,ver4#aj_/jd_/ja99;,,end99              
,this etext was produced by ,charles    
,aldarondo ,aldarondoyahoo4com          
,on the ,economy of ,machinery and      
,manufactures  by ,charles ,babbage     
#ahcb        ,preface      ,the present 
volume may be considered as one of the  
consequences that have resulted from the
 calculating engine1 the  construction  
of which ,i have been so long           
superintending4 ,having  been induced1  
during the last ten years1 to visit a   
considerable  number of workshops and   
factories1 both in ,england and on the  
,continent1 for the purpose of          
endeavouring to make myself  acquainted 
with the various resources of mechanical
 art1 ,i was  insensibly led to apply to
 them those principles of               
generalization to which my other        
pursuits had naturally given  rise4 ,the
 increased number of curious processes  
and interesting  facts which thus came  
under my attention1 as well as of the   
reflections which they suggested1       

induced me to believe that the          
publication of some of them might be of 
use to persons who  propose to bestow   
their attention on those enquiries which
 ,i have  only incidentally considered4 
,with this view it was my intention  to 
have delivered the present work in the  
form of a course of  lectures at        
,cambridge2 an intention which ,i was   
subsequently  induced to alter4 ,the    
substance of a considerable portion of  
it  has1 however1 appeared among the    
preliminary chapters of the  mechanical 
part of the ,encyclopedia               
,metropolitana4    ,i have not attempted
 to offer a complete enumeration of all 
the mechanical principles which regulate
 the application of  machinery to arts  
and manufactures1 but ,i have           
endeavoured to  present to the reader   
those which struck me as the most       
important1 either for understanding the 
actions of machines1 or  for enabling   
the memory to classify and arrange the  
facts  connected with their employment4 

,still less have ,i attempted to        
examine all the difficult questions of  
political economy which  are intimately 
connected with such enquiries4 ,it was  
impossible  not to trace or to imagine1 
among the wide variety of facts         
presented to me1 some principles which  
seemed to pervade many  establishments2 
and having formed such conjectures1 the 
desire to  refute or to verify them1    
gave an additional interest to the      
pursuit4 ,several of the principles     
which ,i have proposed1 appear  to me to
 have been unnoticed before4 ,this was  
particularly the  case with respect to  
the explanation ,i have given of the    
division  of labour2 but further enquiry
 satisfied me that ,i had been          
anticipated by ,m4 ,gioja1 and it is    
probable that additional  research would
 enable me to trace most of the other   
principles1  which ,i had thought       
original1 to previous writers1 to whose 
merit  ,i may perhaps be unjust1 from my
 want of acquaintance with the          

historical branch of the subject4       
,the truth however of the principles ,i 
have stated1 is of much  more importance
 than their origin2 and the utility of  
an enquiry  into them1 and of           
establishing others more correct1 if    
these  should be erroneous1 can scarcely
 admit of a doubt4    ,the difficulty of
 understanding the processes of         
manufactures  has unfortunately been    
greatly overrated4 ,to examine them with
  the eye of a manufacturer1 so as to be
 able to direct others to  repeat them1 
does undoubtedly require much skill and 
previous  acquaintance with the subject2
 but merely to apprehend their  general 
principles and mutual relations1 is     
within the power of  almost every person
 possessing a tolerable education4      
,those who possess rank in a            
manufacturing country1 can  scarcely be 
excused if they are entirely ignorant of
 principles1  whose development has     
produced its greatness4 ,the possessors 
of  wealth can scarcely be indifferent  

to processes which1 nearly or  remotely 
have been the fertile source of their   
possessions4 ,those  who enjoy leisure  
can scarcely find a more interesting and
  instructive pursuit than the          
examination of the workshops of  their  
own country1 which contain within them a
 rich mine of  knowledge1 too generally 
neglected by the wealthier classes4     
,it has been my endeavour1 as much as   
possible1 to avoid all  technical terms1
 and to describe1 in concise language1  
the arts ,i  have had occasion to       
discuss4 ,in touching on the more       
abstract  principles of political       
economy1 after shortly stating the      
reasons on which they are founded1 ,i   
have endeavoured to support  them by    
facts and anecdotes2 so that whilst     
young persons might  be amused and      
instructed by the illustrations1 those  
of more  advanced judgement may find    
subject for meditation in the general   
conclusions to which they point4 ,i was 
anxious to support the  principles which

 ,i have advocated by the observations  
of others1  and in this respect ,i found
 myself peculiarly fortunate4 ,the      
reports of committees of the ,house of  
,commons1 upon various  branches of     
commerce and manufactures1 and the      
evidence which  they have at different  
periods published on those subjects1    
teem  with information of the most      
important kind1 rendered doubly         
valuable by the circumstances under     
which it has been collected4  ,from     
these sources ,i have freely taken1 and 
,i have derived some  additional        
confidence from the support they have   
afforded to my  views4 99    ,charles   
,babbage  ,dorset ,street  ,manchester  
,square  #h ,june1 #ahcb    99,footnote3
 ,i am happy to avail myself of this    
occasion of expressing  my obligations  
to the ,right ,hon4 ,manners ,sutton1   
the ,speaker of the  ,house of ,commons1
 to whom ,i am indebted for copies of a 
considerable  collection of those       
reports4      ,preface to the ,second   

,edition      ,in two months from the   
publication of the first edition of     
this volume1 three thousand copies were 
in the hands of the  public4 ,very      
little was spent in advertisements2 the 
booksellers1  instead of aiding1 impeded
 its sale2 99 it formed no part of any  
popular series and yet the public1 in a 
few weeks1 purchased the  whole edition4
 ,some small part of this success1      
perhaps1 was due  to the popular        
exposition of those curious processes   
which are  carried on in our workshops1 
and to the endeavour to take a short    
view of the general principles which    
direct the manufactories of  the        
country4 ,but the chief reason was the  
commanding attraction  of the subject1  
and the increasing desire to become     
acquainted  with the pursuits and       
interests of that portion of the people 
which has recently acquired so large an 
accession of political  influence4      
99,footnote3 ,i had good evidence of    
this fact from various quarters2  and   

being desirous of verifying it1 ,i      
myself applied for a copy at  the shop  
of a bookseller of respectability1 who  
is probably not aware  that he refused  
to procure one even for its author4     
,a greater degree of attention than ,i  
had expected has been  excited by what  
,i have stated in the first edition1    
respecting  the ',book-trade'4 ,until ,i
 had commenced the chapter1 ',on the    
separate cost of each process of a      
manufacture'1 ,i had no  intention of   
alluding to that subject3 but the reader
 will  perceive that ,i have throughout 
this volume1 wherever ,i could1         
employed as illustrations1 objects of   
easy access to the reader2  and1 in     
accordance with that principle1 ,i      
selected the volume  itself4 ,when ,i   
arrived at the chapter1 ',on            
combinations of  masters against the    
public'1 ,i was induced1 for the same   
reason1  to expose a combination        
connected with literature1 which1 in my 
opinion1 is both morally and politically

 wrong4 ,i entered upon  this enquiry   
without the slightest feeling of        
hostility to that  trade1 nor have ,i   
any wish unfavourable to it2 but ,i     
think a  complete reform in its system  
would add to its usefulness and         
respectability4 ,as the subject of that 
chapter has been much  discussed1 ,i    
have thought it right to take a view of 
the various  arguments which have been  
advanced1 and to offer my own opinion   
respecting their validity--and there ,i 
should have left the  subject1 content  
to allow my general character to plead  
for me  against insinuations respecting 
my motives--but as the remarks  of some 
of my critics affect the character of   
another person1 ,i  think it but just to
 state circumstances which will clearly 
disprove them4    ,mr ,fellowes1 of     
,ludgate ,street1 who had previously    
been the  publisher of some other       
volumes for me1 had undertaken the      
publication of the first edition of the 
present work4 ,a short  time previous to

 its completion1 ,i thought it right to 
call his  attention to the chapter in   
which the book-trade is discussed2  with
 the view both of making him acquainted 
with what ,i had  stated1 and also of   
availing myself of his knowledge in     
correcting any accidental error as to   
the facts4 ,mr ,fellowes1  'differing   
from me entirely respecting the         
conclusions ,i had  arrived at'1 then   
declined the publication of the volume4 
,if ,i  had then chosen to apply to some
 of those other booksellers1  whose     
names appear in the ,committee of ',the 
,trade'1 it is  probable that they also 
would have declined the office of       
publishing for me2 and1 had my object   
been to make a case against  the trade1 
such a course would have assisted me4   
,but ,i had no  such feeling2 and having
 procured a complete copy of the whole  
work1 ,i called with it on ,mr ,knight1 
of ,pall ,mall ,east1 whom  until that  
day ,i had never seen1 and with whom ,i 
had never  previously had the slightest 

communication4 ,i left the book in ,mr  
,knight's hands1 with a request that1   
when he had read it1 ,i might  be       
informed whether he would undertake the 
publication of it2 and  this he         
consented to do4 ,mr ,knight1 therefore1
 is so far from  being responsible for a
 single opinion in the present volume1  
that he saw it only1 for a short time1 a
 few days previous to its  publication4 
,it has been objected to me1 that ,i    
have exposed too freely  the secrets of 
trade4 ,the only real secrets of trade  
are  industry1 integrity1 and knowledge3
 to the possessors of these no  exposure
 can be injurious2 and they never fail  
to produce respect  and wealth4    ,the 
alterations in the present edition are  
so frequent1 that  ,i found it          
impossible to comprise them in a        
supplement4 ,but the  three new         
chapters1 ',on money as a medium of     
exchange'2 ',on a new  system of        
manufacturing'2 and ',on the effect of  
machinery in  reducing the demand for   

labour'2 will shortly be printed        
separately1 for the use of the          
purchasers of the first edition4    ,i  
am inclined to attach some importance to
 the new system of  manufacturing2 and  
venture to throw it out with the hope of
 its  receiving a full discussion among 
those who are most interested  in the   
subject4 ,i believe that some such      
system of conducting  manufactories     
would greatly increase the productive   
powers of any  country adopting it2 and 
that our own possesses much greater     
facilities for its application than     
other countries1 in the  greater        
intelligence and superior education of  
the working  classes4 ,the system would 
naturally commence in some large town1  
by the union of some of the most prudent
 and active workmen2 and  their example1
 if successful1 would be followed by    
others4 ,the  small capitalist would    
next join them1 and such factories would
  go on increasing until competition    
compelled the large capitalist  to adopt

 the same system2 and1 ultimately1 the  
whole faculties of  every man engaged in
 manufacture would be concentrated upon 
one  object--the art of producing a good
 article at the lowest  possible        
cost--whilst the moral effect on that   
class of the  population would be useful
 in the highest degree1 since it would  
render character of far greater value to
 the workman than it is  at present4    
,to one criticism which has been made1  
this volume is  perfectly open4 ,i have 
dismissed the important subject of the  
patent-laws in a few lines4 ,the subject
 presents1 in my opinion1  great        
difficulties1 and ,i have been unwilling
 to write upon it1  because ,i do not   
see my way4 ,i will only here advert to 
one  difficulty4 ,what constitutes an   
invention8 ,few simple mechanical       
contrivances are new2 and most          
combinations may be viewed as  species1 
and classed under genera of more or less
 generality2 and  may1 in consequence1  
be pronounced old or new1 according to  

the  mechanical knowledge of the person 
who gives his opinion4    ,some of my   
critics have amused their readers with  
the  wildness of the schemes ,i have    
occasionally thrown out2 and ,i  myself 
have sometimes smiled along with them4  
,perhaps it were  wiser for present     
reputation to offer nothing but         
profoundly  meditated plans1 but ,i do  
not think knowledge will be most        
advanced by that course2 such sparks may
 kindle the energies of  other minds    
more favourably circumstanced for       
pursuing the  enquiries4 ,thus ,i have  
now ventured to give some speculations  
on  the mode of blowing furnaces for    
smelting iron2 and even  supposing them 
to be visionary1 it is of some          
importance thus to  call the attention  
of a large population1 engaged in one of
 our  most extensive manufactures1 to   
the singular fact1 that  four-fifths of 
the steam power used to blow their      
furnaces  actually cools them4    ,i    
have collected1 with some pains1 the    

criticisms99 on the  first edition of   
this work1 and have availed myself of   
much  information which has been        
communicated to me by my friends1 for   
the improvement of the present volume4  
,if ,i have succeeded in  expressing    
what ,i had to explain with perspicuity1
 ,i am aware  that much of this         
clearness is due to my friend1 ,dr      
,fitton1 to  whom both the present and  
the former edition are indebted for     
such an examination and correction1 as  
an author himself has very  rarely the  
power to bestow4      99,footnote3      
,several of these have probably escaped 
me1 and ,i shall  feel indebted to any  
one who will inform my publisher of any 
future  remarks4      #bb ,november1    
#ahcb4          ,section ,i4            
,,introduction4    ,the object of the   
present volume is to point out the      
effects  and the advantages which arise 
from the use of tools and  machines2--to
 endeavour to classify their modes of   
action2--and to  trace both the causes  

and the consequences of applying        
machinery  to supersede the skill and   
power of the human arm4    ,a view of   
the mechanical part of the subject will1
 in the  first instance1 occupy our     
attention1 and to this the first        
section of the work will be devoted4    
,the first chapter of the  section will 
contain some remarks on the general     
sources from  whence the advantages of  
machinery are derived1 and the          
succeeding nine chapters will contain a 
detailed examination of  principles of a
 less general character4 ,the eleventh  
chapter  contains numerous subdivisions1
 and is important from the  extensive   
classification it affords of the arts in
 which copying  is so largely employed4 
,the twelfth chapter1 which completes   
the  first section1 contains a few      
suggestions for the assistance of  those
 who propose visiting manufactories4    
,the second section1 after an           
introductory chapter on the  difference 
between making and manufacturing1 will  

contain1 in the  succeeding chapters1 a 
discussion of many of the questions     
which  relate to the political economy  
of the subject4 ,it was found that  the 
domestic arrangement1 or interior       
economy of factories1 was  so interwoven
 with the more general questions1 that  
it was deemed  unadvisable to separate  
the two subjects4 ,the concluding       
chapter  of this section1 and of the    
work itself1 relates to the future      
prospects of manufactures1 as arising   
from the application of  science4       
,chapter #a    ,sources of the          
,advantages arising from ,machinery and 
,manufactures    #a4 ,there exists1     
perhaps1 no single circumstance which   
distinguishes our country more          
remarkably from all others1 than  the   
vast extent and perfection to which we  
have carried the  contrivance of tools  
and machines for forming those          
conveniences  of which so large a       
quantity is consumed by almost every    
class of  the community4 ,the amount of 

patient thought1 of repeated            
experiment1 of happy exertion of genius1
 by which our  manufactures have been   
created and carried to their present    
excellence1 is scarcely to be imagined4 
,if we look around the  rooms we        
inhabit1 or through those storehouses of
 every  convenience1 of every luxury    
that man can desire1 which deck the     
crowded streets of our larger cities1 we
 shall find in the  history of each     
article1 of every fabric1 a series of   
failures  which have gradually led the  
way to excellence2 and we shall  notice1
 in the art of making even the most     
insignificant of them1  processes       
calculated to excite our admiration by  
their  simplicity1 or to rivet our      
attention by their unlooked-for         
results4    #b4 ,the accumulation of    
skill and science which has been        
directed to diminish the difficulty of  
producing manufactured  goods1 has not  
been beneficial to that country alone in
 which it  is concentrated2 distant     

kingdoms have participated in its       
advantages4 ,the luxurious natives of   
the ,east17#a997 and the ruder          
inhabitants of the ,african desert are  
alike indebted to our  looms4 ,the      
produce of our factories has preceded   
even our most  enterprising             
travellers47#b997 ,the cotton of ,india 
is conveyed by  ,british ships round    
half our planet1 to be woven by ,british
 skill  in the factories of ,lancashire3
 it is again set in motion by  ,british 
capital2 and1 transported to the very   
plains whereon it  grew1 is repurchased 
by the lords of the soil which gave it  
birth1 at a cheaper price than that at  
which their coarser  machinery enables  
them to manufacture it themselves47#c997
    #c4 ,the large proportion of the    
population of this country1  who are    
engaged in manufactures1 appears from   
the following table  deduced from a     
statement in an ,essay on the           
,distribution of  ,wealth1 by the ,rev4 
,r4 ,jones3    ,for every hundred       

persons employed in agriculture1 there  
are3                                    
,agriculturists ,non-agriculturists     
,in ,bengal          #ajj               
#be   ,in ,italy           #ajj         
#ca   ,in ,france          #ajj         
#ej   ,in ,england         #ajj         
#bjj      ,the fact that the proportion 
of non-agricultural to  agricultural    
persons is continually increasing1      
appears both from  the ,report of the   
,committee of the ,house of ,commons    
upon  ,manufacturers' ,employment1      
,july1 #ahcj1 and from the still later  
evidence of the last census2 from which 
document the annexed  table of the      
increase of population in our great     
manufacturing  towns1 has been deduced4 
,increase of population per cent        
,names of places                        
#ahja-aa   #ahaa-ba   #ahba-ca   ,total 
,manchester           #bb        #dj    
#dg       #aea  ,glasgow                
#cj        #df        #ch       #afa    
,liverpool7#d997        #bf        #ca  

#dd       #ach  ,nottingham             
#ai        #ah        #be        #ge    
,birmingham           #af        #bd    
#cc        #ij  ,great ,britain         
#ad4b      #ae4g      #ae4e      #eb4e  
,thus1 in three periods of ten years1   
during each of which the  general       
population of the country has increased 
about #ae per  cent1 or about #eb per   
cent upon the whole period of thirty    
years1  the population of these towns   
has1 on the average1 increased #acb  per
 cent4 ,after this statement1 there     
requires no further  argument to        
demonstrate the vast importance to the  
well-being of  this country1 of making  
the interests of its manufacturers well 
understood and attended to4    #d4 ,the 
advantages which are derived from       
machinery and  manufactures seem to     
arise principally from three sources3   
,the  addition which they make to human 
power4 ,the economy they produce  of    
human time4 ,the conversion of          
substances apparently common and        

worthless into valuable products4    #e4
 ,of additions to human power4 ,with    
respect to the first of  these causes1  
the forces derived from wind1 from      
water1 and from  steam1 present         
themselves to the mind of every one2    
these are1 in  fact1 additions to human 
power1 and will be considered in a      
future page3 there are1 however1 other  
sources of its increase1  by which the  
animal force of the individual is itself
 made to act  with far greater than its 
unassisted power2 and to these we shall 
at present confine our observations4    
,the construction of palaces1 of        
temples1 and of tombs1 seems  to have   
occupied the earliest attention of      
nations just entering  on the career of 
civilization2 and the enormous blocks of
 stone  moved from their native         
repositories to minister to the grandeur
  or piety of the builders1 have        
remained to excite the  astonishment of 
their posterity1 long after the purposes
 of many  of these records1 as well as  

the names of their founders1 have  been 
forgotten4 ,the different degrees of    
force necessary to move  these ponderous
 masses1 will have varied according to  
the  mechanical knowledge of the people 
employed in their transport2  and that  
the extent of power required for this   
purpose is widely  different under      
different circumstances1 will appear    
from the  following experiment1 which is
 related by ,m4 ,rondelet1 ,sur ,l',art 
de ,batir4 ,a block of squared stone was
 taken for the subject of  experiment3  
#a4 ,weight of stone #ajhj lbs    #b4   
,in order to drag this stone along the  
floor of the quarry1  roughly chiselled1
 it required a force equal to #geh lbs  
#c4 ,the same stone dragged over a floor
 of planks required #feb lbs    #d4 ,the
 same stone placed on a platform of     
wood1 and dragged over  a floor of      
planks1 required #fjf lbs    #e4 ,after 
soaping the two surfaces of wood which  
slid over each  other1 it required #ahb 
lbs    #f4 ,the same stone was now      

placed upon rollers of three inches     
diameter1 when it required to put it in 
motion along the floor of  the quarry   
#cd lbs    #g4 ,to drag it by these     
rollers over a wooden floor #bh lbs     
#h4 ,when the stone was mounted on a    
wooden platform1 and the same  rollers  
placed between that and a plank floor1  
it required #bb lbs      ,from this     
experiment it results1 that the force   
necessary to  move a stone along        
,part of its weight    ,the roughly     
chiselled floor of its quarry is nearly 
#b_/c  ,along a wooden floor            
#c_/e  ,by wood upon wood               
#e_/i  ,if the wooden surfaces are      
soaped                   #a_/f  ,with   
rollers on the floor of the quarry      
#a_/cb  ,on rollers on wood             
#a_/dj  ,on rollers between wood        
#a_/ej      ,at each increase of        
knowledge1 as well as on the contrivance
  of every new tool1 human labour       
becomes abridged4 ,the man who          
contrived rollers1 invented a tool by   

which his power was  quintupled4 ,the   
workman who first suggested the         
employment of  soap or grease1 was      
immediately enabled to move1 without    
exerting  a greater effort1 more than   
three times the weight he could         
before47#e997    #f4 ,the economy of    
human time is the next advantage of     
machinery in manufactures4 ,so extensive
 and important is this  effect1 that we 
might1 if we were inclined to           
generalize1 embrace  almost all the     
advantages under this single head3 but  
the  elucidation of principles of less  
extent will contribute more  readily to 
a knowledge of the subject2 and1 as     
numerous examples  will be presented to 
the reader in the ensuing pages1 we     
shall  restrict our illustrations upon  
this point4    ,as an example of the    
economy of time1 the use of gunpowder in
  blasting rocks may be noticed4        
,several pounds of powder may be        
purchased for a sum acquired by a few   
days' labour3 yet when this  is employed

 for the purpose alluded to1 effects are
 frequently  produced which could not1  
even with the best tools1 be            
accomplished by other means in less than
 many months4    ,the dimensions of one 
of the blocks of limestone extracted    
from the quarries worked for the        
formation of the breakwater at          
,plymouth were #bf #a_/b ft long1 #ac ft
 wide1 and #af ft deep4 ,this  mass1    
containing above #d1hjj cubic feet1 and 
weighing about #djj  tons1 was blasted  
three times4 ,two charges of #ej lbs    
each were  successively exploded in a   
hole #ac feet deep1 the bore being #c   
inches at top and #b #a_/b inches at    
bottom3 #ajj lbs of powder were         
afterwards exploded in the rent formed  
by those operations4 ,each  pound of    
gunpowder separated from the rock two   
tons of matter1 or  nearly #d1ejj times 
its own weight4 ,the expense of the     
powder was  ,l #f1 or nearly #g #a_/b;d4
 per lb3 the boring occupied two men    
during  a day and a half1 and cost about

 #is42 and the value of the  produce    
was1 at that time1 about ,l #de4    #g4 
,the simple contrivance of tin tubes for
 speaking through1  communicating       
between different apartments1 by which  
the  directions of the superintendent   
are instantly conveyed to the  remotest 
parts of an establishment1 produces a   
considerable  economy of time4 ,it is   
employed in the shops and manufactories 
in  ,london1 and might with advantage be
 used in domestic  establishments1      
particularly in large houses1 in        
conveying orders  from the nursery to   
the kitchen1 or from the house to the   
stable4  ,its convenience arises not    
merely from saving the servant or       
workman useless journeys to receive     
directions1 but from  relieving the     
master himself from that indisposition  
to give  trouble1 which frequently      
induces him to forego a trifling want1  
when he knows that his attendant must   
mount several flights of  stairs to     
ascertain his wishes1 and1 after        

descending1 must mount  again to supply 
them4 ,the distance to which such a mode
 of  communication can be extended1 does
 not appear to have been  ascertained1  
and would be an interesting subject for 
enquiry4  ,admitting it to be possible  
between ,london and ,liverpool1 about   
seventeen minutes would elapse before   
the words spoken at one end  would reach
 the other extremity of the pipe4    #h4
 ,the art of using the diamond for      
cutting glass has  undergone1 within a  
few years1 a very important improvement4
 ,a  glazier's apprentice1 when using a 
diamond set in a conical  ferrule1 as   
was always the practice about twenty    
years since1  found great difficulty in 
acquiring the art of using it with      
certainty2 and1 at the end of a seven   
years' apprenticeship1 many  were found 
but indifferently skilled in its        
employment4 ,this  arose from the       
difficulty of finding the precise angle 
at which  the diamond cuts1 and of      
guiding it along the glass at the proper

  inclination when that angle is found4 
,almost the whole of the  time consumed 
and of the glass destroyed in acquiring 
the art of  cutting glass1 may now be   
saved by the use of an improved tool4   
,the gem is set in a small piece of     
squared brass with its edges  nearly    
parallel to one side of the square4 ,a  
person skilled in  its use now files    
away the brass on one side until1 by    
trial1 he  finds that the diamond will  
make a clean cut1 when guided by        
keeping this edge pressed against a     
ruler4 ,the diamond and its  mounting   
are now attached to a stick like a      
pencil1 by means of a  swivel allowing a
 small angular motion4 ,thus1 even the  
beginner  at once applies the cutting   
edge at the proper angle1 by pressing   
the side of the brass against a ruler2  
and even though the part  he holds in   
his hand should deviate a little from   
the required  angle1 it communicates no 
irregularity to the position of the     
diamond1 which rarely fails to do its   

office when thus employed4    ,the      
relative hardness of the diamond1 in    
different  directions1 is a singular    
fact4 ,an experienced workman1 on whose 
judgement ,i can rely1 informed me that 
he has seen a diamond  ground with      
diamond powder on a cast-iron mill for  
three hours  without its being at all   
worn1 but that1 on changing its         
direction with respect to the grinding  
surface1 the same edge was  ground away4
    #i4 ,employment of materials of     
little value4 ,the skins used by  the   
goldbeater are produced from the offal  
of animals4 ,the hoofs  of horses and   
cattle1 and other horny refuse1 are     
employed in the  production of the      
prussiate of potash1 that beautiful1    
yellow1  crystallized salt1 which is    
exhibited in the shops of some of our   
chemists4 ,the worn-out saucepans and   
tinware of our kitchens1  when beyond   
the reach of the tinker's art1 are not  
utterly  worthless4 ,we sometimes meet  
carts loaded with old tin kettles  and  

worn-out iron coal-skuttles traversing  
our streets4 ,these  have not yet       
completed their useful course2 the less 
corroded  parts are cut into strips1    
punched with small holes1 and  varnished
 with a coarse black varnish for the use
 of the  trunk-maker1 who protects the  
edges and angles of his boxes with      
them2 the remainder are conveyed to the 
manufacturing chemists in  the outskirts
 of the town1 who employ them in        
combination with  pyroligneous acid1 in 
making a black die for the use of calico
  printers4    #aj4 ,of tools4 ,the     
difference between a tool and a machine 
is  not capable of very precise         
distinction2 nor is it necessary1 in  a 
popular explanation of those terms1 to  
limit very strictly  their acceptation4 
,a tool is usually more simple than a   
machine2  it is generally used with the 
hand1 whilst a machine is  frequently   
moved by animal or steam power4 ,the    
simpler machines  are often merely one  
or more tools placed in a frame1 and    

acted  on by a moving power4 ,in        
pointing out the advantages of tools1 we
  shall commence with some of the       
simplest4    #aa4 ,to arrange twenty    
thousand needles thrown promiscuously   
into a box1 mixed and entangled in every
 possible direction1 in  such a form    
that they shall be all parallel to each 
other1 would1  at first sight1 appear a 
most tedious occupation2 in fact1 if    
each needle were to be separated        
individually1 many hours must be        
consumed in the process4 ,yet this is an
 operation which must be  performed many
 times in the manufacture of needles2   
and it is  accomplished in a few minutes
 by a very simple tool2 nothing more    
being requisite than a small flat tray  
of sheet iron1 slightly  concave at the 
bottom4 ,in this the needles are placed1
 and shaken  in a peculiar manner1 by   
throwing them up a very little1 and     
giving at the same time a slight        
longitudinal motion to the tray4  ,the  
shape of the needles assists their      

arrangement2 for if two  needles cross  
each other 7unless1 which is exceedingly
  improbable1 they happen to be         
precisely balanced71 they will1  when   
they fall on the bottom of the tray1    
tend to place  themselves side by side1 
and the hollow form of the tray assists 
this disposition4 ,as they have no      
projection in any part to  impede this  
tendency1 or to entangle each other1    
they are1 by  continually shaking1      
arranged lengthwise1 in three or four   
minutes4 ,the direction of the shake is 
now changed1 the needles  are but little
 thrown up1 but the tray is shaken      
endways2 the  result of which is1 that  
in a minute or two the needles which    
were previously arranged endways become 
heaped up in a wall1 with  their ends   
against the extremity of the tray4 ,they
 are then  removed1 by hundreds at a    
time1 with a broad iron spatula1 on     
which they are retained by the          
forefinger of the left hand4 ,as  this  
parallel arrangement of the needles must

 be repeated many  times1 if a cheap and
 expeditious method had not been        
devised1  the expense of the manufacture
 would have been considerably  enhanced4
    #ab4 ,another process in the art of 
making needles furnishes an  example of 
one of the simplest contrivances which  
can come under  the denomination of a   
tool4 ,after the needles have been      
arranged  in the manner just described1 
it is necessary to separate them  into  
two parcels1 in order that their points 
may be all in one  direction4 ,this is  
usually done by women and children4 ,the
  needles are placed sideways in a heap1
 on a table1 in front of  each operator1
 just as they are arranged by the       
process above  described4 ,from five to 
ten are rolled towards this person with 
the forefinger of the left hand2 this   
separates them a very small  space from 
each other1 and each in its turn is     
pushed lengthwise  to the right or to   
the left1 according to the direction of 
the  point4 ,this is the usual process1 

and in it every needle passes           
individually under the finger of the    
operator4 ,a small alteration  expedites
 the process considerably3 the child    
puts on the  forefinger of its right    
hand a small cloth cap or fingerstall1  
and rolling out of the heap from six to 
twelve needles1 he keeps  them down by  
the forefinger of the left hand1 whilst 
he presses  the forefinger of the right 
hand gently against their ends3 those   
which have the points towards the right 
hand stick into the  fingerstall2 and   
the child1 removing the finger of the   
left hand1  slightly raises the needles 
sticking into the cloth1 and then       
pushes them towards the left side4      
,those needles which had their  eyes on 
the right hand do not stick into the    
finger cover1 and  are pushed to the    
heap on the right side before the       
repetition of  this process4 ,by means  
of this simple contrivance each movement
  of the finger1 from one side to the   
other1 carries five or six  needles to  

their proper heap2 whereas1 in the      
former method1  frequently only one was 
moved1 and rarely more than two or three
  were transported at one movement to   
their place4    #ac4 ,various operations
 occur in the arts in which the         
assistance of an additional hand would  
be a great convenience to  the workman1 
and in these cases tools or machines of 
the simplest  structure come to our aid3
 vices of different forms1 in which the 
material to be wrought is firmly grasped
 by screws1 are of this  kind1 and are  
used in almost every workshop2 but a    
more striking  example may be found in  
the trade of the nail-maker4    ,some   
kinds of nails1 such as those used for  
defending the  soles of coarse shoes1   
called hobnails1 require a particular   
form  of the head1 which is made by the 
stroke of a die4 ,the workman  holds one
 end of the rod of iron out of which he 
forms the nails  in his left hand2 with 
his right hand he hammers the red-hot   
end  of it into a point1 and cutting the

 proper length almost off1  bends it    
nearly at a right angle4 ,he puts this  
into a hole in a  small stake-iron      
immediately under a hammer which is     
connected  with a treadle1 and has a die
 sunk in its surface corresponding  to  
the intended form of the head2 and      
having given one part of  the form to   
the head with the small hammer in his   
hand1 he moves  the treadle with his    
foot1 disengages the other hammer1 and  
completes the figure of the head2 the   
returning stroke produced  by the       
movement of the treadle striking the    
finished nail out of  the hole in which 
it was retained4 ,without this          
substitution of  his foot for another   
hand1 the workman would1 probably1 be   
obliged to heat the nails twice over4   
#ad4 ,another1 though fortunately a less
 general substitution  of tools for     
human hands1 is used to assist the      
labour of those  who are deprived by    
nature1 or by accident1 of some of their
  limbs4 ,those who have had an         

opportunity of examining the  beautiful 
contrivances for the manufacture of     
shoes by machinery1  which we owe to the
 fertile invention of ,mr ,brunel1 must 
have  noticed many instances in which   
the workmen were enabled to  execute    
their task with precision1 although     
labouring under the  disadvantages of   
the loss of an arm or leg4 ,a similar   
instance  occurs at ,liverpool1 in the  
,institution for the ,blind1 where a    
machine is used by those afflicted with 
blindness1 for weaving  sash-lines2 it  
is said to have been the invention of a 
person  suffering under that calamity4  
,other examples might be mentioned  of  
contrivances for the use1 the amusement1
 or the instruction of  the wealthier   
classes1 who labour under the same      
natural  disadvantages4 ,these triumphs 
of skill and ingenuity deserve a  double
 portion of our admiration when applied 
to mitigate the  severity of natural or 
accidental misfortune2 when they supply 
the rich with occupation and knowledge2 

when they relieve the  poor from the    
additional evils of poverty and want4   
#ae4 ,division of the objects of        
machinery4 ,there exists a  natural1    
although1 in point of number1 a very    
unequal division  amongst machines3 they
 may be classed as2 first1 those which  
are  employed to produce power1 and as1 
secondly1 those which are  intended     
merely to transmit force and execute    
work4 ,the first of  these divisions is 
of great importance1 and is very limited
 in  the variety of its species1        
although some of those species  consist 
of numerous individuals4    ,of that    
class of mechanical agents by which     
motion is  transmitted--the lever1 the  
pulley1 the wedge1 and many others--  it
 has been demonstrated1 that no power is
 gained by their use1  however combined4
 ,whatever force is applied at one point
 can only  be exerted at some other1    
diminished by friction and other        
incidental causes2 and it has been      
further proved1 that whatever  is gained

 in the rapidity of execution is        
compensated by the  necessity of        
exerting additional force4 ,these two   
principles1  long since placed beyond   
the reach of doubt1 cannot be too       
constantly borne in mind4 ,but in       
limiting our attempts to things  which  
are possible1 we are still1 as we hope  
to shew1 possessed  of a field of       
inexhaustible research1 and of          
advantages derived  from mechanical     
skill1 which have but just begun to     
exercise  their influence on our arts1  
and may be pursued without limit        
contributing to the improvement1 the    
wealth1 and the happiness of  our race4 
#af4 ,of those machines by which we     
produce power1 it may be  observed1 that
 although they are to us immense        
acquisitions1 yet  in regard to two of  
the sources of this power--the force of 
wind  and of water--we merely make use  
of bodies in a state of motion  by      
nature2 we change the directions of     
their movement in order to  render them 

subservient to our purposes1 but we     
neither add to  nor diminish the        
quantity of motion in existence4 ,when  
we expose  the sails of a windmill      
obliquely to the gale1 we check the     
velocity of a small portion of the      
atmosphere1 and convert its  own        
rectilinear motion into one of rotation 
in the sails2 we thus  change the       
direction of force1 but we create no    
power4 ,the same  may be observed with  
regard to the sails of a vessel2 the    
quantity of motion given by them is     
precisely the same as that  which is    
destroyed in the atmosphere4 ,if we     
avail ourselves of a  descending stream 
to turn a water-wheel1 we are           
appropriating a  power which nature may 
appear1 at first sight1 to be uselessly 
and irrecoverably wasting1 but which1   
upon due examination1 we  shall find she
 is ever regaining by other processes4  
,the fluid  which is falling from a     
higher to a lower level1 carries with it
  the velocity due to its revolution    

with the earth at a greater  distance   
from its centre4 ,it will therefore     
accelerate1 although  to an almost      
infinitesimal extent1 the earth's daily 
rotation4  ,the sum of all these        
increments of velocity1 arising from the
  descent of all the falling waters on  
the earth's surface1 would  in time     
become perceptible1 did not nature1 by  
the process of  evaporation1 convey the 
waters back to their sources2 and thus  
again1 by removing matter to a greater  
distance from the centre1  destroy the  
velocity generated by its previous      
approach4    #ag4 ,the force of vapour  
is another fertile source of moving     
power2 but even in this case it cannot  
be maintained that power  is created4   
,water is converted into elastic vapour 
by the  combustion of fuel4 ,the        
chemical changes which thus take place  
are constantly increasing the atmosphere
 by large quantities of  carbonic acid  
and other gases noxious to animal life4 
,the means  by which nature decomposes  

these elements1 or reconverts them  into
 a solid form1 are not sufficiently     
known3 but if the end  could be         
accomplished by mechanical force1 it is 
almost certain  that the power necessary
 to produce it would at least equal that
  which was generated by the original   
combustion4 ,man1 therefore1  does not  
create power2 but1 availing himself of  
his knowledge of  nature's mysteries1 he
 applies his talents to diverting a     
small  and limited portion of her       
energies to his own wants3 and1  whether
 he employs the regulated action of     
steam1 or the more  rapid and tremendous
 effects of gunpowder1 he is only       
producing  on a small scale compositions
 and decompositions which nature is     
incessantly at work in reversing1 for   
the restoration of that  equilibrium    
which we cannot doubt is constantly     
maintained  throughout even the remotest
 limits of our system4 ,the operations  
of man participate in the character of  
their author2 they are  diminutive1 but 

energetic during the short period of    
their  existence3 whilst those of       
nature1 acting over vast spaces1 and    
unlimited by time1 are ever pursuing    
their silent and resistless  career4    
#ah4 ,in stating the broad principle1   
that all combinations of  mechanical art
 can only augment the force communicated
 to the  machine at the expense of the  
time employed in producing the  effect1 
it might1 perhaps1 be imagined1 that the
 assistance  derived from such          
contrivances is small4 ,this is1        
however1 by no  means the case3 since   
the almost unlimited variety they       
afford1  enables us to exert to the     
greatest advantage whatever force we    
employ4 ,there is1 it is true1 a limit  
beyond which it is  impossible to reduce
 the power necessary to produce any     
given  effect1 but it very seldom       
happens that the methods first  employed
 at all approach that limit4 ,in        
dividing the knotted root  of a tree for
 fuel1 how very different will be the   

time consumed1  according to the nature 
of the tool made use of6 ,the hatchet1  
or  the adze1 will divide it into small 
parts1 but will consume a  large portion
 of the workman's time4 ,the saw will   
answer the same  purpose more quickly   
and more effectually4 ,this1 in its     
turn1 is  superseded by the wedge1 which
 rends it in a still shorter time4  ,if 
the circumstances are favourable1 and   
the workman skilful1 the  time and      
expense may be still further reduced by 
the use of a  small quantity of         
gunpowder exploded in holes judiciously 
placed  in the block4    #ai4 ,when a   
mass of matter is to be removed a       
certain force  must be expended2 and    
upon the proper economy of this force   
the  price of transport will depend4 ,a 
country must1 however1 have  reached a  
high degree of civilization before it   
will have  approached the limit of this 
economy4 ,the cotton of ,java is        
conveyed in junks to the coast of       
,china2 but from the seed not  being    

previously separated1 three-quarters of 
the weight thus  carried is not cotton4 
,this might1 perhaps1 be justified in   
,java  by the want of machinery to      
separate the seed1 or by the relative   
cost of the operation in the two        
countries4 ,but the cotton  itself1 as  
packed by the ,chinese1 occupies three  
times the bulk  of an equal quantity    
shipped by ,europeans for their own     
markets4  ,thus the freight of a given  
quantity of cotton costs the ,chinese   
nearly twelve times the price to which1 
by a proper attention to  mechanical    
methods1 it might be reduced4 99        
,,notes3    #a4 ',the ,bandana          
handkerchiefs manufactured at ,glasgow  
have long  superseded the genuine ones1 
and are now consumed in large           
quantities both by the natives and      
,chinese4' ,crawford's ,indian          
,archipelago1 vol4 iii1 p4 #eje4    #b4 
',captain ,clapperton1 when on a visit  
at the court of the  ,sultan ,bello1    
states1 that 'provisions were regularly 

sent me from  the sultan's table on     
pewter dishes with the ,london stamp2   
and ,i  even had a piece of meat served 
up on a white wash-hand basin of        
,english manufacture4' ,clapperton's    
,journey1 p4 #hh4    #c4 ,at ,calicut1  
in the ,east ,indies 7whence the cotton 
cloth called  calico derives its name71 
the price of labour is one-seventh of   
that in ,england1 yet the market is     
supplied from ,british looms4    #d4    
,liverpool1 though not itself a         
manufacturing town1 has been  placed in 
this list1 from its connection with     
,manchester1 of  which it is the port4  
#e4 ,so sensible are the effects of     
grease in diminishing friction1  that   
the drivers of sledges in ,amsterdam1 on
 which heavy goods are  transported1    
carry in their hand a rope soaked in    
tallow1 which  they throw down from time
 to time before the sledge1 in order    
that1 by passing over the rope1 it may  
become greased4        ,chapter #b      
,accumulating ,power    #bj4 ,whenever  

the work to be done requires more force 
for its  execution than can be generated
 in the time necessary for its          
completion1 recourse must be had to some
 mechanical method of  preserving and   
condensing a part of the power exerted  
previously  to the commencement of the  
process4 ,this is most frequently       
accomplished by a fly-wheel1 which is in
 fact nothing more than a  wheel having 
a very heavy rim1 so that the greater   
part of its  weight is near the         
circumference4 ,it requires great power 
applied  for some time to put this into 
rapid motion2 but when moving with      
considerable velocity1 the effects are  
exceedingly powerful1 if  its force be  
concentrated upon a small object4 ,in   
some of the  iron works where the power 
of the steam-engine is a little too     
small for the rollers which it drives1  
it is usual to set the  engine at work a
 short time before the red-hot iron is  
ready to  be removed from the furnace to
 the rollers1 and to allow it to  work  

with great rapidity until the fly has   
acquired a velocity  rather alarming to 
those unused to such establishments4 ,on
  passing the softened mass of iron     
through the first groove1 the  engine   
receives a great and very perceptible   
check2 and its speed  is diminished at  
the next and at each succeeding passage1
 until  the iron bar is reduced to such 
a size that the ordinary power of  the  
engine is sufficient to roll it4    #ba4
 ,the powerful effect of a large        
flywheel when its force  can be         
concentrated on a point1 was curiously  
illustrated at one  of the largest of   
our manufactories4 ,the proprietor was  
shewing  to a friend the method of      
punching holes in iron plates for the   
boilers of steam-engines4 ,he held in   
his hand a piece of  sheet-iron         
three-eighths of an inch thick1 which he
 placed under  the punch4 ,observing1   
after several holes had been made1 that 
the  punch made its perforations more   
and more slowly1 he called to  the      

engine-man to know what made the engine 
work so sluggishly1  when it was found  
that the flywheel and punching apparatus
 had  been detached from the            
steam-engine just at the commencement of
  his experiment4    #bb4 ,another mode 
of accumulating power arises from       
lifting a  weight and then allowing it  
to fall4 ,a man1 even with a heavy      
hammer1 might strike repeated blows upon
 the head of a pile  without producing  
any effect4 ,but if he raises a much    
heavier  hammer to a much greater       
height1 its fall1 though far less       
frequently repeated1 will produce the   
desired effect4    ,when a small blow is
 given to a large mass of matter1 as to 
a  pile1 the imperfect elasticity of the
 material causes a small  loss of       
momentum in the transmission of the     
motion from each  particle to the       
succeeding one2 and1 therefore1 it may  
happen  that the whole force            
communicated shall be destroyed before  
it  reaches the opposite extremity4     

#bc4 ,the power accumulated within a    
small space by gunpowder  is well known2
 and1 though not strictly an            
illustration of the  subject discussed  
in this chapter1 some of its effects1   
under  peculiar circumstances1 are so   
singular1 that an attempt to  explain   
them may perhaps be excused4 ,if a gun  
is loaded with ball  it will not kick so
 much as when loaded with small shot2   
and  amongst different kinds of shot1   
that which is the smallest1  causes the 
greatest recoil against the shoulder4 ,a
 gun loaded  with a quantity of sand1   
equal in weight to a charge of          
snipe-shot1 kicks still more4 ,if1 in   
loading1 a space is left  between the   
wadding and the charge1 the gun either  
recoils  violently1 or bursts4 ,if the  
muzzle of a gun has accidentally  been  
stuck into the ground1 so as to be      
stopped up with clay1 or  even with     
snow1 or if it be fired with its muzzle 
plunged into  water1 the almost certain 
result is that it bursts4    ,the       

ultimate cause of these apparently      
inconsistent effects  is1 that every    
force requires time to produce its      
effect2 and if  the time requisite for  
the elastic vapour within to force out  
the  sides of the barrel1 is less than  
that in which the condensation  of the  
air near the wadding is conveyed in     
sufficient force to  drive the          
impediment from the muzzle1 then the    
barrel must burst4  ,if sometimes       
happens that these two forces are so    
nearly balanced  that the barrel only   
swells2 the obstacle giving way before  
the  gun is actually burst4    ,the     
correctness of this explanation will    
appear by tracing  step by step the     
circumstances which arise on discharging
 a gun  loaded with powder confined by a
 cylindrical piece of wadding1  and     
having its muzzle filled with clay1 or  
some other substance  having a moderate 
degree of resistance4 ,in this case the 
first  effect of the explosion is to    
produce an enormous pressure on         

everything confining it1 and to advance 
the wadding through a  very small space4
 ,here let us consider it as at rest for
 a  moment1 and examine its condition4  
,the portion of air in  immediate       
contact with the wadding is condensed2  
and if the  wadding were to remain at   
rest1 the air throughout the tube would 
soon acquire a uniform density4 ,but    
this would require a small  interval of 
time2 for the condensation next the     
wadding would  travel with the velocity 
of sound to the other end1 from whence1 
being reflected back1 a series of waves 
would be generated1  which1 aided by the
 friction of the tube1 would ultimately 
destroy the motion4    ,but until the   
first wave reaches the impediment at the
  muzzle1 the air can exert no pressure 
against it4 ,now if the  velocity       
communicated to the wadding is very much
 greater than  that of sound1 the       
condensation of the air immediately in  
advance  of it may be very great before 
the resistance transmitted to the       

muzzle is at all considerable2 in which 
case the mutual repulsion  of the       
particles of air so compressed1 will    
offer an absolute  barrier to the       
advance of the wadding47#a997    ,if    
this explanation be correct1 the        
additional recoil1 when a  gun is loaded
 with small shot or sand1 may arise in  
some measure  from the condensation of  
the air contained between their         
particles2 but chiefly from the velocity
 communicated by the  explosion to those
 particles of the substances in         
immediate  contact with the powder being
 greater than that with which a wave    
can be transmitted through them4 ,it    
also affords a reason for the  success  
of a method of blasting rocks by filling
 the upper part  of the hole above the  
powder with sand1 instead of clay rammed
  hard4 ,that the destruction of the gun
 barrel does not arise from  the        
property possessed by fluids1 and in    
some measure also by  sand and small    
shot1 of pressing equally in all        

directions1 and  thus exerting a force  
against a large portion of the interior 
surface1 seems to be proved by a        
circumstance mentioned by ,le  ,vaillant
 and other travellers1 that1 for the    
purpose of taking  birds without        
injuring their plumage1 they filled the 
barrel of  their fowling pieces with    
water1 instead of loading them with a   
charge of shot4    #bd4 ,the same       
reasoning explains a curious phenomenon 
which  occurs in firing a still more    
powerfully explosive substance4 ,if  we 
put a small quantity of fulminating     
silver upon the face of an  anvil1 and  
strike it slightly with a hammer1 it    
explodes2 but  instead of breaking      
either the hammer or the anvil1 it is   
found  that that part of the face of    
each in contact with the  fulminating   
silver is damaged4 ,in this case the    
velocity  communicated by the elastic   
matter disengaged may be greater than   
the velocity of a wave traversing steel2
 so that the particles at  the surface  

are driven by the explosion so near to  
those next  adjacent1 that when the     
compelling force is removed1 the        
repulsion of the particles within the   
mass drives back those  nearer to the   
surface1 with such force1 that they pass
 beyond the  limits of attraction1 and  
are separated in the shape of powder4   
#be4 i7 ,the success of the experiment  
of firing a tallow candle  through a    
deal board1 would be explained in the   
same manner1 by  supposing the velocity 
of a wave propagated through deal to be 
greater than that of a wave passing     
through tallow4    #be4 ii7 ,the boiler 
of a steam-engine sometimes bursts even 
during the escape of steam through the  
safety-valve4 ,if the water  in the     
boiler is thrown upon any part which    
happens to be red  hot1 the steam formed
 in the immediate neighbourhood of that 
part  expands with greater velocity than
 that with which a wave can be          
transmitted through the less heated     
steam2 consequently one  particle is    

urged against the next1 and an almost   
invincible  obstacle is formed1 in the  
same manner as described in the case  of
 the discharge of a gun4 ,if the        
safety-valve is closed1 it may  retain  
the pressure thus created for a short   
time1 and even when  it is open the     
escape may not be sufficiently rapid to 
remove all  impediment2 there may       
therefore exist momentarily within the  
boiler pressures of various force1      
varying from that which can  just lift  
the safety-valve up to that which is    
sufficient1 if  exerted during an       
extremely small space of time1 to tear  
open the  boiler itself4    #bf4 ,this  
reasoning ought1 however1 to be admitted
 with  caution2 and perhaps some        
inducement to examine it carefully may  
be presented by tracing it to extreme   
cases4 ,it would seem1 but  this is not 
a necessary consequence1 that a gun     
might be made so  long1 that it would   
burst although no obstacle filled up its
  muzzle4 ,it should also follow that   

if1 after the gun is charged1  the air  
were extracted from the barrel1 though  
the muzzle be then  left closed1 the gun
 ought not to burst4 ,it would also seem
 to  follow from the principle of the   
explanation1 that a body might  be      
projected in air1 or other elastic      
resisting medium1 with such  force that1
 after advancing a very short space it  
should return  in the same direction in 
which it was projected4    ,,notes3     
#a4 ,see ,poisson's remarks1 ,ecole     
,polytec4 ,cahier1 xxi1 p4 #aia4        
,chapter #c    ,regulating ,power       
#bg4 ,uniformity and steadiness in the  
rate at which machinery  works1 are     
essential both for its effect and its   
duration4 ,the  first illustration which
 presents itself is that beautiful      
contrivance1 the governor of the        
steam-engine1 which must  immediately   
occur to all who are familiar with that 
admirable  engine4 ,wherever the        
increased speed of the engine would lead
 to  injurious or dangerous             

consequences1 this is applied2 and it is
  equally the regulator of the          
water-wheel which drives a              
spinning-jenny1 or of the windmills     
which drain our fens4 ,in the  dockyard 
at ,chatham1 the descending motion of a 
large platform1  on which timber is     
raised1 is regulated by a governor2 but 
as the  weight is very considerable1 the
 velocity of this governor is  still    
further checked by causing its motion to
 take place in  water4    #bh4 ,another 
very beautiful contrivance for          
regulating the  number of strokes made  
by a steam-engine1 is used in ,cornwall3
 it  is called the cataract1 and depends
 on the time required to fill  a vessel 
plunged in water1 the opening of the    
valve through which  the fluid is       
admitted being adjustable at the will of
 the  engine-man4    #bi4 ,the          
regularity of the supply of fuel to the 
fire under  the boilers of steam-engines
 is another mode of contributing to  the
 uniformity of their rate1 and also     

economizes the consumption  of coal4    
,several patents have been taken out for
 methods of  regulating this supply3 the
 general principle being to make the    
engine supply the fire with small       
quantities of fuel at regular  intervals
 by means of a hopper1 and to make it   
diminish this  supply when the engine   
works too quickly4 ,one of the          
incidental  advantages of this plan is1 
that by throwing on a very small        
quantity of coal at a time1 the smoke is
 almost entirely  consumed4 ,the dampers
 of ashpits and chimneys are also1 in   
some  cases1 connected with machines in 
order to regulate their speed4    #cj4  
,another contrivance for regulating the 
effect of  machinery consists in a vane 
or fly1 of little weight1 but           
presenting a large surface4 ,this       
revolves rapidly1 and soon  acquires a  
uniform rate1 which it cannot greatly   
exceed1 because  any addition to its    
velocity produces a much greater        
addition to  the resistance it meets    

with from the air4 ,the interval between
  the strokes on the bell of a clock is 
regulated in this way1 and  the fly is  
so contrived1 that the interval may be  
altered by  presenting the arms of it   
more or less obliquely to the direction 
in which they move4 ,this kind of fly1  
or vane1 is generally used  in the      
smaller kinds of mechanism1 and1 unlike 
the heavy fly1 it  is a destroyer       
instead of a preserver of force4 ,it is 
the  regulator used in musical boxes1   
and in almost all mechanical  toys4     
#ca4 ,the action of a fly1 or vane1     
suggests the principle of  an instrument
 for measuring the altitude of          
mountains1 which  perhaps deserves a    
trial1 since1 if it succeed only        
tolerably1 it  will form a much more    
portable instrument than the barometer4 
,it  is well known that the barometer   
indicates the weight of a column  of the
 atmosphere above it1 whose base is     
equal to the bore of  the tube4 ,it is  
also known that the density of the air  

adjacent  to the instrument will depend 
both on the weight of air above it1  and
 on the heat of the air at that place4  
,if1 therefore1 we can  measure the     
density of the air1 and its temperature1
 the height  of a column of mercury     
which it would support in the barometer 
can be found by calculation4 ,now the   
thermometer gives  information          
respecting the temperature of the air   
immediately2  and its density might be  
ascertained by means of a watch and a   
small instrument1 in which the number of
 turns made by a vane  moved by a       
constant force1 should be registered4   
,the less dense  the air in which the   
vane revolves1 the greater will be the  
number of its revolutions in a given    
time3 and tables could be  formed from  
experiments in partially exhausted      
vessels1 aided by  calculation1 from    
which1 if the temperature of the air1   
and the  number of revolutions of the   
vane are given1 the corresponding       
height of the barometer might be        

found47#a997    ,,notes3    #a4 ,to     
persons who may be inclined to          
experiment upon this or any  other      
instrument1 ,i would beg to suggest the 
perusal of the  section ',on the art of 
,observing'1 ,observations on the       
,decline of  ,science in ,england1 p4   
#agj1 ,fellowes1 #ahbh4        ,chapter 
#d    ,increase and ,diminution of      
,velocity    #cb4 ,the fatigue produced 
on the muscles of the human frame  does 
not altogether depend on the actual     
force employed in each  effort1 but     
partly on the frequency with which it is
 exerted4 ,the  exertion necessary to   
accomplish every operation consists of  
two  parts3 one of these is the         
expenditure of force which is  necessary
 to drive the tool or instrument2 and   
the other is the  effort required for   
the motion of some limb of the animal   
producing the action4 ,in driving a nail
 into a piece of wood1 one  of these is 
lifting the hammer1 and propelling its  
head against  the nail2 the other is1   

raising the arm itself1 and moving it in
  order to use the hammer4 ,if the      
weight of the hammer is  considerable1  
the former part will cause the greatest 
portion of  the exertion4 ,if the hammer
 is light1 the exertion of raising the  
arm will produce the greatest part of   
the fatigue4 ,it does  therefore happen1
 that operations requiring very trifling
 force1  if frequently repeated1 will   
tire more effectually than more         
laborious work4 ,there is also a degree 
of rapidity beyond which  the action of 
the muscles cannot be pressed4    #cc4  
,the most advantageous load for a porter
 who carries wood  up stairs on his     
shoulders1 has been investigated by ,m4 
,coulomb2  but he found from experiment 
that a man walking up stairs without    
any load1 and raising his burden by     
means of his own weight in  descending1 
could do as much work in one day1 as    
four men  employed in the ordinary way  
with the most favourable load4    #cd4  
,the proportion between the velocity    

with which men or  animals move1 and the
 weights they carry1 is a matter of     
considerable importance1 particularly in
 military affairs4 ,it is  also of great
 importance for the economy of labour1  
to adjust the  weight of that part of   
the animal's body which is moved1 the   
weight of the tool it urges1 and the    
frequency of repetition of  these       
efforts1 so as to produce the greatest  
effect4 ,an instance  of the saving of  
time by making the same motion of the   
arm  execute two operations instead of  
one1 occurs in the simple art  of making
 the tags of bootlaces3 these tags are  
formed out of  very thin1 tinned1       
sheet-iron1 and were formerly cut out of
 long  strips of that material into     
pieces of such a breadth that when  bent
 round they just enclosed the lace4 ,two
 pieces of steel have  recently been    
fixed to the side of the shears1 by     
which each  piece of tinned-iron as soon
 as it is cut is bent into a            
semi-cylindrical form4 ,the additional  

power required for this  operation is   
almost imperceptible1 and it is executed
 by the same  motion of the arm which   
produces the cut4 ,the work is usually  
performed by women and children2 and    
with the improved tool more  than three 
times the quantity of tags is produced  
in a given  time47#a997    #ce4         
,whenever the work is itself light1 it  
becomes necessary1  in order to         
economize time1 to increase the         
velocity4 ,twisting  the fibres of wool 
by the fingers would be a most tedious  
operation3 in the common spinning-wheel 
the velocity of the foot  is moderate1  
but by a very simple contrivance that of
 the thread  is most rapid4 ,a piece of 
catgut passing round a large wheel1 and 
then round a small spindle1 effects this
 change4 ,this contrivance  is common to
 a multitude of machines1 some of them  
very simple4  ,in large shops for the   
retail of ribands1 it is necessary at   
short intervals to 'take stock'1 that   
is1 to measure and rewind  every piece  

of riband1 an operation which1 even with
 this mode of  shortening it1 is        
sufficiently tiresome1 but without it   
would be  almost impossible from its    
expense4 ,the small balls of sewing     
cotton1 so cheap and so beautifully     
wound1 are formed by a  machine on the  
same principle1 and but a few steps more
  complicated4    #cf4 ,in turning from 
the smaller instruments in frequent use 
to the larger and more important        
machines1 the economy arising  from the 
increase of velocity becomes more       
striking4 ,in  converting cast into     
wrought-iron1 a mass of metal1 of about 
a  hundredweight1 is heated almost to   
white heat1 and placed under a  heavy   
hammer moved by water or steam power4   
,this is raised by a  projection on a   
revolving axis2 and if the hammer       
derived its  momentum only from the     
space through which it fell1 it would   
require a considerably greater time to  
give a blow4 ,but as it is  important   
that the softened mass of red-hot iron  

should receive  as many blows as        
possible before it cools1 the form of   
the cam or  projection on the axis is   
such1 that the hammer1 instead of being 
lifted to a small height1 is thrown up  
with a jerk1 and almost  the instant    
after it strikes against a large beam1  
which acts as  a powerful spring1 and   
drives it down on the iron with such    
velocity that by these means about      
double the number of strokes  can be    
made in a given time4 ,in the smaller   
tilt-hammers1 this is  carried still    
further by striking the tail of the     
tilt-hammer  forcibly against a small   
steel anvil1 it rebounds with such      
velocity1 that from three to five       
hundred strokes are made in a  minute4  
,in the manufacture of anchors1 an art  
in which a similar  contrivance is of   
still greater importance1 it has only   
been  recently applied4    #cg4 ,in the 
manufacture of scythes1 the length of   
the blade  renders it necessary that the
 workman should move readily1 so as  to 

bring every part of it on the anvil in  
quick succession4 ,this  is effected by 
placing him in a seat suspended by ropes
 from the  ceiling3 so that he is       
enabled1 with little bodily exertion1 to
  vary his distance1 by pressing his    
feet against the block which  supports  
the anvil1 or against the floor4    #ch4
 ,an increase of velocity is sometimes  
necessary to render  operations         
possible3 thus a person may skate with  
great rapidity  over ice which would not
 support his weight if he moved over it 
more slowly4 ,this arises from the fact1
 that time is requisite  for producing  
the fracture of the ice3 as soon as the 
weight of  the skater begins to act on  
any point1 the ice1 supported by the    
water1 bends slowly under him2 but if   
the skater's velocity is  considerable1 
he has passed off from the spot which   
was loaded  before the bending has      
reached the point which would cause the 
ice to break4    #ci4 ,an effect not    
very different from this might take     

place  if very great velocity were      
communicated to boats4 ,let us suppose  
a flatbottomed boat1 whose bow forms an 
inclined plane with the  bottom1 at rest
 in still water4 ,if we imagine some    
very great  force suddenly to propel    
this boat1 the inclination of the plane 
at the forepart would cause it to rise  
in the water2 and if the  force were    
excessive1 it might even rise out of the
 water1 and  advance1 by a series of    
leaps1 like a piece of slate or an      
oyster  shell1 thrown as a 'duck and    
drake'4    ,if the force were not       
sufficient to pull the boat out of the  
water1 but were just enough to bring its
 bottom to the surface1  it would be    
carried along with a kind of gliding    
motion with  great rapidity2 for at     
every point of its course it would      
require  a certain time before1 it could
 sink to its usual draft of water2  but 
before that time had elapsed1 it would  
have advanced to  another point1 and    
consequently have been raised by the    

reaction  of the water on the inclined  
plane at its forepart4    #dj4 ,the same
 fact1 that bodies moving with great    
velocity  have not time to exert the    
full effect of their weight1 seems to   
explain a circumstance which appears to 
be very unaccountable4 ,it  sometimes   
happens that when foot-passengers are   
knocked down by  carriages1 the wheels  
pass over them with scarcely any injury1
  though1 if the weight of the carriage 
had rested on their body1  even for a   
few seconds1 it would have crushed them 
to death4 ,if  the view above taken is  
correct1 the injury in such             
circumstances  will chiefly happen to   
that part of the body which is struck by
  the advancing wheel4    #da4 ,an      
operation in which rapidity is of       
essential importance  is in bringing the
 produce of mines up to the surface4    
,the shafts  through which the produce  
is raised are sunk at a very great      
expense1 and it is1 of course1 desirable
 to sink as few of them  as possible4   

,the matter to be extracted is therefore
 raised by  steam-engines with          
considerable velocity1 and without this 
many of our  mines could not be worked  
with profit4    #db4 ,the effect of     
great velocity in modifying the form of 
a  cohesive substance is beautifully    
shown in the process for making  window 
glass1 termed flashing1 which is one of 
the most striking  operations in our    
domestic arts4 ,a workman having dipped 
his iron  tube into the glass pot1 and  
loaded it with several pounds of the    
melted metal1 blows out a large globe1  
which is connected with  his rod by a   
short thick hollow neck4 ,another       
workman now fixes  to the globe         
immediately opposite to its neck1 an    
iron rod1 the  extremity of which has   
been dipped in the melted glass2 and    
when  this is firmly attached1 a few    
drops of water separate the neck  of the
 globe from the iron tube4 ,the rod with
 the globe attached  to it is now held  
at the mouth of a glowing furnace3 and  

by  turning the rod the globe is made to
 revolve slowly1 so as to be  uniformly 
exposed to the heat3 the first effect of
 this softening  is to make the glass   
contract upon itself and to enlarge the 
opening of the neck4 ,as the softening  
proceeds1 the globe is  turned more     
quickly on its axis1 and when very soft 
and almost  incandescent1 it is removed 
from the fire1 and the velocity of      
rotation being still continually        
increased1 the opening enlarges  from   
the effect of the centrifugal force1 at 
first gradually1  until at last the     
mouth suddenly expands or flashes out   
into one  large circular sheet of red   
hot glass4 ,the neck of the original    
globe1 which is to become the outer part
 of the sheet1 is left  thick to admit  
of this expansion1 and forms the edge of
 the  circular plate of glass1 which is 
called a ,table4 ,the centre  presents  
the appearance of a thick boss or       
prominence1 called the  ,bull's-eye1 at 
the part by which it was attached to the

 iron  rod4    #dc4 ,the most frequent  
reason for employing contrivances for   
diminishing velocity1 arises from the   
necessity of overcoming  great          
resistances with small power4 ,systems  
of pulleys1 the  crane1 and many other  
illustrations1 might also be adduced    
here  as examples2 but they belong more 
appropriately to some of the  other     
causes which we have assigned for the   
advantages of  machinery4 ,the common   
smoke-jack is an instrument in which the
  velocity communicated is too great for
 the purpose required1 and  it is       
transmitted through wheels which reduce 
it to a more  moderate rate4    #dd4    
,telegraphs are machines for conveying  
information over  extensive lines with  
great rapidity4 ,they have generally    
been  established for the purposes of   
transmitting information during  war1   
but the increasing wants of man will    
probably soon render  them subservient  
to more peaceful objects4    ,a few     
years since the telegraph conveyed to   

,paris information  of the discovery of 
a comet1 by ,m4 ,gambart1 at            
,marseilles3 the  message arrived during
 a sitting of the ,french ,board of     
,longitude1 and was sent in a note from 
the ,minister of the  ,interior to      
,laplace1 the ,president1 who received  
it whilst the  writer of these lines was
 sitting by his side4 ,the object in    
this  instance was1 to give the earliest
 publicity to the fact1 and to  assure  
to ,m4 ,gambart the title of its first  
discoverer4    ,at ,liverpool a system  
of signals is established for the       
purposes of commerce1 so that each      
merchant can communicate with  his own  
vessel long before she arrives in the   
port4    ,,notes3    #a4 ,see           
,transactions of the ,society of ,arts1 
#ahbf4        ,chapter #e    ,extending 
the ,time of ,action of ,forces    #de4 
,this is one of the most common and most
 useful of the  employments of          
machinery4 ,the half minute which we    
daily devote  to the winding-up of our  

watches is an exertion of labour almost 
insensible2 yet1 by the aid of a few    
wheels1 its effect is spread  over the  
whole twenty-four hours4 ,in our clocks1
 this extension  of the time of action  
of the original force impressed is      
carried  still further2 the better kind 
usually require winding up once in      
eight days1 and some are occasionally   
made to continue in action  during a    
month1 or even a year4 ,another familiar
 illustration may  be noticed in our    
domestic furniture3 the common jack by  
which  our meat is roasted1 is a        
contrivance to enable the cook in a few 
minutes to exert a force which the      
machine retails out during the          
succeeding hour in turning the loaded   
spit2 thus enabling her to  bestow her  
undivided attention on the other        
important duties of  her vocation4 ,a   
great number of automatons and          
mechanical toys  moved by springs1 may  
be classed under this division4    #df4 
,a small moving power1 in the shape of a

 jack or a spring  with a train of      
wheels1 is often of great convenience to
 the  experimental philosopher1 and has 
been used with advantage in  magnetic   
and electric experiments where the      
rotation of a disk of  metal or other   
body is necessary1 thus allowing to the 
enquirer  the unimpeded use of both his 
hands4 ,a vane connected by a train  of 
wheels1 and set in motion by a heavy    
weight1 has also1 on some  occasions1   
been employed in chemical processes1 to 
keep a  solution in a state of          
agitation4 ,another object to which a   
similar apparatus may be applied1 is the
 polishing of small  specimens of       
minerals for optical experiments4       
,chapter #f    ,saving time in ,natural 
,operations    #dg4 ,the process of     
tanning will furnish us with a striking 
illustration of the power of machinery  
in accelerating certain  processes in   
which natural operations have a         
principal effect4  ,the object of this  
art is to combine a certain principle   

called  tanning with every particle of  
the skin to be tanned4 ,this1 in  the   
ordinary process1 is accomplished by    
allowing the skins to  soak in pits     
containing a solution of tanning matter3
 they remain  in the pits six1 twelve1  
or eighteen months2 and in some         
instances 7if the hides are very thick71
 they are exposed to the  operation for 
two years1 or even during a longer      
period4 ,this  length of time is        
apparently required in order to allow   
the  tanning matter to penetrate into   
the interior of a thick hide4  ,the     
improved process consists in placing the
 hides with the  solution of tan in     
close vessels1 and then exhausting the  
air4  ,the effect is to withdraw any air
 which may be contained in the  pores of
 the hides1 and to aid capillary        
attraction by the  pressure of the      
atmosphere in forcing the tan into the  
interior  of the skins4 ,the effect of  
the additional force thus brought  into 
action can be equal only to one         

atmosphere1 but a further  improvement  
has been made3 the vessel containing the
 hides is1  after exhaustion1 filled up 
with a solution of tan2 a small         
additional quantity is then injected    
with a forcing-pump4 ,by  these means   
any degree of pressure may be given     
which the  containing vessel is capable 
of supporting2 and it has been found    
that1 by employing such a method1 the   
thickest hides may be  tanned in six    
weeks or two months4    #dh4 ,the same  
process of injection might be applied to
  impregnate timber with tar1 or any    
other substance capable of  preserving  
it from decay1 and if it were not too   
expensive1 the  deal floors of houses   
might thus be impregnated with alumine  
or  other substances1 which would render
 them much less liable to be            
accidentally set on fire4 ,in some cases
 it might be useful to  impregnate woods
 with resins1 varnish1 or oil2 and wood 
saturated  with oil might1 in some      
instances1 be usefully employed in      

machinery for giving a constant1 but    
very minute supply of that  fluid to    
iron or steel1 against which it is      
worked4 ,some idea of  the quantity of  
matter which can be injected into wood  
by great  pressure1 may be formed1 from 
considering the fact stated by ,mr      
,scoresby1 respecting an accident which 
occurred to a boat of one  of our       
whaling-ships4 ,the harpoon having been 
struck into the  fish1 the whale in this
 instance1 dived directly down1 and     
carried the boat along with him4 ,on    
returning to the surface the  animal was
 killed1 but the boat1 instead of       
rising1 was found  suspended beneath the
 whale by the rope of the harpoon2 and  
on  drawing it up1 every part of the    
wood was found to be so  completely     
saturated with water as to sink         
immediately to the  bottom4    #di4 ,the
 operation of bleaching linen in the    
open air is one  for which considerable 
time is necessary2 and although it does 
not require much labour1 yet1 from the  

risk of damage and of  robbery from long
 exposure1 a mode of shortening the     
process was  highly desirable4 ,the     
method now practised1 although not      
mechanical1 is such a remarkable        
instance of the application of  science 
to the practical purposes of            
manufactures1 that in  mentioning the   
advantages derived from shortening      
natural  operations1 it would have been 
scarcely pardonable to have  omitted all
 allusion to the beautiful application  
of chlorine1 in  combination with lime1 
to the art of bleaching4    #ej4        
,another instance more strictly         
mechanical occurs in some  countries    
where fuel is expensive1 and the heat of
 the sun is not  sufficient to evaporate
 the water from brine springs4 ,the     
water  is first pumped up to a          
reservoir1 and then allowed to fall in  
small streams through faggots4 ,thus it 
becomes divided2 and1  presenting a     
large surface1 evaporation is           
facilitated1 and the4  brine which is   

collected in the vessels below the      
faggots is  stronger than that which was
 pumped up4 ,after thus getting rid of  
a large part of the water1 the remaining
 portion is driven off by  boiling4 ,the
 success of this process depends on the 
condition of  the atmosphere with       
respect to moisture4 ,if the air1 at the
 time  the brine falls through the      
faggots1 holds in solution as much      
moisture as it can contain in an        
invisible state1 no more can be         
absorbed from the salt water1 and the   
labour expended in pumping  is entirely 
wasted4 ,the state of the air1 as to    
dryness1 is  therefore an important     
consideration in fixing the time when   
this  operation is to be performed2 and 
an attentive examination of its  state1 
by means of the hygrometer1 might be    
productive of some  economy of labour4  
#ea4 ,in some countries1 where wood is  
scarce1 the evaporation  of salt water  
is carried on by a large collection of  
ropes which  are stretched              

perpendicularly4 ,in passing down the   
ropes1 the  water deposits the sulphate 
of lime which it held in solution1  and 
gradually incrusts them1 so that in the 
course of twenty  years1 when they are  
nearly rotten1 they are still sustained 
by  the surrounding incrustation1 thus  
presenting the appearance of a  vast    
collection of small columns4    #eb4    
,amongst natural operations perpetually 
altering the  surface of our globe1     
there are some which it would be        
advantageous to accelerate4 ,the wearing
 down of the rocks which  impede the    
rapids of navigable rivers1 is one of   
this class4 ,a  very beautiful process  
for accomplishing this object has been  
employed in ,america4 ,a boat is placed 
at the bottom of the rapid1  and kept in
 its position by a long rope which is   
firmly fixed on  the bank of the river  
near the top4 ,an axis1 having a wheel  
similar to the paddle-wheel of a        
steamboat fixed at each end of  it1 is  
placed across the boat2 so that the two 

wheels and their  connecting axis shall 
revolve rapidly1 being driven by the    
force  of the passing current4 ,let us  
now imagine several beams of wood  shod 
with pointed iron fixed at the ends of  
strong levers1  projecting beyond the   
bow of the boat1 as in the annexed      
representation4    ,if these levers are 
at liberty to move up and down1 and if  
one or more projecting pieces1 called   
cams1 are fixed on the axis  opposite to
 the end of each lever1 the action of   
the stream upon  the wheels will keep up
 a perpetual succession of blows4 ,the  
sharp-pointed shoe striking upon the    
rock at the bottom1 will  continually   
detach small pieces1 which the stream   
will  immediately carry off4 ,thus1 by  
the mere action of the river  itself1 a 
constant and most effectual system of   
pounding the rock  at its bottom is     
established4 ,a single workman may1 by  
the aid of  a rudder1 direct the boat to
 any required part of the stream2 and   
when it is necessary to move up the     

rapid1 as the channel is cut1  he can   
easily cause the boat to advance by     
means of a capstan4    #ec4 ,when the   
object of the machinery just described  
has been  accomplished1 and the channel 
is sufficiently deep1 a slight          
alteration converts the apparatus to    
another purpose almost  equally         
advantageous4 ,the stampers and the     
projecting pieces on  the axis are      
removed1 and a barrel of wood or metal1 
surrounding  part of the axis1 and      
capable1 at pleasure1 of being connected
  with1 or disconnected from the axis   
itself1 is substituted4 ,the  rope which
 hitherto fastened the boat1 is now     
fixed to this  barrel2 and if the barrel
 is loose upon the axis1 the            
paddle-wheel makes the axis only        
revolve1 and the boat remains in  its   
place3 but the moment the axis is       
attached to its surrounding  barrel1    
this begins to turn1 and winding up the 
rope1 the boat is  gradually drawn up   
against the stream2 and may be employed 

as a  kind of tug-boat for vessels which
 have occasion to ascend the  rapid4    
,when the tug-boat reaches the summit   
the barrel is  released from the axis1  
and friction being applied to moderate  
its velocity1 the boat is allowed to    
descend4    #ed4 ,clocks occupy a very  
high place amongst instruments by  means
 of which human time is economized3 and 
their multiplication  in conspicuous    
places in large towns is attended with  
many  advantages4 ,their position1      
nevertheless1 in ,london1 is often  very
 ill chosen2 and the usual place1       
halfway up on a high  steeple1 in the   
midst of narrow streets1 in a crowded   
city1 is  very unfavourable1 unless the 
church happen to stand out from the     
houses which form the street4 ,the most 
eligible situation for a  clock is1 that
 it should project considerably into the
 street at  some elevation1 with a      
dial-plate on each side1 like that which
  belonged to the old church of ,st     
,dunstan1 in ,fleet ,street1 so  that   

passengers in both directions would have
 their attention  directed to the hour4 
#ee4 ,a similar remark applies1 with    
much greater force1 to the  present     
defective mode of informing the public  
of the position of  the receiving houses
 for the twopenny and general post4 ,in 
the  lowest corner of the window of some
 attractive shop is found a  small slit1
 with a brass plate indicating its      
important office so  obscurely that it  
seems to be an object rather to prevent 
its  being conspicuous4 ,no striking    
sign assists the anxious enquirer1  who1
 as the moments rapidly pass which      
precede the hour of  closing1 torments  
the passenger with his enquiries for the
  nearest post-office4 ,he reaches it1  
perhaps1 just as it is  closed2 and must
 then either hasten to a distant part of
 the town  in order to procure the      
admission of his letters or give up the 
idea of forwarding them by that post2   
and thus1 if they are  foreign letters1 
he may lose1 perhaps1 a week or a       

fortnight by  waiting for the next      
packet4    ,the inconvenience in this   
and in some other cases1 is of          
perpetual and everyday occurrence2 and  
though1 in the greater  part of the     
individual cases1 it may be of trifling 
moment1 the  sum of all these produces  
an amount1 which it is always worthy of 
the government of a large and active    
population to attend to4 ,the  remedy is
 simple and obvious3 it would only be   
necessary1 at each  letter-box1 to have 
a light frame of iron projecting from   
the  house over the pavement1 and       
carrying the letters ,g4 ,p41 or ,t4    
,p41 or any other distinctive sign4 ,all
 private signs are at  present very     
properly prohibited from projecting into
 the street3  the passenger1 therefore1 
would at once know where to direct his  
attention1 in order to discover a       
post-office2 and those  letter-boxes    
which occurred in the great             
thoroughfares could not  fail to be     
generally known4        ,chapter #g     

,exerting ,forces ,too ,great for ,human
 ,power1 and ,executing  ,operations    
,too ,delicate for ,human ,touch    #ef4
 ,it requires some skill and a          
considerable apparatus to  enable many  
men to exert their whole force at a     
given point2 and  when this number      
amounts to hundreds or to thousands1    
additional  difficulties present        
themselves4 ,if ten thousand men were   
hired  to act simultaneously1 it would  
be exceedingly difficult to  discover   
whether each exerted his whole force1   
and consequently1  to be assured that   
each man did the duty for which he was  
paid4  ,and if still larger bodies of   
men or animals were necessary1 not  only
 would the difficulty of directing them 
become greater1 but  the expense would  
increase from the necessity of          
transporting  food for their            
subsistence4    ,the difficulty of      
enabling a large number of men to exert 
their force at the same instant of time 
has been almost obviated  by the use of 

sound4 ,the whistle of the boatswain    
performs this  service on board ships2  
and in removing1 by manual force1 the   
vast mass of granite1 weighing above    
#a1djj tons1 on which the  equestrian   
figure of ,peter the ,great is placed at
 ,st ,petersburgh1  a drummer was always
 stationed on its summit to give the    
signal  for the united efforts of the   
workmen4    ,an ancient ,egyptian       
drawing was discovered a few years      
since1  by ,champollion1 in which a     
multitude of men appeared harnessed to  
a huge block of stone1 on the top of    
which stood a single  individual with   
his hands raised above his head1        
apparently in  the act of clapping them1
 for the purpose of insuring the        
exertion of their combined force at the 
same moment of time4    #eg4 ,in mines1 
it is sometimes necessary to raise or   
lower  great weights by capstans        
requiring the force of more than one    
hundred men4 ,these work upon the       
surface2 but the directions must  be    

communicated from below1 perhaps from   
the depth of two hundred  fathoms4 ,this
 communication1 however1 is accomplished
 with ease  and certainty by signals3   
the usual apparatus is a kind of        
clapper placed on the surface close to  
the capstan1 so that every  man may     
hear1 and put in motion from below by a 
rope passing up  the shaft4    ,at      
,wheal ,friendship mine in ,cornwall1 a 
different contrivance  is employed3     
there is in that mine an inclined plane1
 passing  underground about two-thirds  
of a mile in length4 ,signals are       
communicated by a continuous rod of     
metal1 which being struck  below1 the   
blow is distinctly heard on the surface4
    #eh4 ,in all our larger             
manufactories numerous instances occur  
of the application of the power of steam
 to overcome resistances  which it would
 require far greater expense to surmount
 by means  of animal labour4 ,the       
twisting of the largest cables1 the     
rolling1 hammering1 and cutting large   

masses of iron1 the  draining of our    
mines1 all require enormous exertions of
 physical  force continued for          
considerable periods of time4 ,other    
means are  had recourse to when the     
force required is great1 and the space  
through which it is to act is small4    
,the hydraulic press of  ,bramah can1 by
 the exertion of one man1 produce a     
pressure of  #a1ejj atmospheres2 and    
with such an instrument a hollow        
cylinder  of wrought iron three inches  
thick has been burst4 ,in rivetting     
together the iron plates1 out of which  
steam-engine boilers are  made1 it is   
necessary to produce as close a joint as
 possible4  ,this is accomplished by    
using the rivets red-hot3 while they are
  in that state the two plates of iron  
are rivetted together1 and  the         
contraction which the rivet undergoes in
 cooling draws them  together with a    
force which is only limited by the      
tenacity of  the metal of which the     
rivet itself is made4    #ei4 ,it is not

 alone in the greater operations of the 
engineer  or the manufacturer1 that     
those vast powers which man has called  
into action1 in availing himself of the 
agency of steam1 are  fully developed4  
,wherever the individual operation      
demanding  little force for its own     
performance is to be multiplied in      
almost endless repetition1 commensurate 
power is required4 ,it is  the same     
'giant arm' which twists 'the largest   
cable'1 that spins  from the cotton     
plant an 'almost gossamer thread'4      
,obedient to  the hand which called into
 action its resistless powers1 it       
contends with the ocean and the storm1  
and rides triumphant  through dangers   
and difficulties unattempted by the     
older modes  of navigation4 ,it is the  
same engine that1 in its more regulated 
action1 weaves the canvas it may one day
 supersede1 or1 with  almost fairy      
fingers1 entwines the meshes of the most
 delicate  fabric that adorns the female
 form47#a997    #fj4 ,the ,fifth ,report

 of the ,select ,committee of the ,house
 of  ,commons on the ,holyhead ,roads   
furnishes ample proof of the great      
superiority of steam vessels4 ,the      
following extracts are taken  from the  
evidence of ,captain ,rogers1 the       
commander of one of the  packets3       
,question4 ,are you not perfectly       
satisfied1 from the experience  you have
 had1 that the steam vessel you command 
is capable of  performing what no       
sailing vessel can do8  ,answer4 ,yes4  
,question4 ,during your passage from    
,gravesend to the ,downs1 could  any    
square-rigged vessel1 from a first-rate 
down to a sloop of  war1 have performed 
the voyage you did in the time you did  
it in  the steamboat8  ,answer4 ,no3 it 
was impossible4 ,in the ,downs we passed
 several  ,indiamen1 and #aej sail there
 that could not move down the  channel3 
and at the back of ,dungeness we passed 
#abj more4    ,question4 ,at the time   
you performed that voyage1 with the     
weather  you have described1 from the   

,downs to ,milford1 if that weather  had
 continued twelve months1 would any     
square-rigged vessel have  performed it8
  ,answer4 ,they would have been a long 
time about it3 probably1  would have    
been weeks instead of days4 ,a sailing  
vessel would not  have beat up to       
,milford1 as we did1 in twelve months4  
#fa4 ,the process of printing on the    
silver paper1 which is  necessary for   
bank-notes1 is attended with some       
inconvenience1  from the necessity of   
damping the paper previously to taking  
the  impression4 ,it was difficult to do
 this uniformly and in the old  process 
of dipping a parcel of several sheets   
together into a  vessel of water1 the   
outside sheets becoming much more wet   
than  the others1 were very apt to be   
torn4 ,a method has been adopted  at the
 ,bank of ,ireland which obviates this  
inconvenience4 ,the  whole quantity of  
paper to be damped is placed in a close 
vessel  from which the air is exhausted2
 water is then admitted1 and  every leaf

 is completely wetted2 the paper is then
 removed to a  press1 and all the       
superfluous moisture is squeezed out4   
#fb4 ,the operation of pulverizing solid
 substances and of  separating the      
powders of various degrees of fineness1 
is common  in the arts3 and as the best 
graduated sifting fails in effecting    
this separation with sufficient         
delicacy1 recourse is had to  suspension
 in a fluid medium4 ,the substance when 
reduced by  grinding to the finest      
powder is agitated in water which is    
then  drawn off3 the coarsest portion of
 the suspended matter first  subsides1  
and that which requires the longest time
 to fall down  is the finest4 ,in this  
manner even emery powder1 a substance of
  great density1 is separated into the  
various degrees of fineness  which are  
required4 ,flints1 after being burned   
and ground1 are  suspended in water1 in 
order to mix them intimately with clay1 
which is also suspended in the same     
fluid for the formation of  porcelain4  

,the water is then in part evaporated by
 heat1 and the  plastic compound1 out of
 which our most beautiful porcelain is  
formed1 remains4 ,it is a curious fact1 
and one which requires  further         
examination than it has yet received1   
that1 if this  mixture be suffered to   
remain long at rest before it is worked 
up1 it becomes useless2 for it is then  
found that the silex1  which at first   
was uniformly mixed1 becomes aggregated 
together  in small lumps4 ,this parallel
 to the formation of flints in the      
chalk strata deserves attention47#b997  
#fc4 ,the slowness with which powders   
subside1 depends partly  on the specific
 gravity of the substance1 and partly on
 the  magnitude of the particles        
themselves4 ,bodies1 in falling through 
a resisting medium1 after a certain time
 acquire a uniform  velocity1 which is  
called their terminal velocity1 with    
which  they continue to descend3 when   
the particles are very small1 and  the  
medium dense1 as water1 this terminal   

velocity is soon  arrived at4 ,some of  
the finer powders even of emery require 
several hours to subside through a few  
feet of water1 and the mud  pumped up   
into our cisterns by some of the water  
companies is  suspended during a still  
longer time4 ,these facts furnish us    
with  some idea of the great extent over
 which deposits of river mud  may be    
spread2 for if the mud of any river     
whose waters enter the  ,gulf ,stream1  
sink through one foot in an hour1 it    
might be  carried by that stream #a1ejj 
miles before it had sunk to the  depth  
of #fjj or #gjj feet4    #fd4 ,a number 
of small filaments of cotton project    
from even  the best spun thread1 and    
when this thread is woven into muslin   
they injure its appearance4 ,to cut     
these off separately is quite           
impossible1 but they are easily removed 
by passing the muslin  rapidly over a   
cylinder of iron kept at a dull red     
heat3 the time  during which each       
portion of the muslin is in contact with

 the  red-hot iron is too short to heat 
it to the burning point2 but  the       
filaments being much finer1 and being   
pressed close to the  hot metal1 are    
burnt4    ,the removal of these         
filaments from patent net is still more 
necessary for its perfection4 ,the net  
is passed at a moderate  velocity       
through a flame of gas issuing from a   
very long and  narrow slit4 ,immediately
 above the flame a long funnel is fixed1
  which is connected with a large       
air-pump worked by a  steam-engine4 ,the
 flame is thus drawn forcibly through   
the net1  and all the filaments on both 
sides of it are burned off at one       
operation4 ,previously to this          
application of the air-pump1 the  net   
acting in the same way1 although not to 
the same extent1 as  the wire-gauze in  
,davy's safety lamp1 cooled down the    
flame so as  to prevent the combustion  
of the filaments on the upper side3 the 
air-pump by quickening the current of   
ignited gas1 removes this               

inconvenience4    ,,notes3    #a4 ,the  
importance and diversified applications 
of the steam  engine were most ably     
enforced in the speeches made at a      
public  meeting held 7,june #ahbd7 for  
the purpose of proposing the  erection  
of a monument to the memory of ,james   
,watt2 these were  subsequently printed4
    #b4 ,some observations on the       
subject1 by ,dr ,fitton1 occur in the   
appendix to ,captain ,king's ,survey of 
the ,coast of ,australia1 vol4  ii1 p4  
#cig4 ,london1 #ahbf4        ,chapter #h
    ,registering ,operations    #fe4    
,one great advantage which we may derive
 from machinery is  from the check which
 it affords against the inattention1 the
  idleness1 or the dishonesty of human  
agents4 ,few occupations are  more      
wearisome than counting a series of     
repetitions of the same  fact2 the      
number of paces we walk affords a       
tolerably good  measure of distance     
passed over1 but the value of this is   
much  enhanced by possessing an         

instrument1 the pedometer1 which will   
count for us the number of steps we have
 made4 ,a piece of  mechanism of this   
kind is sometimes applied to count the  
number  of turns made by the wheel of a 
carriage1 and thus to indicate  the     
distance travelled3 an instrument1      
similar in its object1  but differing in
 its construction1 has been used for    
counting the  number of strokes made by 
a steam-engine1 and the number of coins 
struck in a press4 ,one of the simplest 
instruments for counting  any series of 
operations1 was contrived by ,mr        
,donkin47#a997    #ff4 ,another         
instrument for registering is used in   
some  establishments for calendering and
 embossing4 ,many hundred  thousand     
yards of calicoes and stuffs undergo    
these operations  weekly2 and as the    
price paid for the process is small1 the
 value  of the time spent in measuring  
them would bear a considerable          
proportion to the profit4 ,a machine    
has1 therefore1 been  contrived for     

measuring and registering the length of 
the goods  as they pass rapidly through 
the hands of the operator1 by which  all
 chance of erroneous counting is        
avoided4    #fg4 ,perhaps the most      
useful contrivance of this kind1 is one 
for ascertaining the vigilance of a     
watchman4 ,it is a piece of  mechanism  
connected with a clock placed in an     
apartment to which  the watchman has not
 access2 but he is ordered to pull a    
string  situated in a certain part of   
his round once in every hour4 ,the      
instrument1 aptly called a tell-tale1   
informs the owner whether  the man has  
missed any1 and what hours during the   
night4    #fh4 ,it is often of great    
importance1 both for regulations of     
excise as well as for the interest of   
the proprietor1 to know the  quantity of
 spirits or of other liquors which have 
been drawn off  by those persons who are
 allowed to have access to the vessels  
during the absence of the inspectors or 
principals4 ,this may be  accomplished  

by a peculiar kind of stop-cock--which  
will1 at  each opening1 discharge only a
 certain measure of fluid the  number of
 times the cock has been turned being   
registered by a  counting apparatus     
accessible only to the master4    #fi4  
,the time and labour consumed in gauging
 the contents of  casks partly filled1  
has led to an improvement which1 by the 
simplest means1 obviates a considerable 
inconvenience1 and  enables any person  
to read off1 on a scale1 the number of  
gallons  contained in any vessel1 as    
readily as he does the degree of heat   
indicated by his thermometer4 ,a small  
stop-cock connects the  bottom of the   
cask with a glass tube of narrow bore   
fixed to a  scale on the side of the    
cask1 and rising a little above its top4
  ,the plug of the cock may be turned   
into three positions3 in the  first1 it 
cuts off all communication with the     
cask3 in the  second1 it opens a        
communication between the cask and the  
glass  tube3 and1 in the third4 ,it cuts

 off the connection between the  cask   
and the tube1 and opens a communication 
between the tube and  any vessel held   
beneath the cock to receive its         
contents4 ,the  scale of the tube is    
graduated by pouring into the cask      
successive quantities of water1 while   
the communication between  the cask and 
the tube is open4 ,lines are then drawn 
on the scale  opposite the places in the
 tube to which the water rises at each  
addition1 and the scale being thus      
formed by actual  measurement17#b997 the
 contents of each cask are known by     
inspection1 and the tedious process of  
gauging is altogether  dispensed with4  
,other advantages accrue from this      
simple  contrivance1 in the great       
economy of time which it introduces in  
making mixtures of different spirits1 in
 taking stock1 and in  receiving spirit 
from the distiller4    #gj4 ,the        
gas-meter1 by which the quantity of gas 
used by each  consumer is ascertained1  
is another instrument of this kind4     

,they  are of various forms1 but all of 
them intended to register the  number of
 cubic feet of gas which has been       
delivered4 ,it is very  desirable that  
these meters should be obtainable at a  
moderate  price1 and that every consumer
 should employ them2 because1 by  making
 each purchaser pay only for what he    
consumes1 and by  preventing that       
extravagant waste of gas which we       
frequently  observe1 the manufacturer of
 gas will be enabled to make an equal   
profit at a diminished price to the     
consumer4    #ga4 ,the sale of water by 
the different companies in ,london1     
might also1 with advantage1 be regulated
 by a meter4 ,if such a  system were    
adopted1 much water which is now allowed
 to run to  waste would be saved1 and an
 unjust inequality between the rates    
charged on different houses by the same 
company be avoided4    #gb4 ,another    
most important object to which a meter  
might be  applied1 would be to register 
the quantity of water passing into  the 

boilers of steam-engines4 ,without this1
 our knowledge of the  quantity         
evaporated by different boilers1 and    
with fireplaces of  different           
constructions1 as well as our estimation
 of the duty of  steam-engines1 must    
evidently be imperfect4    #gc4 ,another
 purpose to which machinery for         
registering  operations is applied with 
much advantage is the determination of  
the average effect of natural or        
artificial agents4 ,the mean  height of 
the barometer1 for example1 is          
ascertained by noting  its height at a  
certain number of intervals during the  
twenty-four hours4 ,the more these      
intervals are contracted1 the  more     
correctly will the mean be ascertained2 
but the true mean  ought to be          
influenced by each momentary change     
which has  occurred4 ,clocks have been  
proposed and made with this object1 by  
which a sheet of paper is moved1 slowly 
and uniformly1 before a  pencil fixed to
 a float upon the surface of the mercury

 in the  cup of the barometer4 ,sir     
,david ,brewster proposed1 several years
  ago to suspend a barometer1 and swing 
it as a pendulum4 ,the  variations in   
the atmosphere would thus alter the     
centre of  oscillation1 and the         
comparison of such an instrument with a 
good  clock1 would enable us to         
ascertain the mean altitude of the      
barometer during any interval of the    
observer's absence47#c997    ,an        
instrument for measuring and registering
 the quantity of  rain1 was invented by 
,mr ,john ,taylor1 and described by him 
in the  ,philosophical ,magazine4 ,it   
consists of an apparatus in which a     
vessel that receives the rain falling   
into the reservoir tilts  over as soon  
as it is full1 and then presents another
 similar  vessel to be filled1 which in 
like manner1 when full1 tilts the       
former one back again4 ,the number of   
times these vessels are  emptied is     
registered by a train of wheels2 and    
thus1 without the  presence of the      

observer1 the quantity of rain falling  
during a  whole year may be measured and
 recorded4    ,instruments might also be
 contrived to determine the average     
force of traction of horses--of the     
wind--of a stream or of any  irregular  
and fluctuating effort of animal or     
other natural  force4    #gd4 ,clocks   
and watches may be considered as        
instruments for  registering the number 
of vibrations performed by a pendulum or
 a  balance4 ,the mechanism by which    
these numbers are counted is            
technically called a scapement4 ,it is  
not easy to describe3 but  the various  
contrivances which have been adopted for
 this  purpose1 are amongst the most    
interesting and most ingenious to  which
 mechanical science has given birth4    
,working models1 on an  enlarged scale1 
are almost necessary to make their      
action  understood by the unlearned     
reader2 and1 unfortunately1 these are   
not often to be met with4 ,a very fine  
collection of such models  exists       

amongst the collection of instruments at
 the ,university of  ,prague4           
,instruments of this kind have been made
 to extend their  action over           
considerable periods of time1 and to    
register not  merely the hour of the    
day1 but the days of the week1 of the   
month1 of the year1 and also to indicate
 the occurrence of  several astronomical
 phenomena4    ,repeating clocks and    
watches may be considered as instruments
  for registering time1 which           
communicate their information only  when
 the owner requires it1 by pulling a    
string1 or by some  similar application4
    ,an apparatus has recently been     
applied to watches1 by which  the hand  
which indicates seconds leaves a small  
dot of ink on the  dial-plate whenever a
 certain stop or detent is pushed in4   
,thus1  whilst the eye is attentively   
fixed on the phenomenon to be  observed1
 the finger registers on the face of the
 watch-dial the  commencement and the   
end of its appearance4    #ge4 ,several 

instruments have been contrived for     
awakening the  attention of the observer
 at times previously fixed upon4 ,the   
various kinds of alarums connected with 
clocks and watches are of  this kind4   
,in some instances it is desirable to be
 able to set  them so as to give notice 
at many successive and distant points   
of time1 such as those of the arrival of
 given stars on the  meridian4 ,a clock 
of this kind is used at the ,royal      
,observatory  at ,greenwich4    #gf4 ,an
 earthquake is a phenomenon of such     
frequent occurrence1  and so            
interesting1 both from its fearful      
devastations as well as  from its       
connection with geological theories1    
that it becomes  important to possess an
 instrument which shall1 if possible1   
indicate the direction of the shock1 as 
well as its intensity4  ,an observation 
made a few years since at ,odessa1 after
 an  earthquake which happened during   
the night1 suggests a simple  instrument
 by which the direction of the shock may

 be determined4    ,a glass vase1 partly
 filled with water1 stood on the table  
of  a room in a house at ,odessa2 and1  
from the coldness of the glass1  the    
inner part of the vessel above the water
 was coated with dew4  ,several very    
perceptible shocks of an earthquake     
happened between  three and four o'clock
 in the morning2 and when the observer  
got  up1 he remarked that the dew was   
brushed off at two opposite  sides of   
the glass by a wave which the earthquake
 had caused in  the water4 ,the line    
joining the two highest points of this  
wave  was1 of course1 that in which the 
shock travelled4 ,this  circumstance1   
which was accidentally noticed by an    
engineer at  ,odessa17#d997 suggests the
 plan of keeping1 in countries subject  
to  earthquakes1 glass vessels partly   
filled with treacle1 or some  unctuous  
fluid1 so that when any lateral motion  
is communicated  to them from the earth1
 the adhesion of the liquid to the glass
  shall enable the observer1 after some 

interval of time1 to  determine the     
direction of the shock4    ,in order to 
obtain some measure of the vertical     
oscillation  of the earth1 a weight     
might be attached to a spiral spring1 or
 a  pendulum might be sustained in a    
horizontal position1 and a  sliding     
index be moved by either of them1 so    
that the extreme  deviations should be  
indicated by it4 ,this1 however1 would  
not  give even the comparative measure  
accurately1 because a  difference in the
 velocity of the rising or falling of   
the  earth's surface would affect the   
instrument4    ,,notes3    #a4          
,transactions of the ,society of ,arts1 
#ahai1 p4 #aaf4    #b4 ,the contrivance 
is due to ,mr ,hencky1 of ,high         
,holborn1 in whose  establishment it is 
in constant use4    #c4 ,about seven or 
eight years since1 without being aware  
of ,sir  ,david ,brewster's proposal4 ,i
 adapted a barometer1 as a pendulum1  to
 the works of a common eight day clock3 
it remained in my  library for several  

months1 but ,i have mislaid the         
observations  which were made4    #d4   
,memoires de l',academie des ,sciences  
de ,petersburgh1 #f;e serie1  tom4 i4 p4
 #d4        ,chapter #i    ,economy of  
the ,materials ,employed    #gg4 ,the   
precision with which all operations by  
machinery are  executed1 and the exact  
similarity of the articles thus made1   
produce a degree of economy in the      
consumption of the raw  material which  
is1 in some cases1 of great importance4 
,the  earliest mode of cutting the trunk
 of a tree into planks1 was by  the use 
of the hatchet or the adze4 ,it might1  
perhaps1 be first  split into three or  
four portions1 and then each portion was
  reduced to a uniform surface by those 
instruments4 ,with such  means the      
quantity of plank produced would        
probably not equal the  quantity of the 
raw material wasted by the process3 and1
 if the  planks were thin1 would        
certainly fall far short of it4 ,an     
improved tool1 completely reverses the  

case3 in converting a tree  into thick  
planks1 the saw causes a waste of a very
 small  fractional part2 and even in    
reducing it to planks of only an  inch  
in thickness1 does not waste more than  
an eighth part of the  raw material4    
,when the thickness of the plank is     
still further  reduced1 as is the case  
in cutting wood for veneering1 the      
quantity of material destroyed again    
begins to bear a  considerable          
proportion to that which is used2 and   
hence circular  saws1 having a very thin
 blade1 have been employed for such     
purposes4 ,in order to economize still  
further the more valuable  woods1 ,mr   
,brunel contrived a machine which1 by a 
system of  blades1 cut off the veneer in
 a continuous shaving1 thus  rendering  
the whole of the piece of timber        
available4    #gh4 ,the rapid           
improvements which have taken place in  
the  printing press during the last     
twenty years1 afford another  instance  
of saving in the materials consumed1    

which has been well  ascertained by     
measurement1 and is interesting from its
  connection with literature4 ,in the   
old method of inking type1 by  large    
hemispherical balls stuffed and covered 
with leather1 the  printer1 after taking
 a small portion of ink from the        
ink-block1  was continually rolling the 
balls in various directions against     
each other1 in order that a thin layer  
of ink might be uniformly  spread over  
their surface4 ,this he again           
transferred to the type  by a kind of   
rolling action4 ,in such a process1 even
 admitting  considerable skill in the   
operator1 it could not fail to happen   
that a large quantity of ink should get 
near the edges of the  balls1 which1 not
 being transferred to the type1 became  
hard and  useless1 and was taken off in 
the form of a thick black crust4        
,another inconvenience also arose--the  
quantity of ink spread on  the block not
 being regulated by measure1 and the    
number and  direction of the transits of

 the inking-balls over each other       
depending on the will of the operator1  
and being consequently  irregular1 it   
was impossible to place on the type a   
uniform layer  of ink1 of the quantity  
exactly sufficient for the impression4  
,the introduction of cylindrical rollers
 of an elastic substance1  formed by the
 mixture of glue and treacle1 superseded
 the  inking-balls1 and produced        
considerable saving in the consumption  
of ink3 but the most perfect economy was
 only to be produced by  mechanism4     
,when printing-presses1 moved by the    
power of steam1  were introduced1 the   
action of these rollers was found to be 
well  adapted to their performance2 and 
a reservoir of ink was formed1  from    
which a roller regularly abstracted a   
small quantity at each  impression4     
,from three to five other rollers spread
 this portion  uniformly over a slab 7by
 most ingenious contrivances varied in  
almost each kind of press71 and another 
travelling roller1 having  fed itself on

 the slab1 passed and repassed over the 
type just  before it gave the impression
 to the paper4    ,in order to shew that
 this plan of inking puts the proper    
quantity of ink upon the type1 we must  
prove1 first--that the  quantity is not 
too little3 this would soon have been   
discovered  from the complaints of the  
public and the booksellers2 and1        
secondly that it is not too great4 ,this
 latter point was  satisfactorily       
established by an experiment4 ,a few    
hours after  one side of a sheet of     
paper has been printed upon1 the ink is 
sufficiently dry to allow it to receive 
the impression upon the  other2 and1 as 
considerable pressure is made use of1   
the tympan  on which the side first     
printed is laid1 is guarded from soiling
  it by a sheet of paper called the     
set-off sheet4 ,this paper  receives1 in
 succession1 every sheet of the work to 
be printed1  acquiring from them more or
 less of the ink1 according to their    
dryness1 or the quantity upon them4 ,it 

was necessary in the  former process1   
after about one hundred impressions1 to 
change  this set-off sheet1 which then  
became too much soiled for further  use4
 ,in the new method of printing by      
machinery1 no such sheet is  used1 but a
 blanket is employed as its substitute2 
this does not  require changing above   
once in five thousand impressions1 and  
instances have occurred of its remaining
 sufficiently clean for  twenty         
thousand4 ,here1 then1 is a proof that  
the quantity of  superfluous ink put    
upon the paper in machine-printing is so
  small1 that1 if multiplied by five    
thousand1 and in some  instances even by
 twenty thousand1 it is only sufficient 
to  render useless a single piece of    
clean cloth47#a997 ,the following  were 
the results of an accurate experiment   
upon the effect of the  process just    
described1 made at one of the largest   
printing  establishments in the         
metropolis47#b997 ,two hundred reams of 
paper  were printed off1 the old method 

of inking with balls being  employed2   
two hundred reams of the same paper1 and
 for the same  book1 were then printed  
off in the presses which inked their own
  type4 ,the consumption of ink by the  
machine was to that by the  balls as    
four to nine1 or rather less than       
one-half4    ,,notes3    #a4 ,in the    
very best kind of printing1 it is       
necessary1 in the old  method1 to change
 the set-off sheet once in twelve times4
 ,in  printing the same kind of work by 
machinery1 the blanket is  changed once 
in #bjjj4    #b4 ,this experiment was   
made at the establishment of ,mr        
,clowes1 in  ,stamford ,street4         
,chapter #aj    ,of the ,identity of the
 ,work ,when ,it is of the ,same ,kind1 
and its  ,accuracy when of ,different   
,kinds    #gi4 ,nothing is more         
remarkable1 and yet less unexpected1    
than  the perfect identity of things    
manufactured by the same tool4 ,if  the 
top of a circular box is to be made to  
fit over the lower  part1 it may be done

 in the lathe by gradually advancing the
 tool  of the sliding-rest2 the proper  
degree of tightness between the  box and
 its lid being found by trial4 ,after   
this adjustment1 if a  thousand boxes   
are made1 no additional care is         
required2 the tool  is always carried up
 to the stop1 and each box will be      
equally  adapted to every lid4 ,the same
 identity pervades all the arts of      
printing2 the impressions from the same 
block1 or the same  copperplate1 have a 
similarity which no labour could produce
 by  hand4 ,the minutest traces are     
transferred to all the impressions1  and
 no omission can arise from the         
inattention or unskilfulness  of the    
operator4 ,the steel punch1 with which  
the cardwadding for  a fowling-piece is 
cut1 if it once perform its office with 
accuracy1 constantly reproduces the same
 exact circle4    #hj4 ,the accuracy    
with which machinery executes its work  
is1  perhaps1 one of its most important 
advantages3 it may1 however1  be        

contended1 that a considerable portion  
of this advantage may  be resolved into 
saving of time2 for it generally        
happens1 that  any improvement in tools 
increases the quantity of work done in a
  given time4 ,without tools1 that is1  
by the mere efforts of the  human hand1 
there are1 undoubtedly1 multitudes of   
things which it  would be impossible to 
make4 ,add to the human hand the rudest 
cutting instrument1 and its powers are  
enlarged3 the fabrication  of many      
things then becomes easy1 and that of   
others possible  with great labour4 ,add
 the saw to the knife or the hatchet1   
and  other works become possible1 and a 
new course of difficult  operations is  
brought into view1 whilst many of the   
former are  rendered easy4 ,this        
observation is applicable even to the   
most  perfect tools or machines4 ,it    
would be possible for a very  skilful   
workman1 with files and polishing       
substances1 to form a  cylinder out of a
 piece of steel2 but the time which this

 would  require would be so             
considerable1 and the number of failures
  would probably be so great1 that for  
all practical purposes such  a mode of  
producing a steel cylinder might be said
 to be  impossible4 ,the same process by
 the aid of the lathe and the           
sliding-rest is the everyday employment 
of hundreds of workmen4    #ha4 ,of all 
the operations of mechanical art1 that  
of turning  is the most perfect4 ,if two
 surfaces are worked against each       
other1 whatever may have been their     
figure at the commencement1  there      
exists a tendency in them both to become
 portions of  spheres4 ,either of them  
may become convex1 and the other        
concave1  with various degrees of       
curvature4 ,a plane surface is the line 
of  separation between convexity and    
concavity1 and is most difficult  to    
hit2 it is more easy to make a good     
circle than to produce a  straight line4
 ,a similar difficulty takes place in   
figuring  specula for telescopes2 the   

parabola is the surface which  separates
 the hyperbolic from the elliptic       
figure1 and is the  most difficult to   
form4 ,if a spindle1 not cylindrical at 
its end1  be pressed into a hole not    
circular1 and kept constantly turning1  
there is a tendency in these two bodies 
so situated to become  conical1 or to   
have circular sections4 ,if a           
triangular-pointed  piece of iron be    
worked round in a circular hole the     
edges will  gradually wear1 and it will 
become conical4 ,these facts1 if  they  
do not explain1 at least illustrate the 
principles on  which the excellence of  
work formed in the lathe depends4       
,chapter #aa    ,of ,copying    #hb4    
,the two last-mentioned sources of      
excellence in the work  produced by     
machinery depend on a principle which   
pervades a very  large portion of all   
manufactures1 and is one upon which the 
cheapness of the articles produced seems
 greatly to depend4 ,the  principle     
alluded to is that of copying1 taken in 

its most  extensive sense4 ,almost      
unlimited pains are1 in some instances1 
bestowed on the original1 from which a  
series of copies is to be  produced2 and
 the larger the number of these copies1 
the more  care and pains can the        
manufacturer afford to lavish upon the  
original4 ,it may thus happen1 that the 
instrument or tool  actually producing  
the work1 shall cost five or even ten   
thousand  times the price of each       
individual specimen of its power4    ,as
 the system of copying is of so much    
importance1 and of  such extensive use  
in the arts1 it will be convenient to   
classify  a considerable number of those
 processes in which it is employed4     
,the following enumeration however is   
not offered as a complete  list2 and the
 explanations are restricted to the     
shortest  possible detail which is      
consistent with a due regard to making  
the subject intelligible4    ,operations
 of copying are effected under the      
following  circumstances3    by printing

 from cavities          by stamping  by 
printing from surface           by      
punching  by casting                    
with elongation  by moulding            
with altered dimensions      ,of        
printing from cavities    #hc4 ,the art 
of printing1 in all its numerous        
departments1 is  essentially an art of  
copying4 ,under its two great divisions1
  printing from hollow lines1 as in     
copperplate1 and printing from  surface1
 as in block printing1 are comprised    
numerous arts4    #hd4 ,copperplate     
printing4 ,in this instance1 the copies 
are  made by transferring to paper1 by  
means of pressure1 a thick ink1  from   
the hollows and lines cut in the copper4
 ,an artist will  sometimes exhaust the 
labour of one or two years upon         
engraving a  plate1 which will not1 in  
some cases furnish above five hundred   
copies in a state of perfection4    #he4
 ,engravings on steel4 ,this art is like
 that of engraving  on copper1 except   
that the number of copies is far less   

limited4  ,a bank-note engraved as a    
copperplate1 will not give above three  
thousand impressions without a sensible 
deterioration4 ,two  impressions of a   
bank-note engraved on steel were        
examined by one  of our most eminent    
artists17#a997 who found it difficult to
  pronounce with any confidence1 which  
was the earliest impression4  ,one of   
these was a proof from amongst the first
 thousand1 the  other was taken after   
between seventy and eighty thousand had 
been printed off4    #hf4 ,music        
printing4 ,music is usually printed from
 pewter  plates1 on which the characters
 have been impressed by steel  punches4 
,the metal being much softer than       
copper1 is liable to  scratches1 which  
detain a small portion of the ink4 ,this
 is the  reason of the dirty appearance 
of printed music4 ,a new process  has   
recently been invented by ,mr ,cowper1  
by which this  inconvenience will be    
avoided4 ,the improved method1 which    
give  sharpness to the characters1 is   

still an art of copying2 but it  is     
effected by surface printing1 nearly in 
the same manner as  calico-printing from
 blocks1 to be described hereafter1 #if4
 ,the  method of printing music from    
pewter plates1 although by far the  most
 frequently made use of1 is not the only
 one employed1 for  music is            
occasionally printed from stone4        
,sometimes also it is  printed with     
moveable type2 and occasionally the     
musical  characters are printed on the  
paper1 and the lines printed            
afterwards4 ,specimens of both these    
latter modes of  music-printing may be  
seen in the splendid collection of      
impressions from the types of the press 
of ,bodoni at ,parma3 but               
notwithstanding the great care bestowed 
on the execution of that  work1 the     
perpetual interruption of continuity in 
the lines1  arising from the use of     
moveable types1 when the characters and 
lines are printed at the same time1 is  
apparent4    #hg4 ,calico printing from 

cylinders4 ,many of the patterns on     
printed calicos are copies by printing  
from copper cylinders  about four or    
five inches in diameter1 on which the   
desired  pattern has been previously    
engraved4 ,one portion of the  cylinders
 is exposed to the ink1 whilst an       
elastic scraper of  very thin steel1 by 
being pressed forcibly against another  
part1  removes all superfluous ink from 
the surface previously to its  reaching 
the cloth4 ,a piece of calico           
twenty-eight yards in  length rolls     
through this press1 and is printed in   
four or five  minutes4    #hh4 ,printing
 from perforated sheets of metal1 or    
stencilling4  ,very thin brass is       
sometimes perforated in the form of     
letters1  usually those of a name2 this 
is placed on any substance which it  is 
required to mark1 and a brush dipped in 
some paint is passed  over the brass4   
,those parts which are cut away admit   
the paint4  and thus a copy of the name 
appears on the substance below4 ,this   

method1 which affords rather a coarse   
copy1 is sometimes used for  paper with 
which rooms are covered1 and more       
especially for the  borders4 ,if a      
portion be required to match an old     
pattern1 this  is1 perhaps the most     
economical way of producing it4    #hi4 
,coloured impressions of leaves upon    
paper may be made by  a kind of surface 
printing4 ,such leaves are chosen as    
have  considerable inequalities3 the    
elevated parts of these are  covered1 by
 means of an inking ball1 with a mixture
 of some  pigment ground up in linseed  
oil2 the leaf is then placed between    
two sheets of paper1 and being gently   
pressed1 the impression  from the       
elevated parts on each side appear on   
the corresponding  sheets of paper4     
#ij4 ,the beautiful red cotton          
handkerchiefs dyed at ,glasgow  have    
their pattern given to them by a process
 similar to  stencilling1 except that   
instead of printing from a pattern1 the 
reverse operation that of discharging a 

part of the colour from a  cloth already
 dyed--is performed4 ,a number of       
handkerchiefs are  pressed with very    
great force between two plates of metal1
 which  are similarly perforated with   
round or lozenge-shaped holes1          
according to the intended pattern4 ,the 
upper plate of metal is  surrounded by a
 rim1 and a fluid which has the property
 of  discharging the red dye is poured  
upon that plate4 ,this liquid  passes   
through the holes in the metal1 and also
 through the  calico2 but1 owing to the 
great pressure opposite all the parts   
of the plates not cut away1 it does not 
spread itself beyond the  pattern4      
,after this1 the handkerchiefs are      
washed1 and the  pattern of each is a   
copy of the perforations in the         
metal-plate  used in the process4       
,another mode by which a pattern is     
formed by discharging  colour from a    
previously dyed cloth1 is to print on it
 a pattern  with paste2 then1 passing it
 into the dying-vat1 it comes out  dyed 

of one uniform colour4 ,but the paste   
has protected the fibres  of the cotton 
from the action of the dye or mordant2  
and when the  cloth so dyed is well     
washed1 the paste is dissolved1 and     
leaves  uncoloured all those parts of   
the cloth to which it was applied4      
,printing from surface    #ia4 ,this    
second department of printing is of more
 frequent  application in the arts than 
that which has just been considered4    
#ib4 ,printing from wooden blocks4 ,a   
block of box wood is1 in  this instance1
 the substance out of which the pattern 
is formed3  the design being sketched   
upon it1 the workman cuts away with     
sharp tools every part except the lines 
to be represented in the  impression4   
,this is exactly the reverse of the     
process of  engraving on copper1 in     
which every line to be represented is   
cut  away4 ,the ink1 instead of filling 
the cavities cut in the wood1  is spread
 upon the surface which remains1 and is 
thence  transferred to the paper4       

#ic4 ,printing from moveable types4     
,this is the most important  in its     
influence of all the arts of copying4   
,it possesses a  singular peculiarity1  
in the immense subdivision of the parts 
that form the pattern4 ,after that      
pattern has furnished thousands  of     
copies1 the same individual elements may
 be arranged again and  again in other  
forms1 and thus supply multitudes of    
originals1  from each of which thousands
 of their copied impressions may  flow4 
,it also possesses this advantage1 that 
woodcuts may be used  along with the    
letterpress1 and impressions taken from 
both at  the same operation4    #id4    
,printing from stereotype4 ,this mode of
 producing copies  is very similar to   
the preceding4 ,there are two modes by  
which  stereotype plates are produced4  
,in that most generally adopted a  mould
 is taken in plaster from the moveable  
types1 and in this  the stereotype plate
 is cast4 ,another method has been      
employed in  ,france3 instead of        

composing the work in moveable type1 it 
was  set up in moveable copper matrices2
 each matrix being in fact a  piece of  
copper of the same size as the type1 and
 having the  impression of the letter   
sunk into its surface instead of        
projecting in relief4 ,a stereotype     
plate may1 it is evident1 be  obtained  
at once from this arrangement of        
matrices4 ,the objection  to the plan is
 the great expense of keeping so large a
 collection  of matrices4    ,as the    
original composition does not readily   
admit of change1  stereotype plates can 
only be applied with advantage to cases 
where an extraordinary number of copies 
are demanded1 or where  the work        
consists of figures1 and it is of great 
importance to  ensure accuracy4         
,trifling alterations may1 however1 be  
made in it  from time to time2 and thus 
mathematical tables may1 by the  gradual
 extirpation of error1 at last become   
perfect4 ,this mode  of producing copies
 possesses1 in common with that by      

moveable  types1 the advantage of       
admitting the use of woodcuts3 the copy 
of the woodcut in the stereotype plate  
being equally perfect4  with that of the
 moveable type4 ,this union is of       
considerable  importance1 and cannot be 
accomplished with engravings on copper4 
#ie4 ,lettering books4 ,the gilt letters
 on the backs of books  are formed by   
placing a piece of gold leaf upon the   
leather1 and  pressing upon it brass    
letters previously heated3 these cause  
the  gold immediately under them to     
adhere to the leather1 whilst the  rest 
of the metal is easily brushed away4    
,when a great number of  copies of the  
same volume are to be lettered1 it is   
found to be  cheaper to have a brass    
pattern cut with the whole of the proper
  title3 this is placed in a press1 and 
being kept hot1 the covers1  each having
 a small bit of leaf-gold placed in the 
proper  position1 are successively      
brought under the brass1 and stamped4   
,the lettering at the back of the volume

 in the reader's hand was  executed in  
this manner4    #if4 ,calico printing   
from blocks4 ,this is a mode of copying1
  by surface printing1 from the ends of 
small pieces of copper  wire1 of various
 forms1 fixed into a block of wood4     
,they are all  of one uniform height1   
about the eighth part of an inch above  
the  surface of the wood1 and are       
arranged by the maker into any  required
 pattern4 ,if the block be placed upon a
 piece of fine  woollen cloth1 on which 
ink of any colour has been uniformly    
spread1 the projecting copper wires     
receive a portion1 which they  give up  
when applied to the calico to be        
printed4 ,by the former  method of      
printing on calico1 only one colour     
could be used2 but  by this plan1 after 
the flower of a rose1 for example1 has  
been  printed with one set of blocks1   
the leaves may be printed of  another   
colour by a different set4    #ig4      
,printing oilcloth4 ,after the canvas1  
which forms the  basis of oilcloth1 has 

been covered with paint of one uniform  
tint1 the remainder of the processes    
which it passes through1 are  a series  
of copyings by surface printing1 from   
patterns formed  upon wooden blocks very
 similar to those employed by the calico
  printer4 ,each colour requiring a     
distinct set of blocks1 those  oilcloths
 with the greatest variety of colours   
are most  expensive4    ,there are      
several other varieties of printing     
which we shall  briefly notice as arts  
of copying2 which1 although not strictly
  surface printing1 yet are more allied 
to it than that from  copperplates4     
#ih4 ,letter copying4 ,in one of the    
modes of performing this  process1 a    
sheet of very thin paper is damped1 and 
placed upon  the writing to be copied4  
,the two papers are then passed through 
a rolling press1 and a portion of the   
ink from one paper is  transferred to   
the other4 ,the writing is1 of course1  
reversed by  this process2 but the paper
 to which it is transferred being  thin1

 the characters are seen through it on  
the other side1 in  their proper        
position4 ,another common mode of       
copying letters is  by placing a sheet  
of paper covered on both sides with a   
substance prepared from lamp-black1     
between a sheet of thin paper  and the  
paper on which the letter to be         
despatched is to be  written4 ,if the   
upper or thin sheet be written upon with
 any hard  pointed substance1 the word  
written with this style will be         
impressed from the black paper upon both
 those adjoining it4 ,the  translucency 
of the upper sheet1 which is retained by
 the writer1  is in this instance       
necessary to render legible the writing 
which  is on the back of the paper4     
,both these arts are very limited in    
their extent1 the former affording two  
or three1 the latter from  two to       
perhaps ten or fifteen copies at the    
same time4    #ii4 ,printing on china4  
,this is an art of copying which is     
carried to a very great extent4 ,as the 

surfaces to which the  impression is to 
be conveyed are often curved1 and       
sometimes even  fluted1 the ink1 or     
paint1 is first transferred from the    
copper  to some flexible substance1 such
 as paper1 or an elastic compound  of   
glue and treacle4 ,it is almost         
immediately conveyed from this  to the  
unbaked biscuit1 to which it more       
readily adheres4    #ajj4 ,lithographic 
printing4 ,this is another mode of      
producing  copies in almost unlimited   
number4 ,the original which supplies    
the copies is a drawing made on a stone 
of a slightly porous  nature1 the ink   
employed for tracing it is made of such 
greasy  materials that when water is    
poured over the stone it shall not  wet 
the lines of the drawing4 ,when a roller
 covered with printing  ink1 which is of
 an oily nature1 is passed over the     
stone  previously wetted1 the water     
prevents this ink from adhering to  the 
uncovered portions2 whilst the ink used 
in the drawing is of  such a nature that

 the printing ink adheres to it4 ,in    
this state1  if a sheet of paper be     
placed upon the stone1 and then passed  
under a press1 the printing ink will be 
transferred to the paper1  leaving the  
ink used in the drawing still adhering  
to the stone4    #aja4 ,there is one    
application of lithographic printing    
which  does not appear to have received 
sufficient attention1 and  perhaps      
further experiments are necessary to    
bring it to  perfection4 ,it is the     
reprinting of works which have just     
arrived  from other countries4 ,a few   
years ago one of the ,paris newspapers  
was reprinted at ,brussels as soon as it
 arrived by means of  lithography4      
,whilst the ink is yet fresh1 this may  
easily be  accomplished3 it is only     
necessary to place one copy of the      
newspaper on a lithographic stone2 and  
by means of great pressure  applied to  
it in a rolling press1 a sufficient     
quantity of the  printing ink will be   
transferred to the stone4 ,by similar   

means1  the other side of the newspaper 
may be copied on another stone1  and    
these stones will then furnish          
impressions in the usual way4  ,if      
printing from stone could be reduced to 
the same price per  thousand as that    
from moveable types1 this process might 
be  adopted with great advantage for the
 supply of works for the use  of distant
 countries possessing the same language4
 ,for a single  copy might be printed   
off with transfer ink1 and thus an      
,english  work1 for example1 might be   
published in ,america from stone1       
whilst the original1 printed from       
moveable types1 made its  appearance on 
the same day in ,england4    #ajb4 ,it  
is much to be wished that such a method 
were  applicable to the reprinting of   
facsimiles of old and scarce  books4    
,this1 however1 would require the       
sacrifice of two copies1  since a leaf  
must be destroyed for each page4 ,such a
 method of  reproducing a small         
impression of an old work1 is peculiarly

  applicable to mathematical tables1 the
 setting up of which in  type is always 
expensive and liable to error1 but how  
long ink  will continue to be           
transferable to stone1 from paper on    
which it  has been printed1 must be     
determined by experiment4 ,the          
destruction of the greasy or oily       
portion of the ink in the  character of 
old books1 seems to present the greatest
 impediment2  if one constituent only of
 the ink were removed by time1 it might 
perhaps be hoped1 that chemical means   
would ultimately be  discovered for     
restoring it3 but if this be            
unsuccessful1 an  attempt might be made 
to discover some substance having a     
strong  affinity for the carbon of the  
ink which remains on the paper1  and    
very little for the paper itself47#b997 
#ajc4 ,lithographic prints have         
occasionally been executed in  colours4 
,in such instances a separate stone     
seems to have been  required for each   
colour1 and considerable care1 or very  

good  mechanism1 must have been employed
 to adjust the paper to each  stone4 ,if
 any two kinds of ink should be         
discovered mutually  inadhesive1 one    
stone might be employed for two inks2 or
 if the  inking-roller for the second   
and subsequent colours had portions  cut
 away corresponding to those parts of   
the stone inked by the  previous ones1  
then several colours might be printed   
from the  same stone3 but these         
principles do not appear to promise     
much1  except for coarse subjects4      
#ajd4 ,register printing4 ,it is        
sometimes thought necessary to  print   
from a wooden block1 or stereotype      
plate1 the same pattern  reversed upon  
the opposite side of the paper4 ,the    
effect of this1  which is technically   
called ,register printing1 is to make it
  appear as if the ink had penetrated   
through the paper1 and  rendered the    
pattern visible on the other side4 ,if  
the subject  chosen contains many fine  
lines1 it seems at first sight          

extremely difficult to effect so exact a
 super position of the  two patterns1 on
 opposite sides of the same piece of    
paper1 that  it shall be impossible to  
detect the slightest deviation2 yet the 
process is extremely simple4 ,the block 
which gives the impression  is always   
accurately brought down to the same     
place by means of a  hinge2 this spot is
 covered by a piece of thin leather     
stretched  over it2 the block is now    
inked1 and being brought down to its    
place1 gives an impression of the       
pattern to the leather3 it is  then     
turned back2 and being inked a second   
time1 the paper  intended to be printed 
is placed upon the leather1 when the    
block  again descending1 the upper      
surface of the paper is printed from    
the block1 and its undersurface takes up
 the impression from the  leather4 ,it  
is evident that the perfection of this  
mode of  printing depends in a great    
measure on finding some soft  substance 
like leather1 which will take as much   

ink as it ought  from the block1 and    
which will give it up most completely to
  paper4 ,impressions thus obtained are 
usually fainter on the lower  side2 and 
in order in some measure to remedy this 
defect1 rather  more ink is put on the  
block at the first than at the second   
impression4      ,of copying by casting 
#aje4 ,the art of casting1 by pouring   
substances in a fluid  state into a     
mould which retains them until they     
become solid1 is  essentially an art of 
copying2 the form of the thing produced 
depending entirely upon that of the     
pattern from which it was  formed4      
#ajf4 ,of casting iron and other        
metals4--,patterns of wood or  metal    
made from drawings are the originals    
from which the moulds  for casting are  
made3 so that1 in fact1 the casting     
itself is a  copy of the mould2 and the 
mould is a copy of the pattern4 ,in     
castings of iron and metals for the     
coarser purposes1 and1 if  they are     
afterwards to be worked even for the    

finer machines1  the exact resemblance  
amongst the things produced1 which takes
  place in many of the arts to which we 
have alluded1 is not  effected in the   
first instance1 nor is this necessary4  
,as the  metals shrink in cooling1 the  
pattern is made larger than the         
intended copy2 and in extricating it    
from the sand in which it is  moulded1  
some little difference will occur in the
 size of the  cavity which it leaves4   
,in smaller works where accuracy is more
  requisite1 and where few or no after  
operations are to be  performed1 a mould
 of metal is employed which has been    
formed  with considerable care4 ,thus1  
in casting bullets1 which ought to  be  
perfectly spherical and smooth1 an iron 
instrument is used1 in  which a cavity  
has been cut and carefully ground2 and1 
in order  to obviate the contraction in 
cooling1 a jet is left which may  supply
 the deficiency of metal arising from   
that cause1 and which  is afterwards cut
 off4 ,the leaden toys for children are 

cast in  brass moulds which open1 and in
 which have been graved or  chiselled   
the figures intended to be produced4    
#ajg4 ,a very beautiful mode of         
representing small branches of  the most
 delicate vegetable productions in      
bronze has been  employed by ,mr        
,chantrey4 ,a small strip of a fir-tree1
 a branch of  holly1 a curled leaf of   
broccoli1 or any other vegetable        
production1 is suspended by one end in a
 small cylinder of paper  which is      
placed for support within a similarly   
formed tin case4  ,the finest river     
silt1 carefully separated from all the  
coarser  particles1 and mixed with      
water1 so as to have the consistency of 
cream1 is poured into the paper cylinder
 by small portions at a  time1 carefully
 shaking the plant a little after each  
addition1  in order that its leaves may 
be covered1 and that no bubbles of  air 
may be left4 ,the plant and its mould   
are now allowed to dry1  and the        
yielding nature of the paper allows the 

loamy coating to  shrink from the       
outside4  ,when this is dry it is       
surrounded by a  coarser substance2 and1
 finally1 we have the twig with all its 
leaves embedded in a perfect mould4     
,this mould is carefully  dried1 and    
then gradually heated to a red heat4 ,at
 the ends of  some of the leaves or     
shoots1 wires have been left to afford  
airholes by their removal1 and in this  
state of strong ignition a  stream of   
air is directed into the hole formed by 
the end of the  branch4 ,the consequence
 is1 that the wood and leaves which had 
been turned into charcoal by the fire1  
are now converted into  carbonic acid by
 the current of air2 and1 after some    
time1 the  whole of the solid matter of 
which the plant consisted is  completely
 removed1 leaving a hollow mould1       
bearing on its  interior all the        
minutest traces of its late vegetable   
occupant4  ,when this process is        
completed1 the mould being still kept at
  nearly a red heat1 receives the fluid 

metal1 which1 by its  weight1 either    
drives the very small quantity of air1  
which at  that high temperature remains 
behind1 out through the  airholes1 or   
compresses it into the pores of very    
porous  substance of which the mould is 
formed4    #ajh4 ,when the form of the  
object intended to be cast is such  that
 the pattern cannot be extricated from  
its mould of sand or  plaster1 it       
becomes necessary to make the pattern   
with wax1 or  some other easily fusible 
substance4 ,the sand or plaster is      
moulded round this pattern1 and1 by the 
application of heat1 the  wax is        
extricated through an opening left      
purposely for its  escape4    #aji4 ,it 
is often desirable to ascertain the form
 of the  internal cavities1 inhabited by
 molluscous animals1 such as those  of  
spiral shells1 and of the various       
corals4 ,this may be  accomplished by   
filling them with fusible metal1 and    
dissolving  the substance of the shell  
by muriatic acid2 thus a metallic  solid

 will remain which exactly filled all   
the cavities4 ,if such  forms are       
required in silver1 or any other        
difficulty fusible  metal1 the shells   
may be filled with wax or resin1 then   
dissolved  away2 and the remaining waxen
 form may serve as the pattern from     
which a plaster mould may be made for   
casting the metal4 ,some  nicety will be
 required in these operations2 and      
perhaps the  minuter cavities can only  
be filled under an exhausted receiver4  
#aaj4 ,casting in plaster4 ,this is a   
mode of copying applied to  a variety of
 purposes3 to produce accurate          
representations of the  human form--of  
statues--or of rare fossils--to which   
latter  purpose it has lately been      
applied with great advantage4 ,in all   
casting1 the first process is to make   
the mould2 and plaster is  the substance
 which is almost always employed for the
 purpose4  ,the property which it       
possesses of remaining for a short time 
in  a state of fluidity1 renders it     

admirably adapted to this object1  and  
adhesion1 even to an original of        
plaster1 is effectually  prevented by   
oiling the surface on which it is       
poured4 ,the mould  formed round the    
subject which is copied1 removed in     
separate  pieces and then reunited1 is  
that in which the copy is cast4 ,this   
process gives additional utility and    
value to the finest works of  art4 ,the 
students of the ,academy at ,venice are 
thus enabled to  admire the sculptured  
figures of ,egina1 preserved in the     
gallery  at ,munich2 as well as the     
marbles of the ,parthenon1 the pride of 
our own ,museum4 ,casts in plaster of   
the ,elgin marbles adorn many  of the   
academies of the ,continent2 and the    
liberal employment of  such presents    
affords us an inexpensive and permanent 
source of  popularity4    #aaa4 ,casting
 in wax4 ,this mode of copying1 aided by
 proper  colouring1 offers the most     
successful imitations of many objects   
of natural history1 and gives an air of 

reality to them which  might deceive    
even the most instructed4 ,numerous     
figures of  remarkable persons1 having  
the face and hands formed in wax1 have  
been exhibited at various times2 and the
 resemblances have1 in  some instances  
been most striking4 ,but whoever would  
see the art  of copying in wax carried  
to the highest perfection1 should       
examine the beautiful collection of     
fruit at the house of the               
,horticultural ,society2 the model of   
the magnificent flower of the  new genus
 ,rafflesia--the waxen models of the    
internal parts of  the human body which 
adorn the anatomical gallery of the     
,jardin  des ,plantes at ,paris1 and the
 ,museum at ,florence--or the           
collection of morbid anatomy at the     
,university of ,bologna4 ,the  art of   
imitation by wax does not usually afford
 the multitude of  copies which flow    
from many similar operations4 ,this     
number is  checked by the subsequent    
stages of the process1 which1 ceasing   

to have the character of copying by a   
tool or pattern1 become  consequently   
more expensive4 ,in each individual     
production1 form  alone is given by     
casting2 the colouring must be the work 
of the  pencil1 guided by the skill of  
the artist4      ,of copying by moulding
    #aab4 ,this method of producing     
multitudes of individuals  having an    
exact resemblance to each other in      
external shape1 is  adopted very widely 
in the arts4 ,the substances employed   
are1  either naturally or by artificial 
preparation1 in a soft or  plastic      
state2 they are then compressed by      
mechanical force1  sometimes assisted by
 heat1 into a mould of the required     
form4    #aac4 ,of bricks and tiles4 ,an
 oblong box of wood fitting upon  a     
bottom fixed to the brickmaker's bench1 
is the mould from which  every brick is 
formed4 ,a portion of the plastic       
mixture of which  the bricks consist is 
made ready by less skilful hands3 the   
workman first sprinkles a little sand   

into the mould1 and then  throws the    
clay into it with some force2 at the    
same time rapidly  working it with his  
fingers1 so as to make it completely    
close up  to the corners4 ,he next      
scrapes off1 with a wetted stick1 the   
superfluous clay1 and shakes the        
new-formed brick dexterously out  of its
 mould upon a piece of board1 on which  
it is removed by  another workman to the
 place appointed for drying it4 ,a very 
skilful moulder has occasionally1 in a  
long summer's day1  delivered from ten  
to eleven thousand bricks2 but a fair   
average  day's work is from five to six 
thousand4 ,tiles of various kinds  and  
forms are made of finer materials1 but  
by the same system of  moulding4 ,among 
the ruins of the city of ,gour1 the     
ancient  capital of ,bengal1 bricks are 
found having projecting ornaments  in   
high relief3 these appear to have been  
formed in a mould1 and  subsequently    
glazed with a coloured glaze4 ,in       
,germany1 also1  brickwork has been     

executed with various ornaments4 ,the   
cornice  of the church of ,st ,stephano1
 at ,berlin1 is made of large blocks  of
 brick moulded into the form required by
 the architect4 ,at the  establishment  
of ,messrs ,cubitt1 in ,gray's ,inn     
,lane1 vases1  cornices1 and highly     
ornamented capitals of columns are thus 
formed which rival stone itself in      
elasticity1 hardness1 and  durability4  
#aad4 ,of embossed china4 ,many of the  
forms given to those  beautiful         
specimens of earthenware which          
constitute the equipage  of our         
breakfast and our dinner-tables1 cannot 
be executed in the  lathe of the potter4
 ,the embossed ornaments on the edges of
 the  plates1 their polygonal shape1 the
 fluted surface of many of the  vases1  
would all be difficult and costly of    
execution by the  hand2 but they become 
easy and comparatively cheap1 when made 
by  pressing the soft material out of   
which they are formed into a  hard      
mould4 ,the care and skill bestowed on  

the preparation of  that mould are      
repaid by the multitude it produces4 ,in
 many of  the works of the china        
manufactory1 one part only of the       
article  is moulded2 the upper surface  
of the plate1 for example1 whilst  the  
under side is figured by the lathe4 ,in 
some instances1 the  handle1 or only a  
few ornaments1 are moulded1 and the body
 of the  work is turned4    #aae4 ,glass
 seals4 ,the process of engraving upon  
gems requires  considerable time and    
skill4 ,the seals thus produced can     
therefore never become common4          
,imitations1 however1 have been  made of
 various degrees of resemblance4 ,the   
colour which is given  to glass is1     
perhaps1 the most successful part of the
 imitation4  ,a small cylindrical rod of
 coloured glass is heated in the flame  
of a blowpipe1 until the extremity      
becomes soft4 ,the operator  then       
pinches it between the ends of a pair of
 nippers1 which are  formed of brass1   
and on one side of which the device     

intended for  the seal has been carved  
in relief4 ,when the mould has been well
  finished and care is taken in heating 
the glass properly1 the  seals thus     
produced are not bad imitations2 and by 
this system of  copying they are so     
multiplied1 that the more ordinary kinds
 are  sold at ,birmingham for three     
pence a dozen4    #aaf4 ,square glass   
bottles4 ,the round forms which are     
usually  given to vessels of glass are  
readily produced by the expansion  of   
the air with which they are blown4 ,it  
is1 however1 necessary  in many cases to
 make bottles of a square form1 and each
 capable  of holding exactly the same   
quantity of fluid4 ,it is also          
frequently desirable to have imprinted  
on them the name of the  maker of the   
medicine or other liquid they are       
destined to  contain4 ,a mould of iron1 
or of copper1 is provided of the        
intended size1 on the inside of which   
are engraved the names  required4 ,this 
mould1 which is used in a hot state1    

opens into  two parts1 to allow the     
insertion of the round1 unfinished      
bottle1 which is placed in it in a very 
soft state before it is  removed from   
the end of the iron tube with which it  
was blown4  ,the mould is now closed1   
and the glass is forced against its     
sides1 by blowing strongly into the     
bottle4    #aag4 ,wooden snuff boxes4   
,snuff boxes ornamented with devices1   
in imitation of carved work or of rose  
engine turning1 are sold  at a price    
which proves that they are only         
imitations4 ,the wood1  or horn1 out of 
which they are formed1 is softened by   
long  boiling in water1 and whilst in   
this state it is forced into  moulds of 
iron1 or steel1 on which are cut the    
requisite  patterns1 where it remains   
exposed to great pressure until it is   
dry4    #aah4 ,horn knife handles and   
umbrella handles4 ,the property  which  
horn possesses of becoming soft by the  
action of water and  of heat1 fits it   
for many useful purposes4 ,it is pressed

 into  moulds1 and becomes embossed with
 figures in relief1 adapted to  the     
objects to which it is to be applied4   
,if curved1 it may be  straightened2 or 
if straight1 it may be bent into any    
forms which  ornament or utility may    
require2 and by the use of the mould    
these forms may be multiplied in endless
 variety4 ,the commoner  sorts of       
knives1 the crooked handles for         
umbrellas1 and a  multitude of other    
articles to which horn is applied1      
attest the  cheapness which the art of  
copying gives to the things formed of   
this material4    #aai4 ,moulding       
tortoise-shell4 ,the same principle is  
applied  to things formed out of the    
shell of the turtle1 or the land        
tortoise4 ,from the greatly superior    
price of the raw material1  this        
principle of copying is1 however1 more  
rarely employed upon  it2 and the few   
carvings which are demanded1 are usually
  performed by hand4    #abj4           
,tobacco-pipe making4 ,this simple art  

is almost entirely  one of copying4 ,the
 moulds are formed of iron1 in two      
parts1 each  embracing one half of the  
stem2 the line of junction of these     
parts may generally be observed running 
lengthwise from one end  of the pipe to 
the other4 ,the hole passing to the bowl
 is formed  by thrusting a long wire    
through the clay before it is enclosed  
in the mould4 ,some of the moulds have  
figures1 or names1 sunk in  the inside1 
which give a corresponding figure in    
relief upon the  finished pipe4    #aba4
 ,embossing upon calico4 ,calicoes of   
one colour1 but  embossed all over with 
raised patterns1 though not much worn in
  this country1 are in great demand in  
several foreign markets4  ,this         
appearance is produced by passing them  
between rollers1 on  one of which is    
figured in intaglio the pattern to be   
transferred  to the calico4 ,the        
substance of the cloth is pressed very  
forcibly into the cavities thus formed1 
and retains its pattern  after          

considerable use4 ,the watered          
appearance in the cover of  the volume  
in the reader's hands is produced in a  
similar manner4  ,a cylinder of         
gun-metal1 on which the design of the   
watering is  previously cut1 is pressed 
by screws against another cylinder1     
formed out of pieces of brown paper     
which have been strongly  compressed    
together and accurately turned4 ,the two
 cylinders are  made to revolve rapidly1
 the paper one being slightly damped1   
and1 after a few minutes1 it takes an   
impression from the upper  or metal one4
 ,the glazed calico is now passed       
between the  rollers1 its glossy surface
 being in contact with the metal        
cylinder1 which is kept hot by a heated 
iron enclosed within it4  ,calicoes are 
sometimes watered by placing two pieces 
on each  other in such a position that  
the longitudinal threads of the one  are
 at right angles to those of the other1 
and compressing them  in this state     
between flat rollers4 ,the threads of   

the one piece  produce indentations in  
those of the other1 but they are not so 
deep as when produced by the former     
method4    #abb4 ,embossing upon        
leather4 ,this art of copying from      
patterns previously engraved on steel   
rollers is in most respects  similar to 
the preceding4 ,the leather is forced   
into the  cavities1 and the parts which 
are not opposite to any cavity are      
powerfully condensed between the        
rollers4    #abc4 ,swaging4 ,this is an 
art of copying practised by the  smith4 
,in order to fashion his iron and steel 
into the various  forms demanded by his 
customers1 he has small blocks of steel 
into which are sunk cavities of         
different shapes2 these are  called     
swages1 and are generally in pairs4     
,thus if he wants a  round bolt1        
terminating in a cylindrical head of    
larger diameter1  and having one or more
 projecting rims1 he uses a             
corresponding  swaging tool2 and having 
heated the end of his iron rod1 and     

thickened it by striking the end in the 
direction of the axis  7which is        
technically called upsetting71 he places
 its head upon  one part of the lage2   
and whilst an assistant holds the other 
part on the top of the hot iron1 he     
strikes it several times with  his      
hammer1 occasionally turning the head   
one quarter round4 ,the  heated iron is 
thus forced by the blows to assume the  
form of the  mould into which it is     
impressed4    #abd4 ,engraving by       
pressure4 ,this is one of the most      
beautiful  examples of the art of       
copying carried to an almost unlimited  
extent2 and the delicacy with which it  
can be executed1 and the  precision with
 which the finest traces of the graving 
tool can be  transferred from steel to  
copper1 or even from hard steel to soft 
steel1 is most unexpected4 ,we are      
indebted to ,mr ,perkins for most  of   
the contrivances which have brought this
 art at once almost to  perfection4 ,an 
engraving is first made upon soft steel1

 which is  hardened by a peculiar       
process without in the least injuring   
its  delicacy4 ,a cylinder of soft      
steel1 pressed with great force  against
 the hardened steel engraving1 is now   
made to roll very  slowly backward and  
forward over it1 thus receiving the     
design1  but in relief4 ,the cylinder is
 in its turn hardened without  injury41 
and if it be slowly rolled to and fro   
with strong  pressure on successive     
plates of copper1 it will imprint on a  
thousand of them a perfect facsimile of 
the original steel  engraving from which
 it was made4 ,thus the number of copies
  producible from the same design may be
 multiplied a  thousand-fold4 ,but even 
this is very far short of the limits to 
which the process may be extended4 ,the 
hardened steel roller1  bearing the     
design upon it in relief may be employed
 to make a  few of its first impressions
 upon plates of soft steel1 and these   
being hardened become the               
representatives of the original         

engraving1 and may in their turn be made
 the parents of other  rollers1 each    
generating copperplates like their      
prototype4 ,the  possible extent to     
which facsimiles of one original        
engraving may  thus be multiplied1      
almost confounds the imagination1 and   
appears  to be for all practical        
purposes unlimited4    ,this beautiful  
art was first proposed by ,mr ,perkins  
for the  purpose of rendering the       
forgery of bank notes a matter of great 
difficulty2 and there are two principles
 which peculiarly adapt  it to that     
object3 first1 the perfect identity of  
all the  impressions1 so that any       
variation in the minutest line would at 
once cause detection2 secondly1 that the
 original plates may be  formed by the  
united labours of several artists most  
eminent in  their respective            
departments2 for as only one original of
 each  design is necessary1 the expense1
 even of the most elaborate  engraving1 
will be trifling1 compared with the     

multitude of  copies produced from it4  
#abe4 ,it must1 however1 be admitted    
that the principle of  copying itself   
furnishes an expedient for imitating any
 engraving  or printed pattern1 however 
complicated2 and thus presents a        
difficulty which none of the schemes    
devised for the prevention  of forgery  
appear to have yet effectually obviated4
 ,in attempting  to imitate the most    
perfect banknote1 the first process     
would be  to place it with the printed  
side downwards upon a stone or other    
substance1 on which1 by passing it      
through a rolling-press1 it  might be   
firmly fixed4 ,the next object would be 
to discover some  solvent which should  
dissolve the paper1 but neither affect  
the  printing-ink1 nor injure the stone 
or substance to which it is  attached4  
,water does not seem to do this         
effectually1 and perhaps  weak alkaline 
or acid solutions would be tried4 ,if1  
however1 this  could be fully           
accomplished1 and if the stone or other 

substance1  used to retain the          
impression1 had those properties which  
enable  us to print from it1 innumerable
 facsimiles of the note might  obviously
 be made1 and the imitation would be    
complete4 ,porcelain  biscuit1 which has
 recently been used with a black lead   
pencil  for memorandum books1 seems in  
some measure adapted for such  trials1  
since its porosity may be diminished to 
any required  extent by regulating the  
dilution of the glazing4    #abf4 ,gold 
and silver moulding4 ,many of the       
mouldings used by  jewellers consist of 
thin slips of metal1 which have received
  their form by passing between steel   
rollers1 on which the pattern  is       
embossed or engraved2 thus taking a     
succession of copies of  the devices    
intended4    #abg4 ,ornamental papers4  
,sheets of paper coloured or covered    
with gold or silver leaf1 and embossed  
with various patterns1 are  used for    
covering books1 and for many ornamental 
purposes4 ,the  figures upon these are  

produced by the same process1 that of   
passing the sheets of paper between     
engraved rollers4      ,of copying by   
stamping    #abh4 ,this mode of copying 
is extensively employed in the  arts4   
,it is generally executed by means of   
large presses worked  with a screw and  
heavy flywheel4 ,the materials on which 
the  copies are impressed are most      
frequently metals1 and the process  is  
sometimes executed when they are hot1   
and in one case when the  metal is in a 
state between solidity and fluidity4    
#abi4 ,coins and medals4 ,the whole of  
the coins which circulate  as money are 
produced by this mode of copying4 ,the  
screw presses  are either worked by     
manual labour1 by water1 or by steam    
power4  ,the mint which was sent a few  
years since to ,calcutta was capable  of
 coining #bjj1jjj pieces a day4 ,medals1
 which usually have their  figures in   
higher relief than coins1 are produced  
by similar  means2 but a single blow is 
rarely sufficient to bring them to      

perfection1 and the compression of the  
metal which arises from  the first blow 
renders it too hard to receive many     
subsequent  blows without injury to the 
die4 ,it is therefore1 after being      
struck1 removed to a furnace1 in which  
it is carefully heated  red-hot and     
annealed1 after which operation it is   
again placed  between the dies1 and     
receives additional blows4 ,for medals1 
on  which the figures are very          
prominent1 these processes must be      
repeated many times4 ,one of the largest
 medals hitherto struck  underwent them 
nearly a hundred times before it was    
completed4    #acj4 ,ornaments for      
military accoutrements1 and furniture4  
,these are usually of brass1 and are    
stamped up out of solid or  sheet brass 
by placing it between dies1 and allowing
 a heavy  weight to drop upon the upper 
die from a height of from five to       
fifteen feet4    #aca4 ,buttons and nail
 heads4 ,buttons embossed with crests or
  other devices are produced by the same

 means2 and some of those  which are    
plain receive their hemispherical form  
from the dies in  which they are struck4
 ,the heads of several kinds of nails   
which  are portions of spheres1 or      
polyhedrons1 are also formed by these   
means4    #acb4 ,of a process for       
copying1 called in ,france clichee4     
,this  curious method of copying by     
stamping is applied to medals1 and  in  
some cases to forming stereotype plates4
 ,there exists a range  of temperature  
previous to the melting point of several
 of the  alloys of lead1 tin1 and       
antimony1 in which the compound is      
neither solid1 nor yet fluid4 ,in this  
kind of pasty state it is  placed in a  
box under a die1 which descends upon it 
with  considerable force4 ,the blow     
drives the metal into the finest  lines 
of the die1 and the coldness of the     
latter immediately  solidifies the whole
 mass4 ,a quantity of the half-melted   
metal is  scattered in all directions by
 the blow1 and is retained by the  sides

 of the box in which the process is     
carried on4 ,the work  thus produced is 
admirable for its sharpness1 but has not
 the  finished form of a piece just     
leaving the coining-press3 the  sides   
are ragged1 and it must be trimmed1 and 
its thickness  equalized in the lathe4  
,of copying by punching    #acc4 ,this  
mode of copying consists in driving a   
steel punch  through the substance to be
 cut1 either by a blow or by pressure4  
,in some cases the object is to copy the
 aperture1 and the  substance separated 
from the plate is rejected2 in other    
cases  the small pieces cut out are the 
objects of the workman's labour4        
#acd4 ,punching iron plate for boilers4 
,the steel punch used  for this purpose 
is from three-eighths to three-quarters 
of an  inch in diameter1 and drives out 
a circular disk from a plate of  iron   
from one-quarter to five eighths of an  
inch thick4    #ace4 ,punching tinned   
iron4 ,the ornamental patterns of open  
work which decorate the tinned and      

japanned wares in general use1  are     
rarely punched by the workman who makes 
them4 ,in ,london the  art of punching  
out these patterns in screw-presses is  
carried on  as a separate trade2 and    
large quantities of sheet tin are thus  
perforated for cullenders1              
wine-strainers1 borders of waiters1  and
 other similar purposes4 ,the perfection
 and the precision to  which the art has
 been carried are remarkable4 ,sheets of
 copper1  too1 are punched with small   
holes about the hundredth of an inch  in
 diameter1 in such multitudes that more 
of the sheet metal is  removed than     
remains behind2 and plates of tin have  
been  perforated with above three       
thousand holes in each square inch4     
#acf4 ,the inlaid plates of brass and   
rosewood1 called buhl  work1 which      
ornament our furniture1 are1 in some    
instances1  formed by punching2 but in  
this case1 both the parts cut out1 and  
those which remain1 are in many cases   
employed4 ,in the remaining             

illustrations of the art of copying by  
punching1 the part made  use of is that 
which is punched out4    #acg4 ,cards   
for guns4 ,the substitution of a        
circular disk of  thin card instead of  
paper1 for retaining in its place the   
charge  of a fowling-piece1 is attended 
with considerable advantage4 ,it  would1
 however1 be of little avail1 unless an 
easy method was  contrived of producing 
an unlimited number of cards1 each      
exactly  fitting the bore of the barrel4
 ,the small steel tool used for  this   
purpose cuts out innumerable circles    
similar to its cutting  end1 each of    
which precisely fills the barrel for    
which it was  designed4    #ach4        
,ornaments of gilt paper4 ,the golden   
stars1 leaves1 and  other devices1 sold 
in shops for the purpose of ornamenting 
articles made of paper and pasteboard1  
and other fancy works1 are  cut by      
punches of various forms out of sheets  
of gilt paper4    #aci4 ,steel chains4  
,the chain used in connecting the       

mainspring and fusee in watches and     
clocks1 is composed of small  pieces of 
sheet steel1 and it is of great         
importance that each of  these pieces   
should be of exactly the same size4 ,the
 links are of  two sorts2 one of them   
consisting of a single oblong piece of  
steel with two holes in it1 and the     
other formed by connecting  two of the  
same pieces of steel1 placed parallel to
 each other1  and at a small distance   
apart1 by two rivets4 ,the two kinds of 
links occur alternately in the chain3   
each end of the single  pieces being    
placed between the ends of two others1  
and connected  with them by a rivet     
passing through all three4 ,if the rivet
  holes in the pieces for the double    
links are not precisely at  equal       
distances1 the chain will not be        
straight1 and will1  consequently1 be   
unfit for its purpose4      ,copying    
with elongation    #adj4 ,in this       
species of copying there exists but     
little  resemblance between the copy and

 the original4 ,it is the  cross-section
 only of the thing produced which is    
similar to the  tool through which it   
passes4 ,when the substances to be      
operated  upon are hard1 they must      
frequently pass in succession through   
several holes1 and it is in some cases  
necessary to anneal them  at intervals4 
#ada4 ,wire drawing4 ,the metal to be   
converted into wire is  made of a       
cylindrical form1 and drawn forcibly    
through circular  holes in plates of    
steel3 at each passage it becomes       
smaller4  and1 when finished1 its       
section at any point is a precise copy  
of  the last hole through which it      
passed4 ,upon the larger kinds of  wire1
 fine lines may sometimes be traced1    
running longitudinally4  these arise    
from slight imperfections in the holes  
of the  draw-plates4 ,for many purposes 
of the arts1 wire1 the section of  which
 is square or half round1 is required3  
the same method of  making it is        
pursued1 except that the holes through  

which it is  drawn are in such cases    
themselves square1 or half-round1 or of 
whatever other form the wire is required
 to be4 ,a species of wire  is made1 the
 section of which resembles a star with 
from six to  twelve rays2 this is called
 pinion wire1 and is used by the        
clockmakers4 ,they file away all the    
rays from a short piece1  except from   
about half an inch near one end3 this   
becomes a  pinion for a clock2 and the  
leaves or teeth are already burnished   
and finished1 from having passed through
 the draw-plate4    #adb4 ,tube drawing4
 ,the art of forming tubes of uniform   
diameter is nearly similar in its mode  
of execution to wire  drawing4 ,the     
sheet brass is bent round and soldered  
so as to form  a hollow cylinder2 and if
 the diameter outside is that which is  
required to be uniform1 it is drawn     
through a succession of  holes1 as in   
wire drawing3 ,if the inside diameter is
 to be  uniform1 a succession of steel  
cylinders1 called triblets1 are  drawn  

through the brass tube4 ,in making tubes
 for telescopes1 it  is necessary that  
both the inside and outside should be   
uniform4  ,a steel triblet1 therefore1  
is first passed into the tube1 which  is
 then drawn through a succession of     
holes1 until the outside  diameter is   
reduced to the required size4 ,the metal
 of which the  tube is formed is        
condensed between these holes and the   
steel  cylinder within2 and when the    
latter is withdrawn the internal        
surface appears polished4 ,the brass    
tube is considerably extended  by this  
process1 sometimes even to double its   
first length4    #adc4 ,leaden pipes4   
,leaden pipes for the conveyance of     
water  were formerly made by casting2   
but it has been found that they  can be 
made both cheaper and better by drawing 
them through holes  in the manner last  
described4 ,a cylinder of lead1 of five 
or six  inches in diameter and about two
 feet long1 is cast with a small  hole  
through its axis1 and an iron triblet of

 about fifteen feet  in length is forced
 into the hole4 ,it is then drawn       
through a  series of holes1 until the   
lead is extended upon the triblet from  
one end to the other1 and is of the     
proper thickness in  proportion to the  
size of the pipe4    #add4 ,iron        
rolling4 ,when cylinders of iron of     
greater  thickness than wire are        
required1 they are formed by passing    
wrought iron between rollers1 each of   
which has sunk in it a  semi-cylindrical
 groove2 and as such rollers rarely     
touch  accurately1 a longitudinal line  
will usually be observed in the         
cylinders so manufactured4 ,bar iron is 
thus shaped into all the  various forms 
of round1 square1 half-round1 oval1 etc4
 in which  it occurs in commerce4 ,a    
particular species of moulding is thus  
made1 which resembles1 in its section1  
that part of the frame of  a window     
which separates two adjacent panes of   
glass4 ,being much  stronger than wood1 
it can be considerably reduced in       

thickness1  and consequently offers less
 obstruction to the light2 it is much   
used for skylights4    #ade4 ,it is     
sometimes required that the iron thus   
produced  should not be of uniform      
thickness throughout4 ,this is the case 
in bars for railroads1 where greater    
depth is required towards  the middle of
 the rail which is at the greatest      
distance from the  supports4 ,this form 
is produced by cutting the groove in the
  rollers deeper at those parts where   
additional strength is  required1 so    
that the hollow which surrounds the     
roller would1 if  it could be unwound1  
be a mould of the shape the iron is     
intended  to fit4    #adf4 ,vermicelli4 
,the various forms into which this paste
 is  made are given by forcing it       
through holes in tin plate4 ,it  passes 
through them1 and appears on the other  
side in long  strings4 ,the cook makes  
use of the same method in preparing     
butter and ornamental pastry for the    
table1 and the confectioner  in forming 

cylindrical lozenges of various         
composition4      ,of copying with      
altered dimensions    #adg4 ,of the     
pentagraph4 ,this mode of copying is    
chiefly used  for drawings or maps3 the 
instrument is simple2 and1 although     
usually employed in reducing1 is capable
 of enlarging the size of  the copy4 ,an
 automaton figure1 exhibited in ,london 
a short time  since1 which drew profiles
 of its visitors1 was regulated by a    
mechanism on this principle4 ,a small   
aperture in the wall1  opposite the seat
 in which the person is placed whose    
profile is  taken1 conceals a camera    
lucida1 which is placed in an adjoining 
apartment3 and an assistant1 by moving a
 point1 connected by a  pentagraph with 
the hand of the automaton1 over the     
outline of  the head1 causes the figure 
to trace a corresponding profile4       
#adh4 ,by turning4 ,the art of turning  
might perhaps itself be  classed amongst
 the arts of copying4 ,a steel axis1    
called a  mandril1 having a pulley      

attached to the middle of it1 is        
supported at one end either by a conical
 point1 or by a  cylindrical collar1 and
 at the other end by another collar1    
through which it passes4 ,the extremity 
which projects beyond this  last collar 
is formed into a screw1 by which various
 instruments1  called chucks1 can be    
attached to it4 ,these chucks are       
intended  to hold the various materials 
to be submitted to the operation of     
turning1 and have a great variety of    
forms4 ,the mandril with the  chuck is  
made to revolve by a strap which passes 
over the pulley  that is attached to it1
 and likewise over a larger wheel moved 
either by the foot1 or by its connection
 with steam or water  power4 ,all work  
which is executed on a mandril partakes 
in some  measure of the irregularities  
in the form of that mandril2 and  the   
perfect circularity of section which    
ought to exist in every  part of the    
work1 can only be ensured by an equal   
accuracy in the  mandril and its collar4

    #adi4 ,rose engine turning4 ,this   
elegant art depends in a great  measure 
on copying4 ,circular plates of metal   
called rosettes1  having various        
indentations on the surfaces and edges1 
are fixed  on the mandril1 which admits 
of a movement either end-wise or        
laterally3 a fixed obstacle called the  
'touch'1 against which the  rosettes are
 pressed by a spring1 obliges the       
mandril to follow  their indentations1  
and thus causes the cutting tool to     
trace out  the same pattern on the work4
 ,the distance of the cutting tool  from
 the centre being usually less than the 
radius of the  rosette1 causes the copy 
to be much diminished4    #aej4 ,copying
 dies4 ,a lathe has been long known in  
,france1 and  recently been used at the 
,english mint for copying dies4 ,a blunt
  point is carried by a very slow spiral
 movement successively over  every part 
of the die to be copied1 and is pressed 
by a weight  into all the cavities2     
while a cutting point connected with it 

by  the machine traverses the face of a 
piece of soft steel1 in which  it cuts  
the device of the original die on the   
same or on a  diminished scale4 ,the    
degree of excellence of the copy        
increases  in proportion as it is       
smaller than the original4 ,the die of a
  crown-piece will furnish by copy a    
very tolerable die for a  sixpence4 ,but
 the chief use to be expected from this 
lathe is to  prepare all the coarser    
parts1 and leave only the finer and more
  expressive lines for the skill and    
genius of the artist4    #aea4          
,shoe-last making engine4 ,an instrument
 not very unlike  in principle was      
proposed for the purpose of making shoe 
lasts4 ,a  pattern last of a shoe for   
the right foot was placed in one part   
of the apparatus1 and when the machine  
was moved1 two pieces of  wood1 placed  
in another part which had been          
previously adjusted  by screws1 were cut
 into lasts greater or less than the    
original1  as was desired2 and although 

the pattern was for the right foot1  one
 of the lasts was for the left1 an      
effect which was produced  by merely    
interposing a wheel which reversed the  
motion between  the two pieces of wood  
to be cut into lasts4    #aeb4 ,engine  
for copying busts4 ,many years since1   
the late ,mr  ,watt amused himself with 
constructing an engine to produce copies
  of busts or statues1 either of the    
same size as the original1 or  in a     
diminished proportion4 ,the substances  
on which he operated  were various1 and 
some of the results were shewn to his   
friends1  but the mechanism by which    
they were made has never been           
described4 ,more recently1 ,mr ,hawkins1
 who1 nearly at the same  time1 had also
 contrived a similar machine1 has placed
 it in the  hands of an artist1 who has 
made copies in ivory from a variety  of 
busts4 ,the art of multiplying in       
different sizes the figures  of the     
sculptor1 aided by that of rendering    
their acquisition  cheap through the art

 of casting1 promises to give additional
  value to his productions1 and to      
diffuse more widely the pleasure        
arising from their possession4    #aec4 
,screw cutting4 ,when this operation is 
performed in the  lathe by means of a   
screw upon the mandril1 it is           
essentially an  art of copying1 but it  
is only the number of threads in a given
  length which is copied2 the form of   
the thread1 and length as  well as the  
diameter of the screw to be cut1 are    
entirely  independent of those from     
which the copy is made4 ,there is       
another method of cutting screws in a   
lathe by means of one  pattern screw1   
which1 being connected by wheels with   
the mandril1  guides the cutting point4 
,in this process1 unless the time of    
revolution of the mandril is the same as
 that of the screw which  guides the    
cutting point1 the number of threads in 
a given length  will be different4 ,if  
the mandril move quicker than the       
cutting  point1 the screw which is      

produced will be finer than the         
original2 if it move slower1 the copy   
will be more coarse than  the original4 
,the screw thus generated may be finer  
or coarser--  it may be larger or       
smaller in diameter--it may have the    
same or  a greater number of threads    
than that from which it is copied2  yet 
all the defects which exist in the      
original will be  accurately            
transmitted1 under the modified         
circumstances1 to  every individual     
generated from it4    #aed4 ,printing   
from copper plates with altered         
dimensions4  ,some very singular        
specimens of an art of copying1 not yet 
made  public1 were brought from ,paris a
 few years since4 ,a watchmaker  in that
 city1 of the name of ,gonord1 had      
contrived a method by  which he could   
take from the same copperplate          
impressions of  different sizes1 either 
larger or smaller than the original     
design4 ,having procured four           
impressions of a parrot1 surrounded  by 

a circle1 executed in this manner1 ,i   
shewed them to the late  ,mr ,lowry1 an 
engraver equally distinguished for his  
skill1 and  for the many mechanical     
contrivances with which he enriched his 
art4 ,the relative dimensions of the    
several impressions were #e4e1  #f4c1   
#h4d1 #ae4j1 so that the largest was    
nearly three times the  linear size of  
the smallest2 and ,mr ,lowry assured me1
 that he was  unable to detect any lines
 in one which had not corresponding     
lines in the others4 ,there appeared to 
be a difference in the  quantity of ink1
 but none in the traces of the          
engraving2 and1  from the general       
appearance1 it was conjectured that the 
largest  but one was the original       
impression from the copperplate4    ,the
 means by which this singular operation 
was executed have  not been published2  
but two conjectures were formed at the  
time  which merit notice4 ,it was       
supposed that the artist was in         
possession of some method of            

transferring the ink from the lines  of 
a copperplate to the surface of some    
fluid1 and of  retransferring the       
impression from the fluid to paper4 ,if 
this  could be accomplished1 the print  
would1 in the first instance1 be  of    
exactly the same size as the copper from
 which it was derived2  but if the fluid
 were contained in a vessel having the  
form of an  inverted cone1 with a small 
aperture at the bottom1 the liquid      
might be lowered or raised in the vessel
 by gradual abstraction  or addition    
through the apex of the cone2 in this   
case1 the  surface to which the         
printing-ink adhered would diminish or  
enlarge1 and in this altered state the  
impression might be  retransferred to   
paper4 ,it must be admitted1 that this  
conjectural explanation is liable to    
very considerable  difficulties2 for1   
although the converse operation of      
taking an  impression from a liquid     
surface has a parallel in the art of    
marbling paper1 the possibility of      

transferring the ink from the  copper to
 the fluid requires to be proved4       
,another and more plausible explanation 
is founded on the  elastic nature of the
 compound of glue and treacle1 a        
substance  already in use in            
transferring engravings to earthenware4 
,it is  conjectured1 that an impression 
from the copperplate is taken  upon a   
large sheet of this composition2 that   
this sheet is then  stretched in both   
directions1 and that the ink thus       
expanded is  transferred to paper4 ,if  
the copy is required to be smaller than 
the original1 the elastic substance must
 first be stretched1 and  then receive  
the impression from the copperplate3 on 
removing the  tension it will contract1 
and thus reduce the size of the design4 
,it is possible that one transfer may   
not in all cases suffice2 as  the       
extensibility of the composition of glue
 and treacle1  although considerable1 is
 still limited4 ,perhaps sheets of      
,india  rubber of uniform texture and   

thickness1 may be found to answer       
better than this composition2 or        
possibly the ink might be  transferred  
from the copper plate to the surface of 
a bottle of  this gum1 which bottle     
might1 after being expanded by forcing  
air  into it1 give up the enlarged      
impression to paper4 ,as it would       
require considerable time to produce    
impressions in this manner1  and there  
might arise some difficulty in making   
them all of  precisely the same size1   
the process might be rendered more      
certain and expeditious by performing   
that part of the operation  which       
depends on the enlargement or diminution
 of the design only  once2 and1 instead 
of printing from the soft substance4    
transferring the design from it to      
stone3 thus a considerable  portion of  
the work would be reduced to an art     
already well  known1 that of            
lithography4 ,this idea receives some   
confirmation  from the fact1 that in    
another set of specimens1 consisting of 

a  map of ,st ,petersburgh1 of several  
sizes1 a very short line1  evidently an 
accidental defect1 occurs in all the    
impressions of  one particular size1 but
 not in any of a different size4        
#aee4 ,machine to produce engraving from
 medals4 ,an instrument  was contrived1 
a long time ago1 and is described in the
 ,manuel de  ,tourneur1 by which        
copperplate engravings are produced from
  medals and other objects in relief4   
,the medal and the copper are  fixed on 
two sliding plates at right angles to   
each other1 so  connected that1 when the
 plate on which the medal is fixed is   
raised vertically by a screw1 the slide 
holding the copperplate  is advanced by 
an equal quantity in the horizontal     
direction4 ,the  medal is fixed on the  
vertical slide with its face towards the
  copperplate1 and a little above it4   
,a bar1 terminating at one end in a     
tracing point1 and at the  other in a   
short arm1 at right angles to the bar1  
and holding a  diamond point1 is placed 

horizontally above the copper2 so that  
the tracing point shall touch the medal 
to which the bar is  perpendicular1 and 
the diamond point shall touch the       
copperplate  to which the arm is        
perpendicular4    ,under this           
arrangement1 the bar being supposed to  
move  parallel to itself1 and           
consequently to the copper1 if the      
tracing point pass over a flat part of  
the medal1 the diamond  point will draw 
a straight line of equal length upon the
 copper2  but1 if the tracing point pass
 over any projecting part of the  medal1
 the deviation from the straight line by
 the diamond point1  will be exactly    
equal to the elevation of the           
corresponding point  of the medal above 
the rest of the surface4 ,thus1 by the  
transit  of this tracing point over any 
line upon the medal1 the diamond  will  
draw upon the copper a section of the   
medal through that  line4    ,a screw is
 attached to the apparatus1 so that if  
the medal be  raised a very small       

quantity by the screw1 the copperplate  
will  be advanced by the same quantity1 
and thus a new line of section  may be  
drawn3 and1 by continuing this process1 
the series of  sectional lines on the   
copper produces the representation of   
the  medal on a plane3 the outline and  
the form of the figure arising  from the
 sinuosities of the lines1 and from     
their greater or less  proximity4 ,the  
effect of this kind of engraving is very
 striking2  and in some specimens gives 
a high degree of apparent relief4 ,it   
has been practised on plate glass1 and  
is then additionally  curious from the  
circumstance of the fine lines traced by
 the  diamond being invisible1 except in
 certain lights4    ,from this          
description1 it will have been seen that
 the  engraving on copper must be       
distorted2 that is to say1 that the     
projection on the copper cannot be the  
same as that which arises  from a       
perpendicular projection of each point  
of the medal upon a  plane parallel to  

itself4 ,the position of the prominent  
parts  will be more altered than that of
 the less elevated2 and the  greater the
 relief of the medal the more distorted 
will be its  engraved representation4   
,mr ,john ,bate1 son of ,mr ,bate1 of   
the  ,poultry1 has contrived an improved
 machine1 for which he has  taken a     
patent1 in which this source of         
distortion is remedied4  ,the head1 in  
the title page of the present volume1 is
 copied from  a medal of ,roger ,bacon1 
which forms one of a series of medals of
  eminent men1 struck at the ,royal     
,mint at ,munich1 and is the first  of  
the published productions of this new   
art47#c997    ,the inconvenience which  
arises from too high a relief in the    
medal1 or in the bust1 might be remedied
 by some mechanical  contrivance1 by    
which the deviation of the diamond point
 from the  right line 7which it would   
describe when the tracing point         
traverses a plane71 would be made       
proportional not to the  elevation of   

the corresponding point above the plane 
of the  medal1 but to its elevation     
above some other parallel plane  removed
 to a fit distance behind it4 ,thus     
busts and statues might  be reduced to  
any required degree of relief4    #aef4 
,the machine just described naturally   
suggests other  views which seem to     
deserve some consideration1 and1        
perhaps1  some experiment4 ,if a medal  
were placed under the tracing point  of 
a pentagraph1 an engraving tool         
substituted for the pencil1  and a      
copperplate in the place of the paper2  
and if1 by some  mechanism1 the tracing 
point1 which slides in a vertical plane1
  could1 as it is carried over the      
different elevations of the  medal1     
increase or diminish the depth of the   
engraved line  proportionally to the    
actual height of the corresponding point
 on  the medal1 then an engraving would 
be produced1 free at least  from any    
distortion1 although it might be liable 
to objections of  a different kind4 ,if1

 by any similar contrivance1 instead of 
lines1 we could make on each point of   
the copper a dot1 varying  in size or   
depth with the altitude of the          
corresponding point of  the medal above 
its plane1 than a new species of        
engraving would  be produced3 and the   
variety of these might again be         
increased1  by causing the graving point
 to describe very small circles1 of     
diameters1 varying with the height of   
the point on the medal  above a given   
plane2 or by making the graving tool    
consist of  three equidistant points1   
whose distance increased or diminished  
according to some determinate law1      
dependent on the elevation of  the point
 represented above the plane of the     
medal4 ,it would1  perhaps1 be difficult
 to imagine the effects of some of these
  kinds of engraving2 but they would all
 possess1 in common1 the  property of   
being projections1 by parallel lines1 of
 the objects  represented1 and the      
intensity of the shade of the ink would 

either vary according to some function  
of the distance of the  point           
represented from some given plane1 or it
 would be a little  modified by the     
distances from the same plane of a few  
of the  immediately contiguous points4  
#aeg4 ,the system of shading maps by    
means of lines of equal  altitude above 
the sea bears some analogy to this mode 
of  representing medals1 and if applied 
to them would produce a  different      
species of engraved resemblance4 ,the   
projections on the  plane of the medal1 
of the section of an imaginary plane1   
placed  at successive distances above   
it1 with the medal itself1 would        
produce a likeness of the figure on the 
medal1 in which all the  inclined parts 
of it would be dark in proportion to    
their  inclination4 ,other species of   
engraving might be conceived by         
substituting1 instead of the imaginary  
plane1 an imaginary sphere  or other    
solid1 intersecting the figure in the   
medal4    #aeh4 ,lace made by           

caterpillars4 ,a most extraordinary     
species  of manufacture1 which is in a  
slight degree connected with  copying1  
has been contrived by an officer of     
engineers residing  at ,munich4 ,it     
consists of lace1 and veils1 with open  
patterns in  them1 made entirely by     
caterpillars4 ,the following is the mode
 of  proceeding adopted3 he makes a     
paste of the leaves of the plant1  which
 is the usual food of the species of    
caterpillar7#d997 he  employs1 and      
spreads it thinly over a stone1 or other
 flat  substance4 ,he then1 with a      
camel-hair pencil dipped in olive oil1  
draws upon the coating of paste the     
pattern he wishes the insects  to leave 
open4 ,this stone is then placed in an  
inclined position1  and a number of the 
caterpillars are placed at the bottom4  
,a  peculiar species is chosen1 which   
spins a strong web2 and the  animals    
commencing at the bottom1 eat and spin  
their way up to  the top1 carefully     
avoiding every part touched by the oil1 

but  devouring all the rest of the      
paste4 ,the extreme lightness of  these 
veils1 combined with some strength1 is  
truly surprising4  ,one of them1        
measuring twenty-six and a half inches  
by seventeen  inches1 weighed only #a4ea
 grains2 a degree of lightness which    
will appear more strongly by contrast   
with other fabrics4 ,one  square yard of
 the substance of which these veils are 
made weighs  #d #a_/c grains1 whilst one
 square yard of silk gauze weighs #acg  
grains1 and one square yard of the      
finest patent net weighs #bfb  #a_/b    
grains4 ,the ladies' coloured muslin    
dresses1 mentioned in the  table        
subjoined1 cost ten shillings per dress1
 and each weigh six  ounces2 the cotton 
from which they are made weighing nearly
 six  and two-ninth ounces avoirdupois  
weight4    ,weight of one square yard of
 each of the following articles7#e997   
,weight of                              
,weight      cotton used                
,value    finished of    in waking      

per yard  one square    one square      
,description of goods       measure     
yard            yard                    
s4 d4    ,troy grains    ,troy grains   
,caterpillar veils           --         
#d #a_/c           --   ,silk gauze #c-d
 wide        #a  #j         #acg        
--   ,finest patent net           --    
#bfb #a_/b           --   ,fine cambric 
muslin         --          #eea         
--   #f-dths jaconet muslin      #b  #j 
#fac           #fgj   ,ladies' coloured 
muslin dresses #c #j     #ghh           
#hge   #f-dths cambric             #a   
#b         #igb          #ajfi   #i-hths
 calico              #j  #i         #ihh
          #ajhe   #a_/b-yard nankeen    
#j  #h        #bbdj          #bdcb      
#aei4 ,this enumeration1 which is far   
from complete1 of the  arts in which    
copying is the foundation1 may be       
terminated with  an example which has   
long been under the eye of the reader2  
although few1 perhaps1 are aware of the 
number of repeated  copyings of which   

these very pages are the subject4    #a4
 ,they are copies1 by printing1 from    
stereotype plates4    #b4 ,these        
stereotype plates are copied1 by the art
 of casting1  from moulds formed of     
plaster of ,paris4    #c4 ,these moulds 
are themselves copied by casting the    
plaster  in a liquid state upon the     
moveable types set up by the            
compositor4    ,it is here that the     
union of the intellectual and the       
mechanical departments takes place4 ,the
 mysteries1 however1 of an  author's    
copying1 form no part of our enquiry1   
although it may be  fairly remarked1    
that1 in numerous instances1 the mental 
far  eclipses the mechanical copyist4   
#d4 ,these moveable types1 the obedient 
messengers of the most  opposite        
thoughts1 the most conflicting theories1
 are themselves  copies by casting from 
moulds of copper called matrices4    #e4
 ,the lower part of those matrices1     
bearing the impressions  of the letters 
or characters1 are copies1 by punching1 

from steel  punches on which the same   
characters exist in relief4    #f4      
,these steel punches are not themselves 
entirely exempted  from the great       
principle of art4 ,many of the cavities 
which exist  in them1 such as those in  
the middle of the punches for the       
letters a1 b1 d1 e1 g1 etc41 are        
produced from other steel  punches in   
which these parts are in relief4    ,we 
have thus traced through six successive 
stages of copying  the mechanical art of
 printing from stereotype plates3 the   
principle of copying contributing in    
this1 as in every other  department of  
manufacture1 to the uniformity and the  
cheapness of  the work produced4        
,,notes3    #a4 ,the late ,mr ,lowry4   
#b4 ,i posses a lithographic reprint of 
a page of a table1 which  appears1 from 
the from of the type1 to have been      
several years  old4    #c4 ,the         
construction of the engraving becomes   
evident on examining  it with a lens of 
sufficient power to show the continuity 

of the  lines4    #d4 ,the ,phalaena    
pardilla1 which feeds on the ,prunus    
padus4    #e4 ,some of these weights and
 measures are calculated from a         
statement in the ,report of the         
,committee of the ,house of ,commons  on
 ,printed ,cotton ,goods2 and the widths
 of the pieces there given  are presumed
 to be the real widths1 not those by    
which they are  called in the retail    
shops4        ,chapter #ab    ,on the   
,method of ,observing ,manufactories    
#afj4 ,having now reviewed the          
mechanical principles which  regulate   
the successful application of mechanical
 science to  great establishments for   
the production of manufactured goods1 it
  remains for us to suggest a few       
enquiries1 and to offer a few           
observations1 to those whom an          
enlightened curiosity may lead to       
examine the factories of this or of     
other countries4    ,the remark--that it
 is important to commit to writing all  
information as soon as possible after it

 is received1 especially  when numbers  
are concerned--applies to almost all    
enquiries4 ,it  is frequently impossible
 to do this at the time of visiting an  
establishment1 although not the         
slightest jealousy may exist2 the  mere 
act of writing information as it is     
communicated orally1 is  a great        
interruption to the examination of      
machinery4 ,in such  cases1 therefore1  
it is advisable to have prepared        
beforehand the  questions to be asked1  
and to leave blanks for the answers1    
which  may be quickly inserted1 as1 in a
 multitude of cases1 they are  merely   
numbers4 ,those who have not tried this 
plan will be  surprised at the quantity 
of information which may1 through its   
means1 be acquired1 even by a short     
examination4 ,each manufacture  requires
 its own list of questions1 which will  
be better drawn up  after the first     
visit4 ,the following outline1 which is 
very  generally applicable1 may suffice 
for an illustration2 and to  save time1 

it may be convenient to have it printed2
 and to bind  up1 in the form of a      
pocket-book1 a hundred copies of the    
skeleton forms for processes1 with about
 twenty of the general  enquiries4      
,,general ,,enquiries      ,outlines of 
a description of any of the mechanical  
arts ought to  contain information on   
the following points    ,brief sketch of
 its history1 particularly the date of  
its  invention1 and of its introduction 
into ,england4    ,short reference to   
the previous states through which the   
material employed has passed3 the places
 whence it is procured3  the price of a 
given quantity4    ,the various         
processes must now be described         
successively  according to the plan     
which will be given in 7#afa72 after    
which  the following information should 
be given4    ,are various kinds of the  
same article made in one establishment1 
or at different ones1 and are there     
differences in the processes8    ,to    
what defects are the goods liable8      

,what substitutes or adulterations are  
used8    ,what waste is allowed by the  
master8    ,what tests are there of the 
goodness of the manufactured  articles8 
,the weight of a given quantity1 or     
number1 and a comparison  with that of  
the raw material8    ,the wholesale     
price at the manufactory8 7,l  s4 d47   
per 7  7    ,the usual retail price8 7,l
  s4 d47    ,who provide tools8 ,master1
 or men8 ,who repair tools8 ,master1  or
 men8    ,what is the expense of the    
machinery8    ,what is the annual wear  
and tear1 and what its duration8    ,is 
there any particular trade for making   
it8 ,where8    ,is it made and repaired 
at the manufactory8    ,in any          
manufactory visited1 state the number 7 
7 of  processes2 and of the persons     
employed in each process2 and the       
quantity of manufactured produce4       
,what quantity is made annually in      
,great ,britain8    ,is the capital     
invested in manufactories large or      
small8    ,mention the principal seats  

of this manufacture in ,england2  and if
 it flourishes abroad1 the places where 
it is established4    ,the duty1 excise4
 or bounty1 if any1 should be stated1   
and  any alterations in past years2 and 
also the amount exported or  imported   
for a series of years4    ,whether the  
same article1 but of superior1 equal1 or
 inferior  make1 is imported8    ,does  
the manufacturer export1 or sell1 to a  
middleman1 who  supplies the merchant8  
,to what countries is it chiefly sent8  
and in what goods are  the returns made8
      #afa4 ,each process requires a    
separate skeleton1 and the  following   
outline will be sufficient for many     
different  manufactories3      ,process 
7 7 ,manufacture 7 7      ,place 7 7    
,name 7 7           date    #ahc        
,the mode of executing it1 with sketches
 of the tools or  machine if necessary4 
,the number of persons necessary to     
attend the machine4 ,are  the           
operatives1 men 7 7 women1 7 7 or       
children8 7 7 ,if mixed1  what are the  

proportions8    ,what is the pay of     
each8 7s4 d47 7s4 d4 7 7s4 d47 per 7 7  
,what number 7 7 of hours do they work  
per day8    ,is it usual1 or necessary1 
to work night and day without  stopping8
 ,is the labour performed by piece--or  
by day-work8    ,who provide tools8     
,master1 or men8 ,who repair tools8     
,master1  or men8 ,what degree of skill 
is required1 and how many years' 7 7    
apprenticeship8    ,the number of times 
7 7 the operation is repeated per day or
  per hour8    ,the number of failures 7
 7 in a thousand8    ,whether the       
workmen or the master loses by the      
broken or  damaged articles8    ,what is
 done with them8    ,if the same process
 is repeated several times1 state the   
diminution or increase of measure1 and  
the loss1 if any1 at each  repetition4  
#afb4 ,in this skeleton1 the answers to 
the questions are in  some cases        
printed1 as ,who repair the             
tools8--,masters1 ,men2 in  order that  
the proper answer may be underlined with

 a pencil4 ,in  filling up the answers  
which require numbers1 some care should 
be  taken3 for instance1 if the observer
 stands with his watch in his  hand     
before a person heading a pin1 the      
workman will almost  certainly increase 
his speed1 and the estimate will be too 
large4  ,a much better average will     
result from enquiring what quantity is  
considered a fair day's work4 ,when this
 cannot be ascertained1  the number of  
operations performed in a given time may
 frequently  be counted when the workman
 is quite unconscious that any person   
is observing him4 ,thus the sound made  
by the motion of a loom may  enable the 
observer to count the number of strokes 
per minute1  even though he is outside  
the building in which it is contained4  
,m4 ,coulomb1 who had great experience  
in making such observations1  cautions  
those who may repeat his experiments    
against being  deceived by such         
circumstances3 ',je prie' 7says he7     
'ceux qui  voudront les repeter1 s'ils  

n'ont pas le temps de mesurer les       
resultats apres plusiers jours d'un     
travail continu1 d'observer  les        
ouvriers a differentes reprises dans la 
journee1 sans qu'ils  sachent qu'ils    
sont observes4 ,l'on ne peut trop       
avertir combien  l'on risque de se      
tromper en calculant1 soit la vitesse1  
soit le  temps effectif du travail1     
d'apres une observation de quelques     
minutes4' ,memoires de l',institut4 vol4
 ,,ii1 p4 #bdg4 ,it frequently  happens1
 that in a series of answers to such    
questions1 there are  some which1       
although given directly1 may also be    
deduced by a  short calculation from    
others that are given or known2 and     
advantage should always be taken of     
these verifications1 in order  to       
confirm the accuracy of the statements2 
or1 in case they are  discordant1 to    
correct the apparent anomalies4 ,in     
putting lists  of questions into the    
hands of a person undertaking to give   
information upon any subject1 it is in  

some cases desirable to  have an        
estimate of the soundness of his        
judgement4 ,the questions  can          
frequently be so shaped1 that some of   
them may indirectly  depend on others2  
and one or two may be inserted whose    
answers  can be obtained by other       
methods3 nor is this process without its
  advantages in enabling us to determine
 the value of our own  judgement4 ,the  
habit of forming an estimate of the     
magnitude of  any object or the         
frequency of any occurrence1 immediately
  previous to our applying to it measure
 or number1 tends  materially to fix the
 attention and to improve the judgement4
            ,section ,,ii    ,on the    
domestic and political economy of       
manufactures        ,chapter #ac        
,distinction ,between ,making and       
,manufacturing    #afc4 ,the economical 
principles which regulate the           
application  of machinery1 and which    
govern the interior of all our great    
factories1 are quite as essential to the

 prosperity of a great  commercial      
country1 as are those mechanical        
principles1 the  operation of which has 
been illustrated in the preceding       
section4    ,the first object of every  
person who attempts to make any  article
 of consumption1 is1 or ought to be1 to 
produce it in a  perfect form2 but in   
order to secure to himself the greatest 
and  most permanent profit1 he must     
endeavour1 by every means in his  power1
 to render the new luxury or want which 
he has created1  cheap to those who     
consume it4 ,the larger number of       
purchasers  thus obtained will1 in some 
measure1 secure him from the caprices   
of fashion1 whilst it furnishes a far   
greater amount of profit1  although the 
contribution of each individual is      
diminished4 ,the  importance of         
collecting data1 for the purpose of     
enabling the  manufacturer to ascertain 
how many additional customers he will   
acquire by a given reduction in the     
price of the article he  makes1 cannot  

be too strongly pressed upon the        
attention of those  who employ          
themselves in statistical enquiries4 ,in
 some ranks of  society1 no diminution  
of price can bring forward a great      
additional number of customers2 whilst1 
amongst other classes1 a  very small    
reduction will so enlarge the sale1 as  
to yield a  considerable increase of    
profit4 ,materials calculated to assist 
in forming a table of the numbers of    
persons who possess incomes  of         
different amount1 occur in the #adth    
,report of the  ,commissioners of       
,revenue ,inquiry1 which includes a     
statement of  the amount of personal    
property proved at the legacy office    
during one year2 the number of the      
various classes of testators2  and an   
account of the number of persons        
receiving dividends from  funded        
property1 distributed into classes4     
,such a table1 formed  even             
approximately1 and exhibited in the form
 of a curve1 might  be of service4      

#afd4 ,a considerable difference exists 
between the terms  making and           
manufacturing4 ,the former refers to the
 production of  a small1 the latter to  
that of a very large number of          
individuals2 and the difference is well 
illustrated in the  evidence1 given     
before the ,committee of the ,house of  
,commons1 on  the ,export of ,tools and 
,machinery4 ,on that occasion ,mr       
,maudslay  stated1 that he had been     
applied to by the ,navy ,board to make  
iron tanks for ships1 and that he was   
rather unwilling to do so1  as he       
considered it to be out of his line of  
business2 however1  he undertook to make
 one as a trial4 ,the holes for the     
rivets  were punched by hand-punching   
with presses1 and the #afhj holes  which
 each tank required cost seven          
shillings4 ,the ,navy ,board1  who      
required a large number1 proposed that  
he should supply forty  tanks a week for
 many months4 ,the magnitude of the     
order made it  worth his while to       

commence manufacture1 and to make tools 
for  the express business4 ,mr ,maudslay
 therefore offered1 if the ,board  would
 give him an order for two thousand     
tanks1 to supply them at  the rate of   
eighty per week4 ,the order was given3  
he made tools1  by which the expense of 
punching the rivet-holes of each tank   
was  reduced from seven shillings to    
ninepence2 he supplied  ninety-eight    
tanks a week for six months1 and the    
price charged  for each was reduced from
 seventeen pounds to fifteen4    #afe4  
,if1 therefore1 the maker of an article 
wish to become a  manufacturer1 in the  
more extended sense of the term1 he must
  attend to other principles besides    
those mechanical ones on which  the     
successful execution of his work        
depends2 and he must  carefully arrange 
the whole system of his factory in such 
a  manner1 that the article he sells to 
the public may be produced  at as small 
a cost as possible4 ,should he not be   
actuated at  first by motives so remote1

 he will1 in every highly civilized     
country1 be compelled1 by the powerful  
stimulus of competition1  to attend to  
the principles of the domestic economy  
of  manufactures4 ,at every reduction in
 price of the commodity he  makes1 he   
will be driven to seek compensation in a
 saving of  expense in some of the      
processes2 and his ingenuity will be    
sharpened in this enquiry by the hope of
 being able in his turn  to undersell   
his rivals4 ,the benefit of the         
improvements thus  engendered is1 for a 
short time1 confined to those from whose
  ingenuity they derive their origin2   
but when a sufficient  experience has   
proved their value1 they become         
generally adopted1  until in their turn 
they are superseded by other more       
economical  methods4        ,chapter #ad
    ,of ,money as a ,medium of ,exchange
    #aff4 ,in the earlier stages of     
societies the interchange of  the few   
commodities required was conducted by   
barter1 but as soon  as their wants     

became more varied and extensive1 the   
necessity of  having some common measure
 of the value of all commodities--      
itself capable of subdivision--became   
apparent3 thus money was  introduced4   
,in some countries shells have been     
employed for this  purpose2 but         
civilized nations have1 by common       
consent1 adopted  the precious          
metals47#a997 ,the sovereign power has1 
in most  countries1 assumed the right of
 coining2 or1 in other words1 the  right
 of stamping with distinguishing marks1 
pieces of metal  having certain forms   
and weights and a certain degree of     
fineness3 the marks becoming a          
guarantee1 to the people amongst  whom  
the money circulates1 that each piece is
 of the required  weight and quality4   
,the expense of manufacturing gold into 
coin1 and that of the  loss arising from
 wear1 as well as of interest on the    
capital  invested in it1 must either be 
defrayed by the ,state1 or be           
compensated by a small reduction in its 

weight1 and is a far less  cost to the  
nation than the loss of time and        
inconvenience which  would arise from a 
system of exchange or barter4    #afg4  
,these coins are liable to two          
inconveniences3 they may  be            
manufactured privately by individuals1  
of the same quality1  and similarly     
stamped2 or imitations may be made of   
inferior  metal1 or of diminished       
weight4 ,the first of these             
inconveniences  would be easily remedied
 by making the current value of the coin
  nearly equal to that of the same      
weight of the metal2 and the  second    
would be obviated by the caution of     
individuals in  examining the external  
characters of each coin1 and partly by  
the  punishment inflicted by the ,state 
on the perpetrators of such  frauds4    
#afh4 ,the subdivisions of money vary in
 different countries1  and much time may
 be lost by an inconvenient system of   
division4  ,the effect is felt in       
keeping extensive accounts1 and         

particularly in calculating the interest
 on loans1 or the  discount upon bills  
of exchange4 ,the decimal system is the 
best  adapted to facilitate all such    
calculations2 and it becomes an         
interesting question to consider whether
 our own currency might  not be         
converted into one decimally divided4   
,the great step1 that  of abolishing the
 guinea1 has already been taken without 
any  inconvenience1 and but little is   
now required to render the  change      
complete4    #afi4 ,if1 whenever it     
becomes necessary to call in the        
half-crowns1 a new coin of the value of 
two shillings were  issued1 which should
 be called by some name implying a unit 
7a  prince1 for instance71 we should    
have the tenth part of a  sovereign4 ,a 
few years after1 when the public were   
familiar with  this coin1 it might be   
divided into one hundred instead of     
ninety-six farthings2 and it would then 
consist of twenty-five  pence1 each of  
which would be four per cent4 less in   

value than  the former penny4 ,the      
shillings and six-pences being then     
withdrawn from circulation1 their place 
might be supplied with  silver coins    
each worth five of the new pence1 and by
 others of  ten-pence1 and of twopence  
halfpenny2 the latter coin1 having a    
distinct name1 would be the tenth part  
of a prince4    #agj4 ,the various      
manufactured commodities1 and the       
various  property possessed by the      
inhabitants of a country1 all become    
measured by the standard thus           
introduced4 ,but it must be observed    
that the value of gold is itself        
variable2 and that1 like all  other     
commodities1 its price depends on the   
extent of the demand  compared with that
 of the supply4    #aga4 ,as            
transactions multiply1 and the sums to  
be paid become  large1 the actual       
transfer of the precious metals from one
  individual to another is attended with
 inconvenience and  difficulty1 and it  
is found more convenient to substitute  

written  promises to pay on demand      
specified quantities of gold4 ,these    
promises are called bank-notes2 and when
 the person or body  issuing them is    
known to be able to fulfil the pledge1  
the note  will circulate for a long time
 before it gets into the hands of  any  
person who may wish to make use of the  
gold it represents4  ,these paper       
representatives supply the place of a   
certain  quantity of gold2 and1 being   
much cheaper1 a large portion of the    
expense of a metallic circulation is    
saved by their employment4    #agb4 ,as 
commercial transactions increase1 the   
transfer of  bank-notes is1 to a        
considerable extent1 superseded by      
shorter  processes4 ,banks are          
established1 into which all monies are  
paid1  and out of which all payments are
 made1 through written orders  called   
checks1 drawn by those who keep accounts
 with them4 ,in a  large capital1 each  
bank receives1 through its numerous     
customers1 checks payable by every      

other2 and if clerks were sent  round to
 receive the amount in banknotes due    
from each1 it would  occupy much time1  
and be attended with some risk and      
inconvenience4    #agc4 ,clearing house4
 ,in ,london this is avoided1 by making 
all  checks paid in to bankers pass     
through what is technically called  ,the
 ,clearing ,house4 ,in a large room in  
,lombard ,street1 about  thirty clerks  
from the several ,london bankers take   
their  stations1 in alphabetical order1 
at desks placed round the room2  each   
having a small open box by his side1 and
 the name of the  firm to which he      
belongs in large characters on the wall 
above  his head4 ,from time to time     
other clerks from every house enter  the
 room1 and1 passing along1 drop into the
 box the checks due by  that firm to the
 house from which this distributor is   
sent4 ,the  clerk at the table enters   
the amount of the several checks in a   
book previously prepared1 under the name
 of the bank to which  they are         

respectively due4    ,four o'clock in   
the afternoon is the latest hour to     
which the  boxes are open to receive    
checks2 and at a few minutes before     
that time1 some signs of increased      
activity begin to appear in  this       
previously quiet and business-like      
scene4 ,numerous clerks  then arrive1   
anxious to distribute1 up to the latest 
possible  moment1 the checks which have 
been paid into the houses of their      
employers4    ,at four o'clock all the  
boxes are removed1 and each clerk  adds 
up the amount of the checks put into his
 box and payable by  his own to other   
houses4 ,he also receives another book  
from his  own house1 containing the     
amounts of the checks which their       
distributing clerk has put into the box 
of every other banker4  ,having compared
 these1 he writes out the balances due  
to or from  his own house1 opposite the 
name of each of the other banks2 and    
having verified this statement by a     
comparison with the similar  list made  

by the clerks of those houses1 he sends 
to his own bank  the general balance    
resulting from this sheet1 the amount of
  which1 if it is due from that to other
 houses1 is sent back in  bank-notes4   
,at five o'clock the ,inspector takes   
his seat2 when each  clerk1 who has upon
 the result of all the transactions a   
balance  to pay to various other houses1
 pays it to the inspector1 who  gives a 
ticket for the amount4 ,the clerks of   
those houses to whom  money is due1 then
 receive the several sums from the      
inspector1  who takes from them a ticket
 for the amount4 ,thus the whole of     
these payments are made by a double     
system of balance1 a very  small amount 
of bank-notes passing from hand to hand1
 and  scarcely any coin4    #agd4 ,it is
 difficult to form a satisfactory       
estimate of the  sums which daily pass  
through this operation3 they fluctuate  
from  two millions to perhaps fifteen4  
,about two millions and a half  may     
possibly be considered as something like

 an average1  requiring for its         
adjustment1 perhaps1 ,l#bjj1jjj in bank 
notes and  ,l#bj in specie4 ,by an      
agreement between the different bankers1
 all  checks which have the name of any 
firm written across them must  pass     
through the clearing house3             
consequently1 if any such check  should 
be lost1 the firm on which it is drawn  
would refuse to pay  it at the counter2 
a circumstance which adds greatly to the
  convenience of commerce4    ,the      
advantage of this system is such1 that  
two meetings a day  have been recently  
established--one at twelve1 the other at
  three o'clock2 but the payment of     
balances takes place once only1  at five
 o'clock4    ,if all the private banks  
kept accounts with the ,bank of         
,england1 it would be possible to carry 
on the whole of these  transactions with
 a still smaller quantity of circulating
 medium4    #age4 ,in reflecting on the 
facility with which these vast          
transactions are                        

accomplished--supposing1 for the sake of
  argument1 that they form only the     
fourth part of the daily  transactions  
of the whole community--it is impossible
 not to be  struck with the importance  
of interfering as little as possible    
with their natural adjustment4 ,each    
payment indicates a transfer  of        
property made for the benefit of both   
parties2 and if it were  possible1 which
 it is not1 to place1 by legal or other 
means1  some impediment in the way which
 only amounted to one-eighth per  cent1 
such a species of friction would produce
 a useless  expenditure of nearly four  
millions annually3 a circumstance  which
 is deserving the attention of those who
 doubt the good  policy of the expense  
incurred by using the precious metals   
for  one portion of the currency of the 
country4    #agf4 ,one of the most      
obvious differences between a metallic  
and a paper circulation is1 that the    
coin can never1 by any panic  or        
national danger1 be reduced below the   

value of bullion in  other civilized    
countries2 whilst a paper currency may1 
from the  action of such causes1 totally
 lose its value4 ,both metallic and     
paper money1 it is true1 may be         
depreciated1 but with very  different   
effects4    #a4 ,depreciation of coin4  
,the state may issue coin of the same   
nominal value1 but containing only half 
the original quantity of  gold1 mixed   
with some cheap alloy2 but every piece  
so issued  bears about with it internal 
evidence of the amount of the           
depreciation3 it is not necessary that  
every successive  proprietor should     
analyse the new coin2 but a few having  
done so1  its intrinsic worth becomes   
publicly known4 ,of course the coin     
previously in circulation is now more   
valuable as bullion1 and  quickly       
disappears4 ,all future purchases adjust
 themselves to the  new standard1 and   
prices are quickly doubled2 but all past
  contracts also are vitiated1 and all  
persons to whom money is  owing1 if     

compelled to receive payment in the new 
coin1 are  robbed of one-half of their  
debt1 which is confiscated for the      
benefit of the debtor4    #b4           
,depreciation of paper4 ,the            
depreciation of paper money  follows a  
different course4 ,if1 by any act of the
 ,government  paper is ordained to be a 
legal tender for debts1 and1 at the     
same time1 ceases to be exchangeable for
 coin1 those who have  occasion to      
purchase of foreigners1 who are not     
compelled to take  the notes1 will make 
some of their payments in gold2 and if  
the  issue of paper1 unchecked by the   
power of demanding the gold it          
represents1 be continued1 the whole of  
the coin will soon  disappear4 ,but the 
public1 who are obliged to take the     
notes1 are  unable1 by any internal     
evidence1 to detect the extent of their 
depreciation2 it varies with the amount 
in circulation1 and may  go on till the 
notes shall be worth little more than   
the paper on  which they are printed4   

,during the whole of this time every    
creditor is suffering to an extent which
 he cannot measure2 and  every bargain  
is rendered uncertain in its advantage1 
by the  continually changing value of   
the medium through which it is          
conducted4 ,this calamitous course has  
actually been run in  several countries3
 in ,france1 it reached nearly its      
extreme limit  during the existence of  
assignats4 ,we have ourselves           
experienced  some portion of the misery 
it creates2 but by a return to sounder  
principles1 have happily escaped the    
destruction and ruin which  always      
attends the completion of that career4  
#agg4 ,every person in a civilized      
country requires1 according  to his     
station in life1 the use of a certain   
quantity of money1  to make the ordinary
 purchases of the articles which he     
consumes4  ,the same individual pieces  
of coin1 it is true1 circulate again    
and again1 in the same district3 the    
identical piece of silver1  received by 

the workman on ,saturday night1 passing 
through the  hands of the butcher1 the  
baker1 and the small tradesman1 is1     
perhaps1 given by the latter to the     
manufacturer in exchange for  his check1
 and is again paid into the hands of the
 workman at the  end of the succeeding  
week4 ,any deficiency in this supply of 
money is attended with considerable     
inconvenience to all parties4  ,if it be
 only in the smaller coins1 the first   
effect is a  difficulty in procuring    
small change2 then a disposition in the 
shopkeepers to refuse change unless a   
purchase to a certain  amount be made2  
and1 finally1 a premium in money will be
 given  for changing the larger         
denominations of coin4    ,thus money   
itself varies in price1 when measured by
 other  money in larger masses3 and this
 effect takes place whether the         
circulating medium is metallic or of    
paper4 ,these effects have  constantly  
occurred1 and particularly during the   
late war2 and1  in order to relieve it1 

silver tokens for various sums were     
issued by the ,bank of ,england4    ,the
 inconvenience and loss arising from a  
deficiency of small  money fall with    
greatest weight on the classes whose    
means are  least2 for the wealthier     
buyers can readily procure credit for   
their small purchases1 until their bill 
amounts to one of the  larger coins4    
#agh4 ,as money1 when kept in a drawer1 
produces nothing1 few  people1 in any   
situation of life1 will keep1 either in 
coin or in  notes1 more than is         
immediately necessary for their use2    
when1  therefore1 there are no          
profitable modes of employing money1 a  
superabundance of paper will return to  
the source from whence it  issued1 and  
an excess of coin will be converted into
 bullion and  exported4    #agi4 ,since 
the worth of all property is measured by
 money1 it  is obviously conducive to   
the general welfare of the community1   
that fluctuations in its value should be
 rendered as small and as  gradual as   

possible4    ,the evils which result    
from sudden changes in the value of     
money will perhaps become more sensible1
 if we trace their  effects in          
particular instances4 ,assuming1 as we  
are quite at  liberty to do1 an extreme 
case1 let us suppose three persons1     
each possessing a hundred pounds3 one of
 these1 a widow advanced  in years1 and 
who1 by the advice of her friends1      
purchases with  that sum an annuity of  
twenty pounds a year during her life3   
and  let the two others be workmen1 who1
 by industry and economy1 have  each    
saved a hundred pounds out of their     
wages2 both these latter  persons       
proposing to procure machines for       
calendering1 and to  commence that      
business4 ,one of these invests his     
money in a  savings' bank2 intending to 
make his own calendering machine1 and   
calculating that he shall expend twenty 
pounds in materials1 and  the remaining 
eighty in supporting himself and in     
paying the  workmen who assist him in   

constructing it4 ,the other workman1    
meeting with a machine which he can buy 
for two hundred pounds1  agrees to pay  
for it a hundred pounds immediately1 and
 the  remainder at the end of a         
twelvemonth4 ,let us now imagine some   
alteration to take place in the         
currency1 by which it is  depreciated   
one-half3 prices soon adjust themselves 
to the new  circumstances1 and the      
annuity of the widow1 though nominally  
of  the same amount1 will1 in reality1  
purchase only half the  quantity of the 
necessaries of life which it did before4
 ,the  workman who had placed his money 
in the savings' bank1 having  perhaps   
purchased ten pounds' worth of          
materials1 and expended  ten pounds in  
labour applied to them1 now finds       
himself1 by this  alteration in the     
currency1 possessed nominally of eighty 
pounds1  but in reality of a sum which  
will purchase only half the labour  and 
materials required to finish his        
machine2 and he can neither  complete   

it1 from want of capital1 nor dispose of
 what he has  already done in its       
unfinished state for the price it has   
cost  him4 ,in the meantime1 the other  
workman1 who had incurred a debt  of a  
hundred pounds in order to complete the 
purchase of his  calendering machine1   
finds that the payments he receives for 
calendering1 have1 like all other       
prices1 doubled1 in consequence  of the 
depreciation of the currency2 and he has
 therefore1 in  fact1 obtained his      
machine for one hundred and fifty       
pounds4  ,thus1 without any fault or    
imprudence1 and owing to circumstances  
over which they have no control1 the    
widow is reduced almost to  starve2 one 
workman is obliged to renounce1 for     
several years1  his hope of becoming a  
master2 and another1 without any        
superior  industry or skill1 but in     
fact1 from having made1 with reference  
to his circumstances1 rather an         
imprudent bargain1 finds himself        
unexpectedly relieved from half his     

debt1 and the possessor of a  valuable  
source of profit2 whilst the former     
owner of the  machine1 if he also has   
invested the money arising from its sale
  in the savings' bank1 finds his       
property suddenly reduced  one-half4    
#ahj4 ,these evils1 to a greater or less
 extent1 attend every  change in the    
value of the currency2 and the          
importance of  preserving it as far as  
possible unaltered in value1 cannot be  
too strongly impressed upon all classes 
of the community4    ,,notes3    #a4 ,in
 ,russia platinum has been employed for 
coin2 and it  possesses a peculiarity   
which deserves notice4 ,platinum cannot 
be  melted in our furnaces1 and is      
chiefly valuable in commerce when  in   
the shape of ingots1 from which it may  
be forged into useful  forms4 ,but when 
a piece of platinum is cut into two     
parts1 it  cannot easily be reunited    
except by means of a chemical process1  
in which both parts are dissolved in an 
acid4 ,hence1 when  platinum coin is too

 abundant1 it cannot1 like gold1 be     
reduced  into masses by melting1 but    
must pass through an expensive  process 
to render it useful4        ,chapter #ae
    ,on the ,influence of ,verification 
on ,price    #aha4 ,the money price of  
an article at any given period is       
usually stated to depend upon the       
proportion between the supply  and the  
demand4 ,the average price of the same  
article during a  long period1 is said  
to depend1 ultimately1 on the power of  
producing and selling it with the       
ordinary profits of capital4  ,but these
 principles1 although true in their     
general sense1 are  yet so often        
modified by the influence of others1    
that it becomes  necessary to examine a 
little into the disturbing forces4      
#ahb4 ,with respect to the first of     
these propositions1 it may  be observed1
 that the cost of any article to the    
purchaser  includes1 besides the ratio  
of the supply to the demand1 another    
element1 which1 though often of little  

importance1 is1 in many  cases1 of great
 consequence4 ,the cost1 to the         
purchaser1 is the  price he pays for any
 article1 added to the cost of verifying
 the  fact of its having that degree of 
goodness for which he  contracts4 ,in   
some cases the goodness of the article  
is evident  on mere inspection3 and in  
those cases there is not much           
difference of price at different shops4 
,the goodness of loaf  sugar1 for       
instance1 can be discerned almost at a  
glance2 and the  consequence is1 that   
the price is so uniform1 and the profit 
upon  it so small1 that no grocer is at 
all anxious to sell it2 whilst1  on the 
other hand1 tea1 of which it is         
exceedingly difficult to  judge1 and    
which can be adulterated by mixture so  
as to deceive  the skill even of a      
practised eye1 has a great variety of   
different prices1 and is that article   
which every grocer is most  anxious to  
sell to his customers4    ,the          
difficulty and expense of verification  

are1 in some  instances1 so great1 as to
 justify the deviation from             
well-established principles4 ,thus it is
 a general maxim that  ,government can  
purchase any article at a cheaper rate  
than that  at which they can manufacture
 it themselves4 ,but it has             
nevertheless been considered more       
economical to build extensive           
flour-mills 7such are those at          
,deptford71 and to grind their own      
corn1 than to verify each sack of       
purchased flour1 and to employ  persons 
in devising methods of detecting the new
 modes of  adulteration which might be  
continually resorted to4    #ahc4 ,some 
years since1 a mode of preparing old    
clover and  trefoil seeds by a process  
called doctoring1 became so prevalent   
as to excite the attention of the ,house
 of ,commons4 ,it appeared  in evidence 
before a committee1 that the old seed of
 the white  clover was doctored by first
 wetting it slightly1 and then drying   
it with the fumes of burning sulphur1   

and that the red clover  seed had its   
colour improved by shaking it in a sack 
with a small  quantity of indigo2 but   
this being detected after a time1 the   
doctors then used a preparation of      
logwood1 fined by a little  copperas1   
and sometimes by verdigris2 thus at once
 improving the  appearance of the old   
seed1 and diminishing1 if not           
destroying1  its vegetative power       
already enfeebled by age4 ,supposing no 
injury had resulted to good seed so     
prepared1 it was proved that  from the  
improved appearance1 the market price   
would be enhanced  by this process from 
five to twenty-five shillings a hundred 
weight4 ,but the greatest evil arose    
from the circumstance of  these         
processes rendering old and worthless   
seed equal in  appearance to the best4  
,one witness had tried some doctored    
seed1  and found that not above one     
grain in a hundred grew1 and that  those
 which did vegetate died away           
afterwards2 whilst about  eighty or     

ninety per cent of good seed usually    
grows4 ,the seed so  treated was sold to
 retail dealers in the country1 who of  
course  endeavoured to purchase at the  
cheapest rate1 and from them it  got    
into the hands of the farmers2 neither  
of these classes being  capable of      
distinguishing the fraudulent from the  
genuine seed4  ,many cultivators1 in    
consequence1 diminished their           
consumption of  the article2 and others 
were obliged to pay a higher price to   
those who had skill to distinguish the  
mixed seed1 and who had  integrity and  
character to prevent them from dealing  
in it4    #ahd4 ,in the ,irish flax     
trade1 a similar example of the high    
price paid for verification occurs4 ,it 
is stated in the report of  the         
committee1 ,that the natural excellent  
quality of ,irish flax1  as contrasted  
with foreign or ,british1 has been      
admitted4 ,yet  from the evidence before
 that committee it appears that ,irish  
flax sells1 in the market1 from #a;d4 to

 #b;d4 per pound less than  other flax  
of equal or inferior quality4 ,part of  
this difference  of price arises from   
negligence in its preparation1 but a    
part  also from the expense of          
ascertaining that each parcel is free   
from useless matter to add to its       
weight3 this appears from the  evidence 
of ,mr ,j4 ,corry1 who was1 during      
twenty-seven years1  ,secretary to the  
,irish ,linen-,board3--    ,the owners  
of the flax1 who are almost always      
people in the lower  classes of life1   
believe that they can best advance their
 own  interests by imposing on the      
buyers4 ,flax being sold by weight1     
various expedients are used to increase 
it2 and every expedient  is injurious1  
particularly the damping of it2 a very  
common  practice1 which makes the flax  
afterwards heat4 ,the inside of  every  
bundle 7and the bundles all vary in     
bulk7 is often full of  pebbles1 or dirt
 of various kinds1 to increase the      
weight4 ,in  this state it is purchased1

 and exported to ,great ,britain4 ,the  
natural quality of ,irish flax is       
admitted to be not inferior to  that    
produced by any foreign country2 and yet
 the flax of every  foreign country1    
imported into ,great ,britain1 obtains a
  preference amongst the purchasers1    
because the foreign flax is  brought to 
the ,british market in a cleaner and    
more regular  state4 ,the extent and    
value of the sales of foreign flax in   
,great  ,britain can be seen by         
reference to the public accounts2 and ,i
 am  induced to believe1 that ,ireland1 
by an adequate extension of her  flax   
tillage1 and having her flax markets    
brought under good  regulations1 could1 
without encroaching in the least degree 
upon  the quantity necessary for her    
home consumption1 supply the whole  of  
the demand of the ,british market1 to   
the exclusion of the  foreigners4       
#ahe4 ,the lace trade affords other     
examples2 and1 in enquiring  into the   
complaints made to the ,house of        

,commons by the framework  knitters1 the
 committee observe1 that1 ,it is        
singular that the  grievance most       
complained of one hundred and fifty     
years ago1  should1 in the present      
improved state of the trade1 be the same
  grievance which is now most complained
 of3 for it appears1 by the  evidence   
given before your committee1 that all   
the witnesses  attribute the decay of   
the trade more to the making of         
fraudulent  and bad articles1 than to   
the war1 or to any other cause4 ,and it 
is shewn by the evidence1 that a kind of
 lace called single-press  was          
manufactured1 which1 although good to   
the eye1 became nearly  spoiled in      
washing by the slipping of the threads2 
that not one  person in a thousand could
 distinguish the difference between     
single-press and double-press lace2 and 
that1 even workmen and  manufacturers   
were obliged to employ a magnifying     
glass for that  purpose2 and that1 in   
another similar article1 called warp    

lace1  such aid was essential4 ,it was  
also stated by one witness1 that    ,the
 trade had not yet ceased1 excepting in 
those places where the  fraud had been  
discovered2 and from those places no    
orders are  now sent for any sort of    
,nottingham lace1 the credit being      
totally ruined4    #ahf4 ,in the        
stocking trade similar frauds have been 
practised4 ,it  appeared in evidence1   
that stockings were made of uniform     
width  from the knee down to the ankle1 
and being wetted and stretched  on      
frames at the calf1 they retained their 
shape when dry1 but  that the purchaser 
could not discover the fraud until1     
after the  first washing1 the stockings 
hung like bags about his ankles4        
#ahg4 ,in the watch trade the practice  
of deceit1 in forging  the marks and    
names of respectable makers1 has been   
carried to a  great extent both by      
natives and foreigners2 and the effect  
upon  our export trade has been most    
injurious1 as the following  extract    

from the evidence before a committee of 
the ,house of  ,commons will prove3--   
,question4 ,how long have you been in   
the trade8  ,answer4 ,nearly thirty     
years4  ,question4 ,the trade is at     
present much depressed8  ,answer4 ,yes1 
sadly4  ,question4 ,what is your opinion
 of the cause of that distress8         
,answer4 ,i think it is owing to a      
number of watches that have been  made  
so exceedingly bad that they will hardly
 look at them in the  foreign markets2  
all with a handsome outside show1 and   
the works  hardly fit for anything4     
,question4 ,do you mean to say1 that all
 the watches made in this  country are  
of that description8  ,answer4 ,no2 only
 a number which are made up by some of  
the ,jews1  and other low manufacturers4
 ,i recollect something of the sort     
years ago1 of a falloff of the ,east    
,india work1 owing to there  being a    
number of handsome-looking watches sent 
out1 for  instance1 with hands on and   
figures1 as if they shewed seconds1  and

 had not any work regular to shew the   
seconds3 the hand went  round1 but it   
was not regular4  ,question4 ,they had  
no perfect movements8  ,answer4 ,no1    
they had not2 that was a long time      
since1 and we had  not any ,east ,india 
work for a long time afterwards4    ,in 
the home market1 inferior but showy     
watches are made at a  cheap rate1 which
 are not warranted by the maker to go   
above half  an hour2 about the time     
occupied by the ,jew pedlar in deluding 
his country customer4    #ahh4 ,the     
practice1 in retail linen-drapers'      
shops1 of calling  certain articles yard
 wide when the real width is perhaps1   
only  seven-eighths or three-quarters1  
arose at first from fraud1 which  being 
detected1 custom was pleaded in its     
defence3 but the result  is1 that the   
vender is constantly obliged to measure 
the width of  his goods in the          
customer's presence4 ,in all these      
instances the  object of the seller is  
to get a higher price than his goods    

would really produce if their quality   
were known2 and the  purchaser1 if not  
himself a skilful judge 7which rarely   
happens  to be the case71 must pay some 
person1 in the shape of an  additional  
money price1 who has skill to           
distinguish1 and  integrity to furnish1 
articles of the quality agreed on4 ,but 
as  the confidence of persons in their  
own judgement is usually  great1 large  
numbers will always flock to the cheap  
dealer1 who  thus1 attracting many      
customers from the honest tradesman1    
obliges him to charge a higher price for
 his judgement and  character than1     
without such competition1 he could      
afford to do4    #ahi4 ,there are few   
things which the public are less able to
  judge of than the quality of drugs2   
and when these are compounded  into     
medicines it is scarcely possible1 even 
for medical men1 to  decide whether pure
 or adulterated ingredients have been   
employed4 ,this circumstance1 concurring
 with the present  injudicious mode of  

paying for medical assistance1 has      
produced a  curious effect on the price 
of medicines4 ,apothecaries1 instead  of
 being paid for their services and      
skill1 are remunerated by  being allowed
 to place a high charge upon their      
medicines1 which  are confessedly of    
very small pecuniary value4 ,the effect 
of such  a system is an inducement to   
prescribe more medicine than is         
necessary2 and in fact1 even with the   
present charges1 the  apothecary1 in    
ninety-nine cases out of a hundred1     
cannot be  fairly remunerated unless the
 patient either takes1 or pays for1     
more physic than he really requires4    
,the apparent extravagance of  the      
charge of eighteen pence for a two-ounce
 phial7#a997 of  medicine1 is obvious to
 many who do not reflect on the fact    
that  a great part of the charge is1 in 
reality1 payment for the  exercise of   
professional skill4 ,as the same charge 
is made by the  apothecary1 whether he  
attends the patient or merely prepares  

the  prescription of a physician1 the   
chemist and druggist soon  offered to   
furnish the same commodity at a greatly 
diminished  price4 ,but the eighteen    
pence charged by the apothecary might   
have been fairly divided into two parts1
 three pence for medicine  and bottle1  
and fifteen pence for attendance4 ,the  
chemist1  therefore1 who never attends  
his customers1 if he charges only a     
shilling for the same medicine1 realizes
 a profit of #bjj or #cjj  per cent upon
 its value4 ,this enormous profit has   
called into  existence a multitude of   
competitors2 and in this instance the   
impossibility of verifying has1 in a    
great measure1 counteracted  the        
beneficial effects of competition4 ,the 
general adulteration  of drugs1 even at 
the extremely high price at which they  
are  retailed as medicine1 enables those
 who are supposed to sell them  in an   
unadulterated state to make large       
profits1 whilst the same  evil          
frequently disappoints the expectation1 

and defeats the  skill1 of the most     
eminent physician4    ,it is difficult  
to point out a remedy for this evil     
without  suggesting an almost total     
change in the system of medical         
practice4 ,if the apothecary were to    
charge for his visits1 and to  reduce   
his medicines to one-fourth or one-fifth
 of their present  price1 he would still
 have an interest in procuring the best 
drugs1 for the sake of his own          
reputation or skill4 ,or if the  medical
 attendant1 who is paid more highly for 
his time1 were to  have several pupils1 
he might himself supply the medicines   
without a specific charge1 and his      
pupils would derive  improvement from   
compounding them1 as well as from       
examining the  purity of the drugs he   
would purchase4 ,the public would gain  
several advantages by this arrangement4 
,in the first place1 it  would be       
greatly for the interest of the medical 
practitioner to  have the best drugs2 it
 would be in his interest also not to   

give  more physic than needful2 and it  
would enable him1 through some  of his  
more advanced pupils1 to watch more     
frequently the changes  of any malady4  
#aij4 ,there are many articles of       
hardware which it is  impossible for the
 purchaser to verify at the time of     
purchase1  or even afterwards1 without  
defacing them4 ,plated harness and      
coach furniture may be adduced as       
examples3 these are usually of  wrought 
iron covered with silver1 owing their   
strength to the one  and a certain      
degree of permanent beauty to the other 
metal4 ,both  qualities are1            
occasionally1 much impaired by          
substituting cast-  for wrought-iron1   
and by plating with soft solder 7tin and
 lead7  instead of with hard solder     
7silver and brass74 ,the loss of        
strength is the greatest evil in this   
case2 for cast iron1 though  made for   
this purpose more tough than usual by   
careful annealing1  is still much weaker
 than wrought-iron1 and serious         

accidents  often arise from harness     
giving way4 ,in plating with soft       
solder1 a very thin plate of silver is  
made to cover the iron1  but it is      
easily detached1 particularly by a low  
degree of heat4  ,hard soldering gives a
 better coat of silver1 which is very   
firmly attached1 and is not easily      
injured unless by a very high  degree of
 heat4 ,the inferior can be made to look
 nearly as well  as the better article1 
and the purchaser can scarcely discover 
the difference without cutting into it4 
#aia4 ,the principle that price1 at any 
moment1 is dependent on  the relation of
 the supply to the demand1 is true to   
the full  extent only when the whole    
supply is in the hands of a very large  
number of small holders1 and the demand 
is caused by the wants of  another set  
of persons1 each of whom requires only a
 very small  quantity4 ,and the reason  
appears to be1 that it is only in such  
circumstances that a uniform average can
 be struck between the  feelings1 the   

passions1 the prejudices1 the opinions1 
and the  knowledge1 of both parties4 ,if
 the supply1 or present stock in  hand1 
be entirely in the possession of one    
person1 he will  naturally endeavour to 
put such a price upon it as shall       
produce  by its sale the greatest       
quantity of money2 but he will be guided
  in this estimate of the price at which
 he will sell1 both by the  knowledge   
that increased price will cause a       
diminished  consumption1 and by the     
desire to realize his profit before a   
new  supply shall reach the market from 
some other quarter4 ,if1  however1 the  
same stock is in the hands of several   
dealers1 there  will be an immediate    
competition between them1 arising partly
  from their different views of the     
duration of the present state  of       
supply1 and partly from their own       
peculiar circumstances with  respect to 
the employment of their capital4        
#aib4 ,the expense of ascertaining that 
the price charged is  that which is     

legally due is sometimes considerable4  
,the  inconvenience which this          
verification produces in the case of    
parcels sent by coaches is very great4  
,the time lost in  recovering an        
overcharge generally amounts to so many 
times the  value of the sum recovered1  
that it is but rarely resorted to4 ,it  
seems worthy of consideration whether it
 would not be a  convenience to the     
public if government were to undertake  
the  general conveyance of parcels      
somewhat on the same system with  that  
on which the post is now conducted4 ,the
 certainty of their  delivery1 and the  
absence of all attempt at overcharge1   
would  render the prohibition of rival  
carriers unnecessary4 ,perhaps an       
experiment might be made on this subject
 by enlarging the weight  allowed to be 
sent by the two-penny post1 and by      
conveying works  in sheets by the       
general post4    ,this latter suggestion
 would be of great importance to        
literature1 and consequently to the     

circulation of knowledge4 ,as  the      
post-office regulations stand at        
present1 it constantly  happens that    
persons who have an extensive reputation
 for  science1 receive by post1 from    
foreign countries1 works1 or parts  of  
works1 for which they are obliged to pay
 a most extravagant  rate of postage1 or
 else refuse to take in some interesting
  communication4 ,in ,france and        
,germany1 printed sheets of paper are   
forwarded by post at a very moderate    
expense1 and it is fit that  the science
 and literature of ,england should be   
equally favoured4    #aic4 ,it is       
important1 if possible1 always to       
connect the name  of the workman with   
the work he has executed3 this secures  
for  him the credit or the blame he may 
justly deserve2 and  diminishes1 in some
 cases1 the necessity of verification4  
,the  extent to which this is carried in
 literary works1 published in  ,america1
 is remarkable4 ,in the translation of  
the ,mecanique  ,celeste by ,mr         

,bowditch1 not merely the name of the   
printer1 but  also those of the         
compositors1 are mentioned in the work4 
#aid4 ,again1 if the commodity itself is
 of a perishable  nature1 such1 for     
example1 as a cargo of ice imported into
 the  port of ,london from ,norway a few
 summers since1 then time will  supply  
the place of competition2 and1 whether  
the article is in  the possession of one
 or of many persons1 it will scarcely   
reach  a monopoly price4 ,the history of
 cajeput oil during the last few        
months1 offers a curious illustration of
 the effect of opinion  upon price4 ,in 
,july of last year1 #ahca1 cajeput oil  
was sold1  exclusive of duty1 at #g d4  
per ounce4 ,the disease which had       
ravaged the ,east was then supposed to  
be approaching our shores1  and its     
proximity created alarm4 ,at this       
period1 the oil in  question began to be
 much talked of1 as a powerful remedy in
 that  dreadful disorder2 and in        
,september it rose to the price of #cs4 

and #ds4 the ounce4 ,in ,october there  
were few or no sales3 but in  the early 
part of ,november1 the speculations in  
this substance  reached their height1   
and between the #ast and the #aeth it   
realized the following prices3 #cs4     
#i;d41 #es41 #fs4 #f;d41 #gs4 #f;d41    
#hs41 #is41 #ajs41 #ajs4 #f;d41 #aas4   
,after #ae ,november1 the holders of    
cajeput oil were anxious to sell at much
 lower rates2 and in  ,december a fresh 
arrival was offered by public sale at   
#es41 and  withdrawn1 being sold        
afterwards1 as it was understood1 by    
private contract1 at #ds4 or #ds4 #f;d4 
per oz4 ,since that time1 #as4  #f;d4   
and #as4 have been realized2 and a fresh
 arrival1 which is  daily expected      
7,march1 #ahcb7 will probably reduce it 
below the  price of ,july4 ,now it is   
important to notice1 that in ,november1 
the time of greatest speculation1 the   
quantity in the market was  held by few 
persons1 and that it frequently changed 
hands1 each  holder being desirous to   

realize his profit4 ,the quantity       
imported since that time has also been  
considerable47#b997    #aie4 ,the effect
 of the equalization of price by an     
increased  number of dealers1 may be    
observed in the price of the various    
securities sold at the ,stock ,exchange4
 ,the number of persons who  deal in the
 #c per cent stock being large1 any one 
desirous of  selling can always dispose 
of his stock at one-eighth per cent     
under the market price2 but those who   
wish to dispose of bank  stock1 or of   
any other securities of more limited    
circulation1  are obliged to make a     
sacrifice of eight or ten times this    
amount  upon each hundred pounds value4 
#aif4 ,the frequent speculations in oil1
 tallow1 and other  commodities1 which  
must occur to the memory of most of my  
readers1 were always founded on the     
principle of purchasing up  all the     
stock on hand1 and agreeing for the     
purchase of the  expected arrivals2 thus
 proving the opinion of capitalists to  

be1  that a larger average price may be 
procured by the stock being  held by few
 persons4    ,,notes3    #a4            
,apothecaries frequently purchase these 
phials at the old  bottle warehouses at 
ten shillings per gross2 so that when   
their  servant has washed them1 the cost
 of the phial is nearly one  penny4     
#b4 ,i have understood that the price of
 camphor1 at the same time1  suffered   
similar changes4        ,chapter #af    
,on the ,influence of ,durability on    
,price    #aig4 ,having now considered  
the circumstances that modify what  may 
be called the momentary amount of price1
 we must next examine  a principle which
 seems to have an effect on its         
permanent  average4 ,the durability of  
any commodity influences its cost in a  
permanent manner4 ,we have already      
stated that what may be called  the     
momentary price of any commodity depends
 upon the proportion  existing between  
the supply and demand1 and also upon the
 cost of  verification4 ,the average    

price1 during a long period1 will       
depend upon the labour required for     
producing and bringing it to  market1 as
 well as upon the average supply and    
demand2 but it  will also be influenced 
by the durability of the article        
manufactured4    ,many things in common 
use are substantially consumed in       
using3 a phosphorus match1 articles of  
food1 and a cigar1 are  examples of this
 description4 ,some things after use    
become  inapplicable to their former    
purposes1 as paper which has been       
printed upon3 but it is yet available   
for the cheesemonger or the             
trunk-maker4 ,some articles1 as pens1   
are quickly worn out by use2  and some  
are still valuable after a long         
continued wear4 ,there  are others1 few 
perhaps in number1 which never wear out2
 the  harder precious stones1 when well 
cut and polished1 are of this  later    
class3 the fashion of the gold or silver
 mounting in which  they are set may    
vary with the taste of the age1 and such

  ornaments are constantly exposed for  
sale as second-hand1 but the  gems      
themselves1 when removed from their     
supports1 are never so  considered4 ,a  
brilliant which has successively graced 
the necks  of a hundred beauties1 or    
glittered for a century upon patrician  
brows1 is weighed by the diamond        
merchant in the same scale with  another
 which has just escaped from the wheel  
of the lapidary1  and will be purchased 
or sold by him at the same price per    
carat4  ,the great mass of commodities  
is intermediate in its character        
between these two extremes1 and the     
periods of respective  duration are very
 various4 ,it is evident that the       
average price  of those things which are
 consumed in the act of using them1 can 
never be less than that of the labour of
 bringing them to market4  ,they may for
 a short time be sold for less1 but     
under such  circumstances their         
production must soon cease altogether4  
,on the  other hand1 if an article never

 wears out1 its price may continue      
permanently below the cost of the labour
 expended in producing  it2 and the only
 consequence will be1 that no further   
production  will take place3 its price  
will continue to be regulated by the    
relation of the supply to the demand2   
and should that at any  aftertime rise1 
for a considerable period1 above the    
cost of  production1 it will be again   
produced4    #aih4 ,articles become old 
from actual decay1 or the wearing  out  
of their parts2 from improved modes of  
constructing them2 or  from changes in  
their form and fashion1 required by the 
varying  taste of the age4 ,in the two  
latter cases1 their utility is but      
little diminished2 and1 being less      
sought after by those who have  hitherto
 employed them1 they are sold at a      
reduced price to a  class of society    
rather below that of their former       
possessors4  ,many articles of          
furniture1 such as well-made tables and 
chairs1  are thus found in the rooms of 

those who would have been quite  unable 
to have purchased them when new2 and we 
find constantly1  even in the houses of 
the more opulent1 large looking-glasses 
which have passed successively through  
the hands of several  possessors1       
changing only the fashion of their      
frames2 and in  some instances even this
 alteration is omitted1 an additional   
coat of gilding saving them from the    
character of being  second-hand4 ,thus a
 taste for luxuries is propagated       
downwards in  society'1 and1 after a    
short period1 the numbers who have      
acquired new wants become sufficient to 
excite the ingenuity of  the            
manufacturer to reduce the cost of      
supplying them1 whilst he  is himself   
benefited by the extended scale of      
demand4    #aii4 ,there is a peculiarity
 in looking-glasses with reference  to  
the principle just mentioned4 ,the most 
frequent occasion of  injury to them    
arises from accidental violence2 and the
  peculiarity is1 that1 unlike most     

other articles1 when broken  they are   
still of some value4 ,if a large mirror 
is accidentally  cracked1 it is         
immediately cut into two or more smaller
 ones1  each of which may be perfect4   
,if the degree of violence is so  great 
as to break it into many fragments1     
these smaller pieces  may be cut into   
squares for dressing-glasses2 and if the
  silvering is injured1 it can either be
 resilvered or used as  plate-glass for 
glazing windows4 ,the addition from our 
manufactories to the stock of           
plate-glass in the country is  annually 
about two hundred and fifty thousand    
square feet4 ,it  would be very         
difficult to estimate the quantity      
annually  destroyed or exported1 but it 
is probably small2 and the effect  of   
these continual additions is seen in the
 diminished price and  increased        
consumption of the article4 ,almost all 
the better order  of shop fronts are now
 glazed with it4 ,if it were quite      
indestructible1 the price would         

continually diminish2 and unless  an    
increased demand arose from new uses1 or
 from a greater number  of customers1 a 
single manufactory1 unchecked by        
competition1  would ultimately be       
compelled to shut up1 driven out of the 
market by the permanance of its own     
productions4    #bjj4 ,the metals are in
 some degree permanent1 although        
several of them are employed in such    
forms that they are  ultimately lost4   
,copper is a metal of which a great     
proportion returns to use3  a part of   
that employed in sheathing ships and    
covering houses is  lost from corrosion2
 but the rest is generally remelted4    
,some is  lost in small brass articles1 
and some is consumed in the  formation  
of salts1 ,roman vitriol 7sulphate of   
copper71 verdigris  7acetate of copper71
 and verditer4    ,gold is wasted in    
gilding and in embroidering2 but a      
portion  of this is recovered by burning
 the old articles4 ,some portion is     
lost by the wear of gold1 but1 upon the 

whole1 it possesses  considerable       
permanence4    ,iron4 ,a proportion of  
this metal is wasted by oxidation1 in   
small nails1 in fine wire2 by the wear  
of tools1 and of the tire  of wheels1   
and by the formation of some dyes3 but  
much1 both of  cast- and of             
wrought-iron1 returns to use4    ,lead  
is wasted in great quantities4 ,some    
portion of that  which is used in pipes 
and in sheets for covering roofs returns
  to the melting-pot2 but large         
quantities are consumed in the form  of 
small shot1 or sometimes in that of     
musket balls1 litharge1  and red lead1  
for white and red paints1 for           
glass-making1 for  glazing pottery1 and 
for sugar of lead 7acetate of lead74    
,silver is rather a permanent metal4    
,some portion is consumed  in the wear  
of coin1 in that of silver plate1 and a 
portion in  silvering and embroidering4 
,tin4 ,the chief waste of this metal    
arises from tinned iron2  some is lost  
in solder and in solutions for the      

dyers4        ,chapter #ag    ,of ,price
 as ,measured by ,money    #bja4 ,the   
money price at which an article sells   
furnishes us  with comparatively little 
information respecting its value1 if we 
compare distant intervals of time and   
different countries2 for  gold and      
silver1 in which price is usually       
measured1 are  themselves subject1 like 
all other commodities1 to changes in    
value2 nor is there any standard to     
which these variations can be  referred4
 ,the average price of a certain quality
 of different  manufactured articles1 or
 of raw produce1 has been suggested as a
  standard2 but a new difficulty then   
presents itself2 for the  improved      
methods of producing such articles      
render their money  price extremely     
variable within very limited periods4   
,the annexed  table will afford a       
striking instance of this kind of change
  within a period of only twelve years4 
,prices of the following articles at    
,birmingham1 in the  undermentioned     

years     ,description #ahah #ahbd #ahbh
 #ahcj   s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4        
,anvils cwt #be #j #bj #j #af #j #ac #j 
,awls1 polished1 ,liverpool gross #b #f 
#b #j #a #f #a #b   ,bed-screws1 #f     
inches long gross #ah #j #ae #j #f #j #e
 #j   ,bits1 tinned4 for bridles doz4 #e
 #j #e #j #c #c #b #f   ,bolts for      
doors1 #f inches doz4 #f #j #e #j #b #c 
#a #f   ,braces for carpenters1 with #ab
 bits set #i #j #d #j #d #b #c #e       
,buttons1 for coats gross #d #f #f #c #c
 #j #b #b   ,buttons1 small1 for        
waistcoats gross #b #f #b #j #a #b #j #h
   ,candlesticks1 #f in41 brass pair #b 
#a #a #b #j #a #g #a #b   ,curry-combs1 
six barred doz4 #b #i #b #f #a #e #j #a 
#a   ,frying-pans cwt #be #j #ba #j #ah 
#j #af #j   ,gun-locks1 single roller   
each #f #j #e #b #a #aj #a #f           
,hammers4 shoe1 ,no4 #j doz4 #f #i #c #i
 #c #j #b #i        ,description #ahah  
#ahbd #ahbh #ahcj   s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 s4
 d4   ,hinges1 cast-butts1 #a inch doz4 
#j #aj #j #ga_/b #j #ca_/d #j #ba_/d    

,knobs1 brass1 #b inches for commodes   
doz4 #d #j #c #f #a #f #a #b   ,latches 
for doors1 bright thumb doz4 #b #c #b #b
 #a #j #j #i   ,locks for doors1 iron   
rim1 #f inches doz4 #ch #j #cb #j #ae #j
 #ac #f   ,sad-irons and other castings 
cwt #bb #f #bj #j #ad #j #aa #f         
,shovel and tongs1 fire-irons pair #a #j
 #a #j #j #i #j #f   ,spoons1 tinned    
table gross #ag #f #ae #j #aj #j #g #j  
,stirrups1 plated pair #d #f #c #i #a #f
 #a #a   ,trace-chains cwt #bh #j #be #j
 #ai #f #af #f   ,trays1 japanned tea1  
#cj inches each #d #f #c #j #b #j #a #e 
,vices for blacksmiths cwt #cj #j #bh #j
 #bb #j #ai #f   ,wire1 brass lb4 #a #aj
 #a #d #a #j #j #i   --1 iron1 ,no4 #f  
bund4 #af #j #ac #j #i #j #g #j         
#bjb4 ,i have taken some pains to assure
 myself of the accuracy  of the above   
table3 at different periods of the years
 quoted the  prices may have varied2 but
 ,i believe it may be considered as a   
fair approximation4 ,in the course of my
 enquiries ,i have been  favoured with  

another list1 in which many of the same 
articles  occur1 but in this last       
instance the prices quoted are separated
  by an interval of twenty years4 ,it is
 extracted from the books of  a highly  
respectable house at ,birmingham2 and   
the prices confirm  the accuracy of the 
former table1 so far as they relate to  
the  articles which are found in that   
list4     ,prices of #ahab and #ahcb    
,reduction   per cent in   price of     
,description #ahab #ahcb #ahab   s4 d4  
s4 d4     ,anvils cwt #be #j #ad #j #dd 
,awls1 ,liverpool blades gross #c #f #a 
#j #ga   ,candlesticks1 iron1 plain #c  
#ajc_/d #b #ca_/b #da   screwed #f      
#da_/b #c #i #da   ,bed screws1 #f inch 
square head gross #g #f #d #f #dj   flat
 head gross #h #f #d #h #de             
,curry-combs1 #f barred dozen #d #ja_/b 
#a #j #ge     ,reduction   per cent in  
price of   ,description #ahab #ahcb     
#ahab   s4 d4 s4 d4    ,curry-combs1 #h 
barred dozen #e #ea_/b #a #e #gd        
patent1 #f barred dozen #g #aa_/b #a #e 

#hj   #h barred dozen #h #fc_/d #a #aj  
#gi   ,fire-irons1 iron head1 ,no4 #a4  
#a #da_/b #j #gc_/d #ec   ,no4 #b #a #f 
#j #ha_/b #ec   ,no4 #c #a #ha_/d #j    
#ia_/b #ec   ,no4 #d #a #aja_/b #j      
#aja_/b #ec   ,gun-locks1 single roller 
each #g #ba_/b #a #aa #gc   ,locks1 #a  
#a_/d brass1 port4 pad #af #j #b #f #he 
#b #a_/b inch #c keyed till-locks each  
#b #b #j #i #fe   ,shoe tacks gross #e  
#j #b #j #fj   ,spoons1 tinned1 iron    
table gross #bb #f #g #j #fi            
,stirrups4 com4 tinned1 #b bar dozen #g 
#j #b #i #fa   ,trace-chains1 iron cwt  
#df #ia_/b #ae #j #fh     ,prices of the
 principal materials1 used in mines in  
,cornwall1 at  different periods ,i am  
indebited to ,mr ,john ,taylor for this 
interesting table     ,,all ,,delivered 
,,at ,,the ,,mines     ,description     
#ahjj #ahaj #ahbj #ahcj #ahcb   s4 d4 s4
 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4   ,coals wey #ha  
#g #he #e #ec #d #ea #j #dj #j   ,timber
 7balk7 foot #b #j #d #j #a #e #a #j #j 
#aj   7oak7 foot #c #ca_/b #c #j #c #f  

#c #c   ,ropes cwt #ff #j #hd #j #dh #f 
#dj #j #dj #j   ,iron 7common bar7 cwt  
#bj #f #ad #f #aa #j #g #j #f #f        
,common castings cwt #af #j #ae #j #h #j
 #f #f   ,pumps cwt #afs4  #ags4 #ags4  
#ahs4 #abs4  #aes4 #f #f #f #aj         
,gunpowder #ajj lbs4 #aad #b #aag #f #fh
 #j #eb #f #di #j   ,candles #i #c #aj  
#j #h #i #e #aa #d #aj   ,tallow cwt #gb
 #j #hd #j #fe #h #eb #f #dc #j         
,leather lb4 #b #d #b #c #bd #bb #ba    
,blistered steel cwt #ej #j #dd #j #ch  
#j   #bs4 nails cwt #cb #j #bh #f #bb #j
 #ag #j #af #f      #bjc4 ,i cannot omit
 availing myself of this opportunity of 
calling the attention of the            
manufacturers1 merchants1 and  factors1 
in all our manufacturing and commercial 
towns1 to the  great importance1 both   
for their own interests1 and for that of
  the population to which their capital 
gives employment1 of  collecting with   
care such averages from the actual sales
  registered in their books4 ,nor1      
perhaps1 would it be without its  use to

 suggest1 that such averages would be   
still more valuable  if collected from  
as many different quarters as possible2 
that  the quantity of the goods from    
which they are deduced1 together  with  
the greatest deviations from the mean1  
ought to be given2  and that if a small 
committee were to undertake the task1 it
  would give great additional weight to 
the information4 ,political  economists 
have been reproached with too small a   
use of facts1  and too large an         
employment of theory4 ,if facts are     
wanting1 let  it be remembered that the 
closet-philosopher is unfortunately too 
little acquainted with the admirable    
arrangements of the factory1  and that  
no class of persons can supply so       
readily1 and with so  little sacrifice  
of time1 the data on which all the      
reasonings of  political economists are 
founded1 as the merchant and            
manufacturer2 and1 unquestionably1 to no
 class are the deductions  to which they
 give rise so important4 ,nor let it be 

feared that  erroneous deductions may be
 made from such recorded facts3 the     
errors which arise from the absence of  
facts are far more  numerous and more   
durable than those which result from    
unsound  reasoning respecting true data4
    #bjd4 ,the great diminution in price
 of the articles here  enumerated may   
have arisen from several causes3 #a4    
,the alteration  in the value of the    
currency4 #b4 ,the increased value of   
gold in  consequence of the increased   
demand for coin4 ,the first of these    
causes may have had some influence1 and 
the second may have had a  very small   
effect upon the two first quotations of 
prices1 but  none at all upon the two   
latter ones4 #c4 ,the diminished rate of
  profit produced by capital however    
employed4 ,this may be  estimated by the
 average price of three per cents at the
 periods  stated4 #d4 ,the diminished   
price of the raw materials out of which 
these articles were manufactured4 ,the  
raw material is principally  brass and  

iron1 and the reduction upon it may1 in 
some measure1  be estimated by the      
diminished price of iron and brass wire1
 in  the cost of which articles1 the    
labour bears a less proportion  than it 
does in many of the others4 #e4 ,the    
smaller quantity of  raw material       
employed1 and perhaps1 in some          
instances1 an  inferior1 quality of     
workmanship4 #f4 ,the improved means by 
which  the same effect was produced by  
diminished labour4    #bje4 ,in order to
 afford the means of estimating the     
influence  of these several causes1 the 
following table is subjoined3     #ahab 
#ahah #ahbd #ahbh #ahcj #ahcb   ,average
 ,price of ,l s d4 ,l s4 d4 ,l s d ,l s4
 d ,l s d ,l s4 d   ,gold4 per oz #d #ae
 #f #d #j #c #ag #fa_/b #c #ag #g #c #ag
 #ia_/b #c #ag #aj #a_/b   ,value of    
currency4 per cent #gi #e #c #ig #f #aj 
#ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj   ,price of #c per  
cent consols #eia_/d #gha_/d #ice_/h #hf
 #hic_/d #hba_/b   ,wheat per quarter #f
 #e #j #d #a #j #c #b l #c #a #a #aj #c 

#ad #f #b #ai #c     ,english pig iron  
at ,birmingham #g l#j #j #f #g #f #f l#j
 #j #e #aj #j #d l#j #j     ,english bar
 iron at ,birmingham #aj #aj #j #i #aj  
#j #g #ae #j #f #j #j #e #j #j          
,swedish bar iron in ,london1 excluding 
duty of from ,l#d to ,l#f #ajs  per ton 
#af #aj #j #ag #aj #j #ad #j #j #ad #aj 
#j #ac #ae #j #ac #b #j      ,as this   
table1 if unaccompanied by any          
explanation1 might  possibly lead to    
erroneous conclusions1 ,i subjoin the   
following  observations1 for which ,i am
 indebted to the kindness of ,mr        
,tooke1 who may yet1 ,i hope1 be induced
 to continue his valuable  work on ,high
 and ,low ,prices1 through the important
 period which  has elapsed since its    
publication4    ',the table commences   
with #ahab1 and exhibits a great falling
  off in the price of wheat and iron    
coincidently with a fall in  the price  
of gold1 and leading to the inference of
 cause and  effect4 ,now1 as regards    
wheat1 it so happened that in #ahab it  

reached its highest price in consequence
 of a series of bad  harvests1 when     
relief by importation was difficult and 
enormously  expensive4 ,in ,december1   
#ahac1 whilst the price of gold had     
risen  to ,l#e1 the price of wheat had  
fallen to #gcs41 or #ej per cent  under 
what it had been in the spring of #ahab2
 proving clearly  that the two articles 
were under the influence of opposite    
causes4    ',again1 in #ahab1 the       
freight and insurance on ,swedish iron  
were so much higher than at present as  
to account for nearly the  whole of the 
difference of price3 and in #ahah there 
had been an  extensive speculation which
 had raised the price of all iron1 so   
that a part of the subsequent decline   
was a mere reaction from a  previously  
unfounded elevation4 ,more recently1 in 
#ahbe1 there was  a great speculative   
rise in the article1 which served as a  
strong  stimulus to increased           
production3 this1 aided by improved     
power  of machinery1 has proceeded to   

such an extent as fully to account  for 
the fall of price4'    ,to these        
reflections ,i will only add1 that the  
result of my  own observation leads me  
to believe that by far the most         
influential of these causes has been the
 invention of cheaper  modes of         
manufacturing4 ,the extent to which this
 can be carried1  while a profit can yet
 be realized at the reduced price1 is   
truly  astonishing1 as the following    
fact1 which rests on good  authority1   
will prove4 ,twenty years since1 a brass
 knob for the  locks of doors was made  
at ,birmingham2 the price1 at that time1
  being #acs4 #d;d4 per dozen4 ,the same
 article is now manufactured1  having   
the same weight of metal1 and an equal1 
or in fact a  slightly superior finish1 
at #as4 #i #a_/d;d4 per dozen4 ,one     
circumstance which has produced this    
economy in the manufacture  is1 that the
 lathe on which these knobs are finished
 is now  turned by a steam-engine2 so   
that the workman1 relieved from that    

labour1 can make them twenty times as   
fast as he did formerly4    #bjf4 ,the  
difference of price of the same article1
 when of  various dimensions at         
different periods in the same           
country--and  in different countries--is
 curiously contrasted in the annexed    
table4     ,comparative price of plate  
glass1 at the manufactories of  ,london1
 ,paris1 ,berlin1 and ,petersburg       
,,dimensions ,,london ,,paris ,,berlin  
,,petersburg   ,height ,breadth #agga   
#agid #ahcb #ahbe #ahce #ahbh #ahbe   in
 inches in inches ,l s d ,l s d ,l s d  
,l s d ,l s d ,l s d ,l s d   #af #af   
#jajc #jaja #jagf #jhg #jgf #jha #jdaj  
#cj #bj #adf #bcb #bfaj #aafaj #agaj    
#jajf #abaj   #ej #cj #bd #b #d #aa #e  
#j #f #ab #aj #i #j #e #e #j #c #h #ac  
#j #e #ae #j   #fj #dj #fg #ad #aj #bg  
#j #j #ac #i #f #bb #g #e #aj #d #c #ba 
#ah #j #ab #i #j   #gf #dj #dc #f #j #ai
 #b #i #cf #d #e #ad #ag #e #ce #b #aa  
#ag #e #j   #ij #ej #hd #h #j #cd #ab #i
 #ga #c #h #bh #ac #d #cc #ah #g   #ajj 

#ge #bge #j #j #gd #e #aj #baj #ac #c   
#gj #i #g   #abj #ge #ig #ae #i #ced #c 
#b #ih #c #aj      ,the price of        
silvering these plates is twenty per    
cent on the  cost price for ,english    
glass2 ten per cent on the cost price   
for  ,paris plates2 and twelve and a    
half on those of ,berlin4    ,the       
following table shews the dimensions and
 price1 when  silvered1 of the largest  
plates of glass ever made by the        
,british  ,plate ,glass ,company1 which 
are now at their warehouse in ,london3  
,height ,breadth ,price when silvered   
,inches ,inches ,l s4 d4     #acb #hd   
#bjj #h #j   #adf #ha #bbj #g #j   #adi 
#hd #bci #a #f   #aca #hc #bci #aj #g   
#afj #hj #bdf #ae #d      ,the prices of
 the largest glass in the ,paris lists  
when  silvered1 and reduced to ,english 
measure1 were3    ,year ,inches ,inches 
,price when silvered                    
,l  s4 d4   #ahbe #abh #hj              
#fbi #ab #j   #ahce #abh #hj            
#acf #ai #j      #bjg4 ,if we wish to   

compare the value of any article at     
different periods of time1 it is clear  
that neither any one  substance1 nor    
even the combination of all manufactured
 goods1  can furnish us with an         
invariable unit by which to form our    
scale  of estimation4 ,mr ,malthus has  
proposed for this purpose to  consider a
 day's labour of an agricultural        
labourer1 as the unit  to which all     
value should be referred4 ,thus1 if we  
wish to  compare the value of twenty    
yards of broad cloth in ,saxony at the  
present time1 with that of the same kind
 and quantity of cloth  fabricated in   
,england two centuries ago1 we must find
 the number  of days' labour the cloth  
would have purchased in ,england at the 
time mentioned1 and compare it with the 
number of days' labour  which the same  
quantity of cloth will now purchase in  
,saxony4  ,agricultural labour appears  
to have been selected1 because it       
exists in all countries1 and employs a  
large number of persons1  and also      

because it requires a very small degree 
of previous  instruction4 ,it seems1 in 
fact1 to be merely the exertion of a    
man's physical force2 and its value     
above that of a machine of  equal power 
arises from its portability1 and from   
the facility of  directing its efforts  
to arbitrary and continually fluctuating
  purposes4 ,it may perhaps be worthy of
 enquiry1 whether a more  constant      
average might not be deduced from       
combining with this  species of labour  
those trades which require but a        
moderate  exertion of skill and which   
likewise exist in all civilized         
countries1 such as those of the         
blacksmith and carpenter1  etc47#a997   
,in all such comparisons there is1      
however1 another  element1 which1 though
 not essentially necessary1 will yet add
  much to our means of judging4    ,it  
is an estimate of the quantity of that  
food on which the  labourer usually     
subsists1 which is necessary for his    
daily  support1 compared with the       

quantity which his daily wages will     
purchase4    #bjh4 ,the existence of a  
class of middlemen1 between small       
producers and merchants1 is frequently  
advantageous to both  parties2 and there
 are certain periods in the history of  
several  manufactures which naturally   
call that class of traders into         
existence4 ,there are also times when   
the advantage ceasing1 the  custom of   
employing them also terminates2 the     
middlemen1  especially when numerous1 as
 they sometimes are in retail trades1   
enhancing the price without equivalent  
good4 ,thus1 in the recent  examination 
by the ,house of ,commons into the state
 of the coal  trade1 it appears that    
five-sixths of the ,london public is    
supplied by a class of middlemen who are
 called in the trade  ,brass plate coal 
merchants3 these consist principally of 
merchants' clerks1 gentlemen's servants1
 and others1 who have no  wharfs of     
their own1 but merely give their orders 
to some true  coal merchant1 who sends  

in the coals from his wharf3 the brass  
plate coal merchants1 of course1        
receiving a commission for his  agency4 
#bji4 ,in ,italy this system is carried 
to a great extent  amongst the          
voituriers1 or persons who undertake to 
convey  travellers4 ,there are some     
possessed of greater fluency and a  more
 persuasive manner who frequent the inns
 where the ,english  resort1 and who1 as
 soon as they have made a bargain for   
the  conveyance of a traveller1 go out  
amongst their countrymen and  procure   
some other voiturier to do the job for a
 considerably  smaller sum1 themselves  
pocketing the difference4 ,a short time 
before the day of starting1 the         
contractor appears before his  customer 
in great distress1 regretting his       
inability to perform  the journey on    
account of the dangerous illness of a   
mother or  some relative1 and requesting
 to have his cousin or brother          
substituted for him4 ,the ,english      
traveller rarely fails to  acquiesce in 

this change1 and often praises the      
filial piety of  the rogue who has      
deceived him4    ,,notes3    #a4 ,much  
information for such an enquiry is to be
 found1 for the  particular period to   
which it refers1 in the ,report of the  
,committee of the ,house of ,commons on 
,manufacturers' ,employment1 #b  ,july1 
#ahcj4        ,chapter #ah    ,of ,raw  
,materials    #baj4 ,although the cost  
of any article may be reduced in its    
ultimate analysis to the quantity of    
labour by which it was  produced2 yet it
 is usual1 in a certain state of the    
manufacture  of most substances1 to call
 them by the term raw material4 ,thus   
iron1 when reduced from the ore and     
rendered malleable1 is in a  state      
fitted for application to a multitude of
 useful purposes1  and is the raw       
material out of which most of our tools 
are made4  ,in this stage of its        
manufacture1 but a moderate quantity of 
labour has been expended on the         
substance2 and it becomes an            

interesting subject to trace the various
 proportions in which raw  material1 in 
this sense of the term1 and labour unite
 to  constitute the value of many of the
 productions of the arts4    #baa4 ,gold
 leaf consists of a portion of the metal
 beaten out  to so great a degree of    
thinness1 as to allow a greenish-blue   
light to be transmitted through its     
pores4 ,about #djj square  inches of    
this are sold1 in the form of a small   
book containing  #be leaves of gold1 for
 #as4 #f;d4 ,in this case1 the raw      
material1 or  gold1 is worth rather less
 than two-thirds of the manufactured    
article4 ,in the case of silver leaf1   
the labour considerably  exceeds the    
value of the material4 ,a book of fifty 
leaves1 which  would cover above #ajjj  
square inches1 is sold for #as4 #c;d4   
#bab4 ,we may trace the relative        
influence of the two causes  above      
referred to1 in the prices of fine gold 
chains made at  ,venice4 ,the sizes of  
these chains are known by numbers1 the  

smallest having been 7in #ahbh7 ,no4 #a1
 and the numbers #b1 #c1 #d1  etc41     
progressively increasing in size4 ,the  
following table shews  the numbers and  
the prices of those made at that        
time47#a997 ,the  first column gives the
 number by which the chain is known2 the
  second expresses the weight in grains 
of one inch in length of  each chain2   
the third column the number of links in 
the same  length2 and the last expresses
 the price1 in francs worth  tenpence   
each1 of a ,venetian braccio1 or about  
two ,english feet  of each chain4       
,venetian gold chains   ,price of a     
,venetian   ,braccio1 equal to   ,weight
 of ,number of links two feet #a_/h inch
   ,no4 one inch1 in grains in one inch 
,english   #j4dd #ih to #ajj #fj francs 
#a4ef #ib #dj   #a #a_/b4gg #hh #bf     
#b4ii #hd #bj   #c #a4df #gb #bj   #d   
#a4fa #fd #ba   #e #b4ji #fd #bc   #f   
#b4fa #fj #bd   #g #c4cf #ef #bg   #h   
#c4fe #ef #bi   #i #c4gb #ef #cb   #aj  
#e4ce #ej #cd   #bd #i4ga #cb #fj       

,amongst these chains1 that numbered #j 
and that numbered #bd  are exactly of   
the same price1 although the quantity of
 gold in  the latter is twenty-two times
 as much as in the former4 ,the         
difficulty of making the smallest chain 
is so great1 that the  women who make it
 cannot work above two hours at a time4 
,as we  advance from the smaller chain1 
the proportionate value of the  work to 
the worth of the material becomes less  
and less1 until at  the numbers #b and  
#c1 these two elements of cost balance  
each  other3 after which1 the difficulty
 of the work decreases1 and the  value  
of the material increases4    #bac4 ,the
 quantity of labour expended on these   
chains is1  however1 incomparably less  
than that which is applied in some of   
the manufactures of iron4 ,in the case  
of the smallest ,venetian  chain the    
value of the labour is not above thirty 
times that of  the gold4 ,the pendulum  
spring of a watch1 which governs the    
vibrations of the balance1 costs at the 

retail price two pence1  and weighs     
fifteen one-hundredths of a grain1      
whilst the retail  price of a pound of  
the best iron1 the raw material out of  
which  fifty thousand such springs are  
made1 is exactly the same sum of  two   
pence4    #bad4 ,the comparative price  
of labour and of raw material  entering 
into the manufactures of ,france1 has   
been ascertained  with so much care1 in 
a memoir of ,m4 ,a4 ,m4 ,heron de       
,villefosse1  ,recherches statistiques1 
sur les ,metaux de ,france47#b997 that  
we  shall give an abstract of his       
results reduced to ,english  measures4  
,the facts respecting the metals relate 
to the year  #ahbe4    ,in ,france the  
quantity of raw material which can be   
purchased  for ,l#a1 when manufactured  
into     ,silk goods is worth ,l#b4cg   
,broad cloth and woollens #b4ae   ,hemp 
and cables #c4id   ,linen comprising    
thread laces #e4jj   ,cotton goods #b4dd
     ,the price of pig-lead was ,l#a    
#as4 per cwt2 and lead of the value  of 

,l#a sterling1 became worth1 when       
manufactured into     ,sheets or pipes  
of moderate dimensions ,l #a4 #be       
,white lead #b4fj   ,ordinary printing  
characters #d4ij   ,the smallest type   
#bh4cj     ,the price of copper was ,l#e
 #bs4 per cwt4 ,copper worth ,l#a became
  when manufactured into     ,copper    
sheeting ,l#a4bf   ,household utensils  
#d4gg   ,common brass pins tinned #b4cd 
,rolled into plates covered with #a_/bj 
silver #c4ef   ,woven into metallic     
cloth1 each square inch of which        
contains  #aj1jjj meshes #eb4bc         
,the price of tin was ,l#d #abs4 per    
cwt4 ,tin worth ,l#a when  manufactured 
into     ,leaves for silvering glass    
became ,l#a4gc   ,household utensils    
#a4he      ,quicksilver cost ,l#aj #afs4
 per cwt4 ,quicksilver worth ,l#a when  
manufactured into     ,vermilion of     
average quality became ,l#a4ha          
,metallic arsenic cost ,l#a #ds4 per    
cwt4 ,arsenic worth ,l#a when           
manufactured into     ,white oxide of   

arsenic became ,l#a4hc   ,sulphuret     
7orpiment7 #d4bf      ,the price of     
cast-iron was #hs4 per cwt4 ,cast-iron  
worth ,l#a  when manufactured into      
,household utensils became ,l#b4jj      
,machinery #d4jj   ,ornamental4 as      
buckles4 etc #de4jj   ,bracelets4       
figures1 buttons4 etc4 #adg4jj          
,bar-iron cost ,l#a #fs4 per cwt4       
,bar-iron worth ,l#a when  manufactured 
into     ,agricultural instruments      
became ,l#c4eg   ,barrels1 musket #i4   
#aj   ,barrels of double-barrel guns4   
twisted and damasked #bch4jh   ,blades  
of penknives #feg4ad   razor4 cast steel
 #ec4eg sabre1 for cavalry4 infantry1   
and  artillery4 etc4 from #i4be to      
#af4jg   of table knives #ce4gj         
,buckles of polished steel1 used as     
jewellery #hif4ff   ,clothiers' pins    
#h4jc   ,door-latches and bolts from    
#d4he to #h4ej   ,files1 common #b4ee   
flat1 cast steel #bj4dd   ,horseshoes   
#b4ee   ,iron1 small slit1 for nails #a4
 #aj   ,metallic cloth1 iron wire1 ,no4 

#hj #if4ga   ,needles of various sizes  
from #ag4cc to #gj4he   ,reeds for      
weaving #c-dths calico #ba4hg   ,saws   
7frame7 of steel #e4 #ab   for wood     
#ad4bh  ,scissors1 finest kind #ddf4id  
,steel1 cast #d4bh   cast1 in sheets    
#f4be   cemented #b4da   natural #a4db  
,sword handles1 polished steel #igb4hb  
,tinned iron from #b4jd to #b4cd        
,wire1 iron from #b4 #ad to #aj4ga      
#bae4 ,the following is stated by ,m4 de
 ,villefosse to be the  price of        
bar-iron at the forges of various       
countries1 in ,january1  #ahbe4    per  
ton   ,l s4 d4   ,france #bf #aj #j     
,belgium and ,germany #af #ad #j        
,sweden and ,russia1 at ,stockholm and  
,st ,petersburg #ac #ac #j   ,england1  
at ,cardiff #aj #a #j     ,the price of 
the article in #ahcb was #e #j #j       
,m4 ,de ,villefosse states1 that in     
,france bar-iron1 made as it  usually is
 with charcoal1 costs three times the   
price of the  cast-iron out of which it 
is made2 whilst in ,england1 where it is

  usually made with coke1 the cost is   
only twice the price of  cast-iron4     
#baf4 ,the present price 7#ahcb7 of lead
 in ,england is ,l#ac per  ton1 and the 
worth of ,l#a of it manufactured into   
,milled sheet lead becomes ,ll4#jh      
,the present price of cake copper is    
,l#hd per ton1 and the  worth of ,l#a of
 it manufactured into     ,sheet copper 
becomes ,l#a4aa    ,,notes3    #a4 ,a   
still finer chain is now manufactured   
7#ahcb74    #b4  ,memoires de           
l',institut4 #ahbf        ,chapter #ai  
,on the ,division of ,labour    #bag4   
,perhaps the most important principle on
 which the  economy of a manufacture    
depends1 is the division of labour      
amongst the persons who perform the     
work4 ,the first application  of this   
principle must have been made in a very 
early stage of  society1 for it must    
soon have been apparent1 that a larger  
number of comforts and conveniences     
could be acquired by each  individual1  
if one man restricted his occupation to 

the art of  making bows1 another to that
 of building houses1 a third boats1  and
 so on4 ,this division of labour into   
trades was not1 however1  the result of 
an opinion that the general riches of   
the community  would be increased by    
such an arrangement2 but it must have   
arisen from the circumstance of each    
individual so employed  discovering that
 he himself could thus make a greater   
profit of  his labour than by pursuing  
more varied occupations4 ,society must  
have made considerable advances before  
this principle could have  been carried 
into the workshop2 for it is only in    
countries which  have attained a high   
degree of civilization1 and in articles 
in  which there is a great competition  
amongst the producers1 that  the most   
perfect system of the division of labour
 is to be  observed4 ,the various       
principles on which the advantages of   
this  system depend1 have been much the 
subject of discussion amongst  writers  
on political economy2 but the relative  

importance of  their influence does not 
appear1 in all cases1 to have been      
estimated with sufficient precision4 ,it
 is my intention1 in the  first         
instance1 to state shortly those        
principles1 and then to  point out what 
appears to me to have been omitted by   
those who  have previously treated the  
subject4    #bah4 #a4 ,of the time      
required for learning4 ,it will readily 
be  admitted1 that the portion of time  
occupied in the acquisition of  any art 
will depend on the difficulty of its    
execution2 and that  the greater the    
number of distinct processes1 the longer
 will be  the time which the apprentice 
must employ in acquiring it4 ,five  or  
seven years have been adopted1 in a     
great many trades1 as the  time         
considered requisite for a lad to       
acquire a sufficient  knowledge of his  
art1 and to enable him to repay by his  
labour1  during the latter portion of   
his time1 the expense incurred by  his  
master at its commencement4 ,if1        

however1 instead of learning  all the   
different processes for making a needle1
 for instance1  his attention be        
confined to one operation1 the portion  
of time  consumed unprofitably at the   
commencement of his apprenticeship  will
 be small1 and all the rest of it will  
be beneficial to his  master3 and1      
consequently1 if there be any           
competition amongst  the masters1 the   
apprentice will be able to make better  
terms1  and diminish the period of his  
servitude4 ,again1 the facility of      
acquiring skill in a single process1 and
 the early period of life  at which it  
can be made a source of profit1 will    
induce a greater  number of parents to  
bring up their children to it2 and from 
this  circumstance also1 the number of  
workmen being increased1 the  wages will
 soon fall4    #bai4 #b4 ,of waste of   
materials in learning4 ,a certain       
quantity  of material will1 in all      
cases1 be consumed unprofitably1 or     
spoiled by every person who learns an   

art2 and as he applies  himself to each 
new process1 he will waste some of the  
raw  material1 or of the partly         
manufactured commodity4 ,but if each    
man commit this waste in acquiring      
successively every process1  the        
quantity of waste will be much greater  
than if each person  confine his        
attention to one process2 in this view  
of the  subject1 therefore1 the division
 of labour will diminish the  price of  
production4    #bbj4 #c4 ,another       
advantage resulting from the division of
  labour is1 the saving of that portion 
of time which is always  lost in        
changing from one occupation to another4
 ,when the human  hand1 or the human    
head1 has been for some time occupied in
 any  kind of work1 it cannot instantly 
change its employment with full  effect4
 ,the muscles of the limbs employed have
 acquired a  flexibility during their   
exertion1 and those not in action a     
stiffness during rest1 which renders    
every change slow and  unequal in the   

commencement4 ,long habit also produces 
in the  muscles exercised a capacity for
 enduring fatigue to a much  greater    
degree than they could support under    
other circumstances4  ,a similar result 
seems to take place in any change of    
mental  exertion2 the attention bestowed
 on the new subject not being so        
perfect at first as it becomes after    
some exercise4    #bba4 #d4 ,change of  
tools4 ,the employment of different     
tools in  the successive processes is   
another cause of the loss of time in    
changing from one operation to another4 
,if these tools are  simple1 and the    
change is not frequent1 the loss of time
 is not  considerable2 but in many      
processes of the arts the tools are of  
great delicacy1 requiring accurate      
adjustment every time they are  used2   
and in many cases the time employed in  
adjusting bears a  large proportion to  
that employed in using the tool4 ,the   
sliding-rest1 the dividing and the      
drilling-engine1 are of this  kind2 and 

hence1 in manufactories of sufficient   
extent1 it is  found to be good economy 
to keep one machine constantly employed 
in one kind of work3 one lathe1 for     
example1 having a screw  motion to its  
sliding-rest along the whole length of  
its bed1 is  kept constantly making     
cylinders2 another1 having a motion for 
equalizing the velocity of the work at  
the point at which it  passes the tool1 
is kept for facing surfaces2 whilst a   
third is  constantly employed in cutting
 wheels4    #bbb4 #e4 ,skill acquired by
 frequent repetition of the same        
processes4 ,the constant repetition of  
the same process  necessarily produces  
in the workman a degree of excellence   
and  rapidity in his particular         
department1 which is never possessed  by
 a person who is obliged to execute many
 different processes4  ,this rapidity is
 still further increased from the       
circumstance  that most of the          
operations in factories1 where the      
division of  labour is carried to a     

considerable extent1 are paid for as    
piece-work4 ,it is difficult to estimate
 in numbers the effect of  this cause   
upon production4 ,in nail-making1 ,adam 
,smith has  stated1 that it is almost   
three to one2 for1 he observes1 that a  
smith accustomed to make nails1 but     
whose whole business has not  been that 
of a nailer1 can make only from eight   
hundred to a  thousand per day2 whilst a
 lad who had never exercised any other  
trade1 can make upwards of two thousand 
three hundred a day4    #bbc4 ,in       
different trades1 the economy of        
production arising  from the            
last-mentioned cause will necessarily be
 different4 ,the  case of nail-making   
is1 perhaps1 rather an extreme one4 ,it 
must1  however1 be observed1 that1 in   
one sense1 this is not a permanent      
source of advantage2 for1 though it acts
 at the commencement of  an             
establishment1 yet every month adds to  
the skill of the  workmen2 and at the   
end of three or four years they will not

 be  very far behind those who have     
never practised any other branch  of    
their art4 ,upon an occasion when a     
large issue of bank-notes  was required1
 a clerk at the ,bank of ,england signed
 his name1  consisting of seven letters1
 including the initial of his           
,christian name1 five thousand three    
hundred times during eleven  working    
hours1 besides arranging the notes he   
had signed in  parcels of fifty each4   
#bbd4 #f4 ,the division of labour       
suggests the contrivance of  tools and  
machinery to execute its processes4     
,when each  processes1 by which any     
article is produced1 is the sole        
occupation of one individual1 his whole 
attention being devoted  to a very      
limited and simple operation1           
improvements in the form  of his tools1 
or in the mode of using them1 are much  
more likely  to occur to his mind1 than 
if it were distracted by a greater      
variety of circumstances4 ,such an      
improvement in the tool is  generally   

the first step towards a machine4 ,if a 
piece of metal  is to be cut in a lathe1
 for example1 there is one particular   
angle at which the cutting-tool must be 
held to insure the  cleanest cut2 and it
 is quite natural that the idea of      
fixing the  tool at that angle should   
present itself to an intelligent        
workman4 ,the necessity of moving the   
tool slowly1 and in a  direction        
parallel to itself1 would suggest the   
use of a screw1  and thus arises the    
sliding-rest4 ,it was probably the idea 
of  mounting a chisel in a frame1 to    
prevent its cutting too deeply1  which  
gave rise to the common carpenter's     
plane4 ,in cases where a  blow from a   
hammer is employed1 experience teaches  
the proper  force required4 ,the        
transition from the hammer held in the  
hand  to one mounted upon an axis1 and  
lifted regularly to a certain  height by
 some mechanical contrivance1 requires  
perhaps a greater  degree of invention  
than those just instanced2 yet it is not

  difficult to perceive1 that1 if the   
hammer always falls from the  same      
height1 its effect must be always the   
same4    #bbe4 ,when each process has   
been reduced to the use of some  simple 
tool1 the union of all these tools1     
actuated by one moving  power1          
constitutes a machine4 ,in contriving   
tools and simplifying  processes1 the   
operative workmen are1 perhaps1 most    
successful2  but it requires far other  
habits to combine into one machine      
these scattered arts4 ,a previous       
education as a workman in the  peculiar 
trade1 is undoubtedly a valuable        
preliminary2 but in  order to make such 
combinations with any reasonable        
expectation  of success1 an extensive   
knowledge of machinery1 and the power of
  making mechanical drawings1 are       
essentially requisite4 ,these           
accomplishments are now much more common
 than they were  formerly1 and their    
absence was1 perhaps1 one of the causes 
of  the multitude of failures in the    

early history of many of our            
manufactures4    #bbf4 ,such are the    
principles usually assigned as the      
causes  of the advantage resulting from 
the division of labour4 ,as in the  view
 ,i have taken of the question1 the most
 important and  influential cause has   
been altogether unnoticed1 ,i shall     
restate  those principles in the words  
of ,adam ,smith3    ,the great increase 
in the quantity of work1 which1 in      
consequence  of the division of labour1 
the same number of people are capable   
of performing1 is owing to three        
different circumstances3 first1  to the 
increase of dexterity in every          
particular workman2  secondly1 to the   
saving of time1 which is commonly lost  
in  passing from one species of work to 
another2 and1 lastly1 to the  invention 
of a great number of machines which     
facilitate and  abridge labour1 and     
enable one man to do the work of many4  
,now1 although all these are important  
causes1 and each has  its influence on  

the result2 yet it appears to me1 that  
any  explanation of the cheapness of    
manufactured articles1 as  consequent   
upon the division of labour1 would be   
incomplete if  the following principle  
were omitted to be stated4    ,that the 
master manufacturer1 by dividing the    
work to be  executed into different     
processes1 each requiring different     
degrees of skill or of force1 can       
purchase exactly that precise  quantity 
of both which is necessary for each     
process2 whereas1 if  the whole work    
were executed by one workman1 that      
person must  possess sufficient skill to
 perform the most difficult1 and        
sufficient strength to execute the most 
laborious1 of the  operations into which
 the art is divided47#a997    #bbg4 ,as 
the clear apprehension of this          
principle1 upon which  a great part of  
the economy arising from the division of
 labour  depends1 is of considerable    
importance1 it may be desirable to      
point out its precise and numerical     

application in some specific            
manufacture4 ,the art of making needles 
is1 perhaps1 that which ,i  should have 
selected for this illustration1 as      
comprehending a  very large number of   
processes remarkably different in their 
nature2 but the less difficult art of   
pinmaking1 has some claim  to attention1
 from its having been used by ,adam     
,smith2 and ,i am  confirmed in the     
choice of it1 by the circumstance of our
  possessing a very accurate and minute 
description of that art1 as  practised  
in ,france above half a century ago4    
#bbh4 ,pin-making4 ,in the manufacture  
of pins in ,england the  following      
processes are employed3    #a4          
,wire-drawing4 7a7 ,the brass wire used 
for making pins is  purchased by the    
manufacturer in coils of about          
twenty-two inches  in diameter1 each    
weighing about thirty-six pounds4 7b7   
,the coils  are wound off into smaller  
ones of about six inches in diameter1   
and between one and two pounds' weight4 

7c7 ,the diameter of this  wire is now  
reduced1 by drawing it repeatedly       
through holes in  steel plates1 until it
 becomes of the size required for the   
sort  of pins intended to be made4      
,during this process the wire is        
hardened1 and to prevent its breaking1  
it must be annealed two or  three times1
 according to the diminution of diameter
 required4  7d7 ,the coils are then     
soaked in sulphuric acid1 largely       
diluted  with water1 in order to clean  
them1 and are then beaten on stone1  for
 the purpose of removing any oxidated   
coating which may adhere  to them4      
,these operations are usually performed 
by men1 who draw  and clean from thirty 
to thirty-six pounds of wire a day4     
,they  are paid at the rate of five     
farthings per pound1 and generally  earn
 about #cs4 #f;d4 per day4    ,m4       
,perronnet made some experiments on the 
extension the wire  undergoes in passing
 through each hole3 he took a piece of  
thick  ,swedish brass wire1 and found   

,feet ,inches   ,its length to be before
 drawing #c #h   ,after passing the     
first hole #e #e   second hole #g #b    
third hole #g #h     ,it was now        
annealed1 and the length became         
,after passing the fourth hole #aj #h   
fifth hole #ac #a   sixth hole #af #h   
,and finally1 after passing through six 
other holes #add #j      ,the holes     
through which the wire was drawn were   
not1 in this  experiment1 of regularly  
decreasing diameter3 it is extremely    
difficult to make such holes1 and still 
more to preserve them in  their original
 dimensions4    #bbi4 #b4 ,straightening
 the wire4 ,the coil of wire now passes 
into the hands of a woman1 assisted by a
 boy or girl4 ,a few  nails1 or iron    
pins1 not quite in a line1 are fixed    
into one end  of a wooden table about   
twenty feet in length2 the end of the   
wire is passed alternately between these
 nails1 and is then  pulled to the other
 end of the table4 ,the object of this  
process  is to straighten the wire1     

which had acquired a considerable       
curvature in the small coils in which it
 had been wound4 ,the  length thus      
straightened is cut off1 and the        
remainder of the  coil is drawn into    
similar lengths4 ,about seven nails or  
pins are  employed in straightening the 
wire1 and their adjustment is a  matter 
of some nicety4 ,it seems1 that by      
passing the wire between  the first     
three nails or pins1 a bend is produced 
in an opposite  direction to that which 
the wire had in the coil2 this bend1 by 
passing the next two nails1 is reduced  
to another less curved in  the first    
direction1 and so on till the curve of  
the wire may at  last be confounded with
 a straight line4    #bcj4 #c4          
,pointing4 7a7 ,a man next takes about  
three hundred of  these straightened    
pieces in a parcel1 and putting them    
into a  gauge1 cuts off from one end1 by
 means of a pair of shears1 moved  by   
his foot1 a portion equal in length to  
rather more than six  pins4 ,he         

continues this operation until the      
entire parcel is  reduced into similar  
pieces4 7b7 ,the next step is to sharpen
 the  ends3 for this purpose the        
operator sits before a steel mill1      
which is kept rapidly revolving3 it     
consists of a cylinder about  six inches
 in diameter1 and two and a half inches 
broad1 faced  with steel1 which is cut  
in the manner of a file4 ,another       
cylinder is fixed on the same axis at a 
few inches distant2 the  file on the    
edge of which is of a finer kind1 and is
 used for  finishing off the points4    
,the workman now takes up a parcel of   
the wires between the finger and thumb  
of each hand1 and presses  the ends     
obliquely on the mill1 taking care with 
his fingers and  thumbs to make each    
wire slowly revolve upon its axis4      
,having  thus pointed all the pieces at 
one end1 he reverses them1 and  performs
 the same operation on the other4 ,this 
process requires  considerable skill1   
but it is not unhealthy2 whilst the     

similar  process in needlemaking is     
remarkably destructive of health4 7c7   
,the pieces now pointed at both ends1   
are next placed in gauges1  and the     
pointed ends are cut off1 by means of   
shears1 to the  proper length of which  
the pins are to be made4 ,the remaining 
portions of the wire are now equal to   
about four pins in length1  and are     
again pointed at each end1 and their    
lengths again cut  off4 ,this process is
 repeated a third time1 and the small   
portion  of wire left in the middle is  
thrown amongst the waste1 to be  melted 
along with the dust arising from the    
sharpening4 ,it is  usual for a man1 his
 wife1 and a child1 to join in          
performing  these processes2 and they   
are paid at the rate of five farthings  
per pound4 ,they can point from         
thirty-four to thirty-six and a  half   
pounds per day1 and gain from #fs4 #f;d4
 to #gs41 which may be  apportioned     
thus2 #es4 #f;d4 the man4 #as4 the      
woman1 #f;d4 to the boy  or girl4       

#bca4 #d4 ,twisting and cutting the     
heads4 ,the next process is  making the 
heads4 ,for this purpose 7a7 a boy takes
 a piece of  wire1 of the same diameter 
as the pin to be headed1 which he  fixes
 on an axis that can be made to revolve 
rapidly by means of  a wheel and strap  
connected with it4 ,this wire is called 
the  mould4 ,he then takes a smaller    
wire1 which having passed through  an   
eye in a small tool held in his left    
hand1 he fixes close to  the bottom of  
the mould4 ,the mould is now made to    
revolve rapidly  by means of the right  
hand1 and the smaller wire coils round  
it  until it has covered the whole      
length of the mould4 ,the boy now  cuts 
the end of the spiral connected with the
 foot of the mould1  and draws it off4  
7b7 ,when a sufficient quantity of      
heading is  thus made1 a man takes from 
thirteen to twenty of these spirals  in 
his left hand1 between his thumb and    
three outer fingers3  these he places in
 such a manner that two turns of the    

spiral  shall be beyond the upper edge  
of a pair of shears1 and with the       
forefinger of the same hand he feels    
that only two turns do so  project4     
,with his right hand he closes the      
shears2 and the two  turns of the spiral
 being cut off1 drop into a basin2 the  
position of the forefinger preventing   
the heads from flying about  when cut   
off4 ,the workmen who cut the heads are 
usually paid at  the rate of #b #a_/b;d4
 to #c;d4 per pound for large heads1 but
 a  higher price is given for the       
smaller heading4 ,out of this they  pay 
the boy who spins the spiral2 he        
receives from #d;d4 to #f;d4 a  day4 ,a 
good workman can cut from six to about  
thirty pounds of  heading per day1      
according to its size4    #bcb4 #e4     
,heading4 ,the process of fixing the    
head on the body  of the pin is usually 
executed by women and children4 ,each   
operator sits before a small steel      
stake1 having a cavity1 into  which one 
half of the intended head will fit2     

immediately above  is a steel die1      
having a corresponding cavity for the   
other half  of the head3 this latter die
 can be raised by a pedal moved by  the 
foot4 ,the weight of the hammer is from 
seven to ten pounds1  and it falls      
through a very small space1 perhaps from
 one to two  inches4 ,the cavities in   
the centre of these dies are connected  
with the edge of a small groove1 to     
admit of the body of the pin1  which is 
thus prevented from being flattened by  
the blow of the  die4 7a7 ,the operator 
with his left hand dips the pointed end 
of  the body of a pin into a tray of    
heads2 having passed the point  through 
one of them1 he carries it along to the 
other end with  the forefinger4 ,he now 
takes the pin in the right hand1 and    
places the head in the cavity of the    
stake1 and1 lifting the die  with his   
foot1 allows it to fall on the head4    
,this blow tightens  the head on the    
shank1 which is then turned round1 and  
the head  receives three or four blows  

on different parts of its               
circumference4 ,the women and children  
who fix the heads are paid  at the rate 
of #as4 #f;d4 for every twenty thousand4
 ,a skilful  operator can with great    
exertion do twenty thousand per day1 but
  from ten to fifteen thousand is the   
usual quantity3 children head  a much   
smaller number3 varying1 of course1 with
 the degree of  their skill4 ,about one 
per cent of the pins are spoiled in the 
process2 these are picked out afterwards
 by women1 and are  reserved1 along with
 the waste from other processes1 for the
  melting-pot4 ,the die in which the    
heads are struck is varied in  form     
according to the fashion of the time2   
but the repeated blows  to which it is  
subject render it necessary that it     
should be  repaired after it has been   
used for about thirty pounds of pins4   
#bcc4 #f4 ,tinning4 ,the pins are now   
fit to be tinned1 a process  which is   
usually executed by a man1 assisted by  
his wife1 or by a  lad4 ,the quantity of

 pins operated upon at this stage is    
usually  fifty-six pounds4 7a7 ,they are
 first placed in a pickle1 in order  to 
remove any grease or dirt from their    
surface1 and also to  render them rough1
 which facilitates the adherence of the 
tin  with which they are to be covered4 
7b7 ,they are then placed in a  boiler  
full of a solution of tartar in water1  
in which they are  mixed with a quantity
 of tin in small grains4 ,in this they  
are  generally kept boiling for about   
two hours and a half1 and are  then     
removed into a tub of water into which  
some bran has been  thrown1 for the     
purpose of washing off the acid liquor4 
7c7 ,they  are then taken out1 and1     
being placed in wooden trays1 are well  
shaken in dry bran3 this removes any    
water adhering to them2 and  by giving  
the wooden tray a peculiar kind of      
motion1 the pins are  thrown up1 and the
 bran gradually flies off1 and leaves   
them  behind in the tray4 ,the man who  
pickles and tins the pins usually  gets 

one penny per pound for the work1 and   
employs himself1  during the boiling of 
one batch of pins1 in drying those      
previously tinned4 ,he can earn about   
#is4 per day2 but out of this  he pays  
about #cs4 for his assistant4    #bcd4  
#g4 ,papering4 ,the pins come from the  
tinner in wooden  bowls1 with the points
 projecting in all directions3 the      
arranging of them side by side in paper 
is generally performed by  women4 7a7 ,a
 woman takes up some1 and places them on
 a comb1 and  shaking them1 some of the 
pins fall back into the bowl1 and the   
rest1 being caught by their heads1 are  
detained between the teeth  of the comb4
 7b7 ,having thus arranged them in a    
parallel  direction1 she fixes the      
requisite number between two pieces of  
iron1 having twenty-five small grooves1 
at equal distances2 7c7  and having     
previously doubled the paper1 she       
presses it against  the points of the   
pins until they have passed through the 
two  folds which are to retain them4    

,the pins are then relieved from  the   
grasp of the tool1 and the process is   
repeated4 ,a woman gains  about #as4    
#f;d4 per day by papering2 but children 
are sometimes  employed1 who earn from  
#f;d4 per day1 and upwards4    #bce4    
,having thus generally described the    
various processes of  pin-making1 and   
having stated the usual cost of each1 it
 will be  convenient to present a       
tabular view of the time occupied by    
each  process1 and its cost1 as well as 
the sums which can be earned by  the    
persons who confine themselves solely to
 each process4 ,as the  rate of wages is
 itself fluctuating1 and as the prices  
paid and  quantities executed have been 
given only between certain limits1  it  
is not to be expected that this table   
can represent the cost  of each part of 
the work with the minutest accuracy1 nor
 even  that it shall accord perfectly   
with the prices above given3 but  it has
 been drawn up with some care1 and will 
be quite sufficient  to serve as the    

basis of those reasonings which it is   
meant to  illustrate4 ,a table nearly   
similar will be subjoined1 which has    
been deduced from a statement of ,m4    
,perronet1 respecting the art  of       
pin-making in ,france1 above seventy    
years ago4    ,english manufacture      
#bcf4 ,pins1 ,elevens1 #eedf weigh one  
pound2 one dozen  #ficb  pins weigh     
twenty ounces1 and require six ounces of
 paper4     ,name of the process        
,workman   ,time for making #a lb of    
pins ,hours   ,cost of making #a lb of  
pins ,pence   ,workmen earns per day s4 
d4   ,price of making each part of a    
single pin in millionths of a  penny    
#a4 ,drawing wire 7#bbd7         ,man   
4#cfcf  #a4bejj   #c #c     #bbe   #b4  
,straightening wire 7 #bbe7  ,woman     
4#cjjj   4#bhdj   #a #j      #ea        
,girl   4#cjjj   4#adbj   #j #f      #bf
   #c4 ,pointing 7#bbf7             ,man
    4#cjjj  #a4ggej   #e #c     #cai    
#d4 ,twisting and cutting heads ,boy    
4#jdjj   4#jadg   #j #d #a_/b   #c      

7#bbg7                       ,man       
4#jdjj   4#bajc   #e #d #a_/b  #ch   #e4
 ,heading 7#bbh7              ,woman    
#d4jjjj  #e4jjjj   #a #c     #ija   #f  
,tinning or whitening        ,man       
4#ajga   4#ffff   #f #j     #aba        
7#bbi7                       ,woman     
4#ajga   4#cccc   #c #j      #fj   #g4  
,papering 7#bcj7             ,woman     
#b4acad  #c4aigc   #a #f     #egf       
#g4fhib #ab4hgcb   - -    #bcbj         
,number of persons employed3 ,men4 #d2  
,women4 #d2 ,children1 #b4  ,total1 #aj4
    ,french manufacture    #bcg4 ,cost  
of #ab1jjj pins1 ,no4 #f1 each being    
eight-tenths of an  ,english inch in    
length1--as they were manufactured in   
,france about  #agfj2 with the cost of  
each operation3 deduced from the        
observations and statement of ,m4       
,perronet4     ,name of the process     
,time for making twelve thousand pins   
,hours   ,cost of  making twelve        
thousand  pins ,pence   ,workman usually
 earns per day ,pence   ,expense of     

tools and materials ,pence     #a4 ,wire
                      --   --      --   
#bd4ge   #b4 ,straightening and cutting 
#a4b 4#e     #d4e      --   #c4 ,coarse 
pointing           #a4b 4#fbe  #aj4j    
--      ,turning wheel7#b997            
#a4b 4#hge   #g4j      --      ,fine    
,pointing              4#h 4#e          
#i4cge    --      ,turning wheel        
#a4b 4#e     #d4ge     --      ,cutting 
off pointed ends   4#f 4#cge   #g4e     
--   #d4 ,turning spiral             4#e
 4#abe   #c4j      --      ,cutting off 
heads          4#h 4#cge   #e4fbe    -- 
,fuel to anneal ditto      --   --      
--    4#abe   #e4 ,heading              
#ab4j 4#ccc   #d4be     --   #f4 ,tartar
 for cleaning       --   --      --     
4#e      ,tartar for whitening      --  
--      --    4#e   #g4 ,papering       
#d4h 4#e     #b4j      --      ,paper   
--   --      --   #a4j      ,wear of    
tools             --   --      --   #b4j
                               #bd4c    
#d4gjh     ,the great expense of turning

 the wheel appears to have arisen  from 
the person so occupied being unemployed 
during half his  time1 whilst the       
pointer went to another manufactory     
#cch4 ,it appears from the analysis we  
have given of the art of  pinmaking1    
that it occupies rather more than seven 
hours and a  half of time1 for ten      
different individuals working in        
succession  on the same material1 to    
convert it into a pound of pins2 and    
that the total expense of their labour1 
each being paid in the  joint ratio of  
his skill and of the time he is         
employed1 amounts  very nearly to #as4  
#a;d4 ,but from an examination of the   
first of  these tables1 it appears that 
the wages earned by the persons         
employed vary from #d #a_/b;d4 per day  
up to #fs41 and consequently  the skill 
which is required for their respective  
employments may  be measured by those   
sums4 ,now it is evident1 that if one   
person  were required to make the whole 
pound of pins1 he must have skill       

enough to earn about #es4 #c;d4 per day1
 whilst he is pointing the  wires or    
cutting off the heads from the spiral   
coils--and #fs4  when he is whitening   
the pins2 which three operations        
together  would occupy little more than 
the seventeenth part of his time4  ,it  
is also apparent1 that during more than 
one half of his time  he must be earning
 only #as4 #c;d1 per day1 in putting on 
the heads2  although his skill1 if      
properly employed1 would1 in the same   
time1 produce nearly five times as much4
 ,if1 therefore1 we were  to employ1 for
 all the processes1 the man who whitens 
the pins1  and who earns #fs4 per day1  
even supposing that he could make the   
pound of pins in an equally short time1 
yet we must pay him for  his time #df4  
#ad pence1 or about #cs4 #aj;d4 ,the    
pins would therefore  cost1 in making1  
three times and three quarters as much  
as they  now do by the application of   
the division of labour4    ,the higher  
the skill required of the workman in any

 one  process of a manufacture1 and the 
smaller the time during which  it is    
employed1 so much the greater will be   
the advantage of  separating that       
process from the rest1 and devoting one 
person's  attention entirely to it4 ,had
 we selected the art of  needle-making  
as our illustration1 the economy arising
 from the  division of labour would have
 been still more striking2 for the      
process of tempering the needles        
requires great skill1 attention1  and   
experience1 and although from three to  
four thousand are  tempered at once1 the
 workman is paid a very high rate of    
wages4  ,in another process of the same 
manufacture1 dry-pointing1 which  also  
is executed with great rapidity1 the    
wages earned by the  workman reach from 
#gs4 to #abs41 #aes41 and even1 in some 
instances1 to #bjs4 per day2 whilst     
other processes are carried on  by      
children paid at the rate of #f;d4 per  
day4    #bci4 ,some further reflections 
suggested by the preceding  analysis1   

will be reserved until we have placed   
before the reader  a brief description  
of a machine for making pins1 invented  
by an  ,american4 ,it is highly         
ingenious in point of contrivance1 and1 
in  respect to its economical           
principles1 will furnish a strong and   
interesting contrast with the           
manufacture of pins by the human  hand4 
,in this machine a coil of brass wire is
 placed on an axis2  one end of this    
wire is drawn by a pair of rollers      
through a  small hole in a plate of     
steel1 and is held there by a forceps4  
,as soon as the machine is put in       
action1 -    #a4 ,the forceps draws the 
wire on to a distance equal in  length  
to one pin3 a cutting edge of steel then
 descends close to  the hole through    
which the wire entered1 and severs the  
piece  drawn out4    #b4 ,the forceps   
holding the piece thus separated moves  
on1  till it brings the wire to the     
centre of the chuck of a small  lathe1  
which opens to receive it4 ,whilst the  

forceps is returning  to fetch another  
piece of wire1 the lathe revolves       
rapidly1 and  grinds the projecting end 
of the wire upon a steel mill1 which    
advances towards it4    #c4 ,after this 
first or coarse pointing1 the lathe     
stops1 and  another forceps takes hold  
of the half-pointed pin1 7which is      
instantly released by the opening of the
 chuck71 and conveys it  to a similar   
chuck of an adjacent lathe1 which       
receives it1 and  finishes the pointing 
on a finer steel mill4    #d4 ,this mill
 again stops1 and another forceps       
removes the  pointed pin into a pair of 
strong steel clams1 having a small      
groove in them by which they hold the   
pin very firmly4 ,a part of  this       
groove1 which terminates at that edge of
 the steel clams  which is intended to  
form the head of the pin1 is made       
conical4 ,a  small round steel punch is 
now driven forcibly against the end of  
the wire thus clamped1 and the head of  
the pin is partially  formed by         

compressing the wire into the conical   
cavity4    ,,notes3    #a4 ,i have      
already stated that this principle      
presented itself to  me after a personal
 examination of a number of             
manufactories and  workshops devoted to 
different purposes2 but ,i have since   
found  that it had been distinctly      
pointed out in the work of ,gioja4      
,nuovo ,prospetto delle ,scienze        
,economiche4 #f tom4 #dto4 ,milano1     
#ahae1 tom4 i4 capo iv4    #b4 ,the     
great expense of turning the wheel      
appears to have arisen  from the person 
so occupied being unemployed during half
 his  time1 whilst the pointer went to  
another manufactory4        ,chapter #bj
    ,on the ,division of ,labour        
#bda4 ,we have already mentioned what   
may1 perhaps1 appear  paradoxical to    
some of our readers that the division of
 labour  can be applied with equal      
success to mental as to mechanical      
operations1 and that it ensures in both 
the same economy of time4  ,a short     

account of its practical application1 in
 the most  extensive series of          
calculations ever executed1 will offer  
an  interesting illustration of this    
fact1 whilst at the same time it  will  
afford an occasion for shewing that the 
arrangements which  ought to regulate   
the interior economy of a manufactory1  
are  founded on principles of deeper    
root than may have been supposed1  and  
are capable of being usefully employed  
in preparing the road  to some of the   
sublimest investigations of the human   
mind4    #bdb4 ,in the midst of that    
excitement which accompanied the        
,revolution of ,france and the          
succeeding wars1 the ambition of the    
nation1 unexhausted by its fatal passion
 for military renown1 was  at the same  
time directed to some of the nobler and 
more  permanent triumphs which mark the 
era of a people's greatness and  which  
receive the applause of posterity long  
after their  conquests have been wrested
 from them1 or even when their          

existence as a nation may be told only  
by the page of history4  ,amongst their 
enterprises of science1 the ,french     
,government was  desirous of producing a
 series of mathematical tables1 to      
facilitate the application of the       
decimal system which they had  so       
recently adopted4 ,they directed1       
therefore1 their  mathematicians to     
construct such tables1 on the most      
extensive  scale4 ,their most           
distinguished philosophers1 responding  
fully to  the call of their country1    
invented new methods for this  laborious
 task2 and a work1 completely answering 
the large  demands of the ,government1  
was produced in a remarkably short      
period of time4 ,m4 ,prony1 to whom the 
superintendence of this  great          
undertaking was confided1 in speaking of
 its commencement1  observes3 ,je m'y   
livrai avec toute l'ardeur dont j'etois 
capable1  et je m'occupai d'abord du    
plan general de l'execution4 ,toutes    
les conditions que j'avois a remplir    

necessitoient l'emploi d'un  grand      
nombre de calculateurs2 et il me vint   
bientot a la pensee  d'appliquer a la   
connection de ces ,tables la division du
 travail1  dont les ,arts de ,commerce  
tirent un parti si avantageux pour      
reunir a la pernection de main-d'oeuvre 
l'economie de la depense  et du temps4  
,the circumstance which gave rise to    
this singular  application of the       
principle of the division on labour is  
so  interesting1 that no apology is     
necessary for introducing it from  a    
small pamphlet printed at ,paris a few  
years since1 when a  proposition was    
made by the ,english to the ,french     
,government1  that the two countries    
should print these tables at their joint
  expense4    #bdc4 ,the origin of the  
idea is related in the following        
extract3    ,c'est a un chapitre d'un   
ouvrage ,anglais17#a997 justement       
celebre1 7,i47 qu'est probablement due  
l'existence de l'ouvrage  dont le       
gouvernement ,britannique veut faire    

jouir le monde  savant3    ,voici       
l'anecdote3 ,m4 de ,prony s'etait       
engage4 avec les  comites de            
gouvernement4 a composer pour la        
division centesimale  du cercle1 des    
tables logarithmiques et                
trigonometriques1 qui1  non seulement ne
 laissassent rien a desirer quant a     
l'exactitude1  mais qui formassent le   
monument de calcul #a;e plus vaste et le
  plus imposant qui eut jamais ete      
execute1 ou meme concu4 ,les            
logarithmes des nombres de #a a #bjj4jjj
 formaient a ce travail un  supplement  
necessaire et exige4 ,il fut aise a ,m4 
de ,prony de  s'assurer que meme en     
s'associant trois ou quatre habiles     
co-operateurs4 ,la plus grande duree    
presumable de sa vie ne lui  sufirai pas
 pour remplir ses engagements4 ,il etait
 occupe de  cette facheuse pensee       
lorsque4 ,se trouvant devant la boutique
  d'un marchand de livres4 ,il appercut 
la belle edition ,anglaise de  ,smith1  
donnee a ,londres en #aggf3 il ouvrit le

 livre au hazard4 et  tomba sur le      
premier chapitre1 qui traite de la      
division du  travail1 et ou la          
fabrication des epingles est citee pour 
exemple4 ,a peine avait-il parcouru les 
premieres pages1 que1 par  une espece   
d'inspiration4 il concut l'expedient de 
mettre ses  logarithmes en manufacture  
comme les epingles4 ,il faisait en ce   
moment1 a l'ecole polytechnique1 des    
lecons sur une partie  d'analyse liee a 
ce genre de travail1 la methode des     
differences1  et ses applications a     
l'interpolation4 ,il alla passer        
quelques  jours a la campagne4 et revint
 a ,paris avec le plan de  fabrication4 
qui a ete suivi dans l'execution4 ,il   
rassembla deux  ateliers4 qui faisai ent
 separement les memes calculs1 et se    
servaient de verification               
reciproque47#b997    #bdd4 ,the ancient 
methods of computing tables were        
altogether  inapplicable to such a      
proceeding4 ,m4 ,prony1 therefore1      
wishing  to avail himself of all the    

talent of his country in devising new   
methods1 formed the first section of    
those who were to take part  in this    
enterprise out of five or six of the    
most eminent  mathematicians in ,france4
    ,first section4 ,the duty of this   
first section was to  investigate1      
amongst the various analytical          
expressions which  could be found for   
the same function1 that which was most  
readily  adapted to simple numerical    
calculation by many individuals         
employed at the same time4 ,this section
 had little or nothing to  do with the  
actual numerical work4 ,when its labours
 were  concluded1 the formulae on the   
use of which it had decided1 were       
delivered to the second section4        
,second section4 ,this section consisted
 of seven or eight  persons of          
considerable acquaintance with          
mathematics3 and their  duty was to     
convert into numbers the formulae put   
into their  hands by the first section  
an operation of great labour2 and then  

to deliver out these formulae to the    
members of the third  section1 and      
receive from them the finished          
calculations4 ,the  members of this     
second section had certain means of     
verifying the  calculations without the 
necessity of repeating1 or even of      
examining1 the whole of the work done by
 the third section4    ,third section4  
,the members of this section1 whose     
number  varied from sixty to eighty1    
received certain numbers from the       
second section1 and1 using nothing more 
than simple addition and  subtraction1  
they returned to that section the tables
 in a  finished state4 ,it is remarkable
 that nine-tenths of this class  had no 
knowledge of arithmetic beyond the two  
first rules which  they were thus called
 upon to exercise1 and that these       
persons  were usually found more correct
 in their calculations1 than those  who 
possessed a more extensive knowledge of 
the subject4    #bde4 ,when it is stated
 that the tables thus computed occupy   

seventeen large folio volumes1 some idea
 may perhaps be formed of  the labour4  
,from that part executed by the third   
class1 which may  almost be termed      
mechanical1 requiring the least         
knowledge and by  far the greatest      
exertions1 the first class were entirely
 exempt4  ,such labour can always be    
purchased at an easy rate4 ,the duties  
of the second class1 although requiring 
considerable skill in  arithmetical     
operations1 were yet in some measure    
relieved by the  higher interest        
naturally felt in those more difficult  
operations4 ,the exertions of the first 
class are not likely to  require1 upon  
another occasion1 so much skill and     
labour as they  did upon the first      
attempt to introduce such a method2 but 
when  the completion of a calculating   
engine shall have produced a  substitute
 for the whole of the third section of  
computers1 the  attention of analysts   
will naturally be directed to           
simplifying  its application1 by a new  

discussion of the methods of converting 
analytical formulae into numbers4       
#bdf4 ,the proceeding of ,m4 ,prony1 in 
this celebrated system of  calculation1 
much resembles that of a skilful person 
about to  construct a cotton or silk    
mill1 or any similar establishment4     
,having1 by his own genius1 or through  
the aid of his friends1  found that some
 improved machinery may be successfully 
applied to  his pursuit1 he makes       
drawings of his plans of the machinery1 
and  may himself be considered as       
constituting the first section4 ,he     
next requires the assistance of         
operative engineers capable of          
executing the machinery he has designed1
 some of whom should  understand the    
nature of the processes to be carried   
on2 and  these constitute his second    
section4 ,when a sufficient number of   
machines have been made1 a multitude of 
other persons1 possessed  of a lower    
degree of skill1 must be employed in    
using them2 these  form the third       

section3 but their work1 and the just   
performance  of the machines1 must be   
still superintended by the second class4
    #bdg4 ,as the possibility of        
performing arithmetical  calculations by
 machinery may appear to                
non-mathematical readers  to be rather  
too large a postulate1 and as it is     
connected with  the subject of the      
division of labour1 ,i shall here       
endeavour1 in  a few lines1 to give some
 slight perception of the manner in     
which this can be done--and thus to     
remove a small portion of  the veil     
which covers that apparent mystery4     
#bdh4 ,that nearly all tables of numbers
 which follow any law1  however         
complicated1 may be formed1 to a greater
 or less extent1  solely by the proper  
arrangement of the successive addition  
and  subtraction of numbers befitting   
each table1 is a general  principle     
which can be demonstrated to those only 
who are well  acquainted with           
mathematics2 but the mind1 even of the  

reader who  is but very slightly        
acquainted with that science1 will      
readily  conceive that it is not        
impossible1 by attending to the         
following  example4    ,the subjoined   
table is the beginning of one in very   
extensive  use1 which has been printed  
and reprinted very frequently in many   
countries1 and is called a table of     
square numbers4      ,terms of ,table   
,a ,table  ,b first ,difference  ,c     
second ,difference            #a        
#a                                  #c  
#b           #d                         
#b                                  #e  
#c           #i                         
#b                                  #g  
#d          #af                         
#b                                  #i  
#e          #be                         
#b                                 #aa  
#f          #cf                         
#b                                 #ac  
#g          #di      ,any number in the 
table1 column ,a1 may be obtained1 by   

multiplying the number which expresses  
the distance of that term  from the     
commencement of the table by itself2    
thus1 #be is the  fifth term from the   
beginning of the table1 and #e          
multiplied by  itself1 or by #e1 is     
equal to #be4 ,let us now subtract each 
term of  this table from the next       
succeeding term1 and place the results  
in another column 7,b71 which may be    
called first difference  column4 ,if we 
again subtract each term of this first  
difference  from the succeeding term1 we
 find the result is always the number   
#b1 7column ,c72 and that the same      
number will always recur in that        
column1 which may be called the second  
difference1 will appear to  any person  
who takes the trouble to carry on the   
table a few  terms further4 ,now when   
once this is admitted1 it is quite clear
  that1 provided the first term 7#a7 of 
the table1 the first term  7#c7 of the  
first differences1 and the first term   
7#b7 of the  second or constant         

difference1 are originally given1 we can
  continue the table of square numbers  
to any extent1 merely by  addition3 for 
the series of first differences may be  
formed by  repeatedly adding the        
constant difference 7#b7 to 7#c7 the    
first  number in column ,b1 and we then 
have the series of numbers1 #c1 #e1  #f1
 etc43 and again1 by successively adding
 each of these to the  first number 7#a7
 of the table1 we produce the square    
numbers4    #bdi4 ,having thus1 ,i hope1
 thrown some light upon the  theoretical
 part of the question1 ,i shall         
endeavour to shew that  the mechanical  
execution of such an engine1 as would   
produce this  series of numbers1 is not 
so far removed from that of ordinary    
machinery as might be conceived47#c997  
,let the reader imagine three  clocks1  
placed on a table side by side1 each    
having only one  hand1 and each having a
 thousand divisions instead of twelve   
hours marked on the face2 and every time
 a string is pulled1 let  them strike on

 a bell the numbers of the divisions to 
which their  hands point4 ,let him      
further suppose that two of the clocks1 
for  the sake of distinction called ,b  
and ,c1 have some mechanism by  which   
the clock ,c advances the hand of the   
clock ,b one division1  for each stroke 
it makes upon its own bell3 and let the 
clock ,b  by a similar contrivance      
advance the hand of the clock ,a one    
division1 for each stroke it makes on   
its own bell4 ,with such an             
arrangement1 having set the hand of the 
clock ,a to the division  ,i1 that of ,b
 to ,,iii1 and that of ,c to ,,ii1 let  
the reader imagine  the repeating parts 
of the clocks to be set in motion       
continually  in the following order3    
viz4--pull the string of clock ,a2 pull 
the string of clock ,b2 pull the string 
of clock ,c4    ,the table on the       
following page will then express the    
series  of movements and their results4 
,if now only those divisions struck or  
pointed at by the clock  ,a be attended 

to and written down1 it will be found   
that they  produce the series of the    
squares of the natural numbers4 ,such a 
series could1 of course1 be carried by  
this mechanism only so far  as the      
numbers which can be expressed by three 
figures2 but this  may be sufficient to 
give some idea of the construction--and 
was1 in fact1 the point to which the    
first model of the  calculating engine1 
now in progress1 extended4    #bej4 ,we 
have seen1 then1 that the effect of the 
division of  labour1 both in mechanical 
and in mental operations1 is1 that it   
enables us to purchase and apply to each
 process precisely that  quantity of    
skill and knowledge which is required   
for it3 we  avoid employing any part of 
the time of a man who can get eight  or 
ten shillings a day by his skill in     
tempering needles1 in  turning a wheel1 
which can be done for sixpence a day2   
and we  equally avoid the loss arising  
from the employment of an  accomplished 
mathematician in performing the lowest  

processes of  arithmetic4    #bea4 ,the 
division of labour cannot be            
successfully practised  unless there    
exists a great demand for its produce2  
and it  requires a large capital to be  
employed in those arts in which it  is  
used4 ,in watchmaking it has been       
carried1 perhaps1 to the  greatest      
extent4 ,it was stated in evidence      
before a committee of  the ,house of    
,commons1 that there are a hundred and  
two distinct  branches of this art1 to  
each of which a boy may be put          
apprentice3 and that he only learns his 
master's department1 and  is unable1    
after his apprenticeship has expired1   
without  subsequent instruction1 to work
 at any other branch4 ,the              
watch-finisher1 whose business is to put
 together the scattered  parts1 is the  
only one1 out of the hundred and two    
persons1 who  can work in any other     
department than his own4    #beb4 ,in   
one of the most difficult arts1 that of 
mining1 great  improvements have        

resulted from the judicious distribution
 of the  duties2 and under the          
arrangments which have gradually been   
introduced1 the whole system of the mine
 and its government is  now placed under
 the control of the following officers4 
#a4 ,a manager1 who has the general     
knowledge of all that is to  be done1   
and who may be assisted by one or more  
skilful persons4    #b4 ,underground    
captains direct the proper mining       
operations1  and govern the working     
miners4    #c4 ,the purser and          
book-keeper manage the accounts4    #d4 
,the engineer erects the engines1 and   
superintends the men  who work them4    
#e4 ,a chief pitman has charge of the   
pumps and the apparatus  of the shafts4 
#f4 ,a surface-captain1 with assistants1
 receives the ores  raised1 and directs 
the dressing department1 the object of  
which  is to render them marketable4    
#g4 ,the head carpenter superintends    
many constructions4    #h4 ,the foreman 
of the smiths regulates the ironwork and

  tools4    #i4 ,a materials man        
selects1 purchases1 receives and        
delivers  all articles required4    #aj4
 ,the roper has charge of ropes and     
cordage of all sorts4    ,notes3    #a4 
,an ,enquiry into the ,nature and       
,causes of the ,wealth of  ,nations1 by 
,adam ,smith4    #b4 ,note sur la       
publication1 proposee par le            
gouvernement ,anglais  des grandes      
tables logarithmiques et                
trigonometriques de ,m de  ,prony ,de   
l'imprimerie de ,f4 ,didot1 ,december   
#a1 #ahbi1 p4 #g    #c4 ,since the      
publication of the second edition of    
this work1 one  portion of the engine   
which ,i have been constructing for some
  years past has been put together4 ,it 
calculates1 in three  columns1 a table  
with its first and second differences4  
,each  column can be expressed as far as
 five figures1 so that these  fifteen   
figures constitute about one ninth part 
of the larger  engine4 ,the ease and    
precision with which it works leave no  

room  to doubt its success in the more  
extended form4 ,besides tables of       
squares1 cubes1 and portions of         
logarithmic tables1 it possesses  the   
power of calculating certain series     
whose differences are not  constant2 and
 it has already tabulated parts of      
series formed  from the following       
equations3    ,the third differential of
 ux  units figur of delta ux    ,the    
third differential of ux  nearest whole 
no4 to 7#a_/aj1jjj  delta ux7    ,the   
subjoined is one amongst the series     
which it has calculated3         #j     
#c1dhf       #db1igb       #j   #d1iia  
#ej1ecb       #a   #f1ijg       #eh1hac 
#ad   #i1bie       #fg1hbf      #gj     
#ab1bcf       #gg1fjb     #bcj  #ae1gda 
#hh1bjb     #die  #ai1hfa       #ii1fbg 
#iaf  #bd1eig      #aaa1ibh   #a1ejd    
#cj1jaj      #abe1aaf   #b1cdj  #cf1aca 
#aci1bgb    ,the general term of this   
is1        ux  7x7x-#a77x-#b77_/7a ,x #b
 ,x #c7  the whole number in x_/#aj     
#aj ,sigma#c 7units figure of           

7x7x-#a7_/b7        ,chapter #ba    ,on 
the ,cost of ,each ,separate ,process in
 a ,manufacture    #bec4 ,the great     
competition introduced by machinery1 and
 the  application of the principle of   
the subdivision of labour1 render  it   
necessary for each producer to be       
continually on the watch1 to  discover  
improved methods by which the cost of   
the article he  manufactures may be     
reduced2 and1 with this view1 it is of  
great  importance to know the precise   
expense of every process1 as well  as of
 the wear and tear of machinery which is
 due to it4 ,the same  information is   
desirable for those by whom the         
manufactured goods  are distributed and 
sold2 because it enables them to give   
reasonable answers or explanations to   
the objections of  enquirers1 and also  
affords them a better chance of         
suggesting to  the manufacturer changes 
in the fashion of his goods1 which may  
be suitable either to the tastes or to  
the finances of his  customers4 ,to the 

statesman such knowledge is still more  
important2 for without it he must trust 
entirely to others1 and  can form no    
judgement worthy of confidence1 of the  
effect any tax  may produce1 or of the  
injury the manufacturer or the country  
may  suffer by its imposition4    #bed4 
,one of the first advantages which      
suggests itself as  likely to arise from
 a correct analysis of the expense of   
the  several processes of any           
manufacture1 is the indication which it 
would furnish of the course in which    
improvement should be  directed4 ,if a  
method could be contrived of diminishing
 by one  fourth the time required for   
fixing on the heads of pins1 the        
expense of making them would be reduced 
about thirteen per cent2  whilst a      
reduction of one half the time employed 
in spinning the  coil of wire out of    
which the heads are cut1 would scarcely 
make  any sensible difference in the    
cost of manufacturing of the  whole     
article4 ,it is therefore obvious1 that 

the attention would  be much more       
advantageously directed to shortening   
the former  than the latter process4    
#bee4 ,the expense of manufacturing1 in 
a country where  machinery is of the    
rudest kind1 and manual labour is very  
cheap1  is curiously exhibited in the   
price of cotton cloth in the island  of 
,java4 ,the cotton1 in the seed1 is sold
 by the picul1 which is  a weight of    
about #acc lbs4 ,not above one fourth or
 one fifth of  this weight1 however1 is 
cotton3 the natives1 by means of rude   
wooden rollers1 can only separate about 
#a #a_/d lb4 of cotton from  the seed by
 one day's labour4 ,a picul of cleansed 
cotton1  therefore1 is worth between    
four and five times the cost of the     
impure article2 and the prices of the   
same substance1 in its  different stages
 of manufacture1 are--for one picul3    
,dollars ,cotton in the seed #b to #c   
,clean cotton #aj to #aa   ,cotton      
thread #bd   ,cotton thread dyed blue   
#ce   ,good ordinary cotton cloth #ej   

,thus it appears that the expense of    
spinning in ,java is #aag  per cent on  
the value of the raw material2 the      
expense of dying  thread blue is #de per
 cent on its value2 and that of weaving 
cotton thread into cloth #aag per cent  
on its value4 ,the expense  of spinning 
cotton into a fine thread is1 in        
,england1 about #cc  per cent4 7#a997   
#bef4 ,as an example of the cost of the 
different processes of  a manufacture1  
perhaps an analytical statement of the  
expense of  the volume now in the       
reader's hands may not be uninteresting2
  more especially as it will afford an  
insight into the nature and  extent of  
the taxes upon literature4 ,it is found 
economical to  print it upon paper of a 
very large size1 so that although       
thirty-two pages1 instead of sixteen1   
are really contained in  each sheet1    
this work is still called octavo4       
,l s4 d4     ,to printer1 for composing 
7per sheet of #cb pages7 ,l#c #as4 #aj  
#a_/b  sheets #cb #j #f ,this relates to

 the ordinary size of the type used  in 
the volume4     ,to printer for         
composing small type1 as in extracts and
 #b #j #c  contents1 extra per sheet1   
#cs4 #aj;d4     ,to printer1 for        
composing table work1 extra per sheet1  
#b #ag #i  #es4 #f;d4   ,average charge 
for corrections1 per sheet1 ,l#c #bs4   
#aj;d4 #cc #j #j   ,press work1 #cjjj   
being printed off1 per sheet1 ,l#c #ajs4
 #cf #ae #j   ,paper for #cjjj1 at ,l#a 
#aas4 #f;d4 per ream1 weighing #bh lbs3 
the  duty on paper at #c;d4 per lb4     
amounts to #gs4 per ream1 so that the   
#fc reams which are required for the    
work will cost3     ,paper #gg #c #f    
,excise ,duty #bb #a #j   ,total expense
 of paper #ii #d #f     ,total expense  
of printing and paper #bje #ah #j       
,steel-plate for title-page #j #g #f    
,engraving on ditto1 ,head of ,bacon #b 
#b #j   ,ditto letters #a #a #j   ,total
 expense of title-page #c #aj #f        
,printing title-page1 at #fs4 per #ajj  
#i #j #j   ,paper for ditto1 at #as4    

#i;d4 per #ajj #b #ab #f   ,expenses of 
advertising #dj #j #j   ,sundries4 #e #j
 #j     ,total expense in sheets #bff #a
 #j     ,cost of a single copy in       
sheets2 #cjeb being printed1 including  
the overplus #j #a #i   ,extra boarding 
#j #j #f     ,cost of each copy1        
boarded7#b997 #j #b #c      #beg4 ,this 
analysis requires some explanation4 ,the
 printer  usually charges for           
composition by the sheet1 supposing the 
type  to be all of one kind2 and as this
 charge is regulated by the  size of the
 letter1 on which the quantity in a     
sheet depends1  little dispute can arise
 after the price is agreed upon4 ,if    
there  are but few extracts1 or other   
parts of the work1 which require  to be 
printed in smaller type2 or if there are
 many notes1 or  several passages in    
,greek1 or in other languages1 requiring
 a  different type1 these are considered
 in the original contract1  and a small 
additional price per sheet allowed4 ,if 
there is a  large portion of small type1

 it is better to have a specific        
additional charge for it per sheet4 ,if 
any work with irregular  lines and many 
figures1 and what the printers call     
rules1 occurs1  it is called table work1
 and is charged at an advanced price per
  sheet4 ,examples of this are frequent 
in the present volume4 ,if  the page    
consists entirely of figures1 as in     
mathematical tables1  which require very
 careful correction1 the charge for     
composition  is usually doubled4 ,a few 
years ago ,i printed a table of         
logarithms1 on a large-sized page1 which
 required great  additional labour and  
care from the readers17#c997 in         
rendering the  proofs correct1 and for  
which1 although new punches were not    
required1 several new types were        
prepared1 and for which  stereotype     
plates were cast1 costing about ,l#b per
 sheet4 ,in this  case ,l#aa per sheet  
were charged1 although ordinary         
composition1  with the same sized       
letter1 in demy octavo1 could have been 

executed at thirty-eight shillings per  
sheet3 but as the expense  was          
ascertained before commencing the work1 
it gave rise to no  difficulties4       
#beh4 ,the charge for corrections and   
alterations is one which1  from the     
difficulty of measuring them1 gives rise
 to the greatest  inconvenience1 and is 
as disagreeable to the publisher 7if he 
be  the agent between the author and the
 printer71 and to the master  printer or
 his foreman1 as it is to the author    
himself4 ,if the  author study economy1 
he should make the whole of his         
corrections  in the manuscript1 and     
should copy it out fairly3 it will then 
be  printed correctly1 and he will have 
little to pay for  corrections4 ,but it 
is scarcely possible to judge of the    
effect  of any passage correctly1       
without having it set up in type2 and   
there are few subjects1 upon which an   
author does not find he can  add some   
details or explanation1 when he sees his
 views in print4  ,if1 therefore1 he    

wish to save his own labour in          
transcribing1  and to give the last     
polish to the language1 he must be      
content  to accomplish these objects at 
an increased expense4 ,if the  printer  
possess a sufficient stock of type1 it  
will contribute  still more to the      
convenience of the author to have his   
whole  work put up in what are          
technically called slips17#d997 and then
 to  make all the corrections1 and to   
have as few revises as he can4  ,the    
present work was set up in slips1 but   
the corrections have  been unusually    
large1 and the revises frequent4        
#bei4 ,the press work1 or printing off1 
is charged at a price  agreed upon for  
each two hundred and fifty sheets2 and  
any broken  number is still considered  
as two hundred and fifty4 ,when a large 
edition is required1 the price for two  
hundred and fifty is  reduced2 thus1 in 
the present volume1 two hundred and     
fifty  copies1 if printed alone1 would  
have been charged eleven  shillings per 

sheet1 instead of #es4 #aj;d41 the      
actual charge4 ,the  principle of this  
mode of charging is good1 as it obviates
 all  disputes2 but it is to be         
regretted that the custom of charging   
the same price for any small number as  
for two hundred and fifty1  is so       
pertinaciously adhered to1 that the     
workmen will not agree  to any other    
terms when only twenty or thirty copies 
are  required1 or even when only three  
or four are wanted for the sake  of some
 experiment4 ,perhaps if all numbers    
above fifty were  charged as two hundred
 and fifty1 and all below as for half   
two  hundred and fifty1 both parties    
would derive an advantage4    #bfj4 ,the
 effect of the excise duty is to render 
the paper  thin1 in order that it may   
weigh little2 but this is counteracted  
by the desire of the author to make his 
book look as thick as  possible1 in     
order that he may charge the public as  
much as he  decently can2 and so on that
 ground alone the duty is of no         

importance4 ,there is1 however1 another 
effect of this duty1 which  both the    
public and the author feel2 for they    
pay1 not merely the  duty which is      
charged1 but also the profit on that    
duty1 which  the paper-maker requires   
for the use of additional capital2 and  
also the profit to the publisher and    
bookseller on the increased  price of   
the volume4    #bfa4 ,the estimated     
charge for advertisements is1 in the    
present case1 about the usual allowance 
for such a volume2 and1  as it is       
considered that advertisements in       
newspapers are the  most effectual1     
where the smallest pays a duty of #cs4  
#f;d41 nearly  one half of the charge of
 advertising is a tax4    #bfb4 ,it     
appears then1 that1 to an expenditure of
 ,l#bbd  necessary to produce the       
present volume1 ,l#db are added in the  
shape of a direct tax4 ,whether the     
profits arising from such a  mode of    
manufacturing will justify such a rate  
of taxation1 can  only be estimated when

 the returns from the volume are        
considered1 a subject that will be      
discussed in a subsequent               
chapter47#e997 ,it is at present        
sufficient to observe1 that the tax  on 
advertisements is an impolitic tax when 
contrasted with that  upon paper1 and on
 other materials employed4 ,the object  
of all  advertisements is1 by making    
known articles for sale1 to procure  for
 them a better price1 if the sale is to 
be by auction2 or a  larger extent of   
sale if by retail dealers4 ,now the more
 any  article is known1 the more quickly
 it is discovered whether it            
contributes to the comfort or advantage 
of the public2 and the  more quickly its
 consumption is assured if it be found  
valuable4  ,it would appear1 then1 that 
every tax on communicating  information 
respecting articles which are the       
subjects of  taxation in another shape1 
is one which must reduce the amount     
that would have been raised1 had no     
impediment been placed in the  way of   

making known to the public their        
qualities and their  price4    ,,notes3 
#a4 ,these facts are taken from         
,crawford's ,indian ,archipelago4    #b4
 ,these charges refer to the edition    
prepared for the public1  and do not    
relate to the large paper copies in the 
hands of some  of the author's friends4 
#c4 ,readers are persons employed to    
correct the press at the  printing      
office4    #d4 ,slips are long pieces of
 paper on which sufficient matter is    
printed to form1 when divided1 from two 
to four pages of text4    #e4 ,chapter  
#ca4        ,chapter #bb    ,on the     
,causes and ,consequences of ,large     
,factories    #bfc4 ,on examining the   
analysis which has been given in        
chapter ,,xix of the operations in the  
art of pin-making1 it will  be observed1
 that ten individuals are employed in   
it1 and also  that the time occupied in 
executing the several processes is very 
different4 ,in order1 however1 to render
 more simple the reasoning  which       

follows1 it will be convenient to       
suppose that each of the  seven         
processes there described requires an   
equal quantity of  time4 ,this being    
supposed1 it is at once apparent1 that1 
to  conduct an establishment for        
pin-making most profitably1 the  number 
of persons employed must be a multiple  
of ten4 ,for if a  person with small    
means has only sufficient capital to    
enable him  to employ half that number  
of persons1 they cannot each of them    
constantly adhere to the execution of   
the same process2 and if a  manufacturer
 employs any number not a multiple of   
ten1 a similar  result must ensue with  
respect to some portion of them4 ,the   
same  reflection constantly presents    
itself on examining any  well-arranged  
factory4 ,in that of ,mr ,mordan1 the   
patentee of the  ever-pointed pencils1  
one room is devoted to some of the      
processes by which steel pens are       
manufactured4 ,six fly-presses  are here
 constantly at work2 in the first a     

sheet of thin steel  is brought by the  
workman under the die which at each blow
 cuts  out a flat piece of the metal1   
having the form intended for the  pen4  
,two other workmen are employed in      
placing these flat pieces  under two    
other presses1 in which a steel chisel  
cuts the slit4  ,three other workmen    
occupy other presses1 in which the      
pieces so  prepared receive their       
semi-cylindrical form4 ,the longer time 
required for adjusting the small pieces 
in the two latter  operations renders   
them less rapid in execution than the   
first2  so that two workmen are fully   
occupied in slitting1 and three in      
bending the flat pieces1 which one man  
can punch out of the sheet  of steel4   
,if1 therefore1 it were necessary to    
enlarge this  factory1 it is clear that 
twelve or eighteen presses would be     
worked with more economy than any number
 not a multiple of six4    ,the same    
reasoning extends to every manufacture  
which is  conducted upon the principle  

of the division of labour1 and we       
arrive at this general conclusion3 ,when
 the number of processes  into which it 
is most advantageous to divide it1 and  
the number  of individuals to be        
employed in it1 are ascertained1 then   
all  factories which do not employ a    
direct multiple of this latter  number1 
will produce the article at a greater   
cost4 ,this  principle ought always to  
be kept in view in great                
establishments1 although it is quite    
impossible1 even with the  best division
 of the labour1 to attend to it rigidly 
in practice4  ,the proportionate number 
of the persons who possess the greatest 
skill1 is of course to be first attended
 to4 ,that exact ratio  which is more   
profitable for a factory employing a    
hundred  workmen1 may not be quite the  
best where there are five hundred2  and 
the arrangements of both may probably   
admit of variations1  without materially
 increasing the cost of their produce4  
,but it  is quite certain that no       

individual1 nor in the case of          
pin-making could any five individuals1  
ever hope to compete with  an extensive 
establishment4 ,hence arises one cause  
of the great  size of manufacturing     
establishments1 which have increased    
with  the progress of civilization4     
,other circumstances1 however1          
contribute to the same end1 and arise   
also from the same cause--  the division
 of labour4    #bfd4 ,the material out  
of which the manufactured article is    
produced1 must1 in the several stages of
 its progress1 be  conveyed from one    
operator to the next in succession3 this
 can be  done at least expense when they
 are all working in the same            
establishment4 ,if the weight of the    
material is considerable1  this reason  
acts with additional force2 but even    
where it is  light1 the danger arising  
from frequent removal may render it     
desirable to have all the processes     
carried on in the same  building4 ,in   
the cutting and polishing of glass this 

is the case2  whilst in the art of      
needle-making several of the processes  
are  carried on in the cottages of the  
workmen4 ,it is1 however1 clear  that   
the latter plan1 which is attended with 
some advantages to  the family of the   
workmen1 can be adopted only where there
 exists  a sure and quick method of     
knowing that the work has been well     
done1 and that the whole of the         
materials given out have been  really   
employed4    #bfe4 ,the inducement to   
contrive machines for any process of    
manufacture increases with the demand   
for the article2 and the  introduction  
of machinery1 on the other hand1 tends  
to increase  the quantity produced and  
to lead to the establishment of large   
factories4 ,an illustration of these    
principles may be found in  the history 
of the manufacture of patent net4       
,the first machines for weaving this    
article were very  expensive1 costing   
from a thousand to twelve or thirteen   
hundred  pounds4 ,the possessor of one  

of these1 though it greatly  increased  
the quantity he could produce1 was      
nevertheless unable1  when working eight
 hours a day1 to compete with the old   
methods4  ,this arose from the large    
capital invested in the machinery2 but  
he quickly perceived that with the same 
expense of fixed capital1  and a small  
addition to his circulating capital1 he 
could work  the machine during the whole
 twenty-four hours4 ,the profits thus   
realized soon induced other persons to  
direct their attention to  the          
improvement of those machines2 and the  
price was greatly  reduced1 at the same 
time that the rapidity of production of 
the  patent net was increased4 ,but if  
machines be kept working through  the   
twenty-four hours1 it is necessary that 
some person shall  attend to admit the  
workmen at the time they relieve each   
other2  and whether the porter or other 
servant so employed admit one  person or
 twenty1 his rest will be equally       
disturbed4 ,it will  also be necessary  

occasionally to adjust or repair the    
machine2  and this can be done much     
better by a workman accustomed to       
machine-making1 than by the person who  
uses it4 ,now1 since the  good          
performance and the duration of machines
 depend to a very  great extent upon    
correcting every shake or imperfection  
in their  parts as soon as they appear1 
the prompt attention of a workman       
resident on the spot will considerably  
reduce the expenditure  arising from the
 wear and tear of the machinery4 ,but in
 the case  of single lace frame1 or a   
single loom1 this would be too          
expensive a plan4 ,here then arises     
another circumstance which  tends to    
enlarge the extent of a factory4 ,it    
ought to consist of  such a number of   
machines as shall occupy the whole time 
of one  workman in keeping them in      
order3 if extended beyond that number1  
the same principle of economy would     
point out the necessity of  doubling or 
tripling the number of machines1 in     

order to employ  the whole time of two  
or three skilful workmen4    #bff4      
,where one portion of the workman's     
labour consists in  the exertion of mere
 physical force1 as in weaving and in   
many  similar arts1 it will soon occur  
to the manufacturer1 that if  that part 
were executed by a steam-engine1 the    
same man might1 in  the case of weaving1
 attend to two or more looms at once2   
and1  since we already suppose that one 
or more operative engineers  have been  
employed1 the number of his looms may be
 so arranged  that their time shall be  
fully occupied in keeping the           
steam-engine and the looms in order4    
,one of the first results  will be1 that
 the looms can be driven by the engine  
nearly twice  as fast as before3 and as 
each man1 when relieved from bodily     
labour1 can attend to two looms1 one    
workman can now make almost  as much    
cloth as four4 ,this increase of        
producing power is1  however1 greater   
than that which really took place at    

first2 the  velocity of some of the     
parts of the loom being limited by the  
strength of the thread1 and the         
quickness with which it commences  its  
motion3 but an improvement was soon     
made1 by which the motion  commenced    
slowly1 and gradually acquired greater  
velocity than it  was safe to give it at
 once2 and the speed was thus increased 
from #ajj to about #abj strokes per     
minute4    #bfg4 ,pursuing the same     
principles1 the manufactory becomes     
gradually so enlarged1 that the expense 
of lighting during the  night amounts to
 a considerable sum2 and as there are   
already  attached to the establishment  
persons who are up all night1 and  can  
therefore constantly attend to it1 and  
also engineers to make  and keep in     
repair any machinery1 the addition of an
 apparatus  for making gas to light the 
factory leads to a new extension1 at    
the same time that it contributes1 by   
diminishing the expense of  lighting1   
and the risk of accidents from fire1 to 

reduce the cost  of manufacturing4      
#bfh4 ,long before a factory has reached
 this extent1 it will  have been found  
necessary to establish an accountant's  
department1 with clerks to pay the      
workmen1 and to see that they  arrive at
 their stated times2 and this department
 must be in  communication with the     
agents who purchase the raw produce1 and
  with those who sell the manufactured  
article4    #bfi4 ,we have seen that the
 application of the division of  labour 
tends to produce cheaper articles2 that 
it thus increases  the demand2 and      
gradually1 by the effect of competition1
 or by  the hope of increased gain1 that
 it causes large capitals to be         
embarked in extensive factories4 ,let us
 now examine the influence  of this     
accumulation of capital directed to one 
object4 ,in the  first place1 it enables
 the most important principle on which  
the  advantages of the division of      
labour depends to be carried almost  to 
its extreme limits3 not merely is the   

precise amount of skill  purchased which
 is necessary for the execution of each 
process1  but throughout every          
stage--from that in which the raw       
material  is procured1 to that by which 
the finished produce is conveyed  into  
the hands of the consumer--the same     
economy of skill  prevails4 ,the        
quantity of work produced by a given    
number of  people is greatly augmented  
by such an extended arrangement2 and    
the result is necessarily a great       
reduction in the cost of the  article   
which is brought to market4    #bgj4    
,amongst the causes which tend to the   
cheap production of  any article1 and   
which are connected with the employment 
of  additional capital1 may be          
mentioned1 the care which is taken to   
prevent the absolute waste of any part  
of the raw material4 ,an  attention to  
this circumstance sometimes causes the  
union of two  trades in one factory1    
which otherwise might have been         
separated4    ,an enumeration of the    

arts to which the horns of cattle are   
applicable1 will furnish a striking     
example of this kind of  economy4 ,the  
tanner who has purchased the raw hides1 
separates  the horns1 and sells them to 
the makers of combs and lanterns4  ,the 
horn consists of two parts1 an outward  
horny case1 and an  inward conical      
substance1 somewhat intermediate between
 indurated  hair and bone4 ,the first   
process consists in separating these two
  parts1 by means of a blow against a   
block of wood4 ,the horny  exterior is  
then cut into three portions with a     
frame-saw4    #a4 ,the lowest of these1 
next the root of the horn1 after        
undergoing several processes1 by which  
it is flattened1 is made  into combs4   
#b4 ,the middle of the horn1 after being
 flattened by heat1 and  having its     
transparency improved by oil1 is split  
into thin  layers1 and forms a          
substitute for glass1 in lanterns of the
  commonest kind4    #c4 ,the tip of the
 horn is used by the makers of knife    

handles1 and of the tops of whips1 and  
for other similar  purposes4    #d4 ,the
 interior1 or core of the horn1 is      
boiled down in  water4 ,a large quantity
 of fat rises to the surface2 this is   
put  aside1 and sold to the makers of   
yellow soap4    #e4 ,the liquid itself  
is used as a kind of glue1 and is       
purchased by cloth dressers for         
stiffening4    #f4 ,the insoluble       
substance1 which remains behind1 is then
  sent to the mill1 and1 being ground   
down1 is sold to the farmers  for       
manure4    #g4 ,besides these various   
purposes to which the different  parts  
of the horn are applied1 the clippings1 
which arise in comb  making1 are sold to
 the farmer for manure4 ,in the first   
year  after they are spread over the    
soil they have comparatively  little    
effect1 but during the next four or five
 their efficiency  is considerable4 ,the
 shavings which form the refuse of the  
lantern maker1 are of a much thinner    
texture3 some of them are  cut into     

various figures and painted1 and used as
 toys2 for being  hygrometric1 they curl
 up when placed on the palm of a warm   
hand4  ,but the greater part of these   
shavings also are sold for manure1  and 
from their extremely thin and divided   
form1 the full effect  is produced upon 
the first crop4    #bga4 ,another event 
which has arisen1 in one trade at least1
  from the employment of large capital1 
is1 that a class of  middlemen1 formerly
 interposed between the maker and the   
merchant1 now no longer exist4 ,when    
calico was woven in the  cottages of the
 workmen1 there existed a class of      
persons who  travelled about and        
purchased the pieces so made1 in large  
numbers1 for the purpose of selling them
 to the exporting  merchant4 ,but the   
middlemen were obliged to examine every 
piece1  in order to know that it was    
perfect1 and of full measure4 ,the      
greater number of the workmen1 it is    
true1 might be depended  upon1 but the  
fraud of a few would render this        

examination  indispensable3 for any     
single cottager1 though detected by one 
purchaser1 might still hope that the    
fact would not become known  to all the 
rest4    ,the value of character1 though
 great in all circumstances of  life1   
can never be so fully experienced by    
persons possessed of  small capital1 as 
by those employing much larger sums3    
whilst  these larger sums of money for  
which the merchant deals1 render  his   
character for punctuality more studied  
and known by others4  ,thus it happens  
that high character supplies the place  
of an  additional portion of capital2   
and the merchant1 in dealing with  the  
great manufacturer1 is saved from the   
expense of  verification1 by knowing    
that the loss1 or even the impeachment1 
of the manufacturer's character1 would  
be attended with greater  injury to     
himself than any profit upon a single   
transaction could  compensate4    #bgb4 
,the amount of well-grounded confidence1
 which exists in  the character of its  

merchants and manufacturers1 is one of  
the  many advantages that an old        
manufacturing country always  possesses 
over its rivals4 ,to such an extent is  
this confidence  in character carried in
 ,england1 that1 at one of our largest  
towns1 sales and purchases on a very    
extensive scale are made  daily in the  
course of business without any of the   
parties ever  exchanging a written      
document4    #bgc4 ,a breach of         
confidence of this kind1 which might    
have  been attended with very serious   
embarrassment1 occurred in the  recent  
expedition to the mouth of the ,niger4  
',we brought with us from ,england1' ,mr
 ,lander states1 'nearly  a hundred     
thousand needles of various sizes1 and  
amongst them was  a great quantity of   
,whitechapel sharps warranted superfine1
 and  not to cut in the eye4 ,thus      
highly recommended1 we imagined that    
these needles must have been excellent  
indeed2 but what was our  surprise1 some
 time ago1 when a number of them which  

we had  disposed of were returned to us1
 with a complaint that they were  all   
eyeless1 thus redeeming with a vengeance
 the pledge of the  manufacturer1 that  
they would not cut in the eye4 ,on      
examination afterwards1 we found the    
same fault with the  remainder of the   
,whitechapel sharps1 so that to save our
 credit  we have been obliged to throw  
them away4'7#a997    #bgd4 ,the         
influence of established character in   
producing  confidence operated in a very
 remarkable manner at the time of  the  
exclusion of ,british manufactures from 
the continent during  the last war4 ,one
 of our largest establishments had been 
in the  habit of doing extensive        
business with a house in the centre of  
,germany2 but1 on the closing of the    
continental ports against our           
manufactures1 heavy penalties were      
inflicted on all those who  contravened 
the ,berlin and ,milan decrees4 ,the    
,english  manufacturer continued1       
nevertheless1 to receive orders1 with   

directions how to consign them1 and     
appointments for the time and  mode of  
payment1 in letters1 the handwriting of 
which was known  to him1 but which were 
never signed1 except by the christian   
name  of one of the firm1 and even in   
some instances they were without  any   
signature at all4 ,these orders were    
executed2 and in no  instance was there 
the least irregularity in the payments4 
#bge4 ,another circumstance may be      
noticed1 which to a small  extent is    
more advantageous to large than to small
 factories4 ,in  the export of several  
articles of manufacture1 a drawback is  
allowed by government1 of a portion of  
the duty paid on the  importation of the
 raw material4 ,in such circumstances1  
certain  forms must be gone through in  
order to protect the revenue from       
fraud2 and a clerk1 or one of the       
partners1 must attend at the            
custom-house4 ,the agent of the large   
establishment occupies  nearly the same 
time in receiving a drawback of several 

thousands1 as the smaller exporter does 
of a few shillings4 ,but  if the        
quantity exported is inconsiderable1 the
 small  manufacturer frequently does not
 find the drawback will repay him  for  
the loss of time4    #bgf4 ,in many of  
the large establishments of our         
manufacturing  districts1 substances are
 employed which are the produce of      
remote countries1 and which are1 in     
several instances1 almost  peculiar to a
 few situations4 ,the discovery of any  
new locality1  where such articles exist
 in abundance1 is a matter of great     
importance to any establishment which   
consumes them in large  quantities2 and 
it has been found1 in some instances1   
that the  expense of sending persons to 
great distances1 purposely to  discover 
and to collect such produce1 has been   
amply repaid4 ,thus  it has happened1   
that the snowy mountains of ,sweden and 
,norway1  as well as the warmer hills of
 ,corsica1 have been almost stripped  of
 one of their vegetable productions1 by 

agents sent expressly  from one of our  
largest establishments for the dying of 
calicos4  ,owing to the same command of 
capital1 and to the scale upon which    
the operations of large factories are   
carried on1 their returns  admit of the 
expense of sending out agents to examine
 into the  wants and tastes of distant  
countries1 as well as of trying         
experiments1 which1 although profitable 
to them1 would be ruinous  to smaller   
establishments possessing more limited  
resources4    ,these opinions have been 
so well expressed in the ,report of  the
 ,committee of the ,house of ,commons on
 the ,woollen ,trade1 in  #ahjf1 that we
 shall close this chapter with an       
extract1 in which  the advantages of    
great factories are summed up4    ,your 
committee have the satisfaction of      
seeing1 that the  apprehensions         
entertained of factories are not only   
vicious in  principle1 but they are     
practically erroneous3 to such a degree4
  that even the very opposite principles

 might be reasonably  entertained4 ,nor 
would it be difficult to prove1 that the
  factories1 to a certain extent at     
least1 and in the present day1  seem    
absolutely necessary to the wellbeing of
 the domestic  system3 supplying those  
very particulars wherein the domestic   
system must be acknowledged to be       
inherently defective3 for it is         
obvious1 that the little master         
manufacturers cannot afford1 like  the  
man who possesses considerable capital1 
to try the  experiments which are       
requisite1 and incur the risks1 and even
  losses1 which almost always occur1 in 
inventing and perfecting  new articles  
of manufacture1 or in carrying to a     
state of greater  perfection articles   
already established4 ,he cannot learn1  
by  personal inspection1 the wants and  
habits1 the arts1  manufactures1 and    
improvements of foreign countries2      
diligence1  economy1 and prudence1 are  
the requisites of his character1 not    
invention1 taste1 and enterprise3 nor   

would he be warranted in  hazarding the 
loss of any part of his small capital4  
,he walks in  a sure road as long as he 
treads in the beaten track2 but he must 
not deviate into the paths of           
speculation4 ,the owner of a  factory1  
on the contrary1 being commonly         
possessed of a large  capital1 and      
having all his workmen employed under   
his own  immediate superintendence1 may 
make experiments1 hazard  speculation1  
invent shorter or better modes of       
performing old  processes1 may introduce
 new articles1 and improve and perfect  
old ones1 thus giving the range to his  
taste and fancy1 and1  thereby alone    
enabling our manufacturers to stand the 
competition  with their commercial      
rivals in other countries4 ,meanwhile1  
as is  well worthy of remark 7and       
experience abundantly warrants the      
assertion71 many of these new fabrics   
and inventions1 when their  success is  
once established1 become general amongst
 the whole  body of manufacturers3 the  

domestic manufacturers themselves thus  
benefiting1 in the end1 from those very 
factories which had been  at first the  
objects of their jealousy4 ,the history 
of almost all  our other manufactures1  
in which great improvements have been   
made of late years in some cases at an  
immense expense1 and after  numbers of  
unsuccessful experiments1 strikingly    
illustrates and  enforces the above     
remarks4 ,it is besides an acknowledged 
fact1  that the owners of factories are 
often amongst the most extensive        
purchasers at the halls1 where they buy 
from the domestic  clothier the         
established articles of manufacture1 or 
are able at  once to answer a great and 
sudden order2 whilst1 at home1 and      
under their own superintendence1 they   
make their fancy goods1 and  any        
articles of a newer1 more costly1 or    
more delicate quality1  to which they   
are enabled by the domestic system to   
apply a much  larger proportion of their
 capital4 ,thus1 the two systems1       

instead of rivalling1 are mutual aids to
 each other3 each  supplying the other's
 defects1 and promoting the other's     
prosperity4    ,notes3    #a4 ,lander's 
,journal of an ,expedition to the ,mouth
 of the ,niger1  vol4 ii41 p4 #db4      
,chapter #bc    ,on the ,position of    
,large ,factories    #bgg4 ,it is found 
in every country1 that the situation of 
large manufacturing establishments is   
confined to particular  districts4 ,in  
the earlier history of a manufacturing  
community1  before cheap modes of       
transport have been extensively         
introduced1  it will almost always be   
found that manufactories are placed near
  those spots in which nature has       
produced the raw material3  especially  
in the case of articles of great weight1
 and in those  the value of which       
depends more upon the material than upon
 the  labour expended on it4 ,most of   
the metallic ores being  exceedingly    
heavy1 and being mixed up with large    
quantities of  weighty and useless      

materials1 must be smelted at no great  
distance from the spot which affords    
them3 fuel and power are the  requisites
 for reducing them2 and any considerable
 fall of water  in the vicinity will    
naturally be resorted to for aid in the 
coarser exertions of physical force2 for
 pounding the ore1 for  blowing the     
furnaces1 or for hammering and rolling  
out the iron4  ,there are indeed        
peculiar circumstances which will modify
 this4  ,iron1 coal1 and limestone1     
commonly occur in the same tracts2 but  
the union of the fuel in the same       
locality with the ore does not  exist   
with respect to other metals4 ,the      
tracts generally the most  productive of
 metallic ores are1 geologically        
speaking1 different  from those         
affording coal3 thus in ,cornwall there 
are veins of  copper and of tin1 but no 
beds of coal4 ,the copper ore1 which    
requires a very large quantity of fuel  
for its reduction1 is sent  by sea to   
the coalfields of ,wales1 and is smelted

 at ,swansea2  whilst the vessels which 
convey it1 take back coals to work the  
steam-engines for draining the mines1   
and to smelt the tin1 which  requires   
for that purpose a much smaller quantity
 of fuel than  copper4    #bgh4 ,rivers 
passing through districts rich in coal  
and  metals1 will form the first        
highroads for the conveyance of  weighty
 produce to stations in which other     
conveniences present  themselves for the
 further application of human skill4    
,canals  will succeed1 or lend their aid
 to these2 and the yet unexhausted      
applications of steam and of gas1 hold  
out a hope of attaining  almost the same
 advantages for countries to which      
nature seemed  for ever to have denied  
them4 ,manufactures1 commerce1 and      
civilization1 always follow the line of 
new and cheap  communications4 ,twenty  
years ago1 the ,mississippi poured the  
vast  volume of its waters in lavish    
profusion through thousands of  miles of
 countries1 which scarcely supported a  

few wandering and  uncivilized tribes of
 ,indians4 ,the power of the stream     
seemed to  set at defiance the efforts  
of man to ascend its course2 and1 as  if
 to render the task still more hopeless1
 large trees1 torn from  the surrounding
 forests1 were planted like stakes in   
its bottom1  forming in some places     
barriers1 in others the nucleus of      
banks2  and accumulating in the same    
spot1 which but for accident would  have
 been free from both1 the difficulties  
and dangers of shoals  and of rocks4    
,four months of incessant toil could    
scarcely convey  a small bark with its  
worn-out crew two thousand miles up this
  stream4 ,the same voyage is now       
performed in fifteen days by large      
vessels impelled by steam1 carrying     
hundreds of passengers  enjoying all the
 comforts and luxuries of civilized     
life4 ,instead  of the hut of the       
,indian1 and the far more unfrequent log
 house  of the thinly scattered         
settlers--villages1 towns1 and cities1  

have arisen on its banks2 and the same  
engine which stems the  force of these  
powerful waters1 will probably tear from
 their  bottom the obstructions which   
have hitherto impeded and rendered      
dangerous their navigation47#a997       
#bgi4 ,the accumulation of many large   
manufacturing  establishments in the    
same district has a tendency to bring   
together purchasers or their agents from
 great distances1 and  thus to cause the
 institution of a public mart or        
exchange4 ,this  contributes to diffuse 
information relative to the supply of   
raw  materials1 and the state of demand 
for their produce1 with which  it is    
necessary manufacturers should be well  
acquainted4 ,the very  circumstance of  
collecting periodically1 at one place1 a
 large  number both of those who supply 
the market and of those who  require its
 produce1 tends strongly to check the   
accidental  fluctuations to which a     
small market is always subject1 as well 
as to render the average of the prices  

much more uniform4    #bhj4 ,when       
capital has been invested in machinery1 
and in  buildings for its accommodation1
 and when the inhabitants of the        
neighbourhood have acquired a knowledge 
of the modes of working  at the         
machines1 reasons of considerable weight
 are required to  cause their removal4  
,such changes of position do however    
occur2  and they have been alluded to by
 the ,committee on the ,fluctuation  of 
,manufacturers' ,employment1 as one of  
the causes interfering  most materially 
with an uniform rate of wages3 it is    
therefore of  particular importance to  
the workmen to be acquainted with the   
real causes which have driven           
manufactures from their ancient  seats4 
,the migration or change of place of any
 manufacture has  sometimes arisen from 
improvements of machinery not applicable
 to  the spot where such manufacture was
 carried on1 as appears to  have been   
the case with the woollen manufacture1  
which has in  great measure migrated    

from ,essex1 ,suffolk1 and other        
southern  counties1 to the northern     
districts1 where coal for the use of    
the steam-engine is much cheaper4 ,but  
this change has1 in some  instances1    
been caused or accelerated by the       
conduct of the  workmen1 in refusing a  
reasonable reduction of wages1 or       
opposing  the introduction of some kind 
of improved machinery or process2  so   
that1 during the dispute1 another spot  
has in great measure  supplied their    
place in the market4 ,any violence used 
by the  workmen against the property of 
their masters1 and any  unreasonable    
combination on their part1 is almost    
sure thus to be  injurious to           
themselves4    #bha4 ,these removals    
become of serious consequence when the  
factories have been long established1   
because a population  commensurate with 
their wants invariably grows up around  
them4  ,the combinations in             
,nottinghamshire1 of persons under the  
name of  ,luddites1 drove a great number

 of lace frames from that district1  and
 caused establishments to be formed in  
,devonshire4 ,we ought  also to observe1
 that the effect of driving any         
establishment  into a new district1     
where similar works have not previously 
existed1 is not merely to place it out  
of the reach of such  combinations2 but1
 after a few years1 the example of its  
success  will most probably induce other
 capitalists in the new district  to    
engage in the same manufacture3 and     
thus1 although one  establishment only  
should be driven away1 the workmen1     
through  whose combination its removal  
is effected1 will not merely suffer  by 
the loss of that portion of demand for  
their labour which the  factory caused2 
but the value of that labour will itself
 be  reduced by the competition of a new
 field of production4    #bhb4 ,another 
circumstance which has its influence on 
this  question1 is the nature of the    
machinery4 ,heavy machinery1 such  as   
stamping-mills1 steam-engines1 etc41    

cannot readily be moved1  and must      
always be taken to pieces for that      
purpose2 but when the  machinery of a   
factory consists of a multitude of      
separate  engines1 each complete in     
itself1 and all put in motion by one    
source of power1 such as that of steam1 
then the removal is much  less          
inconvenient4 ,thus1 stocking frames1   
lace machines1 and  looms1 can be       
transported to more favourable          
positions1 with but  a small separation 
of their parts4    #bhc4 ,it is of great
 importance that the more intelligent   
amongst the class of workmen should     
examine into the correctness  of these  
views2 because1 without having their    
attention directed  to them1 the whole  
class may1 in some instances1 be led by 
designing persons to pursue a course1   
which1 although plausible  in           
appearance1 is in reality at variance   
with their own best  interests4 ,i      
confess ,i am not without a hope that   
this volume may  fall into the hands of 

workmen1 perhaps better qualified than  
myself to reason upon a subject which   
requires only plain common  sense1 and  
whose powers are sharpened by its       
importance to their  personal happiness4
 ,in asking their attention to the      
preceding  remarks1 and to those which  
,i shall offer respecting  combinations1
 ,i can claim only one advantage over   
them2 namely1  that ,i never have had1  
and in all human probability never shall
  have1 the slightest pecuniary         
interest1 to influence even  remotely1  
or by anticipation1 the judgements ,i   
have formed on the  facts which have    
come before me4    ,,notes3    #a4 ,the 
amount of obstructions arising from the 
casual fixing of  trees in the bottom of
 the river1 may be estimated from the   
proportion of steamboats destroyed by   
running upon them4 ,the  subjoined      
statement is taken from the ,american   
,almanack for #ahcb4    ,between the    
years #ahaa and #ahca1 three hundred and
  forty-eight steamboats were built on  

the ,mississippi and its  tributary     
streams4 ,during that period a hundred  
and fifty were  lost or worn out4    ,of
 this hundred and fifty3 worn out       
#fc                             lost by 
snags    #cf                            
burnt            #ad                    
lost by collision #c                    
by accidents not ascertained #cd        
,thirty six or nearly one fourth1 being 
destroyed by accidental  obstruction4   
,snag is the name given in ,america to  
trees which stand nearly  upright in the
 stream with their roots fixed at the   
bottom4    ,it is usual to divide off at
 the bow of the steamboats a  watertight
 chamber1 in order that when a hole is  
made in it by  running against the      
snags1 the water may not enterthe rest  
of the  vessel and sink it intantly4    
,chapter #bd    ,on ,over ,manufacturing
    #bhd4 ,one of the natural and almost
 inevitable consequences of  competition
 is the production of a supply much     
larger than the  demand requires4 ,this 

result usually arises periodically2 and 
it  is equally important1 both to the   
masters and to the workmen1 to  prevent 
its occurrence1 or to foresee its       
arrival4 ,in situations  where a great  
number of very small capitalists        
exist--where each  master works himself 
and is assisted by his own family1 or by
 a  few journeymen--and where a variety 
of different articles is  produced1 a   
curious system of compensation has      
arisen which in  some measure diminishes
 the extent to which fluctuations of    
wages  would otherwise reach4 ,this is  
accomplished by a species of  middlemen 
or factors1 persons possessing some     
capital1 who1  whenever the price of any
 of the articles in which they deal is  
greatly reduced1 purchase it on their   
own account1 in the hopes  of selling at
 a profit when the market is better4    
,these persons1  in ordinary times1 act 
as salesmen or agents1 and make up      
assortments of goods at the market      
price1 for the use of the home  or      

foreign dealer4 ,they possess large     
warehouses in which to make  up their   
orders1 or keep in store articles       
purchased during  periods of depression2
 thus acting as a kind of flywheel in   
equalizing the market price4    #bhe4   
,the effect of over-manufacturing upon  
great  establishments is different4     
,when an over supply has reduced        
prices1 one of two events usually       
occurs3 the first is a  diminished      
payment for labour2 the other is a      
diminution of  the number of hours      
during which the labourers work1        
together with a diminished rate of      
wages4 ,in the former case  production  
continues to go on at its ordinary rate3
 in the  latter1 the production itself  
being checked1 the supply  again adjusts
 itself to the demand as soon as the    
stock on  hand is worked off1 and prices
 then regain their former  level4 ,the  
latter course appears1 in the first     
instance1 to  be the best both for      
masters and men2 but there seems to be  

a difficulty in accomplishing this1     
except where the trade  is in few hands4
 ,in fact1 it is almost necessary1 for  
its  success1 that there should be a    
combination amongst the  masters or     
amongst the men2 or1 what is always far 
preferable to either1 a mutual agreement
 for their joint  interests4            
,combination amongst the men is         
difficult1 and is  always attended with 
the evils which arise from the ill-will 
excited against any persons who1 in the 
perfectly  justifiable exercise of their
 judgement1 are disposed not to  act    
with the majority4 ,the combination of  
the masters1 on  the other hand1 is     
unavailing1 unless the whole body of    
them  agree1 for if any one master can  
procure more labour for his  money than 
the rest1 he will be able to undersell  
them4    #bhf4 ,if we look only at the  
interests of the consumer1 the  case is 
different4 ,when too large a supply has 
produced a great  reduction of price1 it
 opens the consumption of the article to

 a  new class1 and increases the        
consumption of those who previously     
employed it3 it is therefore against the
 interest of both these  parties that a 
return to the former price should occur4
 ,it is  also certain1 that by the      
diminution of profit which the          
manufacturer suffers from the diminished
 price1 his ingenuity  will be          
additionally stimulated2 that he will   
apply himself to  discover other and    
cheaper sources for the supply of his   
raw  material2 that he will endeavour to
 contrive improved machinery  which     
shall manufacture it at a cheaper rate2 
or try to introduce  new arrangements   
into his factory1 which shall render the
 economy  of it more perfect4 ,in the   
event of his success1 by any of these   
courses or by their joint effects1 a    
real and substantial good  will be      
produced4 ,a larger portion of the      
public will receive  advantage from the 
use of the article1 and they will       
procure it  at a lower price2 and the   

manufacturer1 though his profit on each 
operation is reduced1 will yet1 by the  
more frequent returns on  the larger    
produce of his factory1 find his real   
gain at the end  of the year1 nearly the
 same as it was before2 whilst the wages
  of the workman will return to their   
level1 and both the  manufacturer and   
the workman will find the demand less   
fluctuating1 from its being dependent on
 a larger number of  customers4    #bhg4
 ,it would be highly interesting1 if we 
could trace1 even  approximately1       
through the history of any great        
manufacture1 the  effects of gluts in   
producing improvements in machinery1 or 
in  methods of working2 and if we could 
shew what addition to the  annual       
quantity of goods previously            
manufactured1 was produced by  each     
alteration4 ,it would probably be found1
 that the increased  quantity           
manufactured by the same capital1 when  
worked with the  new improvement1 would 
produce nearly the same rate of profit  

as  other modes of investment4          
,perhaps the manufacture of iron7#a997  
would furnish the best  illustration of 
this subject2 because1 by having the    
actual price  of pig and bar iron at the
 same place and at the same time1 the   
effect of a change in the value of      
currency1 as well as several  other     
sources of irregularity1 would be       
removed4    #bhh4 ,at the present       
moment1 whilst the manufacturers of iron
  are complaining of the ruinously low  
price of their produce1 a  new mode of  
smelting iron is coming into use1 which1
 if it  realizes the statement of the   
patentees1 promises to reduce  greatly  
the cost of production4    ,the         
improvement consists in heating the air 
previously to  employing it for blowing 
the furnace4 ,one of the results is1    
that  coal may be used instead of coke2 
and this1 in its turn1  diminishes the  
quantity of limestone which is required 
for the  fusion of the iron stone4      
,the following statement by the         

proprietors of the patent is  extracted 
from ,brewster's ,journal1 #ahcb1 p4    
#cdi3    ,comparative view of the       
quantity of materials required at the   
,clyde iron works to smelt a ton of     
foundry pig-iron1 and of the  quantity  
of foundry pig-iron smelted from each   
furnace weekly    ,fuel in tons of #bj  
cwt each cwt #aab lbs2 ,iron-stone2     
,lime-stone  ,cwt2 ,weekly produce in   
pig-iron ,tons    #a4 ,with air not     
heated and coke2 #g2c #a_/d2 #ae2 #de   
#b4 ,with air heated and coke2 #d #c_/d2
 #c #a_/d2 #aj2 #fj  #c4 ,with air      
heated and coals not coked2 #b #a_/d2 #c
 #a_/d2 #g #a_/b2 #fe    ,notes4 #a4 ,to
 the coals stated in the second and     
third lines1 must  be added #e cwt of   
small coals1 required to heat the air4  
#b4 ,the expense of the apparatus for   
applying the heated air  will be from   
,l#bjj to ,l#cjj per furnace4    #c4 ,no
 coals are now coked at the ,clyde iron 
works2 at all the  three furnaces the   
iron is smelted with coals4    #d4 ,the 

three furnaces are blown by a           
double-powered  steam-engine1 with a    
steam cylinder #dj inches in diameter1  
and a  blowing cylinder #hj inches in   
diameter1 which compresses the air  so  
as to carry #b #a_/b lbs per square     
inch4 ,there are two tuyeres  to each   
furnace4 ,the muzzles of the blowpipes  
are #c inches in  diameter4    #e4 ,the 
air heated to upwards of #fjj degrees   
of ,fahrenheit4  ,it will melt lead at  
the distance of three inches from the   
orifice through which it issues from the
 pipe4    #bhi4 ,the increased effect   
produced by thus heating the air is  by 
no means an obvious result2 and an      
analysis of its action will  lead to    
some curious views respecting the future
 application of  machinery for blowing  
furnaces4    ,every cubic foot of       
atmospheric air1 driven into a furnace1 
consists of two gases47#b997 about      
one-fifth being oxygen1 and  four-fifths
 azote4    ,according to the present    
state of chemical knowledge1 the  oxygen

 alone is effective in producing heat2  
and the operation of  blowing a furnace 
may be thus analysed4    #a4 ,the air is
 forced into the furnace in a condensed 
state1  and1 immediately expanding1     
abstracts heat from the surrounding     
bodies4    #b4 ,being itself of moderate
 temperature1 it would1 even  without   
expansion1 still require heat to raise  
it to the  temperature of the hot       
substances to which it is to be applied4
    #c4 ,on coming into contact with the
 ignited substances in the  furnace1 the
 oxygen unites with them1 parting at the
 same moment  with a large portion of   
its latent heat1 and forming compounds  
which have less specific heat than their
 separate constituents4  ,some of these 
pass up the chimney in a gaseous state1 
whilst  others remain in the form of    
melted slags1 floating on the  surface  
of the iron1 which is fused by the heat 
thus set at  liberty4    #d4 ,the       
effects of the azote are precisely      
similar to the  first and second of     

those above described2 it seems to form 
no  combinations1 and contributes       
nothing1 in any stage1 to augment  the  
heat4    ,the plan1 therefore1 of       
heating the air before driving it  into 
the furnace saves1 obviously1 the whole 
of that heat which  the fuel must have  
supplied in raising it from the         
temperature  of the external air up to  
that of #fjj degrees  ,fahrenheit2 thus 
rendering the fire more intense1 and the
 glassy slags more  fusible1 and perhaps
 also more effectually decomposing the  
iron  ore4 ,the same quantity of fuel1  
applied at once to the furnace1  would  
only prolong the duration of its heat1  
not augment its  intensity4    #bij4    
,the circumstance of so large a portion 
of the air7#c997  driven into furnaces  
being not merely useless1 but acting    
really  as a cooling1 instead of a      
heating1 cause1 added to so great a     
waste of mechanical power in condensing 
it1 amounting1 in fact1  to four-fifths 
of the whole1 clearly shews the defects 

of the  present method1 and the want of 
some better mode of exciting  combustion
 on a large scale4 ,the following       
suggestions are thrown  out as likely to
 lead to valuable results1 even though  
they  should prove ineffectual for their
 professed object4    #bia4 ,the great  
difficulty appears to be to separate the
  oxygen1 which aids combustion1 from   
the azote which impedes it4  ,if either 
of those gases becomes liquid at a lower
 pressure than  the other1 and if those 
pressures are within the limits of our  
present powers of compression1 the      
object might be accomplished4    ,let us
 assume1 for example1 that oxygen       
becomes liquid under  a pressure of #bjj
 atmospheres1 whilst azote requires a   
pressure  of #bej4 ,then if atmospheric 
air be condensed to the two hundredth   
part of its bulk1 the oxygen will be    
found in a liquid state at  the bottom  
of the vessel in which the condensation 
is effected1  and the upper part of the 
vessel will contain only azote in the   

state of gas4 ,the oxygen1 now          
liquefied1 may be drawn off for the     
supply of the furnace2 but as it ought  
when used1 to have a very  moderate     
degree of condensation1 its expansive   
force may be  previously employed in    
working a small engine4 ,the compressed 
azote also in the upper part of the     
vessel1 though useless for  combustion1 
may be employed as a source of power1   
and1 by its  expansion1 work another    
engine4 ,by these means the mechanical  
force exerted in the original           
compression would all be restored1      
except that small part retained for     
forcing the pure oxygen into  the       
furnace1 and the much larger part lost  
in the friction of the  apparatus4      
#bib4 ,the principal difficulty to be   
apprehended in these  operations is that
 of packing a working piston so as to   
bear the  pressure of #bjj or #cjj      
atmospheres3 but this does not seem     
insurmountable4 ,it is possible also    
that the chemical combination  of the   

two gases which constitute common air   
may be effected by  such pressures3 if  
this should be the case1 it might offer 
a new  mode of manufacturing nitrous or 
nitric acids4 ,the result of such       
experiments might take another          
direction3 if the condensation  were    
performed over liquids1 it is possible  
that they might enter  into new chemical
 combinations4 ,thus1 if air were highly
  condensed in a vessel containing      
water1 the latter might unite  with an  
additional dose of oxygen1 7#d997 which 
might afterwards  be easily disengaged  
for the use of the furnace4    #bic4 ,a 
further cause of the uncertainty of the 
results of  such an experiment arises   
from the possibility that azote may     
really contribute to the fusion of the  
mixed mass in the furnace1  though its  
mode of operating is at present unknown4
 ,an  examination of the nature of the  
gases issuing from the chimneys  of     
iron-foundries1 might perhaps assist in 
clearing up this  point2 and1 in fact1  

if such enquiries were also instituted  
upon  the various products of all       
furnaces1 we might expect the           
elucidation of many points in the       
economy of the metallurgic art4    #bid4
 ,it is very possible also1 that the    
action of oxygen in a  liquid state     
might be exceedingly corrosive1 and that
 the  containing vessels must be lined  
with platinum or some other  substance  
of very difficult oxydation2 and most   
probably new and  unexpected compounds  
would be formed at such pressures4 ,in  
some  experiments made by ,count        
,rumford in #agig1 on the force of fired
  gunpowder1 he noticed a solid         
compound1 which always appeared in  the 
gunbarrel when the ignited powder had no
 means of escaping2  and1 in those      
cases1 the gas which escaped on removing
 the  restraining pressure was usually  
inconsiderable4    #bie4 ,if the        
liquefied gases are used1 the form of   
the iron  furnace must probably be      
changed1 and perhaps it may be necessary

  to direct the flame from the ignited  
fuel upon the ore to be  fused1 instead 
of mixing that ore with the fuel itself3
 by a  proper regulation of the blast1  
an oxygenating or a deoxygenating  flame
 might be procured2 and from the        
intensity of the flame1  combined with  
its chemical agency1 we might expect the
 most  refractory ore to be smelted1 and
 that ultimately the metals at  present 
almost infusible1 such as platinum1     
titanium1 and others1  might be brought 
into common use1 and thus effect a      
revolution in  the arts4    #bif4       
,supposing1 on the occurrence of a glut1
 that new and  cheaper modes of         
producing are not discovered1 and that  
the  production continues to exceed the 
demand1 then it is apparent  that too   
much capital is employed in the trade2  
and after a time1  the diminished rate  
of profit will drive some of the        
manufacturers to other occupations4     
,what particular individuals  will leave
 it must depend on a variety of         

circumstances4 ,superior  industry and  
attention will enable some factories to 
make a  profit rather beyond the rest2  
superior capital in others will  enable 
them1 without these advantages1 to      
support competition  longer1 even at a  
loss1 with the hope of driving the      
smaller  capitalists out of the market1 
and then reimbursing themselves by  an  
advanced price4 ,it is1 however1 better 
for all parties1 that  this contest     
should not last long2 and it is         
important1 that no  artificial restraint
 should interfere to prevent it4 ,an    
instance  of such restriction1 and of   
its injurious effect1 occurs at the     
port of ,newcastle1 where a particular  
,act of ,parliament requires  that every
 ship shall be loaded in its turn4 ,the 
,committee of the  ,house of ,commons1  
in their ,report on the ,coal ,trade1   
state that1     ',under the regulations 
contained in this ,act1 if more ships   
enter into the trade than can be        
profitablv employed in it1 the  loss    

produced by detention in port1 and      
waiting for a cargo4  which must        
consequently take place1 instead of     
falling1 as it  naturally would1 upon   
particular ships1 and forcing them from 
the  trade1 is now divided evenly       
amongst them2 and the loss thus  created
 is shared by the whole number4'        
,report1 p4 #f4     #big4 ,it is not    
pretended1 in this short view1 to trace 
out all  the effects or remedies of     
over-manufacturing2 the subject is      
difficult1 and1 unlike some of the      
questions already treated1  requires a  
combined view of the relative influence 
of many  concurring causes4    ,,notes3 
#a4 ,the average price per ton of pig   
iron1 bar iron1 and coal1  together with
 the price paid for labour at the works1
 for a long  series of years1 would be  
very valuable1 and ,i shall feel much   
indebted to anyone who will favour me   
with it for any1 even  short1 period4   
#b4 ,the accurate proportions are1 by   
measure1 oxygen #ba1 azote #gi4    #c4  

,a similar reasoning may be applied to  
lamps4 ,an ,argand burner1  whether used
 for consuming oil or gas1 admits almost
 an unlimited  quantity of air4 ,it     
would deserve enquiry1 whether a smaller
  quantity might not produce greater    
light2 and1 possibly1 a  different      
supply furnish more heat with the same  
expenditure of  fuel4    #d4 ,deutoxide 
of hydrogen1 the oxygenated water of    
,thenard4        ,chapter #be           
,enquiries ,previous to ,commencing any 
,manufactory    #bih4 ,there are many   
enquiries which ought always to be made 
previous to the commencement of the     
manufacture of any new  article4 ,these 
chiefly relate to the expense of tools1 
machinery1  raw materials1 and all the  
outgoings necessary for its  production2
 to the extent of demand which is likely
 to arise2 to  the time in which the    
circulating capital will be replaced2   
and  to the quickness or slowness with  
which the new article will  supersede   
those already in use4    #bii4 ,the     

expense of tools and of new machines    
will be more  difficult to ascertain1 in
 proportion as they differ from those   
already employed2 but the variety in    
constant use in our various             
manufactories1 is such1 that few        
inventions now occur in which           
considerable resemblance may not be     
traced to others already  constructed4  
,the cost of the raw material is usually
 less  difficult to determine2 but cases
 occasionally arise in which it  becomes
 important to examine whether the       
supply1 at the given  price1 can be     
depended upon3 for1 in the case of a    
small  consumption1 the additional      
demand arising from a factory may       
produce a considerable temporary rise1  
though it may ultimately  reduce the    
price4    #cjj4 ,the quantity of any new
 article likely to be consumed is  a    
most important subject for the          
consideration of the projector  of a new
 manufacture4 ,as these pages are not   
intended for the  instruction of the    

manufacturer1 but rather for the purpose
 of  giving a general view of the       
subject1 an illustration of the way  in 
which such questions are regarded by    
practical men1 will1  perhaps1 be most  
instructive4 ,the following extract from
 the  evidence given before a ,committee
 of the ,house of ,commons1 in the      
,report on ,artizans and ,machinery1    
shews the extent to which  articles     
apparently the most insignificant1 are  
consumed1 and the  view which the       
manufacturer takes of them4    ,the     
person examined on this occasion was ,mr
 ,ostler1 a  manufacturer of glass beads
 and other toys of the same substance1  
from ,birmingham4 ,several of the       
articles made by him were placed  upon  
the table1 for the inspection of the    
,committee of the ,house  of ,commons1  
which held its meetings in one of the   
committee-rooms4    ,question4 ,is there
 any thing else you have to state upon  
this  subject8  ,answer4 ,gentlemen may 
consider the articles on the table as   

extremely insignificant3 but perhaps ,i 
may surprise them a  little1 by         
mentioning the following fact4 ,eighteen
 years ago1 on  my first journey to     
,london1 a respectable-looking man1 in  
the  city1 asked me if ,i could supply  
him with dolls' eyes2 and ,i was        
foolish enough to feel half offended2 ,i
 thought it derogatory to  my new       
dignity as a manufacturer1 to make      
dolls' eyes4 ,he took me  into a room   
quite as wide1 and perhaps twice the    
length of this1  and we had just room to
 walk between stacks1 from the loor to  
the  ceiling1 of parts of dolls4 ,he    
said1 ',these are only the legs and     
arms2 the trunks are below41 ,but ,i saw
 enough to convince me1  that he wanted 
a great many eyes2 and1 as the article  
appeared  quite in my own line of       
business1 ,i said ,i would take an order
 by  way of experiment2 and he shewed me
 several specimens4 ,i copied  the      
order4 ,he ordered various quantities1  
and of various sizes  and qualities4 ,on

 returning to the ,tavistock ,hotel1 ,i 
found that  the order amounted to       
upwards of #ejjl4 ,i went into the      
country1  and endeavoured to make them4 
,i had some of the most ingenious  glass
 toymakers in the kingdom in my service2
 but when ,i shewed  it to them1 they   
shook their heads1 and said they had    
often seen  the article before1 but     
could not make it4 ,i engaged them by   
presents to use their best exertions2   
but after trying and  wasting a great   
deal of time for three or four weeks1 ,i
 was  obliged to relinquish the attempt4
 ,soon afterwards ,i engaged in  another
 branch of business 7chandelier         
furniture71 and took no  more notice of 
it4 ,about eighteen months ago ,i       
resumed the  trinket trade1 and then    
determined to think of the dolls' eyes2 
and about eight months since1 ,i        
accidentally met with a poor  fellow who
 had impoverished himself by drinking1  
and who was  dying in a consumption1 in 
a state of great want4 ,i showed him    

ten sovereigns3 and he said he would    
instruct me in the process4  ,he was in 
such a state that he could not bear the 
effluvia of his  own lamp1 but though ,i
 was very conversant with the manual    
part  of the business1 and it related to
 things ,i was daily in the  habit of   
seeing1 ,i felt ,i could do nothing from
 his description4  7,i mention this to  
show how difficult it is to convey1 by  
description1 the mode of working47 ,he  
took me into his garret1  where the poor
 fellow had economized to such a degree1
 that he  actually used the entrails and
 fat of poultry from ,leadenhall  market
 to save oil 7the price of the article  
having been lately  so much reduced by  
competition at home74 ,in an instant1   
before ,i  had seen him make three1 ,i  
felt competent to make a gross2 and  the
 difference between his mode and that of
 my own workmen was so  trifling1 that  
,i felt the utmost astonishment4        
,question4 ,you can now make dolls'     
eyes8  ,answer4 ,i can4 ,as it was      

eighteen years ago that ,i received the 
order ,i have mentioned1 and feeling    
doubtful of my own  recollection1 though
 very strong1 and suspecting that it    
could  not have been to the amount      
stated1 ,i last night took the  present 
very reduced price of that article 7less
 than half now of  what it was then71   
and calculating that every child in this
  country not using a doll till two     
years old1 and throwing it  aside at    
seven1 and having a new one annually1 ,i
 satisfied myself  that the eyes alone  
would produce a circulation of a great  
many  thousand pounds4 ,i mention this  
merely to shew the importance of        
trifles2 and to assign one reason1      
amongst many1 for my  conviction that   
nothing but personal communication can  
enable  our manufactures to be          
transplanted4    #cja4 ,in many         
instances it is exceedingly difficult to
  estimate beforehand the sale of an    
article1 or the effects of a  machine2 a
 case1 however1 occurred during a recent

 enquiry1 which  although not quite     
appropriate as an illustration of       
probable  demand1 is highly instructive 
as to the mode of conducting            
investigations of this nature4 ,a       
committee of the ,house of  ,commons was
 appointed to enquire into the tolls    
proper to be  placed on steam-carriages2
 a question1 apparently1 of difficult   
solution1 and upon which widely         
different opinions had been  formed1 if 
we may judge by the very different rate 
of tolls  imposed upon such carriages by
 different 'turnpike trusts'4 ,the      
principles on which the committee       
conducted the enquiry were1  that ',the 
only ground on which a fair claim to    
toll can be made  on any public road1 is
 to raise a fund1 which1 with the       
strictest  economy1 shall be just       
sufficient--first1 to repay the expense 
of its original formation2 secondly1 to 
maintain it in good and  sufficient     
repair4' ,they first endeavoured to     
ascertain1 from  competent persons1 the 

effect of the atmosphere alone in       
deteriorating a well-constructed road4  
,the next step was1 to  determine the   
proportion in which the road was        
injured1 by the  effect of the horses'  
feet compared with that of the wheels4  
,mr  ,macneill1 the superintendent1     
under ,mr ,telford1 of the ,holyhead    
roads1 was examined1 and proposed to    
estimate the relative  injury1 from the 
comparative quantities of iron worn off 
from the  shoes of the horses1 and from 
the tire of the wheels4 ,from the  data 
he possessed1 respecting the consumption
 of iron for the  tire of the wheels1   
and for the shoes of the horses1 of one 
of  the ,birmingham day-coaches1 he     
estimated the wear and tear of  roads1  
arising from the feet of the horses1 to 
be three times as  great as that arising
 from the wheels4 ,supposing repairs    
amounting to a hundred pounds to be     
required on a road travelled  over by a 
fast coach at the rate of ten miles an  
hour1 and the  same amount of injury to 

occur on another road1 used only by     
waggons1 moving at the rate of three    
miles an hour1 ,mr ,macneill  divides   
the injuries in the following           
proportions3     ,injuries arising from2
  ,fast coach2 ,heavy waggon            
,atmospheric changes         #bj        
#bj   ,wheels                      #bj  
#ce4e   ,horses' feet drawing        #fj
         #dd4e   ,total injury          
#ajj        #ajj      ,supposing it1    
therefore1 to be ascertained that the   
wheels of  steam carriages do no more   
injury to roads than other carriages  of
 equal weight travelling with the same  
velocity1 the committee  now possessed  
the means of approximating to a just    
rate of toll  for steam carriages47#a997
    #cjb4 ,as connected with this       
subject1 and as affording most  valuable
 information upon points in which1      
previous to  experiment1 widely         
different opinions have been            
entertained2 the  following extract is  
inserted from ,mr ,telford's ,report on 

the  ,state of the ,holyhead and        
,liverpool ,roads4 ,the instrument      
employed for the comparison was invented
 by ,mr ,macneill2 and the  road between
 ,london and ,shrewsbury was selected   
for the place of  experiment4    ,the   
general results1 when a waggon weighing 
#ba cwt was used  on different sorts of 
roads1 are as follows3                  
lbs  #a4 ,on well-made pavement1 the    
draught is #cc    #b4 ,on a broken stone
 surface1 or old flint road #fe    #c4  
,on a gravel road #adg    #d4 ,on a     
broken stone road1 upon a rough pavement
 foundation #df    #e4 ,on a broken     
stone surface1 upon a bottoming of      
concrete1  formed of ,parker's cement   
and gravel #df    ,the following        
statement relates to the force required 
to draw a  coach weighing #ah cwt4      
exclusive of seven passengers1 up roads 
of  various inclinations3               
,inclination2 ,force required at six    
miles per hour2 ,force at  eight miles  
per hour2 ,force at ten miles per hour  

lbs     lbs     lbs   #a in  #bj   #bfh 
#bif     #cah   #a in  #bf   #bac       
#bai     #bbe   #a in  #cj   #afe       
#aif     #bjj   #a in  #dj   #afj       
#aff     #agb   #a in #fjj   #aaa       
#abj     #abh      #cjc4 ,in            
establishing a new manufactory1 the time
 in which the  goods produced can be    
brought to market and the returns be    
realized1 should be thoroughly          
considered1 as well as the time  the new
 article will take to supersede those   
already in use4 ,if  it is destroyed in 
using1 the new produce will be much more
  easily introduced4 ,steel pens readily
 took the place of quills2  and a new   
form of pen would1 if it possessed any  
advantage1 as  easily supersede the     
present one4 ,a new lock1 however       
secure1 and  however cheap1 would not so
 readily make its way4 ,if less         
expensive than the old1 it would be     
employed in new work3 but old  locks    
would rarely be removed to make way for 
it2 and even if  perfectly secure1 its  

advance would be slow4    #cjd4 ,another
 element in this question which should  
not be  altogether omitted1 is the      
opposition which the new manufacture    
may create by its real or apparent      
injury to other interests1 and  the     
probable effect of that opposition4     
,this is not always  foreseen2 and when 
anticipated is often inaccurately       
estimated4  ,on the first establishment 
of steamboats from ,london to ,margate1 
the proprietors of the coaches running  
on that line of road  petitioned the    
,house of ,commons against them1 as     
likely to lead  to the ruin of the coach
 proprietors4 ,it was1 however1 found   
that  the fear was imaginary2 and in a  
very few years1 the number of  coaches  
on that road was considerably increased1
 apparently  through the very means     
which were thought to be adverse to it4 
,the fear1 which is now entertained1    
that steampower and railroads  may drive
 out of employment a large proportion of
 the horses at  present in use1 is      

probably not less unfounded4 ,on some   
particular lines such an effect might be
 produced2 but in all  probability the  
number of horses employed in conveying  
goods and  passengers to the great lines
 of railroad1 would exceed that  which  
is at present used4    ,,notes3    #a4  
,one of the results of these enquiries  
is1 that every coach  which travels from
 ,london to ,birmingham distributes     
about eleven  pounds of wrought iron1   
along with the line of road between the 
two places4        ,chapter #bf    ,on a
 ,new ,system of ,manufacturing    #cje4
 ,a most erroneous and unfortunate      
opinion prevails  amongst workmen in    
many manufacturing countries1 that their
 own  interest and that of their        
employers are at variance4 ,the         
consequences are that valuable machinery
 is sometimes neglected1  and even      
privately injured--that new             
improvements1 introduced by  the        
masters1 do not receive a fair          
trial--and that the talents  and        

observations of the workmen are not     
directed to the  improvement of the     
processes in which they are employed4   
,this  error is1 perhaps1 most prevalent
 where the establishment of             
manufactories has been of recent origin1
 and where the number of  persons       
employed in them is not very large3     
thus1 in some of the  ,prussian         
provinces on the ,rhine it prevails to a
 much greater  extent than in           
,lancashire4 ,perhaps its diminished    
prevalence in  our own manufacturing    
districts1 arises partly from the       
superior  information spread amongst the
 workmen2 and partly from the  frequent 
example of persons1 who by good conduct 
and an attention  to the interests of   
their employers for a series of years1  
have  become foremen1 or who have       
ultimately been admitted into           
advantageous partnerships4 ,convinced as
 ,i am1 from my own  observation1 that  
the prosperity and success of the master
  manufacturer is essential to the      

welfare of the workman1 ,i am yet       
compelled to admit that this connection 
is1 in many cases1 too  remote to be    
always understood by the latter1 and    
whilst it is  perfectly true that       
workmen1 as a class1 derive advantage   
from  the prosperity of their employers1
 ,i do not think that each  individual  
partakes of that advantage exactly in   
proportion to  the extent to which he   
contributes towards it2 nor do ,i       
perceive  that the resulting advantage  
is as immediate as it might become      
under a different system4    #cjf4 ,it  
would be of great importance1 if1 in    
every large  establishment the mode of  
payment could be so arranged1 that      
every person employed should derive     
advantage from the success of  the      
whole2 and that the profits of each     
individual should  advance1 as the      
factory itself produced profit1 without 
the  necessity of making any change in  
the wages4 ,this is by no means  easy to
 effect1 particularly amongst that class

 whose daily  labour procures for them  
their daily food4 ,the system which has 
long been pursued in working the        
,cornish mines1 although not  exactly   
fulfilling these conditions1 yet        
possesses advantages  which make it     
worthy of attention1 as having nearly   
approached  towards them1 and as tending
 to render fully effective the          
faculties of all who are engaged in it4 
,i am the more strongly  induced to     
place before the reader a short sketch  
of this system1  because its similarity 
to that which ,i shall afterwards       
recommend  for trial1 will perhaps      
remove some objections to the latter1   
and  may also furnish some valuable     
hints for conducting any  experiment    
which might be undertaken4    #cjg4 ,in 
the mines of ,cornwall1 almost the whole
 of the  operations1 both above and     
below ground1 are contracted for4 ,the  
manner of making the contract is nearly 
as follows4 ,at the end of  every two   
months1 the work which it is proposed to

 carry on  during the next period is    
marked out4 ,it is of three kinds4 #a4  
,tutwork1 which consists in sinking     
shafts1 driving levels1 and  making     
excavations3 this is paid for by the    
fathom in depth1 or  in length1 or by   
the cubic fathom4 #b4 ,tribute1 which is
 payment  for raising and dressing the  
ore1 by means of a certain part of  its 
value when rendered merchantable4 ,it is
 this mode of payment  which produces   
such admirable effects4 ,the miners1 who
 are to be  paid in proportion to the   
richness of the vein1 and the quantity  
of metal extracted from it1 naturally   
become quicksighted in the  discovery of
 ore1 and in estimating its value2 and  
it is their  interest to avail          
themselves of every improvement that can
 bring  it more cheaply to market4 #c4  
,dressing4 ,the ',tributors'1 who dig   
and dress the ore1 can seldom afford to 
dress the coarser parts  of what they   
raise1 at their contract price2 this    
portion1  therefore1 is again let out to

 other persons1 who agree to dress  it  
at an advanced price4    ,the lots of   
ore to be dressed1 and the works to be  
carried  on1 having been marked out some
 days before1 and having been  examined 
by the men1 a kind of auction is held by
 the captains of  the mine1 in which    
each lot is put up1 and bid for by      
different  gangs of men4 ,the work is   
then offered1 at a price usually below  
that bid at the auction1 to the lowest  
bidder1 who rarely  declines it at the  
rate proposed4 ,the tribute is a certain
 sum  out of every twenty shillings'    
worth of ore raised1 and may vary  from 
threepence to fourteen or fifteen       
shillings4 ,the rate of  earnings in    
tribute is very uncertain3 if a vein1   
which was poor  when taken1 becomes     
rich1 the men earn money rapidly2 and   
instances have occurred in which each   
miner of a gang has gained  a hundred   
pounds in the two months4 ,these        
extraordinary cases1  are1 perhaps1 of  
more advantage to the owners of the mine

 than  even to the men2 for whilst the  
skill and industry of the workmen  are  
greatly stimulated1 the owner himself   
always derives still  greater advantage 
from the improvement of the vein47#a997 
,this  system has been introduced1 by   
,mr ,taylor1 into the lead mines of     
,flintshire1 into those at ,skipton in  
,yorkshire1 and into some of  the copper
 mines of ,cumberland2 and it is        
desirable that it  should become        
general1 because no other mode of       
payment affords  to the workmen a       
measure of success so directly          
proportioned to  the industry1 the      
integrity1 and the talent1 which they   
exert4    #cjh4 ,i shall now present the
 outline of a system which  appears to  
me to be pregnant with the most         
important results1  both to the class of
 workmen and to the country at large2   
and  which1 if acted upon1 would1 in my 
opinion1 permanently raise the  working 
classes1 and greatly extend the         
manufacturing system4    ,the general   

principles on which the proposed system 
is  founded1 are    #a4 ,that a         
considerable part of the wages received 
by each  person employed should depend  
on the profits made by the              
establishment2 and1    #b4 ,that every  
person connected with it should derive  
more  advantage from applying any       
improvement he might discover1 to the   
factory in which he is employed1 than he
 could by any other  course4    #cji4   
,it would be difficult to prevail on the
 large capitalist  to enter upon any    
system1 which would change the division 
of the  profits arising from the        
employment of his capital in setting    
skill and labour in action2 any         
alteration1 therefore1 must be  expected
 rather from the small capitalist1 or   
from the higher  class of workmen1 who  
combine the two characters2 and to these
  latter classes1 whose welfare will be 
first affected1 the change  is most     
important4 ,i shall therefore first     
point out the course  to be pursued in  

making the experiment2 and then1 taking 
a  particular branch of trade as an     
illustration1 ,i shall examine  the     
merits and defects of the proposed      
system as applied to it4    #caj4 ,let  
us suppose1 in some large manufacturing 
town1 ten or  twelve of the most        
intelligent and skilful workmen to      
unite1  whose characters for sobriety   
and steadiness are good1 and are  well  
known among their own class4 ,such      
persons will each possess  some small   
portion of capital2 and let them join   
with one or two  others who have raised 
themselves into the class of small      
master  manufacturers1 and1 therefore   
possess rather a larger portion of      
capital4 ,let these persons1 after well 
considering the subject1  agree to      
establish a manufactory of fire-irons   
and fenders2 and  let us suppose that   
each of the ten workmen can command     
forty  pounds1 and each of the small    
capitalists possesses two hundred       
pounds3 thus they have a capital of     

,l#hjj with which to commence  business2
 and1 for the sake of simplifying1 let  
us further  suppose the labour of each  
of these twelve persons to be worth  two
 pounds a week4 ,one portion of their   
capital will be expended  in procuring  
the tools necessary for their trade1    
which we shall  take at ,l#djj1 and this
 must be considered as their fixed      
capital4  ,the remaining ,l#djj must be 
employed as circulating capital1 in     
purchasing the iron with which their    
articles are made1 in paying  the rent  
of their workshops1 and in supporting   
themselves and  their families until    
some portion of it is replaced by the   
sale  of the goods produced4    #caa4   
,now the first question to be settled   
is1 what proportion  of the profit      
should be allowed for the use of        
capital1 and what  for skill and labour8
 ,it does not seem possible to decide   
this  question by any abstract          
reasoning3 if the capital supplied by   
each partner is equal1 all difficulty   

will be removed2 if  otherwise1 the     
proportion must be left to find its     
level1 and  will be discovered by       
experience2 and it is probable that it  
will  not fluctuate much4 ,let us       
suppose it to be agreed that the        
capital of ,l#hjj shall receive the     
wages of one workman4 ,at the  end of   
each week every workman is to receive   
one pound as wages1  and one pound is to
 be divided amongst the owners of the   
capital4  ,after a few weeks the returns
 will begin to come in2 and they  will  
soon become nearly uniform4 ,accurate   
accounts should be kept  of every       
expense and of all the sales2 and at the
 end of each  week the profit should be 
divided4 ,a certain portion should be   
laid aside as a reserved fund1 another  
portion for repair of the  tools1 and   
the remainder being divided into        
thirteen parts1 one  of these parts     
would be divided amongst the capitalists
 and one  belong to each workman4 ,thus 
each man would1 in ordinary             

circumstances1 make up his usual wages  
of two pounds weekly4 ,if  the factory  
went on prosperously1 the wages of the  
men would  increase2 if the sales fell  
off they would be diminished4 ,it is    
important that every person employed in 
the establishment1  whatever might be   
the amount paid for his services1       
whether he  act as labourer or porter1  
as the clerk who keeps the accounts1  or
 as bookkeeper employed for a few hours 
once a week to  superintend them1 should
 receive one half of what his service is
  worth in fixed salary1 the other part 
varying with the success of  the        
undertaking4    #cab4 ,in such a        
factory1 of course1 division of labour  
would  be introduced3 some of the       
workmen would be constantly employed  in
 forging the fire-irons1 others in      
polishing them1 others in  piercing and 
forming the fenders4 ,it would be       
essential that the  time occupied in    
each process1 and also its expense1     
should be  well ascertained2 information

 which would soon be obtained very      
precisely4 ,now1 if a workman should    
find a mode of shortening any  of the   
processes1 he would confer a benefit on 
the whole party1  even if they received 
but a small part of the resulting       
profit4  ,for the promotion of such     
discoveries1 it would be desirable that 
those who make them should either       
receive some reward1 to be  determined  
after a sufficient trial by a committee 
assembling  periodically2 or if they be 
of high importance1 that the  discoverer
 should receive one-half1 or twothirds1 
of the profit  resulting from them      
during the next year1 or some other     
determinate period1 as might be found   
expedient4 ,as the  advantages of such  
improvements would be clear gain to the 
factory1 it is obvious that such a share
 might be allowed to the  inventor1 that
 it would be for his interest rather to 
give the  benefit of them to his        
partners1 than to dispose of them in any
  other way4    #cac4 ,the result of    

such arrangements in a factory would be1
    #a4 ,that every person engaged in it
 would have a direct  interest in its   
prosperity2 since the effect of any     
success1 or  falling off1 would almost  
immediately produce a corresponding     
change in his own weekly receipts4      
#b4 ,every person concerned in the      
factory would have an  immediate        
interest in preventing any waste or     
mismanagement in  all the departments4  
#c4 ,the talents of all connected with  
it would be strongly  directed to its   
improvement in every department4    #d4 
,none but workmen of high character and 
qualifications  could obtain admission  
into such establishments2 because when  
any  additional hands were required1 it 
would be the common interest  of all to 
admit only the most respectable and     
skilful2 and it  would be far less easy 
to impose upon a dozen workmen than upon
  the single proprietor of a factory4   
#e4 ,when any circumstance produced a   
glut in the market1 more  skill would be

 directed to diminishing the cost of    
production2  and a portion of the time  
of the men might then be occupied in    
repairing and improving their tools1 for
 which a reserved fund  would pay1 thus 
checking present1 and at the same time  
facilitating future production4    #f4  
,another advantage1 of no small         
importance1 would be the  total removal 
of all real or imaginary causes for     
combinations4  ,the workmen and the     
capitalist would so shade into each     
other--  would so evidently have a      
common interest1 and their difficulties 
and distresses would be mutually so well
 understood that1 instead  of combining 
to oppress one another1 the only        
combination which  could exist would be 
a most powerful union between both      
parties  to overcome their common       
difficulties4    #cad4 ,one of the      
difficulties attending such a system is1
 that  capitalists would at first fear  
to embark in it1 imagining that  the    
workmen would receive too large a share 

of the profits3 and  it is quite true   
that the workmen would have a larger    
share than  at present3 but1 at the same
 time1 it is presumed the effect of  the
 whole system would be1 that the total  
profits of the  establishment being much
 increased1 the smaller proportion      
allowed to capital under this system    
would yet be greater in  actual amount1 
than that which results to it from the  
larger  share in the system now         
existing4    #cae4 ,it is possible that 
the present laws relating to            
partnerships might interfere with       
factories so conducted4 ,if this        
interference could not be obviated by   
confining their purchases  under the    
proposed system to ready money1 it would
 be desirable  to consider what changes 
in the law would be necessary to its    
existence3 and this furnishes another   
reason for entering into  the question  
of limited partnerships4    #caf4 ,a    
difficulty would occur also in          
discharging workmen who  behaved ill1 or

 who were not competent to their work2  
this would  arise from their having a   
certain interest in the reserved fund1  
and1 perhaps1 from their possessing a   
certain portion of the  capital         
employed2 but without entering into     
detail1 it may be  observed1 that such  
cases might be determined on by meetings
 of  the whole establishment2 and that  
if the policy of the laws  favoured such
 establishments1 it would scarcely be   
more difficult  to enforce just         
regulations1 than it now is to enforce  
some which  are unjust1 by means of     
combinations either amongst the masters 
or the men4    #cag4 ,some approach to  
this system is already practised in     
several trades3 the mode of conducting  
the ,cornish mines has  already been    
alluded to2 the payment to the crew of  
whaling ships  is governed by this      
principle2 the profits arising from     
fishing  with nets on the south coast of
 ,england are thus divided3  one-half   
the produce belongs to the owner of the 

boat and net2  the other half is divided
 in equal portions between the persons  
using it1 who are also bound to assist  
in repairing the net when  injured4     
,,notes3    #a4 ,for a detailed account 
of the method of working the ,cornish   
mines1 see a paper of ,mr ,john         
,taylor's ,transactions of the          
,geological ,society1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cji4 
,chapter #bg    ,on ,contriving         
,machinery    #cah4 ,the power of       
inventing mechanical contrivances1 and  
of  combining machinery1 does not       
appear1 if we may judge from the        
frequency of its occurrence1 to be a    
difficult or a rare gift4 ,of  the vast 
multitude of inventions which have been 
produced almost  daily for a series of  
years1 a large part has failed from the 
imperfect nature of the first trials2   
whilst a still larger  portion1 which   
had escaped the mechanical difficulties1
 failed  only because the economy of    
their operations was not sufficiently   
attended to4    ,the commissioners      

appointed to examine into the methods   
proposed for preventing the forgery of  
bank-notes1 state in their  report1 that
 out of one hundred and seventy-eight   
projects  communicated to the bank and  
to the commissioners1 there were  only  
twelve of superior skill1 and nine which
 it was necessary  more particularly to 
examine4    #cai4 ,it is however a      
curious circumstance1 that although the 
power of combining machinery is so      
common1 yet the more beautiful          
combinations are exceedingly rare4      
,those which command our  admiration    
equally by the perfection of their      
effects and the  simplicity of their    
means1 are found only amongst the       
happiest  productions of genius4    ,to 
produce movements even of a complicated 
kind is not  difficult4 ,there exist a  
great multitude of known contrivances   
for all the more usual purposes1 and if 
the exertion of moderate  power is the  
end of the mechanism to be contrived1 it
 is possible  to construct the whole    

machine upon paper1 and to judge of the 
proper strength to be given to each part
 as well as to the  framework which     
supports it1 and also of its ultimate   
effect1  long before a single part of it
 has been executed4 ,in fact1 all  the  
contrivance1 and all the improvements1  
ought first to be  represented in the   
drawings4    #cbj4 ,on the other hand1  
there are effects dependent upon        
physical or chemical properties for the 
determination of which no  drawings will
 be of any use4 ,these are the          
legitimate objects of  direct trial4    
,for example2 if the ultimate result of 
an engine is  to be that it shall       
impress letters on a copperplate by     
means of  steel punches forced into it1 
all the mechanism by which the  punches 
and the copper are to be moved at stated
 intervals1 and  brought into contact1  
is within the province of drawing1 and  
the  machinery may be arranged entirely 
upon paper4 ,but a doubt may  reasonably
 spring up1 whether the bur that will be

 raised round  the letter1 which has    
been already punched upon the copper1   
may  not interfere with the proper      
action of the punch for the letter      
which is to be punched next adjacent to 
it4 ,it may also be feared  that the    
effect of punching the second letter1 if
 it be  sufficiently near to the first1 
may distort the form of that  first     
figure4 ,if neither of these evils      
should arise1 still the  bur produced by
 the punching might be expected to      
interfere with  the goodness of the     
impression produced by the copperplate2 
and  the plate itself1 after having all 
but its edge covered with  figures1     
might change its form1 from the unequal 
condensation  which it must suffer in   
this process1 so as to render it very   
difficult to take impressions from it at
 all4 ,it is impossible by  any drawings
 to solve difficulties such as these1   
experiment  alone can determine their   
effect4 ,such experiments having been   
made1 it is found that if the sides of  

the steel punch are nearly  at right    
angles to the face of the letter1 the   
bur produced is  very inconsiderable2   
that at the depth which is sufficient   
for  copperplate printing1 no distortion
 of the adjacent letters takes  place1  
although those letters are placed very  
close to each  other2 that the small bur
 which arises may easily be scraped off2
  and that the copperplate is not       
distorted by the condensation of  the   
metal in punching1 but is perfectly fit 
to print from1 after  it has undergone  
that process4    #cba4 ,the next stage  
in the progress of an invention1 after  
the drawings are finished and the       
preliminary experiments have  been made1
 if any such should be requisite1 is the
 execution of  the machine itself4 ,it  
can never be too strongly impressed upon
  the minds of those who are devising   
new machines1 that to make  the most    
perfect drawings of every part tends    
essentially both to  the success of the 
trial1 and to economy in arriving at the

  result4 ,the actual execution from    
working drawings is  comparatively an   
easy task2 provided always that good    
tools are  employed1 and that methods of
 working are adopted1 in which the      
perfection of the part constructed      
depends less on the personal  skill of  
the workman1 than upon the certainty of 
the method  employed4    #cbb4 ,the     
causes of failure in this stage most    
frequently  derive their origin from    
errors in the preceding one2 and it is  
sufficient merely to indicate a few of  
their sources4 ,they  frequently arise  
from having neglected to take into      
consideration  that metals are not      
perfectly rigid but elastic4 ,a steel   
cylinder  of small diameter must not be 
regarded as an inflexible rod2 but  in  
order to ensure its perfect action as an
 axis1 it must be  supported at proper  
intervals4    ,again1 the strength and  
stiffness of the framing which  supports
 the mechanism must be carefully        
attended to4 ,it should  always be      

recollected1 that the addition of       
superfluous matter to  the immovable    
parts of a machine produces no          
additional momentum1  and therefore is  
not accompanied with the same evil that 
arises  when the moving parts are       
increased in weight4 ,the stiffness of  
the framing in a machine produces an    
important advantage4 ,if the  bearings  
of the axis 7those places at which they 
are supported7  are once placed in a    
straight line1 they will remain so1 if  
the  framing be immovable2 whereas if   
the framework changes its form1  though 
ever so slightly1 considerable friction 
is immediately  produced4 ,this effect  
is so well understood in the districts  
where spinning factories are numerous1  
that1 in estimating the  expense of     
working a new factory1 it is allowed    
that five per  cent on the power of the 
steam-engine will be saved if the       
building is fireproof3 for the greater  
strength and rigidity of a  fireproof   
building prevents the movement of the   

long shafts or  axes which drive the    
machinery1 from being impeded by the    
friction that would arise from the      
slightest deviation in any of  the      
bearings4    #cbc4 ,in conducting       
experiments upon machinery1 it is quite 
a  mistake to suppose that any imperfect
 mechanical work is good  enough for    
such a purpose4 ,if the experiment is   
worth making1 it  ought to be tried with
 all the advantages of which the state  
of  mechanical art admits2 for an       
imperfect trial may cause an idea  to be
 given up1 which better workmanship     
might have proved to be  practicable4   
,on the other hand1 when once the       
efficiency of a  contrivance has been   
established1 with good workmanship it   
will  be easy afterwards to ascertain   
the degree of perfection which  will    
suffice for its due action4    #cbd4 ,it
 is partly owing to the imperfection of 
the original  trials1 and partly to the 
gradual improvements in the art of      
making machinery1 that many inventions  

which have been tried1 and  given up in 
one state of art1 have at another period
 been  eminently successful4 ,the idea  
of printing by means of moveable  types 
had probably suggested itself to the    
imagination of many  persons conversant 
with impressions taken either from      
blocks or  seals4 ,we find amongst the  
instruments discovered in the remains   
of ,pompeii and ,herculaneum1 stamps for
 words formed out of one  piece of      
metal1 and including several letters4   
,the idea of  separating these letters1 
and of recombining them into other      
words1 for the purpose of stamping a    
book1 could scarcely have  failed to    
occur to many3 but it would almost      
certainly have been  rejected by those  
best acquainted with the mechanical arts
 of  that time2 for the workmen of those
 days must have instantly  perceived the
 impossibility of producing many        
thousand pieces of  wood or metal1      
fitting so perfectly and ranging so     
uniformly1 as  the types or blocks of   

wood now used in the art of printing4   
,the principle of the press which bears 
the name of ,bramah1  was known about a 
century and a half before the machine1  
to which  it gave rise1 existed2 but the
 imperfect state of mechanical art  in  
the time of the discoverer1 would have  
effectually deterred  him1 if the       
application of it had occurred to his   
mind1 from  attempting to employ it in  
practice as an instrument for exerting  
force4    ,these considerations prove   
the propriety of repeating1 at the      
termination of intervals during which   
the art of making machinery  has        
received any great improvement1 the     
trails of methods which1  although      
founded upon just principles1 had       
previously failed4    #cbe4 ,when the   
drawings of a machine have been properly
 made1  and the parts have been well    
executed1 and even when the work it     
produces possesses all the qualities    
which were anticipated1  still the      
invention may fail2 that is1 it may fail

 of being  brought into general         
practice4 ,this will most frequently    
arise  from the circumstance of its     
producing its work at a greater  expense
 than that at which it can be made by   
other methods4    #cbf4 ,whenever the   
new1 or improved machine1 is intended to
  become the basis of a manufacture1 it 
is essentially requisite  that the whole
 expense attending its operations should
 be fully  considered before its        
construction is undertaken4 ,it is      
almost  always very difficult to make   
this estimate of the expense3 the  more 
complicated the mechanism1 the less easy
 is the task2 and in  cases of great    
complexity and extent of machinery it is
 almost  impossible4 ,it has been       
estimated roughly1 that the first       
individual of any newly invented        
machine1 will cost about five  times as 
much as the construction of the second1 
an estimate  which is1 perhaps1         
sufficiently near the truth4 ,if the    
second  machine is to be precisely like 

the first1 the same drawings1 and  the  
same patterns will answer for it2 but   
if1 as usually happens1  some           
improvements have been suggested by the 
experience of the  first1 these must be 
more or less altered4 ,when1 however1   
two or  three machines have been        
completed1 and many more are wanted1    
they can usually be produced at much    
less than one-fifth of the  expense of  
the original invention4    #cbg4 ,the   
arts of contriving1 of drawing1 and of  
executing1 do  not usually reside in    
their greatest perfection in one        
individual2 and in this1 as in other    
arts1 the division of labour  must be   
applied4 ,the best advice which can be  
offered to a  projector of any          
mechanical invention1 is to employ a    
respectable  draughtsman2 who1 if he has
 had a large experience in his          
profession1 will assist in finding out  
whether the contrivance is  new1 and can
 then make working drawings of it4 ,the 
first step1  however1 the ascertaining  

whether the contrivance has the merit   
of novelty1 is most important2 for it is
 a maxim equally just in  all the arts1 
and in every science1 that the man who  
aspires to  fortune or to fame by new   
discoveries1 must be content to examine 
with care the knowledge of his          
contemporaries1 or to exhaust his       
efforts in inventing again1 what he will
 most probably find has  been better    
executed before4    #cbh4 ,this1        
nevertheless1 is a subject upon which   
even  ingenious men are often singularly
 negligent4 ,there is1 perhaps1  no     
trade or profession existing in which   
there is so much  quackery1 so much     
ignorance of the scientific principles1 
and of  the history of their own art1   
with respect to its resources and       
extent1 as are to be met with amongst   
mechanical projectors4 ,the             
self-constituted engineer1 dazzled with 
the beauty of some1  perhaps1 really    
original contrivance1 assumes his new   
profession  with as little suspicion    

that previous instruction1 that thought 
and painful labour1 are necessary to its
 successful exercise1 as  does the      
statesman or the senator4 ,much of this 
false confidence  arises from the       
improper estimate which is entertained  
of the  difficulty of invention in      
mechanics4 ,it is1 therefore1 of great  
importance to the individuals and to the
 families of those who  are too often   
led away from more suitable pursuits1   
the dupes of  their own ingenuity and of
 the popular voice1 to convince both    
them and the public that the power of   
making new mechanical  combinations is a
 possession common to a multitude of    
minds1 and  that the talents which it   
requires are by no means of the highest 
order4 ,it is still more important that 
they should be impressed  with the      
conviction that the great merit1 and the
 great success  of those who have       
attained to eminence in such matters1   
was  almost entirely due to the         
unremitted perseverance with which  they

 concentrated upon their successful     
inventions the skill and  knowledge     
which years of study had matured4       
,chapter #bh    ,proper ,circumstances  
for the ,application of ,machinery      
#cbi4 ,the first object of machinery1   
the chief cause of its  extensive       
utility1 is the perfection and the cheap
 production of  the articles which it is
 intended to make4 ,whenever it is      
required to produce a great multitude of
 things1 all of exactly  the same kind1 
the proper time has arrived for the     
construction  of tools or machines by   
which they may be manufactured4 ,if only
 a  few pairs of cotton stockings should
 be required1 it would be an  absurd    
waste of time1 and of capital1 to       
construct a  stocking-frame to weave    
them1 when1 for a few pence1 four steel 
wires can be procured by which they may 
be knit4 ,if1 on the other  hand1 many  
thousand pairs were wanted1 the time    
employed1 and the  expense incurred in  
constructing a stocking-frame1 would be 

more  than repaid by the saving of time 
in making that large number of          
stockings4 ,the same principle is       
applicable to the copying of  letters3  
if three or four copies only are        
required1 the pen and  the human hand   
furnish the cheapest means of obtaining 
them2 if  hundreds are called for1      
lithography may be brought to our       
assistance2 but if hundreds of thousands
 are wanted1 the  machinery of a        
printing establishment supplies the most
  economical method of accomplishing the
 object4    #ccj4 ,there are1 however1  
many cases in which machines or  tools  
must be made1 in which economical       
production is not the  most important   
object4 ,whenever it is required to     
produce a few  articles parts of        
machinery1 for instance1 which must be  
executed  with the most rigid accuracy  
or be perfectly alike--it is nearly     
impossible to fulfil this condition1    
even with the aid of the  most skilful  
hands3 and it becomes necessary to make 

tools  expressly for the purpose1       
although those tools should1 as         
frequently happens1 cost more in        
constructing than the things  they are  
destined to make4    #cca4 ,another     
instance of the just application of     
machinery1  even at an increased        
expense1 arises where the shortness of  
time  in which the article is produced1 
has an important influence on  its      
value4 ,in the publication of our daily 
newspapers1 it  frequently happens that 
the debates in the ,houses of           
,parliament  are carried on to three and
 four o'clock in the morning1 that is4  
to within a very few hours of the time  
for the publication of the  paper4 ,the 
speeches must be taken down by          
reporters1 conveyed by  them to the     
establishment of the newspaper1 perhaps 
at the  distance of one or two miles1   
transcribed by them in the office1  set 
up by the compositor1 the press         
corrected1 and the paper be  printed off
 and distributed1 before the public can 

read them4  ,some of these journals have
 a circulation of from five to ten      
thousand daily4 ,supposing four thousand
 to be wanted1 and that  they could be  
printed only at the rate of five hundred
 per hour  upon one side of the paper1  
7which was the greatest number two      
journeymen and a boy could take off by  
the old hand presses71  sixteen hours   
would be required for printing the      
complete  edition2 and the news conveyed
 to the purchasers of the latest        
portion of the impression1 would be out 
of date before they could  receive it4  
,to obviate this difficulty1 it was     
often necessary to  set up the paper in 
duplicate1 and sometimes1 when late1 in 
triplicate3 but the improvements in the 
printing machines have  been so great1  
that four thousand copies are now       
printed on one  side in an hour4        
#ccb4 ,the establishment of ',the       
,times' newspaper is an  example1 on a  
large scale1 of a manufactory in which  
the division  of labour1 both mental and

 bodily1 is admirably illustrated1 and  
in which also the effect of domestic    
economy is well exemplified4  ,it is    
scarcely imagined by the thousands who  
read that paper in  various quarters of 
the globe1 what a scene of organized    
activity  the factory presents during   
the whole night1 or what a quantity  of 
talent and mechanical skill is put in   
action for their  amusement and         
information4 7#a997 ,nearly a hundred   
persons are  employed in this           
establishment2 and1 during the session  
of  ,parliament1 at least twelve        
reporters are constantly attending  the 
,houses of ,commons and ,lords2 each in 
his turn retiring1 after  about an      
hour's work1 to translate into ordinary 
writing1 the  speech he has just heard  
and noted in shorthand4 ,in the meantime
  fifty compositors are constantly at   
work1 some of whom have  already set up 
the beginning1 whilst others are        
committing to  type the yet undried     
manuscript of the continuation of a     

speech1  whose middle portion is        
travelling to the office in the pocket  
of  the hasty reporter1 and whose       
eloquent conclusion is1 perhaps1 at     
that very moment1 making the walls of   
,st ,stephen's vibrate with  the        
applause of its hearers4 ,these         
congregated types1 as fast as  they are 
composed1 are passed in portions to     
other hands2 till at  last the scattered
 fragments of the debate1 forming1 when 
united  with the ordinary matter1       
eight-and-forty columns1 reappear in    
regular order on the platform of the    
printing-press4 ,the hand of  man is now
 too slow for the demands of his        
curiosity1 but the  power of steam comes
 to his assistance4 ,ink is rapidly     
supplied  to the moving types1 by the   
most perfect mechanism2 four  attendants
 incessantly introduce the edges of     
large sheets of  white paper to the     
junction of two great rollers1 which    
seem to  devour them with unsated       
appetite2 other rollers convey them to  

the type already inked1 and having      
brought them into rapid and  successive 
contact1 redeliver them to four other   
assistants1  completely printed by the  
almost momentary touch4 ,thus1 in one   
hour1 four thousand sheets of paper are 
printed on one side2 and  an impression 
of twelve thousand copies1 from above   
three hundred  thousand moveable pieces 
of metal1 is produced for the public in 
six hours4    #ccc4 ,the effect of      
machinery in printing other periodical  
publications1 and of due economy in     
distributing them1 is so  important for 
the interests of knowledge1 that it is  
worth  examining by what means it is    
possible to produce them at the  small  
price at which they are sold4           
',chambers' ,journal'1 which is         
published at ,edinburgh1 and sold at    
three halfpence a number1  will furnish 
an example4 ,soon after its commencement
 in #ahcb1 the  sale in ,scotland       
reached #cj1jjj1 and in order to supply 
the  demand in ,london it was reprinted2

 but on account of the expense  of      
'composition' it was found that this    
plan would not produce  any profit1 and 
the ,london edition was about to be     
given up1 when  it occurred to the      
proprietor to stereotype it at          
,edinburgh1 and  cast two copies of the 
plates4 ,this is now done about three   
weeks  before the day of                
publication--one set of plates being    
sent up  to ,london by the mail1 an     
impression is printed off by steam3 the 
,london agent has then time to send     
packages by the cheapest  conveyances to
 several of the large towns1 and other  
copies go  through the booksellers'     
parcels to all the smaller towns4 ,thus 
a  great saving is effected in the      
outlay of capital1 and #bj1jjj  copies  
are conveyed from ,london1 as a centre1 
to all parts of  ,england1 whilst there 
is no difficulty in completing imperfect
  sets1 nor any waste from printing more
 than the public demand4    #ccd4 ,the  
conveyance of letters is another case1  

in which the  importance of saving time 
would allow of great expense in any new 
machinery for its accomplishment4 ,there
 is a natural limit to the  speed of    
horses1 which even the greatest         
improvements in the  breed1 aided by an 
increased perfection in our roads1 can  
never  surpass2 and from which1 perhaps1
 we are at present not very  remote4    
,when we reflect upon the great expense 
of time and money  which the last       
refinements of a theory or an art       
usually require1  it is not unreasonable
 to suppose that the period has arrived 
in  which the substitution of machinery 
for such purposes ought to be  tried4   
#cce4 ,the post bag despatched every    
evening by the mail to one  of our      
largest cities1 ,bristol1 usually weighs
 less than a  hundred pounds4 ,now1 the 
first reflection which naturally        
presents itself is1 that1 in order to   
transport these letters a  hundred and  
twenty miles1 a coach and apparatus1    
weighing above  thirty hundredweight1   

are put in motion1 and also conveyed    
over  the same space4 7#b997    ,it is  
obvious that1 amongst the conditions of 
machinery for  accomplishing such an    
object1 it would be desirable to reduce 
the  weight of matter to be conveyed    
along with the letters3 it would  also  
be desirable to reduce the velocity of  
the animal power  employed2 because the 
faster a horse is driven1 the less      
weight  he can draw4 ,amongst the       
variety of contrivances which might be  
imagined for this purpose1 we will      
mention one1 which1 although  by no     
means free from objections1 fulfils some
 of the prescribed  conditions2 and it  
is not a purely theoretical speculation1
 since  some few experiments have been  
made upon it1 though on an  extremely   
limited scale4    #ccf4 ,let us imagine 
a series of high pillars erected at     
frequent intervals1 perhaps every       
hundred feet1 and as nearly as  possible
 in a straight line between two post    
towns4 ,an iron or  steel wire must be  

stretched over proper supports1 fixed on
 each  of these pillars1 and terminating
 at the end of every three or  five     
miles1 as may be found expedient1 in a  
very strong support1  by which it may be
 stretched4 ,at each of these latter    
points a  man ought to reside in a small
 stationhouse4 ,a narrow cylindrical    
tin case1 to contain the letters1 might 
be suspended by two  wheels rolling upon
 this wire2 the cases being so          
constructed as  to enable the wheels to 
pass unimpeded by the fixed supports of 
the wire4 ,an endless wire of much      
smaller size must pass over two  drums1 
one at each end of the station4 ,this   
wire should be  supported on rollers1   
fixed to the supports of the great wire1
  and at a short distance below it4     
,there would thus be two  branches of   
the smaller wire always accompanying the
 larger one2  and the attendant at      
either station1 by turning the drum1    
might  cause them to move with great    
velocity in opposite directions4 ,in    

order to convey the cylinder which      
contains the letters1 it would  only be 
necessary to attach it by a string1 or  
by a catch1 to  either of the branches  
of the endless wire4 ,thus it would be  
conveyed speedily to the next station1  
where it would be removed  by the       
attendant to the commencement of the    
next wire1 and so  forwarded4 ,it is    
unnecessary to enter into the details   
which  this1 or any similar plan1 would 
require4 ,the difficulties are  obvious2
 but if these could be overcome1 it     
would present many  advantages besides  
velocity2 for if an attendant resided at
 each  station1 the additional expense  
of having two or three deliveries  of   
letters every day1 and even of sending  
expresses at any  moment1 would be      
comparatively trifling2 nor is it       
impossible  that the stretched wire     
might itself be available for a species 
of telegraphic communication yet more   
rapid4    ,perhaps if the steeples of   
churches1 properly selected1 were  made 

use of1 connecting them by a few        
intermediate stations with  some great  
central building1 as1 for instance1 with
 the top of ,st  ,paul's2 and if a      
similar apparatus were placed on the top
 of each  steeple1 with a man to work it
 during the day1 it might be  possible  
to diminish the expense of the two-penny
 post1 and make  deliveries every half  
hour over the greater part of the       
metropolis4    #ccg4 ,the power of      
steam1 however1 bids fair almost to     
rival  the velocity of these            
contrivances2 and the fitness of its    
application to the purposes of          
conveyance1 particularly where  great   
rapidity is required1 begins now to be  
generally admitted4  ,the following     
extract from the ,report of the         
,committee of the  ,house of ,commons on
 steamcarriages1 explains clearly its   
various  advantages3    ,perhaps one of 
the principal advantages resulting from 
the use of  steam1 will be1 that it may 
be employed as cheaply at a quick as  at

 a slow rate2 'this is one of the       
advantages over horse labour4  which    
becomes more and more expensive as the  
speed is increased4  ,there is every    
reason to expect1 that in the end the   
rate of  travelling by steam will be    
much quicker than the utmost speed of   
travelling by horses2 in short1 the     
safety to travellers will  become the   
limit to speed4' ,in horse-draught the  
opposite result  takes place2 'in all   
cases horses lose power of draught in a 
much  greater proportion than they gain 
speed1 and hence the work they  do      
becomes more expensive as they go       
quicker4'    ,without increase of cost1 
then1 we shall obtain a power which     
will insure a rapidity of internal      
communication far beyond the  utmost    
speed of horses in draught2 and although
 the performance  of these carriages may
 not have hitherto attained this point1 
when once it has been established1 that 
at equal speed we can use  steam more   
cheaply in draught than horses1 we may  

fairly  anticipate that every day's     
increased experience in the  management 
of the engines1 will induce greater     
skill1 greater  confidence1 and greater 
speed4    ,the cheapness of the         
conveyance will probably be1 for some   
time1 a secondary consideration4 ,if1 at
 present1 it can be used  as cheaply as 
horse power1 the competition with the   
former modes  of conveyance will first  
take place as to speed4 ,when once the  
superiority of steam-carriages shall    
have been fully established1            
competition will induce economy in the  
cost of working them4 ,the  evidence1   
however1 of ,mr ,macneill1 shewing the  
greater  efficiency1 with diminished    
expenditure of fuel1 by locomotive      
engines on railways1 convinces the      
committee1 that experience  will soon   
teach a better construction of the      
engines1 and a less  costly mode of     
generating the requisite supply of      
steam4    ,nor are the advantages of    
steam-power confined to the greater     

velocity attained1 or to its greater    
cheapness than  horse-draught4 ,in the  
latter1 danger is increased1 in as large
 a  proportion as expense1 by greater   
speed4 ,in steam-power1 on the          
contrary1 'there is no danger of being  
run away with1 and that of  being       
overturned is greatly diminished4 ,it is
 difficult to  control four such horses 
as can draw a heavy carriage ten miles  
per hour1 in case they are frightened1  
or choose to run away2 and  for quick   
travelling they must be kept in that    
state of courage1  that they are always 
inclined for running away1 particularly 
down  hills1 and at sharp turns of the  
road4 ,in steam1 however1 there  is     
little corresponding danger1 being      
perfectly controllable1 and  capable of 
exerting its power in reverse in going  
down hills41  ,every witness examined   
has given the fullest and most          
satisfactory evidence of the perfect    
control which the conductor  has over   
the movement of the carriage4 ,with the 

slightest  exertion it can be stopped or
 turned1 under circumstances where      
horses would be totally unmanageable4   
#cch4 ,another instance may be mentioned
 in which the object to  be obtained is 
so important1 that although it might be 
rarely  wanted1 yet machinery for that  
purpose would justify considerable      
expense4 ,a vessel to contain men1 and  
to be navigated at some  distance below 
the surface of the sea1 would1 in many  
circumstances1 be almost invaluable4    
,such a vessel1 evidently1  could not be
 propelled by any engine requiring the  
aid of fire4  ,if1 however1 by          
condensing air into a liquid1 and       
carrying it in  that state1 a propelling
 power could be procured sufficient for 
moving the vessel through a considerable
 space1 the expense would  scarcely     
render its occasional employment        
impossible47#c997    #cci4 ,slide of    
,alpnach4 ,amongst the forests which    
flank many  of the lofty mountains of   
,switzerland1 some of the finest timber 

is found in positions almost            
inaccessible4 ,the expense of roads1    
even if it were possible to make them in
 such situations1 would  prevent the    
inhabitants from deriving any advantages
 from these  almost inexhaustible       
supplies4 ,placed by nature at a        
considerable  elevation above the spot  
at which they can be made use of1 they  
are precisely in fit circumstances for  
the application of  machinery to their  
removal2 and the inhabitants avail      
themselves  of the force of gravity to  
relieve them from some portion of this  
labour4 ,the inclined planes which they 
have established in  various forests1 by
 which the timber has been sent down to 
the  water courses1 have excited the    
admiration of every traveller2  and in  
addition to the merit of simplicity1 the
 construction  these slides requires    
scarcely anything beyond the material   
which  grows upon the spot4    ,of all  
these specimens of carpentry1 the ,slide
 of ,alpnach was  the most considerable1

 from its great length1 and from the    
almost  inaccessible position from which
 it descended4 ,the following  account  
of it is taken from ,gilbert's ,annalen1
 #ahai1 which is  translated in the     
second volume of ,brewster's ,journal3  
,for many centuries1 the rugged flanks  
and the deep gorges of  ,mount ,pilatus 
were covered with impenetrable forests2 
which were  permitted to grow and to    
perish1 without being of the least      
utility to man1 till a foreigner1 who   
had been conducted into  their wild     
recesses in the pursuit of the chamois1 
directed the  attention of several      
,swiss gentlemen to the extent and      
superiority of the timber4 ,the most    
skilful individuals1 however1           
considered it quite impracticable to    
avail themselves of such  inaccessible  
stores4 ,it was not till the end of     
#ahaf1 that ,m4  ,rupp1 and three ,swiss
 gentlemen1 entertaining more sanguine  
hopes1 purchased a certain extent of the
 forests1 and began the  construction of

 the slide1 which was completed in the  
spring of  #ahah4    ,the ,slide of     
,alpnach is formed entirely of about    
#be1jjj large  pine trees1 deprived of  
their bark1 and united together in a    
very  ingenious manner1 without the aid 
of iron4 ,it occupied about #afj        
workmen during eighteen months1 and cost
 nearly #ajj1jjj francs1  or ,l#d1bej4  
,it is about three leagues1 or #dd1jjj  
,english feet  long1 and terminates in  
the ,lake of ,lucerne4 ,it has the form 
of a  trough1 about six feet broad1 and 
from three to six feet deep4  ,its      
bottom is formed of three trees1 the    
middle one of which has  a groove cut   
out in the direction of its length1 for 
receiving  small rills of water1 which  
are conducted into it from various      
places1 for the purpose of diminishing  
the friction4 ,the whole of  the slide  
is sustained by about #b1jjj supports2  
and in many  places it is attached1 in a
 very ingenious manner1 to the rugged   
precipices of granite4    ,the direction

 of the slide is sometimes straight1 and
  sometimes zig-zag1 with an inclination
 of from #aj degrees to #ah  degrees4   
,it is often carried along the sides of 
hills and the  flanks of precipitous    
rocks1 and sometimes passes over their  
summits4 ,occasionally it goes under    
ground1 and at other times it  is       
conducted over the deep gorges by       
scaffoldings #abj feet in  height4      
,the boldness which characterizes this  
work1 the sagacity and  skill displayed 
in all its arrangements1 have excited   
the wonder  of every person who has seen
 it4 ,before any step could be taken  in
 its erection1 it was necessary to cut  
several thousand trees  to obtain a     
passage through the impenetrable        
thickets4 ,all these  difficulties1     
however1 were surmounted1 and the       
engineer had at  last the satisfaction  
of seeing the trees descend from the    
mountain with the rapidity of lightning4
 ,the larger pines1 which  were about a 
hundred feet long1 and ten inches thick 

at their  smaller extremity1 ran through
 the space of three leagues1 or  nearly 
nine miles1 in two minutes and a half1  
and during their  descent1 they appeared
 to be only a few feet in length4       
,the arrangements for this part of the  
operation were  extremely simple4 ,from 
the lower end of the slide to the upper 
end1 where the trees were introduced1   
workmen were posted at  regular         
distances1 and as soon as everything was
 ready1 the  workman at the lower end of
 the slide cried out to the one above   
him1 ',lachez' 7let go74 ,the cry was   
repeated from one to another4  and      
reached the top of the slide in three   
minutes4 ,the workmen at  the top of the
 slide then cried out to the one below  
him1 ',il  vient' 7it comes71 and the   
tree was instantly launched down the    
slide1 preceded by the cry which was    
repeated from post to post4  ,as soon as
 the tree had reached the bottom1 and   
plunged into the  lake1 the cry of      
lachez was repeated as before1 and a new

 tree  was launched in a similar manner4
 ,by these means a tree descended  every
 five or six minutes1 provided no       
accident happened to the  slide1 which  
sometimes took place1 but which was     
instantly  repaired when it did4    ,in 
order to shew the enormous force which  
the trees acquired  from the great      
velocity of their descent1 ,m4 ,rupp    
made  arrangements for causing some of  
the trees to spring from the  slide4    
,they penetrated by their thickest      
extremities no less than  from eighteen 
to twenty-four feet into the earth2 and 
one of the  trees having by accident    
struck against another1 it instantly    
cleft it through its whole length1 as if
 it had been struck by  lightning4      
,after the trees had descended the      
slide1 they were collected  into rafts  
upon the lake1 and conducted to         
,lucerne4 ,from thence  they descended  
the ,reuss1 then the ,aar to near       
,brugg1 afterwards  to ,waldshut by the 
,rhine1 then to ,basle1 and even to the 

sea when  it was necessary4    ,it is to
 be regretted that this magnificent     
structure no  longer exists1 and that   
scarcely a trace of it is to be seen    
upon  the flanks of ,mount ,pilatus4    
,political circumstances having taken   
away the principal source of demand for 
the timber1 and no other  market having 
been found1 the operation of cutting and
  transporting the trees necessarily    
ceased47#d997    ,professor ,playfair1  
who visited this singular work1 states1 
that six minutes was the usual time     
occupied in the descent of a  tree2 but 
that in wet weather1 it reached the lake
 in three  minutes4    ,,notes3    #a4  
,the author of these pages1 with one of 
his friends1 was  recently induced to   
visit this most interesting             
establishment1  after midnight1 during  
the progress of a very important debate4
  ,the place was illuminated with gas1  
and was light as the day3  there was    
neither noise nor bustle2 and the       
visitors were  received with such calm  

and polite attention1 that they did not1
  until afterwards1 become sensible of  
the inconvenience which such  intruders1
 at a moment of the greatest pressure1  
must occasion1  nor reflect tha the     
tranquility which they admired1 was the 
result of intense and regulated         
occupation4 ,but the effect of  such    
checks in the current of business will  
appear on  recollecting that1 as four   
thousand newspapers are printed off on  
one side within the hour1 every minute  
is attended with a loss of  sixty-six   
impressions4 ,the quarter of an hour1   
therefore1 which  the stranger may think
 it not unreasonable to claim for the   
gratification of his curiosity 7and to  
him this time is but a  moment71 may    
cause a failure in the delivery of a    
thousand  copies1 and disappoint a      
proportionate number of expectant       
readers1 in some of our distant towns1  
to which the morning  papers are        
dispatched by the earliest and most     
rapid conveyances  of each day4    ,this

 note is inserted with the further and  
more general  purpose of calling the    
attention of those1 especially          
foreigners1  who are desirous of        
inspecting our larger manufactories1 to 
the  chief cause of the difficulty which
 frequently attends their  introduction4
 ,when the establishment is very        
extensive1 and its  departments         
skilfully arranged1 the exclusion of    
visitors arises1  not from any illiberal
 jealousy1 nor1 generally1 from any     
desire  of concealment1 which would1 in 
most cases1 be absurd1 but from  the    
substantial inconvenience and loss of   
time1 throughout an  entire series of   
well-combined operations1 which must be 
occasioned even by short and causual    
interruptions4    #b4 ,it is true that  
the transport of letters is not the only
  object which this apparatus answers2  
but the transport of  passengers1 which 
is a secondary object1 does in fact put 
a limit  to the velocity of that of the 
letters1 which is the primary one4      

#c4 ,a proposal for such a vessel1 and  
description of its  construction1 by the
 author of this volume1 may be found in 
the  ,encyclopaedia ,metropolitana1     
,art4 ,diving ,bell4    #d4 ,the mines  
of ,bolanos in ,mexico are supplied with
 timber from  the adjacent mountains by 
a slide similar to that of ,alpnach4 ,it
  was constructed by ,m4 ,floresi1 a    
gentleman well acquainted with          
,switzerland4        ,chapter #bi    ,on
 the ,duration of ,machinery    #cdj4   
,the time during which a machine will   
continue to perform  its work           
effectually1 will depend chiefly upon   
the perfection  with which it was       
originally constructed upon the care    
taken to  keep it in proper repair1     
particularly to correct every shake or  
looseness in the axes--and upon the     
smallness of the mass and of  the       
velocity of its moving parts4           
,everything approaching to a  blow1 all 
sudden change of direction1 is          
injurious4 ,engines for  producing      

power1 such as windmills1 water-mills1  
and  steam-engines1 usually last a long 
time47#a997    #cda4 ,many of the       
improvements which have taken place in  
steamengines1 have arisen from an       
improved construction of the  boiler or 
the fireplace4 ,the following table of  
the work done by  steam-engines in      
,cornwall1 whilst it proves the         
importance of  constantly measuring the 
effects of machinery1 shows also the    
gradual advance which has been made in  
the art of constructing  and managing   
those engines4     ,a table of the duty 
performed by steam-engines in ,cornwall1
  shewing the average of the whole for  
each year1 and also the  average duty of
 the best engine in each monthly report 
,years2 ,approximate number of engines  
reported2 ,average duty of  the whole2  
,average duty of the best engines       
#ahac2 #bd2 #ai1def1jjj2 #bf1djj1jjj    
#ahad2 #bi2 #bj4ecd1bcb2 #cb1jjj1jjj    
#ahae2 #ce2 #bj4ebf1afj2 #bh1gjj1jjj    
#ahaf2 #cb2 #bb1ijg1aaj2 #cb1djj1jjj    

#ahag2 #ca2 #bf1ejb1bei2 #da1fjj1jjj    
#ahah2 #cb2 #be1dcc1ghc2 #ci1cjj1jjj    
#ahai2 #cg2 #bf1beb1fbj2 #dj1jjj1jjj    
#ahbj2 #cg2 #bh1gcf1cih2 #da1cjj1jjj    
#ahba2 #ci2 #bh1bbc1chb2 #db1hjj1jjj    
#ahbb2 #de2 #bh1hhg1baf2 #db1ejj4jjj    
#ahbc2 #de2 #bh1aef1afb2 #db1abb1jjj    
#ahbd2 #de2 #bh1cbf1adj2 #dc1ejj1jjj    
#ahbe2 #ej2 #cb1jjj1gda2 #de1djj1jjj    
#ahbf2 #dh2 #cj1dhf1fcj2 #de1bjj1jjj    
#ahbg2 #dg2 #cb1ajj1jjj2 #ei1gjj1jjj    
#ahbh2 #ed2 #cg1ajj1jjj2 #gf1gfc1jjj    
#ahbi2 #eb2 #da1bbj1jjj2 #gf1bcd1cjg    
#ahcj2 #ee2 #dc1cej1jjj2 #ge1hhe1eai    
#ahca2 #ee7b9972 #dd1gjj1jjj2           
#gd1iaa1cfe   #ahcb2 #fj2 #dd1djj1jjj2  
#gi1bid1aad   #ahcc2 #eh2 #df1jjj1jjj2  
#hc1cjf1jib      #cdb4 ,the advantage   
arising from registering the duty done  
by  steamengines in ,cornwall has been  
so great that the proprietors  of one of
 the largest mines1 on which there are  
several engines1  find it good economy  
to employ a man to measure the duty they
  perform every day4 ,this daily report 

is fixed up at a particular  hour1 and  
the enginemen are always in waiting1    
anxious to know  the state of their     
engines4 ,as the general reports are    
made  monthly1 if accident should cause 
a partial stoppage in the flue  of any  
of the boilers1 it might without this   
daily check continue  two or three weeks
 before it could be discovered by a     
falling off  of the duty of the engine4 
,in several of the mines a certain      
amount of duty is assigned to each      
engine2 and if it does more1  the       
proprietors give a premium to the       
engineers according to its  amount4     
,this is called million money1 and is a 
great stimulus to  economy in working   
the engine4    #cdc4 ,machinery for     
producing any commodity in great demand1
  seldom actually wears out2 new        
improvements1 by which the same         
operations can be executed either more  
quickly or better1  generally           
superseding it long before that period  
arrives3 indeed1  to make such an       

improved machine profitable1 it is      
usually  reckoned that in five years it 
ought to have paid itself1 and in  ten  
to be superseded by a better4    ',a    
cotton manufacturer1' says one of the   
witnesses before a  ,committee of the   
,house of ,commons1 'who left           
,manchester seven  years ago1 would be  
driven out of the market by the men who 
are  now living in it1 provided his     
knowledge had not kept pace with  those 
who have been1 during that time1        
constantly profiting by  the progressive
 improvements that have taken place in  
that  period4'    #cdd4 ,the effect of  
improvements in machinery1 seems        
incidentally to increase production1    
through a cause which may be  thus      
explained4 ,a manufacturer making the   
usual profit upon his  capital1 invested
 in looms or other machines in perfect  
condition1 the market price of making   
each of which is a hundred  pounds1     
invents some improvement4 ,but this is  
of such a nature1  that it cannot be    

adapted to his present engines4 ,he     
finds upon  calculation1 that at the    
rate at which he can dispose of his     
manufactured produce1 each new engine   
would repay the cost of its  making1    
together with the ordinary profit of    
capital1 in three  years3 he also       
concludes from his experience of the    
trade1 that  the improvement he is about
 to make1 will not be generally  adopted
 by other manufacturers before that     
time4 ,on these  considerations1 it is  
clearly his interest to sell his present
  engines1 even at half-price1 and      
construct new ones on the  improved     
principle4 ,but the purchaser who gives 
only fifty pounds  for the old engines1 
has not so large a fixed capital        
invested in  his factory1 as the person 
from whom he purchased them2 and as he  
produces the same quantity of the       
manufactured article1 his  profits will 
be larger4 ,hence1 the price of the     
commodity will  fall1 not only in       
consequence of the cheaper production by

 the  new machines1 but also by the more
 profitable working of the old1  thus   
purchased at a reduced price4 ,this     
change1 however1 can be  only transient2
 for a time will arrive when the old    
machinery1  although in good repair1    
must become worthless4 ,the improvement 
which took place not long ago in frames 
for making patent-net was  so great1    
that a machine1 in good repair1 which   
had cost ,l#abjj1  sold a few years     
after for ,l#fj4 ,during the great      
speculations in  that trade1 the        
improvements succeeded each other so    
rapidly1  that machines which had never 
been finished were abandoned in the     
hands of their makers1 because new      
improvements had superseded  their      
utility4    #cde4 ,the durability of    
watches1 when well made1 is very        
remarkable4 ,one was produced1 in going 
order1 before a committee  of the ,house
 of ,commons to enquire into the watch  
trade1 which  was made in the year      
#affj2 and there are many of ancient    

date1 in  the possession of the         
,clockmaker's ,company1 which are still 
actually kept going4 ,the number of     
watches manufactured for home           
consumption was1 in the year #agih1     
about #ej1jjj annually4 ,if this  supply
 was for ,great ,britain only1 it was   
consumed by about ten  and a half       
millions of persons4    #cdf4 ,machines 
are1 in some trades1 let out to hire1   
and a  certain sum is paid for their    
use2 in the manner of rent4 ,this is    
the case amongst the framework knitters3
 and ,mr ,henson1 in  speaking of the   
rate of payment for the use of their    
frames1  states1 that the proprietor    
receives such a rent that1 besides      
paying the full interest for his        
capital1 he clears the value of  his    
frame in nine years4 ,when the rapidity 
with which  improvements succeed each   
other is considered1 this rent does not 
appear exorbitant4 ,some of these frames
 have been worked for  thirteen years   
with little or no repair4 ,but          

circumstances  occasionally arise which 
throw them out of employment1 either    
temporarily or permanently4 ,some years 
since1 an article was  introduced called
 cut-up work1 by which the price of     
stocking-frames was greatly             
deteriorated4 ,from the evidence of ,mr 
,j4 ,rawson1 it appears that1 in        
consequence of this change in the       
nature of the work1 each frame could do 
the work of two1 and many  stocking     
frames were thrown out of employment1   
and their value  reduced full           
three-fourths47#c997    ,this           
information is of great importance1 if  
the numbers here  given are nearly      
correct1 and if no other causes         
intervened to  diminish the price of    
frames2 for it shews the numerical      
connection between the increased        
production of those machines and  their 
diminished value4    #cdg4 ,the great   
importance of simplifying all           
transactions  between masters and       
workmen1 and of dispassionately         

discussing  with the latter the         
influence of any proposed regulations   
connected with their trade1 is well     
examplified by a mistake into  which    
both parties unintentionally fell1 and  
which was productive  of very great     
misery in the lace trade4 ,its history  
is so well  told by ,william ,allen1 a  
framework knitter1 who was a party to   
it1 that an extract from his evidence1  
as given before the  ,framework         
,knitters' ,committee of #ahab1 will    
best explain it4    ,i beg to say a few 
words respecting the frame rent2 the    
rent  paid for lace frames1 until the   
year #ahje1 was #as4 #f;d4 a frame  per 
week2 there then was not any very great 
inducement for  persons to buy frames   
and let them out by the hire1 who did   
not  belong to the trade2 at that time  
an attempt was made1 by one or  two     
houses1 to reduce the prices paid to the
 workmen1 in  consequence of a dispute  
between these two houses and another    
great house3 some little difference     

being paid in the price  amongst the    
respective houses1 ,i was one chosen by 
the workmen to  try if we could not     
remedy the impending evil3 we consulted 
the  respective parties1 and found them 
inflexible2 these two houses  that were 
about to reduce the prices1 said that   
they would either  immediately reduce   
the price of making net1 or they would  
increase the frame rent3 the difference 
to the workmen was  considerable1       
between the one and the other2 they     
would suffer  less1 in the immediate    
operation of the thing1 by having the   
rent  advanced1 than the price of making
 net reduced4 ,they chose at  that time1
 as they thought1 the lesser evil1 but  
it has turned  out to be otherwise2 for1
 immediately as the rent was raised upon
  the percentage laid out in frames1 it 
induced almost every  person1 who had   
got a little money1 to lay it out in the
 purchase  of frames2 these frames were 
placed in the hands of men who could    
get work for them at the warehouses2    

they were generally  constrained to pay 
an enormous rent1 and then they were    
compelled1 most likely1 to buy of the   
persons that let them the  frames1 their
 butcher's meat1 their grocery1 or their
 clothing3  the encumbrance of these    
frames became entailed upon them3 if any
  deadness took place in the work they  
must take it at a very  reduced price1  
for fear of the consequences that would 
fall upon  them from the person who     
bought the frame3 thus the evil has been
  daily increasing1 till1 in conjunction
 with the other evils crept  into the   
trade1 they have almost crushed it to   
atoms4    #cdh4 ,the evil of not        
assigning fairly to each tool1 or each  
article produced1 its proportionate     
value1 or even of not having  a         
perfectly distinct1 simple1 and definite
 agreement between a  master and his    
workmen1 is very considerable4 ,workmen 
find it  difficult in such cases to know
 the probable produce of their  labour2 
and both parties are often led to adopt 

arrangements1  which1 had they been well
 examined1 would have been rejected as  
equally at variance in the results with 
the true interests of  both4    #cdi4   
,at ,birmingham1 stamps and dies1 and   
presses for a great  variety of         
articles1 are let out3 they are         
generally made by men  possessing small 
capital1 and are rented by workmen4     
,power also  is rented at the same      
place4 ,steam-engines are erected in    
large  buildings containing a variety of
 rooms1 in which each person may  hire  
one1 two1 or any other amount of        
horsepower1 as his  occupation may      
require4 ,if any mode could be          
discovered of  transmitting power1      
without much loss from friction1 to     
considerable distances1 and at the same 
time of registering the  quantity made  
use of at any particular point1 a       
considerable  change would probably take
 place in many departments of the       
present system of manufacturing4 ,a few 
central engines to produce  power1 might

 then be erected in our great towns1 and
 each  workman1 hiring a quantity of    
power sufficient for his purpose1  might
 have it conveyed into his own house2   
and thus a transition  might in some    
instances be effected1 if it should be  
found more  profitable1 back again from 
the system of great factories to that   
of domestic manufacture4    #cej4 ,the  
transmission of water through a series  
of pipes1  might be employed for the    
distribution of power1 but the friction 
would consume a considerable portion4   
,another method has been  employed in   
some instances1 and is practised at the 
,mint4 ,it  consists in exhausting the  
air from a large vessel by means of a   
steam-engine4 ,this vessel is connected 
by pipes1 with a small  piston which    
drives each coining press2 and1 on      
opening a valve1  the pressure of the   
external air forces in the piston4 ,this
 air  is then admitted to the general   
reservoir1 and pumped out by the        
engine4 ,the condensation of air might  

be employed for the same  purpose2 but  
there are some unexplained facts        
relating to elastic  fluids1 which      
require further observations and        
experiment before  they can be used for 
the conveyance of power to any          
considerable  distance4 ,it has been    
found1 for instance1 in attempting to   
blow  a furnace by means of a powerful  
water-wheel driving air through  a      
cast-iron pipe of above a mile in       
length1 that scarcely any  sensible     
effect was produced at the opposite     
extremity4 ,in one  instance1 some      
accidental obstruction being suspected1 
a cat put  in at one end found its way  
out without injury at the other1 thus   
proving that the phenomenon did not     
depend on interruption within  the pipe4
    #cea4 ,the most portable form in    
which power can be condensed  is1       
perhaps1 by the liquefaction of the     
gases4 ,it is known that1  under        
considerable pressure1 several of these 
become liquid at  ordinary temperatures2

 carbonic acid1 for example1 is reduced 
to  a liquid state by a pressure of     
sixty atmospheres4 ,one of the          
advantages attending the use of these   
fluids1 would be that the  pressure     
exerted by them would remain constant   
until the last  drop of liquid had      
assumed the form of gas4 ,if either of  
the  elements of common air should be   
found to be capable of reduction  to a  
liquid state before it unites into a    
corrosive fluid with  the other         
ingredient1 then we shall possess a     
ready means of  conveying power in any  
quantity and to any distance4 ,hydrogen 
probably will require the strongest     
compressing force to render  it liquid1 
and may1 therefore1 possibly be applied 
where still  greater condensation of    
power is wanted4 ,in all these cases the
  condensed gases may be looked upon as 
springs of enormous force1  which have  
been wound up by the exertion of power1 
and which will  deliver the whole of it 
back again when required4 ,these springs

  of nature differ in some respects from
 the steel springs formed  by our art2  
for in the compression of the natural   
springs a vast  quantity of latent heat 
is forced out1 and in their return to   
the  state of gas an equal quantity is  
absorbed4 ,may not this very  property  
be employed with advantage in their     
application8    ,part of the mechanical 
difficulty to be overcome in            
constructing apparatus connected with   
liquefied gases1 will  consist in the   
structure of the valves and packing     
necessary to  retain the fluids under   
the great pressure to which they must be
  submitted4 ,the effect of heat on     
these gases has not yet been            
sufficiently tried1 to lead us to any   
very precise notions of the  additional 
power which its application to them will
 supply4    ,the elasticity of air is   
sometimes employed as a spring1  instead
 of steel3 in one of the large          
printing-machines in ,london  the       
momentum of a considerable mass of      

matter is destroyed by  making it       
condense the air included in a cylinder1
 by means of a  piston against which it 
impinges4    #ceb4 ,the effect of       
competition in cheapening articles of   
manufacture sometimes operates in       
rendering them less durable4  ,when such
 articles are conveyed to a distance for
 consumption1 if  they are broken1 it   
often happens1 from the price of labour 
being  higher where they are used than  
where they were made1 that it is  more  
expensive to mend the old article1 than 
to purchase a new4  ,such is usually the
 case1 in great cities1 with some of the
  commoner locks1 with hinges1 and with 
a variety of articles of  hardware4     
,,notes3    #a4 ,the amount of          
obstructions arising from the casual    
fixing of  trees in the bottom of the   
river1 may be estimated from the        
proportion of steamboats destroyed by   
running upon them1 ,the  subjoined      
statement is taken from the ,american   
,almanack for #ahcb3      ',between the 

years #ahaa and #ahca1 three hundred and
  forty-eight steamboats were built on  
the ,mississippi and its  tributary     
streams ,during that period a hundred   
and fifty were  lost or worn out1  ',of 
this hundred and fifty3                 
worn out            #fc                 
lost by snags       #cf                 
burnt               #ad                 
lost by collision    #c              by 
accidents                  not          
ascertained #cd  ,thirty-six1 or nearly 
one fourth1 being destroyed by          
accidental  obstructions4    ,snag is   
the name given in ,america to trees     
which stand nearly  upright in the      
stream1 with their roots fixed at the   
bottom4    ,it is usual to divide off at
 the bow of the steamboats a  watertight
 chamber1 in order that when a hole is  
made in it by  running against the      
snags1 the water may not enter the rest 
of  the vessel and sink it instantly4   
#b4 ,this passage is not printed in     
italics in the original1 but it  has    

been thus marked in the above extract1  
from its importance1  and from the      
conviction that the most extended       
discussion will  afford additional      
evidence of its truth4    #c4 ,report   
from the ,committee of the ,house of    
,commons on the  ,framework ,knitter's  
,petition1 ,april1 #ahai4               
,chapter #cj    ,on ,combinations       
,amongst ,masters or ,workmen against   
,each ,other    #cec4 ,there exist      
amongst the workmen of almost all       
classes1  certain rules or laws which   
govern their actions towards each       
other1 and towards their employers4     
,but1 besides these general  principles1
 there are frequently others peculiar to
 each factory1  which have derived their
 origin1 in many instances1 from the    
mutual convenience of the parties       
engaged in them4 ,such rules are  little
 known except to those actually pursuing
 the several  trades2 and1 as it is of  
importance that their advantages and    
disadvantages should be canvassed1 we   

shall offer a few remarks  upon some of 
them4    #ced4 ,the principles by which 
such laws should be tried are1          
,first4 ,that they conduce to the       
general benefit of all the  persons     
employed4    ,secondly4 ,that they      
prevent fraud4    ,thirdly4 ,that they  
interfere as little as possible with the
  free agency of each individual4       
#cee4 ,it is usual in many workshops1   
that1 on the first  entrance of a new   
journeyman1 he shall pay a small fine to
 the  rest of the men4 ,it is clearly   
unjust to insist upon this  payment2 and
 when it is spent in drinking1 which is1
  unfortunately1 too often the case1 it 
is injurious4 ,the reason  assigned for 
the demand is1 that the newcomer will   
require some  instruction in the habits 
of the shop1 and in the places of the   
different tools1 and will thus waste the
 time of some of his  companions until  
he is instructed4 ,if this fine were    
added to a  fund1 managed by the workmen
 themselves1 and either divided at      

given periods1 or reserved for their    
relief in sickness1 it would  be less   
objectionable1 since its tendency would 
be to check the  too frequent change of 
men from one shop to another4 ,but it   
ought1 at all events1 not to be         
compulsory1 and the advantages to  be   
derived from the fund to which the      
workman is invited to  subscribe1 ought 
to be his sole inducement to contribute4
    #cef4 ,in many workshops1 the       
workmen1 although employed on  totally  
different parts of the objects          
manufactured1 are yet  dependent1 in    
some measure1 upon each other4 ,thus a  
single smith  may be able to forge1 in  
one day1 work enough to keep four or    
five turners employed during the next4  
,if1 from idleness or  intemperance1 the
 smith neglects his work1 and does not  
furnish  the usual supply1 the turners  
7supposing them to be paid by the       
piece71 will have their time partly     
unoccupied1 and their gains             
consequently diminished4 ,it is         

reasonable1 in such circumstances1  that
 a fine should be levied on the         
delinquent2 but it is  desirable that   
the master should have concurred with   
his workmen  in establishing such a     
rule1 and that it should be shown to    
each  individual previously to his      
engagement2 and it is very desirable    
that such fine should not be spent in   
drinking4    #ceg4 ,in some             
establishments1 it is customary for the 
master  to give a small gratuity        
whenever any workman has exercised a    
remarkable degree of skill1 or has      
economized the material  employed4      
,thus1 in splitting horn into layers for
 lanterns1 one  horn usually furnishes  
from five to eight layers2 but if a     
workman split the horn into ten layers  
or more1 he receives a  pint of ale from
 the master4 ,these premiums should not 
be too  high1 lest the material should  
be wasted in unsuccessful  attempts3 but
 such regulations1 when judiciously     
made1 are  beneficial1 as they tend to  

produce skill amongst the workmen1      
profit to the masters1 and diminished   
cost to the consumers4    #ceh4 ,in some
 few factories1 in which the men are    
paid by the  piece1 it is usual1 when   
any portion of work1 delivered in by a  
workman1 is rejected by the master on   
account of its being badly  executed1 to
 fine the delinquent4 ,such a practice  
tends to remedy  one of the evils       
attendant upon that mode of payment1 and
 greatly  assists the master1 since his 
own judgement is thus supported by      
competent and unprejudiced judges4      
#cei4 ,societies exist amongst some of  
the larger bodies of  workmen1 and      
others have been formed by the masters  
engaged in  the same branches of trade4 
,these associations have different      
objects in view2 but it is very         
desirable that their effects  should be 
well understood by the individuals who  
compose them2  and that the advantages  
arising from them1 which are certainly  
great1 should be separated as much as   

possible from the evils  which they     
have1 unfortunately1 too frequently     
introduced4  ,associations of workmen   
and of masters may1 with advantage1     
agree  upon rules to be observed by both
 parties1 in estimating the             
proportionate value of different kinds  
of work executed in their  trade1 in    
order that time may be saved1 and       
disputes be  prevented4 ,they may also  
be most usefully employed in acquiring  
accurate information as to the number of
 persons working in the  various        
departments of any manufacture1 their   
rate of wages1 the  number of machines  
in use1 and other statistical details4  
,information of this nature is highly   
valuable1 both for the  guidance of the 
parties who are themselves most         
interested1 and  to enable them1 upon   
any application to government for       
assistance1 or with a view to           
legislative enactments1 to supply  those
 details1 without which the propriety of
 any proposed  measure cannot be duly   

estimated4 ,such details may be         
collected  by men actually engaged in   
any branch of trade1 at a much smaller  
expense of time1 than by persons less   
acquainted with1 and less  interested in
 it4    #cfj4 ,one of the most          
legitimate and most important objects of
  such associations as we have just     
mentioned1 is to agree upon  ready and  
certain modes of measuring the quantity 
of work done by  the workmen4 ,for a    
long time a difficulty upon this point  
existed  in the lace trade1 which was   
justly complained of by the men as a    
serious grievance2 but the introduction 
of the rack1 which counts  the number of
 holes in the length of the piece1 has  
entirely put  an end to the most fertile
 cause of disputes4 ,this invention was 
adverted to by the ,committee of #ahab1 
and a hope was expressed1  in their     
report1 that the same contrivance would 
be applied to  stocking-frames4 ,it     
would1 indeed1 be of great mutual       
advantage  to the industrious workman1  

and to the master manufacturer in  every
 trade1 if the machines employed in it  
could register the  quantity of work    
which they perform1 in the same manner  
as a  steam-engine does the number of   
strokes it makes4 ,the  introduction of 
such contrivances gives a greater       
stimulus to  honest industry than can   
readily be imagined1 and removes one of 
the sources of disagreement between     
parties1 whose real interests  must     
always suffer by any estrangement       
between them4    #cfa4 ,the effects     
arising from combinations amongst the   
workmen1 are almost always injurious to 
the parties themselves4  ,there are     
numerous instances1 in which the public 
suffer by  increased price at the       
moment1 but are ultimately gainers from 
the permanent reduction which results2  
whilst1 on the other hand1  the         
improvements which are often made in    
machinery in consequence  of 'a strike' 
amongst the workmen1 most frequently do 
injury1 of  greater or less duration1 to

 that particular class which gave  rise 
to them4 ,as the injury to the men and  
to their families is  almost always more
 serious than that which affects their  
employers1 it is of the utmost          
importance to the comfort and  happiness
 of the former class1 that they should  
themselves  entertain sound views upon  
this question4 ,for this purpose a few  
illustrations of the principle which is 
here maintained1 will  probably have    
greater weight than any reasoning of a  
more general  nature1 though drawn from 
admitted principles of political        
economy4 ,such instances will1 moreover1
 present the advantage of  appealing to 
facts known to many individuals of those
 classes for  whose benefit these       
reflections are intended4    #cfb4      
,there is a process in the manufacture  
of gun barrels for  making what1 in the 
language of the trade1 are called       
skelps4 ,the  skelp is a piece or bar of
 iron1 about three feet long1 and four  
inches wide1 but thicker and broader at 

one end than at the  other2 and the     
barrel of a musket is formed by forging 
out such  pieces to the proper          
dimensions1 and then folding or bending 
them  into a cylindrical form1 until the
 edges overlap1 so that they  can be    
welded together4    ,about twenty years 
ago1 the workmen1 employed at a very    
extensive factory in forging these      
skelps out of bar-iron1  'struck' for an
 advance of wages2 and as their demands 
were very  exorbitant1 they were not    
immediately complied with4 ,in the      
meantime1 the superintendent of the     
establishment directed his  attention to
 the subject2 and it occurred to him1   
that if the  circumference of the       
rollers1 between which the bar-iron was 
rolled1 were to be made equal to the    
length of a skelp1 or of a  musket      
barrel1 and if also the groove in which 
the iron was  compressed1 instead of    
being of the same width and depth       
throughout1 were cut gradually deeper   
and wider from a point on  the rollers1 

until it returned to the same point1    
then the  bar-iron passing between such 
rollers1 instead of being uniform  in   
width and thickness1 would have the form
 of a skelp4 ,on making  the trial1 it  
was found to succeed perfectly2 a great 
reduction  of human labour was effected 
by the process1 and the workmen who  had
 acquired peculiar skill in performing  
it ceased to derive any  advantage from 
their dexterity4    #cfc4 ,it is        
somewhat singular that another and a    
still more  remarkable instance of the  
effect of combination amongst workmen1  
should have occurred but a few years    
since in the very same  trade4 ,the     
process of welding the skelps1 so as to 
convert them  into gun barrels1 required
 much skill1 and after the termination  
of the war1 the demand for muskets      
having greatly diminished1 the  number  
of persons employed in making them was  
very much reduced4  ,this circumstance  
rendered combination more easy2 and upon
 one  occasion1 when a contract had been

 entered into for a  considerable supply
 to be delivered on a fixed day1 the men
 all  struck for such an advance of     
wages as would have caused the          
completion of the contract to be        
attended with a very heavy loss4    ,in 
this difficulty1 the contractors        
resorted to a mode of  welding the gun  
barrel1 for which a patent had been     
taken out by  one of themselves some    
years before this event4 ,the plan had  
not  then succeeded so well as to come  
into general use1 in  consequence of the
 cheapness of the usual mode of welding 
by hand  labour1 combined with some     
other difficulties with which the       
patentee had to contend4 ,but the       
stimulus produced by the  combination of
 the workmen1 induced him to make new   
trials1 and  he was enabled to introduce
 such a facility in welding gun  barrels
 by rollers1 and such perfection in the 
work itself1 that1  in all probability1 
very few will in future be welded by    
hand  labour4    ,this new process      

consisted in folding a bar of iron1     
about a  foot long1 into the form of a  
cylinder1 with the edges a little       
overlapping4 ,it was then placed in a   
furnace1 and being taken out  when      
raised to a welding heat1 a triblet1 or 
cylinder of iron1  was placed in it1 and
 the whole was passed quickly through a 
pair  of rollers4 ,the effect of this   
was1 that the welding was  performed at 
a single heating1 and the remainder of  
the  elongation necessary for extending 
the skelps to the length of  the musket 
barrel1 was performed in a similar      
manner1 but at a  lower temperature4    
,the workmen who had combined were1 of  
course1  no longer wanted1 and instead  
of benefiting themselves by their       
combination1 they were reduced          
permanently1 by this improvement  in the
 art1 to a considerably lower rate of   
wages3 for as the  process of welding   
gun barrels by hand required peculiar   
skill  and considerable experience1 they
 had hitherto been in the habit  of     

earning much higher wages than other    
workmen of their class4  ,on the other  
hand1 the new method of welding was far 
less  injurious to the texture of the   
iron1 which was now exposed only  once1 
instead of three or four times1 to the  
welding heat1 so  that the public       
derived advantage from the superiority1 
as well  as from the economy of the     
process4 ,another process has           
subsequently been invented1 applicable  
to the manufacture of a  lighter kind of
 iron tubes1 which can thus be made at a
 price  which renders their employment  
very general4 ,they are now to be  found
 in the shops of all our larger         
ironmongers1 of various  lengths and    
diameters1 with screws cut at each end2 
and are in  constant use for the        
conveyance of gas for lighting1 or of   
water  for warming1 our houses4    #cfd4
 ,similar examples must have presented  
themselves to all  those who are        
familiar with the details of our        
manufactories1 but these are sufficient 

to illustrate one of  the results of    
combinations4 ,it would not1 however1 be
 fair  to push the conclusion deduced   
from these instances to its  extreme    
limit4 ,although it is very apparent1   
that in the two  cases which have been  
stated1 the effects of combination  were
 permanently injurious to the workman1  
by almost  immediately placing him in a 
lower class 7with respect to  his wages7
 than he occupied before2 yet they do   
not prove  that all such combinations   
have this effect4 ,it is quite  evident 
that they have all this tendency1 it is 
also certain  that considerable stimulus
 must be applied to induce a man  to    
contrive a new and expensive process2   
and that in both  these cases1 unless   
the fear of pecuniary loss had acted    
powerfully1 the improvement would not   
have been made4 ,if1  therefore1 the    
workmen had in either case combined for 
only  a small advance of wages1 they    
would1 in all probability1  have been   
successful1 and the public would have   

been  deprived1 for many years1 of the  
inventions to which these  combinations 
gave rise4 ,it must1 however1 be        
observed1 that  the same skill which    
enabled the men to obtain1 after long   
practice1 higher wages than the rest of 
their class1 would  prevent many of them
 from being permanently thrown back into
  the class of ordinary workmen4 ,their 
diminished wages will  continue only    
until they have acquired1 by practice1 a
  facility of execution in some other of
 the more difficult  operations3 but a  
diminution of wages1 even for a year or 
two1 is still a very serious            
inconvenience to any person who  lives  
by his daily exertion4 ,the consequence 
of combination  has then1 in these      
instances1 been1 to the workmen who     
combined--reduction of wages2 to the    
public -reduction of  price2 and to the 
manufacturer increased sale of his      
commodity1 resulting from that          
reduction4    #cfe4 ,it is1 however1    
important to consider the effects of    

combination in another and less obvious 
point of view4 ,the fear  of combination
 amongst the men whom he employs1 will  
have a  tendency to induce the          
manufacturer to conceal from his workmen
  the extent of the orders he may at any
 time have received2 and1  consequently1
 they will always be less acquainted    
with the extent  of the demand for their
 labour than they otherwise might be4   
,this  is injurious to their interests2 
for instead of foreseeing1 by  the      
gradual falling-off in the orders1 the  
approach of a time  when they must be   
unemployed1 and preparing accordingly1  
they are  liable to much more sudden    
changes than those to which they would  
otherwise be exposed4    ,in the        
evidence given by ,mr ,galloway1 the    
engineer1 he  remarks1 that1    ,when   
employers are competent to show their   
men that their  business is steady and  
certain1 and when men find that they are
  likely to have permanent employment1  
they have always better  habits1 and    

more settled notions1 which will make   
them better  men1 and better workmen1   
and will produce great benefits to all  
who are interested in their employment4 
#cff4 ,as the manufacturer1 when he     
makes a contract1 has no  security that 
a combination may not arise amongst the 
workmen1  which may render that contract
 a loss instead of a benefit2  besides  
taking precautions to prevent them from 
becoming  acquainted with it1 he must   
also add to the price at which he  could
 otherwise sell the article1 some small 
increase to cover  the risk of such an  
occurrence4 ,if an establishment consist
 of  several branches which can only be 
carried on jointly1 as1 for  instance1  
of iron mines1 blast furnaces1 and a    
colliery1 in which  there are distinct  
classes of workmen1 it becomes necessary
 to  keep on hand a larger stock of     
materials than would be required1  if it
 were certain that no combinations would
 arise4    ,suppose1 for instance1 the  
colliers were to 'strike' for an        

advance of wages--unless there was a    
stock of coal above ground1  the        
furnaces must be stopped1 and the miners
 also would be thrown  out of employ4   
,now the cost of keeping a stock of iron
 ore1 or of  coals above ground1 is just
 the same as that of keeping in a       
drawer1 unemployed1 its value in money1 
7except1 indeed1 that the  coal suffers 
a small deterioration by exposure to the
 elements74  ,the interest of this sum  
must1 therefore1 be considered as the   
price of an insurance against the risk  
of combination amongst the  workmen2 and
 it must1 so far as it goes1 increase   
the price of  the manufactured article1 
and1 consequently1 limit the demand     
which would otherwise exist for it4 ,but
 every circumstance which  tends to     
limit the demand1 is injurious to the   
workmen2 because  the wider the demand1 
the less it is exposed to fluctuation4  
,the effect to which we have alluded1 is
 by no means a  theoretical conclusion2 
the proprietors of one establishment in 

the iron trade1 within the author's     
knowledge1 think it expedient  always to
 keep above ground a supply of coal for 
six months1  which is1 in that instance1
 equal in value to about ,l#aj1jjj4     
,when  we reflect that the quantity of  
capital throughout the country  thus    
kept unemployed merely from the fear of 
combinations amongst  the workmen1      
might1 under other circumstances1 be    
used for  keeping a larger number at    
work1 the importance of introducing a   
system in which there should exist no   
inducement to combine  becomes          
additionally evident4    #cfg4 ,that    
combinations are1 while they last1      
productive of  serious inconveniences to
 the workmen themselves1 is admitted by 
all parties2 and it is equally true1    
that1 in most cases1 a  successful      
result does not leave them in so good a 
condition as  they were in before 'the  
strike'4 ,the little capital they       
possessed1 which ought to have been     
hoarded with care for days of  illness  

or distress1 is exhausted2 and          
frequently1 in order to  gratify a      
pride1 at the existence of which we     
cannot but rejoice1  even whilst we     
regret its misdirected energy1 they will
 undergo  the severest privations rather
 than return to work at their  former   
wages4 ,with many of the workmen1       
unfortunately1 during  such periods1 bad
 habits are formed which it is very     
difficult to  eradicate2 and1 in all    
those engaged in such transactions1 the 
kinder feelings of the heart are        
chilled1 and passions are called  into  
action which are permanently injurious  
to the happiness of  the individual1 and
 destructive of those sentiments of     
confidence  which it is equally the     
interest of the master manufacturer and 
of his workman to maintain4 ,if any of  
the trade refuse to join in  the strike1
 the majority too frequently forget1 in 
the excitement  of their feelings1 the  
dictates of justice1 and endeavour to   
exert a species of tyranny1 which can   

never be permitted to exist  in a free  
country4 ,in conceding therefore to the 
working classes1  that they have a      
right1 if they consider it expedient1 to
 combine  for the purpose of procuring  
higher wages 7provided always1 that     
they have completed all their existing  
contracts71 it ought ever  to be kept   
before their attention1 that the same   
freedom which  they claim for themselves
 they are bound to allow to others1 who 
may have different views of the         
advantages of combination4 ,every       
effort which reason and kindness can    
dictate1 should be made1 not  merely to 
remove their grievances1 but to satisfy 
their own  reason and feelings1 and to  
show them the consequences which will   
probably result from their conduct3 but 
the strong arm of the  law1 backed1 as  
in such cases it will always be1 by     
public  opinion1 should be instantly and
 unhesitatingly applied1 to  prevent    
them from violating the liberty of a    
portion of their  own1 or of any other  

class of society4    #cfh4 ,amongst the 
evils which ultimately fall heavy on the
  working classes themselves1 when1     
through mistaken views1 they  attempt to
 interfere with their employers in the  
mode of carrying  on their business1 may
 be mentioned the removal of factories  
to  other situations1 where the         
proprietors may be free from the        
improper control of their men4 ,the     
removal of a considerable  number of    
lace frames to the western counties1    
which took place1  in consequence of the
 combinations in ,nottinghamshire1 has  
already been mentioned4 ,other instances
 have occurred1 where  still greater    
injury has been produced by the removal 
of a  portion of the skill and capital  
of the country to a foreign  land4 ,such
 was the case at ,glasgow1 as stated in 
the fifth  ,parliamentary ,report       
respecting ,artizans and ,machinery4    
,one of  the partners in an extensive   
cotton factory1 disgusted by the        
unprincipled conduct of the workmen1    

removed to the state of ,new  ,york1    
where he re-established his machinery1  
and thus afforded1  to rivals already   
formidable to our trade1 at once a      
pattern of  our best machinery1 and an  
example of the most economical methods  
of employing it4    #cfi4 ,when the     
nature of the work is such that it is   
not  possible to remove it1 as happens  
with regard to mines1 the  proprietors  
are more exposed to injury from         
combinations amongst  the workmen3 but  
as the owners are generally possessed of
 a  larger capital1 they generally      
succeed1 if the reduction of wages      
which they propose is really founded on 
the necessity of the  case4    ,an      
extensive combination lately existed    
amongst the colliers  in the north of   
,england1 which unfortunately led1 in   
several  instances1 to acts of violence4
 ,the proprietors of the coalmines  were
 consequently obliged to procure the aid
 of miners from other  parts of ,england
 who were willing to work at the wages  

they could  afford to give2 and the aid 
of the civil1 and in some cases of  the 
military1 power1 was requisite for their
 protection4 ,this  course was persisted
 in during several months1 and the      
question  being1 which party could      
support itself longest on the diminished
  gains1 as it might have readily been  
foreseen1 the proprietors  ultimately   
succeeded4    #cgj4 ,one of the remedies
 employed by the masters against the    
occurrence of combinations1 is to make  
engagements with their men  for long    
periods and to arrange them in such a   
manner1 that these  contracts shall not 
all terminate together4 ,this has been  
done in  some cases at ,sheffield1 and  
in other places4 ,it is attended with   
the inconvenience to the masters that1  
during periods when the  demand for     
their produce is reduced1 they are still
 obliged to  employ the same number of  
workmen4 ,this circumstance1 however1   
frequently obliges the proprietors to   
direct their attention to  improvements 

in their works3 and in one such         
instance1 within the  author's          
knowledge1 a large reservoir was        
deepened1 thus  affording a more        
constant supply to the water-wheel1     
whilst1 at  the same time1 the mud from 
the bottom gave permanent fertility  to 
a piece of land previously almost       
barren4 ,in this case1 not  merely was  
the supply of produce checked1 when a   
glut existed4  but the labour was1 in   
fact1 applied more profitably than it   
would have been in the usual course4    
#cga4 ,a mode of paying the wages of    
workmen in articles which  they consume1
 has been introduced into some of our   
manufacturing  districts1 which has been
 called the truck system4 ,as in many   
instances this has nearly the effect of 
a combination of the  masters against   
the men1 it is a fit subject for        
discussion in  the present chapter3 but 
it should be carefully distinguished    
from another system of a very different 
tendency1 which will be  first          

described4    #cgb4 ,the principal      
necessaries for the support of a workman
  and his family are few in number1 and 
are usually purchased by  him in small  
quantities weekly4 ,upon such           
quantities1 sold by the  retail dealer1 
a large profit is generally made2 and if
 the  article is one whose quality1 like
 that of tea1 is not readily  estimated1
 then a great additional gain is made by
 the retail  dealer selling an inferior 
article4    ,where the number of workmen
 living on the same spot is large1  it  
may be thought desirable that they      
should unite together and  have an      
agent1 to purchase by wholesale those   
articles which are  most in demand1 as  
tea1 suger1 bacon1 etc41 and to retail  
them at  prices1 which will just repay  
the wholesale cost1 together with  the  
expense of the agent who conducts their 
sale4 ,if this be  managed wholly by a  
committee of workmen1 aided perhaps by  
advice  from the master1 and if the     
agent is paid in such a manner as to    

have himself an interest in procuring   
good and reasonable  articles1 it may be
 a benefit to the workmen3 and if the   
plan  succeed in reducing the cost of   
articles of necessity to the men1  it is
 clearly the interest of the master to  
encourage it4 ,the  master may indeed be
 enabled to afford them facilities in   
making  their wholesale purchases2 but  
he ought never to have the least        
interest in1 or any connection with1 the
 profit made by the  articles sold4 ,the
 men1 on the other hand1 who subscribe  
to set  up the shop1 ought not1 in the  
slightest degree1 to be compelled  to   
make their purchases there3 the goodness
 and cheapness of the  article ought to 
be their sole inducements4    ,it may   
perhaps be objected1 that this plan is  
only employing  a portion of the capital
 belonging to the workmen in a retail   
trade2 and that1 without it1 competition
 amongst small  shopkeepers will reduce 
the articles to nearly the same price4  
,this objection would be valid if the   

objects of consumption  required no     
verification2 but combining what has    
been already  stated on that            
subject7#a997 with the present argument1
 the plan  seems liable to no serious   
objections4    #cgc4 ,the truck system  
is entirely different in its effects4   
,the master manufacturer keeps a retail 
shop for articles required  by his men1 
and either pays their wages in goods1 or
 compels them  by express agreement1 or 
less directly1 by unfair means1 to      
expend the whole or a certain part of   
their wages at his shop4 ,if  the       
manufacturer kept this shop merely for  
the purpose of  securing good articles1 
at fair prices1 to his workmen1 and if  
he  offered no inducement to them to    
purchase at his shop1 except the        
superior cheapness of his articles1 it  
would certainly be  advantageous to the 
men4 ,but1 unfortunately1 this is not   
always  the case2 and the temptation to 
the master1 in times of  depression1 to 
reduce in effect the wages which he pays

 7by  increasing the price of articles  
at his shop71 without altering  the     
nominal rate of payment1 is frequently  
too great to be  withstood4 ,if the     
object be solely to procure for his     
workmen  better articles1 it will be    
more effectually accomplished by the    
master confining himself to supplying a 
small capital1 at a  moderate rate of   
interest2 leaving the details to be     
conducted by  a committee of workmen1 in
 conjunction with his own agent1 and    
the books of the shop to be audited     
periodically by the men  themselves4    
#cgd4 ,wherever the workmen are paid in 
goods1 or are compelled  to purchase at 
the master's shop1 much injustice is    
done to them1  and great misery results 
from it4 ,whatever may have been the    
intentions of the master in such cases1 
the real effect is1 to  deceive the     
workman as to the amount he receives in 
exchange for  his labour4 ,now1 the     
principles on which the happiness of    
that  class of society depends1 are     

difficult enough to be understood1  even
 by those who are blessed with far      
better opportunities of  investigating  
them3 and the importance of their being 
well  acquainted with those principles  
which relate to themselves1 is  of more 
vital consequence to workmen1 than to   
many other classes4  ,it is therefore   
highly desirable to assist them in      
comprehending  the position in which    
they are placed1 by rendering all the   
relations in which they stand to each   
other1 and to their  employers1 as      
simple as possible4 ,workmen should be  
paid entirely  in money2 their work     
should be measured by some unbiassed1   
some  unerring piece of mechanism2 the  
time during which they are  employed    
should be defined1 and punctually       
adhered to4 ,the  payments they make to 
their benefit societies should be fixed 
on  such just principles1 as not to     
require extraordinary  contributions4   
,in short1 the object of all who wish to
 promote  their happiness should be1 to 

give them1 in the simplest form1  the   
means of knowing beforehand1 the sum    
they are likely to  acquire by their    
labour1 and the money they will be      
obliged to  expend for their support3   
thus putting before them1 in the        
clearest light1 the certain result of   
persevering industry4    #cge4 ,the     
cruelty which is inflicted on the       
workman by the  payment of his wages in 
goods1 is often very severe4 ,the little
  purchases necessary for the comfort of
 his wife and children1  perhaps the    
medicines he occasionally requires for  
them in  illness1 must all be made      
through the medium of barter2 and he is 
obliged to waste his time in arranging  
an exchange1 in which the  goods which  
he has been compelled to accept for his 
labour are  invariably taken at a lower 
price than that at which his master     
charged them to him4 ,the father of a   
family perhaps1 writhing  under the     
agonies of the toothache1 is obliged to 
make his hasty  bargain with the village

 surgeon1 before he will remove the     
cause  of his pain2 or the disconsolate 
mother is compelled to sacrifice  her   
depreciated goods in exchange for the   
last receptacle of her  departed        
offspring4 ,the subjoined evidence from 
the ,report of the  ,committee of the   
,house of ,commons on ,framework        
,knitters'  ,petitions1 shows that these
 are not exaggerated statements4    ,it 
has been so common in our town to pay   
goods instead of  money1 that a number  
of my neighbours have been obliged to   
pay  articles for articles1 to pay sugar
 for drugs out of the  druggist's shop2 
and others have been obliged to pay     
sugar for  drapery goods1 and such      
things1 and exchange in that way numbers
  of times4 ,i was credibly informed1   
that one person paid half a  pound of   
tenpenny sugar and a penny to have a    
tooth drawn2 and  there is a credible   
neighbour of mine told me1 that he had  
heard  that the sexton had been paid for
 digging a grave with sugar and  tea3   

and before ,i came off1 knowing ,i had  
to give evidence upon  these things1 ,i 
asked this friend to enquire of the     
sexton1  whether this was a fact3 the   
sexton hesitated for a little time1  on 
account of bringing into discredit the  
person who paid these  goods3 however1  
he said at last1 ',i have received these
 articles  repeatedly--,i know these    
things have been paid to a great extent 
in this way4'    ,,notes3    #a4 ,see   
,chapter ,,xv1 p4 #hg        ,chapter   
#ca    ,on ,combinations of ,masters    
against the public    #cgf4 ,a species  
of combination occasionally takes place 
amongst manufacturers against persons   
having patents3 and these  combinations 
are always injurious to the public1 as  
well as  unjust to the inventors4 ,some 
years since1 a gentleman invented a     
machine1 by which modellings and        
carvings were cut in mahogany1  and     
other fine woods4 ,the machine          
resembled1 in some measure1 the         
drilling apparatus employed in          

ornamental lathes2 it produced          
beautiful work at a very moderate       
expense3 but the cabinetmakers  met     
together1 and combined against it1 and  
the patent has  consequently never been 
worked4 ,a similar fate awaited a       
machine  for cutting veneers by means of
 a species of knife4 ,in this  instance1
 the wood could be cut thinner than by  
the circular saw1  and no waste was     
incurred2 but 'the trade' set themselves
 against  it1 and after a heavy expense1
 it was given up4    ,the excuse alleged
 for this kind of combination1 was the  
fear  entertained by the cabinetmakers  
that when the public became  acquainted 
with the article1 the patentee would    
raise the price4    ,similar examples of
 combination seem not to be unfrequent1 
as  appears by the ,report of the       
,committee of the ,house of ,commons on 
,patents for ,inventions1 ,june1 #ahbi4 
,see the evidence of ,mr  ,holdsworth4  
#cgg4 ,there occurs another kind of     
combination against the  public1 with   

which it is difficult to deal4 ,it      
usually ends in a  monopoly1 and the    
public are then left to the discretion  
of the  monopolists not to charge them  
above the growling point--that  is1 not 
to make them pay so much as to induce   
them actually to  combine against the   
imposition4 ,this occurs when two       
companies  supply water or gas to       
consumers by means of pipes laid down   
under the pavement in the street of     
cities3 it may possibly occur  also in  
docks1 canals1 railroads1 etc41 and in  
other cases where  the capital required 
is very large1 and the competition very 
limited4 ,if water or gas companies     
combine1 the public  immediately loses  
all the advantage of competition1 and it
 has  generally happened1 that at the   
end of a period during which they  have 
undersold each other1 the several       
companies have agreed to  divide the    
whole district supplied1 into two or    
more parts1 each  company then removing 
its pipes from all the streets except   

those  in its own portion4 ,this removal
 causes great injury to the  pavement1  
and when the pressure of increased rates
 induces a new  company to start1 the   
same inconvenience is again produced4   
,perhaps one remedy against evils of    
this kind might be1 when a  charter is  
granted to such companies1 to restrict1 
to a certain  amount1 the rate of profit
 on the shares1 and to direct that any  
profits beyond1 shall accumulate for the
 repayment of the  original capital4    
,this has been done in several late     
,acts of  ,parliament establishing      
companies4 ,the maximum rate of profit  
allowed ought to be liberal1 to         
compensate for the risk2 the  public    
ought to have auditors on their part1   
and the accounts  should be annually    
published1 for the purpose of preventing
 the  limitations from being exceeded4  
,it must however be admitted1  that this
 would be an interference with capital1 
which1 if  allowed1 should1 in the      
present state of our knowledge1 be4     

examined with great circumspection in   
each individual case1 until  some       
general principle is established on     
well-admitted grounds4    #cgh4 ,an     
instrument called a gas-meter1 which    
ascertains the  quantity of gas used by 
each consumer1 has been introduced1 and 
furnishes a satisfactory mode of        
determining the payments to be  made by 
individuals to the gas companies4 ,a    
contrivance somewhat  similar in its    
nature1 might be used for the sale of   
water2 but  in that case some public    
inconvenience might be apprehended1 from
  the diminished quantity which would   
then run to waste3 the  streams of water
 running through the sewers in ,london1 
are  largely supplied from this source2 
and if this supply were  diminished1 the
 drainage of the metropolis might be    
injuriously  affected4    #cgi4 ,in the 
north of ,england a powerful combination
 has long  existed among the            
coal-owners1 by which the public has    
suffered  in the payment of increased   

price4 ,the late examination of         
evidence before a ,committee of the     
,house of ,commons1 has  explained its  
mode of operation1 and the ,committee   
have  recommended1 that for the present 
the sale of coal should be left  to the 
competition of other districts4    #chj4
 ,a combination1 of another kind1 exists
 at this moment to  a great extent1 and 
operates upon the price of the very     
pages  which are now communicating      
information respecting it4 ,a subject   
so interesting to every reader1 and     
still more so to every  manufacturer    
ofthe article which the reader consumes1
 deserves an  attentive examination4    
,we have shown in ,chapter ,,xxi1 p4    
#add1 the component parts of  the       
expense of each copy of the present     
work2 and we have seen  that the total  
amount of the cost of its production1   
exclusive of  any payment to the author 
for his labour1 is #bs4 #c;d47#a997     
,another fact1 with which the reader is 
more practically  familiar1 is that he  

has paid1 or is to pay1 to his          
bookseller1  six shillings for the      
volume4 ,let us now examine into the    
distribution of these six shillings1 and
 then1 having the facts  ofthe case     
before us1 we shall be better able to   
judgeofthe  meritsofthe combinationjust 
mentioned1 andtoexplainits effects4     
,distribution of the profits on a six   
shilling book     ,buys at2 ,sells at2  
,profit on capital expended   s4 d42 s4 
d4    ,no4 ,i--,the publisher who       
accounts to the author for every copy   
received2 #c #aj2 #d #b2 #aj per cent   
,no4 ,,ii--,the bookseller who retails  
to the public2 #d #b2 #f #j2 #dd   ,or1 
#d #f2 #f #j2 #cc #a_/c      ,no4 ,i1   
the publisher1 is a bookseller2 he is1  
in fact1 the  author's agent4 ,his      
duties are1 to receive and take charge  
of the  stock1 for which he supplies    
warehouse room2 to advise the author    
about the times and methods of          
advertising2 and to insert the          
advertisements4 ,as he publishes other  

books1 he will advertise  lists of those
 sold by himself2 and thus1 by combining
 many in  one advertisement1 diminish   
the expense to each of his  principals4 
,he pays the author only for the books  
actually sold2  consequently1 he makes  
no outlav of capital1 except that which 
he  pays for advertisements3 but he is  
answerable for any bad debts  he may    
contract in disposing of them4 ,his     
charge is usually ten  per cent on the  
returns4    ,no4 ,,ii is the bookseller 
who retails the work to the public4  ,on
 the publication of a new book1 the     
publisher sends round to  the trade1 to 
receive 'subscriptions' from them for   
any number of  copies not less than two4
 ,these copies are usually charged to   
the  'subscribers'1 on an average1 at   
about four or five per cent less  than  
the wholesale price of the book3 in the 
present case the  subscription price is 
#ds4 #b;d4 for each copy4 ,after the day
 of  publication1 the price charged by  
the publisher to the  booksellers is    

#ds4 #f;d4 ,with some works it is the   
custom to  deliver twenty-five copies to
 those who order twenty-four1 thus      
allowing a reduction of about four per  
cent4 ,such was the case  with the      
present volume4 ,different publishers   
offer different  terms to the           
subscribers2 and it is usual1 after     
intervals of  about six months1 for the 
publisher again to open a subscription  
list1 so that if the work be one for    
which there is a steady  sale1 the trade
 avail themselves of these opportunities
  of purchasing1 at the reduced rate1   
enough to supply their  probable        
demand47#b997    #cha4 ,the volume thus 
purchased of the publisher at #ds4 #b;d4
 or  #ds4 #f;d4 is retailed by the      
bookseller to the public at #fs4 ,in the
  first case he makes a profit of       
forty-four1 in the second of            
thirty-three per cent4 ,even the smaller
 of these two rates of  profit on the   
capital employed1 appears to be much too
 large4 ,it  may sometimes happen1 that 

when a book is enquired for1 the  retail
 dealer sends across the street to the  
wholesale agent1 and  receives1 for this
 trifling service1 one fourth part of   
the money  paid by the purchaser2 and   
perhaps the retail dealer takes also    
six months' credit for the price which  
the volume actually cost  him4    #chb4 
,in section #bef1 the price of each     
process in  manufacturing the present   
volume was stated3 we shall now give an 
analysis of the whole expense of        
conveying it into the hands of  the     
public4     ,the retail price #fs4 on   
#cjeb produces #iae #ab #j    #a4 ,total
 expense of printing and paper #bjg #e  
#h #g_/aa  #b4 ,taxes on paper and      
advertisements #dj #j #aa  #c4          
,commission to publisher as agent       
between author and printer #ah  #ad #d  
#d_/aa #d ,commission to publisher as   
agent for sale of the book  #fc #aa #h  
#e4 ,profit--the difference between     
subscription price and trade  price1    
#d;d4 per vol4 #ej #ag #d  #f4 ,profit  

the difference between trade price and  
retail price1  #as4 #f;d4 per vol4 #bbh 
#ah #j              #cfb #a #d  #g4     
,remains for authorship #cjf #d #j      
,total #iae #ab #j      ,this account   
appears to disagree with that in page   
#adf4 but  it will be observed that the 
three first articles amount to ,l#bff   
#as41 the sum there stated4 ,the        
apparent difference arises from a       
circumstance which was not noticed in   
the first edition of this  work4 ,the   
bill amounting to ,l#bje #ahs41 as there
 given1 and as  reprinted in the present
 volume1 included an additional charge  
of  ten per cent upon the real charges  
of the printer and  paper-maker4        
#chc4 ,it is usual for the publisher1   
when he is employed as  agent between   
the author and printer1 to charge a     
commission of  ten per cent on all      
payments he makes4 ,if the author is    
informed  of this custom previously to  
his commencing the work1 as was the     
case in the present instance1 he can    

have no just cause of  complaint2 for it
 is optional whether he himself employs 
the  printer1 or communicates with him  
through the intervention of his         
publisher4    ,the services rendered for
 this payment are1 the making           
arrangements with the printer1 the      
wood-cutter1 and the engraver1  if      
required4 ,there is a convenience in    
having some intermediate  person between
 the author and printer1 in case the    
former should  consider any of the      
charges made by the latter as too high4 
,when  the author himself is quite      
unacquainted with the details of the    
art of printing1 he may object to       
charges which1 on a better  acquaintance
 with the subject1 he might be convinced
 were very  moderate2 and in such cases 
he ought to depend on the judgement  of 
his publisher1 who is generally         
conversant with the art4 ,this  is      
particularly the case in the charge for 
alterations and  corrections1 some of   
which1 although apparently trivial1     

occupy  the compositors much time in    
making4 ,it should also be observed     
that the publisher1 in this case1       
becomes responsible for the  payments to
 those persons4    #chd4 ,it is not     
necessary that the author should avail  
himself  of this intervention1 although 
it is the interest of the  publisher    
that he should2 and booksellers usually 
maintain that  the author cannot procure
 his paper or printing at a cheaper rate
  if he go at once to the producers4    
,this appears from the evidence  given  
before the ,committee of the ,house of  
,commons in the  ,copyright ,acts1 #h   
,may1 #ahah4    ,mr ,o4 ,rees1          
bookseller1 of the house of ,longman and
 ,co41  ,paternoster ,row1 examined3    
,q4 ,suppose a gentleman to publish a   
work on his own account1  and to incur  
all the various expenses2 could he get  
the paper at  #cjs4 a ream8    ,a4 ,i   
presume not2 ,i presume a stationer     
would not sell the  paper at the same   
price to an indifferent gentleman as to 

the  trade4    ,q4 ,the ,committee asked
 you if a private gentleman was to      
publish a work on his own account1 if he
 would not pay more for  the paper than 
persons in the trade2 the ,committee    
wish to be  informed whether a printer  
does not charge a gentleman a higher    
rate than to a publisher4    ,a4 ,i     
conceive they generally charge a profit 
on the paper4    ,q4 ,do not the        
printers charge a higher price also for 
printing1 than they do to the trade8    
,a4 ,i always understood that they do4  
#che4 ,there appears to be little reason
 for this distinction  in charging for  
printing a larger price to the author   
than to the  publisher1 provided the    
former is able to give equal security   
for  the payment4 ,with respect to the  
additional charge on paper1 if  the     
author employs either publisher or      
printer to purchase it1  they ought to  
receive a moderate remuneration for the 
risk1 since  they become responsible for
 the payment2 but there is no reason    

why1 if the author deals at once with   
the paper-maker1 he should  not purchase
 on the same terms as the printer2 and  
if he choose1  by paying ready money1   
not to avail himself of the long credit 
allowed in those trades1 he ought to    
procure his paper  considerably cheaper4
    #chf4 ,it is time1 however1 that    
such conventional combinations  between 
different trades should be done away    
with4 ,in a country  so eminently       
depending for its wealth on its         
manufacturing  industry1 it is of       
importance that there should exist no   
abrupt  distinction of classes1 and that
 the highest of the aristocracy  should 
feel proud of being connected1 either   
personally or  through their relatives1 
with those pursuits on which their      
country's greatness depends4 ,the       
wealthier manufacturers and  merchants  
already mix with those classes1 and the 
larger and even  the middling tradesmen 
are frequently found associating with   
the  gentry of the land4 ,it is good    

that this ambition should be            
cultivated1 not by any rivalry in       
expense1 but by a rivalry in  knowledge 
and in liberal feelings2 and few things 
would more  contribute to so desirable  
an effect1 than the abolition of all    
such contracted views as those to which 
we have alluded4 ,the  advantage to the 
other classes1 would be an increased    
acquaintance with the productive arts of
 the country an increased  attention to 
the importance of acquiring habits of   
punctuality  and of business and1 above 
all1 a general feeling that it is       
honourable1 in any rank of life1 to     
increase our own and our  country's     
riches1 by employing our talents in the 
production or  in the distribution of   
wealth4    #chg4 ,another circumstance  
omitted to be noticed in the first      
edition relates to what is technically  
called the overplus1 which  may be now  
explained4 ,when #ejj copies of a work  
are to be  printed1 each sheet of it    
requires one ream of paper4 ,now a ream1

  as used by printers1 consists of #ba  
#a_/b quires1 or #eaf sheets4  ,this    
excess of sixteen sheets is necessary in
 order to allow for  'revises'--for     
preparing and adjusting the press for   
the due  performance of its work1 and to
 supply the place of any sheets  which  
may be accidentally dirtied or destroyed
 in the processes  of printing1 or      
injured by the binder in putting into   
boards4 ,it  is found1 however1 that    
three per cent is more than the         
proportion destroyed1 and that damage is
 less frequent in  proportion to the    
skill and care of the workmen4    ,from 
the evidence of several highly          
respectable booksellers  and printers1  
before the ,committee of the ,house of  
,commons on the  ,copyright ,act1 ,may1 
#ahah1 it appears that the average      
number of  surplus copies1 above #ejj1  
is between two and three2 that on       
smaller impressions it is less1 whilst  
on larger editions it is  greater2 that1
 in some instances1 the complete number 

of #ejj is  not made up1 in which case  
the printer is obliged to pay for       
completing it2 and that in no instance  
have the whole sixteen  extra copies    
been completed4 ,on the volume in the   
reader's hands1  the edition of which   
consisted of #cjjj1 the surplus amounted
 to  fifty-two--a circumstance arising  
from the improvements in  printing and  
the increased care of the pressmen4 ,now
 this  overplus ought to be accounted   
for to the author--and ,i believe  it   
usually is so by all respectable        
publishers4    #chh4 ,in order to       
prevent the printer from privately      
taking  off a larger number of          
impressions than he delivers to the     
author  or publisher1 various expedients
 have been adopted4 ,in some works  a   
particular watermark has been used in   
paper made purposely for  the book3 thus
 the words ',mecanique ,celeste' appear 
in the  watermark of the two first      
volumes of the great work of ,laplace4  
,in other cases1 where the work is      

illustrated by engravings1 such  a fraud
 would be useless without the           
concurrence of the  copperplate printer4
 ,in ,france it is usual to print a     
notice on  the back of the title page1  
that no copies are genuine without  the 
subjoined signature of the author3 and  
attached to this  notice is the author's
 name1 either written1 or printed by    
hand  from a wooden block4 ,but         
notwithstanding this precaution1 ,i have
  recently purchased a volume1 printed  
at ,paris1 in which the  notice exists1 
but no signature is attached4 ,in       
,london there is  not much danger of    
such frauds1 because the printers are   
men of  capital1 to whom the profit on  
such a transaction would be  trifling1  
and the risk of the detection of a fact1
 which must of  necessity be known to   
many of their workmen1 would be so great
 as  to render the attempt at it folly4 
#chi4 ,perhaps the best advice to an    
author1 if he publishes on  his own     
account1 and is a reasonable person1    

possessed of common  sense1 would be to 
go at once to a respectable printer and 
make  his arrangements with him4        
#cij4 ,if the author do not wish to     
print his work at his own  risk1 then he
 should make an agreement with a        
publisher for an  edition of a limited  
number2 but he should by no means sell  
the  copyright4 ,if the work contains   
woodcuts or engravings1 it would  be    
judicious to make it part of the        
contract that they shall  become the    
author's property1 with the view to     
their use in a  subsequent edition of   
the works1 if they should be required4  
,an  agreement is frequently made by    
which the publisher advances the  money 
and incurs all the risk on condition of 
his sharing the  profits with the       
author4 ,the profits alluded to are1 for
 the  present work1 the last item of    
section #chb1 or ,l#cjf #ds4    #cia4   
,having now explained all the           
arrangements in printing  the present   
volume1 let us return to section #chb1  

and examine the  distribution of the    
,l#iae paid by the public4 ,of this sum 
,l#bjg was  the cost of the book1 ,l#dj 
was taxes1 ,l#cfb was the charges of the
  bookseller in conveying it to the     
consumer1 and ,l#cjf remained for       
authorship4    ,the largest portion1 or 
,l#cfb goes into the pockets of the     
booksellers2 and as they do not advance 
capital1 and incur very  little risk1   
this certainly appears to be an         
unreasonable  allowance4 ,the most      
extravagant part of the charge is the   
thirty-three per cent which is allowed  
as profit on retailing the  book4    ,it
 is stated1 however1 that all retail    
booksellers allow to  their customers a 
discount of ten per cent upon orders    
above  #bjs41 and that consequently the 
nominal profit of forty-four or         
thirty-three per cent is very much      
reduced4 ,if this is the case1  it may  
fairly be enquired1 why the price of    
,l#b for example1 is  printed upon the  
back of a book1 when every bookseller is

 ready  to sell it at ,l#a #afs41 and   
why those who are unacquainted with     
that circumstance should be made to pay 
more than others who are  better        
informed8    #cib4 ,several reasons have
 been alleged as justifying this  high  
rate of profit4    ,first1 it has been  
alleged that the purchasers of books    
take  long credit4 ,this1 probably1 is  
often the case1 and admitting it1  no   
reasonable person can object to a       
proportionate increase of  price4 ,but  
it is no less clear1 that persons who do
 pay ready  money1 should not be charged
 the same price as those who defer      
their payments to a remote period4      
,secondly1 it has been urged that large 
profits are necessary  to pay for the   
great expenses of bookselling           
establishments2 that  rents are high and
 taxes heavy2 and that it would be      
impossible  for the great booksellers to
 compete with the smaller ones1  unless 
the retail profits were great4 ,in reply
 to this it may be  observed that the   

booksellers are subject to no peculiar  
pressure  which does not attach to all  
other retail trades4 ,it may also be    
remarked that large establishments      
always have advantages over  smaller    
ones1 in the economy arising from the   
division of labour2  and it is scarcely 
to be presumed that booksellers are the 
only  class who1 in large concerns1     
neglect to avail themselves of  them4   
,thirdly1 it has been pretended that    
this high rate of profit  is necessary  
to cover the risk of the bookseller's   
having some  copies left on his shelves2
 but he is not obliged to buy of the    
publisher a single copy more than he has
 orders for3 and if he do  purchase     
more1 at the subscription price1 he     
proves1 by the very  fact1 that he      
himself does not estimate that risk at  
more than  from four to eight per cent4 
#cic4 ,it has been truly observed1 on   
the other hand1 that many  copies of    
books are spoiled by persons who enter  
the shops of  booksellers without       

intending to make any purchase4 ,but1   
not to  mention that such persons       
finding on the tables various new       
publications1 are frequently induced1 by
 that opportunity of  inspecting them1  
to become purchasers3 this damage does  
not apply  to all booksellers nor to all
 books2 of course it is not  necessary  
to keep in the shop books of small      
probable demand or  great price4 ,in the
 present case1 the retail profit on     
three  copies only1 namely1 #ds4 #f;d41 
would pay the whole cost of the one     
copy soiled in the shop2 and even that  
copy might afterwards  produce1 at an   
auction1 half or a third of its cost    
price4 ,the  argument1 therefore1 from  
disappointments in the sale of books1   
and that arising from heavy stock1 are  
totally groundless in the  question     
between publisher and author4 ,it shold 
be remarked also1  that the publisher is
 generally a retail1 as well as a       
wholesale1  bookseller2 and that1       
besides his profit upon every copy which

 he  sells in his capacity of agent1 he 
is allowed to charge the  author as if  
every copy had been subscribed for at   
#ds4 #b;d41 and  of course he receives  
the same profit as the rest of the      
wholesale traders for the books retailed
 in his own shop4    #cid4 ,in the      
country1 there is more reason for a     
considerable  allowance between the     
retail dealer and the public2 because   
the  profit of the country bookseller is
 diminished by the expense of  the      
carriage of the books from ,london4 ,he 
must also pay a  commission1 usually    
five per cent1 to his ,london agent1 on 
all  those books which his correspondent
 does not himself publish4 ,if  to this 
be added a discount of five per cent1   
allowed for ready  money to every       
customer1 and of ten per cent to book   
clubs1 the  profit of the bookseller in 
a small country town is by no means  too
 large4    ,some of the writers1 who    
have published criticisms on the        
observations made in the first edition  

of this work1 have  admitted that the   
apparent rate of profit to the          
booksellers is  too large4 ,but they    
have1 on the other hand1 urged that too 
favourable a case is taken in supposing 
the whole #cjjj copies  sold4 ,if the   
reader will turn back to section #chb1  
he will find  that the expense of the   
three first items remains the same1     
whatever be the number of copies sold2  
and on looking over the  remaining items
 he will perceive that the bookseller1  
who incurs  very little risk and no     
outlay1 derives exactly the same profit 
per cent on the copies sold1 whatever   
their numbers may be4 ,this1  however1  
is not the case with the unfortunate    
author1 on whom  nearly the whole of the
 loss falls undivided4 ,the same writers
  have also maintained1 that the profit 
is fixed at the rate  mentioned1 in     
order to enable the bookseller to       
sustain losses1  unavoidably incurred in
 the purchase and retail of other books4
  ,this is the weakest of all arguments4

 ,it would be equally just  that a      
merchant should charge an extravagant   
commission for an  undertaking          
unaccompanied with any risk1 in order to
 repay  himself for the losses which his
 own want of skill might lead to  in his
 other mercantile transactions4    #cie4
 ,that the profit in retailing books is 
really too large1  is proved by several 
circumstances3 ,first1 that the same    
nominal  rate of profit has existed in  
the bookselling trade for a long  series
 of years1 notwithstanding the great    
fluctuations in the  rate of profit on  
capital invested in every other         
business4  ,secondly1 that1 until very  
lately1 a multitude of booksellers1 in  
all parts of ,london1 were content with 
a much smaller profit1 and  were willing
 to sell for ready money1 or at short   
credit1 to  persons of undoubted        
character1 at a profit of only ten per  
cent1  and in some instances even at a  
still smaller percentage1 instead  of   
that of twenty-five per cent on the     

published prices4 ,thirdly1  that they  
are unable to maintain this rate of     
profit except by a  combination1 the    
object of which is to put down all      
competition4    #cif4 ,some time ago a  
small number of the large ,london       
booksellers entered into such a         
combination4 ,one of their objects  was 
to prevent any bookseller from selling  
books for less than  ten per cent under 
the published prices2 and in order to   
enforce  this principle1 they refuse to 
sell books1 except at the  publishing   
price1 to any bookseller who declines   
signing an  agreement to that effect4   
,by degrees1 many were prevailed upon to
  join this combination2 and the effect 
of the exclusion it  inflicted1 left the
 small capitalist no option between     
signing or  having his business         
destroyed4 ,ultimately1 nearly the whole
  trade1 comprising about two thousand  
four hundred persons1 have  been        
compelled to sign the agreement4    ,as 
might be naturally expected from a      

compact so injurious to  many of the    
parties to it1 disputes have arisen2    
several  booksellers have been placed   
under the ban of the combination1  who  
allege that they have not violated its  
rules1 and who accuse  the opposite     
party of using spies1 etc41 to entrap   
them47#c997    #cig4 ,the origin of this
 combination has been explained by ,mr  
,pickering1 of ,chancery ,lane1 himself 
a publisher1 in a printed  statement1   
entitled1 ',booksellers' ,monopoly' and 
the following  list of booksellers1 who 
form the committee for conducting this  
combination1 is copied from that printed
 at the head of each of  the cases      
published by ,mr ,pickering3     ,allen1
 ,j41 #g1 ,leadenhall ,street4   ,arch1 
,j41 #fa1 ,cornhill4   ,baldwin1 ,r41   
#dg1 ,paternoster ,row4   ,booth1 ,j4   
,duncan1 ,j41 #cg1 ,paternoster ,row4   
,hatchard1 ,j41 ,piccadilly4            
,marshall1 ,r41 ,stationers' ,court4    
,murray1 ,j41 ,albemarle ,street4       
,rees1 ,o41 #ci1 ,paternoster ,row4     

,richardson1 ,j4 ,m41 #bc1 ,cornhill4   
,rivington1 ,j41 ,st4 ,paul's           
,churchyard4   ,wilson1 ,e41 ,royal     
,exchange4      #cih4 ,in whatever      
manner the profits are divided between  
the  publisher and the retail           
bookseller1 the fact remains1 that the  
reader pays for the volume in his hands 
#fs41 and that the author  will receive 
only #cs4 #aj;d42 out of which latter   
sum1 the expense  of printing the volume
 must be paid3 so that in passing       
through  two hands this book has        
produced a profit of forty-four per     
cent4  ,this excessive rate of profit   
has drawn into the book trade a  larger 
share of capital than was really        
advantageous2 and the  competition      
between the different portions of that  
capital has  naturally led to the system
 of underselling1 to which the          
committee above mentioned are           
endeavouring to put a stop47#d997       
#cii4 ,there are two parties who chiefly
 suffer from this  combination1 the     

public and authors4 ,the first party can
 seldom be  induced to take an active   
part against any grievance2 and in fact 
little is required from it1 except a    
cordial support of the  authors1 in any 
attempt to destroy a combination so     
injurious to  the interests of both4    
,many an industrious bookseller would be
 glad to sell for #es4  the volume which
 the reader holds in his hand1 and for  
which he  has paid #fs42 and1 in doing  
so for ready money1 the tradesman who   
paid #ds4 #f;d4 for the book1 would     
realize1 without the least risk1  a     
profit of eleven per cent on the money  
he had advanced4 ,it is  one of the     
objects of the combination we are       
discussing1 to  prevent the small       
capitalist from employing his capital at
 that  rate of profit which he thinks   
most advantageous to himself2 and  such 
a proceeding is decidedly injurious to  
the public4    #djj4 ,having derived    
little pecuniary advantage from my own  
literary productions2 and being aware1  

that from the very nature  of their     
subjects1 they can scarcely be expected 
to reimburse the  expense of preparing  
them1 ,i may be permitted to offer an   
opinion  upon the subject1 which ,i     
believe to be as little influenced by   
any expectation of advantage from the   
future1 as it is by any  disappointment 
at the past4    ,before1 however1 we    
proceed to sketch the plan of a campaign
  against ,paternoster ,row1 it will be 
fit to inform the reader of  the nature 
of the enemies' forces1 and of his means
 of attack and  defence4 ,several of the
 great publishers find it convenient to 
be  the proprietors of reviews1         
magazines1 journals1 and even of        
newspapers4 ,the editors are paid1 in   
some instances very  handsomely1 for    
their superintendence2 and it is        
scarcely to be  expected that they      
should always mete out the severest     
justice on  works by the sale of which  
their employers are enriched4 ,the      
great and popular works of the day are1 

of course1 reviewed with  some care1 and
 with deference to public opinion4      
,without this1  the journals would not  
sell2 and it is convenient to be able to
  quote such articles as instances of   
impartiality4 ,under shelter  of this1 a
 host of ephemeral productions are      
written into a  transitory popularity2  
and by the aid of this process1 the     
shelves of the booksellers1 as well as  
the pockets of the public1  are         
disencumbered4 ,to such an extent are   
these means employed1  that some of the 
periodical publications of the day ought
 to be  regarded merely as advertising  
machines4 ,that the reader may be  in   
some measure on his guard against such  
modes of influencing  his judgement1 he 
should examine whether the work reviewed
 is  published by the bookseller who is 
the proprietor of the review2  a fact   
which can sometimes be ascertained from 
the title of the  book as given at the  
head of the article4 ,but this is by no 
means  a certain criterion1 because     

partnerships in various publications    
exist between houses in the book trade1 
which are not generally  known to the   
public2 so that1 in fact1 until reviews 
are  established in which booksellers   
have no interest1 they can never  be    
safely trusted4    #dja4 ,in order to   
put down the combination of booksellers1
 no  plan appears so likely to succeed  
as a counter-association of  authors4   
,if any considerable portion of the     
literary world were  to unite and form  
such an association2 and if its affairs 
were  directed by an active committee1  
much might be accomplished4 ,the        
objects of such an union should be1 to  
employ some person well  skilled in the 
printing1 and in the bookselling trade2 
and to  establish him in some central   
situation as their agent4 ,each  member 
of the association to be at liberty to  
place any1 or all  of his works in the  
hands of this agent for sale2 to allow  
any  advertisements1 or list of books   
published by members of the             

association1 to be stitched up at the   
end of each of his own  productions2 the
 expense of preparing them being        
defrayed by the  proprietors of the     
books advertised4    ,the duties of the 
agent would be to retail to the public1 
for  ready money1 copies of books       
published by members of the             
association4 ,to sell to the trade1 at  
prices agreed upon1 any  copies they may
 require4 ,to cause to be inserted in   
the journals1  or at the end of works   
published by members1 any advertisements
  which the committee or authors may    
direct4 ,to prepare a general  catalogue
 of the works of members4 ,to be the    
agent for any member  of the association
 respecting the printing of any work4   
,such a union would naturally present   
other advantages2 and as  each author   
would retain the liberty of putting any 
price he  might think fit on his        
productions1 the public would have the  
advantage of reduction in price produced
 by competition between  authors on the 

same subject1 as well as of that arising
 from a  cheaper mode of publishing the 
volumes sold to them4    #djb4          
,possibly1 one of the consequences      
resulting from such an  association1    
would be the establishment of a good and
 an  impartial review1 a work the want  
of which has been felt for  several     
years4 ,the two long-established and    
celebrated reviews1  the unbending      
champions of the most opposite political
 opinions4  are1 from widely differing  
causes1 exhibiting unequivocal signs  of
 decrepitude and decay4 ,the quarterly  
advocate of despotic  principles is fast
 receding from the advancing            
intelligence of  the age2 the new       
strength and new position which that    
intelligence has acquired1 demands for  
its expression1 new  organs1 equally the
 representatives of its intellectual    
power1  and of its moral energies3      
whilst1 on the other hand1 the sceptre  
of the northern critics has passed1 from
 the vigorous grasp of  those who       

established its dominion1 into feebler  
hands4    #djc4 ,it may be stated as a  
difficulty in realizing this            
suggestion1 that those most competent to
 supply periodical  criticism1 are      
already engaged4 ,but it is to be       
observed1 that  there are many who now  
supply literary criticisms to journals1 
the political principles of which they  
disapprove2 and that if  once a         
respectable and well-supported          
review7#e997 were  established1 capable 
of competing1 in payment to its         
contributors1 with the wealthiest of its
 rivals1 it would very  soon be supplied
 with the best materials the country can
 produce4  7#f997 ,it may also be       
apprehended that such a combination of  
authors would be favourable to each     
other4 ,there are two  temptations to   
which an editor of a review is commonly 
exposed3  the first is1 a tendency to   
consult too much1 in the works he       
criticizes1 the interest of the         
proprietor of his review2 the  second1 a

 similar inclination to consult the     
interests of his  friends4 ,the plan    
which has been proposed removes one of  
these  temptations1 but it would be very
 difficult1 if not impossible1  to      
destroy the other4    ,,notes3    #a4   
,the whole of the subsequent details    
relate to the first  edition of this    
work4    #b4 ,these details vary with   
different books and different           
publishers2 those given in the text are 
believed to substantially  correct1 and 
are applicable to works like the        
present4    #c4 ,it is now understood   
that the use of spies has been given up2
  and it is also known that the system  
of underselling is again  privately     
resorted to by many1 so that the injury 
arising from  this arbitrary system1    
pursued by the great booksellers1       
affects  only1 or most severely1 those  
whose adherence to an extorted  promise 
most deserves respect4 ,note to the     
second edition4    #d ,the monopoly     
cases4 ,nos4 #a4 #b4 and #c4 of those   

published by ,mr  ,pickering1 should be 
consulted upon this point2 and1 as the  
public will be better able to form a    
judgement by hearing the  other side of 
the question1 it is to be hoped the     
,chairman of the  ,committee 7,mr       
,richardson7 will publish those         
regulations  respecting the trade1 a    
copy of which4 ,mr ,pickering states1 is
  refused by the ,committee even to     
those who sign them4    #e4 ,at the     
moment when this opinion as to the      
necessity for a new  review was passing 
through the press4 ,i was informed that 
the  elements of such an undertaking    
were already organized4    #f4 ,i have  
been suggested to me1 that the doctrines
 maintained in  this chapter may subject
 the present volume to the opposition of
  that combination which it has opposed4
 ,i do not entertain that  opinion2 and 
for this reason1 that the booksellers   
are too shrewd  a class to supply such  
an admirable passport to publicity as   
their opposition would prove to be if   

generally suspected4 ,but  should my    
readers take a different view of the    
question1 they can  easily assist in    
remedying the evil1 by each mentioning  
the  existence of this little volume to 
two of his friends4    ,i was wrong in  
this conjecture2 all booksellers are not
 so  shrewd as ,i had imagined1 for some
 did refuse to sell this  volume2       
consequently others sold a larger number
 of copies4    ,in the preface to the   
second edition1 at the commencement of  
this volume1 the reader will find some  
further observation on the  effect of   
the booksellers' combination4           
,chapter #cb    ,on the ,effect of      
,machinery in ,reducing the ,demand for 
,labour    #djd4 ,one of the objections 
most frequently urged against  machinery
 is1 that it has a tendency to supersede
 much of the  hand labour which was     
previously employed2 and in fact unless 
a  machine diminished the labour        
necessary to make an article1 it  could 
never come into use4 ,but if it have    

that effect1 its owner1  in order to    
extend the sale of his produce1 will be 
obliged to  undersell his competitors2  
this will induce them also to  introduce
 the new machine1 and the effect of this
 competition  will soon cause the       
article to fall1 until the profits on   
capital1 under the new system1 shall be 
reduced to the same rate  as under the  
old4 ,although1 therefore1 the use of   
machinery has  at first a tendency to   
throw labour out of employment1 yet the 
increased demand consequent upon the    
reduced price1 almost  immediately      
absorbs a considerable portion of that  
labour1 and  perhaps1 in some cases1 the
 whole of what would otherwise have     
been displaced4    ,that the effect of a
 new machine is to diminish the labour  
required for the production of the same 
quantity of manufactured  commodities   
may be clearly perceived1 by imagining a
 society1  in which occupations are not 
divided1 each man himself manufacturing 
all the articles he consumes4 ,supposing

 each individual to labour  during ten  
hours daily1 one of which is devoted to 
making shoes1  it is evident that if any
 tool or machine be introduced1 by the  
use of which his shoes can be made in   
half the usual time1 then  each member  
of the community will enjoy the same    
comforts as  before by only nine and    
one-half hours' labour4    #dje4 ,if1   
therefore1 we wish to prove that the    
total quantity  of labour is not        
diminished by the introduction of       
machines1 we must  have recourse to some
 other principle of our nature4 ,but the
 same  motive which urges a man to      
activity will become additionally       
powerful1 when he finds his comforts    
procured with diminished  labour2 and in
 such circumstances1 it is probable1    
that many  would employ the time thus   
redeemed in contriving new tools for    
other branches of their occupations4 ,he
 who has habitually worked  ten hours a 
day1 will employ the half hour saved by 
the new  machine in gratifying some     

other want2 and as each new machine     
adds to these gratifications1 new       
luxuries will open to his view1  which  
continued enjoyment will as surely      
render necessary to his  happiness4     
#djf4 ,in countries where occupations   
are divided1 and where  the division of 
labour is practised1 the ultimate       
consequence of  improvements in         
machinery is almost invariably to cause 
a greater  demand for labour4           
,frequently the new labour requires1 at 
its  commencement1 a higher degree of   
skill than the old2 and1  unfortunately1
 the class of persons driven out of the 
old  employment are not always qualified
 for the new one2 so that a  certain    
interval must elapse before the whole of
 their labour is  wanted4 ,this1 for a  
time1 produces considerable suffering   
amongst  the working classes2 and it is 
of great importance for their  happiness
 that they should be aware of these     
effects1 and be  enabled to foresee them
 at an early period1 in order to        

diminish1  as much as possible1 the     
injury resulting from them4    #djg4    
,one very important enquiry which this  
subject presents  is the question       
whether it is more for the interest of  
the  working classes1 that improved     
machinery should be so perfect as  to   
defy the competition of hand labour2 and
 that they should thus  be at once      
driven out of the trade by it2 or be    
gradually forced  to quit it by the slow
 and successive advances of the machine8
  ,the suffering which arises from a    
quick transition is undoubtedly  more   
intense2 but it is also much less       
permanent than that which  results from 
the slower process3 and if the          
competition is  perceived to be         
perfectly hopeless1 the workman will at 
once set  himself to learn a new        
department of his art4 ,on the other    
hand1  although new machinery causes an 
increased demand for skill in  those who
 make and repair it1 and in those who   
first superintend  its use2 yet there   

are other cases in which it enables     
children  and inferior workmen to       
execute work that previously required   
greater skill4 ,in such circumstances1  
even though the increased  demand for   
the article1 produced by its diminished 
price1 should  speedily give occupation 
to all who were before employed1 yet the
  very diminution of the skill required1
 would open a wider field  of           
competition amongst the working classes 
themselves4    ,that machines do not1   
even at their first introduction1       
invariably throw human labour out of    
employment1 must be  admitted2 and it   
has been maintained1 by persons very    
competent  to form an opinion on the    
subject1 that they never produce that   
effect4 ,the solution of this question  
depends on facts1 which1  unfortunately1
 have not yet been collected3 and the   
circumstance  of our not possessing the 
data necessary for the full examination 
of so important a subject1 supplies an  
additional reason for  impressing1 upon 

the minds of all who are interested in  
such  enquiries1 the importance of      
procuring accurate registries1 at       
various times1 of the number of persons 
employed in particular  branches of     
manufacture1 of the number of machines  
used by them4  and of the wages they    
receive4    #djh4 ,in relation to the   
enquiry just mentioned1 ,i shall offer  
some remarks upon the facts within my   
knowledge2 and only regret  that those  
which ,i can support by numerical       
statement are so few4  ,when the        
crushing mill1 used in ,cornwall and    
other mining  countries1 superseded the 
labour of a great number of young       
women1 who worked very hard in breaking 
ores with flat hammers1  no distress    
followed4 ,the reason of this appears to
 have been1  that the proprietors of the
 mines1 having one portion of their     
capital released by the superior        
cheapness of the process  executed by   
the mills1 found it their interest to   
apply more  labour to other operations4 

,the women1 disengaged from mere        
drudgery1 were thus profitably employed 
in dressing the ores1 a  work which     
required skill and judgement in the     
selection4    #dji4 ,the increased      
production arising from alterations in  
the  machinery1 or from improved modes  
of using it1 appears from the  following
 table4 ,a machine called in the cotton 
manufacture a  'stretcher'1 worked by   
one man1 produced as follows3     ,year2
 ,pounds of cotton spun2 ,roving wages  
per score2 ,rate of  earning per week   
s4 d4 s4 d4     #ahaj #djj #a #ca_/b #be
 #aj7a997   #ahaa #fjj #j #aj #be #j    
#ahac #hej #j #i #ca #aja_/b   #ahbc    
#ajjj #j #ga_/b #ca #c     ,the same man
 working at another stretcher1 the      
roving a little  finer1 produced1       
#ahbc #ijj #j #ga_/b #bh #aa_/b   #ahbe 
#ajjj #j #g #bg #f   #ahbg #abjj #j #f  
#cj #j   #ahcb #abjj #j #f #cj #j    ,in
 this instance1 production has gradually
 increased until1 at  the end of        
twenty-two years1 three times as much   

work is done as  at the commencement1   
although the manual labour employed     
remains  the same4 ,the weekly earnings 
of the workmen have not fluctuated  very
 much1 and appear1 on the whole1 to have
 advanced3 but it  would be imprudent to
 push too far reasonings founded upon a 
single instance4    #daj4 ,the produce  
of #dhj spindles of 'mule yarn          
spinning'1 at  different periods1 was as
 follows3    ,year2 ,hanks about #dj to 
the pound2 ,wages per thousand 7s4 d47  
#ahjf2 #fffh2 #i #b  #ahbc2 #hjjj2 #f #c
  #ahcb2 #aj1jjj2 #c #h      #daa4 ,the 
subjoined view of the state of weaving  
by hand- and  by power-looms1 at        
,stockport1 in the years #ahbb and      
#ahcb1 is  taken from an enumeration of 
the machines contained in #fe           
factories1 and was collected for the    
purpose of being given in  evidence     
before a ,committee of the ,house of    
,commons4                               
,in #ahbb   ,in #ahcb   ,hand-loom      
weavers          #bhjj          #hjj    

#bjjj decrease   ,persons using         
power-looms   #feg         #cjei        
#bdjb increase   ,persons to dress the  
warp    #ih          #chh     #bij      
increase   ,total persons employed      
#ceee         #dbdg     #fib increase   
,power-looms                #aigj       
#iagg    #hbjg increase    ,during this 
period1 the number of hand-looms in     
employment has  diminished to less than 
one-third1 whilst that of power-looms   
has  increased to more than five times  
its former amount4 ,the total  number of
 workmen has increased about one-third2 
but the amount  of manufactured goods   
7supposing each power-loom to do only   
the  work of three hand-looms7 is three 
and a half times as large as  it was    
before4    #dab4 ,in considering this   
increase of employment1 it must be      
admitted1 that the two thousand persons 
thrown out of work are  not exactly of  
the same class as those called into     
employment by  the power-looms4 ,a      
hand-weaver must possess bodily         

strength1  which is not essential for a 
person attending a power-loom2          
consequently1 women and young persons of
 both sexes1 from fifteen  to seventeen 
years of age1 find employment in        
power-loom  factories4 ,this1 however1  
would be a very limited view of the     
employment arising from the introduction
 of power-looms3 the  skill called into 
action in building the new factories1 in
  constructing the new machinery1 in    
making the steam-engines to  drive it1  
and in devising improvements in the     
structure of the  looms1 as well as in  
regulating the economy of the           
establishment1  is of a much higher     
order than that which it had assisted in
  superseding2 and if we possessed any  
means of measuring this1 it  would      
probably be found larger in amount4     
,nor1 in this view of  the subject1 must
 we omit the fact1 that although        
hand-looms  would have increased in     
number if those moved by steam had not  
been invented1 yet it is the cheapness  

of the article  manufactured by         
power-looms which has caused this great 
extension  of their employment1 and that
 by diminishing the price of one        
article of commerce1 we always call into
 additional activity the  energy of     
those who produce others4 ,it appears   
that the number of  hand-looms in use in
 ,england and ,scotland in #ahcj1 was   
about  #bdj1jjj2 nearly the same number 
existed in the year #ahbj3 whereas  the 
number of power-looms which1 in #ahcj1  
was #ee1jjj1 had1 in  #ahbj1 been       
#ad1jjj4 ,when it is considered that    
each of these  powerlooms did as much   
work as three worked by hand1 the       
increased producing power was equal to  
that of #abc1jjj  hand-looms4 ,during   
the whole of this period the wages and  
employment of hand-loom weavers have    
been very precarious4    #dac4          
,increased intelligence amongst the     
working classes1 may  enable them to    
foresee some of those improvements which
 are  likely for a time to affect the   

value of their labour2 and the          
assistance of savings banks and friendly
 societies1 7the  advantages of which   
can never be too frequently1 or too     
strongly1  pressed upon their           
attention71 may be of some avail in     
remedying  the evil3 but it may be      
useful also to suggest to them1 that a  
diversity of employments amongst the    
members of one family will  tend1 in    
some measure1 to mitigate the privations
 which arise  from fluctuation in the   
value of labour4    ,,notes3    #a4 ,in 
#ahaj1 the workman's wages were         
guaranteed not to be less  than #bfs4   
,chapter #cc    ,on the ,effect of      
,taxes and of ,legal ,restrictions upon 
,manufactures    #dad4 ,as soon as a tax
 is put upon any article1 the ingenuity 
of those who make1 and of those who use 
it1 is directed to the  means of evading
 as large a part of the tax as they can2
 and this  may often be accomplished in 
ways which are perfectly fair and       
legal4 ,an excise duty exists at present

 of #c;d47#a997 per pound upon  all     
writing paper4 ,the effect of this      
impost is1 that much of the  paper which
 is employed1 is made extremely thin1 in
 order that  the weight of a given      
number of sheets may be as small as     
possible4 ,soon after the first         
imposition of the tax upon  windows1    
which depended upon their number1 and   
not upon their  size1 new-built houses  
began to have fewer windows and those of
  larger dimensions than before4        
,staircases were lighted by  extremely  
long windows1 illuminating three or four
 flights of  stairs4 ,when the tax was  
increased1 and the size of windows      
charged as single was limited1 then     
still greater care was taken  to have as
 few windows as possible1 and internal  
lights became  frequent4 ,these internal
 lights in their turn became the subject
  of taxation2 but it was easy to evade 
the discovery of them1 and  in the last 
,act of ,parliament reducing the        
assessed taxes1 they  ceased to be      

chargeable4 ,from the changes thus      
successively  introduced in the number  
the forms1 and the positions of the     
windows1 a tolerable conjecture might1  
in some instances1 be  formed of the age
 of a house4    #dae4 ,a tax on windows 
is exposed to objection on the double   
ground of its excluding air and light1  
and it is on both accounts  injurious to
 health4 ,the importance of light to the
 enjoyment of  health is not perhaps    
sufficiently appreciated3 in the cold   
and  more variable climates1 it is of   
still greater importance than in  warmer
 countries4    #daf4 ,the effects of    
regulations of excise upon our home     
manufactures are often productive of    
great inconvenience2 and  check1        
materially1 the natural progress of     
improvement4 ,it is  frequently         
necessary1 for the purposes of revenue1 
to oblige  manufacturers to take out a  
license1 and to compel them to work     
according to certain rules1 and to make 
certain stated quantities  at each      

operation4 ,when these quantities are   
large1 as in general  they are1 they    
deter manufacturers from making         
experiments1 and  thus impede           
improvements both in the mode of        
conducting the  processes and in the    
introduction of new materials4          
,difficulties  of this nature have      
occurred in experimenting upon glass for
  optical purposes2 but in this case1   
permission has been obtained  by fit    
persons to make experiments1 without the
 interference of  the excise4 ,it ought1
 however1 to be remembered1 that such   
permission1 if frequently or            
indiscriminately granted1 might be      
abused3 the greatest protection against 
such an abuse will be  found1 in        
bringing the force of public opinion to 
bear upon  scientific men and thus      
enabling the proper authorities1        
although  themselves but moderately     
conversant with science1 to judge of    
the propriety of the permission1 from   
the public character of the  applicant4 

#dag4 ,from the evidence given1 in      
#ahjh1 before the ,committee  of the    
,house of ,commons1 ,on ,distillation   
from ,sugar and ,molasses1  it appeared 
that1 by a different mode of working    
from that  prescribed by the ,excise1   
the spirits from a given weight of      
corn1 which then produced eighteen      
gallons1 might easily have  been        
increased to twenty gallons4 ,nothing   
more is required for  this purpose1 than
 to make what is called the wash weaker1
 the  consequence of which is1 that     
fermentation goes on to a greater       
extent4 ,it was stated1 however1 that   
such a deviation would  render the      
collection of the duty liable to great  
difficulties2  and that it would not    
benefit the distiller much1 since his   
price  was enhanced to the customer by  
any increase of expense in the          
fabrication4 ,here then is a case in    
which a quantity1 amounting  to         
one-ninth of the total produce1 is      
actually lost to the  country4 ,a       

similar effect arises in the coal trade1
 from the  effect of a duty1 for1       
according to the evidence before the    
,house of ,commons1 it appears that a   
considerable quantity of the  very best 
coal is actually wasted4 ,the extent of 
this waste is  very various in different
 mines2 but in some cases it amounts to 
one-third4    #dah4 ,the effects of     
duties upon the import of foreign       
manufactures are equally curious4 ,a    
singular instance occurred in  the      
,united ,states1 where bar-iron was1 on 
its introduction4  liable to a duty of  
#adj per cent ad valorem1 whilst        
hardware was  charged at #be per cent   
only4 ,in consequence of this tax1 large
  quantities of malleable iron rails for
 railroads were imported  into ,america 
under the denomination of hardware2 the 
difference  of #aae per cent in duty    
more than counter balancing the expense 
of fashioning the iron into rails prior 
to its importation4    #dai4 ,duties1   
drawbacks1 and bounties1 when           

considerable in  amount1 are all liable 
to objections of a very serious nature1 
from the frauds to which they give rise4
 ,it has been stated  before ,committees
 of the ,house of ,commons1 that        
calicoes made up  in the form1 and with 
the appearance of linen1 have frequently
  been exported for the purpose of      
obtaining the bounty1 for  calico made  
up in this way sells only at #as4 #d;d4 
per yard1  whereas linen of equal       
fineness is worth from #bs4 #h;d4 to    
#bs4 #aj;d4  per yard4 ,it appeared from
 the evidence1 that one house in six    
months sold five hundred such pieces of 
calico4    ,in almost all cases heavy   
duties1 or prohibitions1 are            
ineffective as well as injurious2 for   
unless the articles  excluded are of    
very large dimensions1 there constantly 
arises a  price at which they will be   
clandestinely imported by the  smuggler4
 ,the extent1 therefore1 to which       
smuggling can be  carried1 should always
 be considered in the imposition of new 

duties1 or in the alteration of old     
ones4 ,unfortunately it has  been pushed
 so far1 and is so systematically       
conducted between  this country and     
,france1 that the price per cent at     
which most  contraband articles can be  
procured is perfectly well known4 ,from 
the evidence of ,mr ,galloway1 it       
appears that1 from #cj to #dj per  cent 
was the rate of insurance on exporting  
prohibited machinery  from ,england1 and
 that the larger the quantity the less  
was the  percentage demanded4 ,from     
evidence given in the ,report of the    
,watch and ,clock-makers' ,committee1 in
 #ahag1 it appears that  persons were   
constantly in the habit of receiving in 
,france  watches1 lace1 silks1 and other
 articles of value easily  portable1 and
 delivering them in ,england at ten per 
cent on their  estimated worth1 in which
 sum the cost of transport and the risk 
of smuggling were included4    #dbj4    
,the process employed in manufacturing  
often depends upon  the mode in which a 

tax is levied on the materials1 or on   
the  article produced4 ,w atch glasses  
are made in ,england by workmen  who    
purchase from the glass house globes of 
five or six inches in  diameter1 out of 
which1 by means of a piece of red-hot   
tobacco  pipe1 guided round a pattern   
watch glass placed on the globe1  they  
crack five others3 these are afterwards 
ground and smoothed  on the edges4 ,in  
the ,tyrol the rough watch glasses are  
supplied  at once from the glass house2 
the workman1 applying a thick ring  of  
cold glass to each globe as soon as it  
is blown1 causes a  piece1 of the size  
of a watch glass1 to be cracked out4    
,the  remaining portion of the globe is 
immediately broken1 and returns  to the 
melting pot4 ,this process could not be 
adopted in ,england  with the same      
economy1 because the whole of the glass 
taken out  of the pot is subject to the 
excise duty4    #dba4 ,the objections   
thus stated as incidental to particular 
modes of taxation are not raised with a 

view to the removal of  those particular
 taxes2 their fitness or unfitness must 
be  decided by a much wider enquiry1    
into which it is not the object  of this
 volume to enter4 ,taxes are essential  
for the security  both of liberty and   
property1 and the evils which have been 
mentioned may be the least amongst those
 which might have been  chosen4 ,it is1 
however1 important that the various     
effects of  every tax should be studied1
 and that those should be adopted       
which1 upon the whole1 are found to give
 the least check to the  productive     
industry of the country4    #dbb4 ,in   
enquiring into the effect produced1 or  
to be  apprehended from any particular  
mode of taxation1 it is necessary  to   
examine a little into the interests of  
the parties who approve  of the plan in 
question1 as well as of those who object
 to it4  ,instances have occurred where 
the persons paying a tax into the  hands
 of government have themselves been     
adverse to any  reduction4 ,this        

happened in the case of one class of    
calico-printers1 whose interest really  
was injured by a removal  of the tax on 
the printing3 they received from the    
manufacturers1  payment for the duty1   
about two months before they were       
themselves called on to pay it to       
government2 and the consequence  was1   
that a considerable capital always      
remained in their hands4  ,the evidence 
which states this circumstance is well  
calculated to  promote a reasonable     
circumspection in such enquiries4       
,question4 ,do you happen to know       
anything of an opposition  from calico  
printers to the repeal of the tax on    
printed calicoes8    ,answer4 ,i have   
certainly heard of such an opposition1  
and am  not surprised at it4 ,there are 
very few individuals who are1 in  fact1 
interested in the nonrepeal of the tax2 
there are two  classes of               
calico-printers2 one1 who print their   
own cloth1 send  their goods into the   
market1 and sell them on their own      

account2  they frequently advance the   
duty to government1 and pay it in  cash 
before their goods are sold1 but        
generally before the goods  are paid    
for1 being most commonly sold on a      
credit of six months3  they are of      
course interested on that account1 as   
well as on  others that have been       
stated1 in the repeal of the tax4 ,the  
other  class of calico-printers print   
the cloth of other people2 they  print  
for hire1 and on re-delivery of the     
cloth when printed1  they receive the   
amount of the duty1 which they are not  
called  upon to pay to government       
sooner1 on an average1 than nine weeks  
from the stamping of the goods4 ,where  
the business is carried on  upon a large
 scale1 the arrears of duty due to      
government often  amount to eight1 or   
even ten thousand pounds1 and furnish a 
capital with which these gentlemen carry
 on their business2 it is  not1         
therefore1 to be wondered at that they  
should be opposed to  the prayer of our 

petition4    #dbc4 ,the policy of giving
 bounties upon home productions1 and  of
 enforcing restrictions against those   
which can be produced  more cheaply in  
other countries1 is of a very           
questionable  nature3 and1 except for   
the purpose of introducing a new        
manufacture1 in a country where there is
 not much commercial or  manufacturing  
spirit1 is scarcely to be defended4 ,all
 incidental  modes of taxing one class  
of the community1 the consumers1 to an  
unknown extent1 for the sake of         
supporting another class1 the           
manufacturers1 who would otherwise      
abandon that mode of employing  their   
capital1 are highly objectionable4 ,one 
part of the price of  any article       
produced under such circumstances1      
consists of the  expenditure1 together  
with the ordinary profits of capital3   
the  other part of its price may be     
looked upon as charity1 given to  induce
 the manufacturer to continue an        
unprofitable use of his  capital1 in    

order to give employment to his workmen4
 ,if the sum  of what the consumers are 
thus forced to pay1 merely on account   
of these artificial restrictions1 where 
generally known1 its  amount would      
astonish even those who advocate them2  
and it would  be evident to both        
parties1 that the employment of capital 
in  those branches of trade ought to be 
abandoned4    #dbd4 ,the restriction of 
articles produced in a manufactory to   
certain sizes1 is attended with some    
good effect in an economical  view1     
arising chiefly from the smaller number 
of different tools  required in making  
them1 as well as from less frequent     
change in  the adjustment of those      
tools4 ,a similar source of economy is  
employed in the ,navy3 by having ships  
divided into a certain  number of       
classes1 each of which comprises vessels
 of the same  dimensions1 the rigging   
made for one vessel will fit any other  
of  its class2 a circumstance which     
renders the supply of distant  stations 

more easy4    #dbe4 ,the effects of the 
removal of a monopoly are often very    
important1 and they were perhaps never  
more remarkable than in  the bobbin net 
trade1 in the years #ahbd and #ahbe4    
,these effects  were1 however1          
considerably enhanced by the general    
rage for  speculation which was so      
prevalent during that singular period4  
,one of the patents of ,mr ,heathcote   
for a bobbin net machine had  just then 
expired1 whilst another1 for an         
improvement in a  particular part of    
such machines1 called a turn again1 had 
yet a  few years to run4 ,many licenses 
had been granted to use the  former     
patent1 which were charged at the rate  
of about five  pounds per annum for each
 quarter of a yard in width1 so that    
what is termed a six-quarter frame      
7which makes bobbin net a yard  and a   
half wide7 paid thirty pounds a year4   
,the second patent was  ultimately      
abandoned in ,august1 #ahbc1            
infringements of it having  taken place4

    ,it was not surprising that1 on the 
removal of the monopoly  arising from   
this patent1 a multitude of persons     
became desirous  of embarking in a trade
 which had hitherto yielded a very large
  profit4 ,the bobbin net machine       
occupies little space2 and is1  from    
that circumstance1 well adapted for a   
domestic manufacture4  ,the machines    
which already existed1 were principally 
in the hands  of the manufacturers2 but1
 a kind of mania for obtaining them     
seized on persons of all descriptions1  
who could raise a small  capital2 and1  
under its influence1 butchers1 bakers1  
small  farmers1 publicans1 gentlemen's  
servants1 and1 in some cases1  even     
clergymen1 became anxious to possess    
bobbin net machines4    ,some few       
machines were rented2 but1 in most of   
these cases1  the workman purchased the 
machine he employed1 by instalments of  
from ,l#c to ,l#f weekly1 for a six     
quarter machine2 and many  individuals1 
unacquainted with the mode of using the 

machines so  purchased1 paid others of  
more experience for instructing them in 
their use2 ,l#ej or ,l#fj being         
sometimes given for this instruction4   
,the success of the first speculators   
induced others to follow the  example2  
and the machine-makers were almost      
overwhelmed with  orders for lace       
frames4 ,such was the desire to procure 
them1 that  many persons deposited a    
large part1 or the whole1 of the price1 
in the hands of the frame-makers1 in    
order to insure their having  the       
earliest supply4 ,this1 as might        
naturally be expected1 raised  the price
 of wages amongst the workmen employed  
in  machine-making2 and the effect was  
felt at a considerable  distance from   
,nottingham1 which was the centre of    
this mania4  ,smiths not used to flat   
filing1 coming from distant parts1      
earned  from #cjs4 to #dbs4 per week4   
,finishing smiths1 accustomed to the    
work1 gained from ,l#c to ,l#d per      
week44,the forging smith1 if  accustomed

 to his work1 gained from ,l#e to ,l#f  
per week1 and some  few earned ,l#aj per
 week4 ,in making what are technically  
called  insides1 those who were best    
paid1 were generally clock- and         
watchmakers1 from all the districts     
round1 who received from ,l#c  to ,l#d  
per week4 ,the setters-up--persons who  
put the parts of the  machine           
together--charged ,l#bj for their       
assistance2 and1 a six  quarter machine1
 could be put together in a fortnight or
 three  weeks4    #dbf4 ,good workmen1  
being thus induced to desert less       
profitable branches of their business1  
in order to supply this  extraordinary  
demand1 the masters1 in other trades1   
soon found  their men leaving them1     
without being aware of the immediate    
reason3 some of the more intelligent1   
however1 ascertained the  cause4 ,they  
went from ,birmingham to ,nottingham1 in
 order to  examine into the             
circumstances which had seduced almost  
all the  journeymen clockmakers from    

their own workshops2 and it was soon    
apparent1 that the men who had been     
working as clockmakers in  ,birmingham1 
at the rate of #bes4 a week1 could earn 
,l#b by working  at lace frame-making in
 ,nottingham4    ,on examining the      
nature of this profitable work1 the     
master  clockmakers perceived that one  
part of the bobbin net machines1  that  
which held the bobbins1 could easily be 
made in their own  workshops4 ,they     
therefore contracted with the           
machine-makers1 who  had already more   
work ordered than they could execute1 to
 supply  the bobbin carriers1 at a price
 which enabled them1 on their  return   
home1 to give such increased wages as   
were sufficient to  retain their own    
workmen1 as well as yield themselves a  
good  profit4 ,thus an additional       
facility was afforded for the           
construction of these bobbin net        
machines3 and the conclusion was  not   
difficult to be foreseen4 ,the immense  
supply of bobbin net  thus poured into  

the market1 speedily reduced its price2 
this  reduction in price1 rendered the  
machines by which the net was  made1    
less valuable2 some few of the earliest 
producers1 for a  short time1 carried on
 a profitable trade2 but multitudes were
  disappointed1 and many ruined4 ,the   
low price at which the fabric  sold1    
together with its lightness and beauty1 
combined to extend  the sale2 and       
ultimately1 new improvements in the     
machines1  rendered the older ones still
 less valuable4    #dbg4 ,the bobbin net
 trade is1 at present1 both extensive   
and  increasing2 and1 as it may1        
probably1 claim a larger portion of     
public attention at some future time1 it
 will be interesting to  describe       
briefly its actual state4    ,a lace    
frame on the most improved principle1 at
 the present  day1 manufacturing a piece
 of net two yards wide1 when worked     
night and day1 will produce six hundred 
and twenty racks per  week4 ,a rack is  
two hundred and forty holes2 and as in  

the  machine to which we refer1 three   
racks are equal in length to one  yard1 
it will produce #ba1dic square yards of 
bobbin net annually4  ,three men keep   
this machine constantly working2 and1   
they were  paid 7by piece-work7 about   
#bes4 each per week1 in #ahcj4 ,two     
boys1  working only in the day-time1 can
 prepare the bobbins for this  machine1 
and are paid from #bs4 to #ds4 per week1
 according to  their skill4 ,forty-six  
square yards of this net weigh two      
pounds  three ounces2 so that each      
square yard weighs a little more than   
three-quarters of an ounce4    #dbh4    
,for a condensed and general view of the
 present state of  this trade1 we shall 
avail ourselves of a statement by ,mr   
,william  ,felkin1 of ,nottingham1 dated
 ,september1 #ahca1 and entitled ,facts 
and ,calculations illustrative of the   
,present ,state of the ,bobbin  ,net    
,trade4 ,it appears to have been        
collected with care1 and  contains1 in a
 single sheet of paper1 a body of facts 

of the  greatest importance4 99    #dbi4
 ,the total capital employed in the     
factories1 for  preparing the cotton1 in
 those for weaving the bobbin net1 and  
in  various processes to which it is    
subject1 is estimated at above          
,l#b1jjj1jjj1 and the number of persons 
who receive wages1 at above  two hundred
 thousand4     ,comparison of the value 
of the raw material imported1 with the  
value of the goods manufactured         
therefrom    ,amount of ,sea ,island    
cotton annually used #a1fjj1jjj lbs41   
value  ,l#abj1jjj2 this is manufactured 
into yarn1 weighing #a1jjj1jjj  lbs41   
value ,l#ejj1jjj4    ,there is also used
 #be1jjj lbs4 of raw silk1 which costs  
,l#cj1jjj1 and is doubled into #aj1jjj  
lbs4 thrown1 worth ,l#dj1jjj4    ,raw   
,material2 ,manufacture2 ,square yards  
produced2 ,value per sq4  yd47s4 d472   
,total value 7,l7    ,cotton #a1fjj1jjj2
 lbs2 ,power ,net2  #f1gej1jjj2 #a #c2  
#dba1hge                         ,hand  
ditto2 #ae1gej1jjj2 #a #i2 #a1cgh1abe   

,fancy ditto2 #aej1jjj2 #c #f2 #bf1bej  
,silk1 #be1jjj lbs2     ,silk ,goods2   
#gej1jjj2 #a #i2 #fe1fbe                
#bc1djj1jjj2 #a1hia1hge      99 ,i      
cannot omit the opportunity of          
expressing my hope that this  example   
will be followed in other trades4 ,we   
should thus obtain a  body of           
information equally important to the    
workman1 the  capitalist1 the           
philosopher1 and the statesman4         
,the brown nets which are sold in the   
,nottingham market are  in part disposed
 of by the agents of twelve or fifteen  
of the  larger makers1 i4e4 to the      
amount of about ,l#bej1jjj a year4 ,the 
principal part of the remainder1 i4e4   
about ,l#a1jej1jjj a year1 is  sold by  
about two hundred agents1 who take the  
goods from one  warehouse to another for
 sale4    ,of this production1 about    
half is exported in the  unembroidered  
state4 ,the exports of bobbin net are in
 great part  to ,hamburgh1 for sale at  
home and at ,leipzic and ,frankfort     

fairs4  ,antwerp1 and the rest of       
,belgium2 to ,france1 by contraband2 to 
,italy1 and ,north and ,south ,america4 
,though a very suitable  article1 yet   
the quantity sent eastward of the ,cape 
of ,good ,hope1  has hitherto been too  
trifling for notice4 ,three-eighths of  
the  whole production are sold          
unembroidered at home4 ,the remaining   
one-eighth is embroidered in this       
country1 and increases the  ultimate    
value as under1 viz4     ,embroidery    
,increases value     ,ultimate worth    
,l                      ,l   ,on power  
net     #aca1hdj               #eec1gae 
,on hand net    #a1bje1hfj              
#b1ehc4ihe   ,on fancy net      #gh1gej 
#aje1jjj   ,on silk net      #aji1cge   
#age1jjj     ,total embroidery1 wages   
and profits #a1ebe1hbe   ,ultimate total
 value #c1dag1gjj      ,from this it    
appears1 that in the operations of this 
trade1  which had no existence twenty   
years ago1 ,l#abj1jjj original cost  of 
cotton becomes1 when manufactured1 of   

the ultimate value of  ,l#c1bdb1gjj     
sterling4    ,as to weekly wages paid1  
,i hazard the following as the          
judgement of those conversant with the  
respective branches1 viz4    ,in fine   
spinning and doubling1 adults #bes42    
children #gs43  work twelve hours per   
day4    ,in bobbin net making2 men      
working machines1 #ahs42  apprentices1  
youths of fifteen or more1 #ajs42 by    
power1 fifteen  hours2 by hand1 eight to
 twelve hours1 according to width4      
,in mending2 children #ds42 women #hs42 
work nine to fourteen  hours ad libitum4
    ,in winding1 threading1 etc41       
children and young women1 #es43         
irregular work1 according to the        
progress of machines4    ,in embroidery2
 children seven years old and upwards1  
#as4 to  #cs42 work ten to twelve hours2
 women1 if regularly at work1 #es4  to  
#gs4 #f;d42 twelve to fourteen hours4   
,as an example of the effect of the     
wages of lace embroidery1  etc41 it may 
be observed1 it is often the case that a

 stocking  weaver in a country village  
will earn only #gs4 a week1 and his     
wife and children #gs4 to #ads4 more at 
the embroidery frame4    #dcj4 ,the     
principal part of the hand-machines     
employed in the  bobbin net manufacture 
are worked in shops1 forming part of1 or
  attached to1 private houses4 ,the     
subjoined list will show the  kinds of  
machinery employed1 and classes of      
persons to whom it  belongs4     ,bobbin
 net machinery now at work in the       
,kingdom     ,hand levers #f quarter    
#ejj      ,hand circulars #f quarter    
#ajj               #g quarter #bjj      
#g quarter #cjj               #h quarter
 #cjj                     #h quarter    
#djj              #aj quarter #cjj      
#i quarter #ajj              #ab quarter
  #cj                    #aj quarter    
#cjj              #af quarter  #bj      
#ab quarter #ajj              #bj       
quarter   #a   ,hand transverse1 pusher1
   ,hand rotary #aj quarter #ej         
straight bolt1 etc4 averaging #e        

quarters #gej               #ab quarter 
#ej                        #bjej        
#adea     ,total hand machines #ceja    
,power     #f quarter #ajj              
#g quarter  #dj             #h quarter  
#cej            #aj quarter #bgj        
#ab quarter #bbj            #af quarter 
#bj  ,total power machines #ajjj        
,total number of machines #deja     #gjj
 persons own #a machine1 #gjj machines4 
#bbf             #b          #deb   #aha
             #c          #edc    #if    
#d          #chd    #dj             #e  
#bjj    #ba             #f          #abf
    #ag             #g          #aai    
#ai             #h          #aeb    #ag 
#i          #aec    #ab            #aj  
#abj     #h            #aa           #hh
     #f            #ab           #gb    
#e            #ac           #fe     #e  
#ad           #gj     #d            #af 
#fd    #be own respectively #ah1        
#ai1  #bj1  #ba1              #bc1  #bd1
  #be1              #bf1  #bg1  #bh1    
#bi1  #cj1  #cb1              #cc1  #ce1

  #cf1              #cg1  #ej1  #fj1    
#fh1  #gj1  #ge1              #ie1 #aje1
 #bjf                              #aaib
    ,number of owners of machines--#achb
 ,holding together #dejj  machines4     
,the hand workmen consist of the        
above-named owners #ajjj  ,and of       
journeymen and apprentices        #djjj 
#ejjj     ,these machines are           
distributed as follows   ,nottingham    
#abdj   ,new ,radford #adj   ,old       
,radford and ,bloomsgrove #bdj   ,ison  
,green #afj   ,beeston and ,chilwell    
#acj   ,new and ,old ,snenton #ahj      
,derby and its vicinity #ahe            
,loughborough and its vicinity #che     
,leicester #ie   ,mansfield #he         
,tiverton #bbj   ,barnstable l#hj       
,chard #aij   ,isle of ,wight #hj   ,in 
sundry other places #iij                
#dejj      ,of the above owners1 one    
thousand work in their own machines1    
and enter into the class of journeymen  
as well as that of masters  in operating
 on the rate of wages4 ,if they reduce  

the price of  their goods in the market1
 they reduce their own wages first2     
and1 of course1 eventually the rate of  
wages throughout the  trade4 ,it is a   
very lamentable fact1 that one-half1 or 
more1 of  the one thousand one hundred  
persons specified in the list as  owning
 one1 two1 and three machines1 have been
 compelled to  mortgage their machines  
for more than their worth in the market1
  and are in many cases totally         
insolvent4 ,their machines are          
principally narrow and making short     
pieces1 while the absurd  system of     
bleaching at so much a piece goods of   
all lengths and  widths1 and dressing at
 so much all widths1 has caused the new 
machines to be all wide1 and capable of 
producing long pieces2 of  course to the
 serious disadvantage1 if not utter     
ruin1 of the  small owner of narrow     
machines4    ,it has been observed      
above1 that wages have been reduced1 say
  #be per cent in the last two years1 or
 from #bds4 to #ahs4 a week4  ,machines 

have increased in the same time         
one-eighth in number1 or  from four     
thousand to four thousand five hundred1 
and one-sixth  in capacity of           
production4 ,it is deserving the serious
 notice of  all proprietors of existing 
machines1 that machines are now         
introducing into the trade of such power
 of production as must  still more than 
ever depreciate 7in the absence of an   
immensely  increased demand7 the value  
of their property4    #dca4 ,from this  
abstract1 we may form some judgement of 
the  importance of the bobbin net trade4
 ,but the extent to which it  bids fair 
to be carried in future1 when the       
eastern markets shall  be more open to  
our industry1 may be conjectured from   
the fact  which ,mr ,felkin subsequently
 states that ',we can export a durable  
and elegant article in cotton bobbin    
net1 at #d;d4 per square yard1  proper  
for certain useful and ornamental       
purposes1 as curtains1  etc42 and       
another article used for many purposes  

in female dress  at #f;d4 the square    
yard4'    #dcb4 ,of patents4 ,in order  
to encourage the invention1 the         
improvement1 or the importation of      
machines1 and of discoveries  relating  
to manufactures1 it has been the        
practice in many  countries1 to grant to
 the inventors or first introducers1 an 
exclusive privilege for a term of years4
 ,such monopolies are  termed patents2  
and they are granted1 on the payment of 
certain  fees1 for different periods1   
from five to twenty years4    ,the      
following table1 compiled from the      
,report of the  ,committee of the ,house
 of ,commons on ,patents1 #ahbi1 shows  
the  expense and duration of patents in 
various countries3    ,countries2       
,expense 7,l s4 d472 ,term of years2    
,number granted in  six years1 ending in
 #ahbf47,rep4 p4 #bdc47    ,england2    
#abj #j #j2 #ad2 #iad  ,ireland2 #abe #j
 #j2 #ad2  ,scotland2 #ajj #j #j2 #ad2  
,america2 #f #ae #j2 #ad2  ,france2 #ab 
#j #j2 #e2          #cb #j #j2 #aj2     

#fj #j #j2 #ae2 #ajia  ,netherlands2    
,l#f to ,l#cj2 #e1 #aj4 #ae  ,austria2  
#db #aj #j2 #ae2 #ajii  ,spain7#c997    
,inventor2 #bj #i #d2 #ae2              
,improver2 #ab #e #g2 #aj2              
,importer2 #aj #d #h2  #f2      #dcc4   
,it is clearly of importance to preserve
 to each inventor  the sole use of his  
invention1 until he shall have been     
amply  repaid for the risk and expense  
to which he has been exposed1 as  well  
as for the talent he has exerted in     
completing it4 ,but1 the  degrees of    
merit are so various1 and the           
difficulties of  legislating upon the   
subject so great1 that it has been found
  almost impossible to frame a law which
 shall not1 practically1 be  open to the
 most serious objections4    ,the       
difficulty of defending an ,english     
patent in any judicial  trial1 is very  
great2 and the number of instances on   
record in  which the defence has        
succeeded1 are comparatively few4 ,this 
circumstance has induced some           

manufacturers1 no longer to regard  a   
patent as a privilege by which a        
monopoly price may be secured3  but they
 sell the patent article at such a      
price1 as will merely  produce the      
ordinary profits of capital2 and thus   
secure to  themselves the fabrication of
 it1 because no competitors can  derive 
a profit from invading a patent so      
exercised4    #dcd4 ,the law of         
copyright1 is1 in some measure1 allied  
to  that of patents2 and it is curious  
to observe1 that those species  of      
property which require the highest      
talent1 and the greatest                
cultivation--which are1 more than any   
other1 the pure creations  of           
mind--should have been the latest to be 
recognized by the  ,state4 ,fortunately1
 the means of deciding on an            
infringement of  property in regard to a
 literary production1 are not verv      
difficult2 but the present laws are1 in 
some cases1 productive of  considerable 
hardship1 as well as of impediment to   

the  advancement of knowledge4    #dce4 
,whilst discussing the general          
expediency of limitations  and          
restrictions1 it may be desirable to    
point out one which  seems to promise   
advantage1 though by no means free from 
grave  objections4 ,the question of     
permitting by law1 the existence of     
partnerships in which the responsibility
 of one or more of the  partners is     
limited in amount1 is peculiarly        
important in a  manufacturing1 as well  
as a commercial point of view4 ,in the  
former light1 it appears calculated to  
aid that division of  labour1 which we  
have already proved to be as            
advantageous in  mental as it is in     
bodily operations2 and it might possibly
 give  rise to a more advantageous      
distribution of talent1 and its         
combinations1 than at present exists4   
,there are in this country1  many       
persons possessed of moderate capital1  
who do not  themselves enjoy the power  
of invention in the mechanical and      

chemical arts1 but who are tolerable    
judges of such inventions1  and         
excellent judges of human character4    
,such persons might1 with  great        
success1 employ themselves in finding   
out inventive  workmen1 whose want of   
capital prevents them from realizing    
their  projects4 ,if they could enter   
into a limited partnership with  persons
 so circumstanced1 they might restrain  
within proper  bounds the imagination of
 the inventor1 and by supplying capital 
to judicious schemes1 render a service  
to the country1 and secure  a profit for
 themselves4    #dcf4 ,amongst the      
restrictions intended for the general   
benefit of our manufacturers1 there     
existed a few years ago one  by which   
workmen were forbidden to go out of the 
country4 ,a law  so completely at       
variance with everv principle of        
liberty1 ought  never to have been      
enacted4 ,it was not1 however1 until    
experience  had convinced the           
legislature of its inefficiency1 that it

 was  repealed4 99 ,when1 after the last
 war1 the renewed intercourse  between  
,england and the ,continent became      
extensive1 it was soon  found that it   
was impossible to discover the various  
disguises  which the workmen could      
assume2 and the effect of the law was   
rather1 by the fear of punishment1 to   
deter those who had left  the country   
from returning1 than to check their     
disposition to  migrate4    #dcf4 7#d997
 ,the principle1 that government ,ought 
to interfere  as little as possible     
between workmen and their employers1 is 
so  well established1 that it is        
important to guard against its          
misapplication4 ,it is not inconsistent 
with this principle to  insist on the   
workmen being paid in money--for this is
 merely to  protect them from being     
deceived2 and still less is it a        
deviation from it to limit the number of
 hours during which  children shall work
 in factories1 or the age at which they 
shall  commence that species of         

labour--for they are not free agents1   
nor are they capable of judging1 if they
 were2 and both policy  and humanity    
concur in demanding for them some       
legislative  protection4 ,in both cases 
it is as right and politic to protect   
the weaker party from fraud or force1 as
 it would be impolitic  and unjust to   
interfere with the amount of the wages  
of either4    ,,notes3    #a4 ,twenty   
eight shillings per cwt for the finer1  
twenty one  shillings per cwt for the   
coarser papers4    #b4 ,i cannot omit   
the opportunity of expressing my hope   
that this  example will be followed in  
other trades4 ,we should thus obtain a  
body of information equally important to
 the workman1 the  capitalist1 the      
philosopher1 and the stateman4    #c4   
,the expense of a patent in ,spain is   
stated in the report to be  respectively
 #bjjj1 #abjj and #ajjj reals4 ,if these
 are reals of  vellon1 in which accounts
 are usually kept at ,madrid1 the above 
sums are correct2 but if they are reals 

of plate1 the above sums  ought to be   
nearly doubled4    #d4 ,in the year     
#ahbd the law against workmen going     
abroad1 as well  as the laws preventing 
them from combining1 were repealed1     
after  the fullest enquiry by a         
,committee of the ,house of ,commons4   
,in  #ahbe an attempt to re-enact some  
of the most objectionable was  made1 but
 it failed4        ,chapter #cd    ,on  
the ,exportation of ,machinery    #dcg4 
,a few years only have elapsed1 since   
our workmen were  not merely prohibited 
by ,act of ,parliament from transporting
  themselves to countries in which their
 industry would produce for  them higher
 wages1 but were forbidden to export the
 greater part  of the machinery which   
they were employed to manufacture at    
home4  ,the reason assigned for this    
prohibition was1 the apprehension  that 
foreigners might avail themselves of our
 improved  machinery1 and thus compete  
with our manufacturers4 ,it was1 in     
fact1 a sacrifice of the interests of   

one class of persons1 the  makers of    
machinery1 for the imagined benefit of  
another class1  those who use it4 ,now1 
independently of the impolicy of        
interfering1 without necessity1 between 
these two classes1 it may  be observed1 
that the first class1 or the makers of  
machinery1  are1 as a body1 far more    
intelligent than those who only use it2 
and though1 at present1 they are not    
nearly so numerous1 yet1  when the      
removal of the prohibition which cramps 
their ingenuity  shall have had time to 
operate1 there appears good reason to   
believe1 that their number will be      
greatly increased1 and may1 in  time1   
even surpass that of those who use      
machinery4    #dch4 ,the advocates of   
these prohibitions in ,england seem to  
rely greatly upon the possibility of    
preventing the knowledge of  new        
contrivances from being conveyed to     
other countries2 and they  take much too
 limited a view of the possible1 and    
even probable1  improvements in         

mechanics4    #dci4 ,for the purpose of 
examining this question1 let us         
consider the case of two manufacturers  
of the same article1 one  situated in a 
country in which labour is very cheap1  
the  machinery bad1 and the modes of    
transport slow and expensive2 the  other
 engaged in manufacturing in a country  
in which the price of  labour is very   
high1 the machinery excellent1 and the  
means of  transport expeditious and     
economical4 ,let them both send their   
produce to the same market1 and let each
 receive such a price as  shall give to 
him the profit ordinarily produced by   
capital in  his own country4 ,it is     
almost certain that in such             
circumstances  the first improvement in 
machinery will occur in the country     
which is most advanced in civilization2 
because1 even admitting  that the       
ingenuity to contrive were the same in  
the two  countries1 the means of        
execution are very different4 ,the      
effect  of improved machinery in the    

rich country will be perceived in  the  
common market1 by a small fall in the   
price of the  manufactured article4     
,this will be the first intimation to   
the  manufacturer of the poor country1  
who will endeavour to meet the          
diminution in the selling price of his  
article by increased  industry and      
economy in his factory1 but he will soon
 find that  this remedy is temporary1   
and that the market-price continues to  
fall4 ,he will thus be induced to       
examine the rival fabric1 in  order to  
detect1 from its structure1 any improved
 mode of making  it4 ,if1 as would most 
usually happen1 he should be            
unsuccessful  in this attempt1 he must  
endeavour to contrive improvements in   
his own machinery1 or to acquire        
information respecting those  which have
 been made in the factories of the      
richer country4  ,perhaps after an      
ineffectual attempt to obtain by letters
 the  information he requires1 he sets  
out to visit in person the  factories of

 his competitors4 ,to a foreigner and   
rival  manufacturer such establishments 
are not easily accessible1 and  the more
 recent the improvements1 the less      
likely he will be to  gain access to    
them4 ,his next step1 therefore1 will be
 to obtain  the knowledge he is in      
search of from the workmen employed in  
using or making the machines4 ,without  
drawings1 or an examination  of the     
machines themselves1 this process will  
be slow and  tedious2 and he will be    
liable1 after all1 to be deceived by    
artful and designing workmen1 and be    
exposed to many chances of  failure4    
,but suppose he returns to his own      
country with perfect  drawings and      
instructions1 he must then begin to     
construct his  improved machines3 and   
these he cannot execute either so       
cheaply  or so well as his rivals in the
 richer countries4 ,but after the  lapse
 of some time1 we shall suppose the     
machines thus  laboriously improved1 to 
be at last completed1 and in working    

order4    #ddj4 ,let us now consider    
what will have occurred to the          
manufacturer in the rich country4 ,he   
will1 in the first instance1  have      
realized a profit by supplying the home 
market1 at the usual  price1 with an    
article which it costs him less to      
produce2 he  will then reduce the price 
both in the home and foreign market1  in
 order to produce a more extended sale4 
,it is in this stage  that the          
manufacturer in the poor country first  
feels the effect  of the competition2   
and if we suppose only two or three     
years to  elapse between the first      
application of the new improvement in   
the rich country1 and the commencement  
of its employment in the  poor country1 
yet will the manufacturer who contrived 
the  improvement 7even supposing that   
during the whole of this time he  has   
made only one step7 have realized so    
large a portion of the  outlay which it 
required1 that he can afford to make a  
much  greater reduction in the price of 

his produce1 and thus to render  the    
gains of his rivals quite inferior to   
his own4    #dda4 ,it is contended that 
by admitting the exportation of         
machinery1 foreign manufacturers will be
 supplied with machines  equal to our   
own4 ,the first answer which presents   
itself to this  argument is supplied by 
almost the whole of the present volume2 
,that in order to succeed in a          
manufacture1 it is necessary not  merely
 to possess good machinery1 but that the
 domestic economy  of the factory should
 be most carefully regulated4    ,the   
truth1 as well as the importance of this
 principle1 is so  well established in  
the ,report of a ,committee of the      
,house of  ,commons ',on the ,export of 
,tools and ,machinery'1 that ,i shall   
avail myself of the opinions and        
evidence there stated1 before ,i  offer 
any observations of my own3             
,supposing1 indeed1 that the same       
machinery which is used in  ,england    
could be obtained on the ,continent1 it 

is the opinion of  some of the most     
intelligent of the witnesses that a want
 of  arrangement in foreign             
manufactories1 of division of labour in 
their work1 of skill and perseverance in
 their workmen1 and of  enterprise in   
the masters1 together with the          
comparatively low  estimation in which  
the master manufacturers are held on the
  ,continent1 and with the comparative  
want of capital1 and of many  other     
advantageous circumstances detailed in  
the evidence1 would  prevent foreigners 
from interfering in any great degree by 
competition with our principal          
manufacturers2 on which subject  the    
,committee submit the following evidence
 as worthy the  attention of the ,house3
    ,i would ask whether1 upon the      
whole1 you consider any danger  likely  
to arise to our manufactures from       
competition1 even if the  ,french were  
supplied with machinery equally good and
 cheap as our  own8 ,they will always be
 behind us until their general habits   

approximate to ours2 and they must be   
behind us for many reasons  that ,i have
 before given4    ,why must they be     
behind us8 ,one other reason is1 that a 
cotton manufacturer who left ,manchester
 seven years ago1 would be  driven out  
of the market by the men who are now    
living in it1  provided his knowledge   
had not kept pace with those who have   
been  during that time constantly       
profiting by the progressive            
improvements that have taken place in   
that period3 this  progressive knowledge
 and experience is our great power and  
advantage4    ,it should also be        
observed1 that the constant1 nay1 almost
  daily1 improvements which take place  
in our machinery itself1 as  well as in 
the mode of its application1 require    
that all those  means and advantages    
alluded to above should be in constant  
operation3 and that1 in the opinion of  
several of the witnesses1  although     
,europe were possessed of every tool now
 used in the  ,united ,kingdom1 along   

with the assistance of ,english         
artisans1  which she may have in any    
number1 yet1 from the natural and       
acquired advantages possessed by this   
country1 the manufacturers  of the      
,united ,kingdom would for ages continue
 to retain the  superiority they now    
enjoy4 ,it is indeed the opinion of     
many1  that if the exportation of       
machinery were permitted1 the           
exportation would often consist of those
 tools and machines1  which1 although   
already superseded by new inventions1   
still  continue to be employed1 from    
want of opportunity to get rid of  them3
 to the detriment1 in many instances1 of
 the trade and  manufactures of the     
country3 and it is matter worthy of     
consideration1 and fully borne out by   
the evidence1 that by such  increased   
foreign demand for machinery1 the       
ingenuity and skill  of our workmen     
would have greater scope2 and that1     
important as  the improvements in       
machinery have lately been1 they might1 

under  such circumstances1 be fairly    
expected to increase to a degree  beyond
 all precedent4    ,the many important  
facilities for the construction of      
machines and the manufacturing of       
commodities which we possess1  are      
enjoyed by no other country2 nor is it  
likely that any  country can enjoy them 
to an equal extent for an indefinite    
period4 ,it is admitted by everyone1    
that our skill is unrivalled2  the      
industry and power of our people        
unequalled2 their  ingenuity1 as        
displayed in the continuol improvement  
in  machinery1 and production of        
commodities1 without parallel2 and      
apparently1 without limit4 ,the freedom 
which1 under our  government1 every man 
has1 to use his capital1 his labour1 and
  his talents1 in the manner most       
conducive to his interests1 is an       
inestimable advantage2 canals are cut1  
and railroads constructed1  by the      
voluntary association of persons whose  
local knowledge  enables them to place  

them in the most desirable situations2  
and  these great advantages cannot exist
 under less free governments4  ,these   
circumstances1 when taken together1 give
 such a decided  superiority to our     
people1 that no injurious rivalry1      
either in  the construction of machinery
 or the manufacture of commodities1  can
 reasonably be anticipated4    #ddb4    
,but1 even if it were desirable to      
prevent the  exportation of a certain   
class of machinery1 it is abdundantly   
evident1 that1 whilst the exportation of
 other classes is  allowed1 it is       
impossible to prevent the forbidden one 
from being  smuggled out2 and that1 in  
point of fact1 the additional risk has  
been well calculated by the smuggler4   
#ddc4 ,it would appear1 also1 from      
various circumstances1 that  the        
immediate exportation of improved       
machinery is not quite so  certain as   
has been assumed2 and that the powerful 
principle of  self-interest will urge   
the makers of it1 rather to push the    

sale  in a different direction4 ,when a 
great maker of machinery has  contrived 
a new machine for any particular        
process1 or has made  some great        
improvement upon those in common use1 to
 whom will he  naturally apply for the  
purpose of selling his new machines8    
,undoubtedly1 in by far the majority of 
cases1 to his nearest and  best         
customers1 those to whom he has         
immediate and personal  access1 and     
whose capability to fulfil any contract 
is best known  to him4 ,with these1 he  
will communicate and offer to take their
  orders for the new machine2 nor will  
he think of writing to  foreign         
customers1 so long as he finds the home 
demand sufficient  to employ the whole  
force of his establishment4 ,thus1      
therefore1  the machine-maker is himself
 interested in giving the first         
advantage of any new improvement to his 
own countrymen4    #ddd4 ,in point of   
fact1 the machine-makers in ,london     
greatly  prefer home orders1 and do     

usually charge an additional price to   
their foreign customers4 ,even the      
measure of this preference may  be found
 in the evidence before the ,committee  
on the ,export of  ,machinery4 ,it is   
differently estimated by various        
engineers2 but  appears to vary from    
five up to twenty-five per cent on the  
amount of the order4 ,the reasons are3  
#a4 ,if the machinery be  complicated1  
one of the best workmen1 well accustomed
 to the mode  of work in the factory1   
must be sent out to put it up2 and there
  is always a considerable chance of his
 having offers that will  induce him to 
remain abroad4 #b4 ,if the work be of a 
more simple  kind1 and can be put up    
without the help of an ,english workman1
  yet for the credit of the house which 
supplies it1 and to prevent  the        
accidents likely to occur from the want 
of sufficient  instruction in those who 
use it1 the parts are frequently made   
stronger1 and examined more attentively1
 than they would be for  an ,english    

purchaser4 ,any defect or accident also 
would be  attended with more expense to 
repair1 if it occurred abroad1 than  in 
,england4    #dde4 ,the class of workmen
 who make machinery1 possess much  more 
skill1 and are paid much more highly    
than that class who  merely use it2 and1
 if a free exportation were allowed1 the
 more  valuable class would1            
undoubtedly1 be greatly increased2 for1 
notwithstanding the high rate of wages1 
there is no country in  whichit can at  
this moment be made1 either so well or  
so cheaply  as in ,england4 ,we might1  
therefore1 supply the whole world with  
machinery1 at an evident advantage1 both
 to ourselves and our  customers4 ,in   
,manchester1 and the surrounding        
district1 many  thousand men are wholly 
occupied in making the machinery1 which 
gives employment to many hundred        
thousands who use it2 but the  period is
 not very remote1 when the whole number 
of those who  used machines1 was not    
greater than the number of those who at 

present manufacture them4 ,hence1 then1 
if ,england should ever  become a great 
exporter of machinery1 she would        
necessarily  contain a large class of   
workmen1 to whom skill would be         
indispensable1 and1 consequently1 to    
whom high wages would be  paid2 and     
although her manufacturers might        
probably be  comparatively fewer in     
number1 yet they would undoubtedly have 
the advantage of being the first to     
derive profit from  improvement4 ,under 
such circumstances1 any diminution in   
the  demand for machinery1 would1 in the
 first instance1 be felt by a  class    
much better able to meet it1 than that  
which now suffers  upon every check in  
the consumption of manufactured goods2  
and  the resulting misery would         
therefore assume a mitigated  character4
    #ddf4 ,it has been feared1 that when
 other countries have  purchased our    
machines1 they will cease to demand new 
ones3 but  the statement which has been 
given of the usual progress in the      

improvement of the machinery employed in
 any manufacture1 and of  the average   
time which elapses before it is         
superseded by such  improvements1 is a  
complete reply to this objection4 ,if   
our  customers abroad did not adopt the 
new machinery contrived by us  as soon  
as they could procure it1 then our      
manufacturers would  extend their       
establishments1 and undersell their     
rivals in their  own markets4    #ddg4  
,it may also be urged1 that in each kind
 of machinery a  maximum of perfection  
may be imagined1 beyond which it is     
impossible to advance2 and certainly the
 last advances are  usually the smallest
 when compared with those which precede 
them3  but it should be observed1 that  
these advances are generally made  when 
the number of machines in employment is 
already large2 and  when1 consequently1 
their effects on the power of producing 
are  very considerable4 ,but though it  
should be admitted that any one  species
 of machinery may1 after a long period1 

arrive at a degree  of perfection which 
would render further improvement nearly 
hopeless1 yet it is impossible to       
suppose that this can be the  case with 
respect to all kinds of mechanism4 ,in  
fact the limit of  improvement is rarely
 approached1 except in extensive        
branches of  national manufactures2 and 
the number of such branches is1 even  at
 present1 very small4    #ddh4 ,another 
argument in favour of the exportation of
  machinery1 is1 that it would          
facilitate the transfer of capital  to  
any more advantageous mode of employment
 which might present  itself4 ,if the   
exportation of machinery were permitted1
 there  would doubtless arise a new and 
increased demand2 and1 supposing  any   
particular branch of our manufactures to
 cease to produce the  average rate of  
profit1 the loss to the capitalist would
 be much  less1 if a market were open   
for the sale of his machinery to        
customers more favourably circumstanced 
for its employment4 ,if1  on the other  

hand1 new improvements in machinery     
should be  imagined1 the manufacturer   
would be more readily enabled to carry  
them into effect1 by having the foreign 
market opened where he  could sell his  
old machines4 ,the fact1 that ,england  
can1  notwithstanding her taxation and  
her high rate of wages1 actually        
undersell other nations1 seems to be    
well established3 and it  appears to    
depend on the superior goodness and     
cheapness of those  raw materials of    
machinery the metals--on the excellence 
of the  tools--and on the admirable     
arrangements of the domestic economy  of
 our factories4    #ddi4 ,the different 
degrees of facility with which capital  
can  be transferred from one mode of    
employment to another1 has an  important
 effect on the rate of profits in       
different trades and  in different      
countries4 ,supposing all the other     
causes which  influence the rate of     
profit at any period1 to act equally on 
capital employed in different           

occupations1 yet the real rates of      
profit would soon alter1 on account of  
the different degrees of  loss incurred 
by removing the capital from one mode of
 investment  to another1 or of any      
variation in the action of those causes4
    #dej4 ,this principle will appear   
more clearly by taking an  example4 ,let
 two capitalists have embarked ,l#aj1jjj
 each1 in two  trades3 ,a in supplying a
 district with water1 by means of a     
steam-engine and iron pipes2 ,b in      
manufacturing bobbin net4 ,the  capital 
of ,a will be expended in building a    
house and erecting a  steam-engine1     
which costs1 we shall suppose1 ,l#cjjj2 
and in laying  down iron pipes to supply
 his customers1 costing ,l#gjjj4 ,the   
greatest part of this latter expense is 
payment for labour1 and  if the pipes   
were to be taken up1 the damage arising 
from that  operation would render them  
of little value1 except as old metal2   
whilst the expense of their removal     
would be considerable4 ,let  us1        

therefore1 suppose1 that if ,a were     
obliged to give up his  trade1 he could 
realize only ,l#djjj by the sale of his 
stock4 ,let  us suppose again that ,b1  
by the sale of his bobbin net factory   
and machinery1 could realize ,l#hjjj and
 let the usual profit on  the capital   
employed by each party be the same1 say 
#bj per cent3  then we have    ,capital 
invested2 ,money which would arise from 
sale of machinery2  ,annual rate of     
profit per cent2 ,income                
,l         ,l    ,l        ,l   ,water  
works            #aj1jjj    #djjj   #bj 
#bjjj   ,bobbin net ,factory     #aj1jjj
    #hjjj   #bj     #bjjj      ,now1 if1
 from competition1 or any other cause1  
the rate of  profit arising from        
water-works should fall to #bj per cent1
 that  circumstance would not cause a   
transfer of capital from the            
water-works to bobbin net making2       
because the reduced income from  the    
water-works1 ,l#ajjj per annum1 would   
still be greater than  that produced by 

investing ,l#djjj1 7the whole sum       
arising from the  sale of the materials 
of the water-works71 in a bobbin net    
factory1 which sum1 at #bj per cent1    
would yield only ,l#hjj per  annum4 ,in 
fact1 the rate of profit1 arising from  
the water-works1  must fall to less than
 #h per cent before the proprietor could
  increase his income by removing his   
capital into the bobbin net  trade4     
#dea4 ,in any enquiry into the          
probability of the injury  arising to   
our manufacturers from the competition  
of foreign  countries1 particular regard
 should be had to the facilities of     
transport1 and to the existence in our  
own country of a mass of  capital in    
roads1 canals1 machinery1 etc41 the     
greater portion of  which may fairly be 
considered as having repaid the expense 
of  its outlay1 and also to the cheap   
rate at which the abundance of  our fuel
 enables us to produce iron1 the basis  
of almost all  machinery4 ,it has been  
justly remarked by ,m4 de ,villefosse1  

in  the memoir before alluded to1 that  
,ce que l'on nomme en ,france1  la      
question du prix des fers1 est1 a       
proprement parler1 la  question du prix 
des bois1 et la question1 des moyens de 
communications interieures par les      
routes1 fleuves1 rivieres et  canaux4   
,the price of iron in various countries 
in ,europe has been  stated in section  
#bae of the present volume2 and it      
appears1 that  in ,england it is        
produced at the least expense1 and in   
,france at  the greatest4 ,the length of
 the roads which cover ,england and     
,wales may be estimated roughly at      
twenty thousand miles of  turnpike1 and 
one hundred thousand miles of road not  
turnpike4  ,the internal water          
communication of ,england and ,france1  
as far as  ,i have been able to collect 
information on the subject1 may be      
stated as follows3                      
,in ,france                             
,miles in length     ,navigable rivers  
#dffh   ,navigable canals               

#iae4e   ,navigable canals in progress  
of execution 7#ahbd7 #achh              
#figa4e 7#a997    ,but1 if we reduce    
these numbers in the proportion of #c4g 
to #a1  which is the relative area of   
,france as compared with ,england and   
,wales1 then we shall have the following
 comparison3     ,portion of ,france    
equal in size to ,england and ,wales    
,england7#b997                          
,miles              ,miles              
,navigable rivers              #abge4e  
#abfa4f   ,tidal navigation7#c997       
#ede4i   ,canals1 direct    #bjbc4e     
,canals1 branch     #aej4f              
#bagd4a      #bagd4a             #bdg4d 
,canals commenced               ---     
#cge4a                    ,total        
#ciie4e            #ahhd4a              
,population in #ahca        #ac1hid1ejj 
#h1fjh1ejj      ,this comparison1       
between the internal communications of  
the  two countries1 is not offered as   
complete2 nor is it a fair view1  to    
contrast the wealthiest portion of one  

country with the whole  of the other3   
but it is inserted with the hope of     
inducing those  who possess more        
extensive information on the subject1 to
 supply  the facts on which a better    
comparison may be instituted4 ,the      
information to be added1 would consist  
of the number of miles in  each country1
 of seacoast1 of public roads1 of       
railroads1 of  railroads on which       
locomotive engines are used4    #deb4   
,one point of view1 in which rapid modes
 of conveyance  increase the power of a 
country1 deserves attention4 ,on the    
,manchester ,railroad1 for example1     
above half a million of persons  travel 
annually2 and supposing each person to  
save only one hour  in the time of      
transit1 between ,manchester and        
,liverpool1 a  saving of five hundred   
thousand hours1 or of fifty thousand    
working days1 of ten hours each1 is     
effected4 ,now this is  equivalent to an
 addition to the actual power of the    
country of  one hundred and sixty-seven 

men1 without increasing the quantity  of
 food consumed2 and it should also be   
remarked1 that the time  of the class of
 men thus supplied1 is far more valuable
 than that  of mere labourers4          
,,notes3    #a4 ,this table is extracted
 and reduced from one of ,ravinet1      
,dictionnaire ,hydrographique4 #b vols4 
#hvo4 ,paris4 #ahbd4    #b4 ,i am       
indebted to ,f4 ,page4 ,esq4 of ,speen1 
for that portion of  this table which   
relates to the internal navigation of   
,england4  ,those only who have         
themselves collected statistical details
 can  be aware of the expense of time   
and labour1 of which the few  lines it  
contains are the result4    #c4 ,the    
tidal navigation includes3 the ,thames1 
from the mouth of  the ,medway2 the     
,severn1 from the ,holmes3 the ,trent1  
from ,trent  ,falls in the ,humber2 the 
,mersey from ,runcorn ,gap4             
,chapter #ce    ,on the ,future         
,prospects of ,manufactures1 as         
,connected with  ,science    #dec4 ,in  

reviewing the various processes offered 
as  illustrations of those general      
principles which it has been the  main  
object of the present volume to support 
and establish1 it is  impossible not to 
perceive that the arts and manufactures 
of the  country are intimately connected
 with the progress of the severer       
sciences2 and that1 as we advance in the
 career of improvement1  every step     
requires1 for its success1 that this    
connection should  be rendered more     
intimate4    ,the applied sciences      
derive their facts from experiment2 but 
the reasonings1 on which their chief    
utility depends1 are the  province of   
what is called abstract science4 ,it has
 been shown1  that the division of      
labour is no less applicable to mental  
productions than to those in which      
material bodies are concerned2  and it  
follows1 that the efforts for the       
improvement of its  manufactures which  
any country can make with the greatest  
probability of success1 must arise from 

the combined exertions of  all those    
most skilled in the theory1 as well as  
in the practice  of the arts2 each      
labouring in that department for which  
his  natural capacity and acquired      
habits have rendered him most fit4      
#ded4 ,the profit arising from the      
successful application to  practice of  
theoretical principles1 will1 in most   
cases1 amply  reward1 in a pecuniary    
sense1 those by whom they are first     
employed2 yet even here1 what has been  
stated with respect to  patents1 will   
prove that there is room for            
considerable amendment  in our          
legislative enactments3 but the         
discovery of the great  principles of   
nature demands a mind almost exclusively
 devoted to  such investigations2 and   
these1 in the present state of science1 
frequently require costly apparatus1 and
 exact an expense of time  quite        
incompatible with professional          
avocations4 ,it becomes1  therefore1 a  
fit subject for consideration1 whether  

it would not  be politic in the ,state  
to compensate for some of those         
privations1 to which the cultivators of 
the higher departments of  science are  
exposed2 and the best mode of effecting 
this  compensation1 is a question which 
interests both the philosopher  and the 
statesman4 ,such considerations appear  
to have had their  just influence in    
other countries1 where the pursuit of   
science  is regarded as a profession1   
and where those who are successful  in  
its cultivation are not shut out from   
almost every object of  honourable      
ambition to which their fellow          
countrymen may aspire4  ,having1        
however1 already expressed some opinion 
upon these  subjects in another         
publication17#a997 ,i shall here content
 myself  with referring to that work4   
#dee4 ,there was1 indeed1 in our own    
country1 one single  position to which  
science1 when concurring with           
independent  fortune1 might aspire1 as  
conferring rank and station1 an office  

deriving1 in the estimation of the      
public1 more than half its  value from  
the commanding knowledge of its         
possessor2 and it is  extraordinary1    
that even that solitary dignity--that   
barony by  tenure in the world of       
,british science--the chair of the      
,royal  ,society1 should have been      
coveted for adventitious rank4 ,it is   
more extraordinary1 that a ,prince1     
distinguished by the liberal  views he  
has invariably taken of public          
affairs--and eminent for  his patronage 
of every institution calculated to      
alleviate those  miseries from which1 by
 his rank1 he is himself exempted--who  
is  stated by his friends to be the warm
 admirer of knowledge1 and  most anxious
 for its advancement1 should have been  
so imperfectly  informed by those       
friends1 as to have wrested from the    
head of  science1 the only civic wreath 
which could adorn its brow47#b997    ,in
 the meanwhile the ,president may learn1
 through the only  medium by which his  

elevated station admits approach1 that  
those  evils which were anticipated from
 his election1 have not proved  to be   
imaginary1 and that the advantages by   
some expected to  result from it1 have  
not yet become apparent4 ,it may be     
right  also to state1 that whilst many  
of the inconveniences1 which have  been 
experienced by the ,president of the    
,royal ,society1 have  resulted from the
 conduct of his own supporters1 those   
who were  compelled to differ from him1 
have subsequently offered no  vexatious 
opposition3 they wait in patience1      
convinced that the  force of truth must 
ultimately work its certain1 though     
silent  course2 not doubting that when  
,his ,royal ,highness is correctly      
informed1 he will himself be amongst the
 first to be influenced  by its power4  
#def4 ,but younger institutions have    
arisen to supply the  deficiencies of   
the old2 and very recently a new        
combination1  differing entirely from   
the older societies1 promises to give   

additional steadiness to the future     
march of science4 ,the ,british         
,association for the ,advancement of    
,science1 which held its first  meeting 
at ,york7#c997 in the year #ahca1 would 
have acted as a  powerful ally1 even if 
the ,royal ,society were all that it    
might  be3 but in the present state of  
that body such an association is  almost
 necessary for the purposes of science4 
,the periodical  assemblage of persons1 
pursuing the same or different branches 
of  knowledge1 always produces an       
excitement which is favourable to  the  
development of new ideas2 whilst the    
long period of repose  which succeeds1  
is advantageous for the prosecution of  
the  reasonings or the experiments then 
suggested2 and the recurrence  of the   
meeting in the succeeding year1 will    
stimulate the  activity of the enquirer1
 by the hope of being then enabled to   
produce the successful result of his    
labours4 ,another advantage  is1 that   
such meetings bring together a much     

larger number of  persons actively      
engaged in science1 or placed in        
positions in  which they can contribute 
to it1 than can ever be found at the    
ordinary meetings of other institutions1
 even in the most  populous capitals2   
and combined effort towards any         
particular  object can thus be more     
easily arranged4    #deg4 ,but perhaps  
the greatest benefit which will accrue  
from  these assemblies1 is the          
intercourse which they cannot fail to   
promote between the different classes of
 society4 ,the man of  science will     
derive practical information from the   
great  manufacturers--the chemist will  
be indebted to the same source for      
substances which exist in such minute   
quantity1 as only to become  visible in 
most extensive operations--and persons  
of wealth and  property1 resident in    
each neighbourhood visited by these     
migratory assemblies1 will derive       
greater advantages than either  of those
 classes1 from the real instruction they

 may procure  respecting the produce and
 manufactures of their country1 and the 
enlightened gratification which is ever 
attendant on the  acquisition of        
knowledge47#d997    #deh4 ,thus it may  
be hoped that public opinion shall be   
brought to bear upon the world of       
science2 and that by this  intercourse  
light will be thrown upon the characters
 of men1 and  the pretender and the     
charlatan be driven into merited        
obscurity4  ,without the action of      
public opinion1 any administration1     
however  anxious to countenance the     
pursuits of science1 and however ready  
toreward1 by wealth or honours1 those   
whom they might think most  eminent1    
would run the risk of acting like the   
blind man recently  couched1 who1 having
 no mode of estimating degrees of       
distance1  mistook the nearest and most 
insignificant for the largest  objects  
in nature3 it becomes1 therefore1 doubly
 important1 that  the man of science    
should mix with the world4    #dei4 ,it 

is highly probable that in the next     
generation1 the  race of scientific men 
in ,england will spring from a class of 
persons altogether different from that  
which has hitherto  scantily supplied   
them4 ,requiring1 for the success of    
their  pursuits1 previous education1    
leisure1 and fortune1 few are so  likely
 to unite these essentials as the sons  
of our wealthy  manufacturers1 who1     
having been enriched by their own       
exertions1  in a field connected with   
science1 will be ambitious of having    
their children distinguished in its     
ranks4 ,it must1 however1 be  admitted1 
that this desire in the parents would   
acquire great  additional intensity1 if 
worldly honours occasionally followed   
successful efforts2 and that the country
 would thus gain for  science1 talents  
which are frequently rendered useless by
 the  unsuitable situations in which    
they are placed4    #dfj4 ,the          
discoverers of iodine and bromine1 two  
substances  hitherto undecompounded1    

were both amongst the class of          
manufacturers1 one being a maker of     
saltpetre at ,paris1 the other  a       
manufacturing chemist at ,marseilles2   
and the inventor of  balloons filled    
with rarefied air1 was a paper          
manufacturer near  ,lyons4 ,the         
descendants of ,mongolfier1 the first   
aerial traveller1  still carry on the   
establishment of their progenitor1 and  
combine  great scientific knowledge with
 skill in various departments of  the   
arts1 to which the different branches of
 the family have  applied themselves4   
#dfa4 ,chemical science may1 in many    
instances1 be of great  importance to   
the manufacturer1 as well as to the     
merchant4 ,the  quantity of ,peruvian   
bark which is imported into ,europe is  
very  considerable2 but chemistry has   
recently proved that a large  portion of
 the bark itself is useless4 ,the alkali
 ,quinia which  has been extracted from 
it1 possesses all the properties for    
which the bark is valuable1 and only    

forty ounces of this  substance1 when in
 combination with sulphuric acid1 can be
  extracted from a hundred pounds of the
 bark4 ,in this instance  then1 with    
every ton of useful matter1 thirty-nine 
tons of  rubbish are transported across 
the ,atlantic4    ,the greatest part of 
the sulphate of quinia now used in this 
country is imported from ,france1 where 
the low price of the  alcohol1 by which 
it is extracted from the bark1 renders  
the  process cheap2 but it cannot be    
doubted1 that when more settled  forms  
of government shall have given security 
to capital1 and  when advancing         
civilization shall have spread itself   
over the  states of ,southern ,america1 
the alkaline medicine will be  extracted
 from the woody matter by which its     
efficacy is  impaired1 and that it will 
be exported in its most condensed  form4
    #dfb4 ,the aid of chemistry1 in     
extracting and in concentrating         
substances used for human food1 is of   
great use in distant  voyages1 where the

 space occupied by the stores must be   
economized with the greatest care4 ,thus
 the essential oils supply  the voyager 
with flavour2 the concentrated and      
crystallized  vegetable acids preserve  
his health2 and alcohol1 when           
sufficiently diluted1 supplies the      
spirit necessary for his daily          
consumption4    #dfc4 ,when we reflect  
on the very small number of species of  
plants1 compared with the multitude that
 are known to exist1  which have        
hitherto been cultivated1 and rendered  
useful to man2  and when we apply the   
same observation to the animal world1   
and  even to the mineral kingdom1 the   
field that natural science opens  to our
 view seems to be indeed unlimited4     
,these productions of  nature1 varied   
and innumerable as they are1 may each1  
in some  future day1 become the basis of
 extensive manufactures1 and give  life1
 employment1 and wealth1 to millions of 
human beings4 ,but  the crude treasures 
perpetually exposed before our eyes1    

contain  within them other and more     
valuable principles4 ,all these1        
likewise1 in their numberless           
combinations1 which ages of labour  and 
research can never exhaust1 may be      
destined to furnish1 in  perpetual      
succession1 new sources of our wealth   
and of our  happiness4 ,science and     
knowledge are subject1 in their         
extension  and increase1 to laws quite  
opposite to those which regulate the    
material world4 ,unlike the forces of   
molecular attraction1 which  cease at   
sensible distances2 or that of gravity1 
which decreases  rapidly with the       
increasing distance from the point of   
its  origin2 the further we advance from
 the origin of our knowledge1  the      
larger it becomes1 and the greater power
 it bestows upon its  cultivators1 to   
add new fields to its dominions4 ,yet1  
does this  continually and rapidly      
increasing power1 instead of giving us  
any reason to anticipate the exhaustion 
of so fertile a field1  place us at each

 advance1 on some higher eminence1 from 
which the  mind contemplates the past1  
and feels irresistibly convinced1  that 
the whole1 already gained1 bears a      
constantly diminishing  ratio to that   
which is contained within the still more
 rapidly  expanding horizon of our      
knowledge4    #dfd4 ,but1 if the        
knowledge of the chemical and physical  
properties of the bodies which surround 
us1 as well as our  imperfect           
acquaintance with the less tangible     
elements1 light1  electricity1 and heat1
 which mysteriously modify or change    
their  combinations1 concur to convince 
us of the same fact2 we must  remember  
that another and a higher science1      
itself still more  boundless1 is also   
advancing with a giant's stride1 and    
having  grasped the mightier masses of  
the universe1 and reduced their         
wanderings to laws1 has given to us in  
its own condensed  language1            
expressions1 which are to the past as   
history1 to the  future as prophecy4 ,it

 is the same science which is now       
preparing  its fetters for the minutest 
atoms that nature has created3  already 
it has nearly chained the ethereal      
fluid1 and bound in  one harmonious     
system all the intricate and splendid   
phenomena of  light4 ,it is the science 
of calculation--which becomes           
continually more necessary at each step 
of our progress1 and  which must        
ultimately govern the whole of the      
applications of  science to the arts of 
life4    #dfe4 ,but perhaps a doubt may 
arise in the mind1 whilst  contemplating
 the continually increasing field of    
human  knowledge1 that the weak arm of  
man may want the physical force         
required to render that knowledge       
available4 ,the experience of  the past1
 has stamped with the indelible         
character of truth1 the  maxim1 that    
knowledge is power4 ,it not merely gives
 to its  votaries control over the      
mental faculties of their species1 but  
is itself the generator of physical     

force4 ,the discovery of the  expansive 
power of steam1 its condensation1 and   
the doctrine of  latent heat1 has       
already added to the population of this 
small  island1 millions of hands4 ,but  
the source of this power is not  without
 limit1 and the coal-mines of the world 
may ultimately be  exhausted4 ,without  
adverting to the theory1 that new       
deposits of  that mineral are not       
accumulating under the sea1 at the      
estuaries  of some of our larger rivers2
 without anticipating the  application  
of other fluids requiring a less supply 
of caloric  than water--we may remark   
that the sea itself offers a perennial  
source of power hitherto almost         
unapplied4 ,the tides1 twice in  each   
day1 raise a vast mass of water1 which  
might be made  available for driving    
machinery4 ,but supposing heat still to 
remain necessary1 when the exhausted    
state of our coal fields  renders it    
expensive3 long before that period      
arrives1 other  methods will probably   

have been invented for producing it4 ,in
  some districts1 there are springs of  
hot water1 which have flowed  for       
centuries unchanged in temperature4 ,in 
many parts of the  island of ,ischia1 by
 deepening the sources of the hot       
springs  only a few feet1 the water     
boils2 and there can be little doubt    
that1 by boring a short distance1 steam 
of high pressure would  issue from the  
orifice47#e997    ,in ,iceland1 the     
sources of heat are still more          
plentiful2 and  their proximity to large
 masses of ice1 seems almost to point   
out  the future destiny of that island4 
,the ice of its glaciers may  enable its
 inhabitants to liquefy the gases with  
the least  expenditure of mechanical    
force2 and the heat of its volcanoes    
may supply the power necessary for their
 condensation4 ,thus1 in a  future age1 
power may become the staple commodity of
 the  ,icelanders1 and of the           
inhabitants of other volcanic           
districts27#f997 and possibly the very  

process by which they will  procure this
 article of exchange for the luxuries of
 happier  climates may1 in some measure1
 tame the tremendous element which      
occasionally devastates their provinces4
    #dff4 ,perhaps to the sober eye of  
inductive philosophy1 these             
anticipations of the future may appear  
too faintly connected with  the history 
of the past4 ,when time shall have      
revealed the future  progress of our    
race1 those laws which are now obscurely
  indicated1 will then become distinctly
 apparent2 and it may  possibly be found
 that the dominion of mind over the     
material  world advances with an        
everaccelerating force4    ,even now1   
the imprisoned winds which the earliest 
poet made  the ,grecian warrior bear for
 the protection of his fragile bark2  or
 those which1 in more modern times1 the 
,lapland wizards sold to  the deluded   
sailors--these1 the unreal creations of 
fancy or of  fraud1 called at the       
command of science1 from their shadowy  

existence1 obey a holier spell3 and the 
unruly masters of the  poet and the seer
 become the obedient slaves of civilized
 man4    ,nor have the wild imaginings  
of the satirist been quite  unrivalled  
by the realities of after years3 as if  
in mockery of  the ,college of ,laputa1 
light almost solar has been extracted   
from  the refuse of fish2 fire has been 
sifted by the lamp of ,davy1 and        
machinery has been taught arithmetic    
instead of poetry4    #dfg4 ,in whatever
 light we examine the triumphs and      
achievements of our species over the    
creation submitted to its  power1 we    
explore new sources of wonder4 ,but if  
science has  called into real existence 
the visions of the poet--if the         
accumulating knowledge of ages has      
blunted the sharpest and  distanced the 
loftiest of the shafts of the satirist1 
the  philosopher has conferred on the   
moralist an obligation of  surpassing   
weight4 ,in unveiling to him the living 
miracles which  teem in rich exuberance 

around the minutest atom1 as well as    
throughout the largest masses of        
ever-active matter1 he has  placed      
before him resistless evidence of       
immeasurable design4  ,surrounded by    
every form of animate and inanimate     
existence1 the  sun of science has yet  
penetrated but through the outer fold of
  nature's majestic robe2 but if the    
philosopher were required to  separate1 
from amongst those countless evidences  
of creative  power1 one being1 the      
masterpiece of its skill2 and from that 
being to select one gift1 the choicest  
of all the attributes of  life2 turning 
within his own breast1 and conscious of 
those  powers which have subjugated to  
his race the external world1 and  of    
those higher powers by which he has     
subjugated to himself that  creative    
faculty which aids his faltering        
conceptions of a deity1  the humble     
worshipper at the altar of truth would  
pronounce that  being1 man2 that        
endowment1 human reason4    ,but however

 large the interval that separates the  
lowest from  the highest of those       
sentient beings which inhabit our       
planet1  all the results of observation1
 enlightened by all the reasonings  of  
the philosopher1 combine to render it   
probable that1 in the  vast extent of   
creation1 the proudest attribute of our 
race is  but1 perchance1 the lowest step
 in the gradation of intellectual       
existence4 ,for1 since every portion of 
our own material globe1  and every      
animated being it supports1 afford1 on  
more  scrutinizing enquiry1 more perfect
 evidence of design1 it would  indeed be
 most unphilosophical to believe that   
those sister  spheres1 obedient to the  
same law1 and glowing with light and    
heat radiant from the same central      
source--and that the members  of those  
kindred systems1 almost lost in the     
remoteness of space1  and perceptible   
only from the countless multitude of    
their  congregated globes should each be
 no more than a floating chaos  of      

unformed matter2 or1 being all the work 
of the same ,almighty  ,architect1 that 
no living eye should be gladdened by    
their forms  of beauty1 that no         
intellectual being should expand its    
faculties  in decyphering their laws4   
,,notes3    #a4 ,reflections on the     
,decline of ,science in ,england1 and on
 some  of its ,causes4 #hvo4 #ahcj4     
,fellowes4    #b4 ,the ,duke of ,sussex 
was proposed as ,president of the ,royal
  ,society in opposition to the wish of 
the ,council in opposition to  the      
public declaration of a body of         
,fellows1 comprising the  largest       
portion of those by whose labours the   
character of  ,english science had been 
maintained ,the aristocracy of rank and 
of power1 aided by such allies as it can
 always command1 set  itself in array   
against the prouder aristocracy of      
science4 ,out  of about seven hundred   
members1 only two hundred and thirty    
balloted2 and the ,duke of ,sussex had a
 majority of eight4 ,under  such        

circumstances1 it was indeed            
extraordinary1 that ,his ,royal         
,highness should have condescended to   
accept the fruits of that  doubtful and 
inauspicious victory4    ,the           
circumstances preceding and attending   
this singular  contest have been most   
ably detailed in a pamphlet entitled ,a 
,statement of the ,circumstances        
connected with the late ,election  for  
the1 ,presidency of the ,royal ,society1
 #ahca1 printed by ,r4  ,taylor1 ,red   
,lion ,court1 ,fleet ,street4 ,the whole
 tone of the tract  is strikingly       
contrasted with that of the productions 
of some of  those persons by whom it was
 ,his ,royal ,highness's misfortune to  
be supported4    #c4 ,the second meeting
 took place at ,oxford in ,june #ahcb1  
and  surpassed even the sanguine        
anticipations of its friends4 ,the      
third annual meeting will take place at 
,cambridge in ,june #ahcc4    #d ,the   
advantages likely to arise from such an 
association1 have  been so clearly      

stated in the address delivered by the  
,rev4 ,mr  ,vernon ,harcourt1 at its    
first meeting1 that ,i would strongly   
recommend its perusal by all those who  
feel interested in the  success of      
,english science4 ,vide ,first ,report  
of the ,british  ,association for the   
,advancement of ,science1 ,york4 #ahcb4 
#e ,in #ahbh1 the author of these pages 
visited ,ischia1 with a  committee of   
the ,royal ,academy of ,naples1 deputed 
to examine the  temperature and chemical
 constitution of the springs in that    
island4 ,during the few first days1     
several springs which had been          
represented in the instructions as under
 the boiling temperature1  were found1  
on deepening the excavations1 to rise to
 the boiling  point4    #f ,see section 
#cea4      ,,the ,,end4