,transcriber's notes3 7#a7 ,numbers following letters 7without space7 like ,c#b were originally printed in subscript4 ,letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore1 like ,cn4 7#b7 ,characters following a carat 77 were printed in superscript4 7#c7 ,side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs4 7#d7 ,macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted4 7#e7 root stands for the root symbol2 alpha1 beta1 etc4 for greek letters4 7#f7 ,the following typographical errors have been corrected3 ,,article ,,logarithm3 444 tangents and secants for every minute of the quadrant to #aj places2 these were obtained by calculating the logarithms of the natural sines1 c4 given in the ,thesaurus mathematicus of ,pitiscus 7#afac74 'these' amended from 'there'4 ,,article ,,logarithm3 ,the final step was made by ,john ,newton in his ,trigonometria ,britannica 7#afeh7 444 ',trigonometria' amended from ',trigononometria'4 ,,article ,,logic3 ,s is not ,p4 ',p' amended from ',m'4 ,,article ,,logic3 444 ,jevons proceeded to confuse analytic deduction from consequence to ground with hypothetical deduction from ground to consequence under the common term 'inverse deduction4' 'consequence' amended from 'conseguence'4 ,,article ,,logic3 ,but in induction the given particulars are the evidence by which we discover the universal1 e4g4 particular magnets attracting iron are the origin of an inference that all do 444 'attracting' amended from 'attracing'4 ,,article ,,logic3 444 but which is to other regards deductive as syllogism1 is set up in contrast to syllogism #ijf and enumeration alike4 'contrast' amended from 'constrast' ,,article ,,logic3 #fg;a #ci-fc4 '-#fc'-fc' amended from '-b #c'4 ,,article ,,loire3 ,owing to the extreme irregularity of the river in different seasons these canals form the only certain navigable way4 'extreme' amended from 'exteme'4 ,,article ,,lollards3 ,he summed up their doctrines under eleven heads3 they condemn the having and using of images in the churches 444 added 'of'4 ,,article ,,lombardy3 ,g4 ,t4 ,rivoira in ,origini dell' ,architettura ,lombarda 7#b vols4 ,rome1 #aija-aijg7 444 ',architettura' amended from ',architetturo'4 ,,article ,,londonderry3 ,the scenery of the ,roe valley1 with the picturesque towns of ,limavady and ,dungiven1 is also attractive1 and the roads from the latter place to ,draperstown and to ,maghera 444 'attractive' amended from 'atrractive'4 ,,article ,,longomontanus3 444 ,problemata duo ,geometrica 7#afch7 444 ',geometrica' amended from ',goemetrica'4 ,,article ,,loom3 444 and1 as appears from ,grew 7,mus4 ,reg4 ,soc4 p4 #fi71 it was formerly given to the little grebe or dabchick 7,p4 fluviatilis or minor74 'as' amended from 'ns'4 ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica ,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1 ,,sciences1 ,,literature ,,and ,,general ,,information ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,volume ,,xvi1 ,,slice ,,viii ,logarithm to ,lord ,advocate ,,articles ,,in ,,this ,,slice3 ,,logarithm ,,long1 ,,john ,,davis ,,logau1 ,,friedrich ,,long ,,branch ,,logia ,,longcloth ,,logic ,,long ,,eaton ,,logocyclic ,,curve1 ,,strophoid ,,longevity ,,logographi ,,longfellow1 ,,henry ,,wadsworth ,,logos ,,long ,,fives ,,logothete ,,longford 7county of ,ireland7 ,,logro,o 7province of ,spain7 ,,longford 7town of ,ireland7 ,,logro,o 7,spanish town7 ,,longhi1 ,,pietro ,,logroscino1 ,,nicola ,,longinus1 ,,cassius ,,logwood ,,long ,,island ,,loharu ,,long ,,island ,,city ,l,,he1 ,,johann ,,konrad ,,wilhelm ,,longitude ,,lohengrin ,,longley1 ,,charles ,,thomas ,,loin ,,longmans ,,loire 7river of ,france7 ,,longomontanus1 ,,christian ,,severin ,,loire 7department of ,france7 ,,longstreet1 ,,james ,,loire-,,inf,,rieure ,,longton ,,loiret ,,longueville ,,loir-,,et-,,cher ,,longueville1 ,,anne ,,genevi,,ve ,,loisy1 ,,alfred ,,firmin ,,longus ,,loja ,,longwy ,,lokeren ,l,,nnrot1 ,,elias ,,lokoja ,,lonsdale1 ,,earls ,,of ,,lollards ,,lonsdale1 ,,william ,,lollius1 ,,marcus ,,lons-,,le-,,saunier ,,lolos ,,loo ,,lombard ,,league ,,looe ,,lombardo ,,loom 7water-birds7 ,,lombards ,,loom 7weaving machine7 ,,lombardy ,,lo,n ,,lombok ,,loop ,,lombroso1 ,,cesare ,,loosestrife ,,lom,,nie1 ,,tienne ,,charles ,,de ,,loot ,,lomond1 ,,loch ,,lopes1 ,,fern,o ,,lomon,,sov1 ,,mikhail ,,vasilievich ,,lopez1 ,,carlos ,,antonio ,,lomza 7government of ,russian7 ,,lopez ,,de ,g,,mara1 ,,francisco ,,lomza 7town of ,russia7 ,,lop-,,nor ,,lonauli ,,loquat ,,london 7,canada7 ,,lorain ,,london 7capital of ,england7 ,,loralai ,,london ,,clay ,,lorca ,,londonderry1 ,,earls ,,of ,,lorch 7,prussian town7 ,,londonderry1 ,,stewart 7,,vane7 ,,lorch 7town of kingdom of ,wrttemberg7 ,,londonderry1 ,,robert ,,stewart ,,lord1 ,,john ,,londonderry 7county of ,ireland7 ,,lord ,,londonderry 7town of ,ireland7 ,,lord ,,advocate ,,long1 ,,george ,,logarithm 7from ,gr4 ,greek3 logos1 word1 ratio1 and ,greek3 arithmos1 number71 in mathematics1 a word invented by ,john ,napier to denote a particular class of function discovered by him1 and which may be defined as follows3 if a1 x1 m are any three quantities satisfying the equation ax m1 then a is called the base1 and x is said to be the logarithm of m to the base a4 ,this relation between x1 a1 m1 may be expressed also by the equation x log7a7 m4 ,properties4--,the principal properties of logarithms are given by the equations log7a7 7mn7 log7a7m log7a7n1 log7a77m_/n7 log7a7m - log7a7n1 log7a7m7r7 r log7a7m1 log7a7root rm 7#a_/r7log7a7m1 which may be readily deduced from the definition of a logarithm4 ,it follows from these equations that the logarithm of the product of any number of quantities is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the quantities1 that the logarithm of the quotient of two quantities is equal to the logarithm of the numerator diminished by the logarithm of the denominator1 that the logarithm of the rth power of a quantity is equal to r times the logarithm of the quantity1 and that the logarithm of the rth root of a quantity is equal to 7#a_/r7th of the logarithm of the quantity4 ,logarithms were originally invented for the sake of abbreviating arithmetical calculations1 as by their means the operations of multiplication and division may be replaced by those of addition and subtraction1 and the operations of raising to powers and extraction of roots by those of multiplication and division4 ,for the purpose of thus simplifying the operations of arithmetic1 the base is taken to be #aj1 and use is made of tables of logarithms in which the values of x1 the logarithm1 corresponding to values of m1 the number1 are tabulated4 ,the logarithm is also a function of frequent occurrence in analysis1 being regarded as a known and recognized function like sin x or tan x2 but in mathematical investigations the base generally employed is not #aj1 but a certain quantity usually denoted by the letter e1 of value #b4gahbh #ahbhd4444 ,thus in arithmetical calculations if the base is not expressed it is understood to be #aj1 so that log m denotes log#aj m2 but in analytical formulae it is understood to be e4 ,the logarithms to base #aj of the first twelve numbers to #g places of decimals are log #a #j4jjjjjjj log #e #j4fihigjj log #i #j4iedbdbe log #b #j4cjajcjj log #f #j4gghaeac log #aj #a4jjjjjjj log #c #j4dggabac log #g #j4hdejihj log #aa #a4jdacibg log #d #j4fjbjfjj log #h #j4ijcjijj log #ab #a4jgiahab ,the meaning of these results is that #a #ajj1 #b #aj7j4cjajcjj71 #c #aj7j4dggabac71 444 #aj #aja1 #aa #aj7a4jdacibg71 #ab #aj7a4jgiahab74 ,the integral part of a logarithm is called the index or characteristic1 and the fractional part the mantissa4 ,when the base is #aj1 the logarithms of all numbers in which the digits are the same1 no matter where the decimal point may be1 have the same mantissa2 thus1 for example1 log #b4efac #j4djhdfjd1 log #be4fac #a4djhdfjd1 log #befacjj #f4djhdfjd1 c4 ,in the case of fractional numbers 7i4e4 numbers in which the integral part is #j7 the mantissa is still kept positive1 so that1 for example1 log 4#befac #a4djhdfjd1 log 4#jjbefac #c4djhdfjd1 c4 the minus sign being usually written over the characteristic1 and not before it1 to indicate that the characteristic only1 and not the whole expression1 is negative2 thus #a4djhdfjd stands for -#a 4#djhdfjd4 ,the fact that when the base is #aj the mantissa of the logarithm is independent of the position of the decimal point in the number affords the chief reason for the choice of #aj as base4 ,the explanation of this property of the base #aj is evident1 for a change in the position of the decimal points amounts to multiplication or division by some power of #aj1 and this corresponds to the addition or subtraction of some integer in the case of the logarithm1 the mantissa therefore remaining intact4 ,it should be mentioned that in most tables of trigonometrical functions1 the number #aj is added to all the logarithms in the table in order to avoid the use of negative characteristics1 so that the characteristic #i denotes in reality #a1 #h denotes #b1 #aj denotes #j1 c4 ,logarithms thus increased are frequently referred to for the sake of distinction as tabular logarithms1 so that the tabular logarithm the true logarithm #aj4 ,in tables of logarithms of numbers to base #aj the mantissa only is in general tabulated1 as the characteristic of the logarithm of a number can always be written down at sight1 the rule being that1 if the number is greater than unity1 the characteristic is less by unity than the number of digits in the integral portion of it1 and that if the number is less than unity the characteristic is negative1 and is greater by unity than the number of ciphers between the decimal point and the first significant figure4 ,it follows very simply from the definition of a logarithm that log7a7 b log7b7 a #a1 log7b7 m log7a7 m 7#a_/log7a7 b74 ,the second of these relations is an important one1 as it shows that from a table of logarithms to base a1 the corresponding table of logarithms to base b may be deduced by multiplying all the logarithms in the former by the constant multiplier #a_/log7a7b1 which is called the modulus of the system whose base is b with respect to the system whose base is a4 ,the two systems of logarithms for which extensive tables have been calculated are the ,napierian1 or hyperbolic1 or natural system1 of which the base is e1 and the ,briggian1 or decimal1 or common system1 of which the base is #aj2 and we see that the logarithms in the latter system may be deduced from those in the former by multiplication by the constant multiplier #a_/log7e7#aj1 which is called the modulus of the common system of logarithms4 ,the numerical value of this modulus is #j4dcdbi #ddhai #jcbea #hbgfe #aabhi 4441 and the value of its reciprocal1 log7e7 #aj 7by multiplication by which ,briggian logarithms may be converted into ,napierian logarithms7 is #b4cjbeh #ejibi #idjde #fhdja #giiad 4444 ,the quantity denoted by e is the series1 #a #a #a #a #a --- --- ----- ------- 444 #a #ab #abc #abcd the numerical value of which is1 #b4gahbh #ahbhd #eijde #bcecf #jbhgd 4444 ,the logarithmic ,function4--,the mathematical function log x or log7e7 x is one of the small group of transcendental functions1 consisting only of the circular functions 7direct and inverse7 sin x1 cos x1 c41 arc sin x or sin-#a x1c41 log x and e7x7 which are universally treated in analysis as known functions4 ,the notation log x is generally employed in ,english and ,american works1 but on the continent of ,europe writers usually denote the function by lx or lg x4 ,the logarithmic function is most naturally introduced into analysis by the equation _/ x dt log x ---1 7x #j74 _/ #a t ,this equation defines log x for positive values of x2 if x #j the formula ceases to have any meaning4 ,thus log x is the integral function of #a_/x1 and it can be shown that log x is a genuinely new transcendent1 not expressible in finite terms by means of functions such as algebraical or circular functions4 ,a connexion with the circular functions1 however1 appears later when the definition of log x is extended to complex values of x4 ,a relation which is of historical interest connects the logarithmic function with the quadrature of the hyperbola1 for1 by considering the equation of the hyperbola in the form xy const41 it is evident that the area included between the arc of a hyperbola1 its nearest asymptote1 and two ordinates drawn parallel to the other asymptote from points on the first asymptote distant a and b from their point of intersection1 is proportional to log b_/a4 ,the following fundamental properties of log x are readily deducible from the definition 7i47 log xy log x log y4 7ii47 ,limit of 7x7h7-#a7_/;h log x1 when h is indefinitely diminished4 ,either of these properties might be taken as itself the definition of log x4 ,there is no series for log x proceeding either by ascending or descending powers of x1 but there is an expansion for log 7#a x71 viz4 log 7#a x7 x - #a_/b x#b #a_/c x#c - #a_/d x#d 4442 the series1 however1 is convergent for real values of x only when x lies between #a and -#a4 ,other formulae which are deducible from this equation are given in the portion of this article relating to the calculation of logarithms4 ,the function log x as x increases from #j towards oo steadily increases from -oo towards oo4 ,it has the important property that it tends to infinity with x1 but more slowly than any power of x1 i4e4 that x-m log x tends to zero as x tends to oo for every positive value of m however small4 ,the exponential function1 exp x1 may be defined as the inverse of the logarithm3 thus x exp y if y log x4 ,it is positive for all values of y and increases steadily from #j toward oo as y increases from -oo towards oo4 ,as y tends towards oo1 exp y tends towards oo more rapidly than any power of y4 ,the exponential function possesses the properties 7i47 exp 7x y7 exp x exp y4 d 7ii47 --- exp x exp x4 dx 7iii47 exp x #a x x_/#b6 x_/#c6 444 ,from 7i47 and 7ii47 it may be deduced that exp x 7#a #a #a_/b6 #a_/c6 444 7x where the right-hand side denotes the positive xth power of the number #a #a #a_/b6 #a_/c6 444 usually denoted by e4 ,it is customary1 therefore1 to denote the exponential function by ex and the result ex #a x x_/#b6 x_/#c6 444 is known as the exponential theorem4 ,the definitions of the logarithmic and exponential functions may be extended to complex values of x4 ,thus if x xi ieta _/ x dt log x --- _/ #a t where the path of integration in the plane of the complex variable t is any curve which does not pass through the origin2 but now log x is not a uniform function1 that is to say1 if x describes a closed curve it does not follow that log x also describes a closed curve3 in fact we have log 7xi ieta7 log root7xi eta7 i7alpha #bnpi71 where alpha is the numerically least angle whose cosine and sine are xi_/root7xi eta7 and eta_/root7xi eta71 and n denotes any integer4 ,thus even when the argument is real log x has an infinite number of values2 for putting eta #j and taking xi positive1 in which case alpha #j1 we obtain for log xi the infinite system of values log xi #bnpii4 ,it follows from this property of the function that we cannot have for log x a series which shall be convergent for all values of x1 as is the case with sin x and cos x1 for such a series could only represent a uniform function1 and in fact the equation log7#a x7 x - x#b #a_/cx#c - x#d 444 is true only when the analytical modulus of x is less than unity4 ,the exponential function1 which may still be defined as the inverse of the logarithmic function1 is1 on the other hand1 a uniform function of x1 and its fundamental properties may be stated in the same form as for real values of x4 ,also exp 7xi - ieta7 exi7cos eta i sin eta74 ,an alternative method of developing the theory of the exponential function is to start from the definition exp x #a x x_/#b6 x_/#c6 4441 the series on the right-hand being convergent for all values of x and therefore defining an analytical function of x which is uniform and regular all over the plane4 ,invention and ,early ,history of ,logarithms4--,the invention of logarithms has been accorded to ,john ,napier1 baron of ,merchiston in ,scotland1 with a unanimity which is rare with regard to important scientific discoveries3 in fact1 with the exception of the tables of ,justus ,byrgius1 which will be referred to further on1 there seems to have been no other mathematician of the time whose mind had conceived the principle on which logarithms depend1 and no partial anticipations of the discovery are met with in previous writers4 ,the first announcement of the invention was made in ,napier's ,mirifici ,logarithmorum ,canonis ,descriptio 444 7,edinburgh1 #afad74 ,the work is a small quarto containing fifty-seven pages of explanatory matter and a table of ninety pages 7see ,,napier1 ,,john74 ,the nature of logarithms is explained by reference to the motion of points in a straight line1 and the principle upon which they are based is that of the correspondence of a geometrical and an arithmetical series of numbers4 ,the table gives the logarithms of sines for every minute of seven figures2 it is arranged semi-quadrantally1 so that the differentiae1 which are the differences of the two logarithms in the same line1 are the logarithms of the tangents4 ,napier's logarithms are not the logarithms now termed ,napierian or hyperbolic1 that is to say1 logarithms to the base e where e #b4gahbhah4442 the relation between ,n 7a sine7 and ,l its logarithm1 as defined in the ,canonis ,descriptio1 being ,n #ajg;e-,l_/7l#jg71 so that 7ignoring the factors #ajg1 the effect of which is to render sines and logarithms integral to #g figures71 the base is e-l4 ,napier's logarithms decrease as the sines increase4 ,if l denotes the logarithm to base e 7that is1 the so-called ,napierian or hyperbolic logarithm7 and ,l denotes1 as above1 ,napier's logarithm1 the connexion between l and ,l is expressed by ,l #ajg log7e7 #ajg - #ajg l or e7l7 #ajg e7-,l_/#ajg7 ,napier's work 7which will henceforth in this article be referred to as the ,descriptio7 immediately on its appearance in #afad attracted the attention of perhaps the two most eminent ,english mathematicians then living--,edward ,wright and ,henry ,briggs4 ,the former translated the work into ,english2 the latter was concerned with ,napier in the change of the logarithms from those originally invented to decimal or common logarithms1 and it is to him that the original calculation of the logarithmic tables now in use is mainly due4 ,both ,napier and ,wright died soon after the publication of the ,descriptio1 the date of ,wright's death being #afae and that of ,napier #afag1 but ,briggs lived until #afca4 ,edward ,wright1 who was a fellow of ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge1 occupies a conspicuous place in the history of navigation4 ,in #aeii he published ,certaine errors in ,navigation detected and corrected1 and he was the author of other works2 to him also is chiefly due the invention of the method known as ,mercator's sailing4 ,he at once saw the value of logarithms as an aid to navigation1 and lost no time in preparing a translation1 which he submitted to ,napier himself4 ,the preface to ,wright's edition consists of a translation of the preface to the ,descriptio1 together with the addition of the following sentences written by ,napier himself3 ,but now some of our countreymen in this ,island well affected to these studies1 and the more publique good1 procured a most learned ,mathematician to translate the same into our vulgar ,english tongue1 who after he had finished it1 sent the ,coppy of it to me1 to bee seene and considered on by myselfe4 ,i having most willingly and gladly done the same1 finde it to bee most exact and precisely conformable to my minde and the originall4 ,therefore it may please you who are inclined to these studies1 to receive it from me and the ,translator1 with as much good will as we recommend it unto you4 ,there is a short preface to the reader by ,briggs1 and a description of a triangular diagram invented by ,wright for finding the proportional parts4 ,the table is printed to one figure less than in the ,descriptio4 ,edward ,wright died1 as has been mentioned1 in #afae1 and his son1 ,samuel ,wright1 in the preface states that his father gave much commendation of this work 7and often in my hearing7 as of very great use to mariners2 and with respect to the translation he says that shortly after he had it returned out of ,scotland1 it pleased ,god to call him away afore he could publish it4 ,the translation was published in #afaf4 ,it was also reissued with a new title-page in #afah4 ,henry ,briggs1 then professor of geometry at ,gresham ,college1 ,london1 and afterwards ,savilian professor of geometry at ,oxford1 welcomed the ,descriptio with enthusiasm4 ,in a letter to ,archbishop ,usher1 dated ,gresham ,house1 ,march #aj1 #afae1 he wrote1 ,napper1 lord of ,markinston1 hath set my head and hands a work with his new and admirable logarithms4 ,i hope to see him this summer1 if it please ,god1 for ,i never saw book which pleased me better1 or made me more wonder4#a ,i purpose to discourse with him concerning eclipses1 for what is there which we may not hope for at his hands1 and he also states that he was wholly taken up and employed about the noble invention of logarithms lately discovered4 ,briggs accordingly visited ,napier in #afae1 and stayed with him a whole month4#b ,he brought with him some calculations he had made1 and suggested to ,napier the advantages that would result from the choice of #aj as a base1 an improvement which he had explained in his lectures at ,gresham ,college1 and on which he had written to ,napier4 ,napier said that he had already thought of the change1 and pointed out a further improvement1 viz41 that the characteristics of numbers greater than unity should be positive and not negative1 as suggested by ,briggs4 ,in #afaf ,briggs again visited ,napier and showed him the work he had accomplished1 and1 he says1 he would gladly have paid him a third visit in #afag had ,napier's life been spared4 ,briggs's ,logarithmorum chilias prima1 which contains the first published table of decimal or common logarithms1 is only a small octavo tract of sixteen pages1 and gives the logarithms of numbers from unity to #ajjj to #ad places of decimals4 ,it was published1 probably privately1 in #afag1 after ,napier's death1#c and there is no author's name1 place or date4 ,the date of publication is1 however1 fixed as #afag by a letter from ,sir ,henry ,bourchier to ,usher1 dated ,december #f1 #afag1 containing the passage--,our kind friend1 ,mr ,briggs1 hath lately published a supplement to the most excellent tables of logarithms1 which ,i presume he has sent to you4 ,briggs's tract of #afag is extremely rare1 and has generally been ignored or incorrectly described4 ,hutton erroneously states that it contains the logarithms to #h places1 and his account has been followed by most writers4 ,there is a copy in the ,british ,museum4 ,briggs continued to labour assiduously at the calculation of logarithms1 and in #afbd published his ,arithmetica logarithmica1 a folio work containing the logarithms of the numbers from l to #bj1jjj1 and from #ij1jjj to #ajj1jjj 7and in some copies to #aja1jjj7 to #ad places of decimals4 ,the table occupies #cjj pages1 and there is an introduction of #hh pages relating to the mode of calculation1 and the applications of logarithms4 ,there was thus left a gap between #bj1jjj and #ij1jjj1 which was filled up by ,adrian ,vlacq 7or ,ulaccus71 who published at ,gouda1 in ,holland1 in #afbh1 a table containing the logarithms of the numbers from unity to #ajj1jjj to #aj places of decimals4 ,having calculated #gj1jjj logarithms and copied only #cj1jjj1 ,vlacq would have been quite entitled to have called his a new work4 ,he designates it1 however1 only a second edition of ,briggs's ,arithmetica logarithmica1 the title running ,arithmetica logarithmica sive ,logarithmorum ,chiliades centum1 444 editio secunda aucta per ,adrianum ,vlacq1 ,goudanum4 ,this table of ,vlacq's was published1 with an ,english explanation prefixed1 at ,london in #afca under the title ,logarithmicall ,arithmetike 444 ,london1 printed by ,george ,miller1 #afca4 ,there are also copies with the title-page and introduction in ,french and in ,dutch 7,gouda1 #afbh74 ,briggs had himself been engaged in filling up the gap1 and in a letter to ,john ,pell1 written after the publication of ,vlacq's work1 and dated ,october #be1 #afbh1 he says3-- ,my desire was to have those chiliades that are wantinge betwixt #bj and #ij calculated and printed1 and ,i had done them all almost by my selfe1 and by some frendes whom my rules had sufficiently informed1 and by agreement the busines was conveniently parted amongst us2 but ,i am eased of that charge and care by one ,adrian ,vlacque1 an ,hollander1 who hathe done all the whole hundred chiliades and printed them in ,latin1 ,dutche and ,frenche1 #ajjj bookes in these #c languages1 and hathe sould them almost all4 ,but he hathe cutt off #d of my figures throughout2 and hathe left out my dedication1 and to the reader1 and two chapters the #ab and #ac1 in the rest he hath not varied from me at all4 ,the original calculation of the logarithms of numbers from unity to #aja1jjj was thus performed by ,briggs and ,vlacq between #afae and #afbh4 ,vlacq's table is that from which all the hundreds of tables of logarithms that have subsequently appeared have been derived4 ,it contains of course many errors1 which were gradually discovered and corrected in the course of the next two hundred and fifty years4 ,the first calculation or publication of ,briggian or common logarithms of trigonometrical functions was made in #afbj by ,edmund ,gunter1 who was ,briggs's colleague as professor of astronomy in ,gresham ,college4 ,the title of ,gunter's book1 which is very scarce1 is ,canon triangulorum1 and it contains logarithmic sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant to #g places of decimals4 ,the next publication was due to ,vlacq1 who appended to his logarithms of numbers in the ,arithmetica logarithmica of #afbh a table giving log sines1 tangents and secants for every minute of the quadrant to #aj places2 these were obtained by calculating the logarithms of the natural sines1 c4 given in the ,thesaurus mathematicus of ,pitiscus 7#afac74 ,during the last years of his life ,briggs devoted himself to the calculation of logarithmic sines1 c4 and at the time of his death in #afca he had all but completed a logarithmic canon to every hundredth of a degree4 ,this work was published by ,vlacq at his own expense at ,gouda in #afcc1 under the title ,trigonometria ,britannica4 ,it contains log sines 7to #ad places7 and tangents 7to #aj places71 besides natural sines1 tangents and secants1 at intervals of a hundredth of a degree4 ,in the same year ,vlacq published at ,gouda his ,trigonometria artificialis1 giving log sines and tangents to every #aj seconds of the quadrant to #aj places4 ,this work also contains the logarithms of numbers from unity to #bj1jjj taken from the ,arithmetica logarithmica of #afbh4 ,briggs appreciated clearly the advantages of a centesimal division of the quadrant1 and by dividing the degree into hundredth parts instead of into minutes1 made a step towards a reformation in this respect1 and but for the appearance of ,vlacq's work the decimal division of the degree might have become recognized1 as is now the case with the corresponding division of the second4 ,the calculation of the logarithms not only of numbers but also of the trigonometrical functions is therefore due to ,briggs and ,vlacq2 and the results contained in their four fundamental works--,arithmetica logarithmica 7,briggs71 #afbd2 ,arithmetica logarithmica 7,vlacq71 #afbh2 ,trigonometria ,britannica 7,briggs71 #afcc2 ,trigonometria artificialis 7,vlacq71 #afcc--;have not been superseded by any subsequent calculations4 ,in the preceding paragraphs an account has been given of the actual announcement of the invention of logarithms and of the calculation of the tables4 ,it now remains to refer in more detail to the invention itself and to examine the claims of ,napier and ,briggs to the capital improvement involved in the change from ,napier's original logarithms to logarithms to the base #aj4 ,the ,descriptio contained only an explanation of the use of the logarithms without any account of the manner in which the canon was constructed4 ,in an ,admonitio on the seventh page ,napier states that1 although in that place the mode of construction should be explained1 he proceeds at once to the use of the logarithms1 ut praelibatis prius usu1 et rei utilitate1 caetera aut magis placeant posthac edenda1 aut minus saltem displiceant silentio sepulta4 ,he awaits therefore the judgment and censure of the learned priusquam caetera in lucem temer prolata lividorum detrectationi exponantur2 and in an ,admonitio on the last page of the book he states that he will publish the mode of construction of the canon si huius inventi usum eruditis gratum fore intellexero4 ,napier1 however1 did not live to keep this promise4 ,in #afag he published a small work entitled ,rabdologia relating to mechanical methods of performing multiplications and divisions1 and in the same year he died4 ,the proposed work was published in #afai by ,robert ,napier1 his second son by his second marriage1 under the title ,mirifici logarithmorum canonis constructio4444 ,it consists of two pages of preface followed by sixty-seven pages of text4 ,in the preface ,robert ,napier says that he has been assured from undoubted authority that the new invention is much thought of by the ablest mathematicians1 and that nothing would delight them more than the publication of the mode of construction of the canon4 ,he therefore issues the work to satisfy their desires1 although1 he states1 it is manifest that it would have seen the light in a far more perfect state if his father could have put the finishing touches to it2 and he mentions that1 in the opinion of the best judges1 his father possessed1 among other most excellent gifts1 in the highest degree the power of explaining the most difficult matters by a certain and easy method in the fewest possible words4 ,it is important to notice that in the ,constructio logarithms are called artificial numbers2 and ,robert ,napier states that the work was composed several years 7aliquot annos7 before ,napier had invented the name logarithm4 ,the ,constructio therefore may have been written a good many years previous to the publication of the ,descriptio in #afad4 ,passing now to the invention of common or decimal logarithms1 that is1 to the transition from the logarithms originally invented by ,napier to logarithms to the base #aj1 the first allusion to a change of system occurs in the ,admonitio on the last page of the ,descriptio 7#afad71 the concluding paragraph of which is ,verm si huius inventi usum eruditis gratum fore intellexero1 dabo fortasse brevi 7,deo aspirante7 rationem ac methodum aut hunc canonem emendandi1 aut emendatiorem de novo condendi1 ut ita plurium ,logistarum diligentia1 limatior tandem et accuratior1 qum unius opera fieri potuit1 in lucem prodeat4 ,nihil in ortu perfectum4 ,in some copies1 however1 this ,admonitio is absent4 ,in ,wright's translation of #afaf ,napier has added the sentence--,but because the addition and subtraction of these former numbers may seeme somewhat painfull1 ,i intend 7if it shall please ,god7 in a second ,edition1 to set out such ,logarithmes as shall make those numbers above written to fall upon decimal numbers1 such as #ajj1jjj1jjj1 #bjj1jjj1jjj1 #cjj1jjj1jjj1 c41 which are easie to be added or abated to or from any other number 7p4 #ai72 and in the dedication of the ,rabdologia 7#afag7 he wrote ,quorum quidem ,logarithmorum speciem aliam mult praestantiorem nunc etiam invenimus1 creandi methodum1 un cum eorum usu 7si ,deus longiorem vitae valetudinis usuram concesserit7 evulgare statuimus2 ipsam autem novi canonis supputationem1 ob infirmam corporis nostri valetudinem1 viris in hoc studii genere versatis relinquimus3 imprimis ver doctissimo viro ,d4 ,henrico ,briggio ,londini publico ,geometriae ,professori1 et amico mihi long charissimo4 ,briggs in the short preface to his ,logarithmorum chilias 7#afag7 states that the reason why his logarithms are different from those introduced by ,napier sperandum1 ejus librum posthumum1 abunde nobis propediem satisfacturum4 ,the liber posthumus was the ,constructio 7#afai71 in the preface to which ,robert ,napier states that he has added an appendix relating to another and more excellent species of logarithms1 referred to by the inventor himself in the ,rabdologia1 and in which the logarithm of unity is #j4 ,he also mentions that he has published some remarks upon the propositions in spherical trigonometry and upon the new species of logarithms by ,henry ,briggs1 qui novi hujus ,canonis supputandi laborem gravissimum1 pro singulari amiciti quae illi cum ,patre meo ,l4 ,m4 intercessit1 animo libentissimo in se suscepit2 creandi methodo1 et usuum explanatione ,inventori relictis4 ,nunc autem ipso ex hc vit evocato1 totius negotii onus doctissimi ,briggii humeris incumbere1 et ,sparta haec ornanda illi sorte quadam obtigisse videtur4 ,in the address prefixed to the ,arithmetica logarithmica 7#afbe7 ,briggs bids the reader not to be surprised that these logarithms are different from those published in the ,descriptio3-- ,ego enim1 cum meis auditoribus ,londini1 publice in ,collegio ,greshamensi horum doctrinam explicarem2 animadverti multo futurum commodius1 si ,logarithmus sinus totius servaretur #j 7ut in ,canone mirifico71 ,logarithmus autem partis decimae ejusdem sinus totius1 nempe sinus #e graduum1 #dd1 m4 #ba1 s41 esset #ajjjjjjjjjj4 atque ea de re scripsi statim ad ipsum authorem1 et quamprimum per anni tempus1 et vacationem a publico docendi munere licuit1 profectus sum ,edinburgum2 ubi humanissime ab eo acceptus haesi per integrum mensem4 ,cum autem inter nos de horum mutatione sermo haberetur2 ille se idem dudum sensisse1 et cupivisse dicebat3 veruntamen istos1 quos jam paraverat edendos curasse1 donec alios1 si per negotia et valetudinem liceret1 magis commodos confecisset4 ,istam autem mutationem ita faciendam censebat1 ut #j esset ,logarithmus unitatis1 et #ajjjjjjjjjj sinus totius3 quod ego longe commodissimum esse non potui non agnoscere4 ,coepi igitur1 ejus hortatu1 rejectis illis quos ante paraveram1 de horum calculo serio cogitare2 et sequenti aestate iterum profectus ,edinburgum1 horum quos hic exhibeo praecipuos1 illi ostendi1 idem etiam tertia aestate libentissime facturus1 si ,deus illum nobis tamdiu superstitem esse voluisset4 ,there is also a reference to the change of the logarithms on the title-page of the work4 ,these extracts contain all the original statements made by ,napier1 ,robert ,napier and ,briggs which have reference to the origin of decimal logarithms4 ,it will be seen that they are all in perfect agreement4 ,briggs pointed out in his lectures at ,gresham ,college that it would be more convenient that #j should stand for the logarithm of the whole sine as in the ,descriptio1 but that the logarithm of the tenth part of the whole sine should be #aj1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,he wrote also to ,napier at once2 and as soon as he could he went to ,edinburgh to visit him1 where1 as he was most hospitably received by him1 he remained for a whole month4 ,when they conversed about the change of system1 ,napier said that he had perceived and desired the same thing1 but that he had published the tables which he had already prepared1 so that they might be used until he could construct others more convenient4 ,but he considered that the change ought to be so made that #j should be the logarithm of unity and #aj1jjj1jjj1jjj that of the whole sine1 which ,briggs could not but admit was by far the most convenient of all4 ,rejecting therefore1 those which he had prepared already1 ,briggs began1 at ,napier's advice1 to consider seriously the question of the calculation of new tables4 ,in the following summer he went to ,edinburgh and showed ,napier the principal portion of the logarithms which he published in #afbd4 ,these probably included the logarithms of the first chiliad which he published in #afag4 ,it has been thought necessary to give in detail the facts relating to the conversion of the logarithms1 as unfortunately ,charles ,hutton in his history of logarithms1 which was prefixed to the early editions of his ,mathematical ,tables1 and was also published as one of his ,mathematical ,tracts1 has charged ,napier with want of candour in not telling the world of ,briggs's share in the change of system1 and he expresses the suspicion that ,napier was desirous that the world should ascribe to him alone the merit of this very useful improvement of the logarithms4 ,according to ,hutton's view1 the words1 it is to be hoped that his posthumous work 444 which occur in the preface to the ,chilias1 were a modest hint that the share ,briggs had had in changing the logarithms should be mentioned1 and that1 as no attention was paid to it1 he himself gave the account which appears in the ,arithmetica of #afbd4 ,there seems1 however1 no ground whatever for supposing that ,briggs meant to express anything beyond his hope that the reason for the alteration would be explained in the posthumous work2 and in his own account1 written seven years after ,napier's death and five years after the appearance of the work itself1 he shows no injured feeling whatever1 but even goes out of his way to explain that he abandoned his own proposed alteration in favour of ,napier's1 and1 rejecting the tables he had already constructed1 began to consider the calculation of new ones4 ,the facts1 as stated by ,napier and ,briggs1 are in complete accordance1 and the friendship existing between them was perfect and unbroken to the last4 ,briggs assisted ,robert ,napier in the editing of the posthumous work1 the ,constructio1 and in the account he gives of the alteration of the logarithms in the ,arithmetica of #afbd he seems to have been more anxious that justice should be done to ,napier than to himself2 while on the other hand ,napier received ,briggs most hospitably and refers to him as amico mihi long charissimo4 ,hutton's suggestions are all the more to be regretted as they occur as a history which is the result of a good deal of investigation and which for years was referred to as an authority by many writers4 ,his prejudice against ,napier naturally produced retaliation1 and ,mark ,napier in defending his ancestor has fallen into the opposite extreme of attempting to reduce ,briggs to the level of a mere computer4 ,in connexion with this controversy it should be noticed that the ,admonitio on the last page of the ,descriptio1 containing the reference to the new logarithms1 does not occur in all the copies4 ,it is printed on the back of the last page of the table itself1 and so cannot have been torn out from the copies that are without it4 ,as there could have been no reason for omitting it after it had once appeared1 we may assume that the copies which do not have it are those which were first issued4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that ,briggs's copy contained no reference to the change1 and it is even possible that the ,admonitio may have been added after ,briggs had communicated with ,napier4 ,as special attention has not been drawn to the fact that some copies have the ,admonitio and some have not1 different writers have assumed that ,briggs did or did not know of the promise contained in the ,admonitio according as it was present or absent in the copies they had themselves referred to1 and this has given rise to some confusion4 ,it may also be remarked that the date frequently assigned to ,briggs's first visit to ,napier is #afaf1 and not #afae as stated above1 the reason being that ,napier was generally supposed to have died in #afah until ,mark ,napier showed that the true date was #afag4 ,when the ,descriptio was published ,briggs was fifty-seven years of age1 and the remaining seventeen years of his life were devoted with steady enthusiasm to extend the utility of ,napier's great invention4 ,the only other mathematician besides ,napier who grasped the idea on which the use of logarithm depends and applied it to the construction of a table is ,justus ,byrgius 7,jobst ,brgi71 whose work ,arithmetische und geometrische ,progress-,tabulen 444 was published at ,prague in #afbj1 six years after the publication of the ,descriptio of ,napier4 ,this table distinctly involves the principle of logarithms and may be described as a modified table of antilogarithms4 ,it consists of two series of numbers1 the one being an arithmetical and the other a geometrical progression3 thus #j1 #a1jjjj #jjjj #aj1 #a1jjja #jjjj #bj1 l1#jjjb #jjja 4 4 4 4 #iij1 l1#jjii #difg 4 4 4 4 ,in the arithmetical column the numbers increase by #aj1 in the geometrical column each number is derived from its predecessor by multiplication by #a4jjja4 ,thus the number #ajx in the arithmetical column corresponds to #ajh 7#a4jjja7x in the geometrical column2 the intermediate numbers being obtained by interpolation4 ,if we divide the numbers in the geometrical column by #ajh the correspondence is between #ajx and 7#a4jjja7x1 and the table then becomes one of antilogarithms1 the base being 7#a4jjja7a_/aj1 viz4 for example 7l4#jjja7a_/ajiij #a4jjiidifg4 ,the table extends to #bcjbgj in the arithmetical column1 and it is shown that #bcjbgj4jbb corresponds to #i4iiii #iiii or #aji in the geometrical column2 this last result showing that 7#a4jjja7bcjbg4jbb #aj4 ,the first contemporary mention of ,byrgius's table occurs on page #aa of the ,praecepta prefixed to ,kepler's ,tabulae ,radolphinae 7#afbg72 his words are3 apices logistici ,j4 ,byrgio multis annis ante editionem ,neperianam viam praeiverent ad hos ipsissimos logarithmos4 ,etsi homo cunctator et secretorum suorum custos foetum in partu destituit1 non ad usus publicos educavit4 ,another reference to ,byrgius occurs in a work by ,benjamin ,bramer1 the brother-in-law and pupil of ,byrgius1 who1 writing in #afcj1 says that the latter constructed his table twenty years ago or more4#d ,as regards priority of publication1 ,napier has the advantage by six years1 and even fully accepting ,bramer's statement1 there are grounds for believing that ,napier's work dates from a still earlier period4 ,the power of #aj1 which occurs as a factor in the tables of both ,napier and ,byrgius1 was rendered necessary by the fact that the decimal point was not yet in use4 ,omitting this factor in the case of both tables1 the connexion between ,n a number and ,l its logarithm is ,n 7e-#a7,l 7,napier71 ,l 7#a4jjja77a_/aj7,n 7,byrgius71 viz4 ,napier gives logarithms to base e-#a1 ,byrgius gives antilogarithms to base 7#a4jjja7a_/aj4 ,there is indirect evidence that ,napier was occupied with logarithms as early as #aeid1 for in a letter to ,p4 ,crgerus from ,kepler1 dated ,september #i1 #afbd 7,frisch's ,kepler1 vi4 #dg71 there occurs the sentence3 ,nihil autem supra ,neperianam rationem esse puto3 etsi quidem ,scotus quidam literis ad ,tychonem #aeid scriptis jam spem fecit ,canonis illius ,mirifici4 ,it is here distinctly stated that some ,scotsman in the year #aeid1 in a letter to ,tycho ,brahe1 gave him some hope of the logarithms2 and as ,kepler joined ,tycho after his expulsion from the island of ,huen1 and had been so closely associated with him in his work1 he would be likely to be correct in any assertion of this kind4 ,in connexion with ,kepler's statement the following story1 told by ,anthony wood in the ,athenae ,oxonienses1 is of some importance3-- ,it must be now known1 that one ,dr ,craig1 a ,scotchman 444 coming out of ,denmark into his own country1 called upon ,joh4 ,neper1 ,baron of ,mercheston1 near ,edinburgh1 and told him1 among other discourses1 of a new invention in ,denmark 7by ,longomontanus1 as 'tis said71 to save the tedious multiplication and division in astronomical calculations4 ,neper being solicitous to know farther of him concerning this matter1 he could give no other account of it than that it was by proportional numbers4 ,which hint ,neper taking1 he desired him at his return to call upon him again4 ,craig1 after some weeks had passed1 did so1 and ,neper then showed him a rude draught of what he called ,canon mirabilis logarithmorum4 which draught1 with some alterations1 he printing in #afad1 it came forthwith into the hands of our author ,briggs1 and into those of ,will4 ,oughtred1 from whom the relation of this matter came4 ,this story1 though obviously untrue in some respects1 gives valuable information by connecting ,dr ,craig with ,napier and ,longomontanus1 who was ,tycho ,brahe's assistant4 ,dr ,craig was ,john ,craig1 the third son of ,thomas ,craig1 who was one of the colleagues of ,sir ,archibald ,napier1 ,john ,napier's father1 in the office of justice-depute4 ,between ,john ,craig and ,john ,napier a friendship sprang up which may have been due to their common taste for mathematics4 ,there are extant three letters from ,dr ,john ,craig to ,tycho ,brahe1 which show that he was on the most friendly terms with him4 ,in the first letter1 of which the date is not given1 ,craig says that ,sir ,william ,stuart has safely delivered to him1 about the beginning of last winter1 the book which he sent him4 ,now ,mark ,napier found in the library of the university of ,edinburgh a mathematical work bearing a sentence in ,latin which he translates1 ,to ,doctor ,john ,craig of ,edinburgh1 in ,scotland1 a most illustrious man1 highly gifted with various and excellent learning1 professor of medicine1 and exceedingly skilled in the mathematics1 ,tycho ,brahe hath sent this gift1 and with his own hand written this at ,uraniburg1 #b;d ,november #aehh4 ,as ,sir ,william ,stuart was sent to ,denmark to arrange the preliminaries of ,king ,james's marriage1 and returned to ,edinburgh on the #aeth of ,november #aehh1 it would seem probable that this was the volume referred to by ,craig4 ,it appears from ,craig's letter1 to which we may therefore assign the date #aehi1 that1 five years before1 he had made an attempt to reach ,uranienburg1 but had been baffled by the storms and rocks of ,norway1 and that ever since then he had been longing to visit ,tycho4 ,now ,john ,craig was physician to the king1 and in #aeij ,james ,,vi4 spent some days at ,uranienburg1 before returning to ,scotland from his matrimonial expedition4 ,it seems not unlikely therefore that ,craig may have accompanied the king in his visit to ,uranienburg4#e ,in any case it is certain that ,craig was a friend and correspondent of ,tycho's1 and it is probable that he was the ,scotus quidam4 ,we may infer therefore that as early as #aeid ,napier had communicated to some one1 probably ,john ,craig1 his hope of being able to effect a simplification in the processes of arithmetic4 ,everything tends to show that the invention of logarithms was the result of many years of labour and thought1#f undertaken with this special object1 and it would seem that ,napier had seen some prospect of success nearly twenty years before the publication of the ,descriptio4 ,it is very evident that no mere hint with regard to the use of proportional numbers could have been of any service to him1 but it is possible that the news brought by ,craig of the difficulties placed in the progress of astronomy by the labour of the calculations may have stimulated him to persevere in his efforts4 ,the new invention in ,denmark to which ,anthony ,wood refers as having given the hint to ,napier was probably the method of calculation called prosthaphaeresis 7often written in ,greek letters ,greek3 prosthaphairesis71 which had its origin in the solution of spherical triangles4#g ,the method consists in the use of the formula sin a sin b cos 7a - b7 - cos 7a b71 by means of which the multiplication of two sines is reduced to the addition or subtraction of two tabular results taken from a table of sines2 and1 as such products occur in the solution of spherical triangles1 the method affords the solution of spherical triangles in certain cases by addition and subtraction only4 ,it seems to be due to ,wittich of ,breslau1 who was assistant for a short time to ,tycho ,brahe2 and it was used by them in their calculations in #aehb4 ,wittich in #aehd made known at ,cassel the calculation of one case by this prosthaphaeresis2 and ,justus ,byrgius proved it in such a manner that from his proof the extension to the solution of all triangles could be deduced4#h ,clavius generalized the method in his treatise ,de astrolabio 7#aeic71 lib4 i4 lemma liii4 ,the lemma is enunciated as follows3-- ,quaestiones omnes1 quae per sinus1 tangentes1 atque secantes absolvi solent1 per solam prosthaphaeresim1 id est1 per solam additionem1 subtractionem1 sine laboriosa numerorum multiplicatione divisioneque expedire4 ,clavius then refers to a work of ,raymarus ,ursus ,dithmarsus as containing an account of a particular case4 ,the work is probably the ,fundamentum astronomicum 7#aehh74 ,longomontanus1 in his ,astronomia ,danica 7#afbb71 gives an account of the method1 stating that it is not to be found in the writings of the ,arabs or ,regiomontanus4 ,as ,longomontanus is mentioned in ,anthony ,wood's anecdote1 and as ,wittich as well as ,longomontanus were assistants of ,tycho1 we may infer that ,wittich's prosthaphaeresis is the method referred to by ,wood4 ,it is evident that ,wittich's prosthaphaeresis could not be a good method of practically effecting multiplications unless the quantities to be multiplied were sines1 on account of the labour of the interpolations4 ,it satisfies the condition1 however1 equally with logarithms1 of enabling multiplication to be performed by the aid of a table of single entry2 and1 analytically considered1 it is not so different in principle from the logarithmic method4 ,in fact1 if we put xy phi7,x ,y71 ,x being a function of x only and ,y a function of y only1 we can show that we must have ,x ,ae7qx71 y ,be7qy72 and if we put xy phi7,x ,y7 - phi7,x - ,y71 the solutions are phi7,x ,y7 7x y71 and x sin ,x1 y sin ,y1 phi7,x ,y7 -cos7,x ,y74 ,the former solution gives a method known as that of quarter-squares2 the latter gives the method of prosthaphaeresis4 ,an account has now been given of ,napier's invention and its publication1 the transition to decimal logarithms1 the calculation of the tables by ,briggs1 ,vlacq and ,gunter1 as well as of the claims of ,byrgius and the method of prosthaphaeresis4 ,to complete the early history of logarithms it is necessary to return to ,napier's ,descriptio in order to describe its reception on the continent1 and to mention the other logarithmic tables which were published while ,briggs was occupied with his calculations4 ,john ,kepler1 who has been already quoted in connexion with ,craig's visit to ,tycho ,brahe1 received the invention of logarithms almost as enthusiastically as ,briggs4 ,his first mention of the subject occurs in a letter to ,schikhart dated the #aath of ,march #afah1 in which he writes-,extitit ,scotus ,baro1 cujus nomen mihi excidit1 qui praeclari quid praestitit1 necessitate omni multiplicationum et divisionum in meras additiones et subtractiones commutata1 nec sinibus utitur2 at tamen opus est ipsi tangentium canone3 et varietas1 crebritas1 difficultasque additionum subtractionumque alicubi laborem multiplicandi et dividendi superat4 ,this erroneous estimate was formed when he had seen the ,descriptio but had not read it2 and his opinion was very different when he became acquainted with the nature of logarithms4 ,the dedication of his ,ephemeris for #afbj consists of a letter to ,napier dated the #bhth of ,july #afai1 and he there congratulates him warmly on his invention and on the benefit he has conferred upon astronomy generally and upon ,kepler's own ,rudolphine tables4 ,he says that1 although ,napier's book had been published five years1 he first saw it at ,prague two years before2 he was then unable to read it1 but last year he had met with a little work by ,benjamin ,ursinus#i containing the substance of the method1 and he at once recognized the importance of what had been effected4 ,he then explains how he verified the canon1 and so found that there were no essential errors in it1 although there were a few inaccuracies near the beginning of the quadrant1 and he proceeds1 ,haec te obiter scire volui1 ut quibus tu methodis incesseris1 quas non dubito et plurimas et ingeniosissimas tibi in promptu esse1 eas publici juris fieri1 mihi saltem 7puto et caeteris7 scires fore gratissimum2 eoque percepto1 tua promissa folio #eg1 in debitum cecidisse intelligeres4 ,this letter was written two years after ,napier's death 7of which ,kepler was unaware71 and in the same year as that in which the ,constructio was published4 ,in the same year 7#afbj7 ,napier's ,descriptio 7#afad7 and ,constructio 7#afai7 were reprinted by ,bartholomew ,vincent at ,lyons and issued together4#aj ,napier calculated no logarithms of numbers1 and1 as already stated1 the logarithms invented by him were not to base e4 ,the first logarithms to the base e were published by ,john ,speidell in his ,new ,logarithmes 7,london1 #afai71 which contains hyperbolic log sines1 tangents and secants for every minute of the quadrant to #e places of decimals4 ,in #afbd ,benjamin ,ursinus published at ,cologne a canon of logarithms exactly similar to ,napier's in the ,descriptio of #afad1 only much enlarged4 ,the interval of the arguments is #aj1 and the results are given to #h places2 in ,napier's canon the interval is #a'1 and the number of places is #g4 ,the logarithms are strictly ,napierian1 and the arrangement is identical with that in the canon of #afad4 ,this is the largest ,napierian canon that has ever been published4 ,in the same year 7#afbd7 ,kepler published at ,marburg a table of ,napierian logarithms of sines with certain additional columns to facilitate special calculations4 ,the first publication of ,briggian logarithms on the continent is due to ,wingate1 who published at ,paris in #afbe his ,arithmtique logarithmtique1 containing seven-figure logarithms of numbers up to #ajjj1 and log sines and tangents from ,gunter's ,canon 7#afbj74 ,in the following year1 #afbf1 ,denis ,henrion published at ,paris a ,traict des ,logarithmes1 containing ,briggs's logarithms of numbers up to #bj1jja to #aj places1 and ,gunter's log sines and tangents to #g places for every minute4 ,in the same year de ,decker also published at ,gouda a work entitled ,nieuwe ,telkonst1 inhoudende de ,logarithmi voor de ,ghetallen beginnende van #a tot #aj1jjj1 which contained logarithms of numbers up to #aj1jjj to #aj places1 taken from ,briggs's ,arithmetica of #afbd1 and ,gunter's log sines and tangents to #g places for every minute4#aa ,vlacq rendered assistance in the publication of this work1 and the privilege is made out to him4 ,the invention of logarithms and the calculation of the earlier tables form a very striking episode in the history of exact science1 and1 with the exception of the ,principia of ,newton1 there is no mathematical work published in the country which has produced such important consequences1 or to which so much interest attaches as to ,napier's ,descriptio4 ,the calculation of tables of the natural trigonometrical functions may be said to have formed the work of the last half of the #afth century1 and the great canon of natural sines for every #aj seconds to #ae places which had been calculated by ,rheticus was published by ,pitiscus only in #afac1 the year before that in which the ,descriptio appeared4 ,in the construction of the natural trigonometrical tables ,great ,britain had taken no part1 and it is remarkable that the discovery of the principles and the formation of the tables that were to revolutionize or supersede all the methods of calculation then in use should have been so rapidly effected and developed in a country in which so little attention had been previously devoted to such questions4 ,for more detailed information relating to ,napier1 ,briggs and ,vlacq1 and the invention of logarithms1 the reader is referred to the life of ,briggs in ,ward's ,lives of the ,professors of ,gresham ,college 7,london1 #agdj72 ,thomas ,smith's ,vitae quorundam eruditissimorum et illustrium virorum 7,vita ,henrici ,briggii7 7,london1 #agjg72 ,mark ,napier's ,memoirs of ,john ,napier already referred to1 and the same author's ,naperi libri qui supersunt 7#ahci72 ,hutton's ,history2 de ,morgan's article already referred to2 ,delambre's ,histoire de l',astronomie moderne2 the report on mathematical tables in the ,report of the ,british ,association for #ahgc2 and the ,philosophical ,magazine for ,october and ,december #ahgb and ,may #ahgc4 ,it may be remarked that the date usually assigned to ,briggs's first visit to ,napier is #afaf and not #afae as stated above1 the reason being that ,napier was generally supposed to have died in #afah2 but it was shown by ,mark ,napier that the true date is #afag4 ,in the years #agia-ahjg ,francis ,maseres published at ,london1 in six volumes quarto ,scriptores ,logarithmici1 or a collection of several curious tracts on the nature and construction of logarithms1 mentioned in ,dr ,hutton's historical introduction to his new edition of ,sherwin's mathematical tables 4441 which contains reprints of ,napier's ,descriptio of #afad1 ,kepler's writings on logarithms 7#afbd-afbe71 c4 ,in #ahhi a translation of ,napier's ,constructio of #afai was published by ,walter ,rae ,macdonald4 ,some valuable notes are added by the translator1 in one of which he shows the accuracy of the method employed by ,napier in his calculations1 and explains the origin of a small error which occurs in ,napier's table4 ,appended to the ,catalogue is a full and careful bibliography of all ,napier's writings1 with mention of the public libraries1 ,british and foreign1 which possess copies of each4 ,a facsimile reproduction of ,bartholomew ,vincent's ,lyons edition 7#afbj7 of the ,constructio was issued in #ahie by ,a4 ,hermann at ,paris 7this imprint occurs on page #fb after the word ,finis74 ,it now remains to notice briefly a few of the more important events in the history of logarithmic tables subsequent to the original calculations4 ,common or ,briggian ,logarithms of ,numbers4--,nathaniel ,roe's ,tabulae logarithmicae 7#afcc7 was the first complete seven-figure table that was published4 ,it contains seven-figure logarithms of numbers from #a to #ajj1jjj1 with characteristics unseparated from the mantissae1 and was formed from ,vlacq's table 7#afbh7 by leaving out the last three figures4 ,all the figures of the number are given at the head of the columns1 except the last two1 which run down the extreme columns--#a to #ej on the left-hand side1 and #ej to #ajj on the right-hand side4 ,the first four figures of the logarithms are printed at the top of the columns4 ,there is thus an advance half way towards the arrangement now universal in seven-figure tables4 ,the final step was made by ,john ,newton in his ,trigonometria ,britannica 7#afeh71 a work which is also noticeable as being the only extensive eight-figure table that until recently had been published2 it contains logarithms of sines1 c41 as well as logarithms of numbers4 ,in #agje appeared the original edition of ,sherwin's tables1 the first of the series of ordinary seven-figure tables of logarithms of numbers and trigonometrical functions such as are in general use now4 ,the work went through several editions during the #ahth century1 and was at length superseded in #aghe by ,hutton's tables1 which continued in successive editions to maintain their position for a century4 ,in #agag ,abraham ,sharp published in his ,geometry ,improv'd the ,briggian logarithms of numbers from #a to #ajj1 and of primes from #ajj to #aajj1 to #fa places2 these were copied into the later editions of ,sherwin and other works4 ,in #agdb a seven-figure table was published in quarto form by ,gardiner1 which is celebrated on account of its accuracy and of the elegance of the printing4 ,a ,french edition1 which closely resembles the original1 was published at ,avignon in #aggj4 ,in #aghc appeared at ,paris the first edition of ,franois ,callet's tables1 which correspond to those of ,hutton in ,england4 ,these tables1 which form perhaps the most complete and practically useful collection of logarithms for the general computer that has been published1 passed through many editions4 ,in #agid ,vega published his ,thesaurus logarithmorum completus1 a folio volume containing a reprint of the logarithms of numbers from ,vlacq's ,arithmetica logarithmica of #afbh1 and ,trigonometria artificialis of #afcc4 ,the logarithms of numbers are arranged as in an ordinary seven-figure table4 ,in addition to the logarithms reprinted from the ,trigonometria1 there are given logarithms for every second of the first two degrees1 which were the result of an original calculation4 ,vega devoted great attention to the detection and correction of the errors in ,vlacq's work of #afbh4 ,vega's ,thesaurus has been reproduced photographically by the ,italian government4 ,vega also published in #agig1 in #b vols4 #hvo1 a collection of logarithmic and trigonometrical tables which has passed through many editions1 a very useful one volume stereotype edition having been published in #ahdj by ,hlsse4 ,the tables in this work may be regarded as to some extent supplementary to those in ,callet4 ,if we consider only the logarithms of numbers1 the main line of descent from the original calculation of ,briggs and ,vlacq is ,roe1 ,john ,newton1 ,sherwin1 ,gardiner2 there are then two branches1 viz4 ,hutton founded on ,sherwin and ,callet on ,gardiner1 and the editions of ,vega form a separate offshoot from the original tables4 ,among the most useful and accessible of modern ordinary seven-figure tables of logarithms of numbers and trigonometrical functions may be mentioned those of ,bremiker1 ,schrn and ,bruhns4 ,for logarithms of numbers only perhaps ,babbage's table is the most convenient4#ab ,in #ahga ,edward ,sang published a seven-figure table of logarithms of numbers from #bj1jjj to #bjj1jjj1 the logarithms between #ajj1jjj and #bjj1jjj being the result of a new calculation4 ,by beginning the table at #bj1jjj instead of at #aj1jjj the differences are halved in magnitude1 while the number of them in a page is quartered4 ,in this table multiples of the differences1 instead of proportional parts1 are given4#ac ,john ,thomson of ,greenock 7#aghb-ahee7 made an independent calculation of logarithms of numbers up to #abj1jjj to #ab places of decimals1 and his table has been used to verify the errata already found in ,vlacq and ,briggs by ,lefort 7see ,monthly ,not4 ,r4,a4,s4 vol4 #cd1 p4 #ddg74 ,a table of ten-figure logarithms of numbers up to #ajj1jji was calculated by ,w4 ,w4 ,duffield and published in the ,report of the ,u4,s4 ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey for #ahie-ahif as ,appendix #ab1 pp4 #cie-gbb4 ,the results were compared with ,vega's ,thesaurus 7#agid7 before publication4 ,common or ,briggian ,logarithms of ,trigonometrical ,functions4--,the next great advance on the ,trigonometria artificialis took place more than a century and a half afterwards1 when ,michael ,taylor published in #agib his seven-decimal table of log sines and tangents to every second of the quadrant2 it was calculated by interpolation from the ,trigonometria to #aj places and then contracted to #g4 ,on account of the great size of this table1 and for other reasons1 it never came into very general use1 ,bagay's ,nouvelles tables astronomiques 7#ahbi71 which also contains log sines and tangents to every second1 being preferred2 this latter work1 which for many years was difficult to procure1 has been reprinted with the original title-page and date unchanged4 ,the only other logarithmic canon to every second that has been published forms the second volume of ,shortrede's ,logarithmic ,tables 7#ahdi74 ,in #aghd the ,french government decided that new tables of sines1 tangents1 c41 and their logarithms1 should be calculated in relation to the centesimal division of the quadrant4 ,prony was charged with the direction of the work1 and was expressly required non seulement composer des tables qui ne laissassent rien dsirer quant l'exactitude1 mais en faire le monument de calcul le plus vaste et le plus imposant qui et jamais t excut ou mme conu4 ,those engaged upon the work were divided into three sections3 the first consisted of five or six mathematicians1 including ,legendre1 who were engaged in the purely analytical work1 or the calculation of the fundamental numbers2 the second section consisted of seven or eight calculators possessing some mathematical knowledge2 and the third comprised seventy or eighty ordinary computers4 ,the work1 which was performed wholly in duplicate1 and independently by two divisions of computers1 occupied two years4 ,as a consequence of the double calculation1 there are two manuscripts1 one deposited at the ,observatory1 and the other in the library of the ,institute1 at ,paris4 ,each of the two manuscripts consists essentially of seventeen large folio volumes1 the contents being as follows3-- ,logarithms of numbers up to #bjj1jjj #h vols4 ,natural sines #a ,logarithms of the ratios of arcs to sines from #jq4#jjjjj to #jq4#jejjj1 and log sines throughout the quadrant #d ,logarithms of the ratios of arcs to tangents from #jq4#jjjjj to #jq4#jejjj1 and log tangents throughout the quadrant #d ,the trigonometrical results are given for every hundred-thousandth of the quadrant 7#aj centesimal or #c4bd sexagesimal74 ,the tables were all calculated to #ad places1 with the intention that only #ab should be published1 but the twelfth figure is not to be relied upon4 ,the tables have never been published1 and are generally known as the ,tables du ,cadastre1 or1 in ,england1 as the great ,french manuscript tables4 ,a very full account of these tables1 with an explanation of the methods of calculation1 formulae employed1 c41 was published by ,lefort in vol4 iv4 of the ,annales de l'observatoire de ,paris4 ,the printing of the table of natural sines was once begun1 and ,lefort states that he has seen six copies1 all incomplete1 although including the last page4 ,babbage compared his table with the ,tables du ,cadastre1 and ,lefort has given in his paper just referred to most important lists of errors in ,vlacq's and ,briggs's logarithms of numbers which were obtained by comparing the manuscript tables with those contained in the ,arithmetica logarithmica of #afbd and of #afbh4 ,as the ,tables du ,cadastre remained unpublished1 other tables appeared in which the quadrant was divided centesimally1 the most important of these being ,hobert and ,ideler's ,nouvelles tables trigonomtriques 7#agii71 and ,borda and ,delambre's ,tables trigonomtriques dcimales 7#ahjj-ahja71 both of which are seven-figure tables4 ,the latter work1 which was much used1 being difficult to procure1 and greater accuracy being required1 the ,french government in #ahia published an eight-figure centesimal table1 for every ten seconds1 derived from the ,tables du ,cadastre4 ,decimal or ,briggian ,antilogarithms4--,in the ordinary tables of logarithms the natural numbers are all integers1 while the logarithms tabulated are incommensurable4 ,in an antilogarithmic table1 the logarithms are exact quantities such as 4#jjjja1 4#jjjjb1 c41 and the numbers are incommensurable4 ,the earliest and largest table of this kind that has been constructed is ,dodson's ,antilogarithmic canon 7#agdb71 which gives the numbers to #aa places1 corresponding to the logarithms from 4#jjjja to 4#iiiii at intervals of 4#jjjja4 ,antilogarithmic tables are few in number1 the only other extensive tables of the same kind that have been published occurring in ,shortrede's ,logarithmic tables already referred to1 and in ,filipowski's ,table of antilogarithms 7#ahdi74 ,both are similar to ,dodson's tables1 from which they were derived1 but they only give numbers to #g places4 ,hyperbolic or ,napierian logarithms 7i4e4 to base e74--,the most elaborate table of hyperbolic logarithms that exists is due to ,wolfram1 a ,dutch lieutenant of artillery4 ,his table gives the logarithms of all numbers up to #bbjj1 and of primes 7and also of a great many composite numbers7 from #bbjj to #aj1jji1 to #dh decimal places4 ,the table appeared in ,schulze's ,neue und erweiterte ,sammlung logarithmischer ,tafeln 7#aggh71 and was reprinted in ,vega's ,thesaurus 7#agid71 already referred to4 ,six logarithms omitted in ,schulze's work1 and which ,wolfram had been prevented from computing by a serious illness1 were published subsequently1 and the table as given by ,vega is complete4 ,the largest hyperbolic table as regards range was published by ,zacharias ,dase at ,vienna in #ahej under the title ,tafel der natrlichen ,logarithmen der ,zahlen4 ,hyperbolic antilogarithms are simple exponentials1 i4e4 the hyperbolic antilogarithm of x is ex4 ,such tables can scarcely be said to come under the head of logarithmic tables4 ,see ,,tables1 ,,mathematical3 ,exponential ,functions4 ,logistic or ,proportional ,logarithms4--,the old name for what are now called ratios or fractions are logistic numbers1 so that a table of log 7a_/x7 where x is the argument and a a constant is called a table of logistic or proportional logarithms2 and since log 7a_/x7 log a - log x it is clear that the tabular results differ from those given in an ordinary table of logarithms only by the subtraction of a constant and a change of sign4 ,the first table of this kind appeared in ,kepler's work of #afbd which has been already referred to4 ,the object of a table of log 7a_/x7 is to facilitate the working out of proportions in which the third term is a constant quantity a4 ,in most collections of tables of logarithms1 and especially those intended for use in connexion with navigation1 there occurs a small table of logistic logarithms in which a #cfjj 7 #a or #a;h71 the table giving log #cfjj - log x1 and x being expressed in minutes and seconds4 ,it is also common to find tables in which a #ajhjj 7 #c or #c;h71 and x is expressed in degrees 7or hours71 minutes and seconds4 ,such tables are generally given to #d or #e places4 ,the usual practice in books seems to be to call logarithms logistic when a is #cfjj1 and proportional when a has any other value4 ,addition and ,subtraction1 or ,gaussian ,logarithms4--,gaussian logarithms are intended to facilitate the finding of the logarithms of the sum and difference of two numbers whose logarithms are known1 the numbers themselves being unknown2 and on this account they are frequently called addition and subtraction logarithms4 ,the object of the table is in fact to give log 7a b7 by only one entry when log a and log b are given4 ,the utility of such logarithms was first pointed out by ,leonelli in a book entitled ,supplment logarithmique1 printed at ,bordeaux in the year ,,xi4 7#ahjb_/c72 he calculated a table to #ad places1 but only a specimen of it which appeared in the ,supplment was printed4 ,the first table that was actually published is due to ,gauss1 and was printed in ,zach's ,monatliche ,correspondenz1 xxvi4 #dih 7#ahab74 ,corresponding to the argument log x it gives the values of log 7#a x-#a7 and log 7#a x74 ,dual ,logarithms4--,this term was used by ,oliver ,byrne in a series of works published between #ahfj and #ahgj4 ,dual numbers and logarithms depend upon the expression of a number as a product of #a4a1 #a4ja1 #a4jja 444 or of 4#i1 4#ii1 4#iii4444 ,in the preceding rsum only those publications have been mentioned which are of historic importance or interest4#ad ,for fuller details with respect to some of these works1 for an account of tables published in the latter part of the #aith century1 and for those which would now be used in actual calculation1 reference should be made to the article ,,tables1 ,,mathematical4 ,calculation of ,logarithms4--,the name logarithm is derived from the words ,greek3 logon arithmos1 the number of the ratios1 and the way of regarding a logarithm which justifies the name may be explained as follows4 ,suppose that the ratio of #aj1 or any other particular number1 to #a is compounded of a very great number of equal ratios1 as1 for example1 #a1jjj1jjj1 then it can be shown that the ratio of #b to #a is very nearly equal to a ratio compounded of #cja1jcj of these small ratios1 or ratiunculae1 that the ratio of #c to #a is very nearly equal to a ratio compounded of #dgg1aba of them1 and so on4 ,the small ratio1 or ratiuncula1 is in fact that of the millionth root of #aj to unity1 and if we denote it by the ratio of a to #a1 then the ratio of #b to #a will be nearly the same as that of a#cja1jcj to #a1 and so on2 or1 in other words1 if a denotes the millionth root of #aj1 then #b will be nearly equal to a#cja1jcj1 #c will be nearly equal to a#dgg1aba1 and so on4 ,napier's original work1 the ,descriptio ,canonis of #afad1 contained1 not logarithms of numbers1 but logarithms of sines1 and the relations between the sines and the logarithms were explained by the motions of points in lines1 in a manner not unlike that afterwards employed by ,newton in the method of fluxions4 ,an account of the processes by which ,napier constructed his table was given in the ,constructio ,canonis of #afai4 ,these methods apply1 however1 specially to ,napier's own kind of logarithms1 and are different from those actually used by ,briggs in the construction of the tables in the ,arithmetica ,logarithmica1 although some of the latter are the same in principle as the processes described in an appendix to the ,constructio4 ,the processes used by ,briggs are explained by him in the preface to the ,arithmetica ,logarithmica 7#afbd74 ,his method of finding the logarithms of the small primes1 which consists in taking a great number of continued geometric means between unity and the given primes1 may be described as follows4 ,he first formed the table of numbers and their logarithms3-- ,numbers4 ,logarithms4 #aj #a #c4afbbgg444 #j4e #a4gghbgi444 #j4be #a4ccceba444 #j4abe #a4aedgha444 #j4jfbe each quantity in the left-hand column being the square root of the one above it1 and each quantity in the right-hand column being the half of the one above it4 ,to construct this table ,briggs1 using about thirty places of decimals1 extracted the square root of #aj fifty-four times1 and thus found that the logarithm of #a4jjjjj #jjjjj #jjjjj #abgha #iadic #bjjcb #ce was #j4jjjjj #jjjjj #jjjjj #jeeea #aaeab #cabeg #hbgjb1 and that for numbers of this form 7i4e4 for numbers beginning with #a followed by fifteen ciphers1 and then by seventeen or a less number of significant figures7 the logarithms were proportional to these significant figures4 ,he then by means of a simple proportion deduced that log 7#a4jjjjj #jjjjj #jjjjj #a7 #j4jjjjj #jjjjj #jjjjj #jdcdb #iddha #ijcbe #ahjd1 so that1 a quantity #a4jjjjj #jjjjj #jjjjj x 7where x consists of not more than seventeen figures7 having been obtained by repeated extraction of the square root of a given number1 the logarithm of #a4jjjjj #jjjjj #jjjjj x could then be found by multiplying x by 4#jjjjj #jjjjj #jjjjj #jdcdb4444 ,to find the logarithm of #b1 ,briggs raised it to the tenth power1 viz4 #ajbd1 and extracted the square root of #a4jbd forty-seven times1 the result being #a4jjjjj #jjjjj #jjjjj #afhea #fjegj #ecidi #gg4 ,multiplying the significant figures by #dcdb 444 he obtained the logarithm of this quantity1 viz4 #j4jjjjj #jjjjj #jjjjj #jgcah #eeicf #ijfbc #iccf1 which multiplied by #bdg gave #j4jajbi #iieff #cihaa #iebfe #bggddd1 the logarithm of #a4jbd1 true to #ag or #ah places4 ,adding the characteristic #c1 and dividing by #aj1 he found 7since #b is the tenth root of #ajbd7 log #b 4#cjajb #iiief #fciha #aie4 ,briggs calculated in a similar manner log #f1 and thence deduced log #c4 ,it will be observed that in the first process the value of the modulus is in fact calculated from the formula4 h #a -------- ---------1 #aj;h - #a log7e7 #aj the value of h being #a_/bed1 and in the second process log#aj #b is in effect calculated from the formula4 #a #bdg log7#aj7 #b #b7aj_/bdg7 - #a --------- ----4 log7e7 #aj #aj ,briggs also gave methods of forming the mean proportionals or square roots by differences2 and the general method of constructing logarithmic tables by means of differences is due to him4 ,the following calculation of log #e is given as an example of the application of a method of mean proportionals4 ,the process consists in taking the geometric mean of numbers above and below #e1 the object being to at length arrive at #e4jjjjjj4 ,to every geometric mean in the column of numbers there corresponds the arithmetical mean in the column of logarithms4 ,the numbers are denoted by ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 c41 in order to indicate their mode of formation4 ,numbers4 ,logarithms4 ,a #a4jjjjjj #j4jjjjjjj ,b #aj4jjjjjj #a4jjjjjjj ,c root7,,ab7 #c4afbbgg #j4ejjjjjj ,d root7,,bc7 #e4fbcdac #j4gejjjjj ,e root7,,cd7 #d4bafifd #j4fbejjjj ,f root7,,de7 #d4hfifgd #j4fhgejjj ,g root7,,df7 #e4bcbiia #j4gahgejj ,h root7,,fg7 #e4jdhjfe #j4gjcabej ,i root7,,fh7 #d4iehjfi #j4fiecabe ,k root7,,hi7 #e4jjbhfe #j4fiibahg ,l root7,,ik7 #d4ihjdaf #j4figbfef ,m root7,,kl7 #d4iiafbg #j4fihbdba ,n root7,,km7 #d4iigbdb #j4fihgcjd ,o root7,,kn7 #e4jjjjeb #j4fihigde ,p root7,,no7 #d4iihfdg #j4fihhebe ,q root7,,op7 #d4iiicej #j4fihiace ,r root7,,oq7 #d4iiigja #j4fihiddj ,s root7,,or7 #d4iiihgf #j4fihieib ,t root7,,os7 #d4iiiifc #j4fihiffh ,v root7,,ot7 #e4jjjjjh #j4fihigjg ,w root7,,tv7 #d4iiiihd #j4fihifhg ,x root7,,wv7 #d4iiiiig #j4fihifig ,y root7,,vx7 #e4jjjjjc #j4fihigjb ,z root7,,xy7 #e4jjjjjj #j4fihigjj ,great attention was devoted to the methods of calculating logarithms during the #agth and #ahth centuries4 ,the earlier methods proposed were1 like those of ,briggs1 purely arithmetical1 and for a long time logarithms were regarded from the point of view indicated by their name1 that is to say1 as depending on the theory of compounded ratios4 ,the introduction of infinite series into mathematics effected a great change in the modes of calculation and the treatment of the subject4 ,besides ,napier and ,briggs1 special reference should be made to ,kepler 7,chilias1 #afbd7 and ,mercator 7,logarithmotechnia1 #affh71 whose methods were arithmetical1 and to ,newton1 ,gregory1 ,halley and ,cotes1 who employed series4 ,a full and valuable account of these methods is given in ,hutton's ,construction of ,logarithms1 which occurs in the introduction to the early editions of his ,mathematical ,tables1 and also forms tract #ba of his ,mathematical ,tracts 7vol4 i41 #ahab74 ,many of the early works on logarithms were reprinted in the ,scriptores logarithmici of ,baron ,maseres already referred to4 ,in the following account only those formulae and methods will be referred to which would now be used in the calculation of logarithms4 ,since log7e77#a x7 x - x 7#a_/c7x - x#d c41 we have1 by changing the sign of x1 log7e77#a - x7 -x - x - 7#a_/c7x - x#d - c42 whence #a x log7e7 ----- #b7x 7#a_/c7x 7#a_/e7x#e c471 #a - x p - q and1 therefore1 replacing x by -----1 p q p p - q _/p - q _/p - q#e log7e7 --- #b ----- 7#a_/c77 ----- 7 7#a_/e77 ----- 7 c4 1 q p q p q_/ p q_/ in which the series is always convergent1 so that the formula affords a method of deducing the logarithm of one number from that of another4 ,as particular cases we have1 by putting q #a1 p - #a _/p - #a _/p - #ae log7e7 p #b ----- 7#a_/c77 ----- 7 7#a_/e77 ----- 7 c4 1 p #a p #a_/ p #a_/ and by putting q p #a1 #a #a #a log7e77p #a7 - log7e77p7 #b ------ 7#a_/c7--------- 7#a_/e7----------- c4 2 #bp #a 7#bp #a7 7#bp #a7e the former of these equations gives a convergent series for log7e7p1 and the latter a very convergent series by means of which the logarithm of any number may be deduced from the logarithm of the preceding number4 ,from the formula for log7e77p_/q7 we may deduce the following very convergent series for log7e7#b1 log7e7#c and log7e7#e1 viz43-- log7e7#b #b7 #g,p #e,q #c,r71 log7e7#c #b7aa,p #h,q #e,r71 log7e7#e #b7af,p #ab,q #g,r71 where #a #a #a ,p -- 7#a_/c7 ------ 7#a_/e7 ------ c4 #ca 7#ca7c 7#ca7e #a #a #a ,q -- 7#a_/c7 ------ 7#a_/e7 ------ c4 #di 7#di7c 7#di7e #a #a #a ,r --- 7#a_/c7 ------- 7#a_/e7 ------- c4 #afa 7#afa7c 7#afa7e ,the following still more convenient formulae for the calculation of log7e7#b1 log7e7#c1 c4 were given by ,j4 ,couch ,adams in the ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #ahgh1 #bg1 p4 #ia4 ,if #aj _/ #a #be _/ #d a log -- -log 7 #a - -- 71 b log -- -log 7 #a - --- 71 #i #aj _/ #bd #ajj _/ #ha _/ #a #ej _/ #b c log -- log 7 #a -- 71 d log -- -log 7 #a - --- 71 #hj #hj _/ #di #ajj _/ #abf _/ #h e log --- log 7 #a ---- 71 #abe #ajjj _/ then log #b #g;a - #b;b #c;c1 log #c #aa;a - #c;b #e;c1 log #e #af;a - #d;b #g;c1 and log #g 7#ci;a - #aj;b #ag;c - d7 or #ai;a - #d;b #h;c e1 and we have the equation of condition1 a - #b;b c d #b;e4 ,by means of these formulae ,adams calculated the values of log7e7#b1 log7e7#c1 log7e7#e1 and log7e7#g to #bgf places of decimals1 and deduced the value of log7e7#aj and its reciprocal ,m1 the modulus of the ,briggian system of logarithms4 ,the value of the modulus found by ,adams is ,mo #j4dcdbi #ddhai #jcbea #hbgfe #aabhi #ahiaf #fjejh #bbidc #igjje #hjcff #feffa #addec #ghcaf #ehfdf #dibjh #hgjgg #dgbib #bdidi #cchdc #agdhc #ahgjf #ajfgd #dgffc #jcgcc #fdafg #ibhga #ehifc #ijfef #ibbaj #fdffb #habbf #eheba #bgjhf #efhfg #jcbie #iccgj #hfife #hhbff #hhcca #afcfj #ggchd #ijead #bhddc #dhfff #gfhfd #fehfj #heace #efadh #babcd #hgfec #dcedc #dcegc #agbec #hcefb #bahfh #be which is true certainly to #bgb1 and probably to #bgc1 places 7,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #ahhf1 #db1 p4 #bb1 where also the values of the other logarithms are given74 ,if the logarithms are to be ,briggian all the series in the preceding formulae must be multiplied by ,m1 the modulus2 thus1 log7#aj7 7#a x7 ,m 7x - x 7#a_/c7x - x#d c471 and so on4 ,as has been stated1 ,abraham ,sharp's table contains #fa-;decimal ,briggian logarithms of primes up to #aajj1 so that the logarithms of all composite numbers whose greatest prime factor does not exceed this number may be found by simple addition2 and ,wolfram's table gives #dh-;decimal hyperbolic logarithms of primes up to #aj1jji4 ,by means of these tables and of a factor table we may very readily obtain the ,briggian logarithm of a number to #fa or a less number of places or of its hyperbolic logarithm to #dh or a less number of places in the following manner4 ,suppose the hyperbolic logarithm of the prime number #dc1hfg required4 ,multiplying by #ej1 we have #ej #dc1hfg #b1aic1cej1 and on looking in ,burckhardt's ,table des diviseurs for a number near to this which shall have no prime factor greater than #aj1jji1 it appears that #b1aic1cdi #bc #dg #bjbi2 thus #dc1hfg 7#a_/ej77bc #dg #bjbi #a71 and therefore log7e7 #dc1hfg log7e7 #bc log7e7 #dg log7e7 #bjbi - log7e7 #ej #a #a #a --------- - ------------ 7#a_/c7 ---------- - c4 #b1aic1cdi 7#b1aic1cdi7 7#aic1cdi7 ,the first term of the series in the second line is #j4jjjjj #jdeei #bcgie #jgcai #fbhf2 dividing this by #b #b1aic1cdi we obtain #j4jjjjj #jjjjj #jjajc #iccbe #cdeg1 and the third term is #j4jjjjj #jjjjj #jjjjj #jjjjc #aeij1 so that the series #j4jjjjj #jdeei #bcfia #aciig #ddai2 whence1 taking out the logarithms from ,wolfram's table1 log7e7 #dc1hfg #aj4fhhia #gfjgi #fjefh #ajaia #cffa4 ,the principle of the method is to multiply the given prime 7supposed to consist of #d1 #e or #f figures7 by such a factor that the product may be a number within the range of the factor tables1 and such that1 when it is increased by #a or #b1 the prime factors may all be within the range of the logarithmic tables4 ,the logarithm is then obtained by use of the formula d d d log7e77x d7 log7e7x --- - -- 7#a_/c7 -- - c41 x x x in which of course the object is to render d_/x as small as possible4 ,if the logarithm required is ,briggian1 the value of the series is to be multiplied by ,m4 ,if the number is incommensurable or consists of more than seven figures1 we can take the first seven figures of it 7or multiply and divide the result by any factor1 and take the first seven figures of the result7 and proceed as before4 ,an application to the hyperbolic logarithm of pi is given by ,burckhardt in the introduction to his ,table des diviseurs for the second million4 ,the best general method of calculating logarithms consists1 in its simplest form1 in resolving the number whose logarithm is required into factors of the form #a - 4#a7r7n1 where n is one of the nine digits2 and making use of subsidiary tables of logarithms of factors of this form4 ,for example1 suppose the logarithm of #edchci required to twelve places4 ,dividing by #aje and by #e the number becomes #a4jhgfgh1 and resolving this number into factors of the form #a - 4#a7r7n we find that #edchci #aje #e7a-4ah77a-4a7d7f77a-4a7e7f77a-4a7f7c77 a-4a7g7c7 7#a-4a7h7e77a-4a7i7g77a-4a7aj7i77a-4a7aa 7c77a-4a7ab7b71 where #a-ah denotes #a-4jh1 #a-4a7d7f denotes #a-4jjjf1 c41 and so on4 ,all that is required therefore in order to obtain the logarithm of any number is a table of logarithms1 to the required number of places1 of 4n1 4#in1 4#iin1 4#iiin1 c41 for n #a1 #b1 #c1 444 #i4 ,the resolution of a number into factors of the above form is easily performed4 ,taking1 for example1 the number #a4jhgfgh1 the object is to destroy the significant figure #h in the second place of decimals2 this is effected by multiplying the number by #a-4jh1 that is1 by subtracting from the number eight times itself advanced two places1 and we thus obtain #a4jjjffcgf4 ,to destroy the first #f multiply by #a - 4#jjjf giving #a4jjjjfccfagdd1 and multiplying successively by #a - 4#jjjjf and #a - 4#jjjjjc1 we obtain #a4jjjjjjcegicb1 and it is clear that these last six significant figures represent without any further work the remaining factors required4 ,in the corresponding antilogarithmic process the number is expressed as a product of factors of the form #a 4#a7n7x4 ,this method of calculating logarithms by the resolution of numbers into factors of the form #a - 4#a7r7n is generally known as ,weddle's method1 having been published by him in ,the ,mathematician for ,november #ahde1 and the corresponding method for antilogarithms by means of factors of the form #a 74#a77r7n is known by the name of ,hearn1 who published it in the same journal for #ahdg4 ,in #ahdf ,peter ,gray constructed a new table to #ab places1 in which the factors were of the form #a-74ja77r7n1 so that n had the values #a1 #b1 444 #ii2 and subsequently he constructed a similar table for factors of the form #a 74#ja77r7n4 ,he also devised a method of applying a table of ,hearn's form 7i4e4 of factors of the form #a 4#a7r7n7 to the construction of logarithms1 and calculated a table of logarithms of factors of the form #a 74#jja77r7n to #bd places4 ,this was published in #ahgf under the title ,tables for the formation of logarithms and antilogarithms to twenty-four or any less number of places1 and contains the most complete and useful application of the method1 with many improvements in points of detail4 ,taking as an example the calculation of the ,briggian logarithm of the number #dc1hfg1 whose hyperbolic logarithm has been calculated above1 we multiply it by #c1 giving #aca1fja1 and find by ,gray's process that the factors of #a4cafja are 7#a7 #a4caf 7#e7 #a47jja77d7jjb 7#b7 #a4jjjjjg 7#f7 #a47jja77e7fjb 7#c7 #a47jja7eih 7#g7 #a47jja77f7dab 7#d7 #a47jja7ghj 7#h7 #a47jja77g7cdj ,taking the logarithms from ,gray's tables we obtain the required logarithm by addition as follows3-- #ebb #hgh #gde #bhj #ccg #efb #gjd #igb colog #c #aai #bee #hhi #bgg #icf #fhe #eec #iac log 7#a7 #c #jdj #jej #gcc #aeg #faj #bci log 7#b7 #bei #gjh #jbb #ebe #dec #eig log 7#c7 #cch #gdi #fie #geb #dbd log 7#d7 #hfh #ehh #ifd log 7#e7 #bfa #dde #bgh log 7#f7 #agh #ibi log 7#g7 #adh log 7#h7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #d4fdb #acg #icd #fee #ghj #geg #bhh #dfd log7#aj7dc1hfg ,in ,shortrede's ,tables there are tables of logarithms and factors of the form #a 74#ja77r7n to #af places and of the form #a 74#a77r7n to #be places2 and in his ,tables de ,logarithmes #bg ,dcimales 7,paris1 #ahfg7 ,fdor ,thoman gives tables of logarithms of factors of the form #a 4#a7r7n4 ,in the ,messenger of ,mathematics1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #ff-ib1 #ahgc1 ,henry ,wace gave a simple and clear account of both the logarithmic and antilogarithmic processes1 with tables of both ,briggian and hyperbolic logarithms of factors of the form #a 4#a7r7n to #bj places4 ,although the method is usually known by the names of ,weddle and ,hearn1 it is really1 in its essential features1 due to ,briggs1 who gave in the ,arithmetica logarithmica of #afbd a table of the logarithms of #a 4#a7r7n up to r #i to #ae places of decimals4 ,it was first formally proposed as an independent method1 with great improvements1 by ,robert ,flower in ,the ,radix1 a new way of making ,logarithms1 which was published in #agga2 and ,leonelli1 in his ,supplement logarithmique 7#ahjb-ahjc71 already noticed1 referred to ,flower and reproduced some of his tables4 ,a complete bibliography of this method has been given by ,a4 ,j4 ,ellis in a paper on the potential radix as a means of calculating logarithms1 printed in the ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society1 vol4 xxxi41 #ahha1 pp4 #dja-djg1 and vol4 xxxii41 #ahha1 pp4 #cgg-cgi4 ,reference should also be made to ,hoppe's ,tafeln zur dreissigstelligen logarithmischen ,rechnung 7,leipzig1 #ahgf71 which give in a somewhat modified form a table of the hyperbolic logarithm of #a 4#a7r7n4 ,the preceding methods are only appropriate for the calculation of isolated logarithms4 ,if a complete table had to be reconstructed1 or calculated to more places1 it would undoubtedly be most convenient to employ the method of differences4 ,a full account of this method as applied to the calculation of the ,tables du ,cadastre is given by ,lefort in vol4 iv4 of the ,annales de l',observatoire de ,paris4 7,j4 ,w4 ,l4 ,g47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,dr ,thomas ,smith thus describes the ardour with which ,briggs studied the ,descriptio3 ,hunc in deliciis habuit1 in sinu1 in manibus1 in pectore gestavit1 oculisque avidissimis1 et mente attentissima1 iterum iterumque perlegit1444 ,vitae quorundam eruditissimorum et illustrium virorum 7,london1 #agjg74 #b ,william ,lilly's account of the meeting of ,napier and ,briggs at ,merchiston is quoted in the article ,,napier4 #c ,it was certainly published after ,napier's death1 as ,briggs mentions his librum posthumum4 ,this liber posthumus was the ,constructio referred to later in this article4 #d ,frisch's ,kepleri opera omnia1 ii4 #hcd4 ,frisch thinks ,bramer possibly relied on ,kepler's statement quoted in the text 7,quibus forte confisus ,kepleri verbis ,benj4 ,bramer444474 ,see also vol4 vii4 p4 #bih4 ,the claims of ,byrgius are discussed in ,kstner's ,geschichte der ,mathematik1 ii4 #cge1 and iii4 #ad2 ,montucla's ,histoire des mathmatiques1 ii4 #aj2 ,delambre's ,histoire de l'astronomie moderne1 i4 #efj2 de ,morgan's article on ,tables in the ,english ,cyclopaedia2 ,mark ,napier's ,memoirs of ,john ,napier of ,merchiston 7#ahcd71 p4 #cib1 and ,cantor's ,geschichte der ,mathematik1 ii4 7#ahib71 #ffb4 ,see also ,gieswald1 ,justus ,byrg als ,mathematiker und dessen ,einleitung in seine ,logarithmen 7,danzig1 #ahef74 #e ,see ,mark ,napier's ,memoirs of ,john ,napier of ,merchiston 7#ahcd71 p4 #cfb4 #f ,in the ,rabdologia 7#afag7 he speaks of the canon of logarithms as a me longo tempore elaboratum4 #g ,a careful examination of the history of the method is given by ,scheibel in his ,einleitung zur mathematischen ,bcherkenntniss1 ,stck vii4 7,breslau1 #agge71 pp4 #ac-bj2 and there is also an account in ,kstner's ,geschichte der ,mathematik1 i4 #eff-efi 7#agif72 in ,montucla's ,histoire des mathmatiques1 i4 #ehc-ehe and #fag-fai2 and in ,klgel's ,wrterbuch 7#ahjh71 article ,prosthaphaeresis4 #h ,besides his connexion with logarithms and improvements in the method of prosthaphaeresis1 ,byrgius has a share in the invention of decimal fractions4 ,see ,cantor1 ,geschichte1 ii4 #efg4 ,cantor attributes to him 7in the use of his prosthaphaeresis7 the first introduction of a subsidiary angle into trigonometry 7vol4 ii4 #eij74 #i ,the title of this work is--,benjaminis ,ursini 444 cursus mathematici practici volumen primum continens illustr4 generosi ,dn4 ,dn4 ,johannis ,neperi ,baronis ,merchistonij c4 ,scoti trigonometriam logarithmicam usibus discentium accommodatam 444 ,coloniae 444 ,,ci,c ,i,c,c ,,xix4 ,at the end1 ,napier's table is reprinted1 but to two figures less4 ,this work forms the earliest publication of logarithms on the continent4 #aj ,the title is ,logarithmorum canonis descriptio1 seu arithmeticarum supputationum mirabilis abbreviatio4 ,ejusque usus in utraque trigonometria ut etiam in omni logistica mathematica1 amplissimi1 facillimi expeditissimi explicatio4 ,authore ac inventore ,ioanne ,nepero1 ,barone ,merchistonii1 c4 ,scoto4 ,lugduni4444 ,it will be seen that this title is different from that of ,napier's work of #afad2 many writers have1 however1 erroneously given it as the title of the latter4 #aa ,in describing the contents of the works referred to1 the language and notation of the present day have been adopted1 so that for example a table to radius #aj1jjj1jjj is described as a table to #g places1 and so on4 ,also1 although logarithms have been spoken of as to the base e1 c41 it is to be noticed that neither ,napier nor ,briggs1 nor any of their successors till long afterwards1 had any idea of connecting logarithms with exponents4 #ab ,the smallest number of entries which are necessary in a table of logarithms in order that the intermediate logarithms may be calculable by proportional parts has been investigated by ,j4 ,e4 ,a4 ,steggall in the ,proc4 ,edin4 ,math4 ,soc41 #ahib1 #aj1 p4 #ce4 ,this number is #agjj in the case of a seven-figure table extending to #ajj1jjj4 #ac ,accounts of ,sang's calculations are given in the ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,edin41 #ahgb1 #bf1 p4 #eba1 and in subsequent papers in the ,proceedings of the same society4 #ad ,in vol4 xv4 7#ahge7 of the ,verhandelingen of the ,amsterdam ,academy of ,sciences1 ,bierens de ,haan has given a list of #eec tables of logarithms4 ,a previous paper of the same kind1 containing notices of some of the tables1 was published by him in the ,verslagen en ,mededeelingen of the same academy 7,afd4 ,natuurkunde7 deel4 iv4 7#ahfb71 p4 #ae4 ,,logau1 ,,friedrich1 ,,freiherr ,,von 7#afjd-afee71 ,german epigrammatist1 was born at ,brockut1 near ,nimptsch1 in ,silesia1 in ,june #afjd4 ,he was educated at the gymnasium of ,brieg and subsequently studied law4 ,he then entered the service of the duke of ,brieg4 ,in #afdd he was made ducal councillor4 ,he died at ,liegnitz on the #bdth of ,july #afee4 ,logau's epigrams1 which appeared in two collections under the pseudonym ,salomon von ,golaw 7an anagram of his real name7 in #afch 7,erstes ,hundert ,teutscher ,reimensprche7 and #afed 7,deutscher ,sinngedichte drei ,tausend71 show a marvellous range and variety of expression4 ,he had suffered bitterly under the adverse conditions of the time2 but his satire is not merely the outcome of personal feeling4 ,in the turbulent age of the ,thirty ,years' ,war he was one of the few men who preserved intact his intellectual integrity and judged his contemporaries fairly4 ,he satirized with unsparing hand the court life1 the useless bloodshed of the war1 the lack of national pride in the ,german people1 and their slavish imitation of the ,french in customs1 dress and speech4 ,he belonged to the ,fruchtbringende ,gesellschaft under the name ,der ,verkleinernde1 and regarded himself as a follower of ,martin ,opitz2 but he did not allow such ties to influence his independence or originality4 ,logau's ,sinngedichte were edited in #agei by ,g4 ,e4 ,lessing and ,k4 ,w4 ,ramler1 who first drew attention to their merits2 a second edition appeared in #agia4 ,a critical edition was published by ,g4 ,eitner in #ahgb1 who also edited a selection of ,logau's epigrams for the ,deutsche ,dichter des ,,xvii4 ,jahrhunderts 7vol4 iii41 #ahgj72 there is also a selection by ,h4 ,oesterley in ,krschner's ,deutsche ,nationalliteratur1 vol4 xxviii4 7#ahhe74 ,see ,h4 ,denker1 ,beitrge zur literarischen ,wrdigung ,logaus 7#ahhi72 ,w4 ,heuschkel1 ,untersuchungen ber ,rnders und ,lessings ,bearbeitung ,logauscher ,sinngedichte 7#aija74 ,,logia1 a title used to describe a collection of the sayings of ,jesus ,christ 7,greek3 logia ,isou7 and therefore generally applied to the ,sayings of ,jesus discovered in ,egypt by ,b4 ,p4 ,grenfell and ,a4 ,s4 ,hunt4 ,there is some question as to whether the term is rightly used for this purpose4 ,it does not occur in the ,papyri in this sense4 ,each saying is introduced by the phrase ,jesus says 7,greek3 legei7 and the collection is described in the introductory words of the #aijc series as ,greek3 logoi not as ,greek3 logia4 ,some justification for the employment of the term is found in early ,christian literature4 ,several writers speak of the ,greek3 logia tou kuriou or ,greek3 ta kuriaka logia1 i4e4 oracles of 7or concerning7 the ,lord4 ,polycarp1 for instance1 speaks of those who pervert the oracles of the ,lord4 7,philipp4 #g71 and ,papias1 as ,eusebius tells us1 wrote a work with the title ,expositions of the ,oracles of the ,lord4 ,the expression has been variously interpreted4 ,it need mean no more 7,lightfoot1 ,essays on ,supernatural ,religion1 #agb seq47 than narratives of 7or concerning7 the ,lord2 on the other hand1 the phrase is capable of a much more definite meaning1 and there are many scholars who hold that it refers to a document which contained a collection of the sayings of ,jesus4 ,some such document1 we know1 must lie at the base of our ,synoptic ,gospels1 and it is quite possible that it may have been known to and used by ,papias4 ,it is only on this assumption that the use of the term ,logia in the sense described above can be justified4 ,the ,sayings1 to which the term ,logia is generally applied1 consist of 7a7 a papyrus leaf containing seven or eight sayings of ,jesus discovered in #ahig1 7b7 a second leaf containing five more sayings discovered in #aijc1 7c7 two fragments of unknown ,gospels1 the former published in #aijc1 the latter in #aijg4 ,all these were found amongst the great mass of papyri acquired by the ,egyptian ,exploration ,fund from the ruins of ,oxyrhynchus1 one of the chief early ,christian centres in ,egypt1 situated some #abj m4 ,s4 of ,cairo4 ,the eight sayings discovered in #ahig are as follows3-- #a4 444 ,greek3 kai tote diablepseis ekbalein to karphos to en t ophthalm tou adelphou sou4 #b4 ,greek3 ,legei ,isous ean m nsteuste ton kosmon ou m eurte tn basileian tou theou4 kai ean m sabbatiste to sabbaton ouk opsesthe ton patera4 #c4 ,greek3 ,legei ,isous estn en mes tou kosmou kai en sarki psthn autois1 kai euron pantas methuontas kai oudena euron dipsnta en autois1 kai ponei psych mou epi tois huiois tn anthrpn1 hoti typhloi eisin t kardia autn kai ou blepousin4444 #d4 ,illegible3 possibly joins on to #c 444 ,greek3 tn ptcheian4 #e4 ,greek3 ,legei ,isous hopou ean sin b1 ouk eisin atheoi kai hopou eis estin monos1 leg1 eg eimi met autou egeiron ton lithon kakei heurseis me1 schison to xylon kag ekei eimi4 #f4 ,greek3 ,legei ,isous ouk estin dektos prophts en t patridi autou1 oude iatpos poiei therapeias eis tous ginskontas auton4 #g4 ,greek3 ,legei ,isous polisoi kodommen ep' akron orous hypslou kai estrigmen oute pesein dynatai oute krybnai4 #h4 ,greek3 ,legei ,isous akoueis eis to hen tion sou to de eteron synekleisas4 ,letters in brackets are missing in the original3 letters which are dotted beneath are doubtful4 #a4 444 and then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote that is in thy brother's eye4 #b4 ,jesus saith1 ,except ye fast to the world1 ye shall in no wise find the kingdom of ,god2 and except ye make the sabbath a real sabbath1 ye shall not see the ,father4 #c4 ,jesus saith1 ,i stood in the midst of the world and in the flesh was ,i seen of them1 and ,i found all men drunken1 and none found ,i athirst among them1 and my soul grieveth over the sons of men1 because they are blind in their heart1 and see not4444 #d4 444 poverty4444 #e4 ,jesus saith1 ,wherever there are two1 they are not without ,god1 and wherever there is one alone1 ,i say1 ,i am with him4 ,raise the stone and there thou shalt find me1 cleave the wood and there am ,i4 #f4 ,jesus saith1 ,a prophet is not acceptable in his own country1 neither doth a physician work cures upon them that know him4 #g4 ,jesus saith1 ,a city built upon the top of a high hill and stablished can neither fall nor be hid4 #h4 ,jesus saith1 ,thou hearest with one ear but the other ear hast thou closed4 ,the sayings of #aijc were prefaced by the following introductory statement3-- ,greek3 hoi toioi hoi logoi hoi 444 hous elalsen ,i7sou7s ho zn kyrios8 444 kai ,thma kai eipen autois2 pas hostis an tn logn toutn akous thanatou ou m geustai4 ,these are the 7wonderful87 words which ,jesus the living 7,lord7 spake to 444 and ,thomas and he said unto 7them7 every one that hearkens to these words shall never taste of death4 ,the sayings themselves are as follows3-- 7#a7 ,greek3 legei ,i7sou7s m pausasth ho ztn444 hes an heur kai hotan heur thambthsetai kai thambtheis basileusei kai basileusas anapasetai4 7#b7 ,greek3 legei ,i7sous 444 tines 444 hoi helkontes hmas eis tn basileian ei h basileia en ouran estin2 ta peteina tou ouranou kai tn thrin ho ti hypo tn gn estin epi ts gs kai hoi ichthyes ts thalasss houtoi hoi helkon- tes hymas kai h basileia tn ourann entos hymn esti kai hostis an heauton gn tautn heursei444 heautous gnsesthe kai eidsete hoti huioi este humeis tou patros tou t444 gns7es7the heautous en444 kai hu eis este pto 7#c7 ,greek3 legei ,i7sou7s ouk apoknsei anthrpos444 rn epertsai pa444 rn peri tou topou ts444 sete hoti polloi esontai prtoi eschatoi kai hoi eschatoi prtoi kai 444 sin4 7#d7 ,greek3 legei ,i7sou7s pan to m empros- then ts opses sou kai to kekrummenon apo sou apokalyph7th7setai soi4 ou gar es- tin krypton ho ou phaneron gensetai kai tethammenon ho ouk egerthsetai4 7#e7 ,greek3 ex etazousin auton hoi mathtai autou kai legousin2 ps nsteusomen kai ps444 444 metha kai ps 444 444 kai ti paratrsomen444 444 n8 legei ,i7sou7s2 444 444 eitai m poeite444 444 s altheias an 444 444 n apokekry444 444 ma karios estin 444 444 esti444 444 in 444 #a4 ,jesus saith1 ,let not him who seeks 444 cease until he finds and when he finds he shall be astonished2 astonished he shall reach the kingdom and having reached the kingdom he shall rest4 #b4 ,jesus saith 7ye ask8 who are those7 that draw us 7to the kingdom if7 the kingdom is in ,heaven8 444 the fowls of the air and all beasts that are under the earth or upon the earth and the fishes of the sea 7these are they which draw7 you and the kingdom of ,heaven is within you and whosoever shall know himself shall find it4 7,strive therefore87 to know yourselves and ye shall be aware that ye are the sons of the 7,almighty87 ,father2 7and87 ye shall know that ye are in 7the city of ,god87 and ye are 7the city874 #c4 ,jesus saith1 ,a man shall not hesitate 444 to ask concerning his place 7in the kingdom4 ,ye shall know7 that many that are first shall be last and the last first and 7they shall have eternal life874 #d4 ,jesus saith1 ,everything that is not before thy face and that which is hidden from thee shall be revealed to thee4 ,for there is nothing hidden which shall not be made manifest nor buried which shall not be raised4 #e4 ,his disciples question him and say1 ,how shall we fast and how shall we 7pray87 444 and what 7commandment7 shall we keep 444 ,jesus saith 444 do not 444 of truth 444 blessed is he 444 ,the fragment of a lost ,gospel which was discovered in #aijc contained originally about fifty lines1 but many of them have perished and others are undecipherable4 ,the translation1 as far as it can be made out1 is as follows3-- #a-g4 7,take no thought7 from morning until even nor from evening until morning either for your food what ye shall eat or for your raiment what ye shall put on4 #g-ac4 ,ye are far better than the lilies which grow but spin not4 ,having one garment what do ye 7lack78444 #ac-ae4 ,who could add to your stature8 #ae-af4 ,he himself will give you your garment4 #ag-bc4 ,his disciples say unto him1 ,when wilt thou be manifest unto us and when shall we see thee8 ,he saith1 ,when ye shall be stripped and not be ashamed 444 #da-df4 ,he said1 ,the key of knowledge ye hid3 ye entered not in yourselves1 and to them that were entering in1 ye opened not4 ,the second ,gospel fragment discovered in #aijg consists of a single vellum leaf1 practically complete except at one of the lower corners and here most of the lacunae admit of a satisfactory solution4 ,the translation is as follows3-- 444 before he does wrong makes all manner of subtle excuse4 ,but give heed lest ye also suffer the same things as they3 for the evil doers among men receive their reward not among the living only1 but also await punishment and much torment4 ,and he took them and brought them into the very place of purification and was walking in the temple4 ,and a certain ,pharisee1 a chief priest1 whose name was ,levi1 met them and said to the ,saviour1 ,who gave thee leave to walk in this place of purification1 and to see these holy vessels when thou hast not washed nor yet have thy disciples bathed their feet8 ,but defiled thou hast walked in this temple1 which is a pure place1 wherein no other man walks except he has washed himself and changed his garments neither does he venture to see these holy vessels4 ,and the ,saviour straightway stood still with his disciples and answered him1 ,art thou then1 being here in the temple1 clean8 ,he saith unto him1 ,i am clean2 for ,i washed in the pool of ,david and having descended by one staircase1 ,i ascended by another and ,i put on white and clean garments1 and then ,i came and looked upon these holy vessels4 ,the ,saviour answered and said unto him1 ,woe ye blind1 who see not4 ,thou hast washed in these running waters wherein dogs and swine have been cast night and day and hast cleansed and wiped the outside skin which also the harlots and flute-girls anoint and wash and wipe and beautify for the lust of men2 but within they are full of scorpions and all wickedness4 ,but ,i and my disciples who thou sayest have not bathed have been dipped in the waters of eternal life which come from4444 ,but woe unto thee4444 ,these documents have naturally excited considerable interest and raised many questions4 ,the papyri of the sayings date from the #crd century and most scholars agree that the sayings themselves go back to the #bnd4 ,the year ,a4,d4 #adj is generally assigned as the terminus ad quem4 ,the problem as to their origin has been keenly discussed4 ,there are two main types of theory4 7#a7 ,some suppose that they are excerpts from an uncanonical ,gospel4 7#b7 ,others think that they represent an independent and original collection of sayings4 ,the first theory has assumed three main forms4 7a7 ,harnack maintains that they were taken from the ,gospel according to the ,egyptians4 ,this theory1 however1 is based upon a hypothetical reconstruction of the ,gospel in question which has found very few supporters4 7b7 ,others have advocated the ,gospel of the ,hebrews as the source of the sayings1 on the ground of the resemblance between the first saying of the #aijc series and a well-authenticated fragment of that ,gospel4 ,the resemblance1 however1 is not sufficiently clear to support the conclusion4 7c7 ,a third view supposes that they are extracts from the ,gospel of ,thomas--an apocryphal ,gospel dealing with the boyhood of ,jesus4 ,beyond the allusion to ,thomas in the introductory paragraph to the #aijc series1 there seems to be no tangible evidence in support of this view4 ,the second theory1 which maintains that the papyri represent an independent collection of sayings1 seems to be the opinion which has found greatest favour4 ,it has won the support of ,w4 ,sanday1 ,h4 ,b4 ,swete1 ,rendel ,harris1 ,w4 ,lock1 ,heinrici1 c4 ,there is a considerable diversity of judgment1 however1 with regard to the value of the collection4 7a7 ,some scholars maintain that the collection goes back to the #ast century and represents one of the earliest attempts to construct an account of the teaching of ,jesus4 ,they are therefore disposed to admit to a greater or less extent and with widely varying degrees of confidence the presence of genuine elements in the new matter4 7b7 ,sanday and many others regard the sayings as originating early in the #bnd century and think that1 though not directly dependent on the ,canonical ,gospels1 they have their origin under conditions of thought which these ,gospels had created4 ,the sayings must be regarded as expansions of the true tradition1 and little value is therefore to be attached to the new material4 ,with the knowledge at our disposal1 it is impossible to reach an assured conclusion between these two views4 ,the real problem1 to which at present no solution has been found1 is to account for the new material in the sayings4 ,there seems to be no motive sufficient to explain the additions that have been made to the text of the ,gospels4 ,it cannot be proved that the expansions have been made in the interests of any sect or heresy4 ,unless new discoveries provide the clue1 or some reasonable explanation can otherwise be found1 there seems to be no reason why we should not regard the sayings as containing material which ought to be taken into account in the critical study of the teaching of ,jesus4 ,the #aijc ,gospel fragment is so mutilated in many of its parts that it is difficult to decide upon its character and value4 ,it appears to be earlier than #aej1 and to be taken from a ,gospel which followed more or less closely the version of the teaching of ,jesus given by ,matthew and ,luke4 ,the phrase when ye shall be stripped and not be ashamed contains an idea which has some affinity with two passages found respectively in the ,gospel according to the ,egyptians and the so-called ,second ,epistle of ,clement4 ,the resemblance1 however1 is not sufficiently close to warrant the deduction that either the ,gospel of the ,egyptians or the ,gospel from which the citation in #b ,clement is taken 7if these two are distinct7 is the source from which our fragment is derived4 ,the second ,gospel fragment 7#aijg7 seems to be of later origin than the documents already mentioned4 ,grenfell and ,hunt date the ,gospel1 from which it is an excerpt1 about #bjj4 ,there is considerable difficulty with regard to some of the details4 ,the statement that an ordinary ,jew was required to wash and change his clothes before visiting the inner court of the temple is quite unsupported by any other evidence4 ,nothing is known about the place of purification 7,greek3 agneutrion7 nor the pool of ,david 7,greek3 limn tou ,daueid74 ,nor does the statement that the sacred vessels were visible from the place where ,jesus was standing seem at all probable4 ,grenfell and ,hunt conclude therefore--,so great indeed are the divergences between this account and the extant and no doubt well-informed authorities with regard to the topography and ritual of the ,temple that it is hardly possible to avoid the conclusion that much of the local colour is due to the imagination of the author who was aiming chiefly at dramatic effect and was not really well acquainted with the ,temple4 ,but if the inaccuracy of the fragment in this important respect is admitted the historical character of the whole episode breaks down and it is probably to be regarded as an apocryphal elaboration of ,matt4 xv4 #a-bj and ,mark vii4 #a-bc4 ,see the ,oxyrhynchus ,papyri1 part i4 7#ahig71 part iv4 7#aijd71 part v4 7#aijh74 7,h4 ,t4 ,a47 ,,logic 7,greek3 logik1 sc4 ,greek3 techn1 the art of reasoning71 the name given to one of the four main departments of philosophy1 though its sphere is very variously delimited4 ,the present article is divided into #a4 ,the ,problems of ,logic1 ,,ii4 ,history4 ,i4 ,the ,problems of ,logic4 ,introduction4--,logic is the science of the processes of inference1 what1 then1 is inference8 ,it is that mental operation which proceeds by combining two premises so as to cause a consequent conclusion4 ,some suppose that we may infer from one premise by a so-called immediate inference4 ,but one premise can only reproduce itself in another form1 e4g4 all men are some animals2 therefore some animals are men4 ,it requires the combination of at least two premises to infer a conclusion different from both4 ,there are as many kinds of inference as there are different ways of combining premises1 and in the main three types3-- #a4 ,analogical ,inference1 from particular to particular3 e4g4 border-war between ,thebes and ,phocis is evil2 border-war between ,thebes and ,athens is similar to that between ,thebes and ,phocis2 therefore1 border-war between ,thebes and ,athens is evil4 #b4 ,inductive ,inference1 from particular to universal3 e4g4 border-war between ,thebes and ,phocis is evil2 all border-war is like that between ,thebes and ,phocis2 therefore1 all border-war is evil4 #c4 ,deductive or ,syllogistic ,inference1 from universal to particular1 e4g4 all border-war is evil2 border-war between ,thebes and ,athens is border-war2 therefore border-war between ,thebes and ,athens is evil4 ,in each of these kinds of inference there are three mental judgments capable of being expressed as above in three linguistic propositions2 and the two first are the premises which are combined1 while the third is the conclusion which is consequent on their combination4 ,each proposition consists of two terms1 the subject and its predicate1 united by the copula4 ,each inference contains three terms4 ,in syllogistic inference the subject of the conclusion is the minor term1 and its predicate the major term1 while between these two extremes the term common to the two premises is the middle term1 and the premise containing the middle and major terms is the major premise1 the premise containing the middle and minor terms the minor premise4 ,thus in the example of syllogism given above1 border-war between ,thebes and ,athens is the minor term1 evil the major term1 and border-war the middle term4 ,using ,s for minor1 ,p for major and ,m for middle1 and preserving these signs for corresponding terms in analogical and inductive inferences1 we obtain the following formula of the three inferences3-- ,analogical4 ,inductive4 ,deductive or ,syllogistic4 ,s#a is ,p ,s is ,p ,every ,m is ,p ,s#b is similar ,every ,m is ,s is ,m to ,s#a similar to ,s 34 ,s#b is ,p4 34 ,every ,m is ,p4 34 ,s is ,p4 ,the love of unity has often made logicians attempt to resolve these three processes into one4 ,but each process has a peculiarity of its own2 they are similar1 not the same4 ,analogical and inductive inference alike begin with a particular premise containing one or more instances2 but the former adds a particular premise to draw a particular conclusion1 the latter requires a universal premise to draw a universal conclusion4 ,a citizen of ,athens1 who had known the evils of the border-war between ,thebes and ,phocis1 would readily perceive the analogy of a similar war between ,thebes and ,athens1 and conclude analogously that it would be evil2 but he would have to generalize the similarity of all border-wars in order to draw the inductive conclusion that all alike are evil4 ,induction and deduction differ still more1 and are in fact opposed1 as one makes a particular premise the evidence of a universal conclusion1 the other makes a universal premise evidence of a particular conclusion4 ,yet they are alike in requiring the generalization of the universal and the belief that there are classes which are whole numbers of similars4 ,on this point both differ from inference by analogy1 which proceeds entirely from particular premises to a particular conclusion4 ,hence we may redivide inference into particular inference by analogy and universal inference by induction and deduction4 ,universal inference is what we call reasoning2 and its two species are very closely connected1 because universal conclusions of induction become universal premises of deduction4 ,indeed1 we often induce in order to deduce1 ascending from particular to universal and descending from universal to particular in one act as it were2 so that we may proceed either directly from particular to particular by analogical inference1 or indirectly from particular through universal to particular by an inductive-deductive inference which might be called perduction4 ,on the whole1 then1 analogical1 inductive and deductive inferences are not the same but three similar and closely connected processes4 ,the three processes of inference1 though different from one another1 rest on a common principle of similarity of which each is a different application4 ,analogical inference requires that one particular is similar to another1 induction that a whole number or class is similar to its particular instances1 deduction that each particular is similar to the whole number or class4 ,not that these inferences require us to believe1 or assume1 or premise or formulate this principle either in general1 or in its applied forms3 the premises are all that any inference needs the mind to assume4 ,the principle of similarity is used1 not assumed by the inferring mind1 which in accordance with the similarity of things and the parity of inference spontaneously concludes in the form that similars are similarly determined 7similia similibus convenire74 ,in applying this principle of similarity1 each of the three processes in its own way has to premise both that something is somehow determined and that something is similar1 and by combining these premises to conclude that this is similarly determined to that4 ,thus the very principle of inference by similarity requires it to be a combination of premises in order to draw a conclusion4 ,the three processes1 as different applications of the principle of similarity1 consisting of different combinations of premises1 cause different degrees of cogency in their several conclusions4 ,analogy hardly requires as much evidence as induction4 ,men speculate about the analogy between ,mars and the earth1 and infer that it is inhabited1 without troubling about all the planets4 ,induction has to consider more instances1 and the similarity of a whole number or class4 ,even so1 however1 it starts from a particular premise which only contains many instances1 and leaves room to doubt the universality of its conclusions4 ,but deduction1 starting from a premise about all the members of a class1 compels a conclusion about every and each of necessity4 ,one border-war may be similar to another1 and the whole number may be similar1 without being similarly evil2 but if all alike are evil1 each is evil of necessity4 ,deduction or syllogism is superior to analogy and induction in combining premises so as to involve or contain the conclusion4 ,for this reason it has been elevated by some logicians above all other inferences1 and for this very same reason attacked by others as no inference at all4 ,the truth is that1 though the premises contain the conclusion1 neither premise alone contains it1 and a man who knows both but does not combine them does not draw the conclusion2 it is the synthesis of the two premises which at once contains the conclusion and advances our knowledge2 and as syllogism consists1 not indeed in the discovery1 but essentially in the synthesis of two premises1 it is an inference and an advance on each premise and on both taken separately4 ,as again the synthesis contains or involves the conclusion1 syllogism has the advantage of compelling assent to the consequences of the premises4 ,inference in general is a combination of premises to cause a conclusion2 deduction is such a combination as to compel a conclusion involved in the combination1 and following from the premises of necessity4 ,nevertheless1 deduction or syllogism is not independent of the other processes of inference4 ,it is not the primary inference of its own premises1 but constantly converts analogical and inductive conclusions into its particular and universal premises4 ,of itself it causes a necessity of consequence1 but only a hypothetical necessity2 if these premises are true1 then this conclusion necessarily follows4 ,to eliminate this if ultimately requires other inferences before deduction4 ,especially1 induction to universals is the warrant and measure of deduction from universals4 ,so far as it is inductively true that all border-war is evil1 it is deductively true that a given border-war is therefore evil4 ,now1 as an inductive combination of premises does not necessarily involve the inductive conclusion1 induction normally leads1 not to a necessary1 but to a probable conclusion2 and whenever its probable conclusions become deductive premises1 the deduction only involves a probable conclusion4 ,can we then infer any certainty at all8 ,in order to answer this question we must remember that there are many degrees of probability1 and that induction1 and therefore deduction1 draw conclusions more or less probable1 and rise to the point at which probability becomes moral certainty1 or that high degree of probability which is sufficient to guide our lives1 and even condemn murderers to death4 ,but can we rise still higher and infer real necessity8 ,this is a difficult question1 which has received many answers4 ,some nologists suppose a mental power of forming necessary principles of deduction a priori2 but fail to show how we can apply principles of mind to things beyond mind4 ,some empiricists1 on the other hand1 suppose that induction only infers probable conclusions which are premises of probable deductions2 but they give up all exact science4 ,between these extremes there is room for a third theory1 empirical yet providing a knowledge of the really necessary4 ,in some cases of induction concerned with objects capable of abstraction and simplification1 we have a power of identification1 by which1 not a priori but in the act of inducing a conclusion1 we apprehend that the things signified by its subject and predicate are one and the same thing which cannot exist apart from itself4 ,thus by combined induction and identification we apprehend that one and one are the same as two1 that there is no difference between a triangle and a three-sided rectilineal figure1 that a whole must be greater than its part by being the whole1 that inter-resisting bodies necessarily force one another apart1 otherwise they would not be inter-resisting but occupy the same place at the same moment4 ,necessary principles1 discovered by this process of induction and identification1 become premises of deductive demonstration to conclusions which are not only necessary consequents on the premises1 but also equally necessary in reality4 ,induction thus is the source of deduction1 of its truth1 of its probability1 of its moral certainty2 and induction1 combined with identification1 is the origin of the necessary principles of demonstration or deduction to necessary conclusions4 ,analogical inference in its turn is as closely allied with induction4 ,like induction1 it starts from a particular premise1 containing one or more examples or instances2 but1 as it is easier to infer a particular than a universal conclusion1 it supplies particular conclusions which in their turn become further particular premises of induction4 ,its second premise is indeed merely a particular apprehension that one particular is similar to another1 whereas the second premise of induction is a universal apprehension that a whole number of particulars is similar to those from which the inference starts2 but at bottom these two apprehensions of similarity are so alike as to suggest that the universal premise of induction has arisen as a generalized analogy4 ,it seems likely that man has arrived at the apprehension of a whole individual1 e4g4 a whole animal including all its parts1 and thence has inferred by analogy a whole number1 or class1 e4g4 of animals including all individual animals2 and accordingly that the particular analogy of one individual to another has given rise to the general analogy of every to each individual in a class1 or whole number of individuals1 contained in the second premise of induction4 ,in this case1 analogical inference has led to induction1 as induction to deduction4 ,further1 analogical inference from particular to particular suggests inductive-deductive inference from particular through universal to particular4 ,newton1 according to ,dr ,pemberton1 thought in #afff that the moon moves so like a falling body that it has a similar centripetal force to the earth1 #bj years before he demonstrated this conclusion from the laws of motion in the ,principia4 ,in fact1 analogical1 inductive and deductive inferences1 though different processes of combining premises to cause different conclusions1 are so similar and related1 so united in principle and interdependent1 so consolidated into a system of inference1 that they cannot be completely investigated apart1 but together constitute a single subject of science4 ,this science of inference in general is logic4 ,logic1 however1 did not begin as a science of all inference4 ,rather it began as a science of reasoning 7,greek3 logos71 of syllogism 7,greek3 syllogismos71 of deductive inference4 ,aristotle was its founder4 ,he was anticipated of course by many generations of spontaneous thinking 7logica naturalis74 ,many of the higher animals infer by analogy3 otherwise we cannot explain their thinking4 ,man so infers at first3 otherwise we cannot explain the actions of young children1 who before they begin to speak give no evidence of universal thinking4 ,it is likely that man began with particular inference and with particular language2 and that1 gradually generalizing thought and language1 he learnt at last to think and say all1 to infer universally1 to induce and deduce1 to reason1 in short1 and raise himself above other animals4 ,in ancient times1 and especially in ,egypt1 ,babylon and ,greece1 he went on to develop reason into science or the systematic investigation of definite subjects1 e4g4 arithmetic of number1 geometry of magnitude1 astronomy of stars1 politics of government1 ethics of goods4 ,in ,greece he became more and more reflective and conscious of himself1 of his body and soul1 his manners and morals1 his mental operations and especially his reason4 ,one of the characteristics of ,greek philosophers is their growing tendency1 in investigating any subject1 to turn round and ask themselves what should be the method of investigation4 ,in this way the ,presocratics and ,sophists1 and still more ,socrates and ,plato1 threw out hints on sense and reason1 on inferential processes and scientific methods which may be called anticipations of logic4 ,but ,aristotle was the first to conceive of reasoning itself as a definite subject of a special science1 which he called analytics or analytic science1 specially designed to analyse syllogism and especially demonstrative syllogism1 or science1 and to be in fact a science of sciences4 ,he was therefore the founder of the science of logic4 ,among the ,aristotelian treatises we have the following1 which together constitute this new science of reasoning3-- #a4 ,the ,categories1 or names signifying things which can become predicates2 #b4 ,the ,de ,interpretatione1 or the enumeration of conceptions and their combinations by 7#a7 nouns and verbs 7names71 7#b7 enunciations 7propositions72 #c4 ,the ,prior ,analytics1 on syllogism2 #d4 ,the ,posterior ,analytics1 on demonstrative syllogism1 or science2 #e4 ,the ,topics1 on dialectical syllogism2 or argument2 #f4 ,the ,sophistical ,elenchi1 on sophistical or contentious syllogism1 or sophistical fallacies4 ,so far as we know1 ,aristotle had no one name for all these investigations4 ,analytics is only applied to the ,prior and ,posterior ,analytics1 and logical1 which he opposed to analytical1 only suits the ,topics and at most the ,sophistical ,elenchi2 secondly1 while he analyzed syllogism into premises1 major and minor1 and premises into terms1 subject and predicate1 he attempted no division of the whole science2 thirdly1 he attempted no order and arrangement of the treatises into a system of logic1 but only of the ,analytics1 ,topics and ,sophistical ,elenchi into a system of syllogisms4 ,nevertheless1 when his followers had arranged the treatises into the ,organon1 as they called it to express that it is an instrument of science1 then there gradually emerged a system of syllogistic logic1 arranged in the triple division--terms1 propositions and syllogisms--which has survived to this day as technical logic1 and has been the foundation of all other logics1 even of those which aim at its destruction4 ,the main problem which ,aristotle set before him was the analysis of syllogism1 which he defined as reasoning in which certain things having been posited something different from them of necessity follows by their being those things 7,prior ,analytics1 i4 #a74 ,what then did he mean by reasoning1 or rather by the ,greek word ,greek3 logos of which reasoning is an approximate rendering8 ,it was meant 7cf4 ,post4 ,an4 i4 #aj7 to be both internal1 in the soul 7,greek3 ho es logos1 en t psych71 and external1 in language 7,greek3 ho exo logos73 hence after ,aristotle the ,stoics distinguished ,greek3 logos endiathetos and ,greek3 prophorikos4 ,it meant1 then1 both reason and discourse of reason 7cf4 ,shakespeare1 ,hamlet1 i4 #b74 ,on its mental side1 as reason it meant combination of thoughts4 ,on its linguistic side1 as discourse it was used for any combination of names to form a phrase1 such as the definition rational animal1 or a book1 such as the ,iliad4 ,it had also the mathematical meaning of ratio2 and in its use for definition it is sometimes transferred to essence as the object of definition1 and has a mixed meaning1 which may be expressed by account4 ,in all its uses1 however1 the common meaning is combination4 ,when ,aristotle called syllogism ,greek3 logos1 he meant that it is a combination of premises involving a conclusion of necessity4 ,moreover1 he tended to confine the term ,greek3 logos to syllogistic inference4 ,not that he omitted other inferences 7,greek3 pisteis74 ,on the contrary1 to him 7cf4 ,prior ,analytics1 ii4 #bd7 we owe the triple distinction into inference from particular to particular 7,greek3 paradeigma1 example1 or what we call analogy71 inference from particular to universal 7,greek3 epagg1 induction71 and inference from universal to particular 7,greek3 syllogismos1 syllogism1 or deduction74 ,but he thought that inferences other than syllogism are imperfect2 that analogical inference is rhetorical induction2 and that induction1 through the necessary preliminary of syllogism and the sole process of ascent from sense1 memory and experience to the principles of science1 is itself neither reasoning nor science4 ,to be perfect he thought that all inference must be reduced to syllogism of the first figure1 which he regarded as the specially scientific inference4 ,accordingly1 the syllogism appeared to him to be the rational process 7,greek3 meta logou71 and the demonstrative syllogism from inductively discovered principles to be science 7,greek3 epistm74 ,hence1 without his saying it in so many words1 ,aristotle's logic perforce became a logic of deductive reasoning1 or syllogism4 ,as it happened this deductive tendency helped the development of logic4 ,the obscurer premises of analogy and induction1 together with the paucity of experience and the backward state of physical science in ,aristotle's time would have baffled even his analytical genius4 ,on the other hand1 the demonstrations of mathematical sciences of his time1 and the logical forms of deduction evinced in ,plato's dialogues1 provided him with admirable examples of deduction1 which is also the inference most capable of analysis4 ,aristotle's analysis of the syllogism showed man how to advance by combining his thoughts in trains of deductive reasoning4 ,nevertheless1 the wider question remained for logic3 what is the nature of all inference1 and the special form of each of its three main processes8 ,as then the reasoning of the syllogism was the main problem of ,aristotle's logic1 what was his analysis of it8 ,in distinguishing inner and outer reason1 or reasoning and discourse1 he added that it is not to outer reason but to inner reason in the soul that demonstration and syllogism are directed 7,post4 ,an4 i4 #aj74 ,one would expect1 then1 an analysis of mental reasoning into mental judgments 7,greek3 kriseis7 as premises and conclusion4 ,in point of fact1 he analysed it into premises1 but then analysed a premise into terms1 which he divided into subject and predicate1 with the addition of the copula is or is not4 ,this analysis1 regarded as a whole and as it is applied in the ,analytics and in the other logical treatises1 was evidently intended as a linguistic analysis4 ,so in the ,categories1 he first divided things said 7,greek3 ta legomena7 into uncombined and combined1 or names and propositions1 and then divided the former into categories2 and in the ,de interpretatione he expressly excluded mental conceptions and their combinations1 and confined himself to nouns and verbs and enunciations1 or1 as we should say1 to names and propositions4 ,aristotle apparently intended1 or at all events has given logicians in general the impression1 that he intended to analyse syllogism into propositions as premises1 and premise into names as terms4 ,his logic therefore exhibits the curious paradox of being an analysis of mental reasoning into linguistic elements4 ,the explanation is that outer speech is more obvious than inner thought1 and that grammar and poetic criticism1 rhetoric and dialectic preceded logic1 and that out of those arts of language arose the science of reasoning4 ,the sophist ,protagoras had distinguished various kinds of sentences1 and ,plato had divided the sentence into noun and verb1 signifying a thing and the action of a thing4 ,rhetoricians had enumerated various means of persuasion1 some of which are logical forms1 e4g4 probability and sign1 example and enthymeme4 ,among the dialecticians1 ,socrates had used inductive arguments to obtain definitions as data of deductive arguments against his opponents1 and ,plato had insisted on the processes of ascending to and descending from an unconditional principle by the power of giving and receiving argument4 ,all these points about speech1 eloquence and argument between man and man were absorbed into ,aristotle's theory of reasoning1 and in particular the grammar of the sentence consisting of noun and verb caused the logic of the proposition consisting of subject and predicate4 ,at the same time1 ,aristotle was well aware that the science of reasoning is no art of language and must take up a different position towards speech as the expression of thought4 ,in the ,categories he classified names1 not1 however1 as a grammarian by their structure1 but as a logician by their signification4 ,in the ,de interpretatione1 having distinguished the enunciation1 or proposition1 from other sentences as that in which there is truth or falsity1 he relegated the rest to rhetoric or poetry1 and founded the logic of the proposition1 in which1 however1 he retained the grammatical analysis into noun and verb4 ,in the ,analytics he took the final step of originating the logical analysis of the proposition as premise into subject and predicate as terms mediated by the copula1 and analysed the syllogism into these elements4 ,thus did he become the founder of the logical but linguistic analysis of reasoning as discourse 7,greek3 ho ex logos7 into propositions and terms4 ,nevertheless1 the deeper question remained1 what is the logical but mental analysis of reasoning itself 7,greek3 ho es logos7 into its mental premises and conclusion8 ,aristotle thus was the founder of logic as a science4 ,but he laid too much stress on reasoning as syllogism or deduction1 and on deductive science2 and he laid too much stress on the linguistic analysis of rational discourse into proposition and terms4 ,these two defects remain ingrained in technical logic to this day4 ,but in the course of the development of the science1 logicians have endeavoured to correct those defects1 and have diverged into two schools4 ,some have devoted themselves to induction from sense and experience and widened logic till it has become a general science of inference and scientific method4 ,others have devoted themselves to the mental analysis of reasoning1 and have narrowed logic into a science of conception1 judgment and reasoning4 ,the former belong to the school of empirical logic1 the latter to the school of conceptual and formal logic4 ,both have started from points which ,aristotle indicated without developing them4 ,but we shall find that his true descendants are the empirical logicians4 ,aristotle was the first of the empiricists4 ,he consistently maintained that sense is knowledge of particulars and the origin of scientific knowledge of universals4 ,in his view1 sense is a congenital form of judgment 7,greek3 dynamis symphytos kritik1 ,post4 ,an4 ii4 #ai72 a sensation of each of the five senses is always true of its proper object2 without sense there is no science2 sense is the origin of induction1 which is the origin of deduction and science4 ,the ,analytics end 7,post4 ,an4 ii4 #ai7 with a detailed system of empiricism1 according to which sense is the primary knowledge of particulars1 memory is the retention of a sensation1 experience is the sum of many memories1 induction infers universals1 and intelligence is the true apprehension of the universal principles of science1 which is rational1 deductive1 demonstrative1 from empirical principles4 ,this empirical groundwork of ,aristotle's logic was accepted by the ,epicureans1 who enunciated most distinctly the fundamental doctrine that all sensations are true of their immediate objects1 and falsity begins with subsequent opinions1 or what the moderns call interpretation4 ,beneath deductive logic1 in the logic of ,aristotle and the canonic of the ,epicureans1 there already lay the basis of empirical logic3 sensory experience is the origin of all inference and science4 ,it remained for ,francis ,bacon to develop these beginnings into a new logic of induction4 ,he did not indeed accept the infallibility of sense or of any other operation unaided4 ,he thought1 rather1 that every operation becomes infallible by method4 ,following ,aristotle in this order--sense1 memory1 intellect--he resolved the whole process of induction into three ministrations3-- #a4 ,the ministration to sense1 aided by observation and experiment4 #b4 ,the ministration to memory1 aided by registering and arranging the data1 of observation and experiment in tables of instances of agreement1 difference and concomitant variations4 #c4 ,the ministration to intellect or reason1 aided by the negative elimination by means of contradictory instances of whatever in the instances is not always present1 absent and varying with the given subject investigated1 and finally by the positive inference that whatever in the instances is always present1 absent and varying with the subject is its essential cause4 ,bacon1 like ,aristotle1 was anticipated in this or that point2 but1 as ,aristotle was the first to construct a system of deduction in the syllogism and its three figures1 so ,bacon was the first to construct a system of induction in three ministrations1 in which the requisites of induction1 hitherto recognized only in sporadic hints1 were combined for the first time in one logic of induction4 ,bacon taught men to labour in inferring from particular to universal1 to lay as much stress on induction as on deduction1 and to think and speak of inductive reasoning1 inductive science1 inductive logic4 ,moreover1 while ,aristotle had the merit of discerning the triplicity of inference1 to ,bacon we owe the merit of distinguishing the three processes without reduction3-- #a4 ,inference from particular to particular by ,experientia ,literata1 in plano2 #b4 ,inference from particular to universal by ,inductio1 ascendendo2 #c4 ,inference from universal to particular by ,syllogism1 descendendo4 ,in short1 the comprehensive genius of ,bacon widened logic into a general science of inference4 ,on the other hand1 as ,aristotle over-emphasized deduction so ,bacon over-emphasized induction by contending that it is the only process of discovering universals 7axiomata71 which deduction only applies to particulars4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill in his ,logic pointed out this defect1 and without departing from ,baconian principles remedied it by quoting scientific examples1 in which deduction1 starting from inductive principles1 applies more general to less general universals1 e4g4 when the more general law of gravitation is shown to include the less general laws of planetary gravitation4 ,mill's logic has the great merit of copiously exemplifying the principles of the variety of method according to subject-matter4 ,it teaches us that scientific method is sometimes induction1 sometimes deduction1 and sometimes the consilience of both1 either by the inductive verification of previous deductions1 or by the deductive explanation of previous inductions4 ,it is also most interesting to notice that ,aristotle saw further than ,bacon in this direction4 ,the founder of logic anticipated the latest logic of science1 when he recognized1 not only the deduction of mathematics1 but also the experience of facts followed by deductive explanations of their causes in physics4 ,the consilience of empirical and deductive processes was an ,aristotelian discovery1 elaborated by ,mill against ,bacon4 ,on the whole1 however1 ,aristotle1 ,bacon and ,mill1 purged from their errors1 form one empirical school1 gradually growing by adapting itself to the advance of science2 a school in which ,aristotle was most influenced by ,greek deductive ,mathematics1 ,bacon by the rise of empirical physics at the ,renaissance1 and ,mill by the ,newtonian combination of empirical facts and mathematical principles in the ,principia4 ,from studying this succession of empirical logicians1 we cannot doubt that sense1 memory and experience are the real origin of inference1 analogical1 inductive and deductive4 ,the deepest problem of logic is the relation of sense and inference4 ,but we must first consider the mental analysis of inference1 and this brings us to conceptual and formal logic4 ,aristotle's logic has often been called formal logic2 it was really a technical logic of syllogism analysed into linguistic elements1 and of science rested on an empirical basis4 ,at the same time his psychology1 though maintaining his empiricism1 contained some seeds of conceptual logic1 and indirectly of formal logic4 ,intellectual development1 which according to the logic of the ,analytics consists of sense1 memory1 experience1 induction and intellect1 according to the psychology of the ,de ,anima consists of sense1 imagination and intellect1 and one division of intellect is into conception of the undivided and combination of conceptions as one 7,de ,an4 iii4 #f74 ,the ,de ,interpretatione opens with a reference to this psychological distinction1 implying that names represent conceptions1 propositions represent combinations of conceptions4 ,but the same passage relegates conceptions and their combinations to the ,de ,anima1 and confines the ,de ,interpretatione to names and propositions in conformity with the linguistic analysis which pervades the logical treatises of ,aristotle1 who neither brought his psychological distinction between conceptions and their combinations into his logic1 nor advanced the combinations of conceptions as a definition of judgment 7,greek3 krisis71 nor employed the mental distinction between conceptions and judgments as an analysis of inference1 or reasoning1 or syllogism3 he was no conceptual logician4 ,the history of logic shows that the linguistic distinction between terms and propositions was the sole analysis of reasoning in the logical treatises of ,aristotle2 that the mental distinction between conceptions 7,greek3 ennoiai7 and judgments 7,greek3 aximata in a wide sense7 was imported into logic by the ,stoics2 and that this mental distinction became the logical analysis of reasoning under the authority of ,st ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,in his commentary on the ,de ,interpretatione1 ,st ,thomas1 after citing from the ,de ,anima ,aristotle's duplex operatio intellectus1 said1 ,additur autem et tertia operatio1 scilicet ratiocinandi1 and concluded that1 since logic is a rational science 7rationalis scientia71 its consideration must be directed to all these operations of reason4 ,hence arose conceptual logic2 according to which conception is a simple apprehension of an idea without belief in being or not being1 e4g4 the idea of man or of running2 judgment is a combination of conceptions1 adding being or not being1 e4g4 man is running or not running2 and reasoning is a combination of judgments3 conversely1 there is a mental analysis of reasoning into judgments1 and judgment into conceptions1 beneath the linguistic analysis of rational discourse into propositions1 and propositions into terms4 ,logic1 according to this new school1 which has by our time become an old school1 has to co-ordinate these three operations1 direct them1 and1 beginning with conceptions1 combine conceptions into judgments1 and judgments into inference1 which thus becomes a complex combination of conceptions1 or1 in modern parlance1 an extension of our ideas4 ,conceptual logicians were1 indeed1 from the first aware that sense supplies the data1 and that judgment and therefore inference contains belief that things are or are not4 ,but they held1 and still hold that sensation and conception are alike mere apprehensions1 and that the belief that things are or are not arises somehow after sensation and conception in judgment1 from which it passes into inference4 ,at first1 they were more sanguine of extracting from these unpromising beginnings some knowledge of things beyond ideas4 ,but at length many of them became formal logicians1 who held that logic is the investigation of formal thinking1 or consistent conception1 judgment and reasoning2 that it shows how we infer formal truths of consistency without material truth of signifying things2 that1 as the science of the form or process1 it must entirely abstract from the matter1 or objects1 of thought2 and that it does not tell us how we infer from experience4 ,thus has logic drifted further and further from the real and empirical logic of ,aristotle the founder and ,bacon the reformer of the science4 ,the great merit of conceptual logic was the demand for a mental analysis of mental reasoning1 and the direct analysis of reasoning into judgments which are the sole premises and conclusions of reasoning and of all mental inferences4 ,aristotle had fallen into the paradox of resolving a mental act into verbal elements4 ,the ,schoolmen1 however1 gradually came to realize that the result to their logic was to make it a sermocionalis scientia1 and to their metaphysics the danger of nominalism4 ,st ,thomas made a great advance by making logic throughout a rationalis scientia2 and logicians are now agreed that reasoning consists of judgments1 discourse of propositions4 ,this distinction is1 moreover1 vital to the whole logic of inference1 because we always think all the judgments of which our inference consists1 but seldom state all the propositions by which it is expressed4 ,we omit propositions1 curtail them1 and even express a judgment by a single term1 e4g4 ,good6 ,fire64 ,hence the linguistic expression is not a true measure of inference2 and to say that an inference consists of two propositions causing a third is not strictly true4 ,but to say that it is two judgments causing a third is always true1 and the very essence of inference1 because we must think the two to conclude the third in the sessions of sweet silent thought4 ,inference1 in short1 consists of actual judgments capable of being expressed in propositions4 ,inference always consists of judgments4 ,but judgment does not always consist of conceptions4 ,it is not a combination of conceptions2 it does not arise from conceptions1 nor even at first require conception4 ,sense is the origin of judgment4 ,one who feels pained or pleased1 who feels hot or cold or resisting in touch1 who tastes the flavoured1 who smells the odorous1 who hears the sounding1 who sees the coloured1 or is conscious1 already believes that something sensible exists before conception1 before inference1 and before language2 and his belief is true of the immediate object of sense1 the sensible thing1 e4g4 the hot felt in touch4 ,but a belief in the existence of something is a judgment and a categorical judgment of existence4 ,sense1 then1 outer and inner1 or sensation and consciousness1 is the origin of sensory judgments which are true categorical beliefs in the existence of sensible things2 and primary judgments are such true categorical sensory beliefs that things exist1 and neither require conception nor are combinations of conceptions4 ,again1 since sense is the origin of memory and experience1 memorial and experiential judgments are categorical and existential judgments1 which so far as they report sensory judgments are always true4 ,finally1 since sense1 memory and experience are the origin of inference1 primary inference is categorical and existential1 starting from sensory1 memorial and experiential judgments as premises1 and proceeding to inferential judgments as conclusions1 which are categorical and existential1 and are true1 so far as they depend on sense1 memory and experience4 ,sense1 then1 is the origin of judgment2 and the consequence is that primary judgments are true1 categorical and existential judgments of sense1 and primary inferences are inferences from categorical and existential premises to categorical and existential conclusions1 which are true so far as they arise from outer and inner sense1 and proceed to things similar to sensible things4 ,all other judgments and inferences about existing things1 or ideas1 or names1 whether categorical or hypothetical1 are afterthoughts1 partly true and partly false4 ,sense1 then1 because it involves a true belief in existence is fitted to be the origin of judgment4 ,conception on the other hand is the simple apprehension of an idea1 particular or universal1 but without belief that anything is or is not1 and therefore is unfitted to beget judgment4 ,nor could a combination of conceptions make a difference so fundamental as that between conceiving and believing4 ,the most that it could do would be to cause an ideal judgment1 e4g4 that the idea of a centaur is the idea of a man-horse2 and even here some further origin is needed for the addition of the copula is4 ,so far from being a cause1 conception is not even a condition of all judgments2 a sensation of hot is sufficient evidence that hot exists1 before the idea of hot is either present or wanted4 ,conception is1 however1 a condition of a memorial judgment3 in order to remember being hot1 we require an idea of hot4 ,memory1 however1 is not that idea1 but involves a judgment that there previously existed the hot now represented by the idea1 which is about the sensible thing beyond the conceived idea2 and the cause of this memorial judgment is past sense and present memory4 ,so sense1 memory and experience1 the sum of sense and memory1 though requiring conception1 are the causes of the experiential judgment that there exist and have existed many similar1 sensible things1 and these sensory1 memorial and experiential judgments about the existence of past and present sensible things beyond conceived ideas become the particular premises of primary inference4 ,starting from them1 inference is enabled to draw conclusions which are inferential judgments about the existence of things similar to sensible things beyond conceived ideas4 ,in rising1 however1 from particular to universal inference1 induction1 as we have seen1 adds to its particular premise1 ,s is ,p1 a universal premise1 every ,m is similar to ,s1 in order to infer the universal conclusion1 every ,m is ,p4 ,this universal premise requires a universal conception of a class or whole number of similar particulars1 as a condition4 ,but the premise is not that conception2 it is a belief that there is a whole number of particulars similar to those already experienced4 ,the generalization of a class is not1 as the conceptual logic assumes1 the abstraction of a general idea1 but an inference from the analogy of a whole individual thing1 e4g4 a whole man1 to a whole number of similar individuals1 e4g4 the whole of men4 ,the general idea of all men or the combination that the idea of all men is similar to the idea of particular men would not be enough2 the universal premise that all men in fact are similar to those who have died is required to induce the universal conclusion that all men in fact die4 ,universal inference thus requires particular and universal conceptions as its condition2 but1 so far as it arises from sense1 memory1 experience1 and involves generalization1 it consists of judgments which do not consist of conceptions1 but are beliefs in things existing beyond conception4 ,inference then1 so far as it starts from categorical and existential premises1 causes conclusions1 or inferential judgments1 which require conceptions1 but are categorical and existential judgments beyond conception4 ,moreover1 as it becomes more deductive1 and causes conclusions further from sensory experience1 these inferential judgments become causes of inferential conceptions4 ,for example1 from the evidence of molar changes due to the obvious parts of bodies1 science first comes to believe in molecular changes due to imperceptible particles1 and then tries to conceive the ideas of particles1 molecules1 atoms1 electrons4 ,the conceptual logic supposes that conception always precedes judgment2 but the truth is that sensory judgment begins and inferential judgment ends by preceding conception4 ,the supposed triple order--conception1 judgment1 reasoning--is defective and false4 ,the real order is sensation and sensory judgment1 conception1 memory and memorial judgment1 experience and experiential judgment1 inference1 inferential judgment1 inferential conception4 ,this is not all3 inferential conceptions are inadequate1 and finally fail4 ,they are often symbolical2 that is1 we conceive one thing only by another like it1 e4g4 atoms by minute bodies not nearly small enough4 ,often the symbol is not like4 ,what idea can the physicist form of intraspatial ether8 ,what believer in ,god pretends to conceive ,him as ,he really is8 ,we believe many things that we cannot conceive2 as ,mill said1 the inconceivable is not the incredible2 and the point of science is not what we can conceive but what we should believe on evidence4 ,conception is the weakest1 judgment the strongest power of man's mind4 ,sense before conception is the original cause of judgment2 and inference from sense enables judgment to continue after conception ceases4 ,finally1 as there is judgment without conception1 so there is conception without judgment4 ,we often say ,i understand1 but do not decide4 ,but this suspension of judgment is a highly refined act1 unfitted to the beginning of thought4 ,conception begins as a condition of memory1 and after a long continuous process of inference ends in mere ideation4 ,the conceptual logic has made the mistake of making ideation a stage in thought prior to judgment4 ,it was natural enough that the originators of conceptual logic1 seeing that judgments can be expressed by propositions1 and conceptions by terms1 should fall into the error of supposing that1 as propositions consist of terms1 so judgments consist of conceptions1 and that there is a triple mental order--conception1 judgment1 reasoning--parallel to the triple linguistic order--term1 proposition1 discourse4 ,they overlooked the fact that man thinks long before he speaks1 makes judgments which he does not express at all1 or expresses them by interjections1 names and phrases1 before he uses regular propositions1 and that he does not begin by conceiving and naming1 and then proceed to believing and proposing4 ,feeling and sensation1 involving believing or judging1 come before conception and language4 ,as conceptions are not always present in judgment1 as they are only occasional conditions1 and as they are unfitted to cause beliefs or judgments1 and especially judgments of existence1 and as judgments both precede conceptions in sense and continue after them in inference1 it follows that conceptions are not the constituents of judgment1 and judgment is not a combination of conceptions4 ,is there then any analysis of judgment8 ,paradoxical as it may sound1 the truth seems to be that primary judgment1 beginning as it does with the simplest feeling and sensation1 is not a combination of two mental elements into one1 but is a division of one sensible thing into the thing itself and its existence and the belief that it is determined as existing1 e4g4 that hot exists1 cold exists1 the pained exists1 the pleased exists4 ,such a judgment has a cause1 namely sense1 but no mental elements4 ,afterwards come judgments of complex sense1 e4g4 that the existing hot is burning or becoming more or less hot1 c4 ,thus there is a combination of sensations causing the judgment2 but the judgment is still a division of the sensible thing into itself and its being1 and a belief that it is so determined4 ,afterwards follow judgments arising from more complex causes1 e4g4 memory1 experience1 inference4 ,but however complicated these mental causes1 there still remain these points common to all judgment3--7#a7 ,the mental causes of judgment are sense1 memory1 experience and inference2 while conception is a condition of some judgments4 7#b7 ,a judgment is not a combination either of its causes or of its conditions1 e4g4 it is not a combination of sensations any more than of ideas4 7#c7 ,a judgment is a unitary mental act1 dividing not itself but its object into the object itself and itself as determined1 and signifying that it is so determined4 7#d7 ,a primary judgment is a judgment that a sensible thing is determined as existing2 but later judgments are concerned with either existing things1 or with ideas1 or with words1 and signify that they are determined in all sorts of ways4 7#e7 ,when a judgment is expressed by a proposition1 the proposition expresses the results of the division by two terms1 subject and predicate1 and by the copula that what is signified by the subject is what is signified by the predicate2 and the proposition is a combination of the two terms2 e4g4 border war is evil4 7#f7 ,a complex judgment is a combination of two judgments1 and may be copulative1 e4g4 you and ,i are men1 or hypothetical1 or disjunctive1 c4 ,empirical logic1 the logic of ,aristotle and ,bacon1 is on the right way4 ,it is the business of the logician to find the causes of the judgments which form the premises and the conclusions of inference1 reasoning and science4 ,what knowledge do we get by sense1 memory and experience1 the first mental causes of judgment8 ,what is judgment1 and what its various kinds8 ,what is inference1 how does it proceed by combining judgments as premises to cause judgments as conclusions1 and what are its various kinds8 ,how does inference draw conclusions more or less probable up to moral certainty8 ,how does it by the aid of identification convert probable into necessary conclusions1 which become necessary principles of demonstration8 ,how is categorical succeeded by conditional inference8 ,what is scientific method as a system of inferences about definite subjects8 ,how does inference become the source of error and fallacy8 ,how does the whole process from sense to inference discover the real truth of judgments1 which are true so far as they signify things known by sense1 memory1 experience and inference8 ,these are the fundamental questions of the science of inference4 ,conceptual logic1 on the other hand1 is false from the start4 ,it is not the first business of logic to direct us how to form conceptions signified by terms1 because sense is a prior cause of judgment and inference4 ,it is not the second business of logic to direct us how out of conceptions to form judgments signified by propositions1 because the real causes of judgments are sense1 memory1 experience and inference4 ,it is1 however1 the main business of logic to direct us how out of judgments to form inferences signified by discourse2 and this is the one point which conceptual logic has contributed to the science of inference4 ,but why spoil the further mental analysis of inference by supposing that conceptions are constituents of judgment and therefore of inference1 which thus becomes merely a complex combination of conceptions1 an extension of ideas8 ,the mistake has been to convert three operations of mind into three processes in a fixed order--conception1 judgment1 inference4 ,conception and judgment are decisions3 inference alone is a process1 from decisions to decision1 from judgments to judgment4 ,sense1 not conception1 is the origin of judgment4 ,inference is the process which from judgments about sensible things proceeds to judgments about things similar to sensible things4 ,though some conceptions are its conditions and some judgments its causes1 inference itself in its conclusions causes many more judgments and conceptions4 ,finally1 inference is an extension1 not of ideas1 but of beliefs1 at first about existing things1 afterwards about ideas1 and even about words2 about anything in short about which we think1 in what is too fancifully called the universe of discourse4 ,formal logic has arisen out of the narrowness of conceptual logic4 ,the science of inference no doubt has to deal primarily with formal truth or the consistency of premises and conclusion4 ,but as all truth1 real as well as formal1 is consistent1 formal rules of consistency become real rules of truth1 when the premises are true and the consistent conclusion is therefore true4 ,the science of inference again rightly emphasizes the formal thinking of the syllogism in which the combination of premises involves the conclusion4 ,but the combinations of premises in analogical and inductive inference1 although the combination does not involve the conclusion1 yet causes us to infer it1 and in so similar a way that the science of inference is not complete without investigating all the combinations which characterize different kinds of inference4 ,the question of logic is how we infer in fact1 as well as perfectly2 and we cannot understand inference unless we consider inferences of probability of all kinds4 ,moreover1 the study of analogical and inductive inference is necessary to that of the syllogism itself1 because they discover the premises of syllogism4 ,the formal thinking of syllogism alone is merely necessary consequence2 but when its premises are necessary principles1 its conclusions are not only necessary consequents but also necessary truths4 ,hence the manner in which induction aided by identification discovers necessary principles must be studied by the logician in order to decide when the syllogism can really arrive at necessary conclusions4 ,again1 the science of inference has for its subject the form1 or processes1 of thought1 but not its matter or objects4 ,but it does not follow that it can investigate the former without the latter4 ,formal logicians say that1 if they had to consider the matter1 they must either consider all things1 which would be impossible1 or select some1 which would be arbitrary4 ,but there is an intermediate alternative1 which is neither impossible nor arbitrary2 namely1 to consider the general distinctions and principles of all things2 and without this general consideration of the matter the logician cannot know the form of thought1 which consists in drawing inferences about things on these general principles4 ,lastly1 the science of inference is not indeed the science of sensation1 memory and experience1 but at the same time it is the science of using those mental operations as data of inference2 and1 if logic does not show how analogical and inductive inferences directly1 and deductive inferences indirectly1 arise from experience1 it becomes a science of mere thinking without knowledge4 ,logic is related to all the sciences1 because it considers the common inferences and varying methods used in investigating different subjects4 ,but it is most closely related to the sciences of metaphysics and psychology1 which form with it a triad of sciences4 ,metaphysics is the science of being in general1 and therefore of the things which become objects apprehended by our minds4 ,psychology is the science of mind in general1 and therefore of the mental operations1 of which inference is one4 ,logic is the science of the processes of inference4 ,these three sciences1 of the objects of mind1 of the operations of mind1 of the processes used in the inferences of mind1 are differently1 but closely related1 so that they are constantly confused4 ,the real point is their interdependence1 which is so intimate that one sign of great philosophy is a consistent metaphysics1 psychology and logic4 ,if the world of things is known to be partly material and partly mental1 then the mind must have powers of sense and inference enabling it to know these things1 and there must be processes of inference carrying us from and beyond the sensible to the insensible world of matter and mind4 ,if the whole world of things is matter1 operations and processes of mind are themselves material4 ,if the whole world of things is mind1 operations and processes of mind have only to recognize their like all the world over4 ,it is clear then that a man's metaphysics and psychology must colour his logic4 ,it is accordingly necessary to the logician to know beforehand the general distinctions and principles of things in metaphysics1 and the mental operations of sense1 conception1 memory and experience in psychology1 so as to discover the processes of inference from experience about things in logic4 ,the interdependence of this triad of sciences has sometimes led to their confusion4 ,hegel1 having identified being with thought1 merged metaphysics in logic4 ,but he divided logic into objective and subjective1 and thus practically confessed that there is one science of the objects and another of the processes of thought4 ,psychologists1 seeing that inference is a mental operation1 often extemporize a theory of inference to the neglect of logic4 ,but we have a double consciousness of inference4 ,we are conscious of it as one operation among many1 and of its omnipresence1 so to speak1 to all the rest4 ,but we are also conscious of the processes of the operation of inference4 ,to a certain extent this second consciousness applies to other operations3 for example1 we are conscious of the process of association by which various mental causes recall ideas in the imagination4 ,but how little does the psychologist know about the association of ideas1 compared with what the logician has discovered about the processes of inference6 ,the fact is that our primary consciousness of all mental operations is hardly equal to our secondary consciousness of the processes of the one operation of inference from premises to conclusions permeating long trains and pervading whole sciences4 ,this elaborate consciousness of inferential process is the justification of logic as a distinct science1 and is the first step in its method4 ,but it is not the whole method of logic1 which also and rightly considers the mental process necessary to language1 without substituting linguistic for mental distinctions4 ,nor are consciousness and linguistic analysis all the instruments of the logician4 ,logic has to consider the things we know1 the minds by which we know them from sense1 memory and experience to inference1 and the sciences which systematize and extend our knowledge of things2 and having considered these facts1 the logician must make such a science of inference as will explain the power and the poverty of human knowledge4 ,,general ,,tendencies ,,of ,,modern ,,logic ,there are several grounds for hope in the logic of our day4 ,in the first place1 it tends to take up an intermediate position between the extremes of ,kant and ,hegel4 ,it does not1 with the former1 regard logic as purely formal in the sense of abstracting thought from being1 nor does it follow the latter in amalgamating metaphysics with logic by identifying being with thought4 ,secondly1 it does not content itself with the mere formulae of thinking1 but pushes forward to theories of method1 knowledge and science2 and it is a hopeful sign to find this epistemological spirit1 to which ,england was accustomed by ,mill1 animating ,german logicians such as ,lotze1 ,dhring1 ,schuppe1 ,sigwart and ,wundt4 ,thirdly1 there is a determination to reveal the psychological basis of logical processes1 and not merely to describe them as they are in adult reasoning1 but to explain also how they arise from simpler mental operations and primarily from sense4 ,this attempt is connected with the psychological turn given to recent philosophy by ,wundt and others1 and is dangerous only so far as psychology itself is hypothetical4 ,unfortunately1 however1 these merits are usually connected with a less admirable characteristic--contempt for tradition1 ,writing his preface to his second edition in #ahhh1 ,sigwart says3 ,important works have appeared by ,lotze1 ,schuppe1 ,wundt and ,bradley1 to name only the most eminent2 and all start from the conception which has guided this attempt4 ,that is1 logic is grounded by them1 not upon an effete tradition but upon a new investigation of thought as it actually is in its psychological foundations1 in its significance for knowledge1 and its actual operation in scientific methods4 ,how strange6 ,the spirit of every one of the three reforms above enumerated is an unconscious return to ,aristotle's ,organon4 ,aristotle's was a logic which steered1 as ,trendelenburg has shown1 between ,kantian formalism and ,hegelian metaphysics2 it was a logic which in the ,analytics investigated the syllogism as a means to understanding knowledge and science3 it was a logic which1 starting from the psychological foundations of sense1 memory and experience1 built up the logical structure of induction and deduction on the profoundly ,aristotelian principle that there is no process from universals without induction1 and none by induction without sense4 ,wundt's comprehensive view that logic looks backwards to psychology and forward to epistemology was hundreds of years ago one of the many discoveries of ,aristotle4 ,,judgment #a4 ,judgment and ,conception4--,the emphasis now laid on judgment1 the recovery from ,hume's confusion of beliefs with ideas and the association of ideas1 and the distinction of the mental act of judging from its verbal expression in a proposition1 are all healthy signs in recent logic4 ,the most fundamental question1 before proceeding to the investigation of inference1 is not what we say but what we think in making the judgments which1 whether we express them in propositions or not1 are both the premises and the conclusion of inference2 and1 as this question has been diligently studied of late1 but has been variously answered1 it will be well to give a list of the more important theories of judgment as follows3-- a4 ,it expresses a relation between the content of two ideas1 not a relation of these ideas 7,lotze74 b4 ,it is consciousness concerning the objective validity of a subjective combination of ideas1 i4e4 whether between the corresponding objective elements an analogous combination exists 7,ueberweg74 c4 ,it is the synthesis of ideas into unity and consciousness of their objective validity1 not in the sense of agreement with external reality but in the sense of the logical necessity of their synthesis 7,sigwart74 d4 ,it is the analysis of an aggregate idea 7,gesammtvorstellung7 into subject and predicate2 based on a previous association of ideas1 on relating and comparing1 and on the apperceptive synthesis of an aggregate idea in consequence2 but itself consisting in an apperceptive analysis of that aggregate idea2 and requiring will in the form of apperception or attention 7,wundt74 e4 ,it requires an idea1 because every object is conceived as well as recognized or denied2 but it is itself an assertion of actual fact1 every perception counts for a judgment1 and every categorical is changeable into an existential judgment without change of sense 7,brentano1 who derives his theory from ,mill except that he denies the necessity of a combination of ideas1 and reduces a categorical to an existential judgment74 f4 ,it is a decision of the validity of an idea requiring will 7,bergmann1 following ,brentano74 g4 ,judgment 7,urtheil7 expresses that two ideas belong together3 by-judgment 7,beurtheilung7 is the reaction of will expressing the validity or invalidity of the combination of ideas 7,windelband1 following ,bergmann1 but distinguishing the decision of validity from the judgment74 h4 ,judgment is consciousness of the identity or difference and of the causal relations of the given2 naming the actual combinations of the data1 but also requiring a priori categories of the understanding1 the notions of identity1 difference and causality1 as principles of thought or laws1 to combine the plurality of the given into a unity 7,schuppe74 i4 ,judgment is the act which refers an ideal content recognized as such to a reality beyond the act1 predicating an idea of a reality1 a what of a that2 so that the subject is reality and the predicate the meaning of an idea1 while the judgment refers the idea to reality by an identity of content 7,bradley and ,bosanquet74 k4 ,judgment is an assertion of reality1 requiring comparison and ideas which render it directly expressible in words 7,hobhouse1 mainly following ,bradley74 ,these theories are of varying value in proportion to their proximity to ,aristotle's point that predication is about things1 and to ,mill's point that judgments and propositions are about things1 not about ideas4 ,the essence of judgment is belief that something is 7or is not7 determined1 either as existing 7e4g4 ,i am1 ,a centaur is not7 or as something in particular 7e4g4 ,i am a man1 ,i am not a monkey74 ,neither ,mill1 however1 nor any of the later logicians whose theories we have quoted1 has been able quite to detach judgment from conception2 they all suppose that an idea1 or ideas1 is a condition of all judgment4 ,but judgment starts from sensation 7,empfindung7 and feeling 7,gefhl71 and not from idea 7,vorstellung74 ,when ,i feel pleased or pained1 or when ,i use my senses to perceive a pressure1 a temperature1 a flavour1 an odour1 a colour1 a sound1 or when ,i am conscious of feeling and perceiving1 ,i cannot resist the belief that something sensible is present2 and this belief that something exists is already a judgment1 a judgment of existence1 and1 so far as it is limited to sense without inference1 a true judgment4 ,it is a matter of words whether or not we should call this sensory belief a judgment2 but it is no matter of choice to the logician1 who regards all the constituents of inference as judgments2 for the fundamental constituents are sensory beliefs1 which are therefore judgments in the logical sense4 ,sense is the evidence of inference2 directly of analogical and inductive1 directly or indirectly of deductive1 inference2 and therefore1 if logic refuses to include sensory beliefs among judgments1 it will omit the fundamental constituents of inference1 inference will no longer consist of judgments but of sensory beliefs plus judgments1 and the second part of logic1 the logic of judgment1 the purpose of which is to investigate the constituents of inference1 will be like ,hamlet without the prince of ,denmark4 ,if1 on the other hand1 all the constituents of inference are judgments1 there are judgments of sense2 and the evidence of the senses means that a judgment of sense is true1 while a judgment of inference is true so far as it is directly or indirectly concluded from judgments of sense4 ,now a sensory judgment1 e4g4 that a sensible pressure is existing1 is explained by none of the foregoing theories1 because it requires nothing but sensation and belief4 ,it requires no will1 but is usually involuntary1 for the stimulus forces one's attention1 which is not always voluntary2 not all judgment then requires will1 as ,wundt supposes4 ,it requires no reference to reality beyond the sensible pressure1 because it is merely a belief that this exists without inference of the external stimulus or any inference at all3 not all judgment then requires the reference of subjective to objective supposed by ,ueberweg1 or the consciousness of logical necessity supposed by ,sigwart4 ,it requires in addition to the belief that something exists1 no consideration as to whether the belief itself be true1 because a man who feels pressure believes in the thing without further question about the belief3 not all judgment then requires a decision of validity1 as ,bergmann supposes4 ,it requires nothing beyond the sensation and belief in the given existence of the given pressure3 not all judgment then requires categories of understanding1 or notions of identity1 difference and causality1 or even of existence1 such as ,schuppe supposes4 ,it requires no comparison in order to express it in words1 for a judgment need not be expressed1 and a sensory judgment of pressure is an irresistible belief that a real pressure exists1 without waiting for words1 or for a comparison which is wanted not to make a sensation a judgment1 but to turn a judgment into language3 not all judgment then requires comparison with a view to its expression1 as supposed by ,hobhouse4 ,lastly1 all the authors of the above-quoted theories err in supposing that all judgment requires conception2 for even ,mill thinks a combination of ideas necessary1 and ,brentano1 who comes still nearer to the nature of sensory judgment when he says1 ,every perception counts for a judgment1 yet thinks that an idea is necessary at the same time in order to understand the thing judged4 ,in reality1 the sensation and the belief are sufficient2 when ,i feel a sensible pressure1 ,i cannot help believing in its reality1 and therefore judging that it is real1 without any tertium quid--an idea of pressure1 or of existence or of pressure existing--intervening between the sensation and the belief4 ,only after sensation has ceased does an idea1 or representation of what is not presented1 become necessary as a substitute for a sensation and as a condition not of the first judgment that there is1 but of a second judgment that there was1 something sensible4 ,otherwise there would be no judgment of sensible fact1 for the first sensation would not give it1 and the idea following the sensation would be still farther off4 ,the sensory judgment then1 which is nothing but a belief that at the moment of sense something sensible exists1 is a proof that not all judgment requires conception1 or synthesis or analysis of ideas1 or decision about the content1 or about the validity1 of ideas1 or reference of an ideal content to reality1 as commonly1 though variously1 supposed in the logic of our day4 ,not1 however1 that all judgment is sensory3 after the first judgments of sense follow judgments of memory1 and memory requires ideas4 ,yet memory is not mere conception1 as ,aristotle1 and ,mill after him1 have perceived4 ,to remember1 we must have a present idea2 but we must also have a belief that the thing1 of which the idea is a representation1 was 7or was not7 determined2 and this belief is the memorial judgment4 ,originally such judgments arise from sensory judgments followed by ideas1 and are judgments of memory after sense that something sensible existed1 e4g4 pressure existed3 afterwards come judgments of memory after inference1 e4g4 ,caesar was murdered4 ,finally1 most judgments are inferential4 ,these are conclusions which primarily are inferred from sensory and memorial judgments2 and so far as inference starts from sense of something sensible in the present1 and from memory after sense of something sensible in the past1 and concludes similar things1 inferential judgments are indirect beliefs in being and in existence beyond ideas4 ,when from the sensible pressures between the parts of my mouth1 which ,i feel and remember and judge that they exist and have existed1 ,i infer another similar pressure 7e4g4 of the food which presses and is pressed by my mouth in eating71 the inferential judgment with which ,i conclude is a belief that the latter exists as well as the former 7e4g4 the pressure of food without as well as the sensible pressures within74 ,inference1 no doubt1 is closely involved with conception4 ,so far as it depends on memory1 an inferential judgment presupposes memorial ideas in its data2 and so far as it infers universal classes and laws1 it produces general ideas4 ,but even so the part played by conception is quite subordinate to that of belief4 ,in the first place1 the remembered datum1 from which an inference of pressure starts1 is not the conceived idea1 but the belief that the sensible pressure existed4 ,secondly1 the conclusion in which it ends is not the general idea of a class1 but the belief that a class1 represented by a general idea1 exists1 and is 7or is not7 otherwise determined 7e4g4 that things pressing and pressed exist and move74 ,two things are certain about inferential judgment3 one1 that when inference is based on sense and memory1 inferential judgment starts from a combination of sensory and memorial judgment1 both of which are beliefs that things exist2 the other1 that in consequence inferential judgment is a belief that similar things exist4 ,there are thus three primary judgments3 judgments of sense1 of memory after sense1 and of inference from sense4 ,all these are beliefs in being and existence1 and this existential belief is first in sense1 and afterwards transferred to memory and inference4 ,moreover1 it is transferred in the same irresistible way3 frequently we cannot help either feeling pressure1 or remembering it1 or inferring it2 and as there are involuntary sensation and attention1 so there are involuntary memory and inference4 ,again1 in a primary judgment existence need not be expressed2 but if expressed1 it may be expressed either by the predicate1 e4g4 ,i exist1 or by the subject1 e4g4 ,i who exist think4 ,there are indeed differences between primary judgments1 in that the sensory is a belief in present1 the memorial in past1 and the inferential in present1 past and future existence4 ,but these differences in detail do not alter the main point that all these are beliefs in the existing1 in the real as opposed to the ideal1 in actual things which are not ideas4 ,in short1 a primary judgment is a belief in something existing apart from our idea of it2 and not because we have an idea of it1 or by comparing an idea with1 or referring an idea to1 reality2 but because we have a sensation of it1 or a memory of it or an inference of it4 ,sensation1 not conception1 is the origin of judgment4 #b4 ,different ,significations of ,being in different ,kinds of ,judgment4--,as ,aristotle remarked both in the ,de ,interpretatione and in the ,sophistici ,elenchi1 not-being is thinkable does not mean not-being exists4 ,in the latter treatise he added that it is a fallacia a dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter to argue from the former to the latter2 for1 as he says1 it is not the same thing to be something and to exist absolutely4 ,without realizing their debt to tradition1 ,herbart1 ,mill and recently ,sigwart1 have repeated ,aristotle's separation of the copula from the verb of existence1 as if it were a modern discovery that is is not the same as exists4 ,it may be added that they do not quite realize what the copula exactly signifies3 it does not signify existence1 but it does signify a fact1 namely1 that something is 7or is not7 determined1 either absolutely in a categorical judgment1 or conditionally in a conditional judgment4 ,now we have seen that all primary judgments signify more than this fact2 they are also beliefs in the existence of the thing signified by the subject4 ,but1 in the first place1 primary judgments signify this existence never by the copula1 but sometimes by the predicate1 and sometimes by the subject2 and1 secondly1 it does not follow that all judgments whatever signify existence4 ,besides inference of existence there is inference of non-existence1 of things inconsistent with the objects of primary judgments4 ,hence secondary judgments1 which no longer contain a belief that the thing exists1 e4g4 the judgment1 not-being is thinkable1 cited by ,aristotle2 the judgment1 ,a square circle is impossible1 cited by ,herbart2 the judgment1 ,a centaur is a fiction of the poets1 cited by ,mill4 ,these secondary judgments of non-existence are partly like and partly unlike primary judgments of existence4 ,they resemble them in that they are beliefs in being signified by the copula4 ,they are beliefs in things of a sort2 for1 after all1 ideas and names are things2 their objects1 even though non-existent1 are at all events things conceivable or nameable2 and therefore we are able to make judgments that things1 non-existent but conceivable or nameable1 are 7or are not7 determined in a particular manner4 ,thus the judgment about a centaur is the belief1 ,a conceivable centaur is a fiction of the poets1 and the judgment about a square circle is the belief1 ,a so-called square circle is an impossibility4 ,but1 though beliefs that things of some sort are 7or are not7 determined1 these secondary judgments fall short of primary judgments of existence4 ,whereas in a primary judgment there is a further belief1 signified by subject or predicate1 that the thing is an existing thing in the sense of being a real thing 7e4g4 a man71 different from the idea of it as well as from the name for it2 in a secondary judgment there is no further belief that the thing has any existence beyond the idea 7e4g4 a centaur71 or even beyond the name 7e4g4 a square circle73 though the idea or name exists1 there is no belief that anything represented by idea or name exists4 ,starting1 then1 from this fundamental distinction between judgments of existence and judgments of non-existence1 we may hope to steer our way between two extreme views which emanate from two important thinkers1 each of whom has produced a flourishing school of psychological logic4 ,on the one hand1 early in the #aith century ,herbart started the view that a categorical judgment is never a judgment of existence1 but always hypothetical2 on the other hand1 in the latter part of the century ,brentano started the view that all categorical judgments are existential4 ,the truth lies between these contraries4 ,the view of ,herbart and his school is contradicted by our primary judgments of and from sense1 in which we cannot help believing existence2 and it gives an inadequate account even of our secondary judgments in which we no longer indeed believe existence1 but do frequently believe that a non-existent thing is 7or is not7 somehow determined unconditionally4 ,it is true1 as ,herbart says1 that the judgment1 ,a square circle is an impossibility1 does not contain the belief1 ,a square circle is existent2 but when he goes on to argue that it means1 ,if a square circle is thought1 the conception of impossibility must be added in thought1 he falls into a non-sequitur4 ,to be categorical1 a judgment does not require a belief in existence1 but only that something1 existent or not1 is 7or is not7 determined2 and there are two quite different attitudes of mind even to a non-existent thing1 such as a square circle1 namely1 unconditional and conditional belief4 ,the judgment1 ,a non-existent but so-called square circle is an impossibility1 is an unconditional1 or categorical judgment of non-existence1 quite different from any hypothetical judgment1 which depends on the conditions if it is thought1 or if it exists1 or any other if4 ,on the other hand1 the view of ,brentano and his school is contradicted by these very categorical judgments of non-existence2 and while it applies only to categorical judgments of existence1 it does so inadequately4 ,to begin with the latter objection1 ,brentano proposed to change the four ,aristotelian forms of judgment1 ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o1 into the following existential forms3-- ,a4 ,there is not an immortal man4 ,e4 ,there is not a live stone4 ,i4 ,there is a sick man4 ,o4 ,there is an unlearned man4 ,this reconstruction1 which merges subject and predicate in one expression1 in order to combine it with the verb of existence1 is repeated in similar proposals of recent ,english logicians4 ,venn1 in his ,symbolic ,logic1 proposes the four forms1 xy #j1 xy #j1 xy #j1 xy #j 7where y means not-y71 but only as alternative to the ordinary forms4 ,bradley says that ',s-,p is real' attributes ,s-,p1 directly or indirectly1 to the ultimate reality1 and agrees with ,brentano that 'is' never stands for anything but 'exists'2 while ,bosanquet1 who follows ,bradley1 goes so far as to define a categorical judgment as that which affirms the existence of its subject1 or1 in other words1 asserts a fact4 ,now it is true that our primary judgments do contain a belief in existence2 but they do not all contain it in the same way1 but are beliefs sometimes that something is determined as existing1 and sometimes that something existing is particularly determined4 ,brentano's forms do not express such a judgment of existence1 as ,all existing men are mortal3 nor does ,bradley's form1 ,reality includes ,s-,p4 ,metaphysically1 all realities are parts of one ultimate reality2 but logically1 even philosophers think more often only of finite realities1 existing men1 dogs1 horses1 c42 and children know that their parents exist long before they apprehend ultimate reality4 ,the normal form1 then1 of a judgment of existence is either ,s is a real ,p1 or ,a real ,s is ,p4 ,hence the reconstruction of all categorical judgments by merging subject and predicate1 either on ,brentano's or on ,bradley's plan1 is a misrepresentation even of normal categorical judgments of existence4 ,secondly1 it is much more a misrepresentation of categorical judgments of non-existence4 ,no existential form suits a judgment such as ,a centaur is a fiction1 when we do not believe that there is a centaur1 or that reality includes a centaur4 ,as ,mill pointed out1 it cannot be implied that a centaur exists1 since the very thing asserted is that the thing has no real existence4 ,in a correspondence with ,mill1 ,brentano rejoined that the centaur exists in imagination2 ,bradley says1 inside our heads4 ,according to one1 then1 the judgment becomes ,there is an imaginary centaur2 according to the other ,reality includes an imaginary centaur4 ,the rejoinder1 however1 though partly true1 is not to the point4 ,the idea of the centaur does exist in our imagination1 and inside our heads1 and the name of it in our mouths4 ,but the point is that the centaur conceived and named does not exist beyond the idea of it and the name for it2 it is not1 like a man1 a real thing which is neither the idea of it nor the name for it4 ,no amount of subtlety will remove the difference between a categorical judgment of existence1 e4g4 ,an existing man is mortal1 and a categorical judgment of non-existence1 e4g4 ,a conceivable centaur is a fiction1 because in the former we believe and mean that the thing exists beyond the idea1 and in the latter we do not4 ,if1 contrary to usage1 we choose to call the latter a judgment of existence1 there is no use in quarrelling about words2 but we must insist that new terms must in that case be invented to express so fundamental a difference as that between judgments about real men and judgments about ideal centaurs4 ,so long1 however1 as we use words in the natural sense1 and call the former judgments of existence1 and the latter judgments of non-existence1 then is will not be1 as ,bradley supposes1 the same as exists1 for we use is in both judgments1 but exists only in the first kind4 ,bosanquet's definition of a categorical judgment contains a similar confusion4 ,to assert a fact and to affirm the existence of a subject are not1 as he makes out1 the same thing3 a judgment often asserts a fact and denies existence in the same breath1 e4g4 ,jupiter is non-existent4 ,here1 as usual in logic1 tradition is better than innovation4 ,all categorical judgment is an unconditional belief in the fact1 signified by the copula1 that a thing of some sort is 7or is not7 determined2 but some categorical judgments are also beliefs that the thing is an existing thing1 signified either by the subject or by the predicate1 while others are not beliefs that the thing exists at all1 but are only beliefs in something conceivable1 or nameable1 or in something or other1 without particularizing what4 ,judgment then always signifies being1 but not always existence4 #c4 ,particular and ,universal ,judgments4--,aristotle1 by distinguishing affirmative and negative1 particular and universal1 made the fourfold classification of judgments1 ,a1 ,e1 ,i and ,o1 the foundation both of opposition and of inference4 ,with regard to inference1 he remarked that a universal judgment means by all1 not every individual we know1 but every individual absolutely1 so that1 when it becomes a major premise1 we know therein every individual universally1 not individually1 and often do not know a given individual individually until we add a minor premise in a syllogism4 ,whereas1 then1 a particular judgment is a belief that some1 a universal judgment is a belief that all1 the individuals of a kind or total of similar individuals1 are similarly determined1 whether they are known or unknown individuals4 ,now1 as we have already seen1 what is signified by the subject may be existing or not1 and in either case a judgment remains categorical so long as it is a belief without conditions4 ,thus1 ,some existing men are poets1 ,all existing men are mortal1 ,some conceivable centaurs are human in their forequarters1 ,all conceivable centaurs are equine in their hindquarters1 are all categorical judgments1 while the two first are also categorical judgments of existence4 ,nevertheless these obvious applications of ,aristotelian traditions have been recently challenged1 especially by ,sigwart1 who holds in his ,logic 7secs4 #bg1 #cf7 that1 while a particular is a categorical judgment of existence1 a universal is hypothetical1 on the ground that it does not refer to a definite number of individuals1 or to individuals at all1 but rather to general ideas1 and that the appropriate form of all ,m is ,p is if anything is ,m it is ,p4 ,this view1 which has influenced not only ,german but also ,english logicians1 such as ,venn1 ,bradley and ,bosanquet1 destroys the fabric of inference1 and reduces scientific laws to mere hypotheses4 ,in reality1 however1 particular and universal judgments are too closely connected to have such different imports4 ,in opposition1 a categorical particular is the contradictory of a universal1 which is also categorical1 not hypothetical1 e4g41 not all ,m is ,p is the contradictory of all ,m is ,p1 not of if anything is ,m it is ,p4 ,in inference1 a particular is an example of a universal which in its turn may become a particular example of a higher universal4 ,for instance1 in the history of mechanics it was first inferred from some that all terrestrial bodies gravitate1 and then from these as some that all ponderable bodies1 terrestrial and celestial1 gravitate4 ,how absurd to suppose that here we pass from a particular categorical to a universal hypothetical1 and then treat this very conclusion as a particular categorical to pass to a higher universal hypothetical6 ,sigwart1 indeed1 is deceived both about particulars and universals4 ,on the one hand1 some particulars are not judgments of existence1 e4g4 some imaginary deities are goddesses2 on the other hand1 some universals are not judgments of non-existence1 e4g4 every existing man is mortal4 ,neither kind is always a judgment of existence1 but each is sometimes the one and sometimes the other4 ,in no case is a universal hypothetical1 unless we think it under a condition2 for in a universal judgment about the non-existing1 e4g4 about all conceivable centaurs1 we do not think1 ,if anything is a centaur1 because we do not believe that there are any2 and in a universal judgment about the existent1 e4g4 about all existing men1 we do not think1 ,if anything is a man1 because we believe that there is a whole class of men existing at different times and places4 ,the cause of ,sigwart's error is his misconception of all4 ,so far as he follows ,aristotle in saying that all does not mean a definite number of individuals he is right2 but when he says that we mean no individuals at all he deserts ,aristotle and goes wrong4 ,by all we mean every individual whatever of a kind2 and when from the experience of sense and memory we start with particular judgments of existence1 and infer universal judgments of existence and scientific laws1 we further mean those existing individuals which we have experienced1 and every individual whatever of the kind which exists4 ,we mean neither a definite number of individuals1 nor yet an infinite number1 but an incalculable number1 whether experienced or inferred to exist4 ,we do not mean existing here and now1 nor yet out of time and place1 but at any time and place 7semper et ubique7--past1 present and future being treated as simply existing1 by what logicians used to call suppositio naturalis4 ,we mean then by all existing every similar individual whatever1 whenever1 and wherever existing4 ,hence ,sigwart is right in saying that ,all bodies are extended means ,whatever is a body is extended1 but wrong in identifying this form with ,if anything is a body it is extended4 ,whatever is not if anything4 ,for the same reason it is erroneous to confuse all existing with a general idea4 ,nor does the use of abstract ideas and terms make any difference4 ,when ,bosanquet says that in ,heat is a mode of motion there is no reference to individual objects1 but a pure hypothetical form which absolutely neglects the existence of objects1 he falls far short of expressing the nature of this scientific judgment1 for in his ,theory of ,heat ,clerk ,maxwell describes it as believing heat as it exists in a hot body to be in the form of kinetic energy4 ,as ,bacon would say1 it is a belief that all individual bodies qua hot are individually but similarly moving in their particles4 ,when1 again1 ,bradley and ,bosanquet speak of the universal as if it always meant one ideal content referred to reality1 they forget that in universal judgments of existence1 such as ,all men existing are mortal1 we believe that every individually existing man dies his own death individually1 though similarly to other men2 and that we are thinking neither of ideas nor of reality2 but of all existent individual men being individually but similarly determined4 ,a universal is indeed one whole2 but it is one whole of many similars1 which are not the same with one another4 ,this is indeed the very essence of distribution1 that a universal is predicable1 not singly or collectively1 but severally and similarly of each and every individual of a kind1 or total of similar individuals4 ,so also the essence of a universal judgment is that every individual of the kind is severally but similarly determined4 ,finally1 a universal judgment is often existential2 but whether it is so or not it remains categorical1 so long as it introduces no hypothetical antecedent about the existence of the thing signified by the subject4 ,it is true that even in universal judgments of existence there is often a hypothetical element2 for example1 ,all men are mortal contains a doubt whether every man whatever1 whenever and wherever existing1 must die4 ,but this is only a doubt whether all the things signified by the subject are similarly determined as signified by the predicate1 and not a doubt whether there are such things at all4 ,hence the hypothetical element is not a hypothetical antecedent ,if anything is a man1 but an uncertain conclusion that ,all existing men are mortal4 ,in other words1 a categorical universal is often problematic1 but a problematic is not the same as a hypothetical judgment4 #d4 ,the ,judgment and the ,proposition4--,judgment in general is the mental act of believing that something is 7or is not7 determined4 ,a proposition is the consequent verbal expression of such a belief1 and consists in asserting that the thing as signified by the subject is 7or is not7 determined as signified by the predicate4 ,but the expression is not necessary4 ,sensation irresistibly produces a judgment of existence without needing language4 ,children think long before they speak2 and indeed1 as mere vocal sounds are not speech1 and as the apprehension that a word signifies a thing is a judgment1 judgment is originally not an effect1 but a cause of significant language4 ,at any rate1 even when we have learnt to speak1 we do not express all we think1 as we may see not only from the fewness of words known to a child1 but also from our own adult consciousness4 ,the principle of thought is to judge enough to conclude4 ,the principle of language is to speak only so far as to understand and be understood4 ,hence speech is only a curtailed expression of thought4 ,sometimes we express a whole judgment by one word1 e4g4 ,fire6 or by a phrase1 e4g4 ,what a fire6 and only usually by a proposition4 ,but even the normal proposition in the syllogistic form tertii adjacentis1 with subject1 predicate and copula1 is seldom a complete expression of the judgment4 ,the consequence is that the proposition1 being different from a judgment arising after a judgment1 and remaining an imperfect copy of judgment1 is only a superficial evidence of its real nature4 ,fortunately1 we have more profound evidences1 and at least three evidences in all3 the linguistic expression of belief in the proposition2 the consciousness of what we mentally believe2 and the analysis of reasoning1 which shows what we must believe1 and have believed1 as data for inference4 ,in these ways we find that a judgment is both different from1 and more than1 a proposition4 ,but recent logicians1 although they perceive the difference1 nevertheless tend to make the proposition the measure of the judgment4 ,this makes them omit sensory judgments1 and count only those which require ideas1 and even general ideas expressed in general terms4 ,sigwart1 for example1 gives as instances of our most elementary judgments1 ,this is ,socrates1 ,this is snow--beliefs in things existing beyond ourselves which require considerable inferences from many previous judgments of sense and memory4 ,worse still1 logicians seem unable to keep the judgment apart from the proposition4 ,herbart says that the judgment ,a is ,b does not contain the usually added thought that ,a is1 because there is no statement of ,a's existence2 as if the statement mattered to the thought4 ,so ,sigwart1 in order to reduce universals to hypotheticals1 while admitting that existence is usually thought1 argues that it is not stated in the universal judgment2 so also ,bosanquet4 ,but in the judgment the point is not what we state1 but what we think2 and so long as the existence of ,a is added in thought1 the judgment in question must contain the thought that ,a exists as well as that ,a is ,b1 and therefore is a judgment that something is determined both as existing and in a particular manner4 ,the statement only affects the proposition2 and whenever we believe the existence of the thing1 the belief in existence is part of the judgment thought1 whether it is part of the proposition stated or not4 ,here ,sir ,william ,hamilton did a real service to logic in pointing out that ,logic postulates to be allowed to state explicitly in language all that is implicitly contained in the thought4 ,not that men should or can carry this logical postulate out in ordinary life2 but it is necessary in the logical analysis of judgments1 and yet logicians neglect it4 ,this is why they confuse the categorical and the universal with the hypothetical4 ,taking the carelessly expressed propositions of ordinary life1 they do not perceive that similar judgments are often differently expressed1 e4g4 ,i1 being a man1 am mortal1 and ,if ,i am a man1 ,i am mortal2 and conversely1 that different judgments are often similarly expressed4 ,in ordinary life we may say1 ,all men are mortal1 ,all centaurs are figments1 ,all square circles are impossibilities1 ,all candidates arriving five minutes late are fined 7the last proposition being an example of the identification of categorical with hypothetical in ,keynes's ,formal ,logic74 ,but of these universal propositions the first imperfectly expresses a categorical belief in existing things1 the second in thinkable things1 and the third in nameable things1 while the fourth is a slipshod categorical expression of the hypothetical belief1 ,if any candidates arrive late they are fined4 ,the four judgments are different1 and therefore logically the propositions fully expressing them are also different4 ,the judgment1 then1 is the measure of the proposition1 not the proposition the measure of the judgment4 ,on the other hand1 we may go too far in the opposite direction1 as ,hamilton did in proposing the universal quantification of the predicate4 ,if the quantity of the predicate were always thought1 it ought logically to be always stated4 ,but we only sometimes think it4 ,usually we leave the predicate indefinite1 because1 as long as the thing in question is 7or is not7 determined1 it does not matter about other things1 and it is vain for us to try to think all things at once4 ,it is remarkable that in ,barbara1 and therefore in many scientific deductions1 to think the quantity of the predicate is not to the point either in the premises or in the conclusion2 so that to quantify the propositions1 as ,hamilton proposes1 would be to express more than a rational man thinks and judges4 ,in judgments1 and therefore in propositions1 indefinite predicates are the rule1 quantified predicates the exception4 ,consequently1 ,a ,e ,i ,o are the normal propositions with indefinite predicates2 whereas propositions with quantified predicates are only occasional forms1 which we should use whenever we require to think the quantity of the predicate1 e4g4 7#a7 in conversion1 when we must think that all men are some animals1 in order to judge that some animals are men2 7#b7 in syllogisms of the #crd figure1 when the predicate of the minor premise must be particularly quantified in thought in order to become the particularly quantified subject of the conclusion2 7#c7 in identical propositions including definitions1 where we must think both that #a #a are #b and #b are #a #a4 ,but the normal judgment1 and therefore the normal proposition1 do not require the quantity of the predicate4 ,it follows also that the normal judgment is not an equation4 ,the symbol of equality 77 is not the same as the copula 7is72 it means is equal to1 where equal to is part of the predicate1 leaving is as the copula4 ,now1 in all judgment we think is1 but in few judgments predicate equal to4 ,in quantitative judgments we may think x y1 or1 as ,boole proposes1 x vy 7#j_/j7y or1 as ,jevons proposes1 x xy1 or1 as ,venn proposes1 x which is not y #j2 and equational symbolic logic is useful whenever we think in this quantitative way4 ,but it is a byway of thought4 ,in most judgments all we believe is that x is 7or is not7 y1 that a thing is 7or is not7 determined1 and that the thing signified by the subject is a thing signified by the predicate1 but not that it is the only thing1 or equal to everything signified by the predicate4 ,the symbolic logic1 which confuses is with is equal to1 having introduced a particular kind of predicate into the copula1 falls into the mistake of reducing all predication to the one category of the quantitative2 whereas it is more often in the substantial1 e4g4 ,i am a man1 not ,i am equal to a man1 or in the qualitative1 e4g4 ,i am white1 not ,i am equal to white1 or in the relative1 e4g4 ,i am born in sin1 not ,i am equal to born in sin4 ,predication1 as ,aristotle saw1 is as various as the categories of being4 ,finally1 the great difficulty of the logic of judgment is to find the mental act behind the linguistic expression1 to ascribe to it exactly what is thought1 neither more nor less1 and to apply the judgment thought to the logical proposition1 without expecting to find it in ordinary propositions4 ,beneath ,hamilton's postulate there is a deeper principle of logic--,a rational being thinks only to the point1 and speaks only to understand and be understood4 ,,inference ,the nature and analysis of inference have been so fully treated in the ,introduction that here we may content ourselves with some points of detail4 #a4 ,false ,views of ,syllogism arising from ,false ,views of ,judgment4--,the false views of judgment1 which we have been examining1 have led to false views of inference4 ,on the one hand1 having reduced categorical judgments to an existential form1 ,brentano proposes to reform the syllogism1 with the results that it must contain four terms1 of which two are opposed and two appear twice2 that1 when it is negative1 both premises are negative2 and that1 when it is affirmative1 one premise1 at least1 is negative4 ,in order to infer the universal affirmative that every professor is mortal because he is a man1 ,brentano's existential syllogism would run as follows3-- ,there is not a not-mortal man4 ,there is not a not-human professor4 34 ,there is not a non-mortal professor4 ,on the other hand1 if on the plan of ,sigwart categorical universals were reducible to hypothetical1 the same inference would be a pure hypothetical syllogism1 thus3-- ,if anything is a man it is mortal4 ,if anything is a professor it is a man4 34 ,if anything is a professor it is mortal4 ,but both these unnatural forms1 which are certainly not analyses of any conscious process of categorical reasoning1 break down at once1 because they cannot explain those moods in the third figure1 e4g4 ,darapti1 which reason from universal premises to a particular conclusion4 ,thus1 in order to infer that some wise men are good from the example of professors1 ,brentano's syllogism would be the following non-sequitur3-- ,there is not a not-good professor4 ,there is not a not-wise professor4 ,there is a wise good 7non-sequitur74 ,so ,sigwart's syllogism would be the following non-sequitur3-- ,if anything is a professor1 it is good4 ,if anything is a professor1 it is wise4 ,something wise is good 7non-sequitur74 ,but as by the admission of both logicians these reconstructions of ,darapti are illogical1 it follows that their respective reductions of categorical universals to existentials and hypotheticals are false1 because they do not explain an actual inference4 ,sigwart does not indeed shrink from this and greater absurdities2 he reduces the first figure to the modus ponens and the second to the modus tollens of the hypothetical syllogism1 and then1 finding no place for the third figure1 denies that it can infer necessity2 whereas it really infers the necessary consequence of particular conclusions4 ,but the crowning absurdity is that1 if all universals were hypothetical1 ,barbara in the first figure would become a purely hypothetical syllogism--a consequence which seems innocent enough until we remember that all universal affirmative conclusions in all sciences would with their premises dissolve into mere hypothesis4 ,no logic can be sound which leads to the following analysis3-- ,if anything is a body it is extended4 ,if anything is a planet it is a body4 34 ,if anything is a planet it is extended4 ,sigwart1 indeed1 has missed the essential difference between the categorical and the hypothetical construction of syllogisms4 ,in a categorical syllogism of the first figure1 the major premise1 ,every ,m whatever is ,p1 is a universal1 which we believe on account of previous evidence without any condition about the thing signified by the subject ,m1 which we simply believe sometimes to be existent 7e4g4 ,every man existent71 and sometimes not 7e4g41 ,every centaur conceivable72 and the minor premise1 ,s is ,m1 establishes no part of the major1 but adds the evidence of a particular not thought of in the major at all4 ,but in a hypothetical syllogism of the ordinary mixed type1 the first or hypothetical premise is a conditional belief1 e4g4 ,if anything is ,m it is ,p1 containing a hypothetical antecedent1 ,if anything is ,m1 which is sometimes a hypothesis of existence 7e4g4 ,if anything is an angel71 and sometimes a hypothesis of fact 7e4g4 ,if an existing man is wise72 and the second premise or assumption1 ,something is ,m1 establishes part of the first1 namely1 the hypothetical antecedent1 whether as regards existence 7e4g4 ,something is an angel71 or as regards fact 7e4g4 ,this existing man is wise74 ,these very different relations of premises are obliterated by ,sigwart's false reduction of categorical universals to hypotheticals4 ,but even ,sigwart's errors are outdone by ,lotze1 who not only reduces ,every ,m is ,p so ,if ,s is ,m1 ,s is ,p1 but proceeds to reduce this hypothetical to the disjunctive1 ,if ,s is ,m1 ,s is ,p or ,p or ,p1 and finds fault with the ,aristotelian syllogism because it contents itself with inferring ,s is ,p without showing what ,p4 ,now there are occasions when we want to reason in this disjunctive manner1 to consider whether ,s is ,p or ,p or ,p1 and to conclude that ,s is a particular ,p2 but ordinarily all we want to know is that ,s is ,p2 e4g4 in arithmetic1 that #b #b are #d1 not any particular #d1 and in life that all our contemporaries must die1 without enumerating all their particular sorts of deaths4 ,lotze's mistake is the same as that of ,hamilton about the quantification of the predicate1 and that of those symbolists who held that reasoning ought always to exhaust all alternatives by equations4 ,it is the mistake of exaggerating exceptional into normal forms of thought1 and ignoring the principle that a rational being thinks only to the point4 #b4 ,quasi-syllogisms4--,besides reconstructions of the syllogistic fabric1 we find in recent logic attempts to extend the figures of the syllogism beyond the syllogistic rules4 ,an old error that we may have a valid syllogism from merely negative premises 7ex omnibus negativis71 long ago answered by ,alexander and ,boethius1 is now revived by ,lotze1 ,jevons and ,bradley1 who do not perceive that the supposed second negative is really an affirmative containing a not which can only be carried through the syllogism by separating it from the copula and attaching it to one of the extremes1 thus3-- ,the just are not unhappy 7negative74 ,the just are not-recognized 7affirmative74 34 ,some not-recognized are not unhappy 7negative74 ,here the minor being the infinite term not-recognized in the conclusion1 must be the same term also in the minor premise4 ,schuppe1 however1 who is a fertile creator of quasi-syllogisms1 has managed to invent some examples from two negative premises of a different kind3-- 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 ,no ,m is ,p4 ,no ,m is ,p4 ,no ,p is ,m4 ,s is not ,p4 ,s is not ,m4 ,s is not ,m4 34 ,neither ,s nor ,m 34 ,s may be ,p4 34 ,s may be ,p4 is ,p4 ,but 7#a7 concludes with a mere repetition1 7#b7 and 7#c7 with a contingent may be1 which1 as ,aristotle says1 also may not be1 and therefore nihil certo colligitur4 ,the same answer applies to ,schuppe's supposed syllogisms from two particular premises3-- 7#a7 7#b7 ,some ,m is ,p4 ,some ,m is ,p4 ,some ,s is ,m4 ,some ,m is ,s4 34 ,some ,s may be ,p4 34 ,some ,s may be ,p4 ,the only difference between these and the previous examples 7#b7 and 7#c7 is that1 while those break the rule against two negative premises1 these break that against undistributed middle4 ,equally fallacious are two other attempts of ,schuppe to produce syllogisms from invalid moods3-- 7#a7 #ast ,fig4 7#b7 #bnd ,fig4 ,all ,m is ,p4 ,p is ,m4 ,no ,s is ,m4 ,s is ,m4 34 ,s may be ,p4 34 ,s is partially identical with ,p4 ,in the first the fallacy is the indifferent contingency of the conclusion caused by the non-sequitur from a negative premise to an affirmative conclusion2 while the second is either a mere repetition of the premises if the conclusion means ,s is like ,p in being ,m1 or1 if it means ,s is ,p1 a non-sequitur on account of the undistributed middle4 ,it must not be thought that this trifling with logical rules has no effect4 ,the last supposed syllogism1 namely1 that having two affirmative premises and entailing an undistributed middle in the second figure1 is accepted by ,wundt under the title ,inference by ,comparison 7,vergleichungsschluss71 and is supposed by him to be useful for abstraction and subsidiary to induction1 and by ,bosanquet to be useful for analogy4 ,wundt1 for example1 proposes the following premises3-- ,gold is a shining1 fusible1 ductile1 simple body4 ,metals are shining1 fusible1 ductile1 simple bodies4 ,but to say from these premises1 ,gold and metal are similar in what is signified by the middle term1 is a mere repetition of the premises2 to say1 further1 that ,gold may be a metal is a non-sequitur1 because1 the middle being undistributed1 the logical conclusion is the contingent ,gold may or may not be a metal1 which leaves the question quite open1 and therefore there is no syllogism4 ,wundt1 who is again followed by ,bosanquet1 also supposes another syllogism in the third figure1 under the title of ,inference by ,connexion 7,verbindungsschluss71 to be useful for induction4 ,he proposes1 for example1 the following premises3-- ,gold1 silver1 copper1 lead1 are fusible4 ,gold1 silver1 copper1 lead1 are metals4 ,here there is no syllogistic fallacy in the premises2 but the question is what syllogistic conclusion can be drawn1 and there is only one which follows without an illicit process of the minor1 namely1 ,some metals are fusible4 ,the moment we stir a step further with ,wundt m the direction of a more general conclusion 7ein allgemeinerer ,satz71 we cannot infer from the premises the conclusion desired by ,wundt1 ,metals and fusible are connected2 nor can we infer ,all metals are fusible1 nor ,metals are fusible1 nor ,metals may be fusible1 nor ,all metals may be fusible1 nor any assertory conclusion1 determinate or indeterminate1 but the indifferent contingent1 ,all metals may or may not be fusible1 which leaves the question undecided1 so that there is no syllogism4 ,we do not mean that in ,wundt's supposed inferences of relation by comparison and connexion the premises are of no further use2 but those of the first kind are of no syllogistic use in the second figure1 and those of the second kind of no syllogistic use beyond particular conclusions in the third figure4 ,what they really are in the inferences proposed by ,wundt is not premises for syllogism1 but data for induction parading as syllogism4 ,we must pass the same sentence on ,lotze's attempt to extend the second figure of the syllogism for inductive purposes1 thus3-- ,s is ,m4 ,q is ,m4 ,r is ,m4 34 ,every ,sigma1 which is common to ,s1 ,q1 ,r1 is ,m4 ,we could not have a more flagrant abuse of the rule ,ne esto plus minusque in conclusione quam in praemissis4 ,as we see from ,lotze's own defence1 the conclusion cannot be drawn without another premise or premises to the effect that ,s1 ,q1 ,r1 are ,sigma1 and ,sigma is the one real subject of ,m4 ,but how is all this to be got into the second figure8 ,again1 ,wundt and ,b4 ,erdmann propose new moods of syllogism with convertible premises1 containing definitions and equations4 ,wundt's ,logic has the following forms3-- 7#a7 #ast ,fig4 7#b7 #bnd ,fig4 7#c7 #crd ,fig4 ,only ,m is ,p4 x y4 y x4 ,no ,s is ,m4 z y4 y z4 34 ,no ,s is ,p4 34 x z4 34 x z4 ,now1 there is no doubt that1 especially in mathematical equations1 universal conclusions are obtainable from convertible premises expressed in these ways4 ,but the question is how the premises must be thought1 and they must be thought in the converse way to produce a logical conclusion4 ,thus1 we must think in 7#a7 ,all ,p is ,m to avoid illicit process of the major1 in 7#b7 ,all y is z to avoid undistributed middle1 in 7#c7 ,all x is y to avoid illicit process of the minor4 ,indeed1 it is the very essence of a convertible judgment to think it in both orders1 and especially to think it in the order necessary to an inference from it4 ,accordingly1 however expressed1 the syllogisms quoted above are1 as thought1 ordinary syllogisms1 7#a7 being ,camestres in the second figure1 7#b7 and 7#c7 ,barbara in the first figure4 ,aristotle1 indeed1 was as well aware as ,german logicians of the force of convertible premises2 but he was also aware that they require no special syllogisms1 and made it a point that1 in a syllogism from a definition1 the definition is the middle1 and the definitum the major in a convertible major premise of ,barbara in the first figure1 e4g43-- ,the interposition of an opaque body is 7essentially7 deprivation of light4 ,the moon suffers the interposition of the opaque earth4 34 ,the moon suffers deprivation of light4 ,it is the same with all the recent attempts to extend the syllogism beyond its rules1 which are not liable to exceptions1 because they follow from the nature of syllogistic inference from universal to particular4 ,to give the name of syllogism to inferences which infringe the general rules against undistributed middle1 illicit process1 two negative premises1 non-sequitur from negative to affirmative1 and the introduction of what is not in the premises into the conclusion1 and which consequently infringe the special rules against affirmative conclusions in the second figure1 and against universal conclusions in the third figure1 is to open the door to fallacy1 and at best to confuse the syllogism with other kinds of inference1 without enabling us to understand any one kind4 #c4 ,analytic and ,synthetic ,deduction4--,alexander the ,commentator defined synthesis as a progress from principles to consequences1 analysis as a regress from consequences to principles2 and ,latin logicians preserved the same distinction between the progressus a principiis ad principiata1 and the regressus a principiatis ad principia4 ,no distinction is more vital in the logic of inference in general and of scientific inference in particular2 and yet none has been so little understood1 because1 though analysis is the more usual order of discovery1 synthesis is that of instruction1 and therefore1 by becoming more familiar1 tends to replace and obscure the previous analysis4 ,the distinction1 however1 did not escape ,aristotle1 who saw that a progressive syllogism can be reversed thus3-- #a4 ,progression4 #b4 ,regression4 7#a7 7#b7 ,all ,m is ,p4 ,all ,p is ,m4 ,all ,s is ,p4 ,all ,s is ,m4 ,all ,s is ,p4 ,all ,m is ,s4 34 ,all ,s is ,p4 34 ,all ,s is ,m4 34 ,all ,m is ,p4 ,proceeding from one order to the other1 by converting one of the premises1 and substituting the conclusion as premise for the other premise1 so as to deduce the latter as conclusion1 is what he calls circular inference2 and he remarked that the process is fallacious unless it contains propositions which are convertible1 as in mathematical equations4 ,further1 he perceived that the difference between the progressive and regressive orders extends from mathematics to physics1 and that there are two kinds of syllogism3 one progressing a priori from real ground to consequent fact 7,greek3 ho tou dioti syllogismos71 and the other regressing a posteriori from consequent fact to real ground 7,greek3 ho tou hoti syllogismos74 ,for example1 as he says1 the sphericity of the moon is the real ground of the fact of its light waxing2 but we can deduce either from the other1 as follows3-- #a4 ,progression4 #b4 ,regression4 ,what is spherical waxes4 ,what waxes is spherical4 ,the moon is spherical4 ,the moon waxes4 34 ,the moon waxes4 34 ,the moon is spherical4 ,these two kinds of syllogism are synthesis and analysis in the ancient sense4 ,deduction is analysis when it is regressive from consequence to real ground1 as when we start from the proposition that the angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles and deduce analytically that therefore 7#a7 they are equal to equal angles made by a straight line standing on another straight line1 and 7#b7 such equal angles are two right angles4 ,deduction is synthesis when it is progressive from real ground to consequence1 as when we start from these two results of analysis as principles and deduce synthetically the proposition that therefore the angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles1 in the order familiar to the student of ,euclid4 ,but the full value of the ancient theory of these processes cannot be appreciated until we recognize that as ,aristotle planned them ,newton used them4 ,much of the ,principia consists of synthetical deductions from definitions and axioms4 ,but the discovery of the centripetal force of the planets to the sun is an analytic deduction from the facts of their motion discovered by ,kepler to their real ground1 and is so stated by ,newton in the first regressive order of ,aristotle--,p-,m1 ,s-,p1 ,s-,m4 ,newton did indeed first show synthetically what kind of motions by mechanical laws have their ground in a centripetal force varying inversely as the square of the distance 7all ,p is ,m72 but his next step was1 not to deduce synthetically the planetary motions1 but to make a new start from the planetary motions as facts established by ,kepler's laws and as examples of the kind of motions in question 7all ,s is ,p72 and then1 by combining these two premises1 one mechanical and the other astronomical1 he analytically deduced that these facts of planetary motion have their ground in a centripetal force varying inversely as the squares of the distances of the planets from the sun 7all ,s is ,m74 7,see ,principia ,i4 prop4 #b2 #d coroll4 #f2 ,,iii4 ,phaenomena1 #d-e2 prop4 #b47 ,what ,newton did1 in short1 was to prove by analysis that the planets1 revolving by ,kepler's astronomical laws round the sun1 have motions such as by mechanical laws are consequences of a centripetal force to the sun4 ,this done1 as the major is convertible1 the analytic order--,p-,m1 ,s-,p1 ,s-,m--was easily inverted into the synthetic order--,m-,p1 ,s-,m1 ,s-,p2 and in this progressive order the deduction as now taught begins with the centripetal force of the sun as real ground1 and deduces the facts of planetary motion as consequences4 ,thereupon the ,newtonian analysis which preceded this synthesis1 became forgotten2 until at last ,mill in his ,logic1 neglecting the ,principia1 had the temerity to distort ,newton's discovery1 which was really a pure example of analytic deduction1 into a mere hypothetical deduction2 as if the author of the saying ,hypotheses non fingo started from the hypothesis of a centripetal force to the sun1 and thence deductively explained the facts of planetary motion1 which reciprocally verified the hypothesis4 ,this gross misrepresentation has made hypothesis a kind of logical fashion4 ,worse still1 ,jevons proceeded to confuse analytic deduction from consequence to ground with hypothetical deduction from ground to consequence under the common term inverse deduction4 ,wundt attempts1 but in vain1 to make a compromise between the old and the new4 ,he re-defines analysis in the very opposite way to the ancients2 whereas they defined it as a regressive process from consequence to ground1 according to ,wundt it is a progressive process of taking for granted a proposition and deducing a consequence1 which being true verifies the proposition4 ,he then divides it into two species3 one categorical1 the other hypothetical4 ,by the categorical he means the ancient analysis from a given proposition to more general propositions4 ,by the hypothetical he means the new-fangled analysis from a given proposition to more particular propositions1 i4e4 from a hypothesis to consequent facts4 ,but his account of the first is imperfect1 because in ancient analysis the more general propositions1 with which it concludes1 are not mere consequences1 but the real grounds of the given proposition2 while his addition of the second reduces the nature of analysis to the utmost confusion1 because hypothetical deduction is progressive from hypothesis to consequent facts whereas analysis is regressive from consequent facts to real ground4 ,there is indeed a sense in which all inference is from ground to consequence1 because it is from logical ground 7principium cognoscendi7 to logical consequence4 ,but in the sense in which deductive analysis is opposed to deductive synthesis1 analysis is deduction from real consequence as logical ground 7principiatum as principium cognoscendi7 to real ground 7principium essendi71 e4g4 from the consequential facts of planetary motion to their real ground1 i4e4 centripetal force to the sun4 ,hence ,sigwart is undoubtedly right in distinguishing analysis from hypothetical deduction1 for which he proposes the name reduction4 ,we have only further to add that many scientific discoveries about sound1 heat1 light1 colour and so forth1 which it is the fashion to represent as hypotheses to explain facts1 are really analytical deductions from the facts to their real grounds in accordance with mechanical laws4 ,recent logic does scant justice to scientific analysis4 #d4 ,induction4--,as induction is the process from particulars to universals1 it might have been thought that it would always have been opposed to syllogism1 in which one of the rules is against using particular premises to draw universal conclusions4 ,yet such is the passion for one type that from ,aristotle's time till now constant attempts have been made to reduce induction to syllogism4 ,aristotle himself invented an inductive syllogism in which the major 7,p7 is to be referred to the middle 7,m7 by means of the minor 7,s71 thus3-- ,a1 ,b1 ,c magnets 7,s7 attract iron 7,p74 ,a1 ,b1 ,c magnets 7,s7 are all magnets whatever 7,m74 34 ,all magnets whatever 7,m7 attract iron 7,p74 ,as the second premise is supposed to be convertible1 he reduced the inductive to a deductive syllogism as follows3-- ,every ,s is ,p4 ,every ,s is ,p4 ,every ,s is ,m 7convertibly74 ,every ,m is ,s4 34 ,every ,m is ,p4 34 ,every ,m is ,p4 ,in the reduced form the inductive syllogism was described by ,aldrich as ,syllogismus in ,barbara cujus minor 7i4e4 every ,m is ,s7 reticetur4 ,whately1 on the other hand1 proposed an inductive syllogism with the major suppressed1 that is1 instead of the minor premise above1 he supposed a major premise1 ,whatever belongs to ,a1 ,b1 ,c magnets belongs to all4 ,mill thereupon supposed a still more general premise1 an assumption of the uniformity of nature4 ,since ,mill's time1 however1 the logic of induction tends to revert towards syllogisms more like that of ,aristotle4 ,jevons supposed induction to be inverse deduction1 distinguished from direct deduction as analysis from synthesis1 e4g4 as division from multiplication2 but he really meant that it is a deduction from a hypothesis of the law of a cause to particular effects which1 being true1 verify the hypothesis4 ,sigwart declares himself in agreement with ,jevons2 except that1 being aware of the difference between hypothetical deduction and mathematical analysis1 and seeing that1 whereas analysis 7e4g4 in division7 leads to certain conclusions1 hypothetical deduction is not certain of the hypothesis1 he arrives at the more definite view that induction is not analysis proper but hypothetical deduction1 or reduction1 as he proposes to call it4 ,reduction he defines as the framing of possible premises for given propositions1 or the construction of a syllogism when the conclusion and one premise is given4 ,on this view induction becomes a reduction in the form3 all ,m is ,p 7hypothesis71 ,s is ,m 7given71 34 ,s is ,p 7given74 ,the views of ,jevons and ,sigwart are in agreement in two main points4 ,according to both1 induction1 instead of inferring from ,a1 ,b1 ,c magnets the conclusion ,therefore all magnets attract iron1 infers from the hypothesis1 ,let every magnet attract iron1 to ,a1 ,b1 ,c magnets1 whose given attraction verifies the hypothesis4 ,according to both1 again1 the hypothesis of a law with which the process starts contains more than is present in the particular data3 according to ,jevons1 it is the hypothesis of a law of a cause from which induction deduces particular effects2 and according to ,sigwart1 it is a hypothesis of the ground from which the particular data necessarily follow according to universal laws4 ,lastly1 ,wundt's view is an interesting piece of eclecticism1 for he supposes that induction begins in the form of ,aristotle's inductive syllogism1 ,s-,p1 ,s-,m1 ,m-,p1 and becomes an inductive method in the form of ,jevons's inverse deduction1 or hypothetical deduction1 or analysis1 ,m-,p1 ,s-,m1 ,s-,p4 ,in detail1 he supposes that1 while an inference by comparison1 which he erroneously calls an affirmative syllogism in the second figure1 is preliminary to induction1 a second inference by connexion1 which he erroneously calls a syllogism in the third figure with an indeterminate conclusion1 is the inductive syllogism itself4 ,this is like ,aristotle's inductive syllogism in the arrangement of terms2 but1 while on the one hand ,aristotle did not1 like ,wundt1 confuse it with the third figure1 on the other hand ,wundt does not1 like ,aristotle1 suppose it to be practicable to get inductive data so wide as the convertible premise1 ,all ,s is ,m1 and all ,m is ,s1 which would at once establish the conclusion1 ,all ,m is ,p4 ,wundt's point is that the conclusion of the inductive syllogism is neither so much as all1 nor so little as some1 but rather the indeterminate ,m and ,p are connected4 ,the question therefore arises1 how we are to discover ,all ,m is ,p1 and this question ,wundt answers by adding an inductive method1 which involves inverting the inductive syllogism in the style of ,aristotle into a deductive syllogism from a hypothesis in the style of ,jevons1 thus3-- 7#a7 7#b7 ,s is ,p4 ,every ,m is ,p4 ,s is ,m4 ,s is ,m4 34 ,m and ,p are connected4 34 ,s is ,p4 ,he agrees with ,jevons in calling this second syllogism analytical deduction1 and with ,jevons and ,sigwart in calling it hypothetical deduction4 ,it is1 in fact1 a common point of ,jevons1 ,sigwart and ,wundt that the universal is not really a conclusion inferred from given particulars1 but a hypothetical major premise from which given particulars are inferred1 and that this major contains presuppositions of causation not contained in the particulars4 ,it is noticeable that ,wundt quotes ,newton's discovery of the centripetal force of the planets to the sun as an instance of this supposed hypothetical1 analytic1 inductive method2 as if ,newton's analysis were a hypothesis of the centripetal force to the sun1 a deduction of the given facts of planetary motion1 and a verification of the hypothesis by the given facts1 and as if such a process of hypothetical deduction could be identical with either analysis or induction4 ,the abuse of this instance of ,newtonian analysis betrays the whole origin of the current confusion of induction with deduction4 ,one confusion has led to another4 ,mill confused ,newton's analytical deduction with hypothetical deduction2 and thereupon ,jevons confused induction with both4 ,the result is that both ,sigwart and ,wundt transform the inductive process of adducing particular examples to induce a universal law into a deductive process of presupposing a universal law as a ground to deduce particular consequences4 ,but we can easily extricate ourselves from these confusions by comparing induction with different kinds of deduction4 ,the point about induction is that it starts from experience1 and that1 though in most classes we can experience only some particulars individually1 yet we infer all4 ,hence induction cannot be reduced to ,aristotle's inductive syllogism1 because experience cannot give the convertible premise1 ,every ,s is ,m1 and every ,m is ,s2 that ,all ,a1 ,b1 ,c are magnets is1 but that ,all magnets are ,a1 ,b1 ,c is not1 a fact of experience4 ,for the same reason induction cannot be reduced to analytical deduction of the second kind in the form1 ,s-,p1 ,m-,s1 34 ,m-,p2 because1 though both end in a universal conclusion1 the limits of experience prevent induction from such inference as3-- ,every experienced magnet attracts iron4 ,every magnet whatever is every experienced magnet4 34 ,every magnet whatever attracts iron4 ,still less can induction be reduced to analytical deduction of the first kind in the form--,p-,m1 ,s-,p1 34 ,s-,m1 of which ,newton has left so conspicuous an example in his ,principia4 ,as the example shows1 that analytic process starts from the scientific knowledge of a universal and convertible law 7every ,m is ,p1 and every ,p is ,m71 e4g4 a mechanical law of all centripetal force1 and ends in a particular application1 e4g4 this centripetal force of planets to the sun4 ,but induction cannot start from a known law4 ,hence it is that ,jevons1 followed by ,sigwart and ,wundt1 reduces it to deduction from a hypothesis in the form ,let every ,m be ,p1 ,s is ,m1 34 ,s is ,p4 ,there is a superficial resemblance between induction and this hypothetical deduction4 ,both in a way use given particulars as evidence4 ,but in induction the given particulars are the evidence by which we discover the universal1 e4g4 particular magnets attracting iron are the origin of an inference that all do2 in hypothetical deduction1 the universal is the evidence by which we explain the given particulars1 as when we suppose undulating aether to explain the facts of heat and light4 ,in the former process1 the given particulars are the data from which we infer the universal2 in the latter1 they are only the consequent facts by which we verify it4 ,or rather1 there are two uses of induction3 inductive discovery before deduction1 and inductive verification after deduction4 ,but neither use of induction is the same as the deduction itself3 the former precedes1 the latter follows it4 ,lastly1 the theory of ,mill1 though frequently adopted1 e4g4 by ,b4 ,erdmann1 need not detain us long4 ,most inductions are made without any assumption of the uniformity of nature2 for1 whether it is itself induced1 or a priori or postulated1 this like every assumption is a judgment1 and most men are incapable of judgment on so universal a scale1 when they are quite capable of induction4 ,the fact is that the uniformity of nature stands to induction as the axioms of syllogism do to syllogism2 they are not premises1 but conditions of inference1 which ordinary men use spontaneously1 as was pointed out in ,physical ,realism1 and afterwards in ,venn's ,empirical ,logic4 ,the axiom of contradiction is not a major premise of a judgment3 the dictum de omni et nullo is not a major premise of a syllogism3 the principle of uniformity is not a major premise of an induction4 ,induction1 in fact1 is no species of deduction2 they are opposite processes1 as ,aristotle regarded them except in the one passage where he was reducing the former to the latter1 and as ,bacon always regarded them4 ,but it is easy to confuse them by mistaking examples of deduction for inductions4 ,thus ,whewell mistook ,kepler's inference that ,mars moves in an ellipse for an induction1 though it required the combination of ,tycho's and ,kepler's observations1 as a minor1 with the laws of conic sections discovered by the ,greeks1 as a major1 premise4 ,jevons1 in his ,principles of ,science1 constantly makes the same sort of mistake4 ,for example1 the inference from the similarity between solar spectra and the spectra of various gases on the earth to the existence of similar gases in the sun1 is called by him an induction2 but it really is an analytical deduction from effect to cause1 thus3-- ,such and such spectra are effects of various gases4 ,solar spectra are such spectra4 34 ,solar spectra are effects of those gases4 ,in the same way1 to infer a machine from hearing the regular tick of a clock1 to infer a player from finding a pack of cards arranged in suits1 to infer a human origin of stone implements1 and all such inferences from patent effects to latent causes1 though they appear to ,jevons to be typical inductions1 are really deductions which1 besides the minor premise stating the particular effects1 require a major premise discovered by a previous induction and stating the general kind of effects of a general kind of cause4 ,b4 ,erdmann1 again1 has invented an induction from particular predicates to a totality of predicates which he calls ergnzende ,induction1 giving as an example1 ,this body has the colour1 extensibility and specific gravity of magnesium2 therefore it is magnesium4 ,but this inference contains the tacit major1 ,what has a given colour1 c41 is magnesium1 and is a syllogism of recognition4 ,a deduction is often like an induction1 in inferring from particulars2 the difference is that deduction combines a law in the major with the particulars in the minor premise1 and infers syllogistically that the particulars of the minor have the predicate of the major premise1 whereas induction uses the particulars simply as instances to generalize a law4 ,an infallible sign of an induction is that the subject and predicate of the universal conclusion are merely those of the particular instances generalized2 e4g4 ,these magnets attract iron1 34 all do4 ,this brings us to another source of error4 ,as we have seen1 ,jevons1 ,sigwart and ,wundt all think that induction contains a belief in causation1 in a cause1 or ground1 which is not present in the particular facts of experience1 but is contributed by a hypothesis added as a major premise to the particulars in order to explain them by the cause or ground4 ,not so2 when an induction is causal1 the particular instances are already beliefs in particular causes1 e4g4 ,my right hand is exerting pressure reciprocally with my left1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c magnets attract iron2 and the problem is to generalize these causes1 not to introduce them4 ,induction is not introduction4 ,it would make no difference to the form of induction1 if1 as ,kant thought1 the notion of causality is a priori2 for even ,kant thought that it is already contained in experience4 ,but whether ,kant be right or wrong1 ,wundt and his school are decidedly wrong in supposing supplementary notions which are not contained in experience itself1 but are gained by a process of logical treatment of this experience2 as if our behalf in causality could be neither a posteriori nor a priori1 but beyond experience wake up in a hypothetical major premise of induction4 ,really1 we first experience that particular causes have particular effects2 then induce that causes similar to those have effects similar to these2 finally1 deduce that when a particular cause of the kind occurs it has a particular effect of the kind by synthetic deduction1 and that when a particular effect of the kind occurs it has a particular cause of the kind by analytic deduction with a convertible premise1 as when ,newton from planetary motions1 like terrestrial motions1 analytically deduced a centripetal force to the sun like centripetal forces to the earth4 ,moreover1 causal induction is itself both synthetic and analytic3 according as experiment combines elements into a compound1 or resolves a compound into elements1 it is the origin of a synthetic or an analytic generalization4 ,not1 however1 that all induction is causal2 but where it is not1 there is still less reason for making it a deduction from hypothesis4 ,when from the fact that the many crows in our experience are black1 we induce the probability that all crows whatever are black1 the belief in the particulars is quite independent of this universal4 ,how then can this universal be called1 as ,sigwart1 for example1 calls it1 the ground from which these particulars follow8 ,i do not believe that the crows ,i have seen are black because all crows are black1 but vice versa4 ,sigwart simply inverts the order of our knowledge4 ,in all induction1 as ,aristotle said1 the particulars are the evidence1 or ground of our knowledge 7principium cognoscendi71 of the universal4 ,in causal induction1 the particulars further contain the cause1 or ground of the being 7principium essendi71 of the effect1 as well as the ground of our inducing the law4 ,in all induction the universal is the conclusion1 in none a major premise1 and in none the ground of either the being or the knowing of the particulars4 ,induction is generalization4 ,it is not syllogism in the form of ,aristotle's or ,wundt's inductive syllogism1 because1 though starting only from some particulars1 it concludes with a universal2 it is not syllogism in the form called inverse deduction by ,jevons1 reduction by ,sigwart1 inductive method by ,wundt1 because it often uses particular facts of causation to infer universal laws of causation2 it is not syllogism in the form of ,mill's syllogism from a belief in uniformity of nature1 because few men have believed in uniformity1 but all have induced from particulars to universals4 ,bacon alone was right in altogether opposing induction to syllogism1 and in finding inductive rules for the inductive process from particular instances of presence1 absence in similar circumstances1 and comparison4 #e4 ,inference in ,general4--,there are1 as we have seen 7ad init471 three types--syllogism1 induction and analogy4 ,different as they are1 the three kinds have something in common3 first1 they are all processes from similar to similar2 secondly1 they all consist in combining two judgments so as to cause a third1 whether expressed in so many propositions or not2 thirdly1 as a judgment is a belief in being1 they all proceed from premises which are beliefs in being to a conclusion which is a belief in being4 ,nevertheless1 simple as this account appears1 it is opposed in every point to recent logic4 ,in the first place1 the point of ,bradley's logic is that similarity is not a principle which works4 ,what operates is identity1 and that identity is a universal4 ,this view makes inference easy3 induction is all over before it begins2 for1 according to ,bradley1 every one of the instances is already a universal proposition2 and it is not a particular fact or phenomenon at all1 so that the moment you observe that this magnet attracts iron1 you ipso facto know that every magnet does so1 and all that remains for deduction is to identify a second magnet as the same with the first1 and conclude that it attracts iron4 ,in dealing with ,bradley's works we feel inclined to repeat what ,aristotle says of the discourses of ,socrates3 they all exhibit excellence1 cleverness1 novelty and inquiry1 but their truth is a difficult matter2 and the ,socratic paradox that virtue is knowledge is not more difficult than the ,bradleian paradox that as two different things are the same1 inference is identification4 ,the basis of ,bradley's logic is the fallacious dialectic of ,hegel's metaphysics1 founded on the supposition that two things1 which are different1 but have something in common1 are the same4 ,for example1 according to ,hegel1 being and not-being are both indeterminate and therefore the same4 ,if1 says ,bradley1 ,a and ,b1 for instance1 both have lungs or gills1 they are so far the same4 ,the answer to ,hegel is that being and not-being are at most similarly indeterminate1 and to ,bradley that each animal has its own different lungs1 whereby they are only similar4 ,if they were the same1 then in descending1 two things1 one of which has healthy and the other diseased lungs1 would be the same2 and in ascending1 two things1 one of which has lungs and the other has not1 but both of which have life1 e4g4 plants and animals1 would be so far the same4 ,there would be no limit to identity either downwards or upwards2 so that a man would be the same as a man-of-war1 and all things would be the same thing1 and not different parts of one universe4 ,but a thing which has healthy lungs and a thing which has diseased lungs are only similar individuals numerically different4 ,each individual thing is the same only with itself1 although related to other things2 and each individual of a class has its own individual1 though similar1 attributes4 ,the consequence of this true metaphysics to logic is twofold3 on the one hand1 one singular or particular judgment1 e4g4 this magnet attracts iron1 is not another1 e4g4 that magnet attracts iron1 and neither is universal2 on the other hand1 a universal judgment1 e4g4 every magnet attracts iron1 means1 distributively1 that each individual magnet exerts its individual attraction1 though it is similar to other magnets exerting similar attractions4 ,a universal is not one identical point1 but one distributive whole4 ,hence in a syllogism1 a middle term1 e4g4 magnets1 is absolutely the same1 not in the sense of one identical point making each individual the same as any other1 as ,bradley supposes1 but only in the sense of one whole class1 or total of many similar individuals1 e4g4 magnets1 each of which is separately though similarly a magnet1 not magnet in general4 ,hence also induction is a real process1 because1 when we know that this individual magnet attracts iron1 we are very far from knowing that all alike do so similarly2 and the question of inductive logic1 how we get from some similars to all similars1 remains1 as before1 a difficulty1 but not to be solved by the fallacy that inference is identification4 ,secondly1 a subordinate point in ,bradley's logic is that there are inferences which are not syllogisms2 and this is true4 ,but when he goes on to propose1 as a complete independent inference1 ,a is to the right of ,b1 ,b is to the right of ,c1 therefore ,a is to the right of ,c1 he confuses two different operations4 ,when ,a1 ,b and ,c are objects of sense1 their relative positions are matters1 not of inference1 but of observation2 when they are not1 there is an inference1 but a syllogistic inference with a major premise induced from previous observations1 whenever of three things the first is to the right of the second1 and the second to the right of the third1 the first is to the right of the third4 ,to reply that this universal judgment is not expressed1 or that its expression is cumbrous1 is no answer1 because1 whether expressed or not1 it is required for the thought4 ,as ,aristotle puts it1 the syllogism is directed not to the outer1 but to the inner discourse1 or as we should say1 not to the expression but to the thought1 not to the proposition but to the judgment1 and to the inference not verbally but mentally4 ,bradley seems to suppose that the major premise of a syllogism must be explicit1 or else is nothing at all4 ,but it is often thought without being expressed1 and to judge the syllogism by its mere explicit expression is to commit an ignoratio elenchi2 for it has been known all along that we express less than we think1 and the very purpose of syllogistic logic is to analyse the whole thought necessary to the conclusion4 ,in this syllogistic analysis two points must always be considered3 one1 that we usually use premises in thought which we do not express2 and the other1 that we sometimes use them unconsciously1 and therefore infer and reason unconsciously1 in the manner excellently described by ,zeller in his ,vortrge1 iii4 pp4 #bdi-bee4 ,inference is a deeper thinking process from judgments to judgment1 which only occasionally and partially emerges in the linguistic process from propositions to proposition4 ,we may now then reassert two points about inference against ,bradley's logic3 the first1 that it is a process from similar to similar1 and not a process of identification1 because two different things are not at all the same thing2 the second1 that it is the mental process from judgments to judgment rather than the linguistic process from propositions to proposition1 because1 besides the judgments expressed in propositions1 it requires judgments which are not always expressed1 and are sometimes even unconscious4 ,our third point is that1 as a process of judgments1 inference is a process of concluding from two beliefs in being to another belief in being1 and not an ideal construction1 because a judgment does not always require ideas1 but is always a belief about things1 existing or not4 ,this point is challenged by all the many ideal theories of judgment already quoted4 ,if1 for example1 judgment were an analysis of an aggregate idea as ,wundt supposes1 it would certainly be true with him to conclude that as judgment is an immediate1 inference is a mediate1 reference of the members of an aggregate of ideas to one another4 ,but really a judgment is a belief that something1 existing1 or thinkable1 or nameable or what not1 is 7or is not7 determined2 and inference is a process from and to such beliefs in being4 ,hence the fallacy of those who1 like ,bosanquet1 or like ,paulsen in his ,einleitung in die ,philosophie1 represent the realistic theory of inference as if it meant that knowledge starts from ideas and then infers that ideas are copies of things1 and who then object1 rightly enough1 that we could not in that case compare the copy with the original1 but only be able to infer from idea to idea4 ,but there is another realism which holds that inference is a process neither from ideas to ideas1 nor from ideas to things1 but from beliefs to beliefs1 from judgments about things in the premises to judgments about similar things in the conclusion4 ,logical inference never goes through the impossible process of premising nothing but ideas1 and concluding that ideas are copies of things4 ,moreover1 as we have shown1 our primary judgments of sense are beliefs founded on sensations without requiring ideas1 and are beliefs1 not merely that something is determined1 but that it is determined as existing2 and1 accordingly1 our primary inferences from these sensory judgments of existence are inferences that other things beyond sense are similarly determined as existing4 ,first press your lips together and then press a pen between them3 you will not be conscious of perceiving any ideas3 you will be conscious first of perceiving one existing lip exerting pressure reciprocally with the other existing lip2 then1 on putting the pen between your lips1 of perceiving each lip similarly exerting pressure1 but not with the other2 and consequently of inferring that each existing lip is exerting pressure reciprocally with another existing body1 the pen4 ,inference then1 though it is accompanied by ideas1 is not an ideal construction1 nor a process from idea to idea1 nor a process from idea to thing1 but a process from direct to indirect beliefs in things1 and originally in existing things4 ,logic cannot1 it is true1 decide what these things are1 nor what the senses know about them1 without appealing to metaphysics and psychology4 ,but1 as the science of inference1 it can make sure that inference1 on the one hand1 starts from sensory judgments about sensible things and logically proceeds to inferential judgments about similar things beyond sense1 and1 on the other hand1 cannot logically go beyond the similar4 ,these are the limits within which logical inference works1 because its nature essentially consists in proceeding from two judgments to another about similar things1 existing or not4 #f4 ,truth4--,finally1 though sensory judgment is always true of its sensible object1 inferential judgments are not always true1 but are true so far as they are logically inferred1 however indirectly1 from sense2 and knowledge consists of sense1 memory after sense and logical inference from sense1 which1 we must remember1 is not merely the outer sense of our five senses1 but also the inner sense of ourselves as conscious thinking persons4 ,we come then at last to the old question--what is truth8 ,truth proper1 as ,aristotle said in the ,metaphysics1 is in the mind3 it is not being1 but one's signification of being4 ,its requisites are that there are things to be known and powers of knowing things4 ,it is an attribute of judgments and derivatively of propositions4 ,that judgment is true which apprehends a thing as it is capable of being known to be2 and that proposition is true which so asserts the thing to be4 ,or1 to combine truth in thought and in speech1 the true is what signifies a thing as it is capable of being known4 ,secondarily1 the thing itself is ambiguously said to be true in the sense of being signified as it is4 ,for example1 as ,i am weary and am conscious of being weary1 my judgment and proposition that ,i am weary are true because they signify what ,i am and know myself to be by direct consciousness2 and my being weary is ambiguously said to be true because it is so signified4 ,but it will be said that ,kant has proved that real truth1 in the sense of the agreement of knowledge with the object1 is unattainable1 because we could compare knowledge with the object only by knowing both4 ,sigwart1 indeed1 adopting ,kant's argument1 concludes that we must be satisfied with consistency among the thoughts which presuppose an existent2 this1 too1 is the reason why he thinks that induction is reduction1 on the theory that we can show the necessary consequence of the given particular1 but that truth of fact is unattainable4 ,but ,kant's criticism and ,sigwart's corollary only derive plausibility from a false definition of truth4 ,truth is not the agreement of knowledge with an object beyond itself1 and therefore ex hypothesi unknowable1 but the agreement of our judgments with the objects of our knowledge4 ,a judgment is true whenever it is a belief that a thing is determined as it is known to be by sense1 or by memory after sense1 or by inference from sense1 however indirect the inference may be1 and even when in the form of inference of non-existence it extends consequently from primary to secondary judgments4 ,thus the judgments this sensible pressure exists1 that sensible pressure existed1 other similar pressures exist1 a conceivable centaur does not exist but is a figment1 are all equally true1 because they are in accordance with one or other of these kinds of knowledge4 ,consequently1 as knowledge is attainable by sense1 memory and inference1 truth is also attainable1 because1 though we cannot test what we know by something else1 we can test what we judge and assert by what we know4 ,not that all inference is knowledge1 but it is sometimes4 ,the aim of logic in general is to find the laws of all inference1 which1 so far as it obeys those laws1 is always consistent1 but is true or false according to its data as well as its consistency2 and the aim of the special logic of knowledge is to find the laws of direct and indirect inferences from sense1 because as sense produces sensory judgments which are always true of the sensible things actually perceived1 inference from sense produces inferential judgments which1 so far as they are consequent on sensory judgments1 are always true of things similar to sensible things1 by the very consistency of inference1 or1 as we say1 by parity of reasoning4 ,we return then to the old view of ,aristotle1 that truth is believing in being2 that sense is true of its immediate objects1 and reasoning from sense true of its mediate objects2 and that logic is the science of reasoning with a view to truth1 or ,logica est ars ratiocinandi1 ut discernatur verum a falso4 ,all we aspire to add is that1 in order to attain to real truth1 we must proceed gradually from sense1 memory and experience through analogical particular inference1 to inductive and deductive universal inference or reasoning4 ,logic is the science of all inference1 beginning from sense and ending in reason4 ,in conclusion1 the logic of the last quarter of the #aith century may be said to be animated by a spirit of inquiry1 marred by a love of paradox and a corresponding hatred of tradition4 ,but we have found1 on the whole1 that logical tradition rises superior to logical innovation4 ,there are two old logics which still remain indispensable1 ,aristotle's ,organon and ,bacon's ,novum ,organum4 ,if1 and only if1 the study of deductive logic begins with ,aristotle1 and the study of inductive logic with ,aristotle and ,bacon1 it will be profitable to add the works of the following recent ,german and ,english authors3-- ,,authorities4--,j4 ,bergmann1 ,reine ,logik 7,berlin1 #ahgi72 ,die ,grundprobleme der ,logik 7#bnd ed41 ,berlin1 #ahie72 ,b4 ,bosanquet1 ,logic 7,oxford1 #ahhh72 ,the ,essentials of ,logic 7,london1 #ahie72 ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley1 ,the ,principles of ,logic 7,london1 #ahhc72 ,f4 ,brentano1 ,psychologie vom empirischen ,standpunkte 7,vienna1 #ahgd72 ,r4 ,f4 ,clarke1 ,logic 7,london1 #ahhi72 ,w4 ,l4 ,davidson1 ,the ,logic of ,definition 7,london1 #ahhe72 ,e4 ,dhring1 ,logik und ,wissenschaftstheorie 7,leipzig1 #ahgh72 ,b4 ,erdmann1 ,logik 7,halle1 #ahib72 ,t4 ,fowler1 ,bacon's ,novum ,organum1 edited1 with introduction1 notes1 c4 7#bnd ed41 ,oxford1 #ahhi72 ,t4 ,h4 ,green1 ,lectures on ,logic1 in ,works1 vol4 iii4 7,london1 #ahhf72 ,j4 ,g4 ,hibben1 ,inductive ,logic 7,edinburgh and ,london1 #ahif72 ,f4 ,hillebrand1 ,die neuen ,theorien der kategorischen ,schlsse 7,vienna1 #ahia72 ,l4 ,t4 ,hobhouse1 ,the ,theory of ,knowledge 7,london1 #ahif72 ,h4 ,hughes1 ,the ,theory of ,inference 7,london1 #ahid72 ,e4 ,husserl1 ,logische ,untersuchungen 7,halle1 #ahia1 #aija72 ,w4 ,jerusalem1 ,die ,urtheilsfunction 7,vienna and ,leipzig1 #ahie72 ,w4 ,stanley ,jevons1 ,the ,principles of ,science 7#crd ed41 ,london1 #ahgi72 ,studies in ,deductive ,logic 7,london1 #ahhj72 ,h4 ,w4 ,b4 ,joseph1 ,introduction to ,logic 7#aijf72 ,e4 ,e4 ,constance ,jones1 ,elements of ,logic 7,edinburgh1 #ahij72 ,g4 ,h4 ,joyce1 ,principles of ,logic 7#aijh72 ,j4 ,n4 ,keynes1 ,studies and ,exercises in ,formal ,logic 7#bnd ed41 ,london1 #ahhg72 ,f4 ,a4 ,lange1 ,logische ,studien 7#bnd ed41 ,leipzig1 #ahid72 ,t4 ,lipps1 ,grundzge der ,logik 7,hamburg and ,leipzig1 #ahic72 ,r4 ,h4 ,lotze1 ,logik 7#bnd ed41 ,leipzig1 #ahha1 ,english translation edited by ,b4 ,bosanquet1 ,oxford1 #ahhd72 ,grundzge der ,logik 7,diktate7 7#crd ed41 ,leipzig1 #ahia1 ,english translation by ,g4 ,t4 ,ladd1 ,boston1 #ahhg72 ,werner ,luthe1 ,beitrge zur ,logik 7,berlin1 #ahgb1 #ahgg72 ,members of ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 ,studies in ,logic 7edited by ,c4 ,s4 ,peirce1 ,boston1 #ahhc72 ,j4 ,b4 ,meyer1 ,ueberweg's ,system der ,logik1 fnfte vermehrte ,auflage 7,bonn1 #ahhb72 ,max ,mller1 ,science of ,thought 7,london1 #ahhg72 ,carveth ,read1 ,on the ,theory of ,logic 7,london1 #ahgh72 ,logic1 ,deductive and ,inductive 7#bnd ed41 ,london1 #aija72 ,e4 ,schrder1 ,vorlesungen ber die ,algebra der ,logik 7,leipzig1 #ahij1 #ahia1 #ahie72 ,w4 ,schuppe1 ,erkenntnistheoretische ,logik 7,bonn1 #ahgh72 ,grundriss der ,erkenntnistheorie und ,logik 7,berlin1 #ahid72 ,r4 ,shute1 ,a ,discourse on ,truth 7,london1 #ahgg72 ,alfred ,sidgwick1 ,fallacies 7,london1 #ahhc72 ,the ,use of ,words in ,reasoning 7,london1 #aija72 ,c4 ,sigwart1 ,logik 7#bnd ed41 ,freiburg-i4-,br4 and ,leipzig1 #ahhi-ahic1 ,english translation by ,helen ,dendy1 ,london1 #ahie72 ,k4 ,uphues1 ,grundlehren der ,logik 7,breslau1 #ahhc72 ,j4 ,veitch1 ,institutes of ,logic 7,edinburgh and ,london1 #ahhe72 ,j4 ,venn1 ,symbolic ,logic 7#bnd ed41 ,london1 #ahid72 ,the ,principles of ,empirical or ,inductive ,logic 7,london1 #ahhi72 ,j4 ,volkelt1 ,erfahren und ,denken 7,hamburg and ,leipzig1 #ahhf72 ,t4 ,welton1 ,a ,manual of ,logic 7,london1 #ahia1 #ahif72 ,w4 ,windelband1 ,prludien 7,freiburg-i4-,br41 #ahhd72 ,w4 ,wundt1 ,logik 7#bnd ed41 ,stuttgart1 #ahic-ahie74 ,text-books are not comprised in this list4 7,t4 ,ca47 ,,ii4 ,,history ,logic cannot dispense with the light afforded by its history so long as counter-solutions of the same fundamental problems continue to hold the field4 ,a critical review of some of the chief types of logical theory1 with a view to determine development1 needs no further justification4 ,logic arose1 at least for the ,western world1 in the golden age of ,greek speculation which culminated in ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,there is an ,indian logic1 it is true1 but its priority is more than disputable4 ,in any case no influence upon ,greek thought can be shown4 ,the movement which ends in the logic of ,aristotle is demonstrably self-contained4 ,when we have shaken ourselves free of the prejudice that all stars are first seen in the ,east1 ,oriental attempts at analysis of the structure of thought may be treated as negligible4 ,it is with ,aristotle that the bookish tradition begins to dominate the evolution of logic4 ,the technical perfection of the analysis which he offers is1 granted the circle of presuppositions within which it works1 so decisive1 that what precedes1 even ,plato's logic1 is not unnaturally regarded as merely preliminary and subsidiary to it4 ,what follows is inevitably1 whether directly or indirectly1 by sympathy or by antagonism1 affected by the ,aristotelian tradition4 ,a4 ,,greek ,,logic i4 ,before ,aristotle ,the physical philosophers4 ,logic needs as its presuppositions that thought should distinguish itself from things and from sense1 that the problem of validity should be seen to be raised in the field of thought itself1 and that analysis of the structure of thought should be recognized as the one way of solution4 ,thought is somewhat late in coming to self-consciousness4 ,implied in every contrast of principle and fact1 of rule and application1 involved as we see after the event1 most decisively when we react correctly upon a world incorrectly perceived1 thought is yet not reflected on in the common experience4 ,its so-called natural logic is only the potentiality of logic4 ,the same thing is true of the first stage of ,greek philosophy4 ,in seeking for a single material principle underlying the multiplicity of phenomena1 the first nature-philosophers1 ,thales and the rest1 did indeed raise the problem of the one and the many1 the endeavour to answer which must at last lead to logic4 ,but it is only from a point of view won by later speculation that it can be said that they sought to determine the predicates of the single subject-reality1 or to establish the permanent subject of varied and varying predicates4#a ,the direction of their inquiry is persistently outward4 ,they hope to explain the opposed appearance and reality wholly within the world of things1 and irrespective of the thought that thinks things4 ,their universal is still a material one4 ,the level of thought on which they move is still clearly pre-logical4 ,it is an advance on this when ,heraclitus#b opposes to the eyes and ears which are bad witnesses for such as understand not their language a common something which we would do well to follow2 or again when in the incommensurability of the diagonal and side of a square the ,pythagoreans stumbled upon what was clearly neither thing nor image of sense1 but yet was endowed with meaning1 and henceforth were increasingly at home with symbol and formula4 ,so far1 however1 it might well be that thought1 contradistinguished from sense with its illusions1 was itself infallible4 ,a further step1 then1 was necessary1 and it was taken at any rate by the ,eleatics1 when they opposed their thought to the thought of others1 as the way of truth in contrast to the way of opinion4 ,if ,eleatic thought stands over against ,pythagorean thought as what is valid or grounded against what is ungrounded or invalid1 we are embarked upon dialectic1 or the debate in which thought is countered by thought4 ,claims to a favourable verdict must now be substantiated in this field and in this field alone4 ,it was ,zeno1 the controversialist of the ,eleatic school1 who was regarded in after times as the discoverer of dialectic4#c ,zeno's amazing skill in argumentation and his paradoxical conclusions1 particular and general1 inaugurate a new era4 ,the philosophical mind1 says waiter ,pater1#d will perhaps never be quite in health1 quite sane or natural again4 ,the give and take of thought had by a swift transformation of values come by something more than its own4 ,zeno's paradoxes1 notably1 for example1 the puzzle of ,achilles and the ,tortoise1 are still capable of amusing the modern world4 ,in his own age they found him imitators4 ,and there follows the sophistic movement4 ,the ,sophists4 ,the sophists have other claims to consideration than their service to the development of logic4 ,in the history of the origins of logic the sophistic age is simply the age of the free play of thought in which men were aware that in a sense anything can be debated and not yet aware of the sense in which all things cannot be so4 ,it is the age of discussion used as a universal solvent1 before it has been brought to book by a deliberate unfolding of the principles of the structure of thought determining and limiting the movement of thought itself4 ,the sophists furthered the transition from dialectic to logic in two ways4 ,in the first place they made it possible4 ,incessant questioning leads to answers4 ,hair-splitting1 even when mischievous in intent1 leads to distinctions of value4 ,paradoxical insistence on the accidents of speech-forms and thought-forms leads in the end to perception of the essentials4 ,secondly they made it necessary4 ,the spirit of debate run riot evokes a counter-spirit to order and control it4 ,the result is a self-limiting dialectic4 ,this higher dialectic is a logic4 ,it is no accident that the first of the philosophical sophists1 ,gorgias1 on the one hand1 is ,eleatic in his affinities1 and on the other raises in the characteristic formula of his intellectual nihilism#e issues which are as much logical and epistemological as ontological4 ,the meaning of the copula and the relation of thoughts to the objects of which they are the thoughts are as much involved as the nature of being4 ,it is equally no accident that the name of ,protagoras is to be connected1 in ,plato's view at least1 with the rival school of ,heracliteans4 ,the problems raised by the relativism of ,protagoras are no less fundamentally problems of the nature of knowledge and of the structure of thought4 ,the ,theaetetus indeed1 in which ,plato essays to deal with them1 is in the broad sense of the word logical1 the first distinctively logical treatise that has come down to us4 ,other sophists1 of course1 with more practical interests1 or of humbler attainments1 were content to move on a lower plane of philosophical speculation4 ,as presented to us1 for example1 in ,plato's surely not altogether hostile caricature in the ,euthydemus1 they mark the intellectual preparation for1 and the moral need for1 the advance of the next generation4 ,socrates4 ,among the pioneers of the sophistic age ,socrates stands apart4 ,he has no other instrument than the dialectic of his compeers1 and he is as far off as the rest from a criticism of the instrument1 but he uses it differently and with a difference of aim4 ,he construes the give and take of the debate-game with extreme rigour4 ,the rhetorical element must be exorcised4 ,the set harangue of teacher to pupil1 in which steps in argument are slurred and the semblance of co-inquiry is rendered nugatory1 must be eliminated4 ,the interlocutors must in truth render an account under the stimulus of organized heckling from their equals or superiors in debating ability4 ,and the aim is heuristic1 though often enough the search ends in no overt positive conclusion4 ,something can be found and something is found4 ,common names are fitted for use by the would-be users being first delivered from abortive conceptions1 and thereupon enabled to bring to the birth living and organic notions4 ,aristotle would assign to ,socrates the elaboration of two logical functions3--general definition and inductive method4#f ,rightly1 if we add that he gives no theory of either1 and that his practical use of the latter depends for its value on selection4#g ,it is rather in virtue of his general faith in the possibility of construction1 which he still does not undertake1 and because of his consequent insistence on the elucidation of general concepts1 which in common with some of his contemporaries1 he may have thought of as endued with a certain objectivity1 that he induces the controversies of what are called the ,socratic schools as to the nature of predication4 ,these result in the formulation of a new dialectic or logic by ,plato4 ,manifestly ,socrates' use of certain forms of argumentation1 like their abuse by the sophists1 tended to evoke their logical analysis4 ,the use and abuse1 confronted one with the other1 could not but evoke it4 ,antisthenes4 ,the one in the many1 the formula which lies at the base of the possibility of predication1 is involved in the ,socratic doctrine of general concepts or ideas4 ,the nihilism of ,gorgias from the ,eleatic point of view of bare identity1 and the speechlessness of ,cratylus from the ,heraclitean ground of absolute difference1 are alike disowned4 ,but the one in the many1 the identity in difference1 is so far only postulated1 not established4 ,when the personality of ,socrates is removed1 the difficulty as to the nature of the ,socratic universal1 developed in the medium of the individual processes of individual minds1 carries disciples of diverse general sympathies1 united only through the practical inspiration of the master's life1 towards the identity-formula or the difference-formula of other teachers4 ,the paradox of predication1 that it seems to deny identity1 or to deny difference1 becomes a pons asinorum4 ,knowledge involves synthesis or nexus4 ,yet from the points of view alike of an absolute pluralism1 of a flux1 and of a formula of bare identity--and a fortiori with any blending of these principles sufficiently within the bounds of plausibility to find an exponent--all knowledge1 because all predication of unity1 in difference1 must be held to be impossible4 ,plato's problem was to find a way of escape from this impasse1 and among his ,socratic contemporaries he seems to have singled out ,antisthenes#h as most in need of refutation4 ,antisthenes1 starting with the doctrine of identity without difference1 recognizes as the only expression proper to anything its own peculiar sign1 its name4 ,this extreme of nominalism for which predication is impossible is1 however1 compromised by two concessions4 ,a thing can be described as like something else4 ,and a compound can have a ,greek3 logos or account given of it by the 7literally7 adequate enumeration of the names of its simple elements or ,greek3 prta4#i ,this analytical ,greek3 logos he offers as his substitute for knowledge4#aj ,the simple elements still remain1 sensed and named but not known4 ,the expressions of them are simply the speech-signs for them4 ,the account of the compound simply sets itself taken piecemeal as equivalent to itself taken as aggregate4 ,the subject-predicate relation fails really to arise4 ,euclides#aa found no difficulty in fixing ,antisthenes' mode of illustrating his simple elements by comparison1 and therewith perhaps the induction of ,socrates1 with the dilemma2 so far as the example is dissimilar1 the comparison is invalid2 so far as it is similar1 it is useless4 ,it is better to say what the thing is4 ,between ,euclides and ,antisthenes the ,socratic induction and universal definition were alike discredited from the point of view of the ,eleatic logic4 ,it is with the other point of doctrine that ,plato comes to grips1 that which allows of a certainty or knowledge consisting in an analysis of a compound into simple elements themselves not known4 ,the syllable or combination is1 he shows1 not known by resolution of it into letters or elements themselves not known4 ,an aggregate analysed into its mechanical parts is as much and as little known as they4 ,a whole which is more than its parts is from ,antisthenes' point of view inconceivable4 ,propositions analytical of a combination in the sense alleged do not give knowledge4 ,yet knowledge is possible4 ,the development of a positive theory of predication has become quite crucial4 ,plato4 ,plato's logic supplies a theory of universals in the doctrine of ideas4 ,upon this it bases a theory of predication1 which1 however1 is compatible with more than one reading of the metaphysical import of the ideas4 ,and it sets forth a dialectic with a twofold movement1 towards differentiation and integration severally1 which amounts to a formulation of inference4 ,the more fully analysed movement1 that which proceeds downward from less determinate to more determinate universals1 is named ,division4 ,its associations1 accordingly1 are to the modern ear almost inevitably those of a doctrine of classification only4 ,aristotle1 however1 treats it as a dialectical rival to syllogism1 and it influenced ,galilei and ,bacon in their views of inference after the ,renaissance4 ,if we add to this logic of idea1 judgment and inference1 a doctrine of categories in the modern sense of the word which makes the ,theaetetus1 in which it first occurs1 a forerunner of ,kant's ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 we have clearly a very significant contribution to logic even in technical regard4 ,its general philosophical setting may be said to enhance its value even as logic4 ,the ,idea4 7a7 ,of the idea we may say that whatever else it is1 and apart from all puzzles as to ideas of relations such as smallness1 of negative qualities such as injustice1 or of human inventions such as beds1 it is opposed to that of which it is the idea as its intelligible formula or law1 the truth or validity--,herbart's word--of the phenomenon from the point of view of nexus or system4 ,the thing of sense in its relative isolation is unstable4 ,it is and is not4 ,what gives stability is the insensible principle or principles which it holds1 as it were1 in solution4 ,these are the ideas1 and their mode of being is naturally quite other than that of the sensible phenomena which they order4 ,the formula for an indefinite number of particular things in particular places at particular times1 and all of them presentable in sensuous imagery of a given time and place1 is not itself presentable in sensuous imagery side by side with the individual members of the group it orders4 ,the law1 e4g41 of the equality of the radii of a circle cannot be exhibited to sense1 even if equal radii may be so exhibited4 ,it is the wealth of illustration with which ,plato expresses his meaning1 and the range of application which he gives the idea--to the class-concepts of natural groups objectively regarded1 to categories1 to aesthetic and ethical ideals1 to the concrete aims of the craftsman as well as to scientific laws--that have obscured his doctrine1 viz4 that wherever there is law1 there is an idea4 ,the one in the many4 7b7 ,the paradox of the one in the many is none1 if the idea may be regarded as supplying a principle of nexus or organization to an indefinite multiplicity of particulars4 ,but if ,antisthenes is to be answered1 a further step must be taken4 ,the principle of difference must be carried into the field of the ideas4 ,not only sense is a principle of difference4 ,the ideas are many4 ,the multiplicity in unity must be established within thought itself4 ,otherwise the objection stands3 man is man and good is good1 but to say that man is good is clearly to say the thing that is not4 ,plato replies with the doctrine of the interpenetration of ideas1 obviously not of all with all1 but of some with some1 the formula of identity in difference within thought itself4 ,nor can the opponent fairly refuse to admit it1 if he affirms the participation of the identical with being1 and denies the participation of difference with being1 or affirms it with not-being4 ,the ,sophistes shows among other things that an identity-philosophy breaks down into a dualism of thought and expression1 when it applies the predicate of unity to the real1 just as the absolute pluralism on the other hand collapses into unity if it affirms or admits any form of relation whatsoever4 ,identity and difference are all-pervasive categories1 and the speech-form and the corresponding thought-form involve both4 ,for proposition and judgment involve subject and predicate and exhibit what a modern writer calls identity of reference with diversity of characterization4 ,plato proceeds to explain by his principle of difference both privative and negative predicates1 and also the possibility of false predication4 ,it is obvious that without the principle of difference error is inexplicable4 ,even ,plato1 however1 perhaps scarcely shows that with it1 and nothing else but it1 error is explained4 ,division4 7c7 ,plato's ,division1 or the articulation of a relatively indeterminate and generic concept into species and sub-species with resultant determinate judgments1 presumes of course the doctrine of the interpenetration of ideas laid down in the ,sophistes as the basis of predication1 but its use precedes the positive development of that formula1 though not1 save very vaguely1 the exhibition of it1 negatively1 in the antinomies of the one and the many in the ,parmenides4 ,it is its use1 however1 not the theory of it1 that precedes4 ,the latter is expounded in the ,politicus 7#bfj sqq47 and ,philebus 7#af;c sqq474 ,the ideal is progressively to determine a universe of discourse till true infimae species are reached1 when no further distinction in the determinate many is possible1 though there is still the numerical difference of the indefinite plurality of particulars4 ,the process is to take as far as possible the form of a continuous disjunction of contraries4 ,we must bisect as far as may be1 but the division is after all to be into limbs1 not parts4 ,the later examples of the ,politicus show that the permission of three or more co-ordinate species is not nugatory1 and that the precept of dichotomy is merely in order to secure as little of a saltus as possible2 to avoid e4g4 the division of the animal world into men and brutes4 ,it is the middle range of the ,greek3 mesa of ,philebus #ag;a that appeals to ,bacon1 not only this but their mediating quality that appeals to ,aristotle4 ,the media axiomata of the one and the middle term of the other lie in the phrase4 ,plato's division is nevertheless neither syllogism nor exclusiva4 ,it is not syllogism because it is based on the disjunctive1 not on the hypothetical relation1 and so extends horizontally where syllogism strikes vertically downward4 ,again it is not syllogism because it is necessarily and finally dialectical4 ,it brings in the choice of an interlocutor at each stage1 and so depends on a concession for what it should prove4#ab ,nor is it ,bacon's method of exclusions1 which escapes the imputation of being dialectical1 if not that of being unduly cumbrous1 in virtue of the cogency of the negative instance4 ,the ,platonic division was1 however1 offered as the scientific method of the school4 ,a fragment of the comic poet ,epicrates gives a picture of it at work4#ac ,and the movement of disjunction as truly has a place in the scientific specification of a concept in all its differences as the linking of lower to higher in syllogism4 ,the two are complementary1 and the reinstatement of the disjunctive judgment to the more honourable rle in inference has been made by so notable a modern logician as ,lotze4 ,combination4 7d7 ,the correlative process of ,combination is less elaborately sketched1 but in a luminous passage in the ,politicus 7 #bgh71 in explaining by means of an example the nature and use of examples1 ,plato represents it as the bringing of one and the same element seen in diverse settings to conscious realization1 with the result that it is viewed as a single truth of which the terms compared are now accepted as the differences4 ,the learner is to be led forward to the unknown by being made to hark back to more familiar groupings of the alphabet of nature which he is coming to recognize with some certainty4 ,to lead on1 ,greek3 epagein1 is to refer back1 ,greek3 anagein1#ad to what has been correctly divined of the same elements in clearer cases4 ,introduction to unfamiliar collocations follows upon this1 and1 only so1 is it possible finally to gather scattered examples into a conspectus as instances of one idea or law4 ,this is not only of importance in the history of the terminology of logic1 but supplies a philosophy of induction4 ,mental synthesis4 7e7 ,back of ,plato's illustration and explanation of predication and dialectical inference there lies not only the question of their metaphysical grounding in the interconnexion of ideas1 but that of their epistemological presuppositions4 ,this is dealt with in the ,theaetetus 7#ahd;b sqq474 ,the manifold affections of sense are not simply aggregated in the individual1 like the heroes in the ,trojan horse4 ,there must be convergence in a unitary principle1 soul or consciousness1 which is that which really functions in perception1 the senses and their organs being merely its instruments4 ,it is this unity of apperception which enables us to combine the data of more than one sense1 to affirm reality1 unreality1 identity1 difference1 unity1 plurality and so forth1 as also the good1 the beautiful and their contraries4 ,plato calls these pervasive factors in knowledge ,greek3 koina1 and describes them as developed by the soul in virtue of its own activity4 ,they are objects of its reflection and made explicit in the few with pains and gradually4#ae ,that they are not1 however1 psychological or acquired categories1 due to the workmanship of the mind as conceived by ,locke1 is obvious from their attribution to the structure of mind#af and from their correlation with immanent principles of the objective order4 ,considered from the epistemological point of view1 they are the implicit presuppositions of the construction or ,greek3 syllogismos#ag in which knowledge consists4 ,but as ideas1#ah though of a type quite apart1#ai they have also a constitutive application to reality4 ,accordingly1 of the selected kinds by means of which the interpenetration of ideas is expounded in the ,sophistes1 only motion and rest1 the ultimate kinds in the physical world1 have no counterparts in the categories of the ,theaetetus4 ,in his doctrine as to ,greek3 en to poioun or ,greek3 krinon1 as generally in that of the activity of the ,greek3 nous apaths1 ,aristotle in the de ,anima#bj is in the main but echoing the teaching of ,plato4#ba ii4 ,aristotle4 ,plato's episodic use of logical distinctions#bb is frequent4 ,his recourse to such logical analysis as would meet the requirements of the problem in hand#bc is not rare4 ,in the dialectical dialogues the question of method and of the justification of its postulates attains at least a like prominence with the ostensible subject matter4 ,there is even formal recognition of the fact that to advance in dialectic is a greater thing than to bring any special inquiry to a successful issue4#bd ,but to the end there is a lack of interest in1 and therefore a relative immaturity of1 technique as such4 ,in the forcing atmosphere1 however1 of that age of controversy1 seed such as that sown in the master's treatment of the uttered ,greek3 logos#be quickly germinated4 ,plato's successors in the ,academy must have developed a system of grammatico-logical categories which ,aristotle could make his own4 ,else much of his criticism of ,platonic doctrine#bf does1 indeed1 miss fire4 ,the gulf too1 which the ,philebus#bg apparently left unbridged between the sensuous apprehension of particulars and the knowledge of universals of even minimum generality led with ,speusippus to a formula of knowledge in perception 7,greek3 epistmonik aisthsis74 ,these and like developments1 which are to be divined from references in the ,aristotelian writings1 jejune1 and1 for the most part1 of probable interpretation only1 complete the material which ,aristotle could utilize when he seceded from the ,platonic school and embarked upon his own course of logical inquiry4 ,syllogism4 ,this is embodied in the group of treatises later known as the ,organon#bh and culminates in the theory of syllogism and of demonstrative knowledge in the ,analytics4 ,all else is finally subsidiary4 ,in the well-known sentences with which the ,organon closes#bi ,aristotle has been supposed to lay claim to the discovery of the principle of syllogism4 ,he at least claims to have been the first to dissect the procedure of the debate-game1 and the larger claim may be thought to follow4 ,in the course of inquiry into the formal consequences from probable premises1 the principle of mediation or linking was so laid bare that the advance to the analytic determination of the species and varieties of syllogism was natural4 ,once embarked upon such an analysis1 where valid process from assured principles gave truth1 ,aristotle could find little difficulty in determining the formula of demonstrative knowledge or science4 ,it must be grounded in principles of assured certainty and must demonstrate its conclusions with the use of such middle or linking terms only as it is possible to equate with the real ground or cause in the object of knowledge4 ,hence the account of axioms and of definitions1 both of substances and of derivative attributes4 ,hence the importance of determining how first principles are established4 ,it is1 then1 a fair working hypothesis as to the structure of the ,organon to place the ,topics1 which deal with dialectical reasoning1 before the ,analytics4#cj ,of the remaining treatises nothing of fundamental import depends on their order4 ,one1 however1 the ,categories1 may be regarded with an ancient commentator1#ca as preliminary to the dialectical inquiry in the ,topics4 ,the other1 on thought as expressed in language 7,greek3 ,peri ermneias7 is possibly spurious1 though in any case a compilation of the ,aristotelian school4 ,if genuine1 its nave theory that thought copies things and other features of its contents would tend to place it among the earliest works of the philosopher4 ,the logical treatises4 ,production in the form of a series of relatively self-contained treatises accounts for the absence of a name and general definition of their common field of inquiry4 ,a more important lack which results is that of any clear intimation as to the relation in which ,aristotle supposed it to stand to other disciplines4 ,in his definite classification of the sciences1#cb into ,first ,philosophy1 ,mathematics and ,physics1 it has no place4 ,its axioms1 such as the law of contradiction1 belong to first philosophy1 but the doctrine as a whole falls neither under this head nor yet1 though the thought has been entertained1 under that of mathematics1 since logic orders mathematical reasoning as well as all other4 ,the speculative sciences1 indeed1 are classified according to their relation to form1 pure1 abstract or concrete1 i4e4 according to their objects4 ,the logical inquiry seems to be conceived as dealing with the thought of which the objects are objects4 ,it is to be regarded as a propaedeutic1#cc which1 although it is in contact with reality in and through the metaphysical import of the axioms1 or again in the fact that the categories1 though primarily taken as forms of predication1 must also be regarded as kinds of being1 is not directly concerned with object-reality1 but with the determination for the thinking subject of what constitutes the knowledge correlative to being4 ,logic1 therefore1 is not classed as one1 still less as a branch of one1 among the 'ologies1 ontology not excepted4 ,the way in which logical doctrine is developed in the ,aristotelian treatises fits in with this view4 ,doubtless what we have is in the main a reflex of the heuristic character of ,aristotle's own work as pioneer4 ,but it at least satisfies the requirement that the inquiry shall carry the plain man along with it4 ,actual modes of expression are shown to embody distinctions which average intelligence can easily recognize and will readily acknowledge1 though they may tend by progressive rectification fundamentally to modify the assumption natural to the level of thought from which he begins4 ,thus we start#cd from the point of view of a world of separate persons and things1 in which thought mirrors these concrete realities1 taken as ultimate subjects of predicates4 ,it is a world of communication of thought1 where persons as thinkers need to utter in language truths objectively valid for the mundus communis4 ,in these truths predicates are accepted or rejected by subjects1 and therefore depend on the reflection of fact in ,greek3 logoi 7propositions74 ,these are combinatory of parts1 attaching or detaching predicates1 and so involving subject1 predicate and copula4#ce ,at this stage we are as much concerned with speech-forms as the thought-forms of which they are conventional symbols1 with ,plato's analysis1 for instance1 into a noun and a verb1 whose connotation of time is as yet a difficulty4 ,the universal of this stage is the universal of fact1 what is recognized as predicable of a plurality of subjects4 ,the dialectical doctrine of judgment as the declaration of one member of a disjunction by contradiction1 which is later so important1 is struggling with one of its initial difficulties1#cf viz4 the contingency of particular events future1 the solution of which remains imperfect4#cg ,the ,categories4 ,the doctrine of the ,categories is still on the same level of thought1#ch though its grammatico-logical analysis is the more advanced one which had probably been developed by the ,academy before ,aristotle came to think of his friends there as them rather than us4 ,it is what in one direction gave the now familiar classification of parts of speech1 in the other that of thought-categories underlying them4 ,if we abstract from any actual combination of subject and predicate and proceed to determine the types of predicate asserted in simple propositions of fact1 we have on the one hand a subject which is never object1 a first substance or concrete thing1 of which may be predicated in the first place second substance expressing that it is a member of a concrete class1 and in the second place quantity1 quality1 correlation1 action and the like4 ,the list follows the forms of the ,greek language so closely that a category emerges appropriated to the use of the perfect tense of the middle voice to express the relation of the subject to a garb that it dons4 ,in all this the individual is the sole self-subsistent reality4 ,truth and error are about the individual and attach or detach predicates correctly and incorrectly4 ,there is no committal to the metaphysics in the light of which the logical inquiry is at last to find its complete justification4 ,the point of view is to be modified profoundly by what follows--by the doctrine of the class-concept behind the class1 of the form or idea as the constitutive formula of a substance1 or1 again1 by the requirement that an essential attribute must be grounded in the nature or essence of the substance of which it is predicated1 and that such attributes alone are admissible predicates from the point of view of the strict ideal of science4 ,but we are still on the ground of common opinion1 and these doctrines are not yet laid down as fundamental to the development4 ,the ,topics4 ,dialectic then1 though it may prove to be the ultimate method of establishing principles in philosophy1#ci starts from probable and conceded premises1#dj and deals with them only in the light of common principles such as may be reasonably appealed to or easily established against challenge4 ,to the expert1 in any study which involves contingent matter1 i4e4 an irreducible element of indetermination1 e4g4 to the physician1 there is a specific form of this1 but the reflection that this is so is something of an afterthought4 ,we start with what is prima facie given1 to return upon it from the ground of principles clarified by the sifting process of dialectic#da and certified by ,greek3 nous4 ,the ,topics deal with dialectic and constitute an anatomy of argumentation1 or1 according to what seems to be ,aristotle's own metaphor1 a survey of the tactical vantage-points 7,greek3 topoi7 for the conflict of wits in which the prize is primarily victory1 though it is a barren victory unless it is also knowledge4 ,it is in this treatise that what have been called the conceptual categories#db emerge1 viz4 the predicables1 or heads of predication as it is analysed in relation to the provisional theory of definition that dialectic allows and requires4 ,a predicate either is expressive of the essence or part of the essence of the subject1 viz4 that original group of mutually underivable attributes of which the absence of any one destroys its right to the class-name1 or it is not4 ,either it is convertible with the subject or it is not4 ,here then judgment1 though still viewed as combinatory1 has the types which belong to coherent systems of implication discriminated from those that predicate coincidence or accident1 i4e4 any happening not even derivatively essential from the point of view of the grouping in which the subject has found a place4 ,in the theory of dialectic any predicate may be suggested for a subject1 and if not affirmed of it1 must be denied of it1 if not denied must be affirmed4 ,the development of a theory of the ground on which subjects claim their predicates and disown alien predicates could not be long postponed4 ,in practical dialectic the unlimited possibility was reduced to manageable proportions in virtue of the groundwork of received opinion upon which the operation proceeded4 ,it is in the ,topics1 further1 that we clearly have a first treatment of syllogism as formal implication1 with the suggestion that advance must be made to a view of its use for material implication from true and necessary principles4 ,it is in the ,topics1#dc again1 that we have hints at the devices of an inductive process1 which1 as dialectical1 throw the burden of producing contradictory instances upon the other party to the discussion4 ,in virtue of the common-stock of opinion among the interlocutors and their potentially controlling audience1 this process was more valuable than appears on the face of things4 ,obviously tentative1 and with limits and ultimate interpretation to be determined elsewhere1 it failed to bear fruit till the ,renaissance1 and then by the irony of fate to the discrediting of ,aristotle4 ,in any case1 however1 definition1 syllogism1 induction all invited further determination1 especially if they were to take their place in a doctrine of truth or knowledge4 ,the problem of analytic1 i4e4 of the resolution of the various forms of inference into their equivalents in that grouping of terms or premises which was most obviously cogent1 was a legacy of the ,topics4 ,the debate-game had sought for diversion and found truth1 and truth raised the logical problem on a different plane4 ,class concept4 ,the ,prior ,analytics4 ,at first the problem of formal analysis only4 ,we proceed with the talk of instances and concern ourselves first with relations of inclusion and exclusion4 ,the question is as to membership of a class1 and the dominant formula is the dictum de omni et nullo4 ,until the view of the individual units with which we are so far familiar has undergone radical revision1 the primary inquiry must be into the forms of a class-calculus4 ,individuals fall into groups in virtue of the possession of certain predicates4 ,does one group include1 or exclude1 or intersect another with which it is compared8 ,we are clearly in the field of the diagrams of the text-books1 and much of the phraseology is based upon an original graphic representation in extension4 ,the middle term1 though conceived as an intermediary or linking term1 gets its name as intermediate in a homogeneous scheme of quantity1 where it cannot be of narrower extension than the subject nor wider than the predicate of the conclusion4#dd ,it is also1 as ,aristotle adds1#de middle in position in the syllogism that concludes to a universal affirmative4#de ,again1 so long as we keep to the syllogism as complete in itself and without reference to its place in the great structure of knowledge1 the nerve of proof cannot be conceived in other than a formal manner4 ,in analytic we work with an ethos different from that of dialectic4 ,we presume truth and not probability or concession1 but a true conclusion can follow from false premises1 and it is only in the attempt to derive the premises in turn from their grounds that we unmask the deception4 ,the passage to the conception of system is still required4 ,the ,prior ,analytics then are concerned with a formal logic to be knit into a system of knowledge of the real only in virtue of a formula which is at this stage still to seek4 ,the forms of syllogism1 however1 are tracked successfully through their figures1 i4e4 through the positions of the middle term that ,aristotle recognizes as of actual employment1 and all their moods1 i4e4 all differences of affirmative and negative1 universal and particular within the figures1 the cogent or legitimate forms are alone left standing1 and the formal doctrine of syllogism is complete4 ,syllogism already defined#df becomes through exhibition in its valid forms clear in its principle4 ,it is a speech-and-thought-form 7,greek3 logos7 in which certain matters being posited something other than the matters posited necessarily results because of them1 and1 though it still needs to receive a deeper meaning when presumed truth gives way to necessary truth of premises1 the notion of the class to that of the class-concept1 collective fact to universal law1 its formal claim is manifest4 ,certain matters being posited4 ,subject and predicate not already seen to be conjoined must be severally known to be in relation with that which joins them1 so that more than one direct conjunction must be given4 ,of necessity4 ,if what are to be conjoined are severally in relation to a common third it does perforce relate or conjoin them4 ,something other4 ,the conjunction was by hypothesis not given1 and is a new result by no means to be reached1 apart from direct perception save by use of at least two given conjunctions4 ,because of them1 therefore4 ,yet so long as the class-view is prominent1 there is a suggestion of a begging of the question4 ,the class is either constituted by enumeration of its members1 and1 passing by the difficulty involved in the thought of its members1 is an empirical universal of fact merely1 or it is grounded in the class-concept4 ,in the first case it is a formal scheme which helps knowledge and the theory of knowledge not at all4 ,we need then to develop the alternative1 and to pass from the external aspect of all-ness to the intrinsic ground of it in the universal ,greek3 kath' auto kai auto1 which1 whatsoever the assistance it receives from induction in some sense of the word1 in the course of its development for the individual mind1 is secured against dependence on instances by the decisive fiat or guarantee of ,greek3 nous1 insight into the systematic nexus of things4 ,the conception of linkage needs to be deepened by the realization of the middle term as the ground of nexus in a real order which is also rational4 ,problem of inference4 ,nous4 ,aristotle's solution of the paradox of inference1 viz4 of the fact that in one sense to go beyond what is in the premises is fallacy1 while in another sense not to go beyond them is futility1 lies in his formula of implicit and explicit1 potential and actual4#dg ,the real nexus underlying the thought-process is to be articulated in the light of the voucher by intelligence as to the truth of the principles of the various departments of knowledge which we call sciences1 and at the ideal limit it is possible to transform syllogism into systematic presentation1 so that1 differently written down1 it is definition4 ,but for human thought sense1 with its accidental setting in matter itself incognizable is always with us4 ,the activity of ,greek3 nous is never so perfectly realized as to merge implication in intuition4 ,syllogism must indeed be objective1 i4e4 valid for any thinker1 but it is also a process in the medium of individual thinking1 whereby new truth is reached4 ,a man may know that mules are sterile and that the beast before him is a mule1 and yet believe her to be in foal not viewing the several truths in connexion4#dh ,the doctrine1 then1 that the universal premise contains the conclusion not otherwise than potentially is with ,aristotle cardinal4 ,the datum of sense is only retained through the universal4#di ,it is possible to take a universal view with some at least of the particular instances left uninvestigated4#ej ,recognition that the class-concept is applicable may be independent of knowledge of much that it involves4 ,knowledge of the implications of it does not depend on observation of all members of the class4 ,syllogism as formula for the exhibition of truth attained1 and construction or what not as the instrumental process by which we reach the truth1 have with writers since ,hegel and ,herbart tended to fall apart4 ,aristotle's view is other4 ,both are syllogisms1 though in different points of view4 ,for this reason1 if for no other1 the conception of movement from the potential possession of knowledge to its actualization remains indispensable4 ,whether this is explanation or description1 a problem or its solution1 is of course another matter4 ,posterior ,analytics4 ,in the ,posterior ,analytics the syllogism is brought into decisive connexion with the real by being set within a system in which its function is that of material implication from principles which are primary1 immediate and necessary truths4 ,hitherto the assumption of the probable as true rather than as what will be conceded in debate#ea has been the main distinction of the standpoint of analytic from that of dialectic4 ,but the true is true only in reference to a coherent system in which it is an immediate ascertainment of ,greek3 nous1 or to be deduced from a ground which is such4 ,the ideal of science or demonstrative knowledge is to exhibit as flowing from the definitions and postulates of a science1 from its special principles1 by the help only of axioms or principles common to all knowledge1 and these not as premises but as guiding rules1 all the properties of the subject-matter1 i4e4 all the predicates that belong to it in its own nature4 ,in the case of any subject-kind1 its definition and its existence being avouched by ,greek3 nous1 heavenly body for example1 the problem is1 given the fact of a non-self-subsistent characteristic of it1 such as the eclipse of the said body1 to find a ground1 a ,greek3 meson which expressed the ,greek3 aition1 in virtue of which the adjectival concept can be exhibited as belonging to the subject-concept ,greek3 kath auto in the strictly adequate sense of the phrase in which it means also ,greek3 h auto4#eb ,we are under the necessity then of revising the point of view of the syllogism of all-ness4 ,we discard the conception of the universal as a predicate applicable to a plurality1 or even to all1 of the members of a group4 ,to know merely ,greek3 kata pantos is not to know1 save accidentally4 ,the exhaustive judgment1 if attainable1 could not be known to be exhaustive4 ,the universal is the ground of the empirical all and not conversely4 ,a formula such as the equality of the interior angles of a triangle to two right angles is only scientifically known when it is not of isosceles or scalene triangle that it is known1 nor even of all the several types of triangle collectively1 but as a predicate of triangle recognized as the widest class-concept of which it is true1 the first stage in the progressive differentiation of figure at which it can be asserted4#ec ,three points obviously need development1 the nature of definition1 its connexion with the syllogism in which the middle term is cause or ground1 and the way in which we have assurance of our principles4 ,definition4 ,the middle term4 ,definition is either of the subject-kind or of the property that is grounded in it4 ,of the self-subsistent definition is ,greek3 ousias tis gnrismos#ed by exposition of genus and differentia4#ee ,it is indemonstrable4 ,it presumes the reality of its subject in a postulate of existence4 ,it belongs to the principles of demonstration4 ,summa genera and groups below infimae species are indefinable4 ,the former are susceptible of elucidation by indication of what falls under them4 ,the latter are only describable by their accidents4 ,there can here be no true differentia4 ,the artificiality of the limit to the articulation of species was one of the points to which the downfall of ,aristotle's influence was largely due4 ,of a non-self-subsistent or attributive conception definition in its highest attainable form is a recasting of the syllogism1 in which it was shown that the attribute was grounded in the substance or self-subsistent subject of which it is4 ,eclipse of the moon1 e4g4 is privation of light from the moon by the interposition of the earth between it and the sun4 ,in the scientific syllogism the interposition of the earth is the middle term1 the cause or because 7,greek3 dioti71 the residue of the definition is conclusion4 ,the difference then is in verbal expression1 way of putting1 inflexion4#ef ,if we pluck the fruit of the conclusion1 severing its nexus with the stock from which it springs1 we have an imperfect form of definition1 while1 if further we abandon all idea of making it adequate by exhibition of its ground1 we have1 with still the same form of words1 a definition merely nominal or lexicographical4 ,in the aporematic treatment of the relation of definition and syllogism identical as to one form and in one view1 distinct as to another form and in another view1 much of ,aristotle's discussion consists4 ,the rest is a consideration of scientific inquiry as converging in ,greek3 mesou ztsis1 the investigation of the link or because as ground in the nature of things4 ,greek3 ,to men gar aition to meson#eg real ground and thought link fall together4 ,the advance from syllogism as formal implication is a notable one4 ,it is not enough to have for middle term a causa cognoscendi merely4 ,we must have a causa essendi4 ,the planets are near1 and we know it by their not twinkling1#eh but science must conceive their nearness as the cause of their not twinkling and make the prius in the real order the middle term of its syllogism4 ,in this irreversible catena proceeding from ground to consequent1 we have left far behind such things as the formal parity of genus and differentia considered as falling under the same predicable1#ei and hence justified in part ,porphyry's divergence from the scheme of predicables4 ,we need devices1 indeed1 to determine priority or superior claim to be better known absolutely or in the order of nature1 but on the whole the problem is fairly faced4#fj ,of science ,aristotle takes for his examples sometimes celestial physics1 more often geometry or arithmetic1 sometimes a concrete science1 e4g4 botany4#fa ,in the field of pure form1 free from the disconcerting surprises of sensible matter and so of absolute necessity1 no difficulty arises as to the deducibility of the whole body of a science from its first principles4 ,in the sphere of abstract form1 mathematics1 the like may be allowed1 abstraction being treated as an elimination of matter from the ,greek3 synolon by one act4 ,when we take into account relative matter1 however1 and traces of a conception of abstraction as admitting of degree1#fb the question is not free from difficulty4 ,in the sphere of the concrete sciences where law obtains only ,greek3 hs epi to polu this ideal of science can clearly find only a relative satisfaction with large reserves4 ,in any case1 however1 the problem as to first principles remains fundamental4 ,formal and scientific principles4 ,induction and dialectic4 ,knowledge and reality4 ,conclusions as to induction4 ,if we reject the infinite regress and the circle in proof 7circulus in probando7 which resolves itself ultimately into proving ,a by ,b and ,b by ,a1#fc we are confronted by the need for principles of two kinds1 those which condition all search for truth1 and those which are the peculiar or proper principles of special sciences1 their positions1 viz4 the definitions of their subjects and the postulates of the existence of these4 ,all are indemonstrable and cannot be less sure than the body of doctrine that flows from them4 ,they must indeed be recognized as true1 primary1 causative and the like4 ,but#fd they are not congenitally present in the individual in a determinate shape4 ,the doctrine of latency is mystical and savours of ,plato's reminiscence 7anamnesis74 ,yet they must have something to develop from1 and thereupon ,aristotle gives an account of a process in the psychological mechanism which he illustrates by comparative psychology1 wherein a ,greek3 logos or meaning emerges1 a first universal recognized by induction4 ,yet ,greek3 nous1 intelligence1 is the principle of first principles4 ,it is infallible1 while1 whatever the case with perception of the special sensibles1#fe the process which combines particulars is not4 ,on the side of induction we find that experience is said to give the specific principles1#ff the phenomena being apprehended in sufficiency4 ,on the side of intuition1 self-evidence of scientific principles is spoken of4#fg ,yet dialectic is auxiliary and of methodological importance in their establishment4#fh ,mutually limiting statements occur almost or quite side by side4 ,we cannot take first principles as the bare precipitate of a progressively refined analysis#fi nor on the other as constitutive a priori forms4 ,the solution seems to lie in the conception of a process that has a double aspect4 ,on the one hand we have confrontation with fact1 in which1 in virtue of the rational principle which is the final cause of the phenomenal order1 intelligence will find satisfaction4 ,on the other we have a stage at which the rational but as yet not reasoned concepts developed in the medium of the psychological mechanism are subjected to processes of reflective comparison and analysis1 and1 with some modification1 maintained against challenge1 till at length the ultimate universals emerge1 which rational insight can posit as certain1 and the whole hierarchy of concepts from the first universals to ,greek3 ta amer are intuited in a coherent system4 ,aristotle's terminology is highly technical1 but1 as has often been observed1 not therefore clear4 ,here two words at least are ambiguous1 principle and induction4 ,by the first he means any starting-point1 that from which the matter in question is primarily to be known1#gj particular facts therefore1 premises1 and what not4 ,what then is meant by principles when we ask in the closing chapter of his logic how they become known8 ,the data of sense are clearly not the principles in question here4 ,the premises of scientific syllogisms may equally be dismissed4 ,where they are not derivative they clearly are definitions or immediate transcripts from definitions4 ,there remain1 then1 primary definitions and the postulates of their realization1 and the axioms or common principles1 which he must needs have who is to reach any knowledge4#ga ,in the case of the former1 special each to its own science1 ,aristotle may be thought to hold that they are the product of the psychological mechanism1 but are ascertained only when they have faced the fire of a critical dialectic and have been accepted from the point of view of the integral rationality of the system of concepts4 ,axioms1 on the other hand1 in which the sciences interconnect#gb through the employment of them in a parity of relation1 seem to be implicit indeed in the psychological mechanism1 but to come to a kind of explicitness in the first reflective reaction upon it1 and without reference to any particular content of it4 ,they are not to be used as premises but as immanent laws of thought1 save only when an inference from true or admitted premises and correct in form is challenged4 ,the challenge must be countered in a reductio ad impossibile in which the dilemma is put4 ,either this conclusion or the denial of rationality4 ,even these principles1 however1 may get a greater explicitness by dialectical treatment4#gc ,the relation1 then1 of the two orders of principle to the psychological mechanism is different4 ,the kind of warrant that intelligence can give to specific principles falls short of infallibility4 ,celestial physics1 with its pure forms and void of all matter save extension1 is not such an exemplary science after all4 ,rationality is continuous throughout4 ,a ,greek3 logos emerges with some beings in direct sequence upon the persistence of impressions4#gd ,sense is of the first universal1 the form1 though not of the ultimate universal4 ,the rally from the rout in ,aristotle's famous metaphor is of units that already belong together1 that are of the same regiment or order4 ,on the other hand1 rationality has two stages4 ,in the one it is relatively immersed in sense1 in the other relatively free4 ,the same break is to be found in the conception of the relation of receptive to active mind in the treatise ,of the ,soul4#ge ,the one is impressed by things and receives their form without their matter4 ,the other is free from impression4 ,it thinks its system of concepts freely on the occasion of the affections of the receptivity4 ,aristotle is fond of declaring that knowledge is of the universal1 while existence or reality is individual4 ,it seems to follow that the cleavage between knowledge and reality is not bridged by the function of ,greek3 nous in relation to induction4 ,what is known is not real1 and what is real is not known4 ,the nodus#gf has its cause in the double sense of the word universal and a possible solution in the doctrine of ,greek3 eidos4 ,the form of a thing constitutes it what it is1 and at the same time1 therefore1 is constitutive of the group to which it belongs4 ,it has both individual and universal reference4 ,the individual is known in the ,greek3 eidos1 which is also the first universal in which by analysis higher universals are discoverable4 ,these are predicates of the object known1 ways of knowing it1 rather than the object itself4 ,the suggested solution removes certain difficulties1 but scarcely all4 ,on seeing ,callias my perception is of man1 not ,callias1 or even man-,callias4 ,the recognition of the individual is a matter of his accidents1 to which even sex belongs1 and the gap from lowest universal to individual may still be conceived as unbridged4 ,it is in induction1 which claims to start from particulars and end in universals1#gg that we must1 if anywhere within the confines of logical inquiry1 expect to find the required bridge4 ,the ,aristotelian conception of induction1 however1 is somewhat ambiguous4 ,he had abandoned for the most part the ,platonic sense of the corresponding verb1 viz4 to lead forward to the as yet unknown1 and his substitute is not quite clear4 ,it is scarcely the military metaphor4 ,the adducing of a witness for which he uses the verb#gh is not an idea that covers all the uses4#gi ,perhaps confrontation with facts is the general meaning4 ,but how does he conceive of its operation8 ,there is in the first place the action of the psychological mechanism in the process from discriminative sense upwards wherein we realize first universals4#hj ,this is clearly an unreflective1 pre-logical process1 not altogether lighted up by our retrojection upon it of our view of dialectical induction based thereon4 ,the immanent rationality of this first form1 in virtue of which at the stage when intelligence acts freely on the occasion of the datum supplied it recognizes continuity with its own self-conscious process1 is what gives the dialectical type its meaning4 ,secondly we have this dialectical induction as to particulars by grouping of similars#ha whose liability to rebuttal by an exception has been already noted in connexion with the limits of dialectic4 ,this is the incomplete induction by simple enumeration which has so often been laughed to scorn4 ,it is a heuristic process liable to failure1 and its application by a nation of talkers even to physics where non-expert opinion is worthless somewhat discredited it4 ,yet it was the fundamental form of induction as it was conceived throughout the scholastic period4 ,thirdly we have the limiting cases of this in the inductive syllogism ,greek3 dia pantn1#hb a syllogism in the third figure concluding universally1 and yet valid because the copula expresses equivalence1 and in analogy#hc in which1 it has been well said1 instances are weighed and not counted4 ,in the former it has been noted#hd that ,aristotle's illustration does not combine particular facts into a lowest concept1 but specific concepts into a generic concept1 and#he that in the construction of definite inductions the ruling thought with ,aristotle is already1 though vaguely1 that of causal relation4 ,it appears safer1 notwithstanding1 to take the less subtle interpretation#hf that dialectical induction struggling with instances is formally justified only at the limit1 and that this1 where we have exhausted and know that we have exhausted the cases1 is in regard to individual subjects rarely and accidentally reached1 so that we perforce illustrate rather from the definite class-concepts falling under a higher notion4 ,after all1 ,aristotle must have had means by which he reached the conclusions that horses are long-lived and lack gall4 ,it is only then in the rather mystical relation of ,greek3 nous to the first type of induction as the process of the psychological mechanism that an indication of the direction in which the bridge from individual being to universal knowledge is to be found can be held to lie4 ,summary4 ,enough has been said to justify the great place assigned to ,aristotle in the history of logic4 ,without pressing metaphysical formulae in logic proper1 he analysed formal implication grounded implication as a mode of knowledge in the rationality of the real1 and developed a justificatory metaphysic4 ,he laid down the programme which the after history of logic was to carry out4 ,we have of course abandoned particular logical positions4 ,this is especially to be noted in the theory of the proposition4 ,the individualism with which he starts1 howsoever afterwards mitigated by his doctrine of ,greek3 to ti n einai or ,greek3 eidos constituting the individual in a system of intelligible relations1 confined him in an inadmissible way to the subject-attribute formula4 ,he could not recognize such vocables as the impersonals for what they were1 and had perforce to ignore the logical significance of purely reciprocal judgments1 such as those of equality4 ,there was necessarily a sense or direction in every proposition1 with more than the purely psychological import that the advance was from the already mastered and familiar taken as relatively stable1 to the new and strange4 ,many attributes1 too1 were predicable1 even to the end1 in an external and accidental way1 not being derivable from the essence of the subject4 ,the thought of contingency was too easily applied to these attributes1 and an unsatisfactory treatment of modality followed4 ,it is indeed the doctrine of the intractability of matter to form that lies at the base of the paradox as to the disparateness of knowledge and the real already noted4 ,on the one hand ,aristotle by his doctrine of matter admitted a surd into his system4 ,on the other1 he assigned to ,greek3 nous with its insight into rationality too high a function with regard to the concrete in which the surd was present1 a power to certify the truth of scientific principles4 ,the example of ,aristotle's view of celestial physics as a science of pure forms exhibits both points4 ,on the ,copernican change the heavenly bodies were recognized as concrete and yet subject to calculable law4 ,intelligence had warranted false principles4 ,the moral is that of the story of the heel of ,achilles4 ,to return to logic proper4 ,the ,aristotelian theory of the universal of science as secure from dependence on its instances and the theory of linking in syllogism remain a heritage for all later logic1 whether accepted in precisely ,aristotle's formula or no4 ,it is because the intervening centuries had the ,aristotelian basis to work on1 sometimes in reduced quantity and corrupt form1 but always in some quantity and some form1 that the rest of our logical tradition is what it is4 ,we stand upon his shoulders4 iii4 ,later ,greek ,logic4 ,after ,aristotle we have1 as regards logic1 what the verdict of after times has rightly characterized as an age of ,epigoni4 ,so far as the ,aristotelian framework is accepted we meet only minor corrections and extensions of a formal kind4 ,if there is conscious and purposed divergence from ,aristotle1 inquiry moves1 on the whole1 within the circle of ideas where ,aristotelianism had fought its fight and won its victory4 ,where new conceptions emerge1 the imperfection of the instruments1 mechanical and methodological1 of the sciences renders them unfruitful1 until their rediscovery in a later age4 ,we have activity without advance1 diversity without development4 ,attempts at comprehensiveness end in the compromises of eclecticism4 ,the ,peripatetics4 ,illustrations are not far to seek4 ,theophrastus and in general the elder ,peripatetics1 before the rise of new schools with new lines of cleavage and new interests had led to new antagonisms and new alliances1 do not break away from the ,aristotelian metaphysic4 ,their interests1 however1 lie in the sublunary sciences in which the substantive achievement of the school was to be found4 ,with ,theophrastus1 accordingly1 in his botanical inquiries1 for example1 the alternatives of classification1 the normal sequence of such and such a character upon such another1 the conclusion of rational probability1 are what counts4 ,it is perhaps not wholly fanciful to connect with this attitude the fact that ,aristotle's pupils dealt with a surer hand than the master with the conclusions from premises of unlike modality1 and that a formal advance of some significance attributable to ,theophrastus and ,eudemus is the doctrine of the hypothetical and disjunctive syllogisms4 ,the ,stoics4 ,the ,stoics are of more importance4 ,despite the fact that their philosophic interests lay rather in ethics and physics1 their activity in what they classified as the third department of speculation was enormous and has at least left ineffaceable traces on the terminology of philosophy4 ,logic is their word1 and consciousness1 impression and other technical words come to us1 at least as technical words1 from ,roman ,stoicism4 ,even inference1 though apparently not a classical word1 throws back to the ,stoic name for a conclusion4#hg ,in the second place1 it is in the form in which it was raised in connexion with the individualistic theory of perception with which the ,stoics started1 that one question of fundamental importance1 viz4 that of the criterion of truth1 exercised its influence on the individualists of the ,renaissance4 ,perception1 in the view of the ,stoics1 at its highest both revealed and guaranteed the being of its object4 ,its hold upon the object involved the discernment that it could but be that which it purported to be4 ,such psychological certainty was denied by their agnostic opponents1 and in the history of ,stoicism we have apparently a modification of the doctrine of ,greek3 phantasia katalptik with a view to meet the critics1 an approximation to a recognition that the primary conviction might meet with a counter-conviction1 and must then persist undissipated in face of the challenge and in the last resort find verification in the haphazard instance1 under varying conditions1 in actual working4 ,the controversy as to the self-evidence of perception in which the ,new ,academy effected some sort of conversion of the younger ,stoics1 and in which the ,sceptics opposed both1 is one of the really vital issues of the decadence4 ,another doctrine of the ,stoics which has interest in the light of certain modern developments is their insistence on the place of the ,greek3 lekton in knowledge4 ,distinct alike from thing and mental happening1 it seems to correspond to meaning as it is used as a technical phrase now-a-days4 ,this anticipation was apparently sterile4 ,along the same lines is their use of the hypothetical form for the universal judgment1 and their treatment of the hypothetical form as the typical form of inference4 ,the ,stoical categories1 too1 have an historical significance4 ,they are apparently offered in place of those of ,aristotle1 an acquaintance with whose distinctions they clearly presume4 ,recognizing a linguistic side to logical theory with a natural development in rhetoric1 the ,stoics endeavour to exorcise considerations of language from the contrasted side4 ,they offer pure categories arising in series1 each successive one presupposing those that have gone before4 ,yet the substance1 quality1 condition absolute 7,greek3 ps echon7 and condition relative of ,stoicism have no enduring influence outside the school1 though they recur with eclectics like ,galen4 ,the ,stoics were too scholastic in their speculations4 ,epicureans4 ,in ,epicureanism logic is still less in honour4 ,the practical end1 freedom from the bondage of things with the peace it brings1 is all in all1 and even scientific inquiry is only in place as a means to this end4 ,of the apparatus of method the less the better4 ,we are in the presence of a necessary evil4 ,yet1 in falling back1 with a difference1 upon the atomism of ,democritus1 ,epicurus had to face some questions of logic4 ,in the inference from phenomena to further phenomena positive verification must be insisted on4 ,in the inference from phenomena to their non-phenomenal causes1 the atoms with their inaccessibility to sense1 a different canon of validity obtains1 that of non-contradiction4#hh ,he distinguishes too between the inference to combination of atoms as universal cause1 and inference to special causes beyond the range of sense4 ,in the latter case alternatives may be acquiesced in4#hi ,the practical aim of science is as well achieved if we set forth possible causes as in showing the actual cause4 ,this pococurantism might easily be interpreted as an insight into the limitations of inverse method as such or as a belief in the plurality of causes in ,mill's sense of the phrase4 ,more probably it reflects the fact that ,epicurus was1 according to tradition through ,nausiphanes1 on the whole dominated by the influences that produced ,pyrrhonism4 ,democritean physics without a calculus had necessarily proved sterile of determinate concrete results1 and this was more than enough to ripen the naturalism of the utilitarian school into scepticism4 ,some reading between the lines of ,lucretius has led the logic of ,epicurus to have an effect on the modern world1 but scarcely because of its deserts4 ,the ,sceptics4 ,the school of ,pyrrho has exercised a more legitimate influence4 ,many of the arguments by which the ,sceptics enforced their advocacy of a suspense of judgment are antiquated in type1 but many also are1 within the limits of the individualistic theory of knowledge1 quite unanswerable4 ,hume had constant recourse to this armoury4 ,the major premise of syllogism1 says the ,pyrrhonist1 is established inductively from the particular instances4 ,if there be but one of these uncovered by the generalization1 this cannot be sound4 ,if the crocodile moves its upper1 not its lower1 jaw1 we may not say that all animals move the lower jaw4 ,the conclusion then is really used to establish the major premise1 and if we still will infer it therefrom we fall into the circular proof4#ij ,could ,mill say more8 ,but again4 ,the inductive enumeration is either of all cases or of some only4 ,the former is in an indeterminate or infinite subject-matter impossible4 ,the latter is invalid4#ia ,less familiar to modern ears is the contention that proof needs a standard or criterion1 while this standard or criterion in turn needs proof4 ,or still more the dialectical device by which the sceptic claims to escape the riposte that his very argument presumes the validity of this or that principle1 viz4 the doctrine of the equipollence of counter-arguments4 ,of course the counter-contention is no less valid6 ,so too when the reflection is made that scepticism is after all a medicine that purges out itself with the disease1 the disciple of ,pyrrho and ,aenesidemus bows and says1 ,precisely6 ,the sceptical suspension of judgment has its limits1 however4 ,the ,pyrrhonist will act upon a basis of probabilities4 ,nay1 he even treats the idea of cause#ib as probable enough so long as nothing more than action upon expectation is in question4 ,he adds1 however1 that any attempt to establish it is involved in some sort of dilemma4 ,that1 for instance1 cause as the correlate of effect only exists with it1 and accordingly1 cause which is come while effect is still to come is inconceivable4#ic ,from the subjectivist point of view1 which is manifestly fundamental through most of this1 such arguments suasory of the ,pyrrhonist suspense of judgment 7,greek3 epoch7 are indeed hard to answer4 ,it is natural1 then1 that the central contribution of the ,sceptics to the knowledge controversy lies in the modes 7,greek3 tropoi7 in which the relativity of phenomena is made good1 that these are elaborated with extreme care1 and that they have a modern ring and are full of instruction even to-day4 ,scepticism1 it must be confessed1 was at the least well equipped to expose the bankruptcy of the post-,aristotelian dogmatism4 ,it was only gradually that the ,sceptic's art of fence was developed4 ,from the time of ,pyrrho overlapping ,aristotle himself1 who seems to have been well content to use the feints of more than one school among his predecessors1 while showing that none of them could claim to get past his guard1 down through a period in which the decadent academy under ,carneades1 otherwise dogmatic in its negations1 supplied new thrusts and parries1 to ,aenesidemus in the late ,ciceronian age1 and again to ,sextus ,empiricus1 there seems to have been something of plasticity and continuous progress4 ,in this matter the dogmatic schools offer a marked contrast4 ,in especial it is an outstanding characteristic of the younger rivals to ,aristotelianism that as they sprang up suddenly into being to contest the claims of the ,aristotelian system in the moment of its triumph1 so they reached maturity very suddenly1 and thereafter persisted for the most part in a stereotyped tradition1 modified only when convicted of indefensible weakness4 ,the #crd century ,b4,c4 saw in its first half the close of ,epicurus' activity1 and the life-work of ,chrysippus1 the refounder of ,stoicism1 is complete before its close4 ,and subsequent variations seem to have been of a negligible where not of an eclectic character4 ,in the case of ,epicureanism we can happily judge of the tyranny of the literal tradition by a comparison of ,lucretius with the recorded doctrine of the master4 ,but the rule apparently obtains throughout that stereotype and compromise offer themselves as the exhaustive alternative4 ,this is perhaps fortunate for the history of doctrine1 for it produces the commentator1 your ,aspasius or ,alexander of ,aphrodisias1 and the substitute for the critic1 your ,cicero1 or your ,galen with his attempt at comprehension of the ,stoic categories and the like while starting from ,aristotelianism4 ,cicero in particular is important as showing the effect or philosophical eclecticism upon ,roman cultivation1 and as the often author and always popularizer of the ,latin terminology of philosophy4 ,the cause of the stereotyping of the systems1 apart from political conditions1 seems to have been the barrenness of science4 ,logic and theory of knowledge go together1 and without living science1 theory of knowledge loses touch with life1 and logic becomes a perfunctory thing4 ,under such circumstances speculative interest fritters itself and sooner or later the sceptic has his way4 ,plato is full of the faith of mathematical physics4 ,aristotle is optimistic of achievement over the whole range of the sciences4 ,but the divorce of science of nature from mathematics1 the failure of biological inquiry to reach so elementary a conception as that of the nerves1 the absence of chemistry from the circle of the sciences1 disappointed the promise of the dawn and the relative achievement of the noon-day4 ,there is no development4 ,physical science remains dialectical1 and a physical experiment is as rare in the age of ,lucretius as in that of ,empedocles4 ,the cause of eclecticism is the unsatisfying character of the creeds of such science1 in conjunction with the familiar law that1 in triangular or plusquam-triangular controversies a common hatred will produce an alliance based on compromise4 ,a bastard ,platonism through hostility to ,stoicism may become agnostic4 ,stoicism through hostility to its sceptical critics may prefer to accept some of the positions of the dogmatic nihilist4 ,neoplatonism4 ,of the later schools the last to arise was ,neoplatonism4 ,the mathematical sciences1 at least1 had not proved disappointing4 ,for those of the school of ,plato who refused the apostasy of the new academy1 there was hope either in the mathematical side of the ,pythagoreo-,platonic tradition1 or in its ritual and theological side4 ,neoplatonism is philosophy become theosophy1 or it is the sermon on the text that ,god geometrizes4 ,it is of significance in the general history of thought as the one great school that developed after the decadence had set in4 ,in its metaphysic it showed no failure in dialectical constructiveness4 ,in the history of logic it is of importance because of its production of a whole series of commentators on the ,aristotelian logic4 ,not only the ,introduction of ,porphyry1 which had lasting effects on the ,scholastic tradition1 but the commentaries of ,themistius1 and ,simplicius4 ,it was the acceptance of the ,aristotelian logic by ,neoplatonism that determined the ,aristotelian complexion of the logic of the next age4 ,if ,alexander is responsible for such doctrines as that of the intellectus acquisitus1 it is to ,porphyry1 with his characteristically ,platonist preference for the doctrine of universals1 and for classification1 that we owe the scholastic preoccupation with the realist controversy1 and with the quinque voces1 i4e4 the ,aristotelian predicables as restated by ,porphyry4 ,b4 ,,scholasticism ,the living force in the spiritual life of the ,roman empire was1 after all1 not philosophy1 but religion1 and specifically ,christianity4 ,with the extension of ,christianity to the ,gentile world it at length became necessary for it to orientate itself towards what was best in ,greek culture4 ,there is a ,stoic element in the ethic of the ,pauline epistles1 but the theological affinity that the ,johannine gospel1 with its background of philosophic ideas1 exhibits to ,platonic and ,neoplatonist teaching caused the effort at absorption to be directed rather in that direction4 ,neoplatonism had accepted the ,aristotelian logic with its sharper definition than anything handed down from ,plato1 and1 except the logic of the ,sceptics1 there was no longer any rival discipline of the like prestige4 ,the logic of the ,stoics had been discredited by the sceptical onset1 but in any case there was no organon of a fitness even comparable to ,aristotle's for the task of drawing out the implications of dogmatic premises4 ,aristotelian logic secured the imprimatur of the revived ,platonism1 and it was primarily because of this that it passed into the service of ,christian theology4 ,the contact of the ,church with ,platonism was on the mystical side4 ,orthodoxy needed to counter heretical logic not with mysticism1 itself the fruitful mother of heresies1 but with argument4 ,aristotelianism approved itself as the controversial instrument1 and in due course held the field alone4 ,the upshot is what is called ,scholasticism4 ,scholasticism is the ,aristotelianism of medieval orthodoxy as taught in the schools or universities of ,western ,europe4 ,it takes form as a body of doctrine drawing its premises from authority1 sometimes in secular matters from that of ,aristotle1 but normally from that of the documents and traditions of systematic theology1 while its method it draws from ,aristotle1 as known in the ,latin versions1#id mainly by ,boethius1 of some few treatises of the ,organon together with the ,isagoge of ,porphyry4 ,it dominates the centres of intellectual life in the ,west because1 despite its claim to finality in its principles or premises1 and to universality for its method1 it represents the only culture of a philosophic kind available to the adolescent peoples of the ,western nations just becoming conscious of their ignorance4 ,christianity was the one organizing principle that pulsed with spiritual life4 ,the vocation of the student could find fulfilment only in the religious orders4 ,scholasticism embodied what the ,christian community had saved from the wreckage of ,greek dialectic4 ,yet with all its effective manipulation of the formal technique of its translated and mutilated ,aristotle1 ,scholasticism would have gone under long before it did through the weakness intrinsic to its divorce of the form and the matter of knowledge1 but for two reasons4 ,the first is the filtering through of some science and some new ,aristotelian learning from the ,arabs4 ,the second is the spread of ,greek scholarship and ,greek manuscripts westward1 which was consequent on the ,latin occupation of ,constantinople in #abjd4 ,it was respited by the opportunity which was afforded it of fresh draughts from the ,aristotle of a less partial and purer tradition1 and we have1 accordingly1 a golden age of revived ,scholasticism beginning in the #acth century1 admitting now within itself more differences than before4 ,it is to the schoolmen of the two centuries preceding the ,turkish capture of ,constantinople that the controversial refinements usually associated with the name of ,scholasticism are attributable4 ,the ,analytics of ,aristotle now entered quite definitely into the logical thought of ,scholasticism and we have the contrast of a logica vetus and logica nova4 ,that other matters1 the parva logicalia and ,mnemonics adapted from ,psellus and possibly of ,stoic origin1 entered too did not outweigh this advantage4 ,confrontation with the historical ,aristotle may have brought but little comfort to the orthodox system1 but it was a stimulus to dialectical activity within the schools4 ,it provoked the distinction of what was true secundum fidem and what was true secundum rationem among even sincere champions of orthodoxy1 and their opponents accepted with a smile so admirable a mask for that thinking for themselves to which the revival of hope of progress had spurred them4 ,the pioneers of the ,renaissance owe something of their strength to their training in the developments which the system that they overthrew underwent during this period4 ,the respite1 however1 was short4 ,the flight of ,byzantine scholarship westward in the #aeth century revealed1 and finally1 that the philosophic content of the ,scholastic teaching was as alien from ,aristotle as from the spirit of the contemporary revolt of science1 with its cry for a new medicine1 a new nautical astronomy and the like4 ,the doom of the ,scholastic ,aristotle was nevertheless not the rehabilitation of the ,greek ,aristotle4 ,between him and the tide of feeling at the ,renaissance lay the whole achievement of ,arab science4 ,that impatience of authority to which we owe the ,renaissance1 the ,reformation and the birth of ,nationalism1 is not stilled by the downfall of ,aristotle as the nomen appellativum of the schools4 ,the appeal is to experience1 somewhat vaguely defined1 as against all authority1 to the book of nature and no other4 ,at last the world undertakes to enlarge the circle of its ideas4 ,c4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,accordingly what is in one sense the revival of classical learning is in another a recourse to what inspired that learning1 and so is a new beginning4 ,there is no place for a reformed ,aristotelian logic1 though the genius of ,zabarella was there to attempt it4 ,nor for revivals of the competing systems1 though all have their advocates4 ,scientific discovery was in the air4 ,the tradition of the old world was too heavily weighted with the ,ptolemaic astronomy and the like to be regarded as other than a bar to progress4 ,but from the new point of view its method was inadequate too1 its contentment with an induction that merely leaves an opponent silent1 when experiment and the application of a calculus were within the possibilities4 ,the transformation of logic lay with the man of science1 hindered though he might be by the enthusiasm of some of the philosophers of nature4 ,henceforth the ,aristotelian logic1 the genuine no less than the traditional1 was to lie on the other side of the ,copernican change4 ,the demand is for a new organon1 a scientific method which shall face the facts of experience and justify itself by its achievement in the reduction of them to control4 ,it is a notable feature of the new movement1 that except verbally1 in a certain licence of nominalist expression1 due to the swing of the pendulum away from the realist doctrine of universals1 there is little that we can characterize as ,empiricism4 ,facts are opposed to abstract universals4 ,yes4 ,particulars to controlling formulae4 ,no4 ,experience is appealed to as fruitful where the formal employment of syllogism is barren4 ,but it is not mere induction1 with its unanalysed concretes taken as ultimate that is set up as the substitute for deduction4 ,rather a scientific process1 which as experiential may be called inductive1 but which is to other regards deductive as syllogism1 is set up in contrast to syllogism and enumeration alike4 ,this is to be seen in ,zabarella1#ie in ,galilei1#if and in ,bacon4 ,the reformed ,aristotelian logic of the first-named with its inductio demonstrativa1 the mathematico-physical analysis followed by synthesis of the second1 the exclusiva1 or method of exclusions of the last1 agree at least in this1 that the method of science is one and indivisible1 while containing both an inductive and a deductive moment4 ,that what1 e4g41 ,bacon says of his method may run counter to this is an accident of the tradition of the quarrel with realism4 ,so1 too1 with the scholastic universals4 ,aristotle's forms had been correlated1 though inadequately1 with the idea of function4 ,divorced from this they are fairly stigmatized as mental figments or branded as ghostly entities that can but block the path4 ,but consider ,bacon's own doctrine of forms4 ,or watch the mathematical physicist with his formulae4 ,the faith of science looks outward as in the dawn of ,greek philosophy1 and subjectivism such as ,hume's has as yet no hold4 ,bacon summing up the movement so far as he understood it1 in a rather belated way1 has no theory of knowledge beyond the metaphor of the mirror held up to nature4 ,yet he offers an ambitious logic of science1 and the case is typical4 ,galilei4 ,the science of the ,renaissance differs from that of the false dawn in ,greek times in the fact of fruitfulness4 ,it had the achievement of the old world in the field of mathematics upon which to build4 ,it was in reaction against a dialectic and not immediately to be again entrapped4 ,in scientific method1 then1 it could but advance1 provided physics and mathematics did not again fail of accord4 ,kepler and ,galilei secured it against that disaster4 ,the ubi materia ibi geometria of the one is the battle-cry of the mathematico-physical advance4 ,the scientific instrument of the other1 with its moments of analysis and construction1 metodo risolutivo and metodo compositivo1 engineers the road for the advance4 ,the new method of physics is verifiable by its fruitfulness1 and so free of any immediate danger from dialectic4 ,its germinal thought may not have been new1 but1 if not new1 it had at least needed rediscovery from the beginning4 ,for it was to be at once certain and experiential4 ,a mathematico-physical calculus that would work was in question4 ,the epistemological problem as such was out of the purview4 ,the relation of physical laws to the mind that thought them was for the time a negligible constant4 ,when ,descartes1 having faithfully and successfully followed the mathematico-physical inquiry of his more strictly scientific predecessors1 found himself compelled to raise the question how it was possible for him to know what in truth he seemed to know so certainly1 the problem entered on a new phase4 ,the scientific movement had happily been content for the time with a half which1 then and there at least1 was more than the whole4 ,bacon4 ,bacon was no mathematician1 and so was out of touch with the main army of progress4 ,by temperament he was rather with the ,humanists4 ,he was content to voice the cry for the overthrow of the dominant system as such1 and to call for a new beginning1 with no realist presuppositions4 ,he is with the nominalists of the later ,scholasticism and the naturalists of the early ,renaissance4 ,he echoes the cry for recourse to nature1 for induction1 for experiment4 ,he calls for a logic of discovery4 ,but at first sight there is little sign of any greater contribution to the reconstruction than is to be found in ,ramus or many another dead thinker4 ,the syllogism is ineffective1 belonging to argumentation1 and constraining assent where what we want is control of things4 ,it is a mechanical combination of propositions as these of terms which are counters to express concepts often ill-defined4 ,the flight from a cursory survey of facts to wide so-called principles must give way to a gradual progress upward from propositions of minimum to those of medium generality1 and in these consists the fruitfulness of science4 ,yet the induction of the ,aristotelians1 the dialectical induction of the ,topics1 content with imperfect enumeration and with showing the burden of disproof upon the critic1 is puerile1 and at the mercy of a single instance to the contrary4 ,in all this there is but little promise for a new organon4 ,it is neither novel nor instrumental4 ,on a sudden ,bacon's conception of a new method begins to unfold itself4 ,it is inductive only in the sense that it is identical in purpose with the ascent from particulars4 ,it were better called exclusiva or elimination of the alternative1 which ,bacon proposes to achieve1 and thereby guarantee his conclusion against the possibility of instance to the contrary4 ,his three ,methods4 ,bacon's method begins with a digest into three tables of the facts relevant to any inquiry4 ,the first contains cases of the occurrence of the quality under investigation1 colour1 e4g41 or heat1 in varying combinations4 ,the second notes its absence in combinations so allied to certain of these that its presence might fairly have been looked for4 ,the third registers its quantitative variation according to quantitative changes in its concomitants4 ,the method now proceeds on the basis of the first table to set forth the possible suggestions as to a general explanatory formula for the quality in question4 ,in virtue of the remaining tables it rejects any suggestion qualitatively or quantitatively inadequate4 ,if one suggestion1 and one alone1 survives the process of attempted rejection it is the explanatory formula required4 ,if none1 we must begin afresh4 ,if more than one1 recourse is to be had to certain devices of method1 in the enumeration of which the methods of agreement1 difference and concomitant variations#ig find a place1 beside the crucial experiment1 the glaring instance and the like4 ,an appeal1 however1 to such devices1 though a permissible first vintage is relatively an imperfection of method1 and a proof that the tables need revision4 ,the positive procedure by hypothesis and verification is rejected by ,bacon1 who thinks of hypothesis as the will o' the wisp of science1 and prefers the cumbrous machinery of negative reasoning4 ,historically he appears to have been under the dominance of the ,platonic metaphor of an alphabet of nature1 with a consequent belief in the relatively small number of ultimate principles to be determined1 and of ,plato's conception of ,division1 cleared of its dialectical associations and used experientially in application to his own molecular physics4 ,true it is that the rejection of all the cospecies is a long process1 but what if therein their simultaneous or subsequent determination is helped forward8 ,they1 too1 must fall to be determined sometime1 and the ideal of science is fully to determine all the species of the genus4 ,this will need co-operative effort as described in the account of ,solomon's ,house in the ,new ,atlantis4#ih ,but once introduce the conception of division of labour as between the collector of data on the one hand and the expert of method1 the interpreter of nature at headquarters1 on the other1 and ,bacon's attitude to hypothesis and to negative reasoning is at least in part explained4 ,the hypothesis of the collector1 the man who keeps a rain-gauge1 or the missionary among savages1 is to be discounted from as a source of error4 ,the expert on the other hand may be supposed1 in the case of facts over which he has not himself brooded in the course of their acquisition1 to approach them without any presumption this way or that4 ,he will1 too1 have no interest in the isolation of any one of several co-ordinate inquiries4 ,that ,bacon underestimates the importance of selective and of provisional explanatory hypotheses even in such fields as that of chemistry1 and that technically he is open to some criticism from the point of view that negative judgment is derivate as necessarily resting on positive presuppositions1 may be true enough4 ,it seems1 however1 no less true that the greatness of his conception of organized common effort in science has but rarely met with due appreciation4 ,forms4 ,in his doctrine of forms1 too1 the universals of his logic1 ,bacon must at least be held to have been on a path which led forward and not back4 ,his forms are principles whose function falls entirely within knowledge4 ,they are formulae for the control of the activities and the production of the qualities of bodies4 ,forms are qualities and activities expressed in terms of the ultimates of nature1 i4e4 normally in terms of collocations of matter or modes of motion4 7,the human soul is still an exception47 ,form is bound up with the molecular structure and change of structure of a body1 one of whose qualities or activities it expresses in wider relations4 ,a mode of motion1 for instance1 of a certain definite kind1 is the form of heat4 ,it is the recipe for1 and at the same time is1 heat1 much as ,h#b,o is the formula for and is water4 ,had ,bacon analysed bodies into their elements1 instead of their qualities and ways of behaviour1 he would have been the logician of the chemical formula4 ,here1 too1 he has scarcely received his meed of appreciation4 ,his influence on his successors has rather lain in the general stimulus of his enthusiasm for experience1 or in the success with which he represents the cause of nominalism and in certain special devices of method handed down till1 through ,hume or ,herschel1 they affected the thought of ,mill4 ,for the rest he was too ,aristotelian1 if we take the word broadly enough1 or1 as the result of his ,cambridge studies1 too ,ramist1#ii when the interest in scholastic issues was fading1 to bring his original ideas to a successful market4 ,bacon's ,logic1 then1 like ,galilei's1 intended as a contribution to scientific method1 a systematization of discovery by which1 given the fact of knowledge1 new items of knowledge may be acquired1 failed to convince contemporaries and successors alike of its efficiency as an instrument4 ,it was an ideal that failed to embody itself and justify itself by its fruits4 ,it was otherwise with the mathematical instrument of ,galilei4 ,descartes4 ,descartes stands in the following of ,galilei4 ,it is concurrently with signal success in the work of a pioneer in the mathematical advance that he comes to reflect on method1 generalizes the method of mathematics to embrace knowledge as a whole1 and raises the ultimate issues of its presuppositions4 ,in the mathematics we determine complex problems by a construction link by link from axioms and simple data clearly and distinctly conceived4 ,three moments are involved4 ,the first is an induction1 i4e4 an exhaustive enumeration of the simple elements in the complex phenomenon under investigation4 ,this resolution or analysis into simple1 because clear and distinct1 elements may be brought to a standstill again and again by obscurity and indistinctness1 but patient and repeated revision of all that is included in the problem should bring the analytic process to fruition4 ,it is impatience1 a perversity of will1 that is the cause of error4 ,upon the analysis there results intuition of the simple data4 ,with ,descartes intuition does not connote givenness1 but its objects are evident at a glance when induction has brought them to light4 ,lastly we have deduction the determination of the most complex phenomena by a continuous synthesis or combination of the simple elements4 ,synthesis is demonstrative and complete4 ,it is in virtue of this view of derived or mediate knowledge that ,descartes speaks of the 7subsumptive7 syllogism as of avail rather in the communication of what we already know4 ,syllogism is not the synthesis which together with analysis goes to constitute the new instrument of science4 ,the celebrated ,regulae of ,descartes are precepts directed to the achievement of the new methodological ideal in any and every subject matter1 however reluctant4 ,it is the paradox involved in the function of intuition1 the acceptance of the psychological characters of clearness and distinctness as warranty of a truth presumed to be trans-subjective1 that leads to ,descartes's distinctive contribution to the theory of knowledge4 ,in order to lay bare the ground of certainty he raises the universal doubt1 and1 although1 following ,augustine1#ajj he finds its limit in the thought of the doubter1 this of itself is not enough4 ,cogito1 ergo sum4 ,that ,i think may be admitted4 ,what ,i think may still need validation4 ,descartes's guarantee of the validity of my clear and distinct perceptions is the veracity of ,god4#aja ,does the existence of ,god in turn call for proof8 ,an effect cannot contain more than its cause1 nor the idea of a perfect ,being find adequate source save in the actuality of such a ,being4 ,thus the intuition of the casual axiom is used to prove the existence of that which alone gives validity to intuitions4 ,though the logical method of ,descartes has a great and enduring influence1 it is the dualism and the need of ,god to bridge it1 the doctrine of innate ideas1 i4e4 of ideas not due to external causes nor to volition but only to our capacity to think1 our disposition to develop them1 and finally the ontological proof1 that affect the thought of the next age most deeply4 ,that essence in the supreme case involves existence is a thought which comes to ,spinoza more easily1 together with the tradition of the ordo geometricus4 ,d4 ,,modern ,,logic i4 ,the ,logic of ,empiricism ,the path followed by ,english thought was a different one4 ,hobbes developed the nominalism which had been the hallmark of revolt against scholastic orthodoxy1 and1 when he brings this into relation with the analysis and synthesis of scientific method1 it is at the expense of the latter4#ajb ,locke1 when ,cartesianism had raised the problem of the contents of consciousness1 and the spirit of ,baconian positivism could not accept of anything that bore the ill-omened name of innate ideas1 elaborated a theory of knowledge which is psychological in the sense that its problem is how the simple data with which the individual is in contact in sensation are worked up into a system4 ,though he makes his bow to mathematical method1 he1 even more than ,hobbes1 misses its constructive character4 ,the clue of mathematical certainty is discarded in substance in the ,english form of the new way of ideas4 ,hobbes4 ,with ,hobbes logic is a calculus of marks and signs in the form of names4 ,naming is what distinguishes man from the brutes4 ,it enables him to fix fleeting memories and to communicate with his fellows4 ,he alone is capable of truth in the due conjunction or disjunction of names in propositions4 ,syllogism is simply summation of propositions1 its function being communication merely4 ,analysis is the sole way of invention or discovery4 ,there is more1 however1 in ,hobbes1 than the paradox of nominalism4 ,spinoza could draw upon him for the notion of genetic definition4#ajc ,leibnitz probably owes to him the thought of a calculus of symbols1 and the conception of demonstration as essentially a chain of definitions4#ajd ,his psychological account of syllogism#aje is taken over by ,locke4 ,hume derived from him the explanatory formula of the association of ideas1#ajf which is1 however1 still with ,hobbes a fact to be accounted for1 not a theory to account for facts1 being grounded physically in coherence of the matter moved4 ,finally ,mill took from him his definition of cause as sum of conditions1#ajg which played no small part in the applied logic of the #aith century4 ,locke4 ,locke is of more importance1 if not for his logical doctrine1 at least for the theory of knowledge from which it flows4 ,with ,locke the mind is comparable to white paper on which the world of things records itself in ideas of sensation4 ,simple ideas of sensation are the only points of contact we have with things4 ,they are the atomic elements which the workmanship of the understanding can thereafter do no more than systematically compound and the like4 ,it is ,locke's initial attribution of the primary rle in mental process to the simple ideas of sensation that precludes him from the development of the conception of another sort of ideas1 or mental contents that he notes1 which are produced by reflection on the operations of our own mind within us4 ,it is in the latter group that we have the explanation of all that marks ,locke as a forerunner of the critical philosophy4 ,it contains in germ a doctrine of categories discovered but not generated in the psychological processes of the individual4 ,locke1 however1 fails to deduce his categories4 ,he has read ,plato's ,theaetetus in the light of ,baconian and individualist preconceptions4 ,reflection remains a sort of internal sense1 whose ideas are of later origin than those of the external sense4 ,his successors emphasize the sensationist elements1 not the workmanship of the mind4 ,when ,berkeley has eliminated the literal materialism of ,locke's metaphors of sense-perception1 ,hume finds no difficulty in accepting the sensations as present virtually in their own right1 any nonsensible ground being altogether unknown4 ,from a point of view purely subjectivist he is prepared to explain all that is to be left standing of what ,locke ascribes to the workmanship of the mind by the principle of association or customary conjunction of ideas1 which ,locke had added a chapter to a later edition of his ,essay explicitly to reject as an explanatory formula4 ,condillac goes a step farther1 and sees no necessity for the superstructure at all1 with its need of explanation valid or invalid4 ,drawing upon ,gassendi for his psychological atomism and upon ,hobbes for a thoroughgoing nominalism1 he reproduces1 as the logical conclusion from ,locke's premises1 the position of ,antisthenes4 ,the last word is that une science bien traite n'est qu'une langue bien faite4#ajh ,locke's logic comprises1 amid much else1 a theory of general terms#aji and of definition1 a view of syllogism#aaj and a declaration as to the possibility of inference from particular to particular1#aaa a distinction between propositions which are certain but trifling1 and those which add to our knowledge though uncertain1 and a doctrine of mathematical certainty4#aab ,as to the first1 words become general by being made the signs of general ideas1 and ideas become general by separating from them all that may determine them to this or that particular existence4 ,by this way of abstraction they are made capable of representing more individuals than one4 ,this doctrine has found no acceptance4 ,not from the point of view for which idea means image4 ,berkeley1 though at length the notions of spirits1 acts and relations#aac give him pause1 prefers the formula which ,hume expresses in the phrase that some ideas are particular in their nature but general in their representation1#aad and the after-history of abstraction is a discussion of the conditions under which one idea stands for a group4 ,not from those for whom general ideas mean schematic concepts1 not imageable4 ,the critic from this side has little difficulty in showing that abstraction of the kind alleged still leave the residuum particular this redness1 e4g4 not redness4 ,it is1 however1 of the sorts constituted by the representation which his abstraction makes possible that definition is given1 either by enumeration of the simple ideas combined in the significance of the sortal name1 or to save the labour of enumerating1 and for quickness and despatch sake1 by giving the next wider general name and the proximate difference4 ,we define essences of course in a sense1 but the essences of which men talk are abstractions1 creatures of the understanding4 ,man determines the sorts or nominal essences1 nature the similitudes4 ,the fundamentally enumerative character of the process is clearly not cancelled by the recognition that it is possible to abbreviate it by means of technique4 ,so long as the relation of the nominal to the real essence has no other background than ,locke's doctrine of perception1 the conclusion that what ,kant afterwards calls analytical judgments a priori and synthetic judgments a posteriori exhaust the field follows inevitably1 with its corollary1 which ,locke himself has the courage to draw1 that the natural sciences are in strictness impossible4 ,mathematical knowledge is not involved in the same condemnation1 solely because of the archetypal character1 which1 not without indebtedness to ,cumberland1 ,locke attributes to its ideas4 ,the reality of mathematics1 equally with that of the ideals of morals drawn from within1 does not extend to the ectypes of the outer world4 ,the view of reasoning which ,locke enunciates coheres with these views4 ,reasoning from particular to particular1 i4e4 without the necessity of a general premise1 must be possible1 and the possibility finds warranty in a consideration of the psychological order of the terms in syllogism4 ,as to syllogism specifically1 ,locke in a passage1#aae which has an obviously ,cartesian ring1 lays down four stages or degrees of reasoning1 and points out that syllogism serves us in but one of these1 and that not the all-important one of finding the intermediate ideas4 ,he is prepared readily to own that all right reasoning may be reduced to ,aristotle's forms of syllogism1 yet holds that a man knows first1 and then he is able to prove syllogistically4 ,the distance from ,locke to ,stuart ,mill along this line of thought is obviously but small4 ,hume4 ,apart from the adoption by ,hume of the association of ideas as the explanatory formula of the school--it had been allowed by ,malebranche within the framework of his mysticism and employed by ,berkeley in his theory of vision--there are few fresh notes struck in the logic of sensationalism4 ,the most notable of these are ,berkeley's treatment of abstract ideas and ,hume's change of front as to mathematical certainty4 ,what1 however1 ,hume describes as all the logic ,i think proper to employ in my reasoning1 viz4 his rules by which to judge cause and effects1#aaf had1 perhaps1 farther-reaching historical effects than either4 ,in these the single method of ,bacon is already split up into separate modes4 ,we have ,mill's inductive methods in the germ1 though with an emphasis quite older than ,mill's4 ,bacon's form has already in transmission through ,hobbes been transmuted into cause as antecedent in the time series4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be accounted to ,hume for righteousness that he declares--whether consistently or not is another matter--that the same effect never arises but from the same cause1 and that he still follows ,bacon in the conception of absentia in proximo4 ,it is when in any instance we find our expectation disappointed that the effect of one of two resembling objects will be like that of the other that ,hume proposes to apply his method of difference4 ,no scientific discipline1 however1 with the doubtful exception of descriptive psychology1 stands to gain anything from a temper like that of ,hume4 ,the whittling away of its formal or organizing rubrics1 as e4g41 sameness into likeness1 is disconcerting to science wherever the significance of the process is realized4 ,it was because the aftermath of ,newtonian science was so rich that the scientific faith of naturalism was able to retain a place besides its epistemological creed that a logician of the school could arise whose spirit was in some sort ,baconian1 but who1 unlike ,bacon1 had entered the modern world1 and faced the problems stated for it by ,hume and by ,newton4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill4 ,stuart ,mill's ,system of ,logic marked a fresh stage in the history of empiricism1 for the reason that it made the effort to hold an even balance between the two moments in the thought of the school4 ,agreement in the use of a common watchword had masked as it seems a real divergence of meaning and purpose4 ,the apostles of inductive method had preached recourse to experience1 but had meant thereby nature as a constituted order4 ,they had devised canons for the investigation of the concrete problems of this1 but had either ignored altogether the need to give an account of the mirroring mind1 or1 in the alternative had been1 with some navet1 content to assume that their nominalist friends1 consistently their allies in the long struggle with traditionalism1 had adequately supplied or could adequately supply the need4 ,the exponents of psychological atomism1 on the other hand1 with the association of ideas for their one principle of agglutination had come to mean by experience the mental phantasmagoria of the individual4 ,they had undermined the foundations of scientific certainty1 and so far as the fecundity of contemporary science did not give them pause1 were ready1 notwithstanding the difference of their starting-point1 to acquiesce in the formula as well as the temper of ,pyrrhonism4 ,they could concede the triumphant achievement of science only with the proviso that it must be assumed to fall within the framework of their nominalism4 ,mill aspired after a doctrine of method such as should satisfy the needs of the natural sciences1 notably experimental physics and chemistry as understood in the first half of the #aith century and1 mutatis mutandis1 of the moral sciences naturalistically construed4 ,in uniting with this the ,associationism which he inherited1 through his father1 from ,hume1 he revealed at once the strength and weakness of the dual conception of naturalism4 ,his rare thoroughness and rarer candour made it at once unnecessary and impossible that the work should be done again4 ,if judged by what he denies1 viz4 the formal logic of ,hamilton and ,mansel1 whose ,aristotelian and scholastic learning did but accentuate their traditionalism1 and whose acquiescence in consistency constituted in ,mill's view a discouragement of research1 such as men now incline to attribute at the least equally to ,hume's idealism1 ,mill is only negatively justified4 ,if judged by his positive contribution to the theory of method he may claim to find a more than negative justification for his teaching in its success4 ,in the field covered by scholastic logic ,mill is frankly associationist4 ,he aims at describing what he finds given1 without reference to insensible implications of doubtful validity and value4 ,the upshot is a psychological account of what from one aspect is evidence1 from the other1 belief4 ,so he explains concepts or general notions#aag by an abstraction which he represents as a sort of alt-relief operated by attention and fixed by naming1 association with the name giving to a set of attributes a unity they otherwise lack4 ,this is manifestly1 when all is said1 a particular psychological event1 a collective fact of the associative consciousness4 ,it can exercise no organizing or controlling function in knowledge4 ,so again in determining the import of propositions1 it is no accident that in all save existential propositions it is to the familiar rubrics of associationism--co-existence1 sequence1 causation and resemblance--that he refers for classification1 while his general formula as to the conjunctions of connotations is associationist through and through4 ,it follows consistently enough that inference is from particular to particular4 ,mill holds even the ideas of mathematics to be hypothetical1 and in theory knows nothing of a non-enumerative or non-associative universal4 ,a premise that has the utmost universality consistent with this view can clearly be of no service for the establishment of a proposition that has gone to the making of it4 ,nor again of one that has not4 ,its use1 then1 can only be as a memorandum4 ,it is a shorthand formula of registration4 ,mill's view of ratiocinative process clearly stands and falls with the presumed impossibility of establishing the necessity for universals of another type than his1 for what may be called principles of construction4 ,his critics incline to press the point that association itself is only intelligible so far as it is seen to depend on universals of the kind that he denies4 ,in ,mill's inductive logic1 the nominalistic convention has1 through his tendency to think in relatively watertight compartments1#aah faded somewhat into the background4 ,normally he thinks of what he calls phenomena no longer as psychological groupings of sensations1 as states of mind1 but as things and events in a physical world howsoever constituted and apprehended4 ,his free use of relating concepts1 that of sameness1 for instance1 bears no impress of his theory of the general notion1 and it is possible to put out of sight the fact that1 taken in conjunction with his nominalism1 it raises the whole issue of the possibility of the equivocal generation of formative principles from the given contents of the individual consciousness1 in any manipulation of which they are already implied4 ,equally1 too1 the deductive character1 apparently in intention as well as in actual fact1 of ,mill's experimental methods fails to recall the point of theory that the process is essentially one from particular to particular4 ,the nerve of proof in the processes by which he establishes causal conjunctions of unlimited application is naturally thought to lie in the special canons of the several processes and the axioms of universal and uniform causation which form their background4 ,the conclusions seem not merely to fall within1 but to depend on these organic and controlling formulae4 ,they follow not merely according to them but from them4 ,the reference to the rule is not one which may be made and normally is made as a safeguard1 but one which must be made1 if thought is engaged in a forward and constructive movement at all4 ,yet ,mill's view of the function of universal propositions had been historically suggested by a theory--,dugald ,stewart's--of the use of axioms6#aai ,once more1 it would be possible to forget that ,mill's ultimate laws or axioms are not in his view intuitions1 nor forms constitutive of the rational order1 nor postulates of all rational construction1 were it not that he has made the endeavour to establish them on associationist lines4 ,it is because of the failure of this endeavour to bring the technique of induction within the setting of his ,humian psychology of belief that the separation of his contribution to the applied logic of science from his sensationism became necessary1 as it happily was easy4 ,mill's device rested special inductions of causation upon the laws that every event has a cause1 and every cause has always the same effect4 ,it rested these in turn upon a general induction enumerative in character of enormous and practically infinite range and always uncontradicted4 ,though obviously not exhaustive1 the unique extent of this induction was held to render it competent to give practical certainty or psychological necessity4 ,a vicious circle is obviously involved4 ,it is true1 of course1 that ultimate laws need discovery1 that they are discovered in some sense in the medium of the psychological mechanism1 and that they are nevertheless the grounds of all specific inferences4 ,but that truth is not what ,mill expounds1 nor is it capable of development within the limits imposed by the associationist formula4 ,it is deservedly1 nevertheless1 that ,mill's applied logic has retained its pride of place amid what has been handed on1 if in modified shape1 by writers1 e4g41 ,sigwart1 and ,professor ,bosanquet1 whose theory of knowledge is quite alien from his4 ,he prescribed regulative or limiting formulae for research as it was actually conducted in his world4 ,his grasp of the procedure by which the man of science manipulated his particular concrete problems was admirable4 ,in especial he showed clear understanding of the functions of hypothesis and verification in the investigations of the solitary worker1 with his facts still in course of accumulation and needing to be lighted up by the scientific imagination4 ,he was therefore enabled to formulate the method of what ,bacon had tended to despise as merely the first vintage4 ,bacon spent his strength upon a dream of organization for all future discovery4 ,mill was content to codify4 ,the difference between ,bacon and ,mill lies chiefly in this1 and it is because of this difference that ,mill's contribution1 spite of its debt to the ,baconian tradition1 remains both characteristic and valuable4 ,it is of course possible to criticise even the experimental canons with some severity4 ,the caveats1 however1 which are relevant within the circle of ideas within which ,mill's lesson can be learned and improved on1#abj seem to admit of being satisfied by relatively slight modifications in detail1 or by explanations often supplied or easily to be supplied from points brought out amid the wealth of illustration with which ,mill accompanied his formal or systematic exposition of method4 ,the critic has the right of it when he points out1 for example1 that the practical difficulty in the ,method of ,agreement is not due to plurality of causes1 as ,mill states1 but rather to intermixture of effects1 while1 if the canon could be satisfied exactly1 the result would not be rendered uncertain in the manner or to the extent which he supposes4 ,again the formula of the ,joint-,method1 which contemplates the enumeration of cases which have nothing in common but the absence of one circumstance1 is ridiculously unsound as it stands4 ,or1 on rather a different line of criticism1 the use of corresponding letters in the two series of antecedents and consequents raises1 it is said1 a false presumption of correlation4 ,nay1 even the use of letters at all suggests that the sort of analysis that actually breaks up its subject-matter is universally or all but universally applicable in nature1 and this is not the case4 ,finally1 the conditions of the methods are either realized or not4 ,if they are realized1 the work of the scientist falls entirely within the field of the processes preliminary to the satisfaction of the canon4 ,the latter becomes a mere memorandum or formula of registration4 ,so is it possible to have the enginer hoist with his own petar4 ,but the conditions are not realized1 and in an experiential subject-matter are not realizable4 ,not one circumstance only in common but apparently one relevant circumstance only in common is what we are able to assert4 ,if we add the qualification of relevance we destroy the cogency of the method4 ,if we fail to add it1 we destroy the applicability4 ,the objections turn on two main issues4 ,one is the exaggeration of the possibilities of resolution into separate elements that is due to the acceptance of the postulate of an alphabet of nature4 ,this so soon as noted can be allowed for4 ,it is to the combination of this doctrine with a tendency to think chiefly of experiment1 of the controlled addition or subtraction of these elements one at a time1 that we owe the theoretically premature linking of a as effect to ,a as cause4 ,this too can be met by a modification of form4 ,the other issue is perhaps of more significance4 ,it is the oscillation which ,mill manifests between the conception of his formula as it is actually applicable to concrete problems in practice1 and the conception of it as an expression of a theoretical limit to practical procedure4 ,mill seems most often to think of the former1 while tending to formulate in terms of the latter4 ,at any rate1 if relevance in proximo is interpolated in the peccant clause of the canon of the ,joint-,method1 the practical utility of the method is rehabilitated4 ,so too1 if the canon of the ,method of ,agreement is never more than approximately satisfied1 intermixture of effects will in practice mean that we at least often do not know the cause or antecedent equivalent of a given effect1 without the possibility of an alternative4 ,finally1 it is on the whole in keeping with ,mill's presuppositions to admit even in the case of the method of difference that in practice it is approximative and instructive1 while the theoretical formula1 to which it aims at approaching asymptotically as limit1 if exact1 is in some sense sterile4 ,mill may well have himself conceived his methods as practically fruitful and normally convincing with the limiting formula in each case more cogent in form but therewith merely the skeleton of the process that but now pulsed with life4 ,enough has been said to show why the advance beyond the letter of ,mill was inevitable while much in the spirit of ,mill must necessarily affect deeply all later experientialism4 ,after ,mill experientialism takes essentially new forms4 ,in part because of what ,mill had done4 ,in part also because of what he had left undone4 ,after ,mill means after ,kant and ,hegel and ,herbart1 and it means after the emergence of evolutionary naturalism4 ,mill1 then1 marks the final stage in the achievement of a great school of thought4 ii4 ,the ,logic of ,rationalism4 ,spinoza4 ,a fundamental contrast to the school of ,bacon and of ,locke is afforded by the great systems of reason1 owning ,cartesian inspiration1 which are identified with the names of ,spinoza and ,leibnitz4 ,in the history of logic the latter thinker is of the more importance4 ,spinoza's philosophy is expounded ordine geometrico and with ,euclidean cogency from a relatively small number of definitions1 axioms and postulates4 ,but how we reach our assurance of the necessity of these principles is not made specifically clear4 ,the invaluable tractate ,de ,intellectus emendatione1 in which the agreement with and divergence from ,descartes on the question of method could have been fully elucidated1 is unhappily not finished4 ,we know that we need to pass from what ,spinoza terms experientia vaga1#aba where imagination with its fragmentary apprehension is liable to error and neither necessity nor impossibility can be predicated1 right up to that which fictionem terminat--namely1 intellectio4 ,and what ,spinoza has to say of the requisites of definition and the marks of intellection makes it clear that insight comes with coherence1 and that the work of method on the inductive side is by means of the unravelling of all that makes for artificial limitation to lay bare what can then be seen to exhibit nexus in the one great system4 ,when all is said1 however1 the geometric method as universalized in philosophy is rather used by ,spinoza than expounded4 ,leibnitz4 ,with ,leibnitz1 on the other hand1 the logical problem holds the foremost place in philosophical inquiry4#abb ,from the purely logical thesis1 developed at quite an early stage of his thinking1#abc that in any true proposition the predicate is contained in the subject1 the main principles of his doctrine of ,monads are derivable with the minimum of help from his philosophy of dynamics4 ,praedicatum inest subjecto4 ,all valid propositions express in the last resort the relation of predicate or predicates to a subject1 and this ,leibnitz holds after considering the case of relational propositions where either term may hold the position of grammatical subject1 ,a ,b and the like4 ,there is a subject then1 or there are subjects which must be recognized as not possible to be predicated1 but as absolute4 ,for reasons not purely logical ,leibnitz declares for the plurality of such subjects4 ,each contains all its predicates3 and this is true not only in the case of truths of reason1 which are necessary1 and ultimately to be exhibited as coming under the law of contradiction1 or1 what comes to the same thing1 that of identity1 but also in the case of truths of fact which are contingent1 though a sufficient reason can be given for them which inclines without importing necessity4 ,the extreme case of course is the human subject4 ,the individual notion of each person includes once for all what is to befall it1 world without end1 and it would not have been our ,adam but another1 if he had had other events4 ,existent subjects1 containing eternally all their successive predicates in the time-series1 are substances1 which when the problems connected with their activity1 or dynamically speaking their force1 have been resolved1 demand--and supply--the metaphysic of the ,monadology4 ,complex truths of reason or essence raise the problem of definition1 which consists in their analysis into simpler truths and ultimately into simple--i4e4 indefinable ideas1 with primary principles of another kind--axioms1 and postulates that neither need nor admit of proof4 ,these are identical in the sense that the opposite contains an express contradiction4#abd ,in the case of non-identical truths1 too1 there is a priori proof drawn from the notion of the terms1 though it is not always in our power to arrive at this analysis1#abe so that the question arises1 specially in connexion with the possibility of a calculus1 whether the contingent is reducible to the necessary or identical at the ideal limit4 ,with much that suggests an affirmative answer1 ,leibnitz gives the negative4 ,even in the case of the ,divine will1 though it be always for the best possible1 the sufficient reason will incline without necessitating4 ,the propositions which deal with actual existence are still of a unique type1 with whatever limitation to the calculus4 ,leibnitz's treatment of the primary principles among truths of reason as identities1 and his examples drawn inter alia from the first principles of mathematics1 influenced ,kant by antagonism4 ,identities some of them manifestly were not4 ,the formula of identity passed in another form to ,herbart and therefore to ,lotze4 ,in recognizing1 further1 that the relation of an actual individual fact to its sufficient ground was not reducible to identity1 he set a problem diversely treated by ,kant and ,herbart4 ,he brought existential propositions1 indeed1 within a rational system through the principle that it must be feasible to assign a sufficient reason for them1 but he refused to bring them under the conception of identity or necessity1 i4e4 to treat their opposites as formally self-contradictory4 ,this bore interest in the ,kantian age in the treatment alike of cause and effect1 and of the ontological proof of existence from essence4 ,not that the ,law of ,sufficient ,reason is quite free from equivoque4 ,propositions concerning the possible existence of individuals put ,leibnitz to some shifts1 and the difficulty accounts for the close connexion established in regard to our actual world between the law of sufficient reason and the doctrine of the final cause4 ,this connexion is something of an afterthought to distinguish from the potential contingency of the objectively possible the real contingency of the actual1 for which the cause or reason of ,spinoza#abf could not account4 ,the law1 however1 is not invalidated by these considerations1 and with the degree of emphasis and the special setting that ,leibnitz gives the law1 it is definitely his own4 ,if we may pass by the doctrine of the ,identity of ,indiscernibles1 which played a part of some importance in subsequent philosophy1 and the ,law of ,continuity1 which as ,leibnitz represents it is1 if not sheer dogma1 reached by something very like a fallacy1 we have as ,leibnitz's remaining legacy to later logicians the conception of ,characteristica ,universalis and ,ars ,combinatoria1 a universal denoting by symbols and a calculus working by substitutions and the like4 ,the two positions that a subject contains all its predicates and that all non-contingent propositions--i4e4 all propositions not concerned with the existence of individual facts ultimately analyse out into identities--obviously lend themselves to the design of this algebra of thought1 though the mathematician in ,leibnitz should have been aware that a significant equation is never an identity4 ,leibnitz1 fresh from the battle of the calculus in the mathematical field1 and with his conception of logic1 at least in some of its aspects1 as a generalized mathematic1#abg found a fruitful inspiration1 harmonizing well with his own metaphysic1 in ,bacon's alphabet of nature4 ,he1 too1 was prepared to offer a new instrument4 ,that the most important section1 the list of forms of combination1 was never achieved--this too was after the ,baconian example while the mode of symbolization was crude with a ab and the like--matters little4 ,a new technique of manipulation--it is1 of course1 no more--had been evolved4 ,it may be said that among ,leibnitz's successors there is no ,leibnitzian4 ,the system as a whole is something too artificial to secure whole-hearted allegiance4 ,wolff's formalism is the bastard outcome of the speculation of ,leibnitz1 and is related to it as remotely as ,scholasticism is to ,aristotle4 ,wolff found a sufficient reason for everything and embodied the results of his inquiries in systematic treatises1 sometimes in the vernacular4 ,he also1 by a transparent petitio principii1 brought the law of the sufficient reason under that of non-contradiction4 ,wolff and his numerous followers account for the charge of dogmatism against the ,leibnitzio-,wolffian school4 ,they are of importance in the history of logic for two reasons only3 they affected strongly the ,german vocabulary of philosophy and they constituted the intellectual environment in which ,kant grew to manhood4 ,a truer continuator of ,leibnitz in the spirit was ,herbart4 iii4 ,kant's ,logic4 ,herbart's admitted allegiance1 however1 was ,kantian with the qualification1 at a relatively advanced stage of his thinking1 that it was of the year #ahbh--that is1 after controversy had brought out implications of ,kant's teaching not wholly contemplated by ,kant himself4 ,the critical philosophy had indeed made it impossible to hark back to ,leibnitz or any other master otherwise than with a difference4 ,yet it is not a single and unambiguous logical movement that derives from ,kant4 ,kant's lesson was variously understood4 ,different moments in it were emphasized1 with a large diversity of result4 ,as interpreted it was acquiesced in or revolted from and revolt ranged from a desire for some modifications of detail or expression to the call for a radical transformation4 ,grounds for a variety of developments are to be found in the imperfect harmonization of the rationalistic heritage from the ,wolffian tradition which still dominates ,kant's pure general logic with the manifest epistemological intention of his transcendental theory4 ,or again1 within the latter in his admission of a duality of thought and the given in knowledge1 which within knowledge was apparently irreducible1 concurrently with hints as to the possibility1 upon a wider view1 of the sublation of their disparateness at least hypothetically and speculatively4 ,the sense in which there must be a ground of the unity of the supersensible#abh while yet the transcendent use of ,reason--i4e4 its use beyond the limits of experience was denied theoretical validity--was not unnaturally regarded as obscure4 ,formal ,logic4 ,kant's treatment of technical logic was wholly traditional1 and in itself is almost negligible4 ,it is comprised#abi in an early essay on the mistaken subtlety of the syllogistic figures1 and a late compilation by a pupil from the introductory matter and running annotations with which the master had enriched his interleaved lecture-room copy of ,meyer's ,compendium of #ageb4 ,wolff's general logic1 the best1 said ,kant1 that we possess1 had been abridged by ,baumgarten and the abridgment then subjected to commentation by ,meyer4 ,with this traditional body of doctrine ,kant was1 save for matters of minor detail1 quite content4 ,logic was of necessity formal1 dealing as it must with those rules without which no exercise of the understanding would be possible at all4 ,upon abstraction from all particular methods of thought these rules were to be discerned a priori or without dependence on experience by reflection solely upon the use of the understanding in general4 ,the science of the form of thought abstracted in this way from its matter or content was regarded as of value both as propaedeutic and as canon4 ,it was manifestly one of the disciplines in which a position of finality was attainable4 ,aristotle might be allowed1 indeed1 to have omitted no essential point of the understanding1 what the moderns had achieved consisted in an advance in accuracy and methodical completeness4 ,indeed1 we do not require any new discoverers in logic1#acj said the discoverer of a priori synthesis1 since it contains merely the form of thought4 ,applied logic is merely psychology1 and not properly to be called logic at all4 ,the technical logic of ,kant1 then1 justifies literally a movement among his successors in favour of a formal conception of logic with the law of contradiction and the doctrine of formal implication for its equipment4 ,unless the doctrine of ,kant's transcendental logic must be held to supply a point of view from which a logical development of quite another kind is inevitable1 ,kant's mantle1 so far as logic is concerned1 must be regarded as having fallen upon the formal logicians4 ,definition of ,transcendental4 ,kant's transcendental teaching is summarily as follows3 ,transcendental is his epithet for what is neither empirical--i4e4 to be derived from experience--nor yet transcendent--i4e4 applicable beyond the limits of experience1 the mark of experience being the implication of sense or of something which thought contra-distinguishes from its own spontaneous activity as in some sense the given4 ,those features in our organized experience are to be regarded as transcendentally established which are the presuppositions of our having that experience at all4 ,since they are not empirical they must be structural and belong to the mind--i4e4 the normal human intelligence1 and to like intelligence so far as like4 ,if we set aside such transcendental conditions as belong to sensibility or to the receptive phase of mind and are the presuppositions of juxtaposition of parts1 the remainder are ascribable to spontaneity or understanding1 to thought with its unifying1 organizing or focussing function1 and their elucidation is the problem of transcendental analytic4 ,it is still logic1 indeed1 when we are occupied with the transcendent objects of the discursive faculty as it is employed beyond the limits of experience where it cannot validate its ideas4 ,such a logic1 however1 is a dialectic of illusion1 perplexed by paralogisms and helpless in the face of antinomies4 ,in transcendental analytic on the other hand we concern ourselves only with the transcendental deduction or vindication of the conditions of experience1 and we have a logic of cognition in which we may establish our epistemological categories with complete validity4 ,categories are the forms according to which the combining unity of self-consciousness 7synthetic unity of apperception7 pluralizes itself through the various functions involved in the constitution of objectivity in different types of the one act of thought1 viz4 judgment4 ,the clue to the discovery of transcendental conditions ,kant finds in the existence of judgments1 most manifest in mathematics and in the pure science of nature1 which are certain1 yet not trifling1 necessary and yet not reducible to identities1 synthetic therefore and a priori1 and so accounted for neither by ,locke nor by ,leibnitz4 ,there lies a transcendental condition at the basis of every necessity4 ,form of ,matter of ,thought4 ,kant's mode of conceiving the activity of thought in the constitution of objects and of their connexion in experience was thought to lie open to an interpretation in conformity with the spirit of his logic1 in the sense that the form and the content in knowledge are not merely distinguishable functions within an organic whole1 but either separable1 or at least indifferent one to the other in such a way as to be clearly independent4 ,thought as form would thus be a factor or an element in a composite unit4 ,it would clearly have its own laws4 ,it would be the whole concern of logic1 which1 since in it thought has itself for object1 would have no reference to the other term of the antithesis1 nor properly and immediately to the knowledge which is compact of thought in conjunction with something which1 whatever it may be1 is prima facie other than thought4 ,there is too much textual warrant for this interpretation of ,kant's meaning4 ,doubtless there are passages which make against an extreme dualistic interpretation4 ,even in his logic ,kant speaks of abstraction from all particular objects of thought rather than of a resolution of concrete thinking into thought and its other as separable co-operating factors in a joint product4 ,he spoke throughout1 however1 as if form and content were mutually indifferent1 so that the abstraction of form from content implied nothing of falsification or mutilation4 ,the reserve1 therefore1 that it was abstraction and not a decomposing that was in question remained to the admirers of his logic quite nugatory4 ,they failed to realize that permissible abstraction from specific contents or methods of knowledge does not obliterate reference to matter or content4 ,they passed easily from the acceptance of a priori forms of thinking to that of forms of a priori thinking1 and could plead the example of ,kant's logic4 ,kant's theory of knowledge1 then1 needed to be pressed to other consequences for logic which were more consonant with the spirit of the ,critique4 ,the forms of thought and what gives thought its particular content in concrete acts of thinking could not be regarded as subsisting in a purely external and indifferent relation one to the other4 ,laws according to which the subject thinks and laws according to which the object is known cannot be the concern of separate departments of inquiry4 ,as soon divorce the investigation of the shape and material of a mirror from the laws of the incidence of the rays that form images in it1 and call it a science of reflection6 ,an important group of writers developed the conception of an adaptation between the two sides of ,kant's antithesis1 and made the endeavour to establish some kind of correlation between logical forms and the process of the given4 ,there was a tendency to fall back upon the conception of some kind of parallelism1 whether it was taken to be interpretative or rather corrective of ,kant's meaning4 ,this device was never remote from the constructions of writers for whom the teaching of ,spinoza and ,leibnitz was an integral part of their intellectual equipment4 ,other modes of correlation1 however1 find favour also1 and in some variety4 ,kant is seldom the sole source of inspiration4 ,his unresolved antithesis#aca is interpreted either diversely or with a difference of emphasis4 ,and the light that later writers bring to bear on ,kant's logic and epistemology from other sides of his speculation varies in kind and in degree4 ,another logical movement springs from those whom a correlation of fact within the unity of a system altogether failed to satisfy4 ,there must also be development of the correlated terms from a single principle4 ,form and content must not only correspond one to the other4 ,they must be exhibited as distinguishable moments within a unity which can at one and the same time be seen to be the ground from which the distinction springs and the ground in virtue of which it is over-ruled4 ,along this line of speculation we have a logic which claims that whatsoever is in one plane or at one stage in the development of thought a residuum that apparently defies analysis must at another stage and on a higher plane be shown so to be absorbed as to fall altogether within thought4 ,this is the view of ,hegel upon which logic comes to coincide with the progressive self-unfolding of thought in that type of metaphysic which is known as absolute1 i4e4 all-inclusive idealism4 ,the exponent of logic as metaphysic1 for whom the rational is the real is necessarily in revolt against all that is characteristically ,kantian in the theory of knowledge1 against the transcendental method itself and against the doctrine of limits which constitutes the nerve of criticism4 ,stress was to be laid upon the constructive character of the act of thought which ,kant had recognized1 and without ,kant's qualifications of it4 ,in all else the claim is made to have left the ,kantian teaching behind as a cancelled level of speculation4 ,limitation of ,transcendental ,method4 ,transcendental method is indeed not invulnerable4 ,a principle is transcendentally deduced when it and only it can explain the validity of some phase of experience1 some order of truths4 ,the order of truths1 the phase of experience and its certainty had to be taken for granted4 ,the sense1 for example1 in which the irreversibility of sequence which is the more known in ordine ad hominem in the case of the causal principle differs from merely psychological conviction is not made fully clear4 ,even so the inference to the a priori ground of its necessity is1 it has been often pointed out1 subject to the limitation inherent in any process of reduction1 in any regress1 that is1 from conditionate to condition1 viz4 that in theory an alternative is still possible4 ,the inferred principle may hold the field as explanation without obvious competitor potential or actual4 ,nevertheless its claim to be the sole possible explanation can in nowise be validated4 ,it has been established after all by dialectic in the ,aristotelian sense of the word4 ,but if transcendental method has no special pride of place1 ,kant's conclusion as to the limits of the competence of intellectual faculty falls with it4 ,cognition manifestly needs the help of ,reason even in its theoretical use4 ,its speculation can no longer be stigmatized as vaticination in vacuo1 nor its results as illusory4 ,logic and ,psychology4 ,finally1 to logic as metaphysic the polar antithesis is psychology as logic4 ,the turn of this also was to come again4 ,if logic were treated as merely formal1 the stress of the problem of knowledge fell upon the determination of the processes of the psychological mechanism4 ,if alleged a priori constituents of knowledge--such rubrics as substance1 property1 relation--come to be explained psychologically1 the formal logic that has perforce to ignore all that belongs to psychology is confined within too narrow a range to be able to maintain its place as an independent discipline1 and tends to be merged in psychology4 ,this tendency is to be seen in the activity of ,fries and ,herbart and ,beneke1 and was actualized as the aftermath of their speculation4 ,it is no accident that it was the psychology of apperception and the voluntaryist theory or practice of ,herbart1 whose logical theory was so closely allied to that of the formal logicians proper1 that contributed most to the development of the post-,kantian psychological logic4 ,another movement helped also2 the exponents of naturalistic evolution were prepared with ,spencer to explain the so-called a priori in knowledge as in truth a posteriori1 if not to the individual at any rate to the race4 ,it is of course a newer type of psychological logic that is in question1 one that is aware of ,kant's answer to ,hume4 ,stuart ,mill1 despite of his relation of antagonism to ,hamilton and ,mansel1 who held themselves to be ,kantian in spirit1 is still wholly pre-,kantian in his outlook4 ,summary4 ,kant's influence1 then1 upon subsequent logic is least of all to be measured by his achievement in his professed contribution to technical logic4 ,it may be attributed in some slight degree1 perhaps1 to incidental flashes of logical insight where his thought is least of what he himself calls logic1 e4g4 his exposition of the significance of synthetic judgments a priori1 or his explanation of the function of imagery in relation to thought1 whereby he offers a solution of the problem of the conditions under which one member of a group unified through a concept can be taken to stand for the rest1 or again the way in which he puts his finger on the vital issue in regard to the alleged proof from essence to existence1 and illustrations could be multiplied4 ,but much more it belongs to his transformation of the epistemological problem1 and to the suggestiveness of his philosophy as a whole for an advance in the direction of a speculative construction which should be able to cancel all ,kant's surds1 and in particular vindicate a ground of the unity of the supersensible which lies back of nature with that which the concept of freedom implies in the sphere of practice1#acb which is what ,kant finally asserts4 iv4 ,after ,kant4 ,starting from the obvious antithesis of thought and that of which it is the thought1 it is possible to view the ultimate relation of its term as that of mutual indifference or1 secondly1 as that of a correspondence such that while they retain their distinct character modification of the one implies modification of the other1 or thirdly and lastly1 as that of a mergence of one in the other of such a nature that the merged term1 whichever it be1 is fully accounted for in a complete theory of that in which it is merged4 ,the ,formal ,logicians4 ,the first way is that of the purely formal logicians1 of whom ,twesten#acc and in ,england ,h4 ,l4 ,mansel may be regarded as typical4 ,they take thought and the given as self-contained units which1 if not in fact separable1 are at any rate susceptible of an abstraction the one from the other so decisive as to constitute an ideal separation4 ,the laws of the pure activity of thought must be independently determined1 and since the contribution of thought to knowledge is form they must be formal only4 ,they cannot go beyond the limits of formal consistency or analytic correctness4 ,they are confined to the determination of what the truth of any matter of thought1 taken for granted upon grounds psychological or other1 which are extraneous to logic1 includes or excludes4 ,the unit for logic is the concept taken for granted4 ,the function of logic is to exhibit its formal implications and repulsions4 ,it is questionable whether even this modest task could be really achieved without other reference to the content abstracted from than ,mansel1 for example1 allows4 ,the analogy of the resolution of a chemical compound with its elements which is often on the lips of those who would justify the independence of thought and the real world1 with an agnostic conclusion as to non-phenomenal or trans-subjective reality1 is not really applicable4 ,the oxygen and hydrogen1 for example1 into which water may be resolved are not in strictness indifferent one to the other1 since both are members of an order regulated according to laws of combination in definite ratios4 ,or1 if applicable1 it is double-edged4 ,suppose oxygen to be found only in water4 ,were it to become conscious1 would it therefore follow that it could infer the laws of a separate or independent activity of its own8 ,similarly forms of thinking1 the law of contradiction not excepted1 have their meaning only in reference to determinate content1 even though distributively all determinate contents are dispensable4 ,the extreme formalist is guilty of a fallacy of composition in regard to abstraction4 ,it does not follow1 however1 that the laws asserted by the formal logicians are invalid or unimportant4 ,there is a permissible abstraction1 and in general they practise this1 and although they narrow its range unduly1 it is legitimately to be applied to certain characters of thinking4 ,as the living organism includes something of mechanism--the skeleton1 for example--so an organic logic doubtless includes determinations of formal consistency4 ,the skeleton is meaningless apart from reference to its function in the life of an organism1 yet there are laws of skeleton structure which can be studied with most advantage if other characters of the organism are relegated to the background4 ,to allow1 however1 that abstraction admits of degrees1 and that it never obliterates all reference to that from which it is abstracted1 is to take a step forward in the direction of the correlation of logical forms with the concrete processes of actual thinking4 ,what was true in formal logic tended to be absorbed in the correlationist theories4 ,those formal logicians of the ,kantian school1 then1 may be summarily dismissed1 though their undertaking was a necessary one1 who failed to raise the epistemological issue at all1 or who1 raising it1 acquiesced in a nave dualism agnostic of the real world as ,kant's essential lesson4 ,they failed to develop any view which could serve either in fact or in theory as a corrective to the effect of their formalism4 ,what they said with justice was said as well or better elsewhere4 ,among them it is on the whole impossible not to include the names of ,hamilton and ,mansel4 ,the former1 while his erudition in respect to the history of philosophical opinion has rarely been equalled1 was not a clear thinker4 ,his general theory of knowledge deriving from ,kant and ,reid1 and including among other things a contaminatio of their theories of perception1#acd in no way sustains or mitigates his narrow view of logic4 ,he makes no effective use of his general formula that to think is to condition4 ,he appeals to the direct testimony of consciousness in the sense in which the appeal involves a fallacy4 ,he accepts an ultimate antinomy as to the finiteness or infinity of the unconditioned1 yet applies the law of the excluded middle to insist that one of the two alternatives must be true1 wherefore we must make the choice4 ,and what is to be said of the judgment of a writer who considers the relativity of thought demonstrated by the fact that every judgment unites two members8 ,hamilton's significance for the history of logic lies in the stimulus that he gave to the development of symbolic logic in ,england by his new analytic based upon his discovery or adoption of the principle of the quantification of the predicate4 ,mansel1 too1 was learned1 specially in matters of ,aristotelian exegesis1 and much that is of value lies buried in his commentation of the dry bones of the ,artis ,logicae ,rudimenta of ,locke's contemporary ,aldrich4 ,and he was a clearer thinker than ,hamilton4 ,formal logic of the extremest rigour is nowhere to be found more adequately expressed in all its strength1 and it must be added in all its weakness1 than in the writings of ,mansel4 ,but if the view maintained above that formal logic must compromise or mitigate its rigour and so fail to maintain its independence1 be correct1 the logical consistency of ,mansel's logic of consistency does but emphasize its barrenness4 ,it contains no germ for further development4 ,it is the end of a movement4 ,herbart4 ,the brief logic of ,herbart#ace is altogether formal too4 ,logical forms have for him neither psychological nor metaphysical reference1 we are concerned in logic solely with the systematic clarification of concepts which are wholly abstract1 so that they are not merely not ultimate realities1 but also in no sense actual moments of our concrete thinking4 ,the first task of logic is to distinguish and group such concepts according to their marks1 and from their classification there naturally follows their connexion in judgment4 ,it is in the logic of judgment that ,herbart inaugurates a new era4 ,he is not1 of course1 the first to note that even categorical judgments do not assert the realization of their subject4 ,that is a thought which lies very near the surface for formal logic4 ,he had been preceded too by ,maimon in the attempt at a reduction of the traditional types of judgment4 ,he was1 however1 the first whose analysis was sufficiently convincing to exorcise the tyranny of grammatical forms4 ,the categorical and disjunctive judgment reduce to the hypothetical4 ,by means of the doctrine of the quantification of the predicate1 in which with his ,leibnitzian conception of identity he anticipated ,beneke and ,hamilton alike1 universal and particular judgments are made to pull together4 ,modal1 impersonal1 existential judgments are all accounted for4 ,only the distinction of affirmative and negative judgments remains unresolved1 and the exception is a natural one from the point of view of a philosophy of pluralism4 ,there was little left to be done here save in the way of an inevitable mutatis mutandis1 even by ,lotze and ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley4 ,from the judgment viewed as hypothetical we pass by affirmation of the antecedent or denial of the consequent to inference4 ,this point of departure is noteworthy1 as also is the treatment of the inductive syllogism as one in which the middle term is resoluble into a group or series 7,reihe74 ,in indicating specifically1 too1 the case of conclusion from a copulative major premise with a disjunctive minor1 ,herbart seems to have suggested the cue for ,sigwart's exposition of ,bacon's method of exclusions4 ,that it was the formal character of ,herbart's logic which was ultimately fatal to its acceptance outside the school as an independent discipline is not to be doubted4 ,it stands1 however1 on a different footing from that of the formal logic hitherto discussed1 and is not to be condemned upon quite the same grounds4 ,in the first place1 ,herbart is quite aware of the nature of abstraction4 ,in the second1 there is no claim that thought at one and the same time imposes form on the given and is susceptible of treatment in isolation by logic4 ,with ,herbart the forms of common experience1 and indeed all that we can regard as his categories1 are products of the psychological mechanism and destitute of logical import4 ,and lastly1 ,herbart's logic conforms to the exigencies of his system as a whole and the principle of the bare or absolute self-identity of the ultimate reals in particular4 ,it is for this reason that it finally lacks real affinity to the pure logic of ,fries4 ,for at the basis of ,herbart's speculation there lies a conception of identity foreign to the thought of ,kant with his stress on synthesis1 in his thoroughgoing metaphysical use of which ,herbart goes back not merely to ,wolff but to ,leibnitz4 ,it is no mere coincidence that his treatment of all forms of continuance and even his positive metaphysic of reals show affinity to ,leibnitz4 ,it was in the pressing to its extreme consequences of the conception of uncompromising identity which is to be found in ,leibnitz1 that the contradictions took their rise which ,herbart aimed at solving1 by the method of relations and his doctrine of the ultimate plurality of reals4 ,the logic of relations between conceptual units1 themselves unaltered by the relation1 seems a kind of reflection of his metaphysical method4 ,to those1 of course1 for whom the only real identity is identity in difference1 while identity without difference1 like difference without identity1 is simply a limit or a vanishing point1 ,herbart's logic and metaphysic will alike lack plausibility4 ,the setting of ,herbart's logic in his thought as a whole might of itself perhaps justify separate treatment4 ,his far-reaching influence in the development of later logic must certainly do so4 ,directly he affected a school of thought which contained one logician of first-rate importance in ,moritz ,wilhelm ,drobisch 7#ahjb-ahif71 professor at ,leipzig4 ,in less direct relation stands ,lotze1 who1 although under other influences he developed a different view even in logic1 certainly let no point in the doctrine of his great predecessor at ,gttingen escape him4 ,a ,herbartian strain is to be met with also in the thought of writers much further afield1 for example ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley1 far though his metaphysic is removed from ,herbart's4 ,herbart's influence is surely to be found too in the evolution of what is called ,gegenstandstheorie4 ,nor did he affect the logic of his successors through his logic alone4 ,reference has been made above to the effect upon the rise of the later psychological logic produced by ,herbart's psychology of apperception1 when disengaged from the background of his metaphysic taken in conjunction with his treatment in his practical philosophy of the judgment of value or what he calls the aesthetic judgment4 ,emerson's verdict upon a greater thinker--that his was not a mind to nestle in--may be true of ,herbart1 but there can be no doubt as to the stimulating force of this master4 ,logic as the rationale of knowledge4 ,schleiermacher4 ,the second way of interpreting the antithesis of thought to what is thought of1 was taken by a group of thinkers among whom a central and inspiring figure was ,schleiermacher4 ,they in no sense constitute a school and manifest radical differences among themselves4 ,they are agreed1 however1 in the rejection1 on the one hand1 of the subjectivist logic with its intrinsic implication that knowledge veils rather than reveals the real world1 and1 on the other hand1 of the logic of the speculative construction with its pretension to deduce1 to determine1 and finally at once to cancel and conserve any antithesis in its all-embracing dialectic4 ,they agree1 then1 in a maintenance of the critical point of view1 while all alike recognize the necessity of bringing the thought-function in knowledge into more intimate relation with its other than ,kant had done1 by means of some formula of correlation or parallelism4 ,such an advance might have taken its cue directly from ,kant himself4 ,as an historical fact it tended rather to formulate itself as a reaction towards ,kant in view of the course taken by the speculative movement4 ,thus ,schleiermacher's posthumously published ,dialektik 7#ahci7 may be characterized as an appeal from the absolutist element in ,schelling's philosophy to the conception of that correlation or parallelism which ,schelling had exhibited as flowing from and subsisting within his absolute1 and therein as a return upon ,kant's doctrine of limits4 ,schleiermacher's conception of dialectic is to the effect that it is concerned with the principles of the art of philosophizing1 as these are susceptible of a relatively independent treatment by a permissible abstraction4 ,pure thinking or philosophizing is with a view to philosophy or knowledge as an interconnected system of all sciences or departmental forms of knowledge1 the mark of knowledge being its identity for all thinking minds4 ,dialectic then investigates the nexus which must be held to obtain between all thoughts1 but also that agreement with the nexus in being which is the condition of the validity of the thought-nexus4 ,in knowing there are two functions involved1 the organic or animal function of sensuous experience in virtue of which we are in touch with being1 directly in inner perception1 mediately in outer experience1 and the intellectual function of construction4 ,either is indispensable1 though in different departments of knowledge the predominant rle falls to one or other1 e4g4 we are more dependent in physics1 less so in ethics4 ,the idea of a perfect harmony of thinking and being is a presupposition that underlies all knowing but cannot itself be realized in knowledge4 ,in terms of the agreement of thought and being1 the logical forms of the part of dialectic correspondent to knowledge statically considered have parallels and analogies in being1 the concept being correlated to substance1 the judgment to causal nexus4 ,inference1 curiously enough1 falls under the technical side of dialectic concerned with knowledge in process or becoming1 a line of cleavage which ,ueberweg has rightly characterized as constituting a rift within ,schleiermacher's parallelism4 ,schleiermacher's formula obviously ascribes a function in knowledge to thought as such1 and describes in a suggestive manner a duality of the intellectual and organic functions1 resting on a parallelism of thought and being whose collapse into identity it is beyond human capacity to grasp4 ,it is rather1 however1 a statement of a way in which the relations of the terms of the problem may be conceived than a system of necessity4 ,it may indeed be permitted to doubt whether its influence upon subsequent theory would have been a great one apart from the spiritual force of ,schleiermacher's personality4 ,some sort of correlationist conception1 however1 was an inevitable development1 and the list#acf of those who accepted it in something of the spirit of ,schleiermacher is a long one and contains many distinguished names1 notably those of ,trendelenburg and ,ueberweg4 ,the group is loosely constituted however4 ,there was scope for diversity of view and there was diversity of view1 according as the vital issue of the formula was held to lie in the relation of intellectual function to organic function or in the not quite equivalent relation of thinking to being4 ,moreover1 few of the writers who1 whatsoever it was that they baptized with the name of logic1 were at least earnestly engaged in an endeavour to solve the problem of knowledge within a circle of ideas which was on the whole ,kantian1 were under the dominance of a single inspiration4 ,beneke's philosophy is a striking instance of this1 with application to ,fries and affinity to ,herbart conjoined with obligations to ,schelling both directly and through ,schleiermacher4 ,lotze again wove together many threads of earlier thought1 though the web was assuredly his own4 ,finally it must not be forgotten that the host of writers who were in reaction against ,hegelianism tended to take refuge in some formula of correlation1 as a half-way house between that and formalism or psychologism or both1 without reference to1 and often perhaps without consciousness of1 the way in which historically it had taken shape to meet the problem held to have been left unresolved by ,kant4 ,lotze4 ,lotze on the one hand held the ,hegelian deduction to be untenable1 and classed himself with those who in his own phrase passed to the order of the day1 while on the other hand he definitely raised the question1 how an object could be brought into forms to which it was not in some sense adapted4 ,accordingly1 though he regards logic as formal1 its forms come into relation to objectivity in some sort even within the logical field itself1 while when taken in the setting of his system as a whole1 its formal character is not of a kind that ultimately excludes psychological and metaphysical reference1 at least speculatively4 ,as a logician ,lotze stands among the masters4 ,his flair for the essentials in his problem1 his subtlety of analysis1 his patient willingness to return upon a difficulty from a fresh and still a fresh point of view1 and finally his fineness of judgment1 make his logic#acg so essentially logic of the present1 and of its kind not soon to be superseded1 that nothing more than an indication of the historical significance of some of its characteristic features need be attempted here4 ,in ,lotze's pure logic it is the ,herbartian element that tends to be disconcerting4 ,logic is formal4 ,its unit1 the logical concept1 is a manipulated product and the process of manipulation may be called abstraction4 ,processes of the psychological mechanism lie below it4 ,the paradox of the theory of judgment is due to the ideal of identity1 and the way in which this is evaded by supplementation to produce a non-judgmental identity1 followed by translation of the introduced accessories with conditions in the hypothetical judgment1 is thoroughly in ,herbart's manner4 ,the reduction of judgments is on lines already familiar4 ,syllogism is no instrumental method by which we compose our knowledge1 but an ideal to the form of which it should be brought4 ,it is1 as it were1 a schedule to be filled in1 and is connected with the disjunctive judgment as a schematic setting forth of alternatives1 not with the hypothetical1 and ultimately the apodictic judgment with their suggestion that it is the real movement of thought that is subjected to analysis4 ,yet the resultant impression left by the whole treatment is not ,herbartian4 ,the concept is accounted for in ,kantian terms4 ,there is no discontinuity between the pre-logical or sub-logical conversion of impressions into first universals and the formation of the logical concept4 ,abstraction proves to be synthesis with compensatory universal marks in the place of the particular marks abstracted from4 ,synthesis as the work of thought always supplies1 beside the mere conjunction or disjunction of ideas1 a ground of their coherence or non-coherence4 ,it is evident that thought1 even as dealt with in pure logic1 has an objectifying function4 ,its universals have objective validity1 though this does not involve direct real reference4 ,the formal conception of pure logic1 then1 is modified by ,lotze in such a way as not only to be compatible with a view of the structural and functional adequacy of thought to that which at every point at which we take thinking is still distinguishable from thought1 but even inevitably to suggest it4 ,that the unit for logic is the concept and not the judgment has proved a stumbling-block to those of ,lotze's critics who are accustomed to think in terms of the act of thought as unit4 ,lotze's procedure is1 indeed1 analogous to the way in which1 in his philosophy of nature1 he starts from a plurality of real beings1 but by means of a reductive movement1 an application of ,kant's transcendental method1 arrives at the postulate or fact of a law of their reciprocal action which calls for a monistic and idealist interpretation4 ,he starts1 that is in logic1 with conceptual units apparently self-contained and admitting of nothing but external relation1 but proceeds to justify the intrinsic relation between the matter of his units by an appeal to the fact of the coherence of all contents of thought4 ,indeed1 if thought admits irreducible units1 what can unite8 ,yet he is left committed to his puzzle as to a reduction of judgment to identity1 which partially vitiates his treatment of the theory of judgment4 ,the outstanding feature of this is1 nevertheless1 not affected1 viz4 the attempt that he makes1 inspired clearly by ,hegel1 to develop the various forms of judgment systematically as members of a series of operations1 each of which leaves a part of its problem unmastered and thereby gives rise to the next4#ach ,as to inference1 finally1 the ideal of the articulation of the universe of discourse1 as it is for complete knowledge1 when its disjunctions have been thoroughly followed out and it is exhaustively determined1 carried the day with him against the view that the organon for gaining knowledge is syllogism4 ,the ,aristotelian formula is merely the expression1 formally expanded and complete1 of the truth already embodied in disjunctive judgment1 namely1 that every ,s which is a specific form of ,m possesses as its predicate a particular modification of each of the universal predicates of ,m to the exclusion of the rest4 ,schleiermacher's separation of inference from judgment and his attribution of the power to knowledge in process cannot find acceptance with ,lotze4 ,the psychologist and the formal logician do indeed join hands in the denial of a real movement of thought in syllogism4 ,lotze's logic then1 is formal in a sense in which a logic which does not find the conception of synthetic truth embarrassing is not so4 ,it is canon and not organon4 ,in the one case1 however1 where it recognizes what is truly synthesis1 i4e4 in its account of the concept1 it brings the statics of knowledge1 so to speak1 into integral relation with the dynamics4 ,and throughout1 wherever the survival from #ahdc1 the identity bug-bear1 is for the moment got rid of in what is really a more liberal conception1 the statical doctrine is developed in a brilliant and informing manner4 ,yet it is in the detail of his logical investigations1 something too volatile to fix in summary1 that ,lotze's greatness as a logician more especially lies4 ,with ,lotze the ideal that at last the forms of thought shall be realized to be adequate to that which at any stage of actual knowledge always proves relatively intractable is an illuminating projection of faith4 ,he takes courage from the reflection that to accept scepticism is to presume the competence of the thought that accepts4 ,he will1 however1 take no easy way of parallelism4 ,our human thought pursues devious and circuitous methods4 ,its forms are not unseldom scaffolding for the house of knowledge rather than the framework of the house itself4 ,our task is not to realise correspondence with something other than thought1 but to make explicit those justificatory notions which condition the form of our apprehension4 ,however much we may presuppose an original reference of the forms of thought to that nature of things which is the goal of knowledge1 we must be prepared to find in them many elements which do not directly reproduce the actual reality to the knowledge of which they are to lead us4#aci ,the impulse of thought to reduce coincidence to coherence reaches immediately only to objectivity or validity4 ,the sense in which the presupposition of a further reference is to be interpreted and in which justificatory notions for it can be adduced is only determinable in a philosophic system as a whole1 where feeling has a place as well as thought1 value equally with validity4 ,lotze's logic then represents the statical aspect of the function of thought in knowledge1 while1 so far as we go in knowledge thought is always engaged in the unification of a manifold1 which remains contradistinguished from it1 though not1 of course1 completely alien to and unadapted to it4 ,the further step to the determination of the ground of harmony is not to be taken in logic1 where limits are present and untranscended4 ,logic as ,metaphysic4 ,the position of the search for truth1 for which knowledge is a growing organism in which thought needs1 so to speak1 to feed on something other than itself1 is conditioned in the post-,kantian period by antagonism to the speculative movement which culminated in the dialectic of ,hegel4 ,the radical thought of this movement was voiced in the demand of ,reinhold#adj that philosophy should deduce it all from a single principle and by a single method4 ,kant's limits that must needs be thought and yet cannot be thought must be thought away4 ,an earnest attempt to satisfy this demand was made by ,fichte whose single principle was the activity of the pure ,ego1 while his single method was the assertion of a truth revealed by reflection on the content of conscious experience1 the characterization of this as a half truth and the supplementation of it by its other1 and finally the harmonization of both4 ,the pure ego is inferred from the fact that the non-ego is realized only in the act of the ego in positing it4 ,the ego posits itself1 but reflection on the given shows that we must add that it posits also the non-ego4 ,the two positions are to be conciliated in the thought of reciprocal limitation of the posited ego and non-ego4 ,and so forth4 ,fichte cannot be said to have developed a logic1 but this rhythm of thesis1 antithesis and synthesis1 foreshadowed in part for ,fichte in ,spinoza's formula1 omnis determinatio est negatio and significantly in ,kant's triadic grouping of his categories1 gave a cue to the thought of ,hegel4 ,schelling1 too1 called for a single principle and claimed to have found it in his ,absolute1 the night said ,hegel1 in which all cows are black1 but his historical influence lay1 as we have seen1 in the direction of a parallelism within the unity1 and he also developed no logic4 ,it is altogether otherwise with ,hegel4 ,hegel4 ,hegel's logic1#ada though it involves inquiries which custom regards as metaphysical1 is not to be characterized as a metaphysic with a method4 ,it is logic or a rationale of thought by thought1 with a full development among other matters of all that the most separatist of logicians regards as thought forms4 ,it offers a solution of what has throughout appeared as the logical problem4 ,that solution lies doubtless in the evolution of the ,idea1 i4e4 an all-inclusive in which mere or pure thought is cancelled in its separateness by a transfiguration1 while logic is nothing but the science of the ,idea viewed in the medium of pure thought4 ,but1 whatever else it be1 this ,panlogismus1 to use the word of ,j4 ,e4 ,erdmann1 is at least a logic4 ,thought in its progressive unfolding1 of which the history of philosophy taken in its broad outline offers a pageant1 necessarily cannot find anything external to or alien from itself1 though that there is something external for it is another matter4 ,as ,fichte's ,ego finds that its non-ego springs from and has its home within its very self1 so with ,hegel thought finds itself in its other1 both subsisting in the ,idea which is both and neither4 ,either of the two is the all1 as1 for example1 the law of the convexity of the curve is the law of the curve and the law of its concavity4 ,the process of the development of the ,idea or ,absolute is in one regard the immanent process of the all4 ,logically regarded1 i4e4 in the medium of mere thought1 it is dialectical method4 ,any abstract and limited point of view carries necessarily to its contradictory4 ,this can only be atoned with the original determination by fresh negation in which a new thought-determination is born1 which is yet in a sense the old1 though enriched1 and valid on a higher plane4 ,the limitations of this in turn cause a contradiction to emerge1 and the process needs repetition4 ,at last1 however1 no swing into the opposite1 with its primarily conflicting1 if ultimately complementary function1 is any longer possible4 ,that in which no further contradiction is possible is the absolute ,idea4 ,bare or indeterminate being1 for instance1 the first of the determinations of ,hegel's logic1 as the being of that which is not anything determinate1 of ,kant's thing-in-itself1 for example1 positively understood1 implicated at once the notion of not-being1 which negates it1 and is one with it1 yet with a difference1 so that we have the transition to determinate being1 the transition being baptized as becoming4 ,and so forth4 ,it is easy to raise difficulties not only in regard to the detail in ,hegel's development of his categories1 especially the higher ones1 but also in regard to the essential rhythm of his method4 ,the consideration that mere double negation leaves us precisely where we were and not upon a higher plane where the dominant concept is richer1 is1 of course1 fatal only to certain verbal expressions of ,hegel's intent4 ,there is a differentiation in type between the two negations4 ,but if we grant this it is no longer obviously the simple logical operation indicated4 ,it is inferred then that ,hegel complements from the stuff of experience1 and fails to make good the pretension of his method to be by itself and of itself the means of advance to higher and still higher concepts till it can rest in the ,absolute4 ,he discards1 as it were1 and takes in from the stock while professing to play from what he has originally in his hand4 ,he postulates his unity in senses and at stages in which it is inadmissible1 and so supplies only a schema of relations otherwise won1 a view supported by the way in which he injects certain determinations in the process1 e4g4 the category of chemism4 ,has he not cooked the process in the light of the result8 ,in truth the ,hegelian logic suffers from the fact that the good to be reached is presupposed in the beginning4 ,nature1 e4g41 is not deduced as real because rational1 but being real its rationality is presumed and1 very imperfectly1 exhibited in a way to make it possible to conceive it as in its essence the reflex of ,reason4 ,it is a vision rather than a construction4 ,it is a theosophical logic4 ,consider the rational-real in the unity that must be1 and this is the way of it1 or an approximation to the way of it6 ,it was inevitable that the epistemologists of the search for truth would have none of it4 ,the ideal in whatsoever sense real still needs to be realized4 ,it is from the human standpoint regulative and only hypothetically or formally constitutive4 ,we must not confuse ,greek3 ousia with ,greek3 einai1 nor ,greek3 einai with ,greek3 gignesthai4 ,yet in a less ambitious form the fundamental contentions of ,hegel's method tend to find a qualified acceptance4 ,in any piece of presumed knowledge its partial or abstract character involves the presence of loose edges which force the conviction of inadequacy and the development of contradictions4 ,contradictions must be annulled by complementation1 with resultant increasing coherence in ascending stages4 ,at each successive stage in our progress fresh contradictions break out1 but the ideal of a station at which the thought-process and its other1 if not one1 are at one1 is permissible as a limiting conception4 ,yet if ,hegel meant only this he has indeed succeeded in concealing his meaning4 ,hegel's treatment of the categories or thought determinations which arise in the development of the immanent dialectic is rich in flashes of insight1 but most of them are in the ordinary view of logic wholly metaphysical4 ,in the stage1 however1 of his process in which he is concerned with the notion are to be found concept1 judgment1 syllogism4 ,of the last he declares that it is the reasonable and everything reasonable 7,encyk4 #aha71 and has the phantasy to speak of the definition of the ,absolute as being at this stage simply the syllogism4 ,it is1 of course1 the rhythm of the syllogism that attracts him4 ,the concept goes out from or utters itself in judgment to return to an enhanced unity in syllogism4 ,ueberweg 7,system #aja7 is1 on the whole1 justified in exclaiming that ,hegel's rehabilitation of syllogism did but slight service to the ,aristotelian theory of syllogism1 yet his treatment of syllogism must be regarded as an acute contribution to logical criticism in the technical sense4 ,he insists on its objectivity4 ,the transition from judgment is not brought about by our subjective action4 ,the syllogism of all-ness is convicted of a petitio principii 7,encyk4 #aij71 with consequent lapse into the inductive syllogism1 and1 finally1 since inductive syllogism is involved in the infinite process1 into analogy4 ,the syllogism of necessity1 on the contrary1 does not presuppose its conclusion in its premises4 ,the detail1 too1 of the whole discussion is rich in suggestion1 and subsequent logicians--,ueberweg himself perhaps1 ,lotze certainly in his genetic scale of types of judgment and inference1 ,professor ,bosanquet notably in his systematic development of the morphology of knowledge1 and others--have with reason exploited it4 ,hegel's logic as a whole1 however1 stands and falls not with his thoughts on syllogism1 but with the claim made for the dialectical method that it exhibits logic in its integral unity with metaphysic1 the thought-process as the self-revelation of the ,idea4 ,the claim was disallowed4 ,to the formalist proper it was self-condemned in its pretension to develop the content of thought and its rejection of the formula of bare-identity4 ,to the epistemologist it seemed to confuse foundation and keystone1 and to suppose itself to build upon the latter in a construction illegitimately appropriative of materials otherwise accumulated4 ,at most it was thought to establish a schema of formal unity which might serve as a regulative ideal4 ,to the methodologist of science in genesis it appeared altogether to fail to satisfy any practical interest4 ,finally1 to the psychologist it spelt the failure of intellectualism1 and encouraged1 therefore1 some form of rehabilitated experientialism4 ,in the ,hegelian school in the narrower sense the logic of the master receives some exegesis and defence upon single points of doctrine rather than as a whole4 ,its effect upon logic is rather to be seen in the rethinking of the traditional body of logical doctrine in the light of an absolute presupposed as ideal1 with the postulate that a regulative ideal must ultimately exhibit itself as constitutive1 the justification of the postulate being held to lie in the coherence and all-inclusiveness of the result4 ,in such a logic1 if and so far as coherence should be attained1 would be found something akin to the spirit of what ,hegel achieves1 though doubtless alien to the letter of what it is his pretension to have achieved4 ,there is perhaps no serious misrepresentation involved in regarding a key-thought of this type1 though not necessarily expressed in those verbal forms1 as pervading such logic of the present as coheres with a philosophy of the absolute conceived from a point of view that is intellectualist throughout4 ,all other contemporary movements may be said to be in revolt from ,hegel4 v4 ,logic from #ahhj-aiaj ,logic in the present exhibits1 though in characteristically modified shapes1 all the main types that have been found in its past history4 ,there is an intellectualist logic coalescent with an absolutist metaphysic as aforesaid4 ,there is an epistemological logic with sometimes formalist1 sometimes methodological leanings4 ,there is a formal-symbolic logic engaged with the elaboration of a relational calculus4 ,finally1 there is what may be termed psychological-voluntaryist logic4 ,it is in the rapidity of development of logical investigations of the third and fourth types and the growing number of their exponents that the present shows most clearly the history of logic in the making4 ,all these movements are logic of the present1 and a very brief indication may be added of points of historical significance4 ,of intellectualist logic ,francis ,herbert ,bradley#adb 7b4 #ahdf7 and ,bernard ,bosanquet#adc 7#ahdh7 may be taken as typical exponents4 ,the philosophy of the former concludes to an ,absolute by the annulment of contradictions1 though the ladder of ,hegel is conspicuous by its absence4 ,his metaphysical method1 however1 is like ,herbart's1 not identifiable with his logic1 and the latter has for its central characteristic its thorough restatement of the logical forms traditional in language and the text-books1 in such a way as to harmonize with the doctrine of a reality whose organic unity is all-inclusive4 ,the thorough recasting that this involves1 even of the thought of the masters when it occasionally echoes them1 has resulted in a phrasing uncouth to the ear of the plain man with his world of persons and things in which the former simply think about the latter1 but it is fundamentally necessary for ,bradley's purpose4 ,the negative judgment1 for example1 cannot be held in one and the same undivided act to presuppose the unity of the real1 project an adjective as conceivably applicable to it and assert its rejection4 ,we need1 therefore1 a restatement of it4 ,with ,bradley reality is the one subject of all judgment immediate or mediate4 ,the act of judgment which refers an ideal content 7recognized as such7 to a reality beyond the act is the unit for logic4 ,grammatical subject and predicate necessarily both fall under the rubric of the adjectival1 that is1 within the logical idea or ideal content asserted4 ,this is a meaning or universal1 which can have no detached or abstract self-subsistence4 ,as found in judgment it may exhibit differences within itself1 but it is not two1 but one1 an articulation of unity1 not a fusion1 which could only be a confusion1 of differences4 ,with a brilliant subtlety ,bradley analyses the various types of judgment in his own way1 with results that must be taken into account by all subsequent logicians of this type4 ,the view of inference with which he complements it is only less satisfactory because of a failure to distinguish the principle of nexus in syllogism from its traditional formulation and rules1 and because he is hampered by the intractability which he finds in certain forms of relational construction4 ,bosanquet had the advantage that his logic was a work of a slightly later date4 ,he is1 perhaps1 more able than ,bradley has shown himself1 to use material from alien sources and to penetrate to what is of value in the thought of writers from whom1 whether on the whole or on particular issues1 he disagrees4 ,he treats the book-tradition1 however1 a debt to which1 nowadays inevitable1 he is generous in acknowledging1#add with a judicious exercise of freedom in adaptation1 i4e4 constructively as datum1 never eclectically4 ,in his fundamental theory of judgment his obligation is to ,bradley4 ,it is to ,lotze1 however1 that he owes most in the characteristic feature of his logic1 viz41 the systematic development of the types of judgment1 and inference from less adequate to more adequate forms4 ,his fundamental continuity with ,bradley may be illustrated by his definition of inference4 ,inference is the indirect reference to reality of differences within a universal1 by means of the exhibition of this universal in differences directly referred to reality4#ade ,bosanquet's ,logic will long retain its place as an authoritative exposition of logic of this type4 ,of epistemological logic in one sense of the phrase ,lotze is still to be regarded as a typical exponent4 ,of another type ,chr4 ,sigwart 7q4v47 may be named as representative4 ,sigwart's aim was to reconstruct logic from the point of view of methodology4 ,his problem was the claim to arrive at propositions universally valid1 and so true of the object1 whosoever the individual thinker4 ,his solution1 within the ,kantian circle of ideas1 was that such principles as the ,kantian principle of causality were justified as postulates of the endeavour after complete knowledge4 ,what ,kant has shown is not that irregular fleeting changes can never be the object of consciousness1 but only that the ideal consciousness of complete science would be impossible without the knowledge of the necessity of all events4#adf ,the universal presuppositions which form the outline of our ideal of knowledge are not so much laws which the understanding prescribes to nature 444 as laws which the understanding lays down for its own regulation in its investigation and consideration of nature4 ,they are a priori because no experience is sufficient to reveal or confirm them in unconditional universality2 but they are a priori 444 only in the sense of presuppositions without which we should work with no hope of success and merely at random and which therefore we must believe4 ,finally they are akin to our ethical principles4 ,with this coheres his dictum1 with its far-reaching consequences for the philosophy of induction1 that the logical justification of the inductive process rests upon the fact that it is an inevitable postulate of our effort after knowledge1 that the given is necessary1 and can be known as proceeding from its grounds according to universal laws4#adg ,it is characteristic of ,sigwart's point of view that he acknowledges obligation to ,mill as well as to ,ueberweg4 ,the transmutation of ,mill's induction of inductions into a postulate is an advance of which the psychological school of logicians have not been slow to make use4 ,the comparison of ,sigwart with ,lotze is instructive1 in regard both to their agreement and their divergence as showing the range of the epistemological formula4 ,of the formal-symbolic logic all that falls to be said here is1 that from the point of view of logic as a whole1 it is to be regarded as a legitimate praxis as long as it shows itself aware of the sense in which alone form is susceptible of abstraction1 and is aware that in itself it offers no solution of the logical problem4 ,it is not an algebra1 said ,kant#adh of his technical logic1 and the kind of support lent recently to symbolic logic by the ,gegenstandstheorie identified with the name of ,alexius ,meinong 7b4 #ahec7adi is qualified by the warning that the real activity of thought tends to fall outside the calculus of relations and to attach rather to the subsidiary function of denoting4 ,the future of symbolic logic as coherent with the rest of logic1 in the sense which the word has borne throughout its history seems to be bound up with the question of the nature of the analysis that lies behind the symbolism1 and of the way in which this is justified in the setting of a doctrine of validity4 ,the theory of the object1 itself1 while affecting logic alike in the formal and in the psychological conception of it very deeply1 does not claim to be regarded as logic or a logic1 apart from a setting supplied from elsewhere4 ,finally we have a logic of a type fundamentally psychological1 if it be not more properly characterized as a psychology which claims to cover the whole field of philosophy1 including the logical field4 ,the central and organizing principle of this is that knowledge is in genesis1 that the genesis takes place in the medium of individual minds1 and that this fact implies that there is a necessary reference throughout to interests or purposes of the subject which thinks because it wills and acts4 ,historically this doctrine was formulated as the declaration of independence of the insurgents in revolt against the pretensions of absolutist logic4 ,it drew for support upon the psychological movement that begins with ,fries and ,herbart4 ,it has been chiefly indebted to writers1 who were not1 or were not primarily1 logicians1 to ,avenarius1 for example1 for the law of the economy of thought1 to ,wundt1 whose system1 and therewith his logic1#aej is a pendant to his psychology1 for the volitional character of judgment1 to ,herbert ,spencer and others4 ,a judgment is practical1 and not to be divorced without improper abstraction from the purpose and will that informs it4 ,a concept is instrumental to an end beyond itself1 without any validity other than its value for action4 ,a situation involving a need of adaptation to environment arises and the problem it sets must be solved that the will may control environment and be justified by success4 ,truth is the improvised machinery that is interjected1 so far as this works4 ,it is clear that we are in the presence of what is at least an important half-truth1 which intellectuallism with its statics of the rational order viewed as a completely articulate system has tended to ignore4 ,it throws light on many phases of the search for truth1 upon the plain man's claim to start with a subject which he knows whose predicate which he does not know is still to be developed1 or again upon his use of the negative form of judgment1 when the further determination of his purposive system is served by a positive judgment from without1 the positive content of which is yet to be dropped as irrelevant to the matter in hand4 ,the movement has1 however1 scarcely developed its logic#aea except as polemic4 ,what seems clear is that it cannot be the whole solution4 ,while man must confront nature from the human and largely the practical standpoint1 yet his control is achieved only by the increasing recognition of objective controls4 ,he conquers by obedience4 ,so truth works and is economical because it is truth4 ,working is proportioned to inner coherence4 ,it is well that the view should be developed into all its consequences4 ,the result will be to limit it1 though perhaps also to justify it1 save in its claim to reign alone4 ,there is1 perhaps1 an increasing tendency to recognize that the organism of knowledge is a thing which from any single viewpoint must be seen in perspective4 ,it is of course a postulate that all truths harmonize1 but to give the harmonious whole in a projection in one plane is an undertaking whose adequacy in one sense involves an inadequacy in another4 ,no human architect can hope to take up in succession all essential points of view in regard to the form of knowledge or to logic4 ,the great campanile is still to finish4 ,,bibliography4--,historical3 ,no complete history of logic in the sense in which it is to be distinguished from theoretical philosophy in general has as yet been written4 ,the history of logic is indeed so little intelligible apart from constant reference to tendencies in philosophical development as a whole1 that the historian1 when he has made the requisite preparatory studies1 inclines to essay the more ambitious task4 ,yet there are1 of course1 works devoted to the history of logic proper4 ,of these ,prantl's ,geschichte der ,logik im ,abendlande 7#d vols41 #ahee-ahgj71 which traces the rise1 development and fortunes of the ,aristotelian logic to the close of the middle ages1 is monumental4 ,next in importance are the works of ,l4 ,rabus1 ,logik und ,metaphysik1 i4 7#ahfh7 7pp4 #abc-bdb historical1 pp4 #dec-eah bibliographical1 pp4 #ead sqq4 a section on apparatus for the study of the history of logic71 ,die neuesten ,bestrebungen auf dem ,gebiete der ,logik bei den ,deutschen 7#ahhj71 ,logik 7#ahie71 especially for later writers #ag4 ,ueberweg's ,system der ,logik und ,geschichte der logischen ,lehren 7#dth ed4 and last revised by the author1 #ahgd1 though it has been reissued later1 ,eng4 trans41 #ahga7 is alone to be named with these4 ,harms' posthumously published ,geschichte der ,logik 7#ahha7 7,die ,philosophie in ihrer ,geschichte1 ii47 was completed by the author only so far as ,leibnitz4 ,blakey's ,historical ,sketch of ,logic 7#ahea71 though1 like all this writer's works1 closing with a bibliography of some pretensions1 is now negligible4 ,franck1 ,esquisse d'une histoire de la logique 7#ahch7 is the chief ,french contribution to the subject as a whole4 ,of contributions towards the history of special periods or schools of logical thought the list1 from the opening chapters of ,ramus's ,scholae ,dialecticae 7#aefi7 downwards 7v4 ,rabus loc4 cit47 would be endless4 ,what is of value in the earlier works has now been absorbed4 ,the ,system der ,logik 7#ahbh7 of ,bachmann 7a ,kantian logician of distinction7 contains a historical survey 7pp4 #efi-fdd71 as does the ,denklehre 7#ahbb7 of van ,calker 7allied in thought to ,fries7 pp4 #ab sqq42 ,eberstein's ,geschichte der ,logik und ,metaphysik bei den ,deutschen von ,leibniz bis auf gegenwrtige ,zeit 7latest edition1 #agii7 is still of importance in regard to logicians of the school of ,wolff and the origines of ,kant's logical thought4 ,hoffmann1 the editor and disciple of von ,baader1 published ,grundzge einer ,geschichte der ,begriffe der ,logik in ,deutschland von ,kant bis ,baader 7#ahea74 ,wallace's prolegomena and notes to his ,logic of ,hegel 7#ahgd1 revised and augmented #ahib-ahid7 are of use for the history and terminology1 as well as the theory4 ,riehl's article entitled ,logik in ,die ,kultur der ,gegenwart1 vi4 #a4 ,systematische ,philosophie 7#aijg71 is excellent1 and touches on quite modern developments4 ,liard1 ,les ,logiciens ,anglais ,contemporains 7#eth ed41 #aijg71 deals only with the #aith-century inductive and formal-symbolic logicians down to ,jevons1 to whom the book was originally dedicated4 ,venn's ,symbolic ,logic 7#ahha7 gave a careful history and bibliography of that development4 ,the history of the more recent changes is as yet to be found only in the form of unshaped material in the pages of review and ,jahresbericht4 7,h4 ,w4 ,b4997 ,,footnotes3 #a ,cf4 ,heidel1 ,the ,logic of the ,pre-,socratic ,philosophy1 in ,dewey's ,studies in ,logical ,theory 7,chicago1 #aijc74 #b ,heraclitus1 ,fragmm4 #ajg 7,diels1 ,fragmente der ,vorsokratiker7 and #b1 on which see ,burnet1 ,early ,greek ,philosophy1 p4 #aec note 7ed4 #b74 #c e4g4 ,diog4 ,lart4 ix4 #be1 from the lost ,sophistes of ,aristotle4 #d ,plato and ,platonism1 p4 #bd4 #e ,nothing is4 ,if anything is1 it cannot be known4 ,if anything is known it cannot be communicated4 #f ,metaphys4 mu4 #ajgh;b #bh sqq4 #g ,cf4 ,arist4 ,top4 theta4 i4 #a ad fin4 #h ,for whom see ,dmmler1 ,antisthenica 7#ahhb1 reprinted in his ,kleine ,schriften1 #aija74 #i ,aristotle1 ,metaphys4 #ajbd;b #cb sqq4 #aj ,plato1 ,theaetetus1 #bja ,e4 sqq41 where1 however1 ,antisthenes is not named1 and the reference to him is sometimes doubted4 ,but cf4 ,aristotle1 ,met4 ,h #c4 #ajdc;b #bd-bh4 #aa ,diog4 ,lart4 ii4 #ajg4 #ab ,aristotle1 ,an4 ,pr4 i4 #ca1 #df;a #cb sqq42 cf4 #ia;b #ab sqq4 #ac ,athenaeus ii4 #ei;c4 ,see ,usener1 ,organisation der wissenschaftl4 ,arbeit 7#ahhd2 reprinted in his ,vortrge und ,aufstze1 #aijg74 #ad ,socrates' reference of a discussion to its presuppositions 7,xenophon1 ,mem4 iv4 #f1 #ac7 is not relevant for the history of the terminology of induction4 #ae ,theaetetus1 #ahf;c4 #af ,timaeus1 #cg;a1 b 7quoted in ,h4 ,f4 ,carlill's translation of the ,theaetetus1 p4 #fj74 #ag ,theaetetus1 #ahf;d4 #ah ,sophistes1 #bec;d4 #ai ,ib4 id42 cf4 ,theaetetus1 #aig;d4 #bj ,aristotle1 de ,an4 #dcj;b #e1 and generally iii4 #b1 iii4 #e4 #ba ,for ,plato's ,logic1 the controversies as to the genuineness of the dialogues may be treated summarily4 ,the ,theaetetus labours under no suspicion4 ,the ,sophistes is apparently matter for animadversion by ,aristotle in the ,metaphysics and elsewhere1 but derives stronger support from the testimonies to the ,politicus which presumes it4 ,the ,politicus and ,philebus are guaranteed by the use made of them in ,aristotle's ,ethics4 ,the rejection of the ,parmenides would involve the paradox of a nameless contemporary of ,plato and ,aristotle who was inferior as a metaphysician to neither4 ,no other dialogue adds anything to the logical content of these4 ,granted their genuineness1 the relative dating of three of them is given1 viz4 ,theaetetus1 ,sophistes and ,politicus in the order named4 ,the ,philebus seems to presuppose ,politicus1 #bhc-bhd1 but if this be an error1 it will affect the logical theory not at all4 ,there remains the ,parmenides4 ,it can scarcely be later than the ,sophistes4 ,the antinomies with which it concludes are more naturally taken as a prelude to the discussion of the ,sophistes than as an unnecessary retreatment of the doctrine of the one and the many in a more negative form4 ,it may well be earlier than the ,theaetetus in its present form4 ,the stylistic argument shows the ,theaetetus relatively early4 ,the maturity of its philosophic outlook tends to give it a place relatively advanced in the ,platonic canon4 ,to meet the problem here raised1 the theory has been devised of an earlier and a later version4 ,the first may have linked on to the series of ,plato's dialogues of search1 and to put the ,parmenides before it is impossible4 ,the second1 though it might still have preceded the ,parmenides might equally well have followed the negative criticism of that dialogue1 as the beginning of reconstruction4 ,for ,plato's logic this question only has interest on account of the introduction of an ,greek3 ,aristotels in a non-speaking part in the ,parmenides4 ,if this be pressed as suggesting that the philosopher ,aristotle was already in full activity at the date of writing1 it is of importance to know what ,platonic dialogues were later than the dbut of his critical pupil4 ,on the stylistic argument as applied to ,platonic controversies ,janell's ,quaestiones ,platonicae 7#aija7 is important4 ,on the whole question of genuineness and dates of the dialogues1 ,h4 ,raeder1 ,platons philosophische ,entwickelung 7#aije71 gives an excellent conspectus of the views held and the grounds alleged4 ,see also ,,plato4 #bb ,e4g4 that of essence and accident4 ,republic1 #ded4 #bc ,e4g4 the discussion of correlation1 ib4 #dcg sqq4 #bd ,politicus1 #bhe;d4 #be ,sophistes1 #bfa;c sqq4 #bf ,e4g4 in ,nic4 ,eth4 i4 #f4 #bg ,philebus1 #af;d4 #bh ,principal edition still that of ,waitz1 with ,latin commentary1 7#b vols41 #ahdd-ahdf74 ,among the innumerable writers who have thrown light upon ,aristotle's logical doctrine1 ,st ,hilaire1 ,trendelenburg1 ,ueberweg1 ,hamilton1 ,mansel1 ,g4 ,grote may be named4 ,there are1 however1 others of equal distinction4 ,reference to ,prantl1 op4 cit41 is indispensable4 ,zeller1 ,die philosophie der ,griechen1 ii4 #b1 ,aristoteles 7#crd ed41 #ahgi71 pp4 #ahe-beg 7there is an ,eng4 trans471 and ,maier1 ,die ,syllogistik des ,aristoteles 7#b vols41 #ahif1 #aijj7 7some #ijj pp471 are also of first-rate importance4 #bi ,sophist4 ,elench4 #ahd1 espec4 b #a-c1 but see ,maier1 loc4 cit4 i4 #a4 #cj ,references such as #ah;b #ab are the result of subsequent editing and prove nothing4 ,see1 however1 ,,aristotle4 #ca ,adrastus is said to have called them ,greek3 pro tn topikn4 #cb ,metaphys4 ,e4 #a4 #cc ,de ,part4 ,animal4 ,a4 #a1 #fci;a #a sqq42 cf4 ,metaphys4 #ajje;b #b sqq4 #cd ,de ,interpretatione #af;a sqq4 #ce ,de ,interpretatione #af;a #bd-be4 #cf ,ib4 #ah;a #bh sqq4 #cg ,ib4 #ai;a #bh-bi4 #ch ,as shown e4g4 by the way in which the relativity of sense and the object of sense is conceived1 #g;b #ce-cg4 #ci ,topics #aja;a #bg and #cf-;b #d4 #dj ,topics #ajj4 #da ,politics #abhb;a #a sqq4 #db #ajc;b #ba4 #dc ,topics #afj;a #cg-;b #e4 #dd ,this is the explanation of the formal definition of induction1 ,prior ,analytics1 ii4 #bc1 #fh;b #ae sqq4 #de #be;b #cf4 #df ,prior ,analytics1 i4 #a4 #bd;a #ah-bj1 ,greek3 ,syllogismos de esti logos en tethentn tinn eteron ti tn keimenn ex ananks snmbainei t tauta einai4 ,the equivalent previously in ,topics #ajj;a #be sqq4 #dg ,prior ,analytics1 ii4 #ba2 ,posterior ,analytics1 i4 #a4 #dh #fg;a #cc-cg1 ,greek3 m synthern to kath' ekateron4 #di #fg;a #ci-fc4 #ej #gi;a #d-e4 #ea #bd;b #aj-aa4 #eb ,posterior ,analytics1 i4 #d ,greek3 kath auto means 7#a7 contained in the definition of the subject2 7#b7 having the subject contained in its definition1 as being an alternative determination of the subject1 crooked1 e4g4 is per se of line2 7#c7 self-subsistent2 7#d7 connected with the subject as consequent to ground4 ,its needs stricter determination therefore4 #ec #gc;b #bf sqq41 #gd;a #cg sqq4 #ed #ij;b #af4 #ee ,metaphys4 ,z4 #ab1 ,h4 #f ground this formula metaphysically4 #ef #id;a #ab1 #ge;b #cb4 #eg #ij;a #f4 ,cf4 ,ueberweg1 ,system der ,logik1 #aja4 #eh #gh;a #cj sqq4 #ei ,topics1 #aja;b #ah1 #ai4 #fj ,posterior ,analytics1 ii4 #ac4 #fa ,posterior ,analytics1 ii4 #af4 #fb ,posterior ,analytics1 i4 #ac ad4 fin41 and i4 #bg4 ,the form which a mathematical science treats as relatively self-subsistent is certainly not the constitutive idea4 #fc ,posterior ,analytics1 i4 #c4 #fd ,posterior ,analytics1 ii4 #ai4 #fe ,de ,anima1 #dbh;b #ah1 #ai4 #ff ,prior ,analytics1 i4 #cj1 #df;a #ah4 #fg ,topics1 #ajj;b #bj1 #ba4 #fh ,topics1 #aja;a #be1 #cf-cg1 b#a-d1 c4 #fi ,zeller 7loc4 cit4 p4 #aid71 who puts this formula in order to reject it4 #gj ,metaphys4 ,delta #a1 #ajac;a #ad4 #ga ,posterior ,analytics1 #gb;a #af seq4 #gb ,posterior ,analytics1 #gg;a #bf1 #gf;a #cg sqq4 #gc ,metaphys4 ,gamma4 #gd ,posterior ,analytics1 ii4 #ai4 #ge de ,anima1 iii4 #d-f4 #gf ,metaphys4 ,m4 #ajhg;a #aj-ab2 ,zeller loc4 cit4 #cjd sqq42 ,mc,leod ,innes1 ,the ,universal and ,particular in ,aristotle's ,theory of ,knowledge 7#ahhf74 #gg ,topics1 #aje;a #ac4 #gh ,metaphys4 #iie;a #h4 #gi ,e4g41 ,topics1 #ajh;b #aj1 to induce the universal4 #hj ,posterior ,analytics1 ii4 #ai1 #ajj;b #c1 #d4 #ha ,topics1 i4 #ah1 #ajh;b #aj4 #hb ,prior ,analytics1 ii4 #bc4 #hc ,greek3 ,paradeigma1 ,prior ,analytics1 ii4 #bd4 #hd ,sigwart1 ,logik1 ,eng4 trans4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bib and elsewhere4 #he ,ueberweg1 ,system1 #abg1 with a ref4 to de ,partibus ,animalium1 #ffg;a4 #hf ,see #fg;a #ag ,greek3 ex hapantn tn atomn4 #hg ,greek3 ,epiphora4 ,greek3 ,epi in as in ,greek3 epagg1 inductio1 and ,greek3 -phora -ferentia1 as in ,greek3 diaphora1 differentia4 #hh ,diog4 ,lart4 x4 #cc seq42 ,sext4 ,emp4 ,adv4 ,math4 vii4 #baa4 #hi ,diog4 ,lart4 x4 #hg2 cf4 ,lucretius1 vi4 #gjc sq41 v4 #ebf sqq4 7ed4 ,munro74 #ij ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,pyrrhon4 ,hypotyp4 ii4 #aie1 #aif4 #ia ,sextus1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bjd4 #ib ,op4 cit4 iii4 #ag sqq41 and especially #bh4 #ic ,the point is raised by ,aristotle1 #ie;,a4 #id ,see ,jourdain1 ,recherches critiques sur l'ge et l'origine des traductions latines d',aristote 7#ahdc74 #ie ,see ,e4 ,cassirer1 ,das ,erkenntnisproblem1 i4 #acd seq41 and the justificatory excerpts1 pp4 #eci sqq4 #if ,see ,riehl in ,vierteljahrschr4 f4 wiss4 ,philos4 7#ahic74 #ig ,bacon1 ,novum ,organum1 ii4 #bb1 #bc2 cf4 also ,aristotle1 ,topics i4 #ab4 #ac1 ii4 #aj4 #aa 7,stewart1 ad ,nic4 ,eth4 #aaci;b #bg7 and ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,pyrr4 ,hypot4 iii4 #ae4 #ih ,bacon's ,works1 ed4 ,ellis and ,spedding1 iii4 #afd-afe4 #ii ,a notable formula of ,bacon's ,novum ,organum ii4 #d #c turns out1 ,valerius ,terminus1 cap4 #aa1 to come from ,aristotle1 ,post4 ,an4 i4 #d via ,ramus4 ,see ,ellis in ,bacon's ,works1 iii4 #bjc sqq4 #ajj ,de ,civitate ,dei1 xi4 #bf4 ,certum est me esse1 si fallor4 #aja ,cf4 ,plato1 ,republic1 #cha;,e seq4 #ajb ,elementa ,philosophi1 i4 #c4 #bj1 i4 #f4 #ag seq4 #ajc ,hobbes1 ,elementa ,philosophi1 i4 #a4 #e4 #ajd ,id4 ib4 i4 #f4 #af4 #aje ,id4 ib4 i4 #d4 #h2 cf4 ,locke's ,essay of ,human ,understanding1 iv4 #ag4 #ajf ,id4 ,leviathan1 i4 #c4 #ajg ,id4 ,elem4 ,philos4 i4 #f4 #aj4 #ajh ,condillac1 ,langue des ,calculs1 p4 #g4 #aji ,locke1 ,essay1 iii4 #c4 #aaj ,id4 ib4 iv4 #ag4 #aaa ,loc4 cit4 #h4 #aab ,id4 ib4 iv4 #d1 #f sqq4 #aac ,berkeley1 ,of the ,principles of ,human ,knowledge1 #adb4 #aad ,hume1 ,treatise of ,human ,nature1 i4 #a4 #g 7from ,berkeley1 op4 cit41 introd41 #ae-af74 #aae ,essay1 iv4 #ag1 #c4 #aaf ,hume1 ,treatise of ,human ,nature1 i4 #c4 #ae4 #aag ,mill1 ,examination of ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 cap4 #ag4 #aah ,cf4 ,mill1 ,autobiography1 p4 #aei4 ,i grappled at once with the problem of ,induction1 postponing that of ,reasoning4 ,ib4 p4 #ahb 7when he is preoccupied with syllogism71 ,i could make nothing satisfactory of ,induction at this time4 #aai ,autobiography1 p4 #aha4 #abj ,the insight1 for instance1 of ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley's criticism1 ,principles of ,logic1 ,,ii4 ii4 #c1 is somewhat dimmed by a lack of sympathy due to extreme difference in the point of view adopted4 #aba ,bacon1 ,novum organum1 i4 #ajj4 #abb ,russell's ,philosophy of ,leibnitz1 capp4 #a-e4 #abc ,see especially remarks on the letter of ,m4 ,arnauld 7,gerhardt's edition of the philosophical works1 ii4 #cg sqq474 #abd ,gerhardt1 vi4 #fab1 quoted by ,russell1 loc4 cit41 p4 #ai4 #abe ,ibid41 ii4 #fb1 ,russell1 p4 #cc4 #abf ,spinoza1 ed4 van ,vloten and ,land1 i4 #df 7,ethica1 i4 #aa74 #abg ,nouveaux essais1 iv4 #b #i1 #ag #d 7,gerhardt v4 #cea1 #dfj74 #abh ,critique of ,judgment1 ,introd4 #b1 ad4 fin4 7,werke1 ,berlin ,academy edition1 vol4 v4 p4 #agf1 l4 #aj74 #abi ,kant's ,introduction to ,logic and his ,essay on the ,mistaken ,subtlety of the ,four ,figures1 trans4 ,t4 ,k4 ,abbott 7#ahhe74 #acj ,loc4 cit41 p4 #aa4 #aca ,or antitheses4 ,kant follows1 for example1 a different line of cleavage between form and content from that developed between thought and the given4 ,and these are not his only unresolved dualities1 even in the ,critique of ,pure ,reason4 ,for the logical inquiry1 however1 it is permissible to ignore or reduce these differences4 ,the determination too of the sense in which ,kant's theory of knowledge involves an unresolved antithesis is for the logical purpose necessary so far only as it throws light upon his logic and his influence upon logical developments4 ,historically the question of the extent to which writers adopted the dualistic interpretation or one that had the like consequences is of greater importance4 ,it may be said summarily that ,kant holds the antithesis between thought and the given to be unresolved and within the limits of theory of knowledge irreducible4 ,the dove of thought falls lifeless if the resistant atmosphere of the given be withdrawn 7,critique of ,pure ,reason1 ed4 #b ,introd4 ,kant's ,werke1 ed4 of the ,prussian ,academy1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cb1 ll4 #aj sqq474 ,nevertheless the thing-in-itself is a problematic conception and of a limiting or negative use merely4 ,he had woven1 according to an often quoted phrase of ,goethe1 a certain sly element of irony into his method2 444 he pointed as it were with a side gesture beyond the limits which he himself had drawn4 ,thus 7loc4 cit4 p4 #df1 ll4 #h1 #i7 he declares that there are two lineages united in human knowledge1 which perhaps spring from a common stock1 though to us unknown--namely sense and understanding4 ,some indication of the way in which he would hypothetically and speculatively mitigate the antithesis is perhaps afforded by the reflection that the distinction of the mental and what appears as material is an external distinction in which the one appears outside to the other4 ,yet what as thing-in-itself lies back of the phenomenon may perhaps not be so wholly disparate after all 7ib4 p4 #bgh1 ll4 #bf sqq474 #acb ,critique of ,judgment1 ,introd4 #b 7,werke1 v41 #bgf ll4 #i sqq472 cf4 ,bernard's ,prolegomena to his translation of this1 7pp4 xxxviii4 sqq474 #acc ,die ,logik1 insbesondere die ,analytik 7,schleswig1 #ahbe74 ,august ,detlev ,christian ,twesten 7#aghi-ahgf71 a ,protestant theologian1 succeeded ,schleiermacher as professor in ,berlin in #ahce4 #acd ,see ,sir ,william ,hamilton3 ,the ,philosophy of ,perception1 by ,j4 ,hutchison ,stirling4 #ace ,hauptpunkte der ,logik1 #ahjh 7,werke1 ed4 ,hartenstein1 i4 #dfe sqq471 and specially ,lehrbuch der ,einleitung in die ,philosophie 7#ahac71 and subsequently #cd sqq4 7,werke1 i4 #gg sqq474 #acf ,see ,ueberweg1 ,system of ,logic and ,history of ,logical ,doctrines1 #cd4 #acg ,drei ,bcher der ,logik1 #ahgd 7,e4,t41 #ahhd74 ,the ,book on ,pure ,logic follows in essentials the line of thought of an earlier work 7#ahdc74 #ach ,logic1 ,eng4 trans4 #ce ad4 fin4 #aci ,logic1 ,introd4 ix4 #adj ,for whom see ,hffding1 ,history of ,modern ,philosophy1 ,eng4 trans41 vol4 ii4 pp4 #abb sqq42 invaluable for the logical methods of modern philosophers4 #ada ,wissenschaft der ,logik 7#ahab-ahaf71 in course of revision at ,hegel's death in #ahca 7,werke1 vols4 iii4-v471 and ,encyklopdie der philosophischen ,wissenschaften1 i42 ,die ,logik 7#ahag2 #crd ed41 #ahcj72 ,werke1 vol4 vi41 ,eng4 trans41 ,wallace 7#bnd ed41 #ahib74 #adb ,the ,principles of ,logic 7#ahhc74 #adc ,logic1 or ,the ,morphology of ,thought 7#b vols41 #ahhh74 #add ,logic1 ,pref4 pp4 #f seq4 #ade ,id4 vol4 ii4 p4 #d4 #adf ,logik 7#ahgc1 #ahhi71 ,eng4 trans4 ii4 #ag4 #adg ,op4 cit4 ii4 #bhi4 #adh ,introd4 to ,logic41 trans4 ,abbott1 p4 #aj4 #adi ,ueber ,annahmen 7#aijb1 c47 #aej ,logik 7#ahhj1 and in later editions74 #aea ,yet see ,studies in ,logic1 by ,john ,dewey and others 7#aijc74 ,,logocyclic ,,curve1 ,,strophoid or ,,foliate1 a cubic curve generated by increasing or diminishing the radius vector of a variable point ,q on a straight line ,,ab by the distance ,,qc of the point from the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the fixed line4 ,the polar equation is r costheta a7#a sintheta71 the upper sign referring to the case when the vector is increased1 the lower when it is diminished4 ,both branches are included in the ,cartesian equation 7x y77#b;a - x7 ax1 where a is the distance of the line from the origin4 ,if we take for axes the fixed line and the perpendicular through the initial point1 the equation takes the form y root7a - x7 x root7a x74 ,the curve resembles the folium of ,descartes1 and has a node between x #j1 x a1 and two branches asymptotic to the line x #b;a4 ,illustration4 ,,logographi 7,greek3 logos1 ,greek3 graph1 writers of prose histories or tales71 the name given by modern scholars to the ,greek historiographers before ,herodotus4#a ,thucydides1 however1 applies the term to all his own predecessors1 and it is therefore usual to make a distinction between the older and the younger logographers4 ,their representatives1 with one exception1 came from ,ionia and its islands1 which from their position were most favourably situated for the acquisition of knowledge concerning the distant countries of ,east and ,west4 ,they wrote in the ,ionic dialect1 in what was called the unperiodic style1 and preserved the poetic character of their epic model4 ,their criticism amounts to nothing more than a crude attempt to rationalize the current legends and traditions connected with the founding of cities1 the genealogies of ruling families1 and the manners and customs of individual peoples4 ,of scientific criticism there is no trace whatever4 ,the first of these historians was probably ,cadmus of ,miletus 7who lived1 if at all1 in the early part of the #fth century71 the earliest writer of prose1 author of a work on the founding of his native city and the colonization of ,ionia 7so ,sudas72 ,pherecydes of ,leros1 who died about #djj1 is generally considered the last4 ,mention may also be made of the following3 ,hecataeus of ,miletus 7#eej-dgf72 ,acusilaus of ,argos1#b who paraphrased in prose 7correcting the tradition where it seemed necessary7 the genealogical works of ,hesiod in the ,ionic dialect2 he confined his attention to the prehistoric period1 and made no attempt at a real history2 ,charon of ,lampsacus 7c4 #dej71 author of histories of ,persia1 ,libya1 and ,ethiopia1 of annals 7,greek3 hroi7 of his native town with lists of the prytaneis and archons1 and of the chronicles of ,lacedaemonian kings2 ,xanthus of ,sardis in ,lydia 7c4 #dej71 author of a history of ,lydia1 one of the chief authorities used by ,nicolaus of ,damascus 7fl4 during the time of ,augustus72 ,hellanicus of ,mytilene2 ,stesimbrotus of ,thasos1 opponent of ,pericles and reputed author of a political pamphlet on ,themistocles1 ,thucydides and ,pericles2 ,hippys and ,glaucus1 both of ,rhegium1 the first the author of histories of ,italy and ,sicily1 the second of a treatise on ancient poets and musicians1 used by ,harpocration and ,plutarch2 ,damastes of ,sigeum1 pupil of ,hellanicus1 author of genealogies of the combatants before ,troy 7an ethnographic and statistical list71 of short treatises on poets1 sophists1 and geographical subjects4 ,on the early ,greek historians1 see ,g4 ,busolt1 ,griechische ,geschichte 7#ahic71 i4 #adg-aec2 ,c4 ,wachsmuth1 ,einleitung in das ,studium der alten ,geschichte 7#ahie72 ,a4 ,schfer1 ,abriss der ,quellenkunde der griechischen und rmischen ,geschichte 7ed4 ,h4 ,nissen1 #ahhi72 ,j4 ,b4 ,bury1 ,ancient ,greek ,historians 7#aiji71 lecture i42 histories of ,greek literature by ,mller-,donaldson 7ch4 #ah7 and ,w4 ,mure 7bk4 iv4 ch4 #c71 where the little that is known concerning the life and writings of the logographers is exhaustively discussed4 ,the fragments will be found1 with ,latin notes1 translation1 prolegomena1 and copious indexes1 in ,c4 ,w4 ,mller's ,fragmenta historicorum ,graecorum 7#ahda-ahgj74 ,see also ,,greece3 ,history1 ,ancient 7section1 ,authorities74 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the word is also used of the writers of speeches for the use of the contending parties in the law courts1 who were forbidden to employ advocates4 #b ,there is some doubt as to whether this ,acusilaus was of ,peloponnesian or ,boeotian ,argos4 ,possibly there were two of the name4 ,for an example of the method of ,acusilaus see ,bury1 op4 cit4 p4 #ai4 ,,logos ,greek3 logos1 a common term in ancient philosophy and theology4 ,it expresses the idea of an immanent reason in the world1 and1 under various modifications1 is met with in ,indian1 ,egyptian and ,persian systems of thought4 ,but the idea was developed mainly in ,hellenic and ,hebrew philosophy1 and we may distinguish the following stages3 #a4 ,the ,hellenic ,logos4--,to the ,greek mind1 which saw in the world a ,greek3 kosmos 7ordered whole71 it was natural to regard the world as the product of reason1 and reason as the ruling principle in the world4 ,so we find a ,logos doctrine more or less prominent from the dawn of ,hellenic thought to its eclipse4 ,it rises in the realm of physical speculation1 passes over into the territory of ethics and theology1 and makes its way through at least three well-defined stages4 ,these are marked off by the names of ,heraclitus of ,ephesus1 the ,stoics and ,philo4 ,it acquires its first importance in the theories of ,heraclitus 7#fth century ,b4,c471 who1 trying to account for the aesthetic order of the visible universe1 broke away to some extent from the purely physical conceptions of his predecessors and discerned at work in the cosmic process a ,greek3 logos analogous to the reasoning power in man4 ,on the one hand the ,logos is identified with ,greek3 gnm and connected with ,greek3 dik1 which latter seems to have the function of correcting deviations from the eternal law that rules in things4 ,on the other hand it is not positively distinguished either from the ethereal fire1 or from the ,greek3 heimarmen and the ,greek3 anank according to which all things occur4 ,heraclitus holds that nothing material can be thought of without this ,logos1 but he does not conceive the ,logos itself to be immaterial4 ,whether it is regarded as in any sense possessed of intelligence and consciousness is a question variously answered4 ,but there is most to say for the negative4 ,this ,logos is not one above the world or prior to it1 but in the world and inseparable from it4 ,man's soul is a part of it4 ,it is relation1 therefore1 as ,schleiermacher expresses it1 or reason1 not speech or word4 ,and it is objective1 not subjective1 reason4 ,like a law of nature1 objective in the world1 it gives order and regularity to the movement of things1 and makes the system rational4#a ,the failure of ,heraclitus to free himself entirely from the physical hypotheses of earlier times prevented his speculation from influencing his successors4 ,with ,anaxagoras a conception entered which gradually triumphed over that of ,heraclitus1 namely1 the conception of a supreme1 intellectual principle1 not identified with the world but independent of it4 ,this1 however1 was ,greek3 nous1 not ,logos4 ,in the ,platonic and ,aristotelian systems1 too1 the theory of ideas involved an absolute separation between the material world and the world of higher reality1 and though the term ,logos is found the conception is vague and undeveloped4 ,with ,plato the term selected for the expression of the principle to which the order visible in the universe is due is ,greek3 nous or ,greek3 sophia1 not ,greek3 logos4 ,it is in the pseudo-,platonic ,epinomis that ,greek3 logos appears as a synonym for ,greek3 nous4 ,in ,aristotle1 again1 the principle which sets all nature under the rule of thought1 and directs it towards a rational end1 is ,greek3 nous1 or the divine spirit itself2 while ,greek3 logos is a term with many senses1 used as more or less identical with a number of phrases1 ,greek3 ou heneka1 ,greek3 energeia1 ,greek3 entelecheia1 ,greek3 ousia1 ,greek3 eidos1 ,greek3 morph1 c4 ,in the reaction from ,platonic dualism1 however1 the ,logos doctrine reappears in great breadth4 ,it is a capital element in the system of the ,stoics4 ,with their teleological views of the world they naturally predicated an active principle pervading it and determining it4 ,this operative principle is called both ,logos and ,god4 ,it is conceived of as material1 and is described in terms used equally of nature and of ,god4 ,there is at the same time the special doctrine of the ,greek3 logos spermatikos1 the seminal ,logos1 or the law of generation in the world1 the principle of the active reason working in dead matter4 ,this parts into ,greek3 logoi spermatikoi1 which are akin1 not to the ,platonic ideas1 but rather to the ,greek3 logoi enuloi of ,aristotle4 ,in man1 too1 there is a ,logos which is his characteristic possession1 and which is ,greek3 endiathetos1 as long as it is a thought resident within his breast1 but ,greek3 prophorikos when it is expressed as a word4 ,this distinction between ,logos as ratio and ,logos as oratio1 so much used subsequently by ,philo and the ,christian fathers1 had been so far anticipated by ,aristotle's distinction between the ,greek3 ex logos and the ,greek3 logos en t psych4 ,it forms the point of attachment by which the ,logos doctrine connected itself with ,christianity4 ,the ,logos of the ,stoics 7q4v47 is a reason in the world gifted with intelligence1 and analogous to the reason in man4 #b4 ,the ,hebrew ,logos4--,in the later ,judaism the earlier anthropomorphic conception of ,god and with it the sense of the divine nearness had been succeeded by a belief which placed ,god at a remote distance1 severed from man and the world by a deep chasm4 ,the old familiar name ,yahweh became a secret2 its place was taken by such general expressions as the ,holy1 the ,almighty1 the ,majesty on ,high1 the ,king of ,kings1 and also by the simple word ,heaven4 ,instead of the once powerful confidence in the immediate presence of ,god there grew up a mass of speculation regarding on the one hand the distant future1 on the other the distant past4 ,various attempts were made to bridge the gulf between ,god and man1 including the angels1 and a number of other hybrid forms of which it is hard to say whether they are personal beings or abstractions4 ,the wisdom1 the ,shekinah or ,glory1 and the ,spirit of ,god are intermediate beings of this kind1 and even the ,law came to be regarded as an independent spiritual entity4 ,among these conceptions that of the word of ,god had an important place1 especially the creative word of ,genesis i4 ,here as in the other cases we cannot always say whether the ,word is regarded as a mere attribute or activity of ,god1 or an independent being1 though there is a clear tendency towards the latter4 ,the ambiguity lies in the twofold purpose of these activities3 7#a7 to establish communication with ,god2 7#b7 to prevent direct connexion between ,god and the world4 ,the word of the ,god of revelation is represented as the creative principle 7e4g4 ,gen4 i4 #c2 ,psalm xxxiii4 #f71 as the executor of the divine judgments 7,hosea vi4 #e71 as healing 7,psalm cvii4 #bj71 as possessed of almost personal qualities 7,isaiah lv4 #aa2 ,psalm cxlvii4 #ae74 ,along with this comes the doctrine of the angel of ,yahweh1 the angel of the covenant1 the angel of the presence1 in whom ,god manifests ,himself1 and who is sometimes identified with ,yahweh or ,elohim 7,gen4 xvi4 #aa1 #ac2 xxxii4 #bi-ca2 ,exod4 iii4 #b2 xiii4 #ba71 sometimes distinguished from ,him 7,gen4 xxii4 #ae1 c42 xxiv4 #g2 xxviii4 #ab1 c471 and sometimes presented in both aspects 7,judges ii41 vi42 ,zech4 i474 ,to this must be added the doctrine of ,wisdom1 given in the books of ,job and ,proverbs4 ,at one time it is exhibited as an attribute of ,god 7,prov4 iii4 #ai74 ,at another it is strongly personified1 so as to become rather the creative thought of ,god than a quality 7,prov4 viii4 #bb74 ,again it is described as proceeding from ,god as the principle of creation and objective to ,him4 ,in these and kindred passages 7,job xv4 #g1 c47 it is on the way to become hypostatized4 ,the ,hebrew conception is partially associated with the ,greek in the case of ,aristobulus1 the predecessor of ,philo1 and1 according to the fathers1 the founder of the ,alexandrian school4 ,he speaks of ,wisdom in a way reminding us of the book of ,proverbs4 ,the pseudo-,solomonic ,book of ,wisdom 7generally supposed to be the work of an ,alexandrian flourishing somewhere between ,aristobulus and ,philo7 deals both with the ,wisdom and with the ,logos4 ,it fails to hypostatize either4 ,but it represents the former as the framer of the world1 as the power or spirit of ,god1 active alike in the physical1 the intellectual1 and the ethical domain1 and apparently objective to ,god4 ,in the ,targums1 on the other hand1 the three doctrines of the word1 the angel1 and the wisdom of ,god converge in a very definite conception4 ,in the ,jewish theology ,god is represented as purely transcendent1 having no likeness of nature with man1 and making no personal entrance into history4 ,instead of the immediate relation of ,god to the world the ,targums introduce the ideas of the ,memra 7word7 and the ,shechina 7real presence74 ,this ,memra 7 ,ma'amar7 or1 as it is also designated1 ,dibbura1 is a hypostasis that takes the place of ,god when direct intercourse with man is in view4 ,in all those passages of the ,old ,testament where anthropomorphic terms are used of ,god1 the ,memra is substituted for ,god4 ,the ,memra proceeds from ,god1 and retains the creaturely relation to ,god4 ,it does not seem to have been identified with the ,messiah4#b #c4 ,philo4--,in the ,alexandrian philosophy1 as represented by the ,hellenized ,jew ,philo1 the ,logos doctrine assumes a leading place and shapes a new career for itself4 ,philo's doctrine is moulded by three forces--,platonism1 ,stoicism and ,hebraism4 ,he detaches the ,logos idea from its connexion with ,stoic materialism and attaches it to a thoroughgoing ,platonism4 ,it is ,plato's idea of the ,good regarded as creatively active4 ,hence1 instead of being merely immanent in the ,cosmos1 it has an independent existence4 ,platonic too is the doctrine of the divine architect who seeks to realize in the visible universe the archetypes already formed in his mind4 ,philo was thus able to make the ,logos theory a bridge between ,judaism and ,greek philosophy4 ,it preserved the monotheistic idea yet afforded a description of the ,divine activity in terms of ,hellenic thought2 the word of the ,old ,testament is one with the ,greek3 logos of the ,stoics4 ,and thus in ,philo's conception the ,logos is much more than the principle of reason1 informing the infinite variety of things1 and so creating the ,world-,order2 it is also the divine dynamic1 the energy and self-revelation of ,god4 ,the ,stoics indeed sought1 more or less consciously1 by their doctrine of the ,logos as the ,infinite ,reason to escape from the belief in a divine ,creator1 but ,philo1 ,jew to the core1 starts from the ,jewish belief in a supreme1 self-existing ,god1 to whom the reason of the world must be subordinated though related4 ,the conflict of the two conceptions 7the ,greek and the ,hebrew7 led him into some difficulty2 sometimes he represents the ,logos as an independent and even personal being1 a second ,god1 sometimes as merely an aspect of the divine activity4 ,and though passages of the first class must no doubt be explained figuratively--for ,philo would not assert the existence of two ,divine agents--it remains true that the two conceptions cannot be fused4 ,the ,alexandrian philosopher wavers between the two theories and has to accord to the ,logos of ,hellas a semi-independent position beside the supreme ,god of ,judaea4 ,he speaks of the ,logos 7#a7 as the agency by which ,god reveals ,himself1 in some measure to all men1 in greater degree to chosen souls4 ,the appearances recorded in the ,old ,testament are manifestations of the ,logos1 and the knowledge of ,god possessed by the great leaders and teachers of ,israel is due to the same source2 7#b7 as the agency whereby man1 enmeshed by illusion1 lays hold of the higher spiritual life and rising above his partial point of view participates in the universal reason4 ,the ,logos is thus the means of redemption2 those who realize its activity being emancipated from the tyranny of circumstance into the freedom of the eternal4 #d4 ,the ,fourth ,gospel4--,among the influences that shaped the ,fourth ,gospel that of the ,alexandrian philosophy must be assigned a distinct1 though not an exaggerated importance4 ,there are other books in the ,new ,testament that bear the same impress1 the epistles to the ,ephesians and the ,colossians1 and to a much greater degree the epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,the development that had thus begun in the time of ,paul reaches maturity in the ,fourth ,gospel1 whose dependence on ,philo appears 7#a7 in the use of the allegorical method1 7#b7 in many coincident passages1 7#c7 in the dominant conception of the ,logos4 ,the writer narrates the life of ,christ from the point of view furnished him by ,philo's theory4 ,true1 the ,logos doctrine is only mentioned in the prologue to the ,gospel1 but it is presupposed throughout the whole book4 ,the author's task indeed was somewhat akin to that of ,philo1 to transplant into the world of ,hellenic culture a revelation originally given through ,judaism4 ,this is not to say that he holds the ,logos doctrine in exactly the same form as ,philo4 ,on the contrary1 the fact that he starts from an actual knowledge of the earthly life of ,jesus1 while ,philo1 even when ascribing a real personality to the ,logos1 keeps within the bounds of abstract speculation1 leads him seriously to modify the ,philonic doctrine4 ,though the ,alexandrian idea largely determines the evangelist's treatment of the history1 the history similarly reacts on the idea4 ,the prologue is an organic portion of the ,gospel and not a preface written to conciliate a philosophic public4 ,it assumes that the ,logos idea is familiar in ,christian theology1 and vividly summarizes the main features of the ,philonic conception--the eternal existence of the ,logos1 its relation to ,god 7,greek3 pros ton theon1 yet distinct71 its creative1 illuminative and redemptive activity4 ,but the adaptation of the idea to ,john's account of a historical person involved at least three profound modifications3--7#a7 the ,logos1 instead of the abstraction or semi-personification of ,philo1 becomes fully personified4 ,the word that became flesh subsisted from all eternity as a distinct personality within the divine nature4 7#b7 ,much greater stress is laid upon the redemptive than upon the creative function4 ,the latter indeed is glanced at 7,all things were made by him71 merely to provide a link with earlier speculation1 but what the writer is concerned about is not the mode in which the world came into being but the spiritual life which resides in the ,logos and is communicated by him to men4 7#c7 ,the idea of ,greek3 logos as ,reason becomes subordinated to the idea of ,greek3 logos as ,word1 the expression of ,god's will and power1 the outgoing of the divine energy1 life1 love and light4 ,thus in its fundamental thought the prologue of the ,fourth ,gospel comes nearer to the ,old ,testament 7and especially to ,gen4 i47 than to ,philo4 ,as speech goes out from a man and reveals his character and thought1 so ,christ is sent out from the ,father1 and as the divine word is also1 in accordance with the ,hebrew idea1 the medium of ,god's quickening power4 ,what ,john thus does is to take the ,logos idea of ,philo and use it for a practical purpose--to make more intelligible to himself and his readers the divine nature of ,jesus ,christ4 ,that this endeavour to work into the historical tradition of the life and teaching of ,jesus--a hypothesis which had a distinctly foreign origin--led him into serious difficulties is a consideration that must be discussed elsewhere4 #e4 ,the ,early ,church4--,in many of the early ,christian writers1 as well as in the heterodox schools1 the ,logos doctrine is influenced by the ,greek idea4 ,the ,syrian ,gnostic ,basilides held 7according to ,irenaeus i4 #bd7 that the ,logos or ,word emanated from the ,greek3 nous1 or personified reason1 as this latter emanated from the unbegotten ,father4 ,the completest type of ,gnosticism1 the ,valentinian1 regarded ,wisdom as the last of the series of aeons that emanated from the original ,being or ,father1 and the ,logos as an emanation from the first two principles that issued from ,god1 ,reason 7,greek3 nous7 and ,truth4 ,justin ,martyr1 the first of the sub-apostolic fathers1 taught that ,god produced of ,his own nature a rational power7,greek3 dynamin tina logikn71 ,his agent in creation1 who now became man in ,jesus 7,dial4 c4 ,tryph4 chap4 #dh1 #fj74 ,he affirmed also the action of the ,greek3 logos spermatikos1 7,apol4 i4 #df2 ii4 #ac1 c474 ,with ,tatian 7,cohort4 ad4 ,gr4 chap4 #e1 c47 the ,logos is the beginning of the world1 the reason that comes into being as the sharer of ,god's rational power4 ,with ,athenagoras 7,suppl4 chap4 #i1 #aj7 ,he is the prototype of the world and the energizing principle 7,greek3 idea kai energeia7 of things4 ,theophilus 7,ad ,autolyc4 ii4 #aj1 #bd7 taught that the ,logos was in eternity with ,god as the ,greek3 logos endiathetos1 the counsellor of ,god1 and that when the world was to be created ,god sent forth this counsellor 7,greek3 symboulos7 from ,himself as the ,greek3 logos prophorikos1 yet so that the begotten ,logos did not cease to be a part of ,himself4 ,with ,hippolytus 7,refut4 x4 #cb1 c47 the ,logos1 produced of ,god's own substance1 is both the divine intelligence that appears in the world as the ,son of ,god1 and the idea of the universe immanent in ,god4 ,the early ,sabellians 7comp4 ,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl4 vi4 #cc2 ,athanasius1 ,contra ,arian4 iv47 held that the ,logos was a faculty of ,god1 the divine reason1 immanent in ,god eternally1 but not in distinct personality prior to the historical manifestation in ,christ4 ,origen1 referring the act of creation to eternity instead of to time1 affirmed the eternal personal existence of the ,logos4 ,in relation to ,god this ,logos or ,son was a copy of the original1 and as such inferior to that4 ,in relation to the world he was its prototype1 the ,greek3 idea iden and its redeeming power 7,contra ,cels4 v4 #fjh2 ,frag4 de princip4 i4 #d2 ,de princip4 i4 #aji1 #cbd74 ,in the later developments of ,hellenic speculation nothing essential was added to the doctrine of the ,logos4 ,philo's distinction between ,god and ,his rational power or ,logos in contact with the world was generally maintained by the eclectic ,platonists and ,neo-,platonists4 ,by some of these this distinction was carried out to the extent of predicating 7as was done by ,numenius of ,apamea7 three ,gods3--the supreme ,god2 the second ,god1 or ,demiurge or ,logos2 and the third ,god1 or the world4 ,plotinus explained the logoi as constructive forces1 proceeding from the ideas and giving form to the dead matter of sensible things 7,enneads1 v4 #a4 #h and ,richter's ,neu-,plat4 ,studien74 ,see the histories of philosophy and theology1 and works quoted under ,,heraclitus1 ,,stoics1 ,,philo1 ,,john1 ,,the ,,gospel ,,of1 c41 and for a general summary of the growth of the ,logos doctrine1 ,e4 ,caird1 ,evolution of ,theology in the ,greek ,philosophers 7#aijd71 vol4 ii42 ,a4 ,harnack1 ,history of ,dogma2 ,e4 ,f4 ,scott1 ,the ,fourth ,gospel1 ch4 v4 7#aijf72 ,j4 ,m4 ,heinze1 ,die ,lehre vom ,logos in der griech4 ,philosophie 7#ahgb72 ,j4 ,rville1 ,la ,doctrine du ,logos 7#ahha72 ,aal1 ,gesch4 d4 ,logos-,idee 7#ahii72 and the ,histories of ,dogma1 by ,a4 ,harnack1 ,f4 ,loofs1 ,r4 ,seeberg4 7,s4 ,d4 ,f4 ,s42 ,a4 ,j4 ,g47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,cf4 ,schleiermacher's ,herakleitos der ,dunkle2 art4 ,,heraclitus and authorities there quoted4 #b ,cf4 the ,targum of ,onkelos on the ,pentateuch under ,gen4 vii4 #af1 xvii4 #b1 xxi4 #bj2 ,exod4 xix4 #af1 etc42 the ,jerusalem ,targum on ,numb4 vii4 #hi1 c4 ,for further information regarding the ,hebrew ,logos see1 beside ,dr ,kaufmann ,kohler1 s4v4 ,memra1 ,jewish ,encyc4 viii4 #dfd-dfe1 ,bousset1 ,die ,religion des ,judenthums 7#aijc71 p4 #cda1 and ,weber1 ,jdische ,theologie 7#ahig71 pp4 #ahj-ahd4 ,the hypostatizing of the ,divine word in the doctrine of the ,memra was probably later than the time of ,philo1 but it was the outcome of a mode of thinking already common in ,jewish theology4 ,the same tendency is of course expressed in the ,logos of the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,,logothete 7,med4 ,lat4 logotheta1 ,gr4 ,greek3 logothets1 from ,greek3 logos1 word1 account1 calculation1 and ,greek3 tithenai1 to set1 i4e4 one who accounts1 calculates or ratiocinates71 originally the title of a variety of administrative officials in the ,byzantine ,empire1 e4g4 the ,greek3 logothets tou dromou1 who was practically the equivalent of the modern postmaster-general2 and the ,greek3 logothets tou stratitikou1 the logothete of the military chest4 ,gibbon defines the great ,logothete as the supreme guardian of the laws and revenues1 who is compared with the chancellor of the ,latin monarchies4 ,from the ,eastern ,empire the title was borrowed by the west1 though it only became firmly established in ,sicily1 where the logotheta occupied the position of chancellor elsewhere1 his office being equal if not superior to that of the magnus cancellarius4 ,thus the title was borne by ,pietro della ,vigna1 the all-powerful minister of the emperor ,frederick ,,ii41 king of ,sicily4 ,see ,,du ,,cange1 ,glossarium1 s4v4 ,logotheta4 ,,logro,o1 an inland province of northern ,spain1 the smallest of the eight provinces formed in #ahcc out of ,old ,castile2 bounded ,n4 by ,burgos1 lava and ,navarre1 ,w4 by ,burgos1 ,s4 by ,soria and ,e4 by ,navarre and ,saragossa4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #ahi1cgf2 area1 #aidf sq4 m4 ,logroo belongs entirely to the basin of the river ,ebro1 which forms its northern boundary except for a short distance near ,san ,vicente2 it is drained chiefly by the rivers ,tiron1 ,oja1 ,najerilla1 ,iregua1 ,leza1 ,cidacos and ,alhama1 all flowing in a north-easterly direction4 ,the portion skirting the ,ebro forms a spacious and for the most part fertile undulating plain1 called ,la ,rioja1 but in the south ,logroo is considerably broken up by offshoots from the sierras which separate that river from the ,douro4 ,in the west the ,cerro de ,san ,lorenzo1 the culminating point of the ,sierra de la ,demanda1 rises #gefb ft41 and in the south the ,pico de ,urbion reaches #gchh ft4 ,the products of the province are chiefly cereals1 good oil and wine 7especially in the ,rioja71 fruit1 silk1 flax and honey4 ,wine is the principal export1 although after #ahib this industry suffered greatly from the protective duties imposed by ,france4 ,great efforts have been made to keep a hold upon ,french and ,english markets with light red and white ,rioja wines4 ,no less than #abh1jjj acres are covered with vines1 and #ba1jjj with olive groves4 ,iron and argentiferous lead are mined in small quantities and other ores have been discovered4 ,the manufacturing industries are insignificant4 ,a railway along the right bank of the ,ebro connects the province with ,saragossa1 and from ,miranda there is railway communication with ,madrid1 ,bilbao and ,france2 but there is no railway in the southern districts1 where trade is much retarded by the lack even of good roads4 ,the town of ,logroo 7pop4 #aijj1 #ai1bcg7 and the city of ,calahorra 7#idge7 are separately described4 ,the only other towns with upwards of #ejjj inhabitants are ,haro 7#giad71 ,alfaro 7#eich7 and ,cervera del ,ro ,alhama 7#eicj74 ,,logro,o1 the capital of the ,spanish province of ,logroo1 on the right bank of the river ,ebro and on the ,saragossa-,miranda de ,ebro railway4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #ai1bcg4 ,logroo is an ancient walled town1 finely situated on a hill #abjd ft4 high4 ,its bridge of twelve arches across the ,ebro was built in #aach1 but has frequently been restored after partial destruction by floods4 ,the main street1 arcaded on both sides1 and the crooked but highly picturesque alleys of the older quarters are in striking contrast with the broad1 tree-shaded avenues and squares laid out in modern times4 ,the chief buildings are a bull-ring which accommodates #aa1jjj spectators1 and a church1 ,santa ,maria de ,palacio1 called the imperial1 from the tradition that its founder was ,constantine the ,great 7#bgd-ccg74 ,as the commercial centre of the fertile and well-cultivated plain of the ,rioja1 ,logroo has an important trade in wine4 ,the district of ,logroo was in ancient times inhabited by the ,berones or ,verones of ,strabo and ,pliny1 and their ,varia is to be identified with the modern suburb of the city of ,logroo now known as ,varea of ,barea4 ,logroo was named by the ,romans ,juliobriga and afterwards ,lucronius4 ,it fell into the hands of the ,moors in the #hth century1 but was speedily retaken by the ,christians1 and under the name of ,lucronius appears with frequency in medieval history4 ,it was unsuccessfully besieged by the ,french in #aeba1 and occupied by them from #ahjh to #ahac4 ,it was the birthplace of the dumb painter ,juan ,fernandez ,navarrete 7#aebf-aegi74 ,,logroscino 7or ,,lo ,,groscino71 ,,nicola 7#agjj8-agfc871 ,italian musical composer1 was born at ,naples and was a pupil of ,durante4 ,in #agch he collaborated with ,leo and others in the hasty production of ,demetrio2 in the autumn of the same year he produced a comic opera ,l'inganno per inganno1 the first of a long series of comic operas1 the success of which won him the name of il ,dio dell' opera buffa4 ,he went to ,palermo1 probably in #agdg1 as a teacher of counterpoint2 as an opera composer he is last heard of in #agfj1 and is supposed to have died about #agfc4 ,logroscino has been credited with the invention of the concerted operatic finale1 but as far as can be seen from the score of ,il ,governatore and the few remaining fragments of other operas1 his finales show no advance upon those of ,leo4 ,as a musical humorist1 however1 he deserves remembrance1 and may justly be classed alongside of ,rossini4 ,,logwood 7so called from the form in which it is imported71 the heart-wood of a leguminous tree1 ,haematoxylon campechianum1 native of ,central ,america1 and grown also in the ,west ,indian ,islands4 ,the tree attains a height not exceeding #dj ft41 and is said to be ready for felling when about ten years old4 ,the wood1 deprived of its bark and the sap-wood1 is sent into the market in the form of large blocks and billets4 ,it is very hard and dense1 and externally has a dark brownish-red colour2 but it is less deeply coloured within4 ,the best qualities come from ,campeachy1 but it is obtained there only in small quantity4 ,logwood is used in dyeing 7q4v471 in microscopy1 in the preparation of ink1 and to a small extent in medicine on account of the tannic acid it contains1 though it has no special medicinal value1 being much inferior to kino and catechu4 ,the wood was introduced into ,europe as a dyeing substance soon after the discovery of ,america1 but from #aeha to #affb its use in ,england was prohibited by legislative enactment on account of the inferior dyes which at first were produced by its employment4 ,the colouring principle of logwood exists in the timber in the form of a glucoside1 from which it is liberated as haematoxylin by fermentation4 ,haematoxylin1 ,c#af;,h#ad,o#f1 was isolated by ,m4 ,e4 ,chevreul in #ahaj4 ,it forms a crystalline hydrate1 ,c#af;,h#ad,o#f #c;,h#b,o1 which is a colourless body very sparingly soluble in cold water1 but dissolving freely in hot water and in alcohol4 ,by exposure to the air1 especially in alkaline solutions1 haematoxylin is rapidly oxidized into haematein1 ,c#af;,h#ab,o#f1 with the development of a fine purple colour4 ,this reaction of haematoxylin is exceedingly rapid and delicate1 rendering that body a laboratory test for alkalis4 ,by the action of hydrogen and sulphurous acid1 haematein is easily reduced to haematoxylin4 ,it is chemically related to brazilin1 found in brazil-wood4 ,haematoxylin and brazilin1 and also their oxidation products1 haematin and brazilin1 have been elucidated by ,w4 ,h4 ,perkin and his pupils 7see ,jour4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #aijh1 #aiji74 ,,loharu1 a native state of ,india1 in the south-east corner of the ,punjab1 between ,hissar district and ,rajputana4 ,area1 #bbb sq4 m42 pop4 7#aija7 #ae1bbi2 estimated gross revenue1 #dhjj4 ,the chief1 whose title is nawab1 is a ,mahommedan1 of ,afghan descent4 ,the nawab ,sir ,amir-ud-din-,ahmad ,khan1 ,k4,c4,i4,e41 who is a member of the viceroy's legislative council1 was until #aije administrator and adviser of the state of ,maler ,kotla4 ,the town of ,loharu had a population in #aija of #bage4 ,l,,he1 ,,johann ,,konrad ,,wilhelm 7 #ahjh-ahgb71 ,german divine and philanthropist1 was born on the #bast of ,february #ahjh in ,frth near ,nuremberg1 and was educated at the universities of ,erlangen and ,berlin4 ,in #ahca he was appointed vicar at ,kirchenlamitz1 where his fervent evangelical preaching attracted large congregations and puzzled the ecclesiastical authorities4 ,a similar experience ensued at ,nuremberg1 where he was assistant pastor of ,st ,egidia4 ,in #ahcg he became pastor in ,neuendettelsau1 a small and unattractive place1 where his life's work was done1 and which he transformed into a busy and influential community4 ,he was interested in the spiritual condition of ,germans who had emigrated to the ,united ,states1 and built two training homes for missionaries to them4 ,in #ahdi he founded the ,lutheran ,society of ,home ,missions and in #ahec an institution of deaconesses4 ,other institutions were added to these1 including a lunatic asylum1 a ,magdalen refuge1 and hospitals for men and women4 ,in theology ,lhe was a strict ,lutheran1 but his piety was of a most attractive kind4 ,originality of conception1 vividness of presentation1 fertility of imagination1 wide knowledge of ,scripture and a happy faculty of applying it1 intense spiritual fervour1 a striking physique and a powerful voice made him a great pulpit force4 ,he wrote a good deal1 amongst his books being ,drei ,bcher von der ,kirche 7#ahde71 ,samenkrner des ,gebetes 7over #cj editions7 and several volumes of sermons4 ,he died on the #bnd of ,january #ahgb4 ,see his ,life1 by ,j4 ,deinzer 7#c vols41 ,gtersloh1 #ahgc1 #crd ed41 #aija74 ,,lohengrin1 the hero of the ,german version of the legend of the knight of the swan4 ,the story of ,lohengrin as we know it is based on two principal motives common enough in folklore3 the metamorphosis of human beings into swans1 and the curious wife whose question brings disaster4 ,lohengrin's guide 7the swan7 was originally the little brother who1 in one version of the ,seven ,swans1 was compelled through the destruction of his golden chain to remain in swan form and attached himself to the fortunes of one of his brothers4 ,the swan played a part in classical mythology as the bird of ,apollo1 and in ,scandinavian lore the swan maidens1 who have the gift of prophecy and are sometimes confused with the ,valkyries1 reappear again and again4 ,the wife's desire to know her husband's origin is a parallel of the myth of ,cupid and ,psyche1 and bore in medieval times a similar mystical interpretation4 ,the ,lohengrin legend is localized on the ,lower ,rhine1 and its incidents take place at ,antwerp1 ,nijmwegen1 ,cologne and ,mainz4 ,in its application it falls into sharp division in the hands of ,german and ,french poets4 ,by the ,germans it was turned to mystical use by being attached loosely to the ,grail legend 7see ,,grail and ,,perceval72 in ,france it was adapted to glorify the family of ,godfrey de ,bouillon4 ,the ,german story makes its appearance in the last stanzas of ,wolfram von ,eschenbach's ,parzival1 where it is related how ,parzival's son1 ,loherangrn1#a was sent from the castle of the ,grail to the help of the young duchess of ,brabant4 ,guided by the swan he reached ,antwerp1 and married the lady on condition that she should not ask his origin4 ,on the breach of this condition years afterwards ,loherangrn departed1 leaving sword1 horn and ring behind him4 ,between #abhc and #abij1 a ,bavarian disciple of ,wolfram's#b adopted the story and developed it into an epic poem of nearly #hjjj lines1 incorporating episodes of ,lohengrin's prowess in tournament1 his wars with ,henry ,i4 against the heathen ,hungarians and the ,saracens1#c and incidentally providing a detailed picture of the everyday life of people of high condition4 ,the epic of ,lohengrin is put by the anonymous writer into the mouth of ,wolfram1 who is made to relate it during the ,contest of the ,singers at the ,wartburg in proof of his superiority in knowledge of sacred things over ,klingsor the magician1 and the poem is thus linked on to ,german tradition4 ,its connexion with ,parzival implies a mystic application4 ,the consecrated wafer shared by ,lohengrin and the swan on their voyage is one of the more obvious means taken by the poet to give the tale the character of an allegory of the relations between ,christ1 the ,church and the human soul4 ,the story was followed closely in its main outlines by ,richard ,wagner in his opera ,lohengrin4 ,the ,french legend of the knight of the swan is attached to the house of ,bouillon1 and although ,william of ,tyre refers to it about #aagj as fable1 it was incorporated without question by later annalists4 ,it forms part of the cycle of the chansons de geste dealing with the ,crusade1 and relates how ,helyas1 knight of the swan1 is guided by the swan to the help of the duchess of ,bouillon and marries her daughter ,ida or ,beatrix in circumstances exactly parallel to the adventures of ,lohengrin and ,elsa of ,brabant1 and with the like result4 ,their daughter marries ,eustache1 count of ,boulogne1 and had three sons1 the eldest of whom1 ,godefroid 7,godfrey71 is the future king of ,jerusalem4 ,but in ,french story ,helyas is not the son of ,parzival1 but of the king and queen of ,lillefort1 and the story of his birth1 of himself1 his five brothers and one sister is1 with variations1 that of the seven swans persecuted by the wicked grandmother1 which figures in the pages of ,grimm and ,hans ,andersen4 ,the house of ,bouillon was not alone in claiming the knight of the swan as an ancestor1 and the tradition probably originally belonged to the house of ,cleves4 ,german ,versions4--,see ,lohengrin1 ed4 ,rckert 7,quedlinburg and ,leipzig1 #aheh72 another version of the tale1 ,lorengel1 is edited in the ,zeitschr4 fr deutsches ,altertum 7vol4 #ae72 modern ,german translation of ,lohengrin1 by ,h4 ,a4 ,junghaus 7,leipzig1 #ahgh72 ,conrad von ,wrzburg's fragmentary ,schwanritter1 ed4 ,f4 ,roth 7,frankfurt1 #ahfa74 ,cf4 ,elster1 ,beitrge zur ,kritik des ,lohengrin 7,halle1 #ahhd71 and ,r4 ,heinrichs1 ,die ,lohengrindichtung und ihre ,deutung 7,hamm i4 ,west41 #aije74 ,french ,versions4--,baron de ,reiffenberg1 ,le ,chevalier au cygne et ,godfrey de ,bouillon 7,brussels1 #b vols41 #ahdf-ahdh71 in ,mon4 pour servir l'hist4 de la province de ,namur2 ,c4 ,hippeau1 ,la ,chanson du chevalier au cygne 7#ahgd72 ,h4 ,a4 ,todd1 ,la ,naissance du chevalier au cygne1 an inedited ,french poem of the #abth cent4 7,mod4 ,lang4 ,assoc41 ,baltimore1 #ahhi72 cf4 the ,latin tale by ,jean de ,haute ,seille 7,johannes de ,alta ,silva7 in his ,dolopathos 7ed4 ,oesterley1 ,strassburg1 #ahgc74 ,english ,versions4--,in ,england the story first appears in a short poem preserved among the ,cotton ,,mss4 of the ,british ,museum and entitled ,chevelere assigne4 ,this was edited by ,g4 ,e4 ,v4 ,utterson in #ahbj for the ,roxburghe ,club1 and again by ,h4 ,h4 ,gibbs in #ahfh for the ,early ,english ,text ,society4 ,the ,e4,e4,t4,s4 edition is accompanied by a set of photographs of a #adth-century ivory casket1 on which the story is depicted in #cf compartments4 ,an ,english prose romance1 ,helyas ,knight of the ,swan1 translated by ,robert ,copland1 and printed by ,w4 ,copland about #aeej1 is founded on a ,french romance ,la ,gnealogie 444 de ,godeffroy de ,boulin 7printed #aejd7 and is reprinted by ,w4 ,j4 ,thoms in ,early ,prose ,romances1 vol4 iii4 ,it was also printed by ,wynkyn de ,worde in #aeab4 ,a modern edition was issued in #aija from the ,grolier ,club1 ,new ,york4 ,,footnotes3 #a i4e4 ,garin le ,loherin 7q4v471 or ,garin of ,lorraine4 #b ,elster 7,beitrge7 says that the poem is the work of two poets3 the first part by a ,thuringian wandering minstrel1 the second--which differs in style and dialect--by a ,bavarian official4 #c ,based on material borrowed from the ,schsische ,weltchronik 7formerly called ,repgowische ,chronik from its dubious assignment to ,eime von ,repgow71 the oldest prose chronicle of the world in ,german 7c4 #abdh or #abfj74 ,,loin 7through ,o4 ,fr4 loigne or logne1 mod4 longe1 from ,lat4 lumbus71 that part of the body in an animal which lies between the upper part of the hip-bone and the last of the false ribs on either side of the back-bone1 hence in the plural the general term for the lower part of the human body at the junction with the legs1 covered by the loin-cloth1 the almost universal garment among primitive peoples4 ,there are also figurative uses of the word1 chiefly biblical1 due to the loins being the supposed seat of male vigour and power of generation4 ,apart from these uses the word is a butcher's term for a joint of meat cut from this part of the body4 ,the upper part of a loin of beef is known as the surloin 7,fr4 surlonge1 i4e4 upper loin74 ,this has been commonly corrupted into sirloin1 and a legend invented1 to account for the name1 of a king1 ,james ,i4 or ,charles ,,ii41 knighting a prime joint of beef ,sir ,loin in pleasure at its excellence4 ,a double surloin1 undivided at the back-bone1 is known as a baron of beef1 probably from an expansion of the legend of the ,sir ,loin4 ,,loire1 the longest river of ,france1 rising in the ,gerbier de ,jonc in the department of ,ardche1 at a height of #dejj ft4 and flowing north and west to the ,atlantic4 ,after a course of #ah m4 in ,ardche it enters ,haute-,loire1 in which it follows a picturesque channel along the foot of basaltic rocks1 through narrow gorges and small plains4 ,at ,vorey1 where it is joined by the ,arzon1 it becomes navigable for rafts4 ,four miles below its entrance into the department of ,loire1 at ,la ,noirie1 river navigation is officially reckoned to begin1 and breaking through the gorges of ,saint ,victor1 the ,loire enters the wide and swampy plain of ,forez1 after which it again penetrates the hills and flows out into the plain of ,roanne4 ,as in ,haute-,loire1 it is joined by a large number of streams1 the most important being the ,coise on the right and the ,lignon du ,nord or du ,forez and the ,aix on the left4 ,below ,roanne the ,loire is accompanied on its left bank by a canal to ,digoin 7#ce m47 in ,sane-et-,loire1 thence by the so-called lateral canal of the ,loire to ,briare in ,loiret 7#abb m474 ,owing to the extreme irregularity of the river in different seasons these canals form the only certain navigable way4 ,at ,digoin the ,loire receives the ,arroux1 and gives off the canal du ,centre 7which utilizes the valley of the ,bourbince7 to ,chalon-sur-,sane4 ,at this point its northerly course begins to be interrupted by the mountains of ,morvan1 and flowing north-west it enters the department of ,nivre4 ,just beyond ,nevers it is joined by the ,allier2 this river rises #cj m4 ,s4,w4 of the ,loire in the department of ,lozre1 and following an almost parallel course has at the confluence a volume equal to two-thirds of that of the main stream4 ,above ,nevers the ,loire is joined by the ,aron1 along which the canal du ,nivernais proceeds northward1 and the ,nivre1 and below the confluence of the ,allier gives off the canal du ,berry to ,bourges and the navigable part of the ,cher4 ,about this point the valley becomes more ample and at ,briare 7in ,loiret7 the river leaves the highlands and flows between the plateaus of ,gatinais and the ,beauce on the right and the ,sologne on the left4 ,in ,loiret it gives off the canal de ,briare northward to the ,seine and itself bends north-west to ,orlans1 whence the canal d',orlans1 following the little river ,cens1 communicates with the ,briare canal4 ,at ,orlans the river changes its north-westerly for a south-westerly course4 ,a striking peculiarity of the affluents of the ,loire in ,loiret and the three subsequent departments is that they frequently flow in a parallel channel to the main stream and in the same valley4 ,passing ,blois in ,loir-et-,cher1 the ,loire enters ,indre-et-,loire and receives on the right the ,cisse1 and1 after passing ,tours1 the three important left-hand tributaries of the ,cher1 ,indre and the ,vienne4 ,at the confluence of the ,vienne the ,loire enters ,maine-et-,loire1 in its course through which department it is frequently divided by long sandy islands fringed with osiers and willows2 while upon arriving at ,les ,ponts-de-,c it is split into several distinct branches4 ,the principal tributaries are3 left1 the ,thouet at ,saumur1 the ,layon and the ,evre2 right3 the ,authion1 and1 most important tributary of all1 the ,maine1 formed by the junction of the rivers ,mayenne1 ,sarthe and ,loir4 ,through ,loire-,infrieure the river is studded with islands until below ,nantes1 where the largest of them1 called ,belle-,ile1 is found4 ,it receives the ,erdre on the right at ,nantes and on the opposite shore the ,svre-,nantaise1 and farther on the canalized ,achenau on the left and the navigable ,etier de ,man on the right near ,saint ,nazaire4 ,below ,nantes1 between which point and ,la ,martinire 7below ,pellerin7 the channel is embanked1 the river is known as the ,loire ,maritime and widens out between marshy shores1 passing ,paimboeuf on the left and finally ,saint-,nazaire1 where it is #a m4 broad4 ,the length of the channel of the ,loire is about #fbe m42 its drainage area is #df1gjj sq4 m4 ,a lateral canal 7built in #ahha-ahib at a cost of about #a1jjj1jjj7 known as the ,maritime ,canal of the ,loire between ,le ,carnet and ,la ,martinire enables large ships to ascend to ,nantes4 ,it is #i m4 long1 and #ai 7capable of being increased to #bd7 ft4 deep4 ,at each end is a lock #dje ft4 long by #ei ft4 wide4 ,the canal de ,nantes ,brest connects this city with ,brest4 ,the ,loire is navigable only in a very limited sense4 ,during the drought of summer thin and feeble streams thread their way between the sandbanks of the channel2 while at other times a stupendous flood submerges wide reaches of land4 ,in the middle part of its course the ,loire traverses the western portion of the undulating ,paris basin1 with its ,tertiary marls1 sands and clays1 and the alluvium carried off from these renders its lower channel inconstant2 the rest of the drainage area is occupied by crystalline rocks1 over the hard surface of which the water1 undiminished by absorption1 flows rapidly into the streams4 ,when the flood waters of two or more tributaries arrive at the same time serious inundations result4 ,attempts to control the river must have begun at a very early date1 and by the close of the middle ages the bed between ,orlans and ,angers was enclosed by dykes #aj to #ac ft4 high4 ,in #aghc a double line of dykes or turcies #bc ft4 high was completed from ,bec d',allier downwards4 ,the channel was1 however1 so much narrowed that the embankments are almost certain to give way as soon as the water rises #af ft4 7the average rise is about #ad1 and in #ahdf and #ahef it was more than #bb74 ,in modern times embankments1 aided by dredging operations extending over a large number of years1 have ensured a depth of #ah ft4 in the channel between ,la ,martinire and ,nantes4 ,several towns have constructed special works to defend themselves against the floods2 ,tours1 the most exposed of all1 is surrounded by a circular dyke4 ,various schemes for the systematic regulation of the ,loire have been discussed4 ,it has been proposed to construct in the upper valleys of the several affluents a number of gigantic dams or reservoirs from which the water1 stored during flood1 could be let off into the river as required4 ,a dam of this kind 7built in #agaa7 at the village of ,pinay1 about #ah m4 above ,roanne1 and capable of retaining from #cej to #dej million cub4 ft4 of water1 has greatly diminished the force of the floods at ,roanne1 and maintained the comparative equilibrium of the current during the dry season4 ,three other dams of modern construction are also in existence1 one near ,firminy1 the other two near ,st tienne4 ,,loire1 a department of central ,france1 made up in #agic of the old district of ,forez and portions of ,beaujolais and ,lyonnais1 all formerly included in the province of ,lyonnais4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #fdc1idc4 ,area #ahec sq4 m4 ,it is bounded ,n4 by the department of ,sane-et-,loire1 ,e4 by those of ,rhne and ,isre1 ,s4 by ,ardche and ,haute-,loire1 and ,w4 by ,puy-de-,dme and ,allier4 ,from #agij to #agic it constituted1 along with that of ,rhne1 a single department 7,rhne-et-,loire74 ,it takes its name from the river which bisects it from south to north4 ,the ,rhone skirts the ,s4,e4 of the department1 about one-eighth of which belongs to its basin4 ,after crossing the southern border the ,loire runs through wild gorges1 passing the picturesque crag crowned by the old fortress of ,st ,paul-en-,cornillon4 ,at ,st ,rambert it issues into the broad plain of ,fotez1 flows north as far as its confluence with the ,aix where the plain ends1 and then again traverses gorges till it enters the less extensive plain of ,roanne in the extreme north of the department4 ,these two plains1 the beds of ancient lakes1 are enclosed east and west by chains of mountains running parallel with the river4 ,in the west are the ,forez mountains1 which separate the ,loire basin from that of the ,allier2 their highest point 7,pierre sur ,haute1 #echa ft47 is #ab m4 ,w4 of ,montbrison4 ,they sink gradually towards the north1 and are successively called ,bois ,noirs 7#dbci ft471 from their woods1 and ,monts de la ,madeleine 7#chbb to #afdj ft474 ,in the east the ,rhone and ,loire basins are separated1 by ,mont ,pilat 7#dgje ft47 at the north extremity of the ,cvennes1 and by the hills of ,lyonnais1 ,tarare1 ,beaujolais and ,charolais1 none of which rise higher than #cbid ft4 ,of the affluents of the ,loire the most important are the ,lignon du ,nord1 the beautiful valley of which has been called ,la ,suisse ,forezienne1 and the ,aix on the left1 and on the right the ,ondaine 7on which stand the industrial towns of ,chambon-,feugerolles and ,firminy71 the ,furens and the ,rhin4 ,the ,gier forms a navigable channel to the ,rhone at ,givors1 and has on its banks the industrial towns of ,st ,chamond and ,rive-de-,gier4 ,from ,mont ,pilat descends the ,dme1 in the valley of which are the workshops of ,annonay 7q4v474 ,the climate on the heights is cold and healthy1 it is unwholesome in the marshy plain of ,forez1 mild in the valley of the ,rhone4 ,the annual rainfall varies from #ci to #dh in4 on the ,forez mountains1 but only reaches #bj to #bd in4 in the vicinity of ,montbrison4 ,the plains of ,forez and ,roanne are the two most important agricultural districts1 but the total production of grain within the department is insufficient for the requirements of the population4 ,the pasture lands of the plain of ,forez1 the western portion of which is irrigated by the canal of ,forez1 support a large number of live stock4 ,good pasturage is also found on the higher levels of the ,forez mountains1 on the north-eastern plateaus1 where oxen of the famous ,charolais breed are raised1 and on the uplands generally4 ,wheat and rye are the leading cereal crops2 oats come next in importance1 barley and colza occupying a relatively small area4 ,the vine is cultivated in the valley of the ,rhone1 on the lower slopes of the ,forez mountains and on the hills west of the plain of ,roanne4 ,the forests of ,mont ,pilat and the ,forez chain yield good-sized pines and wood for mining purposes4 ,the so-called ,lyons chestnuts are to a large extent obtained from ,forez2 the woods and pasture lands of ,mont ,pilat yield medicinal plants1 such as mint4 ,poultry-rearing and bee-keeping are considerable industries4 ,the department is rich in mineral springs1 the waters of ,st ,galmier1 ,sail-sous-,couzan1 ,st ,romain-le-,puy and ,st ,alban being largely exported4 ,the chief wealth of the department lies in the coal deposits of the basin of ,st tienne 7q4v471 the second in importance in ,france1 quarrying is also active4 ,metal-working industries are centred in the ,s4,e4 of the department1 where are the great manufacturing towns of ,st tienne1 ,rive-de-,gier1 ,st ,chamond and ,firminy4 ,at ,st tienne there is a national factory of arms1 in which as many as #aj1jjj have been employed2 apart from other factories of the same kind carried on by private individuals1 the production of hardware1 locks1 edge-tools1 common cutlery1 chain cables for the mines1 files1 rails1 c41 occupies thousands of hands4 ,cast steel is largely manufactured1 and the workshops of the department supply the heaviest constructions required in naval architecture1 as well as war material and machinery of every description4 ,the glass industry is carried on at ,rive-de-,gier and ,st ,galmier4 ,st tienne and ,st ,chamond are centres for the fabrication of silk ribbons1 elastic ribbons and laces1 and the dressing of raw silks4 ,between #ej1jjj and #fj1jjj people are employed in the last-named industries4 ,the arrondissement of ,roanne manufactures cotton stuffs1 muslins and the like4 ,that of ,montbrison produces table linen4 ,the department has numerous dye-works1 flour-mills1 paper works1 tanyards1 brick-works1 silk-spinning works and hat factories4 ,it is served by the ,paris-,lyon railway1 ,roanne being the junction of important lines from ,paris to ,lyons and ,st tienne4 ,within the department the ,loire is hardly used for commercial navigation2 the chief waterways are the canal from ,roanne to ,digoin 7#ac m4 in the department71 that from ,givors to ,rive-de-,gier 7#g m47 and the ,rhone 7#g m474 ,loire comprises three arrondissements--,st tienne1 ,montbrison and ,roanne--with #ca cantons and #cce communes4 ,it falls within the region of the ,,xiii4 army corps and the diocse and acadmie 7educational circumscription7 of ,lyons1 where also is its court of appeal4 ,st tienne is the capital1 other leading towns being ,roanne1 ,montbrison1 ,rive-de-,gier1 ,st ,chamond1 ,firminy and ,le ,chambon1 all separately noticed4 ,st ,bonnet-le-,chteau1 besides old houses1 has a church of the #aeth and #afth centuries1 containing paintings of the #aeth century2 ,st ,rambert and ,st ,romain-le-,puy have priory churches of the #aath and #abth centuries2 and at ,charlieu there are remains of a ,benedictine abbey founded in the #ith century1 including a porch decorated with fine ,romanesque carving4 ,,loire-,,inf,,rieure1 a maritime department of western ,france1 made up in #agij of a portion of ,brittany on the right and of the district of ,retz on the left of the ,loire1 and bounded ,w4 by the ocean1 ,n4 by ,morbihan and ,ille-et-,vilaine1 ,e4 by ,maine-et-,loire and ,s4 by ,vende4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #fff1gdh4 ,area #bfid sq4 m4 ,the surface is very flat1 and the highest point1 in the north on the borders of ,ille-et-,vilaine1 reaches only #cgg ft4 ,the line of hillocks skirting the right bank of the ,loire1 and known as the sillon de ,bretagne1 scarcely exceeds #bej ft42 below ,savenay they recede from the river1 and meadows give place to peat bogs4 ,north of ,st ,nazaire and ,grande ,brire1 measuring #i m4 by #f1 and rising hardly #aj ft4 above the sea-level1 still supplies old trees which can be used for joiners' work4 ,a few scattered villages occur on the more elevated spots1 but communication is effected chiefly by the canals which intersect it4 ,the district south of the ,loire lies equally low2 its most salient feature is the lake of ,grandlieu1 covering #bg sq4 m41 and surrounded by low and marshy ground1 but so shallow 7#f ft4 at most7 that drainage would be comparatively easy4 ,the ,loire 7q4v47 has a course of #gj m4 within the department4 ,on the left bank a canal stretches for #i m4 between ,pellerin1 where the dikes which protect the ,loire valley from inundation terminate1 and ,paimboeuf1 and vessels drawing #ag or #ah ft4 can reach ,nantes4 ,the principal towns on the river within the department are ,ancenis1 ,nantes and ,st ,nazaire 7one of the most important commercial ports of ,france7 on the right1 and ,paimboeuf on the left4 ,the chief affluents are1 on the right the ,erdre and on the left the ,svre1 both debouching at ,nantes4 ,the ,erdre in its lower course broadens in places into lakes which give it the appearance of a large river4 ,four miles below ,nort it coalesces with the canal from ,nantes to ,brest4 ,the ,svre is hemmed in by picturesque hills2 at the point where it enters the department it flows past the beautiful town of ,clisson with its imposing castle of the #acth century4 ,apart from the ,loire1 the only navigable channel of importance within the department is the ,nantes and ,brest canal1 fed by the ,isac1 a tributary of the ,vilaine1 which separates ,loire-,infrieure from ,ille-et-,vilaine and ,morbihan4 ,the climate is humid1 mild and equable4 ,at ,nantes the mean annual temperature is #ed4g ,fahr41 and there are one hundred and twenty-two rainy days1 the annual rainfall being #be4f in4 ,horse and cattle raising prospers1 being carried on chiefly in the west of the department and in the ,loire valley4 ,good butter and cheese are produced4 ,poultry also is reared1 and there is a good deal of bee-keeping4 ,wheat1 oats1 buckwheat and potatoes are produced in great abundance2 leguminous plants are also largely cultivated1 especially near ,nantes4 ,wine1 cider and forage crops are the chief remaining agricultural products4 ,the woods are of oak in the interior and pine on the coast4 ,the department has deposits of tin1 lead and iron4 ,n4,w4 of ,ancenis coal is obtained from a bed which is a prolongation of that of ,anjou4 ,the salt marshes1 about #fjjj acres in all1 occur for the most part between the mouth of the ,vilaine and the ,loire1 and on the ,bay of ,bourgneuf1 and salt-refining1 of which ,gurande is the centre1 is an important industry4 ,the granite of the sea-coast and of the ,loire up to ,nantes is quarried for large blocks4 ,steam-engines are built for the government at ,indret1 a few miles below ,nantes2 the forges of ,basse-,indre are in good repute for the quality of their iron2 and the production of the lead-smelting works at ,couron amounts to several millions of francs annually4 ,there are also considerable foundries at ,nantes1 ,chantenay1 close to ,nantes1 and ,st ,nazaire1 and shipbuilding yards at ,nantes and ,st ,nazaire4 ,among other industries may be mentioned the preparation of pickles and preserved meats at ,nantes1 the curing of sardines at ,le ,croisic and in the neighbouring communes1 the manufacture of sugar1 brushes1 tobacco1 macaroni and similar foods1 soap and chemicals at ,nantes1 and of paper1 sugar and soap at ,chantenay4 ,fishing is prosecuted along the entire coast1 particularly at ,le ,croisic4 ,among the seaside resorts ,le ,croisic1 ,pornichet and ,pornic1 where there are megalithic monuments1 may be mentioned4 ,the department is traversed by the railways of the state1 the ,orlans company and the ,western company4 ,the department is divided into five arrondissements--,nantes1 ,ancenis1 ,chteaubriant1 ,paimboeuf and ,st ,nazaire--#de cantons and #bai communes4 ,it has its appeal court at ,rennes1 which is also the centre of the acadmie 7educational division7 to which it belongs4 ,the principal places are ,nantes1 the capital1 ,st ,nazaire and ,chteaubriant1 which receive separate treatment4 ,on the west coast the town of ,batz1 and the neighbouring villages1 situated on the peninsula of ,batz1 are inhabited by a small community possessed of a distinct costume and dialect1 and claiming descent from a ,saxon or ,scandinavian stock4 ,its members are employed for the most part in the salt marshes ,n4,e4 of the town4 ,gurande has well-preserved ramparts and gates of the #aeth century1 a church dating from the #abth to the #afth centuries1 and other old buildings4 ,at ,st ,philbert-de-,grandlieu there is a church1 rebuilt in the #afth and #agth centuries1 but preserving remains of a previous edifice belonging at least to the beginning of the #aath century4 ,,loiret1 a department of central ,france1 made up of the three districts of the ancient province of ,orlanais--,orlanais proper1 ,gtinais and ,dunois--together with portions of those of le-de-,france and ,berry4 ,it is bounded ,n4 by ,seine-et-,oise1 ,n4,e4 by ,seine-et-,marne1 ,e4 by ,yonne1 ,s4 by ,nivre and ,cher1 ,s4,w4 and ,w4 by ,loir-et-,cher and ,n4,w4 by ,eure-et-,loir4 ,area1 #bfbi sq4 m4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #cfd1iii4 ,the name is borrowed from the ,loiret1 a stream which issues from the ground some miles to the south of ,orlans1 and after a course of about #g m4 falls into the ,loire2 its large volume gives rise to the belief that it is a subterranean branch of that river4 ,the ,loire traverses the south of the department by a broad valley which1 though frequently devastated by disastrous floods1 is famed for its rich tilled lands1 its castles1 its towns and its vine-clad slopes4 ,to the north of the ,loire are the ,gtinais 7capital ,montargis7 and the ,beauce2 the former district is so named from its gtines or wildernesses1 of which saffron is1 along with honey1 the most noteworthy product2 the ,beauce 7q4v471 a monotonous tract of corn-fields without either tree or river1 has been called the granary of ,france4 ,between the ,beauce and the ,loire is the extensive forest of ,orlans1 which is slowly disappearing before the advances of agriculture4 ,south of the ,loire is the ,sologne1 long barren and unhealthy from the impermeability of its subsoil1 but now much improved in both respects by means of pine plantation and draining and manuring operations4 ,the highest point 7on the borders of ,cher7 is #ijj ft4 above sea-level1 and the lowest 7on the borders of ,seine-et-,marne7 is #bbj ft4 ,the watershed on the plateau of ,orlans between the basins of the ,seine and ,loire1 which divide ,loiret almost equally between them1 is almost imperceptible4 ,the lateral canal of the ,loire from ,roanne stops at ,briare2 from the latter town a canal 7canal de ,briare7 connects with the ,seine by the ,loing valley1 which is joined by the ,orlans canal below ,montargis4 ,the only important tributary of the ,loire within the department is the ,loiret2 the ,loing1 a tributary of the ,seine1 has a course of #dj m4 from south to north1 and is accompanied first by the ,briare canal and afterwards by that of the ,loing4 ,the ,essonne1 another important affluent of the ,seine1 leaving ,loiret below ,malesherbes1 takes its rise on the plateau of ,orlans1 as also does its tributary the ,juine4 ,the department has the climate of the ,sequanian region1 the mean temperature being a little above that of ,paris2 the rainfall varies from #ah4e to #bg4e in41 according to the district1 that of the exposed ,beauce being lower than that of the well-wooded ,sologne4 ,hailstorms cause much destruction in the ,loire valley and the neighbouring regions4 ,the department is essentially agricultural in character4 ,a large number of sheep1 cattle1 horses and pigs are reared2 poultry1 especially geese1 and bees are plentiful4 ,the yield of wheat and oats is in excess of the consumption2 rye1 barley1 meslin1 potatoes1 beetroot1 colza and forage plants are also cultivated4 ,wine in abundance1 but of inferior quality1 is grown on the hills of the ,loire valley4 ,buckwheat supports bees by its flowers1 and poultry by its seeds4 ,saffron is another source of profit4 ,the woods consist of oak1 elm1 birch and pine2 fruit trees thrive in the department1 and ,orlans is a great centre of nursery gardens4 ,the industries are brick and tile making1 and the manufacture of faience1 for which ,gien is one of the most important centres in ,france4 ,the ,briare manufacture of porcelain buttons and pearls employs many workmen4 ,flour-mills are very numerous4 ,there are iron and copper foundries1 which1 with agricultural implement making1 bell-founding and the manufacture of pins1 nails and files1 represent the chief metal-working industries4 ,the production of hosiery1 wool-spinning and various forms of wool manufacture are also engaged in4 ,a large quantity of the wine grown is made into vinegar 7vinaigre d',orlans74 ,the tanneries produce excellent leather2 and paper-making1 sugar-refining1 wax-bleaching and the manufacture of caoutchouc complete the list of industries4 ,the four arrondissements are those of ,orlans1 ,gien1 ,montargis and ,pithiviers1 with #ca cantons and #cdi communes4 ,the department forms part of the acadmie 7educational division7 of ,paris4 ,besides ,orlans1 the capital1 the more noteworthy places1 ,gien1 ,montargis1 ,beaugency1 ,pithiviers1 ,briare and ,st ,benot-sur-,loire1 are separately noticed4 ,outside these towns notable examples of architecture are found in the churches of ,clry 7#aeth century71 of ,ferrires 7#acth and #adth centuries71 of ,puiseaux 7#abth and #acth centuries7 and ,meung 7#abth century74 ,at ,germigny-des-,prs there is a church built originally at the beginning of the #ith century and rebuilt in the #aith century1 on the old plan and to some extent with the old materials4 ,yvre-le-,chtel has an interesting chteau of the #acth century1 and ,sully-sur-,loire the fine medieval chteau rebuilt at the beginning of the #agth century by ,maximilien de ,bthune1 duke of ,sully1 the famous minister of ,henry ,,iv4 ,there are remains of a ,gallo-,roman town 7perhaps the ancient ,vellaunodunum7 at ,trigures and of a ,roman amphitheatre near ,montbouy4 ,,loir-,,et-,,cher1 a department of central ,france1 formed in #agij from a small portion of ,touraine1 the ,perche1 but chiefly from the ,dunois1 ,vendmois and ,blsois1 portions of ,orlanais4 ,it is bounded ,n4 by ,eure-et-,loir1 ,n4,e4 by ,loiret1 ,s4,e4 by ,cher1 ,s4 by ,indre1 ,s4,w4 by ,indre-et-,loire and ,n4,w4 by ,sarthe4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #bgf1jai4 ,area1 #bdgi sq4 m4 ,the department takes its name from the ,loir and the ,cher by which it is traversed in the north and south respectively4 ,the ,loir rises on the eastern border of the ,perche and joins the ,maine after a course of #aie m42 the ,cher rises on the ,central ,plateau near ,aubusson1 and reaches the ,loire after a course of #bai m4 ,the ,loire flows through the department from north-east to south-west1 and divides it into two nearly equal portions4 ,to the south-east is the district of the ,sologne1 to the north-west the rich wheat-growing country of the ,beauce 7q4v47 which stretches to the ,loir4 ,beyond that river lies the ,perche4 ,the surface of this region1 which contains the highest altitude in the department 7#hdj ft471 is varied by hills1 valleys1 hedged fields and orchards4 ,the ,sologne was formerly a region of forests1 of which those in the neighbourhood of ,chambord are the last remains4 ,its soil1 once barren and marshy1 has been considerably improved by draining and afforestation1 though pools are still very numerous4 ,the district is much frequented by sportsmen4 ,the ,cher and ,loir traverse pleasant valleys1 occasionally bounded by walls of tufa in which dwellings have been excavated1 as at ,les ,roches in the ,loir valley2 the stone1 hardened by exposure to the air1 is also used for building purposes4 ,the ,loire and1 with the help of the ,berry canal1 the ,cher are navigable4 ,the chief remaining rivers of the department are the ,beuvron1 which flows into the ,loire on the left1 and the ,sauldre1 a right-hand affluent of the ,cher4 ,the climate is temperate and mild1 though that of the ,beauce tends to dryness and that of the ,sologne to dampness4 ,the mean annual temperature is between #eb and #ec ,f4 ,the department is primarily agricultural1 yielding abundance of wheat and oats4 ,besides these the chief products are rye1 wheat and potatoes4 ,vines thrive on the valley slopes1 the vineyards falling into four groups--those of the ,cher1 which yield fine red wines1 the ,sologne1 the ,blsois and the ,vendmois4 ,in the valleys fruit-trees and nursery gardens are numerous2 the asparagus of ,romorantin and ,vendme is well-known4 ,the ,sologne supplies pine and birch for fuel1 and there are extensive forests around ,blois and on both sides of the ,loir4 ,pasture is of good quality in the valleys4 ,sheep are the chief stock2 the ,perche breed of horses is much sought after for its combination of lightness and strength4 ,bee-farming is of some importance in the ,sologne4 ,formerly the speciality of ,loir-et-,cher was the production of gun-flints4 ,stone-quarries are numerous4 ,the chief industries are the cloth-manufacture of ,romorantin1 and leather-dressing and glove-making at ,vendme2 and lime-burning1 flour-milling1 distilling1 saw-milling1 paper-making and the manufacture of sabots and boots and shoes1 hosiery and linen goods1 are carried on4 ,the department is served chiefly by the ,orlans railway4 ,the arrondissements are those of ,blois1 ,romorantin and ,vendme1 with #bd cantons and #big communes4 ,loir-et-,cher forms part of the educational division 7acadmie7 of ,paris4 ,its court of appeal and the headquarters of the ,v4 army corps1 to the regions of which it belongs1 are at ,orlans4 ,blois1 the capital1 ,vendme1 ,romorantin and ,chambord are noticed separately4 ,in addition to those of ,blois and ,chambord there are numerous fine chteaux in the department1 of which that of ,montrichard with its donjon of the #aath century1 that of ,chaumont dating from the #aeth and #afth centuries1 and that of ,cheverny 7#agth century7 in the late ,renaissance style are the most important4 ,those at ,st ,aignan1 ,lassay1 ,lavardin and ,cellettes may also be mentioned4 ,churches wholly or in part of ,romanesque architecture are found at ,faverolles1 ,selles-sur-,cher1 ,st ,aignan and ,suvres4 ,the village of ,tro is built close to ancient tumuli and has an interesting church of the #abth century1 and among other remains those of a lazar-house of the ,romanesque period4 ,at ,pontlevoy are the church1 consisting of a fine choir in the ,gothic style1 and the buildings of a ,benedictine abbey4 ,at ,la ,poissonnire 7near ,montoire7 is a small ,renaissance manor-house1 in which ,ronsard was born in #aebd4 ,,loisy1 ,,alfred ,,firmin 7#aheg- 71 ,french ,catholic theologian1 was born at ,ambrires in ,french ,lorraine of parents who1 descended from a long line of resident peasantry1 tilled there the soil themselves4 ,the physically delicate boy was put into the ecclesiastical school of ,st ,dizier1 without any intention of a clerical career2 but he decided for the priesthood1 and in #ahgd entered the ,grand ,seminaire of ,chalons-sur-,marne4 ,mgr ,meignan1 then bishop of ,chalons1 afterwards cardinal and archbishop of ,tours1 ordained him priest in #ahgi4 ,after being cur successively of two villages in that diocese1 ,loisy went in ,may #ahha1 to study and take a theological degree1 to the ,institut ,catholique in ,paris4 ,here he was influenced1 as to biblical languages and textual criticism1 by the learned and loyal-minded ,abb ,paulin ,martin1 and as to a vivid consciousness of the true nature1 gravity and urgency of the biblical problems and an ,attic sense of form by the historical intuition and the mordant irony of ,abb ,louis ,duchesne4 ,at the governmental institutions1 ,professors ,oppert and ,halvy helped further to train him4 ,he took his theological degree in ,march #ahij1 by the oral defence of forty ,latin scholastic theses and by a ,french dissertation1 ,histoire du canon de l'ancien testament1 published as his first book in that year4 ,professor now at the ,institut ,catholique1 he published successively his lectures3 ,histoire du canon du ,n4,t4 7#ahia72 ,histoire critique du texte et des versions de la ,bible 7#ahib72 and ,les vangiles synoptiques 7#ahic1 #ahid74 ,the two latter works appeared successively in the bi-monthly ,l',enseignement biblique1 a periodical written throughout and published by himself4 ,but already1 on the occasion of the death of ,ernest ,renan1 ,october #ahib1 the attempts made to clear up the main principles and results of biblical science1 first by ,mgr d',hulst1 rector of the ,institut ,catholique1 in his article ,la ,question biblique 7,le ,correspondant1 ,jan4 #beth1 #ahic71 and then by ,loisy himself1 in his paper ,la ,question biblique et l'inspiration des critures 7,l',enseignement biblique1 ,nov4-,dec4 #ahic71 promptly led to serious trouble4 ,the latter article was immediately followed by ,loisy's dismissal1 without further explanation1 from the ,institut ,catholique4 ,and a few days later ,pope ,leo ,,xiii4 published his encyclical ,providentissimus ,deus1 which indeed directly condemned not ,abb ,loisy's but ,mgr d',hulst's position1 yet rendered the continued publication of consistently critical work so difficult that ,loisy himself suppressed his ,enseignement at the end of #ahic4 ,five further instalments of his ,synoptiques were published after this1 bringing the work down to the ,confession of ,peter inclusively4 ,loisy next became chaplain to a ,dominican convent and girls' school at ,neuilly-sur-,seine 7,oct4 #ahid-,oct4 #ahii71 and here matured his apologetic method1 resuming in #ahih the publication of longer articles1 under the pseudonyms of ,desprs and ,firmin in the ,revue du clerg franais1 and of ,jacques ,simon in the lay ,revue d'histoire et de littrature religieuses4 ,in the former review1 a striking paper upon development of doctrine 7,dec4 #ast1 #ahih7 headed a series of studies apparently taken from an already extant large apologetic work4 ,in ,october #ahii he resigned his chaplaincy for reasons of health1 and settled at ,bellevue1 somewhat farther away from ,paris4 ,his notable paper1 ,la ,religion d',isral 7,revue du clerg franais1 ,oct4 #aeth1 #aijj71 the first of a series intended to correct and replace ,renan's presentation of that great subject1 was promptly censured by ,cardinal ,richard1 archbishop of ,paris2 and though scholarly and zealous ecclesiastics1 such as the ,jesuit ,pre ,durand and ,monseigneur ,mignot1 archbishop of ,albi1 defended the general method and several conclusions of the article1 the aged cardinal never rested henceforward till he had secured a papal condemnation also4 ,at the end of #aijj ,loisy secured a government lectureship at the cole des ,hautes tudes ,pratiques1 and delivered there in succession courses on the ,babylonian myths and the first chapters of ,genesis2 the ,gospel parables2 the narrative of the ministry in the synoptic ,gospels2 and the ,passion narratives in the same4 ,the first course was published in the ,revue d'histoire et de littrature religieuses2 and here also appeared instalments of his commentary on ,st ,john's ,gospel1 his critically important ,notes sur la ,gense1 and a ,chronique biblique unmatched in its mastery of its numberless subjects and its fearless yet delicate penetration4 ,it was1 however1 two less erudite little books that brought him a ,european literary reputation and the culmination of his ecclesiastical troubles4 ,l'vangile et l'glise appeared in ,november #aijb 7,eng4 trans41 #aijc74 ,its introduction and six chapters present with rare lucidity the earliest conceptions of the ,kingdom of ,heaven1 the ,son of ,god1 the ,church1 ,christian dogma and ,catholic worship2 and together form a severely critico-historical yet strongly ,catholic answer to ,harnack's still largely pietistic ,wesen des ,christentums4 ,it develops throughout the principles that what is essential in ,jesus' ,gospel is what occupies the first and largest place in ,his authentic teaching1 the ideas for which ,he fought and died1 and not only that idea which we may consider to be still a living force to day2 that it is supremely arbitrary to decree that ,christianity must be essentially what the ,gospel did not borrow from ,judaism1 as though what the ,gospel owes to ,judaism were necessarily of secondary worth2 that whether we trust or distrust tradition1 we know ,christ only by means of1 athwart and within the ,christian tradition2 that the essence of ,christianity resides in the fulness and totality of its life2 and that the adaptation of the ,gospel to the changing conditions of humanity is to-day a more pressing need than ever4 ,the second edition was enlarged by a preliminary chapter on the sources of the ,gospels1 and by a third section for the ,son of ,god chapter4 ,the little book promptly aroused widespread interest1 some cordial sympathy and much vehement opposition2 whilst its large companion the tudes vangliques1 containing the course on the parables and four sections of his coming commentary on the ,fourth ,gospel1 passed almost unnoticed4 ,on the #bast of ,january #aijc ,cardinal ,richard publicly condemned the book1 as not furnished with an imprimatur1 and as calculated gravely to trouble the faith of the faithful in the fundamental ,catholic dogmas4 ,on the #bnd of ,february ,loisy wrote to the archbishop3 ,i condemn1 as a matter of course1 all the errors which men have been able to deduce from my book1 by placing themselves in interpreting it at a point of view entirely different from that which ,i had to occupy in composing it4 ,the pope refused to interfere directly1 and the nuncio1 ,mgr ,lorenzelli1 failed in securing more than ten public adhesions to the cardinal's condemnation from among the eighty bishops of ,france4 ,pope ,leo had indeed1 in a letter to the ,franciscan minister-general 7,november #ahih71 and in an encyclical to the ,french clergy 7,september #ahii71 vigorously emphasized the traditionalist principles of his encyclical ,providentissimus of #ahic2 he had even1 much to his prompt regret1 signed the unfortunate decree of the ,roman ,inquisition1 ,january #ahig1 prohibiting all doubt as to the authenticity of the ,three ,heavenly witnesses passage1 #a ,john v4 #g1 a text which1 in the wake of a line of scholars from ,erasmus downwards1 ,abb ,paulin ,martin had1 in #ahhg1 exhaustively shown to be no older than the end of the #dth century ,a4,d4 ,yet in ,october #aijb he established a ,commission for the ,progress of ,biblical ,studies1 preponderantly composed of seriously critical scholars2 and even one month before his death he still refused to sign a condemnation of ,loisy's tudes vangliques4 ,cardinal ,sarto became ,pope ,pius ,x4 on the #dth of ,august #aijc4 ,on the #ast of ,october ,loisy published three new books1 ,autour d'un petit livre1 ,le ,quatrime vangile and ,le ,discours sur la ,montagne4 ,autour consists of seven letters1 on the origin and aim of ,l'vangile et l'glise2 on the biblical question2 the criticism of the ,gospels2 the ,divinity of ,christ2 the ,church's foundation and authority2 the origin and authority of dogma1 and on the institution of the sacraments4 ,the second and third1 addressed respectively to a cardinal 7,perraud7 and a bishop 7,le ,camus71 are polemical or ironical in tone2 the others are all written to friends in a warm1 expansive mood2 the fourth letter especially1 appropriated to ,mgr ,mignot1 attains a grand elevation of thought and depth of mystical conviction4 ,le ,quatrime vangile1 one thousand large pages long1 is possibly over-confident in its detailed application of the allegorical method2 yet it constitutes a rarely perfect sympathetic reproduction of a great mystical believer's imperishable intuitions4 ,le ,discours sur la ,montagne is a fragment of a coming enlarged commentary on the synoptic ,gospels4 ,on the #bcrd of ,december the pope ordered the publication of a decree of the ,congregation of the ,index1 incorporating a decree of the ,inquisition1 condemning ,loisy's ,religion d',isral1 ,l'vangile et l'glise1 tudes vangliques1 ,autour d'un petit livre and ,le ,quatrime vangile4 ,the pope's secretary of state had on the #aith ,december1 in a letter to ,cardinal ,richard1 recounted the causes of the condemnation in the identical terms used by the latter himself when condemning the ,religion d',isral three years before4 ,on the #abth of ,january #aijd ,loisy wrote to ,cardinal ,merry del ,val that he received the condemnation with respect1 and condemned whatever might be reprehensible in his books1 whilst reserving the rights of his conscience and his opinions as an historian1 opinions doubtless imperfect1 as no one was more ready to admit than himself1 but which were the only form under which he was able to represent to himself the history of the ,bible and of religion4 ,since the ,holy ,see was not satisfied1 ,loisy sent three further declarations to ,rome2 the last1 despatched on the #agth of ,march1 was addressed to the pope himself1 and remained unanswered4 ,and at the end of ,march ,loisy gave up his lectureship1 as he declared1 on his own initiative1 in view of the pacification of minds in the ,catholic ,church4 ,in the ,july following he moved into a little house1 built for him by his pupil and friend1 the ,assyriologist ,franois ,thureau ,dangin1 within the latter's park at ,garnay1 by ,dreux4 ,here he continued his important reviews1 notably in the ,revue d'histoire et de littrature religieuses1 and published ,morceaux d'exgse 7#aijf71 six further sections of his synoptic commentary4 ,in ,april #aijg he returned to his native ,lorraine1 to ,ceffonds by ,montier-en-,der1 and to his relatives there4 ,five recent ,roman decisions are doubtless aimed primarily at ,loisy's teaching4 ,the ,biblical ,commission1 soon enlarged so as to swamp the original critical members1 and which had become the simple mouthpiece of its presiding cardinals1 issued two decrees4 ,the first1 on the #bgth of ,june #aijf1 affirmed1 with some significant but unworkable reservations1 the ,mosaic authorship of the ,pentateuch2 and the second 7#bith of ,may #aijg7 strenuously maintained the ,apostolic ,zebedean authorship of the fourth ,gospel1 and the strictly historical character of the events and speeches recorded therein4 ,the ,inquisition1 by its decree ,lamentabili sane 7#bnd of ,july #aijg71 condemned sixty-five propositions concerning the ,church's magisterium2 biblical inspiration and interpretation2 the synoptic and fourth ,gospels2 revelation and dogma2 ,christ's divinity1 human knowledge and resurrection2 and the historical origin and growth of the ,sacraments1 the ,church and the ,creed4 ,and some forty of these propositions represent1 more or less accurately1 certain sentences or ideas of ,loisy1 when torn from their context and their reasons4 ,the encyclical ,pascendi ,dominici ,gregis 7,sept4 #fth1 #aijg71 probably the longest and most argumentative papal utterance extant1 also aims primarily at ,loisy1 although here the vehemently scholastic redactor's determination to piece together a strictly coherent1 complete a priori system of ,modernism and his self-imposed restriction to medieval categories of thought as the vehicles for describing essentially modern discoveries and requirements of mind1 make the identification of precise authors and passages very difficult4 ,and on the #bast of ,november #aijg a papal motu proprio declared all the decisions of the ,biblical ,commission1 past and future1 to be as binding upon the conscience as decrees of the ,roman ,congregations4 ,yet even all this did not deter ,loisy from publishing three further books4 ,les vangiles synoptiques1 two large #hvo volumes of #ajji and #gih pages1 appeared chez l'auteur1 ,ceffonds1 ,montier-en-,der1 ,haute-,marne1 in ,january #aijh4 ,an incisive introduction discusses the ecclesiastical tradition1 modern criticism2 the second1 the first and the third ,gospels2 the evangelical tradition2 the career and the teaching of ,jesus2 and the literary form1 the tradition of the text and the previous commentaries4 ,the commentary gives also a careful translation of the texts4 ,loisy recognizes two eye-witness documents1 as utilized by all three synoptists1 while ,matthew and ,luke have also incorporated ,mark4 ,his chief peculiarity consists in clearly tracing a strong ,pauline influence1 especially in ,mark1 which there remodels certain sayings and actions as these were first registered by the eye-witness documents4 ,these doctrinal interpretations introduce the economy of blinding the ,jews into the parabolic teaching2 the declaration as to the redemptive character of the ,passion into the sayings2 the sacramental1 institutional words into the account of the ,last ,supper1 originally1 a solemnly simple ,messianic meal2 and the formal night-trial before ,caiaphas into the original ,passion-story with its informal1 morning decision by ,caiaphas1 and its one solemn condemnation of ,jesus1 by ,pilate4 ,mark's narratives of the sepulture by ,joseph of ,arimathea and of the empty tomb are taken as posterior to ,st ,paul2 the narratives of the infancy in ,matthew and ,luke as later still4 ,yet the great bulk of the sayings remain substantially authentic2 if the historicity of certain words and acts is here refused with unusual assurance1 that of other sayings and deeds is established with stronger proofs2 and the redemptive conception of the ,passion and the sacramental interpretation of the ,last ,supper are found to spring up promptly and legitimately from our ,lord's work and words1 to saturate the ,pauline and ,johannine writings1 and even to constitute an element of all three synoptic ,gospels4 ,simples ,rflexions sur le dcret ,lamentabili et sur l'encyclique ,pascendi1 #abmo1 #bgg pages1 was published from ,ceffonds a few days after the commentary4 ,each proposition of the decree is carefully tracked to its probable source1 and is often found to modify the latter's meaning4 ,and the study of the encyclical concludes3 ,time is the great teacher 444 we would do wrong to despair either of our civilization or of the ,church4 ,the ,church authorities were this time not slow to act4 ,on the #adth of ,february ,mgr ,amette1 the new archbishop of ,paris1 prohibited his diocesans to read or defend the two books1 which attack and deny several fundamental dogmas of ,christianity1 under pain of excommunication4 ,the abb again declared it is impossible for me honestly and sincerely to make the act of absolute retractation and submission exacted by the sovereign pontiff4 ,and the ,holy ,office1 on the #gth of ,march1 pronounced the major excommunication against him4 ,at the end of ,march ,loisy published ,quelques ,lettres 7,december #aijc-;,february #aijh71 which conclude3 ,at bottom ,i have remained in my last writings on the same line as in the earlier ones4 ,i have aimed at establishing principally the historical position of the various questions1 and secondarily the necessity for reforming more or less the traditional concepts4 ,three chief causes appear jointly to have produced ,m4 ,loisy's very absolute condemnation4 ,any frank recognition of the abb's even general principles involves the abandonment of the identification of theology with scholasticism or even with specifically ancient thought in general4 ,the abb's central position1 that our ,lord himself held the proximateness of ,his second coming1 involves the loss by churchmen of the prestige of directly divine power1 since ,church and ,sacraments1 though still the true fruits and vehicles of his life1 death and spirit1 cannot thus be immediately founded by the earthly ,jesus himself4 ,and the ,church policy1 as old as the times of ,constantine1 to crush utterly the man who brings more problems and pressure than the bulk of traditional ,christians can1 at the time1 either digest or resist with a fair discrimination1 seemed to the authorities the one means to save the very difficult situation4 ,,bibliography4--,autobiographical passages in ,m4 ,loisy's ,autour d'un petit livre 7,paris1 #aijc71 pp4 xv4 xvi4 #a1 #b1 #aeg1 #bah4 ,a full account of his literary activity and ecclesiastical troubles will be found in ,abb ,albert ,houtin's ,la ,question biblique au ,,xixe sicle 7,paris1 #bnd ed41 #aijb7 and ,la ,question biblique au ,,xxe sicle 7,paris1 #aijf71 but the latter especially is largely unfair to the conservatives and sadly lacking in religious feeling4 ,the following articles and booklets concerning ,m4 ,loisy and the questions raised by him are specially remarkable4 ,france3 ,pre ,durand1 ,s4,j41 tudes religieuses 7,paris1 ,nov4 #aija7 frankly describes the condition of ecclesiastical biblical studies2 ,monseigneur ,mignot1 archbishop of ,albi1 ,lettres sur les tudes ecclsiastiques #aijj-aija 7collected ed41 ,paris1 #aijh7 and ,critique et tradition in ,le ,correspondant 7,paris1 #ajth ,january #aijd71 the utterances of a finely trained judgment2 ,mgr ,le ,camus1 bishop of ,la ,rochelle1 ,fausse ,exgse1 mauvaise thologie 7,paris1 #aijb71 a timid1 mostly rhetorical1 scholar's protest2 ,pre ,lagrange1 a ,dominican who has done much for the spread of ,old ,testament criticism1 ,la ,mthode historique1 surtout propos de l',ancien ,testament 7,paris1 #aijc7 and claircissement to same 7ibid4 #aijc72 ,p4 ,lagrange1 ,mgr ,p4 ,batiffol1 ,p4 ,portali1 ,s4,j41 ,autour des fondements de la ,foi in the ,bulletin de litt4 eccl4 ,toulouse 7,paris1 ,december #aijc1 ,january #aijd71 very suggestive papers2 ,professor ,maurice ,blondel's ,histoire et dogma1 in ,la ,quinzaine 7,paris ,january #af1 ,february #af1 #aijd71 ,f4 de ,hugel's ,du ,christ ternel et des christologies successives 7ibid4 ,june #a1 #aijd71 the ,abb ,j4 ,wehrle's ,le ,christ et la conscience catholique 7ibid4 ,august #af1 #aijd7 and ,f4 de ,hgel's ,correspondance 7ibid4 ,sept4 #af1 #aijd7 discuss the relations between faith and the affirmation of phenomenal happenings2 ,paul ,sabatier1 ,les ,derniers ,ouvrages de l',abb ,loisy1 in the ,revue chrtienne 7,dle1 #aijd7 and ,paul ,desjardins' ,catholicisme et critique 7,paris1 #aije71 a ,broad ,church ,protestant's and a moralist agnostic's delicate appreciations2 a revue of ,les vangiles synoptiques by the ,abb ,mangenot1 in ,revue du ,clerg franais 7,feb4 #ae1 #aijh7 containing some interesting discriminations2 a revue by ,l4 in the ,revue biblique 7#aijh71 pp4 #fjh-fbj1 a mixture of unfair insinuation1 powerful criticism and discriminating admissions2 and a paper by ,g4 ,p4 ,b4 and ,jacques ,chevalier in the ,annales de philosophie chrtienne 7,paris1 ,jan4 #aiji7 seeks to trace and to refute certain philosophical presuppositions at work in the book's treatment1 especially of the ,miracles1 the ,resurrection and the ,institution of the ,church4 ,italy3 ,lettres ,romaines in ,annales de philosophie chrtienne 7,paris1 ,january-,march #aijd71 an ,italian theologian's fearless defence of ,loisy's main ,new ,testament positions2 ,rev4 ,p4 ,louis ,billot ,s4,j41 ,de sacra traditione 7,freiburg i4 ,br4 #aije71 the ablest of the scholastic criticisms of the historical method by a highly influential ,french professor of theology1 now many years in ,rome2 ,quello che vogliamo 7,rome1 #aijg1 ,eng4 trans41 ,what we want1 by ,a4 ,l4 ,lilley1 ,london1 #aijg71 and ,il ,programma dei ,modernisti 7ibid4 #aijh71 ,eng4 trans41 ,the ,programme of ,modernism ed4 by ,lilley 7,london1 eloquent #ajih71 pleadings by ,italian priest1 substantially on ,m4 ,loisy's lines2 ,l',abate ,loisy e il ,problema dei ,vangeli ,sinottici1 four long papers signed ,h4 in ,il ,rinnovamento 7,milan1 #aijh1 #aiji7 are candid and circumspect4 ,germany3 ,professor ,e4 ,troeltsch1 ,was heisst ,wesen des ,christentums8 #f arts4 in ,die christliche ,welt 7,leipzig1 autumn #aijc71 a profound criticism of ,m4 ,loisy's developmental defence of ,catholicism2 ,professor ,harnack's review of ,l'vangile et l'glise in the ,theol4 ,literatur-,zeitung 7,leipzig1 #bcrd ,january #aijd7 is generous and interesting2 ,professor ,h4 ,j4 ,holtzmann's ,urchristentum u4 ,reform-,katholizismus1 in the ,prot4 ,monatshefte1 vii4 #e 7,berlin1 #aijc71 ,der ,fall ,loisy1 ibid4 ix4 #a1 and his review of ,les vangiles synoptiques in ,das zwanzigste ,jahrhundert 7,munich1 ,may #c1 #aijh7 are full of facts and of deep thought2 ,fr4 ,f4 von ,hummelauer1 ,exegetisches zur ,inspirationsfrage 7,freiburg i4 ,br4 #aijd7 is a favourable specimen of present-day ,german ,roman ,catholic scholarship4 ,america3 ,professor ,c4 ,a4 ,briggs1 ,the ,case of the ,abb ,loisy1 ,expositor 7,london1 ,april #aije71 and ,c4 ,a4 ,briggs and ,f4 von ,hgel1 ,the ,papal ,commission and the ,pentateuch 7,london1 #aijg7 discuss ,rome's attitude towards biblical science4 ,england3 ,the ,rev4 ,t4 ,a4 ,lacey's ,harnack and ,loisy1 with introduction by ,viscount ,halifax 7,london1 #aijd72 ,the ,encyclical and ,m4 ,loisy 7,church ,times1 ,feb4 #bj1 #aijh72 ,recent ,roman ,catholic ,biblical ,criticism 7,the ,times ,literary ,supplement for ,january #aeth1 #bbnd1 #bith1 #aijd71 and ,the ,synoptic ,gospels 7review in ,the ,times ,literary ,supplement1 ,march #bf1 #aijh7 are interesting pronouncements respectively of two ,tractarian ,high ,churchmen and of a disciple of ,canon ,sanday4 ,professor ,percy ,gardner's paper in the ,hibbert ,journal1 vol4 i4 7#aijc7 p4 #fjc1 is the work of a ,puritan-minded1 cultured ,broad ,church layman4 7,f4 v4 ,h47 ,,loja 7formerly written ,loxa71 a town of southern ,spain1 in the province of ,granada1 on the ,granada-,algeciras railway4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #ai1adc4 ,the narrow and irregular streets of ,loja wind up the sides of a steep hill surmounted by a ,moorish citadel2 many of the older buildings1 including a fine ,moorish bridge1 were destroyed by an earthquake in ,december #ahhd1 although two churches of the early #afth century remained intact4 ,an iron bridge spans the river ,genil1 which flows past the town on the north1 forcing a passage through the mountains which encircle the fertile and beautiful ,vega of ,granada4 ,this passage would have afforded easy access to the territory still held by the ,moors in the last half of the #aeth century1 had not ,loja been strongly fortified2 and the place was thus of great military importance1 ranking with the neighbouring town of ,alhama as one of the keys of ,granada4 ,its manufactures consist chiefly of coarse woollens1 silk1 paper and leather4 ,salt is obtained in the neighbourhood4 ,loja1 which1 has sometimes been identified with the ancient ,ilipula1 or with the ,lacibi 7,lacibis7 of ,pliny and ,ptolemy1 first clearly emerges in the ,arab chronicles of the year #hij4 ,it was taken by ,ferdinand ,,iii4 in #abbf1 but was soon afterwards abandoned1 and was not finally recaptured until the #bhth of ,may1 #adhf1 when it surrendered to ,ferdinand and ,isabella after a siege4 ,,lokeren1 an important industrial town of ,belgium between ,ghent and ,antwerp 7in ,east ,flanders on the ,durme74 ,pop4 7#aijd7 #ba1hfi4 ,it lies at the southern point of the district called ,pays de ,waes1 which in the early part of the #aith century was only sandy moorland1 but is now the most highly cultivated and thickly populated tract in ,belgium4 ,the church of ,st ,laurence is of some interest4 ,,lokoja1 a town of ,nigeria1 at the junction of the ,niger and ,benue rivers1 founded in #ahfj by the ,british consul1 ,w4 ,b4 ,baikie1 and subsequently the military centre of the ,royal ,niger ,company4 ,it is in the province of ,kabba1 #bej m4 from the mouth of the ,niger1 and is of considerable commercial importance 7see ,,nigeria and ,,kabba74 ,,lollards1 the name given to the ,english followers of ,john ,wycliffe2 they were the adherents of a religious movement which was widespread in the end of the #adth and beginning of the #aeth centuries1 and to some extent maintained itself on to the ,reformation4 ,the name is of uncertain origin2 some derive it from lolium1 tares1 quoting ,chaucer 7,c4,t41 ,shipman's ,prologue73-- ,this ,loller heer wil prechen us somwhat 444 ,he wolde sowen som difficultee ,or springen cokkel in our clene corn2 but the most generally received explanation derives the words from lollen or lullen1 to sing softly4 ,the word is much older than its ,english use2 there were ,lollards in the ,netherlands at the beginning of the #adth century1 who were akin to the ,fratricelli1 ,beghards and other sectaries of the recusant ,franciscan type4 ,the earliest official use of the name in ,england occurs in #achg in a mandate of the bishop of ,worcester against five poor preachers1 nomine seu ritu ,lollardorum confoederatos4 ,it is probable that the name was given to the followers of ,wycliffe because they resembled those offshoots from the great ,franciscan movement which had disowned the pope's authority and set before themselves the ideal of ,evangelical poverty4 ,the #adth century1 so full of varied religious life1 made it manifest that the two different ideas of a life of separation from the world which in earlier times had lived on side by side within the medieval church were irreconcilable4 ,the church chose to abide by the idea of ,hildebrand and to reject that of ,francis of ,assisi2 and the revolt of ,ockham and the ,franciscans1 of the ,beghards and other spiritual fraternities1 of ,wycliffe and the ,lollards1 were all protests against that decision4 ,gradually there came to be facing each other a great political ,christendom1 whose rulers were statesmen1 with aims and policy of a worldly type1 and a religious ,christendom1 full of the ideas of separation from the world by self-sacrifice and of participation in the benefits of ,christ's work by an ascetic imitation4 ,the war between the two ideals was fought out in almost every country in ,europe in the #adth century4 ,in ,england ,wycliffe's whole life was spent in the struggle1 and he bequeathed his work to the ,lollards4 ,the main practical thought with ,wycliffe was that the church1 if true to her divine mission1 must aid men to live that life of evangelical poverty by which they could be separate from the world and imitate ,christ1 and if the church ceased to be true to her mission she ceased to be a church4 ,wycliffe was a metaphysician and a theologian1 and had to invent a metaphysical theory--the theory of ,dominium--to enable him to transfer1 in a way satisfactory to himself1 the powers and privileges of the church to his company of poor ,christians2 but his followers were content to allege that a church which held large landed possessions1 collected tithes greedily and took money from starving peasants for baptizing1 burying and praying1 could not be the church of ,christ and his apostles4 ,lollardy was most flourishing and most dangerous to the ecclesiastical organization of ,england during the ten years after ,wycliffe's death4 ,it had spread so rapidly and grown so popular that a hostile chronicler could say that almost every second man was a ,lollard4 ,wycliffe left three intimate disciples3--,nicolas ,hereford1 a doctor of theology of ,oxford1 who had helped his master to translate the ,bible into ,english2 ,john ,ashton1 also a fellow of an ,oxford college2 and ,john ,purvey1 ,wycliffe's colleague at ,lutterworth1 and a co-translator of the ,bible1 with these were associated more or less intimately1 in the first age of ,lollardy1 ,john ,parker1 the strange ascetic ,william ,smith1 the restless fanatic ,swynderly1 ,richard ,waytstract and ,crompe4 ,wycliffe had organized in ,lutterworth an association for sending the gospel through all ,england1 a company of poor preachers somewhat after the ,wesleyan method of modern times4 ,to be poor without mendicancy1 to unite the flexible unity1 the swift obedience of an order1 with free and constant mingling among the poor1 such was the ideal of ,wycliffe's 'poor priests' 7cf4 ,shirley1 ,fasc4 ,ziz4 p4 xl471 and1 although proscribed1 these poor preachers with portions of their master's translation of the ,bible in their hand to guide them1 preached all over ,england4 ,in #achb1 two years before the death of ,wycliffe1 the archbishop of ,canterbury got the ,lollard opinions condemned by convocation1 and1 having been promised royal support1 he began the long conflict of the church with the followers of ,wycliffe4 ,he was able to coerce the authorities of the university of ,oxford1 and to drive out of it the leading ,wycliffite teachers1 but he was unable to stifle ,oxford sympathies or to prevent the banished teachers preaching throughout the country4 ,many of the nobles1 like ,lords ,montacute and ,salisbury1 supported the poor preachers1 took them as private chaplains1 and protected them against clerical interference4 ,country gentlemen like ,sir ,thomas ,latimer of ,braybrooke and ,sir ,richard ,stury protected them1 while merchants and burgesses supported them with money4 ,when ,richard ,,ii4 issued an ordinance 7,july #achb7 ordering every bishop to arrest all ,lollards1 the ,commons compelled him to withdraw it4 ,thus protected1 the poor preachers won masses of the people to their opinions1 and ,leicester1 ,london and the west of ,england became their headquarters4 ,the organization must have been strong in numbers1 but only those who were seized for heresy are known by name1 and it is only from the indictments of their accusers that their opinions can be gathered4 ,the preachers were picturesque figures in long russet dress down to the heels1 who1 staff in hand1 preached in the mother tongue to the people in churches and graveyards1 in squares1 streets and houses1 in gardens and pleasure grounds1 and then talked privately with those who had been impressed4 ,the ,lollard literature was very widely circulated--books by ,wycliffe and ,hereford and tracts and broadsides--in spite of many edicts proscribing it4 ,in #acie the ,lollards grew so strong that they petitioned parliament through ,sir ,thomas ,latimer and ,sir ,r4 ,stury to reform the church on ,lollardist methods4 ,it is said that the ,lollard ,conclusions printed by ,canon ,shirley 7p4 #cfj7 contain the substance of this petition4 ,if so1 parliament was told that temporal possessions ruin the church and drive out the ,christian graces of faith1 hope and charity2 that the priesthood of the church in communion with ,rome was not the priesthood ,christ gave to his apostles2 that the monk's vow of celibacy had for its consequence unnatural lust1 and should not be imposed2 that transubstantiation was a feigned miracle1 and led people to idolatry2 that prayers made over wine1 bread1 water1 oil1 salt1 wax1 incense1 altars of stone1 church walls1 vestments1 mitres1 crosses1 staves1 were magical and should not be allowed2 that kings should possess the jus episcopale1 and bring good government into the church2 that no special prayers should be made for the dead2 that auricular confession made to the clergy1 and declared to be necessary for salvation1 was the root of clerical arrogance and the cause of indulgences and other abuses in pardoning sin2 that all wars were against the principles of the ,new ,testament1 and were but murdering and plundering the poor to win glory for kings2 that the vows of chastity laid upon nuns led to child murder2 that many of the trades practised in the commonwealth1 such as those of goldsmiths and armourers1 were unnecessary and led to luxury and waste4 ,these ,conclusions really contain the sum of ,wycliffite teaching2 and1 if we add that the principal duty of priests is to preach1 and that the worship of images1 the going on pilgrimages and the use of gold and silver chalices in divine service are sinful 7,the ,peasants' ,rising and the ,lollards1 p4 #dg71 they include almost all the heresies charged in the indictments against individual ,lollards down to the middle of the #aeth century4 ,the king1 who had hitherto seemed anxious to repress the action of the clergy against the ,lollards1 spoke strongly against the petition and its promoters1 and ,lollardy never again had the power in ,england which it wielded up to this year4 ,if the formal statements of ,lollard creed are to be got from these ,conclusions1 the popular view of their controversy with the church may be gathered from the ballads preserved in the ,political ,poems and ,songs relating to ,english ,history1 published in #ahei by ,thomas ,wright for the ,master of the ,rolls series1 and in the ,piers ,ploughman poems4 ,piers ,ploughman's ,creed 7see ,,langland7 was probably written about #acid1 when ,lollardy was at its greatest strength2 the ploughman of the ,creed is a man gifted with sense enough to see through the tricks of the friars1 and with such religious knowledge as can be got from the creed1 and from ,wycliffe's version of the ,gospels4 ,the poet gives us a portrait of the fat friar with his double chin shaking about as big as a goose's egg1 and the ploughman with his hood full of holes1 his mittens made of patches1 and his poor wife going barefoot on the ice so that her blood followed 7,early ,english ,text ,society1 vol4 xxx41 pref41 p4 #af72 and one can easily see why farmers and peasants turned from the friars to the poor preachers4 ,the ,ploughman's ,complaint tells the same tale4 ,it paints popes1 cardinals1 prelates1 rectors1 monks and friars1 who call themselves followers of ,peter and keepers of the gates of heaven and hell1 and pale poverty-stricken people1 cotless and landless1 who have to pay the fat clergy for spiritual assistance1 and asks if these are ,peter's priests4 ,i trowe ,peter took no money1 for no sinners that he sold4444 ,peter was never so great a fole1 to leave his key with such a losell4 ,in #acii the ,lancastrian ,henry ,,iv4 overthrew the ,plantagenet ,richard ,,ii41 and one of the most active partisans of the new monarch was ,arundel1 archbishop of ,canterbury and the most determined opponent of ,lollardy4 ,richard ,,ii4 had aided the clergy to suppress ,lollardy without much success4 ,the new dynasty supported the church in a similar way and not more successfully4 ,the strength of the anti-clerical party lay in the ,house of ,commons1 in which the representatives of the shires took the leading part4 ,twice the ,commons petitioned the crown to seize the temporalities of the church and apply them to such national purposes as relief of taxation1 maintenance of the poor and the support of new lords and knights4 ,their anti-clerical policy was not continuous1 however4 ,the court party and the clergy proposed statutes for the suppression of heresy1 and twice at least secured the concurrence of the ,commons4 ,one of these was the well-known statute ,de heretico comburendo passed in #adja4 ,in the earlier stages of ,lollardy1 when the court and the clergy managed to bring ,lollards before ecclesiastical tribunals backed by the civil power1 the accused generally recanted and showed no disposition to endure martyrdom for their opinions4 ,they became bolder in the beginning of the #aeth century1 ,william ,sawtrey 7,chartris71 caught and condemned1 refused to recant and was burnt at ,st ,paul's ,cross 7,march #adja71 and other martyrdoms followed4 ,the victims usually belonged to the lower classes4 ,in #adaj ,john ,badby1 an artisan1 was sent to the stake4 ,his execution was memorable from the part taken in it by the prince of ,wales1 who himself tried to reason the ,lollard out of his convictions4 ,but nothing said would make ,badby confess that ,christ sitting at supper did give to ,his disciples ,his living body to eat4 ,the ,lollards1 far from daunted1 abated no effort to make good their ground1 and united a struggle for social and political liberty to the hatred felt by the peasants towards the ,romish clergy4 ,jak ,upland 7,john ,countryman7 took the place of ,piers ,ploughman1 and upbraided the clergy1 and especially the friars1 for their wealth and luxury4 ,wycliffe had published the rule of ,st ,francis1 and had pointed out in a commentary upon the rule how far friars had departed from the maxims of their founder1 and had persecuted the ,spirituales 7the ,fratricelli1 ,beghards1 ,lollards of the ,netherlands7 for keeping them to the letter 7cf4 ,matthews1 ,english ,works of ,wyclif hitherto unprinted1 ,early ,eng4 ,text ,soc41 vol4 lxxiv41 #ahhj74 ,jak ,upland put all this into rude nervous ,english verse3 ,freer1 what charitie is this ,to fain that whoso liveth after your order ,liveth most perfectlie1 ,and next followeth the state of the ,apostles ,in povertie and pennance3 ,and yet the wisest and greatest clerkes of you ,wend or send or procure to the court of ,rome1 444 and to be assoiled of the vow of povertie4 ,the archbishop1 having the power of the throne behind him1 attacked that stronghold of ,lollardy the university of ,oxford4 ,in #adjf a document appeared purporting to be the testimony of the university in favour of ,wycliffe2 its genuineness was disputed at the time1 and when quoted by ,huss at the council of ,constance it was repudiated by the ,english delegates4 ,the archbishop treated ,oxford as if it had issued the document1 and procured the issue of severe regulations in order to purge the university of heresy4 ,in #adjh ,arundel in convocation proposed and carried the famous ,constitutiones ,thomae ,arundel intended to put down ,wycliffite preachers and teaching4 ,they provided amongst other things that no one was to be allowed to preach without a bishop's licence1 that preachers preaching to the laity were not to rebuke the sins of the clergy1 and that ,lollard books and the translation of the ,bible were to be searched for and destroyed4 ,when ,henry ,v4 became king a more determined effort was made to crush ,lollardy4 ,hitherto its strength had lain among the country gentlemen who were the representatives of the shires4 ,the court and clergy had been afraid to attack this powerful class4 ,the new king determined to overawe them1 and to this end selected one who had been a personal friend and whose life had been blameless4 ,this was ,sir ,john ,oldcastle1 in right of his wife1 ,lord ,cobham1 the good ,lord ,cobham as the common people called him4 ,henry first tried personal persuasion1 and when that failed directed trial for heresy4 ,oldcastle was convicted1 but was imprisoned for forty days in the ,tower in hope that he might recant4 ,he escaped1 and summoned his co-religionists to his aid4 ,a ,lollard plot was formed to seize the king's person4 ,in the end ,oldcastle was burnt for an obstinate heretic 7,dec4 #adag74 ,these persecutions were not greatly protested against2 the wars of ,henry ,v4 with ,france had awakened the martial spirit of the nation1 and little sympathy was felt for men who had declared that all war was but the murder and plundering of poor people for the sake of kings4 ,mocking ballads were composed upon the martyr ,oldcastle1 and this dislike to warfare was one of the chief accusations made against him 7comp4 ,wright's ,political ,poems1 ii4 #bdd74 ,but ,arundel could not prevent the writing and distribution of ,lollard books and pamphlets4 ,two appeared about the time of the martyrdom of ,oldcastle--,the ,ploughman's ,prayer and the ,lanthorne of ,light4 ,the ,ploughman's ,prayer declared that true worship consists in three things--in loving ,god1 and dreading ,god and trusting in ,god above all other things2 and it showed how ,lollards1 pressed by persecution1 became further separated from the religious life of the church4 ,men maketh now great stonen houses full of glasen windows1 and clepeth thilke thine houses and churches4 ,and they setten in these houses mawmets of stocks and stones1 to fore them they knelen privilich and apert and maken their prayers1 and all this they say is they worship4444 ,for ,lorde our belief is that thine house is man's soul4 ,notwithstanding the repression1 ,lollardy fastened in new parts of ,england1 and ,lollards abounded in ,somerset1 ,norfolk1 ,suffolk1 ,essex1 ,lincoln and ,buckinghamshire4 ,the council of ,constance 7#adad-adah7 put an end to the papal schism1 and also showed its determination to put down heresy by burning ,john ,huss4 ,when news of this reached ,england the clergy were incited to still more vigorous proceedings against ,lollard preachers and books4 ,from this time ,lollardy appears banished from the fields and streets1 and takes refuge in houses and places of concealment4 ,there was no more wayside preaching1 but instead there were conventicula occulta in houses1 in peasants' huts1 in sawpits and in field ditches1 where the ,bible was read and exhortations were given1 and so ,lollardy continued4 ,in #adbh ,archbishop ,chichele confessed that the ,lollards seemed as numerous as ever1 and that their literary and preaching work went on as vigorously as before4 ,it was found also that many of the poorer rectors and parish priests1 and a great many chaplains and curates1 were in secret association with the ,lollards1 so much so that in many places processions were never made and worship on saints' days was abandoned4 ,for the ,lollards were hardened by persecution1 and became fanatical in the statement of their doctrines4 ,thomas ,bagley was accused of declaring that if in the sacrament a priest made bread into ,god1 he made a ,god that can be eaten by rats and mice2 that the pharisees of the day1 the monks1 and the nuns1 and the friars and all other privileged persons recognized by the church were limbs of ,satan2 and that auricular confession to the priest was the will not of ,god but of the devil4 ,and others held that any priest who took salary was excommunicate2 and that boys could bless the bread as well as priests4 ,from ,england ,lollardy passed into ,scotland4 ,oxford infected ,st ,andrews1 and we find traces of more than one vigorous search made for ,lollards among the teaching staff of the ,scottish university1 while the ,lollards of ,kyle in ,ayrshire were claimed by ,knox as the forerunners of the ,scotch ,reformation4 ,the opinions of the later ,lollards can best be gathered from the learned and unfortunate ,pecock1 who wrote his elaborate ,repressor against the ,bible-men1 as he calls them4 ,he summed up their doctrines under eleven heads3 they condemn the having and using images in the churches1 the going on pilgrimages to the memorial or mynde places of the saints1 the holding of landed possessions by the clergy1 the various ranks of the hierarchy1 the framing of ecclesiastical laws and ordinances by papal and episcopal authority1 the institution of religious orders1 the costliness of ecclesiastical decorations1 the ceremonies of the mass and the sacraments1 the taking of oaths and the maintaining that war and capital punishment are lawful4 ,when these points are compared with the ,lollard ,conclusions of #acie1 it is plain that ,lollardy had not greatly altered its opinions after fifty-five years of persecution4 ,all the articles of ,pecock's list1 save that on capital punishment1 are to be found in the ,conclusions2 and1 although many writers have held that ,wycliffe's own views differed greatly from what have been called the exaggerations of the later and more violent ,lollards1 all these views may be traced to ,wycliffe himself4 ,pecock's idea was that all the statements which he was prepared to impugn came from three false opinions or trowings1 viz4 that no governance or ordinance is to be esteemed a law of ,god which is not founded on ,scripture1 that every humble-minded ,christian man or woman is able without fail and defaut to find out the true sense of ,scripture1 and that having done so he ought to listen to no arguments to the contrary2 he elsewhere adds a fourth 7i4 #ajb71 that if a man be not only meek but also keep ,god's law he shall have a true understanding of ,scripture1 even though no man ellis teche him saue ,god4 ,these statements1 especially the last1 show us the connexion between the ,lollards and those mystics of the #adth century1 such as ,tauler and ,ruysbroeck1 who accepted the teachings of ,nicholas of ,basel1 and formed themselves into the association of the ,friends of ,god4 ,the persecutions were continued down to the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 and when the writings of ,luther began to appear in ,england the clergy were not so much afraid of ,lutheranism as of the increased life they gave to men who for generations had been reading ,wycliffe's ,wickette4 ,it is1 wrote ,bishop ,tunstall to ,erasmus in #aebc1 no question of pernicious novelty1 it is only that new arms are being added to the great band of ,wycliffite heretics4 ,lollardy1 which continued down to the ,reformation1 did much to shape the movement in ,england4 ,the subordination of clerical to laic jurisdiction1 the reduction in ecclesiastical possessions1 the insisting on a translation of the ,bible which could be read by the common man were all inheritances bequeathed by the ,lollards4 ,,literature4--,fasciculi ,zizaniorum ,magistri ,johannis ,wyclif cum ,tritico1 edited for the ,rolls ,series by ,w4 ,w4 ,shirley 7,london1 #aheh72 the ,chronicon ,angliae1 auctore monacho quodam ,sancti ,albani1 ed4 by ,sir ,e4 ,maunde ,thompson 7,london1 #ahgd72 ,historia ,anglicana of ,thomas ,walsingham1 ed4 by ,h4 ,t4 ,riley1 vol4 iii4 7,london4 #ahfi72 ,chronicon of ,henry ,knighton1 ed4 by ,j4 ,r4 ,lumby 7,london1 #ahie72 ,r4 ,l4 ,poole1 ,wycliffe and ,movements for ,reform 7,london1 #ahhi72 ,r4 ,pecock1 ,repressor of overmuch ,blaming of the ,clergy 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahfj72 ,f4 ,d4 ,matthew1 ,the ,english ,works of ,john ,wyclif 7,early ,english ,text ,society1 ,london1 #ahhj72 ,t4 ,wright1 ,political ,poems and ,songs 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahei72 ,g4 ,v4 ,lechler1 ,johann von ,wiclif1 ii4 7#ahgc72 ,j4 ,loserth1 ,hus und ,wycliffe 7,prague1 #ahhd1 ,english translation by ,j4 ,evans1 ,london1 #ahhd72 ,d4 ,wilkins1 ,concilia ,magnae ,britanniae et ,hiberniae1 iii4 7,london1 #aggc72 ,e4 ,powell and ,g4 ,m4 ,trevelyan1 ,the ,peasants' ,rising and the ,lollards1 a ,collection of ,unpublished ,documents 7,london1 #ahii72 ,g4 ,m4 ,trevelyan1 ,england in the ,age of ,wycliffe 7,london1 #ahih1 #crd ed41 #aijd72 the publications of the ,wiclif ,society2 ,h4 ,s4 ,cronin1 ,the ,twelve ,conclusions of the ,lollards1 in the ,english ,historical ,review 7,april #aijg1 pp4 #bib ff472 and ,j4 ,gairdner1 ,lollardy and the ,reformation in ,england 7#aijh74 7,t4 ,m4 ,l47 ,,lollius1 ,,marcus1 ,roman general1 the first governor of ,galatia 7#be ,b4,c471 consul in #ba4 ,in #af1 when governor of ,gaul1 he was defeated by the ,sigambri 7,sygambri71 ,usipetes and ,tencteri1 ,german tribes who had crossed the ,rhine4 ,this defeat is coupled by ,tacitus with the disaster of ,varus1 but it was disgraceful rather than dangerous4 ,lollius was subsequently 7#b ,b4,c47 attached in the capacity of tutor and adviser to ,gaius ,caesar 7,augustus's grandson7 on his mission to the ,east4 ,he was accused of extortion and treachery to the state1 and denounced by ,gaius to the emperor4 ,to avoid punishment he is said to have taken poison4 ,according to ,velleus ,paterculus and ,pliny1 he was a hypocrite and cared for nothing but amassing wealth4 ,it was formerly thought that this was the ,lollius whom ,horace described as a model of integrity and superior to avarice in ,od4 iv4 #i1 but it seems hardly likely that this ,ode1 as well as the two ,lollian epistles of ,horace 7i4 #b and #ah71 was addressed to him4 ,all three must have been addressed to the same individual1 a young man1 probably the son of this ,lollius4 ,see ,suetonius1 ,augustus1 #bc1 ,tiberius1 #ab2 ,vell4 ,pat4 ii4 #ig4 #ajb2 ,tacitus1 ,annals1 i4 #aj1 iii4 #dh2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ix4 #ce 7#eh72 ,dio ,cassius1 liv4 #f2 see also ,j4 ,c4 ,tarver1 ,tiberius the ,tyrant 7#aijb71 pp4 #bjj foll4 ,,lolos1 the name given by the ,chinese to a large tribe of aborigines who inhabit the greater part of southern ,szechuen4 ,their home is in the mountainous country called ,taliang shan1 which lies between the ,yangtsze river on the east and the ,kien ch'ang valley on the west1 in south ,szechuen1 but they are found in scattered communities as far south as the ,burmese frontier1 and west to the ,mekong4 ,there seems no reason to doubt that they were1 like the ,miaotze1 one of the aboriginal tribes of ,china1 driven southwards by the advancing flood of ,chinese4 ,the name is said to be a ,chinese corruption of ,lulu1 the name of a former chieftain of a tribe who called themselves ,nersu4 ,their language1 like the ,chinese1 is monosyllabic and probably ideographic1 and the characters bear a certain resemblance to ,chinese4 ,no literature1 however1 worthy of the name is known to exist1 and few can read and write4 ,politically they are divided into tribes1 each under the government of a hereditary chieftain4 ,the community consists of three classes1 the blackbones or nobles1 the whitebones or plebeians1 and the watze or slaves4 ,the last are mostly ,chinese captured in forays1 or the descendants of such captives4 ,within ,lolo-land proper1 which covers some #aa1jjj sq4 m41 the ,chinese government exercises no jurisdiction4 ,the ,lolos make frequent raids on their unarmed ,chinese neighbours4 ,they cultivate wheat1 barley and millet1 but little rice4 ,they have some knowledge of metals1 making their own tools and weapons4 ,women are said to be held in respect1 and may become chiefs of the tribes4 ,they do not intermarry with ,chinese4 ,see ,a4 ,f4 ,legendre1 ,les ,lolos4 tude ethnologique et anthropologique1 in ,t'oung ,pao ,,ii41 vol4 x4 7#aiji72 ,e4 ,c4 ,baber1 ,royal ,geog4 ,society ,sup4 ,papers1 vol4 i4 7,london1 #ahhb72 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 ,bourne1 ,blue ,book1 ,china1 ,no4 #a 7#ahhh72 ,a4 ,hosie1 ,three ,years in ,western ,china 7,london1 #ahig74 ,,lombard ,,league1 the name given in general to any league of the cities of ,lombardy1 but applied especially to the league founded in #aafg1 which brought about the defeat of the emperor ,frederick ,i4 at ,legnano1 and the consequent destruction of his plans for obtaining complete authority over ,italy4 ,lacking often the protection of a strong ruler1 the ,lombard cities had been accustomed to act together for mutual defence1 and in #ajic ,milan1 ,lodi1 ,piacenza and ,cremona formed an alliance against the emperor ,henry ,,iv41 in favour of his rebellious son ,conrad4 ,the early years of the reign of ,frederick ,i4 were largely spent in attacks on the privileges of the cities of ,lombardy4 ,this led to a coalition1 formed in ,march #aafg1 between the cities of ,cremona1 ,mantua1 ,bergamo and ,brescia to confine ,frederick to the rights which the emperors had enjoyed for the past hundred years4 ,this league or concordia was soon joined by other cities1 among which were ,milan1 ,parma1 ,padua1 ,verona1 ,piacenza and ,bologna1 and the allies began to build a fortress near the confluence of the ,tanaro and the ,bormida1 which1 in honour of ,pope ,alexander ,,iii41 was called ,alessandria4 ,during the absence of ,frederick from ,italy from #aafh to #aagd1 the relations between the pope and the league became closer1 and ,alexander became the leader of the alliance4 ,meetings of the league were held in #aagb and #aagc to strengthen the bond1 and to concert measures against the emperor1 the penalties of the church being invoked to prevent defection4 ,the decisive struggle began when ,frederick attacked ,alessandria in #aagd4 ,the fortress was bravely defended1 and the siege was raised on the approach of succour from the allied cities4 ,negotiations for peace failed1 and the emperor1 having marched against ,milan1 suffered a severe defeat at ,legnano on the #bith of ,may #aagf4 ,subsequently ,pope ,alexander was detached from his allies1 and made peace with ,frederick1 after which a truce for six years was arranged between the emperor and the league4 ,further negotiations ripened into the peace of ,constance signed on the #beth of ,june #aahc1 which granted almost all the demands of the cities1 and left only a shadowy authority to the emperor 7see ,,italy74 ,in #abbf1 when the emperor ,frederick ,,ii4 avowed his intention of restoring the imperial authority in ,italy1 the league was renewed1 and at once fifteen cities1 including ,milan and ,verona1 were placed under the ban4 ,frederick1 however1 was not in a position to fight1 and the mediation of ,pope ,honorius ,,iii4 was successful in restoring peace4 ,in #abca the hostile intentions of the emperor once more stirred the cities into activity4 ,they held a meeting at ,bologna and raised an army1 but as in #abbf1 the matter ended in mutual fulminations and defiances4 ,a more serious conflict arose in #abcd4 ,the great question at issue1 the nature and extent of the imperial authority over the ,lombard cities1 was still unsettled when ,frederick's rebellious son1 the ,german king ,henry ,,vii41 allied himself with them4 ,having crushed his son and rejected the proffered mediation of ,pope ,gregory ,,ix41 the emperor declared war on the ,lombards in #abcf2 he inflicted a serious defeat upon their forces at ,cortenuova in ,november #abcg and met with other successes1 but in #abch he was beaten back from before ,brescia4 ,in #abci ,pope ,gregory joined the cities and the struggle widened out into the larger one of the ,empire and the ,papacy4 ,this was still proceeding when ,frederick died in ,december #abej and it was only ended by the overthrow of the ,hohenstaufen and the complete destruction of the imperial authority in ,italy4 ,for a full account of the ,lombard ,league see ,c4 ,vignati1 ,storia diplomata della ,lega ,lombarda 7,milan1 #ahff72 ,h4 ,prutz1 ,kaiser ,friedrich ,i41 ,band ii4 7,danzig1 #ahga-ahgd72 ,w4 von ,giesebrecht1 ,geschichte der deutschen ,kaiserzeit1 ,band v4 7,leipzig1 #ahhh72 and ,j4 ,ficker1 ,zur ,geschichte des ,lombardenbundes 7,vienna1 #ahfh74 ,,lombardo1 the name of a family of ,venetian sculptors and architects2 their surname was apparently ,solaro1 and the name of ,lombardo was given to the earliest known1 ,martino1 who emigrated from ,lombardy to ,venice in the middle of the #aeth century and became celebrated as an architect4 ,he had two sons1 ,moro and ,pietro1 of whom the latter 7c4 #adce-aeae7 was one of the greatest sculptors and architects of his time1 while his sons ,antonio 7d4 #aeaf7 and ,tullio 7d4 #aeei7 were hardly less celebrated4 ,pietro's work as an architect is seen in numerous churches1 the ,vendramini-,calargi palace 7#adha71 the doge's palace 7#adih71 the faade 7#adhe7 of the scuola of ,st ,mark and the cathedral of ,cividale del ,friuli 7#aejb72 but he is now more famous as a sculptor1 often in collaboration with his sons2 he executed the tomb of the doge ,mocenigo 7#adgh7 in the church of ,san ,giovanni e ,paolo at ,venice1 and a bas-relief for the tomb of ,dante at ,ravenna1 and in #adhc began the beautiful decorations in the church of ,sta ,maria de' ,miracoli at ,venice1 which is associated with his workshop 7see also ,,venice for numerous references to the work of the ,lombardi74 ,antonio's masterpiece is the marble relief of ,st ,anthony making a new-born child speak in defence of its mother's honour1 in the ,santo at ,padua 7#aeje74 ,tullio's best-known works are the four kneeling angels 7#adhd7 in the church of ,san ,martino1 ,venice1 a coronation of the ,virgin in ,san ,giovanni ,crisostomo and two bas-reliefs in the ,santo1 ,padua1 besides two others formerly in the ,spitzer collection1 representing ,vulcan's ,forge and ,minerva disputing with ,neptune4 ,,lombards1 or ,,langobardi1 a ,suevic people who appear to have inhabited the lower basin of the ,elbe and whose name is believed to survive in the modern ,bardengau to the south of ,hamburg4 ,they are first mentioned in connexion with the year ,a4,d4 #e1 at which time they were defeated by the ,romans under ,tiberius1 afterwards emperor4 ,in ,a4,d4 #i1 however1 after the destruction of ,varus's army1 the ,romans gave up their attempt to extend their frontier to the ,elbe4 ,at first1 with most of the ,suevic tribes1 they were subject to the hegemony of ,maroboduus1 king of the ,marcomanni1 but they revolted from him in his war with ,arminius1 chief of the ,cherusci1 in the year #ag4 ,we again hear of their interference in the dynastic strife of the ,cherusci some time after the year #dg4 ,from this time they are not mentioned until the year #afe1 when a force of ,langobardi1 in alliance with the ,marcomanni1 was defeated by the ,romans1 apparently on the ,danubian frontier4 ,it has been inferred from this incident that the ,langobardi had already moved southwards1 but the force mentioned may very well have been sent from the old home of the tribe1 as the various ,suevic peoples seem generally to have preserved some form of political union4 ,from this time onwards we hear no more of them until the end of the #eth century4 ,in their own traditions we are told that the ,langobardi were originally called ,winnili and dwelt in an island named ,scadinavia 7with this story compare that of the ,gothic migration1 see ,,goths74 ,thence they set out under the leadership of ,ibor and ,aio1 the sons of a prophetess called ,gambara1 and came into conflict with the ,vandals4 ,the leaders of the latter prayed to ,wodan for victory1 while ,gambara and her sons invoked ,frea4 ,wodan promised to give victory to those whom he should see in front of him at sunrise4 ,frea directed the ,winnili to bring their women with their hair let down round their faces like beards and turned ,wodan's couch round so that he faced them4 ,when ,wodan awoke at sunrise he saw the host of the ,winnili and said1 ,qui sunt isti ,longibarbi8--,who are these long-beards8--and ,frea replied1 ,as thou hast given them the name1 give them also the victory4 ,they conquered in the battle and were thenceforth known as ,langobardi4 ,after this they are said to have wandered through regions which cannot now be identified1 apparently between the ,elbe and the ,oder1 under legendary kings1 the first of whom was ,agilmund1 the son of ,aio4 ,shortly before the end of the #eth century the ,langobardi appear to have taken possession of the territories formerly occupied by the ,rugii whom ,odoacer had overthrown in #dhg1 a region which probably included the present province of ,lower ,austria4 ,at this time they were subject to ,rodulf1 king of the ,heruli1 who1 however1 took up arms against them2 according to one story1 owing to the treacherous murder of ,rodulf's brother1 according to another through an irresistible desire for fighting on the part of his men4 ,the result was the total defeat of the ,heruli by the ,langobardi under their king ,tato and the death of ,rodulf at some date between #dic and #ejh4 ,by this time the ,langobardi are said to have adopted ,christianity in its ,arian form4 ,tato was subsequently killed by his nephew ,waccho4 ,the latter reigned for thirty years1 though frequent attempts were made by ,ildichis1 a son or grandson of ,tato1 to recover the throne4 ,waccho is said to have conquered the ,suabi1 possibly the ,bavarians1 and he was also involved in strife with the ,gepidae1 with whom ,ildichis had taken refuge4 ,he was succeeded by his youthful son ,walthari1 who reigned only seven years under the guardianship of a certain ,audoin4 ,on ,walthari's death 7about #edf87 ,audoin succeeded4 ,he also was involved in hostilities with the ,gepidae1 whose support of ,ildichis he repaid by protecting ,ustrogotthus1 a rival of their king ,thorisind4 ,in these quarrels both nations aimed at obtaining the support of the emperor ,justinian1 who1 in pursuance of his policy of playing off one against the other1 invited the ,langobardi into ,noricum and ,pannonia1 where they now settled4 ,a large force of ,lombards under ,audoin fought on the imperial side at the battle of the ,apennines against the ,ostrogothic king ,totila in #eec1 but the assistance of ,justinian1 though often promised1 had no effect on the relations of the two nations1 which were settled for the moment after a series of truces by the victory of the ,langobardi1 probably in #eed4 ,the resulting peace was sealed by the murder of ,ildichis and ,ustrogotthus1 and the ,langobardi seem to have continued inactive until the death of ,audoin1 perhaps in #efe1 and the accession of his son ,alboin1 who had won a great reputation in the wars with the ,gepidae4 ,it was about this time that the ,avars1 under their first ,chagun ,baian1 entered ,europe1 and with them1 ,alboin is said to have made an alliance against the ,gepidae under their new king ,cunimund4 ,the ,avars1 however1 did not take part in the final battle1 in which the ,langobardi were completely victorious4 ,alboin1 who had slain ,cunimund in the battle1 now took ,rosamund1 daughter of the dead king1 to be his wife4 ,in #efh ,alboin and the ,langobardi1 in accordance with a compact made with ,baian1 which is recorded by ,menander1 abandoned their old homes to the ,avars and passed southwards into ,italy1 were they were destined to found a new and mighty kingdom4 7,f4 ,g4 ,m4 ,b47 ,the ,lombard ,kingdom in ,italy4--,in #efh ,alboin1 king of the ,langobards1 with the women and children of the tribe and all their possessions1 with ,saxon allies1 with the subject tribe of the ,gepidae and a mixed host of other barbarians1 descended into ,italy by the great plain at the head of the ,adriatic4 ,the war which had ended in the downfall of the ,goths had exhausted ,italy2 it was followed by famine and pestilence2 and the government at ,constantinople made but faint efforts to retain the province which ,belisarius and ,narses had recovered for it4 ,except in a few fortified places1 such as ,ticinum or ,pavia1 the ,italians did not venture to encounter the new invaders2 and1 though ,alboin was not without generosity1 the ,lombards1 wherever resisted1 justified the opinion of their ferocity by the savage cruelty of the invasion4 ,in #egb1 according to the ,lombard chronicler1 ,alboin fell a victim to the revenge of his wife ,rosamund1 the daughter of the king of the ,gepidae1 whose skull ,alboin had turned into a drinking cup1 out of which he forced ,rosamund to drink4 ,by this time the ,langobards had established themselves in the north of ,italy4 ,chiefs were placed1 or placed themselves1 first in the border cities1 like ,friuli and ,trent1 which commanded the north-eastern passes1 and then in other principal places2 and this arrangement became characteristic of the ,lombard settlement4 ,the principal seat of the settlement was the rich plain watered by the ,po and its affluents1 which was in future to receive its name from them2 but their power extended across the ,apennines into ,liguria and ,tuscany1 and then southwards to the outlying dukedoms of ,spoleto and ,benevento4 ,the invaders failed to secure any maritime ports or any territory that was conveniently commanded from the sea4 ,ticinum 7,pavia71 the one place which had obstinately resisted ,alboin1 became the seat of their kings4 ,after the short and cruel reign of ,cleph1 the successor of ,alboin1 the ,lombards 7as we may begin for convenience sake to call them7 tried for ten years the experiment of a national confederacy of their dukes 7as1 after the ,latin writers1 their chiefs are styled71 without any king4 ,it was the rule of some thirty-five or thirty-six petty tyrants1 under whose oppression and private wars even the invaders suffered4 ,with anarchy among themselves and so precarious a hold on the country1 hated by the ,italian population and by the ,catholic clergy1 threatened also by an alliance of the ,greek empire with their persistent rivals the ,franks beyond the ,alps1 they resolved to sacrifice their independence and elect a king4 ,in #ehd they chose ,authari1 the grandson of ,alboin1 and endowed the royal domain with a half of their possessions4 ,from this time till the fall of the ,lombard power before the arms of their rivals the ,franks under ,charles the ,great1 the kingly rule continued4 ,authari1 the ,long-haired1 with his ,roman title of ,flavius1 marks the change from the war king of an invading host to the permanent representative of the unity and law of the nation1 and the increased power of the crown1 by the possession of a great domain1 to enforce its will4 ,the independence of the dukes was surrendered to the king4 ,the dukedoms in the neighbourhood of the seat of power were gradually absorbed1 and their holders transformed into royal officers4 ,those of the northern marches1 ,trent and ,friuli1 with the important dukedom of ,turin1 retained longer the kind of independence which marchlands usually give where invasion is to be feared4 ,the great dukedom of ,benevento in the south1 with its neighbour ,spoleto1 threatened at one time to be a separate principality1 and even to the last resisted1 with varying success1 the full claims of the royal authority at ,pavia4 ,the kingdom of the ,lombards lasted more than two hundred years1 from ,alboin 7#efh7 to the fall of ,desiderius 7#ggd7--much longer than the preceding ,teutonic kingdom of ,theodoric and the ,goths4 ,but it differed from the other ,teutonic conquests in ,gaul1 in ,britain1 in ,spain4 ,it was never complete in point of territory3 there were always two1 and almost to the last three1 capitals--the ,lombard one1 ,pavia2 the ,latin one1 ,rome2 the ,greek one1 ,ravenna2 and the ,lombards never could get access to the sea4 ,and it never was complete over the subject race3 it profoundly affected the ,italians of the north2 in its turn it was entirely transformed by contact with them2 but the ,lombards never amalgamated with the ,italians till their power as a ruling race was crushed by the victory given to the ,roman element by the restored empire of the ,franks4 ,the ,langobards1 ,german in their faults and in their strength1 but coarser1 at least at first1 than the ,germans whom the ,italians had known1 the ,goths of ,theodoric and ,totila1 found themselves continually in the presence of a subject population very different from anything which the other ,teutonic conquerors met with among the provincials--like them1 exhausted1 dispirited1 unwarlike1 but with the remains and memory of a great civilization round them1 intelligent1 subtle1 sensitive1 feeling themselves infinitely superior in experience and knowledge to the rough barbarians whom they could not fight1 and capable of hatred such as only cultivated races can nourish4 ,the ,lombards who1 after they had occupied the lands and cities of ,upper ,italy1 still went on sending forth furious bands to plunder and destroy where they did not care to stay1 never were able to overcome the mingled fear and scorn and loathing of the ,italians4 ,they adapted themselves very quickly indeed to many ,italian fashions4 ,within thirty years of the invasions1 ,authari took the imperial title of ,flavius1 even while his bands were leading ,italian captives in leash like dogs under the walls of ,rome1 and under the eyes of ,pope ,gregory2 and it was retained by his successors4 ,they soon became ,catholics2 and then in all the usages of religion1 in church building1 in founding monasteries1 in their veneration for relics1 they vied with ,italians4 ,authari's queen1 ,theodelinda1 solemnly placed the ,lombard nation under the patronage of ,st ,john the ,baptist1 and at ,monza she built in his honour the first ,lombard church1 and the royal palace near it4 ,king ,liutprand 7#gab-gdd7 bought the relics of ,st ,augustine for a large sum to be placed in his church at ,pavia4 ,their ,teutonic speech disappeared2 except in names and a few technical words all traces of it are lost4 ,but to the last they had the unpardonable crime of being a ruling barbarian race or caste in ,italy4 ,to the end they are nefandissimi1 execrable1 loathsome1 filthy4 ,so wrote ,gregory the ,great when they first appeared4 ,so wrote ,pope ,stephen ,,iv41 at the end of their rule1 when stirring up the kings of the ,franks to destroy them4 ,authari's short reign 7#ehd-eia7 was one of renewed effort for conquest4 ,it brought the ,langobards face to face1 not merely with the emperors at ,constantinople1 but with the first of the great statesmen popes1 ,gregory the ,great 7#eij-fjd74 ,but ,lombard conquest was bungling and wasteful2 when they had spoiled a city they proceeded to tear down its walls and raze it to the ground4 ,authari's chief connexion with the fortunes of his people was an important1 though an accidental one4 ,the ,lombard chronicler tells a romantic tale of the way in which ,authari sought his bride from ,garibald1 duke of the ,bavarians1 how he went incognito in the embassy to judge of her attractions1 and how she recognized her disguised suitor4 ,the bride was the ,christian ,theodelinda1 and she became to the ,langobards what ,bertha was to the ,anglo-,saxons and ,clotilda to the ,franks4 ,she became the mediator between the ,lombards and the ,catholic ,church4 ,authari1 who had brought her to ,italy1 died shortly after his marriage4 ,but ,theodelinda had so won on the ,lombard chiefs that they bid her as queen choose the one among them whom she would have for her husband and for king4 ,she chose ,agilulf1 duke of ,turin 7#eib-fae74 ,he was not a true ,langobard1 but a ,thuringian4 ,it was the beginning of peace between the ,lombards and the ,catholic clergy4 ,agilulf could not abandon his traditional ,arianism1 and he was a very uneasy neighbour1 not only to the ,greek exarch1 but to ,rome itself4 ,but he was favourably disposed both to peace and to the ,catholic ,church4 ,gregory interfered to prevent a national conspiracy against the ,langobards1 like that of ,st ,brice's day in ,england against the ,danes1 or that later uprising against the ,french1 the ,sicilian ,vespers4 ,he was right both in point of humanity and of policy4 ,the ,arian and ,catholic bishops went on for a time side by side2 but the ,lombard kings and clergy rapidly yielded to the religious influences around them1 even while the national antipathies continued unabated and vehement4 ,gregory1 who despaired of any serious effort on the part of the ,greek emperors to expel the ,lombards1 endeavoured to promote peace between the ,italians and ,agilulf2 and1 in spite of the feeble hostility of the exarchs of ,ravenna1 the pope and the king of the ,lombards became the two real powers in the north and centre of ,italy4 ,agilulf was followed1 after two unimportant reigns1 by his son-in-law1 the husband of ,theodelinda's daughter1 ,king ,rothari 7#fcf-feb71 the ,lombard legislator1 still an ,arian though he favoured the ,catholics4 ,he was the first of their kings who collected their customs under the name of laws--and he did this1 not in their own ,teutonic dialect1 but in ,latin4 ,the use of ,latin implies that the laws were to be not merely the personal law of the ,lombards1 but the law of the land1 binding on ,lombards and ,romans alike4 ,but such rude legislation could not provide for all questions arising even in the decayed state of ,roman civilization4 ,it is probable that among themselves the ,italians kept to their old usages and legal precedents where they were not overridden by the conquerors' law1 and by degrees a good many of the ,roman civil arrangements made their way into the ,lombard code1 while all ecclesiastical ones1 and they were a large class1 were untouched by it4 ,there must have been much change of property2 but appearances are conflicting as to the terms on which land generally was held by the old possessors or the new comers1 and as to the relative legal position of the two4 ,savigny held that1 making allowance for the anomalies and usurpations of conquest1 the ,roman population held the bulk of the land as they had held it before1 and were governed by an uninterrupted and acknowledged exercise of ,roman law in their old municipal organization4 ,later inquirers1 including ,leo1 ,troya and ,hegel1 have found that the supposition does not tally with a whole series of facts1 which point to a ,lombard territorial law ignoring completely any parallel ,roman and personal law1 to a great restriction of full civil rights among the ,romans1 analogous to the condition of the rayah under the ,turks1 and to a reduction of the ,roman occupiers to a class of half-free aldii1 holding immovable tenancies under lords of superior race and privilege1 and subject to the sacrifice either of the third part of their holdings or the third part of the produce4 ,the ,roman losses1 both of property and rights1 were likely to be great at first2 how far they continued permanent during the two centuries of the ,lombard kingdom1 or how far the legal distinctions between ,rome and ,lombard gradually passed into desuetude1 is a further question4 ,the legislation of the ,lombard kings1 in form a territorial and not a personal law1 shows no signs of a disposition either to depress or to favour the ,romans1 but only the purpose to maintain1 in a rough fashion1 strict order and discipline impartially among all their subjects4 ,from ,rothari 7d4 #feb7 to ,liutprand 7#gab-gdd7 the ,lombard kings1 succeeding one another in the irregular fashion of the time1 sometimes by descent1 sometimes by election1 sometimes by conspiracy and violence1 strove fitfully to enlarge their boundaries1 and contended with the aristocracy of dukes inherent in the original organization of the nation1 an element which1 though much weakened1 always embarrassed the power of the crown1 and checked the unity of the nation4 ,their old enemies the ,franks on the west1 and the ,slavs or ,huns1 ever ready to break in on the north-east1 and sometimes called in by mutinous and traitorous dukes of ,friuli and ,trent1 were constant and serious dangers4 ,by the popes1 who represented ,italian interests1 they were always looked upon with dislike and jealousy1 even when they had become zealous ,catholics1 the founders of churches and monasteries2 with the ,greek empire there was chronic war4 ,from time to time they made raids into the unsubdued parts of ,italy1 and added a city or two to their dominions4 ,but there was no sustained effort for the complete subjugation of ,italy till ,liutprand1 the most powerful of the line4 ,he tried it1 and failed4 ,he broke up the independence of the great southern duchies1 ,benevento and ,spoleto4 ,for a time1 in the heat of the dispute about images1 he won the pope to his side against the ,greeks4 ,for a time1 but only for a time1 he deprived the ,greeks of ,ravenna4 ,aistulf1 his successor1 carried on the same policy4 ,he even threatened ,rome itself1 and claimed a capitation tax4 ,but the popes1 thoroughly irritated and alarmed1 and hopeless of aid from the ,east1 turned to the family which was rising into power among the ,franks of the ,west1 the mayors of the palace of ,austrasia4 ,pope ,gregory ,,iii4 applied in vain to ,charles ,martel4 ,but with his successors ,pippin and ,charles the popes were more successful4 ,in return for the transfer by the pope of the ,frank crown from the decayed line of ,clovis to his own1 ,pippin crossed the ,alps1 defeated ,aistulf and gave to the pope the lands which ,aistulf had torn from the empire1 ,ravenna and the ,pentapolis 7#ged-gef74 ,but the angry quarrels still went on between the popes and the ,lombards4 ,the ,lombards were still to the ,italians a foul and horrid race4 ,at length1 invited by ,pope ,adrian ,i41 ,pippin's son ,charlemagne once more descended into ,italy4 ,as the ,lombard kingdom began1 so it ended1 with a siege of ,pavia4 ,desiderius1 the last king1 became a prisoner 7#ggd71 and the ,lombard power perished4 ,charlemagne1 with the title of king of the ,franks and ,lombards1 became master of ,italy1 and in #hjj the pope1 who had crowned ,pippin king of the ,franks1 claimed to bestow the ,roman empire1 and crowned his greater son emperor of the ,romans 7#hjj74 ,effects of the ,carolingian ,conquest4--,to ,italy the overthrow of the ,lombard kings was the loss of its last chance of independence and unity4 ,to the ,lombards the conquest was the destruction of their legal and social supremacy4 ,henceforth they were equally with the ,italians the subjects of the ,frank kings4 ,the ,carolingian kings expressly recognized the ,roman law1 and allowed all who would be counted ,romans to profess it4 ,but ,latin influences were not strong enough to extinguish the ,lombard name and destroy altogether the recollections and habits of the ,lombard rule2 ,lombard law was still recognized1 and survived in the schools of ,pavia4 ,lombardy remained the name of the finest province of ,italy1 and for a time was the name for ,italy itself4 ,but what was specially ,lombard could not stand in the long run against the ,italian atmosphere which surrounded it4 ,generation after generation passed more and more into real ,italians4 ,antipathies1 indeed1 survived1 and men even in the #ajth century called each other ,roman or ,langobard as terms of reproach4 ,but the altered name of ,lombard also denoted henceforth some of the proudest of ,italians2 and1 though the ,lombard speech had utterly perished their most common names still kept up the remembrance that their fathers had come from beyond the ,alps4 ,but the establishment of the ,frank kingdom1 and still more the re-establishment of the ,christian empire as the source of law and jurisdiction in ,christendom1 had momentous influence on the history of the ,italianized ,lombards4 ,the ,empire was the counterweight to the local tyrannies into which the local authorities established by the ,empire itself1 the feudal powers1 judicial and military1 necessary for the purposes of government1 invariably tended to degenerate4 ,when they became intolerable1 from the ,empire were sought the exemptions1 privileges1 immunities from that local authority1 which1 anomalous and anarchical as they were in theory1 yet in fact were the foundations of all the liberties of the middle ages in the ,swiss cantons1 in the free towns of ,germany and the ,low ,countries1 in the ,lombard cities of ,italy4 ,italy was and ever has been a land of cities2 and1 ever since the downfall of ,rome and the decay of the municipal system1 the bishops of the cities had really been at the head of the peaceful and industrial part of their population1 and were a natural refuge for the oppressed1 and sometimes for the mutinous and the evil doers1 from the military and civil powers of the duke or count or judge1 too often a rule of cruelty or fraud4 ,under the ,carolingian empire1 a vast system grew up in the ,north ,italian cities of episcopal immunities1 by which a city with its surrounding district was removed1 more or less completely1 from the jurisdiction of the ordinary authority1 military or civil1 and placed under that of the bishop4 ,these immunities led to the temporal sovereignty of the bishops2 under it the spirit of liberty grew more readily than under the military chief4 ,municipal organization1 never quite forgotten1 naturally revived under new forms1 and with its consuls at the head of the citizens1 with its arts and crafts and gilds1 grew up secure under the shadow of the church4 ,in due time the city populations1 free from the feudal yoke1 and safe within the walls which in many instances the bishops had built for them1 became impatient also of the bishop's government4 ,the cities which the bishops had made thus independent of the dukes and counts next sought to be free from the bishops2 in due time they too gained their charters of privilege and liberty4 ,left to take care of themselves1 islands in a sea of turbulence1 they grew in the sense of self-reliance and independence2 they grew also to be aggressive1 quarrelsome and ambitious4 ,thus1 by the #aath century1 the ,lombard cities had become communes1 commonalties1 republics1 managing their own affairs1 and ready for attack or defence4 ,milan had recovered its greatness1 ecclesiastically as well as politically2 it scarcely bowed to ,rome1 and it aspired to the position of a sovereign city1 mistress over its neighbours4 ,at length1 in the #abth century1 the inevitable conflict came between the republicanism of the ,lombard cities and the ,german feudalism which still claimed their allegiance in the name of the ,empire4 ,leagues and counter-leagues were formed2 and a confederacy of cities1 with ,milan at its head1 challenged the strength of ,germany under one of its sternest emperors1 ,frederick ,barbarossa4 ,at first ,frederick was victorious2 ,milan1 except its churches1 was utterly destroyed2 everything that marked municipal independence was abolished in the rebel cities2 and they had to receive an imperial magistrate instead of their own 7#aaeh-aafb74 ,but the ,lombard league was again formed4 ,milan was rebuilt1 with the help even of its jealous rivals1 and at ,legnano 7#aagf7 ,frederick was utterly defeated4 ,the ,lombard cities had regained their independence2 and at the peace of ,constance 7#aahc7 ,frederick found himself compelled to confirm it4 ,from the peace of ,constance the history of the ,lombards is merely part of the history of ,italy4 ,their cities went through the ordinary fortunes of most ,italian cities4 ,they quarrelled and fought with one another4 ,they took opposite sides in the great strife of the time between pope and emperor1 and were ,guelf and ,ghibelline by old tradition1 or as one or other faction prevailed in them4 ,they swayed backwards and forwards between the power of the people and the power of the few2 but democracy and oligarchy passed sooner or later into the hands of a master who veiled his lordship under various titles1 and generally at last into the hands of a family4 ,then1 in the larger political struggles and changes of ,europe1 they were incorporated into a kingdom1 or principality or duchy1 carved out to suit the interest of a foreigner1 or to make a heritage for the nephew of a pope4 ,but in two ways especially the energetic race which grew out of the fusion of ,langobards and ,italians between the #ith and the #abth centuries has left the memory of itself4 ,in ,england1 at least1 the enterprising traders and bankers who found their way to the ,west1 from the #acth to the #afth centuries1 though they certainly did not all come from ,lombardy1 bore the name of ,lombards4 ,in the next place1 the ,lombards or the ,italian builders whom they employed or followed1 the masters of ,como1 of whom so much is said in the early ,lombard laws1 introduced a manner of building1 stately1 solemn and elastic1 to which their name has been attached1 and which gives a character of its own to some of the most interesting churches in ,italy4 7,r4 ,w4 ,c47 ,,lombardy1 a territorial division of ,italy1 bounded ,n4 by the ,alps1 ,s4 by ,emilia1 ,e4 by ,venetia and ,w4 by ,piedmont4 ,it is divided into eight provinces1 ,bergamo1 ,brescia1 ,como1 ,cremona1 ,mantua1 ,milan1 ,pavia and ,sondrio1 and has an area of #ichf sq4 m4 ,milan1 the chief city1 is the greatest railway centre of ,italy2 it is in direct communication not only with the other principal towns of ,lombardy and the rest of ,italy but also with the larger towns of ,france1 ,germany and ,switzerland1 being the nearest great town to the tunnels of the ,st ,gothard and the ,simplon4 ,the other railway centres of the territory are ,mortara1 ,pavia and ,mantua1 while every considerable town is situated on or within easy reach of the railway1 this being rendered comparatively easy owing to the relative flatness of the greater part of the country4 ,the line from ,milan to ,porto ,ceresio is worked in the main by electric motor driven trains1 while on that from ,lecco to ,colico and ,chiavenna over-head wires are adopted4 ,the more remote districts and the immediate environs of the larger town are served by steam tramways and electric railways4 ,the most important rivers are the ,po1 which follows1 for the most part1 the southern boundary of ,lombardy1 and the ,ticino1 one of the largest tributaries of the ,po1 which forms for a considerable distance the western boundary4 ,the majority of the ,italian lakes1 those of ,garda1 ,idro1 ,iseo1 ,como1 ,lugano1 ,varese and ,maggiore1 lie wholly or in part within it4 ,the climate of ,lombardy is thoroughly continental2 in summer the heat is greater than in the south of ,italy1 while the winter is very cold1 and bitter winds1 snow and mist are frequent4 ,in the summer rain is rare beyond the lower ,alps1 but a system of irrigation1 unsurpassed in ,europe1 and dating from the middle ages1 prevails1 so that a failure of the crops is hardly possible4 ,there are three zones of cultivation3 in the mountains1 pasturage2 the lower slopes are devoted to the culture of the vine1 fruit-trees 7including chestnuts7 and the silkworm2 while in the regions of the plain1 large crops of maize1 rice1 wheat1 flax1 hemp and wine are produced1 and thousands of mulberry-trees are grown for the benefit of the silkworms1 the culture of which in the province of ,milan has entirely superseded the sheep-breeding for which it was famous during the middle ages4 ,milan is indeed the principal silk market in the world4 ,in #aije there were #dij mills reeling silk in ,lombardy1 with #ce1djg workers1 and #bgf throwing-mills with #ehf1jjj spindles4 ,the chief centre of silk weaving is ,como1 but the silk is commercially dealt with at ,milan1 and there is much exportation4 ,a considerable amount of cotton is manufactured1 but most of the raw cotton 7#fjj1jjj bales7 is imported1 the cultivation being insignificant in ,italy4 ,there are #djj mills in ,lombardy1 #bgg of which are in the province of ,milan4 ,the largest linen and woollen mills in ,italy are situated at ,fara d',adda4 ,milan also manufactures motor-cars1 though ,turin is the principal centre in ,italy for this industry4 ,there are copper1 zinc and iron mines1 and numerous quarries of marble1 alabaster and granite4 ,in addition to the above industries the chief manufactures are hats1 rope and paper-making1 iron-casting1 gun-making1 printing and lithography4 ,lombardy is indeed the most industrial district of ,italy4 ,in parts the peasants suffer much from pellagra4 ,the most important towns with their communal population in the respective provinces1 according to the census of #aija1 are ,bergamo 7#df1hfa71 ,treviglio 7#ad1hig71 total of province #dfg1edi1 number of communes #cjf2 ,brescia 7#fi1baj71 ,chiari 7#aj1gdi71 total of province #eda1gfe1 number of communes #bhj2 ,como 7#ch1agd71 ,varese 7#ag1fff71 ,cant 7#aj1gbe71 ,lecco 7#aj1ceb71 total of province #eid1cjd1 number of communes #eaj2 ,cremona 7#cf1hdh71 ,casalmaggiore 7#af1djg71 ,soresina 7#aj1ceh71 total of province #cbi1dga1 number of communes #acc2 ,mantua 7#cj1abg71 ,viadana 7#af1jhb71 ,quistello 7#aa1bbh71 ,suzzara 7#aa1ejb71 ,st ,benedetto ,po 7#aj1ijh71 total of province #cae1ddh1 number of communes #fh2 ,milan 7#dij1jhd71 ,monza 7#db1abd71 ,lodi 7#bf1hbg71 ,busto ,arsizio 7#bj1jje71 ,legnano 7#ah1bhe71 ,seregno 7#ab1jej71 ,gallarate 7#aa1ieb71 ,codogno 7#aa1ibe71 total of province #a1dej1bad1 number of communes #big2 ,pavia 7#cc1ibb71 ,vigevano 7#bc1efj71 ,voghera 7#bj1ddb71 total of province #ejd1chb1 number of communes #bba2 ,sondrio 7#gjgg71 total of province #acj1iff1 number of communes #gh4 ,the total population of ,lombardy was #d1ccd1jii4 ,in most of the provinces of ,lombardy there are far more villages than in other parts of ,italy except ,piedmont2 this is attributable partly to their mountainous character1 partly perhaps to security from attack by sea 7contrast the state of things in ,apulia74 ,previous to the fall of the ,roman republic ,lombardy formed a part of ,gallia ,transpadana1 and it was ,lombardy1 ,venetia and ,piedmont1 the portion of the ,italian peninsula ,n4 of the ,po1 that did not receive citizenship in #hi ,b4,c4 but only ,latin rights4 ,the gift of full citizenship in #di ,b4,c4 made it a part of ,italy proper1 and ,lombardy and ,piedmont formed the #aath region of ,augustus 7,transpadana7 while ,venetia and ,istria formed the #ajth4 ,it was the second of the regions of ,italy in size1 but the last in number of towns2 it appears1 however1 to have been prosperous and peaceful1 and cultivation flourished in its fertile portions4 ,by the end of the #dth century ,a4,d4 the name ,liguria had been extended over it1 and ,milan was regarded as the capital of both4 ,stranger still1 in the #fth century the old ,liguria was separated from it1 and under the name of ,alpes ,cottiae formed the #eth ,lombard province of ,italy4 ,for details of subsequent history see ,,lombards and ,,italy2 and for architecture see ,,architecture4 ,g4 ,t4 ,rivoira in ,origini dell' ,architettura ,lombarda 7#b vols4 ,rome1 #aija-aijg71 successfully demonstrates the classical origin of much that had hitherto been treated by some authorities as ,byzantine4 ,in the development of ,renaissance architecture and art ,lombardy played a great part1 inasmuch as both ,bramante and ,leonardo da ,vinci resided in ,milan at the end of the #aeth century4 ,,lombok 7called by the natives ,sasak71 one of the ,lesser ,sunda ,islands1 in the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 ,e4 of ,java1 between #h #ab and #i #a ,s4 and #aae #df and #aaf #dj ,e41 with an area of #cacf sq4 m4 ,it is separated from ,bali by the ,strait of ,lombok and from ,sumbawa by the ,strait of ,alas4 ,rising out of the sea with bold and often precipitous coasts1 ,lombok is traversed by two mountain chains4 ,the northern chain is of volcanic formation1 and contains the peak of ,lombok 7#aa1haj ft471 one of the highest volcanoes in the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,it is surrounded by a plateau 7with lower summits1 and a magnificent lake1 ,segara ,anak7 #hbjj ft4 high4 ,the southern chain rises a little over #cjjj ft4 ,between the two chains is a broad valley or terrace with a range of low volcanic hills4 ,forest-clad mountains and stretches of thorny jungle alternating with rich alluvial plains1 cultivated like gardens under an ancient and elaborate system of irrigation1 make the scenery of ,lombok exceedingly attractive4 ,the small rivers serve only for irrigation and the growing of rice1 which is of superior quality4 ,in the plains are also grown coffee1 indigo1 maize and sugar1 katyang 7native beans71 cotton and tobacco4 ,all these products are exported4 ,to the naturalist ,lombok is of particular interest as the frontier island of the ,australian region1 with its cockatoos and megapods or mound-builders1 its peculiar bee-eaters and ground thrushes4 ,the ,sasaks must be considered the aborigines1 as no trace of an earlier race is found4 ,they are ,mahommedans and distinct in many other respects from the ,hindu ,balinese1 who vanquished but could not convert them4 ,the island was formerly divided into the four states of ,karang-,asam ,lombok on the ,w4 side1 ,mataram in the ,n4,w41 ,pagarawan in the ,s4,w4 and ,pagutan in the ,e4 ,balinese supremacy dated from the conquest by ,agong ,dahuran in the beginning of the #aith century2 the union under a single raja tributary to ,bali dated from #ahci4 ,in ,july #ahid a ,dutch expedition landed at ,ampanam1 and advanced towards ,mataram1 the capital of the ,balinese sultan1 who had defied ,dutch authority and refused to send the usual delegation to ,batavia4 ,the objects of that expedition were to punish ,mataram and to redress the grievances of the ,sasaks whom the ,balinese held in cruel subjection4 ,the first ,dutch expedition met with reverses1 and ultimately the invaders were forced back upon ,ampanam4 ,the ,dutch at once despatched a much stronger expedition1 which landed at ,ampanam in ,september4 ,mataram was bombarded by the fleet1 and the troops stormed the sultan's stronghold1 and ,tjakra ,negara1 another chieftain's citadel1 both after a desperate resistance4 ,the old sultan of ,mataram was captured1 and he and other ,balinese chiefs were exiled to different parts of the ,malay ,archipelago1 whilst the sultan's heir fell at the hands of his warriors4 ,thus ended the ,balinese domination of ,lombok1 and the island was placed under direct ,dutch-,indian control1 an assistant resident being appointed at ,ampanam4 ,lombok is now administered from ,bali by the ,dutch resident on that island4 ,the people1 however1 are in undisturbed exercise of their own laws1 religions1 customs and institutions4 ,disturbances between the ,sasaks and the ,lombok ,balinese frequently occur4 ,lombok has been divided since #ahih into the ,west1 ,middle and ,east ,lombok4 ,its chief towns are ,mataram1 ,praya and ,sisi4 ,on the west coast the harbour of ,ampanam is the most frequented1 though1 on account of heavy breakers1 it is often difficult of approach4 ,the ,sasaks are estimated at #cbj1jjj1 the ,balinese at #ej1jjj1 ,europeans number about #dj1 ,chinese #cjj1 and ,arabs #agj4 ,see ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,malay ,archipelago 7,london1 #ahfi1 and later editions74 ,the famous ,wallace's ,line runs immediately west of ,lombok1 which therefore has an important part in the work4 ,captain ,w4 ,cool1 ,with the ,dutch in the ,east 7,amsterdam and ,london1 #ahig71 in ,dutch and ,english1 is a narrative of the events sketched above1 and contains many particulars about the folklore and dual religions of ,lombok1 which1 with ,bali1 forms the last stronghold of ,hinduism east of ,java4 ,,lombroso1 ,,cesare 7#ahcf-aiji71 ,italian criminologist1 was born on the #ahth of ,november #ahcf at ,verona1 of a ,jewish family4 ,he studied at ,padua1 ,vienna and ,paris1 and was in #ahfb appointed professor of psychiatry at ,pavia1 then director of the lunatic asylum at ,pesaro1 and later professor of forensic medicine and of psychiatry at ,turin1 where he eventually filled the chair of criminal anthropology4 ,his works1 several of which have been translated into ,english1 include ,l',uomo delinquente 7#ahhi72 ,l',uomo di genio 7#ahhh72 ,genio e follia 7#ahgg7 and ,la ,donna delinquente 7#ahic74 ,in #ahgb he had made the notable discovery that the disorder known as pellagra was due 7but see ,,pellagra7 to a poison contained in diseased maize1 eaten by the peasants1 and he returned to this subject in ,la ,pellagra in ,italia 7#ahhe7 and other works4 ,lombroso1 like ,giovanni ,bovio 7b4 #ahda71 ,enrico ,ferri 7b4 #ahef7 and ,colajanni1 well-known ,italian criminologists1 and his sons-in-law ,g4 ,ferrero and ,carrara1 was strongly influenced by ,auguste ,comte1 and owed to him an exaggerated tendency to refer all mental facts to biological causes4 ,in spite of this1 however1 and a serious want of accuracy and discrimination in handling evidence1 his work made an epoch in criminology2 for he surpassed all his predecessors by the wide scope and systematic character of his researches1 and by the practical conclusions he drew from them4 ,their net theoretical results is that the criminal population exhibits a higher percentage of physical1 nervous and mental anomalies than non-criminals2 and that these anomalies are due partly to degeneration1 partly to atavism4 ,the criminal is a special type of the human race1 standing midway between the lunatic and the savage4 ,this doctrine of a criminal type has been gravely criticized1 but is admitted by all to contain a substratum of truth4 ,the practical reform to which it points is a classification of offenders1 so that the born criminal may receive a different kind of punishment from the offender who is tempted into crime by circumstances 7see also ,,criminology74 ,lombroso's biological principles are much less successful in his work on ,genius1 which he explains as a morbid1 degenerative condition1 presenting analogies to insanity1 and not altogether alien to crime4 ,in #ahii he published in ,french a book which gives a rsum of much of his earlier work1 entitled ,le ,crime1 causes et remdes4 ,later works are3 ,delitti vecchi e delitti nuovi 7,turin1 #aijb72 ,nuovi studi sul genio 7#b vols41 ,palermo1 #aijb72 and in #aijh a work on spiritualism 7,eng4 trans41 ,after ,death--,what8 #aiji71 to which subject he had turned his attention during the later years of his life4 ,he died suddenly from a heart complaint at ,turin on the #aith of ,october #aiji4 ,see ,kurella1 ,cesare ,lombroso und die ,naturgeschichte des ,verbrechers 7,hamburg1 #ahib72 and a biography1 with an analysis of his works1 and a short account of their general conclusions by his daughters1 ,paola ,carrara and ,gina ,ferrero1 written in #aijf on the occasion of the sixth congress of criminal anthropology at ,turin4 ,,lom,,nie ,,de ,,brienne1 ,,tienne ,,charles ,,de 7#agbg-agid71 ,french politician and ecclesiastic1 was born at ,paris on the #ith of ,october #agbg4 ,he belonged to a ,limousin family1 dating from the #aeth century1 and after a brilliant career as a student entered the ,church1 as being the best way to attain to a distinguished position4 ,in #agea he became a doctor of theology1 though there were doubts as to the orthodoxy of his thesis4 ,in #ageb he was appointed grand vicar to the archbishop of ,rouen4 ,after visiting ,rome1 he was made bishop of ,condom 7#agfj71 and in #agfc was translated to the archbishopric of ,toulouse4 ,he had many famous friends1 among them ,a4 ,r4 ,j4 ,turgot1 the ,abb ,a4 ,morellet and ,voltaire1 and in #aggj became an academician4 ,he was on three occasions the head of the bureau de jurisdiction at the general assembly of the clergy2 he also took an interest in political and social questions of the day1 and addressed to ,turgot a number of mmoires on these subjects1 one of them1 treating of pauperism1 being especially remarkable4 ,in #aghg he was nominated as president of the ,assembly of ,notables1 in which capacity he attacked the fiscal policy of ,calonne1 whom he succeeded as head of the conseil des finances on the #ast of ,may #aghg4 ,once in power1 he succeeded in making the parlement register edicts dealing with internal free trade1 the establishment of provincial assemblies and the redemption of the corve2 on their refusal to register edicts on the stamp duty and the proposed new general land-tax1 he persuaded the king to hold a lit de justice1 to enforce their registration4 ,to crush the opposition to these measures1 he persuaded the king to exile the parlement to ,troyes 7,august #aeth1 #aghg74 ,on the agreement of the parlement to sanction a prolongation for two years to the tax of the two vingtimes 7a direct tax on all kinds of income71 in lieu of the above two taxes1 he recalled the councillors to ,paris4 ,but a further attempt to force the parlement to register an edict for raising a loan of #abj million livres met with determined opposition4 ,the struggle of the parlement against the incapacity of ,brienne ended on the #hth of ,may in its consenting to an edict for its own abolition2 but with the proviso that the states-general should be summoned to remedy the disorders of the state4 ,brienne1 who had in the meantime been made archbishop of ,sens1 now found himself face to face with almost universal opposition2 he was forced to suspend the ,cour plnire which had been set up to take the place of the parlement1 and himself to promise that the states-general should be summoned4 ,but even these concessions were not able to keep him in power1 and on the #bith of ,august he had to retire1 leaving the treasury empty4 ,on the #aeth of ,december following1 he was made a cardinal1 and went to ,italy1 where he spent two years4 ,after the outbreak of the ,revolution he returned to ,france1 and took the oath of the ,civil ,constitution of the ,clergy in #agij 7see ,,french ,,revolution74 ,he was repudiated by the pope1 and in #agia had to give up the biretta at the command of ,pius ,,vi4 ,both his past and present conduct made him an object of suspicion to the revolutionaries2 he was arrested at ,sens on the #ith of ,november #agic1 and died in prison1 either of an apoplectic stroke or by poison1 on the #afth of ,february #agid4 ,the chief works published by ,brienne are3 ,oraison funbre du ,dauphin 7,paris1 #agff72 ,compte-rendu au roi 7,paris1 #aghh72 ,le ,conciliateur1 in collaboration with ,turgot 7,rome1 ,paris1 #aged74 ,see also ,j4 ,perrin1 ,le ,cardinal ,lomnie de ,brienne 444 pisodes de la ,rvolution 7,sens1 #ahif74 ,,lomond1 ,,loch1 the largest and most beautiful of ,scottish lakes1 situated in the counties of ,stirling and ,dumbarton4 ,it is about #bc m4 long2 its width varies from #e m4 towards the south end to #a_/c m4 at the narrows to the north of the ,isle of the ,vow2 its area is #bg sq4 m41 and the greatest depth #fcj ft4 ,it is only #bc ft4 above the sea1 of which doubtless it was at one time an arm4 ,it contains #cj islands1 the largest of which is ,inchmurrin1 a deer park belonging to the duke of ,montrose4 ,among other islands are ,inch ,cailliach 7the ,island of ,women1 from the fact that a nunnery once stood there71 ,inchfad 7,long ,island71 ,inchcruin 7,round ,island71 ,inchtavannach 7,monks' ,isle71 ,inchconnachan 7,colquhoun's ,isle71 ,inchlonaig 7,isle of the ,yews1 where ,robert ,bruce caused yews to be planted to provide arms for his bowmen71 ,creinch1 ,torrinch and ,clairinch 7which gave the ,buchanans their war-cry74 ,from the west the loch receives the ,inveruglas1 the ,douglas1 the ,luss1 the ,finlas and the ,fruin4 ,from ,balloch in the south it sends off the ,leven to the ,clyde2 from the east it receives the ,endrick1 the ,blair1 the ,cashell and the ,arklet2 and from the north the ,falloch4 ,ben ,lomond 7#caib ft471 the ascent of which is made with comparative ease from ,rowardennan1 dominates the landscape2 but there are other majestic hills1 particularly on the west and north-west banks4 ,the fish are sea-trout1 lake-trout1 pike and perch4 ,part of the shore is skirted by the ,west ,highland railway1 opened in #ahid1 which has stations on the loch at ,tarbet and ,ardlui1 and ,balloch is the terminus of the lines from ,dumbarton and from ,stirling via ,buchlyvie4 ,steamers make the tour of the loch1 starting from ,balloch and calling at ,balmaha1 ,luss1 ,rowardennan1 ,tarbet1 ,inversnaid and ,ardlui4 ,,luss has a considerable population1 and there is some stone quarried near it4 ,,inversnaid is the point of arrival and departure for the ,trossachs coaches1 and here1 too1 there is a graceful waterfall1 fed by the ,arklet from the loch of that name1 #b m4 to the east1 commemorated in ,wordsworth's poem of the ,highland ,girl4 ,inversnaid was in the heart of the ,macgregor country1 and the name of ,rob ,roy is still given to his cave on the loch side a mile to the north and to his prison #c m4 to the south4 ,inversnaid was the site of a fort built in #agac to reduce the clan to subjection4 ,craig ,royston1 a tract lying between ,inversnaid and ,ben ,lomond1 was also associated with ,rob ,roy4 ,,lomon,,sov1 ,,mikhail ,,vasilievich 7#agaa-agfe71 ,russian poet and man of science1 was born in the year #agaa1 in the village of ,denisovka 7the name of which was afterwards changed in honour of the poet71 situated on an island not far from ,kholmogor1 in the government of ,archangel4 ,his father1 a fisherman1 took the boy when he was ten years of age to assist him in his calling2 but the lad's eagerness for knowledge was unbounded4 ,the few books accessible to him he almost learned by heart2 and1 seeing that there was no chance of increasing his stock of knowledge in his native place1 he resolved to betake himself to ,moscow4 ,an opportunity occurred when he was seventeen1 and by the intervention of friends he obtained admission into the ,zaikonospasski school4 ,there his progress was very rapid1 especially in ,latin1 and in #agcd he was sent from ,moscow to ,st ,petersburg4 ,there again his proficiency1 especially in physical science1 was marked1 and he was one of the young ,russians chosen to complete their education in foreign countries4 ,he accordingly commenced the study of metallurgy at ,marburg2 he also began to write poetry1 imitating ,german authors1 among whom he is said to have especially admired ,gnther4 ,his ,ode on the ,taking of ,khotin from the ,turks was composed in #agci1 and attracted a great deal of attention at ,st ,petersburg4 ,during his residence in ,germany ,lomonsov married a native of the country1 and found it difficult to maintain his increasing family on the scanty allowance granted to him by the ,st ,petersburg ,academy1 which1 moreover1 was irregularly sent4 ,his circumstances became embarrassed1 and he resolved to leave the country secretly and to return home4 ,on his arrival in ,russia he rapidly rose to distinction1 and was made professor of chemistry in the university of ,st ,petersburg2 he ultimately became rector1 and in #agfd secretary of state4 ,he died in #agfe4 ,the most valuable of the works of ,lomonsov are those relating to physical science1 and he wrote upon many branches of it4 ,he everywhere shows himself a man of the most varied learning4 ,he compiled a ,russian grammar1 which long enjoyed popularity1 and did much to improve the rhythm of ,russian verse4 ,,lomza1 or ,,lomzha1 a government of ,russian ,poland1 bounded ,n4 by ,prussia and the ,polish government of ,suwalki1 ,e4 by the ,russian government of ,grodno1 ,s4 by the ,polish governments of ,siedlce and ,warsaw and ,w4 by that of ,plock4 ,it covers #dfff sq4 m4 ,it is mostly flat or undulating1 with a few tracts in the north and south-west where the deeply cut valleys give a hilly aspect to the country4 ,extensive marshes overspread it1 especially on the banks of the ,narev1 which flows from east to south-west1 joining the ,bug in the south-western corner of the government4 ,the ,bug flows along the southern border1 joining the ,vistula #bj m4 below its confluence with the ,narev4 ,there are forests in the east of the government4 ,the inhabitants numbered #eja1che in #ahgb and #ehe1jcc in #ahig1 of whom #bgi1bgi were women1 and #fi1hcd lived in towns4 ,the estimated population in #aijf was #fec1ajj4 ,by religion #gg are ,roman ,catholics1 #ae ,jews and #e members of the ,orthodox ,church4 ,agriculture is the predominant industry1 the chief crops being rye1 oats1 wheat1 barley1 buckwheat1 peas1 potatoes1 flax and hemp4 ,bees are extensively kept1 and large numbers of poultry1 especially geese1 are reared4 ,stock raising is carried on to some extent4 ,the wood trade is important2 other industries are the production of pottery1 beer1 flour1 leather1 bricks1 wooden wares1 spirits1 tobacco and sugar4 ,there is only one railway 7between ,grodno and ,warsaw72 the ,bug is navigable1 but wood only is floated down the ,narev4 ,the government is divided into seven districts1 of which the chief towns1 with their populations in #ahig1 are ,lomza 7q4v471 ,ostrolenka 7#hfgi71 ,mazowiec 7#cijj71 ,ostrw 7#aa1bfd71 ,makw 7#gbcb71 ,kolno 7#dida7 and ,szczuczyn 7#egbe74 ,,lomza1 a town of ,russia1 capital of the government of the same name1 on the ,narew1 #ajc m4 by rail ,n4,e4 from ,warsaw4 ,pop4 7#ahgb71 #ac1hfj1 7#aijj7 #bb1dbh4 ,lomza is an old town1 one of its churches having been erected before #ajjj4 ,in the #afth century it carried on a brisk trade with ,lithuania and ,prussia4 ,it was well fortified and had two citadels1 but nevertheless often suffered from the invasions of the ,germans and ,tatars1 and in the #agth century it was twice plundered by the ,cossacks of the ,ukraine4 ,in #agie it fell under the dominion of ,prussia1 and after the peace of ,tilsit 7#ahjg7 it came under ,russian rule4 ,,lonauli1 a town of ,india1 in the ,poona district of ,bombay1 at the top of the ,bhor ,ghat pass in the ,western ,ghats1 by which the ,great ,indian ,peninsula railway climbs from ,bombay to ,poona4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #ffhf4 ,it contains the locomotive works of the railway4 ,lonauli is a place of resort from ,bombay during the hot season4 ,,london1 a city and port of entry of ,middlesex county1 ,ontario1 ,canada1 situated #aba m4 ,n4,w4 of ,toronto1 on the river ,thames and the ,grand ,trunk1 ,canadian ,pacific and ,michigan ,central railways4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #cg1iha2 but several suburbs1 not included in these figures1 are in reality part of the city4 ,the local nomenclature is largely a reproduction of that of the great city whose name it has borrowed4 ,situated in a fertile agricultural district1 it is a large distributing centre4 ,among the industries are breweries1 petroleum refineries1 and factories for the manufacture of agricultural implements and of railway carriages4 ,the educational institutions include the ,hellmuth ,ladies' ,college and the ,western ,university 7founded in #ahgh under the patronage of the ,church of ,england74 ,london was founded in #ahbe-ahbf4 ,,london1 the capital of ,england and of the ,british ,empire1 and the greatest city in the world1 lying on each side of the river ,thames #ej m4 above its mouth4#a ,the ,city1 so called both formally and popularly1 is a small area 7#fgc acres7 on the north bank of the river1 forming the heart of the metropolis1 and constituting within its boundaries one only1 and one of the smallest1 of twenty-nine municipal divisions which make up the administrative ,county of ,london4 ,the twenty-eight remaining divisions are the ,metropolitan ,boroughs4 ,the county thus defined has an extreme length 7,e4 to ,w47 of #af m41 an extreme breadth 7,n4 to ,s47 of #aa m41 and an area of #gd1hci acres or about #aag sq4 m4 ,the boroughs are as follows3-- #a4 ,north of the ,thames4--,touching the northern boundary of the county1 from ,w4 to ,e4--,hammersmith1 ,kensington1 ,paddington1 ,hampstead1 ,st ,pancras1 ,islington1 ,stoke ,newington1 ,poplar4 ,bounded by the ,thames--,fulham1 ,chelsea1 the ,city of ,westminster 7here the ,city of ,london intervenes71 ,stepney1 ,poplar4 ,between ,westminster1 the ,city and ,stepney1 and the northern boroughs--,st ,marylebone 7commonly ,marylebone71 ,holborn1 ,finsbury1 ,shoreditch1 ,bethnal ,green4 #b4 ,south of the ,thames4--,wandsworth1 ,battersea1 ,lambeth1 ,southwark1 ,camberwell1 ,bermondsey1 ,deptford1 ,lewisham1 ,greenwich1 ,woolwich 7with a small part of the north bank74 ,these names are all in common use1 though their formal application is in some cases extended over several districts of which the ancient names remain familiar4 ,each borough is noticed in a separate article4 ,i4 ,,extent ,,and ,,site ,the ,county of ,london is bounded ,n4 and ,w4 by ,middlesex1 ,e4 by ,essex and ,kent1 ,s4 by ,kent and ,surrey4 ,the ,metropolitan police area1 or ,greater ,london1 however1 embraces the whole of ,middlesex1 with parts of the other three counties and of ,hertfordshire4 ,its extent is #ddc1dai acres or nearly #fic sq4 m41 and its population is about seven millions4 ,only here and there upon its fringe the identity of this great area with the metropolis is lost to the eye1 where open country remains unbroken by streets or close-set buildings4 ,site4--,north of the ,thames1 and west of its tributary the ,lea1 which partly bounds the administrative county on the east1 ,london is built upon a series of slight undulations1 only rarely sufficient to make the streets noticeably steep4 ,on the northern boundary of the county a height of #ddc ft4 is found on the open ,hampstead ,heath4 ,the lesser streams which flow from this high ground to the ,thames are no longer open4 ,some1 however1 as well as other natural features effaced by the growth of the city1 retain an historical interest through the survival of their names in streets and districts1 or through their relation to the original site of ,london 7in the present ,city74 ,south of the ,thames a broken amphitheatre of low hills1 approaching the river near ,greenwich and ,woolwich on the east and ,putney and ,richmond on the west1 encloses a tract flatter than that to the north1 and rises more abruptly in the southern districts of ,streatham1 ,norwood and ,forest ,hill4 ,in attempting to picture the site of ,london in its original condition1 that is1 before any building took place1 it is necessary to consider 7#a7 the condition of the ,thames unconfined between made banks1 7#b7 the slopes overlooking it1 7#c7 the tributary streams which watered these slopes4 ,the low ground between the slight hills flanking the ,thames valley1 and therefore mainly south of the present river1 was originally occupied by a shallow lagoon of estuarine character1 tidal1 and interspersed with marshy tracts and certain islets of relatively firm land4 ,through this the main stream of the ,thames pursued an ill-defined course4 ,the tributary streams entered through marshy channels4 ,the natural process of sedimentation assisted the gradual artificial drainage of the marshes by means of embankments confining the river4 ,the breadth of this low tract1 from ,chelsea downward1 was from #b to #c m4 ,the line of the foot of the southern hills1 from ,putney1 where it nearly approaches the present river1 lies through ,stockwell and ,camberwell to ,greenwich1 where it again approaches the river4 ,on the north there is a flat tract between ,chelsea and ,westminster1 covering ,pimlico1 but from ,westminster down to the ,tower there is a marked slope directly up from the river bank4 ,lower still1 marshes formerly extended far up the valley of the ,lea4 ,the higher slopes of the hills were densely forested 7cf4 the modern district-name ,st ,john's ,wood71 while the lower slopes1 north of the river1 were more open 7cf4 ,moor-gate74 ,the original city grew up on the site of the ,city of ,london of the present day1 on a slight eminence intersected by the ,wal- or ,wall-brook1 and flanked on the west by the river ,fleet4 ,illustration3 ,map of ,the ,county of ,,london4 ,these and other tributary streams have been covered in and built over 7in some cases serving as sewers71 but it is possible to trace their valleys at various points by the fall and rise of streets crossing them1 and their names survive1 as will be seen1 in various modern applications4 ,the ,wallbrook rose in a marsh in the modern district of ,finsbury1 and joined the ,thames close to the ,cannon ,street railway bridge4 ,a street named after it runs south from the ,mansion ,house parallel with its course4 ,the ,fleet was larger1 rising in1 and collecting various small streams from1 the high ground of ,hampstead4 ,it passed ,kentish ,town1 ,camden ,town and ,king's ,cross1 and followed a line approximating to ,king's ,cross ,road4 ,the slope of ,farringdon ,road1 where crossed by ,holborn ,viaduct1 and of ,new ,bridge ,street1 ,blackfriars1 marks its course exactly1 and that of ,fleet ,street and ,ludgate ,hill its steep banks4 ,the name also appears in ,fleet ,road1 ,hampstead4 ,from ,king's ,cross downward the banks were so steep and high that the stream was called ,hollow or ,hole-bourne1 this name surviving in ,holborn2 and it was fed by numerous springs 7,bagnigge ,well1 ,clerkenwell and others7 in this vicinity4 ,it entered a creek which was navigable for a considerable distance1 and formed a subsidiary harbour for the ,city1 but by the #adth century this was becoming choked with refuse1 and though an attempt was made to clear it1 and wharves were built in #afgj1 it was wholly arched over in #agcg-agfe below ,holborn ,bridge4 ,continuing westward1 the most important stream was ,tyburn 7q4v471 which rose at ,hampstead1 and joined the ,thames through branches on either side of ,thorney ,island1 on which grew up the great ecclesiastical foundation of ,st ,peter1 ,westminster1 better known as ,westminster ,abbey4 ,there is no modern survival of the name of ,tyburn1 which finds1 indeed1 its chief historical interest as attaching to the famous place of execution which lay near the modern ,marble ,arch4 ,the residential district in this vicinity was known at a later date as ,tyburnia4 ,the next stream westward was the ,westbourne1 the name of which is perpetuated in ,westbourne ,grove and elsewhere in ,paddington4 ,it rose on the heights of ,hampstead1 traversed ,paddington1 may be traced in the course of the ,serpentine lake in ,hyde ,park1 ran parallel to and east of ,sloane ,street1 and joined the ,thames close to ,chelsea ,bridge4 ,the main tributaries of the ,thames from the north1 to east and west of those described1 are not covered1 nor is any tributary of importance from the south entirely concealed4 ,geology4--,london lies within the geological area known as the ,london basin4 ,within the confines of ,greater ,london the chalk which forms the basement of this area appears at the surface in isolated patches about ,greenwich1 while its main line approaches within #aj m4 of the ,city to the south and within #ae to the north-west4 ,in the south and north-west the typical ,london clay is the principal formation4 ,in the south-east1 however1 the ,blackheath and ,woolwich pebble-beds appear1 with their belts of ,thanet sands bordering the chalk4 ,valley gravel borders the ,thames1 with some interruptions1 from ,kingston to ,greenwich1 and extends to a wide belt1 with ramifications1 from ,wandsworth south to ,croydon1 and in a narrower line from ,greenwich towards ,bromley4 ,brick earth overlies it from ,kensington to ,brentford and west thereof1 and appears in ,chelsea and ,fulham1 ,hornsey and ,stoke ,newington1 and in patches south of the ,thames between ,battersea and ,richmond4 ,the main deposits of alluvium occur below ,lambeth and ,westminster1 and in the valley of the ,wandle1 which joins the ,thames from the south near ,putney4 ,in the north and west the clay is interspersed with patches of plateau gravel in the direction of ,finchley 7where boulder clay also appears71 ,enfield and ,barnet2 and of ,bagshot sands on ,hampstead ,heath and ,harrow ,hill4 ,gravel is found on the high ground about ,richmond ,park and ,wimbledon4 7,see further ,,middlesex47 ,climate4--,the climate is equable 7though excessive heat is sometimes felt for short periods during the summer7 and moist1 but healthy4 ,snow is most common in the early months of the year4 ,the fogs of ,london have a peculiar and perhaps an exaggerated notoriety4 ,they are apt to occur at all seasons1 are common from ,september to ,february1 and most common in ,november4 ,the atmosphere of ,london is almost invariably misty in a greater or less degree1 but the denser fogs are generally local and of no long duration4 ,they sometimes cause a serious dislocation of railway and other traffic4 ,their principal cause is the smoke from the general domestic use of coal4 ,the evil is of very long standing1 for in #acjf the citizens petitioned ,edward ,i4 to prohibit the use of sea-coal1 and he made it a capital offence4 ,the average temperature of the hottest month1 ,july1 is #fd4d ,f42 of the coldest1 ,january1 #cg4i2 and the mean annual #ej4d4 ,the mean annual rainfall ranges in different parts of the metropolis from about #bj to #bg in4 ,,ii4 ,,topography ,london as a whole owes nothing in appearance to the natural configuration of its site4 ,moreover1 the splendid building is nearly always a unit2 seldom1 unless accidentally1 a component part of a broad effect4 ,london has not grown up along formal lines2 nor is any large part of it laid out according to the conceptions of a single generation4 ,yet not a few of the great thoroughfares and buildings are individually worthy of ,london's preeminence as a city4 ,the most notable of these fall within a circumscribed area1 and it is therefore necessary to preface their consideration with a statement of the broader characteristic divisions of the metropolis4 ,characteristic ,divisions4--,in ,london north of the ,thames1 the salient distinction lies between ,west and ,east4 ,from the western boundary of the ,city proper1 an area covering the greater part of the city of ,westminster1 and extending into ,chelsea1 ,kensington1 ,paddington and ,marylebone1 is exclusively associated with the higher-class life of ,london4 ,within the bounds of ,westminster are the royal palaces1 the government offices and many other of the finest public buildings1 and the wider area specified includes the majority of the residences of the wealthier classes1 the most beautiful parks and the most fashionable places of recreation4 ,mayfair1 north of ,piccadilly1 and ,belgravia1 south of ,knightsbridge1 are common though unofficial names for the richest residential districts4 ,the ,city bears in the great commercial buildings fringing its narrow streets all the marks of a centre of the world's exchanges4 ,east of it there is an abrupt transition to the district commonly known as the ,east ,end1 as distinguished from the wealthy ,west ,end1 a district of mean streets1 roughly coincident with the boroughs of ,stepney and ,poplar1 ,shoreditch and ,bethnal ,green1 and primarily 7though by no means exclusively7 associated with the problems attaching to the life of the poor4 ,on the ,thames below ,london ,bridge1 ,london appears in the aspect of one of the world's great ports1 with extensive docks and crowded shipping4 ,north ,london is as a whole residential3 ,hackney1 ,islington and ,st ,pancras consist mainly of dwellings of artisans and the middle classes2 while in ,hampstead1 ,st ,marylebone and ,paddington are many terraces and squares of handsome houses4 ,throughout the better residential quarters of ,london the number of large blocks of flats has greatly increased in modern times4 ,but even in the midst of the richest quarters1 in ,westminster and elsewhere1 small but well-defined areas of the poorest dwellings occur4 ,london south of the ,thames has none of the grander characteristics of the wealthy districts to the north4 ,poor quarters lie adjacent to the river over the whole distance from ,battersea to ,greenwich1 merging southward into residential districts of better class4 ,london has no single well-defined manufacturing quarter4 ,suburbs4--,although the boundary of the county of ,london does not1 to outward appearance1 enclose a city distinct from its suburbs1 ,london outside that boundary may be conveniently considered as suburban4 ,large numbers of business men and others who must of necessity live in proximity to the metropolis have their homes aloof from its centre4 ,it is estimated that upwards of a million daily enter and leave the ,city alone as the commercial heart of ,london1 and a great proportion of these travel in and out by the suburban railways4 ,in this aspect the principal extension of ,london has been into the counties of ,kent and ,surrey1 to the pleasant hilly districts about ,sydenham1 ,norwood and ,croydon1 ,chislehurst and ,orpington1 ,caterham1 ,redhill and ,reigate1 ,epsom1 ,dorking and ,leatherhead2 and up the valley of the ,thames through ,richmond to ,kingston and ,surbiton1 ,esher and ,weybridge1 and the many townships on both the ,surrey and the ,middlesex shores of the river4 ,on the west and north the residential suburbs immediately outside the county include ,acton and ,ealing1 ,willesden1 ,highgate1 ,finchley and ,hornsey2 from the last two a densely populated district extends north through ,wood ,green and ,southgate to ,barnet and ,enfield2 while the residential influence of the metropolis far exceeds these limits1 and may be observed at ,harrow and ,pinner1 ,bushey and ,boxmoor1 ,st ,albans1 ,harpenden1 ,stevenage and many other places4 ,to the north-east the beauty of ,epping ,forest attracts numerous residents to ,woodford1 ,chingford and ,loughton4 ,the valley of the ,lea is also thickly populated1 but chiefly by an industrial population working in the numerous factories along this river4 ,the ,lea separates the county of ,london from ,essex1 but the townships of ,west ,ham and ,stratford1 ,barking and ,ilford1 ,leyton and ,walthamstow continue the metropolis in this direction almost without a break4 ,their population is also largely occupied in local manufacturing establishments2 while numerous towns on either bank of the lower ,thames share in the industries of the port of ,london4 ,streets4--,the principal continuous thoroughfares within the metropolis1 though each bears a succession of names1 are coincident with the main roads converging upon the capital from all parts of ,england4 ,on the north of the ,thames two great thoroughfares from the west meet in the heart of the ,city4 ,the northern enters the county in ,hammersmith as ,uxbridge ,road1 crosses ,kensington and borders the north side of ,kensington ,gardens and ,hyde ,park as ,bayswater ,road4 ,it then bears successively the names of ,oxford ,street1 ,new ,oxford ,street and ,high ,holborn2 enters the ,city1 becomes known as ,holborn ,viaduct from the fact that it is there carried over other streets which lie at a lower level1 and then as ,newgate ,street and ,cheapside4 ,the southern highway enters ,hammersmith1 crosses the centre of ,kensington as ,kensington ,road and ,high ,street1 borders ,kensington ,gardens and ,hyde ,park as ,kensington ,gore and ,knightsbridge1 with terraces of fine residences1 and merges into ,piccadilly4 ,this beautiful street1 with its northward branches1 ,park ,lane1 from which splendid houses overlook ,hyde ,park1 and ,bond ,street1 lined with handsome shops1 may be said to focus the fashionable life of ,london4 ,the direct line of the thoroughfare is interrupted after ,piccadilly ,circus 7the term circus is frequently applied to the open space--not necessarily round--at the junction of several roads71 but is practically resumed in the ,strand1 with its hotels1 shops and numerous theatres1 and continued through the ,city in ,fleet ,street1 the centre of the newspaper world1 and ,ludgate ,hill1 at the head of which is ,st ,paul's ,cathedral4 ,thence it runs by commercial ,cannon ,street to the junction with ,cheapside and several other busy streets4 ,at this junction stand the ,royal ,exchange1 the ,mansion ,house 7the official residence of the ,lord ,mayor of ,london7 and the ,bank of ,england1 from which this important point in the communications of ,london is commonly known as ,bank4 ,from the east two main roads similarly converge upon the ,city1 which they enter by ,aldgate 7the suffix in this and other names indicating the former existence of one of the ,city gates74 ,the southern of these highways1 approaching through the eastern suburbs as ,barking ,road1 becomes ,east ,india ,docks ,road in ,poplar and ,commercial ,road ,east in ,stepney4 ,the continuous thoroughfare of #ab m4 between ,hammersmith and the ,east ,india ,docks illustrates successively every phase of ,london life4 ,the northern road enters from ,stratford and is called ,bow ,road1 ,mile ,end ,road1 ,whitechapel ,road and ,high ,street1 ,whitechapel4 ,from the north of ,england two roads preserve communication-lines from the earliest times4 ,the ,old ,north ,road1 entering ,london from the ,lea valley through ,hackney and ,shoreditch as ,stamford ,hill1 ,stoke ,newington ,road and ,kingsland ,road1 reaches the ,city by ,bishopsgate4 ,the straight highway from the north-west which as ,edgware ,road joins ,oxford ,street at the ,marble ,arch 7the north-eastern entrance to ,hyde ,park7 is coincident with the ,roman ,watling ,street4 ,the ,holyhead and ,great ,north ,roads1 uniting at ,barnet1 enter ,london by branches through ,hampstead and through ,highgate1 between the ,old ,north and ,edgware roads4 ,south of the ,thames the thoroughfares crossing the river between ,lambeth and ,bermondsey converge upon two circuses1 ,st ,george's and the ,elephant and ,castle4 ,at the second of these points the majority of the chief roads from the southern suburbs and the south of ,england are collected4 ,among them1 the ,old ,kent ,road continues the southern section of ,watling ,street1 from ,dover and the south-east1 through ,woolwich and across ,blackheath4 ,the road through ,streatham1 ,brixton and ,kennington1 taking name from these districts successively1 is the principal southern highway4 ,the ,portsmouth ,road from the south-west is well marked as far as ,lambeth1 under the names of ,wandsworth1 ,high ,street1 ,st ,john's ,hill1 ,lavender ,hill and ,wandsworth ,road4 ,thames ,embankments4--,the ,thames follows a devious course through ,london1 and the fine embankments on its north side1 nowhere continuing uninterruptedly for more than #b m41 do not form important thoroughfares1 with the exception of the ,victoria ,embankment4 ,mostly they serve rather as beautiful promenades4 ,one of them begins over against ,battersea ,bridge4 ,its finest portion is the ,chelsea ,embankment1 fronting ,battersea ,park across the river1 shaded by a pleasant avenue and lined with handsome houses4 ,it continues1 with some interruptions1 nearly as far as the ,houses of ,parliament4 ,below these the grandest of the embankments extends to the ,city at ,blackfriars4 ,it was formed in #ahfd-ahgj1 and is named the ,victoria ,embankment1 though its popular title is ,the ,embankment simply4 ,open gardens fringe it in part on the landward side1 and it is lined with fine public and private buildings4 ,the bold sweep of the ,thames1 here some #cjj yds4 wide1 the towers of ,westminster on the one hand and the dome of ,st ,paul's on the other1 make up a fine prospect4 ,below ,london ,bridge the river is embanked for a short distance in front of the ,tower of ,london1 and above ,westminster ,bridge the ,albert ,embankment extends for nearly #a m4 along the south bank4 ,bridges4--,fourteen road-bridges cross the ,thames within the county of ,london4 ,of these ,london ,bridge1 connecting the ,city with ,southwark and ,bermondsey1 stands first in historical interest and in importance as a modern highway4 ,the old bridge1 famous for many generations1 bearing its rows of houses and its chapel in the centre1 was completed early in the #acth century4 ,it was #cjh yds4 long and had twenty narrow arches1 through which the tides formed dangerous rapids4 ,it stood just below the existing bridge1 which was built of granite by ,john ,rennie and his son ,sir ,john ,rennie1 and completed in #ahca4 ,a widening to accommodate the growth of traffic1 after being frequently discussed for many years1 was completed in #aijd1 by means of corbels projecting on either side1 without arresting traffic during the work4 ,there was no bridge over the ,thames below ,london ,bridge until #ahid1 when the ,tower ,bridge was opened4 ,this is a suspension bridge with a central portion1 between two lofty and massive stone towers1 consisting of bascules which can be raised by hydraulic machinery to admit the passage of vessels4 ,the bridge is both a remarkable engineering work1 and architecturally one of the finest modern structures in ,london4 ,the bridges in order above ,london ,bridge are as follows1 railway-bridges being bracketed--,southwark1 7,cannon ,street71 7,blackfriars71 ,blackfriars1 ,waterloo1 7,hungerford--with a footway71 ,westminster1 ,lambeth1 ,vauxhall1 7,grosvenor71 ,victoria1 ,albert1 ,battersea1 7,battersea71 ,wandsworth1 7,putney71 ,putney and ,hammersmith4 ,waterloo ,bridge1 the oldest now standing within ,london1 is the work of ,john ,rennie1 and was opened in #ahag4 ,it is a massive stone structure of nine arches1 carrying a level roadway1 and is considered one of the finest bridges of its kind in the world4 ,the present ,westminster ,bridge1 of iron on granite piers1 was opened in #ahfb1 but another preceded it1 dating from #agej2 the view from which was appreciated by ,wordsworth in his sonnet beginning ,earth has not anything to show more fair4 ,the complete reconstruction of ,vauxhall ,bridge was undertaken in #aijb1 and the new bridge was opened in #aijf4 ,some of the bridges were built by companies1 and tolls were levied at their crossing until modern times2 thus ,southwark ,bridge was made toll-free in #ahff1 and ,waterloo ,bridge only in #ahgh1 on being acquired by the ,city ,corporation and the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works respectively4 ,the road-bridges mentioned 7except the ,city bridges7 are maintained by the ,london ,county ,council1 who expended for this purpose a sum of #iadi in #aijg-aijh4 ,the following table shows the capital expenditure on the more important bridges and their cost of maintenance in #aijg-aijh3-- ,net ,capital ,cost of ,maintenance ,expenditure4 #aijg-aijh4 ,albert ,bridge #abj1ggd #abif ,battersea ,bridge #cab1aic #eab ,hammersmith ,bridge #bjd1bej #dba ,lambeth ,bridge #dg1eee #dif ,putney ,bridge #dcj1jeb #fec ,vauxhall ,bridge 7temporary7 #bgj1gdi #gc ,vauxhall ,bridge 7new7 #deg1ajh #aaji ,wandsworth ,bridge #fe1ffa #daj ,waterloo ,bridge #eeb1hfg #aajb ,westminster ,bridge #cic1ahi #adia ,the properties entrusted to the ,corporation for the upkeep of ,london ,bridge are managed by the ,bridge ,house ,estates ,committee1 the revenues from which are also used in the maintenance of the other three ,city bridges1 #bf1ihi being thus expended in #aijg1 the ,tower bridge absorbing #ag1gce of this amount4 ,thames ,tunnels4--,some of the metropolitan railway lines cross the river in tunnels beneath its bed4 ,there are also several tunnels under the river below ,london ,bridge1 namely3 ,tower ,subway1 constructed in #ahgj for foot-passengers1 but no longer used1 ,greenwich ,tunnel 7#aijb7 for foot-passengers1 ,blackwall ,tunnel 7#ahig71 constructed by the ,county ,council between ,greenwich and ,poplar1 and ,woolwich ,tunnel1 begun in #aiaj4 ,a tunnel between ,rotherhithe and ,ratcliff was authorized in #ahig and opened in #aijh4 ,the ,thames ,tunnel 7#ahbe-ahdc71 #b m4 below ,london ,bridge1 became a railway tunnel in #ahfe4 ,the ,county ,council maintains a free ferry at ,woolwich for passengers and vehicular traffic4 ,the capital expenditure on this undertaking was #ahe1ccg and the expense of maintenance in #aijg-aijh #bj1hha4 ,the ,greenwich ,tunnel 7capital expenditure #agi1bic7 in the same year had expended on it for maintenance #cgbe1 and the ,blackwall ,tunnel 7capital expenditure #a1bfh1iea7 #aa1dbj4 ,the capital expenditure on the ,rotherhithe ,tunnel was #a1dad1efa4 ,parks4--,the administration and acreage of parks and open spaces1 and their provisions for the public recreation1 fall for consideration later1 but some of them are notable features in the topography of ,london4 ,the royal parks1 namely ,st ,james's1 ,green and ,hyde ,park1 and ,kensington ,gardens1 stretch in an irregular belt for nearly #c m4 between ,whitehall 7,westminster7 and ,kensington4 ,st ,james's ,park was transformed from marshy land into a deer park1 bowling green and tennis court by ,henry ,,viii41 extended and laid out as a pleasure garden by ,charles ,,ii41 and rearranged according to the designs of ,john ,nash in #ahbg-ahbi4 ,its lake1 the broad ,mall leading up to ,buckingham ,palace1 and the proximity of the government buildings in ,whitehall1 combine to beautify it4 ,here was established1 by licence from ,james ,i41 the so-called ,milk ,fair1 which remained1 its ownership always in the same family1 until #aije1 when1 on alterations being made to the ,mall1 a new stall was erected for the owners during their lifetime1 though the cow or cows kept here were no longer allowed4 ,st ,james's ,park is continued between the ,mall and ,piccadilly by the ,green ,park4 ,hyde ,park1 to the west1 belonged originally to the manor of ,hyde1 which was attached to ,westminster ,abbey1 but was taken by ,henry ,,viii4 on the dissolution of the monasteries4 ,two of its gateways are noteworthy1 namely that at ,hyde ,park ,corner at the south-east and the ,marble ,arch at the north-east4 ,the first was built in #ahbh from designs of ,decimus ,burton1 and comprises three arches with a frieze above the central arch copied from the ,elgin marbles in the ,british ,museum4 ,the ,marble ,arch was intended as a monument to ,nelson1 and first stood in front of ,buckingham ,palace1 being moved to its present site in #ahea4 ,it no longer forms an entrance to the park1 as in #aijh a corner of the park was cut off and a roadway was formed to give additional accommodation for the heavy traffic between ,oxford ,street1 ,edgware ,road and ,park ,lane4 ,the ,marble ,arch was thus left isolated4 ,hyde ,park contains the ,serpentine1 a lake #aejj yds4 in length1 from the bridge over which one of the finest prospects in ,london is seen1 extending to the distant towers of ,westminster4 ,since the #agth century this park has been one of the most favoured resorts of fashionable society1 and at the height of the season1 from ,may to the end of ,july1 its drives present a brilliant scene4 ,in the #agth and #ahth centuries it was a favourite duelling-ground1 and in the present day it is not infrequently the scene of political and other popular demonstrations 7as is also ,trafalgar ,square71 while the neighbourhood of ,marble ,arch is the constant resort of orators on social and religious topics4 ,kensington ,gardens1 originally attached to ,kensington ,palace1 were subsequently much extended2 they are magnificently timbered1 and contain plantations of rare shrubs and flowering trees4 ,regent's ,park1 mainly in the borough of ,marylebone1 owes its preservation to the intention of ,george ,,iii4 to build a palace here4 ,the other most notable open spaces wholly or partly within the county are ,hampstead ,heath in the north-west1 a wild1 high-lying tract preserved to a great extent in its natural state1 and in the south-west ,wimbledon ,common1 ,putney ,heath and the royal demesne of ,richmond ,park1 which from its higher parts commands a wonderful view up the rich valley of the ,thames4 ,the outlying parts of the county to east1 south and north are not lacking in open spaces1 but there is an extensive inner area where at most only small gardens and squares break the continuity of buildings1 and where in some cases old churchyards serve as public grounds4 ,architecture4--,while stone is the material used in the construction of the majority of great buildings of ,london1 some modern examples 7notably the ,westminster ,roman ,catholic cathedral7 are of red brick with stone dressings2 and brick is in commonest use for general domestic building4 ,the smoke-laden atmosphere has been found not infrequently to exercise a deleterious effect upon the stonework of important buildings2 and through the same cause the appearance of ,london as a whole is by some condemned as sombre4 ,bright colour1 in truth1 is wanting1 though attempts are made in a few important modern erections to supply it1 a notable instance being the ,savoy ,hotel buildings 7#aijd7 in the ,strand4 ,portland stone is frequently employed in the larger buildings1 as in ,st ,paul's ,cathedral1 and under the various influences of weather and atmosphere acquires strongly contrasting tones of light grey and black4 ,owing to the by-laws of the ,county ,council1 the method of raising commercial or residential buildings to an extreme height is not practised in ,london2 the block known as ,queen ,anne's ,mansions1 ,westminster1 is an exception1 though it cannot be called high in comparison with ,american high buildings4 ,ecclesiastical architecture4 ,architectural remains of earlier date than the ,norman period are very few1 and of historical rather than topographical importance4 ,in architecture of the ,norman and ,gothic periods ,london must be considered rich1 though its richness is poverty when its losses1 particularly during the great fire of #afff1 are recalled4 ,these losses were confined within the ,city1 but1 to go no farther1 included the ,norman and ,gothic cathedral of ,st ,paul1 perhaps a nobler monument of its period than any which has survived it1 much as it had suffered from injudicious restoration4 ,ancient architecture in ,london is principally ecclesiastical4 ,westminster ,abbey is pre-eminent2 in part1 it may be1 owing to the reverence felt towards it in preference to the classical ,st ,paul's by those whose ideal of a cathedral church is essentially ,gothic1 but mainly from the fact that it is the burial-place of many of the ,english monarchs and their greatest subjects1 as well as the scene of their coronations 7see ,,westminster74 ,in the survey of ,london 7#aeih7 by ,john ,stow1 #abe churches1 including ,st ,paul's and ,westminster ,abbey1 are named2 of these #hi were destroyed by the great fire4 ,thirteen large conventual churches were mentioned by ,fitzstephen in the time of ,henry ,,ii41 and of these there are some remains4 ,the church of ,st ,bartholomew the ,great1 ,smithfield1 is the finest remnant of its period in ,london4 ,it was founded in #aabc by ,rahere1 who1 probably a ,breton by birth1 was a courtier in the reign of ,william ,,ii4 ,he is said to have been the king's minstrel1 and to have spent the earlier part of his life in frivolity4 ,subsequently he entered holy orders1 and in c4 #aabj1 being stricken with fever while on a pilgrimage to ,rome1 vowed that he would found a hospital in ,london4 ,st ,bartholomew1 appearing to him in a vision1 bade him add a church to his foundation4 ,he became an ,augustinian canon1 and founded his hospital1 which is now1 as ,st ,bartholomew's ,hospital1 one of the principal medical institutions in the metropolis4 ,he became its first master4 ,later he erected the priory1 for canons of his order1 of which the nave and transepts of the church remain4 ,the work is in the main very fine ,norman1 with triforium1 ambulatory and apsidal eastern end4 ,an eastern lady chapel dates from c4 #adaj1 but the upper part is modern1 for the chapel was long desecrated4 ,there are remains of the cloisters north of the church1--and praiseworthy efforts have been made since #aijc towards their restoration4 ,the western limit of the former nave of the church is marked by a fine ,early ,english doorway1 now forming an entrance to the churchyard4 ,rahere's tomb remains in the church2 the canopy is ,perpendicular work1 but the effigy is believed to be original4 ,he died in #aadd4 ,the ,temple ,church 7see ,,inns ,,of ,,court71 serving for the ,inner and ,middle ,temples1 belonged to the ,knights ,templars4 ,it is the finest of the four ancient round churches in ,england1 dating from #aahe1 but an ,early ,english choir opens from the round church4 ,st ,saviour's in ,southwark 7q4v471 the cathedral church of the modern bishopric of ,southwark1 was the church of the priory of ,st ,mary ,overy1 and is a large cruciform building mainly ,early ,english in style4 ,there may be mentioned also an early pier in the church of ,st ,katherine ,cree or ,christ ,church1 ,leadenhall ,street1 belonging to the priory church of the ,holy ,trinity2 old monuments in the vaults beneath ,st ,james's ,church1 ,clerkenwell1 formerly attached to a ,benedictine nunnery2 and the ,perpendicular gateway and the crypt of the church of the priory of ,st ,john of ,jerusalem 7see ,,finsbury74 ,among other ancient churches within the ,city1 that of ,all ,hallows ,barking1 near the ,tower of ,london1 is principally ,perpendicular and contains some fine brasses4 ,it belonged to the convent at ,barking1 ,essex1 and was the burial-place of many who were executed at the scaffold on ,tower ,hill4 ,st ,andrew ,undershaft1 so named because a ,maypole used to be set up before the former church on ,may-day1 is late ,perpendicular 7c4 #aecj72 and contains a monument to ,john ,stow the chronicler 7d4 #afje74 ,the church of ,austin ,friars1 originally belonging to a friary founded in #abec1 became a ,dutch church under a grant of ,edward ,,vi41 and still remains so2 its style is principally ,decorated1 but through various vicissitudes little of the original work is left4 ,st ,giles1 ,cripplegate1 was founded c4 #ajij1 but the existing church is late ,perpendicular4 ,it is the burial-place of ,fox the martyrologist and ,milton the poet1 and contains some fine wood-carving by ,grinling ,gibbons4 ,st ,helen's1 ,bishopsgate1 belonged to a priory of nuns founded c4 #abab1 but the greater part of the building is later4 ,it has two naves parallel1 originally for the use of the nuns and the parishioners respectively4 ,the church of ,st ,mary-le-,bow1 in ,cheapside1 is built upon a ,norman crypt1 and that of ,st ,olave's1 ,hart ,street1 which was ,pepys's church and contains a modern memorial to him1 is of the #aeth century4 ,other ancient churches outside the ,city are few2 but there may be noted ,st ,margaret's1 under the shadow of ,westminster ,abbey2 and the beautiful ,ely ,chapel in ,holborn 7q4v471 the only remnant of a palace of the bishops of ,ely1 now used by the ,roman ,catholics4 ,the ,chapel ,royal1 ,savoy1 near the ,strand1 was rebuilt by ,henry ,,vii4 on the site of ,savoy ,palace1 which was erected by ,peter1 earl of ,savoy and ,richmond1 in #abde1 and destroyed in the insurrection of ,wat ,tyler in #acha4 ,in #aeje ,henry ,,vii4 endowed here a hospital of ,st ,john the ,baptist for the poor4 ,the chapel was used as the parish church of ,st ,mary-le-,strand 7#aefd-agag7 and constituted a ,chapel ,royal in #aggc2 but there are no remains of the rest of the foundation4 ,sir ,christopher ,wren4 ,later churches4 ,the architect to whom1 after the great fire of #afff1 the opportunity fell of leaving the marks of his influence upon ,london was ,sir ,christopher ,wren4 ,had all his schemes been followed out1 that influence would have extended beyond architecture alone4 ,he1 among others1 prepared designs for laying out the ,city anew4 ,but no such model city was destined to be built2 the necessity for haste and the jealous guardianship of rights to old foundations resulted in the old lines being generally followed4 ,it is characteristic of ,london that ,st ,paul's ,cathedral 7q4v47 should be closely hemmed in by houses1 and its majestic west front approached obliquely by a winding thoroughfare4 ,the cathedral is ,wren's crowning work4 ,it is the scene from time to time of splendid ceremonies1 and contains the tombs of many great men2 but in this respect it cannot compete with the peculiar associations of ,westminster ,abbey4 ,of ,wren's other churches it is to be noted that the necessity of economy usually led him to pay special attention to a single feature4 ,he generally chose the steeple1 and there are many fine examples of his work in this department4 ,the steeple of ,st ,mary-le-,bow1 commonly called ,bow ,church1 is one of the most noteworthy4 ,this church has various points of interest besides its ,norman crypt1 from which it took the name of ,bow1 being the first church in ,london built on arches4 ,the ecclesiastical ,court of ,arches sat here formerly4 ,bow bells are famous1 and any person born within hearing of them is said to be a ,cockney1 a term now applied particularly to the dialect of the lower classes in ,london4 ,wren occasionally followed the ,gothic model1 as in ,st ,antholin4 ,the classic style1 however1 was generally adopted in the period succeeding his own4 ,some fine churches belong to this period1 such as ,st ,martin's-in-the-,fields 7#agbf71 the ,corinthian portico of which rises on the upper part of ,trafalgar ,square2 but other examples are regrettable4 ,while the architecture of the ,city churches1 with the exceptions mentioned1 is not as a rule remarkable1 many are notable for the rich and beautiful wood-carving they contain4 ,a ,gothic style has been most commonly adopted in building modern churches2 but of these the most notable1 the ,roman ,catholic ,westminster ,cathedral 7see ,,westminster71 is ,byzantine1 and built principally of brick1 with a lofty campanile4 ,the only other ecclesiastical building to be specially mentioned is ,lambeth ,palace1 opposite to the ,houses of ,parliament across the ,thames4 ,it has been a seat of the archbishops of ,canterbury since #aaig1 and though the present residential portion dates only from the early #aith century1 the chapel1 hall and other parts are of the #acth century and later 7see ,,lambeth74 ,tower of ,london4 ,among secular buildings1 there is none more venerable than the ,tower of ,london 7q4v471 the moated fortress which overlooks the ,thames at the eastern boundary of the ,city4 ,it presents fine examples of ,norman architecture2 its historical associations are of the highest interest1 and its armoury and the regalia of ,england1 which are kept here1 attract great numbers of visitors4 ,government buildings4 ,the ,houses of ,parliament1 with ,westminster ,abbey and ,st ,margaret's ,church1 complete the finest group of buildings which ,london possesses2 a group essentially ,gothic1 for the ,houses of ,parliament1 completed in #ahfg from the designs of ,barry1 are in a late ,perpendicular style4 ,they cover a great area1 the east front giving immediately upon the ,thames4 ,the principal external features are the huge ,victoria ,tower at the south1 and the clock tower1 with its well-known chimes and the hour-bell ,big ,ben1 on the north4 ,some of the apartments are magnificently adorned within1 and the building incorporates the ancient ,westminster ,hall1 belonging to the former royal palace on the site 7see ,,westminster74 ,the government offices are principally in ,whitehall1 the fine thoroughfare which connects ,parliament ,square1 in the angle between the ,houses and the ,abbey1 with ,trafalgar ,square4 ,somerset ,house 7#aggf-aghf71 a massive range of buildings by ,sir ,william ,chambers1 surrounding a quadrangle1 and having its front upon the ,strand and back upon the ,victoria ,embankment1 occupies the site of a palace founded by the protector ,somerset1 c4 #aedh4 ,it contains the ,exchequer and ,audit1 ,inland ,revenue1 ,probate1 ,registrar-,general's and other offices1 and one wing houses ,king's ,college4 ,other offices are the ,new ,record ,office1 the repository of ,state papers and other records1 and the ,patent ,office in ,chancery ,lane4 ,the ,heralds' ,college or ,college of ,arms1 the official authority in matters of armorial bearings and pedigrees1 occupies a building in ,queen ,victoria ,street1 ,city1 erected subsequently to the great fire 7#afhc74 ,the ,royal ,courts of ,justice or ,law ,courts stand adjacent to the ,inns of ,court1 facing the ,strand at the point where a memorial marks the site of ,old ,temple ,bar 7#afgb71 at the entrance to the ,city1 removed in #ahgh and later re-erected at ,theobald's ,park1 near ,cheshunt1 ,hertfordshire4 ,the ,law ,courts 7#ahhb7 were erected from the designs of ,g4 ,e4 ,street1 in a ,gothic style4 ,the buildings connected with local government in ,london are with one exception modern1 and handsome town-halls have been erected for some of the boroughs4 ,the exception is the ,guildhall 7q4v47 of the ,city ,corporation1 with its splendid hall1 the scene of meetings and entertainments of the corporation1 its council chamber1 library and crypt 7partly opened to the public in #aiaj74 ,in #aijf the ,london ,county ,council obtained parliamentary sanction for the erection of a county hall on the south bank of the ,thames1 immediately east of ,westminster ,bridge1 and in #aijh a design submitted by ,mr ,ralph ,knott was accepted in competition4 ,the style prescribed was ,english ,renaissance4 ,several of the great livery companies or gilds of the ,city possess fine halls1 containing portraits and other collections of high interest and value4 ,among the more notable of these halls are those of the ,mercers1 ,drapers1 ,fishmongers1 ,clothworkers1 ,armourers and ,stationers4 ,royal palaces4 ,the former royal palaces of ,westminster and of ,whitehall1 of which the fine ,jacobean banqueting hall remains1 are described under ,,westminster4 ,the present ,london residence of the sovereign is ,buckingham ,palace1 on the west side of ,st ,james's ,park1 with beautiful gardens behind it4 ,buckingham ,house was built in #agje for the duke of ,buckinghamshire1 and purchased by ,george ,,iii4 in #agfb4 ,the existing palace was finished by ,john ,nash in #ahce1 but did not meet with approval1 and was considerably altered before ,queen ,victoria occupied it in #ahcg4 ,as regards its exterior appearance it is one of the least satisfactory of ,london's great buildings1 though the throne room and other state apartments are magnificent within4 ,the picture gallery contains valuable works of ,dutch masters and others4 ,the front of the palace forms the background to the public memorial to ,queen ,victoria1 at the head of the ,mall4 ,provision was made in the design1 by ,sir ,aston ,webb1 for the extension of the ,mall to open upon ,trafalgar ,square1 through gateways in a semicircular range of buildings to be occupied by government offices1 and for a wide circular space in front of the ,palace1 with a statue of the ,queen by ,thomas ,brock in its centre4 ,st ,james's ,palace1 at the north side of ,st ,james's ,park1 was acquired and rebuilt by ,henry ,,viii41 having been formerly a hospital founded in the #abth century for leprous maidens4 ,it was the royal residence after the destruction of ,whitehall by fire in the time of ,william ,,iii4 until a fire in #ahji destroyed the greater part4 ,only the gateway and certain apartments remain of the ,tudor building4 ,marlborough ,house1 adjacent to the palace1 was built by the first duke of ,marlborough in #agaj from the designs of ,wren1 came into possession of the ,crown in #ahag1 and has been occupied since #ahfc by the prince of ,wales4 ,in ,kensington 7q4v471 on the west side of ,kensington ,gardens1 is the palace acquired by ,william ,,iii4 as a country seat1 and though no longer used by the sovereign1 is in part occupied by members of the royal family1 and possesses a deeper historical interest than the other royal palaces1 as the birthplace of ,queen ,victoria and her residence in youth4 ,there are few survivals of ancient domestic architecture in ,london1 but the gabled and timbered front of ,staple ,inn1 ,holborn 7q4v47 is a picturesque fragment4 ,in ,bishopsgate ,street1 ,city1 stood ,crosby ,hall1 which belonged to ,crosby ,place1 the mansion of ,sir ,john ,crosby 7d4 #adge74 ,richard ,,iii4 occupied the mansion as duke of ,gloucester and ,lord ,protector 7cf4 ,shakespeare's ,richard ,,iii41 ,act i4 ,sc4 #c1 c47 ,the hall was removed in #aijh1 in spite of strong efforts to preserve it1 which resulted in its re-erection on a site in ,chelsea4 ,the hall of the ,middle ,temple is an admirable example of a refectory of later date 7#aegb74 ,a fine though circumscribed group of buildings is that in the heart of the ,city which includes the ,bank of ,england1 the ,royal ,exchange and the ,mansion ,house4 ,the ,bank is a characteristic building1 quadrilateral1 massive and low1 but covering a large area1 without external windows1 and almost wholly unadorned2 though the north-west corner is copied from the ,temple of the ,sibyl at ,tivoli4 ,the building is mainly the work of ,sir ,john ,soane 7c4 #aghh74 ,the first building for the ,royal ,exchange was erected and presented to the ,city by ,sir ,thomas ,gresham 7#aefe-aegj7 whose crest1 a grasshopper1 appears in the wind-vane above the present building4 ,gresham's ,exchange was destroyed in the great fire of #afff2 and the subsequent building was similarly destroyed in #ahch4 ,the present building has an imposing ,corinthian portico1 and encloses a court surrounded by an ambulatory adorned with historical paintings by ,leighton1 ,seymour ,lucas1 ,stanhope ,forbes and others4 ,the ,mansion ,house was erected c4 #agdj4 ,the only other public buildings1 beyond those at ,westminster1 which fall into a great group are the modern museums1 the ,imperial ,institute1 ,london ,university and other institutions1 and ,albert ,hall1 which lie between ,kensington ,gore and ,brompton and ,cromwell ,roads1 and these1 together with the ,national ,gallery 7in ,trafalgar ,square7 and other art galleries1 and the principal scientific1 educational and recreative institutions1 are considered in ,section ,v4 ,monuments and ,memorials4--,the ,monument 7#afgg71 ,fish ,street ,hill1 ,city1 erected from the designs of ,wren in commemoration of the great fire of #afff1 is a ,doric column surmounted by a gilt representation of a flaming urn4 ,the ,nelson ,column1 the central feature of ,trafalgar ,square1 is from the designs of ,william ,railton 7#ahdc71 crowned with a statue of ,nelson by ,baily1 and has at its base four colossal lions in bronze1 modelled by ,sir ,edwin ,landseer4 ,a statue of the duke of ,cambridge1 by ,captain ,adrian ,jones1 was unveiled in #aijg in front of the ,war ,office1 ,whitehall4 ,the duke of ,york's ,column1 ,carlton ,house ,terrace 7#ahcc71 an ,ionic pillar1 is surmounted by a bronze statue by ,sir ,richard ,westmacott4 ,the ,westminster ,column1 outside the entrance to ,dean's ,yard1 was erected to the memory of the old pupils of ,westminster ,school who died in the ,russian and ,indian wars of #ahed-ahei4 ,the ,guards ,memorial1 ,waterloo ,place1 commemorates the foot guards who died in the ,crimea4 ,the ,albert ,memorial1 ,kensington ,gardens1 was erected 7#ahgb7 by ,queen ,victoria and her ,people to the memory of ,albert1 ,prince ,consort1 from the designs of ,sir ,gilbert ,scott1 with a statue of the ,prince 7#ahgf7 by ,john ,henry ,foley beneath a huge ornate ,gothic canopy4 ,at the eastern end of the ,strand a memorial with statue by ,hamo ,thorneycroft of ,william ,ewart ,gladstone was unveiled in #aije4 ,in ,parliament ,square and elsewhere are numerous statues1 some of high merit1 but it cannot be said that statuary occupies an important place in the adornment of streets and open places in ,london4 ,cleopatra's ,needle1 an ancient ,egyptian monument1 was presented to the government by ,mehemet ,ali in #ahai1 brought from ,alexandria in #ahgh1 and erected on the ,victoria embankment on a pedestal of grey granite4 ,nomenclature4--,having regard to the destruction of visible evidences of antiquity in ,london1 both through accidental agencies such as the great fire1 and through inevitable modernizing influences1 it is well that historical associations in nomenclature are preserved in a great measure unimpaired4 ,the ,city naturally offers the richest field for study in this direction4 ,the derivations of names may here be grouped into two classes1 those having a commercial connexion1 and those associated with ancient buildings1 particularly the ,city wall and ecclesiastical foundations4 ,among examples of the first group1 ,cheapside is prominent4 ,this modern thoroughfare of shops was in early times the ,chepe 7,o4 ,eng4 ceap1 bargain71 an open place occupied by a market1 having1 until the #adth century1 a space set apart for popular entertainments4 ,there was a ,queen ,eleanor cross here1 and conduits supplied the city with water4 ,modern ,cheapside merges eastward into the street called the ,poultry1 from the poulterers' stalls but lately departed from thence1 according to ,stow1 at the close of the #afth century4 ,cornhill1 again1 recalls the cornmarket time out of mind there holden 7,stow71 and ,gracechurch ,street was corrupted from the name of the church of ,st ,benet ,grasschurch 7destroyed by the great fire1 rebuilt1 and removed in #ahfh71 which was said to be derived from a herb-market held under its walls4 ,the ,jews had their quarter near the commercial centre1 their presence being indicated by the street named ,old ,jewry1 though it is probable that they did not reoccupy this locality after their expulsion in #abij4 ,lombard ,street similarly points to the residence of ,lombard merchants1 the name existing when ,edward ,,ii4 confirmed a grant to ,florentine merchants in #acah1 while the ,lombards maintained their position until ,tudor times4 ,paternoster ,row1 still occupied by booksellers1 takes name from the sellers of prayer-books and writers of texts who collected under the shadow of ,st ,paul's ,cathedral4 ,as regards names derived from ancient buildings1 instances are the streets called ,london ,wall and ,barbican1 and those named after the numerous gates4 ,of those associated with ecclesiastical foundations several occur in the course of this article 7,section ,,ii41 ,ecclesiastical ,architecture1 c474 ,such are ,austin ,friars1 ,crutched ,friars1 ,blackfriars and ,whitefriars4 ,to this last district a curious alternative name1 ,alsatia1 was given1 probably in the #agth century1 with reference to its notoriety as a hiding-place of debtors4 ,a derivation is suggested from the disputed territory of ,alsace1 pointing the contrast between this lawless district and the adjacent ,temple1 the home of the law itself4 ,the name ,bridewell came from a well near the ,fleet 7,new ,bridge ,street71 dedicated to ,st ,bride1 and was attached to a house built by ,henry ,,viii4 7#aebb71 but is most familiar in its application to the house of correction instituted by ,edward ,,vi41 which remained a prison till #ahfc4 ,the ,minories1 a street leading south from ,aldgate1 takes name from an abbey of nuns of ,st ,clare 7,sorores ,minores7 founded in #abic4 ,apart from the ,city an interesting ecclesiastical survival is the name ,broad ,sanctuary1 ,westminster1 recalling the place of sanctuary which long survived the monastery under the protection of which it originally existed4 ,covent ,garden1 again1 took its name from a convent garden belonging to ,westminster4 ,among the survivals of names of non-ecclesiastical buildings ,castle ,baynard may be noted2 it stood in the ,city on the banks of the ,thames1 and was held by ,ralph ,baynard1 a ,norman1 in the time of william the ,conqueror2 a later building being erected in #adbh by ,humphrey duke of ,gloucester4 ,here ,richard ,,iii4 was acclaimed king1 and the mansion was used by ,henry ,,vii4 and ,henry ,,viii4 ,its name is kept in a wharf and a ward of the ,city4 ,the survival of names of obliterated physical features or characteristics is illustrated in ,section ,i42 but additional instances are found in the ,strand1 which originally ran close to the sloping bank of the ,thames1 and in ,smithfield1 now the central meat market1 but for long the smooth field where a cattle and hay market was held1 and the scene of tournaments and games1 and also of executions4 ,here in #acha ,wat ,tyler the rebel was killed by ,sir ,william ,walworth during the parley with ,richard ,,ii4 ,in the ,west ,end of ,london the majority of important street-names are naturally of a later derivation than those in the ancient ,city1 though ,charing ,cross 7q4v47 is an instance of an exception4 ,the derivation commonly accepted for ,piccadilly is from pickadil1 a stiff collar or hem in fashion in the early part of the #agth century 7,span4 picca1 a spear-head74 ,in ,pall ,mall and the neighbouring ,mall in ,st ,james' ,park is found the title of a game resembling croquet 7,fr4 paille maille7 in favour at or before the time of ,charles ,i41 though the ,mall was laid out for the game by ,charles ,,ii4 ,other names pointing to the existence of pastimes now extinct are found elsewhere in ,london1 as in ,balls ,pond ,road1 ,islington1 where in the #agth century was a proprietary pond for the sport of duck-hunting4 ,an entertainment of another form is recalled in the name of ,spring ,gardens1 ,st ,james' ,park1 where at the time of ,james ,i4 there was a fountain or spring so arranged as to besprinkle those who trod unwarily on the valve which opened it4 ,many of the names of the rich residential streets and squares in the west have associations with the various owners of the properties2 but ,mayfair is so called from a fair held on this ground in ,may as early as the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,finally there are several survivals1 in street-names1 of former private mansions and other buildings4 ,thus the district of the ,adelphi1 south of ,charing ,cross1 takes name from the block of dwellings and offices erected in #agfh by the brothers 7,gr4 adelphi7 ,robert and ,william ,adam1 ,scottish architects4 ,in ,piccadilly ,clarendon ,house1 erected in #affd by ,edward ,hyde1 earl of ,clarendon1 became ,albemarle ,house when acquired by the duke of ,albemarle in #afge4 ,northumberland ,house1 from which is named ,northumberland ,avenue1 opening upon ,trafalgar ,square1 was built c4 #afje by ,henry ,howard1 earl of ,northampton1 and was acquired by marriage by ,algernon ,percy1 earl of ,northumberland1 in #afdb4 ,it took name from this family1 and stood until #ahgd4 ,arundel ,house1 originally a seat of the bishops of ,bath1 was the residence of ,thomas ,howard1 earl of ,arundel1 whose famous collection of sculpture1 the ,arundel ,marbles1 was housed here until presented to ,oxford ,university in #affg4 ,the site of the house is marked by ,arundel ,street1 ,strand4 ,,iii4 ,,communications ,railways4--,the trunk railways leaving ,london1 with their termini1 are as follows3 7#a7 ,northern4 ,the ,great ,northern1 ,midland and ,london ,north-,western systems have adjacent termini1 namely ,king's ,cross1 ,st ,pancras and ,euston1 in ,euston ,road1 ,st ,pancras4 ,the terminus of the ,great ,central railway is ,marylebone1 in the road of that name4 7#b7 ,western4 ,the terminus of the ,great ,western railway is ,paddington 7,praed ,street72 and that of the ,london ,south-,western1 ,waterloo1 south of the ,thames in ,lambeth4 7#c7 ,southern4 ,the ,london1 ,brighton ,south ,coast railway has its western terminus at ,victoria1 and its central terminus at ,london ,bridge1 on the south side of the ,thames4 ,the ,south-,eastern ,chatham railway has four terminal stations1 all on or close to the north bank of the river--,victoria1 ,charing ,cross1#b ,holborn ,viaduct and ,cannon ,street 7,city74 ,st ,paul's ,station on the ,holborn branch is also terminal in part4 7#d7 ,eastern4 ,the principal terminus of the ,great ,eastern ,railway is in ,liverpool ,street 7,city71 but the company also uses ,fenchurch ,street 7,city71 the terminus of the ,london1 ,tilbury ,southend railway1 and ,st ,pancras4 ,these lines1 especially the southern lines1 the ,great ,eastern1 ,great ,northern and ,south-,western carry a very heavy suburban traffic4 ,systems of joint lines and running powers are maintained to afford communication between the main lines4 ,thus the ,west ,london ,extension line carries local traffic between the ,north ,western and ,great ,western and the ,brighton and ,south-,western systems1 while the ,metropolitan ,extension through the ,city connects the ,midland and ,great ,northern with the ,south-,eastern ,chatham lines4 ,the railways whose systems are mainly or wholly confined within the metropolitan area are as follows4 ,the ,north ,london railway has a terminal station at ,broad ,street1 ,city1 and serves the parts of ,london implied by its name4 ,the company possesses running powers over the lines of various other companies3 thus its trains run as far north as ,potter's ,bar on the ,great ,northern line1 while it serves ,richmond on the west and ,poplar on the east4 ,the ,east ,london line connects ,shoreditch with ,new ,cross 7,deptford7 by way of the ,thames ,tunnel1 a subway under the river originally built for foot-passengers4 ,the ,london ,india ,docks line connects the city with the docks on the north bank of the river as far as ,north ,woolwich4 ,the ,metropolitan railway has a line from ,baker ,street through north-west ,london to ,harrow1 continuing to ,uxbridge1 while the original main line runs on to ,rickmansworth1 ,aylesbury and ,verney ,junction1 but has been worked by the ,metropolitan and ,great ,central companies jointly since #aijf4 ,another line serves the western outskirts 7,hammersmith1 ,richmond1 c47 from the city4 ,metropolitan trains also connect at ,new ,cross with the south-eastern railway system4 ,this company combines with the ,metropolitan ,district to form the ,inner ,circle line1 which has stations close to all the great railway termini north of the ,thames4 ,the ,metropolitan ,district 7commonly called the ,district7 system serves ,wimbledon1 ,richmond1 ,ealing and ,harrow on the west1 and passes eastward by ,earl's ,court1 ,south ,kensington1 ,victoria and ,mansion ,house 7,city7 to ,whitechapel and ,bow4 ,the ,metropolitan and the ,district lines within ,london are for the most part underground 7this feature supplying the title of the ,underground familiarly applied to both systems72 the tunnels being constructed of brick4 ,the earliest part of the system was opened in #ahfc4 ,although these railways1 as far as concerns the districts they serve1 form the fastest method of communication from point to point1 their discomfort1 arising mainly from the impossibility of proper ventilation1 and various other disadvantages attendant upon the use of steam traction1 led to a determination to adapt the lines to electrical working4 ,experiments on a short section of the line were made in #aijj1 and later schemes were set on foot to electrify the ,district system and bring under one general control this railway1 other lines in deep level tubes between ,baker ,street and ,waterloo1 between ,charing ,cross1 ,euston and ,hampstead1 and between ,hammersmith1 ,brompton1 ,piccadilly1 ,king's ,cross and ,finsbury ,park1 and the ,london ,united ,tramways ,company4 ,the ,underground ,electric ,railways ,company1 which acquired a controlling influence over these concerns1 undertook the construction of a great power station at ,chelsea2 while the ,metropolitan ,company1 which had fallen into line with the ,district 7not without dispute over the system of electrification to be adopted7 erected a station at ,neasden on the ,aylesbury branch4 ,electric traction was gradually introduced on the ,metropolitan and the ,district lines in #aijf4 ,the former company combined with the ,great ,western ,company as regards the electrification of1 and provision of stock for1 the lines which they had previously worked jointly1 from ,edgware ,road by ,bishop's ,road to ,hammersmith1 c4 ,the ,baker ,street ,waterloo railway 7known as the ,bakerloo7 was opened in #aijf and subsequently extended in one direction to ,paddington and in the other to the ,elephant and ,castle4 ,the ,great ,northern1 ,piccadilly ,brompton line1 from ,finsbury ,park to ,hammersmith1 was opened early in #aijg1 and the ,charing ,cross1 ,euston ,hampstead line later in the same year4 ,deep-level electric railways 7tubes71 communicating with the surface by lifts1 were already familiar in ,london4 ,the first opened was the ,city ,south ,london 7#ahij71 subsequently extended to run between ,euston1 the ,angel1 ,islington1 the ,bank 7,city7 and ,clapham4 ,others are the ,waterloo ,city 7#ahih7 running from the terminus of the ,south-,western railway without intermediate stations to the ,bank2 the ,central ,london 7#aijj71 from the ,bank to ,shepherd's ,bush1 ,hammersmith2 and the ,great ,northern ,city 7#aijd7 from ,finsbury ,park 7which is an important suburban junction on the ,great ,northern railway7 to ,moorgate ,street4 ,tramways4--,the surface tramway system of ,london cannot be complete1 as1 within an area roughly represented by the boroughs of ,chelsea1 ,kensington and ,fulham1 the city of ,westminster and a considerable district north thereof1 and the city of ,london1 the existing streets could not accommodate tram lines along with other traffic over any great distance consecutively1 and in point of fact there are few1 beyond the embankment line from ,blackfriars ,bridge to ,westminster ,bridge1 which connects with the southern system4 ,another line1 running south from ,islington1 uses the shallow-level subway under ,kingsway and connects with the embankment line4 ,the northern1 western and eastern outskirts and ,london south of the ,thames are extensively served by trams4 ,on the formation of the ,london ,county ,council there were thirteen tramway companies in existence4 ,powers under the ,tramways ,act of #ahgj were given to the council1 enabling it to acquire possession of these undertakings1 and within the county of ,london they have been for the most part so acquired1 and are worked by the council4 ,outside the county both companies and local authorities own and work tramways4 ,both electric and horse traction are used2 the latter1 however1 has been in great part displaced by the former4 ,the total mileage for greater ,london is about #bdj4 ,omnibuses4--,the omnibus system is very extensive1 embracing all the principal streets throughout the county and extending over a large part of ,greater ,london4 ,the two principal omnibus companies are the ,london ,general ,omnibus and the ,london ,road ,car4 ,the first omnibus ran between the ,bank and ,paddington in #ahbi4 ,in #aije and following years motor omnibuses 7worked mostly by internal combustion engines7 began to a large extent to supplant horse traction4 ,the principal existing companies adopted them1 and new companies were formed to work them exclusively4 ,with their advantages of greater speed and carrying capacity over the horsed vehicles1 their introduction was a most important development1 though their working at first imposed a severe financial strain on many companies4 ,cabs4--,the horse-drawn cabs which ply for hire in the streets1 or wait at authorized cab-stands1 are of two kinds1 the hansom1 a two-wheeled vehicle so named after its inventor 7#ahcd7 and the four-wheeler4 ,hackney coaches for hire are first mentioned in #afbe1 when they were kept at inns1 and numbered #bj4 ,until #ahcb their numbers were restricted1 in #affb to #djj1 in #afid to #gjj1 in #agga to #ajjj4 ,in some cases a driver owns his cab1 but the majority of vehicles are let to drivers by owners1 and the adjustment of terms between them has led to disputes from time to time4 ,in #ahid a dispute necessitated the formulation of the ,asquith award by the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,h4 ,h4 ,asquith as home secretary1 and subsequent modifications of this were only arrived at1 as in #aijd1 after a strike of the drivers affected4 ,a long-standing cause of complaint on the part of the public has been the common refusal of cab-drivers to accept their legal fares1 but1 on the other hand1 several attempts to introduce cabs with an automatic taximeter failed1 until the introduction of motor cabs1 of which a few had already been plying for some time when in #aijg a large number1 provided with taximeters1 were put into service4 ,subsequently1 as the number of taxicabs 7see ,,motor ,,vehicles7 increased1 that of horse-cabs decreased4 ,traffic commission #aijc4 ,traffic ,problem4--,one of the most serious administrative problems met with in ,london is that of locomotion1 especially as regards the regulation of traffic in the principal thoroughfares and at the busiest crossings4 ,the police have powers of control over vehicles and exercise them admirably2 their work in this respect is a constant source of wonder to foreign visitors4 ,but this control does not meet the problem of actually lessening the number of vehicles in the main arteries of traffic4 ,at such crossings as that of the ,strand and ,wellington ,street1 ,ludgate ,circus and south of the ,thames1 the ,elephant and ,castle1 as also in the narrow streets of the ,city1 congestion is often exceedingly severe1 and is aggravated when any main street is under repair1 and diversion of traffic through narrow side streets becomes necessary4 ,many street improvements were carried out1 it is true1 in the last half of the #aith century1 the dates of the principal being as follows3 #ahed1 ,cannon ,street2 #ahfd1 ,southwark ,street2 #ahgj1 ,holborn ,viaduct2 #ahga1 ,hamilton ,place1 ,queen ,victoria ,street2 #ahgf1 ,northumberland ,avenue2 #ahhb1 ,tooley ,street2 #ahhc1 ,hyde ,park ,corner2 #ahhd1 ,eastcheap2 #ahhf1 ,shaftesbury ,avenue2 #ahhg1 ,charing ,cross ,road2 #ahij-ahib1 ,rosebery ,avenue4 ,at the beginning of the #bjth century several important local widenings of streets were put in hand1 as for example between ,sloane ,street and ,hyde ,park ,corner1 in the ,strand and at the ,marble ,arch 7#aijh74 ,at the same period a great work was undertaken to meet the want of a proper central communication between north and south1 namely1 the construction of a broad thoroughfare1 called ,kingsway in honour of ,king ,edward ,,vii41 from ,high ,holborn opposite ,southampton ,row southward to the ,strand1 connexion with which is established at two points through a crescent named ,aldwych4 ,the idea of such a thoroughfare is traceable back to the time of ,william ,,iv4 ,the magnitude of the traffic problem as a whole may be best appreciated by examples of the vast schemes of improvement which from time to time have been put forward by responsible individuals4 ,thus ,sir ,john ,wolfe ,barry1 as chairman of the ,council of the ,society of ,arts in #ahii1 proposed to alleviate congestion of traffic by bridges over and tunnels under the streets at six points1 namely--,hyde ,park ,corner1 ,piccadilly ,circus1 ,ludgate ,circus1 ,oxford ,street and ,tottenham ,court ,road1 ,strand and ,wellington ,street1 and ,southwark ,bridge and ,upper ,thames ,street4 ,another scheme seriously suggested in #aijd1 to meet existing disabilities of communication between north and south by linking the northern and southern tramway services1 involved the removal of the ,charing ,cross terminus of the ,south ,eastern and ,chatham railway to the south side of the river1 and the construction of a new bridge in place of the railway bridge4 ,the mere control of existing traffic1 local street improvements and provision of new means of communication between casual points1 were felt to miss the root of the problem1 and in #aijc a ,royal ,commission was appointed to consider the whole question of locomotion and transport in ,london1 expert evidence being taken from engineers1 representatives of the various railway and other companies1 of the ,county ,council1 borough councils and police1 and others4 ,the commission reported in #aije4c ,with regard to street improvements the most important recommendation was that of the construction of two main avenues #adj ft4 wide1 one running west and east1 from ,bayswater ,road to ,whitechapel1 and passing through the city in the neighbourhood of ,london ,wall1 and another from ,holloway to the ,elephant and ,castle1 to cross the ,thames by a new bridge above ,blackfriars4 ,four lines of surface tramways and four railway lines in shallow tunnels were proposed along these avenues4 ,many widenings and other improvements of existing thoroughfares1 and extensions of tramways were proposed1 and detailed recommendations were made as regards urban and suburban railways1 and the rehousing of the working population on the outskirts of ,london4 ,finally1 the commission made the important recommendation that a traffic board should be established for ,london1 to exercise a general supervision of traffic1 and to act as a tribunal to which all schemes of railway and tramway construction should be referred4 ,thames ,steamers4--,a local passenger steamboat service on the ,thames suffers from the disadvantage that the river does not provide the shortest route between points at any great distance apart1 and that the main thoroughfares between east and west do not touch its banks1 so that passengers along those thoroughfares are not tempted to use it as a channel of communication4 ,high pier dues1 moreover1 contributed to the decline of the traffic1 and attempts to overcome the disinclination of passengers to use the river 7at any rate in winter7 show a record of failure4 ,the ,london1 ,westminster and ,vauxhall ,steamboat ,company established in #ahdj a service of seven steamboats between ,london ,bridge and ,vauxhall4 ,this company was bought up by the ,citizen and ,iron ,steamboat ,companies in #ahfe4 ,the ,city ,steamboat ,company1 established in #ahdh1 began with eight boats1 and by #ahfe had increased their fleet to seventeen1 running from ,london ,bridge to ,chelsea4 ,this company was taken over by the ,london ,steamboat ,company in #ahge4 ,the sinking of the ,princess ,alice in #ahgh was a serious blow to the ,london ,steamboat ,company1 which collapsed1 and was succeeded by the ,river ,thames ,steamboat ,navigation ,company1 which went into liquidation in #ahhg4 ,the fleet was bought by a syndicate and sold to the ,victoria ,steamboat ,association4 ,the ,thames ,steamboat ,company then took up the service1 but early in #aijb announced that it would be discontinued1 although in #aijd it was temporarily resumed4 ,meanwhile1 however1 in #aijb the ,london ,county ,council had promoted a bill in ,parliament to enable them to run a service of boats on the ,thames4 ,the bill was thrown out on this occasion1 but was revived and passed in #aijd1 and on the #agth of ,june #aije the service was put into operation4 ,the boats1 however1 were worked at a loss1 and the service was discontinued in #aiji4 ,foreign ,communications4--,a large pleasure traffic is maintained by the steamers of the ,new ,palace ,company and others in summer between ,london ,bridge and ,southend1 ,clacton and ,harwich1 ,ramsgate1 ,margate and other resorts of the ,kent coast1 and ,calais and ,boulogne4 ,passenger steamers sail from the port of ,london to the principal ports of the ,british ,isles and northern ,europe1 and to all parts of the world1 but the most favoured passenger services to and from ,europe and ,north ,america pass through other ports1 to which the railways provide special services of trains from ,london4 ,the principal travelling agency in ,london is that of ,messrs ,cook1 whose head office is at ,ludgate ,circus4 ,a number of sub-offices of large steamship lines are congregated in ,cockspur ,street1 ,trafalgar ,square1 and several of the principal railway companies have local offices throughout the centre of the metropolis for the issue of tickets and the collection and forwarding of luggage and parcels4 ,post ,office4--,the ,general ,post ,office lies in the centre of the ,city on either side of the street called ,st ,martin's le ,grand4 ,the oldest portion of the buildings1 ,ionic in style1 was designed by ,sir ,robert ,smirke and erected in #ahbi4 ,here are the central offices of the letter1 newspaper and telegraph departments1 with the office of the ,postmaster ,general2 but the headquarters of the parcels department are at ,mount ,pleasant1 ,clerkenwell2 those of the ,post ,office ,savings ,bank at ,blythe ,road1 ,west ,kensington1 and those of the ,money ,order department in ,queen ,victoria ,street4 ,the postal area is divided into eight districts1 commonly designated by initials 7which it is customary to employ in writing addresses7--,east ,central 7,e4,c41 the ,city1 north to ,pentonville and ,city ,roads1 west to ,gray's ,inn ,road and the ,law ,courts72 ,west ,central 7,w4,c41 from ,euston ,road to the ,thames1 and west to ,tottenham ,court ,road72 ,west 7,w41 from ,piccadilly and ,hyde ,park north to ,marylebone and ,edgware ,roads2 the greater part of ,paddington and ,kensington1 north part of ,fulham and ,hammersmith72 ,south-west 7,s4,w41 ,city of ,westminster south of ,piccadilly1 ,chelsea1 ,south ,kensington1 the greater part of ,fulham1 and ,london south of the ,thames and west of ,vauxhall ,bridge72 ,south-east 7,s4,e41 remainder of ,london south of the ,thames72 ,east 7,e41 east of the ,city and ,kingsland ,road72 ,north 7,n41 west of ,kingsland ,road2 ,islington72 ,north-west 7,n4,w41 greater part of ,st ,pancras and ,st ,marylebone1 and ,hampstead74 ,the postal area excludes part of ,woolwich within the county2 but includes considerable areas outside the county in other directions1 as ,west ,ham1 ,leyton1 c41 on the east2 ,woodford1 ,chingford1 c41 on the north-east2 ,wood ,green1 ,southgate and ,finchley on the north2 ,hendon and ,willesden on the north-west2 ,acton and ,ealing1 ,barnes and ,wimbledon on the west2 and ,penge and ,beckenham on the south1 wholly or in part4 ,there are ten district head offices and about a thousand local offices in the metropolitan district4 ,telephones4--,the ,national ,telephone ,company1 working under licence expiring on the #cast of ,december #aiaa1 had until #aija practically a monopoly of telephonic communication within ,london1 though the ,post ,office owned all the trunk lines connecting the various telephone areas of the company4 ,the company's management did not give satisfaction1 and the use of the telephone was consequently restricted in the metropolis1 when in #ahih a ,select ,committee on ,telephones reported that general immediate and effective competition by either the government or local authority was necessary to ensure efficient working4 ,the ,post ,office thereupon instituted a separate system of exchanges and lines1 intercommunication between the two systems being arranged4 ,charges were reduced and efficiency benefited by this movement4 ,the area covered by the local as distinct from the trunk service is about #fcj sq4 m4 extending to ,romford1 ,enfield1 ,harrow1 c41 north of the ,thames1 and to ,dartford ,reigate1 ,epsom1 c41 south of it4 ,public call offices are provided in numerous shops1 railway stations and other public places1 and at many post offices4 ,the ,district ,messengers ,company affords facilities through local offices for the use of special messengers4 ,,iv4 ,,population1 ,,public ,,health1 c4 ,the population of ,greater ,london by the census of #aija was #f1eha1djb4 ,the following table gives comparisons between the figures of certain census returns for ,greater ,london and its chief component parts1 namely1 the ,city1 the county and the outer ring 7i4e4 ,greater ,london outside the county74 ,all the figures before those of #aija are adjusted to these areas4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,year4 ,city4 ,county4 ,outer ,ring4 ,greater ,london4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #ahja #abh1abi #hca1aha #aee1ccd #a1aad1fdd #ahda #abc1efc #a1hbe1gad #bhf1jfg #b1bce1cdd #ahha #ej1efi #c1ggi1gbh #icf1cfd #d1gff1ffa #aija #bf1ibc #d1eji1fah #b1jdd1hfd #f1eha1djb ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,the reason for the decrease in the resident ,city population is to be found in the rapid extension of business premises1 while the widening ramifications of the outer residential areas are illustrated by the increase in the later years of the population of the ,outer ,ring4 ,the growth and population of ,london previous to the #aith century is considered under ,history1 ad4 fin4 ,aliens4 ,the foreign-born population of ,london was #fj1beb in #ahha1 and #ace1cgg in #aija4 ,during #aija1 #bg1jgj aliens 7excluding sailors7 arrived at the port1 and in #aijb1 #cc1jfj4 ,of these last ,russians and ,poles numbered #ba1jac2 ,germans1 #cchf2 ,austrians and ,hungarians1 #baig2 ,dutch1 #aijb2 ,norwegians1 ,swedes and ,danes1 #acda2 and ,rumanians1 #ajaf4 ,other nationalities numbered below one thousand each4 ,the foreign-born population shows a large increase in percentage to the whole1 being #a4eg in #ahha and #b4ih in #aija4 ,residents of ,irish birth have decreased since #ahea2 those of ,scottish birth have increased steadily1 and roughly as the population4 ,german residents are found mainly in the western and west central districts2 ,french mainly in the ,city of ,westminster 7especially the district of ,soho71 ,st ,pancras and ,st ,marylebone2 ,italians in ,holborn 7,saffron ,hill71 ,soho and ,finsbury2 and ,russians and ,poles in ,stepney and ,bethnal ,green4 ,vital ,statistics4--,the following table shows the average birth rate and death-rate per thousand at stated periods4 ------------------------------ ,years4 ,births4 ,deaths4 ------------------------------ #ahfa-ahhj99 #ce4d #bc4d #ahia-aijj99 #cj4c #ai4b #aija-aijd99 #bh4e #af4e #aije #bg4a #ae4f ------------------------------ 99 ,average4 ,a comparison of the death-rate of ,london and those of other great towns in ,england and abroad is given here3-- --------------------------------- ,average #aije4 #ahie-aijd4 --------------------------------- ,leicester #af4g #ac4c ,brussels #af4g #ad4e ,bristol #af4i #ad4f ,bradford #ag4g #ae4b ,leeds #ai4a #ae4b ,,london #ah4b #ae4f ,birmingham #bj4b #af4b ,nottingham #ah4d #af4e ,newcastle #bj4i #af4h ,sheffield #ai4f #ag4j ,berlin #ag4h #ag4b ,paris #ai4b #ag4d ,manchester #bb4f #ah4j ,new ,york #bj4b #ah4c ,vienna #bj4j #ai4j ,liverpool #bc4b #ai4f ,rome #ai4a #bj4f ,st ,petersburg #be4i #be4c --------------------------------- ,in #aije the lowest death-rates among the metropolitan boroughs were returned by ,hampstead 7#i4c71 ,lewisham 7#aa4g71 ,wandsworth 7#ab4f71 ,woolwich 7#ab4h71 ,stoke ,newington 7#ab4i71 and the highest by ,shoreditch 7#ai4g71 ,finsbury 7#ai4j71 ,bermondsey 7#ah4g71 ,bethnal ,green 7#ah4f7 and ,southwark 7#ah4e74 ,a return of the percentage of inhabitants dwelling in over-crowded tenements shows #b4g for ,lewisham1 #d4e for ,wandsworth1 #e4e for ,stoke ,newington1 and #f4d for ,hampstead1 against #ce4b for ,finsbury and #bi4i for ,shoreditch4 ,sanitation4--,as regards sanitation ,london is under special regulations4 ,when the statutes relating to public health were consolidated and amended in #ahge ,london was excluded2 and the law applicable to it was specially consolidated and amended in #ahia4 ,the ,london ,county ,council is a central sanitary authority2 the ,city and metropolitan boroughs are sanitary districts1 and the ,corporation and borough councils are local sanitary authorities4 ,the ,county ,council deals directly with matters where uniformity of administration is essential1 e4g4 main drainage1 housing of working classes1 infant life protection1 common lodging-houses and shelters1 and contagious diseases of animals4 ,with a further view to uniformity it has certain powers of supervision and control over local authorities1 and can make by-laws respecting construction of local sewers1 sanitary conveniences1 offensive trades1 slaughter-houses and dairies1 and prevention of nuisances outside the jurisdiction of local authorities4 ,a medical officer of health for the whole county is appointed by the ,council1 which also pays half the salaries of local medical officers and sanitary inspectors4 ,the ,council may also act in cases of default by the local authorities1 or may make representations to the ,local ,government ,board respecting such default1 whereupon the ,board may direct the ,council to withhold payment due to the local authority under the ,equalization of ,rates ,act #ahid4 ,drainage4 ,the first act providing for a commission of sewers in ,london dates from #aeca4 ,various works of a more or less imperfect character were carried out1 such as the bridging over in #afcg of the river ,fleet1 which as early as #acjg had become inaccessible to shipping through the accumulation of filth4 ,scavengers were employed in early times1 and sewage was received into wells and pumped into the kennels of the streets4 ,a system of main drainage was inaugurated by the ,commissioners of ,sewers in #ahdi1 but their work proceeded very slowly4 ,it was carried on more effectively by the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works 7#ahef-ahhh7 which expended over six-and-a-half millions sterling on the work4 ,the ,london ,county ,council maintained1 completed and improved the system4 ,the length of sewers in the main system is about #bhh m41 and their construction has cost about eight millions4 ,the system covers the county of ,london1 ,west ,ham1 ,penge1 ,tottenham1 ,wood ,green1 and parts of ,beckenham1 ,hornsey1 ,croydon1 ,willesden1 ,east ,ham and ,acton4 ,there are actually two distinct systems1 north and south of the ,thames1 having separate outfall works on the north and south banks of the river1 at ,barking and ,crossness4 ,the clear effluent flows into the ,thames1 and the sludge is taken #ej m4 out to sea4 ,the annual cost of maintenance of the system exceeds #bej1jjj4 ,the sanitary authorities are concerned only with the supervision of house drainage1 and the construction and maintenance of local sewers discharging into the main system4 ,the ,thames and the ,lea ,conservancies have powers to guard against the pollution of the rivers4 ,metropolitan ,asylums ,board4 ,hospitals4--,the ,metropolitan ,asylums ,board1 though established in #ahfg purely as a poor-law authority for the relief of the sick1 insane and infirm paupers1 has become a central hospital authority for infectious diseases1 with power to receive into its hospitals persons1 who are not paupers1 suffering from fever1 smallpox or diphtheria4 ,both the ,board and the ,county ,council have certain powers and duties of sanitary authority for the purpose of epidemic regulations4 ,the local sanitary authorities carry out the provisions of the ,infectious ,diseases 7,notification and ,prevention7 ,acts1 which for ,london are embodied in the ,public ,health 7,london7 ,act #ahia4 ,the ,board has asylums for the insane at ,tooting ,bec 7,wandsworth71 ,ealing 7for children72 ,king's ,langley1 ,hertfordshire2 ,caterham1 ,surrey2 and ,darenth1 ,kent4 ,there are twelve fever hospitals1 including northern and southern convalescent hospitals4 ,for smallpox the ,board maintains hospital ships moored in the ,thames at ,dartford1 and a land establishment at the same place4 ,there are land and river ambulance services4 ,there are three regular funds in ,london for the support of hospitals4 7#a7 ,king ,edward's ,hospital ,fund 7#ahig7 founded by ,king ,edward ,,vii4 as ,prince of ,wales in commemoration of the ,diamond ,jubilee of ,queen ,victoria4 ,the ,league of ,mercy1 under royal charter1 operates in conjunction with the ,fund in the collection of small subscriptions4 ,the ,order of ,mercy was instituted by the ,king as a reward for distinguished personal service4 7#b7 ,the ,metropolitan ,hospital ,sunday ,fund1 founded in #ahgc1 draws the greater part of its revenue from collections in churches on stated occasions4 7#c7 ,the ,metropolitan ,hospital ,saturday ,fund was founded in #ahgc1 and is made up chiefly of small sums collected in places of business1 c4 ,the following is a list of the principal ,london hospitals1 with dates of foundation3-- #a4 ,general ,hospitals with ,medical ,schools 7all of which1 with the exception of that of the ,seamen's ,hospital1 are schools of ,london ,university73-- ,charing ,cross2 ,agar ,street1 ,strand 7#ahbj74 ,guy's2 ,st ,thomas ,street1 ,southwark 7#agbd74 ,king's ,college2 ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields 7#ahci74 ,london2 ,whitechapel 7#agdj74 ,middlesex2 ,mortimer ,street1 ,marylebone 7#agde74 ,north ,london1 or ,university ,college2 ,gower ,street 7#ahcc74 ,royal ,free2 ,gray's ,inn ,road 7#ahbh2 on present site1 #ahdb74 ,london ,school of ,medicine for ,women4 ,st ,bartholomew's2 ,smithfield 7#aabc2 refounded #aedg74 ,st ,george's2 ,hyde ,park ,corner 7#agcc74 ,st ,mary's2 ,paddington 7#ahde74 ,st ,thomas'2 ,lambeth 7#abac2 on present site1 #ahga74 ,seamen's ,hospital ,society2 ,greenwich 7#ahba74 ,westminster1 facing the ,abbey4 7#agbj2 on present site1 #ahcd74 #b4 ,general ,hospitals without ,schools3-- ,great ,northern ,central2 ,islington 7#ahef2 on present site1 #ahhg74 ,metropolitan2 ,hackney 7#ahcf74 ,poplar ,hospital for ,accidents 7#ahed74 ,west ,london2 ,hammersmith ,road 7#ahef74 #c4 ,hospitals for ,special ,purposes3-- ,brompton ,consumption ,hospital 7#ahda74 ,cancer ,hospital2 ,brompton 7#ahea74 ,city of ,london ,hospital for diseases of the chest2 ,bethnal ,green 7#ahdh74 ,east ,london ,hospital for ,children and ,dispensary for ,women2 ,shadwell 7#ahfh74 ,hospital for ,sick ,children2 ,bloomsbury 7#aheb74 ,london ,fever ,hospital2 ,islington 7#ahjb74 ,national ,hospital for ,paralysed and ,epileptics2 ,bloomsbury 7#ahei74 ,royal ,hospital for ,incurables2 ,putney 7#ahed74 ,royal ,london ,ophthalmic ,hospital2 ,city ,road 7#ahjd2 on present site1 #ahii74 7,see also separate articles on boroughs47 ,water ,supply4--,in the #abth century ,london was supplied with water from local streams and wells1 of which ,holy ,well1 ,clerk's ,well 7,clerkenwell7 and ,st ,clement's ,well1 near ,st ,clement's ,inn1 were examples4 ,in #abcf the magistrates purchased the liberty to convey the waters of the ,tyburn from ,paddington to the ,city by leaden pipes1 and a great conduit was erected in ,west ,cheap in #abhe4 ,other conduits were subsequently built 7cf4 ,conduit ,street off ,bond ,street1 ,lamb's ,conduit ,street1 ,bloomsbury72 and water was also supplied by the company of water-bearers in leathern panniers borne by horses4 ,in #aehb ,peter ,moris1 a ,dutchman1 erected a forcier on an arch of ,london ,bridge1 which he rented for #ajs4 per annum for #ejj years4 ,his works succeeded and increased1 and continued in his family till #agja1 when a company took over the lease4 ,other forciers had been set up1 and in #afji1 on an act of #afje1 ,sir ,hugh ,myddelton undertook the task of supplying reservoirs at ,clerkenwell through the ,new river from springs near ,ware1 ,hertfordshire2 and these were opened in #afac4 ,in #afcj a scheme to bring water from ,hoddesdon on the ,lea was promoted by aid of a lottery licensed by ,charles ,i4 ,the ,chelsea ,water ,company opened its supply from the ,thames in #agba2 the ,lambeth waterworks were erected in #aghc2 the ,vauxhall ,company was established in #ahje1 the ,west ,middlesex1 near ,hammersmith1 and the ,east ,london on the river ,lea in #ahjf1 the ,kent on the ,ravensbourne 7,deptford7 in #ahaj1 the ,grand ,junction in #ahaa1 and the ,southwark 7which amalgamated with the ,vauxhall7 in #ahbb4 ,metropolitan ,water ,board4 ,for many years proposals to amalgamate the working of the companies and displace them by a central public authority were put forward from time to time4 ,the difficulty of administration lay in the fact that of the area of #fbj sq4 m4 constituting what is known as ,water ,london 7see map in ,london ,statistics1 vol4 xix41 issued by the ,l4,c4,c41 #aiji7 the ,london ,county ,council has authority over little more than one-third1 and therefore when the ,council proposed to acquire the eight undertakings concerned its scheme was opposed not only by the companies but by the county councils and local authorities outside the ,county of ,london4 ,the ,council had a scheme of bringing water to ,london from ,wales1 in view of increasing demands on a stationary supply4 ,this involved impounding the headwaters of the ,wye1 the ,towey and the ,usk1 and the total cost was estimated to exceed fifteen millions sterling4 ,the capacity of existing sources1 however1 was deemed sufficient by a ,royal ,commission under ,lord ,balfour of ,burleigh in #ahic1 and this opinion was endorsed by a further ,commission under ,lord ,llandaff4 ,the construction of large storage reservoirs was recommended1 and this work was put in hand jointly by the ,new ,river1 ,west ,middlesex and ,grand ,junction companies at ,staines on the ,thames4 ,as regards administration1 ,lord ,llandaff's ,commission recommended the creation of a ,water ,trust1 and in #aijb the ,metropolis ,water ,act constituted the ,metropolitan ,water ,board to purchase and carry on the undertakings of the eight companies1 and of certain local authorities4 ,it consists of #ff members1 appointed by the ,london ,county ,council 7#ad71 the ,city of ,london and the ,city of ,westminster 7#b each71 the other ,metropolitan boroughs 7#a each71 the county councils of ,middlesex1 ,hertfordshire1 ,essex1 ,kent and ,surrey 7l each71 borough of ,west ,ham 7#b71 various groups of other boroughs and urban districts1 and the ,thames and the ,lea ,conservancies4 ,the first election of the ,board took place in #aijc4 ,the #bdth of ,june1 #aijd1 was the date fixed on which control passed to the ,board1 and in the meantime a ,court of ,arbitration adjudicated the claims of the companies for compensation for the acquisition of their properties4 ,water ,london is an irregular area extending from ,ware in ,hertfordshire to ,sevenoaks in ,kent1 and westward as far as ,ealing and ,sunbury4 ,a constant supply is maintained generally throughout ,water ,london1 although a suspension between certain hours has been occasionally necessitated1 as in #ahie and #ahih1 when1 during summer droughts1 the ,east ,london supply was so affected4 ,during these periods other companies had a surplus of water1 and in #ahii an act was passed providing for the interconnexion of systems4 ,the ,thames and ,lea are the principal sources of supply1 but the ,kent and 7partially7 the ,new ,river ,company draw supplies from springs4 ,the systems of filtration employed by the different companies varied in efficacy1 but both the ,royal ,commissions decided that water as supplied to the consumer was generally of a very high standard of purity4 ,the expenditure of the ,water ,board for #aijg-aijh amounted to #b1hdf1bfe4 ,debt charges absorbed #a1eab1gah of this amount4 ,public baths and washhouses are provided by local authorities under various acts between #ahdf and #ahif1 which have been adopted by all the borough councils4 ,lighting4--,from #adaf citizens were obliged to hang out candles between certain hours on dark nights to illuminate the streets4 ,an act of parliament enforced this in #affa2 in #afhd ,edward ,heming1 the inventor of oil lamps1 obtained licence to supply public lights2 and in #agcf the corporation took the matter in hand1 levying a rate4 ,gas-lighting was introduced on one side of ,pall ,mall in #ahjg1 and in #ahaj the ,gas ,light ,coke ,company received a charter1 and developed gas-lighting in ,westminster4 ,the ,city of ,london ,gas ,company followed in #ahag1 and seven other companies soon after4 ,wasteful competition ensued until in #aheg an agreement was made between the companies to restrict their services to separate localities1 and the ,gas ,light ,coke ,company1 by amalgamating other companies1 then gradually acquired all the gas-lighting north of the ,thames1 while a considerable area in the south was provided for by another great gas company1 the ,south ,metropolitan4 ,various acts from #ahfj onwards have laid down laws as to the quality and cost of gas4 ,gas must be supplied at #af-;candle illuminating power1 and is officially tested by the chemists' department of the ,london ,county ,council4 ,the amalgamations mentioned were effected subsequently to #ahfj1 and there are now three principal companies within the county1 the ,gas ,light ,coke1 ,south ,metropolitan and ,commercial1 though certain other companies supply some of the outlying districts4 ,as regards street lighting1 the extended use of burners with incandescent mantles has been of good effect4 ,the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works1 and the commissioners of sewers in the ,city1 began experiments with electric light4 ,at the close of the #aith and the beginning of the #bjth century a large number of electric light companies came into existence1 and some of the metropolitan borough councils1 and local authorities within ,greater ,london1 also undertook the supply4 ,an extensive use of the light resulted in the principal streets and in shops1 offices and private houses4 ,fire4--,in #ahcb the fire insurance companies united to maintain a small fire brigade1 and continued to do so until #ahff4 ,the brigade was confined to the central part of the metropolis2 for the rest1 the parochial authorities had charge of protection from fire4 ,the central brigade came under the control of the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works2 and the ,county ,council now manages the ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade1 under a chief officer and a staff numbering about #acjj4 ,the cost of maintenance exceeds #bjj1jjj annually2 contributions towards this are made by the ,treasury and the fire insurance companies4 ,the ,council controls the provision of fire escapes in factories employing over #dj persons1 under an act of #aija2 it also compels the maintenance of proper precautions against fire in theatres and places of entertainments4 ,a ,salvage ,corps is independently maintained by the ,insurance ,companies4 ,cemeteries4--,the administrative authorities of cemeteries for the county are the borough councils and the ,city ,corporation and private companies4 ,the large cemetery at ,brompton is the property of the government4 ,kensal ,green cemetery1 the burial-place of many famous persons1 is of great extent1 but several large cemeteries outside the metropolis have come into use4 ,such are that of the ,london ,necropolis ,company at ,brookwood near ,woking1 ,surrey1 and that of the parishes of ,st ,mary ,abbots1 ,kensington1 and ,st ,george1 ,hanover ,square1 at ,hanwell1 ,middlesex4 ,crematoria are provided at certain of the companies' cemeteries1 and the ,cremation ,act #aijb enabled borough councils to provide crematoria4 ,v4 ,,education ,,and ,,recreation ,elementary education4 ,technical education4 ,education4--,the ,british and ,foreign ,school ,society 7#ahjh7 and the ,national ,society 7#ahaa71 together with the ,ragged ,schools ,union 7#ahdd71 were the only special organizations providing for the education of the poorer classes until #ahgj4 ,to meet the demand for elementary education1 increasing as it did with population1 was beyond the powers of these societies1 the churches and the various charitable institutions4 ,thus a return of #ahga showed that the schools were capable of accommodating only #ci of the children of school-going age4 ,in #ahgj1 however1 a ,school ,board had been created in addition1 and this body carried out much good work during its thirty-four years of existence4 ,in #aijc the ,education 7,london7 ,act was passed in pursuance of the general system1 put into operation by the ,education ,act 7#aijb7 of bringing education within the scope of municipal government4 ,the ,county ,council was created a local education authority1 and given control of secular education in both board and voluntary schools4 ,it appoints an education committee in accordance with a scheme approved by the ,board of ,education4 ,this scheme must allow of the ,council selecting at least a majority of the committee1 and must provide for the inclusion of experts and women4 ,each school or group of schools is under a body of managers1 in the appointment of whom the borough council and the ,county ,council share in the following proportions3--7a7 ,board or provided schools2 borough council1 two-thirds2 county council1 one-third3 7b7 ,voluntary or non-provided schools2 the foundation1 two-thirds2 borough council and county council1 each one-sixth4 ,the total number of public elementary schools was #ifc in #aije1 with #geb1dhg scholars on the register4 ,other institutions include higher elementary schools for pupils certified to be able to profit by higher instruction2 and schools for blind1 deaf and defective children4 ,instruction for teachers is provided in pupil teachers' centres 7preparatory71 and in residential and day training colleges4 ,there are about #ae such colleges4 ,previous to the act of #aijc the ,county ,council had educational powers under the ,technical ,instructions ,acts which enabled it to provide technical education through a special board1 merged by the act of #aijc in the education committee4 ,the ,city and ,guilds of ,london ,institute1 ,gresham ,college1 also maintains various technical institutions4 ,the establishment of polytechnics was provided for by the ,city of ,london ,parochial ,charities ,act #ahhc2 the charities being administered by trustees4 ,the model institution was that of ,mr ,quintin ,hogg 7#ahhj7 in ,regent ,street1 where a striking statue by ,george ,frampton 7#aijf7 commemorates him4 ,the general scope of the polytechnics is to give instruction both in general knowledge and special crafts or trades by means of classes1 lectures and laboratories1 instructive entertainments and exhibitions1 and facilities for bodily and mental exercise 7gymnasia1 libraries1 c474 ,other similar institutions exist primarily for special purposes1 as the ,st ,bride ,foundation ,institute1 near ,fleet ,street1 in immediate proximity to the great newspaper offices1 for the printing trade1 and the ,herolds' ,institute1 a branch of the ,borough ,polytechnic situated in ,bermondsey1 for the purposes of the leather trade4 ,the ,county ,council also aids numerous separate schools of art1 both general and special1 such as the ,royal ,school of ,art ,needlework and the ,school of ,art ,woodcarving2 the ,city and ,guilds ,institute maintains similar establishments at some of its colleges1 and art schools are also generally attached to the polytechnics4 ,philanthropical institutions4 ,the ,london ,county ,council maintains a number of industrial schools and reformatories1 both in ,london and in the country1 for children who have shown or are likely to be misled into a tendency towards lawlessness4 ,the ,city ,corporation has separate responsibilities in the same direction1 but has no schools of its own4 ,the expenditure of the ,london ,county ,council on education for #aijg-aijh was #d1bha1bia for elementary education1 and #gdb1ifb for higher education4 ,the work of private philanthropists and philanthropical bodies among the poor of ,east ,london1 ,southwark and ,bermondsey1 and elsewhere1 fails to be noticed at this point4 ,the labours of the regular clergy here lie largely in the direction of social reform1 and churches and missions have been established and are maintained by colleges1 such as ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 schools and other bodies4 ,there are1 further1 settlements where members of the various bodies may reside in order to devote themselves to philanthropical work2 and these include clubs1 recreation rooms and other institutions for the use of the poor4 ,such are the ,oxford ,house1 ,bethnal ,green2 the ,cambridge ,house1 ,camberwell ,road2 ,toynbee ,hall1 ,whitechapel2 ,mansfield ,house1 ,canning ,town2 the ,robert ,browning ,settlement1 ,southwark2 and the ,passmore ,edwards ,settlement1 ,st ,pancras4 ,there are also several women's settlements of a similar character4 ,the ,people's ,palace1 ,mile ,end ,road1 opened in #ahhg1 is both a recreative and an educational institution 7called ,east ,london ,college7 erected and subsequently extended mainly through the liberality of the ,drapers' ,company and of private donors4 ,public schools4 ,in early times the priories and other religious houses had generally grammar schools attached to them4 ,those at ,st ,peter's1 ,westminster1 and ,st ,paul's1 attained a fame which has survived1 while other similar foundations lapsed1 such as ,st ,anthony's 7,threadneedle ,street1 ,city71 at which ,sir ,thomas ,more1 ,archbishop ,whitgift and many other men of eminence received education4 ,certain of the schools were re-endowed after the dissolution of the monasteries4 ,st ,peter's ,college or ,westminster ,school 7see ,,westminster7 is unique among ,english public schools of the highest rank in maintaining its original situation in ,london4 ,other early metropolitan foundations have been moved in accordance with modern tendencies either into the country or to sites aloof from the heart of ,london4 ,thus ,charterhouse school1 part of the foundation of ,sir ,thomas ,sutton 7#afaa71 was moved from ,finsbury to ,godalming1 ,surrey2 ,st ,paul's ,school occupies modern buildings at ,hammersmith1 and ,christ's ,hospital is at ,horsham1 ,sussex4 ,of other schools1 ,merchant ,taylors' was founded by the ,company of that name in #aefa1 and has occupied1 since #ahge1 the premises vacated by ,charterhouse ,school4 ,the ,mercers' ,school1 ,dowgate1 was originally attached to the hospital of ,st ,thomas of ,acon1 which was sold to the ,mercers' ,company in #aebb1 on condition that the company should maintain the school4 ,the ,city of ,london ,school1 founded in ,milk ,street1 ,cheapside1 by the ,city ,corporation in #ahce1 occupies modern buildings on the ,victoria ,embankment4 ,dulwich ,college originated in the foundation of the ,college of ,god's ,gift by ,edward ,alleyn in #afbf1 and is now constituted as one of the principal ,english public schools4 ,st ,olave's and ,st ,saviour's grammar school1 ,southwark1 received its charter in #aega4 ,both classical and modern education is provided2 a large number of scholarships are maintained out of the foundation1 and exhibitions from the school to the universities and other higher educational institutions4 ,london ,university4--,the ,university of ,london was incorporated by royal charter in #ahcf1 as an examining body for conferring degrees4 ,its scope and powers were extended by subsequent charters1 and in #aijj1 under the ,university of ,london ,act #ahih1 it was reorganized as both a teaching and an examining body4 ,the function of the academic department is to control the teaching branch1 internal examinations1 c41 and that of the external department to control external examinations1 while the university extension system occupies a third department4 ,the university is governed by a senate consisting of a chancellor1 chairman of convocation and #ed members1 whose appointment is shared by the ,crown1 convocation1 the ,royal ,colleges of ,physicians and of ,surgeons1 the ,inns of ,court1 the ,law ,society1 the ,london ,county ,council1 ,city ,corporation1 ,city and ,guilds ,institute1 ,university and ,king's ,colleges and the faculties4 ,the faculties are theology1 arts1 law1 music1 medicine1 science1 engineering and economics4 ,the schools of the ,university include ,university ,college1 ,gower ,street1 and ,king's ,college1 ,somerset ,house 7with both of which preparatory schools are connected71 ,east ,london ,college and numerous institutions devoted to special faculties both within and without ,london4 ,the university in part occupies buildings which formerly belonged to the ,imperial ,institute4 ,other ,educational ,institutions4--,the ,board of ,education directly administers the following educational institutions--the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington1 with its branch at ,bethnal ,green1 from both of which objects are lent to various institutions for educational purposes2 the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,south ,kensington1 with which is incorporated the ,royal ,school of ,mines2 the ,geological ,survey of the ,united ,kingdom and the ,museum of ,practical ,geology1 ,jermyn ,street2 the ,solar ,physics ,observatory1 ,south ,kensington2 and the ,royal ,college of ,art1 ,south ,kensington4 ,at ,gresham ,college1 ,basinghall ,street1 ,city1 founded in #aeig by ,sir ,thomas ,gresham1 and moved to its present site in #ahdc1 lectures are given in the principal branches of science1 law1 divinity1 medicine1 c4 ,some further important establishments and institutions may be tabulated here3-- ,architecture4--,the ,royal ,institute of ,british ,architects1 ,conduit ,street1 conducts examinations and awards diplomas4 ,education4--,the ,college of ,preceptors1 ,bloomsbury1 conducts examinations of persons engaged in education and awards diplomas4 ,engineering4--,a ,school of ,practical ,engineering is maintained at the ,crystal ,palace1 ,sydenham4 ,law4--,the ,inns of ,court are four--,middle ,temple1 ,inner ,temple1 ,lincoln's ,inn1 ,gray's ,inn4 ,a joint board of examiners examines students previous to admission4 ,the ,council of ,legal ,education superintends the education and subsequent examination of students4 7,see ,,inns ,,of ,,court47 ,the ,law ,society is the superintending body for examination and admission in the case of solicitors4 ,medical4--,the ,royal ,college of ,physicians is in ,pall ,mall ,east1 and the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons is in ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields4 ,the ,society of ,apothecaries is in ,water ,lane1 ,city4 ,the ,royal ,college of ,veterinary ,surgeons is in ,red ,lion ,square1 and the ,royal ,veterinary ,college at ,camden ,town4 7,the principal hospitals having schools are noted in the list of hospitals1 ,section ,,vii47 ,military and ,naval4--,the ,royal ,military ,college and the ,ordnance ,college are at ,woolwich2 the ,royal ,naval ,college at ,greenwich4 ,music4--,the principal educational institutions are--the ,royal ,academy of ,music1 ,tenterden ,street1 ,hanover ,square2 the ,royal ,college of ,music1 ,south ,kensington2 ,guildhall ,school1 ,city1 near the ,victoria ,embankment2 ,london ,college1 ,great ,marlborough ,street2 ,trinity ,college1 ,manchester ,square2 ,victoria ,college1 ,berners ,street2 and the ,royal ,college of ,organists1 ,bloomsbury4 ,scientific ,societies4--,numerous learned societies have their headquarters in ,london1 and the following may especially be noticed here4 ,burlington ,house1 in ,piccadilly1 built in #ahgb on the site of a mansion of the earls of ,burlington1 houses the ,royal ,society1 the ,chemical1 ,geological1 ,linnaean and ,royal ,astronomical ,societies1 the ,society of ,antiquaries and the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 of which the annual meetings take place at different ,british or colonial towns in succession4 ,the ,royal ,society1 the most dignified and influential of all1 was incorporated by ,charles ,,ii4 in #affc4 ,it originally occupied rooms in ,crane ,court1 ,city1 and was moved in #aghj to ,somerset ,house1 where others of the societies named were also located4 ,the ,society of ,arts1 ,john ,street1 ,adelphi1 was established in #aged for the encouragement of arts1 manufactures and commerce4 ,the ,royal ,institution1 ,albemarle ,street1 was founded in #agii1 maintains a library and laboratories and promotes research in connexion with the experimental sciences4 ,the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 occupying a building close to ,burlington ,house in ,savile ,row1 maintains a map-room open to the public1 holds lectures by prominent explorers and geographers1 and takes a leading part in the promotion of geographical discovery4 ,the ,royal ,botanic ,society has private gardens in the midst of ,regent's ,park1 where flower shows and general entertainments are held4 ,the ,royal ,horticultural ,society maintains gardens at ,wisley1 ,surrey1 and has an exhibition hall in ,vincent ,square1 ,westminster4 ,the exhibitions of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society are held at ,park ,royal1 near ,willesden4 ,the ,zoological ,society maintains a magnificent collection of living specimens in the ,zoological ,gardens1 ,regent's ,park1 a popular resort4 ,museums1 ,art ,galleries1 ,libraries4--,in the ,british ,museum ,london possesses one of the most celebrated collections in the world1 originated in #agec by the purchase of ,sir ,hans ,sloane's collection and library by the government4 ,the great building in ,bloomsbury 7#ahbh-aheb7 with its massive ,ionic portico1 houses the collections of antiquities1 coins1 books1 manuscripts and drawings1 and contains the reading-rooms for the use of readers4 ,the natural history branch was removed to a building at ,south ,kensington 7the ,natural ,history ,museum7 in #ahha1 where the zoological1 botanical and mineralogical exhibits are kept4 ,close to this museum is the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum 7formerly ,south ,kensington ,museum1 #aheg7 for which an extension of buildings1 from a fine design by ,sir ,aston ,webb1 was begun in #ahii and completed in ten years4 ,here are collections of pictures and drawings1 including the ,raphael cartoons1 objects of art of every description1 mechanical and scientific collections1 and ,japanese1 ,chinese and ,persian collections1 and an ,indian section4 ,in the vicinity1 also1 is the fine building of the ,imperial ,institute1 founded in #ahhg as an exhibition to illustrate the resources of all parts of the ,empire1 as well as an institution for the furtherance of imperial intercourse2 though not developed on the scale originally intended4 ,other museums are ,sir ,john ,soane's collection in ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields and the ,museum of ,practical ,geology in ,jermyn ,street1 while the scientific societies have libraries and in some cases collections of a specialized character1 such as the museums of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons1 the ,royal ,architectural ,society1 and the ,society of ,art and the ,parkes ,museum of the ,sanitary ,institute4 ,among permanent art collections the first place is taken by the ,national ,gallery in ,trafalgar ,square4 ,this magnificent collection was originated in #ahbd1 and the building dates from #ahch1 but has been more than once enlarged4 ,the building of the ,national ,portrait ,gallery1 adjoining it1 dates from #ahif1 but the nucleus of the collection was formed in #aheh4 ,the munificence of ,sir ,henry ,tate provided the gallery1 commonly named after him1 by the ,thames near ,vauxhall ,bridge1 which contains the national collection of ,british art4 ,the ,wallace collection of paintings and objects of art1 in ,hertford ,house1 ,manchester ,square1 was bequeathed to the nation by the widow of ,sir ,richard ,wallace in #ahig4 ,dulwich ,college possesses a fine series of paintings1 of the ,dutch and other schools1 bequeathed by ,sir ,p4 ,f4 ,bourgeois in #ahaa4 ,there are also notable collections of pictures in several of the mansions of the nobility1 government buildings1 halls of the ,city ,companies and elsewhere4 ,no gallery in ,london is exclusively or especially devoted to sculpture4 ,of the periodical art exhibitions that of the ,royal ,academy is most noteworthy4 ,it is held annually at ,burlington ,house from the first ,monday in ,may to the first ,monday in ,august4 ,it consists mainly of paintings1 but includes a few drawings and examples of sculpture4 ,earlier in each year exhibitions of works by deceased ,british artists and by old masters are held1 and the ,gibson and ,diploma ,galleries are permanent exhibitions4 ,at the ,guildhall special exhibitions are held from time to time4 ,there are a number of art galleries in and about ,bond ,street and ,piccadilly1 ,regent ,street and ,pall ,mall1 such as the ,new ,gallery1 where periodical exhibitions are given by the ,new ,english ,art ,club1 the ,royal ,society of ,painters in ,water-,colours1 the ,royal ,institute of ,painters in ,water-,colours1 other societies and art dealers4 ,municipal provision of public libraries under acts of #ahib and #ahic is general throughout ,london1 and these institutions are exceedingly popular for purposes both of reference and of loan4 ,the acts are extended to include the provisions of museums and art galleries1 but the borough councils have not as a rule availed themselves of this extension4 ,the ,london ,county ,council administers the ,horniman ,museum at ,forest ,hill1 ,lewisham4 ,the ,city ,corporation maintains the fine ,guildhall library and museum4 ,a few free libraries are supported by donations and subscriptions or charities4 ,besides the ,government reference libraries at the ,british ,museum and ,south ,kensington there are other such libraries1 of a specialized character1 as at the ,patent ,office and the ,record ,office4 ,among lending libraries should be noticed the ,london ,library in ,st ,james's ,square1 ,pall ,mall4 ,theatres and ,places of ,entertainment4--,the principal ,london theatres lie between ,piccadilly and ,temple ,bar1 and ,high ,holborn and ,victoria ,street1 the majority being in ,shaftesbury ,avenue1 the ,haymarket1 the neighbourhood of ,charing ,cross and the ,strand4 ,at these central theatres successful plays are allowed to run for protracted periods1 but there are numerous fine houses in other parts of ,london which are generally occupied by a succession of touring companies presenting either revivals of popular plays or plays successful at the moment in the central theatres4 ,the principal music halls 7variety theatres7 are in ,shaftesbury ,avenue1 ,piccadilly ,circus1 ,leicester ,square and the ,strand4 ,the ,covent ,garden theatre is the principal home of grand opera2 the building1 though spacious1 suffers by comparison with the magnificence of opera houses in some other capitals1 but during the opera season the scene within the theatre is brilliant4 ,the chief halls devoted mainly to concerts are the ,royal ,albert ,hall1 close to the ,south ,kensington museums1 and ,queen's ,hall in ,langham ,place1 ,regent ,street4 ,for a long time ,st ,james's ,hall 7demolished in #aije7 between ,regent ,street and ,piccadilly was the chief concert hall4 ,oratorio is given usually in the ,albert ,hall1 the vast area of which is especially suited for a large chorus and orchestra1 and at the ,crystal ,palace 7q4v474 ,this latter building1 standing on high ground at ,sydenham1 and visible from far over the metropolis1 is devoted not only to concerts1 but to general entertainment1 and the extensive grounds give accommodation for a variety of sports and amusements4 ,among other popular places of entertainment may be mentioned the exhibition grounds and buildings at ,earl's ,court2 similar grounds at ,shepherd's ,bush1 where a ,franco-,british ,exhibition was held in #aijh1 an ,imperial ,exhibition in #aiji1 and an ,anglo-,japanese in #aiaj2 the great ,olympia hall1 ,west ,kensington2 the celebrated wax-work exhibition of ,madame ,tussaud in ,marylebone ,road2 the ,alexandra ,palace1 ,muswell ,hill1 an institution resembling the ,crystal ,palace2 and the ,agricultural ,hall1 ,islington1 where agricultural and other exhibitions are held4 ,the well-known ,egyptian ,hall in ,piccadilly was taken down in #aijf1 and the permanent conjuring entertainment for which 7besides picture exhibitions7 it was noted was removed elsewhere4 ,theatres1 music halls1 concert halls and other places of entertainment are licensed by the ,county ,council1 except that the licence for stage-plays is granted by the lord chamberlain under the ,theatres ,act #ahdc4 ,the council provides for inspection of places of entertainment in respect of precautions against fire1 structural safety1 c4 ,the principal clubs are in and about ,piccadilly and ,pall ,mall 7see ,,club74 ,a club for soldiers1 sailors and marines in ,london1 called the ,union ,jack ,club1 was opened in ,waterloo ,road by ,king ,edward ,,vii4 in #aijg4 ,parks and ,open ,spaces3 ,administration4--,the administration of parks and open spaces in and round ,london1 topographical details of the principal of which are given in ,section ,i41 is divided between the ,office of ,works1 the ,london ,county ,council1 the ,city ,corporation and the borough councils4 ,the ,office of ,works controls the ,royal parks1 the ,county ,council controls the larger parks and open spaces not under ,government or ,city control1 and the borough councils the smaller2 while the ,city ,corporation controls certain public grounds outside the ,county of ,london4 ,there are a few other bodies controlling particular open spaces1 as the following list of public grounds exceeding #ej acres 7in #aiaj7 will show3-- #a4 ,under the ,office of ,works3-- ,green ,park #eb acres ,greenwich ,park #ahe ,hyde ,park #cfc ,kensington ,gardens #bgd ,regent's ,park #dgb ,st ,james's ,park #ic #b4 ,under the ,war ,office3-- ,woolwich ,common #aei #c4 ,under the ,london ,county ,council3-- ,avery ,hill1 ,eltham #hj ,battersea ,park #aii ,blackheath #bfg ,bostall ,heath and ,woods1 ,woolwich #acc ,brockwell ,park1 ,herne ,hill #abg ,clapham ,common #bje ,clissold ,park #ed ,dulwich ,park #gb ,finsbury ,park #aae ,hackney ,marsh #cci ,hainault ,forest1 ,essex #hje ,hampstead ,heath #cbj ,ladywell ,ground1 ,lewisham #ea ,marble ,hill1 ,twickenham #ff ,millfields1 ,hackney #fb ,parliament ,hill #bfg ,peckham ,rye and ,park #aab ,plumstead ,common #ajc ,southwark ,park #fc ,streatham ,common #ff ,tooting ,bec ,common #aea ,tooting ,graveney ,common #ff ,victoria ,park1 ,east ,london #bag ,wandsworth ,common #aee ,wormwood ,scrubbs #aic #d4 ,under the ,city ,corporation3-- ,burnham ,beeches1 ,buckinghamshire #cge ,coulsdon ,commons1 ,surrey #cdg ,epping ,forest1 ,essex #eeei ,highgate ,woods #fi ,west ,ham ,park #gg ,wimbledon and ,putney ,commons are under a board of conservators4 ,the ,london ,county ,council's parks and open spaces increased in number from #dj in #ahij to #aad in #aijg1 and in acreage from #bfef to #ejjf in the same years4 ,the expenditure in #aijg-aijh was #aca1ehb1 which sum included #aa1ihg for bands4 7,see also separate articles on boroughs47 ,bathing 7at certain hours7 and boating are permitted in the ornamental waters in several of the parks1 music is provided and much attention is paid to the protection of waterfowl and other birds1 while herds of deer are maintained in some places1 and also botanical gardens4 ,surplus plants and cuttings are generally distributed without charge to educational or charitable institutions1 and to the poor4 ,provision is made for cricket1 football and other games in a number of the parks4 ,large gatherings of spectators are attracted to the first-class cricket matches played at ,lord's ground1 ,st ,john's ,wood1 by the ,marylebone ,club and the ,middlesex ,county teams1 ,eton ,college against ,harrow ,school1 and ,oxford against ,cambridge ,university2 to the ,kennington ,oval for the matches of the ,surrey club1 and the ,leyton ground for those of the ,essex club4 ,in the ,crystal ,palace grounds the final match for the ,english ,association ,football cup is generally played1 and huge crowds from both the metropolis and the provinces witness the game4 ,at ,queen's ,club1 ,west ,kensington1 the annual ,oxford and ,cambridge athletic meeting and others take place1 besides football matches1 and there is covered accommodation for tennis and other games4 ,professional association football teams are maintained locally in several parts of ,london1 and much popular interest is taken in their matches4 ,rugby football is upheld by such notable teams as ,blackheath and ,richmond4 ,fashionable society takes its pastimes at such centres as the grounds of the ,hurlingham and ,ranelagh clubs1 at ,fulham and ,barnes respectively1 where polo and other games are played2 and ,rotten ,row1 the horse-track in ,hyde ,park1 is the favourite resort of riders4 ,in summer1 boating on the lovely reaches of the ,thames above the metropolis forms the recreation of thousands4 ,the growth of popularity of the cycle1 and later of the motor-car1 has been a principal factor in the wide development of a tendency to leave ,london during the week-end1 that is to say1 as a rule1 for ,saturday afternoon and ,sunday4 ,with many this is a practice at all seasons1 and the railway companies foster the habit by means of tickets at reduced fares to all parts4 ,the watering-places of the ,sussex1 ,kent and ,essex coasts1 and pre-eminently ,brighton1 are specially favoured for these brief holidays4 ,,vi4 ,,commerce ,port of ,london4--,the extent of the ,port of ,london has been variously defined for different purposes1 but for those of the ,port ,authority it is taken to extend from ,teddington ,lock to a line between ,yantlet ,creek in ,kent and the ,city ,stone opposite ,canvey ,isle and in ,essex4 ,london ,bridge is to outward appearance the up-river limit of the port4 ,there are wharves and a large carrying trade in barges above this point1 but below it the river is crowded with shipping1 and extensive docks open on either hand4 ,towards the close of the #aith century evidence was accumulating that the development of the ,port of ,london was not keeping pace with that of shipping generally4 ,in #aijj a ,royal ,commission was appointed to investigate the existing administration of the port1 the alleged inadequacy of accommodation for vessels and kindred questions1 and to advance a scheme of reform4 ,the report1 issued in #aijb1 showed apprehension to be well founded4 ,the river1 it was ascertained1 was not kept sufficiently dredged2 the re-export trade was noted as showing an especially serious decline1 and the administration was found to suffer from decentralization4 ,the recommendations of the ,commission included the creation of a single controlling authority to take over the powers of the ,thames ,conservancy ,watermen's ,company1 and ,trinity ,house and the docks of the companies already detailed4 ,this authority1 it was advised1 should consist of #dj members1 of whom #aa should be nominated by the ,london ,county ,council and #c by the ,corporation of the ,city 7supposing these bodies to accept certain financial responsibilities proposed in the direction of river improvements71 #e by the governors of the ,bank of ,england from the mercantile community1 #b by the ,london ,chamber of ,commerce1 and #a each by the ,admiralty1 ,board of ,trade and ,trinity ,house4 ,the remaining members should be elected by various groups1 e4g4 shipowners1 barge owners1 the railway companies interested1 c4 ,rival schemes1 however1 were proposed by the ,london ,county ,council1 which proposed to take over the entire control through a committee1 by the ,city ,corporation1 which suggested that it should appoint #aj instead of #c members to the new board2 and by the ,london ,chamber of ,commerce1 which proposed a ,harbour ,trust of ex-officio and elected members4 ,the ,thames ,conservancy also offered itself as the public authority4 ,in #aijb a ,mansion ,house ,conference was convened by the lord mayor and a deputation was appointed which in #aijc pressed the solution of the matter upon the government4 ,thames barrage scheme4 ,a noteworthy scheme to improve the condition of the ,thames1 first put forward in #aijb-aijc1 was that of constructing a dam with four locks across the river between ,gravesend and ,tilbury4 ,the estimated cost was between three and four millions sterling1 to be met by a toll1 and it was urged that a uniform depth1 independent of tides1 would be ensured above the dam1 that delay of large vessels wishing to proceed up river would thus be obviated1 that the river would be relieved of pollution by the tides1 and the necessity for constant dredging would be abolished4 ,this barrage scheme was discussed at considerable length1 and its theoretical advantages were not universally admitted4 ,the scheme included a railway tunnel beneath the dam1 for which1 incidentally1 a high military importance was claimed4 ,port authorities before #aiji4 ,in #aijd the ,port of ,london ,bill1 embodying the recommendations of the ,royal ,commission with certain exceptions1 was brought forward1 but it was found impossible to carry it through4 ,in #aijh1 however1 the ,port of ,london ,act was passed1 and came into force in #aiji4 ,this act provided for the establishment of a ,port ,authority1 the constitution of which is detailed below1 which took over the entire control of the port1 together with the docks and other property of the several existing companies4 ,the principal dock companies1 with the docks owned by them1 were as follows3-- #a4 ,london and ,india ,company4--,this company had amalgamated all the docks on the north side of the river except the ,millwall ,docks4 ,following the river down from the ,tower these docks1 with dates of original opening and existing extent1 are--,st ,katherine's 7#ahbh2 #aj acres71 ,london 7#ahje2 #eg acres71 ,west ,india1 covering the northern part of the peninsula called the ,isle of ,dogs 7#ahjb2 #aba acres71 ,east ,india1 ,blackwall 7#ahjf2 #ch acres71 ,royal ,victoria and ,albert ,docks 7#ahgf and #ahhj respectively71 parallel with the river along ,bugsby's and ,woolwich ,reaches1 nearly #c m4 in distance 7#aha acres7 and ,tilbury ,docks1 #be m4 below ,london ,bridge1 constructed in #ahhf by the ,east and ,west ,india ,docks ,company 7#fe acres74 ,tilbury ,docks are used by the largest steamers trading with the port4 #b4 ,millwall ,docks 7#ahfh71 in the south part of the ,isle of ,dogs1 are #cf acres in extent4 #c4 ,surrey ,commercial ,docks1 ,rotherhithe 7,bermondsey71 occupy a peninsula between the ,lower ,pool and ,limehouse ,reach4 ,there have been docks at ,rotherhithe since the middle of the #agth century4 ,the total area is #agf acres1 a large new dock1 the ,greenland1 being opened in #aijd4 ,the principal railways have wharves and through connexions for goods traffic1 and huge warehouses are attached to the docks4 ,the custom house stands on the north bank1 a short distance from ,london ,bridge1 in ,lower ,thames ,street4 ,it dates from #ahag1 the body of the building being by ,laing1 but the ,corinthian faade was added by ,smirke4 ,it includes a museum containing ancient documents and specimens of articles seized by the customs authorities4 ,the chief authorities concerned in the government of the ,port of ,london till #aiji were3-- #a4 ,thames ,conservancy4--,for conservancy purposes1 regulation of navigation1 removal of obstruction1 dredging1 c4 #b4 ,city ,corporation4--,port sanitary purposes from ,teddington ,lock seawards4 #c4 ,trinity ,house4--,pilotage1 lighting and buoying from ,london ,bridge seawards4 #d4 ,the ,watermen's and ,lightermen's ,company4--,the licensing authority for watermen and lightermen4 ,besides these authorities1 the ,london ,county ,council1 the ,board of ,trade1 the ,admiralty1 the ,metropolitan and ,city ,police1 police of riparian boroughs1 ,kent and ,essex ,fisheries ,commissioners1 all the dock companies and others played some part in the government and public services of the port4 ,port ,authority4--,the ,port of ,london ,authority1 as constituted by the act of #aijh1 is a body corporate consisting of a chairman1 vice-chairman1 #ag members elected by payers of dues1 wharfingers and owners of river craft1 #a member elected by wharfingers exclusively1 and #aj members appointed by the following existing bodies--,admiralty 7one72 ,board of ,trade 7two72 ,london ,county ,council 7two from among its own members and two others72 ,city ,corporation 7one from among its own members and one other72 ,trinity ,house 7one74 ,the ,board of ,trade and the ,county ,council must each1 under the act1 consult with representatives of labour as to the appointment of one of the members1 in order that labour may be represented on the ,port ,authority4 ,the first elected members were actually1 under the act1 appointed by the ,board of ,trade4 ,the undertakings of the three dock companies mentioned above were transferred to and vested in the ,port ,authority1 an equivalent amount of port stock created under the act being issued to each4 ,the ,port ,authority has full powers to authorize construction works4 ,all the rights1 powers and duties of the ,thames ,conservancy1 so far as concerns the ,thames below ,teddington ,lock1 were transferred to the ,port ,authority under the act1 as also were the powers of the ,watermen's ,company in respect of the registration and licensing of vessels1 and the regulation of lightermen and watermen4 ,the ,port ,authority fixes the port rates1 which1 however1 must not in any two consecutive years exceed one-thousandth part of the value of all imports and exports1 or a three-thousandth of the value of goods discharged from or taken on board vessels not within the premises of a dock4 ,preferential dock charges are prohibited and a port fund established under the act4 ,the authority has powers to borrow money1 but for certain purposes in this connexion1 as in other matters1 it can only act subject to the approval of the ,board of ,trade4 ,commerce4--,the following figures may be quoted for purposes of comparison at different periods3-- ,value of ,exports of ,home ,produce 7#ahdj71 #aa1ehf1jcg2 7#ahgd71 #fj1bcb1aah2 7#ahhj71 #eb1fjj1ibi2 7#aijb-aije average71 #fj1jie1bid4 ,imports 7#ahhj71 #ada1ddb1ijg2 7#aijb-aije71 #agd1jei1caf4 ,these figures point to the fact that ,london is essentially a mart1 and neither is itself1 nor is the especial outlet for1 a large manufacturing centre2 hence imports greatly exceed exports4 ,vessels entered and cleared 7foreign and colonial trade73-- ------------------------------------- ,year4 ,entered4 ,cleared4 ------------------------------------- ,tonnage4 ,tonnage4 #afid #ace1igb #ha1adh #agej #eaa1fhj #agi1hfj #ahjj #gif1fcb #gbi1eed #ahda-ahej #a1eif1dec #a1abd1gic 7average7 #ahha #e1haj1jdc #d1dgh1ifj #ahie #h1dce1fgf #f1aaj1cbe #aije #aj1had1aae #g1iac1aae ------------------------------------- ,in the coastwise trade1 in #ahha1 #ch1iec vessels of #d1ede1ijd tons entered2 in #ahie1 #dc1gjd vessels of #f1eee1fah tons2 but these figures include vessels trading within the ,thames estuary 7ports of ,london1 ,rochester1 ,colchester and ,faversham71 which later returns do not4 ,omitting such vessels1 therefore1 the number which entered in the coastwise trade in #aije was #af1ceh of #f1cgd1hcb tons4 ,business4--,the ,city has been indicated as the business centre of the metropolis4 ,besides the ,royal ,exchange1 in the building of which are numerous offices1 including ,lloyd's1 the centre of the shipping business and marine insurance1 there are many exchanges for special articles4 ,among these are the ,corn ,exchange in ,mark ,lane1 where the privilege of a fair was originally granted by ,edward ,i42 the ,wool ,exchange1 ,coleman ,street2 the ,coal ,exchange1 ,lower ,thames ,street2 the ,shipping ,exchange1 ,billiter ,street2 and the auction mart for landed property in ,tokenhouse ,yard4 ,the ,hop ,exchange is across the river in ,southwark4 ,in ,mincing ,lane are the commercial salerooms4 ,besides the ,bank of ,england there are many banking houses2 and the name of ,lombard ,street1 commemorating the former money dealers of ,lombardy1 is especially associated with them4 ,the majority of the banks are members of the ,clearing ,house1 ,post ,office ,court1 where a daily exchange of drafts representing millions of pounds sterling is effected4 ,the ,royal ,mint is on ,tower ,hill4 ,the ,stock ,exchange is in ,capel ,court1 and numbers of brokers have their offices in the vicinity of the ,royal ,exchange and the ,bank of ,england4 ,manufactures and ,retail ,trade4--,no part of ,london can be pointed out as essentially a manufacturing quarter1 and there is a strong tendency for manufacturing firms to establish their factories outside the metropolis4 ,there are1 however1 several large breweries1 among which that of ,messrs ,barclay ,perkins1 on the riverside in ,southwark1 may be mentioned2 engineering works are numerous in ,east ,london by the river1 where there are also shipbuilding yards2 the leather industry centres in ,bermondsey1 the extensive pottery works of ,messrs ,doulton are in ,lambeth1 there are chemical works on the ,lea1 and paper-mills on the ,wandle4 ,certain industries 7not confined to factories7 have long been associated with particular localities4 ,thus1 clock-makers and metal-workers are congregated in ,finsbury1 especially ,clerkenwell and in ,islington2 ,hatton ,garden1 near ,holborn ,viaduct1 is a centre for diamond merchants2 cabinet-making is carried on in ,bethnal ,green1 ,shoreditch and the vicinity2 and large numbers in the ,east ,end are employed in the match industry4 ,silk-weaving is still carried on in the district of ,spitalfields 7see ,,stepney74 ,west of the ,city certain streets are essentially connected with certain trades4 ,the old-established collection of second-hand book-shops in ,holywell ,street was only abolished by the widening of the ,strand1 and a large proportion then removed to ,charing ,cross ,road4 ,in the ,strand1 and more especially in ,fleet ,street and its offshoots1 are found the offices of the majority of the most important daily newspapers and other journals4 ,carriage and motor-car warehouses congregate in ,long ,acre4 ,in ,tottenham ,court ,road are the showrooms of several large upholstering and furnishing firms4 ,of the streets most frequented on account of their fashionable shops ,bond ,street1 ,regent ,street1 ,oxford ,street1 ,sloane ,street and ,high ,street1 ,kensington1 may be selected4 ,in the ,east ,end and other poor quarters a large trade in second-hand clothing1 flowers and vegetables1 and many other commodities is carried on in the streets on movable stalls by costermongers and hawkers4 ,markets4--,the ,city ,corporation exercises a control over the majority of the ,london markets1 which dates from the close of the #adth century1 when dealers were placed under the governance of the mayor and aldermen4 ,the markets thus controlled are3 ,central ,markets1 ,smithfield1 for meat1 poultry1 provisions1 fruit1 vegetables1 flowers and fish4 ,these extend over a great area north of ,newgate ,street and east of ,farringdon ,road4 ,beneath them are extensive underground railway sidings4 ,a market for horses and cattle existed here at least as early as the time of ,henry ,,ii4 ,leadenhall ,market1 ,leadenhall ,street1 ,city1 for poultry and meat4 ,this market was in existence before #adaa when it came into the possession of the ,city4 ,billingsgate ,market1 by the ,thames immediately above the custom house1 for fish4 ,formerly a point of anchorage for small vessels1 it was made a free market in #afii4 ,smithfield ,hay ,market4 ,metropolitan ,cattle ,market1 ,copenhagen ,fields1 ,islington4 ,deptford ,cattle ,market 7foreign cattle74 ,spitalfields ,market 7fruit1 vegetables and flowers74 ,shadwell ,market 7fish74 ,of other markets1 the ,whitechapel ,hay ,market and ,borough ,market1 ,southwark1 are under the control of trustees2 and ,woolwich ,market is under the council of that borough4 ,covent ,garden1 the great mart in the west of ,london for flowers1 fruit and vegetables1 is in the hands of private owners4 ,it appears to have been used as a market early in the #agth century4 ,scenes of remarkable activity may be witnessed here and at ,billingsgate in the early hours of the morning when the stock is brought in and the wholesale distributions are carried on4 ,,vii4 ,,government ,vestries4 ,metropolitan ,board of ,works4 ,administration before #ahhh4--,the middle of the #aith century found the whole local administration of ,london still of a medieval character4 ,moreover1 as complete reform had always been steadily resisted1 homogeneity was entirely wanting4 ,outside the ,city itself a system of local government can hardly be said to have existed4 ,greater ,london 7in the sense in which that name might then have been applied7 was governed by the inhabitants of each parish in vestry assembled1 save that in some instances parishes had elected select vestries under the provisions of the ,vestries ,act #ahca4 ,in neither case had the vestry powers of town management4 ,to meet the needs of particular localities1 commissioners or trustees having such powers had been from time to time created by local acts4 ,the resulting chaos was remarkable4 ,in #ahee these local acts numbered #bej1 administered by not less than #cjj bodies1 and by a number of persons serving on them computed at #aj1ddh4 ,these persons were either self-elected1 or elected for life1 or both1 and therefore in no degree responsible to the ratepayers4 ,there were two bodies having jurisdiction over the whole metropolis except the ,city1 namely1 the officers appointed under the ,metropolitan ,building ,act of #ahdd1 and the ,metropolitan ,commissioners of ,sewers1 appointed under the ,commissioners of ,sewers ,act #ahdh4 ,neither body was responsible to the ratepayers4 ,to remedy this chaotic state of affairs1 the ,metropolis ,management ,act #ahee was passed4 ,under that act a vestry elected by the ratepayers of the parish was established for each parish in the metropolis outside the ,city4 ,the vestries so elected for the twenty-two larger parishes were constituted the local authorities4 ,the fifty-six smaller parishes were grouped together in fifteen districts1 each under a district board1 the members of which were elected by the vestries of the constituent parishes4 ,a central body1 styled the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works1 having jurisdiction over the whole metropolis 7including the ,city7 was also established1 the members of which were elected by the ,common ,council of the ,city1 the vestries and district boards1 and the previously established local board of ,woolwich 7q4v474 ,further the area of the metropolis for local government purposes was for the first time defined1 being the same as that adopted in the ,commissioners of ,sewers ,act1 which had been taken from the area of the weekly bills of mortality4 ,the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works was also given certain powers of supervision over the vestries and district boards1 and superseded the commissioners of sewers as authority for main drainage4 ,by an act of the same session it became the central authority for the administration of the ,building ,acts1 and subsequently had many additional powers and duties conferred upon it4 ,the vestries and district boards became the authorities for local drainage1 paving1 lighting1 repairing and maintaining streets1 and for the removal of nuisances1 c4 ,london ,county ,council4 ,metropolitan boroughs4 ,acts of #ahhh and #ahii4--;,an objection to the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works soon became manifest1 inasmuch as the system of election was indirect4 ,moreover1 some of its actions were open to such suspicion that a royal commission was appointed to inquire into certain matters connected with the working of the board4 ,this commission issued an interim report in #ahhh 7the final report did not appear until #ahia71 which disclosed the inefficiency of the board in certain respects1 and also indicated the existence of corruption4 ,reform followed immediately4 ,already in #ahhd ,sir ,william ,harcourt had attempted to constitute the metropolis a municipal borough under the government of a single council4 ,but in #ahhh the ,local ,government ,act1 dealing with the area of the metropolis as a separate county1 created the ,london ,county ,council as the central administrative body1 possessing not only the powers of an ordinary county council1 but also extensive powers of town management1 transferred to it from the abolished ,board of ,works4 ,here1 then1 was the central body1 under their direct control1 which inhabitants of ,london had hitherto lacked4 ,the question of subsidiary councils remained to be settled4 ,the wealthier metropolitan parishes became discontented with the form of local government to which they remained subject1 and in #ahig ,kensington and ,westminster petitioned to be created boroughs by the grant of charters under the ,municipal ,corporation ,acts4 ,these1 however1 were inapplicable to ,london1 and it was realized that the bringing of special legislation to bear on special cases 7as the petition of these two boroughs would have demanded7 would be inexpedient as making against homogeneity4 ,instead1 the ,london ,government ,act of #ahii was evolved4 ,it brought into existence the twenty-eight ,metropolitan boroughs enumerated at the outset of this article4 ,the county of ,london may thus be regarded from the administrative standpoint as consisting of twenty-nine contiguous towns1 counting the ,city of ,london4 ,as regards the distribution of powers and duties between the ,county ,council and the ,borough ,councils1 and the constitution and working of each1 the underlying principle may be briefly indicated as giving all powers and duties which require uniformity of action throughout the whole of ,london to the ,county ,council1 and powers and duties that can be locally administered to the ,borough ,councils4 ,summary of ,administrative ,bodies4--,the administrative bodies of the ,county of ,london may now be summarized3 #a4 ,london ,county ,council4--,consists of #aah councillors1 #b elected by each parliamentary division 7but the ,city of ,london elects #d72 and #ai aldermen1 with chairman1 vice-chairman and deputy-chairman1 elected in council4 ,triennial elections of councillors by householders 7male and female7 on the rate-books4 ,aldermen hold office for #f years4 #b4 ,metropolitan ,boroughs4--,councils consist of a mayor and aldermen and councillors in proportion as #a to #f4 ,the commonest numbers1 which cannot be exceeded1 are #aj and #fj 7see separate article on each borough74 ,triennial elections4 #c4 ,corporation of the ,city of ,london4--,the legislation of #ahee1 #ahhh and #ahii left the government of the small area of the ,city in the hands of an unreformed ,corporation4 ,here at least the medieval system1 in spite of any anomalies with respect to modern conditions1 has resisted reform1 and no other municipal body shares the traditions and peculiar dignity of the ,city ,corporation4 ,this consists of a ,lord ,mayor1 #bf aldermen and #bjf common councilmen1 forming the ,court of ,common ,council1 which is the principal administrative body4 ,its scope may be briefly indicated as including 7a7 duties exercised elsewhere by the ,borough ,councils1 and by the ,london ,county ,council 7although that body is by no means powerless within the ,city boundaries72 and 7b7 peculiar duties such as control of markets and police4 ,the election of common councilmen1 whose institution dates from the reign of ,edward ,i41 takes place annually1 the electors being the ratepayers1 divided among the twenty-five wards of the ,city4 ,an alderman 7q4v47 of each ward 7save that the wards of ,cripplegate within and without1 share one7 is elected for life4 ,the ,lord ,mayor 7q4v47 is elected by the ,court of ,aldermen from two aldermen nominated in the ,court of ,common ,hall by the ,livery1 an electorate drawn from the members of the ancient trade gilds or ,livery ,companies 7q4v471 which1 through their control over the several trades or manufactures1 had formerly an influence over the government of the city which from the time of ,edward ,,iii4 was paramount4 ,non-administrative ,arrangements4--,the ,local ,government ,act of #ahhh dealt with the metropolis for non-administrative purposes as it did for administrative1 that is to say1 as a separate county4 ,the arrangements of quarter-sessions1 justices1 coroners1 sheriffs1 c41 were thus brought into line with other counties1 except in so far as the ordinary organization is modified by the existence of the central criminal court1 the metropolitan police1 police courts and magistrates1 and a paid chairman of quarter-sessions4 ,the powers of the governing body of the ,city1 moreover1 are as peculiar in this direction as in that of municipal administration1 and the act left the ,city as a county of a city practically unchanged4 ,thus the ,lord ,mayor and aldermen possess judicial authority1 and the police of ,london are divided into two separate bodies1 the ,metropolitan and the ,city ,police 7see ,,police74 ,courts4 ,the chief courts for the trial of criminal cases are the ,central ,criminal ,court and the ,court of ,quarter-sessions4 ,the ,central ,criminal ,court1 taking the place of the provincial ,assizes1 was established by an act of #ahcd4 ,there are twelve sessions annually1 under the ,lord ,mayor1 aldermen and judges4 ,they were formerly held in the ,old ,bailey sessions-house1 but a fine new building from designs of ,e4 ,w4 ,mountford took the place of this in #aijf4 ,quarter-sessions for the county of ,london are held thirty-six times annually1 for the north side of the ,thames at the ,sessions-house in ,clerkenwell 7,finsbury7 and for the south side at that in ,newington ,causeway1 ,southwark4 ,for judicial purposes ,westminster was merged with the county of ,london in #ahhi1 and the ,liberty of the ,tower was abolished in #ahid4 ,the separate court of the ,lord ,mayor and ,aldermen is held at the ,guildhall4 ,the ,metropolitan police courts are fourteen in number1 namely--,bow ,street1 ,covent ,garden2 ,clerkenwell2 ,great ,marlborough ,street 7,westminster72 ,greenwich and ,woolwich2 ,lambeth2 ,marylebone2 ,north ,london1 ,stoke ,newington ,road2 ,southwark2 ,south ,western1 ,lavender ,hill 7,battersea72 ,thames1 ,arbour ,street ,east 7,stepney72 ,west ,ham2 ,west ,london1 ,vernon ,street 7,fulham72 ,westminster1 ,vincent ,square2 ,worship ,street 7,shoreditch74 ,the police courts of the ,city are held at the ,mansion ,house1 the ,lord ,mayor or an alderman sitting as magistrate1 and at the ,guildhall1 where the aldermen preside in rotation4 ,the prisons within the metropolis are ,brixton1 ,holloway1 ,pentonville1 ,wandsworth and ,wormwood ,scrubbs4 ,in the county of ,london there are #ab coroners' districts1 #ai petty sessional divisions 7the ,city forming a separate one7 and #ac county court districts 7the ,city forming a separate one74 ,the boundaries of these divisions do not in any way correspond with each other1 or with the police divisions1 or with the borough or parish boundaries4 ,the registration county of ,london coincides with the administrative county4 ,parliamentary ,representation4--,the ,london ,government ,act contains a saving clause by which nothing in or done under this act shall be construed as altering the limits of any parliamentary borough or parliamentary county4 ,the parliamentary boroughs are thus in many cases named and bounded differently from the metropolitan boroughs4 ,the parliamentary arrangements of each metropolitan borough are indicated in the separate articles on the boroughs4 ,in the following list the boroughs which extend outside the administrative county of ,london are noted4 ,each division of each borough1 or each borough where not divided1 returns one member1 save that the ,city of ,london returns two members4 7a7 ,north of the ,thames4 7#a7 ,bethnal ,green--,divs43 ,north-eastern1 ,south-western4 7#b7 ,chelsea 7detached portion in administrative county of ,middlesex1 ,kensal ,town74 7#c7 ,finsbury 7detached portion in ,middlesex1 ,muswell ,hill7--,divs43 ,holborn1 ,central1 ,eastern4 7#e7 ,fulham4 7#f7 ,hackney--,divs43 ,north1 ,central1 ,south4 7#g7 ,hammersmith4 7#h7 ,hampstead4 7#i7 ,islington--,divs43 ,northern1 ,southern1 ,eastern1 ,western4 7#aj7 ,kensington--,divs43 ,northern1 ,southern4 7#aa7 ,city of ,london4 7#ab7 ,marylebone--,divs43 ,eastern1 ,western4 7#ac7 ,paddington 7extending into ,middlesex7--,divs43 ,northern1 ,southern4 7#ad7 ,st ,george's ,hanover ,square4 7#ae7 ,st ,pancras--,divs43 ,northern1 ,southern1 ,eastern1 ,western4 7#af7 ,shoreditch--,divs43 ,hoxton1 ,haggerston4 7#ag7 ,strand4 7#ah7 ,tower ,hamlets--,divs43 ,bow and ,bromley1 ,limehouse1 ,mile ,end1 ,poplar1 ,st ,george1 ,stepney1 ,whitechapel4 7#ai7 ,westminster4 ,a detached portion of the parliamentary division of ,hornsey1 ,middlesex1 is in the metropolitan borough of ,hackney4 ,london ,university returns a member4 7b7 ,south of the ,thames4 7#a7 ,battersea and ,clapham--,divs43 ,battersea1 ,clapham4 7#b7 ,camberwell 7extending into ,kent7--,divs43 ,northern1 ,peckham1 ,dulwich4 7#c7 ,deptford4 7#d7 ,greenwich4 7#e7 ,lambeth--,divs43 ,northern1 ,kennington1 ,brixton1 ,norwood4 7#f7 ,lewisham4 7#g7 ,newington--,divs43 ,western1 ,walworth4 7#h7 ,southwark--,divs43 ,western1 ,rotherhithe1 ,bermondsey4 7#i7 ,wandsworth4 7#aj7 ,woolwich4 ,part of the ,wimbledon parliamentary division of ,surrey is in the metropolitan borough of ,wandsworth4 ,ecclesiastical ,divisions and ,denominations4--,london north of the ,thames is within the ,church of ,england bishopric of ,london1 the bishop's palace being at ,fulham4 ,in this diocese1 which covers nearly the whole of ,middlesex and a very small portion of ,hertfordshire1 are the suffragan bishoprics of ,islington1 ,kensington and ,stepney4 ,the bishopric of ,southwark was created in #aijd1 having been previously a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of ,rochester4 ,the county contains #fab ecclesiastical parishes4 ,westminster is the seat of the ,roman ,catholic archbishopric in ,england1 and ,southwark is a bishopric4 ,among the numerous chapels of dissenting bodies there may be mentioned the ,city ,temple1 ,congregational1 on ,holborn ,viaduct2 the ,metropolitan ,tabernacle1 ,baptist1 in ,southwark1 the creation of which was the outcome of the labours of the famous preacher ,charles ,spurgeon 7d4 #ahib72 and ,wesley's ,chapel1 ,city ,road1 in the graveyard of which is the tomb of ,john ,wesley2 his house1 which adjoins the chapel1 being open as a memorial museum4 ,in #aijc the ,wesleyans acquired the site of the ,royal ,aquarium1 near ,westminster ,abbey1 for the erection of a central hall4 ,the ,great ,synagogue of the ,jews is in ,st ,james' ,place1 ,aldgate4 ,the headquarters of the ,salvation ,army are in ,queen ,victoria ,street1 ,city4 ,there are numerous foreign churches1 among which may be mentioned the ,french ,protestant churches in ,monmouth ,road1 ,bayswater and ,soho ,square2 the ,greek church of ,st ,sophia1 ,moscow ,road1 ,bayswater2 and the ,german ,evangelical church in ,montpelier ,place1 ,brompton ,road1 opened in #aijd4 7,o4 ,j4 ,r4 ,h47 ,,viii4 ,,finance ,in addition to the provisions that have been mentioned above 7,section ,,vii471 the ,london ,government ,act #ahii simplified administration in two respects4 ,the duties of overseers in ,london had been performed by most diverse bodies4 ,in some parishes overseers were appointed in the ordinary manner2 in others the vestry1 by local acts and by orders under the ,local ,government ,act #ahid1 was appointed to act as1 or empowered to appoint1 overseers1 whilst in ,chelsea the guardians acted as overseers4 ,the act of #ahii swept away all these distinctions1 and constituted the new borough councils in every case the overseers for every parish within their respective boroughs1 except that the town clerk of each borough performs the duties of overseers with respect to the registration of electors4#d ,again1 with regard to rates1 there were in all cases three different rates leviable in each parish--the poor rate1 the general rate and the sewers rate--whilst in many parishes in addition there was a separate lighting rate4 ,from the sewers rate and lighting rate1 land1 as opposed to buildings1 was entitled to certain exemptions4 ,under the act of #ahii all these rates are consolidated into a single rate1 called the general rate1 which is assessed1 made1 collected and levied as the poor rate1 but the interests of persons previously entitled to exemptions are safeguarded4 ,further1 every precept sent by an authority in ,london for the purpose of obtaining money 7these authorities include the ,london ,county ,council1 the receiver of the ,metropolitan ,police1 the ,central ,unemployed ,body and the ,boards of ,guardians7 which has ultimately to be raised out of a rate within a borough is sent direct to the council of the borough instead of filtering through other authorities before reaching the overseers4 ,the only exceptions to this rule are3 7#a7 precepts issued by the local government board for raising the sums to be contributed to the metropolitan common poor fund2 and 7#b7 precepts issued by poor law authorities representing two or more poor-law unions2 in both these cases the precept has of necessity to be first sent to the guardians4 ,the metropolitan borough councils make one general rate1 which includes the amount necessary to meet their own expenditure1 as well as to meet the demands of the various precepting authorities4 ,there was thus raised in the year #aijf-aijg a sum of #ae1cic1ief 7in #ahih-ahii the amount was #aj1dja1dda72 of this #aa1jab1dbd was for central rates1 which was subdivided into #g1icj1bge for county services and #c1jhb1adi for local services1 leaving a balance of #d1cha1ecb1 strictly local rates4 ,the total local expenditure of ,london for the year #aijf-aijg was #bd1gjc1jhg 7in #ahih-ahii it was only #ad1gfh1geg71 the balance of #i1gfa1gcd being made up by receipts-in-aid and imperial subventions4 ,this expenditure was divided among the following bodies3 ,london ,county ,council #i1dia1bga ,metropolitan ,borough ,councils #e1jji1ihb ,boards of ,guardians #c1ehg1dbi ,metropolitan ,water ,board #b1cah1fah ,metropolitan ,police #a1ijc1dda ,city ,corporation #a1bgj1djf ,metropolitan ,asylums ,board #icd1dfc ,central 7,unemployed7 ,body #ada1bhd ,overseers--,city of ,london #cd1geg ,market ,trustees 7,southwark7 #aj1fhj ,local ,government ,board--,common ,poor ,fund #gef ---------- #bd1gjc1jhg ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - 7#a7 ,rate and ,debt ,accounts4 ,estimated ,income4 ,estimated ,expenditure4 ,balances #ifg1gdj ,debt 7including management7 #c1ije1ace ,receipts in aid of expenditure ,grants 7mostly guardians7 #fde1iac 7local taxation licences and ,pensions #ge1ffe estate duty1 beer and spirit ,establishment charges #bcb1jde duties1 c47 #eac1eda ,judicial expenses #eb1eae ,government grants in aid of ,services-- education #a1eae1ffc ,main drainage #bie1fej ,interest on loans advanced ,fire brigade #bfc1ege to local authorities1 c4 #ehf1jfe ,parks and ,rents1 c4 #dbg1gfg open spaces #adj1gae ,contributions from ,bridges1 tunnels1 revenue-producing ferry #di1ibe undertaking for interest ,embankments #ad1idj and repayment of debt #fhe1idh ,pauper lunatics #gh1hgj ,miscellaneous #c1fcc ,inebriates ,acts #ad1jde ,rate contributions-- ,coroners #cj1ibe ,general1 for other than ,weights and measures #ad1hcj education #b1fih1faj ,gas testing #ac1ghe ,for education #c1fge1fid ,building ,acts #be1eie ,special #djg1idf ,diseases of ,animals ,acts #ai1bfj ,miscellaneous #fc1jfj ---------- #a1jbe1age ,education #d1hcg1ddb ,steamboats #ad1hje ,works ,dept4 #ab1ajj #e1hhi1ebb ,parliamentary expenses #bb1fge ,miscellaneous #f1bad ---------- ,total expenditure #aj1hbi1fhd ,balances #feb1ibc ----------- ----------- #aa1dhb1fjg #aa1dhb1fjg 7#b7 ,revenue ,producing ,undertakings4 ,estimated ,income4 ,estimated ,expenditure4 ,balances #d1jee ,working expenses-- ,receipts-- ,working class ,working class dwellings #ef1jfj dwellings #agc1ddc ,tramways #a1cah1fbj ,tramways #b1jhi1iee ,small ,holdings ,small ,holdings and ,allotments #fba and ,allotments #daj ,parks boating #b1ife #a1cgh1bff ,parks boating #e1ajj #b1bfh1ijh ,renewals #afc1hbh ,transfers #f1bad ,reserve #dd1eeg ,interest on and repayment of debts #fhe1idf ,transfer in relief of rates 7parks boating7 #b1jjj ,balances #d1ehj ---------- ---------- #b1bgi1agg #b1bgi1agg ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,the total expenditure was equal to a rate in the pound of #aas4 #d4d;d42 the actual amount raised in rates was equivalent to a rate of #gs4 #a4j;d41 receipts-in-aid were equivalent to a rate of #cs4 #b4e;d41 and imperial subventions to a rate of #as4 #c4d;d4 ,practically the whole amount contributed towards the support of public local expenditure1 and a considerable amount of that contributed to public national expenditure is based on the estimated annual value of the immovable property situated within the county of ,london1 which in #ahgf was #bc1bdj1jgj2 in #ahhf #cj1gaf1gai2 in #ahif #ce1gic1fgb2 and in #aiji #dd1fff1fea4 ,the produce of a penny rate was1 in the metropolitan police district in #aijh-aiji1 #bbf1gci1 and in the county of ,london 7excluding the ,city7 #afa1hjf4 ,a complete re-valuation of properties in the county of ,london is made every five years1 valuation lists being prepared in duplicate by the borough councils acting as overseers of the parishes in their respective boroughs4 ,they are revised by statutory assessment committees1 who hear any objections by ratepayers against their valuation4 ,these lists when revised are sent to the clerk of the ,county ,council1 who publishes the totals4 ,by the ,metropolitan ,poor ,act #ahfg1 the metropolitan common poor fund1 to which each union in ,london contributes in proportion to its rateable value1 was established4 ,out of this fund certain expenses of guardians in connexion with the maintenance of indoor paupers and lunatics1 the salaries of officers1 the maintenance of children in poor-law schools1 valuation1 vaccination1 registration1 c41 are paid4 ,the payments amounted in #aijf-aijg to #a1ffb1idb4 ,under the ,local ,government ,act #ahhh1 the ,london ,county ,council makes grants to boards of guardians1 sanitary authorities and overseers in ,london in respect of certain services4 ,this grant is in lieu of the grants formerly made out of the exchequer grant in aid of local rates1 and amounted in #aijf-aijg to #fai1dhi4 ,finally1 in #ahid1 the fund called the ,equalization ,fund was established4 ,this fund is raised by the rate of #f;d4 in the pound on the assessable value of the county of ,london1 and redistributed among the boroughs in proportion to their population4 ,it amounted in #aijf-aijg to #a1jid1idf4 ,but1 in spite of attempts at equalization1 rates remain very unequal in ,london1 and varied in #aijh from #fs4 #b;d4 in ,st ,anne's1 ,westminster1 to #aas4 #f;d4 in ,poplar4 ,the ,london ,county ,council levied in #aiji-aiaj to meet its estimated expenditure for the year a total rate of #cf4ge;d42 #ad4ej;d4 of this was for general county purposes1 #ai4ge;d4 for education purposes and #b4ej;d4 for special county purposes4 ,the preceding tables show the estimated income and expenditure of the ,london ,county ,council for #aiji-aiaj4 ,besides the annual expenditure of the various authorities large sums have been borrowed to defray the cost of works of a permanent nature4 ,the debt of ,london1 like that of other municipalities1 has considerably increased and shows a tendency to go on increasing1 although certain safeguards against too ready borrowing have been imposed4 ,every local authority has to obtain the sanction of some higher authority before raising a loan1 and there are in addition certain statutory limits of borrowing4 ,metropolitan borough councils have to obtain the sanction of the ,local ,government ,board to loans for baths1 washhouses1 public libraries1 sanitary conveniences and certain other purposes under the ,public ,health ,acts2 for cemeteries the sanction of the ,treasury is required1 and for all other purposes that of the ,london ,county ,council2 poor law authorities1 the metropolitan asylums board1 the metropolitan water board and the central 7unemployed7 body require the sanction of the ,local ,government ,board2 the receiver for the metropolitan police district that of the ,home ,office1 and the ,london ,county ,council that of parliament and the ,treasury4 ,the following table gives the net loans outstanding of the several classes of local authorities in ,london at the #cast of ,march #aijh3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,local ,authorities4 ,loans outstanding #cast ,march #aijh4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,london ,county ,council 7excluding loans advanced to other authorities7 #di1ich1aca ,metropolitan ,asylums ,board #c1aac1fab ,metropolitan ,police 7,london's proportion7 #bbf1aca ,metropolitan ,water ,board 7proportion7 #ch1gbf1ead ,central 7,unemployed7 ,body #ca1hde ,city of ,london ,corporation #e1eec1agc ,metropolitan ,borough ,councils #ab1eea1bjd ,guardians and sick asylum managers #d1jbi1jac ------------------- #aad1afi1fbc ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,authorities4--,full details and figures relating to the finance of ,london will be found in the parliamentary papers ,local ,taxation ,returns 7,england and ,wales71 part iv4 published annually2 ,returns relating to the ,london ,county ,council1 published annually2 the annual report and accounts of the ,metropolitan ,water ,board1 and the metropolitan police accounts4 ,the publications of the ,london ,county ,council1 especially the tramways accounts1 the annual estimates1 ,london ,statistics1 and the ,financial ,abstract 7#aj years ended #cast ,march #aijh7 have much valuable information4 7,t4 ,a4 ,i47 ,,ix4 ,,history #a4 ,british and ,roman to ,a4,d4 #ddi4--,there is practically no record of ,british ,london1 and considerable difference of opinion exists among antiquaries as to its very existence4 ,bishop ,stillingfleet held that ,london was of ,roman foundation and not older than the time of ,claudius 7,origines ,brit41 #afhe1 p4 #dc72 and ,dr ,guest affirmed that the notion of a ,british town having preceded the ,roman camp has no foundation to rest upon 7,archaeological ,journal1 xxiii4 #ahj74 ,j4 ,r4 ,green expressed the same opinion in ,the ,making of ,england 7p4 #aja74 ,on the other side ,kemble held that it was difficult to believe that ,cair ,lunden was an unimportant place even in ,caesar's day 7,saxons in ,england1 ii4 #bff72 and ,thomas ,lewin believed that ,london had attained prosperity before the ,romans came2 and held that it was probably the capital of ,cassivellaunus1 which was taken and sacked by ,julius ,caesar 7,archaeologia1 xl4 #ei74 ,the origin of ,london will probably always remain a subject of dispute for want of decisive facts4 ,the strongest reason for believing in a ,british ,london is to be found in the name1 which is undoubtedly ,celtic1 adopted with little alteration by the ,romans4 ,it is also difficult to believe that ,londinium had come to be the important commercial centre described by ,tacitus 7,a4,d4 #fa7 if it had only been founded a few years before the conquest of ,claudius4 ,the discovery by ,general ,pitt ,rivers in #ahfg of the remains of pile dwellings both on the north and on the south of the ,thames gives ground for an argument of some force in favour of the date of the foundation of ,london having been before the ,roman occupation of ,britain4 ,of ,roman ,london we possess so many remains that its appearance can be conjectured with little difficulty4 ,during the centuries when ,britain was occupied by the ,romans 7,a4,d4 #dc-dji7 there was ample time for cities to grow up from small beginnings1 to overflow their borders and to be more than once rebuilt4 ,the earliest ,roman ,london must have been a comparatively small place1 but it probably contained a military fort of some kind intended to cover the passage of the river4 ,extent of ,roman ,london4 ,the ,roman general ,paulinus ,suetonius1 after marching rapidly from ,wales to put down a serious insurrection1 found ,londinium unfitted for a base of military operations1 and therefore left the place to the mercy of ,boadicea1 who entirely destroyed it1 and killed the inhabitants4 ,after this the need of fortifying ,londinium must have been apparent1 and a walled city of small dimensions arose soon after the defeat of the ,british queen4 ,the earliest ,roman city probably extended as far as ,tower ,hill on the east1 and there is reason to believe that it did not include any ground to the west of ,leadenhall4 ,the excavations at the latter place in #ahha threw great light upon the early history of ,london4 ,the foundation walls of a basilica were discovered1 and from the time when that was built until the present day the ground has always been devoted to public uses4 ,how far north the first wall was placed it is difficult to guess4 ,one help towards a settlement of the question may be found in the discovery of burial places4 ,as it was illegal in ,roman times to bury within the walls1 we are forced to the conclusion that the places where these sepulchral remains have been found were at one time extramural4 ,now no such remains have been found between ,gracechurch ,street and the ,tower4 ,the northern wall was placed by ,roach ,smith somewhere along the course of ,cornhill and ,leadenhall ,street4 ,the second extension of the city westwards was probably to ,wallbrook4 ,in the latest or third ,roman enclosure the line of the wall ran straight from the ,tower to ,aldgate1 where it bent round somewhat to ,bishopsgate4 ,on the east it was bordered by the district subsequently called the ,minories and ,houndsditch4 ,the line from ,bishopsgate ran eastward to ,st ,giles's churchyard 7,cripplegate71 where it turned to the south as far as ,falcon square2 again westerly by ,aldersgate round the site of the ,greyfriars 7afterwards ,christ's ,hospital7 towards ,giltspur ,street1 then south by the ,old ,bailey to ,ludgate1 and then down to the ,thames1 where ,dr ,edwin ,freshfield suggests that a ,roman fortress stood on the site of ,baynard's ,castle4 ,this is most probable1 because the ,romans naturally required a special protection on the river at the west as well as at the east4 ,so in later times when ,william the ,conqueror planned the ,tower he gave the site at the western extremity to his follower ,ralph ,baynard1 where was erected the stronghold known as ,baynard's ,castle4 ,roach ,smith pointed out that the enclosure indicated above gives dimensions far greater than those of any other town in ,britain4 ,there can be no doubt that within the walls there was originally much unoccupied space1 for with the single exception of the larger circuit south of ,ludgate1 up to where the river ,fleet ran1 made in #abgf for the benefit of the ,black ,friars1 the line of the walls1 planned by the later ,romans1 remained complete until the ,great ,fire 7#afff74 ,the ,thames formed the natural barrier on the south1 but the ,romans do not appear to have been content with this protection1 for they built a wall here in addition1 which remained for several centuries4 ,portions of this wall have been discovered at various times4 ,it is difficult even to guess when the third wall was erected4 ,the emperor ,theodosius came to ,london from ,boulogne to mature his plan for the restoration of the tranquillity of the province4 ,as ,theodosius is said to have left ,britain in a sound and secure condition it has been suggested that to him was due the wall of the later ,londinium1 but there is little or no evidence for this opinion1 and according to an old tradition ,constantine the ,great walled the city at the request of his mother ,helena1 presumed to be a native of ,britain4 ,there is1 however1 some evidence in favour of the supposition that the wall was built at a much earlier date4 ,it is not improbable that early in the #bnd century the wall was finished at the west portion and enclosed a cemetery near ,newgate4 ,sir ,william ,tite1 in describing a tessellated pavement found in #ahed on the site of the ,excise ,office 7,bishopsgate ,street71 expresses the opinion that the finished character of the pavement points to a period of security and wealth1 and fixes on the reign of ,hadrian 7,a4,d4 #aag-ach71 to which the silver coin found on the floor belongs1 as the date of its foundation4 ,the historians of the ,roman ,empire have left us some particulars of the visits of emperors and generals to ,britain1 but little or nothing about what happened in ,london1 and we should be more ignorant than we are of the condition of ,londinium if it had not been that a large number of excavations have been made in various parts of the city which have disclosed a considerable amount of its early history4 ,from these remains we may guess that ,london was a handsome city in the reign of ,hadrian1 and probably then in as great a position of importance as it ever attained4 ,this being so1 there seems to be reason in attributing the completed walls to this period4 ,remains of ,roman ,wall4 ,the persistence of the relics of the walls of ,london is one of the most remarkable facts of history4 ,pieces of the wall are to be seen in various parts of the city1 and are frequently found when extensive excavations are made for new buildings4 ,in some places where the ,roman wall is not to be seen there still exist pieces of the old wall that stand upon ,roman foundations4 ,in ,amen ,court1 where the residences of canons of ,st ,paul's and the later houses of the minor canons are situated1 there stretches such a piece of wall1 dividing the gardens of the ,court from the ,old ,bailey4 ,of the few accessible fragments of the ,roman wall still existing special mention may be made of the bastion in the churchyard of ,st ,giles's1 ,cripplegate2 a little farther west is a small fragment in ,st ,martin's ,court1 ,ludgate ,hill 7opposite the ,old ,bailey71 but the best specimen can be seen near ,tower ,hill just out of ,george ,street1 ,trinity ,square4 ,early in the #bjth century a fragment nearly #dj ft4 long1 together with the base of a bastion1 was brought to light in digging for the foundation of some large warehouses in ,camomile ,street1 at a depth of #aj ft4 below the level of the present street4 ,a considerable portion of the old wall was laid bare by the excavations for the new ,post ,office in ,st ,martin's-le-,grand4 ,from a comparison of these fragments with the descriptions of ,woodward1 ,maitland and others1 who in the early part of the #ahth century examined portions of the wall still standing1 we learn that the wall was from #i to #ab ft4 thick1 and formed of a core of rough rubble cemented together with mortar 7containing much coarse gravel7 of extraordinary hardness and tenacity1 and a facing for the most part of stone--,kentish rag1 freestone or ironstone--but occasionally of flints2 about #b ft4 apart are double layers of tiles or bricks which serve as bonding courses4 ,the wall appears to have been about #bj ft4 high1 the towers from #dj to #ej ft41 but when described only the base was ,roman4 ,upon that was raised a wall of rough rubble rudely faced with stone and flint1 evidently a medieval work and about #b ft4 thick2 then succeeded a portion wholly of brick1 terminating in battlements topped with copings of stone4 ,gates and buildings4 ,although the course of the later ,roman walls is clear1 we do not know with any certainty the position of the ,roman gates4 ,they were not the same as the medieval gates which have left the record of their names in modern ,london nomenclature4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the main streets also are not in line with the ,roman ways1 except perhaps in a few instances4 ,many ineffectual attempts have been made to connect the ,watling street in the city with the great ,roman road so named in medieval times4 ,the name of the small street is evidently a corruption1 and in the valuable ,report of the ,,mss4 of the ,dean and ,chapter of ,st ,paul's 7,ninth ,report of the ,historical ,,mss4 ,commission1 ,appendix1 p4 #d7 the original name is given as ,atheling ,street1 and instances of this spelling are common in the #acth century4 ,the form ,watling ,street seems to occur first in #acjg4 ,stow spells it ,watheling ,street 7,kingsford's edition of ,stow's ,survey1 #aijh1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ceb74 ,sir ,william ,tite gave reasons for believing that ,bishopsgate ,street was not a ,roman thoroughfare1 and in the excavations at ,leadenhall the basilica to which allusion has already been made was found apparently crossing the present thoroughfare of ,gracechurch ,street4 ,tite also agreed with ,dr ,stukeley's suggestion that on the site of the ,mansion ,house 7formerly ,stocks ,market7 stood the ,roman forum1 and he states that a line drawn from that spot as a centre would pass by the pavements found on the site of the ,excise ,office4 ,besides the forum ,stukeley suggested the sites of seven other buildings--the ,arx ,palatina guarding the south-eastern angle of the city where the ,tower now stands1 the grove and temple of ,diana on the site of ,st ,paul's1 c4 ,no traces of any of these buildings have been found1 and they are therefore purely conjectural4 ,stukeley's industrious researches into the history of ,roman ,london cannot be said to have any particular value1 although at one time they enjoyed considerable vogue4 ,as to the ,temple of ,diana1 ,sir ,christopher ,wren formed an opinion strongly adverse to the old tradition of its existence 7,parentalia1 p4 #bff74 ,although we know that the ,christian church was established in ,britain during the later period of the ,roman domination1 there is little to be learnt respecting it1 and the bishop ,restitutus1 who is said to have attended an ,ecclesiastical ,council1 is a somewhat mythical character4 ,in respect to the discovery of the position of the ,roman gates1 the true date of the ,antonini ,itinerarium 7q4v47 is of great importance1 as it will be seen from it that ,londinium was either a starting-point or a terminus in nearly half the routes described in the portion relating to ,britain4 ,this would be remarkable if the work dated back to the #bnd century4 ,probably in the later1 as in the earlier time1 ,londinium had the usual four gates of a ,roman city1 with the main roads to them4 ,the one on the east was doubtless situated near where ,aldgate afterwards stood4 ,on the south the entrance to ,londinium must always have been near where ,london ,bridge was subsequently built4 ,on the west the gate could not have been far from the place afterwards occupied by ,newgate4 ,as to ,ludgate there is reason to believe that if there was an opening there in ,roman times it was merely a postern4 ,on the north the gate may have been near ,bishopsgate or at ,aldersgate4 ,if we take from the ,itinerary the last station before ,londinium in all the routes we shall be able to obtain some idea of the position of the gate entered from each route by drawing a line on the map of ,london to the nearest point4 ,ammianus ,marcellinus 7about ,a4,d4 #cij7 speaks twice of ,londinium as an ancient town to which the honourable title of ,augusta had been accorded4 ,some writers have been under the misapprehension that this name for a time superseded that of ,londinium4 ,the anonymous ,chorographer of ,ravenna calls the place ,londinium ,augusta1 and doubtless this was the form adopted4 ,london ,stone4 ,the most interesting ,roman relic is ,london ,stone4 ,it has generally been supposed to be a milliarium or central point for measuring distances1 but ,sir ,christopher ,wren believed it was part of some more considerable monuments in the forum 7,parentalia1 pp4 #bfe1 #bff74 ,holinshed 7who was followed by ,shakespeare in #b ,henry ,,vi41 act #d sc4 #f7 tells us that when ,cade1 in #adej1 forced his way into ,london1 he first of all proceeded to ,london ,stone1 and having struck his sword upon it1 said in reference to himself and in explanation of his own action1 ,now is ,mortimer lord of this city4 ,mr ,h4 ,c4 ,coote1 in a paper published in the ,trans4 ,london and ,middlesex ,arch4 ,soc4 for #ahgh1 points out that this act meant something to the mob who followed the rebel chief1 and was not a piece of foolish acting4 ,mr ,laurence ,gomme 7,primitive ,folk-,moots1 pp4 #aee1 #aef7 takes up the matter at this point1 and places the tradition implied by ,cade's significant action as belonging to times when the ,london ,stone was1 as other great stones were1 the place where the suitors of an open-air assembly were accustomed to gather together and to legislate for the government of the city4 ,corroborative facts have been gathered from other parts of the country1 and1 although more evidence is required1 such as we have is strongly in favour of the supposition that the ,london ,stone is a prehistoric monument4 ,the first ,london ,bridge4 ,one of the most important questions in the history of ,london that requires settlement is the date of the building of the first bridge1 that is whether it was constructed by ,britons or by ,romans4 ,if the ,britons had not already made the bridge before the ,romans arrived it must have been one of the first ,roman works4 ,as long as there was no bridge to join the north and south banks of the ,thames the great object of ,roman rule remained unfulfilled4 ,this object was the completion of a system of roads connecting all parts of the ,empire with ,rome4 ,dio ,cassius1 who lived in the early part of the #crd century 7,hist4 ,rom4 lib4 lx4 c4 #bj71 states that there was a bridge over the ,thames at the time of the invasion of ,claudius 7,a4,d4 #dc71 but he places it a little above the mouth of the river 7higher up74 ,the position is vague1 but the mouth of the ,thames in these early times may be considered as not far from the present position of ,london ,bridge4 ,sir ,george ,airy held that this bridge was not far from the site of ,london ,bridge 7,proceedings of ,institut4 ,civil ,engineers1 xlix4 #abj71 but ,dr ,guest was not prepared to allow that the ,britons were able to construct a bridge over a tidal river such as the ,thames1 some #cjj yds4 wide1 with a difference of level at high and low water of nearly #bj ft4 ,he therefore suggested that the bridge was constructed over the marshy valley of the ,lea1 probably near ,stratford4 ,it needs some temerity to differ from so great an authority as ,dr ,guest1 but it strikes one as surprising that1 having accepted the fact of a bridge made by the ,britons1 he should deny that these ,britons possessed a town or village in the place to which he supposes that ,aulus ,plautius retired4 ,as the ,welsh word for bridge is pont1 and this was taken directly from the ,latin1 the inference is almost conclusive that the ,britons acquired their knowledge of bridges from the ,romans4 ,looking at the stage of culture which the ,britons had probably reached1 it would further be a natural inference that there was no such thing as a bridge anywhere in ,britain before the ,roman occupation2 but1 if ,dion's statement is correct1 it may be suggested as a possible explanation that the increased intercourse with ,gaul during the hundred years that elapsed between ,julius ,caesar's raids and ,claudius ,caesar's invasion may have led to the construction of a bridge of some kind across the ,thames at this point1 through the influence and under the guidance of ,roman traders and engineers4 ,if so1 the word pont may have been borrowed by the ,britons before the commencement of the ,roman occupation4 ,much stronger are the reasons for believing that there was a bridge in ,roman times4 ,remains of ,roman villas are found in ,southwark1 which was evidently a portion of ,londinium1 and it therefore hardly seems likely that a bridge-building people such as the ,romans would remain contented with a ferry4 ,roach ,smith is a strong advocate for the bridge1 and remarks1 ,it would naturally be erected somewhere in the direct line of road into ,kent1 which ,i cannot but think pointed towards the site of ,old ,london ,bridge1 both from its central situation1 from the general absence of the foundations of buildings in the approaches on the northern side1 and from discoveries recently made in the ,thames on the line of the old bridge 7,archaeologia1 xxix4 #afj74 ,smith has1 however1 still stronger arguments1 which he states as follows3 ,throughout the entire line of the old bridge1 the bed of the river was found to contain ancient wooden piles2 and when these piles1 subsequently to the erection of the new bridge1 were pulled up to deepen the channel of the river1 many thousands of ,roman coins1 with abundance of broken ,roman tiles and pottery1 were discovered1 and immediately beneath some of the central piles brass medallions of ,aurelius1 ,faustina and ,commodus4 ,all these remains are indicative of a bridge4 ,the enormous quantities of ,roman coins may be accounted for by consideration of the well-known practice of the ,romans to make these imperishable monuments subservient towards perpetuating the memory1 not only of their conquests1 but also of those public works which were the natural result of their successes in remote parts of the world4 ,they may have been deposited either upon the building or repairs of the bridge1 as well as upon the accession of a new emperor 7,archaeological ,journal1 i4 #aac74 ,at the beginning of the #eth century the ,roman legions left ,britain1 and the ,saxon ,chronicle gives the exact date1 stating that never since ,a4,d4 #dji have the ,romans ruled in ,britain--the chronicler setting down the ,roman sway at #dgj winters and dating from ,julius ,caesar's invasion4 ,we learn that in the year #dah the ,romans collected all the treasures that were in ,britain1 and hid some of them in the earth1 that no man might afterwards find them1 and conveyed some with them into ,gaul4 #b4 ,saxon 7#ddi-ajff74--,we are informed in the ,saxon ,chronicle that about ,a4,d4 #ddi or #dej the invaders settled in ,britain1 and in #deg ,hengist and ,aesc fought against the ,britons at ,crayford1 driving them out of ,kent4 ,the vanquished fled to ,london in terror and apparently found a shelter there4 ,after this entry there is no further mention of ,london in the ,chronicle for a century and a half4 ,this silence has been taken by some historians of weight to imply that ,london practically ceased to exist4 ,dr ,guest asserted that good reason may be given for the belief that even ,london itself for a while lay desolate and uninhabited 7,archaeological ,journal1 xix4 #bai74 ,j4 ,r4 ,green and ,mr ,loftie strongly supported this view1 and in ,sir ,walter ,besant's ,early ,london 7#aijh7 the idea of the desolation of the city is taken for granted4 ,in answer to this contention it may be said that1 although the silence of the ,chronicle is difficult to understand1 it is almost impossible to believe that the very existence of the most important city in the country could suddenly cease and the inhabitants disappear without some special notice4 ,battles and scenes of destruction are so fully described in other instances that one must believe that when nothing is related nothing special occurred4 ,no doubt the coming of the ,saxons1 which entirely changed the condition of the country1 must have greatly injured trade1 but although there was not the same freedom of access to the roads1 the ,londoners had the highway of the river at their doors4 ,although the ,saxons hated towns and refused to settle in ,london1 they may have allowed the original inhabitants to continue their trade on condition that they received some share of the profits or a tribute4 ,the only question really is whether ,london being an exceptional city received exceptional treatment4 ,saxon ,settlement4 ,along the banks of the ,thames are several small havens whose names have remained to us1 such as ,rotherhithe1 ,lambhith 7,lambeth71 ,chelchith 7,chelsea71 c41 and it is not unlikely that the ,saxons1 who would not settle in the city itself1 associated themselves with these small open spots4 ,places were thus founded over a large space which otherwise might have remained unsettled4 ,origin of the ,liberties4 ,if what is here suggested really occurred it may be that this separation of ,london from the surrounding country originated the remarkable position of ,london with its unparalleled privileges1 which were continued for many centuries and kept it not only the leader among cities but distinct from all others4 ,laurence ,gomme1 in ,the ,governance of ,london 7#aijg71 opposes the view that the city was for a time left deserted 7a view which1 it may be remarked1 is a comparatively modern one1 probably originating with ,dr ,guest74 ,h4 ,c4 ,coote in his ,romans of ,britain elaborated a description of the survival of ,roman influence in ,english institutions1 but his views did not obtain much support from ,london historians4 ,mr ,gomme's contention is to some extent a modification of ,mr ,coote's view1 but it is original in the illustrations that give it force4 ,londinium was a ,roman city1 and 7as in the case of all such cities7 was formed on the model of ancient ,rome4 ,it may therefore be expected to retain evidence of the existence of a ,pomoerium and ,territorium as at ,rome4 ,the ,pomoerium marked the unbuilt space around the walls4 ,gomme refers to an open space outside the western wall of ,dorchester still called the ,pummery as an indication of the ,pomoerium in that place2 and he considers that the name of ,mile ,end1 situated #a m4 from ,aldgate and the city walls1 marks the extent of the open space around the walls of ,london known as the ,pomoerium4 ,this fact throws a curious light upon the growth of the ,liberties4 ,it has always been a puzzle that no note exists of the first institution of these liberties4 ,if this open space was from the earliest times attached to the city there would be no need when it was built upon for any special act to be passed for its inclusion in ,london4 ,the ,territorium of the city was its special property1 and it extended as far as the limits of the territorium of the nearest ,roman city or as near thereto as the natural boundaries4 ,this explains the position of ,middlesex in relation to ,london4 ,in connexion with these two features of a ,roman city supposed to be found in ,ancient ,london the author argues for the continuity of the city through the changes of ,roman and ,saxon dominion4 ,one of the most striking illustrations of the probable continuity of ,london history is to be found in the contrast between ,york and ,london4 ,this is only alluded to in ,gomme's book1 but it is elaborated in an article in the ,cornhill ,magazine 7,november #aijf74 ,these two were the chief ,roman cities in ,britain1 one in the north and the other in the south4 ,they are both equally good examples of important cities under ,roman domination4 ,york was conquered and occupied by the ,saxons1 and there not only are the results of ,english settlement clear but all records of ,roman government were destroyed4 ,in ,london the ,saxon stood outside the government for centuries1 and the acceptance of the ,roman survival explains much that is otherwise unintelligible4 ,independence of ,london4 ,gomme finds important evidence of the independence of ,london in the existence of a merchant law which was opposed to ,anglo-,saxon law4 ,he reprints and discusses the celebrated ,judicia ,civitatis ,lundoniae of ,king thelstan's reign--the ordinance 7as it declares itself7 which the bishop and the reeves belonging to ,london have ordained4 ,he holds that the ,londoners passed their own laws by their own citizens without reference to the king at all1 and in the present case of a king who according to ,kemble had carried the influence of the crown to an extent unexampled in any of his predecessors4 ,he adds3 ,what happened afterwards was evidently this3 that the code passed by the ,londoners was sent to the king for him to extend its application throughout the kingdom1 and this is done by the eleventh section4 ,the view originated by ,gomme certainly explains many difficulties in the history of the transition from ,roman to ,english ,london1 which have hitherto been overlooked by historians4 ,arrival of ,christianity4 ,when the city is next referred to in the ,saxon ,chronicle it appears to have been inhabited by a population of heathens4 ,under the date #fjd we read3 ,this year ,augustine consecrated two bishops3 ,mellitus and ,justus4 ,he sent ,mellitus to preach baptism to the ,east ,saxons1 whose king was called ,sebert1 son of ,ricole the sister of thelbert1 and whom thelbert had then appointed king4 ,and thelbert gave ,mellitus a bishop's see in ,lundenevic and to ,justus he gave ,rochester1 which is twenty-four miles from ,canterbury4 ,the ,christianity of the ,londoners was of an unsatisfactory character1 for1 after the death of ,sebert1 his sons who were heathens stirred up the multitude to drive out their bishop4 ,mellitus became archbishop of ,canterbury1 and ,london relapsed into heathenism4 ,in this1 the earliest period of ,saxon history recorded1 there appears to be no relic of the ,christianity of the ,britons1 which at one time was well in evidence4 ,what became of the cathedral which we may suppose to have existed in ,london during the later ,roman period we cannot tell1 but we may guess that it was destroyed by the heathen ,saxons4 ,bede records that the church of ,st ,paul was built by thelbert1 and from that time to this a cathedral dedicated to ,st ,paul has stood upon the hill looking down on ,ludgate4 ,after the driving out of ,mellitus ,london remained without a bishop until the year #fef1 when ,cedda1 brother of ,st ,chad of ,lichfield1 was invited to ,london by ,sigebert1 who had been converted to ,christianity by ,finan1 bishop of the ,northumbrians4 ,cedda was consecrated bishop of the ,east ,saxons by ,finan and held the see till his death on the #bfth of ,october #ffd4 ,he was succeeded by ,wini1 bishop of ,winchester1 and then came ,earconuald 7or ,st ,erkenwald71 whose shrine was one of the chief glories of old ,st ,paul's4 ,he died on the #cjth of ,april #fic1 a day which was kept in memory in his cathedral for centuries by special offices4 ,the list of bishops from ,cedda to ,william 7who is addressed in the ,conqueror's ,charter7 is long1 and each bishop apparently held a position of great importance in the government of the city4 ,danish ,invasions4 ,in the #gth century the city seems to have settled down into a prosperous place and to have been peopled by merchants of many nationalities4 ,we learn that at this time it was the great mart of slaves4 ,it was in the fullest sense a free-trading town2 neutral to a certain extent between the kingdoms around1 although the most powerful of the kings conquered their feebler neighbours4 ,during the #hth century1 when a more settled condition of life became possible1 the trade and commerce of ,london increased in volume and prosperity4 ,a change1 however1 came about towards the end of the century1 when the ,scandinavian freebooters known as ,danes began to harry the coasts4 ,the ,saxons had become law-abiding1 and the fierce ,danes treated them in the same way as in former days they had treated the ,britons4 ,in #hga the chronicler affirms that ,alfred fought nine great battles against the ,danes in the kingdom south of the ,thames1 and that the ,west ,saxons made peace with them4 ,in the next year the ,danes went from ,reading to ,london1 and there took up their winter quarters4 ,then the ,mercians made peace with them4 ,in #hhf ,alfred overcame the ,danes1 restored ,london to its inhabitants1 rebuilt its walls1 reannexed the city to ,mercia1 and committed it to ,ethelred1 alderman of ,mercia4 ,then1 as the chronicler writes1 all the ,angle race turned to him 7,alfred7 that were not in bondage of the ,danish men4 ,in #hif the ,londoners came off victorious in their encounters with the ,danes4 ,the king obstructed the river so that the enemy could not bring up their ships1 and they therefore abandoned them4 ,the ,londoners broke up some1 and brought the strongest and best to ,london4 ,in #iab thelred1 the alderman of the ,mercians1 who had been placed in authority by ,alfred1 died1 and ,edward the ,elder took possession of ,london and ,oxford1 and all the lands which thereto belonged4 ,under thelstan we find the city increasing in importance and general prosperity4 ,there were then eight mints at work1 a fact which exhibits evidence of great activity and the need of coin for the purposes of trade4 ,the folk-moot met in the precincts of ,st ,paul's at the sound of the bell of the famous bell-tower1 which also rang out when the armed levy was required to march under ,st ,paul's banner4 ,for some years after the decisive battle of ,brunanburh 7,a4,d4 #icg7 the ,danes ceased to trouble the country4 ,fire1 however1 was almost as great an enemy to ,london as the ,dane4 ,fabyan when recording the entire destruction of ,london by fire in the reign of thelred 7#iha7 makes this remarkable statement--,ye shall understand that this daye the cytie of ,london had more housynge and buyldinge from ,ludgate toward ,westmynstre and lytel or none wher the chief or hart of the citie is now1 except 7that7 in dyvers places were housyng1 but they stod without order4 ,in the reign of thelred ,,ii41 called the ,unready 7but more correctly the ,redeless71 the ,danes were more successful in their operations against ,london1 but the inhabitants resisted stoutly4 ,snorre the ,icelander tells us that the ,danes fortified ,southwark with ditch and rampart1 which the ,english assailed in vain4 ,in #ihb ,london was burnt1 and in #iid ,olaf and ,sweyn 7the father of ,canute7 came with ninety-four ships to besiege it4 ,they tried to set the city on fire1 but the townsmen did them more harm than they ever weened4 ,the chronicler piously adds that the holy ,mother of ,god on that day manifested her mercy to the townsmen1 and delivered them from their foes4 ,the ,danes went from the town and ravaged the neighbourhood1 so that in the end the king and his witan agreed to give sixteen thousand pounds to be relieved of the presence of the enemy4 ,this was the origin of the ,danegelt4 ,in the year #ajji the ,danes frequently attacked ,london1 but they had no success1 and fared ill in their attempts4 ,the ,londoners withstood ,sweyn in #ajac1 but in the end they submitted and gave him hostages4 ,three years after this1 thelred died in ,london1 and such of the witan as were there and the townsmen chose ,edmund ,ironside for king1 although the witan outside ,london had elected ,canute4 ,canute's ships were then at ,greenwich on their way to ,london1 where they soon afterwards arrived4 ,the ,danes at once set to work to dig a great ditch by ,southwark1 and then dragged their ships through to the west side of the bridge4 ,they were able after this to keep the inhabitants from going either in or out of the town4 ,in spite of all this1 after fighting obstinately both by land and by water1 the ,danes had to raise the siege of ,london and take the ships to the river ,orwell4 ,after a glorious reign of seven months ,edmund died in ,london1 and ,canute became master of ,england4 ,the tribute which the townsmen of ,london had to pay was #aj1ejj1 about one-seventh of the amount which was paid by all the rest of the ,english nation4 ,this shows the growing importance of the city4 ,from this time there appears to have been a permanent ,danish settlement in ,london1 probably ,aldwich1 referred to below4 ,there is little more to be said of the history of ,saxon ,london than that ,edward the ,confessor held his ,witanagemot there4 ,on his death the ,witan which had attended his funeral elected to succeed him ,harold1 the foremost man in ,england1 and the leader who had attempted to check the spread of the ,norman influence fostered by the ,confessor4 ,after his defeat and death on the hill on the ,sussex ,downs then called ,senlac1 the duke of ,normandy had the country at his mercy1 but he recognized the importance of ,london's position1 and moved forward with the greatest caution and tact4 ,before proceeding with the history of ,london during the ,norman period it is necessary to say something of the counties more especially connected with ,london4 ,the ,home ,counties4 ,the walled city of ,london was a distinct political unit1 although it owed a certain allegiance to that one of the kingdoms around it which was the most powerful for the time being4 ,this allegiance therefore frequently changed1 but ,london retained its identity and individuality all through4 ,essex seems seldom to have held an independent position1 for when ,london first appears as connected with the ,east ,saxons the real power was in the hands of the king of ,kent4 ,according to ,bede1 ,wini1 being expelled from his bishopric of ,wessex in #fce1 took refuge with ,wulfhere1 king of the ,mercians1 of whom he purchased the see of ,london4 ,hence the ,mercian king must then have been the overlord of ,london4 ,not many years afterwards the king of ,kent again seems to have held some jurisdiction here4 ,from the laws of the ,kentish kings ,lhothhere and ,eadric 7#fgc-fhe7 we learn that the ,wic-reeve was an officer of the king of ,kent1 who exercised a jurisdiction over the ,kentish men trading with or at ,london1 or was appointed to watch over their interests4 ,the origin of the two counties in which ,london is chiefly situated opens up an interesting question4 ,it is necessary to remember that ,london is older than these counties1 whose names1 ,middlesex and ,surrey1 indicate their relative positions to the city and the surrounding county4 ,we have neither record of their settlement nor of the origin of their names4 ,both must have been peopled from the river4 ,the name ,middle ,saxons plainly shows that ,middlesex must have been settled after the ,east and ,west ,saxons had given their names to their respective districts4 ,the name ,surrey clearly refers to the southern position of the county4 ,aldwich4 ,reference has already been made to a ,danish settlement1 and there seems some reason for placing it on the ground now occupied by the parishes of ,st ,clement ,danes and ,st ,giles's4 ,for many centuries this district between ,london and ,westminster was a kind of no man's land having certain archaic customs4 ,gomme in his ,governance of ,london 7#aijg7 gives an account of the connexion of this with the old village of ,aldwich1 a name that survived in ,wych ,street1 and has been revived by the ,london ,county ,council in ,aldwych1 the crescent which leads to ,kingsway4 ,the ,conquest4 #c4 ,norman 7#ajff-aaed74--,to return to the condition of things after the great battle4 ,the citizens of ,london were a divided body1 and ,duke ,william knowing that he had many friends in the city saw that a waiting game was the best for his cause in the end4 ,the defeated chiefs retired on the city1 led by ,ansgar the ,staller1 under whom as sheriff the citizens of ,london had marched to fight for ,harold at ,senlac4 ,they elected ,edgar ,atheling1 the grandson of ,edmund ,ironside1 as king1 which the ,saxon ,chronicle says was indeed his natural right4 ,on hearing of this action ,william marched towards ,london1 when the citizens sallied forth to meet him4 ,they were repulsed by the ,norman horse1 but with such loss to the latter that the duke thought it imprudent to lay siege to the city at that time1 and he retired to ,berkhampstead4#e ,it is reported that ,william sent a private message to ,ansgar asking for his support4 ,the result was that ,edgar and ,earls ,edwin and ,morkere and the best men of ,london repaired to ,berkhampstead1 where they submitted themselves and swore fealty to the ,conqueror4 ,changes in the ,city4 ,thus ends the ,saxon period1 and the ,norman period in ,london begins with the submission of the citizens as distinct from the action of the rest of the kingdom1 which submission resulted soon afterwards in the ,conqueror's remarkable charter to ,william the bishop and ,gosfrith the portreeve1 supposed to be the elder ,geoffrey de ,mandeville4 ,a great change was at once made both in the appearance and in the government of the city under ,norman rule4 ,one of the earliest acts of the ,conqueror was to undertake the erection of a citadel which should overawe the citizens and give him the command of the city4 ,the ,tower was situated at the eastern limit of the city1 and not far from the western extremity ,castle ,baynard was built4 ,the position of the city grew in importance1 but the citizens suffered from severe laws and from serious restrictions upon their liberties4 ,in ,august #ajgg occurred a most extensive fire1 such a one1 says the ,chronicle1 as never was before since ,london was founded4 ,this constant burning of large portions of the city is a marked feature of its early history1 and we must remember that1 although stone buildings were rising on all sides1 these were churches1 monasteries1 and other public edifices2 the ordinary houses remained as before1 small wooden structures4 ,the ,white ,tower1 the famous keep of the ,tower of ,london1 was begun by ,gundulph1 bishop of ,rochester1 c4 #ajgh4 ,in #ajhc the old cathedral of ,st ,paul's was begun on the site of the church which thelbert is said to have founded in #faj4 ,but four years afterwards the chronicler tells us the holy monastery of ,st ,paul1 the episcopal see of ,london1 was burnt1 and many other monasteries1 and the greatest and fairest part of the whole city4 ,in this same year 7#ajhg7 william the ,conqueror died4 ,in #ajij a tremendous hurricane passed over ,london1 and blew down six hundred houses and many churches4 ,the ,tower was injured1 and a portion of the roof of the church of ,st ,mary-le-,bow1 ,cheapside1 was carried off and fell some distance away1 being forced into the ground as much as #bj ft41 a proof of the badness of the thoroughfares as well as of the force of the wind1 ,william ,rufus inherited from his father a love for building1 and in the year #ajig he exacted large sums of money from his subjects with the object of carrying on some of the undertakings he had in hand4 ,these were the walling round of the ,tower and the rebuilding of ,london ,bridge1 which had been almost destroyed by a flood4 ,in #aajj ,rufus was slain1 and ,henry ,i4 was crowned in ,london4 ,this king granted the citizens their first real charter1 but this was constantly violated1 when ,stephen seized the crown on the death of ,henry ,i41 he tried successfully to obtain the support of the people of ,london4 ,he published a charter confirming in general terms the one granted by ,henry1 and commanding that the good laws of ,edward the ,confessor should be observed4 ,the citizens1 however1 did not obtain their rights without paying for them1 and in #aaci they paid ,stephen one hundred marks of silver to enable them to choose their own sheriffs4 ,in this reign the all-powerfulness of the ,londoners is brought prominently forward4 ,stephen became by the shifting fortune of war a prisoner1 and the empress ,matilda might1 if she had had the wisdom to favour the citizens1 have held the throne1 which was hers by right of birth4 ,she1 however1 made them her enemies by delivering up the office of justiciary of ,london and the sheriffwick to her partisan ,geoffrey1 earl of ,essex1 and attempting to reduce the citizens to the enslaved condition of the rest of the country4 ,this made her influential enemies1 who soon afterwards replaced ,stephen upon the throne4 ,the ,norman era closes with the death of ,stephen in #aaed4 ,early parishes4 ,religious foundations4 ,one of the most striking changes in the appearance of ,norman ,london was caused by the rebuilding of old churches and the building of new ones1 and also by the foundation of the great monastic establishments4 ,the early history of the parishes of ,london is one of great difficulty and complexity4 ,although some of the parishes must be of great antiquity1 we have little authentic information respecting them before the ,conquest4 ,the dedications of many of the churches indicate their great age1 but the constant fires in ,london destroyed these buildings4 ,the original churches appear to have been very small1 as may be judged from their number4 ,it is not easy1 however1 to understand how it was that when the first parishes were formed so small an area was attached to each4 ,the parish church of which we have the most authentic notice before the ,conquest is ,st ,helen's1 ,bishopsgate4 ,it was in existence many years before the priory of the nuns of ,st ,helen's was founded4 ,bishop ,stubbs in his ,introduction to the ,historical ,works of ,ralph de ,diceto writes3 ,st ,paul's stood at the head of the religious life of ,london1 and by its side1 at some considerable interval1 however1 ,st ,martin's le ,grand 7#ajef71 ,st ,bartholomew's1 ,smithfield 7#aabc7 and the great and ancient foundation of ,trinity1 ,aldgate 7#aajh74 ,the great ,benedictine monastery of ,black ,monks was situated away from the city at ,westminster1 and it was the only monastic house subject to the rule of ,st ,benedict in the neighbourhood of ,london1 although the houses of nuns1 of which there were many dotted over the suburbs of ,london1 were governed by this rule4 ,in course of time there was a widespread desire in ,europe for a stricter rule among the monks1 and reforms of the ,benedictine rule were instituted at ,cluni 7#iaj71 ,chartreuse 7about #ajhj7 and ,citeaux 7#ajih74 ,all these reforms were represented in ,london4 ,cluniac ,order4--,this order was first brought to ,england by ,william1 earl of ,warren 7son-in-law of ,william the ,conqueror71 who built the first house at ,lewes in ,sussex about #ajgg4 ,the priory of ,bermondsey in ,surrey was founded by ,aylwin ,child1 citizen of ,london about #ajhb4 ,carthusians4--,when this order was brought to ,england in #aagh the first house was founded at ,witham in ,somersetshire4 ,in all there were nine houses of the order in ,england4 ,one of these was the ,charterhouse of ,london which was not founded until #acga by ,sir ,walter ,manny1 ,k4,g4 ,cistercians4--,it was usual to plant these monasteries in solitary and uncultivated places1 and no other house1 even of their own order1 was allowed to build within a certain distance of the original establishment4 ,this makes it surprising to learn that there were two separate houses of this order in the near neighbourhood of ,london4 ,a branch of the order came to ,england about #aabh and the first house was founded at ,waverley in ,surrey4 ,very shortly after 7about #aacd7 the abbey of ,stratford ,langthorne in ,essex was founded by ,william de ,montfichet1 who endowed it with all his lordship in ,west ,ham4 ,it was not until two centuries afterwards that the second ,cistercian house in the immediate neighbourhood of ,london was founded4 ,this was the ,abbey of ,st ,mary ,graces1 ,east-,minster or ,new ,abbey without the walls of ,london1 beyond ,tower ,hill1 which ,edward ,,iii4 instituted in #acej after a severe scourge of plague 7the so-called ,black ,death74 ,the two great ,military ,orders--the ,knights ,hospitallers of ,st ,john of ,jerusalem and the ,templars--followed the ,augustinian rule and were both settled in ,london4 ,the ,hospital or ,priory of ,st ,john was founded in #aajj by ,jordan ,briset and his wife ,muriel1 outside the northern wall of ,london1 and the original village of ,clerkenwell grew up around the buildings of the knights4 ,a few years after this the ,brethren of the ,temple of ,solomon at ,jerusalem or ,knights of the ,temple came into being at the ,holy ,city1 and they settled first on the south side of ,holborn near ,southampton ,row4 ,they removed to ,fleet ,street or the ,new ,temple in #aahd4 ,on the suppression of the order by command of the pope the house in ,fleet ,street was given in #acac by ,edward ,,ii4 to ,aymer de ,valence1 earl of ,pembroke1 at whose death in #acbd the property passed to the knights of ,st ,john1 who leased the new ,temple to the lawyers1 still the occupants of the district4 ,the queen of ,henry ,i4 7,matilda or ,maud7 was one of the chief founders of religious houses1 and so great was the number of monasteries built in this king's reign that it was said almost all the labourers became bricklayers and carpenters and there was much discontent in consequence4 ,fitzstephen's description of ,london4 #d4 ,plantagenet 7#aaed-adhe74--;,henry ,,ii4 appears to have been to a certain extent prejudiced against the citizens of ,london on account of their attitude towards his mother1 and he treated them with some severity4 ,in #aagf the rebuilding of ,london ,bridge with stone was begun by ,peter of ,colechurch4 ,this was the bridge which was pulled down early in the #aith century4 ,it consisted of twenty stone arches and a drawbridge4 ,there was a gatehouse at each end and a chapel or crypt in the centre1 dedicated to ,st ,thomas of ,canterbury1 in which ,peter of ,colechurch was buried in #abje4 ,the large amount of building at this time proves that the citizens were wealthy4 ,fitzstephen1 the monk of ,canterbury1 has left us the first picture of ,london4 ,he speaks of its wealth1 commerce1 grandeur and magnificence--of the mildness of the climate1 the beauty of the gardens1 the sweet1 clear and salubrious springs1 the flowing streams1 and the pleasant clack of the watermills4 ,even the vast forest of ,middlesex1 with its densely wooded thickets1 its coverts of game1 stags1 fallow deer1 boars and wild bulls is pressed into the description to give a contrast which shall enhance the beauty of the city itself4 ,fitzstephen tells how1 when the great marsh that washed the walls of the city on the north 7,moorfields7 was frozen over1 the young men went out to slide and skate and sport on the ice4 ,skates made of bones have been dug up in this district4 ,this sport was allowed to fall into disuse1 and was not again prevalent until it was introduced from ,holland after the ,restoration4 ,in spite of ,fitzstephen's glowing description we must remember that the houses of ,london were wholly built of wood and thatched with straw or reeds4 ,these houses were specially liable to be destroyed by fire1 and in order to save the city from this imminent danger the famous ,assize of ,building known as ,fitz-,ailwyne's ,assize was drawn up in #aahi4 ,in this document the following statement was made3 ,many citizens1 to avoid such danger1 built according to their means1 on their ground1 a stone house covered and protected by thick tiles against the fury of fire1 whereby it often happened that when a fire arose in the city and burnt many edifices and had reached such a house1 not being able to injure it1 it then became extinguished1 so that many neighbours' houses were wholly saved from fire by that house4 ,various privileges were conceded to those who built in stone1 but no provision was made as to the material to be used in roofing tenements4 ,this ,assize1 which has been described as the earliest ,english ,building ,act1 is of great value from an historical point of view1 but unfortunately it had little practical effect1 and in #abab what was called ,fitz-,ailwyne's ,second ,assize1 with certain compulsory regulations1 was enacted4 ,thenceforth everyone who built a house was strictly charged not to cover it with reeds1 rushes1 stubble or straw1 but only with tiles1 shingle boards or lead4 ,in future1 in order to stop a fire1 houses could be pulled down in case of need with an alderman's hook and cord4 ,for the speedy removal of burning houses each ward was to provide a strong iron hook1 with a wooden handle1 two chains and two strong cords1 which were to be left in the charge of the bedel of the ward1 who was also provided with a good horn1 loudly sounding4 ,richard ,i4 was a popular king1 but his fighting in the ,holy ,land cost his subjects much4 ,london had to pay heavily towards his ransom2 and1 when the king made his triumphal entry into ,london after his release from imprisonment1 a ,german nobleman is said to have remarked that had the emperor known of the wealth of ,england he would have insisted on a larger sum4 ,the ,londoners were the more glad to welcome ,richard back in that the head of the regency1 ,longchamp1 bishop of ,ely1 was very unpopular from the encroachments he made upon the city with his works at the ,tower4 ,the first charter by which the city claims the jurisdiction and conservancy of the river ,thames was granted by ,richard ,i4 ,john granted several charters to the city1 and it was expressly stipulated in ,magna ,charta that the city of ,london should have all its ancient privileges and free customs4 ,the citizens opposed the king during the wars of the barons4 ,in the year #abae the barons having received intelligence secretly that they might enter ,london with ease through ,aldgate1 which was then in a very ruinous state1 removed their camp from ,bedford to ,ware1 and shortly after marched into the city in the night-time4 ,having succeeded in their object1 they determined that so important a gate should no longer remain in a defenceless condition4 ,they therefore spoiled the religious houses and robbed the monastery coffers in order to have means wherewith to rebuild it4 ,much of the material was obtained from the destroyed houses of the unfortunate ,jews1 but the stone for the bulwarks was obtained from ,caen1 and the small bricks or tiles from ,flanders4 ,allusion has already been made to the great change in the aspect of ,london and its surroundings made during the ,norman period by the establishment of a large number of monasteries4 ,a still more important change in the configuration of the interior of ,london was made in the #acth century1 when the various orders of the friars established themselves there4 ,the ,benedictine monks preferred secluded sites2 the ,augustinians did not cultivate seclusion so strictly2 but the friars chose the interior of towns by preference4 ,at the beginning of the #acth century the remarkable evangelical revival1 instituted almost simultaneously by ,st ,dominic and ,st ,francis1 swept over ,europe4 ,the four chief orders of ,mendicant friars were magnificently housed in ,london3-- ,mendicant friars4 ,blackfriars4--,the ,black1 ,preaching or ,dominican ,friars came to ,england in #abba and their first house was at ,oxford4 ,shortly after this they came ,london and settled in ,holborn near ,lincoln's ,inn1 where they remained for more than fifty years4 ,in #abgf they removed to the neighbourhood of ,baynard ,castle1 and their house gave a name to a ,london district which it still retains4 ,greyfriars4--,the ,greyfriars1 ,minorites or ,franciscans1 first settled in ,cornhill1 and in #abbd ,john ,ewin made over to them an estate situated in the ward of ,farringdon ,within and in the parish of ,st ,nicholas in the ,shambles1 where their friary was built4 ,christ ,church1 ,newgate ,street1 occupies the site of the choir of the great church of the ,greyfriars4 ,austin ,friars4--,the house of the ,austin ,friars or ,friars ,eremites was founded in ,broad ,street ward in #abec4 ,white ,friars4--,the ,friars of the ,blessed ,virgin of ,mount ,carmel or ,carmelites or ,whitefriars came to ,london in #abda1 and made their home on land between ,fleet ,street and the ,thames given by ,edward ,i4 ,besides the four chief orders of friars there were the ,crutched ,friars in the parish of ,st ,olave1 ,hart ,street 7about #abih71 and the ,friars of the ,sac first outside ,aldersgate 7about #abeg7 and afterwards in the ,old ,jewry4 ,the names of places in ,london form valuable records of the habitations of different classes of the population4 ,the monasteries and friaries are kept in memory by their names in various parts of ,london4 ,in the same way the residences of the ,jews have been marked4 ,when ,edward ,i4 expelled the ,jews from ,england in #abij the district in which they had lived since ,william the ,conqueror's day came to be called the ,old ,jewry4 ,on their return after many centuries of exile most of them settled in the neighbourhood of ,aldgate and ,aldersgate4 ,there is a reminder of them in the names of ,jewry ,street near the former and of ,jewin ,street near the latter place4 ,jewin ,street was built on the site of the burying-place of the ,jews before the expulsion4 ,pageants4 ,in the middle ages there was a constant succession of pageants1 processions and tournaments4 ,the royal processions arranged in connexion with coronations were of great antiquity1 but one of the earliest to be described is that of ,henry ,,iii4 in #abcf1 which was chronicled by ,matthew ,paris4 ,after the marriage at ,canterbury of the king with ,eleanor of ,provence the royal personages came to ,london1 and were met by the mayor1 aldermen and principal citizens to the number of #cfj1 sumptuously apparelled in silken robes embroidered1 riding upon stately horses4 ,after the death of ,henry ,,iii4 7#abgb7 the country had to wait for their new king1 who was then in the ,holy ,land4 ,edward ,i4 came to ,london on the #bnd of ,august #abgd1 when he was received with the wildest expressions of joy4 ,the streets were hung with rich cloths of silk arras and tapestry2 the aldermen and principal men of the city threw out of their windows handsful of gold and silver1 to signify their gladness at the king's return2 and the conduits ran with wine1 both white and red4 ,dr ,jessopp gives a vivid picture of what occurred when ,king ,edward ,,iii4 entered ,london in triumph on the #adth of ,october #acdg4 ,he was the foremost man in ,europe1 and ,england had reached a height of power and glory such as she had never attained before4 ,ten years after this1 one of the most famous scenes in the streets of ,london occurred1 when ,edward the ,black ,prince brought the ,french ,king ,john and other prisoners after the battle of ,poitiers to ,england4 ,this was a scene unequalled until ,henry ,v4 returned from the glorious field of ,agincourt in #adae4 ,the mayor and aldermen apparelled in orient-grained scarlet1 and four hundred commoners in murrey1 well mounted1 with rich collars and chains1 met the king at ,blackheath4 ,at the entrance to ,london ,bridge the towers were adorned with banners of the royal arms1 and in the front of them was inscribed ,civitas ,regis ,justicie4 ,during the troubles of the #aeth century the authorities had seen the necessity of paying more attention to the security of the gates and walls of the city1 and when ,thomas ,nevill1 son of ,william1 ,lord ,fauconberg1 made his attack upon ,london in #adga he experienced a spirited resistance4 ,he first attempted to land from his ships in the city1 but the ,thames side from ,baynard's ,castle to the ,tower was so well fortified that he had to seek a quieter and less prepared position4 ,he then set upon the several gates in succession1 and was repulsed at all4 ,on the #aath of ,may he made a desperate attack upon ,aldgate1 followed by #ejj men4 ,he won the bulwarks and some of his followers entered into the city1 but the portcullis being let down these were cut off from their own party and were slain by the enemy4 ,the portcullis was drawn up1 and the besieged issued forth against the rebels1 who were soon forced to flee4 ,when ,richard1 duke of ,gloucester1 laid his plans for seizing the crown1 he obtained the countenance of the lord mayor1 ,sir ,edmund ,shaw1 whose brother ,dr ,shaw praised ,richard at ,paul's ,cross4 ,crosby ,hall1 in ,bishopsgate ,street1 then lately built1 was made the lodging of the ,protector4 ,there he acted the accessible prince in the eyes of the people1 for the last of the ,plantagenets was another of the usurpers who found favour in the eyes of the men of ,london4 ,his day1 however1 was short1 and with the battle of ,bosworth ends ,plantagenet ,london4 ,first maps of ,london4 #e4 ,tudor 7#adhe-afjc74--;,it was during this period that the first maps of ,london were drawn4 ,no representation of the city earlier than the middle of the #afth century has been discovered1 although it seems more than probable that some plans must have been produced at an earlier period4#f ,the earliest known view is the drawing of ,van den ,wyngaerde in the ,bodleian ,library 7dated #aeej74 ,braun and ,hogenberg's map was published in #aegb-aegc1 and the so-called ,agas's map was probably produced soon afterwards1 and was doubtless influenced by the publication of ,braun and ,hogenberg's excellent engraving2 ,norden's maps of ,london and ,westminster are dated #aeic4 ,some of these maps were pasted upon walls1 and must have been largely destroyed by ordinary wear and tear4 ,it is curious that the only two existing copies of ,agas's map#g were published in the reign of ,james ,i41 although apparently they had not been altered from the earlier editions of ,elizabeth's reign which have been lost4 ,by the help of these maps we are able to obtain a clear notion of the extent and chief characteristics of ,tudor ,london4 ,henry ,,vii4 did little to connect his name with the history of ,london1 although the erection of the exquisite specimen of florid ,gothic at ,westminster ,abbey has carried his memory down in its popular name of ,henry ,,vii4's chapel4 ,soon after this king obtained the throne he borrowed the sum of #cjjj marks from the city1 and moreover founded the excellent precedent of repaying it at the appointed time4 ,the citizens were so pleased at this unexpected occurrence that they willingly lent the king #fjjj in #adhh1 which he required for military preparations against ,france4 ,in #adig ,london was threatened by the rebels favourable to ,perkin ,warbeck1 who encamped on ,blackheath on the #agth of ,june4 ,at first there was a panic among the citizens1 but subsequently the city was placed in a proper state of defence1 and the king himself encamped in ,st ,george's ,fields4 ,on ,june #bb he entirely routed the rebels2 and some time afterwards ,perkin ,warbeck gave himself up1 and was conducted in triumph through ,london to the ,tower4 ,suppression of religious houses4 ,as the chief feature of ,norman ,london was the foundation of monasteries1 and that of ,plantagenet ,london was the establishment of friaries1 so ,tudor ,london was specially characterized by the suppression of the whole of these religious houses1 and also of the almost numberless religious gilds and brotherhoods4 ,when we remember that more than half of the area of ,london was occupied by these establishments1 and that about a third of the inhabitants were monks1 nuns and friars1 it is easy to imagine how great must have been the disorganization caused by this root and branch reform4 ,one of the earliest of the religious houses to be suppressed was the hospital of ,st ,thomas of ,acon 7or ,acre7 on the north side of ,cheapside1 the site of which is now occupied by ,mercers' ,hall4 ,the larger houses soon followed1 and the ,black1 the ,white and the ,grey ,friars1 with the ,carthusians and many others1 were all condemned in ,november #aech4 ,love of show was so marked a characteristic of ,henry ,,viii4 that we are not surprised to find him encouraging the citizens in the same expensive taste4 ,on the occasion of his marriage with ,catherine of ,aragon the city was gorgeously ornamented with rich silks and tapestry1 and ,goldsmiths' ,row 7,cheapside7 and part of ,cornhill were hung with golden brocades4 ,when on the eve of ,st ,john's ,day1 #aeaj1 the king in the habit of a yeoman of his own guard saw the famous march of the city watch1 he was so delighted that on the following ,st ,peter's ,eve he again attended in ,cheapside to see the march1 but this time he was accompanied by the queen and the principal nobility4 ,the cost of these two marches in the year was very considerable1 and1 having been suspended in #aebh on account of the prevalence of the sweating sickness1 they were soon afterwards forbidden by the king1 and discontinued during the remainder of his reign4 ,sir ,john ,gresham1 mayor in #aedh1 revived the march of the city watch1 which was made more splendid by the addition of three hundred light horsemen raised by the citizens for the king's service4 ,the best mode of utilizing the buildings of the suppressed religious houses was a difficult question left unsolved by ,henry ,,viii4 ,that king1 shortly before his death1 refounded ,rahere's ,st ,bartholomew's ,hospital1 for the continual relief and help of an hundred sore and diseased1 but most of the large buildings were left unoccupied to be filled by his successor4 ,the first parliament of ,edward's reign gave all the lands and possessions of colleges1 chantries1 c41 to the king1 when the different companies of ,london redeemed those which they had held for the payment of priests' wages1 obits and lights at the price of #bj1jjj1 and applied the rents arising from them to charitable purposes4 ,in #aeej the citizens purchased the manor of ,southwark1 and with it they became possessed of the monastery of ,st ,thomas1 which was enlarged and prepared for the reception of poor1 sick and helpless objects4 ,thus was refounded ,st ,thomas's ,hospital1 which was moved to ,lambeth in #ahgj-ahga4 ,shortly before his death ,edward founded ,christ's ,hospital in the ,grey ,friars1 and gave the old palace of ,bridewell to the city for the lodging of poor wayfaring people1 the correction of vagabonds and disorderly persons1 and for finding them work4 ,on the death of ,edward ,,vi4 ,lady ,jane ,grey was received at the ,tower as queen1 she having gone there by water from ,durham ,house in the ,strand4 ,the citizens1 however1 soon found out their mistake1 and the lord mayor1 aldermen and recorder proclaimed ,queen ,mary at ,cheapside4 ,london was then gay with pageants1 but when the queen made known her intention of marrying ,philip of ,spain the discontent of the country found vent in the rising of ,sir ,thomas ,wyat1 and the city had to prepare itself against attack4 ,wyat took possession of ,southwark1 and expected to have been admitted into ,london2 but finding the gates shut against him and the drawbridge cut down he marched to ,kingston1 the bridge at which place had been destroyed4 ,this he restored1 and then proceeded towards ,london4 ,in consequence of the breakdown of some of his guns he imprudently halted at ,turnham ,green4 ,had he not done so it is probable that he might have obtained possession of the city4 ,he planted his ordnance on ,hay ,hill1 and then marched by ,st ,james's ,palace to ,charing ,cross4 ,here he was attacked by ,sir ,john ,gage with a thousand men1 but he repulsed them and reached ,ludgate without further opposition4 ,he was disappointed at the resistance which was made1 and after musing a while upon a stall over against the ,bell ,savadge ,gate he turned back4 ,his retreat was cut off1 and he surrendered to ,sir ,maurice ,berkeley1 we have somewhat fully described this historical incident here because it has an important bearing on the history of ,london1 and shows also the small importance of the districts outside the walls at that period4 ,tudor ,london4 ,we now come to consider the appearance of ,london during the reign of the last of the ,tudors4 ,at no other period were so many great men associated with its history2 the latter years of ,elizabeth's reign are specially interesting to us because it was then that ,shakespeare lived in ,london1 and introduced its streets and people into his plays4 ,in those days the frequent visitation of plagues made men fear the gathering together of multitudes4 ,this dread of pestilence1 united with a puritanic hatred of plays1 made the citizens do all they could to discountenance theatrical entertainments4 ,the queen acknowledged the validity of the first reason1 but she repudiated the religious objection provided ordinary care was taken to allow such plays only as were fitted to yield honest recreation and no example of evil4 ,on ,april #aa1 #aehb1 the lords of the council wrote to the lord mayor to the effect that1 as her ,majesty sometimes took delight in those pastimes1 it had been thought not unfit1 having regard to the season of the year and the clearance of the city from infection1 to allow of certain companies of players in ,london1 partly that they might thereby attain more dexterity and perfection the better to content her ,majesty 7,analytical ,index to the ,remembrancia74 ,when theatres were established the lord mayor took care that they should not be built within the city4 ,the ,theatre and the ,curtain were situated at ,shoreditch2 the ,globe1 the ,swan1 the ,rose and the ,hope on the ,bankside2 and the ,blackfriars theatre1 although within the walls1 was without the city jurisdiction4 ,in #aefa ,st ,paul's steeple and roof were destroyed by lightning1 and the spire was never replaced4 ,this circumstance allows us to test the date of certain views2 thus ,wyngaerde's map has the spire1 but ,agas's map is without it4 ,in #aeff the first stone was laid of the ,burse1 which owed its origin to ,sir ,thomas ,gresham4 ,in #aega ,queen ,elizabeth changed its name to the ,royal ,exchange4 ,the ,strand was filled with noble mansions washed by the waters of the ,thames1 but the street1 if street it could be called1 was little used by pedestrians4 ,londoners frequented the river1 which was their great highway4 ,the banks were crowded with stairs for boats1 and the watermen of that day answered to the chairmen of a later date and the cabmen of to-day4 ,the ,bankside was of old a favourite place for entertainments1 but two only--the bull-baiting and the bear-baiting--were in existence when ,agas's map was first planned4 ,on ,norden's map1#h however1 we find the gardens of ,paris ,garden1 the bearhouse and the playhouse4 ,the settled character of the later years of ,elizabeth's reign appears to have caused a considerable change in the habits of the people4 ,many of the chief citizens followed the example of the courtiers1 and built for themselves country residences in ,middlesex1 ,essex and ,surrey2 thus we learn from ,norden that ,alderman ,roe lived at ,muswell ,hill1 and we know that ,sir ,thomas ,gresham built a fine house and planned a beautiful park at ,osterley4 ,the maps show us much that remains somewhat the same as it was1 but also much that has greatly altered4 ,st ,giles's was literally a village in the fields2 ,piccadilly was the waye to ,redinge1 ,oxford ,street the way to ,uxbridge1 ,covent ,garden an open field or garden1 and ,leicester ,fields lammas land4 ,moorfields was drained and laid out in walks in ,elizabeth's reign4 ,at ,spitalfields crowds used to congregate on ,easter ,monday and ,tuesday to hear the ,spital sermons preached from the pulpit cross4 ,the ground was originally a ,roman ,cemetery1 and about the year #aegf bricks were largely made from the clayey earth1 the recollection of which is kept alive in the name of ,brick ,lane4 ,citizens went to ,holborn and ,bloomsbury for change of air1 and houses were there prepared for the reception of children1 invalids and convalescents4 ,in the north were sprinkled the outlying villages of ,islington1 ,hoxton and ,clerkenwell4 #f4 ,stuart 7#afjc-agad74--,the ,stuart period1 from the accession of ,james ,i4 to the death of ,queen ,anne1 extends over little more than a century1 and yet greater changes occurred during those years than at any previous period4 ,the early years of ,stuart ,london may be said to be closely linked with the last years of ,elizabethan ,london1 for the greatest men1 such as ,raleigh1 ,shakespeare and ,ben ,jonson1 lived on into ,james's reign4 ,much of the life of the time was then in the ,city1 but the last years of ,stuart ,london take us to the #ahth century1 when social life had permanently shifted to the west end4 ,in the middle of the period occurred the civil wars1 and then the fire which changed the whole aspect of ,london4 ,when ,james came to the throne the term suburbs had a bad name1 as all those disreputable persons who could find no shelter in the city itself settled in these outlying districts4 ,stubbs denounced suburban gardens and garden houses in his ,anatomy of ,abuses1 and another writer observed how happy were cities if they had no suburbs4 ,the preparations for the coronation of ,king ,james were interrupted by a severe visitation of the plague1 which killed off as many as #cj1egh persons1 and it was not till ,march #ae1 #afjd1 that the king1 the queen and ,prince ,henry passed triumphantly from the ,tower to ,westminster4 ,the lord mayor's shows1 which had been discontinued for some years1 were revived by order of the king in #afji4 ,the dissolved monastery of the ,charterhouse1 which had been bought and sold by the courtiers several times1 was obtained from ,thomas1 earl of ,suffolk1 by ,thomas ,sutton for #ac1jjj4 ,the new hospital chapel and schoolhouse were begun in #afaa1 and in the same year ,sutton died4 ,social life4 ,with the death of ,james ,i4 in #afbe the older history of ,london may be said to have closed4 ,during the reign of his successor the great change in the relative positions of ,london within and without the walls had set in4 ,before going on to consider the chief incidents of this change it will be well to refer to some features of the social life of ,james's reign4 ,ben ,jonson places one of the scenes of ,every ,man in his ,humour in ,moorfields1 which at the time he wrote the play had1 as stated above1 lately been drained and laid out in walks4 ,beggars frequented the place1 and travellers from the village of ,hoxton1 who crossed it in order to get into ,london1 did so with as much expedition as possible4 ,adjoining ,moorfields were ,finsbury ,fields1 a favourite practising ground for the archers4 ,mile ,end1 a common on the ,great ,eastern ,road1 was long famous as a rendezvous for the troops4 ,these places are frequently referred to by the old dramatists2 ,justice ,shallow boasts of his doings at ,mile ,end ,green when he was ,dagonet in ,arthur's ,show4 ,fleet ,street was the show-place of ,london1 in which were exhibited a constant succession of puppets1 naked ,indians and strange fishes4 ,the great meeting-place of ,londoners in the day-time was the nave of old ,st ,paul's4 ,crowds of merchants with their hats on transacted business in the aisles1 and used the font as a counter upon which to make their payments2 lawyers received clients at their several pillars2 and masterless serving-men waited to be engaged upon their own particular bench4 ,besides those who came on business there were gallants dressed in fashionable finery1 so that it was worth the tailor's while to stand behind a pillar and fill his table-books with notes4 ,the middle or ,mediterranean aisle was the ,paul's walk1 also called the ,duke's ,gallery from the erroneous supposition that the tomb of ,sir ,guy ,beauchamp1 earl of ,warwick1 was that of the good ,humphrey1 duke of ,gloucester4 ,after the ,restoration a fence was erected on the inside of the great north door to hinder a concourse of rude people1 and when the cathedral was being rebuilt ,sir ,christopher ,wren made a strict order against any profanation of the sacred building4 ,st ,paul's churchyard was from the earliest days of printing until the end of the #ahth century the headquarters of the book trade1 when it shifted to ,paternoster ,row4 ,another of the favourite haunts of the people was the garden of ,gray's ,inn1 where the choicest society was to be met4 ,there1 under the shadow of the elm trees which ,bacon had planted1 ,pepys and his wife constantly walked4 ,mrs ,pepys went on one occasion specially to observe the fashions of the ladies because she was then making some clothes4 ,taverns4 ,in those days of public conviviality1 and for many years afterwards1 the taverns of ,london held a very important place4 ,the ,boar's ,head in ,great ,eastcheap was an inn of ,shakespeare's own day1 and the characters he introduces into his plays are really his own contemporaries4 ,the ,mermaid is sometimes described as in ,bread ,street1 and at other times in ,friday ,street and also in ,cheapside4 ,we are thus able to fix its exact position2 for a little to the west of ,bow church is ,bread ,street1 then came a block of houses1 and the next thoroughfare was ,friday ,street4 ,it was in this block that the ,mermaid was situated1 and there appear to have been entrances from each street4 ,what makes this fact still more certain is the circumstance that a haberdasher in ,cheapside living 'twixt ,wood ,street and ,milk ,street1 two streets on the north side opposite ,bread and ,friday ,streets1 described himself as over against the ,mermaid tavern in ,cheapside4 ,the ,windmill tavern occupies a prominent position in the action of ,every ,man in his ,humour4#i ,the ,windmill stood at the corner of the ,old ,jewry towards ,lothbury1 and the ,mitre close by the ,mermaid in ,bread ,street4 ,the ,mitre in ,fleet ,street1 so intimately associated with ,dr ,johnson1 also existed at this time4 ,it is mentioned in a comedy entitled ,ram ,alley 7#afaa7 and ,lilly the astrologer frequented it in #afdj4 ,at the ,mermaid ,ben ,jonson had such companions as ,shakespeare1 ,raleigh1 ,beaumont1 ,fletcher1 ,carew1 ,donne1 ,cotton and ,selden1 but at the ,devil in ,fleet ,street1 where he started the ,apollo ,club1 he was omnipotent4 ,herrick1 in his well-known ,ode to ,ben1 mentions several of the inns of the day4 ,theatres4 ,under ,james ,i4 the theatre1 which established itself so firmly in the latter years of ,elizabeth1 had still further increased its influence1 and to the entertainments given at the many playhouses may be added the masques so expensively produced at court and by the lawyers at the inns of court4 ,in #afac ,the ,masque of ,flowers was presented by the members of ,gray's ,inn in the ,old ,banqueting ,house in honour of the marriage of the infamous ,carr1 earl of ,somerset1 and the equally infamous ,lady ,frances1 daughter of the earl of ,suffolk4 ,the entertainment was prepared by ,sir ,francis ,bacon at a cost of about #bjjj4 ,the ,west ,end4 ,it was during the reign of ,charles ,i4 that the first great exodus of the wealthy and fashionable was made to the ,west ,end4 ,the great square or piazza of ,covent ,garden was formed from the designs of ,inigo ,jones about #afcb4 ,the neighbouring streets were built shortly afterwards1 and the names of ,henrietta1 ,charles1 ,james1 ,king and ,york ,streets were given after members of the royal family4 ,great ,queen ,street1 ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields1 was built about #afbi1 and named in honour of ,henrietta ,maria4 ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields had been planned some years before4 ,with the ,restoration the separation of fashionable from city life became complete4 ,when the ,civil ,war broke out ,london took the side of the parliament1 and an extensive system of fortification was at once projected to protect the town against the threatened attack of the royal army4 ,a strong earthen rampart1 flanked with bastions and redoubts1 surrounded the ,city1 its liberties1 ,westminster and ,southwark1 making an immense enclosure4 ,the ,plague4 ,the ,great ,fire4 ,rebuilding3 ,wren's scheme4 ,london had been ravaged by plague on many former occasions1 but the pestilence that began in ,december #affd lives in history as the ,plague of ,london4 ,on the #gth of ,june #affe ,samuel ,pepys for the first time saw two or three houses marked with the red cross and the words ,lord1 have mercy upon us1 on the doors4 ,the deaths daily increased1 and business was stopped4 ,grass grew in the area of the ,royal ,exchange1 at ,whitehall1 and in the principal streets of the city4 ,on the #dth of ,september #affe ,pepys writes an interesting letter to ,lady ,carteret from ,woolwich3 ,i have stayed in the city till above #gdjj died in one week1 and of them about #fjjj of the plague1 and little noise heard day or night but tolling of bells4 ,the plague was scarcely stayed before the whole city was in flames1 a calamity of the first magnitude1 but one which in the end caused much good1 as the seeds of disease were destroyed1 and ,london has never since been visited by such an epidemic4 ,on the #bnd of ,september #afff the fire broke out at one o'clock in the morning at a house in ,pudding ,lane4 ,a violent east wind fomented the flames1 which raged during the whole of ,monday and great part of ,tuesday4 ,on ,tuesday night the wind fell somewhat1 and on ,wednesday the fire slackened4 ,on ,thursday it was extinguished1 but on the evening of that day the flames again burst forth at the ,temple4 ,some houses were at once blown up by gunpowder1 and thus the fire was finally mastered4 ,many interesting details of the fire are given in ,pepys's ,diary4 ,the river swarmed with vessels filled with persons carrying away such of their goods as they were able to save4 ,some fled to the hills of ,hampstead and ,highgate1 but ,moorfields was the chief resort of the houseless ,londoner4 ,soon paved streets and two-storey houses were seen in that swampy place4 ,the people bore their troubles heroically1 and ,henry ,oldenburg1 writing to the ,hon4 ,robert ,boyle on ,september #aj1 says3 ,the citizens1 instead of complaining1 discoursed almost of nothing but of a survey for rebuilding the city with bricks and large streets4 ,within a few days of the fire three several plans were presented to the king for the rebuilding of the city1 by ,christopher ,wren1 ,john ,evelyn and ,robert ,hooke4 ,wren proposed to build main thoroughfares north and south1 and east and west1 to insulate all the churches in conspicuous positions1 to form the most public places into large piazzas1 to unite the halls of the twelve chief companies into one regular square annexed to ,guildhall and to make a fine quay on the bank of the river from ,blackfriars to the ,tower4 ,his streets were to be of three magnitudes--#ij ft41 #fj ft4 and #cj ft4 wide respectively4 ,evelyn's plan differed from ,wren's chiefly in proposing a street from the church of ,st ,dunstan's in the ,east to the cathedral1 and in having no quay or terrace along the river4 ,in spite of the best advice1 however1 the jealousies of the citizens prevented any systematic design from being carried out1 and in consequence the old lines were in almost every case retained4 ,but though the plans of ,wren and ,hooke were not adopted1 it was to these two fellows of the ,royal ,society that the labour of rebuilding ,london was committed4 ,wren's great work was the erection of the cathedral of ,st ,paul's1 and the many churches ranged round it as satellites4 ,hooke's task was the humbler one of arranging as city surveyor for the building of the houses4 ,he laid out the ground of the several proprietors in the rebuilding of the city1 and had no rest early or late from persons soliciting him to set out their ground for them at once4 ,the first great impetus of change in the configuration of ,london was given by the great fire1 and ,evelyn records and regrets that the town in his time had grown almost as large again as it was within his own memory4 ,although for several centuries attempts had been made in favour of building houses with brick or stone1 yet the carpenters continued to be the chief house-builders4 ,as late as the year #afej the ,carpenters' ,company drew up a memorial in which they gave their reasons that tymber buildings were more commodious for this citie than brick buildings were4 ,the ,act of ,parliament for rebuilding the city of ,london passed after the great fire1 gave the coup de grce to the carpenters as house-builders4 ,after setting forth that building with brick was not only more comely and durable1 but also more safe against future perils of fire1 it was enacted that all the outsides of all buildings in and about the city should be made of brick or stone1 except doorcases and window-frames1 and other parts of the first story to the front between the piers1 for which substantial oaken timber might be used for conveniency of shops4 ,in the winter of #afhc-afhd a fair was held for some time upon the ,thames4 ,the frost1 which began about seven weeks before ,christmas and continued for six weeks after1 was the greatest on record2 the ice was #aa in4 thick4 ,the revocation of the edict of ,nantes in ,october #afhe1 and the consequent migration of a large number of industrious ,french ,protestants1 caused a considerable growth in the east end of ,london4 ,the silk manufactories at ,spitalfields were then established4 ,during the short reign of ,james ,,ii4 the fortunes of the city were at their lowest1 and nowhere was the arrival of the prince of ,orange more welcomed4 ,william ,,iii4 cared little for ,london1 the smoke of which gave him asthma1 and when a great part of ,whitehall was burnt in #afia he purchased ,nottingham ,house and made it into ,kensington ,palace4 ,kensington was then an insignificant village1 but the arrival of the court soon caused it to grow in importance4 ,although the spiritual wants of the city were amply provided for by the churches built by ,wren1 the large districts outside the city and its liberties had been greatly neglected4 ,the act passed in the reign of ,queen ,anne for building fifty new churches 7#agaj7 for a time supplied the wants of large districts4 #g4 ,eighteenth ,century4--,london had hitherto grown up by the side of the ,thames4 ,in the #ahth century other parts of the town were more largely built upon4 ,the inhabitants used coaches and chairs more than boats1 and the banks of the river were neglected4 ,london could no longer be seen as a whole1 and became a mere collection of houses4 ,in spite of this the #ahth century produced some of the most devoted of ,londoners--men who considered a day lived out of ,london as one lost out of their lives4 ,of this class ,dr ,johnson and ,hogarth are striking examples4 ,the exhibitions of vice and cruelty that were constantly to be seen in the capital have been reproduced by ,hogarth1 and had they not been set down by so truthful an observer it would have been almost impossible to believe that such enormities could have been committed in the streets of a great city4 ,a few days after his accession ,george ,i4 addressed the representatives of the city in these words3 ,i have lately been made sensible of what consequence the city of ,london is1 and therefore shall be sure to take all their privileges and interests into my particular protection4 ,on the following lord mayor's day the king witnessed the show in ,cheapside and attended the banquet at ,guildhall4 ,queen ,anne and the first three ,georges were all accommodated1 on the occasions of their visits to the city to see the show1 at the same house opposite ,bow church4 ,in the time of ,queen ,anne and ,george ,i4 ,david ,barclay 7the son of the famous apologist for the ,quakers7 was an apprentice in the house1 but he subsequently became master1 and had the honour of receiving ,george ,,ii4 and ,george ,,iii4 as his guests4 ,there was a large balcony extending along the front of the house which was fitted with a canopy and hangings of crimson damask silk4 ,the building1 then numbered #ajh ,cheapside1 was pulled down in #ahfa4 ,extension in the #ahth century4 ,early in the #ahth century there was a considerable extension of building operations in the ,west ,end4 ,still1 however1 the north of ,london remained unbuilt upon4 ,in #agef and for some years subsequently the land behind ,montague ,house 7now the ,british ,museum7 was occupied as a farm1 and when in that year a proposal was made to plan out a new road the tenant and the duke of ,bedford strongly opposed it4 ,in #aggb all beyond ,portland ,chapel in ,great ,portland ,street was country4 ,bedford ,house in ,bloomsbury ,square had its full view of ,hampstead and ,highgate from the back1 and ,queen's ,square was built open to the north in order that the inhabitants might obtain the same prospect4 ,in #agcg the ,fleet ditch between ,holborn ,bridge and ,fleet ,bridge was covered over1 and ,stocks ,market was removed from the site of the ,mansion ,house to the present ,farringdon ,street1 and called ,fleet market4 ,on ,october #be1 #agci1 the first stone of the ,mansion ,house was laid4 ,previously the first magistrates lived in several different houses4 ,a frost almost as severe as the memorable one of #afhc-afhd occurred in the winter of #agci-agdj1 and the ,thames was again the scene of a busy fair4 ,in #ageh the houses on ,london ,bridge were cleared away1 and in #agfj-agfb several of the city gates were taken down and sold4 ,moorgate is said to have fetched #aff1 ,aldersgate #ia1 ,aldgate #agg1 ,cripplegate #ij1 and ,ludgate #adh4 ,the statue of ,queen ,elizabeth which stood on the west side of ,ludgate was purchased by ,alderman ,gosling and set up against the east end of ,st ,dunstan's church in ,fleet ,street1 where it still remains4 #h4 ,nineteenth ,century4--,in #ahjf ,london saw the public funerals of three of ,england's greatest men4 ,on the #hth ,february the body of ,nelson was borne with great pomp from the ,admiralty to ,st ,paul's ,cathedral1 where it was interred in the presence of the prince of ,wales and the royal dukes4 ,pitt was buried on the #bbnd of ,february1 and ,fox on the #ajth of ,october1 both in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,the first exhibition of ,winsor's system of lighting the streets with gas took place on the king's birthday 7,june #d7 #ahjg1 and was made in a row of lamps in front of the colonnade before ,carlton ,house4 ,finsbury ,square was the first public place in which gas lighting was actually adopted1 and ,grosvenor ,square the last4 ,in the winter of #ahac-ahad the ,thames was again frozen over4 ,the frost began on the evening of ,december #bg1 #ahac1 with a thick fog4 ,after it had lasted for a month1 a thaw of four days1 from the #bfth to the #bith of ,january1 took place1 but this thaw was succeeded by a renewal of the frost1 so severe that the river soon became one immovable sheet of ice4 ,there was a street of tents called the ,city ,road1 which was daily thronged with visitors4 ,in #ahch the second ,royal ,exchange was destroyed by fire2 and on ,october #bh1 #ahdd1 the ,queen opened the new ,royal ,exchange1 built by ,mr 7afterwards ,sir ,william7 ,tite4 ,the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea brought a larger number of visitors to ,london than had ever been in it before at one time4 ,the great and continuous increase in the buildings and the enlargement of ,london on all sides dates from this period4 ,london within the walls has been almost entirely rebuilt1 although in the neighbourhood of the ,tower there are still many old houses which have only been refronted4 ,from the upper rooms of the houses may be seen a large number of old tiled roofs4 ,unlike many capitals of ,europe which have shifted their centres the city of ,london in spite of all changes and the continued enlargement of the capital remains the centre and headquarters of the business of the country4 ,the ,bank of ,england1 the ,royal ,exchange and the ,mansion ,house are on the site of ,ancient ,london4 ,in #ahfc on the occasion of the marriage of ,king ,edward ,,vii4 7when prince of ,wales7 the streets of ,london were illuminated as they had never been before4 ,among other events which made the streets gay and centred in processions to ,st ,paul's may be specially mentioned the ,thanksgiving ,day on the #bgth of ,february #ahgb for the recovery of the prince of ,wales after his dangerous illness2 and the rejoicings at the ,jubilee of ,queen ,victoria in #ahhg1 and the ,diamond ,jubilee in #ahig4 ,the first great emigration of the ,london merchants westward was about the middle of the #ahth century1 but only those who had already secured large fortunes ventured so far as ,hatton ,garden4 ,at the beginning of the #aith century it had become common for the tradesmen of the city to live away from their businesses1 but it was only about the middle of the #aith century that it became at all usual for those in the ,west ,end to do the same4 ,during the first half of the #aith century the position of the ,city ,corporation had somewhat fallen in public esteem1 and some of the most influential men in the city were unconnected with it1 but a considerable change took place in the latter half of the century4 ,violent attacks were made upon the ,livery ,companies1 but of late years1 largely owing to the public spirit of the companies in devoting large sums of money towards the improvement of the several industries in connexion with which they were founded1 and the establishment of the ,city and ,guilds of ,london ,technical ,institute1 a complete change has taken place as to the public estimation in which they are held4 ,,growth ,,and ,,population ,medieval ,population4 ,much has been written upon the population of medieval ,london1 but little certainty has resulted therefrom4 ,we know the size of ,london at different periods and are able to guess to some extent as to the number of its inhabitants1 but most of the figures which have come down to us are mere guesses4 ,the results of the poll-tax have often been considered as trustworthy substitutes for population returns1 but ,professor ,oman has shown that little trust can be placed in these results4 ,as an instance he states that the commissioners of the poll-tax reported that there were only two-thirds as many contributaries in #acha as in #acgg4 ,the adult population of the realm had ostensibly fallen from #a1cee1bja to #hif1dha4 ,these figures were monstrous and incredible4#aj ,the ,bills of ,mortality of the #afth and #agth centuries are of more value1 and they have been considered and revised by such able statisticians as ,john ,graunt and ,sir ,william ,petty4 ,it was not1 however1 before the #aith century that accurate figures were obtainable4 ,the circuit of the walls of ,london which were left by the ,romans was never afterwards enlarged1 and the population did not overflow into the suburbs to any extent until the ,tudor period4 ,population was practically stationary for centuries owing to pestilences and the large proportion of deaths among infants4 ,we have no materials to judge of the number of inhabitants before the ,norman ,conquest1 but we can guess that there were many open spaces within the walls that were afterwards filled up4 ,it is scarcely worth while to guess as to the numbers in ,saxon ,london1 but it is possible that in the early period there were about #aj1jjj inhabitants1 growing later to about #bj1jjj4 ,during the latter part of the ,saxon period the numbers of the population of the country began to decay2 this decay1 however1 was arrested by the ,norman ,conquest4 ,the population increased during ten peaceful years of ,henry ,,iii41 and increased slowly until the death of ,edward ,,ii41 and then it began to fall off1 and continued to decrease during the period of the ,wars of the ,roses and of the ,barons until the accession of the first ,tudor monarch4 ,the same causes that operated to bring about these changes in the whole kingdom were of course also at work in the case of the ,city of ,london4 ,one of the earliest statements as to the population of ,london occurs in a letter of about the year #aaii written to ,pope ,innocent ,,iii4 by ,peter of ,blois1 then archdeacon of ,london1 and therefore a man of some authority on the subject4 ,he states that the ,city contained #abj parish churches and #dj1jjj inhabitants4 ,these numbers have been very generally accepted as fairly correct1 and ,dr ,creighton#aa comes to the conclusion after careful consideration that the population of ,london from the reign of ,richard ,i4 to that of ,henry ,,vii4 varied within a limit of about forty to fifty thousand inhabitants4 ,plagues and ,mortality4 ,dr ,creighton points out that the number given by certain chroniclers of the deaths from the early pestilences in ,london are incredible2 such for instance as the statement that forty or fifty thousand bodies were buried in ,charterhouse churchyard at the time of the ,black ,death in #acdh-acdi4 ,these numbers have been taken as a basis for calculation of population1 and one statistician reasoned that if #ej1jjj were buried in one churchyard #ajj1jjj should represent the whole mortality of ,london4 ,if this were allowed the population at this time must have been at least #bjj1jjj1 an impossible amount4 ,although the mortality caused by the different plagues had a great effect upon the population of the country at large the city soon recovered the losses by reason of the numbers who came to ,london from outside in hopes of obtaining work4 ,although there were fluctuations in the numbers at different periods there is evidence to show that on the average the amount of forty to fifty thousand fixed by ,dr ,creighton for the years between #aahi and #aeji is fairly correct4 ,the medieval period closed with the accession of the ,tudor dynasty1 and from that time the population of ,london continued to increase1 in spite of attempts by the government to prevent it4 ,one of the first periods of increase was after the dissolution of the religious houses2 another period of increase was after the ,restoration4 ,bills of ,mortality4 ,a proclamation was issued in #aehj prohibiting the erection within #c m4 of the city gates of any new houses or tenements where no former house hath been known to have been4 ,in a subsequent proclamation ,queen ,elizabeth commanded that only one family should live in one house1 that empty houses erected within seven years were not to be let and that unfinished buildings on new foundations were to be pulled down4 ,in spite of these restrictions ,london continued to grow4 ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i4 were filled with the same fear of the increasing growth of ,london4 ,in #afcj a similar proclamation to that of #aehj was published4 ,during the greater part of the #ahth century there was a serious check to the increase of population1 but at the end of the century a considerable increase occurred1 and in the middle of the #aith century the enormous annual increase became particularly marked4 ,to return to the #afth century when the ,bills of ,mortality came into existence4#ab ,mention is made of these bills as early as #aeag1 but the earliest series now known dates from #aecb4 ,dr ,creighton had access to the manuscript returns of burials and christenings for five years from #aegh to #aehb preserved in the library at ,hatfield ,house4 ,the history of the ,bills of ,mortality which in the early years were intermittent in their publication is of much interest1 and ,dr ,creighton has stated it with great clearness4 ,the ,company of ,parish ,clerks is named in an ordinance of #aeha 7of which there is a copy in the ,record ,office7 as the body responsible for the bills1 and their duties were then said to be according to the ,order in that behalf heretofore provided4 ,john ,bell1 clerk to the company1 who wrote an essay during the great plague of #affe1 had no records in his office of an earlier date than #aeic1 and he was not aware that his company had been engaged in registering births and deaths before that year4 ,the fire of #afff destroyed all the documents of the ,parish ,clerks ,company1 and in its hall in ,silver ,street only printed tables from about the year #agjj are to be found4 ,there is a set of ,annual ,bills from #afeh 7with the exception of the years #agef to #agfd7 in the library of the ,british ,museum4#ac ,these bills were not analysed and general results obtained from them until #affb1 when ,captain ,john ,graunt first published his valuable ,natural and ,political ,observations upon the ,bills of ,mortality4 ,sir ,william ,petty followed with his important inquiries upon the population 7,essay on ,political ,arithmetic1 #afhc74 ,it is not worth while to refer to all the wild guesses that were made by various writers1 but ,dr ,creighton shows the absurdity of one of these calculations made in #aeed by ,soranzo1 the ,venetian ambassador for the information of the doge and senators of ,venice4 ,he estimates the population to have been #ahj1jjj persons1 which ,dr ,creighton affirms to be nearly three times the number that we obtain by a moderate calculation from the bills of mortality in #aecb and #aece4 ,population in #afth and #agth centuries4 ,following on his calculations from #aeji1 when the population may be supposed to have been about #ej1jjj1 ,dr ,creighton carries on his numbers to the ,restoration in the following table3-- #aecb-aece #fb1djj #afje #bbd1bge #aefc #ic1bgf #afbb #bgb1bjg #aehj #abc1jcd #afcd #cci1hbd #aeic-aeie #aeb1dgh #affa #dfj1jjj ,the numbers for #affa are those arrived at by ,graunt1 and they are just about half the population given authoritatively in the first census #ahja 7#hfd1hde74 ,it therefore took #adj years to double the numbers1 while in #ahda the numbers of #ahja were more than doubled4 ,these numbers were arrived at with much care and may be considered as fairly accurate although some other calculations conflict with a few of the figures4 ,the first attempt at a census was in ,august #afca when the lord mayor returned the number of mouths in the city of ,london and ,liberties at #acj1bfh1 which is only about half the number given above4 ,this is accounted for by the larger area contained in the bills of mortality compared with that containing only the city and its liberties4#ad ,howell's suggestion that the population of ,london in #afca was a million and a half need only be mentioned as a specimen of the wildest of guesses4 #ahth century4 ,petty's numbers for #afhb are #fgj1jjj and those of ,gregory ,king for #afif1 #ecj1jjj4 ,the latter are corroborated by those of #agjj1 which are given as #eej1jjj4 ,maitland gives the numbers in #agcg as #gbe1ijc4 with regard to the relative size of great cities ,petty affirms that before the ,restoration the people of ,paris were more in number than those of ,london and ,dublin1 whereas in #afhg the people of ,london were more than those of ,paris and ,rome or of ,paris and ,rouen4 ,it is not necessary to give any further numbers for the population of the #ahth century1 as that has been already stated to have been almost stationary4 ,this is proved by ,gregory ,king's figures for #afif 7#ecj1jjj7 when compared with those of the first census for #ahja 7#hfd1jce74 ,a corroboration is also to be found in the report of the first census for #ahja1 where a calculation is made of the probable population of the years #agjj and #agej4 ,these are given respectively as #fgd1cej and #fgf1bej4 ,these figures include 7#a7 the ,city of ,london within and 7#b7 without the walls1 7#c7 the ,city and ,liberties of ,westminster1 7#d7 the outparishes within the bills of mortality and 7#e7 the parishes not within the bills of mortality4 ,no4 #e is given as #iaej in #agjj1 and #bb1cej in #agej4 ,it is curious to find that already in the #ahth century a considerable reduction in the numbers of the city of ,london is supposed to have taken place1 as is seen in the following figures3-- #agjj4 #agej4 ,city of ,london within the walls #aci1cjj #hg1jjj without the walls #fi1jjj #eg1cjj ,as the increase in ,westminster is not great 7#acj1jjj in #agjj and #aeb1jjj in #agej7 and there is little difference in the totals it will be seen that the amount is chiefly made up by the increase in the parishes without the bills of mortality4 ,the extraordinary growth of ,london did not come into existence until about the middle of the #aith century 7see ,,iv4 above74 ,,government ,saxon ,period4 ,we know little of the government of ,london during the ,saxon period1 and it is only incidentally that we learn how the ,londoner had become possessed of special privileges which he continued to claim with success through many centuries4 ,one of the chief of these was the claim to a separate voice in the election of the king4 ,the citizens did not dispute the right of election by the kingdom but they held that that election did not necessarily include the choice of ,london4 ,an instance of this is seen in the election of ,edmund ,ironside1 although the ,witan outside ,london had elected ,canute4 ,the remarkable instance of this after the ,conquest was the election of ,stephen1 but ,william the ,conqueror did not feel secure until he had the sanction of the ,londoners to his kingship1 and his attitude towards ,london when he hovered about the neighbourhood of the city for a time shows that he was anxious to obtain this sanction freely rather than by compulsion4 ,his hopes and expectations were fulfilled when the gates of ,london were opened to receive him1 as already related4 ,athelstan's acceptance of the ,london-made law for the whole kingdom1 as pointed out by ,mr ,gomme1 is another instance of the independence of the ,londoner4 ,when ,william the ,conqueror granted the first charter to ,london he addressed the bishop and the portreeve--the bishop as the ecclesiastical governor and the portreeve as the representative of the civil power4 ,the word port in the title portreeve does not indicate the ,port of ,london as might naturally be supposed1 for ,stubbs has pointed out that it is porta not portus1 and although used for the city generally1 seems to refer to it specially in its character of a ,mart or ,city of ,merchants4 ,the ,saxon title of reeve was continued during the ,norman period and the shire-reeve or sheriff has continued to our own time4 ,there were originally several distinct reeves1 all apparently officers appointed by the king4 ,some writers have supposed that a succession of portreeves continued in ,london1 but ,j4 ,h4 ,round holds that this title disappeared after the ,conqueror's charter4 ,henry ,i4 granted to the city by charter the right of appointing its own sheriffs2 this was a great privilege1 which1 however1 was recalled in the reigns of ,henry ,,ii4 and ,richard ,i41 to be restored by ,john in #aaii4 ,j4 ,h4 ,round holds that the office of ,justiciar was created by ,henry ,i4's charter1 and as he was the chief authority in the city this somewhat takes off from the value of the privilege of appointing sheriffs4 ,in the #abth century there was a great municipal movement over ,europe4 ,londoners were well informed as to what was going on abroad1 and although the rulers were always willing to wait for an opportunity of enlarging their liberties1 they remained ready to take advantage of such circumstances as might occur4 ,their great opportunity occurred while ,richard ,i4 was engaged abroad as a crusader4 ,in #ahhi a medal was struck to commemorate the #gjjth anniversary of the mayoralty which according to popular tradition was founded in #aahi4 ,with respect to this tradition ,round writes 7,commune of ,london1 p4 #bbc73 ,the assumption that the mayoralty of ,london dates from the accession of ,richard ,i4 is an absolute perversion of history1 and he adds that there is record evidence which completely confirms the remarkable words of ,richard of ,devizes1 who declares that on no terms whatever would ,king ,richard or his father have ever assented to the establishment of the ,communa in ,london4 ,the ,commune4 ,in ,october #aaia the conflict between ,john the king's brother and ,longchamp the king's representative became acute4 ,the latter bitterly offended the ,londoners1 who1 finding that they could turn the scales to either side1 named the ,commune as the price of their support of ,john4 ,a small party of the citizens under ,henry of ,cornhill remained faithful to the chancellor ,longchamp1 but at a meeting held at ,st ,paul's on the #hth of ,october1 the barons welcomed the archbishop of ,rouen as chief justiciar 7he having produced the king's sign manual appointing a new commission71 and they saluted ,john as regent4 ,stubbs1 in his introduction to the ,chronicle of ,roger de ,hoveden1 writes3 ,this done1 oaths were largely taken3 ,john1 the ,justiciar and the ,barons swore to maintain the ,communa of ,london2 the oath of fealty to ,richard was then sworn1 ,john taking it first1 then the two archbishops1 the bishops1 the barons1 and last the burghers with the express understanding that should the king die without issue they would receive ,john as his successor4 ,referring to this important event ,mr ,round writes3 ,the excited citizens1 who had poured out overnight1 with lanterns and torches1 to welcome ,john to the capital1 streamed together on the morning of the eventful #hth of ,october at the well-known sound of the great bell swinging out from its campanile in ,st ,paul's ,churchyard4 ,there they heard ,john take the oath to the ',commune' like a ,french king or lord2 and then ,london for the first time had a municipality of her own4 ,the ,mayor and chevins4 ,little is known as to what the ,commune then established really was4 ,round's remarkable discovery among the manuscripts of the ,british ,museum of the ,oath of the ,commune proves for the first time that ,london in #aaic possessed a fully developed ,commune of the continental pattern4 ,a striking point in this municipal revolution is that the new privileges extended to the city of ,london were entirely copied from those of continental cities1 and ,mr ,round shows that there is conclusive proof of the assertion that the ,commune of ,london derived its origin from that of ,rouen4 ,this ,,ms4 gives us information which was unknown before1 but upsets the received opinions as to the early governing position of the aldermen4 ,from this we learn that the government of the city was in the hands of a mayor and twelve chevins 7skivini72 both these names being ,french1 seem for a time to have excluded the ,saxon aldermen4 ,twelve years later 7#abje-abjf7 we learn from another document1 preserved in the same volume as the oath1 that alii probi homines were associated with the mayor and chevins to form a body of twenty-four 7that is1 twelve skivini and an equal number of councillors74 ,round holds that the ,court of ,skivini and alii probi homines1 of which at present we know nothing further than what is contained in the terms of the oaths1 was the germ of the ,common ,council4 ,we must not suppose that when the city of ,london obtained the privilege of appointing a mayor1 and a citizen could boast in #aaid that come what may the ,londoners shall have no king but their mayor1 that the king did not occasionally exert his power in suspending the liberties of the city4 ,there were really constant disagreements1 and sometimes the king degraded the mayor and appointed a custos or warden in his place4 ,several instances of this are recorded in the #acth and #adth centuries4 ,it is very important to bear in mind that the mayors of ,london besides holding a very onerous position were mostly men of great distinction4 ,they often held rank outside the city1 and naturally took their place among the rulers of the country4 ,they were mostly representatives of the landed interests as well as merchant princes4 ,there is no definite information as to when the mayor first received the title of lord4 ,a claim has been set up for ,thomas ,legge1 mayor for the second time in #aced1 that he was the first lord mayor1 but there is positively no authority whatever for this claim1 although it is boldly stated that he was created lord mayor by ,edward ,,iii4 in this year4 ,apparently the title was occasionally used1 and the use gradually grew into a prescriptive right4 ,there is no evidence of any grant1 but after #aedj the title had become general4 ,aldermen4 ,no record has been found of the date when the aldermen became the official advisers of the mayor4 ,the various wards were each presided over by an alderman from an early period1 but we cannot fix the time when they were united as a court of aldermen4 ,stubbs writes3 ,the governing body of ,london in the #acth century was composed of the mayor1 twenty-five aldermen of the wards and two sheriffs4 ,as we do not find any further evidence than the oath of the ,commune alluded to of the existence of chevins in ,london1 it is possible that aldermen were elected on the mayor's council under this title4 ,this1 however1 is not the opinion of ,mr ,round1 who1 as before stated1 is inclined to believe that the body of chevins became in course of time the ,court of ,common ,council4 ,the aldermen are not mentioned as the colleagues of the mayor until the very end of the #acth century1 except in the case of ,fitz-,ailwin's ,assize of #aahi1 and this1 of course1 related specially to the duties of aldermen as heads of the wards of the city4 ,in ,march #abih-abii letters were sent from the ,mayor and ,commune of the ,city of ,london to the municipalities of ,bruges1 ,caen and ,cambray4 ,although the official form of ,the ,mayor and ,commune was continued until the end of the #acth century1 and it was not until early in the #adth century that the form ,mayor1 ,aldermen and ,common ,council came into existence1 there is sufficient evidence to show that the aldermen and common council before that time were acting with the mayor as governors of the city4 ,in #acgg it was ordered that aldermen could be elected annually1 but in #achd the rule was modified so as to allow an alderman to be re-elected for his ward at the expiration of his year of office without any interval4 ,in #acid the ,ordinance respecting annual elections was repealed by the king 7,richard ,,ii474 ,distinct rank was accorded to aldermen1 and in the ,liber ,albus we are told that it is a matter of experience that ever since the year of our ,lord #acej1 at the sepulture of aldermen1 the ancient custom of interment with baronial honours was observed4 ,when the poll-tax of #acgi was imposed the mayor was assessed as an earl and the aldermen as barons4 ,sheriffs4 ,the government of the city by reeves dates back to a very early period1 and these reeves were appointed by the king4 ,the prefix of the various kinds of reeves made but little difference in the duties of the office1 although the area of these duties might be different4 ,there was slight difference between the office of sheriff and that of portreeve1 which latter does not appear to have survived the ,conquest4 ,after the establishment of the ,commune and the appointment of a mayor the sheriffs naturally lost much of their importance1 and they became what they are styled in ,liber ,albus the ,eyes of the ,mayor4 ,when ,middlesex was in farm to ,london the two sheriffs were equally sheriffs of ,london and ,middlesex4 ,there is only one instance in the city records of a sheriff of ,middlesex being mentioned as distinct from the sheriffs1 and this was in #abhc when ,anketin de ,betteville and ,walter le ,blond are described as sheriffs of ,london1 and ,gerin as sheriff of ,middlesex4 ,by the ,local ,government ,act of #ahhh the citizens of ,london were deprived of all right of jurisdiction over the county of ,middlesex1 which had been expressly granted by various charters4 ,in #achc it was ordained and agreed that no person shall from henceforth be mayor in the said city if he have not first been sheriff of the said city1 to the end that he may be tried in governance and bounty before he attains such estate of the mayoralty4 ,common ,council4 ,the two courts--that of aldermen and that of the common council--were probably formed about the same time1 but it is remarkable that we have no definite information on the subject4 ,the number of members of the common council varied greatly at different times1 but the right to determine the number was indirectly granted by the charter of ,edward ,,iii4 7#acda7 which enables the city to amend customs and usages which have become hard4 ,there have also been many changes in the mode of election4 ,the common council were chosen by the wards until #acea1 when the appointments were made by certain companies4 ,in #acgf an ordinance was made by the mayor and aldermen1 with the assent of the whole commons1 to the effect that the companies should select men with whom they were content1 and none other should come to the elections of mayors and sheriffs2 that the greater companies should not elect more than six1 the lesser four and the least two4 ,forty-seven companies nominated #aef members4 ,in #achc the right of election reverted to the wards1 but was obtained again by the livery companies in #adfg4 ,common ,hall4 ,the ,common ,hall was the successor of the folkmote1 the meetings of which were originally held in the open air at the east end of ,st ,paul's and afterwards in the ,guildhall4 ,these general assemblies of the citizens are described in the old city records as immensa communitas or immensa multitudo civium4 ,the elections in ,common ,hall were by the whole body of citizens until ,edward ,i4's reign1 citizens were then specially summoned to ,common ,hall by the mayor4 ,in ,edward ,,iv4's reign the elections of mayor1 sheriffs and other officers and members of parliament were transferred to liverymen4 ,various alterations were subsequently made and now the qualification of electors at the election of the corporate offices of lord mayor1 sheriffs1 chamberlain and minor offices in ,common ,hall is that of being a liveryman of a livery company and an enrolled freeman of ,london4 ,the election of aldermen and common councilmen takes place in the wardmotes4 ,officials of the city4 ,the recorder1 the chief official1 is appointed for life4 ,he was formerly appointed by the city1 but since the ,local ,government ,act of #ahhh he is nominated by the city and approved by the lord chancellor4 ,the common sergeant was formerly appointed by the city1 but since #ahhh by the lord chancellor4 ,the town clerk is appointed by the city and re-elected annually4 ,the chamberlain or comptroller of the king's chamber is appointed by the livery4 ,he was originally a king's officer and the office was probably instituted soon after the ,conquest4 ,the remembrancer is appointed by the common council4 ,the common hunt1 an office abolished in #ahjg1 was filled by ,john ,courtenay in #adag4 ,the sword-bearer is noticed in the ,liber ,albus 7#adai7 and the first record of an appointment is dated #adbf4 ,later history of the corporation4 ,few fundamental alterations have been made in the constitution of the city1 but in the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 the most arbitrary proceedings were taken against its liberties4 ,the king and his brother had long entertained designs against the city1 and for the purpose of crushing them two pretexts were set up--7#a7 that a new rate of market tolls had been levied by virtue of an act of common council1 and 7#b7 that a petition to the king1 in which it was alleged that by the prorogation of parliament public justice had been interrupted1 had been printed by order of the ,court of ,common ,council4 ,charles directed a writ quo warranto against the corporation of ,london in #afhc1 and the ,court of ,king's ,bench declared its charter forfeited4 ,soon afterwards all the obnoxious aldermen were displaced and others appointed in their room by royal commission4 ,when ,james ,,ii4 found himself in danger from the landing of the ,prince of ,orange he sent for the lord mayor and aldermen and informed them of his determination to restore the city charter and privileges1 but he had no time to do anything before his flight4 ,the ,convention which was summoned to meet on the #bbnd of ,january #afhi was converted by a formal act into a true parliament 7,february #bc74 ,one of the first motions put to the ,house was that a special ,committee should be appointed to consider the violations of the liberties and franchises of all the corporations of the kingdom and particularly of the ,city of ,london4 ,the motion was lost but the ,house resolved to bring in a bill for repealing the ,corporation ,act1 and ten years later 7,march #e7 the ,grand ,committee of ,grievances reported to the ,house its opinion 7#a7 that the rights of the ,city of ,london in the election of sheriffs in the year #afhb were invaded and that such invasion was illegal and a grievance1 and 7#b7 that the judgment given upon the ,quo ,warranto against the city was illegal and a grievance4 ,the committee's opinion on these two points 7among others7 was endorsed by the ,house and on the #afth of ,march it ordered a ,bill to be brought in to restore all corporations to the state and condition they were in on the #bith of ,may #affj1 and to confirm the liberties and franchises which at that time they respectively held and enjoyed4#ae ,when the ,act for the reform of ,municipal ,corporations was passed in #ahce ,london was specially excepted from its provisions4 ,when the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works was formed by the ,metropolis ,management ,act of #ahee the city was affected to a certain extent1 but by the ,local ,government ,act of #ahhh which founded the ,london ,county ,council the right of appointing a sheriff for ,middlesex was taken away from the city of ,london4 ,when the county of ,middlesex was dissociated from the city of ,london one portion was joined to the administrative county of ,london1 and the other to the county of ,middlesex4 ,privileges of the lord mayor4 ,the lord mayor of ,london has certain very remarkable privileges which have been religiously guarded and must be of great antiquity4 ,it is only necessary to mention these here1 but each of the privileges requires an exhaustive examination as to its origin4 ,they all prove the remarkable position of ,old ,london1 and mark it off from all other cities of modern ,europe4 ,shortly stated the privileges are four3 #a4 ,the closing of ,temple ,bar to the sovereign4 #b4 ,the mayor's position in the city1 where he is second only to the king4 #c4 ,his summons to the ,privy ,council on the accession of a new sovereign4 #d4 ,his position of butler at the coronation banquets4 ,the last may be considered in abeyance as there has not been any coronation banquet since that of ,george ,,iv4 ,in the case of the coronation of ,king ,edward ,,vii4 the claim was excluded from the consideration of the ,court of ,claims under the royal proclamation4 ,the terms of the judgment on a further claim are as follows3 ,the ,court considers and adjudges that the lord mayor has by usage a right1 subject to ,his ,majesty's pleasure1 to attend the ,abbey during the coronation and bear the crystal mace4 ,,bibliography4--,the earliest description of ,london is that written by the monk ,fitzstephen in #aagd as an introduction to his life of ,archbishop ,thomas ,becket4 ,this was first printed by ,stow in his ,survey4 ,it was reprinted by ,strype in his editions of ,stow2 by ,hearne in his edition of ,leland's ,itinerary 7vol4 #h71 by ,samuel ,pegge in #aggb1 and elsewhere4 ,the first history is contained in ,a ,survey of ,london by ,john ,stow 7#aeih1 #afjc74 ,the author died in #afje1 and his work was continued by ,anthony ,munday and others 7#afah1 #afcc7 and in the next century by ,john ,strype 7#agbj1 #aged-agee74 ,stow's original work was reprinted by ,w4 ,j4 ,thoms in #ahdb and a monumental edition has been published by ,c4 ,l4 ,kingsford 7,oxford1 #aijh74 ,the following are the most important of subsequent histories arranged in order of publication2 ,james ,howell1 ,londinopolis 7#afeg72 ,w4 ,stow1 ,remarks on ,london and ,westminster 7#agbb72 ,robert ,seymour 7,john ,mottley71 ,survey of the ,cities of ,london and ,westminster 7#agcd1 another edition #agec72 ,william ,maitland1 ,history of ,london 7#agci1 other editions #agef1 #agfj1 #agfi1 continued by ,john ,entick #agge72 ,john ,entick1 ,a ,new and ,accurate ,history of ,london1 ,westminster1 ,southwark 7#agff72 ,the ,city ,remembrancer1 ,narratives of the ,plague #affe1 ,fire #afff and ,great ,storm #agjc 7#agfi72 ,a ,new and ,compleat ,history and ,survey1 by a ,society of ,gentlemen 7#aggj1 revised by ,h4 ,chamberlain1 folio revised by ,w4 ,thornton #aghd72 ,j4 ,noorthouck1 ,a ,new ,history 7#aggc72 ,walter ,harrison1 ,a ,new and ,universal ,history 7#agge72 ,j4 ,p4 ,malcolm1 ,londinium ,redivivum or an ,ancient ,history and ,modern ,description of ,london 7#ahjc72 ,david ,hughson 7,e4 ,pugh71 ,london 7#ahje-ahji72 ,b4 ,lambert1 ,history and ,survey of ,london 7#ahjf72 ,henry ,hunter1 ,history of ,london 7#ahaa72 ,j4 ,w4 ,abbott1 ,history of ,london 7#ahba72 ,thomas ,allen1 ,history and ,antiquities of ,london 7#ahbg-ahbi1 continued by ,thomas ,wright #ahci72 ,william ,smith1 ,a ,new ,history of ,london 7#ahcc72 ,charles ,mackay1 ,a ,history of ,london 7#ahch72 ,the ,history of ,london1 illustrated by ,w4 ,g4 ,fearnside 7#ahch72 ,george ,grant1 ,a ,comprehensive ,history of ,london 7,dublin1 #ahdi72 ,john ,timbs1 ,curiosities of ,london 7#ahee1 later editions #ahee1 #ahfh1 #ahge1 #ahgf72 ,old ,london ,papers1 ,archaeological ,institute 7#ahfg72 ,w4 ,j4 ,loftie1 ,a ,history of ,london 7#ahhc72 ,w4 ,j4 ,loftie1 ,historic ,towns 7,london1 #ahhg72 ,claude de la ,roche ,francis1 ,london1 ,historic and ,social 7,philadelphia1 #aijb72 ,sir ,walter ,besant1 ,the ,survey of ,london 7#aijb-aijh7--;,early ,london1 ,prehistoric1 ,roman1 ,saxon and ,norman 7#aijh72 ,medieval ,london1 vol4 #a1 ,historical and ,social 7#aijf71 vol4 #b1 ,ecclesiastical 7#aijf72 ,london in the ,time of the ,tudors 7#aijd72 ,london in the ,time of the ,stuarts 7#aijc72 ,london in the ,eighteenth ,century 7#aijb72 ,h4 ,b4 ,wheatley1 ,the ,story of ,london ,medieval ,towns 7,london1 #aijd74 ,the following are some of the ,chronicles of ,london which have been printed1 arranged in order of publication3 ,r4 ,grafton1 ,chronicle #aahi-aeeh 7#ahji72 ,r4 ,arnold1 ,london ,chronicle 7#ahaa72 ,a ,chronicle of ,london from #ajhi to #adhc written in the ,fifteenth ,century 7#ahbg72 ,william ,gregory's ,chronicle of ,london1 #aahi-adfi 7#ahgf72 ,historical ,collections of a ,citizen of ,london1 edited by ,james ,gairdner 7,camden ,society1 #ahgf72 ,chronicles of ,london #abjj-aeaf1 edited by ,c4 ,l4 ,kingsford 7,oxford1 #aije74 ,many books have been published on the government of ,london1 of which the following is a selection3 ,city ,law 7#afdg1 #afeh72 ,lex ,londinensis or the ,city ,law 7#afhj72 ,w4 ,bohun1 ,privilegia ,londini 7#agbc72 ,giles ,jacob1 ,city ,liberties 7#agcc72 ,laws and ,customs1 ,rights1 ,liberties and ,privileges of the ,city of ,london 7#agfe72 ,david ,hughson1 ,epitome of the ,privileges of ,london 7#ahaf72 ,george ,norton1 ,commentaries on the ,history1 ,constitution and ,chartered ,franchises of the ,city of ,london 7#ahbi1 #crd ed4 #ahfi72 ,munimenta ,gildhallae ,londoniensis1 edited by ,h4 ,t4 ,riley--vol4 #a1 ,liber ,albus 7#adai71 vol4 #b1 ,liber ,custumarum 7#ahei72 ,liber ,albus3 the ,white ,book of the ,city of ,london1 translated by ,h4 ,t4 ,riley 7#ahfa72 ,h4 ,t4 ,riley1 ,memorials of ,london and ,london ,life in the #acth1 #adth and #aeth centuries 7#ahfh72 ,de ,antiquis ,legibus ,liber4 ,curante ,thoma ,stapleton 7,camden ,society1 #ahdf72 ,chronicles of the ,mayors and ,sheriffs of ,london #aahh-abgd1 translated from the ,liber de ,antiquis ,legibus by ,h4 ,t4 ,riley4 ,french ,chronicle of ,london #abei-acdc 7#ahfc72 ,analytical ,index to the ,series of ,records known as the ,remembrancia #aegi-affd 7#ahhh72 ,calendar of ,letter-,books circa #abge-acii preserved among the ,archives of the ,corporation of ,london at the ,guildhall1 edited by ,reginald ,r4 ,sharpe1 ,d4,c4,l4 7#ahii-aijg72 ,w4 and ,r4 ,woodcock1 ,lives of ,lord ,mayors 7#ahdf72 ,j4 ,f4 ,b4 ,firth1 ,municipal ,london 7#ahgf72 ,walter ,delgray ,birch1 ,historical ,charters and ,constitutional ,documents of the ,city of ,london 7#ahhd1 #ahhg72 ,j4 ,h4 ,round1 ,the ,commune of ,london and other ,studies 7#ahii72 ,reginald ,r4 ,sharpe1 ,london and the ,kingdom2 a ,history derived mainly from the ,archives at ,guildhall 7#ahid72 ,g4 ,l4 ,gomme1 ,the ,governance of ,london4 ,studies on the ,place occupied by ,london in ,english ,institutions 7#aijg72 ,alfred ,b4 ,beaven1 ,the ,aldermen of the ,city of ,london temp4 ,henry ,,iii4 7#aijh74 ,in connexion with the government of ,london may be noted works on the following3 ,inns of ,court4 ,william ,herbert1 ,antiquities of the ,inns of ,court and ,chancery 7#ahjd72 ,robert ,p4 ,pearce1 ,history 7#ahdh74 ,artillery ,company1 ,anthony ,highmore1 ,history of the ,hon4 ,artillery ,co4 of ,london to #ahjb 7#ahjd72 ,g4 ,a4 ,raikes1 ,history of the ,hon4 ,artillery ,co4 7#ahgh74 ,william ,herbert published in #ahcg ,history of the ,twelve great ,livery ,companies of ,london1 and in #ahfi ,thomas ,arundell published ,historical ,reminiscences of the ,city and its ,livery ,companies4 ,since then have appeared ,the ,livery ,companies of the ,city of ,london1 by ,w4 ,carew ,hazlitt 7#ahib72 ,the ,city ,companies of ,london1 by ,p4 ,h4 ,ditchfield 7#aijd72 ,the ,gilds and ,companies of ,london1 by ,george ,unwin 7#aijh74 ,separate histories have been published of the chief ,london companies4 ,the following are some of the chief works connected with the topography of ,london3 ,thomas ,pennant1 ,of ,london 7#agij1 #agic1 #ahje1 #ahac1 translated into ,german #agia72 ,john ,t4 ,smith1 ,antient ,topography of ,london 7#ahae72 ,david ,hughson ,e4 ,pugh1 ,walks through ,london 7#ahag72 ,london 7edited by ,charles ,knight #ahda-ahdd1 reprinted #ahea1 revised by ,e4 ,walford #ahge-ahgg72 ,j4 ,h4 ,jesse1 ,literary and ,historical ,memorials of ,london 7#ahdg72 ,leigh ,hunt1 ,the ,town1 its ,memorable ,character and ,events 7#ahdh1 new ed4 #ahei72 ,peter ,cunningham1 ,a ,handbook of ,london past and present 7#ahdi1 #bnd ed4 #ahej1 enlarged into a new work in #ahia72 ,henry ,b4 ,wheatley1 ,london past and present2 ,vestiges of ,old ,london1 etchings by ,j4 ,w4 ,archer 7#ahea72 ,a ,new ,survey of ,london 7#ahec72 ,g4 ,w4 ,thornbury1 ,haunted ,london 7#ahfe1 new ed4 by ,e4 ,walford #ahhj72 ,old and ,new ,london1 vols4 i4-ii4 by ,g4 ,w4 ,thornbury1 vols4 iii4-vi4 by ,edward ,walford 7#ahgc-ahgh72 ,walter ,besant1 ,london1 ,westminster1 ,south ,london1 ,east ,london 7#ahia-aijb72 ,east ,london ,antiquities1 edited by ,walter ,a4 ,locks 7,east ,london ,advertiser1 #aijb72 ,philip ,norman1 ,london vanished and vanishing 7#aije72 ,records of the ,london ,topographical ,society2 ,monographs of the ,committee for the ,survey of the ,memorials of ,greater ,london4 ,the following books on the population of ,london have been published3 ,john ,graunt1 ,natural and ,political ,observations on the ,bills of ,mortality 7#affa1 other editions #affb1 #affe1 #afgf72 ,essay in ,political ,arithmetick 7#afhc72 ,five ,essays on ,political ,arithmetick 7#afhg72 ,several ,essays in ,political ,arithmetick 7#afii1 #agaa1 #agea1 #agee72 ,essay concerning the ,multiplication of ,mankind 7#afhb1 #afhc1 #afhf71 all by ,sir ,william ,petty2 ,corbyn ,morris1 ,observations on the past ,growth and present ,state of the ,city of ,london 7#agea72 ,collection of the ,yearly ,bills of ,mortality from #afeg to #ageh 7ed4 by ,t4 ,birch1 ,d4,d4 #agei72 ,graunt's ,observations1 ,petty's ,another ,essay and ,c4 ,morris's ,observations are reprinted in this collection4 ,graunt and ,petty's ,essays are reprinted in ,economic ,writings of ,sir ,w4 ,petty 7#ahii74 7,h4 ,b4 ,w4997 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see map in ,london ,statistics 7vol4 xix41 #aiji71 an annual publication of the ,london ,county ,council1 which besides these divisions shows ,water ,london1 the ,london main drainage area1 and the ,central ,criminal ,court district4 #b ,charing ,cross station was the scene of a remarkable catastrophe on the #eth of ,december #aije1 when a large part of the roof collapsed1 and the falling dbris did very serious damage to the ,avenue theatre1 which stands close to the station at a lower level4 #c ,the report appeared in eight volumes1 the first of which1 containing the general conclusions to which allusion is here made1 bore the number1 as a blue-book4 ,cd4 #beig4 #d ,over #bjj local acts were repealed by schemes made under the act of #ahii4 #e ,a valuable article on ,the ,conqueror's ,footprints in ,domesday was published in the ,english ,historical ,review in #ahih 7vol4 xiii4 p4 #ag74 ,this article contains an account of ,duke ,william's movements after the battle of ,senlac between ,enfield1 ,edmonton1 ,tottenham and ,berkhampstead4 #f ,a map of ,london engraved on copper-plate1 dated #adig1 which was bought by ,ferdinand ,columbus during his travels in ,europe about #aeah-aebe1 is entered in the catalogue of ,ferdinand's books1 maps1 c41 made by himself and preserved in the ,cathedral ,library at ,seville1 but there is no clue to its existence4 #g ,one is in the ,guildhall ,library1 and the other among the ,pepysian maps in ,magdalene ,college1 ,cambridge4 #h ,this map of ,london by ,norden is dated #aeic1 as stated above4 ,the same topographer published in his ,middlesex a map of ,westminster as well as this one of the ,city of ,london4 #i ,various changes in the names of the taverns are made in the folio edition of this play 7#afaf7 from the quarto 7#afja72 thus the ,mermaid of the quarto becomes the ,windmill in the folio1 and the ,mitre of the quarto is the ,star of the folio4 #aj ,the ,great ,revolt of #acha 7,oxford1 #aijf71 p4 #bg4 #aa ,in a valuable paper on ,the ,population of ,old ,london in ,blackwood's ,magazine for ,april #ahia4 #ab ,the old ,bills of ,mortality1 although of value from being the only authority on the subject1 were never complete owing to various causes3 one being that large numbers of ,roman ,catholics and ,dissenters were not registered in the returns of the parish clerk who was a church officer4 ,the bills were killed by the action of the ,registration ,act for ,england and ,wales1 which came into operation ,july #a1 #ahcg4 ,the weekly ,returns of the ,registrar-,general began in #ahdj4 #ac ,the invention of 'bills of mortality' is not so modern as has been generally supposed1 for their proper designation may be found in the language of ancient ,rome4 ,libitina was the goddess of funerals2 her officers were the ,libitinarii our undertakers2 her temple in which all business connected with the last rites was transacted1 in which the account of deaths--ratio ,libitinae--was kept1 served the purpose of a register office4--,journal ,statistical ,society1 xvii4 #aag 7#ahed74 #ad ,the return was made by special command from the ,right ,honourable the ,lords of ,his ,majesty's ,privy ,council4 ,the ,privy ,council were at this time apprehensive of an approaching scarcity of food4 ,the numbers 7#acj1bfh7 were made up as follows3 ,london ,within the ,walls #ga1jbi1 ,london ,without the ,walls #dj1egi1 ,old ,borough of ,southwark 7,bridge ,without7 #ah1ffj4 #ae ,r4 ,r4 ,sharpe1 ,london and the ,kingdom 7#ahid71 i4 #eda4 ,,london ,,clay1 in geology1 the most important member of the ,lower ,eocene strata in the south of ,england4 ,it is well developed in the ,london basin1 though not frequently exposed1 partly because it is to a great extent covered by more recent gravels and partly because it is not often worked on a large scale4 ,it is a stiff1 tenacious1 bluish clay that becomes brown on weathering1 occasionally it becomes distinctly sandy1 sometimes glauconitic1 especially towards the top2 large calcareous septarian concretions are common1 and have been used in the manufacture of cement1 being dug for this purpose at ,sheppey1 near ,southend1 and at ,harwich1 and dredged off the ,hampshire coast4 ,nodular lumps of pyrites and crystals of selenite are of frequent occurrence4 ,the clay has been employed for making bricks1 tiles and coarse pottery1 but it is usually too tenacious for this purpose except in well-weathered or sandy portions4 ,the base of the clay is very regularly indicated by a few inches of rounded flint pebbles with green and yellowish sand1 parts of this layer being frequently cemented by carbonate of lime4 ,the average thickness of the ,london ,clay in the ,london basin is about #dej ft42 at ,windsor it is #djj ft4 thick2 beneath ,london it is rather thicker1 while in the south of ,essex it is over #dhj ft4 ,in ,wiltshire it only reaches a few feet in thickness1 while in ,berkshire it is some #ej or #fj ft4 ,it is found in the ,isle of ,wight1 where it is #cjj ft4 thick at ,whitecliff ,bay--here the beds are vertical and even slightly reversed--and in ,alum ,bay it is #bbj ft4 thick4 ,in ,hampshire it is sometimes known as the ,bognor ,beds1 and certain layers of calcareous sandstone within the clays are called ,barnes or ,bognor ,rock4 ,in the eastern part of the ,london basin in east ,kent the pebbly basement bed becomes a thick deposit 7#fj ft471 forming part of the ,oldhaven and ,blackheath ,beds4 ,the ,london ,clay is a marine deposit1 and its fossils indicate a moderately warm climate1 the flora having a tropical aspect4 ,among the fossils may be mentioned ,panopoea intermedia1 ,ditrupa plana1 ,teredina personata1 ,conus concinnus1 ,rostellaria ampla1 ,nautilus centralis1 ,belosepia1 foraminifera and diatoms4 ,fish remains include ,otodus obliquus1 ,sphyroenodus crassidens2 birds are represented by ,halcyornis ,toliapicus1 ,lithornis and ,odontopteryx1 and reptiles by ,chelone gigas1 and other turtles1 ,palaeophis1 a serpent and crocodiles4 ,hyracotherium leporinum1 ,palaeotherium and a few other mammals are recorded4 ,plant remains in a pyritized condition are found in great abundance and perfection on the shore of ,sheppey2 numerous species of palms1 screw pines1 water lilies1 cypresses1 yews1 leguminous plants and many others occur2 logs of coniferous wood bored through by annelids and ,teredo are common1 and fossil resin has been found at ,highgate4 ,see ,,eocene2 also ,w4 ,whitaker1 ,the ,geology of ,london and part of the ,thames ,valley1 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,survey 7#ahhi71 and ,sheet ,memoirs of the ,geol4 ,survey1 ,london1 ,nos4 #cad1 #cae1 #bfh1 #cbi1 #ccb1 and ,memoirs on the ,geology of the ,isle of ,wight 7#ahhi74 ,,londonderry1 ,,earls ,,and ,,marquesses ,,of4 ,the #ast earl of ,londonderry was ,thomas ,ridgeway 7c4 #aefe-afca71 a ,devon man1 who was treasurer in ,ireland from #afjf to #afaf and was engaged in the plantation of ,ulster4 ,ridgeway was made a baronet in #afaa1 ,baron ,ridgeway in #afaf and earl of ,londonderry in #afbc4 ,the ,ridgeways held the earldom until ,march #agad1 when ,robert1 the #dth earl1 died without sons4 ,in #agbf ,robert's son-in-law1 ,thomas ,pitt 7c4 #afhh-agbi71 son of ,thomas ,pitt1 ,diamond ,pitt1 governor at ,madras and uncle of the great earl of ,chatham1 was created earl of ,londonderry1 the earldom again becoming extinct when his younger son ,ridgeway1 the #crd earl of this line1 died unmarried in ,january #agfe4 ,in #agif ,robert ,stewart 7#agci-ahba71 of ,mount ,stewart1 ,co4 ,down1 was made earl of ,londonderry in the ,irish peerage4 ,he had been created ,baron ,londonderry in #aghi and ,viscount ,castlereagh in #agie2 in #ahaf he was advanced to the rank of marquess of ,londonderry4 ,the #crd marquess married the heiress of the ,vane-,tempests and took the name of ,vane instead of ,stewart2 the #eth marquess called himself ,vane-,tempest and the #fth marquess ,vane-,tempest-,stewart4 ,,londonderry1 ,,charles ,,william ,,stewart 7,,vane71 #c,,rd ,,marquess ,,of 7#aggh-ahed71 ,british soldier and diplomatist1 was the son of the #ast marquess by a second marriage with the daughter of the #ast ,earl ,camden4 ,he entered the army and served in the ,netherlands 7#agid71 on the ,rhine and ,danube 7#agie71 in the ,irish rebellion 7#agih71 and ,holland 7#agii71 rising to be colonel2 and having been elected to parliament for ,kerry he became under secretary for war under his half-brother ,castlereagh in #ahjg4 ,in #ahjh he was given a cavalry command in the ,peninsula1 where he brilliantly distinguished himself4 ,in #ahji1 and again in the campaigns of #ahaj1 #ahaa1 having become a major-general1 he served under ,wellington in the ,peninsula as his adjutant-general1 and was at the capture of ,ciudad ,rodrigo1 but at the beginning of #ahab he was invalided home4 ,castlereagh 7see ,,londonderry1 #bnd ,marquess of7 then sent him to ,berlin as minister1 to represent ,great ,britain in the allied ,british1 ,russian and ,prussian armies2 and as a cavalry leader he played an important part in the subsequent fighting1 while ably seconding ,castlereagh's diplomacy4 ,in #ahad he was made a peer as ,baron ,stewart1 and later in the year was appointed ambassador at ,vienna1 and was a member of the important congresses which followed4 ,in #ahbb his half-brother's death made him #crd marquess of ,londonderry1 and shortly afterwards1 disagreeing with ,canning1 he resigned1 being created ,earl ,vane 7#ahbc71 and for some years lived quietly in ,england1 improving his ,seaham estates4 ,in #ahce he was for a short time ambassador at ,st ,petersburg4 ,in #aheb1 after the death of ,wellington1 when he was one of the pall-bearers1 he received the order of the ,garter4 ,he died on the #fth of ,march #ahed4 ,he was twice married1 first in #ahjh to the daughter of the earl of ,darnley1 and secondly in #ahai to the heiress of ,sir ,harry ,vane-,tempest 7a descendant of ,sir ,piers ,tempest1 who served at ,agincourt1 and heir to ,sir ,henry ,vane1 ,bart471 when he assumed the name of ,vane4 ,frederick ,william ,robert 7#ahje-ahgb71 his son by the first marriage1 became #dth marquess2 and on the latter's death in #ahgb1 ,george ,henry 7#ahba-ahhd71 the eldest son by the second marriage1 after succeeding as ,earl ,vane 7according to the patent of #ahbc71 became #eth marquess4 ,in #ahhd he was succeeded as #fth marquess by his son ,charles ,stewart ,vane-,tempest-,stewart 7b4 #aheb71 a prominent ,conservative politician1 who was viceroy of ,ireland 7#ahhf-ahhi71 chairman of the ,london ,school ,board 7#ahie-ahig71 postmaster-general 7#aijj-aijb71 president of the ,board of ,education 7#aijb-aije7 and lord president of the ,council 7#aijc-aije74 ,,londonderry1 ,,robert ,,stewart1 #b,,nd ,,marquess ,,of 7#agfi-ahbb71 ,british statesman1 was the eldest son of ,robert ,stewart of ,ballylawn ,castle1 in ,donegal1 and ,mount ,stewart in ,down1 an ,ulster landowner1 of kin to the ,galloway ,stewarts1 who became baron1 viscount1 earl and marquess in the peerage of ,ireland4 ,the son1 known in history as ,lord ,castlereagh1 was born on the #ahth of ,june in the same year as ,napoleon and ,wellington4 ,his mother was ,lady ,sarah ,seymour1 daughter of the earl of ,hertford4 ,he went from ,armagh school to ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 but left at the end of his first year4 ,with ,lord ,downshire1 then holding sway over the ,county ,down1 ,lord ,stewart had a standing feud1 and he put forward his son1 in ,july #agij1 for one of the seats4 ,young ,stewart was returned1 but at a vast cost to his family1 when he was barely twenty-one4 ,he took his seat in the ,irish ,house of ,commons at the same time as his friend1 ,arthur ,wellesley1 ,m4,p4 for ,trim1 but sat later for two close boroughs in ,england1 still remaining member for ,down at ,college ,green4 ,from #agif1 when his father became an earl1 he took the courtesy title of ,viscount ,castlereagh1 and becoming keeper of the privy seal in ,ireland1 he acted as chief secretary1 during the prolonged absence of ,mr ,pelham1 from ,february #agig4 ,castlereagh's conviction was that1 in presence of threatened invasion and rebellion1 ,ireland could only be made safe by union with ,great ,britain4 ,in ,lord ,camden1 as afterwards in ,lord ,cornwallis1 ,castlereagh found a congenial chief2 though his favour with these statesmen was jealously viewed both by the ,irish oligarchy and by the ,english politicians who wished to keep the machine of ,irish administration in their own hands4 ,pitt himself was doubtful of the expediency of making an ,irishman chief secretary1 but his view was changed by the influence of ,cornwallis4 ,in suppressing ,lord ,edward ,fitzgerald's conspiracy1 and the rebellion which followed in #agih1 ,castlereagh's vigilance and firmness were invaluable4 ,his administration was denounced by a faction as harsh and cruel--a charge afterwards repudiated by ,grattan and ,plunket--but he was always on the side of lenity4 ,the disloyal in ,ireland1 both ,jacobins and priest-led1 the ,protestant zealots and others who feared the consequence of the ,union1 coalesced against him in ,dublin4 ,even there ,castlereagh1 though defeated in a first campaign 7#agii71 impressed ,pitt with his ability and tact1 with ,cornwallis he joined in holding out1 during the second ,union campaign 7#ahjj71 the prospect of emancipation to the ,roman ,catholics4 ,they were aided by free expenditure of money and promises of honours1 methods too familiar in ,irish politics4 ,when the ,act of ,union was carried through the ,irish parliament1 in the summer of #ahjj1 ,castlereagh's official connexion with his native land practically ended4 ,before the ,imperial ,parliament met he urged upon ,pitt the measures which he and ,cornwallis thought requisite to make the ,union effective4 ,in spite of his services and of ,pitt's support1 disillusion awaited him4 ,the king's reluctance to yield to the ,roman ,catholic claims was underestimated by ,pitt1 while ,cornwallis imprudently permitted himself to use language which1 though not amounting to a pledge1 was construed as one4 ,george ,,iii4 resented the arguments brought forward by ,castlereagh--this young man who had come over to talk him out of his coronation oath4 ,he peremptorily refused to sanction emancipation1 and ,pitt and his cabinet made way for the ,addington administration4 ,thereupon ,castlereagh resigned1 with ,cornwallis4 ,he took his seat at ,westminster for ,down1 the constituency he had represented for ten years in ,dublin4 ,the leadership of an ,irish party was offered to him1 but he declined so to limit his political activity4 ,his father accepted1 at ,portland's request1 an ,irish marquessate1 on the understanding that in the future he or his heirs might claim the same rank in the ,imperial ,legislature2 so that ,castlereagh was able to sit in the ,house of ,commons as ,marquess in #ahba-ahbb4 ,wilberforce discussed with ,pitt the possibility of sending out ,castlereagh to ,india as governor-general1 when the friction between ,lord ,wellesley and the directors became grave2 but ,pitt objected1 as the plan would remove ,castlereagh from the ,house of ,commons1 which should be the theatre of his future fame4 ,in #ahjb1 ,castlereagh1 at ,pitt's suggestion1 became president of the ,board of ,control in the ,addington cabinet4 ,he had1 though not in office1 taken charge of ,irish measures under ,addington1 including the repression of the ,rebellion ,bill1 and the temporary suspension of the ,habeas ,corpus in #ahja1 and continued to advocate ,catholic relief1 tithe reform1 state payment of ,catholic and dissenting clergy and the steady application of authority in support of the laws4 ,to ,lord ,wellesley's ,indian policy he gave a staunch support1 warmly recognized by the governor-general4 ,on ,pitt's return to office 7,may #ahjd71 ,castlereagh retained his post1 and1 next year1 took over also the duties of secretary for war and the colonies4 ,socially and politically1 the gifts of his wife1 ,lady ,emily ,hobart1 daughter of a former ,irish viceroy1 whom he had married in #agid1 assisted him to make his house a meeting-place of the party2 and his influence in parliament grew notwithstanding his defects of style1 spoken and written4 ,as a manager of men he had no equal4 ,after ,pitt's death his surviving colleagues failed to form a cabinet strong enough to face the formidable combination known as ,all the ,talents1 and ,castlereagh acquiesced in the resignation4 ,but to the foreign policy of the ,fox-,greville ministry and its conduct of the war he was always opposed4 ,his objections to the ,whig doctrine of withdrawal from ,continental entanglements and to the reduction of military expenditure were justified when ,fox himself was compelled to nail his country's colours to the mast4 ,the cabinet of ,all the ,talents1 weakened by the death of ,fox and the renewed quarrel with the king1 went out in ,april #ahjg4 ,castlereagh returned to the ,war ,office under ,portland1 but grave difficulties arose1 though ,canning at the ,foreign ,office was then thoroughly at one with him4 ,a priceless opportunity had been missed after ,eylau4 ,the ,whigs had crippled the transport service1 and the operations to avert the ruin of the coalition at ,friedland came too late4 ,the ,tsar ,alexander believed that ,england would no longer concern herself with the ,continental struggle1 and ,friedland was followed by ,tilsit4 ,the secret articles of that compact1 denied at the time by the ,opposition and by ,french apologists1 have now been revealed from official records in ,m4 ,vandal's work1 ,napolon et ,alexandre4 ,castlereagh and ,canning saw the vital importance of nullifying the aim of this project4 ,the seizure of the ,danish squadron at ,copenhagen1 and the measures taken to rescue the fleets of ,portugal and ,sweden from ,napoleon1 crushed a combination as menacing as that defeated at ,trafalgar4 ,the expedition to ,portugal1 though ,castlereagh's influence was able only to secure ,arthur ,wellesley a secondary part at first1 soon dwarfed other issues4 ,in the debates on the ,convention of ,cintra1 ,castlereagh defended ,wellesley against parliamentary attacks3 ,a brother1 the latter wrote1 could not have done more4 ,the depression produced by ,moore's campaign in northern ,spain1 and the king's repugnance to the ,peninsular operations1 seemed to cut short ,wellesley's career2 but early in #ahji1 ,castlereagh1 with no little difficulty1 secured his friend's appointment as commander-in-chief of the second ,portuguese expedition4 ,the merit has been claimed for ,canning by ,stapleton1 but the evidence is all the other way4 ,meanwhile1 ,castlereagh's policy led to a crisis that clouded his own fortunes4 ,the breach between him and ,canning was not due to his incompetence in the conduct of the ,walcheren expedition1 ,in fact1 ,castlereagh's ejection was decided by ,canning's intrigues1 though concealed from the victim1 months before the armament was sent out to the ,scheldt4 ,in the selection of the earl of ,chatham as commander the king's personal preference was known1 but there is evidence also that it was one of ,canning's schemes1 as he reckoned1 if ,chatham succeeded1 on turning him into a convenient ministerial figurehead4 ,canning was not openly opposed to the ,walcheren expedition1 and on the ,peninsular question he mainly differed from ,castlereagh and ,wellington in fixing his hopes on national enthusiasm and popular uprisings4 ,military opinion is generally agreed that the plan of striking from ,walcheren at ,antwerp1 the ,french naval base1 was sound4 ,napoleon heard the news with dismay2 in principle ,wellington approved the plan4 ,castlereagh's proposal was for a coup de main1 under strict conditions of celerity and secrecy1 as ,antwerp was unable to make any adequate defence4 ,but ,chatham1 the naval authorities and the cabinet proceeded with a deliberation explained by the fact that the war secretary had been condemned in secret4 ,the expedition1 planned at the end of ,march1 did not reach ,walcheren till the end of ,july #ahji2 and more time was lost in movements against ,batz and ,flushing1 protracted until an unhealthy autumn prostrated the army1 which was withdrawn1 discredited and disabled1 in ,september4 ,public opinion threw the whole blame upon ,castlereagh1 who then found that1 in deference to ,canning1 his colleagues had decreed his removal half a year earlier1 though they kept silence till the troops were brought back from ,walcheren4 ,when ,castlereagh learned from ,percival that the slur cast on him had its origin in a secret attack on him many months before1 he was cruelly hurt4 ,the main charge against him was1 he says1 that he would not throw over officers on whom unpopularity fell1 at the first shadow of ill-fortune4 ,his refusal to rush into censure of ,moore1 following ,canning's sudden change from eulogy to denunciation1 requires no defence4 ,according to the ideas then prevailing ,castlereagh held himself justified in sending a challenge to the original author1 as he held1 of a disloyal intrigue against a colleague4 ,in the subsequent duel ,canning was wounded and the rivals simultaneously resigned4 ,in private letters to his father and brother1 ,castlereagh urged that he was bound to show that he was not privy to his own disgrace4 ,when ,canning published a lengthy explanation of his conduct1 many who had sided with him were convinced that ,castlereagh had been much wronged4 ,the excuse that the protest upon which the cabinet decided against ,castlereagh did not mention the minister's name was regarded as a quibble4 ,men widely differing in character and opinions--,walter ,scott1 ,sidney ,smith1 ,brougham and ,cobbett--took this view4 ,castlereagh loyally supported the government in parliament1 after ,lord ,wellesley's appointment to the ,foreign ,office4 ,though ,wellington's retreat after ,talavera had been included1 with the disasters of the ,corunna and ,walcheren campaigns1 in the censures on ,castlereagh1 and though ministers were often depressed and doubtful1 ,castlereagh never lost faith in ,wellington's genius4 ,lord ,wellesley's resignation in #ahab1 when the ,whigs failed to come to terms with the regent1 led to ,castlereagh's return to office as foreign secretary 7,march #ahab74 ,the assassination of ,percival soon threw upon him the leadership of the ,house of ,commons1 and this double burden he continued to bear during the rest of his life4 ,from ,march #ahab to ,july #ahbb ,castlereagh's biography is1 in truth1 the history of ,england4 ,though never technically prime minister1 during these years he wielded a power such as few ministers have exercised4 ,political opponents and personal ill-wishers admitted that he was the ablest leader who ever controlled the ,house of ,commons for so long a period4 ,as a diplomatist1 nobody save ,marlborough had the same influence over men or was given equal freedom by his colleagues at home4 ,foreigners saw in him the living presence of ,england in the camp of the ,allies4 ,at the ,war ,office he had been hampered by the lack of technical knowledge1 while nature had not granted him1 as an organizer1 the powers of a ,carnot or ,roon4 ,but in diplomacy his peculiar combination of strength and charm1 of patience and conciliatory adroitness1 was acknowledged by all4 ,at the ,foreign ,office he set himself at once to meet ,napoleon's designs in northern ,europe1 where ,russia was preparing for her life-and-death struggle4 ,lord ,wellesley paid a high tribute to ,castlereagh's conduct in this situation1 and ,wellington declared that he had then rendered to the world the most important service that ever fell to the lot of any individual to perform4 ,castlereagh wisely rejected ,napoleon's insincere overtures for peace4 ,after the ,moscow dbcle ,napoleon's fate was affected not only by ,wellington's progress in ,spain1 but by the attitude of the northern powers and by the action of ,turkey1 due to ,castlereagh's opportune disclosure to the ,porte of the scheme of partition at ,tilsit4 ,at home1 the repeal of the ,orders in ,council was carried1 the damage to ,british trade plainly outweighing the injury inflicted on ,france by the restrictive system4 ,the ,british subsidies to the ,allies were largely increased as the operations of #ahac developed1 but all ,castlereagh's skill was needed to keep the ,coalition together4 ,the ,allied powers were willing1 even after ,leipzig1 to treat with ,france on the basis of restoring her natural frontiers--the ,rhine1 the ,alps and the ,pyrenees2 but ,castlereagh protested4 ,he would not allow the enemy to take ground for another tiger-spring4 ,before the ,conference of ,chtillon1 where ,napoleon sent ,caulaincourt to negotiate for peace--with the message scribbled on the margin of his instructions1 ,ne signez rien--,aberdeen wrote to hasten ,castlereagh's coming3 ,everything which has been so long smothered is now bursting forth2 and again1 ,your presence has done much and would1 ,i have no doubt1 continue to sustain them 7the ,allies7 in misfortune4 ,the ,liverpool cabinet then and later were as urgent in pressing him to return to lead the ,house of ,commons4 ,he had lost his seat for ,down in #ahje1 and afterwards sat for ,british boroughs2 but in #ahab he was re-elected by his old constituents2 and again in #ahah and #ahbj1 sitting1 after he became marquess of ,londonderry in #ahba1 for ,orford4 ,early in #ahad his colleagues reluctantly consented to his visit to the allied headquarters4 ,the ,great ,alliance showed signs of weakness and division4 ,austria was holding back2 ,prussia had almost broken away2 above all1 the ambiguous conduct of ,alexander bred alarm and doubt4 ,this situation became increasingly serious while ,napoleon was giving daily proofs that his military genius1 confronting a hesitant and divided enemy1 was at its best4 ,castlereagh strove to keep the ,allies together1 to give no excuse for those separate arrangements upon which ,napoleon was reckoning1 to assert no selfish policy for ,england1 to be tied by no theoretical consistency4 ,at the ,chtillon conferences ,england was represented by others1 but ,castlereagh was present with supreme authority over all1 and it was he who determined the result4 ,he declined to commit his country either to a blank refusal to negotiate with ,napoleon or to the advocacy of a ,bourbon restoration4 ,he was ready to give up almost the whole of ,england's conquests1 but he insisted on the return of ,france within her ancient limits as the basis of a settlement4 ,caulaincourt's advice was to take advantage of these overtures2 but his master was not to be advised4 ,the counter-projects that he urged ,caulaincourt to submit to were advanced after his victory at ,montereau1 when he boasted that he was nearer to ,munich than the ,allies were to ,paris4 ,even before the ,chtillon conference was dissolved 7,march #ahth71 ,castlereagh saw that ,caulaincourt's efforts would never bend ,napoleon's will4 ,the ,allies adopted his view and signed the treaty of ,chaumont 7,march #ast71 my treaty1 as ,castlereagh called it1 with an unusual touch of personal pride2 adding ,upon the face of the treaty this year our engagement is equivalent to theirs united4 ,the power of ,england when she threw her purse into the scale had been just exhibited at ,bar-sur-,aube1 when at a council of all the representatives of the powers the retreat of the allied armies was discussed4 ,bernadotte1 playing a waiting game in ,holland1 was unwilling to reinforce ,blcher1 then in a dangerous position1 by the ,russian and ,prussian divisions of ,winzingerode and ,blow1 temporarily placed under his orders4 ,having asked for and received the assurance that the military leaders were agreed in holding the transfer necessary1 ,castlereagh declared that he took upon himself the responsibility of bringing the ,swedish prince to reason4 ,the withholding of the ,british subsidies was a vital matter1 not only with ,bernadotte but with all the powers4 ,castlereagh's avowed intention to take this step without waiting for sanction from his cabinet put an end to evasion and delay4 ,blcher was reinforced by the two divisions2 the battle of ,laon was fought and won1 and the allies occupied the ,french capital4 ,in ,april #ahad ,castlereagh arrived in ,paris4 ,he did not disguise his discontent with ,napoleon's position at ,elba1 close to the ,french coast1 though he advised ,england not to separate herself at this crisis from her allies4 ,his uneasiness led him to summon ,wellington from the south to the ,embassy in ,paris4 ,he hastened himself to ,london during the visit of the allied sovereigns1 and met with a splendid reception4 ,he was honoured with the ,garter1 being one of the few commoners ever admitted to that order4 ,when the ,house of ,commons offered to the ,crown its congratulations upon the treaty of peace1 ,castlereagh's triumph was signalized by a brilliantly eloquent panegyric from ,canning1 and by a recantation of his former doubts and denunciations from ,whitbread4 ,his own dignified language vindicated his country from the charge of selfish ambition4 ,his appointment as ,british representative at ,vienna1 where the congress was to meet in ,september1 was foreseen2 but meanwhile he was not idle4 ,the war with the ,united ,states1 originating in the non-intercourse dispute and the ,orders in ,council1 did not cease with the repeal of the latter4 ,it lasted through #ahad till the signing of the treaty of ,ghent1 soon before the flight from ,elba4 ,in parliament the ministry1 during ,castlereagh's absence1 had been poorly championed4 ,canning had thrown away his chance by his unwise refusal of the ,foreign ,office4 ,none of the ministers had any pretension to lead when ,castlereagh was busy abroad and ,canning was sulking at home1 and ,castlereagh's letters to ,vansittart1 the chancellor of the exchequer1 show how these difficulties weighed upon him in facing the position at ,vienna1 where it was imperative for him to appear4 ,at ,vienna he realized at once that the ambition of ,russia might be as formidable to ,europe and to ,great ,britain as that of the fallen tyrant4 ,his aim throughout had been to rescue ,europe from military domination2 and when he found that ,russia and ,prussia were pursuing ends incompatible with the general interest1 he did not hesitate to take a new line4 ,he brought about the secret treaty 7,jan4 #c1 #ahae7 between ,great ,britain1 ,austria and ,france1 directed against the plans of ,russia in ,poland and of ,prussia in ,saxony4 ,through ,castlereagh's efforts1 the ,polish and ,saxon questions were settled on the basis of compromise4 ,the threat of ,russian interference in the ,low ,countries was dropped4 ,while the ,congress was still unfinished1 ,napoleon's escape from ,elba came like a thunderclap4 ,castlereagh had come home for a short visit 7,feb4 #ahae71 at the urgent request of the cabinet1 just before the flight was known4 ,the shock revived the ,great ,alliance under the compact of ,chaumont4 ,all energies were directed to preparing for the campaign of ,waterloo4 ,castlereagh's words in parliament were1 ,whatever measures you adopt or decision you arrive at must rest on your own power and not on reliance on this man4 ,napoleon promptly published the secret treaty which ,castlereagh had concluded with ,metternich and ,talleyrand1 and the last left in the ,french archives4 ,but ,russia and ,prussia1 though much displeased1 saw that1 in the face of ,bonaparte's return1 they dared not weaken the ,alliance4 ,british subsidies were again poured out like water4 ,after ,napoleon's overthrow1 ,castlereagh successfully urged his removal to ,st ,helena1 where his custodians were charged to treat him with all the respect due to his rank1 but under such precautions as should render his escape a matter of impossibility4 ,some of the continental powers demanded1 after ,waterloo1 fines and cessions that would have crushed ,france2 but in ,november a peace was finally concluded1 mainly by ,castlereagh's endeavours1 minimising the penalties exacted1 and abandoning on ,england's part the whole of her share of the indemnity4 ,the war created an economic situation at home which strengthened the ,whigs and ,radicals1 previously discredited by their hostility to a patriotic struggle4 ,in #ahaf the ,income ,tax was remitted1 despite ,castlereagh's contention that something should first be done to reduce the ,debt ,charge4 ,his policy1 impressed upon ,british representatives abroad1 was to turn the confidence ,great ,britain inspired to the account of peace1 by exercising a conciliatory influence in ,europe4 ,brougham's action1 at the end of #ahae1 denouncing the ,holy ,alliance1 even in its early form1 was calculated to embarrass ,england1 though she was no party to what ,castlereagh described as a piece of sublime mysticism and nonsense4 ,while he saw no reason in this for breaking up the ,grand ,alliance1 which he looked upon as a convenient organ of diplomatic intercourse and as essential for the maintenance of peace1 he regarded with alarm the little spirit of ,german intrigue1 and agreed with ,wellington that to attempt to crush ,france1 as the ,prussians desired1 or to keep her in a perpetual condition of tutelage under a ,european concert from which she herself should be excluded1 would be to invite the very disaster which it was the object of the ,alliance to avoid4 ,it was not till ,metternich's idea of extending the scope of the ,alliance1 by using it to crush the revolution wherever it should raise its head1 began to take shape1 from the conference of ,aix-la-,chapelle 7#ahah7 onward1 that ,great ,britain's separation from her continental allies became inevitable4 ,against this policy of the reactionary powers ,castlereagh from the first vigorously protested4 ,as little was he prepared to accept the visionary schemes of the emperor ,alexander for founding an effective confederation of ,europe upon the inclusive basis of the ,holy ,alliance 7see ,,alexander ,i4 of ,russia74 ,meanwhile financial troubles at home1 complicated by the resumption of cash payments in #ahai1 led to acute social tension4 ,peterloo and the ,six ,acts were furiously denounced1 though the bills introduced by ,sidmouth and ,castlereagh were carried in both ,houses by overwhelming majorities4 ,the danger that justified them was proved beyond contest by the ,cato ,street ,conspiracy in #ahbj4 ,it is now admitted by ,liberal writers that the ,six ,acts1 in the circumstances1 were reasonable and necessary4 ,throughout1 ,castlereagh maintained his tranquil ascendancy in the ,house of ,commons1 though he had few colleagues who were capable of standing up against ,brougham4 ,canning1 indeed1 had returned to office and had defended the ,six ,acts1 but ,castlereagh bore the whole burden of parliamentary leadership1 as well as the enormous responsibilities of the ,foreign ,office4 ,his appetite for work caused him to engage in debates and enquiries on financial and legal questions when he might have delegated the task to others4 ,althorp was struck with his unsleeping energy on the ,agricultural ,distress ,committee2 ,his exertions1 coupled with his other duties--and unfortunately he was always obstinate in refusing assistance--strained his constitution fearfully1 as was shown by his careworn brow and increasing paleness4 ,in #ahba1 on ,sidmouth's retirement1 he took upon himself the laborious functions of the ,home ,office4 ,the diplomatic situation had become serious4 ,the policy of intervention1 with which ,great ,britain had consistently refused to identify herself1 had been proclaimed to the world by the famous ,troppau ,protocol1 signed by ,russia1 ,austria and ,prussia 7see ,,troppau1 ,,congress ,,of74 ,the immediate occasion was the revolution at ,naples1 where the egregious ,spanish constitution of #ahab had been forced on the king by a military rising4 ,with military revolts1 as with paper constitutions of an unworkable type1 ,castlereagh had no sympathy2 and in this particular case the revolution1 in his opinion1 was wholly without excuse or palliation4 ,he was prepared to allow the intervention of ,austria1 if she considered her rights under the treaty of #ahac violated1 or her position as an ,italian ,power imperilled4 ,but he protested against the general claim1 embodied in the ,protocol1 of the ,european powers to interfere1 uninvited1 in the internal concerns of sovereign states2 he refused to make ,great ,britain1 even tacitly1 a party to such interference1 and again insisted that her part in the ,alliance was defined by the letter of the treaties1 beyond which she was not prepared to go4 ,in no case1 he affirmed1 would ,great ,britain undertake the moral responsibility for administering a general ,european police1 which she would never tolerate as applied to herself4 ,to ,troppau1 accordingly1 no ,british plenipotentiary was sent1 since the outcome of the conferences was a foregone conclusion2 though ,lord ,stewart came from ,vienna to watch the course of events4 ,at ,laibach an attempt to revive the ,troppau proposals was defeated by the firm opposition of ,stewart2 but a renewal of the struggle at ,verona in the autumn of #ahbb was certain4 ,castlereagh1 now marquess of ,londonderry1 was again to be the ,british representative1 and he drew up for himself instructions that were handed over unaltered by ,canning1 his successor at the ,foreign ,office1 to the new plenipotentiary1 ,wellington4 ,in the threatened intervention of the continental powers in ,spain1 as in their earlier action towards ,naples and ,sardinia1 ,england refused to take part4 ,the ,spanish revolutionary movement1 ,castlereagh wrote1 was a matter with which1 in the opinion of the ,english cabinet1 no foreign power had the smallest right to interfere4 ,before1 however1 the question of intervention in ,spain had reached its most critical stage the development of the ,greek insurrection against the ,ottoman government brought up the ,eastern ,question in an acute form1 which profoundly modified the relations of the powers within the ,alliance1 and again drew ,metternich and ,castlereagh together in common dread of an isolated attack by ,russia upon ,turkey4 ,a visit of ,king ,george ,,iv4 to ,hanover1 in ,october #ahba1 was made the occasion of a meeting between ,lord ,londonderry and the ,austrian chancellor4 ,a meeting so liable to misinterpretation was in ,castlereagh's opinion justified by the urgency of the crisis in the ,east1 a practical consideration of the greatest moment1 which had nothing in common with the objectionable theoretical question with which the ,british government had refused to concern itself4 ,yet ,castlereagh1 on this occasion1 showed that he could use the theories of others for his own practical ends2 and he joined cordially with ,metternich in taking advantage of the emperor ,alexander's devotion to the principles of the ,alliance to prevent his taking an independent line in the ,eastern ,question4 ,it was1 indeed1 the belief that this question would be made the matter of common discussion at the congress that led ,castlereagh to agree to be present at ,verona2 and in his ,instructions he foreshadowed the policy afterwards carried out by ,canning1 pointing out that the development of the war had made the recognition of the belligerent rights of the ,greeks inevitable1 and quoting the precedent of the ,spanish ,american colonies as exactly applicable4 ,with regard to the ,spanish colonies1 moreover1 though he was not as yet prepared to recognize their independence de jure1 he was strongly of opinion that the ,spanish government should do so since other states would acknowledge them sooner or later1 and it is to the interest of ,spain herself to find the means of restoring an intercourse when she cannot succeed in restoring a dominion4 ,but the tragic ending of ,castlereagh's strenuous life was near2 and the credit of carrying out the policy foreshadowed in the ,instructions was to fall to his rival ,canning4 ,lord ,londonderry's exhaustion became evident during the toilsome session of #ahbb4 ,both the king and ,wellington were struck by his overwrought condition1 which his family attributed to an attack of the gout and the lowering remedies employed4 ,wellington warned ,dr ,bankhead that ,castlereagh was unwell1 and1 perhaps1 mentally disordered4 ,bankhead went down to ,north ,cray and took due precautions4 ,castlereagh's razors were taken away1 but a penknife was forgotten in a drawer1 and with this he cut his throat 7,august #ab1 #ahbb74 ,he had just before said1 ,my mind1 my mind1 is1 as it were1 gone2 and1 when he saw his wife and ,bankhead talking together1 he moaned there is a conspiracy laid against me4 ,it was as clear a case of brain disease as any on record4 ,but this did not prevent his enemies of the baser sort from asserting1 without a shadow of proof1 that the suicide was caused by terror at some hideous and undefined charge4 ,the testimony of statesmen of the highest character and of all parties to ,castlereagh's gifts and charm is in strong contrast with the flood of vituperation and calumny poured out upon his memory by those who knew him not4 ,,bibliography4--,castlereagh's correspondence and papers were published by his brother and successor 7#ahej-ahec7 in twelve volumes4 ,sir ,archibald ,alison's ,biography in three volumes came out in #ahfa1 with copious extracts from the manuscripts preserved at ,wynyard4 ,it was made the subject of an interesting essay in the ,quarterly ,review for ,january #ahfb1 reprinted in ,essays by the late ,marquis of ,salisbury 7,london1 #aije74 ,a graceful sketch by ,theresa1 ,marchioness of ,londonderry 7,london1 #aijd71 originally brought out in the ,anglo-,saxon ,review1 contains some extracts from ,castlereagh's unpublished correspondence with his wife1 the record of an enduring and passionate attachment which throws a new light on the man4 7,e4 ,d4 ,j4 ,w47 ,,londonderry1 a northern county of ,ireland in the province of ,ulster1 bounded ,n4 by the ,atlantic1 ,w4 by ,lough ,foyle and ,donegal1 ,e4 by ,antrim and ,lough ,neagh1 and ,s4 by ,tyrone4 ,the area is #ebb1cae acres1 or about #haf sq4 m4 ,the county consists chiefly of river valleys surrounded by elevated table-lands rising occasionally into mountains1 while on the borders of the sea-coast the surface is generally level4 ,the principal river is the ,roe1 which flows northward from the borders of ,tyrone into ,lough ,foyle below ,newton-,limavady1 and divides the county into two unequal parts4 ,farther west the ,faughan also falls into ,lough ,foyle1 and the river ,foyle passes through a small portion of the county near its north-western boundary4 ,in the south-east the ,moyola falls into ,lough ,neagh1 and the ,lower ,bann from ,lough ,neagh forms for some distance its eastern boundary with ,antrim4 ,the only lake in the county is ,lough ,finn on the borders of ,tyrone1 but ,lough ,neagh forms about #f m4 of its south-eastern boundary4 ,the scenery of the shores of ,lough ,foyle and the neighbouring coast is attractive1 and ,castlerock1 ,downhill1 ,magilligan and ,portstewart are favourite seaside resorts4 ,on the flat ,magilligan peninsula1 which forms the eastern horn of ,lough ,foyle1 the base-line of the trigonometrical survey of ,ireland was measured in #ahbf4 ,the scenery of the ,roe valley1 with the picturesque towns of ,limavady and ,dungiven1 is also attractive1 and the roads from the latter place to ,draperstown and to ,maghera1 traversing the passes of ,evishgore and ,glenshane respectively1 afford fine views of the ,sperrin and ,slieve ,gallion mountains4 ,the west of this county consists of ,dalradian mica-schist1 with some quartzite1 and is a continuation of the northern region of ,tyrone4 ,an inlier of these rocks appears in the rising ground east of ,dungiven1 including dark grey crystalline limestone4 ,old ,red ,sandstone and ,lower ,carboniferous ,sandstone overlie these old rocks in the south and east1 meeting the igneous green rocks of ,tyrone1 and the granite intrusive in them1 at the north end of ,slieve ,gallion4 ,triassic sandstone covers the lower slope of ,slieve ,gallion on the south-east towards ,moneymore1 and rises above the ,carboniferous ,sandstone from ,dungiven northward4 ,at ,moneymore we reach the western scarp of the white ,limestone 7,chalk7 and the overlying basalt of the great plateaus1 which dip down eastward under ,lough ,neagh4 ,the basalt scarp1 protecting chalk and patches of ,liassic and ,rhaetic strata1 rises to #abfj ft4 in ,benevenagh north of ,limavady1 and repeats the finest features of the ,antrim coast4 ,a raised shelf with post-glacial marine clays forms the flat land west of ,limavady4 ,haematite has been mined on the south flank of ,slieve ,gallion4 ,the excessive rainfall and the cold and uncertain climate are unfavourable for agriculture4 ,along the sea-coast there is a district of red clay formed by the decomposition of sandstone1 and near the mouth of the ,roe there is a tract of marl4 ,along the valleys the soil is often fertile1 and the elevated districts of the clay-slate region afford pasture for sheep4 ,the acreage of pasture-land does not greatly exceed that of tillage4 ,oats1 potatoes and turnips are chiefly grown1 with some flax2 and cattle1 sheep1 pigs and poultry are kept in considerable numbers4 ,the staple manufacture of the county is linen4 ,the manufacture of coarse earthenware is also carried on1 and there are large distilleries and breweries and some salt-works4 ,there are fisheries for salmon and eels on the ,bann1 for which ,coleraine is the headquarters4 ,the deep-sea and coast fisheries are valuable1 and are centred at ,moville in ,co4 ,donegal4 ,the city of ,londonderry is an important railway centre4 ,the ,northern ,counties 7,midland7 main line reaches it by way of ,coleraine and the north coast of the county1 and the same railway serves the eastern part of the county1 with branches from ,antrim to ,magherafelt1 and ,magherafelt to ,cookstown 7,co4 ,tyrone71 to ,draperstown and to ,coleraine1 and from ,limavady to ,dungiven4 ,the ,great ,northern railway reaches ,londonderry from the south1 and the city is also the starting-point of the ,county ,donegal1 and the ,londonderry and ,lough ,swilly railways4 ,the population decreases 7#aeb1jji in #ahia2 #add1djd in #aija7 and emigration is extensive1 though both decrease and emigration are well below the average of the ,irish counties4 ,of the total1 about #dc are ,roman ,catholics1 and nearly #ej ,presbyterians or ,protestant ,episcopalians4 ,londonderry 7pop4 #ch1hib71 ,coleraine 7#fieh7 and ,limavady 7#bfib7 are the principal towns1 while ,magherafelt and ,moneymore are lesser market towns4 ,the county comprises six baronies4 ,assizes are held at ,londonderry1 and quarter sessions at ,coleraine1 ,londonderry and ,magherafelt4 ,the county is represented in parliament by two members1 for the north and south divisions respectively4 ,the ,protestant and ,roman ,catholic dioceses of ,armagh1 ,derry and ,down each include parts of the county4 ,at an early period the county was inhabited by the ,o',cathans or ,o',catrans1 who were tributary to the ,o',neills4 ,towards the close of the reign of ,elizabeth the county was seized1 with the purpose of checking the power of the ,o',neills1 when it received the name of ,coleraine1 having that town for its capital4 ,in #afji1 after the confiscation of the estates of the ,o',neills1 the citizens of ,london obtained possession of the towns of ,londonderry and ,coleraine and adjoining lands1 #fj acres out of every #ajjj being assigned for church lands4 ,the common council of ,london undertook to expend #bj1jjj on the reclamation of the property1 and elected a body of twenty-six for its management1 who in #afac were incorporated as the ,irish ,society1 and retained possession of the towns of ,londonderry and ,coleraine1 the remainder of the property being divided among twelve of the great livery companies4 ,their estates were sequestrated by ,james ,i41 and in #afcg the charter of the ,irish ,society was cancelled4 ,cromwell restored the society to its former position1 and ,charles ,,ii4 at the ,restoration granted it a new charter1 and confirmed the companies in their estates4 ,in the insurrection of #afda ,moneymore was seized by the ,irish1 and ,magherafelt and ,bellaghy1 then called ,vintner's ,town1 burned1 as well as other towns and villages4 ,there are several stone circles1 and a large number of artificial caves4 ,the most ancient castle of ,irish origin is that of ,carrickreagh2 and of the castles erected by the ,english those of ,dungiven and ,muff are in good preservation4 ,the abbey of ,dungiven1 founded in #aaji1 and standing on a rock about #bjj ft4 above the river ,roe1 is a picturesque ruin4 ,,londonderry1 or ,,derry1 a city1 county of a city1 parliamentary borough 7returning one member7 and the chief town of ,co4 ,londonderry1 ,ireland1 #d m4 from the junction of the river ,foyle with ,lough ,foyle1 and #ie m4 ,n4,n4,w4 of ,belfast4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ch1hib4 ,the city is situated on an eminence rising abruptly from the west side of the river to a height of about #abj ft4 ,the eminence is surrounded by hills which reach1 a few miles to the north1 an elevation of upwards of #aejj ft41 and the river and lough complete an admirable picture4 ,the city is surrounded by an ancient rampart about a mile in circumference1 having seven gates and several bastions1 but buildings now extend beyond this boundary4 ,the summit of the hill1 at the centre of the town1 is occupied by a quadrangular area from which the main streets diverge4 ,some old houses with high pyramidal gables remain but are much modernized4 ,the ,protestant cathedral of ,st ,columba1 in ,perpendicular style1 was completed from the design of ,sir ,john ,vanbrugh in #afcc1 at a cost of #djjj contributed by the city of ,london1 and was enlarged and restored in #ahhg4 ,the spire was added in #aggh and rebuilt in #ahjb4 ,the bishop's palace1 erected in #agaf1 occupies the site of the abbey founded by ,columba4 ,the abbot of this monastery1 on being made bishop1 erected in #aafd ,temple ,more or the ,great ,church1 one of the finest buildings in ,ireland previous to the ,anglo-,norman invasion4 ,the original abbey church was called the ,black ,church1 but both it and the ,great ,church were demolished in #afjj and their materials used in fortifying the city4 ,there is a large ,roman ,catholic cathedral1 erected c4 #ahgj and dedicated to ,st ,eugenius4 ,for ,foyle ,college1 founded in #afag1 a new building was erected in #ahad4 ,this and the ,academical ,institution1 a foundation of #ahfh1 were amalgamated in #ahif4 ,magee ,college1 taking its name from its foundress1 ,mrs ,magee of ,dublin1 was instituted in #aheg as a training-school for the ,presbyterian ministry4 ,the staple manufacture of the town is linen 7especially shirt-making71 and there are also shipbuilding yards1 iron-foundries1 saw-mills1 manure-works1 distilleries1 breweries and flour-mills4 ,the salmon fishery on the ,foyle is valuable4 ,the river affords a commodious harbour1 its greatest depth being #cc ft4 at high tide1 and #ab ft4 at low tide4 ,it is under the jurisdiction of the ,irish ,society4 ,the port has a considerable shipping trade with ,great ,britain1 exporting agricultural produce and provisions4 ,regular services of passenger steamers serve ,londonderry from ,glasgow1 ,liverpool1 ,morecambe1 ,belfast and local coast stations4 ,in #ahih ,londonderry was constituted one of the six county boroughs which have separate county councils4 ,about #e m4 ,w4 of the city1 on a hill #hjc ft4 high1 is a remarkable fort1 consisting of three concentric ramparts1 and an interior fortification of stone4 ,it is named the ,grianan of ,aileach1 and was a residence of the ,o',neills1 kings of ,ulster4 ,it was restored in #ahgh4 ,derry1 the original name of ,londonderry1 is derived from ,doire1 the place of oaks4 ,it owes its origin to the monastery founded by ,columba about #edf4 ,with the bishopric which arose in connexion with this foundation1 that of ,raphoe was amalgamated in #ahcd4 ,from the #ith to the #aath century the town was frequently in the possession of the ,danes1 and was often devastated1 but they were finally driven from it by ,murtagh ,o',brien about the beginning of the #abth century4 ,in #acaa it was granted by ,edward ,,ii4 to ,richard de ,burgh4 ,after the ,irish ,society of ,london obtained possession of it1 it was incorporated in #afac under the name of ,londonderry4 ,from this year until the ,union in #ahjj two members were returned to the ,irish parliament4 ,the fortifications1 which were begun in #afjj1 were completed in #afah4 ,in #afhh ,derry had become the chief stronghold of the ,protestants of the north4 ,on the #gth of ,december certain of the apprentices in the city practically put themselves and it in a stage of siege by closing the gates1 and on the #aith of ,april #afhi the forces of ,james ,,ii4 began in earnest the famous siege of ,derry4 ,the rector of ,donaghmore1 ,george ,walker1 who1 with ,major ,baker1 was chosen to govern ,derry1 established fame for himself for his bravery and hopefulness during this period of privation1 and the historic answer of ,no surrender1 which became the watchword of the men of ,derry1 was given to the proposals of the besiegers4 ,the garrison was at the last extremity when1 on the #cjth of ,july1 ships broke through the obstruction across the harbour and brought relief4 ,walker and the siege are commemorated by a lofty column 7#ahbh71 bearing a statue of the governor1 on the ,royal ,bastion1 from which the town standards defied the enemy2 and the anniversary of the relief is still observed4 ,,long1 ,,george 7#ahjj-ahgi71 ,english classical scholar1 was born at ,poulton1 ,lancashire1 on the #dth of ,november #ahjj1 and educated at ,macclesfield grammar-school and ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,he was ,craven university scholar in #ahba 7bracketed with ,lord ,macaulay and ,henry ,malden71 wrangler and senior chancellor's medallist in #ahbb and became a fellow of ,trinity in #ahbc4 ,in #ahbd he was elected professor of ancient languages in the new university of ,virginia at ,charlottesville1 ,u4,s4,a41 but after four years returned to ,england as the first ,greek professor at the newly founded university of ,london4 ,in #ahdb he succeeded ,t4 ,h4 ,key as professor of ,latin at ,university ,college2 in #ahdf-ahdi he was reader in jurisprudence and civil law in the ,middle ,temple1 and finally 7#ahdi-ahga7 classical lecturer at ,brighton ,college4 ,subsequently he lived in retirement at ,portfield1 ,chichester1 in receipt 7from #ahgc7 of a ,civil ,list pension of #ajj a year obtained for him by ,gladstone4 ,he was one of the founders 7#ahcj71 and for twenty years an officer1 of the ,royal ,geographical ,society2 an active member of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge1 for which he edited the quarterly ,journal of ,education 7#ahca-ahce7 as well as many of its text-books2 the editor 7at first with ,charles ,knight1 afterwards alone7 of the ,penny ,cyclopaedia and of ,knight's ,political ,dictionary2 and a member of the ,society for ,central ,education instituted in ,london in #ahcg4 ,he contributed the ,roman law articles to ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities1 and wrote also for the companion dictionaries of ,biography and ,geography4 ,he is remembered1 however1 mainly as the editor of the ,bibliotheca ,classica series--the first serious attempt to produce scholarly editions of classical texts with ,english commentaries--to which he contributed the edition of ,cicero's ,orations 7#ahea-ahfb74 ,he died on the #ajth of ,august #ahgi4 ,among his other works are3 ,summary of ,herodotus 7#ahbi72 editions of ,herodotus 7#ahcj-ahcc7 and ,xenophon's ,anabasis 7#ahca72 revised editions of ,j4 ,a4 ,macleane's ,juvenal and ,persius 7#ahfg7 and ,horace 7#ahfi72 the ,civil ,wars of ,rome2 a translation with notes of thirteen of ,plutarch's ,lives 7#ahdd-ahdh72 translations of the ,thoughts of ,marcus ,aurelius 7#ahfb7 and the ,discourses of ,epictetus 7#ahgg72 ,decline of the ,roman ,republic 7#ahfd-ahgd71 #e vols4 ,see ,h4 ,j4 ,matthews1 ,in ,memoriam1 reprinted from the ,brighton ,college ,magazine1 #ahgi4 ,,long1 ,,john ,,davis 7#ahch- 71 ,american lawyer and political leader1 was born in ,buckfield1 ,oxford county1 ,maine1 on the #bgth of ,october #ahch4 ,he graduated at ,harvard in #aheg1 studied law at the ,harvard ,law ,school and in #ahfa was admitted to the bar4 ,he practised in ,boston1 became active in politics as a ,republican1 was a member of the ,massachusetts ,house of ,representatives in #ahge-ahgh and its speaker in #ahgf-ahgh1 lieutenant-governor of the state in #ahgi1 and governor in #ahhj-ahhb4 ,in #ahhc-ahhi he was a member of the ,national ,house of ,representatives1 and from ,march #ahig to ,may #aijb was secretary of the navy1 in the cabinet1 first of ,president ,mc,kinley and then of ,president ,roosevelt4 ,in #aijb he became president of the ,board of ,overseers of ,harvard ,college4 ,his publications include a version of the ,aeneid 7#ahgi71 ,after-,dinner and ,other ,speeches 7#ahie7 and ,the ,new ,american ,navy 7#aijc74 ,,long ,,branch1 a city of ,monmouth county1 ,new ,jersey1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the easternmost or long branch of the ,shrewsbury river and on the ,atlantic coast1 about #cj m4 ,s4 of ,new ,york ,city4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #gbca2 7#aijj7 #hhgb1 of whom #adca were foreign-born and #ihg were negroes2 7#aiaj census7 #ac1bih4 ,it is served by the ,pennsylvania1 the ,central of ,new ,jersey1 the ,new ,york ,long ,branch1 and electric railways1 and by steamboats to ,new ,york4 ,the carriage roads in the vicinity are unusually good4 ,long ,branch is one of the oldest ,american watering-places4 ,it is situated on a bluff which rises abruptly #bj-ce ft4 above the beach1 and along the front of which bulkheads and jetties have been erected as a protection from the waves2 along or near the edge of the bluff1 ,ocean ,avenue1 #fj ft4 wide and about #e m4 long 7from ,seabright to ,deal71 commands delightful views of the ocean4 ,a bluff walk runs above the water for #b m4 ,the city has one public park1 ,ocean ,park 7about #aj acres71 and two privately owned parks1 one of which is ,pleasure ,bay ,park 7#be acres71 on the ,shrewsbury river1 where operas are given in the open air4 ,the principal public institutions are the ,monmouth ,memorial ,hospital and the ,long ,branch ,circulating ,library4 ,in ,long ,branch the ,monmouth ,county ,horse ,show is held annually in ,july4 ,the southern part of ,long ,branch1 known as ,elberon1 contains some beautiful summer residences--in one of its cottages ,general ,u4 ,s4 ,grant spent his summers for many years1 and in another1 the ,francklyn1 ,president ,j4 ,a4 ,garfield died in #ahha4 ,in #aiji a monument to ,garfield was erected in ,ocean ,park4 ,adjoining ,long ,branch on the ,n4 is the borough of ,monmouth ,beach 7incorporated in #aijf2 population1 #aiaj1 #dhe74 ,before the ,war of ,independence the site of ,long ,branch was owned by ,colonel ,white1 a ,british officer4 ,it was confiscated as a result of the war1 and late in the century its development as a watering-place began4 ,long ,branch was chartered as a city in #aijd4 ,,longchamp1 ,,william 7d4 #aaig71 chancellor of ,england and bishop of ,ely1 entered public life at the close of ,henry ,,ii4's reign as official to the king's son ,geoffrey1 for the archdeaconry of ,rouen4 ,henry ,,ii41 who disliked him1 called him the son of two traitors4 ,he soon deserted ,geoffrey for ,richard1 who made him chancellor of the duchy of ,aquitaine4 ,he always showed himself an able diplomatist4 ,he first distinguished himself at ,paris1 as ,richard's envoy1 when he defeated ,henry ,,ii4's attempt to make peace with ,philip ,augustus 7#aahi74 ,on ,richard's accession ,william became chancellor of the kingdom and bishop of ,ely4 ,when ,richard left ,england 7,dec4 #aahi71 he put the tower of ,london in his hands and chose him to share with ,hugh de ,puiset1 the great bishop of ,durham1 the office of chief justiciar4 ,william immediately quarrelled with ,hugh1 and by ,april #aaij had managed to oust him completely from office4 ,in ,june #aaij he received a commission as legate from ,pope ,celestine4 ,he was then master in church as well as state4 ,but his disagreeable appearance and manners1 his pride1 his contempt for everything ,english made him detested4 ,his progresses through the country with a train of a thousand knights were ruinous to those on whom devolved the burden of entertaining him4 ,even ,john seemed preferable to him4 ,john returned to ,england in #aaia2 he and his adherents were immediately involved in disputes with ,william1 who was always worsted4 ,at last 7,june #aaia7 ,geoffrey1 archbishop of ,york and ,william's earliest benefactor1 was violently arrested by ,william's subordinates on landing at ,dover4 ,they exceeded their orders1 which were to prevent the archbishop from entering ,england until he had sworn fealty to ,richard4 ,but this outrage was made a pretext for a general rising against ,william1 whose legatine commission had now expired1 and whose power was balanced by the presence of the archbishop of ,rouen1 ,walter ,coutances1 with a commission from the king1 ,william shut himself up in the ,tower1 but he was forced to surrender his castles and expelled from the kingdom4 ,in #aaic he joined ,richard in ,germany1 and ,richard seems to have attributed the settlement soon after concluded between himself and the emperor1 to his dearest chancellor4 ,for the rest of the reign ,longchamp was employed in confidential and diplomatic missions by ,richard all over the continent1 in ,germany1 in ,france and at ,rome4 ,he died in ,january #aaig4 ,his loyalty to ,richard was unswerving1 and it was no doubt through his unscrupulous devotion to the royal interest that he incurred the hatred of ,richard's ,english subjects4 ,,authorities4--,benedictus1 ,gesta ,henrici1 vol4 ii42 ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 ,de ,vita ,galfridi2 ,stubbs' ,preface to ,roger of ,hoveden1 vol4 iii42 ,l4 ,bovine-,champeaux1 ,notice sur ,guillaume de ,longchamp 7vreux1 #ahhe74 ,,longcloth1 a plain cotton cloth originally made in comparatively long pieces4 ,the name was applied particularly to cloth made in ,india4 ,longcloth1 which is now commonly bleached1 comprehends a number of various qualities4 ,it is heavier than cambric1 and finer than medium or ,mexican4 ,as it is used principally for underclothing and shirts1 most of the longcloth sold in ,great ,britain passes through the hands of the shirt and underclothing manufacturers1 who sell to the shopkeepers1 though there is still a considerable if decreasing retail trade in piece-goods4 ,the lower kinds of longcloth1 which are made from ,american cotton1 correspond in quality to the better kinds of shirting made for the ,east1 but the best longcloths are made from ,egyptian cotton1 and are fine and fairly costly goods4 ,,long ,,eaton1 an urban district in the ,ilkeston parliamentary division of ,derbyshire1 ,england1 #aj m4 ,e4,s4,e4 of ,derby1 on the ,midland railway4 ,pop4 7#ahia7 #ifcf2 7#aija7 #ac1jde4 ,it lies in the open valley of the ,trent1 at a short distance from the river1 and near the important ,trent ,junction on the ,midland railway system4 ,the church of ,st ,lawrence has ,norman portions1 and an arch and window apparently of pre-,conquest date4 ,the large industrial population of the town is occupied in the manufacture of lace1 which extended hither from ,nottingham2 there are also railway carriage works4 ,to the north is the township of ,,sandiacre 7pop4 #bied71 where the church has a fine ,decorated chancel4 ,,longevity1 a term applied to express either the length or the duration of life in any organism1 but1 as cases of long duration excite most interest1 frequently used to denote a relatively unusual prolongation of life4 ,there is no reason to suppose that protoplasm1 the living material of organisms1 has a necessarily limited duration of life1 provided that the conditions proper to it are maintained1 and it has been argued that since every living organism comes into existence as a piece of the protoplasm of a pre-existing living organism1 protoplasm is potentially immortal4 ,living organisms exist1 however1 as particles or communities of particles of protoplasm 7see ,,life71 and as such have a limited duration of life4 ,longevity1 as ,e4 ,ray ,lankester pointed out in #ahfi1 for practical purposes must be understood to mean the length of time during which life is exhibited in an individual4 ,the word individual must be taken in its ordinary sense as a wholly or partially independent1 organized mass produced from a pre-existing organized mass1 as otherwise the problem will be confused by arguments as to the meaning of biological individuality4 ,empirical ,data4--,a multitude of observations show that only a very brief life1 ranging from a few hours to a few days1 is the normal fate of the vast majority of single-celled organisms1 whether these be animal or vegetable or on the border-line between the two kingdoms4 ,death comes to them rapidly from internal or external causes1 or the individual life ends in conjugation or division or spore-formation4 ,under special conditions1 natural or artificial1 the individual life may be prolonged by desiccation1 or freezing1 or by some similar arrest of functional activity4 ,the duration of life among plants is varied4 ,the popular division into annuals1 biennials and perennials is not absolute1 for natural and artificial conditions readily prolong the lives of annuals and biennials for several seasons1 whereas the case of perennials is much complicated by the mode of growth1 and the problem of individuality1 however we desire to exclude it1 obtrudes itself4 ,in the vast majority of cases where a plant is obviously a simple individual1 its life is short1 ranging from a few days in the case of fungi1 to two seasons in the case of biennial herbs4 ,most of the simple algae are annual1 their life enduring only for part of the year2 the branching algae are more often perennial1 but in their cases not only are observations as to duration lacking1 but however simply we may use the term individual1 its application is difficult4 ,the larger terrestrial plants with woody tissues which we denote roughly as shrubs and trees have an individuality which1 although different from that of a hyacinth or carrot1 is usually obvious4 ,shrubs live from four to ten or more years1 and it apparently is the case that odoriferous shrubs such as sage and lavender display the longer duration4 ,trees with soft wood1 such as poplars and willows1 last for about fifty years1 fruit-trees rather longer4 ,estimates of the age which large trees can attain1 based partly on attempts to count the annual rings1 have been given by many writers1 and range from about three hundred years in the case of the elm to three to five thousand years in the case of ,sequoia gigantea of ,california1 and over five thousand years in that of the baobab 7,adansonia digitata7 of ,cape ,verde4 ,it is impossible to place exact reliance on these estimates1 but it is at least certain that very many trees have a duration of life exceedingly great in comparison with the longest-lived animals4 ,the duration of life amongst multicellular invertebrate animals is little known1 except in the frequent instances where it is normally brief4 ,many sponges and polyps die at the end of the season1 leaving winter eggs or buds4 ,the much-branched masses of the larger sponges and compound hydrozoa certainly may be perennial4 ,a sea-anemone 7,actinia mesembryanthemum71 captured in #ahbh by ,sir ,john ,dalyell1 a ,scottish naturalist1 and then guessed to be about seven years old1 lived in captivity in ,edinburgh until #ahhg1 the cause of death being unknown4 ,as other instances of great ages attained by sea-anemones are on record1 it is plain that these animals1 although simple polyps1 are long-lived4 ,echinoderms are inferred to live to considerable ages1 as they grow slowly and as there is great difference in size amongst fully adult specimens4 ,on similar reasoning1 considerable age is attributed to the larger annulates and crustacea1 but the smaller forms in many cases are known to have very short lives4 ,the variation in the length of life of molluscs appears to be great4 ,many species of gastropods live only a few years2 others1 such as ,natica heros1 have reached thirty years1 whilst the large ,tridacna gigas is stated to live from sixty to a hundred years4 ,among insects1 the adult stage has usually only a very short duration of life1 extending from a few hours to a few months1 but the larval stages may last much longer4 ,including these latter1 the range of duration among insects1 taking the whole life from hatching to death1 appears to lie between the limits of a few weeks in the case of plant-lice to seventeen years in the case of the ,american ,cicada septemdecim1 the larva of which lives seventeen years1 the adult only a month4 ,most butterflies are annuals1 but those which fail to copulate may hibernate and live through a second season1 whilst the lives of some have been preserved artificially for seven years4 ,worker bees and drones do not survive the season1 but queens may live from two to five years4 ,in the case of vertebrates1 the duration of life appears to be greater among fish and reptiles than among birds and mammals4 ,the ancient ,romans have noted that eels1 kept in aquaria1 could reach the age of sixty years4 ,estimates based on size and rate of growth have led to the inference that salmon may live to the age of a hundred years1 whilst ,g4 ,l4 ,l4 ,buffon set down the period of life of carp in ponds as one hundred and fifty years1 and there is evidence for a pike having reached the age of over two centuries4 ,more recently it has been claimed that the age of fish can be ascertained exactly by counting the annual rings of the otoliths4 ,no great ages have as yet been recorded by this method1 whilst1 on the other hand1 by revealing great variations of weight and size in fishes with the same number of annual rings1 it has thrown doubt on the validity of estimates of age based on size and rate of growth4 ,the evidence as a whole is unsatisfactory1 but it is highly probable that in the absence of accidents most fish can attain very great ages4 ,the duration of life among batrachia is little known1 but small frogs have been recorded as living over twelve years1 and toads up to thirty-six years4 ,almost nothing is known as to the longevity of snakes and lizards1 but it is probable that no great ages are reached4 ,crocodiles1 alligators and caymans grow slowly and are believed to live very long4 ,there is exact evidence as to alligators in captivity in ,europe reaching forty years without signs of senescence1 and some of the sacred crocodiles of ,india are believed to be more than a hundred years old4 ,chelonians live still longer4 ,a tortoise has lived for eighty years in the garden of the governor of ,cape ,town1 and is believed to be at least two hundred years old4 ,there are records of small land-tortoises that have been kept in captivity for over a century1 whilst the very large tortoises of the ,galapagos ,islands certainly attain ages of at least two centuries and possibly much more4 ,a considerable body of information exists regarding the longevity of birds1 and much of this has been brought together by ,j4 ,h4 ,gurney4 ,from his lists1 which include more than fifty species1 it appears that the duration is least in the case of small passerine and picarian birds1 where it ranges from eight or nine years 7goat-suckers and swifts7 to a maximum of twenty-five years1 the latter age having been approached by larks1 canaries and goldfinch4 ,gulls have been recorded as living over forty years1 ducks and geese over fifty years 7the duchess of ,bedford has recorded the case of a ,chinese goose having been in possession of the same family for fifty-seven years74 ,parrots frequently live over eighty years1 swans nearly as long1 ravens and owls rather less1 whilst there is excellent evidence of eagles and falcons considerably exceeding a hundred years4 ,notwithstanding their relatively large size1 struthious birds do not reach great ages4 ,the records for cassowaries and rheas do not exceed thirty years1 and the maximum for ostriches is fifty years1 and that on doubtful evidence4 ,exact records regarding the longevity of mammals are surprisingly few4 ,there is no evidence as to ,monotremes4 ,the life of ,marsupials in captivity is seldom long2 a phalanger has lived in the ,london ,zoological ,gardens and showed no signs of age at more than ten years old2 it may be inferred that the larger forms are capable of living longer4 ,reliable records as to ,edentates do not exist2 those in captivity have short lives1 but the size and structure of some of the extinct forms suggests that they may have reached a great age4 ,nothing is known regarding the longevity of ,sirenians1 except that they do not live long in captivity4 ,in the case of ,cetaceans1 estimates based on the growth of whale-bone assign an age of several centuries to whale-bone whales2 exact records do not exist4 ,more is known regarding ,ungulates1 as many of these are domesticated1 semi-domesticated or are frequently kept in captivity4 ,great length of life has been assigned to the rhinoceros1 but the longest actual record is that of an ,indian rhinoceros which lived for thirty-seven years in the ,london ,zoological ,gardens4 ,the usual duration of life in the case of horses1 asses and zebras is from fifteen to thirty years1 but instances of individuals reaching fifty years are fairly well authenticated4 ,domestic cattle may live from twenty-five to thirty years1 sheep and goats from twelve to fourteen years1 antelopes rather longer1 especially in the case of the larger forms4 ,a giraffe has lived for nineteen years in the ,london ,zoological ,gardens4 ,deer are reputed to live longer than sheep1 and records of individuals at the ,london ,gardens confirm this1 but it is doubtful if they live as long as cattle4 ,camels are long-lived1 according to repute1 but actual records show no great age2 a llama which died in the ,london ,gardens at the age of seventeen years showed unmistakable signs of senility4 ,the hippopotamus is another large ungulate to which great longevity has been assigned1 but the longest actual record is the case of a female born in the ,london ,gardens which died in its thirty-fifth year4 ,the duration of life assigned to domestic swine is about twenty years2 an ,indian wild boar1 alive in the ,london ,zoological ,gardens in #aiaj1 and apparently in full vigour1 was fifteen years old4 ,elephants are usually supposed capable of reaching great ages1 but the actual records of menagerie and military animals show that thirty to forty years is a normal limit4 ,facts as to rodents are not numerous2 the larger forms such as hares and rabbits may live for ten years1 smaller forms such as rats and mice1 for five or six years4 ,bats have a reputation for long duration of life1 and tropical fruit-bats are known to have lived for seventeen years4 ,no great ages have been recorded for ,carnivora1 but the average is fairly high4 ,twenty-five years appears to be a limit very rarely exceeded by lions1 tigers or bears2 domestic cats may live for from twelve to twenty-three years1 and dogs from sixteen to eighteen years1 though cases of as many as thirty-four years have been noted4 ,less is known of the smaller forms1 but menagerie records show that ages between twelve and twenty are frequently reached4 ,there were in #aiaj in the ,london ,zoological ,gardens1 apparently in good health1 a meerkat at least twelve years old1 a sand-badger fourteen years and a ratel nineteen years of age4 ,records regarding monkeys are unsatisfactory1 for these creatures are notoriously delicate in captivity1 and it is practically certain that under such circumstances they rarely die of old age4 ,a grey lemur eleven years old and a chimpanzee eleven and a half1 both in good health in the ,london ,zoological ,gardens1 appear to be the oldest primates definitely recorded4 ,estimates based on size1 condition of the skull and so forth obtained by examination of wild specimens that have been killed would seem to establish a rough correspondence between the size of monkeys and their duration of life1 and to set the limits as between seven or eight and thirty years4 ,with regard to the human race1 there seems to be almost no doubt but that the average duration of life has increased with civilization2 the generally improved conditions of life1 the greater care of the young and of the aged and the advance in medical and surgical science far more than outweigh any depressing effect caused by the more strenuous and nervous activity required by modern social organization4 ,the expectation of life of those who attain the age of sixty varies with race1 sex and occupation1 but is certainly increasing1 and an increasing number of persons have a chance of reaching and do reach ages between ninety and one hundred4 ,careful investigation has thrown doubt almost amounting to disproof on the much-quoted cases of great longevity1 such as that of ,thomas ,parr1 the ,shropshire peasant1 who was supposed to have reached his hundred and fifty-third year1 and1 although the existence of centenarians is thoroughly established1 any ages exceeding a hundred by more than two or three years are1 at the most1 dubious4 ,a survey of the facts of longevity1 so far as these are established on reasonable evidence1 discloses that the recorded ages both of men and animals are much shorter than those assigned in popular belief4 ,the duration of life is usually brief in the animal kingdom1 and except for some fish and reptiles1 and possibly whales1 it is certain that a man enjoys the longest average duration of life and that centenarians occur more frequently amongst men than amongst most of the lower animals4 ,theories of ,longevity4--,ray ,lankester has pointed out that several meanings are attached to the word longevity4 ,it may be used of an individual1 and in this sense has little importance1 partly because of the inevitable variability of the individual1 and partly because there may be individuals that are abnormal in duration of life1 just as there are abnormalities in weight or height4 ,it may be used for the average duration of life of all the individuals of a species and so be another way of expressing the average mortality that affects the species1 and that varies not only with structure and constitution but with the kind of enemies1 accidents and conditions to which the members of the species are subject4 ,if we reflect on the large incidence of mortality from external causes affecting a species and particularly the young of a species1 we shall see that we must conclude that intrinsic1 physiological causes can have relatively little weight in determining the average mortality rate4 ,finally1 longevity may be used1 and is most conveniently used1 to denote the specific potential longevity1 that is to say the duration of life that would be attained by normal individuals of a species if the conditions were most favourable4 ,it is necessary to keep in mind these various applications of the term when considering the theoretical explanations that have been associated with the empirical facts4 ,there is a certain relation between size and longevity4 ,as a general rule small animals do not live so long as larger creatures4 ,whales survive elephants1 elephants live longer than camels1 horses and deer1 and these again than rabbits and mice4 ,but the relation is not absolute2 parrots1 ravens and geese live longer than most mammals and than many larger birds4 ,g4 ,l4 ,l4 ,buffon tried to find a more definite measure of longevity1 and believed that it was given by the ratio between the whole period of life and the period of growth4 ,he believed that the possible duration of life was six or seven times that of the period of growth4 ,man1 he said1 takes fourteen years to grow1 and his duration of life is ninety to one hundred years2 the horse has reached its full size at four years of age and may live for a total period of twenty-five to thirty years4 ,m4 ,j4 ,p4 ,flourens attempted to make ,buffon's suggestion more exact2 he took the end of the period of growth as the time at which the epiphyses of the long bones united with the bones themselves1 and on this basis held that the duration of life was five times the length of the period of growth4 ,the theories of ,buffon and ,flourens1 however1 do not apply to all vertebrates and have no meaning in the case of invertebrates4 ,y4 ,bunge has suggested that in the case of mammals the period taken by the new-born young to double in weight is an index of the rapidity of growth and is in a definite relation to the possible duration of life4 ,m4 ,oustalet has discussed the existence of definite relations between duration of life and size1 rate of growth1 period of gestation and so forth1 and found so many exceptions that no general conclusion could be drawn4 ,he finally suggested that diet was the chief factor in determining the span of life4 ,e4 ,metchnikoff has provided the most recent and fullest criticism and theory of the physiological causes of longevity4 ,he admits that many factors must be involved1 as the results vary so much in different kinds of animals4 ,he thinks that too little is known of the physiological processes of invertebrates to draw any valid conclusions in their case4 ,with regard to vertebrates1 he calls attention to the gradual reduction of longevity as the scale of life is ascended4 ,on the whole1 reptiles live much longer than birds1 and birds than mammals1 the contrast being specially notable when birds and mammals are compared4 ,he dismisses the effect of the reproductive tax from possible causes of short duration of life1 for the obvious reason that longevity is nearly equal in the two sexes1 although females have a much greater reproductive drain4 ,he points out that the hind-gut or large intestine is least developed in fishes1 relatively small in reptiles1 still small but relatively larger in birds and largest in mammals1 relatively and absolutely1 the caecum or caeca being reckoned as part of the hind-gut4 ,the area of the intestinal tract in question is of relatively little importance in digestion1 although a considerable amount of absorption may take place from it4 ,it serves chiefly as a reservoir of waste matter and is usually the seat of extensive putrefactive change4 ,the products of putrefaction are absorbed by the blood and there results a constant auto-intoxication of the body which ,metchnikoff believes to be the principal agent in senile degeneration4 ,mammals1 if they escape from enemies1 diseases and accidents1 fall victims to premature senility as the result of the putrefactive changes in their intestines1 and the average mortality of the species is much too high1 the normal specific longevity being rarely if ever attained4 ,metchnikoff urges1 and so far probably is followed by all competent authorities1 that improvements in the conditions of life1 greater knowledge of disease and of hygiene and simplification of habits are tending to reduce the average mortality of man and the domestic animals1 and to bring the average longevity nearer the specific longevity4 ,he adds to this1 however1 a more special theory1 which1 although it appears rapidly to be gaining ground1 is yet far from being accepted4 ,the theory is that duration of life may be prolonged by measures directed against intestinal putrefaction4 ,the process of putrefaction takes place in masses of badly-digested food1 and may be combated by careful dieting1 avoidance of rich foods of all kinds and particularly of flesh and alcohol4 ,putrefaction1 however1 cannot take place except in the presence of a particular group of bacteria1 the entrance of which to the body can be prevented to a certain extent4 ,but it would be impossible or impracticable to secure a sterilized diet1 and ,metchnikoff urges that the bacteria of putrefaction can be replaced or suppressed by another set of microbes4 ,he found that there was a widely spread popular belief in the advantage of diet consisting largely of products of soured milk and that there was a fair parallel between unusual longevity and such a diet4 ,experimentally he showed that the presence of the bacilli which produce lactic acid inhibited the process of putrefaction4 ,accordingly he recommends that the diet of human beings should include preparations of milk soured by cultures of selected lactic acid bacilli1 or that the spores of such bacilli should be taken along with food favourable to their development4 ,in a short time the bacilli establish themselves in the large intestine and rapidly stop putrefactive change4 ,the treatment has not yet been persisted in sufficiently long by a sufficient number of different persons to be accepted as universally satisfactory1 and there is even more difference of opinion as to ,metchnikoff's theory that the chief agent in senile degeneration is the stimulation of phagocytes by the products of putrefaction with the resulting destruction of the specific cells of the tissues4 ,metchnikoff1 however1 gave it to the world1 not as a proved and completed doctrine1 but as the line of inquiry that he himself had found most promising4 ,he has suggested further that if the normal specific longevity were attained by human beings1 old and not degenerate individuals would lose the instinct for life and acquire an instinct for death1 and that as they had fulfilled the normal cycle of life1 they would accept death with the same relieved acquiescence that they now accept sleep4 ,the various writers whose opinions have been briefly discussed agree in supposing that there is a normal specific longevity1 although ,metchnikoff alone has urged that this differs markedly from the average longevity1 and has propounded a theory of the causes of the divergence4 ,it is common ground that they believe the organism to be wound up1 so to say1 for a definite period1 but have no very definite theory as to how this period is determined4 ,a4 ,weismann1 on the other hand1 in a well-known essay on the duration of life1 has developed a theory to explain the various fashions in which the gift of life is measured out to different kinds of creatures4 ,he accepts the position that purely physiological conditions set a limit to the number of years that can be attained by each kind of multicellular organism1 but holds that these conditions leave room for a considerable amount of variation4 ,duration of life1 in fact1 according to ,weismann1 is a character that can be influenced by the environment and that by a process of natural selection can be adapted to the conditions of existence of different species4 ,if a species is to maintain its existence or to increase1 it is obvious that its members must be able to replace the losses caused by death4 ,it is necessary1 moreover1 for the success of the species1 that an average population of full vigour should be maintained4 ,weismann argues that death itself is an adaptation to secure the removal of useless and worn-out individuals and that it comes as soon as may be after the period of reproductive activity4 ,it is understood that the term reproductive activity covers not merely the production of new individuals but the care of these by the parents until they are self-sufficient4 ,the average longevity1 according to ,weismann1 is adapted to the needs of the species2 it is sufficiently long to secure that the requisite number of new individuals is produced and protected4 ,he has brought together a large number of instances which show that there is a relation between duration of life and fertility4 ,birds of prey1 which breed slowly1 usually producing an annual brood of no more than one or two1 live to great ages1 whilst rabbits which produce large litters at frequent intervals have relatively short lives4 ,allowance has to be made in cases where the young are largely preyed upon by enemies1 for this counteracts the effect of high fecundity4 ,in short1 the duration of life is so adapted that a pair of individuals on the average succeed in rearing a pair of offspring4 ,metchnikoff1 however1 has pointed out that the longevity of such fecund creatures must have arisen independently1 as otherwise species subject to high risks of this nature would have ceased to exist and would have disappeared1 as many species have vanished in the past of the world's history4 ,the normal specific longevity1 the age to which all normal individuals of a species would survive under the most favourable conditions1 must depend on constitution and structure4 ,no doubt selection is involved1 as it is obvious that creatures would perish if their constitution and structure were not such that they could live long enough to reproduce their kind4 ,the direct explanation1 however1 must be sought for in size1 complexity of structure1 length of period of growth1 capacity to withstand the wear and tear of life and such other intrinsic qualities4 ,the average specific longevity1 on the other hand1 depends on a multitude of extrinsic conditions operating on the intrinsic constitution2 these extrinsic conditions are given by the environment of the species as it affects the young and the adults1 enemies1 diseases1 abundance of food1 climatic conditions and so forth4 ,it would seem most natural to suppose that in all cases1 except perhaps those of intelligent man and the domestic animals or plants he harbours1 the average longevity must vary enormously with changing conditions1 and must be a factor of greater importance in the survival of the species than the ideal normal specific longevity4 ,it also seems more probable that the reproductive capacity1 which is extremely variable1 has been adapted to the average longevity of the species1 than that1 as ,weismann supposed1 it should itself be the determining cause of the duration of life4 ,,references4--,g4 ,l4 ,l4 ,buffon1 ,histoire naturelle gnrale et particulire1 vol4 ii4 7,paris1 #agdi72 ,y4 ,bunge1 ,archiv4 f4 die gesammte ,physiologie1 vol4 xcv4 7,bonn1 #aijc72 ,m4 ,j4 ,p4 ,flourens1 ,de la longvit humaine et de la quantit de vie sur le globe 7,paris1 #ahee72 ,j4 ,h4 ,gurney1 ,on the ,comparative ,ages to which ,birds live1 ,ibis1 p4 #ai 7#ahii72 ,sir ,e4 ,ray ,lankester1 ,comparative ,longevity in ,man and the ,lower ,animals 7,london1 #ahgj72 ,e4 ,metchnikoff1 ,the ,prolongation of ,life 7,london1 #aijh72 ,m4 ,oustalet1 ,la ,nature1 p4 #cgh 7#aijj72 ,a4 ,weismann1 ,essays upon ,heredity 7,oxford1 #ahhi74 7,p4 ,c4 ,m47 ,,longfellow1 ,,henry ,,wadsworth 7#ahjg-ahhb71 ,american poet1 was born on the #bgth of ,february #ahjg1 at ,portland1 ,maine4 ,his ancestor1 ,william ,longfellow1 had immigrated to ,newbury1 ,massachusetts1 in #afgf1 from ,yorkshire1 ,england4 ,his father was ,stephen ,longfellow1 a lawyer and ,united ,states congressman1 and his mother1 ,zilpha ,wadsworth1 a descendant of ,john ,alden and of ,priscilla1 the ,puritan maiden4 ,longfellow's external life presents little that is of stirring interest4 ,it is the life of a modest1 deep-hearted gentleman1 whose highest ambition was to be a perfect man1 and1 through sympathy and love1 to help others to be the same4 ,his boyhood was spent mostly in his native town1 which he never ceased to love1 and whose beautiful surroundings and quiet1 pure life he has described in his poem ,my ,lost ,youth4 ,here he grew up in the midst of majestic peace1 which was but once broken1 and that by an event which made a deep impression on him--the war of #ahab4 ,he never forgot the sea-fight far away4 ,how it thundered o'er the tide4 ,and the dead captains as they lay ,in their graves o'erlooking the tranquil bay4 ,where they in battle died4 ,the tranquil bay is ,casco ,bay1 one of the most beautiful in the world1 studded with bold1 green islands1 well fitted to be the ,hesperides of a poet's boyish dreams4 ,at the age of fifteen ,longfellow entered ,bowdoin ,college at ,brunswick1 a town situated near the romantic falls of the ,androscoggin river1 about #be m4 from ,portland1 and in a region full of ,indian scenery and legend4 ,here he had among his classfellows ,nathaniel ,hawthorne1 ,george ,b4 ,cheever and ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,abbott4 ,during the latter years of his college life he contributed to the ,united ,states ,literary ,gazette some half-dozen poems1 which are interesting for two reasons--7#a7 as showing the poet's early1 book-mediated sympathy with nature and legendary heroisms1 and 7#b7 as being almost entirely free from that supernatural view of nature which his subsequent residence in ,europe imparted to him4 ,he graduated in #ahbe1 at the age of eighteen1 with honours1 among others that of writing the class poem--taking the fourth place in a class of thirty-eight4 ,he then entered his father's law office1 without intending1 however1 it would appear1 to devote himself to the study of the law4 ,for this profession he was1 both by capacity and tastes1 utterly unfitted1 and it was fortunate that1 shortly after his graduation1 he received an offer of a professorship of modern languages at ,bowdoin ,college4 ,in order the better to qualify himself for this appointment1 he went to ,europe 7,may #aeth1 #ahbf7 and spent three years and a half travelling in ,france1 ,italy1 ,spain1 ,germany1 ,holland and ,england1 learning languages1 for which he had unusual talent1 and drinking in the spirit of the history and life of these countries4 ,the effect of ,longfellow's visit was twofold4 ,on the one hand1 it widened his sympathies1 gave him confidence in himself and supplied him with many poetical themes2 on the other1 it traditionalized his mind1 coloured for him the pure light of nature and rendered him in some measure unfit to feel or express the spirit of ,american nature and life4 ,his sojourn in ,europe fell exactly in the time when1 in ,england1 the reaction against the sentimental atheism of ,shelley1 the pagan sensitivity of ,keats1 and the sublime1 ,satanic outcastness of ,byron was at its height2 when1 in the ,catholic countries1 the negative exaggerations of the ,french ,revolution were inducing a counter current of positive faith1 which threw men into the arms of a half-sentimental1 half-aesthetic medievalism2 and when1 in ,germany1 the aristocratic paganism of ,goethe was being swept aside by that tide of dutiful1 romantic patriotism which flooded the country1 as soon as it began to feel that it still existed after being run over by ,napoleon's war-chariot4 ,he returned to ,america in #ahbi1 and remained six years at ,bowdoin ,college 7#ahbi-ahce71 during which he published various text-books for the study of modern languages4 ,in his twenty-fourth year 7#ahca7 he married ,miss ,mary ,story ,potter1 one of his early loves4 ,in #ahcc he made a series of translations from the ,spanish1 with an essay on the moral and devotional poetry of ,spain1 and these were incorporated in #ahce in ,outre-mer3 a ,pilgrimage beyond the ,sea4 ,in #ahce ,longfellow was chosen to succeed ,george ,ticknor as professor of modern languages and belles-lettres in ,harvard4 ,on receiving this appointment1 he paid a second visit of some fifteen months to ,europe1 this time devoting special attention to the ,scandinavian countries and ,switzerland4 ,during this visit he lost his wife1 who died at ,rotterdam1 on the #bith of ,november #ahce4 ,on his return to ,america in ,december #ahcf1 ,longfellow took up his residence in ,cambridge1 and began to lecture at ,harvard and to write4 ,in his new home he found himself amid surroundings entirely congenial to him4 ,its spaciousness and free rural aspect1 its old graveyards and towering elms1 its great university1 its cultivated society and its vicinity to humane1 substantial1 busy ,boston1 were all attractions for such a man4 ,in #ahcg-ahch several essays of ,longfellow's appeared in the ,north ,american ,review1 and in #ahci he published ,hyperion3 a ,romance1 and his first volume of original poetry1 entitled ,voices of the ,night4 ,hyperion1 a poetical account of his travels1 had1 at the time of its publication1 an immense popularity1 due mainly to its sentimental romanticism4 ,at present few persons beyond their teens would care to read it through1 so unnatural and stilted is its language1 so thin its material and so consciously mediated its sentiment4 ,nevertheless it has a certain historical importance1 for two reasons--7#a7 because it marks that period in ,longfellow's career when1 though he had left nature1 he had not yet found art1 and 7#b7 because it opened the sluices through which the flood of ,german sentimental poetry flowed into the ,united ,states4 ,the ,voices of the ,night contains some of his best minor poems1 e4g4 ,the ,psalm of ,life and ,footsteps of ,angels4 ,in #ahdb ,longfellow published a small volume of ,ballads and other ,poems1 containing some of his most popular pieces1 e4g4 ,the ,skeleton in ,armour1 ,the ,wreck of the ,hesperus1 ,the ,village ,blacksmith1 ,to a ,child1 ,the ,bridge1 ,excelsior4 ,in the same year he paid a third brief visit to ,europe1 spending the summer on the ,rhine4 ,during his return-passage across the ,atlantic he wrote his ,poems on ,slavery 7#ahdb71 with a dedication to ,channing4 ,these poems went far to wake in the youth of ,new ,england a sense of the great national wrong1 and to prepare them for that bitter struggle in which it was wiped out at the expense of the lives of so many of them4 ,in #ahdc he married again1 his wife being ,miss ,frances ,elizabeth ,appleton of ,boston1 a daughter of ,hon4 ,nathan ,appleton1 one of the founders of ,lowell1 and a sister of ,thomas ,g4 ,appleton1 himself no mean poet4 ,about the same time he bought1 and fixed his residence in1 the ,craigie ,house1 where he had formerly only been a lodger1 an old revolutionary house1 built about the beginning of the #ahth century1 and occupied by ,general ,washington in #aggf4 ,this quaint old wooden house1 in the midst of a large garden full of splendid elms1 continued to be his chief residence till the day of his death4 ,of the lectures on ,dante which he delivered about this time1 ,james ,russell ,lowell says3 ,these lectures1 illustrated by admirable translations1 are remembered with grateful pleasure by many who were thus led to learn the full significance of the great ,christian poet4 ,indeed1 as a professor1 ,longfellow was eminently successful4 ,shortly after the ,poems on ,slavery1 there appeared in #ahdc a more ambitious work1 ,the ,spanish ,student1 a ,play in ,three ,acts1 a kind of sentimental ,morality1 without any special merit but good intention4 ,if published nowadays it would hardly attract notice2 but in those gushing1 emotion-craving times it had considerable popularity1 and helped to increase the poet's now rapidly widening fame4 ,a huge collection of translations of foreign poetry edited by him1 and entitled ,the ,poets and ,poetry of ,europe1 appeared in #ahde1 and1 in #ahdf1 a few minor poems--songs and sonnets--under the title ,the ,belfry of ,bruges4 ,in #ahdg he published at ,boston the greatest of all his works1 ,evangeline1 a ,tale of ,acadie4 ,it was1 in some degree1 an imitation of ,goethe's ,hermann and ,dorothea1 and its plot1 which was derived from ,hawthorne's ,american ,note-,books1 is even simpler than that of the ,german poem1 not to say much more touching4 ,at the violent removal by the ,british government of a colony of ,french settlers from ,acadie 7,nova ,scotia7 in #agee1 a young couple1 on the very day of their wedding1 were separated and carried in different directions1 so that they lost all trace of each other4 ,the poem describes the wanderings of the bride in search of her lover1 and her final discovery of him as an old man on his death-bed1 in a public hospital which she had entered as a nurse4 ,slight as the story is1 it is worked out into one of the most affecting poems in the language1 and gives to literature one of its most perfect types of womanhood and of affection that hopes and endures and is patient4 ,though written in a metre deemed foreign to ,english ears1 the poem immediately attained a wide popularity1 which it has never lost1 and secured to the dactylic hexameter a recognized place among ,english metres4 ,in #ahdi ,longfellow published a novel of no great merit1 ,kavanagh1 and also a volume of poems entitled ,the ,seaside and the ,fireside1 a title which has reference to his two homes1 the seaside one on the charming peninsula of ,nahant1 the fireside one in ,cambridge4 ,one of the poems in this collection1 ,resignation1 has taken a permanent place in literature2 another1 ,hymn for my ,brother's ,ordination1 shows plainly the nature of the poet's ,christianity4 ,his brother1 the ,rev4 ,samuel ,longfellow1 was a minister of the ,unitarian ,church4 ,longfellow's genius1 in its choice of subjects1 always oscillated between ,america and ,europe1 between the colonial period of ,american history and the ,middle and ,romantic ,ages of ,european feeling4 ,when tired of the broad daylight of ,american activity1 he sought refuge and rest in the dim twilight of medieval legend and ,german sentiment4 ,in #ahea appeared ,the ,golden ,legend1 a long lyric drama based upon ,hartmann von ,aue's beautiful story of self-sacrifice1 ,der arme ,heinrich4 ,next to ,evangeline1 this is at once the best and the most popular of the poet's longer works1 and contains many passages of great beauty4 ,bringing his imagination back to ,america1 he next applied himself to the elaboration of an ,indian legend4 ,in #ahed he resigned his professorship4 ,in the following year he gave to the world the ,indian ,edda1 ,the ,song of ,hiawatha1 a conscious imitation1 both in subject and metre1 of the ,finnish epic1 the ,kalevala1 with which he had become acquainted during his second visit to ,europe4 ,the metre is monotonous and easily ridiculed1 but it suits the subject1 and the poem is very popular4 ,in #aheh appeared ,the ,courtship of ,miles ,standish1 based on a charming incident in the early history of the ,plymouth colony1 and1 along with it1 a number of minor poems1 included under the modest title1 ,birds of ,passage4 ,one of these is ,my ,lost ,youth4 ,two events now occurred which served to cast a gloom over the poet's life and to interrupt his activity1--the outbreak of the ,civil war1 and the tragic fate of his wife1 who1 having accidentally allowed her dress to catch fire1 was burnt to death in her own house in #ahfa4 ,it was long before he recovered from the shock caused by this terrible event1 and in his subsequent published poems he never ventured even to allude to it4 ,when he did in some measure find himself again1 he gave to the world his charming ,tales of a ,wayside ,inn 7#ahfc71 and in #ahfe his ,household ,poems4 ,among the latter is a poem entitled ,the ,children's ,hour1 which affords a glance into the home life of the widowed poet1 who had been left with five children--two sons1 ,ernest and ,charles1 and three daughters1 ,grave ,alice1 and laughing ,allegra1 ,and ,edith with golden hair4 ,a small volume entitled ,flower de ,luce 7#ahfg7 contains1 among other fine things1 the beautiful threnos on the burial of ,hawthorne1 and ,the ,bells of ,lynn4 ,once more the poet sought refuge in medieval life by completing his translation of the ,divina ,commedia1 parts of which he had rendered into ,english as much as thirty years before4 ,this work appeared in #ahfg1 and gave a great impulse to the study of ,dante in ,america4 ,it is a masterpiece of literal translation4 ,next came the ,new ,england ,tragedies 7#ahfh7 and ,the ,divine ,tragedy 7#ahga71 which found no large public4 ,in #ahfh-ahfi the poet visited ,europe1 and was everywhere received with the greatest honour4 ,in #ahgb appeared ,three ,books of ,song1 containing translated as well as original pieces1 in #ahgc ,aftermath and in #ahge ,the ,mask of ,pandora1 and other ,poems4 ,among these other poems were ,the ,hanging of the ,crane1 ,morituri ,salutamus and ,a ,book of ,sonnets4 ,the ,mask of ,pandora is a proof of that growing appreciation of pagan naturalism which marked the poet's later years4 ,though not a great poem1 it is full of beautiful passages1 many of which point to the riddle of life as yet unsolved1 a conviction which grew ever more and more upon the poet1 as the ebulliency of romanticism gave way to the calm of classic feeling4 ,in the ,book of ,sonnets are some of the finest things he ever wrote1 especially the five sonnets entitled ,three ,friends of ,mine4 ,these three friends were ,cornelius ,felton1 ,louis ,agassiz and ,charles ,sumner1 whom he calls ,the noble three1 ,who half my life were more than friends to me4 ,the loss of ,agassiz was a blow from which he never entirely recovered2 and1 when ,sumner also left him1 he wrote3-- ,thou hast but taken thy lamp and gone to bed2 ,i stay a little longer1 as one stays ,to cover up the embers that still burn4 ,he did stay a little longer2 but the embers that still burnt in him refused to be covered up4 ,he would fain have ceased writing1 and used to say1 ,it's a great thing to know when to stop2 but he could not stop1 and did not stop1 till the last4 ,he continued to publish from time to time1 in the magazines1 poems which showed a clearness of vision and a perfection of workmanship such as he never had equalled at any period of his life4 ,indeed it may be said that his finest poems were his last4 ,of these a small collection appeared under the title of ,keramos1 and other ,poems 7#ahgh74 ,besides these1 in the years #ahge-ahgh he edited a collection of ,poems of ,places in thirty-one small volumes4 ,in #ahhj appeared ,ultima ,thule1 meant to be his last work1 and it was nearly so4 ,in ,october #ahha he wrote a touching sonnet on the death of ,president ,garfield1 and in ,january #ahhb1 when the hand of death was already upon him1 his poem1 ,hermes ,trismegistus1 in which he gives utterance1 in language as rich as that of the early gods1 to that strange feeling of awe without fear1 and hope without form1 with which every man of spotless life and upright intellect withdraws from the phenomena of time to the realities of eternity4 ,in the last years of his life he suffered a great deal from rheumatism1 and was1 as he sometimes cheerfully said1 never free from pain4 ,still he remained as sunny and genial as ever1 looking from his ,cambridge study windows across the ,brighton meadows to the ,brookline hills1 or enjoying the free wild winds of the ,atlantic1 and listening to ,the ,bells of ,lynn in his ,nahant home4 ,he still continued to receive all visitors1 and to take occasional runs up to ,castine and ,portland1 the homes of his family4 ,about the beginning of #ahhb1 however1 a serious change took place in his condition4 ,dizziness and want of strength confined him to his room for some time1 and1 although after some weeks he partially recovered1 his elasticity and powers were gone4 ,on the #aith of ,march he was seized with what proved to be peritonitis1 and he died on the #bdth4 ,the poet was buried two days afterwards near his three friends in ,mount ,auburn cemetery4 ,the regret for his loss was universal2 for no modern man was ever better loved or better deserved to be loved4 ,longfellow was made an ,,ll4,d4 of ,bowdoin ,college in #ahbh1 at the age of twenty-one1 of ,harvard in #ahei and of ,cambridge 7,england7 in #ahfh1 and ,d4,c4,l4 of ,oxford in #ahfi4 ,in #ahgc he was elected a member of the ,russian ,academy of ,science1 and in #ahgg of the ,spanish ,academy4 ,in person1 ,longfellow was rather below middle height1 broad shouldered and well built4 ,his head and face were extremely handsome1 his forehead broad and high1 his eyes full of clear1 warming fire1 his nose straight and graceful1 his chin and lips rich and full of feeling as those of the ,praxitelean ,hermes1 and his voice low1 melodious and full of tender cadences4 ,his hair1 originally dark1 became1 in his later years1 silvery white1 and its wavy locks combined with those of his flowing beard to give him that leonine appearance so familiar through his later portraits4 ,charles ,kingsley said of ,longfellow's face that it was the most beautiful human face he had ever seen4 ,a bust to his memory was erected in the ,poet's ,corner in ,westminster ,abbey in #ahhd4 ,in ,longfellow1 the poet was the flower and fruit of the man4 ,his nature was essentially poetic1 and his life the greatest of his poems4 ,those who knew only the poems he wrote could form but a faint notion of the harmony1 the sweetness1 the manliness and the tenderness of that which he lived4 ,what he would have been as a poet1 if1 instead of visiting ,europe in early life and drinking in the spirit of the middle ages under the shadows of cathedral towers1 he had1 like ,whittier1 grown old amid ,american scenery and life1 we can only guess from his earlier poems1 which are as naturalistic1 fresh and unmystical as could be desired2 but certain it is that1 from his long familiarity with the medieval view of nature1 and its semi-pagan offspring1 the romantic view1 he was brought1 for the greater part of his life1 to look upon the world of men and things either as the middle scene of a miracle play1 with a heaven of rewarding happiness above and a purgatory of purifying pain below1 or else as a garment concealing1 while it revealed1 spiritual forms of unfathomed mystery4 ,during this time he could hear the trailing garments of the night sweep through her marble halls1 and see the stars come out to listen to the music of the seas4 ,later on1 as he approached his second youth 7he was spared a second childhood71 he tended to a more pagan view4 ,about the time when he was writing ,the ,mask of ,pandora1 he could see in the sunset ,jason's fleece of gold1 and hear the waves of the distracted sea piteously calling and lamenting his lost friend4 ,but through all the periods of his life his view of the world was essentially religious and subjective1 and1 consequently1 his manner of dealing with it hymnal or lyric4 ,this fact1 even more than his merits as an artist1 serves to account for his immense popularity4 ,too well-informed1 too appreciative and too modest to deem himself the peer of the grand old masters1 or one of those far stars that come in sight once in a century1 he made it his aim to write something that should make a purer faith and manhood shine in the untutored heart1 and to do this in the way that should best reach that heart4 ,this aim determined at once his choice of subjects and his mode of treating them4 ,the subjects of ,longfellow's poetry are1 for the most part1 aspects of nature as influencing human feeling1 either directly or through historical association1 the tender or pathetic sides and incidents of life1 or heroic deeds preserved in legend or history4 ,he had a special fondness for records of human devotion and self-sacrifice1 whether they were monkish legends1 ,indian tales1 ,norse drpas or bits of ,american history4 ,his mode of treatment is subjective and lyric4 ,no matter what form his works assume1 whether the epic1 as in ,evangeline1 ,the ,courtship of ,miles ,standish and ,hiawatha1 the dramatic1 as in ,the ,spanish ,student1 ,the ,golden ,legend and ,the ,mask of ,pandora1 or the didactic1 as in ,the ,psalm of ,life and many of the minor poems2 they are all subjective4 ,this is not the highest praise that can be given to works of art2 but it implies less dispraise in ,longfellow's case than in almost any other1 by reason of his noble subjectivity4 ,if we look in ,longfellow's poetry for originality of thought1 profound psychological analysis or new insights into nature1 we shall be disappointed4 ,though very far from being hampered by any dogmatic philosophical or religious system of the past1 his mind1 until near the end1 found sufficient satisfaction in the ,christian view of life to make it indifferent to the restless1 inquiring spirit of the present1 and disinclined to play with any more recent solution of life's problems4 ,he had no sympathy with either scepticism or formal dogmatism1 and no need to hazard rash guesses respecting man's destiny4 ,he disliked the psychological school of art1 believing it to be essentially morbid and unhealthy4 ,he had no sympathy with the tendency represented by ,george ,eliot1 or with any attempt to be analytic in art4 ,he held art to be essentially synthetic1 creative and manifesting1 not analytic1 destructive or questioning4 ,hence he never strove to draw from nature some new secret1 or to show in her relations never discovered before4 ,his aim was to impress upon her familiar facts and aspects the seal of his own gracious nature4 ,a man in intellect and courage1 yet without conceit or bravado2 a woman in sensibility and tenderness1 yet without shrinking or weakness2 a saint in purity of life and devotion of heart1 yet without asceticism or religiosity2 a knight-errant in hatred of wrong and contempt of baseness1 yet without self-righteousness or cynicism2 a prince in dignity and courtesy1 yet without formality or condescension2 a poet in thought and feeling1 yet without jealousy or affectation2 a scholar in tastes and habits1 yet without aloofness or bookishness2 a dutiful son1 a loving husband1 a judicious father1 a trusty friend1 a useful citizen and an enthusiastic patriot1--he united in his strong1 transparent humanity almost every virtue under heaven4 ,a thoroughly healthy1 well-balanced1 harmonious nature1 accepting life as it came1 with all its joys and sorrows1 and living it beautifully and hopefully1 without canker and without uncharity4 ,no man ever lived more completely in the light than ,henry ,wadsworth ,longfellow4 ,perhaps the most remarkable traits in ,longfellow's character were his accessibility and his charity4 ,though a great worker1 he seemed always to have time for anything he was asked to do4 ,he was never too busy to see a caller1 to answer a letter1 or to assist1 by word or deed1 any one that needed assistance4 ,his courtesy to all visitors1 even to strangers and children who called to look at him1 or who1 not venturing to call1 hung about his garden-gate in order to catch a glimpse of him1 was almost a marvel4 ,he always took it for granted that they had come to see ,washington's study1 and1 accordingly1 took the greatest interest in showing them that4 ,he never1 as long as he could write1 was known to refuse his autograph1 and so far was he from trying to protect himself from intruders that he rarely drew the blinds of his study windows at night1 though that study was on the ground floor and faced the street4 ,his acts of charity1 though performed in secret1 were neither few nor small4 ,of him it may be said with perfect truth1 ,he went about doing good2 and not with his money merely1 but also with his presence and his encouragement4 ,to how many sad hearts did he come like an angel1 with the rich tones of his voice waking harmonics of hope1 where before there had been despair and silence8 ,how many young literary people1 disappointed at the unsuccess of their first attempts1 did he comfort and spur on to renewed and higher efforts6 ,how careful he was to quench no smoking flax6 ,how utterly free he was from jealousy or revengefulness6 ,while poor1 morbid ,edgar ,allan ,poe was writing violent and scurrilous articles upon him1 accusing him of plagiarism and other literary misdemeanours1 he was delivering enthusiastic lectures to his classes on ,poe's poetry4 ,his charity was unbounded4 ,once1 when the present writer proposed to the president of the ,harvard ,university ,visiting ,committee that ,longfellow should be placed on that committee1 the president replied3 ,what would be the use8 ,longfellow could never be brought to find fault with anybody or anything4 ,and it was true4 ,his whole life was bathed in that sympathy1 that love which suffers long and envies not1 which forgives unto seventy times seven times1 and as many more if need be4 ,even in his last years1 when loss of friends and continual physical pain made life somewhat cold1 and dark and dreary for him1 he never complained1 lamented or blamed the arrangements of nature1 and the only way in which it was possible to know that he suffered was through his ever-increasing delight in the health and strength of younger men4 ,his whole nature was summed up in the lines of his favourite poet3-- ,luce intellettual1 piena d'amore4 ,amor di vero ben1 pien di letizia4 ,letizia che trascende ogni dolzore4 ,see his ,life 444 with ,extracts from his ,journals and ,correspondence1 by ,samuel ,longfellow1 and the ,riverside edition of the prose and poems 7,boston1 #aa vols41 #ahhf-ahij74 ,an enlarged edition of the ,life 7#c vols41 #ahia7 included the journals and correspondence1 #ahff-ahhb1 published in #ahhg as ,final ,memorials 7,boston and ,new ,york74 ,also the volume by ,t4 ,w4 ,higginson in the ,american ,men of ,letters series 7#aijb72 ,e4 ,c4 ,stedman's criticism in ,poets of ,america2 and an article in ,w4 ,d4 ,howells' ,my ,literary ,friends and ,acquaintance 7,new ,york1 #aijj7 which contains a valuable account of ,longfellow's later life4 7,t4 ,da47 ,,long ,,fives4 ,this game1 though played in a tennis-court1 bears but a slight resemblance to tennis1 but is nevertheless a valuable form of preparatory practice4 ,the game is #h or #aa points1 each stroke won counting one point to the winner4 ,the server gives #c points in #h1 or #d points in #aa to the striker-out4 ,there are no chases4 ,the winning openings count as at tennis4 ,if a ball be struck into any other gallery or opening1 it may be counted1 by arrangement1 either as a let 7the rest being annulled7 or against the striker2 a similar arrangement is made for balls that make any chase on the hazard-side1 or a chase of the last gallery on the service-side4 ,,longford1 a county of ,ireland in the province of ,leinster1 bounded ,n4,w4 by ,leitrim1 ,n4,e4 by ,cavan1 ,e4 and ,s4 by ,westmeath and ,w4 by ,lough ,ree and ,roscommon4 ,with the exception of ,carlow1 ,louth and ,dublin1 it is the smallest county in ,ireland1 the area being #bfi1djh acres1 or about #dba sq4 m4 ,the general level surface is broken occasionally by low hills1 which cover a considerable area at its northern angle4 ,the principal rivers are the ,camlin1 which rises near ,granard and flows past ,longford to the ,shannon1 and the ,inny1 which entering the county from ,westmeath crosses its southern corner and falls into ,lough ,ree4 ,lough ,ree is partly included in ,longford1 and the other principal lakes are ,lough ,gowna1 ,derrylough1 ,lough ,drum and ,lough ,bannow4 ,the ,silurian axis of ,newry reaches the north of this county1 where ,lough ,gowna lies upon it4 ,the rest of the county1 but for anticlinals which bring up ,old ,red ,sandstone at ,longford town and ,ardagh1 belongs to the ,carboniferous ,limestone plain1 in which ,lough ,ree forms a very characteristic lake1 with signs of extension by solution along its shores4 ,marble of fine quality has been raised4 ,in the north indications of iron are abundant1 and there are also some traces of lead4 ,the climate is somewhat moist and cold1 and there is a large extent of marsh and bog4 ,the soil in the southern districts resting on the limestone is a deep loam well adapted for pasture1 but in the north it is often poor4 ,the proportion of tillage to pasture is roughly as #a to #b4 ,oats and potatoes1 in decreasing quantities1 are the principal crops4 ,the numbers of cattle1 sheep1 pigs and poultry are well maintained4 ,the population is almost wholly rural1 but the principal industry of agriculture is supplemented by a slight manufacture of coarse woollens and linen4 ,the ,midland ,great ,western line from ,mullingar to ,sligo crosses the centre of the county by way of the county town of ,longford2 and the ,cavan branch touches the extreme east4 ,the ,royal ,canal enters the county in the south at ,abbeyshrule1 and joins the ,shannon near ,cloondara4 ,the population 7#eb1fdg in #ahia2 #df1fgb in #aija7 decreases seriously1 owing to emigration4 ,about #ij of the total are ,roman ,catholics4 ,the only towns of any importance are ,longford 7the county town1 pop4 #cgdg7 and ,granard 7#afbb74 ,the county includes six baronies4 ,assizes are held at ,longford1 and quarter sessions at ,ballymahon1 ,granard and ,longford4 ,the county is in the ,protestant diocese of ,ardagh1 and the ,roman ,catholic dioceses of ,ardagh and ,meath4 ,it is divided into two parliamentary divisions1 north and south1 each returning one member4 ,the early name of ,longford was ,annaly or ,anal1 and it was a principality of the ,o',farrels4 ,along with the province of ,meath1 in which it was then included1 it was granted by ,henry ,,ii4 to ,hugh de ,lacy1 who planted an ,english colony4 ,on the division of ,meath into two counties in #aedc1 ,annaly was included in ,westmeath1 but under a statute of #aefi1 for the shiring of countries not already shired1 it was made shire ground under the name of ,longford4 ,among antiquarian remains the chief ruin is the rath called the ,moat of ,granard1 at the end of the main street of that town4 ,there are monastic remains at ,ardagh1 a former bishopric1 ,longford1 ,moydow and on several of the islands of ,lough ,ree4 ,the principal old castles are those of ,rathcline near ,lanesborough1 and ,ballymahon on the ,inny4 ,the principal modern seats are those of ,carrickglass on the ,camlin1 and ,castle ,forbes1 the seat of the earls of ,granard4 ,oliver ,goldsmith was born at ,pallas1 a village near ,ballymahon1 in this county2 and at ,edgeworthstown the family of ,edgeworth1 of which the famous novelist ,maria ,edgeworth was a member1 established themselves in the #afth century4 ,,longford1 the county town of ,co4 ,longford1 ,ireland1 on the river ,camlin1 and on a branch of the ,midland ,great ,western railway1 #ge m4 ,w4,n4,w4 of ,dublin4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #cgdg4 ,the principal building is ,st ,mel's ,roman ,catholic cathedral for the diocese of ,ardagh1 one of the finest ,roman ,catholic churches in ,ireland4 ,the town has a considerable trade in grain1 butter and bacon4 ,there are corn-mills1 a spool factory and tanneries4 ,longford is governed by an urban district council4 ,the ancient name of the town was ,athfada1 and here a monastery is said to have been founded by ,st ,idus1 a disciple of ,st ,patrick4 ,the town obtained a fair and market from ,james ,i4 and a charter of incorporation from ,charles ,,ii41 as well as the right to return two members to parliament4 ,it was disfranchised at the ,union in #ahjj4 ,,longhi1 ,,pietro 7#agjb-agfb71 ,venetian painter1 was born in ,venice4 ,he was a pupil of ,antonio ,palestra and ,giuseppe ,maria ,crespi at ,bologna1 and devoted himself to the painting of the elegance of the social life in #ahth-century ,venice4 ,the republic was dying fast1 but her sons1 even in this period of political decline1 retained their love of pageants and ceremonies and of extravagant splendour in attire4 ,the art of ,venice was vanishing like her political power2 and the only painters who attempted to stem the tide of artistic decadence were the ,canaletti1 ,guardi1 ,tiepolo and ,longhi4 ,but whilst the ,canaletti and ,guardi dwelt upon the architectural glories of ,venice1 and ,tiepolo applied himself to decorative schemes in which he continued the tradition of ,paolo ,veronese and ,tintoretto1 ,longhi became the chronicler of the life of his compatriots4 ,in a way his art may be set beside ,hogarth's1 though the ,venetian did not play the part of a satirical moralist4 ,he has aptly been called the ,goldoni of painting4 ,his sphere is that of light social comedy--the life at the caf1 the hairdresser's1 at the dancing-school1 at the dressmaker's4 ,the tragic1 or even the serious1 note is hardly sounded in his work1 which1 in its colour1 is generally distinguished by a rich mellow quality of tone4 ,most of his paintings are in the public and private collections of ,venice4 ,they are generally on a small scale1 but the staircase of the ,palazzo ,grassi in ,venice is decorated by him with seven frescoes1 representing scenes of fashionable life4 ,at the ,venice academy are a number of his genre pictures and a portrait of the architect ,temanza2 at the ,palazzo ,quirini-,stampalia the portrait of ,daniele ,dolfino1 ,the ,seven ,sacraments 7etched by ,pitteri71 a ,temptation of ,st ,anthony1 a ,circus1 a ,gambling ,scene1 and several other genre pictures and portraits2 at the ,museo ,correr a dozen scenes of ,venetian life and a portrait of ,goldoni4 ,in ,england the ,national ,gallery owns ,the ,exhibition of a ,rhinoceros in an ,arena1 a ,domestic ,group1 ,the ,fortune-,teller1 and the portrait of the ,chevalier ,andrea ,tron2 two genre pictures are at ,hampton ,court ,palace1 and others in the ,richter and ,mond collections4 ,many of his works have been engraved by ,alessandro ,longhi1 ,bartolozzi1 ,cattini1 ,faldoni and others4 ,longhi died in ,venice in #agfb4 ,,longinus1 ,,cassius 7c4 ,a4,d4 #bac-bgc71 ,greek rhetorician and philosophical critic1 surnamed ,,philologus4 ,the origin of his gentile name ,cassius is unknown2 it can only be conjectured that he adopted it from a ,roman patron4 ,he was perhaps a native of ,emesa 7,homs7 in ,syria1 the birthplace of his uncle ,fronto the rhetorician4 ,he studied at ,alexandria under ,origen the heathen1 and taught for thirty years at ,athens1 one of his pupils being the ,neoplatonist ,porphyry4 ,longinus did not embrace the new speculations then being developed by ,plotinus1 but continued a ,platonist of the old type4 ,he upheld1 in opposition to ,plotinus1 the doctrine that the ,platonic ideas existed outside the divine ,greek3 ,nous 7hoti ex tou nou hyphestke ta nota3 see ,f4 berweg1 ,grundriss der ,geschichte der ,philosophie1 #ith ed41 #aijc1 i4 #gb74 ,plotinus1 after reading his treatise ,greek3 ,peri archn 7,on ,first ,principles71 remarked that ,longinus might be a scholar 7,greek3 philologos71 but that he was no philosopher 7,greek3 philosophos74 ,the reputation which ,longinus acquired by his learning was immense2 he is described by ,porphyry as the first of critics1 and by ,eunapius as a living library and a walking museum or encyclopaedia4 ,during a visit to the ,east he became teacher in ,greek1 and subsequently chief counsellor in state affairs1 to ,zenobia1 queen of ,palmyra4 ,it was by his advice that she endeavoured to regain her independence2 ,aurelian1 however1 crushed the attempt1 and while ,zenobia was led captive to ,rome to grace ,aurelian's triumph1 ,longinus paid the forfeit of his life4 ,longinus was the author of a large number of works1 nearly all of which have perished4 ,among those mentioned by ,sudas are ,quaestiones ,homericae1 ,an ,homerus fuerit philosophus1 ,problemata ,homeri et solutiones1 ,atticorum vocabulorum editiones duae2 the most important of his philological works1 ,greek3 philologoi homiliai 7,philological ,discourses7 consisting of at least #ba books1 is omitted4 ,a considerable fragment of the ,greek3 ,peri telous 7,de finibus1 ,on the ,chief ,end7 is preserved in the ,life of ,plotinus by ,porphyry 7 #bj74 ,under his name there are also extant ,prolegomena to the ,encheiridion of ,hephaestion on metre 7printed in ,r4 ,westphal1 ,scriptores ,metrici ,graeci1 i4 #ahff7 and the fragment of a treatise on rhetoric 7,l4 ,spengel1 ,rhetores ,graeci1 i4 pp4 #bii-cbj71 inserted in the middle of a similar treatise by ,apsines4 ,it gives brief practical hints on invention1 arrangement1 style1 memory and other things useful to the student4 ,some important excerpts ,greek3 ek tn ,logginou 7,spengel1 i4 #cbe-cbh7 may possibly be from the ,greek3 philologoi homiliai4 ,it is as the reputed author of the well-known and remarkable work ,greek3 ,peri hypsous 7generally1 but inadequately1 rendered ,on the ,sublime7 that ,longinus is best known4 ,modern scholars1 however1 with few exceptions1 are agreed that it cannot with any certainty be ascribed to him1 and that the question of authorship cannot be determined 7see ,introduction to ,roberts's edition74 ,the following are the chief arguments against ,longinus4 7#a7 ,the treatise is not mentioned by any classical author1 nor in any lists of the works attributed to him4 7#b7 ,the evidence of the ,,mss4 shows that doubts existed even in early times4 ,in the most important 7,no4 #bjcf in the ,paris ,library1 #ajth century7 the heading is ,greek3 ,dionysiou ,logginou1 thus giving an alternative author ,dionysius2 in the ,laurentian ,,ms4 at ,florence the title has ,greek3 annymou1 implying that the author was unknown4 ,the ascription in the ,paris ,,ms4 led to the addition of ,dionysius to the name of the reputed author--,dionysius ,cassius ,longinus1 accounted for by the supposition that his early name was ,dionysius1 ,cassius ,longinus being subsequently adopted from a ,roman patron whose client he had been4 7#c7 ,the absence of any reference to the famous writers on rhetoric of the age of the ,antonines1 such as ,hermogenes and ,alexander son of ,numenius4 7#d7 ,the opening sentences show that the ,greek3 ,peri hypsous was written with a view of correcting the faults of style and method in a treatise by ,caecilius 7q4v47 of ,calacte on the same subject4 ,as ,caecilius flourished during the reign of ,augustus1 it is hardly likely that his work would have been selected for purposes of criticism in the #crd century4 7#e7 ,general considerations of style and language and of the point of view from which the work is written4 ,in favour of ,longinus3 7#a7 ,the traditional ascription1 which held its ground unchallenged till the beginning of the #ahth century4 7#b7 ,the philosophical colouring of the first chapter and the numerous quotations from ,plato are in accordance with what is known of his philosophical opinions4 7#c7 ,the treatise is the kind of work to be expected from one who was styled the first of critics4 7#d7 ,the ,ammonius referred to 7xiii4 #c7 is supposed to be ,ammonius ,saccas 7c4 #age-bdb71 but it appears from the ,venetian scholia to the ,iliad that there was an earlier ,ammonius 7fl4 c4 #adj ,b4,c471 a pupil and successor of ,aristarchus at ,alexandria1 who1 judging from the context1 is no doubt the writer in question4 ,the reference is therefore an argument against ,longinus4 ,the work is dedicated to a certain ,terentianus1 of whom nothing is known 7see ,roberts's edition1 p4 #ah74 ,the alternative author ,dionysius of the ,,mss4 has been variously identified with the rhetorician and historian ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 the ,atticist ,aelius ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 ,dionysius ,atticus of ,pergamum1 ,dionysius of ,miletus4 ,other suggested claimants to the authorship are ,plutarch 7,l4 ,vaucher in tudes critiques sur le trait du sublime 7,geneva1 #ahed7 and ,aelius ,theon of ,alexandria 7,w4 ,christ71 the author of a work on the ,arrangement of ,speech4 ,but it seems most probable that the author was an unknown writer who flourished in the #ast century soon after ,caecilius and before ,hermogenes4 ,wilamowitz-,mllendorff gives his date as about ,a4,d4 #dj4 ,the rendering ,on the ,sublime implies more than is intended by the ,greek ,greek3 ,peri hypsous 7impressiveness in style1 ,jebb74 ,nothing abnormal1 such as is associated with the word sublime1 is the subject of discussion2 it is rather a treatise on style4 ,according to the author's own definitions1 ,sublimity is a certain distinction and excellence in expression1 sublimity consists in elevation1 sublimity is the echo 7or expression7 of a great soul 7see note in ,roberts74 ,the treatise is especially valuable for the numerous quotations from classical authors1 above all1 for the preservation of the famous fragment of ,sappho1 the ode to ,anactoria1 beginning ,greek3 phainetai moi knos isos theoisin1 imitated by ,catullus 7li47 ,ad ,lesbiam1 ,ille mi par esse deo videtur4 ,its main object is to point out the essential elements of an impressive style which1 avoiding all tumidity1 puerility1 affectation and bad taste1 finds its inspiration in grandeur of thought and intensity of feeling1 and its expression in nobility of diction and in skilfully ordered composition 7,sandys74 ,a full bibliography of the subject will be found in the edition by ,w4 ,r4 ,roberts 7,cambridge1 #bnd ed41 #aijg71 containing an ,introduction1 ,analysis1 ,translation and ,appendices 7textual1 linguistic1 literary and bibliographical71 to which may be added ,f4 ,marx1 ,wiener ,studien1 xx4 7#ahih71 and ,f4 ,kaibel1 ,hermes1 xxxiv4 7#ahii71 who respectively advocate and reject the claims of ,longinus to the authorship2 ,j4 ,e4 ,sandys1 ,history of ,classical ,scholarship 7#bnd ed41 #aijf71 pp4 #bhh1 #cch1 should also be consulted4 ,the number of translations in all the languages of ,europe is large1 including the famous one by ,boileau1 which made the work a favourite text-book of the bellelettristic critics of the #ahth century4 ,a text and translation was published by ,a4 ,o4 ,prickard 7#aijg-aijh74 ,,long ,,island1 an island1 #aah m4 long and #ab to #bc m4 wide1 with its axis ,e4,n4,e4 and ,w4,s4,w41 roughly parallel with the ,s4 shore of ,connecticut1 ,u4,s4,a41 from which it is separated by ,long ,island ,sound 7#aae m4 long and #bj-be m4 wide7 and lying ,s4,e4 of the mainland of ,new ,york state1 of which it is a part1 and immediately ,e4 of ,manhattan ,island4 ,area1 #afhb sq4 m4 ,the east end is divided into two narrow peninsulas 7the northern culminating in ,orient ,point about #be m4 long1 the southern ending in ,montauk ,point1 the eastern extremity of the island1 about #dj m4 long7 by the three bays1 ,great ,peconic1 ,little ,peconic 7in which lies ,shelter ,island7 and ,gardiners 7in which lies ,gardiners ,island74 ,the ,n4 shore is broken in its western half by the fjords of ,flushing ,bay1 ,little ,neck ,bay1 ,manhasset ,bay1 ,cold ,spring ,harbor2 ,huntington ,bay 7nearly landlocked71 ,smithtown ,bay and ,port ,jefferson ,harbor1 which also is nearly landlocked4 ,east of ,port ,jefferson the ,n4 shore is comparatively unbroken4 ,the ,s4 shore has two bays1 ,jamaica ,bay with many low islands and nearly cut off from the ocean by the narrow spur of ,rockaway ,beach2 and the ill-defined ,great ,south ,bay1 which is separated from the ,atlantic by the narrow ,long ,beach1 ,jones ,beach and ,oak ,island ,beach1 and by the long peninsula 7#ce or #dj m471 called ,fire ,island or ,great ,south ,beach4 ,still farther ,e4 and immediately ,s4 of ,great ,peconic ,bay is ,shinnecock ,bay1 about #aj m4 long and cut off from the ocean by a narrow beach4 ,the ,n4 side of the island was largely built by deposits along the front of the continental glacier1 and its peculiar surface is due to such deposits4 ,at ,astoria the dark gneiss bed rock is visible4 ,the ,s4 half of the island is mostly built of a light sandy or loamy soil and is low1 except for the hills 7#adj-aie ft47 of ,montauk peninsula1 which are a part of the back-bone of the island elsewhere running through the centre from ,e4 to ,w4 and reaching its highest point in its western extremity1 ,oakley's ,high ,hill 7#chd ft47 and ,hempstead ,harbor ,hill1 ,w4 of which are the flat and fertile ,hempstead ,plains4 ,north of the back-bone or central ridge the country is hilly with glacial drift and many boulders along the coast and with soil stonier and more fertile than that of the ,south ,side4 ,there is good clay at ,whitestone and at ,lloyd's ,point on the north side4 ,this north shore is comparatively well wooded2 the middle of the island is covered with stunted oaks and scrubby pines2 the south side is a floral mean between the other divisions4 ,it is cut in its middle part by a few creeks and tidal rivers#a flowing into the ,great ,south ,bay4 ,another river1 the ,peconic1 about #ae m4 long1 runs ,e4 into ,peconic ,bay4 ,on the north side there are few waterways save ,nissequoge river1 partly tidal1 which runs ,n4 into ,smithtown ,bay4 ,near the centre of the island is ,lake ,ronkonkoma1 which is well below the level of the surrounding country1 and whose deep cold waters with their unexplained ebb and flow are said to have been so feared by the ,indians that they would not fish there4 ,there are salt marshes 7probably #ajj sq4 m4 in all7 on the shore of the ,sound and of the ,great ,south ,bay4 ,as regards its fauna ,long ,island is a meeting-place for equatorial and arctic species of birds and fish2 in winter it is visited occasionally by the auk and in summer sometimes by the turkey buzzard4 ,james ,e4 ,de,kay in his botanical and zoological survey 7#ahdb-ahdi7 of ,new ,york state estimated that on ,long ,island there were representatives of two-thirds of the species of land birds of the ,united ,states and seven-eighths of the water birds--probably an exaggerated estimate for the time and certainly not true now4 ,there is snipe and duck shooting1 especially on the shores of the ,great ,south ,bay2 there is good deer hunting1 especially in ,islip town2 and there are several private preserves1 some stocked with ,english game birds1 within #ej m4 of ,new ,york ,city4 ,there are many excellent trout streams and the island was known in aboriginal times for its fresh and salt water fish4 ,indian names referring to fishing places are discussed in ,wm4 ,w4 ,tooker's ,some ,indian ,fishing ,stations upon ,long ,island4 ,long ,island wampum was singularly good--the ,indian name1 ,seawanhacky 7,seawanhaka1 c471 of the island has been interpreted to mean shell treasury--and black wampum was made from the purple part of the shell of the quahaug4 ,soft clams are dug on the north shore at low tide and hard clams are found along the southern shore1 where 7at ,islip7 they were first successfully canned2 scallops and other small shell fish are taken1 especially at the ,e4 end of the island4 ,but the most important shell fishery is that of oysters4 ,the famous ,blue ,points grow in the ,great ,south ,bay1 particularly at ,sayville and ,bellport1 where seed oysters planted from ,long ,island ,sound develop into the ,blue ,points with characteristics of no other variety of oyster4 ,farther west1 on the ,s4 shore are grown the well-known ,rockaway oysters4 ,the ,new ,york ,state ,fish ,commission has a hatchery at ,cold ,spring ,harbor on the ,n4 shore4 ,the largest commercial fisheries are on the south side1 in the ocean off ,fire ,island ,beach1 where there are great pounds in which captured fish are kept alive before shipment to market4 ,sag ,harbor and ,east ,hampton on the ,e4 end of the island were important whaling ports in the #ahth century and the first part of the #aith1 and they and other fishing villages afterward did a large business in the capture of menhaden 7,brevoortia tyrannus71 a small shad-like fish1 which1 following the custom of the ,indians1 they manufactured into fertilizer4 ,at ,glen ,cove there are now great starch factories4 ,the west end of the island has been called ,new ,york's market garden4 ,on the ,hempstead ,plains and immediately ,e4 of them along the north shore great quantities of cabbage and cucumbers are grown and manufactured into sauerkraut and pickles4 ,there are large cranberry fields near the village of ,calverton1 immediately ,w4 of ,riverhead4 ,there are a few large farms on ,long ,island1 mostly on the north side1 but it is becoming more and more a place of suburban residence4 ,this change is due in part to cool summer and warm winter winds from the ocean1 which makes the ,july mean temperature #fh to #gj ,f4 at the east end and the south side1 and #gb on the north shore1 as contrasted with #gd for the west end and ,new ,york ,city4 ,the range of temperature is said to be less than in any other place in the ,united ,states with the exception of ,corpus ,christi 7,tex471 ,eureka 7,california71 ,galveston 7,texas71 and ,key ,west 7,florida74 ,even on the south shore the humidity for ,august and ,september is less than that of any location on the ,atlantic coast1 or ,los ,angeles and ,san ,diego on the ,pacific1 according to ,dr ,le ,grand ,n4 ,denslow in a paper1 ,the ,climate of ,long ,island 7#aija74 ,surf-bathing on the south shore1 yachting and boating on the ,sound1 the ,great ,south ,bay and the ,ocean1 and hunting and fishing are attractions4 ,at ,garden ,city1 ,nassau 7,glen ,cove71 ,great ,river and ,shinnecock ,hills are well-known golf links2 there are several hunt clubs2 and at ,southampton are some of the best turf tennis-courts in the ,united ,states4 ,few parts of the island are summer resorts in the ordinary use of the word2 there are large hotels hardly anywhere save on ,coney ,island1 at ,far ,rockaway1 on ,long ,beach and on ,shelter ,island2 and a large part of the summer population lives in private mansions4 ,some ,long ,island country places are huge estates with game and fish preserves and luxurious chteaux4 ,the roads are good4 ,the course of the ,vanderbilt automobile races is along the roads of the ,hempstead ,plains4 ,also on the ,hempstead ,plains are the ,creedmoor ,rifle ,range1 where1 in an ,interstate ,park1 ,e4 of ,jamaica1 annual international rifle shooting tournaments for the championship of ,america were held until #aiji2 ,garden ,city1 which was founded by ,a4 ,t4 ,stewart for the purpose of providing comfortable homes at low cost to his employs and others1 and where are the ,protestant ,episcopal ,cathedral of the ,incarnation1 ,st ,paul's ,school for ,boys and ,st ,mary's ,school for ,girls2 and1 near ,hempstead1 the grounds of the ,meadowbrook 7hunt and polo7 ,club and those of the ,farm ,kennel ,club4 ,the only railway is the ,long ,island ,railroad 7owned by the ,pennsylvania ,railroad7 with western termini on ,manhattan and in ,long ,island ,city and ,brooklyn1 whence lines meet at ,jamaica1 and thence three principal lines branch1 the north shore to ,wading ,river1 the main line to ,greenport1 and the south side to ,montauk4 ,long ,island is a part of ,new ,york ,state1 its western third forming ,brooklyn and ,queens boroughs of ,new ,york ,city--these boroughs were formed respectively from ,kings county and from the w4 half of ,queens county upon the erection of ,greater ,new ,york1 what was formerly the ,e4 half of ,queens county then became ,nassau county 7area #beb sq4 m42 pop41 in #aijj1 #ee1ddh1 in #aije1 #fi1dgg71 whose county-seat is ,mineola4 ,the eastern and the larger part of the island is the less thickly settled ,suffolk county with an area of #iah sq4 m4 and a population in #aijj of #gg1ehb and in #aije of #ha1fec4 ,the county-seat of ,suffolk county is ,riverhead1 so named from its position at the head of the ,peconic river on the ,w4 end of ,great ,peconic ,bay4 ,the ten townships of ,suffolk county are large governmental units1 showing1 by their similarity to the towns of ,new ,england1 the relation of the early settlers to ,new ,england4 ,the largest in area is ,brookhaven1 which reaches all the way across the island near its central part4 ,the townships of ,suffolk county with their population in #aije were3 ,huntington 7#aj1bcf74 ,babylon 7#giai71 ,smithtown 7#ccbe71 ,islip 7#ac1gba71 ,brookhaven 7#af1jej71 ,riverhead 7#diej71 ,shelter ,island 7#aaje71 ,easthampton 7#dcjc71 ,southold 7#hihi7 and ,southampton 7#aa1jbd74 ,the total population of ,long ,island was #a1deb1faa in #aijj1 and #a1gah1jef in #aije 7state census71 the population of the borough of ,brooklyn alone for these years being #a1aff1ehb and #a1ceh1fhf4 ,history4--,the principal ,indian tribes on ,long ,island at the time of the first settlement by the whites were the ,montauk1 on the eastern end of the island1 where they gave their name to the point and where their last king1 ,david ,pharoah1 died in #aghe2 the ,shinnecock1 who1 much admixed with negro blood1 now live on the reservation between ,canoe ,place and ,shinnecock ,hills2 the ,manhasset1 on what is now ,shelter ,island2 the ,patchogue1 near the present village of that name2 the ,massapequa1 between the ,hempstead ,plains and what is now ,islip1 who were defeated and practically exterminated in #afec by ,john ,underhill2 the ,canarsie1 who lived near the present ,jamaica2 and on the north side the ,nessaquague or ,nissequoge 7in the present town of ,smithtown71 and the ,sealtocot who gave their name to ,setauket in ,brookhaven town4 ,the first pastor of the church 7,presbyterian-,congregational7 at ,easthampton1 ,thomas ,james 7c4 #afbj-afif71 is supposed to have translated a catechism and parts of the ,bible into the dialect of the ,montauk1 among whom ,samson ,occum had a school between #agee and #agfe4 ,the territory of ,long ,island was included in the grant of #afbj by ,james ,i4 to the ,plymouth ,company and in #afce was conveyed to ,william ,alexander1 earl of ,stirling4 ,the conflicting claims of ,english and ,dutch were the subject of the treaty concluded at ,hartford1 ,connecticut1 in #afej1 by which the ,dutch were to hold everything west of ,oyster ,bay1 the ,english everything east--a provision which accomplished no agreement1 since ,oyster ,bay itself was the matter of contention1 and ,english settlers on what the ,dutch called the west side of ,oyster ,bay refused to remove4 ,long ,island was included in the territory assigned to the duke of ,york in #affc-affd1 when the ,new ,england towns on the island objected to separation from ,connecticut4 ,on the recovery of ,new ,york by the ,dutch in #afgc the eastern towns refused to submit to the ,dutch governor4 ,in #afgd by the treaty of ,westminster ,long ,island became a part of the ,british colony of ,new ,york4 ,the ,dutch settlements were more important ethnically than historically2 on the west end of the ,island the ,dutch ,reformed ,church is still strong and there are many ,dutch names2 at ,west ,sayville1 on the south side1 about #ej m4 from ,new ,york1 in a settlement made about #aghf by ,gustav ,tukker1 who did much to develop the oyster fisheries1 ,holland ,dutch was the common speech until the last quarter of the #aith century4 ,the ,five ,dutch ,towns were3 ,nieuw ,amersfoord 7after #ahja officially called ,flatlands71 on ,jamaica ,bay1 where the first settlement was made about #afbc and the first grant in #afcf2 ,midwout 7later ,vlackte-,bosch and ,flatbush71 settled between #afde and #afej and having in #afed the first ,dutch church2 ,nieuw ,utrecht1 settled soon after #afej and incorporated in #affj2 ,breuckelen 7now ,brooklyn71 which was settled a little before its organization as a town in #afdf2 and ,boswijck 7,bushwick71 first settled by ,swedes and ,norwegians and incorporated in #affj4 ,these five towns became one administrative district in #affa4 ,apparently the earliest ,english settlement was at ,hempstead in #afdj by colonists from ,lynn1 ,massachusetts1 who based their claim on the patent 7#afba7 of ,nova ,scotia to ,lord ,stirling1 but were almost immediately driven out by the ,dutch4 ,in #afdc another ,english settlement was made at ,hempstead by men from ,stamford1 ,connecticut1 who in #afdd secured a patent from ,governor ,kieft of ,new ,netherland4 ,in #afde ,kieft granted land at ,gravesend to ,lady ,deborah ,moody1 who had settled there about #afdc1 when she had left ,lynn and the ,salem church because of her anti-pedobaptist views4 ,at ,gravesend in #affd ,colonel ,richard ,nicolls first landed the ,english troops which occupied the island2 and in #afic it became one of its three ports of entry4 ,the ,connecticut towns on ,long ,island were as follows3 ,southampton was settled in #afdj by the ,lynn men driven out of ,hempstead by the ,dutch1 and in #afdd-affd was in the ,connecticut jurisdiction4 ,southold 7the ,south ,hold of ,new ,haven71 called from #afdj until #afdd by the ,indian name ,yennicock1 had a church in #afdj1 and a court based on the ,levitical law1 which was abolished in #afdc upon the remonstrance of the authorities of ,new ,haven4 ,the ,southold settlers were from ,hingham1 ,norfolk and ,new ,haven1 and the colony joined ,new ,haven in #afdh1 in which year the colony of ,forrett's 7now ,shelter7 ,island also submitted to ,new ,haven4 ,easthampton was settled in #afdh from ,lynn4 ,oyster ,bay was also settled by ,lynn men in #afdj and contested by the ,dutch and ,english4 ,newtown1 officially called ,middleburgh1 was settled in #afeb1 purchased from the ,indians in #afef1 annexed to the other side of the ,sound in #affb1 in the same year took the name of ,hastings1 in #agjf was the scene of the arrest of the ,presbyterian itinerants ,francis ,mackemie and ,john ,hampton1 and in #agff was the site of the ,methodist ,episcopal ,society at ,middle ,village1 the second oldest of that denomination in ,america4 ,huntington was settled in #afec from ,new ,haven1 ,hempstead1 ,southold and ,southampton4 ,other early settlements were3 ,jamaica1 about #afeg2 ,brookhaven1 first settled at ,ashford 7now ,setauket7 from ,boston in #afee1 and ,smithtown1 patented in #afgg to ,richard ,smith of ,setauket1 who was said to be a soldier of ,cromwell1 and of whom there is a story that having bargained with the ,indians for as much land as a bull could cover in a day he rode his trained bull in a great circuit about the land he coveted and was thereafter known as ,bull ,smith4 ,almost all these ,english settlements were made by ,presbyterians and from ,jamaica east this was the prevailing denomination4 ,during the war of ,independence the battle of ,long ,island 7see below7 was fought within what is now the borough of ,brooklyn4 ,,authorities4--,benj4 ,f4 ,thompson1 ,the ,history of ,long ,island 7,new ,york1 #bnd ed4 #ahdc72 ,nathaniel ,s4 ,prime1 ,history of ,long ,island 7,new ,york1 #ahde71 especially valuable for ecclesiastical history1 particularly of the ,presbyterian church2 ,martha ,b4 ,flint1 ,early ,long ,island 7,new ,york1 #ahif72 ,gabriel ,furman1 ,antiquities of ,long ,island 7,new ,york1 #ahge71 edited by ,frank ,moore2 and the publications of the ,long ,island ,historical ,society 7of ,brooklyn7 and of the ,suffolk ,county ,historical ,society 7of ,riverhead74 7,r4 ,we47 ,battle of ,long ,island1 #aggf4--,the interest of this battle lies in the fact that it was the first engagement in the campaign of #aggf 7see ,,american ,,war ,,of ,,independence7 and was expected in ,england to be decisive of the contest in the colonies4 ,after the evacuation of ,boston 7,march #aggf71 ,lord ,howe moved against ,new ,york ,city1 which he thought would afford a better base of operations for the future4 ,the ,americans undertook its defence although recognizing the difficulties in the case1 as the bay and rivers adjoining would enable the ,british fleet to co-operate effectively with the army4 ,to protect his left flank ,washington was forced to throw a portion of his troops over to the ,long ,island side of the ,east river2 they fortified themselves there on the site of the present ,borough of ,brooklyn4 ,lord ,howe1 who had encamped on ,staten ,island at the entrance to the harbour1 determined to attack this isolated left wing1 and on the #bbnd of ,august landed at ,gravesend ,bay1 ,long ,island1 with about #bj1jjj men4 ,the ,americans maintained strong outposts in the wooded hills in advance of their fortified lines4 ,on the morning of the #bgth ,howe1 after four days' reconnaissance1 attacked these posts with three columns1 the left and centre delivering the holding attack1 and the right and strongest column turning the enemy's left by a dtour4 ,howe himself1 accompanied by ,generals 7,sir ,h47 ,clinton and ,lord ,cornwallis1 led the turning movement1 which came upon the rear of the enemy at the moment when they were engaged with the two other columns4 ,by noon the ,americans had been driven back into the ,brooklyn lines in considerable confusion1 and with the loss of about half their number4 ,this constituted the battle4 ,the completeness of the ,english victory was due to the neglect of the ,americans in guarding the left of their outposts4 ,howe has been criticized for not immediately assaulting the ,american works which he might have carried on the evening of the battle4 ,in view of the fact that he had only defeated a small portion of the ,american forces1 and that the works were of considerable strength1 he decided to make a formal siege1 and ,washington took advantage of the delay in operations to retreat across the river to ,new ,york on the night of the #bith4 ,this successful movement repaired to some extent the bad moral effect of the defeat of the #bgth in the ,american camp4 ,in the engagement of ,long ,island ,washington lost about #abjj prisoners and #cj guns1 and #djj killed and wounded2 of the latter the ,british lost nearly the same number4 7,c4 ,f4 ,a47 ,,footnote3 #a ,g4 ,k4 ,gilbert1 in an article1 ,the ,deflection of ,streams in the ,american ,journal of ,science 7xxvii4 #dbg-dcb71 points out that each of these streams is bounded on the west or right side by a bluff #aj to #bj ft4 high4 ,,long ,,island ,,city1 formerly a city of ,queens county1 ,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a41 and since the #ast of ,january #ahih the first ward of the ,borough of ,queens1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,pop4 7#ahhj7 #ag1abi1 7#ahij7 #cj1ejf1 7#aijj7 #dh1bgb1 of whom #ae1hii were foreign-born4 ,it has a river front1 on ,east river and ,long ,island ,sound1 of #aj m41 and is the eastern terminal and the headquarters of the ,long ,island railway1 having a large ,y4,m4,c4,a4 building 7the gift of ,mrs ,russell ,sage7 for employees of this railway4 ,among manufactures are chemicals1 pottery1 varnish1 silk1 c41 and there are oil-storage warehouses4 ,most of the borough offices of ,queens borough are in ,long ,island ,city1 which was formerly the county-seat of ,queens county4 ,the first settlement within the limits of what subsequently became ,long ,island ,city was made in #afdj by a ,dutch blacksmith1 ,hendrick ,harmensen1 who soon afterward was murdered by an ,indian4 ,other settlers1 both ,dutch and ,english1 soon followed1 and established detached villages1 which became known as ,hunter's ,point1 ,blissville1 ,astoria1 ,ravenswood1 ,dutch ,kills1 ,middleton and ,steinway4 ,in #ahec this group of villages1 by that time virtually one community1 was called ,long ,island ,city1 and it was formally incorporated under that name in #ahgj4 ,in #ahga-ahgb the city was laid out by a commission of which ,general ,w4 ,b4 ,franklin was president4 ,political convictions1 economic considerations and fear combined to make the residents in this region largely loyalist in their attitude during the ,war of ,independence4 ,from #aggf to #aghc ,british troops occupied ,newtown1 a village to the ,s4 ,e4 ,in ,january #aggf the committee on the state of ,new ,york in ,congress reported a resolution that ,whereas a majority of the inhabitants of ,queens county1 in the colony of ,new ,york1 being incapable of resolving to live and die free men1444 all such persons as voted against sending deputies to the present convention in ,new ,york 444 be put out of the protection of the ,united ,colonies1 c41 an action which led to the arrest and imprisonment of many of the accused persons4 ,see ,j4 ,s4 ,kelsey1 ,history of ,long ,island ,city 7,long ,island ,city1 #ahif74 ,,longitude 7from ,lat4 longitudo1 length71 the angle which the terrestrial meridian from the pole through a point on the earth's surface makes with some standard meridian1 commonly that of ,greenwich4 ,it is equal to the difference between local time on the standard meridian1 and at the place defined1 one hour of time corresponding to #ae difference of longitude4 ,formerly each nation took its own capital or principal observatory as the standard meridian from which longitudes were measured4 ,another system had a meridian passing through or near the island of ,ferro1 defined as #bj ,w4 of ,paris1 as the standard4 ,while the system of counting from the capital of the country is still used for local purposes1 the tendency in recent years is to use the meridian of ,greenwich for nautical and international purposes4 ,france1 however1 uses the meridian of the ,paris observatory as its standard for all nautical and astronomical purposes 7see ,,time74 ,in astronomy1 the longitude of a celestial body is the distance of its projection upon the ecliptic from the vernal equinox1 counted in the direction west to east from #j to #cfj4 ,,longley1 ,,charles ,,thomas 7#agid-ahfh71 archbishop of ,canterbury1 was born at ,rochester1 and educated at ,westminster and ,oxford4 ,he was ordained in #ahah1 and was appointed vicar of ,cowley1 ,oxford1 in #ahbc4 ,in #ahbg he received the rectory of west ,tytherley1 ,hampshire1 and two years later he was elected headmaster of ,harrow4 ,this office he held until #ahcf1 when he was consecrated bishop of the new see of ,ripon4 ,in #ahef he was translated to the see of ,durham1 and in #ahfj he became archbishop of ,york4 ,in #ahfb he succeeded ,john ,bird ,sumner as archbishop of ,canterbury4 ,soon afterwards the questions connected with the deposition of ,bishop ,colenso were referred to him1 but1 while regarding ,colenso's opinions as heretical and his deposition as justifiable1 he refused to pronounce upon the legal difficulties of the case4 ,the chief event of his primacy was the meeting at ,lambeth1 in #ahfg1 of the first ,pan-,anglican conference of ,british1 colonial and foreign bishops 7see ,,lambeth ,,conferences74 ,his published works include numerous sermons and addresses4 ,he died on the #bgth of ,october #ahfh at ,addington ,park1 near ,croydon4 ,,longmans1 a firm of ,english publishers4 ,the founder of the firm1 ,thomas ,longman 7#a7 7#afii-agee71 born in #afii1 was the son of ,ezekiel ,longman 7d4 #agjh71 a gentleman of ,bristol4 ,thomas was apprenticed in #agaf to ,john ,osborn1 a ,london bookseller4 ,at the expiration of his apprenticeship he married ,osborn's daughter1 and in ,august #agbd purchased the stock and household goods of ,william ,taylor1 the first publisher of ,robinson ,crusoe1 for #bbhb #is4 #f;d4 ,taylor's two shops were known respectively as the ,black ,swan and the ,ship1 and occupied the ground in ,paternoster ,row upon which the present publishing house stands4 ,osborn1 who afterwards entered into partnership with his son-in-law1 held one-sixth of the shares in ,ephraim ,chambers's ,cyclopaedia of the ,arts and ,sciences1 and ,thomas ,longman was one of the six booksellers who undertook the responsibility of ,samuel ,johnson's ,dictionary4 ,in #aged ,thomas ,longman took his nephew into partnership1 the title of the firm becoming ,t4 and ,t4 ,longman4 ,upon the death of his uncle in #agee1 ,thomas ,longman 7#b7 7#agcj-agig7 became sole proprietor4 ,he greatly extended the colonial trade of the firm4 ,he had three sons4 ,of these1 ,thomas ,norton ,longman 7#c7 7#agga-ahdb7 succeeded to the business4 ,in #agid ,owen ,rees became a partner1 and ,thomas ,brown1 who was for many years after #ahaa a partner1 entered the house as an apprentice4 ,brown died in #ahfi at the age of #ib4 ,in #agii ,longman purchased the copyright of ,lindley ,murray's ,english ,grammar1 which had an annual sale of about #ej1jjj copies2 he also purchased1 about #ahjj1 the copyright1 from ,joseph ,cottle1 of ,bristol1 of ,southey's ,joan of ,arc and ,wordsworth's ,lyrical ,ballads4 ,he published the works of ,wordsworth1 ,coleridge1 ,southey and ,scott1 and acted as ,london agent for the ,edinburgh ,review1 which was started in #ahjb4 ,in #ahjd two more partners were admitted2 and in #ahbd the title of the firm was changed to ,longman1 ,hurst1 ,rees1 ,orme1 ,brown ,green4 ,in #ahad arrangements were made with ,thomas ,moore for the publication of ,lalla ,rookh1 for which he received #cjjj2 and when ,archibald ,constable failed in #ahbf1 ,longmans became the proprietors of the ,edinburgh ,review4 ,they issued in #ahbi ,lardner's ,cabinet ,encyclopaedia1 and in #ahcb ,m',culloch's ,commercial ,dictionary4 ,thomas ,norton ,longman 7#c7 died on the #bith of ,august #ahdb1 leaving his two sons1 ,thomas 7#d7 7#ahjd-ahgi7 and ,william ,longman 7#ahac-ahgg71 in control of the business in ,paternoster ,row4 ,their first success was the publication of ,macaulay's ,lays of ,ancient ,rome1 which was followed in #ahdi by the issue of the first two volumes of his ,history of ,england1 which in a few years had a sale of #dj1jjj copies4 ,the two brothers were well known for their literary talent2 ,thomas ,longman edited a beautifully illustrated edition of the ,new ,testament1 and ,william ,longman was the author of several important books1 among them a ,history of the ,three ,cathedrals dedicated to ,st ,paul 7#ahfi7 and a work on the ,history of the ,life and ,times of ,edward ,,iii4 7#ahgc74 ,in #ahfc the firm took over the business of ,mr ,j4 ,w4 ,parker1 and with it ,fraser's ,magazine1 and the publication of the works of ,john ,stuart ,mill and ,j4 ,a4 ,froude2 while in #ahij they incorporated with their own all the publications of the old firm of ,rivington1 established in #agaa4 ,the family control of the firm 7now ,longmans1 ,green ,co47 was continued by ,thomas ,norton ,longman 7#e71 son of ,thomas ,longman 7#d74 ,,longomontanus 7or ,,longberg71 ,,christian ,,severin7#aefb-afdg71 ,danish astronomer1 was born at the village of ,longberg in ,jutland1 ,denmark1 on the #dth of ,october #aefb4 ,the appellation ,longomontanus was a ,latinized form of the name of his birthplace4 ,his father1 a poor labourer called ,sren1 or ,severin1 died when he was eight years old4 ,an uncle thereupon took charge of him1 and procured him instruction at ,lemvig2 but after three years sent him back to his mother1 who needed his help in field-work4 ,she agreed1 however1 to permit him to study during the winter months with the clergyman of the parish2 and this arrangement subsisted until #aegg1 when the illwill of some of his relatives and his own desire for knowledge impelled him to run away to ,viborg4 ,there he attended the grammar-school1 defraying his expenses by manual labour1 and carried with him to ,copenhagen in #aehh a high reputation for learning and ability4 ,engaged by ,tycho ,brahe in #aehi as his assistant in his great astronomical observatory of ,uraniborg1 he rendered him invaluable services there during eight years4 ,he quitted the island of ,hveen with his master1 but obtained his discharge at ,copenhagen on the #ast of ,june #aeig1 for the purpose of studying at some ,german universities4 ,he rejoined ,tycho at ,prague in ,january #afjj1 and having completed the ,tychonic lunar theory1 turned homeward again in ,august4 ,he visited ,frauenburg1 where ,copernicus had made his observations1 took a master's degree at ,rostock1 and at ,copenhagen found a patron in ,christian ,friis1 chancellor of ,denmark1 who gave him employment in his household4 ,appointed in #afjc rector of the school of ,viborg1 he was elected two years later to a professorship in the university of ,copenhagen1 and his promotion to the chair of mathematics ensued in #afjg4 ,this post he held till his death1 on the #hth of ,october #afdg4 ,longomontanus1 although an excellent astronomer1 was not an advanced thinker4 ,he adhered to ,tycho's erroneous views about refraction1 held comets to be messengers of evil and imagined that he had squared the circle4 ,he found that the circle whose diameter is #dc has for its circumference the square root of #ahbeb--which gives #c4adahe444 for the value of pi4 ,john ,pell and others vainly endeavoured to convince him of his error4 ,he inaugurated1 at ,copenhagen in #afcb1 the erection of a stately astronomical tower1 but did not live to witness its completion4 ,christian ,,iv4 of ,denmark1 to whom he dedicated his ,astronomia ,danica1 an exposition of the ,tychonic system of the world1 conferred upon him the canonry of ,lunden in ,schleswig4 ,the following is a list of his more important works in mathematics and astronomy3 ,systematis ,mathematici1 c4 7#afaa72 ,cyclometria e ,lunulis reciproce demonstrata1 c4 7#afab72 ,disputatio de ,eclipsibus 7#afaf72 ,astronomia ,danica1 c4 7#afbb72 ,disputationes quatuor ,astrologicae 7#afbb72 ,pentas ,problematum ,philosophiae 7#afbc72 ,de ,chronolabio ,historico1 seu de ,tempore ,disputationes tres 7#afbg72 ,geometriae quaesita ,,xiii4 de ,cyclometria rationali et vera 7#afca72 ,inventio ,quadraturae ,circuli 7#afcd72 ,disputatio de ,matheseos ,indole 7#afcf72 ,coronis ,problematica ex ,mysteriis trium ,numerorum 7#afcg72 ,problemata duo ,geometrica 7#afch72 ,problema contra ,paulum ,guldinum de ,circuli ,mensura 7#afch72 ,introductio in ,theatrum ,astronomicum 7#afci72 ,rotundi in ,plano1 c4 7#afdd72 ,admiranda ,operatio trium ,numerorum #f1 #g1 #h1 c4 7#afde72 ,caput tertium ,libri primi de absoluta ,mensura ,rotundi plani1 c4 7#afdf74 ,see ,e4 ,p4 ,f4 ,vindingius1 ,regia ,academia ,havinensis1 p4 #bab 7#affe72 ,r4 ,nyerup and ,kraft1 ,almindeligt ,litteraturlexikon1 p4 #cej 7#ahbj72 ,ch4 ,g4 ,jcher1 ,allgemeines ,gelehrten-lexikon1 ii4 #beah1 iii4 #baaa2 ,jens ,worm1 ,forsg til et ,lexikon over danske1 norske og islandske laerde ,maend1 p4 #fag1 #agga1 c42 ,p4 ,bayle1 ,hist4 and ,crit4 ,dictionary1 iii4 #hfa 7#bnd ed4 #agcf72 ,j4 ,b4 ,j4 ,delambre1 ,hist4 de l'astr4 moderne1 i4 #bfb2 ,j4 ,s4 ,bailly1 ,hist4 de l'astr4 moderne1 ii4 #ada2 ,j4 ,l4 ,e4 ,dreyer1 ,tycho ,brahe1 pp4 #abf1 #bei1 #bhh1 #bii2 ,f4 ,hoeffer1 ,hist4 de l'astronomie1 p4 #cia2 ,j4 ,mdler1 ,geschichte der ,himmelskunde1 i4 #aie2 ,j4 ,f4 ,weidler1 ,hist4 ,astronomiae1 p4 #dea4 ,,longstreet1 ,,james 7#ahba-aijd71 ,american soldier1 lieutenant-general in the ,confederate army1 was born on the #hth of ,february #ahba in ,edgefield district1 ,south ,carolina1 and graduated at ,west ,point in #ahdb4 ,he served in the ,mexican ,war1 was severely wounded1 and received two brevets for gallantry4 ,in #ahfa1 having attained the rank of major1 he resigned when his state seceded1 and became a brigadier-general in the ,confederate army4 ,in this rank he fought at the first battle of ,bull ,run1 and subsequently at the head of a division in the ,peninsular campaign and the ,seven ,days4 ,this division subsequently became the nucleus of the ,i4 corps1 ,army of ,northern ,virginia1 which was commanded throughout the war by ,longstreet4 ,this corps took part in the battles of second ,bull ,run and ,antietam1 and held the left of ,lee's front at ,fredericksburg4 ,most of the corps was absent in ,north ,carolina when the battle of ,chancellorsville took place1 but ,longstreet1 now a lieutenant-general1 returned to ,lee in time to take part in the campaign of ,gettysburg4 ,at that battle he disapproved of the attack because of the exceptionally strong position of the ,federals4 ,he has been charged with tardiness in getting into the action1 but his delay was in part authorized by ,lee to await an absent brigade1 and in part was the result of instructions to conceal his movements1 which caused circuitous marching4 ,the most conspicuous fighting in the battle was conducted by ,longstreet4 ,in ,september #ahfc he took his corps to the west and bore a conspicuous part in the great battle of ,chickamauga4 ,in ,november he commanded the unsuccessful expedition against ,knoxville4 ,in #ahfd he rejoined ,lee's army in ,virginia1 and on the #fth of ,may arrived upon the field of the ,wilderness as the ,confederate right had been turned and routed4 ,his attack was a model of impetuosity and skill1 and drove the enemy back until their entire force upon that flank was in confusion4 ,at this critical moment1 as ,longstreet in person1 at the head of fresh troops1 was pushing the attack in the forest1 he was fired upon by mistake by his own men and desperately wounded4 ,this mischance stayed the ,confederate assault for two hours1 and enabled the enemy to provide effective means to meet it4 ,in ,october #ahfd he resumed command of his corps1 which he retained until the surrender1 although paralysed in his right arm4 ,during the period of ,reconstruction ,longstreet's attitude towards the political problem1 and the discussion of certain military incidents1 notably the responsibility for the ,gettysburg failure1 brought the general into extreme unpopularity1 and in the course of a controversy1 which lasted for many years1 much was said and written by both sides which could be condoned only by irritation4 ,his acceptance of a ,federal office at ,new ,orleans brought him1 in a riot1 into armed conflict with his old ,confederate soldiers4 ,his admiration for ,general ,grant and his loyalty to the ,republican party accentuated the ill-feeling of the ,southern people4 ,but in time his services in former days were recalled1 and he became once more ,general ,lee's war-horse to his old soldiers and the people of the ,south4 ,he held several civil offices1 among them being that of minister to ,turkey under ,grant and that of commissioner of ,pacific railways under ,presidents ,mc,kinley and ,roosevelt4 ,in #ahif he published ,from ,manassas to ,appomattox1 and in his later years he prepared an account of ,gettysburg1 which was published soon after his death1 with notes and reminiscences of his whole military career4 ,general ,longstreet died at ,gainesville1 ,georgia1 on the #bnd of ,january #aijd4 ,see ,lee and ,longstreet at ,high ,tide1 by ,helen ,d4 ,longstreet 7,gainesville1 ,ga41 #aijd74 ,,longton1 a market-town of ,staffordshire1 ,england1 on the ,north ,staffordshire railway1 #b m4 ,s4,e4 of ,stoke-on-,trent1 within which parliamentary and municipal borough it is included4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ce1hae4 ,the town is in the ,potteries district1 and in the neighbourhood of coal and iron mines4 ,it was governed by a mayor1 #aj aldermen and #cj councillors until under the ,potteries ,federation scheme 7#aijh7 it became part of the borough of ,stoke-on-,trent in #aiaj4 ,,longueville1 the name of a ,french family which originated with ,jean1 count of ,dunois1 the ,bastard of ,orleans1 to whom ,charles ,,vii4 gave the countship of ,longueville in ,normandy in #addc4 ,franois of ,orleans1 count of ,longueville1 was created duke in #aeje4 ,the marriage of his brother ,louis with ,jeanne1 daughter and heiress of ,philip1 count of ,baden-,hochberg-,sausenberg 7d4 #aejc71 added considerable estates to the house of ,longueville4 ,henry1 duc de ,longueville 7d4 #affc71 took an important part in the ,fronde1 and for a long time held the royal troops in check in ,normandy4 ,his wife1 ,anne ,genevive 7see below71 was a leading figure in the political dissensions of the time4 ,the last of the family was ,jean ,louis1 the ,abb d',orlans1 who died in #afid4 ,the numismatist1 ,charles d',orlans-,rothelin 7#afia-agdd71 belonged to a bastard branch of the family4 ,,longueville1 ,,anne ,,genevi,,ve1 ,,duchesse ,,de 7#afai-afgi71 was the only daughter of ,henri de ,bourbon1 ,prince de ,cond1 and his wife ,charlotte ,marguerite de ,montmorency1 and the sister of ,louis1 the great ,cond4 ,she was born on the #bhth of ,august #afai1 in the prison of ,vincennes1 into which her father and mother had been thrown for opposition to ,marshal ,d',ancre1 the favourite of ,marie de' ,medici1 who was then regent in the minority of ,louis ,,xiii4 ,she was educated with great strictness in the convent of the ,carmelites in the ,rue ,st ,jacques at ,paris4 ,her early years were clouded by the execution of the duc de ,montmorency1 her mother's only brother1 for intriguing against ,richelieu in #afca1 and that of her mother's cousin the comte de ,montmorency-,boutteville for duelling in #afce2 but her parents made their peace with ,richelieu1 and being introduced into society in #afce she soon became one of the stars of the ,htel ,rambouillet1 at that time the centre of all that was learned1 witty and gay in ,france4 ,in #afdb she was married to the duc de ,longueville1 governor of ,normandy1 a widower twice her age4 ,the marriage was not happy4 ,after ,richelieu's death her father became chief of the council of regency during the minority of ,louis ,,xiv41 her brother ,louis won the great victory of ,rocroy in #afdc 7see ,,cond71 and the duchess became of political importance4 ,in #afdf she accompanied her husband to ,mnster1 where he was sent by ,mazarin as chief envoy1 and where she charmed the ,german diplomatists who were making the treaty of ,westphalia1 and was addressed as the goddess of peace and concord4 ,on her return she fell in love with the duc de la ,rochefoucauld1 the author of the ,maxims1 who made use of her love to obtain influence over her brother1 and thus win honours for himself4 ,she was the guiding spirit of the first ,fronde1 when she brought over ,armand1 ,prince de ,conti1 her second brother1 and her husband to the malcontents1 but she failed to attract ,cond himself1 whose loyalty to the court overthrew the first ,fronde4 ,it was during the first ,fronde that she lived at the ,htel de ,ville and took the city of ,paris as god-mother for the child born to her there4 ,the peace did not satisfy her1 although ,la ,rochefoucauld won the titles he desired4 ,the second ,fronde was largely her work1 and in it she played the most prominent part in attracting to the rebels first ,cond and later ,turenne4 ,in the last year of the war she was accompanied into ,guienne by the duc de ,nemours1 her intimacy with whom gave ,la ,rochefoucauld an excuse for abandoning her1 and who himself immediately returned to his old mistress the duchesse de ,chevreuse4 ,thus abandoned1 and in disgrace at court1 the duchess betook herself to religion4 ,she accompanied her husband to his government at ,rouen1 and devoted herself to good works4 ,she took for her director ,m4 ,singlin1 famous in the history of ,port ,royal4 ,she chiefly lived in ,normandy till #affc1 when her husband died1 and she came to ,paris4 ,there she became more and more ,jansenist in opinion1 and her piety and the remembrance of her influence during the disastrous days of the ,fronde1 and above all the love her brother1 the great ,cond1 bore her1 made her conspicuous4 ,the king pardoned her and in every way showed respect for her4 ,she became the great protectress of the ,jansenists2 it was in her house that ,arnauld1 ,nicole and ,de ,lane were protected2 and to her influence must be in great part attributed the release of ,lemaistre ,de ,sacy from the ,bastille1 the introduction of ,pomponne into the ministry and of ,arnauld to the king4 ,her famous letters to the pope are part of the history of ,,port ,,royal 7q4v471 and as long as she lived the nuns of ,port ,royal des ,champs were left in safety4 ,her elder son resigned his title and estates1 and became a ,jesuit under the name of the ,abb d',orlans1 while the younger1 after leading a debauched life1 was killed leading the attack in the passage of the ,rhine in #afgc4 ,as her health failed she hardly ever left the convent of the ,carmelites in which she had been educated4 ,on her death in #afgi she was buried with great splendour by her brother ,cond1 and her heart1 as she had directed1 was sent to the nuns of the ,port ,royal des ,champs4 ,the chief authority for ,madame de ,longueville's life is a little book in two volumes by ,villefore the ,jansenist1 published in #agch4 ,victor ,cousin has devoted four volumes to her1 which1 though immensely diffuse1 give a vivid picture of her time4 ,see also ,sainte-,beuve1 ,portraits des femmes 7#ahdj74 ,her connexion with ,port ,royal should be studied in ,arnauld's ,memoirs1 and in the different histories of that institution4 ,,longus1 ,greek sophist and romancer1 author of ,daphnis and ,chlo4 ,nothing is known of his life1 and all that can be said is that he probably lived at the end of the #bnd or the beginning of the #crd century ,a4,d4 ,it has been suggested that the name ,longus is merely a misreading of the last word of the title ,greek3 ,lesbiakn ertikn logoi d' in the ,florentine ,,ms42 ,seiler also observes that the best ,,ms4 begins and ends with ,greek3 logou 7not ,greek3 loggou7 ,greek3 poimenikn4 ,if his name was really ,longus1 he was probably a freedman of some ,roman family which bore it4 ,longus's style is rhetorical1 his shepherds and shepherdesses are wholly conventional1 but he has imparted human interest to a purely fanciful picture4 ,as an analysis of feeling1 ,daphnis and ,chlo makes a nearer approach to the modern novel than its chief rival among ,greek erotic romances1 the ,aethiopica of ,heliodorus1 which is remarkable mainly for the ingenious succession of incidents4 ,daphnis and ,chlo1 two children found by shepherds1 grow up together1 nourishing a mutual love which neither suspects4 ,the development of this simple passion forms the chief interest1 and there are few incidents4 ,chlo is carried off by a pirate1 and ultimately regains her family4 ,rivals alarm the peace of mind of ,daphnis2 but the two lovers are recognized by their parents1 and return to a happy married life in the country4 ,daphnis and ,chlo was the model of ,la ,sireine of ,honor d',urf1 the ,diana enamorada of ,montemayor1 the ,aminta of ,tasso1 and ,the ,gentle ,shepherd of ,allan ,ramsay4 ,the celebrated ,paul et ,virginie is an echo of the same story4 ,see ,j4 ,dunlop's ,history of ,prose ,fiction 7#ahhh71 and especially ,e4 ,rohde1 ,der griechische ,roman 7#aijj74 ,longus found an incomparable translator in ,jacques ,amyot1 bishop of ,auxerre1 whose ,french version1 as revised by ,paul ,louis ,courier1 is better known than the original4 ,it appeared in #aeei1 thirty-nine years before the publication of the ,greek text at ,florence by ,columbani4 ,the chief subsequent editions are those by ,g4 ,jungermann 7#afje71 ,j4 ,b4 de ,villoison 7#aggh1 the first standard text with commentary71 ,a4 ,coraes 7,coray7 7#ahjb71 ,p4 ,l4 ,courier 7#ahaj1 with a newly discovered passage71 ,e4 ,seiler 7#ahce71 ,r4 ,hercher 7#aheh71 ,n4 ,piccolos 7,paris1 #ahff7 and ,kiefer 7,leipzig1 #aijd71 ,w4 ,d4 ,lowe 7,cambridge1 #aijh74 ,a4 ,j4 ,pons's edition 7#ahgh7 of ,courier's version contains an exhaustive bibliography4 ,there are ,english translations by ,g4 ,thorneley 7#agcc1 reprinted #ahic71 ,c4 ,v4 ,le ,grice 7#ahjc71 ,r4 ,smith 7in ,bohn's ,classical ,library71 and the rare ,elizabethan version by ,angel ,day from ,amyot's translation 7ed4 ,j4 ,jacobs in ,tudor ,library1 #ahij74 ,the illustrated editions1 generally of ,amyot's version1 are numerous and some are beautiful1 ,prudhon's designs being especially celebrated4 ,,longwy1 a fortified town of north-eastern ,france in the department of ,meurthe-et-,moselle1 #hi m4 ,n4,n4,w of ,nancy by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #hebc4 ,longwy is situated on a plateau overlooking the ,chiers1 a right-bank affluent of the ,meuse1 near the frontiers of ,belgium and ,luxemburg4 ,it comprises an upper and a lower town2 the former1 on a hill1 #cij ft4 above the ,chiers valley1 commands the ,luxemburg road1 and is strengthened by an enceinte and a few outlying fortifications4 ,there is garrison accommodation for #ejjj men and #hjj horses1 but the permanent garrison is small4 ,the lower town is the industrial centre4 ,the #agth-century church has a lofty square tower1 the htel de ville dates from #agcj1 and there is a fine hospital4 ,iron is extensively mined in the district1 and supplies numerous blast furnaces4 ,several iron and steel works are in operation1 and metal utensils1 fire-proof ware and porcelain are manufactured4 ,longwy 7,longus vicus7 came into the possession of the ,french in #afgh and was at once fortified by ,vauban4 ,it was captured by the ,prussians in #agib1 #ahae and #ahga4 ,l,,nnrot1 ,,elias 7#ahjb-ahhd71 ,finnish philologist and discoverer of the ,kalevala1 was born at ,nyland in ,finland on the #ith of ,april #ahjb4 ,he was an apothecary's assistant1 but entered the university of bo in #ahbb1 and after taking his successive degrees became a physician in #ahcb4 ,but before this1 as early as #ahbg1 he had begun to publish contributions to the study of the ancient ,finnish language1 and to collect the national ballads and folklore1 a field which was at that time uncultivated4 ,in #ahcc he settled as a doctor in the country district of ,kajana1 and began to travel throughout ,finland and the adjoining ,russian provinces in his leisure time1 collecting songs and legends4 ,in this way he was able to put together the great epic of ,finland1 the ,kalevala1 the first edition of which he published in #ahce2 he continued to add to it1 and in #ahdi issued a larger and completer text4 ,in #ahdj ,lnnrot issued his important collection of the ,kanteletar1 or folk-songs of ancient ,finland1 which he had taken down from oral tradition4 ,the ,proverbs of ,finland followed in #ahdb4 ,in #ahec1 on the death of ,castrn1 ,lnnrot became professor of the ,finnish language and literature at the high school of ,helsingfors2 he retired from this chair in #ahfb4 ,he died on the #aith of ,march #ahhd4 ,,lonsdale1 ,,earls ,,of4 ,this ,english earldom is held by the ancient family of ,lowther1 which traces its descent to ,sir ,hugh ,lowther1 who flourished in the reign of ,edward ,i4 ,sir ,hugh's descendant ,sir ,richard ,lowther 7#aebi-afjg7 received ,mary queen of ,scots on her flight into ,england in #aefh1 and in the two following years was concerned with his brother ,gerard in attempts to release her from captivity4 ,he was sheriff of ,cumberland and lord warden of the west marches4 ,a house built by ,gerard ,lowther at ,penrith is now the ,two ,lions ,inn4 ,sir ,richard's eldest son1 ,sir ,christopher ,lowther 7d4 #afag71 was the ancestor of the later ,lowthers1 and another son4 ,sir ,gerard ,lowther 7d4 #afbd71 was judge of the common pleas in ,ireland4 ,one of ,sir ,christopher's descendants was ,sir ,john ,lowther1 ,bart4 7d4 #agjf71 the founder of the trade of ,whitehaven1 and another was ,john ,lowther 7#afee-agjj71 who was created ,viscount ,lonsdale in #afif4 ,before this creation ,john had succeeded his grandfather1 another ,sir ,john ,lowther 7d4 #afge71 as a baronet1 and had been member of parliament for ,westmorland from #afge to #afif4 ,in #afhh he was serviceable in securing ,cumberland and ,westmorland for ,william of ,orange2 in #afij he was first lord of the treasury1 and he was lord privy seal from ,march #afii until his death in ,july #agjj4 ,lonsdale wrote3 ,memoirs of the ,reign of ,james ,,ii41 which were printed in #ahjh and again in #aheg4 ,his family became extinct when his son ,henry1 the #crd viscount 7#afid-agea71 died unmarried in ,march #agea4 ,james ,lowther1 #ast earl of ,lonsdale 7#agcf-ahjb71 was a son of ,robert ,lowther 7d4 #agde7 of ,maulds ,meaburn1 ,westmorland1 who was for some time governor of ,barbados1 and was descended from ,sir ,christopher ,lowther2 through his mother ,catherine ,pennington1 ,james was a great-grandson of the #ast viscount ,lonsdale4 ,he inherited one of the family baronetcies in #agea1 and from three sources he obtained immense wealth1 being the heir of the #crd viscount ,lonsdale1 of ,sir ,james ,lowther1 ,bart4 7d4 #agee7 of ,whitehaven1 and of ,sir ,william ,lowther1 ,bart4 7d4 #agef74 ,from #ageg to #aghd he was a member of parliament1 exercising enormous influence on elections in the north of ,england and usually controlling nine seats in the ,house of ,commons1 where his nominees were known as ,sir ,james's ninepins4 ,he secured the election of ,william ,pitt as member for his borough of ,appleby in #agha1 and his dispute with the #crd duke of ,portland over the possession of the socage manor of ,carlisle and the forest of ,inglewood gave rise to lengthy proceedings1 both in parliament and in the law courts4 ,in #aghd ,lowther was created earl of ,lonsdale and in #agig ,viscount ,lowther with an extended remainder4 ,the earl's enormous wealth enabled him to gratify his political ambitions4 ,sir ,n4 ,w4 ,wraxall 7,historical and ,posthumous ,memoirs1 ed4 ,h4 ,b4 ,wheatley1 #ahhd71 who gives interesting glimpses of his life1 speaks of his prodigious property and quotes ,junius1 who called him the little contemptible tyrant of the north4 ,he was known as the bad earl1 and ,horace ,walpole and others speak slightingly of him2 he was1 however1 a benefactor to ,whitehaven1 where he boasted he owned the land1 fire and water4 ,he married ,mary 7#agfh-ahbd7 daughter of ,george ,,iii4's favourite1 ,john ,stuart1 #crd earl of ,bute1 but died childless on the #bdth of ,may #ahjb1 when the earldom became extinct2 but a kinsman1 ,sir ,william ,lowther1 ,bart4 7#ageg-ahdd71 of ,swillington1 became #bnd viscount ,lowther4 ,this viscount1 who was created earl of ,lonsdale in #ahjg1 is chiefly famous as the friend of ,wordsworth and the builder of ,lowther ,castle1 ,penrith4 ,his son1 ,william ,lowther1 #crd earl of ,lonsdale 7#aghg-ahgb71 held several subordinate positions in various ,tory ministries1 and was lord president of the council in #aheb4 ,he died unmarried1 and was succeeded by his nephew ,henry 7#ahah-ahgf71 whose son ,hugh ,cecil 7b4 #aheg7 succeeded his brother as #fth earl of ,lonsdale in #ahhb4 ,other prominent members of the ,lowther family are the ,right ,hon4 ,james ,william ,lowther 7b4 #ahee71 who became speaker of the ,house of ,commons in #aije2 ,sir ,gerard ,augustus ,lowther 7b4 #aheh71 who became ,british ambassador at ,constantinople in #aijh2 and the ,right ,hon4 ,james ,lowther 7#ahdj-aijd71 who was a well-known ,conservative member of parliament from #ahfe1 onwards1 and chief secretary for ,ireland from #ahgh to #ahhj4 ,,lonsdale1 ,,william 7#agid-ahga71 ,english geologist and palaeontologist1 was born at ,bath on the #ith of ,september #agid4 ,he was educated for the army and in #ahaj obtained a commission as ensign in the #dth 7,king's ,own7 regiment4 ,he served in the ,peninsular ,war at the battles of ,salamanca and ,waterloo1 for both of which he received medals2 and he retired as lieutenant4 ,residing afterwards for some years at ,batheaston he collected a series of rocks and fossils which he presented to the ,literary and ,scientific ,institution of ,bath4 ,he became the first honorary curator of the natural history department of the museum1 and worked until #ahbi when he was appointed assistant secretary and curator of the ,geological ,society of ,london at ,somerset ,house4 ,there he held office until #ahdb1 when ill-health led him to resign4 ,the ability with which he edited the publications of the society and advised the council on every obscure and difficult point was commented on by ,murchison in his presidential address 7#ahdc74 ,in #ahbi ,lonsdale read before the society an important paper ,on the ,oolitic ,district of ,bath 7,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ser4 #b1 vol4 iii471 the results of a survey begun in #ahbg2 later he was engaged in a survey of the ,oolitic strata of ,gloucestershire 7#ahcb71 at the instigation of the ,geological ,society1 and he laid down on the one-inch ordnance maps the boundaries of the various geological formations4 ,he gave particular attention to the study of corals1 becoming the highest authority in ,england on the subject1 and he described fossil forms from the ,tertiary and ,cretaceous strata of ,north ,america and from the older strata of ,britain and ,russia4 ,in #ahcg he suggested from a study of the fossils of the ,south ,devon limestones that they would prove to be of an age intermediate between the ,carboniferous and ,silurian systems4 ,this suggestion was adopted by ,sedgwick and ,murchison in #ahci1 and may be regarded as the basis on which they founded the ,devonian system4 ,lonsdale's paper1 ,notes on the ,age of the ,limestones of ,south ,devonshire 7read #ahdj71 was published in the same volume of the ,transactions of the ,geological ,society 7ser4 #b1 vol4 v47 with ,sedgwick and ,murchison's famous paper ,on the ,physical ,structure of ,devonshire1 and these authors observe that the conclusion arrived at by ,mr ,lonsdale1 we now apply without reserve both to the five groups of our ,north ,devon section1 and to the fossiliferous slates of ,cornwall4 ,the later years of ,lonsdale's life were spent in retirement1 and he died at ,bristol on the #aath of ,november #ahga4 7,h4 ,b4 ,wo47 ,,lons-,,le-,,saunier1 a town of eastern ,france1 capital of the department of ,jura1 #gf m4 ,n4,n4,e4 of ,lyons on the ,paris-,lyons railway1 on which it is a junction for ,chalon-sur-,sane1 ,dle1 ,besanon and ,champagnole4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #aj1fdh4 ,the town is built on both sides of the river ,vallire and is surrounded by the vine-clad hills of the western ,jura4 ,it owes its name to the salt mines of ,montmorot1 its western suburb1 which have been used from a very remote period4 ,the church of ,st ,dsir1 a building of the #abth and #aeth centuries1 preserves a huge ,romanesque crypt4 ,the town is the seat of a prefects and of a court of assizes1 and there are tribunals of first instance and of commerce1 a chamber of commerce1 lyces and training-colleges for both sexes1 and a branch of the ,bank of ,france4 ,there is an establishment for the use of the mineral waters1 which are sodio-chlorinated and have strengthening properties4 ,the principal industry of the place is the manufacture of sparkling wines1 the toile growth being the best for this purpose4 ,trade is in cheese1 cereals1 horses1 cattle1 wood1 c4 ,lons-le-,saunier1 known as ,ledo in the time of the ,gauls1 was fortified by the ,romans1 who added the surname ,salinarius to the ,gallic name4 ,an object of contention owing to the value of its salt1 it belonged for a long time during the medieval period to the powerful house of ,chalon1 a younger branch of that of ,burgundy4 ,it was burned in #acfd by the ,english1 and again in #afcg1 when it was seized by the duke of ,longueville for ,louis ,,xiii4 ,it became definitively ,french in #afgd4 ,it was here that the meeting between ,ney and ,napoleon took place1 on the return of the latter from ,elba in #ahae4 ,rouget de l',isle1 the author of the ,marseillaise1 was born at ,montaigu near this town1 where there is a statue erected to him4 ,,loo 7formerly called ,lanterloo1 ,fr4 lanturlu1 the refrain of a popular #agth-century song71 a round game of cards1 played by any number of persons2 from five to seven makes the best game4 ,three-card loo is the game usually played4 ,an ordinary pack of fifty-two cards is used and the deal passes after each round4 ,each player must have the same number of deals2 but if there is a loo 7the sum forfeited by a player who plays1 but does not win a trick7 in the last deal of a round1 the game continues till there is a hand without a loo4 ,the dealer deals three cards face downwards1 one by one1 to each player and an extra hand called miss1 and turns up the top of the undealt cards for trumps4 ,each player contributes to the pool a sum previously agreed upon4 ,the unit for a single stake should be divisible by three without a remainder1 e4g4 three counters or three pence4 ,the players are bound to put in the stake before the deal is completed4 ,each player in rotation1 beginning from the dealer's left1 looks at his cards1 and declares whether he will play1 or pass1 or take miss4 ,if the former1 he says ,i play4 ,if he takes miss he places his cards face downwards in the middle of the table1 and takes up the extra hand4 ,if he passes1 he similarly places his cards face downwards in the middle of the table4 ,if miss is taken1 the subsequent players only have the option of playing or passing4 ,a player who takes miss must play4 ,those who are now left in play one card each in rotation1 beginning from the dealer's left1 the cards thus played constituting a trick4 ,the trick is won by the highest card of the suit led1 or1 if trumped1 by the highest trump1 the cards ranking as at whist4 ,the winner of the trick leads to the next1 and so on1 until the hand is played out4 ,the cards remain face upwards in front of the persons placing them4 ,if the leader holds ace of trumps he must lead it 7or king1 if ace is turned up74 ,if the leader has two trumps he must lead one of them1 and if one is ace 7or king1 ace being turned up7 he must lead it4 ,with this exception the leader is not bound to lead his highest trump if more than two declare to play2 but if there are only two declared players the leader with more than one trump must lead the highest4 ,except with trumps as above stated he may lead any card he chooses4 ,the subsequent players must head the trick if able1 and must follow suit if able4 ,holding none of the suit led1 they must head the trick with a trump1 if able4 ,otherwise they may play any card they please4 ,the winner of the first trick is subject to the rules already stated respecting the lead1 and in addition he must lead a trump if able 7called trump after trick74 ,when the hand has been played out1 the winners of the tricks divide the pool1 each receiving one-third of the amount for each trick4 ,if only one has declared to play1 the dealer plays miss either for himself or for the pool4 ,if he plays for the pool he must declare before seeing miss that he does not play for himself4 ,any tricks he may win1 when playing for the pool1 remain there as an addition to the next pool4 ,other rules provide that the dealer must play1 if only one player stands1 with his own cards or with miss4 ,if miss is gone and against him1 he may defend with the three top cards of the pack1 excluding the trump card2 these cards are called master4 ,if each declared player wins at least one trick it is a single1 i4e4 a fresh pool is made as already described2 but if one of the declared players fails to make a trick he is looed4 ,then only the player who is looed contributes to the next pool4 ,if more than one player is looed1 each has to contribute4 ,at unlimited loo each player looed has to put in the amount there was in the pool4 ,but it is often agreed to limit the loo1 so that it shall not exceed a certain fixed sum4 ,thus1 at eighteen-penny loo1 the loo is generally limited to half a guinea4 ,if there is less than the limit in the pool the payment is regulated as before2 but if there is more than the limit1 the loo is the fixed sum agreed on4 ,the game is sometimes varied by forces1 i4e4 by compelling every one to play in the first deal1 or when there is no loo the previous deal1 or whenever clubs are trumps 7club law74 ,when there is a force no miss is dealt4 ,irish loo is played by allowing declared players to exchange some or all of their cards for cards dealt from the top of the pack4 ,there is no miss1 and it is not compulsory to lead a trump with two trumps1 unless there are only two declared players4 ,at five-card loo each player has five cards instead of three1 and a single stake should be divisible by five4 ,pam 7knave of clubs7 ranks as the highest trump1 whatever suit is turned up4 ,there is no miss1 and cards may be exchanged as at ,irish loo4 ,if ace of trumps is led1 the leader says ,pam be civil1 when the holder of that card must pass the trick if he can do so without revoking4 ,a flush 7five cards of the same suit1 or four with ,pam7 loos the board1 i4e4 the holder receives the amount of a loo from every one1 and the hand is not played4 ,a trump flush takes precedence of flushes in other suits4 ,if more than one flush is held1 or if ,pam is held1 the holder is exempted from payment4 ,as between two flushes which do not take precedence1 the elder hand wins4 ,a single stake should be divisible by five4 ,,looe1 a seaport and market town in the ,bodmin parliamentary division of ,cornwall1 ,england1 #ag m4 by sea ,w4 of ,plymouth1 a terminus of the ,liskeard ,looe light railway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #bedh4 ,it is divided by the river into ,east ,looe and ,west ,looe2 and is sheltered so completely by the surrounding hills that myrtles1 geraniums1 fuchsias and other delicate plants flourish at all seasons in the open air4 ,its lanes are narrow1 steep and winding2 many of the houses are entered by wooden staircases2 and though considerably modernized the town has a medieval air4 ,inland1 the shores of the river are richly wooded2 and towards the sea they rise on the south into rugged cliffs4 ,the parish church of ,st ,martin1 which stands #a m4 outside the town1 has a ,norman doorway and font4 ,among other buildings may be mentioned the ancient chapel of ,st ,nicholas in ,west ,looe1 restored in #ahfb2 and the old town-hall1 where the ancient pillory is preserved4 ,a considerable export trade in copper1 tin and granite was formerly carried on1 and the last is still exported1 but the chief trade is in grain2 while timber1 coal and limestone are imported4 ,there are also thriving fisheries1 the ,looe fishermen being particularly expert with the seine on a rocky bottom4 ,the inlet of ,trelawne is one of the most exquisite wooded coombes in ,cornwall4 ,at its head are the remains of a camp1 connected with the ,giant's ,hedge1 a raised earthwork which extends for #g m4 in a straight line1 as far as a larger camp1 on ,bury ,down1 and is of ,danish or ,saxon construction4 ,trelawne1 a fine old mansion belonging to the family of ,trelawny1 dates in part from the #aeth century1 but has been very largely restored4 ,the harbourage was probably the original cause of settlement at ,looe4 ,at the time of the ,domesday ,survey ,east ,looe was assessed under ,pendrym1 which was of the king's demesne and ,west ,looe under ,hamelin's manor of ,trelowia4 ,in the #adth century the former manor was held by the family of ,bodrugan2 the latter by that of ,dauney1 who had inherited it from the ,treverbyns4 ,in #abcg ,henry ,bodrugan received the grant of a market on ,fridays and a fair at ,michaelmas in his manor of ,pendrym4 ,in #acja his grandson and namesake granted to ,east ,looe a market and fair1 view of frank pledge1 ducking stool and pillory and assize of bread and ale4 ,otto ,bodrugan in #acbj granted the burgesses the privilege of electing their own portreeve and controlling the trade of the town4 ,a charter of incorporation was granted in #aeeh under which the common council was to consist of a mayor and #h chief burgesses4 ,there was to be a court of record1 a market on ,saturdays and fairs at ,michaelmas and ,candlemas4 ,in #afhe ,james ,,ii4 provided that there should be a mayor and #aa aldermen1 #cf free burgesses1 #d fairs and a court of pie powder4 ,east ,looe was governed under this charter until #ahhe4 ,west ,looe 7known also as ,porpighan or ,porbuan7 benefited by a charter granted by ,richard king of the ,romans to ,odo ,treverbyn and ratified in #acbe constituting it a free borough whose burgesses were to be free of all custom throughout ,cornwall4 ,residence for a year and a day within the borough conferred freedom from servitude4 ,there were to be a market on ,wednesdays and a fair at ,michaelmas4 ,hugh son of ,odo ,treverbyn gave ,west ,looe the privileges enjoyed by ,helston and ,launceston4 ,upon the attainder of the earl of ,devon in #aeci the borough fell to the crown and was annexed to the duchy4 ,in #aegd a charter of incorporation was granted1 providing for a mayor and #aa burgesses1 also for a market on ,wednesdays and two fairs4 ,west ,looe continued to be administered under this charter until #ahfi1 when the death of the mayor deprived the council of its only surviving member and elector4 ,parliamentary representation was conferred upon ,east ,looe in #aega and upon ,west ,looe in #aeec4 ,in the debate on the reform bill ,o',connell stated that there was but one borough more rotten than ,east ,looe and that was ,west ,looe4 ,looe was second only to ,fowey as a port in the #aeth century4 ,it furnished #bj ships for the siege of ,calais4 ,of the markets and fairs only the markets on ,wednesdays and ,saturdays and a fair on the #fth of ,may remain4 ,,loom1 or ,,loon 7,icelandic1 ,lmr71 a name applied to water-birds of three distinct families1 remarkable for their clumsy gait on land4#a ,the first is the ,colymbidae1 to which the term diver 7q4v47 is usually restricted in books2 the second the ,podicipedidae1 or grebes 7q4v472 and the third the ,alcidae4 ,the form loon is most commonly used both in the ,british ,islands and in ,north ,america for all species of the genus ,colymbus1 or ,eudytes according to some ornithologists1 frequently with the prefix sprat1 indicating the fish on which they are supposed to prey2 though it is the local name of the great crested grebe 7,podiceps cristatus7 wherever that bird is sufficiently well known to have one2 and1 as appears from ,grew 7,mus4 ,reg4 ,soc4 p4 #fi71 it was formerly given to the little grebe or dabchick 7,p4 fluviatilis or minor74 ,the other form loom seems more confined in its application to the north1 and is said by ,t4 ,edmonston 7,etym4 ,gloss4 ,shetl4 and ,orkn4 ,dialect1 p4 #fg7 to be the proper name in ,shetland of ,colymbus septentrionalis2#b but it has come into use among ,arctic seamen as the name of the guillemot 7,alca arra or bruennichi7 which throngs the cliffs of northern lands1 from whose loomeries they obtain a wholesome food2 while the writer believes he has heard the word locally applied to the razorbill 7q4v474 7,a4 ,n47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the word also takes the form lumme 7fide ,montagu71 and1 as ,professor ,skeat observes1 is probably connected with lame4 ,the signification of loon1 a clumsy fellow1 and metaphorically a simpleton1 is obvious to any one who has seen the attempt of the birds to which the name is given to walk4 #b ,dunn and ,saxby1 however1 agree in giving rain-goose as the name of the species in ,scotland4 ,,loom1 a machine for weaving fabrics by intersecting the longitudinal threads1 the warp1 i4e4 that which is thrown across 7,o4,e4 wearp1 from weorpan1 to throw1 cf4 ,ger4 werfen7 with the transverse threads1 the weft1 i4e4 that which is woven 7,o4,e4 wefta1 from wefan1 to weave1 cf4 ,ger4 weben74 ,the ,o4,e4 geloma and ,m4,e4 lome meant an implement or tool of any kind4 ,in the sense of property1 furniture1 c41 it appears in heirloom 7q4v474 ,the earliest example with its specific meaning quoted by the ,new ,english ,dictionary is from the ,nottingham ,records of #adjd 7see ,,weaving74 ,loom in the sense of to appear indistinctly1 to come into view in an exaggerated indistinct shape1 must be distinguished from the above word4 ,this appears to have been a sailor's term for the indistinct or exaggerated appearance of land1 a vessel or other object through haze or darkness at sea4 ,it is of obscure origin1 but has been connected through the ,o4 ,fr4 lumer1 modern allumer1 with ,lat4 lumen1 light1 and with the root seen in lame1 in the sense of moving slowly towards one4 ,,lo,n1 the largest town of the province of ,bohol1 island of ,bohol1 ,philippine ,islands1 on the extreme ,w4 coast4 ,pop4 7#aijc7 #ah1aad4 ,lon is picturesquely situated on the ,w4 slope of a hill1 and is reached from the sea by steps cut in the rocks4 ,the harbour is in a sheltered bay on the ,n4 side of the town4 ,the cultivation of coco-nuts1 coffee1 cocoa1 maguey1 tobacco1 cotton and ,indian corn1 and the raising of livestock are the principal industries2 there is also considerable commerce and some manufacturing4 ,the language is chiefly ,bohol-,visayan4 ,,loop4 7#a7 ,a curve or bend1 particularly a bend in a string1 rope1 c41 formed by doubling back one part so as to leave an opening2 similarly a ring of metal or other material leaving an aperture4 7#b7 ,in architecture or fortification1 loop1 more usually in the form loophole1 is an opening in the wall of a building1 very narrow on the outside and splayed within1 from which arrows or darts might be discharged on an enemy1 or through which light might be admitted4 ,they are often in the form of a cross1 and generally have round holes at the ends 7see ,,oillets74 7#c7 ,the word is also a term in iron and steel manufacturing for a mass of metal ready for hammering or rolling1 a bloom4 ,this last word is represented in ,french by loupe1 from which it is probably adapted4 ,the earlier ,english form was also loupe1 and it was also applied to precious stones which were of inferior brilliancy2 the same also appears in ,french4 ,of the word in its two first meanings1 a bend or circle in a line of string1 metal1 rails1 c41 and loophole1 the derivation is uncertain4 ,skeat takes the word in both meanings to be the same and to be of ,scandinavian origin1 the old ,norwegian hlaup1 a leap1 being the direct source4 ,the base is the ,teutonic hlaufan1 to run1 to leap1 ,german laufen4 ,the ,new ,english ,dictionary considers the ,swedish example1 lp-knut1 running knot1 and others given by ,skeat in support of his derivation to be ,germanisms1 and also that the pronunciation of the word would have been lowp rather than lup4 ,loop in meaning 7#b7 loophole is also taken to be a different word1 and is derived from ,dutch luipen1 to peer1 watch4 ,in modern ,dutch the word for a narrow opening is gluip4 ,,loosestrife1 in botany1 the common name of ,lysimachia vulgaris1 an erect plant1 #b to #d ft4 high1 common on river banks in ,england2 the branched stem bears tapering leaves in pairs or whorls1 and terminal panicles of rather large deep yellow flowers4 ,it is a member of the primrose family4 ,l4 nemorum1 yellow pimpernel1 or wood loosestrife1 a low-growing plant with slender spreading stem1 and somewhat similar yellow flowers standing singly in the leaf-axils1 is frequent in copses4 ,l4 ,nummularia is the well-known creeping jenny or money-wort1 a larger plant with widely creeping stem1 pairs of shining leaves and large solitary yellow flowers2 it is found on banks of rivers and damp woods1 and is a common rockery plant4 ,purple loosestrife1 ,lythrum ,salicaria1 belongs to a different family1 ,lythraceae4 ,it is a handsome plant growing #b to #f ft4 high on river banks and ditches1 with a branched angled stem bearing whorls of narrow pointed stalkless leaves and ending in tall tapering spikes of beautiful rose-purple flowers4 ,the flowers are trimorphic1 that is to say1 exist in three forms which differ in the relative length of the styles and stamens and are known as long-styled1 mid-styled and short-styled forms respectively2 the size and colour of the pollen also differ4 ,these differences play an important part in the pollination of the flower4 ,,loot1 plunder or spoil taken from an enemy in war1 especially the indiscriminate plunder taken by the victor after the capture of a city4 ,the word came into ,english from ,india4 ,it is adapted from the ,hindi lut1 which is either from ,sanskrit lunt1 to rob1 plunder1 or lotra1 loptra1 booty4 ,,lopes1 ,,fern,o 7#achj8-adei871 the patriarch of ,portuguese historians1 was appointed keeper of the royal archives1 then housed in the castle of ,st ,george in ,lisbon1 by ,king ,john ,i4 in ,november #adah4 ,he acted as private secretary to the ,infants ,d4 ,duarte and ,d4 ,fernando1 and when the former ascended the throne he charged ,lopes1 by letter of the #aith of ,march #adcd1 with the work of putting into chronicles the stories of the kings of old time as well as the great and lofty actions of the most virtuous king my lord and father 7,john ,i474 ,the form of the appointment marked its limits1 and is a sufficient reply to those modern critics who have censured ,lopes for partiality4 ,notwithstanding his official title of chief chronicler of the realm1 he was the king's man 7,vassallo del ,rei71 and received his salary from the royal treasury4 ,king ,alphonso ,v4 confirmed him in his post by letter of the #crd of ,june #addi1 and in #aded1 after thirty-six years' service in the archives and twenty as chronicler1 he resigned in favour of ,gomez ,eannes de ,azurara4 ,the latter pays a tribute to his predecessor as a notable person1 a man of rare knowledge and great authority1 and the modern historian ,herculano says1 there is not only history in the chronicles of ,ferno ,lopes1 there is poetry and drama as well2 there is the middle age with its faith1 its enthusiasm1 its love of glory4 ,lopes has been called the ,portuguese ,froissart1 and that rare gift1 the power of making their subjects live1 is common to the two writers2 indeed1 had the former written in a better-known language1 there can be little doubt that the general opinion of critics would have confirmed that of ,robert ,southey1 who called ,lopes beyond all comparison the best chronicler of any age or nation4 ,lopes was the first to put in order the stories of the earlier ,portuguese monarchs1 and he composed a general chronicle of the kingdom1 which1 though it never appeared under his name1 almost certainly served as a foundation for the chronicles of ,ruy de ,pina 7q4v474 ,lopes prepared himself for his work with care and diligence1 as he tells us1 not only by wide reading of books in different languages1 but also by a study of the archives belonging to municipalities1 monasteries and churches1 both in ,portugal and ,spain4 ,he is usually a trustworthy guide in facts1 and charms the reader by the nave simplicity of his style4 ,his works that have come down are3 7#a7 ,chronica del ,rei ,d4 ,joo ,i4 de boa memoria1 parts #a and #b 7,lisbon1 #afdd74 ,the third part relating the capture of ,ceuta was added by ,azurara4 ,a corrected text of the chronicle has been issued by instalments in the ,archivo ,historico ,portuguez4 7#b7 ,chronica do senhor rei ,d4 ,pedro ,i41 in vol4 iv4 of the ,collecco de ,livros ,ineditos da ,historia ,portugueza1 published by the ,academy of ,sciences 7,lisbon1 #ahaf72 a much better text than that published by ,father ,bayo in his edition of the same chronicle 7,lisbon1 #agfj74 7#c7 ,chronica do senhor rei ,d4 ,fernando published in the same volume and collection4 ,the ,british ,museum has some important #afth-century ,,mss4 of the chronicles4 ,see ,damio de ,goes1 ,chronica del ,rei ,dom ,manoel1 part iv4 ch4 #ch2 ,arago ,morato1 introduction to vol4 iv4 of the above collection2 ,herculano1 ,opusculos1 vol4 v4 7,e4 ,pr47 ,,lopez1 ,,carlos ,,antonio 7#agij-ahfb71 ,paraguayan autocrat1 was born at ,asuncion on the #dth of ,november #agij1 and was educated in the ecclesiastical seminary of that city4 ,he attracted the hostility of the dictator1 ,francia1 and he was forced to keep in hiding for several years4 ,he acquired1 however1 so unusual a knowledge of law and governmental affairs that1 on ,francia's death in #ahdj1 he obtained an almost undisputed control of the ,paraguayan state1 which he maintained uninterruptedly until his death on the #ajth of ,september #ahfb4 ,he was successively secretary of the ruling military junta 7#ahdj-ahda71 one of the two consuls 7#ahda-ahdd71 and president with dictatorial powers 7#ahdd-ahfb7 by successive elections for ten and three years1 and in #aheg again for ten years1 with power to nominate his own successor4 ,though nominally a president acting under a republican constitution1 he ruled despotically4 ,his government was in general directed with wise energy towards developing the material resources and strengthening the military power of the country4 ,his jealousy of foreign approach several times involved him in diplomatic disputes with ,brazil1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states1 which nearly resulted in war1 but each time he extricated himself by skilful evasions4 ,his eldest son1 ,,francisco ,,solano ,,lopez 7#ahbf-ahgj71 was born near ,asuncion on the #bdth of ,july #ahbf4 ,when in his nineteenth year he was made commander-in-chief of the ,paraguayan army1 during the spasmodic hostilities then prevailing with the ,argentine ,republic4 ,he was sent in #ahec as minister to ,england1 ,france and ,italy1 and spent a year and a half in ,europe4 ,he purchased large quantities of arms and military supplies1 together with several steamers1 and organized a project for building a railroad and establishing a ,french colony in ,paraguay4 ,he also formed the acquaintance of ,madame ,lynch1 an ,irish adventuress of many talents and popular qualities1 who became his mistress1 and strongly influenced his later ambitious schemes4 ,returning to ,paraguay1 he became in #ahee minister of war1 and on his father's death in #ahfb at once assumed the reins of government as vice-president1 in accordance with a provision of his father's will1 and called a congress by which he was chosen president for ten years4 ,in #ahfd1 in his self-styled capacity of protector of the equilibrium of the ,la ,plata1 he demanded that ,brazil should abandon her armed interference in a revolutionary struggle then in progress in ,uruguay4 ,no attention being paid to his demand1 he seized a ,brazilian merchant steamer in the harbour of ,asuncion1 and threw into prison the ,brazilian governor of the province of ,matto ,grosso who was on board4 ,in the following month 7,december #ahfd7 he despatched a force to invade ,matto ,grosso1 which seized and sacked its capital ,cuyab1 and took possession of the province and its diamond mines4 ,lopez next sought to send an army to the relief of the ,uruguayan president ,aguirro against the revolutionary aspirant ,flores1 who was supported by ,brazilian troops4 ,the refusal of the ,argentine president1 ,mitre1 to allow this force to cross the intervening province of ,corrientes1 was seized upon by ,lopez as an occasion for war with the ,argentine ,republic4 ,a congress1 hastily summoned1 and composed of his own nominees1 bestowed upon ,lopez the title of marshal1 with extraordinary war powers1 and on ,april #ac1 #ahfe1 he declared war1 at the same time seizing two ,argentine war-vessels in the bay of ,corrientes1 and on the next day occupied the town of ,corrientes1 instituted a provisional government of his ,argentine partisans1 and summarily announced the annexation to ,paraguay of the provinces of ,corrientes and ,entre ,rios4 ,meantime the party of ,flores had been successful in ,uruguay1 and that state on ,april the #ahth united with the ,argentine ,republic in a declaration of war on ,paraguay4 ,on the #ast of ,may ,brazil joined these two states in a secret alliance1 which stipulated that they should unitedly prosecute the war until the existing government of ,paraguay should be overthrown1 and until no arms or elements of war should be left to it4 ,this agreement was literally carried out4 ,the war which ensued1 lasting until the #ast of ,april #ahgj1 was carried on with great stubbornness and with alternating fortunes1 though with a steadily increasing tide of disasters to ,lopez 7see ,,paraguay74 ,in #ahfh1 when the allies were pressing him hard1 his mind1 naturally suspicious and revengeful1 led him to conceive that a conspiracy had been formed against his life in his own capital and by his chief adherents4 ,thereupon several hundred of the chief ,paraguayan citizens were seized and executed by his order1 including his brothers and brothers-in-law1 cabinet ministers1 judges1 prefects1 military officers1 bishops and priests1 and nine-tenths of the civil officers1 together with more than two hundred foreigners1 among them several members of the diplomatic legations4 ,lopez was at last driven with a mere handful of troops to the northern frontier of ,paraguay1 where1 on the #ast of ,april #ahgj1 he was surprised by a ,brazilian force and killed as he was endeavouring to escape by swimming the river ,aquidaban4 ,,lopez ,,de ,g,,mara1 ,,francisco 7#aeaj8-aeee871 ,spanish historian1 was educated at the university of ,alcal1 where he took orders4 ,soon after #aedj he entered the household of the famous ,corts1 who supplied him with most of the material for his ,historia de las ,indias 7#aeeb71 and ,crnica de la conquista de ,nueva ,espaa 7#aeeb74 ,the pleasing style and novel matter enchanted the ,spanish public1 but the unmeasured laudation of ,corts at the expense of his lieutenants and companions brought about a violent reaction4 ,though the ,historia was dedicated to ,charles ,v41 both works were forbidden on the #agth of ,november #aeec1 and no editions of them were issued between #aeed and #agbg4 ,italian and ,french versions of his books were published in #aeef and #aegh respectively4 ,,lop-,,nor or ,lob-nor1 a lake of ,central ,asia1 in the ,gobi ,desert1 between the ,astin-tagh 7,altyn-tagh7 on the south and the ,kuruk-tagh on the north4 ,previous to #ahgf it was placed in nearly all maps at #db #cj ,n41 a position which agreed with the accounts and the maps of ancient ,chinese geographers4 ,in the year mentioned the ,russian explorer ,przhevalsky discovered two closely connected lake-basins1 ,kara-buran and ,kara-koshun1 fully one degree farther south1 and considerably east of the site of the old ,lop-nor1 which lake-basins he nevertheless regarded as being identical with the old ,lop-nor of the ,chinese4 ,but the water they contained he pronounced to be fresh water4 ,this identification was disputed by ,baron von ,richthofen1 on the ground that the ,lop-nor1 the ,salt ,lake of the ,chinese geographers1 could not be filled with fresh water2 moreover1 being the final gathering basin of the desert stream1 the ,tarim1 it was bound to be salt1 more especially as the lake had no outflow4 ,przhevalsky visited the ,lop-nor region again in #ahhe1 and adhered to his opinion4 ,but ten years later it was explored anew by ,dr ,sven ,hedin1 who ascertained that the ,tarim empties part of its waters into another lake1 or rather string of lakes 7,avullu-kl1 ,kara-kl1 ,tayek-kl and ,arka-kl71 which are situated in #db #cj ,n41 and thus so far justified the views of von ,richthofen1 and confirmed the ,chinese accounts4 ,at the same time he advanced reasons for believing that ,przhevalsky's lake-basins1 the southern ,lop-nor1 are of quite recent origin--indeed1 he fixed upon #agbj as the probably approximate date of their formation1 a date which von ,richthofen would alter to #agej4 ,besides this1 ,sven ,hedin argued that there exists a close inter-relation between the northern ,lop-nor lakes and the southern ,lop-nor lakes1 so that as the water in the one group increases1 it decreases to the same proportion and volume in the other4 ,he also argued that the four lakes of northern ,lop-nor are slowly moving westwards under the incessant impetus of wind and sandstorm 7buran74 ,these conclusions were afterwards controverted by the ,russian traveller1 ,p4 ,k4 ,kozlov1 who visited the ,lop-nor region in #ahic-ahid--that is1 before ,dr ,sven ,hedin's examination4 ,he practically only reiterated ,przhevalsky's contention1 that the ancient ,chinese maps were erroneously drawn1 and that the ,kara-koshun1 in spite of the freshness of its water1 was the old ,lop-nor1 the ,salt ,lake par excellence of the ,chinese4 ,finally1 in #aijj1 ,dr ,sven ,hedin1 following up the course of the ,kum-darya1 discovered--at the foot of the ,kuruk-tagh1 and at the ,e4 7lowest7 extremity of the now desiccated ,kuruk-darya1 with traces of dead forest and other vegetation beside it and beside the river-bed--the basin of a desiccated salt lake1 which he holds to be the true ancient ,lop-nor of the ,chinese geographers1 and at the same time he found that the ,kara-koshun or ,lop-nor of ,przhevalsky had extended towards the north1 but shrunk on the south4 ,thus the old ,lop-nor no longer exists1 but in place of it there are a number of much smaller lakes of newer formation4 ,it may fairly be inferred that1 owing to the uniform level of the region1 the sluggish flow of the ,tarim1 its unceasing tendency to divide and reunite1 conjoined with the violence and persistency of the winds 7mostly from the east and north-east71 and the rapid and dense growth of the reed-beds in the shallow marshes1 the drainage waters of the ,tarim basin gather now in greater volume in one depression1 and now in greater volume in another2 and this view derives support from the extreme shallowness of the lakes in both ,sven ,hedin's northern ,lop-nor and ,przhevalsky's southern ,lop-nor1 together with the uniformly horizontal level of the entire region4 ,see ,delmar ,morgan's translation of ,przhevalsky's ,from ,kuja across the ,tian-shan to ,lop-nor 7,london1 #ahgi72 ,von ,richthofen's ,bemerkungen zu den ,ergebnissen von ,oberst-,leutenant ,prjewalskis ,reise nach dem ,lop-nor in ,verhandl4 der ,gesch4 f4 ,erdkunde zu ,berlin 7#ahgh71 pp4 #aba seq42 ,sven ,hedin's ,scientific ,results of a ,journey in ,central ,asia1 #ahii-aijb 7vols4 i4 and ii41 ,stockholm1 #aije-aijf71 where ,kozlov's share of the controversy is summarized 7cf4 ii41 #bgj-bhj74 7,j4 ,t4 ,be47 ,,loquat1 ,,japanese ,,plum or ,,japanese ,,medlar1 known botanically as ,eriobotrya japonica1 small evergreen tree belonging to the natural order ,rosaceae1 with large thick oval-oblong leaves borne near the ends of the branches1 and dark green above with a rusty tomentum on the lower face4 ,the fruit is pear-shaped1 yellow1 about #a in4 long and contains large stony seeds2 it has an agreeable acid flavour4 ,the plant is a native of ,china and ,japan1 but is widely grown for its fruit and as a decorative plant4 ,it is a familiar object in the ,mediterranean region and in the southern ,united ,states4 ,,lorain1 a city of ,lorain county1 ,ohio1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,lake ,erie1 at the mouth of the ,black river1 and about #be m4 ,w4 by ,s4 of ,cleveland4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #dhfc2 7#aijj7 #af1jbh1 of whom #dgcj were foreign-born and #cei negroes2 7#aiaj census7 #bh1hhc4 ,lorain is served by the ,new ,york1 ,chicago ,st4 ,louis1 and the ,baltimore ,ohio railways1 by the ,lake ,shore ,electric railway1 and by several of the more important steamboat lines on the ,great ,lakes4 ,it has a ,carnegie library1 the ,lake ,view ,hospital and the ,saint ,joseph's ,hospital4 ,there is a good harbour1 and the city's chief interests are in the shipping of great quantities of coal1 iron-ore1 grain and lumber1 in the building of large steel vessels1 in railway shops1 and in the manufacture of iron pipes1 gas engines1 stoves and automatic steam shovels4 ,the value of the factory products increased from #i1dha1chh in #aijj to #ad1dia1jia in #aije1 or #eb4h4 ,the municipality owns and operates the waterworks4 ,a ,moravian mission was established here in #aghg-aghh1 and a trading post in #ahjg1 but no permanent settlement was made until several years later4 ,in #ahcf the place was incorporated as a village under the name ,charleston2 in #ahgd the present name was adopted1 and in #ahif ,lorain became a city of the second class4 ,,loralai1 a town and district of ,india1 in ,baluchistan4 ,the town1 which is situated #dgjj ft4 above the sea1 #ce m4 by road from the railway station of ,harnai1 was occupied as a military station in #ahhf1 and has quarters for a native cavalry and a native infantry regiment4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #cefa4 ,the ,,district ,,of ,,loralai was formed in #aijc4 ,it consists of a series of long1 narrow valleys1 hemmed in by rugged mountains1 and bordered ,e4 by ,dera ,ghazi ,khan district of the ,punjab4 ,area #giii sq4 m42 pop4 7#aija7 #fg1hfd1 of whom the majority are ,afghans4 ,the principal crops are wheat and millet2 but the chief wealth of the inhabitants is derived from their herds of cattle1 sheep and goats4 ,,lorca1 a town of eastern ,spain1 in the province of ,murcia1 on the right bank of the river ,sangonera 7here called the ,guadalantin or ,guadalentin7 and on the ,murcia-,baza railway4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #fi1hcf4 ,it occupies a height crowned by a medieval fortress1 among the foothills of the ,sierra del ,cao4 ,its older parts1 ,moorish in many features and with narrow irregular streets1 contrast with the modern parts1 which have broad streets and squares1 and many fine public buildings--theatre1 town hall1 hospitals1 courts of justice and a bridge over the ,sangonera4 ,there is an important trade in agricultural products and live stock1 as well as manufactures of woollen stuffs1 leather1 gunpowder1 chemicals and porcelain4 ,silver1 sulphur and lead are found in the neighbourhood4 ,lorca is the ,roman ,eliocroca 7perhaps also the ,ilorci of ,pliny1 ,n4,h4 iii4 #c7 and the ,moorish ,lurka4 ,it was the key of ,murcia during the ,moorish wars1 and was frequently taken and retaken4 ,on the #cjth of ,april #ahjb it suffered severely by the bursting of the reservoir known as the ,pantano de ,puentes1 in which the waters of the ,sangonera were stored for purposes of irrigation 7#agge-aghe72 the district adjoining the river1 known as the ,barrio de ,san ,cristobal1 was completely ruined1 and more than six hundred persons perished4 ,in #ahaj ,lorca suffered greatly from the ,french invasion4 ,in #ahhf the ,pantano1 which was one of the largest of ,european reservoirs1 being formed by a dam #hjj ft4 long and #afj ft4 high1 was successfully rebuilt4 ,,lorch1 a town in the ,prussian province of ,hesse-,nassau1 romantically situated on the right bank of the ,rhine1 #h m4 below ,rdesheim by the railway ,frankfort-on-,main-,wiesbaden-,cologne4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #bbfi4 ,it has a fine ,gothic ,roman ,catholic church--,st ,martin's--dating from the #adth century4 ,the slopes of the hills descending to the ,rhine are covered with vineyards1 which produce excellent wine4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,lorch1 which was mentioned as early as #hcb1 is the ruined castle of ,nollich4 ,,lorch1 a town in the kingdom of ,wrttemberg1 on the ,rems1 #bf m4 ,e4 from ,stuttgart by the railway to ,nrdlingen4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #cjcc4 ,it possesses a fine ,protestant church dating from the #abth century4 ,its industries include carriage-building and the manufacture of cement and paper4 ,on the ,marienberg lying above the town stands the former ,benedictine monastery of ,lorch1 founded about #aajh by ,frederick of ,hohenstaufen1 and in #aefc converted into an ,evangelical college4 ,here ,schiller passed a portion of his school days4 ,the church contains several tombs of the ,hohenstaufen family4 ,the ,roman limes began at ,lorch and ,roman remains have been found in the neighbourhood of the town4 ,see ,kirn1 ,fhrer durch das ,kloster ,lorch 7,lorch1 #ahhh72 and ,steimle1 ,kastell ,lorch 7,heidelberg1 #ahig74 ,,lord1 ,,john 7#ahaj-ahid71 ,american historical writer and lecturer1 was born in ,portsmouth1 ,new ,hampshire1 on the #bgth of ,december #ahaj4 ,he was the nephew of ,nathan ,lord 7#agib-ahgj71 president of ,dartmouth ,college from #ahbh to #ahfc4 ,he graduated at ,dartmouth in #ahcc1 and at ,andover ,theological ,seminary in #ahcg4 ,his course at the ,seminary was interrupted by a period of teaching--at ,windham1 ,connecticut 7#ahcd71 and at ,norwich 7#ahcd-ahce7--;and by a tour in #ahcf through ,new ,york and ,ohio1 in which he lectured on the dark ages4 ,he was agent and lecturer for the ,american ,peace ,society 7#ahcg-ahci71 and for a brief time was a ,congregational pastor in turn at ,new ,marlboro and ,west ,stockbridge1 ,massachusetts1 and at ,utica1 ,new ,york4 ,about #ahdj he became a professional lecturer on history4 ,he lectured extensively for fifty years1 especially in the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain1 and introduced1 with success1 the mid-day lecture4 ,he was lecturer on history in ,dartmouth from #ahfi to #ahgf4 ,he received1 in #ahfd1 the degree of ,,ll4,d4 from the ,university of the ,city of ,new ,york4 ,from #ahed he made his home in ,stamford1 ,connecticut1 where he died on the #aeth of ,december #ahid4 ,his works include1 besides several school and college histories1 ,the ,old ,roman ,world3 the ,grandeur and ,failure of ,civilization 7#ahfg72 ,ancient ,states and ,empires 7#ahfi72 ,two ,german ,giants3 ,frederick the ,great and ,bismarck 7#ahhe72 and ,beacon ,lights of ,history 7#h vols41 #ahhd-ahif71 his chief contribution to historical literature4 ,see ,the ,life of ,john ,lord 7#ahif7 by ,rev4 ,alexander ,s4 ,twombley1 ,d4 ,d4 7in ,beacon ,lights of ,history71 which is based chiefly upon ,lord's ,reminiscences of ,fifty ,years in the ,lecture ,field4 ,,lord 7,o4 ,eng4 hlford1 i4e4 hlfweard1 the warder or keeper of bread1 hlf1 loaf2 the word is not represented in any other ,teutonic language71 in its primary sense1 the head of a household1 the master of those dependent on him for their daily bread1 correlative to ,o4 ,eng4 hlf-ata1 loaf-eater1 servant2 the word frequently occurs in this sense in the ,bible1 cf4 ,matt4 xxiv4 #de4 ,as a term implying the ownership of property1 lord survives in lord of the manor and landlord4 ,the chief applications are due to its use as the equivalent of ,lat4 dominus1 ,gr4 ,greek3 kyrios and ,fr4 seigneur2 thus in the ,old ,testament it represents ,yahweh1 ,jehovah1 and in the ,new ,testament ,greek3 kyrios1 as a title of ,jesus ,christ4 ,selden's words may be quoted for the more general meanings of lord2 the name ,dominus is 444 to be thought of only as a distinguishing attribute of ,greatness and as our ,english word ,lord is2 and that without any relation of it to an ,interest of property or to servitude1 and only as it denotes such ,superiours as ,king or ,subjects of the greater ,nobility with us and men of special ,eminency in other ,states1 known by the names of ,heeren1 ,dons1 ,sieurs1 signiors1 seigneurs 444 and the like4 ,it is thus not only a general word for a prince or sovereign1 but also the common word for a feudal superior1 and particularly of a feudal tenant holding directly of the king1 a baron 7q4v471 hence a peer of the realm1 a member of the ,house of ,lords1 constituted of the lords temporal and the lords spiritual2 this is the chief modern usage4 ,the prefix lord is ordinarily used as a less formal alternative to the full title1 whether held by right or by courtesy1 of marquess1 earl or viscount1 and is always so used in the case of a baron 7which in ,english usage is generally confined to the holder of a foreign title74 ,where the name is territorial1 the of is dropped1 thus1 the marquess of ,a41 but ,lord ,a4 ,the younger sons of dukes and marquesses have1 by courtesy1 the title of ,lord prefixed to the ,christian and surname1 e4g4 ,lord ,john ,russell4 ,in the case of bishops1 the full and formal title of address is the ,lord ,bishop of ,a41 whether he be a spiritual peer or not4 ,many high officials of the ,british government have the word lord prefixed to their titles2 some of them are treated in separate articles2 for lord privy seal see ,,privy ,,seal4 ,in certain cases the members of a board which has taken the place of an office of state are known as lords commissioners or1 shortly1 lords of the office in question1 e4g4 lords of the treasury1 civil or naval lords of the admiralty4 ,for lord lieutenant and lord mayor see ,,lieutenant and ,,mayor4 ,as the proper form of address my lord is used not only to those members of the nobility to whom the title ,lord is applicable1 and to bishops1 but also to all judges of the ,high ,court in ,england1 and of the ,scottish and ,irish ,superior ,courts1 and to lord mayors and lord provosts 7see also ,,lady74 ,,lord ,,advocate1 or king's advocate1 the principal law-officer of the crown in ,scotland4 ,his business is to act as a public prosecutor1 and to plead in all causes that concern the crown4 ,he is at the head of the system of public prosecutions by which criminal justice is administered in ,scotland1 and thus his functions are of a far more extensive character than those of the ,english law-officers of the crown4 ,he is aided by a solicitor-general and by subordinate assistants called advocates-depute4 ,the office of king's advocate seems to have been established about the beginning of the #afth century4 ,originally he had no power to prosecute crimes without the concurrence of a private party2 but in the year #aeig he was empowered to prosecute crimes at his own instance4 ,he has the privilege of pleading in court with his hat on4