes wampum belts #bej ,beauchamp1 ,w4 ,m41 ,beads sketched by #bbh 1 on belts of wampum #beb strings of wampum #bdh ,belts1 wampum1 ,character of the patterns woven into #bdj1 #bdf1 #bdh 1 ,dimensions of #bej1 #bec 1 ,keeper of the ,iroquois #bda1 #bdd made by ,indian women #bdi 1 ,manufacture of #bdh 1 ,method of handling1 in councils #bda1 #bdf 1 ,number of beads in #bcc1 #bea 1 ,profuse use of #bdb 1 ,rarity of1 in collections #bdi 2 the ,penn belt #bec 1 ,use of1 as mnemonic records #bdj1 #bed 1 ,w4 ,a4 ,brice on use and repudiation of #bdb1 #bdf ,beverly1 ,r41 describes shell beads #bbi money #bcg pendants #bef spoon #bja 1 mentions shell knives #bjb tweezers #bab ,bird2 carving of eagle's head #bhe 1 ,embodiment of the1 in art #bhj engraved on bone #bhd stone #bhd shell gorgets #bhj 1 ,examples of the1 engraved on shell gorgets #bha 1 ,gold ornament representing head of #bhe 1 ,myths of the #bhj 1 ,significant character of the1 in engraved designs #bha1 #bhd 1 ,species of1 represented #bhb1 #bhd 1 ,superstitions in regard to the #bhj 1 ,the ,dakotas' thunder #bha 1 ,totemic use of the #bhd ,bourke1 ,lieut4 ,john ,g41 on ,moqui shell vessels #aic ,bowers1 ,stephen1 ,shell objects collected by #bji1 #bbf ,brakebill mound #bae1 #bge1 #bib1 #bif ,brice1 ,w4 ,a41 on repudiation of wampum #bdf use of wampum belts #bdb ,brinton1 ,d4 ,g41 on the origin of the cross #bgj ,busycon shells1 ,columell of1 used as pendants #bji1 #beh pins #bac 1 ,gorgets derived from #bgc1 #bgf1 #bhb1 #bij1 #bib1 #bid1 #bif 1 ,pendants derived from #bji1 #bei 1 ,perforated plates derived from #bfe used as beads #bbj1 #bbd celts #bjd vessels #aid1 #aig weapons #baa in the arts #aia ,cabea de ,vaca on trade in shells #aid ,cabrillo1 ,joo1 visits ,island of ,santa ,rosa #bfj ,calendars1 ,pictographic symbols of the ,sioux #bgi 1 ,probable use of shell disks as #bfh1 #bgc1 #bgh used by ancient ,mexicans #bgi modern tribes #bgi ,carr1 ,lucien1 describes shell gorget #bie ,cassis shells used as vessels #aia1 #aid1 #aif ,catlin1 ,george1 describes shell adze #bje ,celts1 ,examples of #bjc 1 ,manufacture of #bjc of shell #bjc1 #bje ,clam shells used as implements #aij1 #bje1 #bjg utensils #aij in manufacture of ornaments #bfc wampum #aij1 #bbf1 #bch1 #beg ,clark1 ,j4 ,s41 ,photographs made by #beb ,clavigero1 ,f4 ,x41 on use of shell ornaments #bef vessels in ,mexico #aic ,cleveland1 ,f41 describes shell vessels #aig ,columell1 ,manner of extracting1 from shell #bad used in manufacture of heads #bai1 #bbc pins #bac1 #bah ,conant1 ,a4 ,j41 describes shell gorgets #cjj 1 mentions shell gorgets #bhg ,cross design associated with others #bgj combined with spider design #bhh in ,aztec paintings #bhe engraved on shell gorgets #bfh 1 ,evolution or derivation of the #bgj 1 ,examples of the1 combined with birds #bhb1 #bhc 1 ,examples of the1 from mounds #bga1 #bgc 1 ,introduction of the ,christian #bfi 1 ,occurrence of the1 in ancient ,mexican art #bgj ,yucatan #bgj 1 ,origin of the1 among mound builders #bfi 1 ,prehistoric use of the1 in ,america #bfh1 #bgj 1 ,symbolic character of the #bfi ,croswell1 ,c41 describes shell gorgets #bhf ,curtis1 ,dr41 ,shell gorgets collected by #bhc ,cyprea shells used as beads #bai ornaments #bfc ,dall1 ,w4 ,h41 use of pins #bag 1 ,shells identified by #aij ,davis1 ,w4 ,h4 ,h41 mentions shell pendants #bef ,dentalium shells used for money #aia1 #bbj1 #bbg1 #bci ornament #aia1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bbg in bushing #bah1 #bbg ,disks1 ,scalloped1 probably time symbols #bgc 1 ,relation of1 to human remains #bgf shell1 from mounds #bge1 #bgh 1 ,shell gorgets in the shape of #bfh1 #bgc1 #bgi stone #bgg with engravings of knotted serpents #bgh 1 ,table of #bhj 1 ,the sun suggested by #bgc 1 ,type example of #bgc 2 use of sun symbols of similar shape #bgc ,drake1 ,daniel1 describes shell vessel #aig ,dunning1 ,e4 ,o41 ,shell ornaments collected by #bgb pins collected by #bae ,ely mound in ,virginia #bie ,engraved gorgets4 7,see ,gorgets47 ,face1 ,human1 ,description of shell gorgets representing the #bid engraved and carved on shell gorgets #bic1 #big modeled in clay #bif 1 ,portions of shell used for representing #bic 1 ,use or significance of shell gorgets representing #bie ,fain's ,island mound #bae1 #bgb1 #bhh ,farquharson1 ,b4 ,j41 describes shell vessel #aig ,fasciolaria shells1 ,columell of1 used for pins #bac used as vessels #aid ,figure1 ,human4 7,see ,human figure47 ,fishing appliances1 ,shell #bjg 2 hooks #bjh 1 ,manufacture of #baj 2 sinkers #bjh ,fissurella shells used as ornaments #aia1 #bbj1 #bfa1 #bfc ,frey1 ,s4 ,l41 describes shell vessel #aih ,gilpin1 ,h4 ,d41 on the use of wampum belts #bdf ,gorgets1 ,engraved1 ,classification of #bfg design on1 character of #bfg described by ,beverly #bef 1 ,modern examples of #bfh of shell #bfg1 #cje 1 ,significance of designs on #bfg1 #bgd1 #bgh1 #bhb used as amulets #bfg insignia #bfg1 #bgc symbols #bfh1 #bgc totems #bfh ,grave ,creek mound #bcd1 #bfd ,gray's mound1 ,oldtown1 ,tenn4 #bhc ,gumilla1 ,joseph1 concerning emblems in treaties #bdg ,hafting of implements of shell #bjc1 #bje1 #baa ,haldemann1 ,s4 ,s41 describes shell beads #bbg1 #bcj ,haliotis shells used as vessels #ahi1 #aia in manufacturing beads #bbe1 #bbg fish hooks #bji pendants #bji1 #bfa trade #aia ,heckewelder1 ,johann1 describes shell tweezers #bab wampum belts #bej 1 on the use of wampum belts #bdf ,hennite shells used in manufacture of beads #bbe1 #bbg ,hilder1 ,f4 ,f41 describes shell gorgets #bhf1 #bhh1 #cjc 1 photographs of gorgets procured by #bhf ,human figure engraved on shell gorgets #big 1 ,comparison of1 with other examples #cjb southern examples #cja ,hunter1 ,j4 ,d41 concerning emblems in treaties #bdg ,hutchinson1 ,thomas1 on the antiquity of wampum #bce ,implements of shell1 ,agricultural #bjg ,insignia or badges of shell #bfd1 #bff1 #bgc ,jones1 ,c4 ,c41 describes shell pins #bae vessel #aif stone disks #bgg 1 mentions shell gorgets #bhg1 #bic1 #bih ,jones1 ,joseph1 describes shell disk #bgf gorgets #big spoons #bja vessel #aif ,kalm1 ,peter1 mentions shell knives #bjb 1 on shell money #bch pendants #beg ,knight1 ,e4 ,h41 describes shell weapons #baa ,knives of shell #bja 1 rarity of1 in collections #bjc used by ,honda ,indians #bjb ,pacific ,coast tribes #bjc ,patagonians #bjc ,kohl1 ,j4 ,g41 on trade in shells #aid ,lafitau1 ,j4 ,f41 on the use of shell pendants #bef wampum #bdc wampum belts #bej ,lawson1 ,john1 on the use of shell money #bcg ,le ,moyne1 d',iberville1 on the use of shell vessels #aic ,lewis and ,clark describe shell ornaments #bcc on value of beads #bci ,lick ,creek mound #bae1 #bbd1 #bgb1 #bgh1 #bif ,lindstrm1 ,p41 on the use of shell money #bcf ,lord1 ,j4 ,k41 on shell money #bci ,loskiel ,g4 ,h41 gives an account of wampum #bde 1 on the antiquity of use of wampum #bce manufacture of wampum #bce origin of the word wampum #bci wampum belts #bej ,low1 ,c4 ,p41 ,shell spoons collected by #bjj described by #bjj ,lyon1 ,s4 ,s41 ,shell spoons collected by #bjj ,mc,mahan mound #bad1 #bib1 #bid1 #bih1 #cja1 #cjc ,manufacture of shell objects #bjd1 #baj1 #bab1 #baf1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bbh1 #bcf1 #bee1 #bfa1 #bfc1 #bhf1 #bic ,marginella shells used as beads #bai ,matson1 ,j4 ,s4 ,b41 ,beads discovered by #bca 1 describes shell plates #bfe ,mnemonic records1 ,interpretation of #bda1 #bdd1 #bdf 1 ,iroquois keeper of #bda1 #bdd of ,mexicans #bdj ,n4 ,a4 ,indians #bdj ,peruvians #bdj 1 ,origin of #bdj 1 ,use of materials other than shell for #bde1 #bdg 1 ,use of wampum for #bdj1 #bed ,molina1 ,g4 ,i41 concerning emblems in treaties #bdg ,morgan1 ,l4 ,h41 on the antiquity of wampum #bce origin of the word wampum #bci uses of wampum #bce wampum belts #bdi records #bda ,morton1 ,thomas1 on the use of shell money #bcf ,myth1 ,spider1 obtained by ,j4 ,w4 ,powell #bhf ,mytilus1 shells used as utensils #aia1 #bab in manufacture of fish hooks #baj ornaments #bfa ,oliva shells used as beads #bai1 #bbb ,olivella shells used as beads #bbj ,ornaments of shell #bac1 #cje ,osgood1 ,kate ,c41 ,drawings made by #bfh ,oyster shells used as utensils #aia ,pachydesma shells used as utensils #aij in manufacture of beads #bbf ornaments #bfa pendants #bji ,palmer1 ,e41 ,collections by #cjc ,parkman1 ,francis1 on the use of wampum #bdg ,pearls perforated for beads #bbe used by ,powhatan #bcb ,pecten shells used as implements #bjf ornaments #ahi1 #bfa rattles #aij1 #bjf vessels #ahi in art #ahi ,pectunculus shells1 ,manufacture of rings from #bfc ,pendants1 ,beads used as #bcj 1 ,classification of #bee1 #bjg 1 ,engraved #bfg1 #cje 1 ,forms and sizes of #bee1 #beh1 #bfa1 #bfc 1 ,historic use of #bee1 #bfh illustrated by ,lafitau #beg in ,de ,bry #beg ,mexican paintings #beg sculptures of ,mexico and ,yucatan #beh 1 ,importance of1 in evolution of art #bee of shell #bji1 #bee the ,atlantic coast #beh 1 ,origin of use of #bee 1 ,ornamental notching of edges of #bfb 1 ,perforations of #bee1 #bfa 1 ,plain1 of the ,pacific coast #bfj ,atlantic coast #beh 1 ,various uses of #bee1 #bfa1 #bfg ,penn1 ,j4 ,g41 describes ,penn belt #bei ,perforated tablets4 ,see ,tablets4 ,perforations of objects of shell #baf1 #bbj1 #bbc1 #bbg1 #bcf1 #bfb ,perkins1 ,g4 ,h41 ,shell beads illustrated by #bbd ,perrine1 ,f4 ,m41 ,shell gorgets belonging to #bgj ,pins1 cut from body of shell #baf 1 ,examples of #bac1 #bah made from collumell of shell #bac1 #bah obtained from mounds #bac1 #bah of shell #bac1 #bah 1 ,use of bone #bag 1 problematicals #bac1 #bag ,potter1 ,w4 ,b41 ,shell gorget owned by #bii1 #cjc ,powell1 ,j4 ,w41 ,nose ornament collected by #bbg 1 ,shell disk collected by #bgc spoon collected by #aii 1 ,spider myth obtained by #bhf ,powers1 ,stephen1 describes shell beads #bci ornaments #bcc ,pratt1 ,h4 ,w41 on shell money #bci ,pratz1 ,lepage du1 describes shell ornaments #bcb ,putnam1 ,f4 ,w41 describes bone pins #bag shell fish-hooks #bji gorgets #bgf1 #bhb1 #bie pins #bah spoons #aie vessels #aif 1 on use of asphaltum #bbg value of ,haliotis shells #aia ,rasle1 ,father ,sebastian1 on the use of shell beads #bca ,rau1 ,charles1 describes gold ornament #bhe shell gorget #bhi vessel #aif weapon #baj 1 on classification of perforated plates #bff cut of stone disk #bgh ,records4 7,see ,mnemonic records47 ,runtees1 a variety of shell beads #bbh 1 ,manner of stringing #bbi 1 ,origin of #bcj 1 ,signification of figures engraved upon #bbh ,ruttenber1 ,e4 ,m41 on the ,keeper of wampum #bda manufacture of shell money #bch ,scalloped disks4 7,see ,disks47 ,schoolcraft1 ,h4 ,r41 describes shell beads #bbh ornaments #big pendants #bfj plates #bfd ,schumacher1 ,paul1 ,shell objects collected by #bji1 #bag ,scrapers of shell #bje 1 ,examples of #bje ,serpent characteristics that attract the savage #bhi design1 ,discovery of shell gorgets ornamented with #bhi engraved upon shell gorgets #bfh1 #bhi1 #bic stone disks #bgh 1 ,examples of gorgets ornamented with #bij of ,mexico and ,peru #bic 2 the rattlesnake #bhi 1 ,embodiment of the1 in art #bhi 2 rattlesnake species represented on shell #bia1 #bic 1 ,superstitions in regard to #bhi 1 ,use of the1 as a religious symbol #bhi ,shells1 ,artificial distribution of #aif1 #bje1 #bac1 #bcj 1 ,trade in #ahh1 #aia1 #aic1 #aif1 #bcf used as models for the potter #aih in natural state #ahg1 #aia ,smith1 ,erminnie ,a41 ,wampum belt loaned by #bea ,smith1 ,john1 describes shell ornaments #bcb ,spider characteristics that attract savages #bhf design engraved upon shell gorgets #bhf1 #bhi 1 ,examples of1 on shell gorgets #bhf in art #bhf 1 ,myths concerning the #bhf ,spoons of shell deposited with the dead #aii 1 ,examples of #aii 1 ,manufacture of #aih the ,unio shell #aih1 #bja ,squier1 ,e4 ,g41 mentions spider myths #bhf ,squier and ,davis describe shell beads #bbe ,stearns1 ,r4 ,e4 ,c41 on shell money #bci ,strachey1 ,william1 mentions shell knives #bjb ,stratton1 ,c4 ,l41 ,shell pins collected by #bae ,strombus shells1 ,columell of1 used in manufacture of beads #bbd pendants #bjh pins #bac1 #bae used as vessels #aia1 #aid1 #aig in manufacture of celts #bjd gorgets #bie ,swan1 ,j4 ,g41 describes shell ornaments #bcc ,tablets1 ,perforated1 ,forms of #bfd 1 made of shell #bfd1 #bfg 1 ,manner of burial of #bfe 1 ,method of attachment of #bff 1 ,perforations of #bfe 1 ,theories of use of #bfd 1 ,undetermined character of #bfd ,time symbols1 ,probable use of shell disks as #bfh1 #bgc1 #bgh ,tomlinson1 ,a4 ,b41 describes shell plate #bfd ,trill1 ,c4 ,f41 ,drawings made by #bea ,troost1 ,dr4 ,gerard1 ,shell objects collected by #bbd ,tweezers of shell #bab ,unio shells obtained from mounds #aij used as implements #aij1 #bje utensils #aij1 #aii in manufacture of beads #bbc ornament #bfj spoons #aii ,velie1 ,j4 ,w41 ,shell pendants collected by #bjh ,vessels1 artificially shaped #aib 1 ,engraved shell #aic in clay imitating shells #aih 1 ,manufacture of shell #aid1 #aif 1 ,natural shells #aij of the ,mound ,builders #aid1 #aif used by the ,florida ,indians #aic ,moquis ,indians #aic in ,mexico #aib ,wampum1 ,antiquity of use of as currency #bcd as currency #bcd 1 ,derivation of the word #bch in costumes #bcb1 #bcd 1 ,literature of #bda1 #bdh 1 ,manufacture of #bbf1 #bcf 1 by whites #bch 1 ,mnemonic use of #bdj1 #bed 1 ,modern use of #bci1 #beb 1 ,origin of mnemonic use of #bdj 1 ,symbolic uses of #bda1 #bdh 1 ,use of1 in strings #bdc1 #bdh treaties and councils #bdb 1 on ,pacific ,coast #bci 1 ,varieties of beads used as #bdg ,weapons of shell #baj 1 ,manner of hafting #baa ,whipple1 ,lieut4 ,e4 ,w41 ,necklace obtained by #bbj ,whiteley1 ,colonel1 ,shell gorgets procured by #cjc ,whitney1 ,j4 ,l41 describes shell plate #bfe ,williams1 ,c4 ,f41 ,shell gorgets collected by #bhb ,williams1 ,roger1 on the name wampum #bci use of shell money #bcf ,wood1 ,william1 describes shell pendants #bef 1 mentions shell implements #bje1 #bjg ornaments #bcb ,wyman1 ,jeffries1 describes shell celt #bjd gorgets #bhi pins #baf vessel #aif weapons #baa ,,corrections3 page original text correction #ahf of curions construction of curious construction #aih in ancient grave in an ancient grave #aii ,fig4 ,i1 ,plate ,,xxiv ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xxiv ,plate ,,xxvi #f4 ,perforated pecten1 #f4 ,perforated ,pecten1 #bjc n #cf ,ibid ,ibid4 #bad1 #bid1 #cja1 #cjc the ,mc,mahon mound the ,mc,mahan ,mound #bag very different type very different type4 #bah collumell of marine columell of marine ,plate ,,xxxi ,an untrimmed columela4 ,an untrimmed columella #bai the ,maginella the ,marginella #bbb ,in fig4 #a ,i present ,in ,fig4 #a ,i present #bbe ,east ,st4 ,louis1 ,ills4 ,east ,st4 ,louis1 ,ill4 #bcb n #fi ,view the ,american ,a ,view of the ,american #bcf the ,salvages have found the ,savages have found #bcf of ,new ,sweeden3 of ,new ,sweden3 #bch of making wampum4 of making wampum4 #bdj would be assinged to would be assigned to #bdb ,algonkin and and ,iroquois ,algonkin and ,iroquois #bdb ,cannehoot1 a ,seneca sachem ,cannehoot1 a ,seneca sachem1 #bdf n #ajb ,book #a1 p4 #bf4 ,book ,i1 p4 #bf4 #bdf by his remontrances by his remonstrances #bdh chiefs of the ,chippeway chiefs of the ,chippewa #bej n #aah ,tome1 ,,ii1 p4 #cad4 ,tome ,,ii1 p4 #cad4 #bea belts of the ,irqouois belts of the ,iroquois #beb and be lost and be lost4 #beb ,mr4 ,beauchamp1 states ,mr4 ,beauchamp states #beb ,the belt shown in ,fig #c ,the belt shown in ,fig4 #c #bee a phenominal art4 a phenomenal art4 #bfd as from the main land4 as from the main-land4 #bga in ,fig4 #a41 ,plate ,,li1 in ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,li1 #bhb ,on it face1 however ,on its face1 however #bhb the ,state of ,missisippi the ,state of ,mississippi #bhf illustrated in ,plate ,,lx4 illustrated in ,plate ,,lxi4 #bhg #bx ,mr4 ,crosswell ,mr4 ,croswell ,plate ,,lxii #a4 ,mc,mahan ,mound1 ,tenn4 #b4 ,mc,mahan ,mound1 ,tenn4 #bif painted or tatooed design painted or tattooed design ,plate ,,lxix ,acquia ,creek1 ,va4 ,aquia ,creek1 ,va4 #bih hands againstthe hands against the #cjb broad many-featherd tail broad many-feathered tail #cjc 7,plates ,,lxxi and ,,lxxiii71 7,plates ,,lxxi and ,,lxxii71 #cjd ,in ,fig4 #c ,i present ,in ,fig4 #b ,i present ,,modern ,,spelling ,,of ,,scientific ,,names ,,of ,,shell ,,species ,,mentioned3 original text modern name ,pagenumbers ,cerrithidea ,cerithidea #bbj ,cyprea ,cypraea #bai1 #bbj #bx1 #bcj1 ,plate ,,xlviii1 #bfc #bx1 #bfd ,hennites ,hinnites #bbe1 #bbg1 ,plate ,,xxxv ,lucupina ,lucapina #bfd silignoidens siligineoides #bjj vericosus verrucosus #bjf